Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Toto people

2024-03-05T23:00:44Z

Ciaurlec: /* Economic activities */ added an info

[[File:A Toto man.jpg|thumb|[[File:Entrance of TOTOPARA.jpg|thumb]]Dhaniram Toto, the first Padma shree awardee from the Toto community]]
The '''Toto people''' are one of the world's smallest indigenous [[Ethnicity|ethnic groups]], living in a village of [[Totopara]] on India's border with [[Bhutan]].{{Refn|Gurvinder Singh (2021): "The entire population of one of the world’s smallest indigenous groups, the Toto, live in a village on the India-Bhutan border."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Redirect Notice |url=https://www.thethirdpole.net/en/pollution/pollution-pushes-indigenous-toto-people-to-extinction-india/ |access-date=2023-12-13 |website=www.google.com}}</ref>}}<ref>{{Cite news |date=2023-01-28 |title=Padma for Toto alphabet creator brings hope for community |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/padma-for-toto-alphabet-creator-brings-hope-for-community/articleshow/97389434.cms |access-date=2023-12-13 |issn=0971-8257}}"Nearly 22 km from Madarihat in Alipurduar district, the Totos of Totopara have been fighting a silent war to keep their language, identity and culture alive."</ref> Totos were nearly becoming extinct in the 1950s, but recent measures to safeguard their areas from being swamped with outsiders have helped preserve their unique heritage and also helped the population grow. The total population of Totos according to 1951 census was 321 living in 69 different houses at Totopara. In 1991 census, the Toto population had increased to 926 who lived in 180 different houses. In the 2001 census, their number had increased to 1184 - all living in Totopara.

Anthropologists agree that the Toto culture and language is totally unique to the ethnic group, and is clearly distinguished from the neighbouring [[Rajbongshi people|Rajbongshi]]s, [[Koch people|Koch]], [[Mech people|Mech]] or the [[Bhutan]]ese [[Sharchop people|Sharchop]] ethnic groups.

==Toto culture==
[[Toto language]] belongs to [[Tibeto-Burman]] family of sub-Himalayan group, as classified by Hodgson and Grierson. A script was developed for the language by community elder Dhaniram Toto in 2015, and has seen limited but increasing use in literature, education, and computing; a proposal for encoding this script was accepted by the [[Unicode Consortium|Unicode technical committee]] on October 8, 2019.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Anderson |first1=Deborah |title=L2/19-330: Proposal for encoding the Toto script in the SMP of the UCS |url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2019/19330-toto-script.pdf |accessdate=18 December 2019 |date=27 September 2019}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Proposed New Characters: The Pipeline |url=https://unicode.org/alloc/Pipeline.html |publisher=Unicode Consortium |accessdate=18 December 2019}}</ref> It was added to the Unicode Standard with the release of version 14.0 in September 2021.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode14.0.0/ |title=Unicode 14.0.0}}</ref>

Toto family is [[Patrilocal residence|patrilocal]] in nature dominated by nuclear type. However, joint family is not rare. Monogamy is common form of marriage among the Toto but polygamy is not prohibited. If a man's wife dies, he may marry the deceased wife's younger sister, but a woman cannot marry her deceased husband's brother. On the death of a spouse, the husband or wife must remain single for twelve months before he or she is free to remarry. There are various ways of acquiring mates viz., (1) marriage by negotiation (Thulbehoea), (2) marriage by escape (Chor-behoea), (3) marriage by capture (Sambehoea) and (4) love marriage (Lamalami). There is no custom of divorce among the Totos.

The Totos define themselves close to [[nature]], they mainly perform [[Nature worship]]. The Totos have two main gods whom they worship:
# Ishpa - He is supposed to live in the Bhutan hills, and causes sickness when displeased. The Totos offer him animal sacrifices and Eu.
# Cheima - She keeps the village and its people safe from troubles and sicknesses. She is also offered rice, fowls and Eu. The Totos have priests, also offer their worship and sacrifices on their own. Ishpa is worshipped in the open outside the house and Cheima inside the house. Of late, there are a few Christian converts among the ethnic group, largely attributed to Christian missionary works

==Economic activities==
Totos cultivate land. The Totos are not active farmers and hence do not cultivate a particular crop to a great extent. Every home has a kitchen garden surrounded by bamboo fences; in these gardens they grow vegetables, potatoes and bananas, among others. Sometimes they trade with traders from the outside world. Some Totos raise cows and pigs as an occupation.

At different stages of history, the Totos has been moving away from a subsistence economy to market economy. Further, the transformations of the village from community ownership of land to individual land holding and from isolated tribal group to a multi-ethnic habitat have also taken place in the recent past.

The sale of betel nuts is the primary source of income in Totopara
<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/features/2024/3/5/indias-tiny-himalayan-tribe-forgotten-by-the-worlds-largest-democracy |title=‘We exist’: A Himayalan hamlet, forgotten by Indian democracy |last= |first= |date= |website=aljazeera.com |publisher= |access-date=March 5, 2024 |quote=}}</ref>

==Totopara: The Toto village==
The area of entire Toto country called Totopara is {{convert|1996.96|acre|km2}}. It lies 22 km from [[Madarihat]], the entrance of [[Jaldapara National Park]]. So, it can be safely assumed that the Totos live near the northern edges of this forest. The Toto localities of the village are sub-divided into six segments - Panchayatgaon, Mandolgaon, Subbagaon, Mitranggaon, Pujagaon and Dumchigaon. Totopara also has a settlement of Nepali-speaking people. A primary school was established in the village in 1990. Later in 1995, a high school with hostel facility was also established there. There is one primary healthcare centre in Totopara.

== See also ==
* [[Toto language]]
* [[Duars]]hi

==References==
<references/>
# A.K. Mitra - District Census Handbook, Jalpaiguri 1951, Appendix VIII, Directorate of Census Operations, West Bengal.
# Charu Chandra Sanyal - ''The Meches and the Totos - Two Sub-Himalayan Tribes of North Bengal''. A North Bengal University publication.
# Bimalendu Majumdar (1998) ''The Totos: Cultural and Economic Transformation of a Small Tribe in the Sub-Himalayan Bengal''. Academic Enterprise, Calcutta. {{ISBN|81-87121-00-9}}.
# Sarit Kumar Chaudhuri (2004) ''Constraints of Tribal Development'', Mittal Publications, New Delhi. {{ISBN|81-7099-914-6}}, {{ISBN|978-81-7099-914-0}}.
# M.K. Chowdhuri (2005) "The Totos", in Sarit Kumar Chaudhuri and Sucheta Sen Chaudhuri (eds) ''Primitive Tribes in Contemporary India: Concept, Ethnography and Demography'', Volume 1, Mittal Publications, Delhi. {{ISBN|81-8324-026-7}}, {{ISBN|978-81-8324-026-0}}.

== External links ==
* [http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=txo Ethnologue profile]
* [http://web.cmc.net.in/wbcensus/Presentations/Presentations2.htm#Start2 Totos of Totopara - A Primitive Tribal Group of West Bengal]

{{Bhutanese society}}
{{Scheduled tribes of West Bengal}}

[[Category:Tribes of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Indigenous peoples of South Asia]]
[[Category:Ethnic groups in India]]
[[Category:Sino-Tibetan-speaking people]]
[[Category:Social groups of West Bengal]]
[[Category:Scheduled Tribes of India]]
[[Category:Alipurduar district]]

Montemilone

2023-06-09T22:03:53Z

Ciaurlec: updated

{{other uses|Monte Milone (disambiguation)}}
{{Expand Italian|date=January 2022|topic=geo}}
{{Infobox Italian comune
| name = Montemilone
| official_name = Comune di Montemilone
| native_name =
| image_skyline = Montemilone (18).jpg
| imagesize =
| image_alt =
| image_caption =
| image_shield = Montemilone-Stemma.png
| shield_size = 50px
| image_map =
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| pushpin_label_position = bottom
| pushpin_map_alt =
| coordinates = {{coord|41|02|00|N|15|58|00|E|region:IT|display=inline}}
| coordinates_footnotes =
| region = [[Basilicata]]
| province = {{ProvinciaIT (short form)|sigla=PZ}} (PZ)
| frazioni =
| mayor_party =
| mayor = Antonio D'Amelio
| area_footnotes =
| area_total_km2 = 113
| population_footnotes = <ref name="istat">All demographics and other statistics from the Italian statistical institute ([[National Institute of Statistics (Italy)|Istat]])</ref>
| population_total = 1763
| population_as_of = 31 December 2010
| pop_density_footnotes =
| population_demonym = Montemilonesi
| elevation_footnotes =
| elevation_min_m =
| elevation_max_m =
| elevation_m = 310
| twin1 =
| twin1_country =
| saint = St. Stephen, Glorious Mary of the Wood
| day = 26 December; 11, 12,13 August
| postal_code = 85020
| area_code = 0972
| website = {{official website|http://www.comune.montemilone.pz.it/}}
| footnotes =
}}

'''Montemilone''' ({{lang-it|ˈmonteˈmilone}}; [[Neapolitan language|Lucano]]: {{lang|nap|Mundemelòne}}) is a town and ''[[comune]]'' in the [[province of Potenza]], [[Basilicata]], southern [[Italy]].

==Main sights==
{{travel guide|section|date=January 2022}}
*Sanctuary of the Gloriosa, a small church in [[Romanesque architecture|Romanesque]] style
*Former church of the Purgatory
*Mother church (1861)

==References==
{{commons category|Montemilone}}
{{Reflist}}

 
{{Province of Potenza}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Cities and towns in Basilicata]]

{{Basilicata-geo-stub}}

Climate classification

2023-04-21T00:43:12Z

Ciaurlec: /* Scheme */

{{Short description|Systems that categorize the world's climates}}
[[File:Köppen-Geiger Climate Classification Map (1980–2016) no borders.png|alt=Map of world dividing climate zones, largely influenced by latitude. The zones, going from the equator upward (and downward) are Tropical, Dry, Moderate, Continental and Polar. There are subzones within these zones.|thumb|upright=1.35|Worldwide [[Köppen climate classification]]s]]

'''Climate classifications''' are systems that categorize the world's [[climate]]s. A climate classification may correlate closely with a [[biome]] classification, as climate is a major influence on life in a region. One of the most used is the [[Köppen climate classification]] scheme first developed in 1884.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Beck |first1=Hylke E. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Niklaus E. |last3=McVicar |first3=Tim R. |last4=Vergopolan |first4=Noemi |last5=Berg |first5=Alexis |last6=Wood |first6=Eric F. |author6-link=Eric Franklin Wood |title=Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution |journal=Scientific Data |date=30 October 2018 |volume=5 |pages=180214 |doi=10.1038/sdata.2018.214 |pmid=30375988 |pmc=6207062 |language=en |issn=2052-4463|bibcode=2018NatSD...580214B }}</ref>

There are several ways to classify climates into similar regimes. Originally, [[clime]]s were defined in [[Ancient Greece]] to describe the weather depending upon a location's latitude. Modern climate classification methods can be broadly divided into ''genetic'' methods, which focus on the causes of climate, and ''empiric'' methods, which focus on the effects of climate. Examples of genetic classification include methods based on the [[relative frequency]] of different [[air mass]] types or locations within [[synoptic scale meteorology|synoptic]] weather disturbances. Examples of [[empirical|empiric]] classifications include [[climate zone]]s defined by [[plant hardiness]],<ref>[[United States National Arboretum]]. [http://www.usna.usda.gov/Hardzone/ushzmap.html USDA Plant Hardiness Zone Map.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120704232205/http://www.usna.usda.gov/Hardzone/ushzmap.html |date=2012-07-04 }} Retrieved on 2008-03-09</ref> evapotranspiration,<ref name="thorn">{{cite encyclopedia|title = Thornthwaite Moisture Index|encyclopedia = Glossary of Meteorology|publisher = [[American Meteorological Society]]|url = http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=Thornthwaite&submit=Search|access-date = 2008-05-21}}</ref> or more generally the [[Köppen climate classification]] which was originally designed to identify the climates associated with certain [[biome]]s. A common shortcoming of these [[classification scheme]]s is that they produce distinct boundaries between the zones they define, rather than the gradual transition of climate properties more common in nature.

==Types of climate==
*[[Alpine climate]]
*[[Desert climate]] or [[arid climate]]
*[[Humid continental climate]]
*[[Humid subtropical climate]]
*[[Ice cap climate]]
*[[Oceanic climate]]
*[[Subarctic climate]]
*[[Semi-arid climate]]
*[[Mediterranean climate]]
*[[Tropical monsoon climate]]
*[[Tropical rainforest climate]]
*[[Tropical savanna climate]]
*[[Tundra climate]]
*[[Polar climate]]

==Systems==

[[Image:Lifezones Pengo.svg|thumb|350px|[[Leslie Holdridge]]'s Life Zone Classification system is essentially a climate classification scheme.]]

Climate classification systems include:

*[[Aridity index]] – part of many systems
*[[Alisov climate classification]] ([[:ru:Классификация климатов Алисова|ru]])
*[[Berg climate classification]]
*[[Köppen climate classification]] – most widely used in the 1954 Köppen–Geiger variant
*[[Holdridge life zones|Holdridge life zone classification]] – relatively simple
*[[Lauer climate classification]]
*[[Strahler climate classification]]
*[[Thornthwaite climate classification]]
*[[Trewartha climate classification]] – 1967 modification of Köppen to fit real-world conditions
*[[Troll climate classification]]
*[[Vahl climate classification]]

===Bergeron and Spatial Synoptic===
The simplest classification is that involving [[air mass]]es. The Bergeron classification is the most widely accepted form of air mass classification.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nqQXAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA50|title=Field behavior of chemical, biological, and radiological agents|date=1969|publisher=Dept. of Defense Depts. of the Army and the Air Force|language=en}}</ref> Air mass classification involves three letters. The first letter describes its [[moisture]] properties, with c used for continental air masses (dry) and m for maritime air masses (moist). The second letter describes the thermal characteristic of its source region: T for [[tropical]], P for [[Polar region|polar]], A for [[Arctic]] or Antarctic, M for [[monsoon]], E for [[Equatorial climate|equatorial]], and S for superior air (dry air formed by significant downward motion in the atmosphere). The third letter is used to designate the stability of the [[atmosphere]]. If the air mass is colder than the ground below it, it is labeled k. If the air mass is warmer than the ground below it, it is labeled w.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = Airmass Classification|encyclopedia = Glossary of Meteorology|publisher = [[American Meteorological Society]]|url = http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=airmass-classification1|access-date = 2008-05-22}}</ref> While air mass identification was originally used in [[weather forecasting]] during the 1950s, climatologists began to establish synoptic climatologies based on this idea in 1973.<ref name=Schwartz1995>{{cite journal|author = Schwartz, M.D.|year = 1995|title = Detecting Structural Climate Change: An Air Mass-Based Approach in the North Central United States, 1958–1992|journal = Annals of the Association of American Geographers|volume = 85|issue = 3|pages = 553–68|doi = 10.1111/j.1467-8306.1995.tb01812.x}}</ref>

Based upon the Bergeron classification scheme is the [[Spatial Synoptic Classification system]] (SSC). There are six categories within the SSC scheme: Dry Polar (similar to continental polar), Dry Moderate (similar to maritime superior), Dry Tropical (similar to continental tropical), Moist Polar (similar to maritime polar), Moist Moderate (a hybrid between maritime polar and maritime tropical), and Moist Tropical (similar to maritime tropical, maritime monsoon, or maritime equatorial).<ref>Robert E. Davis, L. Sitka, D. M. Hondula, S. Gawtry, D. Knight, T. Lee, and J. Stenger. [http://ams.confex.com/ams/pdfpapers/118516.pdf J1.10 A preliminary back-trajectory and air mass climatology for the Shenandoah Valley (Formerly J3.16 for Applied Climatology).] Retrieved on 2008-05-21.</ref>

===Köppen===
[[File:MonthlyMeanT.gif|thumb|right|Monthly average surface temperatures from 1961 to 1990. This is an example of how climate varies with location and season]]
[[File:BlueMarble monthlies animation.gif|thumb|right|Monthly global images from NASA Earth Observatory [/media/wikipedia/commons/5/5b/BlueMarble_monthlies_SMIL.svg (interactive SVG)] ]]
{{Main|Köppen climate classification}}

The Köppen classification depends on average monthly values of temperature and precipitation. The most commonly used form of the Köppen classification has five primary types labeled A through E. These primary types are A) tropical, B) dry, C) mild mid-latitude, D) cold mid-latitude, and E) polar.

Tropical climates are defined as locations where the coolest monthly mean temperature is above 18 C (64.4 F). This tropical zone is further broken down into rainforest, monsoon, and savanna based on seasonal rainfall. These climates are most often located between the Equator and 25 north and south latitude.

A '''monsoon''' is a seasonal prevailing wind which lasts for several months, ushering in a region's rainy season.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = Monsoon|encyclopedia = Glossary of Meteorology|publisher = [[American Meteorological Society]]|url = http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=monsoon|access-date = 2008-05-14}}</ref> Regions within [[North America]], [[South America]], [[Sub-Saharan Africa]], [[Australia]] and [[East Asian monsoon|East Asia]] are monsoon regimes.<ref>International Committee of the Third Workshop on Monsoons. [http://caos.iisc.ernet.in/faculty/bng/IWM-III-BNG_overview.pdf The Global Monsoon System: Research and Forecast.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080408205356/http://caos.iisc.ernet.in/faculty/bng/IWM-III-BNG_overview.pdf |date=2008-04-08 }} Retrieved on 2008-03-16.</ref>
[[File:Globalcldfr amo 200207-201504 lrg.jpg|thumb|The world's cloudy and sunny spots. NASA Earth Observatory map using data collected between July 2002 and April 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|title = The Bright Side of 13 Years of Clouds in 1 Map|url = http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-bright-side-of-13-years-of-clouds-in-1-map/|access-date = 2015-05-17|first = Brian|last = Central|website = [[Scientific American]]}}</ref>]]
A '''tropical savanna''' is a [[grassland]] [[biome]] located in [[Semi-arid climate|semi-arid]] to semi-[[Humidity|humid]] climate regions of [[subtropical]] and [[tropical]] [[latitude]]s, with average temperatures remaining at or above {{convert|18|C|F}} all year round, and rainfall between {{convert|750|mm|in}} and {{convert|1270|mm|in}} a year. They are widespread on [[Africa]], and are found in [[India]], the northern parts of [[South America]], [[Malaysia]], and [[Australia]].<ref name="SAVWOOD">Susan Woodward. [http://www.radford.edu/~swoodwar/CLASSES/GEOG235/biomes/savanna/savanna.html Tropical Savannas.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080225082154/http://www.radford.edu/~swoodwar/CLASSES/GEOG235/biomes/savanna/savanna.html |date=2008-02-25 }} Retrieved on 2008-03-16.</ref>
[[File:5 11 15 Brian AquabyMonth.gif|thumb|Cloud cover by month for 2014. NASA Earth Observatory<ref>{{Cite web|title = Cloud Fraction (1 month – Terra/MODIS) – NASA|url = http://neo.sci.gsfc.nasa.gov/view.php?datasetId=MODAL2_M_CLD_FR|website = Cloud Fraction (1 month – Terra/MODIS) – NASA|access-date = 2015-05-18}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = The Bright Side of 13 Years of Clouds in 1 Map|url = http://www.scientificamerican.com/article/the-bright-side-of-13-years-of-clouds-in-1-map/|access-date = 2015-05-18|first = Brian|last = Central|website = [[Scientific American]]}}</ref>]]
The '''humid subtropical''' climate zone where winter rainfall (and sometimes light [[snowfall]]) is associated with storms that the [[westerlies]] steer from west to east at the time of low sun (winter). In summer, high pressure dominates as the westerlies move north. Most summer rainfall occurs during [[thunderstorm]]s and from occasional [[tropical cyclone]]s.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = Humid subtropical climate|encyclopedia = [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|publisher = Encyclopædia Britannica Online|year = 2008|url = http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-53358/climate|access-date = 2008-05-14}}</ref> Humid subtropical climates lie on the east side of continents, roughly between [[latitude]]s 20° and 40° degrees away from the [[equator]].<ref>Michael Ritter. [http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/climate_systems/humid_subtropical.html Humid Subtropical Climate.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014093644/http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/climate_systems/humid_subtropical.html |date=October 14, 2008 }} Retrieved on 2008-03-16.</ref>

[[File:Koppen World Map Dfa Dwa Dsa Dfb Dwb Dsb.png|thumb|right|[[Humid continental climate]], worldwide]]
A '''humid continental''' climate is marked by variable weather patterns and a large seasonal temperature variance, cold and often very snowy winters, and warm summers. Places with more than three months of average daily temperatures above {{convert|10|C|F}} and a coldest month temperature below {{convert|-3|C|F}} and which do not meet the criteria for an [[arid climate|arid]] or [[semi-arid climate]], are classified as continental. Most climates in this zone are found from 35 latitude to 55 latitude, mostly in the northern hemisphere.<ref name="Peel2007">{{cite journal|author1=Peel, M. C. |author2= Finlayson B. L. |author3=McMahon, T. A. |name-list-style=amp |year=2007|title= Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification|journal=Hydrol. Earth Syst. Sci.|volume=11|pages=1633–1644|url=http://www.hydrol-earth-syst-sci.net/11/1633/2007/hess-11-1633-2007.html | doi = 10.5194/hess-11-1633-2007|issn = 1027-5606|issue=5|doi-access=free |bibcode=2007HESS...11.1633P}}</ref>

An '''oceanic climate''' is typically found along west coasts in higher middle latitudes of all the world's continents, and in southeastern [[Australia]], and is accompanied by plentiful precipitation year-round, cool summers, and small annual ranges of temperatures. Most climates of this type are found from 45 latitude to 55 latitude.<ref>Climate. [http://www.meteorologyclimate.com/Oceanic-climate.htm Oceanic Climate.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110209211850/http://www.meteorologyclimate.com/Oceanic-climate.htm |date=2011-02-09 }} Retrieved on 2008-04-15.</ref>

The '''Mediterranean climate''' regime resembles the climate of the lands in the [[Mediterranean Basin]], parts of western [[North America]], parts of [[Western Australia|Western]] and [[South Australia]], in southwestern [[South Africa]] and in parts of central [[Chile]]. The climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and cool, wet winters.<ref>Michael Ritter. [http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/climate_systems/mediterranean.html Mediterranean or Dry Summer Subtropical Climate.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805040919/http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/climate_systems/mediterranean.html |date=2009-08-05 }} Retrieved on 2008-04-15.</ref>

A '''steppe''' is a dry [[grassland]] with an annual temperature range in the summer of up to {{convert|40|C|F}} and during the winter down to {{convert|-40|C|F}}.<ref>Blue Planet Biomes. [http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/steppe_climate_page.htm Steppe Climate.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080422233231/http://www.blueplanetbiomes.org/steppe_climate_page.htm |date=2008-04-22 }} Retrieved on 2008-04-15.</ref>

A '''subarctic climate''' has little precipitation,<ref name="subritter">Michael Ritter. [http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/climate_systems/subarctic.html Subarctic Climate.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080525080242/http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/climate_systems/subarctic.html |date=2008-05-25 }} Retrieved on 2008-04-16.</ref> and monthly temperatures which are above {{convert|10|C|F}} for one to three months of the year, with [[permafrost]] in large parts of the area due to the cold winters. Winters within subarctic climates usually include up to six months of temperatures averaging below {{convert|0|C|F}}.<ref>Susan Woodward. [http://www.radford.edu/~swoodwar/CLASSES/GEOG235/biomes/taiga/taiga.html Taiga or Boreal Forest.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110609021800/http://www.radford.edu/~swoodwar/CLASSES/GEOG235/biomes/taiga/taiga.html |date=2011-06-09 }} Retrieved on 2008-06-06.</ref>

[[File:800px-Map-Tundra.png|thumb|right|Map of arctic tundra]]
'''Tundra''' occurs in the far [[Northern Hemisphere]], north of the [[taiga]] belt, including vast areas of northern [[Russia]] and [[Canada]].<ref name="berkeley">{{cite web|title=The Tundra Biome|work=The World's Biomes|url=http://www.ucmp.berkeley.edu/glossary/gloss5/biome/tundra.html|access-date=2006-03-05}}</ref>

A '''polar ice cap''', or polar ice sheet, is a high-[[latitude]] region of a [[planet]] or [[natural satellite|moon]] that is covered in [[ice]]. Ice caps form because high-[[latitude]] regions receive less energy as [[solar radiation]] from the [[sun]] than [[equator]]ial regions, resulting in lower [[Surface air temperature|surface temperatures]].<ref>Michael Ritter. [http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/climate_systems/icecap.html Ice Cap Climate.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080516233555/http://www.uwsp.edu/geo/faculty/ritter/geog101/textbook/climate_systems/icecap.html |date=2008-05-16 }} Retrieved on 2008-03-16.</ref>

A '''desert''' is a [[landscape]] form or region that receives very little [[precipitation (meteorology)|precipitation]]. Deserts usually have a large [[Diurnal temperature variation|diurnal]] and seasonal temperature range, with high or low, depending on location daytime temperatures (in summer up to {{convert|45|°C|°F|disp=or}}), and low nighttime temperatures (in winter down to {{convert|0|°C|°F|disp=or}}) due to extremely low [[humidity]]. Many deserts are formed by [[rain shadow]]s, as mountains block the path of moisture and precipitation to the desert.<ref>[[San Diego State University]]. [http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~batterso/port_arid/formation.html Introduction to Arid Regions: A Self-Paced Tutorial.] Retrieved on 2008-04-16. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080612114525/http://www-rohan.sdsu.edu/~batterso/port_arid/formation.html |date=June 12, 2008 }}</ref>

===Trewartha===

The '''Trewartha climate classification''' (TCC) or the '''Köppen–Trewartha climate classification''' (KTC) is a climate classification system first published by American geographer [[Glenn Thomas Trewartha]] in 1966. It is a modified version of the [[Köppen climate classification|Köppen–Geiger system]], created to answer some of its deficiencies.<ref>Peel MC, Finlayson BL, McMahon TA (2007) Updated world map of the Köppen-Geiger climate classification. Hydrol Earth Syst Sci 11: 1633–1644</ref> The Trewartha system attempts to redefine the middle latitudes to be closer to [[vegetation]] zoning and genetic [[climate]] systems. It was considered a more true or "real world" reflection of the global climate.<ref>{{cite book | author = Akin, Wallace E. | year = 1991 | title = Global Patterns: Climate, Vegetation, and Soils | page = 52 | publisher = University of Oklahoma Press | isbn=0-8061-2309-5}}</ref>

The Trewartha climate classification changes were seen as most effective on the large landmasses in [[Asia]] and [[North America]], where many areas fall into a single group (''C'') in the Köppen–Geiger system.<ref>Köppen, 1936, Trewartha & Horn 1980, Bailey 2009, Baker et al. 2010</ref> For example, under the standard Köppen system, [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and [[Oregon]] are classed into the same climate zone (''Csb'') as parts of [[Southern California]], even though the two regions have strikingly different weather and vegetation. Another example was classifying cities like [[London]] or [[Chicago]] in the same climate group (''C'') as [[Brisbane]] or [[New Orleans]], despite great differences in seasonal temperatures and native plant life.<ref>Bailey RG (2009) Ecosystem geography:from ecoregions to sites, 2nd edn. Springer, New York, NY</ref>

====Scheme====
Trewartha's modifications to the 1899 Köppen climate system sought to reclass the middle latitudes into three groups: ''C'' ([[Subtropics|subtropical]])—8 or more months have a mean temperature of {{convert|10|C}} or higher; ''D'' [[temperate]]—4 to 7 months have a mean temperature of 10 °C or higher; and ''E'' [[boreal climate]]—1 to 3 months have a mean temperature of 10 °C or higher. Otherwise, the tropical climates and polar climates remained the same as the original Köppen climate classification.

===Thornthwaite===
{{Main|Thornthwaite climate classification}}
{{See also|Microthermal|Mesothermal|Megathermal}}
[[File:MeanMonthlyP.gif|thumb|right|Precipitation by month]]
Devised by the American climatologist and geographer [[C. W. Thornthwaite]], this climate classification method monitors the soil water budget using evapotranspiration.<ref name=autogenerated1>Glossary of Meteorology. [http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?p=1&query=Thornthwaite&submit=Search Thornthwaite Moisture Index.] Retrieved on 2008-05-21.</ref> It monitors the portion of total precipitation used to nourish vegetation over a certain area.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = Moisture Index|encyclopedia = Glossary of Meteorology|publisher = [[American Meteorological Society]]|url = http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=moisture-index1|access-date = 2008-05-21}}</ref> It uses indices such as a humidity index and an aridity index to determine an area's moisture regime based upon its average temperature, average rainfall, and average vegetation type.<ref>Eric Green. [https://web.archive.org/web/20080527223539/http://www.slabongrade.net/DesignSeminars/SeminarDownloads/Science_of_Expansive_Clay.pdf Foundations of Expansive Clay Soil.] Retrieved on 2008-05-21.</ref> The lower the value of the index in any given area, the drier the area is.

The moisture classification includes climatic classes with descriptors such as hyperhumid, humid, subhumid, subarid, [[semi-arid]] (values of −20 to −40), and arid (values below −40).<ref>Istituto Agronomico per l'Otremare. [http://www.iao.florence.it/training/geomatics/Thies/Senegal_23linkedp6.htm 3 Land Resources.] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080320094503/http://www.iao.florence.it/training/geomatics/Thies/Senegal_23linkedp6.htm |date=2008-03-20 }} Retrieved on 2008-05-21.</ref> Humid regions experience more precipitation than evaporation each year, while arid regions experience greater evaporation than precipitation on an annual basis. A total of 33 percent of the Earth's landmass is considered either arid or semi-arid, including southwest North America, southwest South America, most of northern and a small part of southern Africa, southwest and portions of eastern Asia, as well as much of Australia.<ref name=Fredlund1993>{{cite book|author = Fredlund, D.G.|author2=Rahardjo, H.|year = 1993|title = Soil Mechanics for Unsaturated Soils|publisher = Wiley-Interscience|url = http://www.soilvision.com/subdomains/unsaturatedsoil.com/Docs/chapter1UST.pdf|isbn = 978-0-471-85008-3|access-date = 2008-05-21|oclc = 26543184}}</ref> Studies suggest that precipitation effectiveness (PE) within the Thornthwaite moisture index is overestimated in the summer and underestimated in the winter.<ref name = "greg"/> This index can be effectively used to determine the number of [[herbivore]] and [[mammal]] species numbers within a given area.<ref name=Hawkins2004>{{cite journal|author = Hawkins, B.A.|year = 2004|title = Does plant richness influence animal richness?: the mammals of Catalonia (NE Spain)|journal = Diversity & Distributions|volume = 10|issue = 4|pages = 247–52|url = http://repositories.cdlib.org/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1741&context=postprints|doi = 10.1111/j.1366-9516.2004.00085.x
|access-date = 2008-05-21|last2 = Pausas|first2 = Juli G.}}</ref> The index is also used in studies of climate change.<ref name="greg">Gregory J. McCabe and David M. Wolock. [https://www.int-res.com/articles/cr2002/20/c020p019.pdf Trends and temperature sensitivity of moisture conditions in the conterminous United States.] Retrieved on 2008-05-21.</ref>

Thermal classifications within the Thornthwaite scheme include microthermal, mesothermal, and megathermal regimes. A microthermal climate is one of low annual mean temperatures, generally between {{convert|0|C|F}} and {{convert|14|C|F}} which experiences short summers and has a potential evaporation between {{convert|14|cm|in}} and {{convert|43|cm|in}}.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = Microthermal Climate|encyclopedia = Glossary of Meteorology|publisher = [[American Meteorological Society]]|url = http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=microthermal-climate1|access-date = 2008-05-21}}</ref> A mesothermal climate lacks persistent heat or persistent cold, with potential evaporation between {{convert|57|cm|in}} and {{convert|114|cm|in}}.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = Mesothermal Climate|encyclopedia = Glossary of Meteorology|publisher = [[American Meteorological Society]]|url = http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=mesothermal-climate1|access-date = 2008-05-21}}</ref> A megathermal climate is one with persistent high temperatures and abundant rainfall, with potential annual evaporation in excess of {{convert|114|cm|in}}.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|title = Megathermal Climate|encyclopedia = Glossary of Meteorology|publisher = [[American Meteorological Society]]|url = http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=megathermal-climate1|access-date = 2008-05-21}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Ecological land classification]]
*[[Biogeographical realm]]
*[[Biome]]
*[[Geographical zone]]
*[[Hardiness zone]]
*[[Mediterranean climate]] or dry summer climate

==References==
{{more citations needed|auto=yes|date=December 2018}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Climate and weather classification systems]]

Bagua

2023-01-08T14:15:05Z

Ciaurlec: /* Trigrams */ changed wikitable type

{{Short description|Eight trigrams used in Taoist cosmology}}
{{Other uses|Bagua (disambiguation)}}
{{more citations needed|date=April 2020}}
[[File:Bagua Zhao Huiqian.jpg|thumb|250px|''Bagua'' diagram explanation from Zhao Huiqian's ({{lang|zh|趙撝謙}}) ''Liushu benyi'' ({{lang|zh|六書本義}}, 1370s)]]
{{Infobox Chinese
| c = 八卦
| p = Bāguà
| l = Eight symbols
| h = Pat-koa
| w = Pa1 kua4
| kanji = 八卦
| hiragana = はっけ
| romaji = Hakke
}}
The '''bagua''' or '''pakua''' (八卦) are a set of eight symbols that originated in [[China]], used in [[Taoist cosmology]] to represent the fundamental principles of reality, seen as a range of eight interrelated concepts. Each consists of three lines, each line either "broken" or "unbroken", respectively representing [[Yin and yang|yin or yang]]. Due to their tripartite structure, they are often referred to as '''Eight Trigrams''' in English.

The trigrams are related to [[Taiji (philosophy)|Taiji]] philosophy, [[T'ai chi ch'uan|Taijiquan]] and the [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Wuxing]], or "five elements".<ref>CHEN, Xin (tr. Alex Golstein). [https://www.scribd.com/doc/22501334/Illustrated-Canon-of-Chen-Family-Taijiquan-by-Chen-Xin ''The Illustrated Canon of Chen Family Taijiquan''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503115301/https://www.scribd.com/doc/22501334/Illustrated-Canon-of-Chen-Family-Taijiquan-by-CHEN-XIN |date=2016-05-03 }}, INBI Matrix Pty Ltd, 2007. page 11. (accessed on Scribd.com, December 14, 2009.)</ref> The relationships between the trigrams are represented in two arrangements: the ''Primordial'' ({{lang|zh|先天八卦}}), "Earlier Heaven",<ref name="wilhelm">{{cite book |last=Wilhelm |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Wilhelm (sinologist)|others=translated by [[Cary F. Baynes]], foreword by [[C. G. Jung]], preface to 3rd ed. by [[Hellmut Wilhelm]] (1967) |title=The I Ching or Book of Changes |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1950 |location=Princeton, NJ |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=bbU9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA266 |isbn=069109750X |pages=266, 269 }}</ref> or "Fu Xi" bagua ({{lang|zh|伏羲八卦}}) and the ''Manifested'' ({{lang|zh|後天八卦}}), "Later Heaven",<ref name="wilhelm" /> or "King Wen" bagua. The trigrams have correspondences in [[astronomy]], [[astrology]], [[geography]], [[geomancy]], [[anatomy]], the family, [[martial arts]], [[Traditional Chinese medicine|Chinese medicine]] and elsewhere.<ref>TSUEI, Wei. [http://seattle.medfinds.com/uploads/download_forms/3718/ROOTS-EN.pdf ''Roots of Chinese culture and medicine''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120812073113/http://seattle.medfinds.com/uploads/download_forms/3718/ROOTS-EN.pdf |date=2012-08-12 }} Chinese Culture Books Co., 1989.</ref><ref>ZONG, Xiao-Fan and Liscum, Gary. [https://books.google.com/books?id=eWfedzeQMk0C&lpg=PA1&ots=3Jq9BThQJe&dq=eight%20trigrams%20anatomy%20relatives&lr=&pg=PA187#v=onepage&q=&f=false ''Chinese Medical Palmistry: Your Health in Your Hand''], Blue Poppy Press, 1999.</ref>

The ancient Chinese classic, [[I Ching]] ([[Pinyin]]: Yi Jing), consists of the 64 pairwise permutations of trigrams, referred to as "[[Hexagram (I Ching)|hexagrams]]", along with commentary on each one.

==Trigrams==

There are eight possible combinations to render the various trigrams ({{zh|labels=no|c=八卦}} ''bāguà''):
{| class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
!
! Trigram figure
! Possible binary value<ref name = "SHDaily">"Understanding Bagua sequence" (December 6, 2015) ''[[Shanghai Daily]]''. Quote: "According to the authentic rules of binary method, the value conversion is bottom-up. The ID numbers of Mountain (☶, 100) and Thunder (☳, 001) should be reversed, [i.e. Mountain (☶)'s binary value should be 001 while Thunder (☳)'s binary value should be 100] [...] their sequential numbers are 0-Earth, 1-Mountain, 2-Water, 3-Wind, 4-Thunder, 5-Fire, 6-Valley, and 7-Sky."</ref>
! Possible decimal sequential number<ref name = "SHDaily"/>
! Name
! Translation: ''Wilhelm''<ref>Wilhelm, R. & Baynes, C., (1967): "The I Ching or Book of Changes", With foreword by Carl Jung, Introduction, Bollingen Series XIX, Princeton University Press, (1st ed. 1950)</ref>
! Image in nature (pp.l-li)
! [[Wuxing (Chinese philosophy)|Phase]]<ref name = "nationsonline">[https://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/Chinese_Customs/bagua.htm ''Bagua''] in nationsonline.org</ref>
! Later Heaven's Direction (p. 269)<ref name = "nationsonline"/>
! Later Heaven's Equinox or Solstice<ref name = "nationsonline"/>
! Earlier Heaven's Direction<ref name = "nationsonline"/>
! Earlier Heaven's Equinox or Solstice<ref name = "nationsonline"/>
! Family relationship (p. 274)
! Body part (p. 274)
! Attribute (p. 273)
! Stage/ state (pp.l-li)
! Animal (p. 273)
! Obtained Images<ref>''Zhouyi Jie (Explaining the Zhou's [Book of] Changes)'' [https://ctext.org/library.pl?if=gb&file=10783&page=4 "Bagua Quxiang Ge (Song about how the Eight Trigrams Obtained Their Images)"] quote:《八卦取象歌》「☰乾三連，☷坤六斷，☳震仰盂，☶艮覆碗，☲離中虛，☵坎中滿，☱兌上缺，☴巽下斷。」</ref>
|-
| 1 || {{huge|☰|250%}} || 111 || 7 || {{zh|labels=no|c=乾}} ''qián'' || ''the Creative'', (natural) force || heaven, sky {{lang|zh|天}} || metal || northwest || || south || Summer Solstice || father || head || strong, persisting || creative || {{lang|zh|馬}} horse || {{lang|zh|三連}} three lines
|-
| 2 || {{huge|☱|250%}} || 110 || 6 || {{lang|zh|兌}} ''duì'' || ''the Joyous'', open (reflection) || lake, marsh {{lang|zh|澤}} || metal
| west || Fall Equinox || southeast || || third daughter || mouth || pleasure || tranquil (complete devotion) || {{lang|zh|羊}} sheep, goat || {{lang|zh|上缺}} flawed above
|-
| 3 || {{huge|☲|250%}} || 101 || 5 || {{lang|zh|離}} ''lí'' || ''the Clinging'', radiance || fire, glow {{lang|zh|火}} || fire
| south || Summer Solstice || east || Spring Equinox || second daughter || eye || light-giving, humane "dependence" || clinging, clarity, adaptable || {{lang|zh|雉}} pheasant || {{lang|zh|中虛}} hollow middle
|-
| 4 || {{huge|☳|250%}} || 100 || 4 || {{lang|zh|震}} ''zhèn'' || ''the Arousing'', shake || thunder {{lang|zh|雷}} || wood
| east || Spring Equinox || northeast || || first son || foot || inciting movement || initiative || {{lang|zh|龍}} dragon || {{lang|zh|仰盂}} face-up jar
|-
| 5 || {{huge|☴|250%}} || 011 || 3 || {{lang|zh|巽}} ''xùn'' || ''the Gentle'', ground || wind, air {{lang|zh|風}} || wood
| southeast || || southwest || || first daughter || thigh || penetrating || gentle entrance || {{lang|zh|雞}} fowl || {{lang|zh|下斷}} broken below
|-
| 6 || {{huge|☵|250%}} || 010 || 2 || {{lang|zh|坎}} ''kǎn'' || ''the Abysmal'', [[gorge]] || water {{lang|zh|水}} || water
| north || Winter Solstice || west || Fall Equinox || second son || ear || dangerous || in-motion || {{lang|zh|豕}} pig || {{lang|zh|中滿}} full middle
|-
| 7 || {{huge|☶|250%}} || 001 || 1 || {{lang|zh|艮}} ''gèn'' || ''Keeping Still'', bound || mountain {{lang|zh|山}} || earth || northeast || || northwest || || third son || hand || resting, stand-still || completion || {{lang|zh|狗}} dog || {{lang|zh|覆碗}} face-down bowl
|-
| 8 || {{huge|☷|250%}} || 000 || 0 || {{lang|zh|坤}} ''kūn'' || ''the Receptive'', field || ground, earth {{lang|zh|地}} || earth
| southwest || || north || Winter Solstice || mother || belly || devoted, yielding || receptive || {{lang|zh|牛}} cow || {{lang|zh|六斷}} six fragments
|}

[[File:DualerAufbau.JPG|thumb|center|400px|Alternative conversion of the trigrams to [[binary number|binary]]<ref name = "SHDaily-Leibniz">"Understanding Bagua sequence" (December 6, 2015) ''[[Shanghai Daily]]''. Quote: "Leibniz came up with the ID number of each 3-yao gua’s based on the position of yao from top down to base. He defined yang yao (whole line) as 1 and yin yao (broken line) as 0. Here are some examples according to Leibniz-Shao Yong approach. Mountain (☶) can be converted to 100. [...]"</ref>]]

==Relation to other principles==
[[File:Xiantianbagua.png|thumb|right|150px|Derivation of the bagua]]
[[Book of Changes]] listed two sources for the eight trigrams. The chapter {{zh|繫辭上|p=[[Xici|Xì Cí shàng]]|l=The Great Treatise I|labels=no}} explains the first source thus:<ref name = "xicishang">''Book of Changes'' [https://ctext.org/dictionary.pl?if=en&id=46934 "繫辭上 - Xi Ci I (The Great Treatise) 11.3"] with [[James Legge]]'s translation</ref><ref name = "Zhu&Adler">{{cite book|author=Zhu Xi|author-link=Zhu Xi|title=The Original Meaning of the Yijing: Commentary on the Scripture of Change.|translator=Joseph A. Adler|location=New York|year= 2020|publisher= Columbia University Press|page=46}}</ref>

<blockquote>
{| class="wikitable"
| style="width: 17%;" | {{lang|zh|<poem>
易有太極，
是生兩儀，
兩儀生四象，
四象生八卦，</poem>}}
| style="width: 24%;" | <poem>{{transl|zh|Yì yǒu tàijí ，
shì shēng liǎngyí ，
liǎngyí shēng sìxiàng ，
sìxiàng shēng bāguà ，
}}</poem>
|<poem>   In Change there is the Supreme Polarity, ({{lang|zh|太極}}; ''[[Taiji (philosophy)|Taiji]]''),
   which generates the Two Modes. ({{lang|zh|兩儀}}; ''Liangyi'')
   The Two Modes generate the Four Images, ({{lang|zh|四象}}; ''[[Four Symbols (China)|Sixiang]]'')
   and the Four Images generate the Eight Trigrams. ({{lang|zh|八卦}}; ''Bagua'').</poem>
|-
|}
</blockquote>

This explanation would later be modified to:<ref name = "nationsonline"/>

{{blockquote|The Limitless ([[Wuji (philosophy)|Wuji]]) produces the delimited, and this is the Absolute ([[Taiji (philosophy)|Taiji]]). The [[Taiji]] produces two forms, named Yin and Yang.{{efn|Compare this statement from [[Zhou Dunyi]]'s {{lang|zh|太極圖說}} ''Taijitu shuo'' "Explanation of the Supreme Polarity Diagram" : {{lang|zh|「'''自無極而為太極。'''太極動而生陽，動極而靜，靜而生陰，靜極復動。一動一靜，互為其根；'''分陰分陽，兩儀立焉。'''」}} (Adler's 2012 translation: "'''Non-polar and yet Supreme Polarity (''wuji er taiji'' 無極而極)!''' The Supreme Polarity in activity generates yang 陽; yet at the limit of activity it is still. In stillness it generates yin 陰; yet at the limit of stillness it is also active. Activity and stillness alternate; each is the basis of the other. '''In distinguishing yin and yang, the Two Modes are thereby established.'''")<ref>Zhou Dunyi, ''Taijitu shuo''. [[:zh:s:太極圖說|text]] at wikisource</ref><ref>Adler, Joseph A. (2012) [https://www.academia.edu/25564748/On_Translating_Taiji_%E5%A4%AA%E6%A5%B5 "On Translating Taiji 太極"] in David Jones and He Jinli, eds., ''Rethinking Zhu Xi: Emerging Patterns Within the Supreme Polarity''. Albany: SUNY Press</ref>}} The two forms produce [[Four Symbols|four phenomena]], named lesser yang, great yang (tai yang also means the Sun), lesser yin, great yin (tai yin also means the Moon). The four phenomena act on the eight trigrams (ba gua), eight eights are sixty-four hexagrams}}

Another chapter, {{zh|t=說卦|p=Shuō Guà|l=Discussing the Trigrams|labels=no}}, characterizes the {{zh|t=乾|p=Qián|labels=no}} trigram, which represents Heaven, and {{zh|t=坤|p=Kūn|labels=no}}, which represent earth, as father and mother, respectively, of the six other trigrams, who are their three sons ({{zh|t=震|p=Zhèn|labels=no}}, {{zh|t=坎|p=Kǎn|labels=no}}, {{zh|t=艮|p=Gèn|labels=no}}) and three daughters ({{zh|t=巽|p=Xùn|labels=no}}, {{zh|t=離|p=Lí|labels=no}}, {{zh|t=兌|p=Duì|labels=no}}).<ref name= "shuogua">''Yi Jing'' "[https://ctext.org/dictionary.pl?if=en&id=81922 Shuo Gua 10]". Translated by James Legge</ref>

The trigrams are related to the five elements of Wu Xing, used by [[Feng Shui]] practitioners and in [[Traditional Chinese Medicine]]. Those five elements are Water, Wood, Fire, Earth and Metal. The Water (Kan) and Fire (Li) trigrams correspond directly with the Water and Fire elements. The element of Earth corresponds with both the trigrams of Earth (Kun) and Mountain (Gen). The element of Wood corresponds with the trigrams of Wind (Xun) (as a gentle but inexorable force that can erode and penetrate stone) and Thunder (Zhen). The element of Metal corresponds with the trigrams of Heaven (Qian) and Lake (Dui).<ref name= "shuogua"/><ref name = "nationsonline"/>

===Hexagram lookup table===
[[File:64 quẻ.png|thumb|64 Hexagrams]]

{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-----
| rowspan=3 width="10%" ! style="background:LightYellow;" | Upper → Lower ↓
! style="font-size:150%;background:Gold;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☰
! style="font-size:150%;background:Gold;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☱
! style="font-size:150%;background:Gold;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☲
! style="font-size:150%;background:Gold;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☳
! style="font-size:150%;background:Gold;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☴
! style="font-size:150%;background:Gold;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☵
! style="font-size:150%;background:Gold;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☶
! style="font-size:150%;background:Gold;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☷
|- style="font-size:calc(400% / 3);"
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>乾<rp>(</rp><rt>qián</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>兌<rp>(</rp><rt>duì</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>離<rp>(</rp><rt>lí</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>震<rp>(</rp><rt>zhèn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>巽<rp>(</rp><rt>xùn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>坎<rp>(</rp><rt>kǎn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>艮<rp>(</rp><rt>gèn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>坤<rp>(</rp><rt>kūn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
|-
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Heaven
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Lake
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Flame
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Thunder
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Wind
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Water
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Mountain
! style="background:Gold;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Earth
|-
! rowspan=2 style="font-size:150%;background:Pink;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☰
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 1|1]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 43|43]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 14|14]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 34|34]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 9|9]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 5|5]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 26|26]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 11|11]]
|- style="font-size:200%;"
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷀
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷪
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷍
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷡
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷈
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷄
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷙
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷊
|- style="font-size:calc(400% / 3);"
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>乾<rp>(</rp><rt>qián</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>乾<rp>(</rp><rt>qián</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>夬<rp>(</rp><rt>guài</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>大有<rp>(</rp><rt>dàyǒu</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>大壯<rp>(</rp><rt>dàzhuàng</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>小畜<rp>(</rp><rt>xiǎoxù</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>需<rp>(</rp><rt>xū</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>大畜<rp>(</rp><rt>dàchù</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>泰<rp>(</rp><rt>tài</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
|-
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Heaven
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 1|Force]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 43|Displacement]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 14|Great Possessing]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 34|Great Invigorating]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 9|Small Harvest]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 5|Attending]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 26|Great Accumulating]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 11|Pervading]]
|-
! rowspan=2 style="font-size:150%;background:Pink;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☱
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 10|10]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 58|58]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 38|38]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 54|54]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 61|61]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 60|60]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 41|41]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 19|19]]
|- style="font-size:200%;"
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷉
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷹
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷥
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷵
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷼
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷻
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷨
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷒
|- style="font-size:calc(400% / 3);"
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>兌<rp>(</rp><rt>duì</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>履<rp>(</rp><rt>lǚ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>兌<rp>(</rp><rt>duì</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>睽<rp>(</rp><rt>kuí</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>歸妹<rp>(</rp><rt>guīmèi</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>中孚<rp>(</rp><rt>zhōngfú</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>節<rp>(</rp><rt>jié</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>損<rp>(</rp><rt>sǔn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>臨<rp>(</rp><rt>lín</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
|-
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Lake
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 10|Treading]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 58|Open]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 38|Polarising]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 54|Converting the Maiden]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 61|Inner Truth]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 60|Articulating]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 41|Diminishing]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 19|Nearing]]
|-
! rowspan=2 style="font-size:150%;background:Pink;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☲
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 13|13]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 49|49]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 30|30]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 55|55]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 37|37]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 63|63]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 22|22]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 36|36]]
|- style="font-size:200%;"
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷌
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷰
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷝
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷶
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷤
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷾
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷕
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷣
|- style="font-size:calc(400% / 3);"
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>離<rp>(</rp><rt>lí</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>同人<rp>(</rp><rt>tóngrén</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>革<rp>(</rp><rt>gé</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>離<rp>(</rp><rt>lí</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>豐<rp>(</rp><rt>fēng</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>家人<rp>(</rp><rt>jiārén</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>既濟<rp>(</rp><rt>jìjì</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>賁<rp>(</rp><rt>bì</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>明夷<rp>(</rp><rt>míngyí</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
|-
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Flame
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 13|Concording People]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 49|Skinning]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 30|Radiance]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 55|Abounding]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 37|Dwelling People]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 63|Already Fording]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 22|Adorning]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 36|Intelligence Hidden]]
|-
! rowspan=2 style="font-size:150%;background:Pink;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☳
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 25|25]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 17|17]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 21|21]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 51|51]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 42|42]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 3|3]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 27|27]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 24|24]]
|- style="font-size:200%;"
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷘
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷐
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷔
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷲
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷩
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷂
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷚
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷗
|- style="font-size:calc(400% / 3);"
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>震<rp>(</rp><rt>zhèn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>無妄<rp>(</rp><rt>wúwàng</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>隨<rp>(</rp><rt>suí</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>噬嗑<rp>(</rp><rt>shìhé</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>震<rp>(</rp><rt>zhèn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>益<rp>(</rp><rt>yì</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>屯<rp>(</rp><rt>tún</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>頤<rp>(</rp><rt>yí</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>復<rp>(</rp><rt>fù</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
|-
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Thunder
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 25|Innocence]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 17|Following]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 21|Gnawing Bite]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 51|Shake]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 42|Augmenting]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 3|Sprouting]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 27|Swallowing]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 24|Returning]]
|-
! rowspan=2 style="font-size:150%;background:Pink;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☴
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 44|44]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 28|28]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 50|50]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 32|32]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 57|57]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 48|48]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 18|18]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 46|46]]
|- style="font-size:200%;"
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷫
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷛
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷱
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷟
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷸
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷯
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷑
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷭
|- style="font-size:calc(400% / 3);"
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>巽<rp>(</rp><rt>xùn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>姤<rp>(</rp><rt>gòu</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>大過<rp>(</rp><rt>dàguò</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>鼎<rp>(</rp><rt>dǐng</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>恆<rp>(</rp><rt>héng</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>巽<rp>(</rp><rt>xùn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>井<rp>(</rp><rt>jǐng</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>蠱<rp>(</rp><rt>gǔ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>升<rp>(</rp><rt>shēng</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
|-
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Wind
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 44|Coupling]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 28|Great Exceeding]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 50|Holding]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 32|Persevering]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 57|Ground]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 48|Welling]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 18|Correcting]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 46|Ascending]]
|-
! rowspan=2 style="font-size:150%;background:Pink;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☵
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 6|6]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 47|47]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 64|64]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 40|40]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 59|59]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 29|29]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 4|4]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 7|7]]
|- style="font-size:200%;"
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷅
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷮
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷿
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷧
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷺
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷜
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷃
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷆
|- style="font-size:calc(400% / 3);"
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>坎<rp>(</rp><rt>kǎn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>訟<rp>(</rp><rt>sòng</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>困<rp>(</rp><rt>kùn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>未濟<rp>(</rp><rt>wèijì</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>解<rp>(</rp><rt>jiě</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>渙<rp>(</rp><rt>huàn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>坎<rp>(</rp><rt>kǎn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>蒙<rp>(</rp><rt>méng</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>師<rp>(</rp><rt>shī</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
|-
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Water
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 6|Arguing]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 47|Confining]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 64|Before Completion]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 40|Deliverance]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 59|Dispersing]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 29|Gorge]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 4|Enveloping]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 7|Leading]]
|-
! rowspan=2 style="font-size:150%;background:Pink;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☶
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 33|33]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 31|31]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 56|56]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 62|62]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 53|53]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 39|39]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 52|52]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 15|15]]
|- style="font-size:200%;"
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷠
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷞
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷷
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷽
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷴
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷦
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷳
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷎
|- style="font-size:calc(400% / 3);"
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>艮<rp>(</rp><rt>gèn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>遯<rp>(</rp><rt>dùn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>咸<rp>(</rp><rt>xián</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>旅<rp>(</rp><rt>lǚ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>小過<rp>(</rp><rt>xiǎoguò</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>漸<rp>(</rp><rt>jiàn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>蹇<rp>(</rp><rt>jiǎn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>艮<rp>(</rp><rt>gèn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>謙<rp>(</rp><rt>qiān</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
|-
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Mountain
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 33|Retiring]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 31|Conjoining]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 56|Sojourning]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 62|Small Exceeding]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 53|Infiltrating]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 39|Limping]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 52|Bound]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 15|Humbling]]
|-
! rowspan=2 style="font-size:150%;background:Pink;border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ☷
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 12|12]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 45|45]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 35|35]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 16|16]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 20|20]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 8|8]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 23|23]]
| style="border-bottom:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 2|2]]
|- style="font-size:200%;"
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷋
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷬
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷢
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷏
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷓
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷇
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷖
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | ䷁
|- style="font-size:calc(400% / 3);"
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>坤<rp>(</rp><rt>kūn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>否<rp>(</rp><rt>pǐ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>萃<rp>(</rp><rt>cuì</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>晉<rp>(</rp><rt>jìn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>豫<rp>(</rp><rt>yù</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>觀<rp>(</rp><rt>guàn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>比<rp>(</rp><rt>bǐ</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>剝<rp>(</rp><rt>bāo</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
| style="border-top:0px;border-bottom:0px;padding-top:0px;padding-bottom:0px;" | <ruby>坤<rp>(</rp><rt>kūn</rt><rp>)</rp></ruby>
|-
! style="background:Pink;border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | Earth
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 12|Obstruction]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 45|Clustering]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 35|Prospering]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 16|Providing-For]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 20|Viewing]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 8|Grouping]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 23|Stripping]]
| style="border-top:0px;padding-top:0px;" | [[List of hexagrams of the I Ching#Hexagram 2|Field]]
|}

==Fu Xi's "Earlier Heaven"==
[[File:bagua-name-earlier.svg|thumb|275px|Fuxi "Earlier Heaven" bagua arrangement]]
{| class="wikitable"
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|卦名}} Name
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|自然}} Nature
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|季节}} Season
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|性情}} Personality
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|家族}} Family
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|方位}} Direction
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|意義}} Meaning
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|乾}}}} Qián}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|天}} [[Sky|Sky (Heaven)]]}}||Summer|| Creative ||{{lang|zh|父}} Father||{{lang|zh|南 }}South||{{lang|zh|健}} Expansive energy, the sky. For further information, see ''[[tian|tiān]].''
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|巽}}}} Xùn}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|風 }}[[Wind]]}}||Summer|| Gentle ||{{lang|zh|長女}} Eldest Daughter||{{lang|zh|西南 }}Southwest||{{lang|zh|入}} Gentle penetration, flexibility.
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|坎}}}} Kǎn}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|水}} [[Water]]}}||Autumn|| Abysmal ||{{lang|zh|中男}} Middle Son||{{lang|zh|西}} West||{{lang|zh|陷}} Danger, rapid rivers, the abyss, the moon.
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|艮}}}} Gèn}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|山}} [[Mountain]]}}||Autumn|| Still ||{{lang|zh|少男}} Youngest Son||{{lang|zh|西北}} Northwest||{{lang|zh|止}} Stillness, immovability.
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|坤}}}} Kūn}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|地}} [[Earth (classical element)|Earth]]}}||Winter|| Receptive ||{{lang|zh|母}} Mother||{{zh|labels=no|c=北}} North||{{lang|zh|順}} Receptive energy, that which yields. For further information, see ''[[dì]].''
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|震}}}} Zhèn}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|雷}} [[Thunder]]}}||Winter|| Arousing ||{{lang|zh|長男}} Eldest Son||{{lang|zh|東北}} Northeast||{{lang|zh|動}} Excitation, revolution, division.
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|離}}}} Lí}}||{{nowrap|{{zh|labels=no|c=火}} [[Fire]]}}||Spring|| Clinging ||{{lang|zh|中女}} Middle Daughter||{{lang|zh|東}} East||{{lang|zh|麗}} Rapid movement, radiance, the sun.
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|兌}}}} Duì}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|澤}} [[Lake]]}}||Spring|| Joyous ||{{lang|zh|少女 }}Youngest Daughter||{{lang|zh|東南}} Southeast||{{lang|zh|悅}} Joy, satisfaction, stagnation.
|}
{{Clear}}

==King Wen's "Later Heaven"==
[[File:bagua-name-later.svg|thumb|275px|King Wen "Later Heaven" bagua arrangement]]
{| class="wikitable"
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|卦名}} Name
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|自然}} Nature
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|季节}} Season
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|性情}} Personality
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|家族}} Family
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|方位}} Direction
!style="background-color:#CCCCCC"|{{lang|zh|意義}} Meaning
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|離}} }}Li}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|火}} Fire}}||Summer|| Clinging ||{{lang|zh|中女}} Middle Daughter||{{lang|zh|南}} South||{{lang|zh|麗}} Pulsing motion, radiance, the luminaries.
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|坤}}}} Kun}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|地}} Earth}}||Summer|| Receptive ||{{lang|zh|母}} Mother||{{lang|zh|西南}} Southwest||{{lang|zh|順}} Receptive energy, that which yields.
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|兌}}}} Dui}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|澤}} Lake}}||Autumn|| Joyous ||{{lang|zh|少女 }}Youngest Daughter||{{lang|zh|西 }}West||{{lang|zh|悅}} Joy, satisfaction, stagnation.
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|乾}}}} Qian}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|天}} Heaven}}||Autumn|| Creative ||{{lang|zh|父}} Father||{{lang|zh|西北}} Northwest||{{lang|zh|健}} Expansive energy, the sky.
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|坎}}}} Kan}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|水}} Water}}||Winter|| Abysmal ||{{lang|zh|中男}} Middle Son||{{lang|zh|北}} North||{{lang|zh|陷}} Danger, rapid rivers, the abyss, the moon.
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|艮}}}} Gen}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|山}} Mountain}}||Winter|| Still ||{{lang|zh|少男}} Youngest Son||{{lang|zh|東北 }}Northeast||{{lang|zh|止}} Stillness, immovability.
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|震}}}} Zhen}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|雷}} Thunder}}||Spring|| Arousing ||{{lang|zh|長男}} Eldest Son||{{lang|zh|東}} East||{{lang|zh|動}} Excitation, revolution, division.
|-
|{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|{{linktext|巽}}}} Xun}}||{{nowrap|{{lang|zh|風}} Wind}}||Spring|| Gentle ||{{lang|zh|長女}} Eldest Daughter||{{lang|zh|東南}} Southeast||{{lang|zh|入}} Gentle penetration, flexibility.
|}
{{Clear}}

==Bagua used in Feng Shui==
The Bagua is an essential tool in the majority of Feng Shui schools. The Bagua used in [[Feng shui]] can appear in two different versions: the ''Earlier Heaven Bagua'', used for burial sites, and the ''Later Heaven Bagua'', used for the residences.

===Primordial Bagua===
In Primordial Bagua, also known as Fu Xi Bagua or Earlier Heaven Bagua, the Heaven is in the higher part and the Earth is in the lower part. The trigram Qian (Heaven) is at the top, the trigram Kun (Earth) is at the bottom (in the past, the South was located at the top in Chinese maps). The trigram Li (Fire) is located on the left and opposite to it is the trigram Kan (Water). Zhen (Thunder) and Xun (Wind) form another pair, while being one opposite the other, the first on the bottom left next to Li while the second is next to Qian on the top right of the Bagua. Gen (Mountain) and Dui (Lake) form the last pair, one opposite the other, both in balance and harmony. The adjustment of the trigrams is symmetrical by forming exact contrary pairs. They symbolize the opposite forces of Yin and Yang and represent an ideal state, when everything is in balance.

===Manifested Bagua===
The sequence of the trigrams in Manifested Bagua, also known as the Bagua of King Wen or Later Heaven Bagua, describes the patterns of the environmental changes. Kan is placed downwards and Li at the top, Zhen in the East and Dui in the West. Contrary to the Earlier Heaven Bagua, this one is a dynamic Bagua where energies and the aspects of each trigram flow towards the following. It is the sequence used by the Luo Pan compass which is used in Feng Shui to analyze the movement of the Qi that practitioners believe affect them.

===Western Bagua===
Feng shui was made very popular in the [[Western world|Occident]] thanks to the Bagua of the eight aspirations. Each trigram corresponds to an aspect of life which, in its turn, corresponds to one of the cardinal directions. Applying feng shui using the Bagua of the eight aspirations (or Bagua map for short) made it possible to simplify feng shui and to bring it within the reach of everyone. Western Bagua focuses more heavily on the power of intention than the traditional forms of feng shui.<ref>Cisek, Jan. [http://www.fengshuilondon.net/bagua/difference-between-classic-compass-bagua-school-and-western-three-door-gate-of-chi-bagua-map ''Feng Shui London blog''], 2007.</ref>

Masters of traditional feng shui disregard this approach,<ref>Moran, Elizabeth and Master Yu, Joseph. [https://books.google.ca/books?id=o3Y3VzjSLpYC&pg=PT30 ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Feng Shui, 3rd Edition''], Penguin, 2005.</ref> for its simplicity, because it does not take into account the forms of the landscape or the temporal influence or the annual cycles. The Bagua of the eight aspirations is divided into two branches: the first, which uses the compass and cardinal directions, and the second, which uses the Bagua by using the main door. It is clear that, not taking into account the cardinal directions, the second is even more simplified.

====Bagua map====
A bagua map is a tool used in Western forms of [[feng shui]] to map a room or location and see how the different sections correspond to different aspects in one's life. These sections are believed to relate to every area or aspect of life and are divided into such categories as: fame, relationships/marriage, children/creativity, helpful people/travel, career, inner knowledge, family/ancestors/health, and wealth/blessings.

In this system, the map is intended to be used over the land, one's home, [[office]] or desk to find areas lacking good [[qi|chi]], and to show where there are negative or missing spaces that may need rectifying or enhancing in life or the environment.

For example, if the bagua grid is placed over the entire house plan and it shows the toilet, bathroom, laundry, or kitchen in the wealth/blessings area it would be considered that the money coming into that particular environment would disappear very fast, as if to be 'going down the drain.'

[[File:Carus-p48-Mystic-table.jpg|thumb|275px|A [[Tibet]]an "Mystic Tablet" containing the Eight Trigrams on top of a large tortoise (presumably, alluding to the [[Longma|animal]] that presented them to [[Fu Xi]]), along with the 12 signs of [[Chinese zodiac]], and a smaller tortoise carrying the [[Lo Shu Square]] on its shell]]

==In Unicode==
The bagua symbols are in the [[Miscellaneous Symbols]] block of Unicode:
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Miscellaneous Symbols Unicode block
|-
! Official Name !! Glyph !! Unicode # !! HTML !! Element
|-
| Trigram for Heaven || {{huge| ☰|200%}} || U+2630 || &#9776; || rowspan="2" | Metal
|-
| Trigram for Lake || {{huge| ☱|200%}} || U+2631 || &#9777;
|-
| Trigram for Fire || {{huge| ☲|200%}} || U+2632 || &#9778; || Fire
|-
| Trigram for Thunder || {{huge| ☳|200%}} || U+2633 || &#9779; || rowspan="2" | Wood
|-
| Trigram for Wind || {{huge| ☴|200%}} || U+2634 || &#9780;
|-
| Trigram for Water || {{huge| ☵|200%}} || U+2635 || &#9781; || Water
|-
| Trigram for Mountain || {{huge| ☶|200%}} || U+2636 || &#9782; || rowspan="2" | Earth
|-
| Trigram for Earth || {{huge| ☷|200%}} || U+2637 || &#9783;
|}

The constituent [[⚋]] [[yin (concept)|yin]] and [[⚊]] [[yang (concept)|yang]] bars that form them are also encoded in the Miscellaneous Symbols block, as are the digrams [[⚌]], [[⚏]], [[⚍]], and [[⚎]].

The [[hexagram (I Ching)|hexagrams]] they form are separately encoded as the [[Yijing Hexagram Symbols (Unicode block)|Yijing Hexagram Symbols]] Unicode block.

==Tools==

A [[LaTeX]] package [https://ctan.org/pkg/tikz-bagua/ TikZ-Bagua] can be used to draw the symbols.

==In culture==
In [[Peking Opera]], a role that has Taoist technique or military strategy wears a costume decorated with [[Taijitu|Taiji]] and Bagua.

[[Baguazhang]] and [[Taijiquan]] are two Chinese martial arts based on principles derived from bagua.

The principles of Bagua are used in a form of traditional [[Acupuncture]] where the prenatal, early heaven arrangements and the postnatal, later heaven arrangements are used to select points specifically related or tailored to the patients constitution to treat illness or disease.

The 2004 [[Philippine]] horror film [[Feng Shui (2004 film)|Feng Shui]] and its 2014 sequel, [[Feng Shui 2]], revolves around a cursed bagua mirror that kills those who stare into it.

==Other adoptions==
*[[Singapore dollar]]: the one dollar coin is shaped like a bagua.
*[[Flag of South Korea]]: a flag that has four trigrams surrounding the [[taegeuk]].
*[[Flag of South Vietnam]]: the three stripes is said as a trigram representing "south".
*[[Tekes County]] and [[Zhuge Village]]: both these communities has a layout based on bagua.

==See also==
*[[Heavenly stems|Tian gan]] and [[Earthly branches|Di zhi]]: the archaic calendar system of East Asia.
*[[Ba Xian]], Eight Taoist Immortals
*[[Meridian (Chinese medicine)#Eight extraordinary meridians|Ba Mai]] ({{lang|zh|奇經八脈}}; qí jīng bā mài)
*[[Baduanjin|Ba Duan Jin]]
*[[Chinese ritual mastery traditions]]
*[[Chinese spiritual world concepts]]
*[[Fuji (planchette writing)]]
*[[Fulu]]
*[[Octal]]

==Note==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bagua}}
[[Category:Chinese words and phrases]]
[[Category:Esoteric cosmology]]
[[Category:I Ching]]
[[Category:Symbolism]]
[[Category:Taoist cosmology]]
[[Category:Eastern esotericism]]

Ukpe-okhue

2022-12-25T01:37:15Z

Ciaurlec: removed from the less specific category

The '''ukpe-okhue''' ([[Edo language|Edo]] for "[[parrot]]'s beak") is a [[crown (headgear)|crown]] traditionally worn by the ''Iyoba'' ([[Queen mothers (Africa)|queen mother]]) of the [[Oba of Benin]]. It is formed of a [[snood (headgear)|snood]]-like net of [[precious coral]] [[beadwork]], using ''ileke'' ("royal") cylindrical beads.

This type of crown was originated, and first worn, by the original queen mother [[Idia]], the first woman granted the privilege to wear ''ileke'' beads.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EFI7tr9XK6EC&pg=PA527|title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Women in World History: 4 Volume Set|last=Smith|first=Bonnie G.|date=2008-01-01|publisher=Oxford University Press, USA|isbn=9780195148909|language=en}}</ref>

Named after a parrot's beak, it is a [[pointed hat]], with its shape somewhat resembling a [[Phrygian cap]] with its point curving forward.

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Afrikaabteilung in Ethnological Museum Berlin 29.JPG

File:Queen Mother Pendant Mask- Iyoba MET DP231460.jpg
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Crowns (headgear)]]
[[Category:Benin Court Art]]
[[Category:African queen mothers]]
[[Category:Beadwork]]

List of World Heritage Sites in Saudi Arabia

2022-11-23T13:51:52Z

Ciaurlec: /* Location of sites */ corrected position

{{short description|None}}

[[UNESCO|The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)]] established in 1972 is engaged in the protection and preservation of cultural or natural heritage.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/convention/|title=The World Heritage Convention|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2019-02-08}}</ref>

There are 6 UNESCO [[World Heritage Site]]s in [[Saudi Arabia]] inscribed from 2008 to 2021.

== Location of sites ==
{{Location map+|Saudi Arabia|places={{location map~ |Saudi Arabia |lat= 25.2478|long= 49.375005|label=[[Al-Ahsa Oasis]]}}
{{location map~ |Saudi Arabia |lat= 26.471|long= 37.5718|label=[[Mada'in Saleh]]}}
{{location map~ |Saudi Arabia |lat= 24.44288|long= 46.342088|label=[[Al-Turaif District]]}}
{{location map~ |Saudi Arabia |lat=17.984787|long=44|label=[[Bir Hima Rock Petroglyphs and Inscriptions|Hima]]}}
{{location map~ |Saudi Arabia |lat= 21.292|long= 39.115|label=[[Jeddah|Historic Jeddah]]}}
{{location map~ |Saudi Arabia |lat= 28.038|long= 40.5447|label=[[Rock Art in the Ha'il Region]]}}|caption=Location of World Heritage Sites in {{flag|Saudi Arabia}}|float=center|width=500}}

== List of sites ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|+
!Name
!Image
!Location
!Date
!UNESCO Data
!'''Description'''
|-
|[[Al-Ahsa Oasis]]
|[[File:Jabal Al Qara Cave - Al Hassa, Saudi Arabia ജബൽ അൽ ഖാറ ഗുഹ, അൽ ഹസ, സൗദി അറേബ്യ 13.JPG|frameless]]
|[[Al-Ahsa Oasis]]
{{coord|25.2478|49.375005|name=Al-Ahsa Oasis}}
|[[Neolithic]]
|{{Sort|1563|[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1563]; 2018; iii, iv, v}}
|The Al-Ahsa Oasis is a serial property comprising gardens, canals, springs, wells and a drainage lake, as well as historical buildings, urban fabric and archaeological sites.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1563/|title=Al-Ahsa Oasis, an Evolving Cultural Landscape|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2019-02-08}}</ref>
|-
|Al-Hijr Archaeological Site ([[Mada'in Saleh|Madâin Sâlih]])
|[[File:Qasr al Farid.JPG|frameless]]
|[[Al-'Ula]]
{{Coord|26.471|37.5718}}
|The 1st century BC
|{{Sort|1293|[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293];2008;ii, iii}}
|The Archaeological Site of Al-Hijr (Madâin Sâlih) features well-preserved monumental tombs with decorated facades dating from the 1st century BC to the 1st century AD. The site also features some 50 inscriptions of the pre-Nabataean period and some cave drawings.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1293/|title=Al-Hijr Archaeological Site (Madâin Sâlih)|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|language=en|access-date=2019-02-08}}</ref>
|-
|[[Al-Turaif District|At-Turaif District]] in [[Diriyah|ad-Dir'iyah]]
|[[File:Diriyahpic.jpg|frameless]]
|[[Diriyah|ad-Dir'iyah]]
{{Coord|24.44288|39.1115}}
|The 15th century
|{{Sort|1329|[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1329]; 2010; iv, v, vi}}
|Al-Turaif District bears witness to the Najdi architectural style, which is specific to the centre of the Arabian peninsula and includes the remains of many palaces and an urban ensemble built on the edge of the ad-Dir’iyah oasis.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1329/|title=At-Turaif District in ad-Dir'iyah|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=2019-02-08}}</ref>
|-
|[[Bir Hima Rock Petroglyphs and Inscriptions|Ḥimā Cultural Area]]
|[[File:Petroglyph at Bir Hima in Saudi Arabia.jpg|frameless]]
|[[Najran Province]]
{{Coord|18.248611|44.451667 }}
|The time period of 7000–1000 BC
|{{Sort|1619|[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1619];2021; iii}}
|Ḥimā Cultural Area contains a collection of rock art images illustrating hunting, fauna, flora and lifestyles of 7,000 years.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1619|title=Ḥimā Cultural Area|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=2021-07-31}}</ref>
|-
|[[Jeddah|Historic Jeddah]]
|[[File:Building in Old Jeddah (3278277272).jpg|frameless]]
|[[Jeddah]]
{{Coord|21.292|39.1115}}
|The 7th century AD
|{{Sort|1361|[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1361];2014; ii, iv, vi}}
|Historic Jeddah was as a major port for Indian Ocean trade routes, channelling goods to [[Mecca]]. It was also the gateway for Muslim pilgrims to Mecca who arrived by sea.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1361/|title=Historic Jeddah, the Gate to Makkah|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=2019-02-08}}</ref>
|-
|[[Rock Art in the Ha'il Region|Rock Art in the Hail Region]]
|[[File:النقوش_الصخرية_جبة_حائل.jpg|frameless]]
|[[Ha'il Region|Hail Region]]
{{Coord|28.038|40.5447}}
|From 10,000 years<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1472/|title=Rock Art in the Hail Region of Saudi Arabia|publisher=UNESCO World Heritage Centre|access-date=2019-02-08}}</ref>
|{{Sort|1472|[https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1472];2015; i, iii}}
|This property shows numerous representations of human and animal figures covering 10,000 years of history.<ref name=":0" />
|}

== References ==
<references />
__FORCETOC__

{{Lists of World Heritage Sites in Asia}}{{Portal|Saudi Arabia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:World Heritage Sites in Saudi Arabia}}
[[Category:Saudi Arabia geography-related lists]]
[[Category:Lists of World Heritage Sites|Saudi Arabia]]
[[Category:Lists of tourist attractions in Saudi Arabia|World Heritage Sites]]
[[Category:World Heritage Sites in Saudi Arabia| ]]

C

2022-10-21T17:29:26Z

Ciaurlec: /* Pronunciation and use */ changed to sortable table

{{short description|Third letter of the Latin alphabet}}
{{about|the letter|the programming language|C (programming language)|other uses}}
{{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{technical reasons|C#|uses of C#|C-sharp (disambiguation){{!}}C-sharp}}
{{Infobox grapheme
|name = C
|letter = C c
|variations=([[C#Related characters|See below]])
|image=File:C cursiva.gif
|imagesize=200px
|imagealt=Writing cursive forms of C
|script=[[Latin script]]
|type=[[Alphabet]]
|typedesc=ic
|language=[[Latin language]]
|phonemes={{grid list|[{{IPAlink|c}}]|[{{IPAlink|k}}]|[{{IPAlink|t͡ʃ}}]|[{{IPAlink|t͡s}}({{IPAlink|ʰ}})]|[{{IPAlink|d͡ʒ}}]|[{{IPAlink|ʃ}}]|[{{IPAlink|s|s̝}}]|[{{IPAlink|ʕ}}]|[{{IPAlink|ʔ}}]|[{{IPAlink|θ}}]|Others}}
|unicode=U+0043, U+0063
|alphanumber=3
|number=[[Roman numerals|100]]
|fam1=[[File:Camelus bactrianus-sil.svg|20px|Pictogram of a Camel]]
|fam2=<hiero>T14</hiero>
|fam3=[[Image:Proto-semiticG-01.svg|20px|Gimel]]
|fam4=[[Image:Phoenician gimel.svg|20px|Gimel]]
|fam5=[[File:Greek Gamma 03.svg|20px|Early Greek Gamma]]
|fam6=[[File:Early Etruscan C.gif|20px|Early Etruscan C]]
|fam7=[[Gamma|Γ γ]]
|fam8=[[𐌂]]
}}
{{Latin letter info|c}}
[[File:Copyright.svg|thumb|right|100px|'''C''' in [[copyright symbol]]]]

'''C''', or '''c''', is the third [[Letter (alphabet)|letter]] in the [[English alphabet|English]] and [[ISO basic Latin alphabet]]s. Its name in English is [[English alphabet#Letter names|''cee'']] (pronounced {{IPAc-en|'|s|iː}}), plural ''cees''.<ref>"C" ''Oxford English Dictionary,'' 2nd edition (1989); ''Merriam-Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language, Unabridged'' (1993); "cee", ''op. cit.''</ref>

==History==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Egyptian
! Phoenician ''[[gimel|gaml]]''
! Greek ''[[Gamma]]''
! Etruscan C
! Old Latin C (G)
! [[Latin alphabet|Latin]] C
|- style="background:white; text-align:center;"
| {{align|center|<hiero>T14</hiero>}}
|[[File:Phoenician gimel.svg|30px|Phoenician gimel]]
|[[File:Gamma uc lc.svg|55px|Greek Gamma]]
|[[File:EtruscanC-01.svg|30px|Etruscan C]]
|[[File:Old Latin G.svg|20px|Old Latin]]
| [[File:Capitalis monumentalis C.svg|x20px|Latin C]]
|}
"C" comes from the same letter as "G". The [[Semitic people|Semites]] named it [[gimel]]. The sign is possibly adapted from an [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Egyptian hieroglyph]] for a [[Staff-sling|staff sling]], which may have been the meaning of the name ''gimel''. Another possibility is that it depicted a camel, the Semitic name for which was ''gamal''. [[Barry B. Powell]], a specialist in the history of writing, states "It is hard to imagine how gimel = "camel" can be derived from the picture of a camel (it may show his hump, or his head and neck!)".<ref>{{cite book|last=Powell|first=Barry B.|title=Writing: Theory and History of the Technology of Civilization|date=27 Mar 2009|publisher=Wiley Blackwell|isbn=978-1405162562|page=182|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PZ2Gr3d9X2UC&q=Gimel+shaped+like+a+camel%27s+neck&pg=PA182}}</ref>

In the [[Etruscan language]], [[plosive consonant]]s had no contrastive [[phonation|voicing]], so the [[Greek language|Greek]] '[[Gamma|Γ]]' (Gamma) was adopted into the [[Old Italic script#Etruscan alphabet|Etruscan alphabet]] to represent {{IPA|/k/}}. Already in the [[Western Greek alphabet]], Gamma first took a '[[File:Early Etruscan C.gif|15px]]' form in Early Etruscan, then '[[File:Classical Etruscan C.gif|15px]]' in Classical Etruscan. In Latin it eventually took the '{{smallcaps|c}}' form in Classical Latin. In the earliest [[Latin]] inscriptions, the letters '{{smallcaps|c k q}}' were used to represent the sounds {{IPA|/k/}} and {{IPA|/ɡ/}} (which were not differentiated in writing). Of these, '{{smallcaps|q}}' was used to represent {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ɡ/}} before a rounded vowel, '{{smallcaps|k}}' before '{{smallcaps|a}}', and '{{smallcaps|c}}' elsewhere.<ref>{{cite book
|title=New Comparative Grammar of Greek and Latin
|first=Andrew L.
|last=Sihler
|edition=illustrated
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=1995
|location=New York
|isbn=0-19-508345-8
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IeHmqKY2BqoC
|page=21
}}</ref> During the 3rd century BC, a modified character was introduced for {{IPA|/ɡ/}}, and '{{smallcaps|c}}' itself was retained for {{IPA|/k/}}. The use of '{{smallcaps|c}}' (and its variant '{{smallcaps|g}}') replaced most usages of '{{smallcaps|k}}' and '{{smallcaps|q}}'. Hence, in the classical period and after, '{{smallcaps|g}}' was treated as the equivalent of Greek gamma, and '{{smallcaps|c}}' as the equivalent of kappa; this shows in the romanization of Greek words, as in 'ΚΑΔΜΟΣ', 'ΚΥΡΟΣ', and 'ΦΩΚΙΣ' came into Latin as '{{smallcaps|cadmvs}}', '{{smallcaps|cyrvs}}' and '{{smallcaps|phocis}}', respectively.

Other alphabets have letters [[homoglyph]]ic to 'c' but not analogous in use and derivation, like the [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] letter [[Es (Cyrillic)|Es]] (С, с) which derives from the lunate [[sigma (letter)|sigma]], named due to its resemblance to the crescent moon.

==Later use==
When the Roman alphabet was introduced into Britain, {{angbr|c}} represented only {{IPA|/k/}}, and this value of the letter has been retained in loanwords to all the [[insular Celtic languages]]: in [[Welsh language|Welsh]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.mit.edu/people/dfm/canol/chap29.html|title=Reading Middle Welsh -- 29 Medieval Spelling|website=www.mit.edu|access-date=2019-11-19}}</ref> [[Irish language|Irish]], [[Scottish Gaelic language|Gaelic]], {{angbr|c}} represents only {{IPA|/k/}}. The [[Old English Latin alphabet|Old English Latin-based writing system]] was learned from the Celts, apparently of Ireland; hence {{angbr|c}} in Old English also originally represented {{IPA|/k/}}; the Modern English words ''kin, break, broken, thick'', and ''seek'' all come from Old English words written with {{angbr|c}}: {{lang|ang|cyn, brecan, brocen, þicc}}, and {{lang|ang|séoc}}. However, during the course of the Old English period, {{IPA|/k/}} before front vowels ({{IPA|/e/}} and {{IPA|/i/}}) were [[Palatalization (sound change)|palatalized]], having changed by the tenth century to {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, though {{angbr|c}} was still used, as in {{lang|ang|cir(i)ce, wrecc(e)a}}. On the continent, meanwhile, a similar phonetic change before the same two vowels had also been going on almost all modern romance languages (for example, in [[Italian language|Italian]]).

In Vulgar Latin, {{IPA|/k/}} became palatalized to {{IPA|[tʃ]}} in Italy and Dalmatia; in France and the Iberian peninsula, it became {{IPA|[ts]}}. Yet for these new sounds {{angbr|{{sm|c}}}} was still used before the letters {{angbr|e}} and {{angbr|i}}. The letter thus represented two distinct values. Subsequently, the Latin phoneme {{IPA|/kw/}} (spelled {{angbr|{{smallcaps|qv}}}}) de-labialized to {{IPA|/k/}} meaning that the various Romance languages had {{IPA|/k/}} before front vowels. In addition, [[Norman language|Norman]] used the letter {{angbr|k}} so that the sound {{IPA|/k/}} could be represented by either {{angbr|k}} or {{angbr|c}}, the latter of which could represent either {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/ts/}} depending on whether it preceded a front vowel letter or not. The convention of using both {{angbr|c}} and {{angbr|k}} was applied to the writing of English after the [[Norman Conquest]], causing a considerable re-spelling of the Old English words. Thus while Old English {{lang|ang|candel, clif, corn, crop, cú}}, remained unchanged, {{lang|ang|Cent, cǣᵹ (cēᵹ), cyng, brece, sēoce}}, were now (without any change of sound) spelled {{lang|enm|Kent, keȝ, kyng, breke}}, and {{lang|enm|seoke}}; even {{lang|ang|cniht}} ('knight') was subsequently changed to {{lang|enm|kniht}} and {{lang|ang|þic}} ('thick') changed to {{lang|enm|thik}} or {{lang|enm|thikk}}. The Old English {{angbr|cw}} was also at length displaced by the French {{angbr|qu}} so that the Old English {{lang|ang|cwēn}} ('queen') and {{lang|ang|cwic}} ('quick') became [[Middle English]] {{lang|enm|quen}} and {{lang|enm|quik}}, respectively. The sound {{IPA|[tʃ]}}, to which Old English palatalized {{IPA|/k/}} had advanced, also occurred in French, chiefly from Latin {{IPA|/k/}} before {{angbr|a}}. In French it was represented by the digraph {{angbr|ch}}, as in ''champ'' (from Latin {{lang|la|camp-um}}) and this spelling was introduced into English: the Hatton Gospels, written {{circa|1160}}, have in Matt. i-iii, {{lang|enm|child, chyld, riche, mychel}}, for the {{lang|ang|cild, rice, mycel,}} of the Old English version whence they were copied. In these cases, the Old English {{angbr|c}} gave way to {{angbr|k}}, {{angbr|qu}} and {{angbr|ch}}; on the other hand, {{angbr|c}} in its new value of {{IPA|/ts/}} appeared largely in French words like {{lang|xno|processiun, emperice}} and {{lang|xno|grace}}, and was also substituted for {{angbr|ts}} in a few Old English words, as {{lang|ang|miltse, bletsien}}, in early Middle English {{lang|enm|milce, blecien}}. By the end of the thirteenth century both in France and England, this sound {{IPA|/ts/}} de-affricated to {{IPA|/s/}}; and from that time {{angbr|c}} has represented {{IPA|/s/}} before front vowels either for [[etymology|etymological]] reasons, as in ''lance, cent'', or to avoid the ambiguity due to the "etymological" use of {{angbr|s}} for {{IPA|/z/}}, as in ''ace, mice, once, pence, defence''.

Thus, to show etymology, English spelling has ''advise'', ''devise'' (instead of ''*advize'', ''*devize''), while ''advice, device, dice, ice, mice, twice'', etc., do not reflect etymology; example has extended this to ''hence, pence, defence'', etc., where there is no etymological reason for using {{angbr|c}}. Former generations also wrote ''sence'' for ''sense''. Hence, today the [[Romance languages]] and [[English language|English]] have a common feature inherited from [[Vulgar Latin]] spelling conventions where {{angbr|c}} takes on either a [[Hard and soft C|"hard" or "soft"]] value depending on the following letter.

==Pronunciation and use==
{{See also|Hard and soft C}}
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Pronunciations of Cc
! colspan="5" |Most common pronunciation: {{IPAslink|k}}
''Languages in italics do not use the [[Latin alphabet]]''
|-
!Language
!Dialect(s)
!Pronunciation ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]])
!Environment
!Notes
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Albanian language|Albanian]]
|{{IPAslink|ts}}
|
|
|-
![[Arabic language|''Arabic'']]
!''[[Cypriot Arabic]]''
|{{IPAslink|ʕ}}
|
|Latinization
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Azerbaijani language|Azeri]]
|{{IPAslink|dʒ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Berber languages|''Berber'']]
|{{IPAslink|ʃ}}
|
|Latinization
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Bukawa language|Bukawa]]
|{{IPAslink|ʔ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Catalan language|Catalan]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|Before e, i
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Crimean Tatar language|Crimean Tatar]]
|{{IPAslink|dʒ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Cornish language|Cornish]]
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|
|Standard Written Form
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Czech language|Czech]]
|{{IPAslink|ts}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Danish language|Danish]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|Before e, i, y, æ, ø
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |[[Dutch language|Dutch]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|Before e, i, y
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|tʃ}}
|Before e, i,y
|in loanwords from Italian
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[English language|English]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|Before e, i, y
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Fijian language|Fijian]]
|{{IPAslink|ð}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Filipino language|Filipino]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|Before e, i
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[French language|French]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|Before e, i, y
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Fula language|Fula]]
|{{IPAslink|tʃ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Gagauz language|Gagauz]]
|{{IPAslink|dʒ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |[[Galician language|Galician]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|θ}}
|Before e, i
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|Before e, i
|in [[seseo]] zones
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Hausa language|Hausa]]
|{{IPAslink|tʃ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]
|{{IPAslink|ts}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]
|{{IPAslink|tʃ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Irish language|Irish]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|c}}
|Before e, i; or after i
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Italian language|Italian]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|tʃ}}
|Before e, i
|

|-
! colspan="2"|''[[Khmer language|Khmer]]''
|{{IPAslink|c}}
|
|[[Romanization of Khmer#ALA-LC Romanization Tables|ALA-LC]] latinization
|-
![[Kurdish languages|Kurdish]]
![[Kurmanji]]
|{{IPAslink|dʒ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Latvian language|Latvian]]
|{{IPAslink|ts}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Malay language|Malay]]
|{{IPAslink|tʃ}}
|
|
|-
![[Mandarin Chinese|Mandarin]]
![[Standard Chinese|Standard]]
|{{IPAslink|tsʰ}}
|
|[[Pinyin]] latinization
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Manding languages|Manding]]
|{{IPAslink|tʃ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Polish language|Polish]]
|{{IPAslink|ts}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|Before e, i, y
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Romanian language|Romanian]]
|{{IPAslink|tʃ}}
|Before e, i
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Romansh language|Romansh]]
|{{IPAslink|ts}}
|Before e, i
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Scottish Gaelic]]
|{{IPAslink|kʰ}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|kʰʲ}}
|Before e, i; or after i
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Serbo-Croatian]]
|{{IPAslink|ts}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Slovak language|Slovak]]
|{{IPAslink|ts}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Slovene language|Slovene]]
|{{IPAslink|ts}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Somali language|Somali]]
|{{IPAslink|ʕ}}
|
|
|-
! rowspan="3" |[[Spanish language|Spanish]]
!All
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
!Most of [[Peninsular Spanish|European]]
|{{IPAslink|θ}}
|Before e, i, y
|
|-
![[Spanish language in the Americas|American]], [[Andalusian Spanish|Andalusian]], [[Canarian Spanish|Canarian]]
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|Before e, i, y
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Swedish language|Swedish]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|Before e, i, y, ä, ö
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Tatar language|Tatar]]
|{{IPAslink|ʑ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Turkish language|Turkish]]
|{{IPAslink|dʒ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="2" |[[Valencian language|Valencian]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|s}}
|Before e, i
|
|-
! colspan="2" rowspan="3" |[[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|k̚}}
|Word-final
|
|-
|{{IPAslink|kp}}
|Word-final after u, ô, o
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Welsh language|Welsh]]
|{{IPAslink|k}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Xhosa language|Xhosa]]
|{{IPAslink|ǀ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Yabem language|Yabem]]
|{{IPAslink|ʔ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language|Yup'ik]]
|{{IPAslink|tʃ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Zulu language|Zulu]]
|{{IPAslink|ǀ}}
|
|
|}

===English===
In [[English orthography]], {{angbr|c}} generally represents the "soft" value of {{IPAc-en|s}} before the letters {{angbr|e}} (including the Latin-derived digraphs {{angbr|ae}} and {{angbr|oe}}, or the corresponding ligatures {{angbr|æ}} and {{angbr|œ}}), {{angbr|i}}, and {{angbr|y}}, and a "hard" value of {{IPAc-en|k}} before any other letters or at the end of a word. However, there are a number of exceptions in English: "[[soccer]]" and "[[Pronunciation of Celtic|Celt]]" are words that have {{IPAc-en|k}} where {{IPAc-en|s}} would be expected.

The "soft" {{angbr|c}} may represent the {{IPAc-en|ʃ}} sound in the digraph {{angbr|ci}} when this precedes a vowel, as in the words 'delicious' and 'appreciate', and also in the word "ocean" and its derivatives.

The digraph {{angbr|[[Ch (digraph)|ch]]}} most commonly represents {{IPAc-en|tʃ}}, but can also represent {{IPAc-en|k}} (mainly in words of [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] origin) or {{IPAc-en|ʃ}} (mainly in words of [[French language|French]] origin). For some dialects of English, it may also represent {{IPAc-en|x}} in words like ''loch'', while other speakers pronounce the final sound as {{IPAc-en|k}}. The trigraph {{angbr|tch}} always represents {{IPAc-en|tʃ}}.

The digraph {{angbr|ck}} is often used to represent the sound {{IPAc-en|k}} after short vowels, like "wicket".

C is the [[Letter frequency|twelfth most frequently used letter]] in the English language (after [[E]], [[T]], [[A]], [[O]], [[I]], [[N]], [[S]], [[H]], [[R]], [[D]], and [[L]]), with a frequency of about 2.8% in words.

===Other languages===
In the Romance languages [[French language|French]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], {{angbr|c}} generally has a "hard" value of {{IPA|/k/}} and a "soft" value whose pronunciation varies by language. In French, Portuguese, Catalan and Spanish from Latin America and some places in Spain, the soft {{angbr|c}} value is {{IPA|/s/}} as it is in English. In the Spanish spoken in most of Spain, the soft {{angbr|c}} is a [[voiceless dental fricative]] {{IPA|/θ/}}. In [[Italian language|Italian]] and [[Romanian language|Romanian]], the soft {{angbr|c}} is {{IPA|[t͡ʃ]}}.

Germanic languages usually use c for Romance loans or digraphs, such as {{angbr|ch}} and {{angbr|ck}}, but the rules vary across languages. [[Dutch language|Dutch]] uses {{angbr|c}} the most, for all Romance loans and the digraph {{angbr|ch}}, but unlike English, does not use {{angbr|c}} for native Germanic words like ''komen'', "come". German uses {{angbr|c}} in the digraphs {{angbr|ch}} and {{angbr|ck}}, and the trigraph {{angbr|sch}}, but only by itself in unassimilated loanwords and place names. [[Danish language|Danish]] keeps soft {{angbr|c}} in Romance words but changes hard {{angbr|c}} to {{angbr|k}}. Swedish has the same rules for soft and hard {{angbr|c}} as Danish, and also uses {{angbr|c}} in the digraph {{angbr|ck}} and the very common word ''och'', "and". [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]], and [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] are the most restrictive, replacing all cases of {{angbr|c}} with {{angbr|k}} or {{angbr|s}}, and reserving {{angbr|c}} for unassimilated loanwords and names.

All [[Balto-Slavic languages]] that use the Latin alphabet, as well as [[Albanian language|Albanian]], [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], [[Pashto language|Pashto]], several [[Sami languages]], [[Esperanto]], [[Ido]], [[Interlingua]], and [[Americanist phonetic notation]] (and those [[Indigenous languages of North America|aboriginal languages of North America]] whose practical orthography derives from it) use {{angbr|c}} to represent {{IPA|/t͡s/}}, the [[voiceless alveolar sibilant affricate|voiceless alveolar]] or [[voiceless dental sibilant affricate]]. In [[Hanyu Pinyin]], the standard romanization of [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin Chinese]], the letter represents an aspirated version of this sound, {{IPA|/t͡sh/}}.

Among non-European languages that have adopted the Latin alphabet, {{angbr|c}} represents a variety of sounds. [[Central Alaskan Yup'ik language|Yup'ik]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], [[Malay language|Malay]], and a number of African languages such as [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Fula language|Fula]], and [[Manding languages|Manding]] share the soft Italian value of {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}}. In [[Azeri language|Azeri]], [[Crimean Tatar language|Crimean Tatar]], [[Northern Kurdish|Kurmanji Kurdish]], and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] {{angbr|c}} stands for the voiced counterpart of this sound, the [[voiced postalveolar affricate]] {{IPA|/d͡ʒ/}}. In [[Yabem language|Yabem]] and similar languages, such as [[Bukawa language|Bukawa]], {{angbr|c}} stands for a [[glottal stop]] {{IPA|/ʔ/}}. [[Xhosa language|Xhosa]] and [[Zulu language|Zulu]] use this letter to represent the click {{IPA|/ǀ/}}. In some other African languages, such as [[Berber Latin alphabet#Berber Latin alphabet and the Tifinagh Berber alphabet|Berber languages]], {{angbr|c}} is used for {{IPA|/ʃ/}}. In [[Fijian language|Fijian]], {{angbr|c}} stands for a [[voiced dental fricative]] {{IPA|/ð/}}, while in [[Somali language|Somali]] it has the value of {{IPA|/[[Voiced pharyngeal fricative|ʕ]]/}}.

The letter {{angbr|c}} is also used as a transliteration of Cyrillic {{angbr|ц}} in the Latin forms of [[Serbian alphabet|Serbian]], [[Romanisation of Macedonian|Macedonian]], and sometimes [[Romanization of Ukrainian|Ukrainian]], along with the digraph {{angbr|ts}}.

===Other systems===
As a [[phonetic]] symbol, lowercase {{angbr IPA|c}} is the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA) and [[X-SAMPA]] symbol for the [[voiceless palatal plosive]], and capital {{angbr|C}} is the X-SAMPA symbol for the [[voiceless palatal fricative]].

===Digraphs===
There are several common digraphs with {{angbr|c}}, the most common being {{angbr|[[Ch (digraph)|ch]]}}, which in some languages (such as [[German language|German]]) is far more common than {{angbr|c}} alone. {{angbr|ch}} takes various values in other languages.

As in English, {{angbr|ck}}, with the value {{IPA|/k/}}, is often used after short vowels in other [[Germanic languages]] such as German and [[Swedish language|Swedish]] (other Germanic languages, such as Dutch and [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], use {{angbr|kk}} instead). The digraph {{angbr|cz}} is found in Polish and {{angbr|cs}} in Hungarian, representing {{IPA|/t͡ʂ/}} and {{IPA|/t͡ʃ/}} respectively. The digraph {{angbr|sc}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} in Old English, Italian, and a few languages related to Italian (where this only happens before [[front vowel]]s, while otherwise it represents {{IPA|/sk/}}). The trigraph {{angbr|sch}} represents {{IPA|/ʃ/}} in German.

==Related characters==


===Ancestors, descendants and siblings===
[[File:Porvoo.vaakuna.svg|thumb|upright|A curled C in the coat of arms of [[Porvoo]]]]
*𐤂 : [[Phoenician alphabet|Semitic]] letter [[Gimel]], from which the following symbols originally derive
**{{lang|el|Γ γ}} : [[Greek alphabet|Greek]] letter [[Gamma]], from which C derives
***G g : Latin letter [[G]], which is derived from Latin C
****Ȝ ȝ : Latin letter [[Ȝ]], which is derived from Latin G
*[[Phonetic transcription#Alphabetic|Phonetic alphabet]] symbols related to C:
**{{IPA link|ɕ}} : Small c with curl
**ʗ : [[ʗ|Stretched c]]
**𝼏 : [[𝼏|Stretched c with curl]] - Used by Douglas Beach for a [[Click letter|nasal click]] in his phonetic description of [[Khoekhoe language|Khoekhoe]]<ref>{{Cite web|title=L2/20-115R: Unicode request for additional phonetic click letters|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20115r-click-letters.pdf|date=2020-07-10|first1=Kirk|last1=Miller|first2=Bonny|last2=Sands}}</ref>
**𝼝 : Small letter c with retroflex hook - Para-IPA version of the [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] retroflex tʂ<ref>{{Cite web|title=L2/21-041: Unicode request for additional para-IPA letters|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2021/21041-add-para-ipa-ltr.pdf|date=2021-01-11|first=Kirk|last=Miller}}</ref>
**ꟲ : Modifier letter capital c - Used to mark tone for the [[Chatino language|Chatino]] orthography in Oaxaca, Mexico; Used as a generic transcription for a falling tone; Used in para-[[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]] notation<ref>{{Cite web|title=L2/20-251: Unicode request for modifier Latin capital letters|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2020/20251-mod-latin.pdf|date=2020-09-25|first1=Kirk|last1=Miller|first2=Craig|last2=Cornelius}}</ref>
*[[ᶜ]] : Modifier letter small c<ref name="L204132">{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2004/04132-n2740-phonetic.pdf|title=L2/04-132 Proposal to add additional phonetic characters to the UCS|date=2004-04-19|first=Peter|last=Constable}}</ref>
*[[ᶝ]] : Modifier letter small c with curl<ref name="L204132"/>
*ᴄ : Small capital c is used in the [[Uralic Phonetic Alphabet]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2002/02141-n2419-uralic-phonetic.pdf|title=L2/02-141: Uralic Phonetic Alphabet characters for the UCS|date=2002-03-20|first1=Michael|last1=Everson|author-link1=Michael Everson|display-authors=etal}}</ref>
*Ꞔ ꞔ : C with palatal hook, used for writing [[Mandarin Chinese]] using the early draft version of [[pinyin]] romanization during the mid-1950s<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2017/17013-n4782-latin.pdf|title=L2/17-013: Proposal to encode three uppercase Latin letters used in early Pinyin|date=2017-01-16|first1=Andrew|last1=West|author-link=Andrew West (linguist)|first2=Eiso|last2=Chan|first3=Michael|last3=Everson|author-link3=Michael Everson}}</ref>
Add to C with diacritics
*C with [[diacritic]]s: [[Ć|Ć ć]] [[Ĉ|Ĉ ĉ]] [[Č|Č č]] [[Ċ|Ċ ċ]] [[Ḉ|Ḉ ḉ]] [[Ƈ|Ƈ ƈ]] [[C̈|C̈ c̈]] [[Ȼ|Ȼ ȼ]] [[Ç|Ç ç]] Ꞔ [[ꞔ]] [[Ꞓ|Ꞓ ꞓ]]
*Ↄ ↄ : [[Claudian letters]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2005/05193r2-n2960r2-claudian.pdf|title=L2/05-193R2: Proposal to add Claudian Latin letters to the UCS|date=2005-08-12|first=Michael|last=Everson}}</ref>

===Derived ligatures, abbreviations, signs and symbols===
*© : [[©|copyright symbol]]
*℃ : [[℃|degree Celsius]]
*¢ : [[¢|cent]]
*₡ : [[₡|colón (currency)]]
*₢ : [[₢|Brazilian cruzeiro (currency)]]
*₵ : [[₵|Ghana cedi (currency)]]
*₠ : [[European Currency Unit]] CE
*<math>\mathbb{C}</math> : [[blackboard bold]] C, denoting the [[complex number]]s
*ℭ : [[ℭ|blackletter C]]
*Ꜿ ꜿ : [[Middle Ages|Medieval]] abbreviation for [[Latin]] syllables con- and com-, [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] -us and -os<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2006/06027-n3027-medieval.pdf|title=L2/06-027: Proposal to add Medievalist characters to the UCS|date=2006-01-30|first1=Michael|last1=Everson|first2=Peter|last2=Baker|first3=António|last3=Emiliano|first4=Florian|last4=Grammel|first5=Odd Einar|last5=Haugen|first6=Diana|last6=Luft|first7=Susana|last7=Pedro|first8=Gerd|last8=Schumacher|first9=Andreas|last9=Stötzner}}</ref>

==Code points ==
These are the [[code point]]s for the forms of the letter in various systems
{{charmap
| 0043 | 0063 | name1 = Latin Capital Letter C | name2 = Latin Small Letter C
| map1 = [[EBCDIC]] family | map1char1 = C3 | map1char2 = 83
| map2 = [[ASCII]] 1 | map2char1 = 43 | map2char2 = 63
}}
: 1 {{midsize|Also for encodings based on ASCII, including the DOS, Windows, ISO-8859 and Macintosh families of encodings.}}

In Unicode, C is also encoded in various font styles for mathematical purposes; see [[Mathematical Alphanumeric Symbols]].

==Other representations==
{{Letter other reps
|NATO=Charlie
|Morse=–·–·
|Character=C3
|Braille=⠉
|fingerspelling=C
}}

==Use as a number==
In the [[hexadecimal]] (base 16) numbering system, C is a number that corresponds to the number 12 in [[decimal]] (base 10) counting.
{{clear}}

==See also==
*[[Hard and soft C]]
*[[Speed of light]], ''c''

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Wikisource1911Enc|C}}
*{{Commons-inline|C}}
*{{Wiktionary-inline|C}}
*{{Wiktionary-inline|c}}

{{Latin script|C|}}

[[Category:ISO basic Latin letters]]

List of volcanoes in Nicaragua

2022-09-28T22:13:13Z

Ciaurlec: /* Volcanoes */ changed table format

{{short description|None}}

{{see also|Lists of volcanoes}}
{{see also|Geology of Nicaragua}}

{{GeoGroup}}

This is a list of active and extinct [[volcanoes]] in [[Nicaragua]].
[[File:Nicaragua map vulcani.jpg|thumb|400px|A map of Nicaragua's volcanoes.]]

== Volcanoes ==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! rowspan="2"|Name !!colspan="2"| Elevation !! Location !!rowspan="2"| Last eruption
|-
! meters!!feet!![[Geographic coordinates|Coordinates]]
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Apoyeque]] || 518 || 1699 || {{coord|12.242|N|86.342|W|type:mountain}} || 50 BC
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Ciguatepe]] || 603 || 1978 || {{coord|12.53|N|86.142|W|type:mountain}} || Holocene
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Cerro Negro]] || 728 || 2388 || {{coord|12.506|N|86.702|W|type:mountain}} || 1999
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Concepción (volcano)|Concepción]] || 1700 || 5577 || {{coord|11.538|N|85.622|W|type:mountain}} || 2009
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Cosigüina]] || 872 || 2861 || {{coord|12.98|N|87.57|W|type:mountain}} || 1859
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Estelí (volcano)|Estelí]] || 899 || 2949 || {{coord|13.17|N|86.40|W|type:mountain}} || Holocene
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Granada (volcano)|Granada]] || 300 || 984 || {{coord|11.92|N|85.98|W|type:mountain}} || 10,000 BC
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Lajas (volcano)|Lajas]] || 926 || 3038 || {{coord|12.30|N|85.73|W|type:mountain}} || Holocene
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Las Pilas]] || 1088 || 3570 || {{coord|12.495|N|86.688|W|type:mountain}} || 1954
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Maderas]] || 1394 || 4573 || {{coord|11.446|N|85.515|W|type:mountain}} || Holocene
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Masaya Volcano|Masaya]] || 635 || 2083 || {{coord|11.984|N|86.161|W|type:mountain}} || continuing
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Mombacho]] || 1344 || 4409 || {{coord|11.862|N|85.968|W|type:mountain}} || 1570
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Momotombo]] || 1297 || 4255 || {{coord|12.422|N|86.540|W|type:mountain}} || 2015
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Nejapa-Miraflores]] || 360 || 1181 || {{coord|12.12|N|86.32|W|type:mountain}} || Holocene
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Rota (volcano)|Rota]] || 832 || 2730 || {{coord|12.55|N|86.75|W|type:mountain}} || Holocene
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[San Cristóbal volcano|San Cristóbal]] || 1745 || 5725 || {{coord|12.702|N|87.004|W|type:mountain}} || 2012
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Telica (volcano)|Telica]] || 1061 || 3481 || {{coord|12.602|N|86.845|W|type:mountain}} || 2015
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Azul (volcano)|Azul]] || 201 || 659 || {{coord|12.53|N|83.87|W|type:mountain}} || Holocene
|- align="right"
| align="left"| [[Zapatera]] || 629 || 2064 || {{coord|11.73|N|85.82|W|type:mountain}} || Holocene
|}

==See also==
{{portal|Nicaragua}}
* [[Central America Volcanic Arc]]
* [[List of volcanoes in Costa Rica]]
* [[List of volcanoes in El Salvador]]
* [[List of volcanoes in Guatemala]]
* [[List of volcanoes in Honduras]]
* [[List of volcanoes in Panama]]

== References ==
{{Global Volcanism Program}}

{{Nicaragua topics}}
{{Central American volcanoes}}

[[Category:Lists of volcanoes|Nicaragua]]
[[Category:Volcanoes of Nicaragua| ]]
[[Category:Lists of landforms of Nicaragua|Volcanoes]]

Bellunes Alps

2022-02-11T00:58:17Z

Ciaurlec: moved into a more specific category

{{Infobox mountain
| name = Bellunes Alps
| map = Alps
| map_caption =
| photo = Col Nudo.jpg
| photo_caption = Col Nudo, the hignest peak in the Bellunes Alps
| state = [[Trentino-South Tyrol]], [[Veneto|Venetia]]; [[Italy]]
| parent = [[Eastern Alps]]
| location =
| geology =
| period =
| area_km2 =
| orogeny =
| highest = [[Col Nudo]]
| elevation = {{Höhe|2472|IT}}
| coordinates =
| length_km =
| range_coordinates = {{coord|46.172075|N|12.1166871|E|region:IT_type:mountain_scale:300000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
}}

The '''Bellunes Alps''' ({{lang-de|Belluneser Alpen}}, {{lang-it|Prealpi Bellunesi}}) is the now obsolete name of a [[mountain range]] on the southern edge of the [[Eastern Alps]].

They lie in the [[Italy|Italian]] regions of [[Veneto|Venetia]] and [[Trentino-South Tyrol]]. They cover the provinces of [[Province of Treviso|Treviso]], [[Province of Pordenone|Pordenone]] and part of [[Province of Vicenza|Vicenza]]. The name is derived from the town of [[Belluno]]. Their highest peak is [[Col Nudo]] at {{Höhe|2472|IT}}.

They are part of the [[Southern Limestone Alps]], and are mainly made of the chalk limestone of the Southern Alps with summit region made of [[main dolomite]].

The Bellunes Alps used to be an independent group in the [[Alpine Club Classification of the Eastern Alps]] (AVE) and had the number 55. In 1984 they were divided; the northern part being assigned to the [[Dolomites]], and the southern part to the [[Southern Carnic Alps]] – the latter also appeared as the Bellunes Prealps (''Belluneser Voralpen'') in the ''[[Partizione delle Alpi]]'' where it formed Group 55d of the [[Venetian Alps]] (55). The northern part is also called the ''[[Bellunes Dolomites]]'' or ''Schiara Group'', after its highest peak, [[Monte Schiara]] ({{Höhe|2565|IT}}).

In 1990, the northern, dolomitic part was declare a [[national park]]: the ''Bellunes Dolomites National Park''.

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Belluno Prealps|Bellunes Alps}}
* [http://www.dolomitipark.it/Gindex.php Bellunes Dolomites National Park] - information on the northern part of the Bellunes Alps

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Mountain ranges of the Alps]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Italy]]
[[Category:Geography of Veneto]]
[[Category:Mountain ranges of Trentino]]

Venetian language

2022-01-31T01:58:46Z

Ciaurlec: /* Sample etymological lexicon */ modified wikitable into a sortable one

{{Short description|Romance language of Veneto, northeast Italy}}
{{About|the modern Romance language|the ancient language|Venetic language}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Venetian
| nativename = {{lang|vec|łengoa vèneta}}, {{lang|vec|vèneto}}
| states = [[Italy]], [[Slovenia]], [[Croatia]]
| region = {{Plainlist}}
* [[Veneto]]<ref name="UNM">{{cite book |title=Fifth United Nations Conference on the Standardization of Geographical Names: Vol.2 |publisher=[[United Nations]] |year=1991 |location=Montreal }}</ref><ref name="DRH">{{Cite book |title=Cultural disenchantments: worker peasantries in northeast Italy |last=Holmes |first=Douglas R. |publisher=[[Princeton University Press]] |year=1989}}</ref>
* [[Friuli Venezia Giulia]]<ref name="UNM"/><ref name="DRH" />
* [[Trentino]]<ref name="UNM"/><ref name="DRH" />
* [[Istria County]]<ref name="JMI">{{Cite book |title=Miniature empires: a historical dictionary of the newly independent states |last=Minahan |first=James |publisher=Greenwood |year=1998 |location=Westport}}</ref><ref name="JRK">{{Cite book |title=The Čakavian dialect of Orbanići near Žminj in Istria |last=Kalsbeek |first=Janneke |year=1998 |series=Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics |volume=25 |location=Atlanta}}</ref>
*[[Coastal–Karst Statistical Region|Coastal–Karst]]<ref name="JMI">{{Cite book |title=Miniature empires: a historical dictionary of the newly independent states |last=Minahan |first=James |publisher=Greenwood |year=1998 |location=Westport}}</ref><ref name="JRK">{{Cite book |title=The Čakavian dialect of Orbanići near Žminj in Istria |last=Kalsbeek |first=Janneke |year=1998 |series=Studies in Slavic and General Linguistics |volume=25 |location=Atlanta}}</ref>
| speakers = {{sigfig|3.85|2}} million
| date = 2002
| ref = e18
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Italic languages|Italic]]
| fam3 = [[Romance languages|Romance]]
| fam4 = [[Italo-Western languages|Italo-Western]]
| fam5 = [[Western Romance languages|Western Romance]]
| fam6 =
| minority = {{plainlist|
*{{flag|Veneto}}
*{{flag|Brazil}} ([[Talian dialect]])<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ipol.org.br/ler.php?cod=597 |title=Subsídios para o reconhecimento do Talian |last=Tonial |first=Honório |date=26 June 2009 |website=Instituto de Investigação e Desenvolvimento em Política Linguística (IPOL) |language=pt |trans-title=Subsidies for the recognition of Talian |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120127132553/http://www.ipol.org.br/ler.php?cod=597 |archive-date=27 January 2012 |access-date=21 August 2011}}</ref>
**{{flag|Rio Grande do Sul}}
**{{flag|Santa Catarina}}
**{{flag|Minas Gerais}}
**{{flag|Espírito Santo}}
*{{flag|Mexico}} ([[Chipilo Venetian dialect|Chipilo]])
**{{flag|Querétaro}}
**{{flag|Veracruz}}
**{{flag|Puebla}}}}
| iso3 = vec
| glotto = vene1258
| glottorefname = Venetian
| lingua = 51-AAA-n
| map = Idioma véneto.PNG
| notice = IPA
}}

[[File:Targa dialetto veneto.JPG|thumb|A sign in Venetian reading "Here Venetian is also spoken"]]
[[File:Romance 20c en.png|thumb|450px|Distribution of [[Romance languages]] in Europe. Venetian is number 15.]]
'''Venetian'''<ref name="glot1">{{Cite web |url=https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/vene1258 |title=Venetian |website=Glottolog.org}}</ref><ref name="Ethnologue vec">{{Cite web |url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/vec |title=Venetian |website=Ethnologue}}</ref> or '''Venetan'''<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.linguasphere.info/jr/pdf/index/LS_index_t-u-v.pdf|title=Venetan |work=[[Linguasphere]] |access-date=2018-12-11 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.linguasphere.info/lcontao/tl_files/pdf/master/OL-SITE%201999-2000%20MASTER%20ONE%20Sectors%205-Zones%2050-54.pdf |title=Indo-european phylosector |website=[[Linguasphere]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140827110429/http://www.linguasphere.info/lcontao/tl_files/pdf/master/OL-SITE%201999-2000%20MASTER%20ONE%20Sectors%205-Zones%2050-54.pdf |archive-date=2014-08-27}}</ref> ({{lang|vec|łéngua vèneta}} [[Help:IPA/Venetian|{{IPA|[e̯ŋɡwa ˈvɛneta]}}]] or {{lang|vec|vèneto}} [[Help:IPA/Venetian|{{IPA|[ˈvɛneto]}}]]) is a [[Romance languages|Romance language]] spoken by Venetians in the northeast of [[Italy]],<ref name="ethn">Ethnologue</ref> mostly in the [[Veneto]] region of [[Italy]], where most of the five million inhabitants can understand it, centered in and around [[Venice]], which carries the [[prestige (sociolinguistics)|prestige]] dialect. It is sometimes spoken and often well understood outside Veneto, in [[Trentino]], [[Friuli]], the [[Julian March]], [[Istria]], and some towns of [[Slovenia]] and [[Dalmatia]] ([[Croatia]]) by a surviving autochthonous Venetian population, and [[Brazil]], [[Argentina]], [[Australia]], [[Canada]], the [[United States]], the [[United Kingdom]], and [[Mexico]] by Venetians in the diaspora.

Although referred to as an [[Languages of Italy|Italian dialect]] ({{lang-vec|diałeto|links=no}}, {{lang-it|dialetto}}) even by some of its speakers, Venetian is a separate language with many local varieties. Its precise place within the Romance language family remains controversial. Both [[Ethnologue]] and [[Glottolog]] group it into the Gallo-Italic branch.<ref name="Ethnologue vec" /><ref name="glot1" /> [[Giacomo Devoto|Devoto]], Avolio and [[Treccani]] however reject a Gallo-Italic classification.<ref name="Devoto 1972 30">{{Cite book |last=Devoto |first=Giacomo |title=I dialetti delle regioni d'Italia |publisher=Sansoni |year=1972 |page=30}}</ref><ref name="Avolio 2009 46">{{Cite book |last=Avolio |first=Francesco |title=Lingue e dialetti d'Italia |publisher=Carocci |year=2009 |page=46}}</ref><ref name="Dialetti veneti, Treccani.it">[https://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/dialetti-veneti_(Enciclopedia-dell'Italiano) ''Dialetti veneti'', Treccani.it]</ref> [[:it:Carlo Tagliavini|Tagliavini]] places it in the [[Italo-Dalmatian]] branch of languages.<ref name="Tagliavini 1948">{{cite book |last=Tagliavini |first=Carlo |year=1948 |title=Le origini delle lingue Neolatine: corso introduttivo di filologia romanza |publisher=Pàtron |location=Bologna |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2AAOAQAAMAAJ}}</ref>

==History==
{{See also|Venetian literature}}

Like all Italian dialects in the [[Romance languages|Romance language family]], Venetian is descended from [[Vulgar Latin]] and influenced by the [[Italian language]]. Venetian is attested as a written language in the 13th century. There are also influences and parallelisms with [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Albanian language|Albanian]] in words such as {{lang|vec|piron}} (fork), {{lang|vec|inpirar}} (to fork), {{lang|vec|carega}} (chair) and {{lang|vec|fanela}} (T-shirt).{{Citation needed|date=December 2021}}

The language enjoyed substantial prestige in the days of the [[Republic of Venice]], when it attained the status of a [[lingua franca]] in the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Notable Venetian-language authors include the playwrights [[Angelo Beolco|Ruzante]] (1502–1542), [[Carlo Goldoni]] (1707–1793) and [[Carlo Gozzi]] (1720–1806). Following the old Italian theatre tradition ({{lang|it|[[commedia dell'arte]]}}), they used Venetian in their comedies as the speech of the common folk. They are ranked among the foremost Italian theatrical authors of all time, and plays by Goldoni and Gozzi are still performed today all over the world.

Other notable works in Venetian are the translations of the ''[[Iliad]]'' by [[Giacomo Casanova]] (1725–1798) and Francesco Boaretti, the translation of the ''[[Divine Comedy]]'' (1875) by Giuseppe Cappelli and the poems of [[Biagio Marin]] (1891–1985). Notable too is a manuscript titled ''[[Dialogo de Cecco di Ronchitti da Bruzene in perpuosito de la stella Nuova]]'' attributed to Girolamo Spinelli, perhaps with some supervision by [[Galileo Galilei]] for scientific details.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://astrocultura.uai.it/avvenimenti/cecco.htm |title=Dialogo de Cecco Di Ronchitti da Bruzene in perpuosito de la stella nuova |publisher=[[Unione Astrofili Italiani]] }}</ref>

Several Venetian{{ndash}}Italian dictionaries are available in print and online, including those by Boerio,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Boerio |first=Giuseppe |title=Dizionario del dialetto veneziano |publisher=Giovanni Cecchini |year=1856 |location=Venezia |trans-title=Dictionary of the Venetian dialect}}</ref> Contarini,<ref>{{Cite book |last=Contarini |first=Pietro |title=Dizionario tascabile delle voci e frasi particolari del dialetto veneziano |publisher=Giovanni Cecchini |year=1850 |location=Venezia |trans-title=Pocket dictionary of the voices and particular phrases of the Venetian dialect}}</ref> Nazari<ref>{{Cite book |last=Nazari |first=Giulio |title=Dizionario Veneziano-Italiano e regole di grammatica |publisher=Arnaldo Forni |year=1876 |location=Belluno |trans-title=Venetian-Italian dictionary and grammar rules}}</ref> and Piccio.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Piccio |first=Giuseppe |title=Dizionario Veneziano-Italiano |publisher=Libreria Emiliana |year=1928 |location=Venezia |trans-title=Venetian-Italian dictionary}}</ref>

As a [[literary language]], Venetian was overshadowed by [[Dante Alighieri]]'s [[Tuscan dialect]] (the best known writers of the Renaissance, such as [[Petrarch]], [[Boccaccio]] and [[Machiavelli]], were Tuscan and wrote in the Tuscan language) and [[languages of France]] like the [[Occitano-Romance languages]] and the [[langues d'oïl]].

Even before the demise of the Republic, Venetian gradually ceased to be used for administrative purposes in favor of the Tuscan-derived Italian language that had been proposed and used as a vehicle for a common Italian culture, strongly supported by eminent Venetian humanists and poets, from [[Pietro Bembo]] (1470–1547), a crucial figure in the development of the [[Italian language]] itself, to [[Ugo Foscolo]] (1778–1827).

Virtually all modern Venetian speakers are [[diglossia|diglossic]] with Italian. The present situation raises questions about the language's survival. Despite recent steps to recognize it, Venetian remains far below the threshold of inter-generational transfer with younger generations preferring standard Italian in many situations. The dilemma is further complicated by the ongoing large-scale arrival of immigrants, who only speak or learn standard Italian.

Venetian spread to other continents as a result of mass migration from the [[Veneto region]] between 1870 and 1905, and between 1945 and 1960. Venetian migrants created large Venetian-speaking communities in [[Argentina]], [[Brazil]] (see [[Talian dialect|Talian]]), and [[Mexico]] (see [[Chipilo Venetian dialect]]), where the language is still spoken today.

In the 19th century large-scale immigration towards [[Trieste]] and [[Muggia]] extended the presence of the Venetian language eastward. Previously the dialect of Trieste had been a Ladin or Eastern Friulian dialect known as [[:it:Tergestino|Tergestino]]. This dialect became extinct as a result of Venetian migration, which gave rise to the [[Triestino]] dialect of Venetian spoken there today.

Internal migrations during the 20th century also saw many Venetian-speakers settle in other regions of Italy, especially in the [[Pontine Marshes]] of southern [[Lazio]] where they populated new towns such as [[Latina, Lazio|Latina]], [[Aprilia]] and [[Pomezia]], forming there the so-called "[[:it:Comunità venetopontine|Venetian-Pontine]]" community (''comunità venetopontine'').

Currently, some firms have chosen to use Venetian language in advertising as a famous beer did some years ago{{clarify|reason=Which beer, and when?|date=June 2019}} ({{lang|vec|Xe foresto solo el nome}}, "only the name is foreign").<ref name="Forum Nathion Veneta">{{Cite web |url=https://it.groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/nathion_veneta/conversations/topics/3687 |title=Forum Nathion Veneta |website=Yahoo Groups |access-date=15 October 2015 |archive-date=17 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117024431/https://it.groups.yahoo.com/neo/groups/nathion_veneta/conversations/topics/3687 |url-status=dead }}</ref> In other cases advertisements in Veneto are given a "Venetian flavour" by adding a Venetian word to standard Italian: for instance an airline used the verb {{lang|vec|xe}} ({{lang|vec|'''Xe'''}} {{lang|it|sempre più grande}}, "it is always bigger") into an Italian sentence (the correct Venetian being {{lang|vec|el xe senpre pì grando}})<ref>Right spelling, according to: Giuseppe Boerio, ''Dizionario del dialetto veneziano'', Venezia, Giovanni Cecchini, 1856.</ref> to advertise new flights from [[Marco Polo Airport]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2007}}

In 2007, Venetian was given recognition by the [[Regional Council of Veneto]] with regional law no. 8 of 13 April 2007 "Protection, enhancement and promotion of the linguistic and cultural heritage of Veneto".<ref>[http://www.consiglioveneto.it/crvportal/leggi/2007/07lr0008.html Regional Law no. 8 of 13 April 2007]. "Protection, enhancement and promotion of the linguistic and cultural heritage of Veneto".</ref> Though the law does not explicitly grant Venetian any official status, it provides for Venetian as object of protection and enhancement, as an essential component of the cultural, social, historical and civil identity of Veneto.

==Geographic distribution==
{{More citations needed section|date=September 2015}}
Venetian is spoken mainly in the Italian regions of [[Veneto]] and [[Friuli-Venezia Giulia]] and in both [[Slovenia]] and [[Croatia]] ([[Istria]], [[Dalmatia]] and the [[Kvarner Gulf]]).{{Citation needed|date=November 2010}} Smaller communities are found in [[Lombardy]] ([[Mantua]]), [[Trentino]], [[Emilia-Romagna]] ([[Rimini]] and [[Forlì]]), [[Sardinia]] ([[Arborea]], [[Terralba]], [[Fertilia]]), [[Lazio]] ([[Pontine Marshes]]), and formerly in [[Romania]] ([[Tulcea]]).

It is also spoken in North and South America by the descendants of Italian immigrants. Notable examples of this are [[Argentina]] and [[Brazil]], particularly the city of [[São Paulo]] and the [[Talian dialect]] spoken in the [[Brazil]]ian states of [[Espírito Santo]], [[São Paulo (state)|São Paulo]], [[Paraná (state)|Paraná]], [[Rio Grande do Sul]] and [[Santa Catarina (state)|Santa Catarina]].

In [[Mexico]], the [[Chipilo Venetian dialect]] is spoken in the state of [[Puebla]] and the town of [[Chipilo]]. The town was settled by immigrants from the [[Veneto]] region, and some of their descendants have preserved the language to this day. People from Chipilo have gone on to make satellite colonies in Mexico, especially in the states of [[Guanajuato]], [[Querétaro]], and [[State of Mexico]]. Venetian has also survived in the state of [[Veracruz]], where other Italian migrants have settled since the late 19th century. The people of Chipilo preserve their dialect and call it {{lang|vec|chipileño}}, and it has been preserved as a variant since the 19th century. The variant of Venetian spoken by the {{lang|vec|Cipiłàn}} ({{lang|es|Chipileños}}) is northern Trevisàn-Feltrìn-Belumàt.

In 2009, the Brazilian city of [[Serafina Corrêa]], in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, gave [[Talian dialect|Talian]] a joint official status alongside [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.serafinacorrea.rs.gov.br/site/noticia/noticia_detalhe.php?gCdNoticia=406 |title=Vereadores aprovam o talian como língua co-oficial do município |website=serafinacorrea.rs.gov.br |language=pt |trans-title=Councilors approve talian as co-official language of the municipality |access-date=21 August 2011 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330031236/http://www.serafinacorrea.rs.gov.br/site/noticia/noticia_detalhe.php?gCdNoticia=406 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://rosario.redescalabriniana.org/noticia/Talian-em-busca-de-mais-reconhecimento |title=Talian em busca de mais reconhecimento |language=pt |trans-title=Talian in search of more recognition |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120801012132/http://rosario.redescalabriniana.org/noticia/Talian-em-busca-de-mais-reconhecimento |archive-date=1 August 2012 |access-date=24 August 2011}}</ref> Until the middle of the 20th century, Venetian was also spoken on the Greek Island of [[Corfu]], which had long been under the rule of the [[Republic of Venice]]. Moreover, Venetian had been adopted by a large proportion of the population of [[Cephalonia]], one of the [[Ionian Islands]], because the island was part of the {{lang|vec|[[Stato da Màr]]}} for almost three centuries.<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v7sNAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA106 |title=The Ionian islands: Manners and customs |last=Kendrick |first=Tertius T. C. |publisher=J. Haldane |year=1822 |location=London |page=106}}</ref>

==Classification==
[[File:Romance-lg-classification-en.svg|thumb|500px|Chart of Romance languages based on structural and comparative criteria.]]
Venetian is a Romance language and thus descends from [[Vulgar Latin]]. Its classification has always been controversial: According to Tagliavini, for example, it is one of the [[Italo-Dalmatian languages]] and most closely related to [[Istriot language|Istriot]] on the one hand and [[Tuscan dialect|Tuscan]]–[[Italian language|Italian]] on the other.<ref name="Tagliavini 1948"/> Some authors include it among the [[Gallo-Italic languages]],<ref name="CAT">{{Cite book |last=Haller |first=Hermann W. |year=1999 |title=The other Italy: the literary canon in dialect |publisher=[[University of Toronto Press]]}}</ref> and according to others, it is not related to either one.<ref name=Renzi>{{cite book |last=Renzi |first=Lorenzo |year=1994 |title=Nuova introduzione alla filologia romanza |location=Bologna |publisher=Il Mulino |page=176 |quote={{lang|it|I dialetti settentrionali formano un blocco abbastanza compatto con molti tratti comuni che li accostano, oltre che tra loro, qualche volta anche alla parlate cosiddette ladine e alle lingue galloromanze ... Alcuni fenomeni morfologici innovativi sono pure abbastanza largamente comuni, come la doppia serie pronominale soggetto (non sempre in tutte le persone) ... Ma più spesso il veneto si distacca dal gruppo, lasciando così da una parte tutti gli altri dialetti, detti gallo-italici.}} }}</ref> Although both Ethnologue and Glottolog group Venetian into the Gallo-Italic languages,<ref name="Ethnologue vec" /><ref name="glot1" /> the linguists [[Giacomo Devoto]] and Francesco Avolio and the [[Treccani]] encyclopedia reject the Gallo-Italic classification.<ref name="Devoto 1972 30"/><ref name="Avolio 2009 46"/><ref name="Dialetti veneti, Treccani.it"/>

Although the language region is surrounded by [[Gallo-Italic languages]], Venetian does not share some traits with these immediate neighbors. Some scholars stress Venetian's characteristic lack of Gallo-Italic traits ({{lang|vec|agallicità}})<ref>Alberto Zamboni (1988:522)</ref> or traits found further afield in [[Gallo-Romance languages]] (e.g. French, [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]])<ref>Giovan Battista Pellegrini (1976:425)</ref> or the [[Rhaeto-Romance languages]] (e.g. [[Friulian language|Friulian]], [[Romansh language|Romansh]]). For example, Venetian did not undergo vowel rounding or nasalization, palatalize {{IPA|/kt/}} and {{IPA|/ks/}}, or develop rising diphthongs {{IPA|/ei/}} and {{IPA|/ou/}}, and it preserved final syllables, whereas, as in [[Italian language|Italian]], Venetian diphthongization occurs in historically open syllables. On the other hand, it is worth noting that Venetian does share many other traits with its surrounding Gallo-Italic languages, like interrogative [[clitic]]s, mandatory unstressed [[subject pronoun]]s (with some exceptions), the "to be behind to" verbal construction to express the [[Continuous and progressive aspects|continuous aspect]] ("El xé drìo magnàr" = He is eating, lit. he is behind to eat) and the absence of the [[Italian conjugation#Absolute past (Il passato remoto)|absolute past tense]] as well as of [[Gemination|geminated consonants]].<ref>{{cite web |last=Belloni |first=Silvano |date=1991 |title=Grammatica veneta |url=http://www.linguaveneta.net/linguaveneta/wp-content/plugins/pdfjs-viewer-shortcode/pdfjs/web/viewer.php?file=/linguaveneta/wp-content/uploads/2016/09/Grammatica-Veneta-di-S.Belloni.pdf&download=false&print=false&openfile=false |access-date=2020-08-24 |website=www.linguaveneta.net}}</ref> In addition, Venetian has some unique traits which are shared by neither Gallo-Italic, nor Italo-Dalmatian languages, such as the use of the [[Impersonal passive voice|impersonal passive]] forms and the use of the auxiliary verb "to have" for the [[Reflexive verb|reflexive voice]] (both traits shared with [[German language|German]]).<ref>{{cite book |last=Brunelli |first=Michele |year=2007 |title=Manual Gramaticałe Xenerałe de ła Łéngua Vèneta e łe só varianti |location=Basan / Bassano del Grappa |pages=29, 34}}</ref>

Modern Venetian is not a close relative of the [[extinct language|extinct]] [[Venetic language]] spoken in Veneto before Roman expansion, although both are [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], and Venetic may have been an [[Italic languages|Italic]] language, like [[Latin]], the ancestor of Venetian and most other [[languages of Italy]]. The earlier Venetic people gave their name to the city and region, which is why the modern language has a similar name.

==Regional variants==
The main regional varieties and subvarieties of Venetian language:
* ''Central'' ([[Province of Padua|Padua]], [[Province of Vicenza|Vicenza]], [[Province of Rovigo|Polesine]]), with about 1,500,000 speakers
*[[Province of Venice|Venice]]
*''Eastern/Coastal'' ([[Triestine dialect|Trieste]], [[Grado, Friuli-Venezia Giulia|Grado]], [[Istria]], [[Fiuman dialect|Fiume]])
* ''Western'' ([[Province of Verona|Verona]], [[Trentino]])
* ''Northern'' {{lang|vec|Sinistra Piave}} of the [[Province of Treviso]] (most of the [[Province of Pordenone]])
* ''North-Central'' {{lang|vec|Destra Piave}} of the Province of Treviso ([[Province of Belluno|Belluno]], comprising [[Feltre]], [[Agordo]], [[Cadore]], and [[Zoldo Alto]])

All these variants are mutually intelligible, with a minimum 92% in common among the most diverging ones (Central and Western). Modern speakers reportedly can still understand Venetian texts from the 14th century to some extent.

Other noteworthy variants are:
* the variety spoken in [[Chioggia]]
* the variety spoken in the [[Pontine Marshes]]
* the variety spoken in [[Dalmatia]]
* the [[Talian dialect]] of [[Antônio Prado]], [[Entre Rios, Santa Catarina]] and [[Toledo, Paraná]], among other southern [[Brazil]]ian cities
* the [[Chipilo Venetian dialect]] ({{lang-es|Chipileño}}) of [[Chipilo]], Mexico
* Peripheral [[creole language]]s along the southern border (nearly extinct)

==Grammar==
{{Main|Venetian grammar}}
[[File:Calle berlendis, Venice.jpg|thumb|A street sign ({{lang|vec|nizioléto}}) in Venice using Venetian {{lang|vec|calle}}, as opposed to the Italian {{lang|it|via}}]]
[[File:Inschrift Venezianerhaus.JPG|thumb|{{lang|vec|Lasa pur dir}} (Let them speak), an inscription on the [[Venetian Gothic architecture|Venetian House]] in [[Piran]], southwestern Slovenia]]
Like most Romance languages, Venetian has mostly abandoned the Latin [[declension|case system]], in favor of [[preposition]]s and a more rigid [[subject–verb–object]] sentence structure. It has thus become more [[analytic language|analytic]], if not quite as much as English. Venetian also has the Romance [[article (grammar)|articles]], both definite (derived from the Latin demonstrative {{lang|la|ille}}) and indefinite (derived from the numeral {{lang|la|unus}}).

Venetian also retained the Latin concepts of [[grammatical gender|gender]] (masculine and feminine) and [[grammatical number|number]] (singular and plural). Unlike the Gallo-Iberian languages, which form plurals by adding ''-s'', Venetian forms plurals in a manner similar to standard Italian. Nouns and adjectives can be modified by suffixes that indicate several qualities such as size, endearment, deprecation, etc. Adjectives (usually postfixed) and articles are inflected to agree with the noun in gender and number, but it is important to mention that the suffix might be deleted because the article is the part that suggests the number. However, Italian is influencing Venetian language:

{|class=wikitable
!Venetian!!Veneto dialects!!Italian!!English
|-
|{{lang|vec|el gato graso}}||{{lang|vec|el gato graso}}||{{lang|it|il gatto grasso}}||the fat (male) cat
|-
|{{lang|vec|la gata grasa}}||{{lang|vec|ła gata grasa}}||{{lang|it|la gatta grassa}}||the fat (female) cat
|-
|{{lang|vec|i gati grasi}}||{{lang|vec|i gati grasi}}||{{lang|it|i gatti grassi}}||the fat (male) cats
|-
|{{lang|vec|le gate grase}}||{{lang|vec|łe gate grase}}||{{lang|it|le gatte grasse}}||the fat (female) cats
|}

In recent studies on Venetian variants in Veneto, there has been a tendency to write the so-called "evanescent L" as {{angle bracket|ł}}. While it may help novice speakers, Venetian was never written with this letter. In this article, this symbol is used only in Veneto dialects of Venetian language. It will suffice to know that in Venetian language the letter L in word-initial and intervocalic positions usually becomes a "palatal allomorph", and is barely pronounced.<ref>{{Citation |last=Tomasin |first=Lorenzo|title=La cosiddetta "elle evanescente" del veneziano: fra dialettologia e storia linguistica |url=https://iris.unive.it/retrieve/handle/10278/24158/22434/la%20cosiddetta%20elle.pdf |year=2010 |place=Palermo |publisher=Centro di studi filologici e linguistici siciliani}}</ref>

No native Venetic words seem to have survived in present Venetian, but there may be some traces left in the morphology, such as the [[morpheme]] -''esto''/''asto''/''isto'' for the past participle, which can be found in Venetic inscriptions from about 500 BC:

* Venetian: {{lang|vec|Mi A go fazesto}} ("I have done")
* Venetian Italian: {{lang|it|Mi A go fato}}
* Standard Italian: {{lang|it|Io ho fatto}}

===Redundant subject pronouns===
A peculiarity of Venetian grammar is a "semi-analytical" verbal flexion, with a compulsory "[[clitic]] subject pronoun" before the verb in many sentences, "echoing" the subject as an ending or a weak pronoun. Independent/emphatic pronouns (e.g. {{lang|vec|ti}}), on the contrary, are optional. The clitic subject pronoun ({{lang|vec|te, el/ła, i/łe}}) is used with the 2nd and 3rd person singular, and with the 3rd person plural. This feature may have arisen as a compensation for the fact that the 2nd- and 3rd-person inflections for most verbs, which are still distinct in Italian and many other Romance languages, are identical in Venetian.

{|class=wikitable
!Venetian!!Italian!!English
|-
|{{lang|vec|Mi go}}||{{lang|it|Io ho}}||I have
|-
|{{lang|vec|Ti ti ga}}||{{lang|it|Tu hai}}||You have
|}

{|class=wikitable
!Venetian!!Italian!!English
|-
|{{lang|vec|Mi so}}||{{lang|it|Io sono}}||I am
|-
|{{lang|vec|Ti ti xe}}||{{lang|it|Tu sei}}||You are
|}

The [[Piedmontese language]] also has clitic subject pronouns, but the rules are somewhat different. The function of clitics is particularly visible in long sentences, which do not always have clear intonational breaks to easily tell apart vocative and imperative in sharp commands from exclamations with "shouted indicative". For instance, in Venetian the clitic {{lang|vec|el}} marks the indicative verb and its masculine singular subject, otherwise there is an imperative preceded by a vocative. Although some grammars regard these clitics as "redundant", they actually provide specific additional information as they mark number and gender, thus providing number-/gender- agreement between the subject(s) and the verb, which does not necessarily show this information on its endings.

===Interrogative inflection===
Venetian also has a special ''interrogative'' verbal flexion used for direct questions, which also incorporates a redundant pronoun:

{|class=wikitable
!Venetian!!Veneto dialects!!Italian!!English
|-
|{{lang|vec|Ti geristu sporco?}}||{{lang|vec|(Ti) jèristu onto?}} or {{lang|vec|(Ti) xèrito spazo?}}||{{lang|it|(Tu) eri sporco?}}||Were you dirty?
|-
|{{lang|vec|El can, gerilo sporco?}}||{{lang|vec|El can jèreło onto?}} or {{lang|vec|Jèreło onto el can ?}}||{{lang|it|Il cane era sporco?}}||Was the dog dirty?
|-
|{{lang|vec|Ti te gastu domandà?}}||{{lang|vec|(Ti) te sito domandà?}}||{{lang|it|(Tu) ti sei domandato?}}||Did you ask yourself?
|}

===Auxiliary verbs===
Reflexive tenses use the auxiliary verb {{lang|vec|avér}} ("to have"), as in English, the [[North Germanic languages]],Catalan, Spanish, Romanian and Neapolitan; instead of {{lang|it|èssar}} ("to be"), which would be normal in Italian. The past participle is invariable, unlike Italian:

{|class=wikitable
!Venetian!!Veneto dialects!!Italian!!English
|-
|{{lang|vec|Ti ti te ga lavà}}||{{lang|vec|(Ti) te te à/gà/ghè lavà}}||{{lang|it|(Tu) ti sei lavato}}||You washed yourself
|-
|{{lang|vec|(Lori) i se ga desmissià}}||{{lang|vec|(Lori) i se gà/à svejà}}||{{lang|it|(Loro) si sono svegliati}}||They woke up
|}

===Continuing action===
Another peculiarity of the language is the use of the phrase {{lang|vec|eser drìo}} (literally, "to be behind") to indicate continuing action:

{|class=wikitable
!Venetian!!Veneto dialects!!Italian!!English
|-
|{{lang|vec|Me pare, el ze drìo parlàr}}||{{lang|vec|Mé pare 'l ze drìo(invià) parlàr}}||{{lang|it|Mio padre sta parlando}}||My father is speaking
|}

Another progressive form in some Venetian dialects uses the construction {{lang|vec|èsar łà che}} (lit. "to be there that"):

* Venetian dialect: {{lang|vec|Me pare l'è là che'l parla}} (lit. "My father he is there that he speaks").

The use of progressive tenses is more pervasive than in Italian; e.g.

* English: "He wouldn't have been speaking to you".
* Venetian: {{lang|vec|No'l sarìa miga sta drio parlarte a ti}}.

That construction does not occur in Italian: ''*Non sarebbe mica stato parlandoti'' is not syntactically valid.

===Subordinate clauses===
Subordinate clauses have double introduction ("whom that", "when that", "which that", "how that"), as in [[Old English language|Old English]]:

{|class=wikitable
!Venetian!!Veneto dialects!!Italian!!English
|-
|{{lang|vec|Mi so de chi che ti parli}}||{{lang|vec|So de chi che te parli}}||{{lang|it|So di chi parli}}||I know who you are talking about
|}

As in other Romance languages, the [[subjunctive mood]] is widely used in [[subordinate clause]]s.

{|class=wikitable
!Venetian!!Veneto dialects!!Italian!!English
|-
|{{lang|vec|Mi credeva che'l fuse ...}}||{{lang|vec|Credéa/évo che'l fuse ...}}||{{lang|it|Credevo che fosse ...}}||I thought he was ...
|}

==Phonology==

=== Consonants ===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+ Venetian consonant phonemes
|-
!colspan=2|
! [[Labial consonant|Labial]]
! [[Dental consonant|Dental]]
! [[Alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]
! [[Postalveolar consonant|Post-alv.]] /[[Palatal consonant|Palatal]]
! [[Velar consonant|Velar]]
|-
!colspan=2| [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]
| {{IPA link|m}}
|
| {{IPA link|n}}
|{{IPA link|ɲ}}
|{{IPA link|ŋ}}
|-
!rowspan=2| [[Stop consonant|Plosive]]
! [[voicelessness|voiceless]]
| {{IPA link|p}}
| {{IPA link|t̪|t}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|k}}
|-
! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
| {{IPA link|b}}
| {{IPA link|d̪|d}}
|
|
| {{IPA link|ɡ}}
|-
! rowspan="2" |[[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]
![[voicelessness|voiceless]]
|
|
| ({{IPA link|t͡s}})
| {{IPA link|t͡ʃ}}
|
|-
![[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
|
|
| ({{IPA link|d͡z}})
| {{IPA link|d͡ʒ}}
|
|-
! rowspan="2" | [[fricative consonant|Fricative]]
! [[voicelessness|voiceless]]
|{{IPA link|f}}
|({{IPA link|θ}})
|{{IPA link|s}}
| ||
|-
! [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]
|{{IPA link|v}}
|({{IPA link|ð}})
|{{IPA link|z}}
| ||
|-
! colspan="2" |[[Tap consonant|Tap]]
|
|
|{{IPA link|ɾ}}
|
|
|-
! colspan="2" | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]
|{{IPA link|w}}
| || {{IPA link|l}} ||{{IPA link|j}}
|({{IPA link|ɰ}})
|}

Some dialects of Venetian have certain sounds not present in Italian, such as the interdental voiceless fricative {{IPAblink|θ}}, often spelled with {{angle bracket|ç}}, {{angle bracket|z}}, {{angle bracket|zh}}, or {{angle bracket|ž}}, and similar to [[English language|English]] ''th'' in ''thing'' and ''thought''. This sound occurs, for example, in {{lang|vec|çéna}} ("supper", also written {{lang|vec|zhena, žena}}), which is pronounced the same as Castilian Spanish {{lang|es|cena}} (which has the same meaning). The voiceless interdental fricative occurs in Bellunese, north-Trevisan, and in some Central Venetian rural areas around Padua, Vicenza and the mouth of the [[Po (river)|river Po]].

Because the pronunciation variant {{IPAblink|θ}} is more typical of older speakers and speakers living outside of major cities, it has come to be socially stigmatized, and most speakers now use {{IPAblink|s}} or {{IPAblink|ts}} instead of {{IPAblink|θ}}. In those dialects with the pronunciation {{IPAblink|s}}, the sound has fallen together with ordinary {{angle bracket|s}}, and so it is not uncommon to simply write {{angle bracket|s}} (or {{angle bracket|ss}} between vowels) instead of {{angle bracket|ç}} or {{angle bracket|zh}} (such as {{lang|vec|sena}}).

Similarly some dialects of Venetian also have a voiced interdental fricative {{IPAblink|ð}}, often written {{angle bracket|z}} (as in {{lang|vec|el pianze}} 'he cries'); but in most dialects this sound is now pronounced either as {{IPAblink|dz}} (Italian ''voiced-Z''), or more typically as {{IPAblink|z}} (Italian ''voiced-S'', written {{angle bracket|x}}, as in {{lang|vec|el pianxe}}); in a few dialects the sound appears as {{IPAblink|d}} and may therefore be written instead with the letter {{angle bracket|d}}, as in {{lang|vec|el piande}}.

Some varieties of Venetian also distinguish an ordinary {{IPAblink|l}} vs. a weakened or [[lenition|lenited]] ("evanescent") {{angle bracket|l}}, which in some orthographic norms is indicated with the letter {{angle bracket|[[ł]]}};<ref>[[Unicode]]: {{unichar|023D|Latin capital letter l with bar}} and {{unichar|019A|Latin small letter l with bar}}</ref> in more conservative dialects, however, both {{angle bracket|l}} and {{angle bracket|ł}} are merged as ordinary {{IPAblink|l}}. In those dialects that have both types, the precise phonetic realization of {{angle bracket|ł}} depends both on its phonological environment and on the dialect of the speaker. Typical realizations in the region of Venice include a voiced velar approximant or glide {{IPAblink|ɰ}} (usually described as nearly like an "e" and so often spelled as {{angle bracket|e}}), when {{angle bracket|ł}} is adjacent (only) to back vowels ({{angle bracket|a o u}}), vs. a null realization when {{angle bracket|ł}} is adjacent to a front vowel ({{angle bracket|i e}}).

In dialects further inland {{angle bracket|ł}} may be realized as a partially vocalised {{angle bracket|l}}. Thus, for example, {{lang|vec|góndoła}} 'gondola' may sound like {{lang|vec|góndoea}} {{IPA-vec|ˈɡoŋdoɰa|}}, {{lang|vec|góndola}} {{IPA-vec|ˈɡoŋdola|}}, or {{lang|vec|góndoa}} {{IPA-vec|ˈɡoŋdoa|}}. In dialects having a null realization of intervocalic {{angle bracket|ł}}, although pairs of words such as {{lang|vec|scóła}}, "school" and {{lang|vec|scóa}}, "broom" are [[homophone|homophonous]] (both being pronounced {{IPA-vec|ˈskoa|}}), they are still distinguished orthographically.

Venetian, like Spanish, does not have the [[gemination|geminate consonants]] characteristic of standard Italian, Tuscan, Neapolitan and other languages of southern Italy; thus Italian {{lang|it|fette}} ("slices"), {{lang|it|palla}} ("ball") and {{lang|it|penna}} ("pen") correspond to {{lang|vec|féte}}, {{lang|vec|bała}}, and {{lang|vec|péna}} in Venetian. The masculine singular noun ending, corresponding to ''-o''/''-e'' in Italian, is often unpronounced in Venetian after continuants, particularly in rural varieties: Italian {{lang|it|pieno}} ("full") corresponds to Venetian {{lang|vec|pien}}, Italian {{lang|it|altare}} to Venetian {{lang|vec|altar}}. The extent to which final vowels are deleted varies by dialect: the central–southern varieties delete vowels only after {{IPAslink|n}}, whereas the northern variety delete vowels also after dental stops and velars; the eastern and western varieties are in between these two extremes.

The velar nasal {{IPAblink|ŋ}} (the final sound in English "song") occurs frequently in Venetian. A word-final {{IPAslink|n}} is always velarized, which is especially obvious in the pronunciation of many local Venetian surnames that end in {{angle bracket|n}}, such as ''Mari'''n''''' {{IPA-vec|maˈɾiŋ|}} and ''Mani'''n''''' {{IPA-vec|maˈniŋ|}}, as well as in common Venetian words such as {{lang|vec|ma'''n'''}} ({{IPA-vec|ˈmaŋ|}} "hand"), {{lang|vec|piro'''n'''}} ({{IPA-vec|piˈɾoŋ|}} "fork"). Moreover, Venetian always uses {{IPAblink|ŋ}} in consonant clusters that start with a nasal, whereas Italian only uses {{IPAblink|ŋ}} before velar stops: e.g. {{IPA-vec|kaŋˈtaɾ|}} "to sing", {{IPA-vec|iŋˈvɛɾno|}} "winter", {{IPA-vec|ˈoŋzaɾ|}} "to anoint", {{IPA-vec|ɾaŋˈdʒaɾse|}} "to cope with".<ref name="zamboni">{{cite book |last=Zamboni |first=Alberto |editor1-last=Cortelazzo |editor1-first=Manlio |date=1975 |title=Veneto |trans-title=Venetian language |language=it |series=Profilo dei dialetti italiani |volume=5 |location=Pisa |publisher=Pacini |page=12 |quote={{lang|it|italic=unset|b) n a s a l i: esistono, come nello 'standard', 3 fonemi, /m/, /n/, /ń/, immediatamente identificabili da /''mása''/ 'troppo' ~ /''nása''/ 'nasca'; /''manáse''/ 'manacce' ~ /''mańáse''/ 'mangiasse', ecc., come, rispettivamente, bilabiale, apicodentale, palatale; per quanto riguarda gli allòfoni e la loro distribuzione, è da notare [''ṅ''] dorsovelare, cfr. [''áṅka''] 'anche', e, regolarmente in posizione finale: [''parọ́ṅ''] 'padrone', [''britoíṅ''] 'temperino': come questa, è caratteristica v e n e t a la realizzazione velare anche davanti a cons. d'altro tipo, cfr. [''kaṅtár''], it. [''kantáre'']; [''iṅvę́rno''], it. [''iɱvę́rno'']; [''ọ́ṅʃar''] 'ungere', [''raṅǧárse''], it. [''arrańǧársi''], ecc. }}}}</ref>

Speakers of Italian generally lack this sound and usually substitute a dental {{IPAblink|n}} for final Venetian {{IPAblink|ŋ}}, changing for example {{IPA-vec|maˈniŋ|}} to {{IPA-it|maˈnin|}} and {{IPA-vec|maˈɾiŋ|}} to {{IPA-it|maˈrin|}}.

===Vowels===
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
!
![[Front vowel|Front]]
![[Central vowel|Central]]
![[Back vowel|Back]]
|- align="center"
![[Close vowel|Close]]
|{{IPA link|i}}
|
|{{IPA link|u}}
|- align="center"
![[Close-mid vowel|Close-mid]]
|{{IPA link|e}}
|
|{{IPA link|o}}
|-
![[Open-mid vowel|Open-mid]]
|{{IPA link|ɛ}}
|({{IPA link|ɐ}})
|{{IPA link|ɔ}}
|- align="center"
![[Open vowel|Open]]
|
|{{IPA link|a}}
|
|}
An accented ''á'' can also be pronounced as [{{IPA link|ɐ}}]. An intervocalic /{{IPA link|u}}/ can be pronounced as a [{{IPA link|w}}] sound.

==Prosody==
While written Venetian looks similar to Italian, it sounds very different, with a distinct lilting cadence, almost musical. Compared to Italian, in Venetian syllabic rhythms are more evenly timed, accents are less marked, but on the other hand tonal modulation is much wider and melodic curves are more intricate. Stressed and unstressed syllables sound almost the same; there are no long vowels, and there is no consonant lengthening. Compare the Italian sentence {{lang|it|va laggiù con lui}} {{IPA|[val.ladˌd͡ʒuk.konˈluː.i]}} ''"go there with him"'' (all long/heavy syllables but final) with Venetian {{lang|vec|va là zo co lu}} {{IPA|[va.laˌzo.koˈlu]}} (all short/light syllables).{{sfn|Ferguson|2007|p=69-73}}

==Sample etymological lexicon==
As a direct descent of regional spoken Latin, Venetian lexicon derives its vocabulary substantially from Latin and (in more recent times) from Tuscan, so that most of its words are cognate with the corresponding words of Italian. Venetian includes however many words derived from other sources (such as Greek, Gothic, and German), and has preserved some Latin words not used to the same extent in Italian, resulting in many words that are not cognate with their equivalent words in Italian, such as:

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! English
! Italian
! Venetian (DECA)
! Venetian word origin
|-
| today
| {{lang|it|oggi}}
| {{lang|vec|uncò, 'ncò, incò, ancò, ancúo, incoi}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|hunc}} + {{wikt-lang|la|hodie}}
|-
| pharmacy
| {{lang|it|farmacia}}
| {{lang|vec|apotèca}}
| from Ancient Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|ἀποθήκη}} (''apothḗkē'')
|-
| to drink
| {{lang|it|bere}}
| {{lang|vec|trincàr}}
| from German {{wikt-lang|de|trinken}} "to drink"
|-
| apricot
| {{lang|it|albicocca}}
| {{lang|vec|armelín}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|armenīnus}}
|-
| to bore
| {{lang|it|dare noia, seccare}}
| {{lang|vec|astiàr}}
| from Gothic {{lang|got|{{wt|got|𐌷𐌰𐌹𐍆𐍃𐍄𐍃}}, {{wt|got|haifsts}}}} meaning "contest"
|-
| peanuts
| {{lang|it|arachidi}}
| {{lang|vec|bagígi}}
| from Arabic {{lang|ar-Latn|habb-ajiz}}
|-
| to be spicy hot
| {{lang|it|essere piccante}}
| {{lang|vec|becàr}}
| from Italian {{wikt-lang|it|beccare}}, literally "to peck"
|-
| spaghetti
| {{lang|it|vermicello, spaghetti}}
| {{lang|vec|bígolo}}
| from Latin {{lang|la|(bom)byculus}}
|-
| eel
| {{lang|it|anguilla}}
| {{lang|vec|bizàto, bizàta}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|bestia}} "beast", compare also Italian {{wikt-lang|it|biscia}}, a kind of snake
|-
| snake
| {{lang|it|serpente}}
| {{lang|vec|bísa, bíso}}
| from Latin {{lang|la|bestia}} "beast", compare also Ital. {{lang|it|biscia}}, a kind of snake
|-
| peas
| {{lang|it|piselli}}
| {{lang|vec|bízi}}
| related to the Italian word
|-
| lizard
| {{lang|it|lucertola}}
| {{lang|vec|izarda, rizardola}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|lacertus}}, same origin as English {{wikt-lang|en|lizard}}
|-
| to throw
| {{lang|it|tirare}}
| {{lang|vec|trar via}}
| local [[cognate]] of Italian {{wikt-lang|it|tirare}}
|-
| fog
| {{lang|it|nebbia foschia}}
| {{lang|vec|calígo}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|caligo}}
|-
| corner/side
| {{lang|it|angolo/parte}}
| {{lang|vec|cantón}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|cantus}}
|-
| find
| {{lang|it|trovare}}
| {{lang|vec|catàr}}
| from Latin *adcaptare
|-
| chair
| {{lang|it|sedia}}
| {{lang|vec|caréga, trón}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|cathedra}} and {{wikt-lang|la|thronus}} (borrowings from Greek)
|-
| hello, goodbye
| {{lang|it|ciao}}
| {{lang|vec|[[ciao]]}}
| from Venetian {{lang|vec|s-ciao}} "slave", from [[Medieval Latin]] {{wikt-lang|la|sclavus}}
|-
| to catch, to take
| {{lang|it|prendere}}
| {{lang|vec|ciapàr}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|capere}}
|-
| when (non-interr.)
| {{lang|it|quando}}
| {{lang|vec|co}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|cum}}
|-
| to kill
| {{lang|it|uccidere}}
| {{lang|vec|copàr}}
| from Old Italian {{wikt-lang|it|accoppare}}, originally "to behead"
|-
| miniskirt
| {{lang|it|minigonna}}
| {{lang|vec|carpéta}}
| compare English ''carpet''
|-
| skirt
| {{lang|it|sottana}}
| {{lang|vec|còtoła}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|cotta}}, "coat, dress"
|-
| T-shirt
| {{lang|it|maglietta}}
| {{lang|vec|fanèla}}
| borrowing from Greek
|-
| drinking glass
| {{lang|it|bicchiere}}
| {{lang|vec|gòto}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|guttus}}, "cruet"
|-
|Big
|''grande''
|''grosi''
|From German ''"grosse"''
|-
| exit
|{{lang|it|uscita}}
| {{lang|vec|insía}}
| from Latin {{lang|la|in + exita}}
|-
| I
|{{lang|it|io}}
| {{lang|vec|mi}}
| from Latin {{lang|la|me}} ("me", accusative case); Italian {{lang|it|io}} is derived from the Latin nominative form {{lang|la|ego}}
|-
| too much
|{{lang|it|troppo}}
| {{lang|vec|masa}}
| from Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|μᾶζα}} (''mâza'')
|-
| to bite
|{{lang|it|mordere}}
| {{lang|vec|morsegàr, smorsegàr}}
| deverbal derivative, from Latin {{lang|la|morsus}} "bitten", compare Italian {{wikt-lang|it|morsicare}}
|-
| moustaches
|{{lang|it|baffi}}
| {{lang|vec|mustaci}}
| from Greek {{wikt-lang|el|μουστάκι}} (''moustaki'')
|-
| cat
|{{lang|it|gatto}}
| {{lang|vec|munín, gato, gateo}}
| perhaps [[onomatopoeia|onomatopoeic]], from the sound of a cat's meow
|-
| big sheaf
|{{lang|it|grosso covone}}
| {{lang|vec|meda}}
| from {{lang|it|messe}}, {{lang|it|mietere}}, compare English ''meadow''
|-
| donkey
|{{lang|it|asino}}
| {{lang|vec|muso}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|almutia}} "horses eye binders (cap)" (compare [[Franco-Provençal language|Provençal]] {{lang|frp|almussa}}, French {{lang|fr|aumusse}})
|-
| bat
|{{lang|it|pipistrello}}
| {{lang|vec|nòtoła, notol, barbastrío, signàpoła}}
| derived from {{lang|vec|not}} "night" (compare Italian {{lang|it|notte}})
|-
| rat
|{{lang|it|ratto}}
| {{lang|vec|pantegàna}}
| from [[Slovene language|Slovene]] {{lang|sl|podgana}}
|-
| beat, cheat, sexual intercourse
|{{lang|it|imbrogliare, superare in gara, amplesso}}
| {{lang|vec|pinciàr}}
| from French {{wikt-lang|fr|pincer}} (compare English {{wikt-lang|en|pinch}})
|-
| fork
|{{lang|it|forchetta}}
| {{lang|vec|pirón}}
| from Greek {{wikt-lang|el|πιρούνι}} (''piroúni'')
|-
| dandelion
|{{lang|it|tarassaco}}
| {{lang|vec|pisalet}}
| from French {{wikt-lang|fr|pissenlit}}
|-
| truant
|{{lang|it|marinare scuola}}
| {{lang|vec|plao far}}
| from German {{lang|de|blau machen}}
|-
| apple
|{{lang|it|mela}}
| {{lang|vec|pomo/pón}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|pomus}}
|-
| to break, to shred
|{{lang|it|strappare}}
| {{lang|vec|zbregàr}}
| from Gothic {{lang|got|{{wt|got|𐌱𐍂𐌹𐌺𐌰𐌽}}}} ({{lang|got-Latn|{{wt|got|brikan}}}}), related to English ''to break'' and German {{wikt-lang|de|brechen}}
|-
| money
|{{lang|it|denaro soldi}}
| {{lang|vec|schèi}}
| from German {{wikt-lang|de|Scheidemünze}}
|-
| grasshopper
|{{lang|it|cavalletta}}
| {{lang|vec|saltapaiusc}}
| from {{wikt-lang|vec|salta}} "hop" + {{wikt-lang|vec|paiusc}} "grass" (Italian {{wikt-lang|it|paglia}})
|-
| squirrel
|{{lang|it|scoiattolo}}
| {{lang|vec|zgiràt, scirata, skirata}}
| Related to Italian word, probably from Greek {{wikt-lang|grc|σκίουρος}} (''skíouros'')
|-
| spirit from grapes, brandy
|{{lang|it|grappa acquavite}}
| {{lang|vec|znjapa}}
| from German {{wikt-lang|de|Schnaps}}
|-
| to shake
|{{lang|it|scuotere}}
| {{lang|vec|zgorlàr, scorlàr}}
| from Latin ''{{lang|la|ex + {{wt|la|crollare}}}}''
|-
| rail
|{{lang|it|rotaia}}
| {{lang|vec|sina}}
| from German {{wikt-lang|de|Schiene}}
|-
| tired
|{{lang|it|stanco}}
| {{lang|vec|straco}}
| from [[Lombard language|Lombard]] {{lang|lmo|strak}}
|-
| line, streak, stroke, strip
|{{lang|it|linea, striscia}}
| {{lang|vec|strica}}
| from the [[Proto-Germanic language|proto-Germanic]] root *''strik'', related to English ''streak'', and ''stroke'' (of a pen). Example: {{lang|vec|Tirar na strica}} "to draw a line".
|-
| to press
|{{lang|it|premere, schiacciare}}
| {{lang|vec|strucàr}}
| from [[Proto-Germanic language|proto-Germanic]] {{wikt-lang|gem-pro|*þrukjaną}} ('to press, crowd') through the Gothic or Langobardic language, related to [[Middle English]] {{lang|enm|thrucchen}} ("to push, rush"), German {{wikt-lang|de|drücken}} ('to press'), Swedish {{wikt-lang|sv|trycka}}. Example: {{lang|vec|Struca un tasto / boton}} "Strike any key / Press any button".
|-
| to whistle
|{{lang|it|fischiare}}
| {{lang|vec|supiàr, subiàr, sficiàr, sifolàr}}
| from Latin {{lang|la|sub}} + {{lang|la|flare}}, compare French {{wikt-lang|fr|siffler}}
|-
| to pick up
|{{lang|it|raccogliere}}
| {{lang|vec|tòr su}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|tollere}}
|-
| pan
|{{lang|it|pentola}}
| {{lang|vec|técia, téia, tegia}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|tecula}}
|-
| lad, boy
|{{lang|it|ragazzo}}
| {{lang|vec|tozàt(o) (toxato), fio}}
| from Italian {{lang|it|tosare}}, "to cut someone's hair"
|-
| lad, boy
|{{lang|it|ragazzo}}
| {{lang|vec|puto, putèło, putełeto, butèl}}
| from Latin ''{{lang|la|{{wt|la|puer}}, {{wt|la|putus}}}}''
|-
| lad, boy
|{{lang|it|ragazzo}}
| {{lang|vec|matelot}}
| perhaps from French {{wikt-lang|fr|matelot}}, "sailor"
|-
| cow
|{{lang|it|mucca, vacca}}
| {{lang|vec|vaca}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|vacca}}
|-
| gun
|{{lang|it|fucile-scoppiare}}
| {{lang|vec|sciop, sciòpo, sciopàr, sciopón}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|scloppum}} (onomatopoeic)
|-
| track path
|{{lang|it|sentiero}}
| {{lang|vec|troi}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|trahere}}, "to draw, pull", compare English ''track''
|-
| to worry
|{{lang|it|preoccuparsi, vaneggiare}}
|{{lang|vec|dzavariàr, dhavariàr, zavariàr}}
| from Latin {{wikt-lang|la|variare}}
|}

==Spelling systems==
{{more citations needed section|date=September 2015}}

===Traditional system===
Venetian does not have an [[official script|official writing system]], but it is traditionally written using the [[Latin script]] — sometimes with certain additional letters or diacritics. The basis for some of these conventions can be traced to Old Venetian, while others are purely modern innovations.

Medieval texts, written in Old Venetian, include the letters {{angle bracket|x}}, {{angle bracket|ç}} and {{angle bracket|z}} to represent sounds that do not exist or have a different distribution in Italian. Specifically:

* The letter {{angle bracket|x}} was often employed in words that nowadays have a voiced {{IPAslink|z}}-sound (compare English ''xylophone''); for instance {{angle bracket|x}} appears in words such as {{lang|vec|raxon}}, {{lang|vec|Croxe}}, {{lang|vec|caxa}} ("reason", "(holy) Cross" and "house"). The precise phonetic value of {{angle bracket|x}} in Old Venetian texts remains unknown, however.
* The letter {{angle bracket|z}} often appeared in words that nowadays have a varying voiced pronunciation ranging from {{IPAslink|z}} to {{IPAslink|dz}} or {{IPAslink|ð}} or even to {{IPAslink|d}}; even in contemporary spelling {{lang|vec|zo}} "down" may represent any of {{IPA|/zo, dzo, ðo/}} or even {{IPA|/do/}}, depending on the dialect; similarly {{lang|vec|zovena}} "young woman" could be any of {{IPA|/ˈzovena/}}, {{IPA|/ˈdzovena/}} or {{IPA|/ˈðovena/}}, and {{lang|vec|zero}} "zero" could be {{IPA|/ˈzɛro/}}, {{IPA|/ˈdzɛro/}} or {{IPA|/ˈðɛro/}}.
* Likewise, {{angle bracket|ç}} was written for a voiceless sound which now varies, depending on the dialect spoken, from {{IPAslink|s}} to {{IPAslink|ts}} to {{IPAslink|θ}}, as in for example {{lang|vec|dolçe}} "sweet", now {{IPA|/ˈdolse ~ ˈdoltse ~ ˈdolθe/}}, {{lang|vec|dolçeça}} "sweetness", now {{IPA|/dolˈsesa ~ dolˈtsetsa ~ dolˈθeθa/}}, or {{lang|vec|sperança}} "hope", now {{IPA|/speˈransa ~ speˈrantsa ~ speˈranθa/}}.

The usage of letters in medieval and early modern texts was not, however, entirely consistent. In particular, as in other northern Italian languages, the letters {{angle bracket|z}} and {{angle bracket|ç}} were often used interchangeably for both voiced and voiceless sounds. Differences between earlier and modern pronunciation, divergences in pronunciation within the modern Venetian-speaking region, differing attitudes about how closely to model spelling on Italian norms, as well as personal preferences, some of which reflect sub-regional identities, have all hindered the adoption of a single unified spelling system.<ref>Ursini, Flavia (2011). ''Dialetti veneti''. http://www.treccani.it/enciclopedia/dialetti-veneti_(Enciclopedia-dell'Italiano)/</ref>

Nevertheless, in practice, most spelling conventions are the same as in Italian. In some early modern texts letter {{angle bracket|x}} becomes limited to word-initial position, as in {{lang|vec|xe}} ("is"), where its use was unavoidable because Italian spelling cannot represent {{IPAslink|z}} there. In between vowels, the distinction between {{IPAslink|s}} and {{IPAslink|z}} was ordinarily indicated by doubled {{angle bracket|ss}} for the former and single {{angle bracket|s}} for the latter. For example, {{lang|vec|basa}} was used to represent {{IPA|/ˈbaza/}} ("he/she kisses"), whereas {{lang|vec|bassa}} represented {{IPA|/ˈbasa/}} ("low"). (Before consonants there is no contrast between {{IPAslink|s}} and {{IPAslink|z}}, as in Italian, so a single {{angle bracket|s}} is always used in this circumstance, it being understood that the {{angle bracket|s}} will agree in voicing with the following consonant. For example, {{angle bracket|st}} represents only {{IPA|/st/}}, but {{angle bracket|sn}} represents {{IPA|/zn/}}.)

Traditionally the letter {{angle bracket|z}} was ambiguous, having the same values as in Italian (both voiced and voiceless affricates {{IPAslink|dz}} and {{IPAslink|ts}}). Nevertheless, in some books the two pronunciations are sometimes distinguished (in between vowels at least) by using doubled {{angle bracket|zz}} to indicate {{IPAslink|ts}} (or in some dialects {{IPAslink|θ}}) but a single {{angle bracket|z}} for {{IPAslink|dz}} (or {{IPAslink|ð}}, {{IPAslink|d}}).

In more recent practice the use of {{angle bracket|x}} to represent {{IPAslink|z}}, both in word-initial as well as in intervocalic contexts, has become increasingly common, but no entirely uniform convention has emerged for the representation of the voiced vs. voiceless affricates (or interdental fricatives), although a return to using {{angle bracket|ç}} and {{angle bracket|z}} remains an option under consideration.

Regarding the spelling of the vowel sounds, because in Venetian, as in Italian, there is no contrast between tense and lax vowels in unstressed syllables, the orthographic grave and acute accents can be used to mark both stress and vowel quality at the same time: ''à'' {{IPAslink|a}}, ''á'' {{IPAslink|ɐ}}, ''è'' {{IPAslink|ɛ}}, ''é'' {{IPAslink|e}}, ''í'' {{IPAslink|i}}, ''ò'' {{IPAslink|ɔ}}, ''ó'' {{IPAslink|o}}, ''ú'' {{IPAslink|u}}. Different orthographic norms prescribe slightly different rules for when stressed vowels must be written with accents or may be left unmarked, and no single system has been accepted by all speakers.

Venetian allows the [[consonant cluster]] {{IPA|/stʃ/}} (not present in Italian), which is sometimes written {{angle bracket|s-c}} or {{angle bracket|s'c}} before ''i'' or ''e'', and {{angle bracket|s-ci}} or {{angle bracket|s'ci}} before other vowels. Examples include {{lang|vec|s-ciarir}} (Italian {{lang|it|schiarire}}, "to clear up"), {{lang|vec|s-cèt}} ({{lang|it|schietto}}, "plain clear"), {{lang|vec|s-ciòp}} ({{lang|it|schioppo}}, "gun") and {{lang|vec|s-ciao}} ({{lang|it|schiavo}}, "[your] servant", {{lang|it|ciao}}, "hello", "goodbye"). The hyphen or apostrophe is used because the combination {{angle bracket|sc(i)}} is conventionally used for the {{IPAslink|ʃ}} sound, as in Italian spelling; e.g. {{lang|vec|scèmo}} ({{lang|it|scemo}}, "stupid"); whereas {{angle bracket|sc}} before ''a'', ''o'' and ''u'' represents {{IPA|/sk/}}: {{lang|vec|scàtoła}} ({{lang|it|scatola}}, "box"), {{lang|vec|scóndar}} ({{lang|it|nascondere}}, "to hide"), {{lang|vec|scusàr}} ({{lang|it|scusare}}, "to forgive").

===Proposed systems===
Recently there have been attempts to standardize and simplify the script by reusing older letters, e.g. by using {{angle bracket|x}} for {{IPAblink|z}} and a single {{angle bracket|s}} for {{IPAblink|s}}; then one would write {{lang|vec|baxa}} for {{IPA-vec|ˈbaza|}} ("[third person singular] kisses") and {{lang|vec|basa}} for {{IPA-vec|ˈbasa|}} ("low"). Some authors have continued or resumed the use of {{angle bracket|ç}}, but only when the resulting word is not too different from the Italian orthography: in modern Venetian writings, it is then easier to find words as {{lang|vec|çima}} and {{lang|vec|çento}}, rather than {{lang|vec|força}} and {{lang|vec|sperança}}, even though all these four words display the same phonological variation in the position marked by the letter {{angle bracket|ç}}. Another recent convention is to use {{angle bracket|[[L with bar|ł]]}} (in place of older {{angle bracket|[[ł]]}} ) for the "soft" ''l'', to allow a more unified orthography for all variants of the language. However, in spite of their theoretical advantages, these proposals have not been very successful outside of academic circles, because of regional variations in pronunciation and incompatibility with existing literature.

More recently, on December 14, 2017, the Modern International Manual of Venetian Spelling has been approved by the new Commission for Spelling of 2010. It has been translated in three languages (Italian, Venetian and English) and it exemplifies and explains every single letter and every sound of the Venetian language. The graphic accentuation and punctuation systems are added as corollaries. Overall, the system has been greatly simplified from previous ones to allow both Italian and foreign speakers to learn and understand the Venetian spelling and alphabet in a more straightforward way.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.linguaveneta.net/lingua-veneta/grafia-veneta-ufficiale/|title=Grafia Veneta ufficiale – Lingua Veneta Modern International Manual of Venetian Spelling.|access-date=2019-06-20}}</ref>

The [[Chipilo Venetian dialect|Venetian speakers]] of [[Chipilo]] use a system based on [[Spanish orthography]], even though it does not contain letters for {{IPAblink|j}} and {{IPAblink|θ}}. The American linguist Carolyn McKay proposed a writing system for that variant based entirely on the [[Italian language|Italian]] alphabet. However, the system was not very popular.

=== Orthographies comparison ===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! colspan="2" | [[International Phonetic Alphabet|[IPA]]]
! DECA <ref>{{Cite web|title=Grafia Veneta ufficiale – Lingua Veneta|url=http://www.linguaveneta.net/lingua-veneta/grafia-veneta-ufficiale/|access-date=2021-05-27}}</ref>
! classic
!Brunelli
![[Chipilo Venetian dialect|Chipilo]]
![[Talian dialect|Talian]]
!Latin origin <ref>{{Cite web|title=News/Articoli – Lingua Veneta|url=http://www.linguaveneta.net/news-articoli/|access-date=2021-05-27}}</ref>
!Examples
|-
| colspan="2" | /ˈa/
| à
| à
|à
|á
|à
|ă /a/, ā /aː/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/b/
|b
|b
|b
|b, v
|b
|b /b/, -p- /p/
|'''b'''ar'''b'''a (beard, uncle) from '''b'''ar'''b'''a
|-
| rowspan="3" |/k/
| + a \ o \ u
|c
|c
|c
|c
|c
|c /k/, cc /kː/, tc /tk/, xc /ksk/
|po'''c''' (little) from pau'''c'''us
|-
| + i \ e \ y \ ø
|ch
|ch
|ch
|qu
|ch
|ch /kʰ/, qu /kʷ/
|'''ch'''iete (quiet) from '''qu'''iētem
|-
|(between vowels)
|c(h)
|cc(h)
|c(h)
| -
|c(h)
|
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |/ts/~/θ/~/s/
| + a \ o \ u
| rowspan="3" |ts~th~s
|ç, [z]
| rowspan="3" |ç
| rowspan="3" | -~zh~s
| rowspan="3" | -
|ti /tj/, th /tʰ/
|
|-
| + i \ e \ y \ ø
|c, [z]
|c /c/, ti /tj/, th /tʰ/, tc /tk/, xc /ksk/
|
|-
|(between vowels)
|zz
|ti /tj/, th /tʰ/
|
|-
| rowspan="3" |/s/
|(before a vowel)
| rowspan="3" |s
|s
| rowspan="3" |s
| rowspan="3" |s (z)
|s
| rowspan="3" |s /s/, ss /sː/, sc /sc/, ps /ps/, x /ks/
|'''s'''upiar (to whistle) from '''s'''ub-flare
|-
|(between vowels)
|ss
|ss
|ca'''s'''a (cash des) from ca'''ps'''a
|-
|(before unvoiced consonant)
|s
|s
|
|-
| rowspan="4" |/tʃ/
| + a \ o \ u
|ci
| rowspan="2" |chi
|ci
| rowspan="3" |ch
|ci
| rowspan="4" |cl /cl/
|s'''ci'''ào (slave) from s'''cl'''avus
|-
| + i \ e \ y \ ø
|c
|c
|c
|'''c'''eza (church) from e'''ccl'''ēsia
|-
|(between vowels)
|c(i)
|cchi
|c(i)
|c(i)
|
|-
|(ending of word)
|c'
|cch'
|c'
|ch
|c'
|mo'''c'''' (snot) from *''mu'''cc'''eus''
|-
| colspan="2" |/d/
|d
|d
|d
|d
|d
|d /d/, -t- /t/, (g /ɟ/ , di /dj/, z /dz/)
|ca'''d'''ena (chain) from ca'''t'''ēna
|-
| colspan="2" |/ˈɛ/
|è
|è
|è
|è
|è
|ĕ /ɛ/, ae /ae̯/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/ˈe/
|é
|é
|é
|é
|é
|ē /ɛː/, ĭ /i/, oe /oe̯/
|p'''é'''vare (pepper) from p'''i'''per
|-
| rowspan="2" |/f/
| -
| rowspan="2" |f
|f
| rowspan="2" |f
| rowspan="2" |f
| rowspan="2" |f
|f /f/, ff /fː/, pp /pː/, ph /pʰ/
|'''f'''inco (finch) from '''f'''ringilla
|-
|(between vowels)
|ff
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |/ɡ/
| + a \ o \ u
|g
|g
|g
|g
|g
|g /ɡ/, -c- /k/, ch /kʰ
|ru'''g'''a (bean weevil) from brū'''ch'''us
|-
| + i \ e \ y \ ø
|gh
|gh
|gh
|gu
|gh
|gu /ɡʷ/, ch /kʰ/
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |/dz/~/ð/~/z/
| + a \ o \ u
| rowspan="2" |dz~dh~z
| rowspan="2" |z
| rowspan="2" |z
| rowspan="2" | -~d~x
| rowspan="2" | -
|z /dz/, di /dj/
|'''dz'''orno from '''di'''urnus
|-
| + i \ e \ y \ ø
|z /dz/, g /ɟ/, di /dj/
|'''dz'''en'''dz'''iva (gum) from '''g'''in'''g'''iva
|-
| rowspan="3" |/z/
|(before a vowel)
| rowspan="3" |z
|x
| rowspan="2" |x
| rowspan="2" |x
|z
|?, (z /dz/, g /ɉ/, di /dj/)
|el '''z'''e (he is) from ''ipse est''
|-
|(between vowels)
| rowspan="2" |s
|s
| -c- /c/, -s- /s/, x /ɡz/, (z /dz/, g /ɉ/, di /dj/)
|pa'''z'''e (peace) from pā'''x''', pā'''c'''is
|-
|(before voiced consonant)
|s
|s
|s
|s- /s/, x /ɡz/, (z /dz/, g /ɉ/, di /dj/)
|'''z'''gorlar (to shake) from e'''x'''-crollare
|-
| rowspan="2" |/dʒ/
| + a \ o \ u
|gi
| rowspan="2" |ghi
|gi
|gi
|j
| rowspan="2" |gl /ɟl/
|'''gi'''atso (ice) from '''gl'''aciēs
|-
| + i \ e \ y \ ø
|g
|g
|g
|gi
|'''g'''iro (dormouse) from '''gl'''īris
|-
| colspan="2" |/j/~/dʒ/
|j~g(i)
|g(i)
|j
| -
|j
|i /j/, li /lj/
|a'''j'''o / a'''gi'''o (garlic) from ā'''li'''um
|-
| colspan="2" |/j/
|j, i
|j, i
|i
|y, i
|i
|i /j/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/ˈi/
|í
|í
|í
|í
|í
|ī /iː/, ȳ /yː/
|f'''i'''o (son) from f'''ī'''lius
|-
| colspan="2" | -
|h
|h
|h
|h
|h
| h /ʰ/
|màc'''h'''ina (machine) from māc'''h'''ina
|-
| colspan="2" |/l/
|l
|l
|l
|l
|l
|l /l/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/e̯/~/ɰ/~-
|ł
| l
|ł
| -
| -
|l /l/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/l.j/~/l.dʒ/
|li~g(i)
|li
|lj
|ly
|li
|li /li/, /lj/
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |/m/
|(before vowels)
|m
|m
|m
|m
|m
|m /m/
|
|-
|(at the end of the syllable)
|m'
| -
|m'
|m'
|m'
|m /m/
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |/n/
|(before vowels)
|n
|n
|n
|n
|n
|n /n/
|
|-
|(at the end of the syllable)
|n' / 'n
| -
|n'
|n'
|n'
|n /n/
|do'''n'''' (we go) from *anda'''m'''o
|-
| rowspan="2" |/ŋ/
|(before vowels)
|n-
| -
|n-
|n-
|n-
|m /m/, n /ɱ~n̪~n~ŋ/, g /ŋ/
|
|-
|(at the end of the syllable)
|n / n-
|m, n
|n
|n
|n
|m /m/, n /ɱ~n̪~n~ŋ/, g /ŋ/
|do'''n''' (we went) from anda'''vam'''o
|-
| colspan="2" |/m.j/~/m.dʒ/
|m'j~m'g(i)
|(mi)
|m'j
|m'y
|mi
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/n.j/~/n.dʒ/
|n'j~n'g(i)
|(ni)
|n'j
|n'y
|ni
|ni /ni/, ni /nj/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/ŋ.j/~/ŋ.dʒ/
|ni~ng(i)
|ni
|n-j
|ny
|n-j
|ni /n.j/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/ɲ/
|ǌ
|gn
|gn
|ñ
|gn
|gn /ŋn/, ni /nj/
|cu'''nj'''à (brother-in-law) from co'''gn'''ātus
|-
| colspan="2" |/ˈɔ/
|ò
|ò
|ò
|ò
|ò
|ŏ /ɔ/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/ˈo/
|ó
|ó
|ó
|ó
|ó
|ō /ɔː/, ŭ /u/
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |/p/
| -
| rowspan="2" |p
|p
| rowspan="2" |p
| rowspan="2" |p
| rowspan="2" |p
|p /p/, pp /pː/
|
|-
|(between vowels)
|pp
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/r/
|r
|r
|r
|r
|r
|r /r/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/r.j/~/r.dʒ/
|ri~rg(i)
|(ri)
|rj
|ry
|rj
|
|
|-
| rowspan="2" |/t/
| -
| rowspan="2" |t
|t
| rowspan="2" |t
| rowspan="2" |t
| rowspan="2" |t
|t /t/, tt /tː/, ct /kt/, pt /pt/
|sè'''t'''e (seven) from se'''pt'''em
|-
|(between vowels)
|tt
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/ˈu/
|ú
|ú
|ú
|ú
|ú
|ū /uː/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/w/
|u
|u
|u
|u
|u
|u /w/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/v/
|v
|v
|v
|v
|v
|u /w/, b /b/, -f- /f/, -p- /p/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/ˈɐ/~/ˈʌ/~/ˈɨ/
|â / á
| -
| -
| -
| -
|ē /ɛː/, an /ã/
|st'''â'''la (star) from st'''ē'''lla
|-
| colspan="2" |/ˈø/
|(ø)
|(oe)
|(o)
| -
| -
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/ˈy/
|(y / ý)
|(ue)
|(u)
| -
| -
|
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/h/
|h / fh
| -
| -
| -
| -
|f /f/
|'''h'''èr (iron) from '''f'''errus
|-
| colspan="2" |/ʎ/
|ǉ
| -
| -
| -
| -
|li /lj/
|bata'''ǉ'''a (battle) from ''battā'''li'''a''
|-
| colspan="2" |/ʃ/
|sj
| -
| (sh)
| -
| -
|s /s/
|
|-
| colspan="2" |/ʒ/
|zj
| -
| (xh)
| -
| -
|g /ɡ/
|
|}

==Sample texts==
[[File:Fiera Santa Lucia.jpg|thumb|Venetian sign in ticket office, [[Santa Lucia di Piave]]]]

===Ruzante returning from war===
The following sample, in the old dialect of Padua, comes from a play by Ruzante ([[Angelo Beolco]]), titled {{lang|vec|[[Parlamento de Ruzante che iera vegnù de campo]]}} ("Dialogue of Ruzante who came from the battlefield", 1529). The character, a peasant returning home from the war, is expressing to his friend Menato his relief at being still alive:

{{verse translation
|{{lang|vec|Orbéntena, el no serae mal
star in campo per sto robare,
se 'l no foesse che el se ha pur
de gran paure. Càncaro ala roba!
A' son chialò mi, ala segura,
e squase che no a' no cherzo
esserghe gnan. ...
Se mi mo' no foesse mi?
E che a foesse stò amazò in campo?
E che a foesse el me spirito?
Lo sarae ben bela.
No, càncaro, spiriti no magna.}}
|Really, it would not be that bad
to be in the battlefield looting,
were it not that one gets also
big scares. Damn the loot!
I am right here, in safety,
and almost can't believe
I am. ...
And if I were not me?
And if I had been killed in battle?
And if I were my ghost?
That would be just great.
No, damn, ghosts don't eat.
}}

==={{lang|vec|Discorso de Perasto}}===
The following sample is taken from the ''[[Perasto Speech]]'' ({{lang|vec|Discorso de Perasto}}), given on August 23, 1797 at [[Perast]]o, by Venetian Captain [[Giuseppe Viscovich]], at the last lowering of the flag of the Venetian Republic (nicknamed the "Republic of [[St Mark's Cathedral, Venice|Saint Mark]]").

{{verse translation
|{{lang|vec|Par trezentosetantasete ani
le nostre sostanse, el nostro sangue,
le nostre vite le xè sempre stàe
par Ti, S. Marco; e fedelisimi
senpre se gavemo reputà,
Ti co nu, nu co Ti,
e sempre co Ti sul mar
semo stài lustri e virtuosi.
Nisun co Ti ne gà visto scanpar,
nisun co Ti ne gà visto vinti e spaurosi!}}
|For three hundred and seventy seven years
our bodies, our blood
our lives have always been
for You, St. Mark; and very faithful
we have always thought ourselves,
You with us, we with You,
And always with You on the sea
we have been illustrious and virtuous.
No one has seen us with You flee,
No one has seen us with You defeated and fearful!}}

===Francesco Artico===
The following is a contemporary text by [[Francesco Artico]]. The elderly narrator is recalling the church choir singers of his youth, who, needless to say, sang much better than those of today
[https://www.artico.name/tornen/s_santa.htm (see the full original text with audio)]:

{{verse translation
|{{lang|vec|Sti cantori vèci da na volta,
co i cioéa su le profezie,
in mezo al coro, davanti al restèl,
co'a ose i 'ndéa a cior volta
no so 'ndove e ghe voéa un bèl tóc
prima che i tornésse in qua
e che i rivésse in cao,
màssima se i jèra pareciàdi onti
co mezo litro de quel bon
tant par farse coràjo.}}
|These old singers of the past,
when they picked up the Prophecies,
in the middle of the choir, in front of the twelve-branched candelabrum,
with their voice they went off
who knows where, and it was a long time
before they came back
and landed on the ground,
especially if they had been previously 'oiled'
with half a litre of the good one [wine]
just to make courage.
}}

==Venetian lexical exports to English==
Many words were exported to English, either directly or via Italian or French.{{sfn|Ferguson|2007|p=284-286}} The list below shows some examples of imported words, with the date of first appearance in English according to the Shorter Oxford English Dictionary.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Venetian (DECA)
! English
! Year
! Origin, notes
|-
| {{lang|vec|arsenal}} || [[arsenal]] || 1506 || Arabic {{lang|ar|دار الصناعة|rtl=yes}} {{transl|ar|ALA|dār al-ṣināʻah}} "house of manufacture, factory"
|-
| {{lang|vec|articiòco}}|| [[artichoke]] || 1531 || Arabic {{lang|ar|الخرشوف|rtl=yes}} {{transl|ar|ALA|al-kharshūf}}; simultaneously entered French as {{lang|fr|artichaut}}
|-
| {{lang|vec|balota}} || [[ballot]] || 1549 || ball used in Venetian elections; cf. English to "black-ball"
|-
| {{lang|vec|cazin}}|| [[casino]] || 1789 || "little house"; adopted in Italianized form
|-
| {{lang|vec|contrabando}} || [[contraband]] || 1529 || illegal traffic of goods
|-
| {{lang|vec|gadzeta}}|| [[gazette]] || 1605 || a small Venetian coin; from the price of early newssheets {{lang|vec|gazeta de la novità}} "a penny worth of news"
|-
| {{lang|vec|gheto}} || [[ghetto]] || 1611 || from Gheto, the area of Canaregio in Venice that became the first district confined to Jews; named after the foundry or {{lang|vec|gheto}} once sited there
|-
| {{lang|vec|njòchi}}|| [[gnocchi]] || 1891 || lumps, bumps, gnocchi; from Germanic ''knokk''- 'knuckle, joint'
|-
| {{lang|vec|gondola}} || [[gondola]] || 1549 || from Medieval Greek {{wikt-lang|el|κονδοῦρα}}
|-
| {{lang|vec|laguna}} || [[lagoon]] || 1612 || Latin {{lang|la|lacunam}} "lake"
|-
| {{lang|vec|ladzareto}}|| lazaret || 1611 || through French; a quarantine station for maritime travellers, ultimately from the Biblical [[Lazarus of Bethany]], who was raised from the dead; the first one was on the island of Lazareto Vechio in Venice
|-
| {{lang|vec|lido}} || [[lido]] || 1930 || Latin {{lang|la|litus}} "shore"; the name of one of the three islands enclosing the Venetian lagoon, now a beach resort
|-
| {{lang|vec|loto}} || [[lottery|lotto]] || 1778 || Germanic ''lot''- "destiny, fate"
|-
| {{lang|vec|malvazìa}}|| [[malmsey]] || 1475 || ultimately from the name {{lang|el|μονοβασία}} [[Monemvasia]], a small Greek island off the Peloponnese once owned by the Venetian Republic and a source of strong, sweet white wine from Greece and the eastern Mediterranean
|-
| {{lang|vec|marzapan}} || [[marzipan]] || 1891 || from the name for the porcelain container in which marzipan was transported, from Arabic {{lang|ar|مَرْطَبَان|rtl=yes}} {{transl|ar|ALA|marṭabān}}, or from [[Mottama|Mataban]] in the [[Bay of Bengal]] where these were made (these are some of several proposed etymologies for the English word)
|-
| {{lang|vec|Montenegro}} || [[Montenegro]] || || "black mountain"; country on the Eastern side of the [[Adriatic Sea]]
|-
| {{lang|vec|Negroponte}} || [[Euboea|Negroponte]] || || "black bridge"; Greek island called Euboea or Evvia in the [[Aegean Sea]]
|-
| {{lang|vec|Pantalon}} || [[Harlequinade#Pantaloon|pantaloon]] || 1590 || a character in the [[Commedia dell'arte]]
|-
| {{lang|vec|pestacio}}|| [[pistachio]] || 1533 || ultimately from [[Middle Persian]] {{lang|pal|pistak}}
|-
| {{lang|vec|cuarantena}}|| [[quarantine]] || 1609 || forty day isolation period for a ship with infectious diseases like plague
|-
| {{lang|vec|regata}} || [[regatta]] || 1652 || originally "fight, contest"
|-
| {{lang|vec|scanpi}}|| [[scampi]] || 1930 || Greek {{wikt-lang|el|κάμπη}} "caterpillar", lit. "curved (animal)"
|-
| {{lang|vec|sciao}}|| [[ciao]] || 1929 || cognate with Italian {{lang|it|schiavo}} "slave"; used originally in Venetian to mean "your servant", "at your service"; original word pronounced "s-ciao"
|-
| {{lang|vec|Dzani}}|| zany || 1588 || "Johnny"; a character in the [[Commedia dell'arte]]
|-
| {{lang|vec|dzechin}}|| [[sequin]] || 1671 || Venetian gold ducat; from Arabic {{lang|ar|سكّة|rtl=yes}} {{transl|ar|ALA|sikkah}} "coin, minting die"
|-
| {{lang|vec|ziro}} || [[giro]] || 1896 || "circle, turn, spin"; adopted in Italianized form; from the name of the bank {{lang|vec|Banco del Ziro}} or {{lang|vec|Bancoziro}} at Rialto
|}

==See also==
* [[Venetian literature]]
* [[Talian dialect]]
* [[Chipilo Venetian dialect]]
* {{lang|vec|[[Quatro Ciàcoe]]}} — Venetian language magazine

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
* {{Cite book |last=Artico |first=Francesco |title=Tornén un pas indrìo: raccolta di conversazioni in dialetto |publisher=Paideia Editrice |location=Brescia |year=1976 }}
* {{Cite book |last=Ferguson |first=Ronnie |title=A Linguistic History of Venice |publisher=Leo S. Olschki |year=2007 |location=Firenze |isbn=978-88-222-5645-4 }}
* {{Cite book |last=McKay |first=Carolyn Joyce |title=Il dialetto veneto di Segusino e Chipilo: fonologia, grammatica, lessico veneto, spagnolo, italiano, inglese }}
* {{Cite book|title=Grammatica Veneta|last=Belloni|first=Silvano|publisher=Padova: Esedra|year=2006}}
* {{cite book | author = [[w:it:Giuseppe Boerio|Giuseppe Boerio]] | url = http://www.linguaveneta.net/dizionario-del-dialetto-veneziano-di-giuseppe-boerio/ | title = Dizionario del dialetto veneziano | website = linguaveneta.net | location = Venice | language = it | year = 1900 | publisher = [[Filippi]], G. Cecchini | oclc = 799065043 | pages = 937 | archive-url = https://archive.today/20190828231733/http://www.linguaveneta.net/strumenti/dizionari/ | archive-date = August 28, 2019 | url-status = live | access-date = August 28, 2019 }}
{{refend}}

==External links==

{{InterWiki|code=vec}}
{{Wikisourcelang|vec||Vèneto}}
{{Commons category|Venetian language}}
* [http://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Venetan General grammar; comparison to other Romance languages; description of the Venetian dialect] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180116123645/http://www.orbilat.com/Languages/Venetan |date=2018-01-16 }}
* {{lang|vec|[http://www.giulianoartico.it/tornen/ Tornén un pas indrìo!]}}—samples of written and spoken Venetian by Francesco Artico
* [http://www.liberliber.it/mediateca/libri/r/ruzzante/la_moscheta/html/index.htm Text and audio of some works by Ruzante]

{{Languages of Italy}}
{{Romance languages}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Venetian Language}}
[[Category:Venetian language| ]]
[[Category:Languages of Veneto]]
[[Category:Languages of Friuli-Venezia Giulia]]
[[Category:Languages of Croatia]]

Geography of Cyprus

2021-12-02T14:54:06Z

Ciaurlec: movedi in the order of category

{{short description|Overview of the geography of Cyprus}}
{{Infobox islands
| name = Cyprus
| image_name = Cyprus ESA356100.jpg
| image_caption = Satellite image of Cyprus in 2016
| map_image = Island of Cyprus (orthographic projection).svg
| map_caption = Location of Cyprus
| local_name = {{hlist|{{native name|el|Κύπρος|italics=no}}|{{native name|tr|Kıbrıs}}}}
| native_name_link =
| nickname =
| location = [[Mediterranean Sea]]
| coordinates = <div>{{coord|35|N|33|E|scale:250000|display=inline,title}}</div>
{{Infobox|child=yes
| rowclass1 = mergedrow
| label1 = Largest city
| data1 = [[Nicosia]]
}}
| archipelago =
| total_islands =
| major_islands =
| area_km2 = 9251
| length_km =
| width_km =
| coastline_km = 648
| highest_mount = [[Mount Olympus (Cyprus)|Mount Olympus]]
| elevation_m = 1952
| country = [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]]
| country_capital_and_largest_city = [[Nicosia]]
| country_area_km2 = 9251
| country1 = [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]] {{nobold|{{small|(''de facto'' northern administration)}}}}
(Self-styled and only recognised by Turkey)
| country1_capital_and_largest_city = [[North Nicosia]]
| country1_area_km2 = 3355
| country2 = [[Akrotiri and Dhekelia|'''Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia''']] {{nobold|([[British Overseas Territories|British Overseas Territory]])}}
| country2_capital_and_largest_city = [[Episkopi Cantonment]]
| country2_capital_type = settlement
| country2_area_km2 = 254
| population = 1,099,406
| population_as_of = 2007
| density_km2 = 85
| ethnic_groups = {{unbulleted list|
* [[Greek Cypriots]]
* [[Turkish Cypriots]]
* [[Armenian Cypriots]]
* [[Maronite Cypriots]]
}}
}}

'''Cyprus''' is an island in the Eastern Basin of the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. It is the third largest island in the Mediterranean, after the [[Italy|Italian]] islands of [[Sicily]] and [[Sardinia]], and the [[List of islands by area|80th largest]] island in the world by area. It is located south of the [[Anatolia|Anatolia peninsula]], yet it belongs to the [[Cyprus arc]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://faculty.fiu.edu/~swdowins/research-eastmed.html|title=Shimon Wdowinski: Research: Eastern Mediterranean}}</ref> Cyprus may be included in [[Europe]]<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.worldatlas.com/articles/is-cyprus-in-europe-or-asia.html|title=Is Cyprus in Europe or Asia?|date=August 8, 2019|publisher=World Atlas}}</ref><ref>{{citation|url=https://carnegieeurope.eu/2018/12/03/cyprus-in-europe-in-limbo-pub-77844|title=Cyprus: In Europe, In Limbo|date=December 3, 2018|publisher=[[Carnegie Endowment for International Peace]]}}</ref> or [[Western Asia|West Asia]]<ref>http://millenniumindicators.un.org/unsd/methods/m49/m49regin.htm#asia UN</ref><ref>[https://www.cia.gov/the-world-factbook/countries/cyprus/ The World Factbook] CIA World Factbook</ref> as the island is close to [[Southeast Europe]] and the [[Middle East]]. Cyprus also had lengthy periods of mainly [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] and intermittent [[Anatolian peoples|Anatolian]], [[Levant|Levantine]], [[Byzantine Empire|Byzantine]], [[Ottoman Empire|Turkish]] and [[Western Europe|Western European]] influence.

The island is dominated by two mountain ranges, the [[Troodos Mountains]] and the [[Kyrenia Mountains]] or Pentadaktylos, and the central plain, the [[Mesaoria]], between them.<ref name=":0">{{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Solsten, Eric|url=https://www.loc.gov/item/92036090/|title=Cyprus: a country study|date=1993|publisher=[[Federal Research Division]], [[Library of Congress]]|isbn=0-8444-0752-6|edition=4th|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=50–53|oclc=27014039|postscript=. {{PD-notice}}}}</ref> The Troodos Mountains cover most of the southern and western portions of the island and account for roughly half its area.<ref name=":0" /> The narrow [[Kyrenia Mountains|Kyrenia Range]] extends along the northern coastline.<ref name=":0" /> It is not as high as the Troodos Mountains, and it occupies substantially less area.<ref name=":0" /> The two mountain ranges run generally parallel to the [[Taurus Mountains]] on the Turkish mainland, the outlines of which are visible from northern Cyprus.<ref name=":0" /> Coastal lowlands, varying in width, surround the island.<ref name=":0" />

[[Geopolitics|Geopolitically]], the island is divided into four segments. The [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]], the only internationally recognized government, occupies the southern 60% of the island, and has been a [[member state of the European Union]] since 1 May 2004. The [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]], is diplomatically recognized only by Turkey, occupies the northern one-third of the island, around 36% of the territory. The [[United Nations]]-controlled [[United Nations Buffer Zone in Cyprus|Green Line]] is a buffer zone that separates the two and it is about 4%. Lastly, two areas—[[Akrotiri and Dhekelia]]—remain under British sovereignty for military purposes, collectively forming the Sovereign Base Areas of Akrotiri and Dhekelia (SBA). The SBAs are located on the southern coast of the island and together encompass 254 km2, or 2.8% of the island.

==Terrain==
[[File:Geology of Cyprus-SkiriotissaMine.jpg|thumb|left|Skiriotissa mine]]
[[File:CyprusFromTheISS(cropped).jpg|thumb|This image, photographed from the [[International Space Station]] in 2013, shows the three distinct geologic regions of the island. In the central and western part of the island is the Troodos Massif, a mountain range whose surface layer is mostly basaltic lava rock, and whose maximum elevation is {{convert|1952|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}. Running in a thin arc along the northeast margin of the island is Cyprus's second mountain range, a limestone formation called the Kyrenia Range. The space between these ranges is home to the capital [[Nicosia]], visible as a grayish-brown patch near the image's center.]]
[[File:Cyprus topo.png|thumb|Topography]]
The rugged [[Troodos Mountains]], whose principal range stretches from Pomos Point in the northwest almost to Larnaca Bay on the east, are the single most conspicuous feature of the landscape.<ref name=":0" /> Intensive uplifting and folding in the formative period left the area highly fragmented, so that subordinate ranges and spurs veer off at many angles, their slopes incised by steep-sided valleys.<ref name=":0" /> In the southwest, the mountains descend in a series of stepped foothills to the coastal plain.<ref name=":0" />

While the Troodos Mountains are a massif formed of molten [[igneous rock]], the [[Kyrenia Range]] is a narrow [[limestone]] ridge that rises suddenly from the plains.<ref name=":0" /> Its easternmost extension becomes a series of foothills on the [[Karpas Peninsula]].<ref name=":0" /> That peninsula points toward Asia Minor, to which Cyprus belongs geologically.<ref name=":0" /> The Kyrenia Range is also known as the Pentadactylon Mountains, due to a summit resembling five fingers.

Even the highest peaks of the Kyrenia Range are hardly more than half the height of the great dome of the Troodos massif, [[Mount Olympus (Cyprus)|Mount Olympus]] ({{convert|1952|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=or}}),<ref name="Embassy climate">{{cite web|title = Country Profile: Climate|publisher = Official Website of the Embassy of the Republic of Cyprus in Washington D.C.|url = http://www.cyprusembassy.net/home/index.php?module=page&pid=11|access-date = 2006-10-11|archive-url = https://www.webcitation.org/66iJViqMX?url=http://www.cyprusembassy.net/home/index.php?module=page&pid=11|archive-date = 2012-04-06|url-status = dead}}</ref> but their seemingly inaccessible, jagged slopes make them considerably more spectacular.<ref name=":0" /> [[United Kingdom|British]] writer [[Lawrence Durrell]], in [[Bitter Lemons]], wrote of the Troodos as "an unlovely jumble of crags and heavyweight rocks" and of the Kyrenia Range as belonging to "the world of [[Gothic art|Gothic]] [[Europe]], its lofty crags studded with crusader castles."<ref name=":0" />

Rich copper deposits were discovered in antiquity on the slopes of the Troodos.<ref name=":0" /> The massive sulfide deposits formed as a part of an [[ophiolite]] complex at a [[Mid-ocean ridge|spreading center]] under the Mediterranean Sea which was [[Tectonics|tectonically]] uplifted during the [[Pleistocene]] and emplaced in its current location.<ref>http://www.moa.gov.cy/moa/gsd/gsd.nsf/dmlTroodos_en/dmlTroodos_en?OpenDocument Cyprus Geologic Survey</ref>

==Drainage==
In much of the island, access to a year-round supply of water is difficult.<ref name=":0" /> This is traditionally attributed to deforestation which damaged the island's drainage system through erosion,<ref name=":0" /> but Grove and Rackham question this view.<ref>A.T. Grove, Oliver Rackham, ''The Nature of Mediterranean Europe: An Ecological History'', Yale, 2001. {{ISBN|0-300-08443-9}}.</ref> A network of winter rivers rises in the Troodos Mountains and flows out from them in all directions.<ref name=":0" /> The Yialias River and the [[Pedieos|Pedhieos River]] flow eastward across the Mesaoria into Famagusta Bay; the Serraghis River flows northwest through the [[Güzelyurt (Northern Cyprus)|Morphou]] plain.<ref name=":0" /> All of the island's rivers, however, are dry in the summer.<ref name=":0" /> An extensive system of dams and waterways has been constructed to bring water to farming areas.<ref name=":0" />

The Mesaoria is the agricultural heartland of the island, but its productiveness for wheat and barley depends very much on winter rainfall; other crops are grown under irrigation.<ref name=":0" /> Little evidence remains that this broad, central plain, open to the sea at either end, was once covered with rich forests whose timber was coveted by ancient conquerors for their sailing vessels.<ref name=":0" /> The now-divided capital of the island, Nicosia, lies in the middle of this central plain.<ref name=":0" />

== Natural vegetation ==
[[File:Cyprus countryside on the way to Troodos Mountains in the late summer Republic of Cyprus.jpg|thumb|left|Cyprus countryside on the way to Troodos Mountains during the summer]]
Despite its small size, Cyprus has a variety of natural vegetation. This includes forests of conifers and broadleaved trees such as [[pine]] (''[[Pinus brutia]]''), [[Cedrus|cedar]], [[cypress]]es and [[oak]]s. Ancient authors write that most of Cyprus, even Messaoria, was heavily forested, and there are still considerable forests on the Troodos and Kyrenia ranges, and locally at lower altitudes. About 17% of the whole island is classified as woodland. Where there is no forest, tall shrub communities of golden oak (''[[Quercus alnifolia]]''), strawberry tree (''[[Arbutus andrachne]]''), terebinth (''[[Terebinth|Pistacia terebinthus]]''), olive (''[[Olive|Olea europaea]]''), kermes oak (''[[Quercus coccifera]]'') and styrax (''[[Styrax officinalis]]'') are found, but such [[Maquis shrubland|maquis]] is uncommon. Over most of the island untilled ground bears a grazed covering of [[garrigue]], largely composed of low bushes of [[Cistus]], ''[[Genista|Genista sphacelata]]'', ''[[Calicotome villosa]]'', ''Lithospermum hispidulum'', ''[[Phagnalon|Phaganalon rupestre]]'' and, locally, ''[[Pistacia lentiscus]]''. Where grazing is excessive this covering is soon reduced, and an impoverished [[Garrigue|batha]] remains, consisting principally of ''[[Thymus capitatus]]'', ''[[Sarcopoterium|Sarcopoterium spinosum]]'', and a few stunted herbs.

==Climate==
{{Main|Climate of Cyprus}}

[[File:Cyprus.A2002292.1045.500m.jpg|thumb|right|200px|[[Dust storm|Sandstorm]] in the [[Levant]], October 19, 2002]]
The [[Mediterranean climate]], warm and rather dry, with rainfall mainly between November and March, favors agriculture.<ref name=":0" /> In general, the island experiences mild wet winters and dry hot summers.<ref name=":0" /> Variations in temperature and rainfall are governed by altitude and, to a lesser extent, distance from the coast.<ref name=":0" /> Hot, dry summers from mid-May to mid-September and rainy, rather changeable winters from November to mid-March are separated by short autumn and spring seasons.

==Area and boundaries==

[[File:Administrative map of Cyprus.jpg|thumb|Administrative map of Cyprus]]
[[File:Population map of Cyprus.jpg|thumb|Population map of the Republic of Cyprus]]
[[File:Cyprus density.jpg|thumb|Population density map of the Republic of Cyprus]]
[[File:Cyprus administrative.jpg|thumb|Municipalities and communities map of Cyprus]]
[[File:Cyprus districts.jpg|thumb|District map of Cyprus]]
[[File:Ethnographic distribution in Cyprus 1960.jpg|thumb|Population distribution of Cyprus in 1960]]

'''Area:'''
 ''Total:''
9,251 km2 (of which {{convert|5896|km²|0|abbr=on}} are under the control of the [[Cyprus|Republic of Cyprus]] and of which {{convert|3355|km²|0|abbr=on}} are under the administration of the [[List of unrecognized countries|de facto]] [[Northern Cyprus|Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus]])
 ''Land:''
9,241 km2
 ''Water:''
10 km2

'''Land boundaries:'''
0 km

'''Coastline:'''
648 km

'''Maritime claims:'''
 ''Territorial sea:''
{{convert|12|nmi|km mi|1|abbr=on|lk=in}}
 ''Continental shelf:''
200 m depth or to the depth of exploitation
 ''[[Exclusive economic zone|Exclusive Economic Zone]]:''
{{convert|98,707|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}

'''Elevation extremes:'''
 ''Lowest point:''
Mediterranean Sea 0 m
 ''Highest point:''
Olympus 1,952 m<ref name="Embassy climate"/>

==Resource and land use==
'''Natural resources:'''
[[copper]], [[pyrite]], [[asbestos]], [[gypsum]], [[Lumber|timber]], [[salt]], [[marble]], [[Earth pigment|clay earth pigment]]

'''Land use:'''
 ''arable land:''
9.90%
 ''permanent crops:''
3.24%
 ''other:''
86.86% (2012)

'''Irrigated land:'''
457.9 km2 (2007)

'''Total renewable water resources:'''
0.78 km3 (2011)

'''Freshwater withdrawal (domestic/industrial/agricultural):'''
 ''total:''
0.18 km3/yr (10%/3%/86%)
 ''per capital:''
164.7 m3/yr (2009)

==Environmental concerns==
'''Natural hazards:'''
moderate [[earthquake]] activity; [[drought]]s

'''Environment – current issues:'''
[[water]] resource problems (no natural [[reservoir]] catchments, seasonal disparity in rainfall, [[Saltwater intrusion|sea water intrusion]] to island's largest [[aquifer]], increased [[Soil salinity|salination]] in the north); water pollution from sewage and industrial wastes; coastal degradation; loss of wildlife habitats from [[urbanization]].

'''Environment – international agreements:'''
 ''party to:''
Air Pollution, Air Pollution-Persistent Organic Pollutants, [[Biodiversity]], Climate Change, Climate Change-[[Kyoto Protocol]], Endangered Species, [[Environmental Modification Convention|Environmental Modification]], Hazardous Wastes, [[Law of the sea|Law of the Sea]], Marine Dumping, Nuclear Test Ban, Ozone Layer Protection, Ship Pollution, Wetlands
 ''signed, but not ratified:'' none

==See also==
*[[Geology of Cyprus]]
*[[List of Cyprus islets]]
*[[List of dams and reservoirs in Cyprus]]
*[[List of rivers of Cyprus]]

==References==
{{Wikivoyage|Cyprus (island)}}
{{commons category|Geography of Cyprus}}
*{{CIA World Factbook}}
*[http://www.cyprus.gov.cy/cyphome/govhome.nsf/LookupIDs/300D6935EC884FBCC2256A71003972F4?OpenDocument&languageNo=1 Official Cyprus Government Web Site]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20041217052134/http://www.greekembassy.org/Embassy/content/en/Article.aspx?office=1&folder=44&article=86 Embassy of Greece, USA – Cyprus: Geographical and Historical Background]

===Additional references===
{{reflist}}

{{Cyprus topics}}
{{Geography of Europe}}
{{Geography of Asia}}

[[Category:Geography of Cyprus| ]]
[[Category:Mediterranean islands]]

Rosgen Stream Classification

2020-10-22T00:15:51Z

Ciaurlec: /* Hierarchy of the Rosgen Stream Classification */ text format

The '''Rosgen [[Stream]] Classification''' is a system for natural [[river]]s in which morphological arrangements of stream characteristics are organized into relatively homogeneous stream types.<ref name=":0">Rosgen, David L. 1994. “A Classification of Natural Rivers.” ''CATENA'' 22 (3): 169–99. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1016/0341-8162(94)90001-9</nowiki>.</ref> This is a widely-used method for classifying streams and rivers based on common patterns of channel morphology.<ref>EPA, 2018. “Fundamentals of Rosgen Stream Classification System | Watershed Academy Web | US EPA.” n.d. Accessed May 6, 2018. <nowiki>https://cfpub.epa.gov/watertrain/moduleFrame.cfm?parent_object_id=1189</nowiki>.</ref> The specific objectives of this stream classification system are as follows: 1) predict a rivers behavior from its appearance; 2) develop specific [[hydrologic]] and sediment relationships for a given stream type and its state; 3) provide mechanisms to extrapolate site-specific data to stream reaches having similar characteristics; and 4) provide a consistent frame of reference for communicating stream [[River morphology|morphology]] and condition among a variety of disciplines and interested parties.<ref name=":0" /> These objectives are met through Rosgen's four hierarchical levels (I-IV) of river morphology.

== Hierarchy of the Rosgen Stream Classification ==
=== Level I: Geomorphic Characterization ===
Level I categorize stream types into letters A - G based on their [[geomorphic]] characteristics that result from the integration of basin relief, land form, and valley morphology.<ref name=":1">Rosgen, David L. and H.L. Silvey 1996. “Applied River Morphology” Second Edition. ''Wildland Hydrology''. Pagosa Springs, CO.</ref> This is a general way in which the morphology of a stream can be described. Many of the Level I criteria can be determined through [[topographic]] and landform maps, aerial imagery, and geospatial data.<ref name=":1" />

=== Level II: Morphological Description ===
Level II characterizes stream type by using numbers 1 - 6, in addition to letters A - G, to include the assessments of the channel cross-section, longitudinal profile, and plan-form pattern.<ref name=":0" /> Cross-section measurements include a streams entrenchment ratio, width/depth ratio, and dominant substrate. The longitudinal and plan-form measurements consist of [[slope]], stream bed features, [[sinuosity]], and [[meander]] width ratio. Level II is a quantitative morphological assessment of the stream reach which provides greater detail from data collected in the field for the implementation into land management decisions.<ref name=":1" />

=== Level III: Assessment of Stream Condition and Departure from its Potential ===
Level III describes the existing condition of a stream as it relates to its stability, response potential, and function.<ref name=":1" /> This level includes additional measurements such as, sediment supply, channel stability, and flow regime which further describe the condition or “state” of the stream.<ref name=":1" />

=== Level IV: Field Data Verification ===
Level IV verifies the process relationships inferred from the previous three levels of classification.<ref name=":1" /> The objective of this level is to determine empirical relationships for use in prediction (e.g. to develop [[Manning's n|Manning’s n]] values from measured [[velocity]])<ref name=":1" />

== Applications ==
The Rosgen Stream Classification is probably best applied as a communication tool to describe channel form.<ref name=":2">Simon A., Doyle M., Kondolf M., Shields F.D., Rhoads B., and McPhillips M. 2007. “Critical Evaluation of How the Rosgen Classification and Associated ‘Natural Channel Design’ Methods Fail to Integrate and Quantify Fluvial Processes and Channel Response1.” ''JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association'' 43 (5): 1117–31. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2007.00091.x</nowiki>.</ref> Other uses for the Rosgen Stream Classification include fish habitat indices, surveys of [[Riparian zone|riparian]] communities, [[stream restoration]] and mitigation, engineering, evaluating livestock grazing related to stream type, and the utilization of sediment and hydraulic data by stream type.

== Limitations ==
Problems with the use of the Rosgen Stream Classification are encountered with identifying [[Bankfull discharge|bankfull]] dimensions, particularly in [[incising]] channels and with the mixing of bed and bank sediment into a single population.<ref name=":2" /> Its use for engineering design and restoration may be flawed by ignoring some processes governed by [[force]] and resistance, and the imbalance between [[Sediment transport|sediment]] supply and transporting power in unstable systems<ref name=":2" />

Limitations for Level II classification involve time dependence, uncertain applicability across physical environments, difficulty in identification of a true equilibrium condition, and uncertain process significance of classification criteria.<ref name=":3">Juracek Kyle E., and Fitzpatrick Faith A. 2007. “Limitations and Implications of Stream Classification.” ''JAWRA Journal of the American Water Resources Association'' 39 (3): 659–70. <nowiki>https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2003.tb03683.x</nowiki>.</ref> Implications of using the Rosgen Stream Classification, include: (1) acceptance of the limitations, (2) acceptance of the risk of classifying streams incorrectly, and (3) classification results may be used inappropriately<ref name=":3" />

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:Earth sciences]]
[[Category:Geographic classifications]]
[[Category:Geomorphology]]
[[Category:Geology]]
[[Category:Geological processes]]
[[Category:Physical geography]]
[[Category:Planetary science]]
[[Category:Topography]]
[[Category:Watercourses]]

League of cities

2020-10-13T23:18:45Z

Ciaurlec:

Several '''leagues of cities''' (in German: ''Städtebünde'', singular ''Städtebund'')
became influential in the history of the [[Holy Roman Empire]].
Military alliance and mutual assistance strengthened the position of [[imperial cities]], especially during
the [[Interregnum (Holy Roman Empire)|interregnum]] period of the 13th to 14th century.

*'''1167'''. The [[Lombard League]] was formed in 1167,<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/346706/Lombard-League |title=Lombard League|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |accessdate= Feb 12, 2013}}</ref> supported by the [[Pope]], to counter the attempts by the [[Hohenstaufen]] [[Holy Roman Emperor]]s to assert influence over the [[Kingdom of Italy (Holy Roman Empire)|Kingdom of Italy]]. At its apex, it included most of the cities of [[Northern Italy]], but its membership changed with time. With the death of the third and last Hohenstaufen emperor, [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick II]], in 1250, it became obsolete and was disbanded.
*'''1190'''. The [[Hanseatic League]] was a commercial and defensive confederation of merchant [[guild]]s and market towns in [[Northern Europe| Northwestern]] and [[Central Europe]]. Growing from a few [[Northern Germany |North German]] towns in the late 1100s, the league came to dominate [[Baltic maritime trade (c. 1400–1800)| Baltic maritime trade for three centuries]] along the coasts of Northern Europe. Hansa territories stretched from the [[Baltic Sea| Baltic]] to the [[North Sea]] and inland during the [[Late Middle Ages]], and diminished slowly after 1450.
*'''1197'''. The [[Tuscan League]] comprised the chief cities, barons and bishops of the [[March of Tuscany|Duchy of Tuscany]], directed against the Holy Roman Emperor in alliance with the papacy. The original signatories were the communes of [[Lucca]], [[Florence]] and [[Siena]], the people living under the castles of [[Prato]] and [[San Miniato]], and the [[bishopric of Volterra]]. They were later joined by the city of [[Arezzo]].<ref>I. S. Robinson (1990), ''The Papacy, 1073–1198: Continuity and Innovation'' (Cambridge University Press), p. 522.</ref>
*'''1254'''. The First Rhenish League (''Rheinischer Städtebund'') existed only between 1254 and 1257. It comprised 59 cities.
*'''1306'''. [[:de:Thüringer Dreistädtebund]] - the Three City League of Thuringia, was an alliance of [[Erfurt]], Nordhausen and Mühlhausen against the princely Wettin family of Saxony. It lasted from 1306 - 1481.
*'''1346'''. The [[Lusatian League]] ({{lang-de|Oberlausitzer Sechsstädtebund}}) was a league of six [[German town law|towns]] in the [[Lands of the Bohemian Crown|Bohemian]] (1346–1635), later [[Electorate of Saxony|Saxon]] (1635–1815) region of [[Upper Lusatia]], that existed from 1346 until 1815. The member towns were [[Bautzen]] ({{lang-hsb|Budyšin}}), [[Görlitz]] (''{{lang|hsb|Zhorjelc}}''), [[Kamenz]] (''{{lang|hsb|Kamjenc}}''), [[Lubań|Lauban]] (''{{lang|hsb|Lubań}}''), [[Löbau]] (''{{lang|hsb|Lubij}}'') and [[Zittau]] (''{{lang|hsb|Žitawa}}'')
*'''1354'''. The [[Décapole]] (''Dekapolis'' or {{lang-de|Zehnstädtebund}}) was an alliance formed in 1354 by ten [[Free imperial city|Imperial cities]] of the [[Holy Roman Empire]] in the [[Alsace]] region to maintain their rights. It was disbanded in 1679.
*'''1367'''. The [[Confederation of Cologne]] was a [[military alliance]] against [[Denmark]] signed 1367 by cities of the [[Hanseatic League]] on their meeting called ''[[Hansetag]]'' in [[Cologne]].
*'''1381'''. A Second Rhenish League and a first Swabian League were formed in 1381, merging into the South German League (''Süddeutscher Städtebund'') still in the same year. The League was a military defense pact against the nobility. Peace was made in the Treaty of Heidelberg on 26 July 1384.
*'''1412'''. [[Pentapolitana]] was a 15th-century alliance of the five most important [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungarian]] [[Royal free city|royal free cities]] (now eastern [[Slovakia]]): Kassa (today [[Košice]]), Bártfa ([[Bardejov]]), Lőcse ([[Levoča]]), Eperjes ([[Prešov]]), and Kisszeben ([[Sabinov]]).
*'''1440'''. The [[Prussian Confederation]] ({{lang-de|Preußischer Bund}}) was formed on 21 February 1440 at [[Kwidzyn|Marienwerder]] by a group of 53 nobles and clergy and 19 cities in [[Prussia (region)|Prussia]], to oppose the [[Teutonic Knights]]. It was based on the basis of an earlier similar organization, the [[Lizard Union (medieval)|Lizard Union]] established in 1397 by [[Chełmno Land]] nobles.
*'''1488'''. The [[Swabian League]] (''Schwäbischer Bund'') was a mutual defence and peace keeping association of [[Imperial State|Imperial Estates]] – free Imperial cities, prelates, principalities and knights – principally in the territory of the early medieval [[stem duchy]] of [[Duke of Swabia|Swabia]], established in 1488 at the behest of Emperor [[Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor|Frederick III of Habsburg]] and supported as well by [[Bertold von Henneberg-Römhild|Bertold von Henneberg-Römhild, archbishop of Mainz]], whose conciliar rather than monarchic view of the ''[[Reich]]'' often put him at odds with Frederick's successor [[Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor|Maximilian]]. The Swabian League cooperated towards the keeping of the imperial peace and at least in the beginning curbing the expansionist [[History of Bavaria|Bavarian]] dukes from the [[House of Wittelsbach]] and the revolutionary threat from the south in the form of the [[Old Swiss Confederacy|Swiss]]. The League held regular meetings, supported tribunals and maintained a unified force of 12,000 infantrymen and 1200 cavalry.<ref>R.G.D. Laffan, "The Empire under Maximilian I", in ''The New Cambridge Modern History'', vol. I 1975:198.</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==See also==
*[[Medieval commune]]
*[[Free imperial city]]
*[[Gray League]]
*[[Confederation of Cologne]]
*[[Covenant of Mayors]]

{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:League Of Towns}}
[[Category:Medieval Holy Roman Empire]]
[[Category:Medieval cities]]
[[Category:Medieval politics]]

Pontic Greek

2020-08-08T23:12:48Z

Ciaurlec: /* Geographic distribution */ list cheking

{{short description|Greek dialect}}
{{Infobox language
| name = Pontic Greek
| altname =
| nativename = {{lang|pnt|ποντιακά}}, ''pontiaká'', понтиакá
| states =
| region = originally the [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]] on the [[Black Sea]] coast; [[Russia]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and [[Turkey]]
| speakers = 778,000
| date = 2009-2015
| ref = <ref name=":0" />
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Greek language|Greek]]
| fam3 = [[Attic Greek|Attic]]–[[Ionic Greek|Ionic]]
| script = [[Greek alphabet|Greek]]; [[Latin script|Latin]]; [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]]
| iso3 = pnt
| lingua = 56-AAA-aj
| glotto = pont1253
| glottorefname = Pontic
| notice = IPA
}}

'''Pontic Greek''' ({{lang-el|Ποντιακή διάλεκτος}}, {{small|[[Romanization of Greek|romanized]]:}} {{transl|el|Pontiakí diálektos}}; Pontic Greek: Ποντιακόν λαλίαν, {{small|[[Romanization|romanized]]:}} {{transl|pnt|Pontiakón lalían}}) is a [[Varieties of Modern Greek|Greek dialect]] originally spoken in the [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]] area on the southern shores of the [[Black Sea]], northeastern [[Anatolia]], the Eastern Turkish/[[Caucasus]] province of [[Kars]], southern [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] and today mainly in northern [[Greece]]. Its speakers are referred to as [[Pontic Greeks]] or Pontian Greeks.

The linguistic lineage of Pontic Greek stems from [[Ionic Greek]] via [[Koine Greek|Koine]] and [[Byzantine Greek]], and contains influences from [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]] and [[Armenian language|Armenian]].

Pontic Greek is an endangered [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European language]] spoken by about 778,000 people worldwide.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/pnt/21|title=Pontic|work=Ethnologue|access-date=2018-04-11}}</ref> However, only 200,000–300,000 are considered active speakers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pwpl.lis.upatras.gr/index.php/mgdlt/article/viewFile/2578/2815|title=Topicalisation in Pontic Greek|last=|first=|date=|website=|access-date=}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Although it is mainly spoken in Northern Greece, it is also spoken in Turkey, Russia, [[Armenia]], Georgia and Kazakhstan and by the Pontic diaspora. The language was brought to Greece in the 1920s after the population exchange between the Christian Pontic Greeks and the Turkish Muslims from their homelands during the [[Population exchange between Greece and Turkey|1923 population exchange between Greece and Turkey]]. However, it is still spoken in pockets of the [[Pontus (region)|Pontus]] today, mostly by [[Greek Muslims#Greek Muslims of Pontus and the Caucasus|Pontic Greek Muslims]] in the eastern districts of [[Trabzon Province]]. Pontic Greek is considered a dialect of modern Greek, although reportedly, the speakers of each do not fully understand each other.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ethnologue.com/language/pnt|title=Pontic {{!}} Ethnologue|website=ethnologue}}</ref> It is primarily written in the [[Greek alphabet|Greek script]], while in Turkey and Ukraine the Latin script is used more frequently.

== Classification ==
Pontic Greek is classified as an [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]], [[Greek language]] of the [[Attic Greek|Attic]]-[[Ionic Greek|Ionic]] branch.<ref name=":0" />

==Name==
Historically the speakers of Pontic Greek called it ''Romeyka'' (or ''Romeika'', {{lang-el|Ρωμαίικα}}), which, in a more general sense, is also a historical and colloquial term for Modern Greek as a whole. The term "Pontic" originated in scholarly usage, but it has been adopted as a mark of identity by Pontic Greeks living in Greece.<ref>Drettas 1997, page 19.</ref>

Similarly, in [[Turkish language|Turkish]], the language is called ''Rumca'' (pronounced {{IPA|[ˈɾumd͡ʒa]}}), derived from the Turkish word ''[[Rûm#Ottoman usage|Rum]]'', denoting ethnic Greeks living in Turkey in general; the term also includes other Greek speakers in Turkey such as those from [[Istanbul]] or [[Imbros]] (Gökçeada) who speak a language close to [[Standard Modern Greek]].<ref name="Özkan" />

Today's Pontic speakers living in Turkey call their language ''Romeyka, Rumca'' or ''Rumcika''.<ref name="Özkan" />

== History ==
Similar to most modern Greek dialects, Pontic Greek is mainly derived from Koine Greek, which was spoken in the [[Hellenistic period|Hellenistic]] and [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] times between the 4th century BC and the 4th century AD. Following the [[Seljuk Empire|Seljuk invasion of Asia Minor]] during the 11th century AD, Pontus became isolated from many of the regions of the Byzantine Empire.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pontosworld.com/index.php/dialect/overview/282-development-of-the-pontic-greek-dialect-3|title=Development of the Pontic Greek Dialect|last=PontosWorld|website=pontosworld.com|access-date=2017-05-01}}</ref> The Pontians remained somewhat isolated from the mainland Greeks, causing Pontic Greek to develop separately and distinctly from the rest of the mainland Greek.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?public=false&handle=hein.journals/jrefst4&collection=journals&id=347|title=The Pontic Dialect: A Corrupt Version of Ancient Greek The Odyssey of the Pontic Greeks|last=|first=|date=|website=heinonline.org|access-date=2017-05-01}}</ref> However, the language has also been influenced by the nearby Persian, [[Languages of the Caucasus|Caucasian]] and Turkish languages.

==Dialects==
Greek linguist [[Manolis Triantafyllidis]] has divided the Pontic of Turkey into two groups:

*the Western group (''Oinountiac'' or ''Niotika'') around [[Ünye|Oenoe]] (Turkish ''Ünye'');
*the Eastern group, which is again subdivided into:
**the coastal subgroup (''Trapezountiac'') around [[Trabzon|Trebizond]] (Ancient Greek ''Trapezous'') and
**the inland subgroup (''Chaldiot'') in [[Chaldia]] (around [[Gümüşhane|Argyroupolis]] [Gümüşhane] and Kanin in Pontic), its vicinity ([[Kelkit]], [[Bayburt|Baibourt]], etc.), and around [[Ordu|Kotyora]] (Ordu).

Speakers of Chaldiot were the most numerous. In phonology, some varieties of Pontic are reported to demonstrate [[vowel harmony]], a well-known feature of Turkish (Mirambel 1965).

Outside Turkey one can distinguish:

*the Northern group (''[[Mariupol Greek]]'' or ''Rumeíka''), originally spoken in [[Crimea]], but now principally in [[Mariupol]], where the majority of Crimean Pontic Greeks of the Rumaiic subgroup now live. Other Pontic Greeks speak [[Crimean Tatar language|Crimean Tatar]] as their mother tongue, and are classified as "[[Urums]]". There are approximately half a dozen dialects of Crimean (Mariupolitan) Pontic Greek spoken.
**Soviet Rumaiic, a Soviet variant of the Pontic Greek language spoken by the Pontic Greek population of the [[Soviet Union]].

=== Ophitic ===
The inhabitants of the [[Of, Turkey|Of valley]] who had converted to Islam in the 17th century [[Greek Muslims|remained in Turkey]] and have partly retained the Pontic language until today.<ref name="Mackridge">{{cite journal |last1= Mackridge|first1= Peter|year= 1987|title= Greek-Speaking Moslems of North-East Turkey: Prolegomena to a Study of the Ophitic Sub-Dialect of Pontic|journal= Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies|volume= 11|issue= 1|pages= 115–137|doi=10.1179/030701387790203037}}</ref><ref name="Asan">{{cite book |last1= Asan|first1= Omer|title= Pontos Kültürü|trans-title= Pontos Culture|edition= 2nd|publisher= Belge Yayınları|location= Istambul|language= turkish|isbn= 975-344-220-3|year=2000|origyear= 1996}}</ref><ref name="Özkan 2">{{cite book |last1= Özkan|first1= H.|editor1-first= Horst D.|editor1-last= Blume|editor2-first=Cay|editor2-last=Lienau|title= Muslimisch-Pontisch und die Sprachgemeinschaft des Pontisch-Griechischen im heutigen Trabzon|trans-title= Muslim-Pontic and the language community of Pontic Greek in today's Trabzon|series= Choregia – Münstersche Griechenland-Studien|volume= 11|year= 2013|publisher= Lienau, C|isbn= 978-3-934017-15-3|pages= 115–137}}</ref><ref name="The cost of language">{{cite web |url=http://www.karalahana.com/english/cost-of-language.htm |title=The cost of language, Pontiaka trebizond Greek |accessdate=2013-03-31 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130411004931/http://www.karalahana.com/english/cost-of-language.htm |archivedate=2013-04-11 }}</ref>
Their dialect, which forms part of the Trapezountiac subgroup, is called "Ophitic" by linguists, but speakers generally call it ''Romeyka''. As few as 5,000 people are reported to speak it.<ref name="Cambridge">{{cite web |url=http://www.cam.ac.uk/research/news/against-all-odds-archaic-greek-in-a-modern-world |title=Against all odds: archaic Greek in a modern world | University of Cambridge |format= |website= |accessdate=2013-03-31|date=July 2010 }}</ref><ref name="independent">[https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/history/jason-and-the-argot-land-where-greeks-ancient-language-survives-2174669.html ''Jason and the argot: land where Greek's ancient language survives''], ''The Independent'', Monday, 3 January 2011.</ref> There are however estimates that show the real number of the speakers as considerably higher.<ref name="Özkan">{{cite journal|last=Özkan|first=Hakan|title=The Pontic Greek spoken by Muslims in the villages of Beşköy in the province of present-day Trabzon|journal=Byzantine and Modern Greek Studies|year=2013|volume=37|issue=1|pages=130–150|doi=10.1179/0307013112z.00000000023}}</ref> Speakers of Ophitic/Romeyka are concentrated in the eastern districts of Trabzon province: [[Çaykara]] (Katohor), [[Dernekpazarı]] (Kondu), [[Sürmene]] (Sourmena) and [[Köprübaşı, Trabzon|Köprübaşı]] (Göneşera). Although less widespread, it is still spoken in some remote villages of the Of district itself. It is also spoken in the western [[İkizdere]] (Dipotamos) district of Rize province. Historically the dialect was spoken in a wider area, stretching further east to the port town of Athina ([[Pazar, Rize|Pazar]]).

Ophitic has retained the [[infinitive]], which is present in [[Ancient Greek]] but has been lost in other variants of Modern Greek; it has therefore been characterized as "archaic" or [[Linguistic conservatism|conservative]] (even in relation to other Pontic dialects) and as the living language that is closest to Ancient Greek.<ref name="Cambridge"/><ref name="independent"/>

A very similar dialect is spoken by descendants of [[Christians]] from the Of valley (especially from [[Dernekpazarı|Kondu]]) now living in Greece in the village of [[Nea Trapezounta, Pieria]], [[Central Macedonia]], with about 400 speakers.<ref name="urlwww.latsis-foundation.org">Anthi Revythiadou and Vasileios Spyropoulos (2009): "Οφίτικη Ποντιακή: Έρευνα γλωσσικής καταγραφής με έμφαση στη διαχρονία και συγχρονία της διαλέκτου" [''Ophitic Pontic: A documentation project with special emphasis on the diachrony and synchrony of the dialect''] {{cite web|url=http://www.latsis-foundation.org/files/Meletes2009/11.report.pdf|title=www.latsis-foundation.org|accessdate=2011-10-29|language=el|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120131201021/http://www.latsis-foundation.org/files/Meletes2009/11.report.pdf|archivedate=2012-01-31}}</ref><ref name = "Revythiadou">{{cite book|script-title=el:Οφίτικη: Πτυχές της Γραμματικής Δομής μιας Ποντιακής Διαλέκτου|trans-title=Ofitica Pontic: Aspects of the Grammar of a Pontic Dialect|year=2012|language=Greek|publisher=Εκδοτικός Οίκος Αδελφών Κυριακίδη|location=Thessaloniki|isbn=978-960-467-344-5|last1=Revythiadou|first1 =A.|first2 = V. |last2 = Spyropoulos}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Revythiadou|first1=A.|first2=V.|last2=Spyropoulos|first3=K.|last3=Kakarikos|title=Η ταυτότητα της οφίτικης ποντιακής: Mια γλωσσολογική μελέτη των πηγών και των ομιλητών της|trans-title=The identity of ophitic pontic: A linguistic study of its sources and its speakers|language=Greek|journal=Δελτίο Κέντρο Μικρασιατικών Σπουδών|year=1912|volume=17|pages=217–275|url=http://www.revithiadou.gr/files/Ophis_KMS.pdf}}{{dead link|date=December 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

==Geographic distribution==
Though Pontic was originally spoken on the southern shores of the [[Black Sea]], from the 18th and 19th century and on substantial numbers migrated into the northern and eastern shores, into the [[Russian Empire]]. Pontic is still spoken by large numbers of people in [[Ukraine]], mainly in [[Mariupol]], but also in other parts of Ukraine such as the [[Odessa]] and [[Donetsk]] region, in [[Russia]] (around [[Stavropol]]) and [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]. The language enjoyed some use as a literary medium in the 1930s, including a school grammar (Topkharas 1998 [1932]).

After the [[Greek genocide|massacres of the 1910s]], the majority of speakers remaining in [[Asia Minor]] were subject to the [[Treaty of Lausanne]] [[Exchange of populations between Greece and Turkey|population exchange]], and were resettled in Greece (mainly northern Greece). A second wave of migration occurred in the early 1990s, this time from countries of the [[former Soviet Union]].<ref name="isbn0-7391-0565-5">{{cite book|title=The Refugee Convention at fifty: a view from forced migration studies|url=https://archive.org/details/refugeeconventio00kama|url-access=limited|author=Selm, Joanne van|publisher=Lexington Books|year=2003|isbn=0-7391-0565-5|location=Lexington, Mass|page=[https://archive.org/details/refugeeconventio00kama/page/n76 72]|doi=|oclc=|accessdate=}}[https://books.google.com/books?id=CLqlP77RUpUC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA72#v=onepage&q&f=false]</ref>

In Greece, Pontic is now many times used only emblematically rather than as a medium of communication due to the mixing of Pontic and other Greeks.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}

* [[Greece]]: 400,000 speakers, mostly in [[Macedonia (Greece)|Macedonia]] ([[East Macedonia and Thrace|East]], [[Central Macedonia|Central]] and [[West Macedonia|West]]) and in [[Attica (region)|Attica]]<ref name="e17"/>
* [[Turkey]]: Unknown (certainly more than 5,000), mostly in eastern [[Black Sea Region]] and in [[Istanbul]]<ref name="UCambridge">{{cite web|url=http://www.cam.ac.uk/news/endangered-language-opens-window-on-to-past|title=News and Events: Endangered language opens window on to past|publisher=[[University of Cambridge]]|date=2011-01-04 |accessdate=2013-03-20}}</ref><ref name="e17">{{cite web |url=http://www.karalahana.com/karadeniz/linguistik/romeika.htm |title=Romeika - Pontic Greek (tr) |publisher=Karalahana.com |accessdate=2013-03-20 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140225085505/http://www.karalahana.com/karadeniz/linguistik/romeika.htm |archivedate=2014-02-25 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.karalahana.com/makaleler/dilbilim/pontusca%20turkce%20sozluk.html |title=Pontic Greek (Trabzon Of dialect) - Turkish Dictionary (tr) |publisher=Karalahana.com |accessdate=2013-03-20 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080312215323/http://www.karalahana.com/makaleler/dilbilim/pontusca%20turkce%20sozluk.html |archivedate=2008-03-12 }}</ref>
** Of-dialectical region:
*** [[Of, Turkey|Of]]: multiple villages
*** [[Çaykara]]: (24-70 villages)
*** [[Dernekpazarı]]: (13 villages)
*** [[Köprübaşı, Trabzon|Köprübaşı]]: (5 villages)
*** [[Sürmene]]: (31 villages)
*** [[Rize]]: (21 villages, mostly in [[İkizdere]] district)
** To the west of Trabzon:
*** [[Maçka]]: A handful of villages, settled from the Of-Çaykara region
*** [[Tonya, Turkey|Tonya]]: (17 villages)
*** [[Beşikdüzü]]: 1 village
*** [[Giresun]]: (3 villages in [[Bulancak]] district)
*** [[Gümüşhane]]: Sparsely in [[Torul-ardasa]], [[Yağlıdere-kromni]], [[Dumanlı]]
** Caucasus region
*** [[Kars]]: Multiple villages and provincial capital.

== Official status ==
===Greece===
In Greece, Pontic has no official status, like all other Greek dialects.

===Soviet Union===
Historically, Pontic Greek was the ''de facto'' language of the Greek minority in the [[USSR]], although in the Πανσυνδεσμιακή Σύσκεψη (''Pansyndesmiakí Sýskepsi'', All-Union Conference) of 1926, organised by the Greek-Soviet [[intelligentsia]], it was decided that [[Dimotiki|Demotic]] should be the official language of the community.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elemedu.upatras.gr/eriande/synedria/synedrio3/praltika%2011/malkidis-karatzas.htm|script-title=el:ΟΨΕΙΣ ΤΗΣ ΕΚΠΑΙΔΕΥΣΗΣ ΚΑΙ ΤΗΣ ΚΟΙΝΩΝΙΑΣ ΤΩΝ ΕΛΛΗΝΩΝ|accessdate=2011-01-15|language=el|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721084020/http://www.elemedu.upatras.gr/eriande/synedria/synedrio3/praltika%2011/malkidis-karatzas.htm|archivedate=2011-07-21}}</ref>

Later revival of Greek identity in the Soviet Union and post-Communist Russia saw a renewed division on the issue of Rumaiic versus Demotic. A new attempt to preserve a sense of ethnic Rumaiic identity started in the mid-1980s. The Ukrainian scholar [[Andriy Biletsky (linguist)|Andriy Biletsky]] created a new Slavonic alphabet, but though a number of writers and poets make use of this alphabet, the population of the region rarely uses it.<ref>Survey carried out in 2001–2004, organized by St. Petersburg State University</ref>

== Culture ==
The language has a rich oral tradition and folklore and Pontic songs are particularly popular in Greece. There is also some limited production of modern literature in Pontic, including [[poetry collections]] (among the most renowned writers is [[Kostas Diamantidis]]), novels, and translated [[Asterix]] [[comic album]]s.<ref>[http://www.asterix.com/encyclopedia/translations/asterix-in-pontic-greek.html Asterix in Pontic Greek] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121005053203/http://asterix.com/encyclopedia/translations/asterix-in-pontic-greek.html |date=2012-10-05 }}.</ref> The youth often speak standard Greek as their first language. The use of Pontic has been maintained more by speakers in North America than it has in Greece.<ref name=":0" />

== Alphabets ==
Pontic, in Greece, is written in the [[Greek alphabet]], with diacritics: {{lang|grc|σ̌ ζ̌ ξ̌ ψ̌ }} for {{IPA|/ʃ ʒ kʃ pʃ/}}, {{lang|grc|α̈ ο̈ }} for {{IPA|[æ ø]}} (phonological {{IPA|/ia io/}}). Pontic, in Turkey, is written in the [[Latin alphabet]] following Turkish conventions. In Russia, it is written in the [[Cyrillic alphabet]]{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}}. In early Soviet times, Pontic was written in the Greek alphabet phonetically, as shown below, using digraphs instead of diacritics; {{IPA|[æ ø]}} were written out as {{lang|grc|ια}}, {{lang|grc|ιο}}.

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Greek alphabet !! Turkish alphabet !! Cyrillic alphabet{{Citation needed|date=March 2018}} !! IPA !! Example
|-
| Α α || A a || А а || {{IPAblink|ä}} || ρομεικ'''α''', romeyik'''a''', ромейик'''а'''
|-
| Β β || V v || В в || {{IPAblink|v}} || κατι'''β'''ενο, kati'''v'''eno, кати'''в'''ено
|-
| Γ γ || Ğ ğ || Г г || {{IPAblink|ɣ}} {{IPAblink|ʝ}} || '''γ'''ανεβο, '''ğ'''anevo, '''г'''анево
|-
| Δ δ || DH dh || Д д || {{IPAblink|ð}} || '''δ'''οντι, '''dh'''onti, '''д'''онти
|-
| Ε ε || E e || Е е || {{IPAblink|e̞}} || '''ε'''γαπεςα, '''e'''ğapesa, '''е'''гапеса
|-
| Ζ ζ || Z z || З з || {{IPAblink|z}} || '''ζ'''αντος, '''z'''antos, '''з'''антос
|-
| ΖΖ ζζ || J j || Ж ж || {{IPAblink|ʒ}} || πυρ'''ζζ'''υας, bur'''j'''uvas, бур'''ж'''уас
|-
| Θ θ || TH th || С с, Ф ф, Т т || {{IPAblink|θ}} || '''θ'''εκο, '''th'''eko, '''т'''еко
|-
| Ι ι || İ i || И и || {{IPAblink|i}} || τοςπ'''ι'''τοπον, tosp'''i'''topon, тосп'''и'''топон
|-
| Κ κ || K k || К к || {{IPAblink|k}} || '''κ'''αλατζεμαν, '''k'''alaceman, '''к'''алачеман
|-
| Λ λ || L l || Л л || {{IPAblink|l}} || '''λ'''αλια, '''l'''alia, '''л'''алиа
|-
| Μ μ || M m || М м || {{IPAblink|m}} || '''μ'''ανα, '''m'''ana, '''м'''ана
|-
| Ν ν || N n || Н н || {{IPAblink|n}} || ολιγο'''ν''', oliğо'''n''', олиго'''н'''
|-
| Ο ο || O o || О о || {{IPAblink|o̞}} || τεμετερ'''ο'''ν, temeter'''o'''n, теметер'''о'''н
|-
| Π π || P p || П п || {{IPAblink|p}} || εγα'''π'''εςα, eğa'''p'''esa, ега'''п'''еса
|-
| Ρ ρ || R r || Р р || {{IPAblink|ɾ}} || '''ρ'''ομεικα, '''r'''omeyika, '''р'''омейка
|-
| Σ ς || S s || С с || {{IPAblink|s}} || καλατζεπ'''ς'''ον, kalacep'''s'''on, калачеп'''с'''он
|-
| ΣΣ ςς || Ş ş || Ш ш || {{IPAblink|ʃ}} || '''ςς'''ερι, '''ş'''eri, '''ш'''ери
|-
| Τ τ || T t || Т т || {{IPAblink|t}} || νος'''τ'''ιμεςα, nos'''t'''imesa, нос'''т'''имеса
|-
| ΤΖ τζ || C c || Ц ц || {{IPAblink|d͡ʒ}} || καλα'''τζ'''εμαν, kala'''c'''eman, кала'''ц'''еман
|-
| ΤΣ τς || Ç ç || Ч ч || {{IPAblink|t͡ʃ}} || μανι'''τς'''α, mani'''ç'''a, мани'''ч'''а
|-
| Υ υ || U u || У у || {{IPAblink|u}} || ν'''υ'''ς, n'''u'''s, н'''у'''с
|-
| Φ φ || F f || Ф ф || {{IPAblink|f}} || εμορ'''φ'''α, emor'''f'''a, эмор'''ф'''а
|-
| Χ χ || H, KH (sert H) || Х х || {{IPAblink|x}} || '''χ'''αςον, '''h'''ason, '''х'''асон
|}

== Archaisms ==
{{Unreferenced section|date=February 2020}}
The following are features of Pontic Greek which have been retained from early forms of Greek, in contrast to the developments of Modern Greek.

===Phonology===
*Preservation of the ancient pronunciation of 'η' as 'ε' (κέπιν = κήπιον, κλέφτες = κλέπτης, συνέλικος = συνήλικος, νύφε = νύ(μ)φη, έγκα = ἤνεγκον, έτον = ἦτον, έκουσα = ἤκουσα etc.).
*Preservation of the ancient pronunciation 'ω' as 'o' where Koine Greek received it as 'ου' (ζωμίν = ζουμί, καρβώνι, ρωθώνι etc.).
*Preservation of the [[Ionic Greek|Ionic]] consonant pair 'σπ' instead of Koine 'σφ' (σποντύλιν, σπἰγγω, σπιντόνα).

===Declension of nouns and adjectives===
*Preservation of the ancient [[nominative]] suffix ''-ν'' in neuter diminutive nouns from Ancient Greek '-ίον' (παιδίον, χωρίον; Pontic παιδίν, χωρίν).
*Preservation of the termination of feminine compound adjectives in -ος (η άλαλος, η άνοστος, η έμορφος).
*The declension of masculine nouns from singular, nominative termination '-ον' to [[genitive]] '-ονος' (ο νέον → τη νέονος, ο πάππον → τη πάππονος, ο λύκον → τη λύκονος, ο Τούρκον → τη Τούρκονος etc.).
*The ancient accenting of nouns in [[vocative]] form: άδελφε, Νίκολα, Μάρια.

===Conjugation of verbs===
*The second [[aorist]] form in -ον (ανάμνον, μείνον, κόψον, πίσον, ράψον, σβήσον).
*The [[middle voice]] verb termination in -ούμαι (ανακατούμαι, σκοτούμαι, στεφανούμαι).
*The [[passive voice]] aorist termination in -θα (anc. -θην): εγαπέθα, εκοιμέθα, εστάθα etc.
*The [[Imperative mood|imperative]] form of passive aorist in -θετε (anc -θητι): εγαπέθετε, εκοιμέθετε, εστάθετε.
*The sporadic use of [[infinitive]]s (εποθανείναι, μαθείναι, κόψ'ναι, ράψ'ναι, χαρίσ'ναι, αγαπέθειν, κοιμεθείν).
*Pontic ''en'' ("is") from Koine idiomatic form ''enesti'' (standard Ancient Greek ''esti''), compare the Biblical form ''eni'' ("there is"), Modern Greek ''ine'' (είναι)

===Lexicology===
*The sporadic use of 'ας' in the place of 'να': δός με ας τρόω.
*Pontic ''temeteron'' ("ours") from Ancient Greek ''ton hemeteron'' in contrast to Modern Greek ''ton […] mas''.

=== Comparison with Ancient Greek ===
; 1. Attachment of the /e/ sound to the ancient infinitive suffix –εῖν, -ειν (in Trapezountiac Pontic)
: {|
|-
| '''PONTIC''' || '''ANCIENT'''
|-
| ειπείνε || εἰπεῖν
|-
| παθείνε || παθεῖν
|-
| αποθανείνε || ἀποθανεῖν
|-
| πιείνε || πιεῖν
|-
| ειδείνε || εἰδεῖν
|-
| φυείνε || φυγεῖν
|-
| ευρείνε || εὑρεῖν
|-
| καμείνε || καμεῖν
|-
| φαείνε || φαγεῖν
|-
| μαθείνε || μαθεῖν
|-
| ερθέανε || ἐλθεῖν
|-
| μενείνε || μένειν
|}

; 2. Preservation of the Ancient infinitive suffix -ῆναι
: {|
|-
| '''PONTIC''' || '''ANCIENT'''
|-
| ανεβήναι || ἀναβῆναι
|-
| κατεβήναι || καταβῆναι
|-
| εμπήναι|| ἐμβῆναι
|-
| εβγήναι || ἐκβῆναι
|-
| επιδεαβήναι || ἀποδιαβῆναι
|-
| κοιμεθήναι || κοιμηθῆναι
|-
| χτυπεθήναι || κτυπηθῆναι
|-
| ευρεθήναι || εὑρεθῆναι
|-
| βρασήναι || βραχῆναι
|-
| ραήναι || ῥαγῆναι
|}

; 3. Ancient [[Ancient Greek grammar#Aorist tense|first aorist]] infinitive suffix -αι has been replaced by [[Ancient Greek grammar#Aorist tense|second aorist]] suffix -ειν
: {|
|-
| '''PONTIC''' || '''ANCIENT'''
|-
| κράξειν || κράξαι
|-
| μεθύσειν || μεθύσαι
|}

; 4. Attachment of the /e/ sound to the ancient aorist infinitive suffix –ειν
: ράψεινε, κράξεινε, μεθύσεινε, καλέσεινε, λαλήσεινε, κτυπήσεινε, καθίσεινε

; 5. Same aorist suffix –κα (–κα was also the regular perfect suffix)
: {|
|-
| '''PONTIC''' || '''ANCIENT'''
|-
| εδώκα || ἔδωκα
|-
| ενδώκα || ἐνέδωκα
|-
| εποίκα || ἐποίηκα
|-
| εφήκα || ἀφῆκα
|-
| εθήκα || ἔθηκα
|}

; 6. Ancient Greek –ein (-εῖν) infinitive > Pontic Greek –eane (-έανε) infinitive
: {|
|-
| '''PONTIC''' || '''ANCIENT'''
|-
| ερθέανε || ἐλθεῖν
|}

== See also ==
* [[Mariupolitan Greek]]
* [[Caucasus Greeks]]
* [[Cappadocian Greek]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

==Bibliography==

* Georges Drettas, ''Aspects pontiques'', ARP, 1997, {{ISBN|2-9510349-0-3}}. "... marks the beginning of a new era in Greek dialectology. Not only is it the first comprehensive grammar of Pontic not written in Greek, but it is also the first self-contained grammar of any Greek 'dialect' written, in the words of Bloomfield, 'in terms of its own structure'." (Janse)
* Berikashvili, Svetlana. 2017. Morphological aspects of Pontic Greek spoken in Georgia. LINCOM GmbH. {{ISBN|978-3862888528}}
* [[Özhan Öztürk]], Karadeniz: Ansiklopedik Sözlük. 2 Cilt. Heyamola Yayıncılık. İstanbul, 2005. {{ISBN|975-6121-00-9}}
* Τομπαΐδης, Δ.Ε. 1988. Η Ποντιακή Διάλεκτος. Αθήνα: Αρχείον Πόντου. (Tompaidis, D.E. 1988. The Pontic Dialect. Athens: Archeion Pontou.)
* Τομπαΐδης, Δ.Ε. ϗ Συμεωνίδης, Χ.Π. 2002. Συμπλήρωμα στο Ιστορικόν Λεξικόν της Ποντικής Διαλέκτου του Α.Α. Παπαδόπουλου. Αθήνα: Αρχείον Πόντου. (Tompaidis, D.E. and Simeonidis, C.P. 2002. Additions to the Historical Lexicon of the Pontic Dialect of A.A. Papadopoulos. Athens: Archeion Pontou.)
* Παπαδόπουλος, Α.Α. 1955. Ιστορική Γραμματική της Ποντικής Διαλέκτου. Αθήνα: Επιτροπή Ποντιακών Μελετών. (Papadopoulos, A.A. 1955. Historical Grammar of the Pontic Dialect. Athens: Committee for Pontian Studies.)
* Παπαδόπουλος, Α.Α. 1958–61. Ιστορικόν Λεξικόν της Ποντικής Διαλέκτου. 2 τόμ. Αθήνα: Μυρτίδης. (Papadopoulos, A.A. 1958–61. Historical Lexicon of the Pontic Dialect. 2 volumes. Athens: Mirtidis.)
* Οικονομίδης, Δ.Η. 1958. Γραμματική της Ελληνικής Διαλέκτου του Πόντου. Αθήνα: Ακαδημία Αθηνών. (Oikonomidis, D.I. 1958. Grammar of the Greek Dialect of Pontos. Athens: Athens Academy.)
* Τοπχαράς, Κονσταντίνος. 1998 [1932]. Η Γραμματική της Ποντιακής: Ι Γραματικι τι Ρομεικυ τι Ποντεικυ τι Γλοςας. Θεσσαλονίκη: Αφοί Κυριακίδη. (Topcharas, K. 1998 [1932]. The Grammar of Pontic. Thessaloniki: Afoi Kiriakidi.)

== External links ==
{{InterWiki|code=pnt}}
{{commons category|Pontic}}
* [[Mark Janse]], "[https://web.archive.org/web/20060225174417/http://www.benjamins.com/jbp/series/JGL/3/art/0008a.pdf Aspects of Pontic grammar]", a Review Article of Drettas (1997). The [[Scholarly paper|paper]] summarizes the high points of the book.
* [http://www.epm.gr/ Committee for Pontian Studies (Επιτροπή Ποντιακών Μελετών)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080611151243/http://www.karalahana.com/english/omer_asan.htm Trebizond Greek: A language without a tongue]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20130411004931/http://www.karalahana.com/english/cost-of-language.htm Pontic Greek: A cost of a language]
* [http://pontosworld.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=776&Itemid=75 The Pontic Dialect]
* [http://www.argonautai-komninoi.gr Argonautai Komninoi Association]
* [http://pontosworld.com/index.php/dialect/dictionary Pontic Greek - English Dictionary]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20091009104633/http://www.karalahana.com/english/development-of-the-pontic-greek-dialect.html Development of the Pontic Greek Dialect]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UcAYP4irSyQ Archaic Greek in a modern world] video from Cambridge University, on YouTube
*Hakan Özkan (Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität), [https://web.archive.org/web/20180311021424/http://www.ifea-istanbul.net/index.php?option=com_k2&view=item&id=3898:hakan-%C3%B6zkan-the-language-of-the-mountains-the-rumca-dialect-of-s%C3%BCrmene-08-12-2010&Itemid=315 The language of the mountains - the Rumca dialect of Sürmene] (Conference, 8 December 2010)

{{Greek language}}
{{Languages of Georgia (country)}}
{{Languages of Greece}}
{{Languages of Ukraine}}

[[Category:Pontic Greeks|Language]]
[[Category:Varieties of Modern Greek]]
[[Category:Languages of Greece]]
[[Category:Languages of Turkey]]
[[Category:Languages of Georgia (country)]]
[[Category:Languages of Abkhazia]]
[[Category:Languages of Azerbaijan]]
[[Category:Languages of Cyprus|Greek, Pontic]]
[[Category:Languages of Russia]]
[[Category:Languages of Ukraine]]
[[Category:Languages of Armenia]]
[[Category:Languages of Kazakhstan]]
[[Category:Languages of Uzbekistan]]
[[Category:Languages of the Balkans]]
[[Category:Endangered Indo-European languages]]

Griko language

2020-08-08T23:08:33Z

Ciaurlec: /* Geographic distribution */ administrative divisions

{{Infobox language
| name = Griko
| nativename = Γκραίκο · Γκρίκο
| states = Italy
| region = [[Salento]], [[Calabria]]
| ethnicity = [[Greeks]]
| speakers = 20,000
| date = 1981
| speakers2 = 40,000 to 50,000 [[Second language|L2]] speakers
| ref = <ref>N. Vincent, ''Italian'', in B. Comrie (ed.) ''The world's major languages'', London, Croom Helm, 1981. pp. 279-302.</ref>
| familycolor = Indo-European
| fam2 = [[Hellenic languages|Hellenic]]
| fam3 = [[Greek language|Greek]]
| fam4 = [[Attic Greek|Attic]]–[[Ionic Greek|Ionic]] (Disputed) [[Doric Greek|Doric]] (Disputed)
| fam5 = [[Italiot Greek (disambiguation)|Italiot Greek]]
| isoexception = dialect
| script = [[Greek alphabet]], [[Latin alphabet]]
| minority = {{Flag|Italy}} <ul><li>{{flag|Apulia}}</li></ul>
| lingua = 56-AAA-aia
| glotto = none
| glotto2 = apul1236
| glottoname2 = Apulia-Calabrian Greek
| map = GrikoSpeakingCommunitiesTodayV4.png
| mapsize = 240px
| mapcaption = Location map of the Italiot-speaking areas in Salento and Calabria
}}

'''Griko''', sometimes spelled '''Grico''', is the dialect of [[Italiot Greek (disambiguation)|Italiot Greek]] spoken by [[Griko people]] in [[Salento]] (province of Lecce) and (sometimes spelled '''Grecanic'''<ref>F. Violi, ''Lessico Grecanico-Italiano-Grecanico'', Apodiafàzzi, [[Reggio Calabria]], 1997.</ref><ref>Paolo Martino, ''L'isola grecanica dell'Aspromonte. Aspetti sociolinguistici'', 1980. Risultati di un'inchiesta del 1977</ref><ref>Filippo Violi, ''Storia degli studi e della letteratura popolare grecanica'', C.S.E. [[Bova (Italia)|Bova]] ([[provincia di Reggio Calabria|RC]]), 1992</ref><ref>Filippo Condemi, ''Grammatica Grecanica'', Coop. Contezza, [[Reggio Calabria]], 1987;</ref><ref>[http://www.treccani.it/lingua_italiana/speciali/minoranze/Romano.html In Salento e Calabria le voci della minoranza linguistica greca | Treccani, il portale del sapere]</ref>) in [[Calabria]]. Some Greek linguists consider it to be a [[Modern Greek]] dialect and often call it ''Katoitaliótika'' ({{lang-el|Κατωιταλιώτικα}}, "Southern Italian") or ''Grekanika'' ({{lang|el|Γρεκάνικα}}), whereas its own speakers call it ''Greko'' ({{lang|el|Γκραίκο}} or Calabrian Greek, in Calabria) or ''Griko'' ({{lang|el|Γκρίκο}}, in Salento). ''Griko'' is spoken in Salento while ''Greko'' is spoken in Calabria. Griko and [[Standard Modern Greek]] are partially [[Mutual intelligibility|mutually intelligible]], meaning speakers can understand each other without having to know each others' language.<ref>Hammarström (2015) Ethnologue 16/17/18th editions: a comprehensive review: online appendices</ref>

==Classification==
The most popular hypothesis on the origin of Griko is the one by [[Gerhard Rohlfs]]<ref>G. Rohlfs, Griechen und Romanen in Unteritalien, 1924.</ref> and [[Georgios Hatzidakis]], that Griko's roots go as far back in history as the time of the [[colonies in antiquity|ancient Greek colonies]] in [[Southern Italy]] and [[Sicily]] in the eighth century BC. The Southern Italian dialect is thus considered to be the last living trace of the Greek elements that once formed [[Magna Graecia]].

There are, however, competing hypotheses according to which Griko may have preserved some [[Doric Greek|Doric]] elements, but its structure is otherwise mostly based on [[Koine Greek]], like almost all other Modern Greek dialects.<ref>G. Horrocks, ''Greek: A history of the language and its speakers'', London: Longman. 1997. Ch. 4.4.3 and 14.2.3.</ref> Thus, Griko should rather be described as a Doric-influenced descendant of [[Medieval Greek]] spoken by those who fled the [[Byzantine Empire]] to Italy trying to escape the [[Ottoman Empire|Turks]]. The idea of Southern Italy's Greek dialects being historically derived from Medieval Greek was proposed for the first time in the 19th century by Giuseppe Morosi.<ref>G. Morosi, Studi sui dialetti greci della terra d'Otranto, [[Lecce]], 1870.</ref>

==Geographic distribution==
Two small Italiot-speaking communities survive today in the Italian regions of [[Calabria]] ([[Province of Reggio Calabria|Metropolitan city of Reggio Calabria]]) and [[Apulia]] ([[Province of Lecce]]). The Italiot-speaking area of Apulia comprises nine small towns in the [[Grecìa Salentina]] region ([[Calimera]], [[Martano]], [[Castrignano de' Greci]], [[Corigliano d'Otranto]], [[Melpignano]], [[Soleto]], [[Sternatia]], [[Zollino]], [[Martignano]]), with a total of 40,000 inhabitants. The [[Calabrian Greek]] region also consists of nine villages in [[Bovesia]], (including Bova Superiore, [[Roghudi]], [[Gallicianò]], Chorìo di Roghudi and [[Bova Marina]]) and four districts in the city of [[Reggio Calabria]], but its population is significantly smaller, with around only 2000 inhabitants.

==Official status==
By Law 482 of 1999, the [[Italian parliament]] recognized the Griko communities of Reggio Calabria and Salento as a [[Greeks|Greek]] [[ethnic groups|ethnic]] and [[linguistics|linguistic]] [[minority language|minority]]. It states that the Republic protects the language and culture of its [[Albanians|Albanian]], [[Catalan people|Catalan]], [[Germanic peoples|Germanic]], [[Greeks|Greek]], [[Slovenes|Slovene]] and [[Croats|Croat]] populations and of those who speak [[French language|French]], [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]], [[Friulian language|Friulian]], [[Ladin language|Ladin]], [[Occitan language|Occitan]] and [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]].<ref>[http://www.camera.it/parlam/leggi/99482l.htm Law no. 482 of 1999]: "La Repubblica tutela la lingua e la cultura delle '''popolazioni''' albanesi, catalane, germaniche, '''greche''', slovene e croate e di quelle parlanti il francese, il franco-provenzale, il friulano, il ladino, l'occitano e il sardo."</ref> According to UNESCO it has been classified as a critically endangered language.

==Culture==
There is rich oral tradition and Griko [[folklore]]. Griko songs, [[music]] and [[poetry]] are particularly popular in Italy and [[Greece]]. Famous music groups from Salento include [[Ghetonia]] and [[Aramirè]]. Also, influential Greek artists such as [[Dionysis Savvopoulos]] and [[Maria Farantouri]] have performed in Griko. The Greek musical ensemble [[Encardia]] focuses on Griko songs as well as on the musical tradition of Southern Italy at large.<ref>{{cite web | title=Website of Encardia | accessdate=2016-02-17 |url=http://www.encardia.gr/home/index.php/biography }}</ref><ref name="GreekReporter">{{cite news|last1=Tsatsou|first1=Marianna|title=Charity Concert Collects Medicine and Milk Instead of Selling Tickets|url=http://greece.greekreporter.com/2012/04/22/charity-concert-collects-medicine-and-milk-instead-of-selling-tickets/|accessdate=31 December 2016|publisher=Greek Reporter|date=April 22, 2012}}</ref>

===Samples===
Sample text from ''{{lang|el|Καληνύφτα}} – Kalinifta'' ("Good night") and ''Andramu pai'', popular Griko songs:

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Griko !! Modern Greek !! English Translation
|-
| {{lang|el|Καληνύφτα}} - ''kali'nifta'' || {{lang|el|Καληνύχτα}} - ''kali'nixta'' || Good night
|-
| {{lang|el|Εβώ πάντα σε σένα πενσέω, γιατί σένα φσυχή μου 'γαπώ, τσαι που πάω, που σύρνω, που στέω στην καρδία,<ref name="Synizesis">Often, in actual performances of the song, [[synizesis]] takes place on the two final syllables of καρδία (/kar.'di.a/ > /kar.dja/) corresponding to Standard Modern Greek καρδιά /kar.'ðʝa/ (< καρδία /kar.'ði.a/).</ref> μου πάντα σένα βαστῶ.}} || {{lang|el|Εγώ πάντα εσένα σκέφτομαι, γιατί εσένα ψυχή μου αγαπώ, και όπου πάω, όπου σέρνομαι, όπου στέκομαι<ref name="Passive/active verb forms"> The verbs "σέρνομαι" and "στέκομαι" are in passive forms but the active forms "σέρνω" (serno) and [especially] "στέκω" (steko) of the respective verbs can be used with "passive meaning" in modern Greek. </ref>, στην καρδιά μου πάντα εσένα βαστώ.}}||''I always think of you'' ''because I love you, my soul,'' ''and wherever I go, wherever I drag myself to, wherever I stand,'' ''inside my heart I always hold you.''
|-
| [eˈvo ˈpanta se ˈsena penˈseo jaˈti ˈsena fsiˈhi mu ɣaˈpo tɕe pu ˈpao pu ˈsirno pu ˈsteo stin karˈdia<ref name="Synizesis" /> mu ˈpanta ˈsena vasˈto]|| [eˈɣo ˈpanda eˈsena ˈsceftome ʝaˈti eˈsena psiˈçi mu aɣaˈpo ce ˈopu ˈpao ˈopu ˈserno[me] ˈopu ˈsteko[me]<ref name="Passive/active verb forms"/> stin garˈðʝa mu ˈpanda eˈsena vaˈsto]|| ...
|}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Griko !! Modern Greek !! English Translation
|-
| {{lang|el|Ἄνδρα μοῦ πάει}} - ''Andramu pai'' || {{lang|el|Ὁ ἄνδρας μοῦ πάει}} - ''O andras mou pai'' || My husband is gone
|-
| {{lang|el|Στὲ κούω τὴ μπάντα τσαὶ στὲ κούω ἦττο σόνο Στέω ἐττοῦ μα 'σα τσαὶ στὲ πένσεω στὸ τρένο Πένσεω στὸ σκοτεινό τσαὶ ἤττη μινιέρα ποῦ πολεμώντα ἐτσεί πεσαίνει ὁ γένο!}} || {{lang|el|Ἀκούω τὴν μπάντα, ἀκούω τὴ μουσική Εἶμαι ἐδὼ μαζί σας μὰ σκέφτομαι τὸ τρένο Σκέφτομαι τὸ σκοτάδι καὶ τὸ ὀρυχεῖο ὅπου δουλεύοντας πεθαίνει ὁ κόσμος!}}||''I hear the band, I hear the music'' ''I'm here with you but I think of the train'' ''I think of darkness and the mine'' ''where people work and die!''
|-
| ''Ste 'kuo ti 'baⁿda ce ste kuo itto sono,'' ''steo et'tu ma sa ce ste 'penseo sto 'treno, penseo sto skotinò citti miniera'' ''pu polemònta ecì peseni o jeno!''|| ''Akuo ti banda, akuo ti musiki ime edho mazi sas ma skeftome to treno skeftome to skotadhi kai to orihio opu doulevontas petheni o kosmos!''|| ...
|} 

== Phonology ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Consonants
!
!Bilabial
!Labiodental
!Dental
!Alveolar
!Postalveolar
!Palatal
!Velar
!Uvular
|-
|Plosive
|{{IPAlink|p}} b
|
|t
|
|d
|
|k g
|
|-
|Nasal
|m
|
|
|
|n
|ɲ
|
|
|-
|Trill
|
|
|
|
|r
|
|
|
|-
|Tap or Flap
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Fricative
|
|f v
|θ s
|
|ʃ
|
|
|χ
|-
|Lateral Fricative
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Approximant
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
|-
|Lateral Approximant
|
|
|
|
|l
|
|
|
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Vowels
!
!Front
!Back
|-
|High
|i
|u
|-
|Mid
|e
|o
|-
|Low
|
|a
|}

==See also==
* [[Hellenic languages]]
* [[Calabrian Greek dialect]]
* [[Griko people]]

==Notes and references==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* [[Henry Fanshawe Tozer|H. F. Tozer]]. "The Greek-Speaking Population of Southern Italy." ''[[The Journal of Hellenic Studies]].'' Vol. 10 (1889), pp. 11–42.

==External links==
* [http://www.culturalsurvival.org/publications/cultural-survival-quarterly/italy/brink-griko-language-resistance-and-celebration On the Brink: Griko; A Language of Resistance and Celebration - Cultural Survival]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rareYrKl8-s Franco st'Anguria], [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yzx4fM4WLzM Lo "Schiacúddhi"] Two plays performed in the local [[griko|Greek dialect]] of Choriána (Corigliano d'Otranto)
* [http://www.glossagrika.it/ Glossa Grika] o Griko Derentinò (in Griko, Italian, Standard-Greek and French)
* [http://enosi-griko.org/ Enosi Griko], Coordination of Grecìa Salentina Associations (Italian, Greek and English)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20181014165435/http://www.e-griko.eu/ Pos Matome Griko] (in Italian, Greek and English)
* [http://www.greciasalentina.gov.it// Grecìa Salentina] official site (in Italian)
* [http://kallithalassa.info/ Gaze On The Sea] Salentine Peninsula, Greece and Greater Greece (in Italian, Greek and English)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20190304202757/http://www.molossia.org/griko2.html English-Griko dictionary]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=htKsZVDVNEs Kalinifta], by [[Ghetonia]]
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rC07DCy6_DQ Oria mou rodinedda], folk song of the Griko-speaking communities of southern Italy, by Eleni & Souzana Vougioukli

{{Languages of Italy}}
{{Griko people}}
{{Magna Graecia}}
{{Greek language}}

[[Category:Varieties of Modern Greek]]
[[Category:Magna Graecia]]
[[Category:Languages of Apulia]]
[[Category:Endangered diaspora languages]]
[[Category:Endangered Indo-European languages]]
[[Category:Greece–Italy relations]]

Autostrade of Italy

2020-06-22T23:54:49Z

Ciaurlec: /* List of current Autostrade */ correction

{{short description|List}}
{{Redirect|Autostrada}}
{{for|the company previously known as Autostrade|Atlantia (company)}}
[[File:Italia - mappa autostrade.svg|thumb|right|250px|Map of the autostrade of Italy]]
{{Highway system map
| highway_system_qid = Q1050112
| frame-width = 290
| frame-height = 365
| frame-align = right
| text = Interactive map of Autostrade in Italy
}}
The '''Autostrade''' ({{IPA-it|autoˈstraːde|lang}}; singular {{lang|it|autostrada}} {{IPA-it|autoˈstraːda|}}) are roads forming the [[Italy|Italian]] national system of [[motorway]]s. The total length of the system is about {{convert|6758|km}}.<ref>http://www.aiscat.it/pubblicazioni/downloads/Trim%201-2_2014.pdf</ref> In North and Central Italy, the Autostrade mainly consists of [[tollways]] managed by [[Atlantia (company)|Atlantia S.p.A.]] (formerly Autostrade S.p.A.), a holding company controlled by the [[Benetton family]]<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2003/02/22/business/benetton-family-to-control-italian-toll-road-operator.html Benetton Family to Control Italian Toll Road Operator]</ref><ref>[https://www.bloombergquint.com/markets/autostrade-said-valued-at-16-5-billion-in-talks-for-stake-sale Infrastructure company controlled by the Benetton family]</ref>. Other operators include ASTM, ATP, and [[Autostrade Lombarde]] in the north-west; [[Autostrada del Brennero (company)|Autostrada del Brennero]], [[A4 Holding]], [[Concessioni Autostradali Venete]], and [[Autovie Venete]] in the north-east; [[Strada dei Parchi]], SALT, SAT, and Autocisa in the center; and CAS in the south.

==History==
Italy became the first country to inaugurate motorways reserved for motor vehicles with [[Autostrada A1 (Italy)|A1]].<ref>[https://motorwayareas.com/en/service-areas/italy Service Areas on Motorways in Italy]</ref> The Milano-Laghi motorway (connecting [[Milan]] to [[Varese]]) was devised by [[Piero Puricelli]], a civil engineer and entrepreneur. He received the first authorization to build a public-utility fast road in 1921, and completed the construction (one lane each direction) between 1924 and 1926. By the end of the 1930s, over 400 kilometers of multi- and dual-single-lane motorways were constructed throughout Italy, linking cities and rural towns.

==Speed==
[[File:Italian traffic signs - inizio autostrada.svg|thumb|right|80px|Autostrada sign]]
Italy's autostrade have a standard speed limit of 130 km/h (81 mph) for cars. Limits for other vehicles (or during foul weather and/or low visibility) are lower. Legal provisions allow operators to set the limit to 150 km/h (93 mph) on their concessions on a voluntary basis if the following conditions are met: three lanes in each direction and a working [[SPECS (speed camera)|SICVE]], or Safety Tutor, speed-camera system that measure the average speed. In 2016, no road was utilizing this possibility.

The first speed limit, to {{convert|120|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, was enacted in November 1973 as a result of the [[1973 oil crisis]].<ref name=law>{{ citation | title = Disegno di Legge |trans-title=draft law | url = | publisher = Senato della repubblica | language = Italian | work = Legislative Decree | number = 967 | page = 2 | date = 1988-04-07 }}</ref> In October 1977, a graduated system was introduced: cars of above {{convert|1300|cc|cuin|abbr=on}} had a {{convert|140|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} speed limit, cars of 900-1299 cc had a limit of {{convert|130|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, those of 600-899 cc could drive at {{convert|110|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}, and those of {{convert|599|cc|cuin|abbr=on}} or less had a maximum speed of {{convert|90|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}}.<ref name=law/> In July 1988 a blanket speed limit of {{convert|110|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} was imposed on all cars above 600 cc (the lower limit was kept for smaller cars) by the short lived [[Italian Democratic Socialist Party|PSDI]] government. In September 1989 this was increased to {{convert|130|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} for cars above {{convert|1100|cc|cuin|abbr=on}} and {{convert|110|km/h|mph|0|abbr=on}} for smaller ones.<ref name=libera>{{cite journal | journal = La Repubblica | url = http://ricerca.repubblica.it/repubblica/archivio/repubblica/1989/09/28/via-libera-ai-130-la-camera-aumenta.html?refresh_ce | title = 'Via libera ai 130 km/h' la camera aumenta i limiti di velocità |trans-title=Green light for 130 km/h: chamber increases speed limits | language = Italian | date = 1989-09-28 | first = Maria | last = Novella de Luca | accessdate = 2017-01-18 }}</ref>

== List of current Autostrade==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Number !! Name !! km !! Start !! End !! Opened !! E-roads
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A1 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A1 (Italy)|A1]] || ''Autostrada del Sole'' || {{align|right|759.8}} || [[Milan]] || [[Naples]] || {{align|center|1964}} || [[European route E35|E35]], [[European route E45|E45]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A2 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A2 (Italy)|A2]] || ''Autostrada del Mediterraneo'' || {{align|right|442.9}} || [[Salerno]] || [[Reggio Calabria]] || {{align|center|2017}} || [[European route E45|E45]], [[European route E90|E90]], [[European route E841|E841]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A3 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A3 (Italy)|A3]] || || {{align|right|51.7}} || [[Naples]] || [[Salerno]] || {{align|center|1974}} || [[European route E45|E45]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A4 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A4 (Italy)|A4]] || ''Serenissima'' || {{align|right|522.4}} || [[Turin]] || [[Trieste]] || {{align|center|1927}} || [[European route E55|E55]], [[European route E64|E64]], [[European route E70|E70]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A5 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A5 (Italy)|A5]] || ''Autostrada della Valle d'Aosta'' || {{align|right|141.4}} || [[Turin]] || [[Mount Blanc]] || {{align|center|1961}} || [[European route E25|E25]], [[European route E612|E612]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A6 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A6 (Italy)|A6]] || ''La Verdemare'' || {{align|right|123.7}} || [[Turin]] || [[Savona]] || {{align|center|1960}} || [[European route E717|E717]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A7 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A7 (Italy)|A7]] || ''Serravalle'' || {{align|right|135.5}} || [[Milan]] || [[Genoa]] || {{align|center|1935}} || [[European route E25|E25]], [[European route E62|E62]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A8 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A8 (Italy)|A8]] || ''Autostrada dei Laghi'' || {{align|right|43.6}} || [[Milan]] || [[Varese]] || {{align|center|1924}} || [[European route E35|E35]], [[European route E62|E62]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A9 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A9 (Italy)|A9]] || ''Autostrada dei Laghi'' || {{align|right|30.9}} || [[Lainate]] || [[Chiasso]] || {{align|center|1924}} || [[European route E35|E35]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A10 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A10 (Italy)|A10]] || ''Autostrada dei Fiori'' || {{align|right|158.1}} || [[Genoa]] || [[Ventimiglia]] || {{align|center|1967}} || [[European route E25|E25]], [[European route E74|E74]], [[European route E80|E80]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A11 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A11 (Italy)|A11]] || ''Autostrada Firenze-Mare'' || {{align|right|81.7}} || [[Florence]] || [[Pisa]] || {{align|center|1933}} || [[European route E76|E76]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A12 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A12 (Italy)|A12]] || ''Autostrada Azzurra'' || {{align|right|210.0}} || [[Genoa]] || [[Rosignano Marittimo]] || {{align|center|1967}} || [[European route E80|E80]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A13 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A13 (Italy)|A13]] || || {{align|right|116.7}} || [[Bologna]] || [[Padua]] || {{align|center|1970}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A14 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A14 (Italy)|A14]] || ''Autostrada Adriatica'' || {{align|right|743.4}} || [[Bologna]] || [[Taranto]] || {{align|center|1966}} || [[European route E45|E45]], [[European route E843|E843]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A15 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A15 (Italy)|A15]] || ''Autocamionale della Cisa'' || {{align|right|108.5}} || [[Parma]] || [[La Spezia]] || {{align|center|1975}} || [[European route E33|E33]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A16 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A16 (Italy)|A16]] || ''Autostrada dei Due Mari'' || {{align|right|172.5}} || [[Naples]] || [[Canosa di Puglia]] || {{align|center|1966}} || [[European route E842|E842]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A18 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A18 (Italy)|A18]] || || {{align|right|76.8}} || [[Messina]] || [[Catania]] || {{align|center|1971}} || [[European route E45|E45]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A18 SR-Gela Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A18 (Italy)|A18]] || || {{align|right|40.0}} || [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]] || [[Rosolini]] || {{align|center|1983}} || [[European route E45|E45]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A19 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A19 (Italy)|A19]] || || {{align|right|191.6}} || [[Palermo]] || [[Catania]] || {{align|center|1970}} || [[European route E90|E90]], [[European route E932|E32]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A20 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A20 (Italy)|A20]] || || {{align|right|183.0}} || [[Messina]] || [[Termini Imerese|Buonfornello]] || {{align|center|1972}} || [[European route E45|E45]], [[European route E90|E90]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A21 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A21 (Italy)|A21]] || ''Autostrada dei Vini'' || {{align|right|238.3}} || [[Turin]] || [[Brescia]] || {{align|center|1968}} || [[European route E70|E70]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A22 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A22 (Italy)|A22]] || ''Autostrada del Brennero'' || {{align|right|315.0}} || [[Brenner, South Tyrol|Brenner]] || [[Modena]] || {{align|center|1968}} || [[European route E45|E45]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A23 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A23 (Italy)|A23]] || ''Autostrada Alpe-Adria'' || {{align|right|119.9}} || [[Palmanova]] || [[Tarvisio]] || {{align|center|1966}} || [[European route E55|E55]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A24 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A24 (Italy)|A24]] || ''Autostrada dei Parchi'' || {{align|right|158.8}} || [[Rome]] || [[Teramo]] || {{align|center|1969}} || [[European route E80|E80]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A25 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A25 (Italy)|A25]] || ''Autostrada dei Parchi'' || {{align|right|115.0}} || [[Torano di Borgorose]] || [[Pescara]] || {{align|center|1969}} || [[European route E80|E80]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A26 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A26 (Italy)|A26]] || ''Autostrada dei Trafori'' || {{align|right|197.1}} || [[Genoa]] || [[Gravellona Toce]] || {{align|center|1976}} || [[European route E25|E25]], [[European route E62|E62]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A27 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A27 (Italy)|A27]] || ''Autostrada d'Alemagna'' || {{align|right|82.5}} || [[Venice]] || [[Belluno]] || {{align|center|1972}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A28 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A28 (Italy)|A28]] || || {{align|right|48.8}} || [[Portogruaro]] || [[Conegliano]] || {{align|center|1974}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A29 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A29 (Italy)|A29]] || ''Autostrada del Sale'' || {{align|right|114.8}} || [[Palermo]] || [[Mazara del Vallo]] || {{align|center|1972}} || [[European route E90|E90]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A30 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A30 (Italy)|A30]] || || {{align|right|55.3}} || [[Caserta]] || [[Salerno]] || {{align|center|1975}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A31 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A31 (Italy)|A31]] || ''Autostrada della Val d'Astico'' || {{align|right|88.7}} || [[Badia Polesine]] || [[Piovene Rocchette]] || {{align|center|1976}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A32 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A32 (Italy)|A32]] || ''Autostrada del Frejus'' || {{align|right|73.0}} || [[Turin]] || [[Fréjus Road Tunnel]] || {{align|center|1983}} || [[European route E70|E70]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A33 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A33 (Italy)|A33]] || || {{align|right|23.0}} || [[Cuneo]] || [[Carrù]] || {{align|center|2005}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A34 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A34 (Italy)|A34]] || || {{align|right|17.5}} || [[Villesse]] || [[Gorizia]] || {{align|center|2013}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A35 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A35|A35]] || ''BreBeMi'' || {{align|right|54.8}} || [[Castegnato]] || [[Melzo]] || {{align|center|2014}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A36 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A36|A36]] || ''Pedemontana Lombarda'' || {{align|right|23.0}} || [[Cassano Magnago]] || [[Lentate sul Seveso]] || {{align|center|2015}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A50 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A50|A50]] || ''Tangenziale Ovest di Milano'' || {{align|right|31.3}} || colspan="2" data-sort-value="Milan"|Ring road around [[Milan]] || {{align|center|1968}} || [[European route E35|E35]], [[European route E62|E62]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A51 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A51|A51]] || ''Tangenziale Est di Milano'' || {{align|right|30.7}} || colspan="2" data-sort-value="Milan"|Ring road around [[Milan]] || {{align|center|1971}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A52 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A52|A52]] || ''Tangenziale Nord di Milano'' || {{align|right|21.6}} || colspan="2" data-sort-value="Milan"|Ring road around [[Milan]] || {{align|center|1994}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A53 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A53 (Italy)|A53]] || || {{align|right|9.2}} || [[Bereguardo]] || [[Pavia]] || {{align|center|1960}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A54 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A54|A54]] || ''Tangenziale Ovest di Pavia'' || {{align|right|8.4}} || colspan="2" data-sort-value="Milan"|Ring road around [[Pavia]] || {{align|center|1994}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A55 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A55|A55]] || ''Tangenziale di Torino'' || {{align|right|57.5}} || colspan="2" data-sort-value="Turin"|Ring road around [[Turin]] || {{align|center|1976}} || [[European route E70|E70]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A56 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A56 (Italy)|A56]] || ''Tangenziale di Napoli'' || {{align|right|20.2}} || colspan="2" data-sort-value="Naples"|Ring road around [[Naples]] || {{align|center|1972}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A57 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Tangenziale di Venezia|A57]] || ''Tangenziale di Mestre'' || {{align|right|26.7}} || colspan="2" data-sort-value="Mestre"|Ring road around [[Mestre]] || {{align|center|1972}} || [[European route E55|E55]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A58 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A58|A58]] || ''Tangenziale Est Esterna di Milano'' || {{align|right|31.8}} || colspan="2" data-sort-value="Milan"|Ring road around [[Milan]] || {{align|center|2014}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A59 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A59|A59]] || ''Tangenziale di Como'' || {{align|right|2.9}} || colspan="2" data-sort-value="Como"|Ring road around [[Como]] || {{align|center|2015}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A60 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A60|A60]] || ''Tangenziale di Varese'' || {{align|right|4.5}} || colspan="2" data-sort-value="Varese"|Ring road around [[Varese]] || {{align|center|2015}} ||
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A 90 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Grande Raccordo Anulare|A90]] || ''Grande Raccordo Anulare di Roma'' || {{align|right|68.2}} || colspan="2" data-sort-value="Rome"|Ring road around [[Rome]] || {{align|center|1951}} || [[European route E80|E80]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A91 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A91|A91]] || || {{align|right|18.4}} || [[Rome]] || [[Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airport|Fiumicino Airport]] || {{align|center|1959}} || [[European route E80|E80]]
|-
| [[File:Autostrada A92 Italia.svg|x20px|alt=|link=]] [[Autostrada A92|A92]] || ''Autostrada Azzurra'' || {{align|right|79.6}} || [[Rome]] || [[Civitavecchia]] || {{align|center|1967}} || [[European route E80|E80]]
|-
| [[Autostrada A33 (Italy)|A93]] || || {{align|right|42.3}} || [[Marene]] || [[Asti]] || {{align|center|2007}} || [[European route E74|E74]]
|-
|}

==List of ''bretelle'' and ''raccordi autostradali''==
Some ''autostrade'' are called ''bretelle, diramazioni'' or ''raccordi'' because they are short and have few exits.

''Bretelle'', ''diramazioni'' or ''raccordi'' are generally connections between two motorways, or connections between motorways and important cities without a motorway.

They have the same number (sometimes with the suffix ''dir'') as one of the two autostrade linked, a combination of the numbers of the two autostrade linked, or the number of the main autostrada.

{|
|-
!Number!!Name (length)!!Connection
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A1 Italia.svg|24px|A1]] ||[[Autostrada A1 (Italy)#Raccordo A1-Piazzale Corvetto|Raccordo Milano-Piazzale Corvetto]] (2 km)||[[A1 (Italy)|A1]] - [[Milano|Milano Piazzale Corvetto]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A1 Italia.svg|24px|A1]] ||[[Autostrada A1 (Italy)#A1 Diramazione Capodichino|Diramazione Capodichino]] (3 km)||[[Autostrada A1 (Italy)|A1]] - [[Aeroporto di Napoli-Capodichino|Aeroporto di Capodichino]] - [[Autostrada A56 (Italy)|A56]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A1dir Italia.svg|24px|A1dir]] ||[[Autostrada A1 (Italy)#A1 Diramazione Nord|Diramazione Roma nord]] (23 km)||[[Autostrada A1 (Italy)|A1]] - [[Grande raccordo anulare|GRA]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A1dir Italia.svg|24px|A1dir]] ||[[Autostrada A1 (Italy)#A1 Diramazione Sud|Diramazione Roma sud]] (20 km)||[[Autostrada A1 (Italy)|A1]] - [[Grande raccordo anulare|GRA]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A1var Italia.svg|24px|A1var]] ||[[Variante di Valico]] (32,966 km)||[[Autostrada A1 (Italy)|A1]] - [[Autostrada A1 (Italy)|A1]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A2 Italia.svg|24px|A2]] ||[[Autostrada A2 (Italy)#Spur routes|A2 dir. Napoli]] (2 km)||[[A2 (Italy)|A2]] - [[A3 (Italy)|A3]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A2 Italia.svg|24px|A2]] ||[[Autostrada A2 (Italy)#Spur routes|A2 dir. Reggio Calabria]] (9 km)||[[A2 (Italy)|A2]] - [[Reggio Calabria]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A4 Italia.svg|24px|A4]] ||[[Autostrada A4 (Italy)#Raccordo Chivasso Est|Raccordo Chivasso]] (6 km)||[[A4 motorway (Italy)|A4]] - [[Verolengo]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A4-5 Italia.svg|24px|A4/A5]] ||[[Autostrada A5 (Italy)#A4.2FA5 Diramazione Ivrea-Santhià|Raccordo Ivrea-Santhià]] (23,6 km)||[[Autostrada A4 (Italy)|A4]] - [[Autostrada A5 (Italy)|A5]]
|-
| ||[[Autostrada A5 (Italy)#Raccordo A5 - SS27|Raccordo Aosta-Gran San Bernardo]] (7,9 km) ||[[Autostrada A5 (Italy)|A5]] - [[Strada statale 27 del Gran San Bernardo|SS27]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A6 Italia.svg|24px|A6]]||[[Autostrada A6 (Italy)#Raccordo per Fossano|Diramazione per Fossano]] (6,6 km)||[[Autostrada A6 (Italy)|A6]] - [[Fossano]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A8-A26 Italia.svg|24px|A8/A26]] ||[[Autostrada A8 (Italy)#A8/A26 Diramazione Gallarate-Gattico|Diramazione Gallarate-Gattico]] (23,2 km) ||[[Autostrada dei Laghi|A8]] - [[Autostrada A26 (Italy)|A26]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A11 Italia.svg|24px|A11/A12]] ||[[Autostrada A11 (Italy)#Bretella A11/A12|Diramazione Lucca-Viareggio]] (20 km) ||[[Autostrada A11 (Italy)|A11]] - [[Autostrada A12 (Italy)|A12]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A12 Italia.svg|24px|A12]] ||[[Autostrada A12 (Italy)#A12 Diramazione Livorno|Diramazione per Livorno]] (4,5 km)||[[Autostrada A12 (Italy)|A12]] - [[Livorno]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A13 Italia.svg|24px|A13]] ||[[Autostrada A13 (Italy)#A13 Diramazione Padova sud|Diramazione per Padova sud]] (4,3 km)||[[Autostrada A13 (Italy)|A13]] - [[Padova]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A13 Italia.svg|24px|A13]] ||[[Autostrada A13 (Italy)#A13 Diramazione per Ferrara|Diramazione per Ferrara]] (6,3 km)||[[Autostrada A13 (Italy)|A13]] - [[Ferrara]] - [[Raccordo autostradale RA8|RA8]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A14 Italia.svg|24px|A14]] ||[[Autostrada A14 (Italy)#Raccordo A14-Tangenziale di Bari|Raccordo per Tangenziale di Bari]] (4,6 km) ||[[Autostrada A14 (Italy)|A14]] - [[Tangenziale di Bari]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A14dir Italia.svg|24px|A14dir]] ||[[Autostrada A14 (Italy)#A14 diramazione Ravenna|Diramazione per Ravenna]] (29,8 km)||[[Autostrada A14 (Italy)|A14]] - [[Ravenna]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A15 Italia.svg|24px|A15]] ||[[Autostrada A15 (Italy)#Diramazione Santo Stefano Magra|Diramazione La Spezia-Santo Stefano di Magra]] ||[[Santo Stefano di Magra]] - [[Autostrada A15 (Italy)|A15]] - [[La Spezia]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A18dir Italia.svg|24px|A18dir]]||[[Autostrada A18 (Italy)#A18dir Diramazione Catania|Diramazione per Catania]] (3,7 km) ||[[Autostrada A18 (Italy)|A18]] - [[Catania]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A19dir Italia.svg|24px|A19dir]]||[[Autostrada A19 (Italy)#Raccordo A19-Palermo|Raccordo A19-Palermo]] (5,2 km) ||[[Autostrada A19 (Italy)|A19]] - [[Circonvallazione di Palermo]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A21dir Italia.svg|24px|A21dir]] ||[[Autostrada A21 (Italy)#A21dir Diramazione Fiorenzuola d'Arda|Diramazione per Fiorenzuola]] (12,3) ||[[Autostrada A1 (Italy)|A1]] - [[Autostrada A21 (Italy)|A21]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A26-A4 Italia.svg|24px|A4/A26]] ||[[Autostrada A26 (Italy)#A26/A4 Diramazione Stroppiana-Santhià|Diramazione Stroppiana-Santhià]] (29,7 km) ||[[Autostrada A4 (Italy)|A4]] - [[Autostrada A26 (Italy)|A26]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A26-A7 Italia.svg|24px|A26/A7]] ||[[Autostrada A26 (Italy)#A26/A7 Diramazione Predosa-Bettole|Diramazione Predosa-Bettole]] (17 km)||[[Autostrada A7 (Italy)|A7]] - [[Autostrada A26 (Italy)|A26]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A29dir Italia.svg|24px|A29dir]] ||[[Autostrada A29 (Italy)#A29 dir Diramazione Alcamo-Trapani|Diramazione Alcamo-Trapani]] (36,9 km)||[[Autostrada A29 (Italy)|A29]] - [[Trapani]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A29dirA Italia.svg|24px|A29dirA]] ||[[Autostrada A29 (Italy)#A29 dirA Diramazione per Birgi|Diramazione per Birgi]] (13,1 km) ||[[Autostrada A29 (Italy)|A29dir]] - [[Aeroporto di Trapani-Birgi]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A29racc Italia.svg|24px|A29racc]] ||[[Autostrada A29 (Italy)#A29 Bretella Aeroporto "Falcone e Borsellino"|Bretella aeroporto Falcone e Borsellino]] (4 km)|| [[Autostrada A29 (Italy)|A29]] - [[Falcone–Borsellino Airport|Aeroporto di Palermo]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A29racc bis Italia.svg|24px|A29racc bis]] ||[[Autostrada A29 (Italy)#Raccordo A29-Palermo|Raccordo per via Belgio]] (5,6 km)|| [[Autostrada A29 (Italy)|A29]] - [[Circonvallazione di Palermo]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A55 Italia.svg|24px|A55]] ||[[Autostrada A55 (Italy)#Diramazione per Pinerolo|Diramazione per Pinerolo]] (23,44 km)||[[Autostrada A55 (Italy)|A55]] - [[Pinerolo]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A55 Italia.svg|24px|A55]] ||[[Autostrada A55 (Italy)#Diramazione per Moncalieri|Diramazione per Moncalieri]] (6,18 km)||[[Autostrada A6 (Italy)|A6]] - [[Moncalieri]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A55 Italia.svg|24px|A55]] ||[[Autostrada A55 (Italy)#Raccordo Falchera-SR11|Raccordo della Falchera]] (3,13 km)||[[Autostrada A55 (Italy)|A55]] - [[Autostrada A4 (Italy)|A4]] - [[Strada Statale 11 Padana Superiore|SR 11]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A57 Italia.svg|24px|A57]] ||[[Autostrada A57 (Italy)#Diramazione aeroporto|Bretella/raccordo aeroporto]] (6,73 km)|| A57 - [[Venice Marco Polo Airport|Aeroporto di Venezia]]
|}

==Trafori (T)==
Important [[Alps|alpine]] [[tunnel]]s ({{in lang|it}} ''trafori'') are identified by the capital letter "T" followed by a single digit number. Currently there are only three T-classified tunnels: [[Mont Blanc Tunnel]] (T1), [[Great St Bernard Tunnel]] (T2) and [[Frejus Road Tunnel]] (T4). Tunnels that cross the border between Italy and [[France]] (T1, T4) or [[Switzerland]] (T2), are treated as motorways (green signage, access control, and so on), although they are not proper motorways. The code T3 was once assigned to the [[Bargagli-Ferriere Tunnel]] in [[Ligurian Appennines]] before it was reclassified as SP 226.

{|cellspacing="2" cellpadding="1"
|[[File:Traforo T1 Italia.svg|24px|T1]] ||''[[Mont Blanc Tunnel|Traforo del Monte Bianco]]''
|-
|[[File:Traforo T2 Italia.svg|24px|T2]] ||''[[Great St Bernard Tunnel|Traforo del Gran San Bernardo]]''
|-
|[[File:Traforo T4 Italia.svg|24px|T4]] ||''[[Fréjus Road Tunnel|Traforo del Frejus]]''
|}

==Raccordi autostradali (RA)==
RA stands for ''Raccordo autostradale'' (translated as "motorway connection"), a relatively short [[spur route]] that connects an ''autostrada'' to a nearby city or tourist resort not directly served by the motorway. These spurs are owned and managed by ANAS (with some exceptions, such as the RA7 that became [[Autostrada A53 (Italy)|A53]] when assigned to a private company for maintenance). Some spurs are toll-free motorways (type-A), but most are type-B or type-C roads. All RA have separate carriageways with two lanes in each direction. Generally, they do not have an emergency lane.

{|
|-
!Symbol!!Number!!
|-
|[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 1.svg|40px]] ||[[RA1]] || [[Autostrada A1 (Italy)|A1]] - [[Autostrada A13 (Italy)|A13]] - [[Autostrada A14 (Italy)|A14]] 
''([[Raccordo autostradale RA1|Tangenziale di Bologna]])''
|-
|[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 2.svg|40px]]|| [[Raccordo autostradale RA2|RA2]] ||[[Autostrada A3 (Italy)|A3]] - [[Avellino]]
|-
||[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 3.svg|40px]]|| [[Raccordo autostradale RA3|RA3]] ||[[Autostrada A1 (Italy)|A1]] - [[Siena]]
|-
||[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 4.svg|40px]]|| [[Raccordo autostradale RA4|RA4]] ||[[Autostrada A3 (Italy)|A3]] - [[Reggio Calabria]] - [[strada statale 106 Jonica|SS106]]
|-
||[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 5.svg|40px]]|| [[Raccordo autostradale RA5|RA5]] ||[[Autostrada A3 (Italy)|A3]] - [[Potenza]]
|-
||[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 6.svg|40px]] || [[Raccordo autostradale RA6|RA6]] ||[[Autostrada A1 (Italy)|A1]] - [[Perugia]]
|-
|[[File:Autostrada A53 Italia.svg|25px]]|| [[Autostrada A53 (Italy)|A53]] (or RA7) ||[[Autostrada A7 (Italy)|A7]] - [[Autostrada A54 (Italy)|Tangenziale di Pavia]]
|-
|[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 8.svg|40px]] || [[Raccordo autostradale RA8|RA8]] ||[[Autostrada A13 (Italy)|A13]] - [[Ferrara]] - [[Comacchio|Porto Garibaldi]]
|-
|[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 9.svg|40px]]|| [[Raccordo autostradale RA9|RA9]] ||[[Autostrada A16 (Italy)|A16]] - [[Benevento]]
|-
|[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 10.svg|40px]]|| [[Raccordo autostradale RA10|RA10]] ||[[Torino]] - [[Autostrada A55 (Italy)|A55]] - [[Turin Airport]]
|-
||[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 11.svg|40px]]|| [[Raccordo autostradale RA11|RA11]] ||[[Province of Ascoli Piceno|Ascoli]] - [[Autostrada A14 (Italy)|A14]] - [[Porto d'Ascoli]]
|-
||[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 12.svg|40px]] || [[Raccordo autostradale RA12|RA12]] ||[[Autostrada A25 (Italy)|A25]] - [[Chieti]] - [[Autostrada A14 (Italy)|A14]] - [[Pescara]]
|-
||[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 13.svg|40px]] || [[Raccordo autostradale RA13|RA13]] ||[[Autostrada A4 (Italy)|A4]] - [[Strada statale 202 Triestina|SS202]]
|-
||[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 14.svg|40px]] || [[Raccordo autostradale RA14|RA14]] ||[[Raccordo autostradale RA13|RA13]] - [[Monrupino|Fernetti]] (state border with [[Slovenia]])
|-
|[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 15.svg|40px]] ||[[Autostrada RA15 (Italy)|RA15]] ||[[Autostrada A18 (Italy)|A18]] - [[Autostrada A19 (Italy)|A19]] - [[Autostrada Catania-Siracusa|Aut. CT-SR]] 
(''[[Tangenziale di Catania]]'')
|-
||[[File:Italian traffic signs - raccordo autostradale 16.svg|40px]] || [[Raccordo autostradale RA16|RA16]] ||[[Autostrada A28 (Italy)|A28]] - SS13 ''Pontebbana''
|}

== Strade extraurbane principali ==
[[File:Italian traffic signs - inizio strada extraurbana principale.svg|thumb|right|80px|''Strada extraurbana principale'' sign]]

''Type B'' highway (or ''strada extraurbana principale''), commonly but unofficially known as ''superstrada'' (Italian equivalent for expressway), is a divided highway with at least two lanes in each direction, paved shoulder on the right, no cross-traffic and no at-grade intersections. Access restrictions on such highways are exactly the same as autostrade. Signage at the beginning and the end of the highways is the same, except the background color is blue instead of green. The general speed limit on ''strade extraurbane principali'' is 110 km/h. ''Strade extraurbane principali'' are not tolled. All ''strade extraurbane principali'' are owned and managed by [[ANAS]], and directly controlled by the Italian government or by the [[Regions of Italy|region]]s.

==See also==
*[[State highway (Italy)]]
*[[Transport in Italy]]
*[[Rai isoradio]]
*[[List of controlled-access highway systems]]
*[[Evolution of motorway construction in European nations]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{refimprove|date=June 2015}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050312011423/http://www.autostrade.it/en/index.html ''Autostrade per l'Italia'' Official website]
*{{osmrelation|8430508}}

{{Autostrade}}

[[Category:Autostrade in Italy| ]]
[[Category:Road transport in Italy]]
[[Category:Lists of roads in Italy|Italy]]

List of Pretty Little Liars episodes

2020-06-11T20:04:09Z

Ciaurlec: /* Ratings */ changed in a more visible colour

{{short description|Wikipedia list article}}
{{DISPLAYTITLE:List of ''Pretty Little Liars'' episodes}}
[[File:Pretty Little Liars (TV series) logo.svg|right|300px]]
''[[Pretty Little Liars]]'' is a television series which premiered on [[Freeform (TV channel)|ABC Family]] on June 8, 2010.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://tvbythenumbers.com/2010/03/29/abc-family-announces-summer-slate-including-pretty-little-liars-huge-and-melissa-joey/46439 |title=ABC Family Announces Summer Slate Including ''Pretty Little Liars'', ''Huge'', and ''Melissa & Joey'' |first=Robert |last=Seidman |publisher=TVbytheNumbers.com |date=March 29, 2010 |accessdate=September 7, 2010}}</ref> Developed by [[I. Marlene King]], the series is based on the ''[[Pretty Little Liars (book series)|Pretty Little Liars]]'' book series by [[Sara Shepard]]. The series follows the lives of four high school girls, [[Aria Montgomery]], [[Hanna Marin]], [[Emily Fields]], and [[Spencer Hastings]], whose clique falls apart after the disappearance of their leader, [[Alison DiLaurentis]]. One year later, the estranged friends are reunited as they begin receiving messages from a mysterious figure named "A" who threatens to expose their deepest secrets, including ones they thought only Alison knew.

After an initial order of 10 episodes, ABC Family ordered an additional 12 episodes for season one on June 28, 2010.<ref name="more episodes">{{cite web|url=http://tvbythenumbers.com/2010/06/28/abc-family-orders-12-additional-episodes-of-pretty-little-liars/55552 |title=ABC Family Orders 12 Additional Episodes Of ''Prilikeetty Little Liars'' |publisher=TVbytheNumbers.com |date=2007-08-28 |accessdate=2010-06-28}}</ref> The first season's "summer finale" aired on August 10, 2010, with the remaining 12 episodes began airing on January 3, 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tvbythenumbers.com/2010/10/12/abc-family-sets-premiere-dates-for-pretty-little-liars-greek-secret-life-make-it-or-break-it/67662|title=ABC Family Sets Premiere Dates For 'Pretty Little Liars,' 'Greek,' 'Secret Life,' & 'Make It Or Break It'|publisher=TVbytheNumbers.com|accessdate=2010-10-12}}</ref> On January 11, 2011, ABC Family picked up ''Pretty Little Liars'' for a second season of 24 episodes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thefutoncritic.com/news/2011/01/10/abc-familys-hit-series-the-jsecret-alife-cof-kthe-american-teenager-renewed-for-a-fourth-season-13111/20110110abcfamily01/ |title=ABC Family's Hit Series "The Secret Life of the American Teenager" Renewed for a Fourth Season |publisher=Thefutoncritic.com |date=2011-01-10 |accessdate=2012-04-29}}</ref> It began airing on Tuesday, June 14, 2011.<ref>{{cite web |last=Wright |first=Adam |url=http://tvdonewright.com/2011/03/abc-family-sets-2011-summer-schedule-including-season-two-of-pretty-little-liars/ |title=ABC Family Sets 2011 Summer Schedule, Including Season Two of Pretty Little Liars |publisher=Tvdonewright.com |accessdate=2011-07-20 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110802081409/http://tvdonewright.com/2011/03/abc-family-sets-2011-summer-schedule-including-season-two-of-pretty-little-liars/ |archivedate=2011-08-02 }}</ref> It was announced in June that a special [[Halloween]]-themed episode would air as part of ABC Family's ''[[13 Nights of Halloween]]'' line-up. This increased the episode count from 24 to 25. On November 29, 2011, ABC Family renewed the series for a third season, consisting of 24 episodes.<ref>{{cite web|last=Andreeva |first=Nellie |url=https://www.deadline.com/2011/11/abc-family-renews-pretty-little-liars-for-third-season/ |title=ABC Family Renews ‘Pretty Little Liars’ For Third Season – |publisher=Deadline.com |date= |accessdate=2011-12-07}}</ref> On October 4, 2012, ABC Family renewed the series for a fourth season, consisting of 24 episodes.<ref name="season4">{{cite web|url=https://www.deadline.com/2012/10/abc-familys-pretty-little-liars-renewed-for-fourth-season/|title=ABC Family’s ‘Pretty Little Liars’ Renewed For Fourth Season|work=Deadline|last=Andreeva|first=Nellie|date=October 4, 2012|accessdate=October 4, 2012}}</ref> On March 26, 2013, ABC Family renewed the series for a fifth season.<ref name="season 5">{{cite web|url=http://www.eonline.com/news/401597/abc-family-announces-pretty-little-liars-spin-off-titled-ravenswood-orders-season-5-of-drama|title=ABC Family’s ‘Pretty Little Liars’ Renewed For Fifth Season and Spin Off|work=E! Online|last=Bricker|first=Tierney|date=March 26, 2013|accessdate=March 26, 2013}}</ref> On January 7, 2014, showrunner I. Marlene King wrote on [[Twitter]] that season 5 will have 25 episodes, including a holiday-themed episode.<ref name="season five">{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/imarleneking/statuses/420730201828372481|title=25 including the holiday episode. I see snow in my future. "@queridojp: How many episode will there be in season 5? 10?|work=Twitter|date=January 23, 2014|accessdate=January 7, 2014}}</ref> On June 10, 2014, it was announced that the show was renewed for an additional 2 seasons. Season 6 will air in mid-2015, and season 7 will air in mid-2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://variety.com/2014/tv/news/pretty-little-liars-season-six-season-seven-1201217600|title=‘Pretty Little Liars’ Renewed for Two More Seasons|work=Variety|last=Friedlander|first=Whitney|date=June 10, 2014|accessdate=June 10, 2014}}</ref> It was announced by I. Marlene King that the sixth and the seventh season will consist of 20 episodes each.<ref name="40 episodes">{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/imarleneking/status/587652443892097024|title=@lovaticshay the next 40 episodes are going to be the best ever. Going out in a blaze of glory. #MasterPlan #PLL|work=Twitter|last=King|first=I. Marlene|date=April 13, 2015|accessdate=June 10, 2015}}</ref><ref name="BuzzFeed">{{cite web|url=https://www.buzzfeed.com/jarettwieselman/pretty-little-liars-season-6-set-visit-secrets-spoilers|title=It’s The Beginning Of The End For "Pretty Little Liars"|work=[[BuzzFeed]]|last=Wieselman|first=Jarett|date=June 2, 2015|accessdate=June 10, 2015}}</ref> It was announced on August 29, 2016, that the show would be ending after the seventh season, and that the second half of the season would begin airing April 18, 2017.<ref name="ending confirmed">{{cite web|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/live-feed/pretty-little-liars-end-season-923990|title=It's Official: 'Pretty Little Liars' to End With Season 7|work=The Hollywood Reporter|last=Goldberg|first=Lesley|date=August 29, 2016|accessdate=August 29, 2016}}</ref><ref>https://www.plltv.com/article/exclusive-reveal-we-have-a-release-date-for-the-pll-finale-premiere</ref>

{{Aired episodes|2010|6|8|2017|6|27|title=Pretty Little Liars|finished=all|seasons=7}}

== Series overview ==
<onlyinclude>{{Series overview
| infoA = Viewers (in millions)
| infoB = Adults (18-49)

| color1 = #2283C5
| link1 = <includeonly>List of Pretty Little Liars episodes</includeonly>#Season 1 (2010–11)
| episodes1 = 22
| start1 = {{Start date|2010|6|8}}
| end1 = {{End date|2011|3|21}}
| infoA1 = 2.87
| infoB1 = 1.0

| color2 = #FAF0E6
| link2 = <includeonly>List of Pretty Little Liars episodes</includeonly>#Season 2 (2011–12)
| episodes2 = 25
| start2 = {{Start date|2011|6|14}}
| end2 = {{End date|2012|3|19}}
| infoA2 = 2.68
| infoB2 = 1.0

| color3 = #0E0B11
| link3 = <includeonly>List of Pretty Little Liars episodes</includeonly>#Season 3 (2012–13)
| episodes3 = 24
| start3 = {{Start date|2012|6|5}}
| end3 = {{End date|2013|3|19}}
| infoA3 = 2.59<ref name="s3ratings" />
| infoB3 = 1.1<ref name="s3ratings">{{cite web|title=Pretty Little Liars: Season Three Ratings|url=http://tvseriesfinale.com/tv-show/pretty-little-liars-season-three-ratings-23573/|work=TV Series Finale|date=March 26, 2013|accessdate=November 5, 2013}}</ref>

| color4 = #B30202
| link4 = <includeonly>List of Pretty Little Liars episodes</includeonly>#Season 4 (2013–14)
| episodes4 = 24
| start4 = {{Start date|2013|6|11}}
| end4 = {{End date|2014|3|18}}
| infoA4 = 2.53<ref name="s4ratings" />
| infoB4 = 1.1<ref name="s4ratings">{{cite web|url=http://tvseriesfinale.com/tv-show/pretty-little-liars-season-four-ratings-28816/|title=Pretty Little Liars: Season Four Ratings|work=TV Series Finale|date=March 20, 2014|accessdate=March 20, 2014}}</ref>

| color5 = #1E3043
| link5 = <includeonly>List of Pretty Little Liars episodes</includeonly>#Season 5 (2014–15)
| episodes5 = 25
| start5 = {{Start date|2014|6|10}}
| end5 = {{End date|2015|3|24}}
| infoA5 = 2.01<ref name="s5ratings" />
| infoB5 = 0.9<ref name="s5ratings">{{cite web|url=http://tvseriesfinale.com/tv-show/pretty-little-liars-season-five-ratings-32860/|title=Pretty Little Liars: Season Five Ratings|work=TV Series Finale|date=March 25, 2015|accessdate=March 25, 2015}}</ref>

| color6 = #A9BA9D
| link6 = <includeonly>List of Pretty Little Liars episodes</includeonly>#Season 6 (2015–16)
| episodes6 = 20
| start6 = {{Start date|2015|6|2}}
| end6 = {{End date|2016|3|15}}
| infoA6 = 1.72<ref name="s6ratings" />
| infoB6 = 0.8<ref name="s6ratings">{{cite web|url=http://tvseriesfinale.com/tv-show/pretty-little-liars-season-six-ratings-37045/|title=Pretty Little Liars: Season Six Ratings|work=TV Series Finale|date=March 16, 2016|accessdate=March 16, 2016}}</ref>

| color7 = #583A56
| link7 = <includeonly>List of Pretty Little Liars episodes</includeonly>#Season 7 (2016–17)
| episodes7 = 20
| start7 = {{Start date|2016|6|21}}
| end7 = {{End date|2017|6|27}}
| infoA7 = 1.11<ref name="s7ratings" />
| infoB7 = 0.6<ref name="s7ratings">{{cite web|url=http://tvseriesfinale.com/tv-show/pretty-little-liars-season-seven-ratings/|title=Pretty Little Liars: Season Seven Ratings|work=TV Series Finale|date=June 28, 2017|accessdate=June 28, 2017}}</ref>
}}</onlyinclude>

== Episodes ==

=== Season 1 (2010–11) ===
{{Main|Pretty Little Liars (season 1)}}
{{:Pretty Little Liars (season 1)}}

=== Season 2 (2011–12) ===
{{Main|Pretty Little Liars (season 2)}}
{{:Pretty Little Liars (season 2)}}

=== Season 3 (2012–13) ===
{{main|Pretty Little Liars (season 3)}}
{{:Pretty Little Liars (season 3)}}

=== Season 4 (2013–14) ===
{{Main|Pretty Little Liars (season 4)}}
{{:Pretty Little Liars (season 4)}}

=== Season 5 (2014–15) ===
{{Main|Pretty Little Liars (season 5)}}
{{:Pretty Little Liars (season 5)}}

=== Season 6 (2015–16) ===
{{Main|Pretty Little Liars (season 6)}}
{{:Pretty Little Liars (season 6)}}

=== Season 7 (2016–17) ===
{{Main|Pretty Little Liars (season 7)}}
{{:Pretty Little Liars (season 7)}}

== Specials ==
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="width:100%; margin:auto; background:#FFFFFF;"
|-
!! style="background-color:#990000; color: #FFF; text-align: center;" width=6%| No. of special
!! style="background-color:#990000; color: #FFF; text-align: center;" width=6%| Season aired in
!! style="background-color:#990000; color: #FFF; text-align: center;" width=22%| Title
!! style="background-color:#990000; color: #FFF; text-align: center;" width=21%| Narrator(s)
!! style="background-color:#990000; color: #FFF; text-align: center;" width=22%| Aired between/after
!! style="background-color:#990000; color: #FFF; text-align: center;" width=14%| Original air date
!! style="background-color:#990000; color: #FFF; text-align: center;" width=9%| U.S. viewers (million)
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 1
| EpisodeNumber2 = [[Pretty Little Liars (season 4)|4]]
| Title = {{anchor|A Liars Guide to Rosewood}}A Liars Guide to Rosewood
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2013|6|4}}
| Aux1 = [[Janel Parrish]] as [[Mona Vanderwaal]]
| Aux2 = "[[#ep71|A Dangerous Game]]" "[['A' Is for A-l-i-v-e|'A' is for A-l-i-v-e]]"
| Viewers = 1.13<ref>{{cite web|url=http://thefutoncritic.com/ratings/2013/06/05/tuesdays-cable-ratings-deadliest-catch-storage-wars-top-originals-474115/cable_20130604/|title=Tuesday's Cable Ratings: "Deadliest Catch," "Storage Wars" Top Originals|work=The Futon Critic|accessdate=October 20, 2014|date=June 5, 2013}}</ref>
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 2
| EpisodeNumber2 = [[Pretty Little Liars (season 5)|5]]
| Title = {{anchor|We Love You to DeAth}}We Love You to DeAth
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2014|10|21}}
| Aux1 = The Cast of ''Pretty Little Liars''
| Aux2 = "[[#ep107|Taking This One To the Grave]]" "[[How the 'A' Stole Christmas]]"
| Viewers = 1.30<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2014/10/22/tuesday-cable-ratings-sons-of-anarchy-tops-night-19-kids-and-counting-ink-master-tosh-0-more/317912/ |title=Tuesday Cable Ratings: 'Sons of Anarchy' Tops Night + '19 Kids and Counting', 'Ink Master', 'Tosh.0' & More |work=TV by the Numbers |accessdate=October 22, 2014 |date=October 22, 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141024135118/http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2014/10/22/tuesday-cable-ratings-sons-of-anarchy-tops-night-19-kids-and-counting-ink-master-tosh-0-more/317912/ |archivedate=October 24, 2014 }}</ref>
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 3
| EpisodeNumber2 = [[Pretty Little Liars (season 6)|6]]
| Title = {{anchor|5 Years Forward}}5 Years Forward
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2015|11|24}}
| Aux1 = [[I. Marlene King]] & The Cast of ''Pretty Little Liars''
| Aux2 = "[[Game Over, Charles]]" "[[Of Late I Think of Rosewood]]"
| Viewers = 0.77<ref>{{cite web|url=http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/2015/11/30/tuesday-cable-ratings-nov-24-2015/|title=Tuesday cable ratings: NBA on TNT leads, plus ‘Chrisley Knows Best,’ ‘Curse of Oak Island’|work=TV by the Numbers|accessdate=December 2, 2015|date=November 30, 2015}}</ref>
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 4
| EpisodeNumber2 = [[Pretty Little Liars (season 7)|7]]
| Title = {{anchor|A-List Wrap Party}}A-List Wrap Party
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2017|06|27}}
| Aux1 = I. Marlene King & The Cast of ''Pretty Little Liars''
| Aux2 = "[[Till Death Do Us Part (Pretty Little Liars)|Till Death Do Us Part]]" 
| Viewers = 0.62
}}
|}

== Webisodes ==

=== ''Pretty Dirty Secrets '' ===
{{main|Pretty Dirty Secrets}}
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="margin: auto; width: 100%"
|-
|-
!! style="background:#013220; color:#fff; text-align:center;" width=5%|No. in series
!! style="background:#013220; color:#fff; text-align:center;" width=5%|No. in season
!! style="background:#013220; color:#fff; text-align:center;" width=25%|Title
!! style="background:#013220; color:#fff; text-align:center;" width=22%|Directed by
!! style="background:#013220; color:#fff; text-align:center;" width=23%|Written by
!! style="background:#013220; color:#fff; text-align:center;" width=20%|Original air date
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 1
| EpisodeNumber2 = 1
| Title = A Reservation
| DirectedBy = Arthur Anderson
| WrittenBy = Kyle Bown & Kim Turrisi
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2012|8|28}}
| LineColor = 013220
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 2
| EpisodeNumber2 = 2
| Title = A Reunion
| DirectedBy = Arthur Anderson
| WrittenBy = Kyle Bown & Kim Turrisi
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2012|9|4}}
| LineColor = 013220
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 3
| EpisodeNumber2 = 3
| Title = A Voicemail
| DirectedBy = Arthur Anderson
| WrittenBy = Kyle Bown & Kim Turrisi
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2012|9|11}}
| LineColor = 013220
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 4
| EpisodeNumber2 = 4
| Title = I'm a Free Man
| DirectedBy = Arthur Anderson
| WrittenBy = Kyle Bown & Kim Turrisi
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2012|9|18}}
| LineColor = 013220
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 5
| EpisodeNumber2 = 5
| Title = Trade Off
| DirectedBy = Arthur Anderson
| WrittenBy = Kyle Bown & Kim Turrisi
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2012|9|25}}
| LineColor = 013220
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 6
| EpisodeNumber2 = 6

| Title = Association
| DirectedBy = Arthur Anderson
| WrittenBy = Kyle Bown & Kim Turrisi
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2012|10|2}}
| LineColor = 013220
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 7
| EpisodeNumber2 = 7
| Title = Call Security
| DirectedBy = Arthur Anderson
| WrittenBy = Kyle Bown & Kim Turrisi
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2012|10|9}}
| LineColor = 013220
}}
{{Episode list
| EpisodeNumber = 8
| EpisodeNumber2 = 8
| Title = The "A" Train
| DirectedBy = Arthur Anderson
| WrittenBy = Kyle Bown & Kim Turrisi
| OriginalAirDate = {{Start date|2012|10|16}}
| LineColor = 013220
}}
|}

== Ratings ==
{{Television ratings graph
| title = Pretty Little Liars
| country = U.S.
| color1 = #2283C5
| color2 = #EDCAA6
| color3 = #0E0B11
| color4 = #B30202
| color5 = #1E3043
| color6 = #A9BA9D
| color7 = #583A56
| bar_width = 4
| x_intervals = 10
| no_table = y
| refs = <ref>For the third season, see {{cite web |url=http://tvseriesfinale.com/tv-show/pretty-little-liars-season-three-ratings-23573/|title=Pretty Little Liars: Season Three Ratings|work=TV Series Finale|date=March 26, 2013|accessdate=July 26, 2017|url-status=live}}
----
For the fourth season, see {{cite web |url=http://tvseriesfinale.com/tv-show/pretty-little-liars-season-four-ratings-28816/|title=Pretty Little Liars: Season Four Ratings|work=TV Series Finale|date=March 20, 2014|accessdate=July 26, 2017|url-status=live}}
----
For the fifth season, see {{cite web |url=http://tvseriesfinale.com/tv-show/pretty-little-liars-season-five-ratings-32860/|title=Pretty Little Liars: Season Five Ratings|work=TV Series Finale|date=March 25, 2015|accessdate=July 26, 2017|url-status=live}}
----
For the sixth season, see {{cite web |url=http://tvseriesfinale.com/tv-show/pretty-little-liars-season-six-ratings-37045/|title=Pretty Little Liars: Season Six Ratings|work=TV Series Finale|date=March 16, 2016|accessdate=July 26, 2017|url-status=live}}
----
For the seventh season, see {{cite web |url=http://tvseriesfinale.com/tv-show/pretty-little-liars-season-seven-ratings/|title=Pretty Little Liars: Season Seven Ratings|work=TV Series Finale|date=June 28, 2017|accessdate=July 26, 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>{{Citation needed|date=August 2018|reason=Citation needed for the ratings of the first and second season.}}
| -
| 2.47
| 2.48
| 2.74
| 2.09
| 2.62
| 2.69
| 2.55
| 2.52
| 2.55
| 3.07
| 4.20
| 3.21
| 2.99
| 3.17
| 3.19
| 3.14
| 2.35
| 2.90
| 2.69
| 2.95
| 2.94
| 3.64
| -
| 3.68
| 2.66
| 2.78
| 2.42
| 2.42
| 2.53
| 2.36
| 2.41
| 2.54
| 2.30
| 2.63
| 2.98
| 2.47
| 3.34
| 2.95
| 2.78
| 3.17
| 2.55
| 2.25
| 2.11
| 2.54
| 2.49
| 2.58
| 2.47
| 3.69
| -
| 2.93
| 2.66
| 2.44
| 2.36
| 2.38
| 2.27
| 2.43
| 2.22
| 2.45
| 2.27
| 2.39
| 2.98
| 2.85
| 3.21
| 2.48
| 2.68
| 2.86
| 2.75
| 2.41
| 2.61
| 2.71
| 2.56
| 2.41
| 2.87
| -
| 2.97
| 2.92
| 2.25
| 2.16
| 2.30
| 2.35
| 2.86
| 2.31
| 2.65
| 2.39
| 2.26
| 3.33
| 3.18
| 3.17
| 2.39
| 2.63
| 2.49
| 2.16
| 2.16
| 2.56
| 2.17
| 2.06
| 1.95
| 3.12
|-
| 2.72
| 2.16
| 2.28
| 2.13
| 2.25
| 2.13
| 2.06
| 1.80
| 2.05
| 2.05
| 1.80
| 2.29
| 2.09
| 2.01
| 2.02
| 1.72
| 2.00
| 1.80
| 1.77
| 2.05
| 1.58
| 1.49
| 1.74
| 1.70
| 2.65
| -
| 2.38
| 2.13
| 1.74
| 1.84
| 1.80
| 1.70
| 1.77
| 1.58
| 2.03
| 3.09
| 2.25
| 1.66
| 1.65
| 1.39
| 1.22
| 1.36
| 1.27
| 1.15
| 1.26
| 1.19
| -
| 1.43
| 1.24
| 1.12
| 1.26
| 1.17
| 1.10
| 1.16
| 1.11
| 1.09
| 1.33
| 1.33
| 0.92
| 0.86
| 0.91
| 0.85
| 0.90
| 0.97
| 0.96
| 0.83
| 1.41
}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.tv.com/pretty-little-liars/show/78650/episode.html?tag=list_header;paginator;All&season=All List of ''Pretty Little Liars'' episodes] at [[TV.com]]
* [http://thefutoncritic.com/showatch/pretty-little-liars/listings/ List of ''Pretty Little Liars'' episodes] at TheFutoncritic.com
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120723023011/http://blog.soapoperafan.com/category/pretty-little-liars-2/ Pretty Little Liars Weekly Recaps]

{{Pretty Little Liars}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pretty Little Liars}}
[[Category:Lists of American mystery television series episodes]]
[[Category:Lists of American teen drama television series episodes]]
[[Category:Pretty Little Liars]]

Qasem Soleimani

2020-01-04T23:52:18Z

Ciaurlec: /* Death */

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2020}}
{{short description|Iranian general}}
{{pp-protected|small=yes}}{{redirect|Soleimani}}
{{Recent death confirmed}}{{Infobox military person
| honorific_prefix = [[Sardar (IRGC)|Sardar]]
| name = Qasem Soleimani
| image = Qasem Soleimani with Zolfaghar Order.jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Soleimani in his official military dress with the [[Order of Zolfaghar]] in 2019
| native_name = {{lang|fa|قاسم سلیمانی}}
| native_name_lang = fa
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1957|3|11|df=y}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2020|1|3|1957|3|11|df=y}}<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.jpost.com/Breaking-News/Four-rockets-land-on-Baghdad-airport-report-612947|title=Qasem Soleimani among those killed in Baghdad Airport attack – report|work=[[Reuters]]|date=3 January 2020|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103011829/https://www.jpost.com/Breaking-News/Four-rockets-land-on-Baghdad-airport-report-612947|archive-date=3 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Qanat-e Malek, Kerman|Qanat-e Malek]], [[Kerman Province|Kerman]], [[Pahlavi dynasty|Imperial State of Iran]]
| death_place = near [[Baghdad International Airport]], [[Baghdad Governorate]], [[Iraq]]
| nickname = "[[Hajji|Haj]] Qassem" (among supporters)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.abna24.com/cultural/archive/2015/03/10/675792/story.html|title=Qassem Suleimani not Just a Commander! – Taking a Closer Look at Religious Character of Iranian General|date=10 March 2015|publisher=abna24|accessdate=14 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010074253/http://en.abna24.com/cultural/archive/2015/03/10/675792/story.html|archive-date=10 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> "The Shadow Commander" (in the West)<ref name="Filkins-Shadow">{{cite web|url=http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/09/30/the-shadow-commander|title=The Shadow Commander|author=Dexter Filkins|date=30 September 2013|work=The New Yorker|accessdate=31 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150331221117/http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/09/30/the-shadow-commander|archive-date=31 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/10/irans-shadow-commander-steps-into-the-limelight/381558/|title=Iran's 'Shadow Commander' Steps Into the Light|author=Joanna Paraszczuk|date=16 October 2014|work=The Atlantic|accessdate=31 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010074750/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/10/irans-shadow-commander-steps-into-the-limelight/381558/|archive-date=10 October 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://businessweekme.com/Bloomberg/newsmid/190/newsid/272|title=Iran's Shadow Commander|author=Kambiz Foroohar|accessdate=31 March 2015|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402142339/http://businessweekme.com/Bloomberg/newsmid/190/newsid/272|archivedate=2 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.realclearworld.com/2013/09/23/syrias_iranian_shadow_commander_151825.html|title=RealClearWorld - Syria's Iranian Shadow Commander|accessdate=31 March 2015|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924085158/http://www.realclearworld.com/2013/09/23/syrias_iranian_shadow_commander_151825.html|archivedate=24 September 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://observers.france24.com/content/20150306-iran-shadow-commander-suleimani-iraq|title=Iran's 'shadow commander' steps into the spotlight|work=The Observers|accessdate=31 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150708062520/http://observers.france24.com/content/20150306-iran-shadow-commander-suleimani-iraq|archive-date=8 July 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| allegiance = [[Armed Forces of the Islamic Republic of Iran|Iran]]
| branch = [[Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps]]
| serviceyears = 1979–2020
| rank = [[Major General]]
| unit =
| commands = [[41st Tharallah Division of Kerman]] [[Quds Force]]
| battles = {{hidden
|''See wars and battles''
|'''[[1979 Kurdish rebellion in Iran|Kurdish Rebellion (1979)]]'''
----
'''[[Iran–Iraq War]]''' (1980–1988)<ref name="defamoghaddas">{{cite web|url=http://defamoghaddas.ir/fa/unit/%D9%84%D8%B4%DA%A9%D8%B1-41-%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87-%D8%B9|publisher=defamoghaddas.ir|title=لشکر 41 ثارالله (ع) | دفاع‌مقدس|accessdate=22 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209012325/http://defamoghaddas.ir/fa/unit/%D9%84%D8%B4%DA%A9%D8%B1-41-%D8%AB%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D9%87-%D8%B9|archive-date=9 February 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* [[Operation Tariq-ol-Qods]]{{WIA}}<ref name="yjc">{{cite web|url=http://www.yjc.ir/fa/news/5411037/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C-%DA%A9%D9%87-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%A2%D9%86-%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C-%D8%B4%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%8B-%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD-%D8%B4%D8%AF|publisher=yjc.ir|title=عملیاتی که در آن سردار سلیمانی شدیداً مجروح شد|accessdate=22 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160905142417/http://www.yjc.ir/fa/news/5411037/%D8%B9%D9%85%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C-%DA%A9%D9%87-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%A2%D9%86-%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C-%D8%B4%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%8B-%D9%85%D8%AC%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AD-%D8%B4%D8%AF|archive-date=5 September 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Operation Fath-ol-Mobin]]
* [[Operation Beit-ol-Moqaddas]]
* [[Operation Ramadan]]
* [[Operation Bazi-Deraz 2]]
* [[Operation Omm-ol-Hasanayn]]
* [[Operation Before the Dawn]]
* [[Operation Dawn (1983)]]
* [[Operation Dawn 3]]
* [[Operation Dawn 4]]
* [[Operation Dawn 5]]
* [[Operation Dawn 6]]
* [[Battle of the Marshes]]
** [[Operation Kheibar]]
* [[Operation Badr (1985)]]
* [[Operation Meymak]]
* [[First Battle of al-Faw]]
** [[Operation Dawn 8]]
* [[Operation Karbala 1]]
* [[Operation Karbala 4]]
* [[Operation Karbala 5]]
* [[Operation Karbala 6]]
* [[Operation Karbala 10]]
* [[Operation Beit-ol-Moqaddas 7]]
* [[Second Battle of al-Faw]]
* [[Operation Dawn 10]]
* [[Operation Nasr 4]]
* [[Operation Mersad]]
----
'''[[KDPI insurgency (1989–96)]]'''
----
'''[[South Lebanon conflict (1985–2000)]]'''
----
'''[[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|Invasion of Afghanistan]]'''<ref name="Terra">{{cite web|url=http://noticias.terra.com.pe/mundo/el-irani-qasem-soleimani-el-hombre-mas-poderoso-en-irak,b6046158a64e8410VgnCLD200000b1bf46d0RCRD.html|title=El iraní Qasem Soleimani, "el hombre más poderoso en Irak"|work=Terra|access-date=11 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015185814/http://noticias.terra.com.pe/mundo/el-irani-qasem-soleimani-el-hombre-mas-poderoso-en-irak,b6046158a64e8410VgnCLD200000b1bf46d0RCRD.html|archive-date=15 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>{{better source|date=March 2019}}
----
'''[[2006 Lebanon War]]'''<ref>[https://aawsat.com/english/home/article/1929396/soleimani-reveals-details-role-he-played-2006-israel-hezbollah-war soleimani reveals details role he played 2006 israel hezbollah war] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024095407/https://aawsat.com/english/home/article/1929396/soleimani-reveals-details-role-he-played-2006-israel-hezbollah-war |date=24 October 2019}} aawsat.com</ref><ref>[https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/shadowy-iran-commander-qassem-soleimani-gives-rare-interview-on-2006-israel-hezbollah-war-1.918001 Shadowy Iran commander Qassem Soleimani gives rare interview on 2006 Israel-Hezbollah war] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191024095354/https://www.thenational.ae/world/mena/shadowy-iran-commander-qassem-soleimani-gives-rare-interview-on-2006-israel-hezbollah-war-1.918001 |date=24 October 2019}} thenational.ae</ref>
----
'''[[Iraq War]]'''
* [[Karbala provincial headquarters raid]]
----
'''[[Iran–Israel proxy conflict]]'''
* [[Gaza–Israel conflict]]
----
'''[[Syrian Civil War]]'''
* [[Al-Qusayr Battle (2013)]]
* [[2015 Southern Syria offensive|Southern Syria offensive (2015)]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://syriadirect.org/main/37-videos/1848-pictures-reportedly-place-iranian-general-in-daraa|title=Pictures reportedly place Iranian general in Daraa|publisher=|accessdate=31 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212152912/http://syriadirect.org/main/37-videos/1848-pictures-reportedly-place-iranian-general-in-daraa|archive-date=12 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iraqinews.com/arab-world-news/irans-revolutionary-guards-executes-12-assads-forces-elements/|title=Iran's Revolutionary Guards executes 12 Assad's forces elements|publisher=Iraqi News|accessdate=31 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150329043528/http://www.iraqinews.com/arab-world-news/irans-revolutionary-guards-executes-12-assads-forces-elements|archive-date=29 March 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Battle of Zabadani (2015)]]
* [[Northwestern Syria offensive (October 2015)|Northwestern Syria offensive (2015)]]
* [[2015–16 Latakia offensive]]
* [[Kuweires offensive (September–November 2015)|Kuweires offensive (2015)]]
* [[Battle of Aleppo (2012–2016)]]
** [[Aleppo offensive (October–December 2015)|Southern Aleppo offensive (2015)]]
** [[2015 Russian Sukhoi Su-24 shootdown#Search and rescue|Special forces operation to rescue Russian pilot]]
** [[East Aleppo offensive (2015–16)]]
** [[Northern Aleppo offensive (2016)]]
** [[2016 Aleppo campaign|Encirclement of Aleppo]]
** [[Aleppo offensive (September–October 2016)]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/ausland/naher-osten/die-lage-in-aleppo-wird-immer-unuebersichtlicher-die-grossmaechte-koennen-sich-ueber-ihr-vorgehen-nicht-einigen-14481506.html|title=Die Völkerschlacht von Aleppo|last=Hermann|first=Rainer|work=[[Frankfurter Allgemeine Zeitung]]|language=German|date=15 October 2016|accessdate=15 October 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161015123220/http://www.faz.net/aktuell/politik/ausland/naher-osten/die-lage-in-aleppo-wird-immer-unuebersichtlicher-die-grossmaechte-koennen-sich-ueber-ihr-vorgehen-nicht-einigen-14481506.html|archive-date=15 October 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Hama offensive (March–April 2017)]]<ref name="hama">{{cite web|url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2017/04/qassem-soleimani-reportedly-spotted-in-syrias-hama-province.php|title=Qassem Soleimani reportedly spotted in Syria's Hama province|author=Amir Toumaj|work=[[Long War Journal]]|date=2 April 2017|accessdate=3 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170403055433/http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2017/04/qassem-soleimani-reportedly-spotted-in-syrias-hama-province.php|archive-date=3 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>
* [[Syrian Desert campaign (May–July 2017)]]
* [[Eastern Syria campaign (September 2017–present)]]
* [[2017 Abu Kamal offensive]]
----
'''[[Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017)]]'''
* [[Siege of Amirli]]
* [[Liberation of Jurf Al Sakhar]]
* [[Battle of Baiji (2014–15)|Battle of Baiji]]
* [[Battle of Tikrit (2015)|Battle of Tikrit]]
* [[Siege of Fallujah (2016)|Siege of Fallujah]]
** [[Operation Breaking Terrorism]]
----
'''[[2019-2020 Persian Gulf crisis]]'''
* [[2020 Baghdad International Airport airstrike]] {{KIA}}
|-
|headerstyle= background:#dbdbdb
|style= text-align:center;
}}
| awards = [[Order of Zolfaghar]] (1)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.presstv.com/Detail/2019/03/11/590717/Qassem-Soleimani-Iran-Leader-Zulfaqar-Order|title=Leader awards General Soleimani with Iran's highest military order|publisher=[[Press TV]]|accessdate=11 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190311150341/https://www.presstv.com/Detail/2019/03/11/590717/Qassem-Soleimani-Iran-Leader-Zulfaqar-Order|archive-date=11 March 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> [[Order of Fath]] (3)<ref name="medal">{{cite web|url=http://www.mashreghnews.ir/fa/news/204959/%D8%B9%DA%A9%D8%B3-%D9%85%D8%AF%D8%A7%D9%84-%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D9%81%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87-%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%B1%D9%88%DB%8C-%D9%82%D8%AF%D8%B3-%D8%B3%D9%BE%D8%A7%D9%87%7ctitle=mashreghnews.ir%7cpublisher=|title=عکس/ مدال های فرمانده نیروی قدس سپاه|publisher=|accessdate=11 February 2015}}</ref>
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'''Qasem Soleimani''' ({{lang-fa|قاسم سلیمانی}}, {{IPA-fa|ɢɒːseme solejmɒːniː|pron}}; 11 March 1957{{snd}}3{{nbsp}}January 2020), also spelled '''Qassem Suleimani''' or '''Qassim Soleimani''', was an Iranian [[major general]] in the [[Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps]] (IRGC) and, from 1998 until his death, commander of its [[Quds Force]], a division primarily responsible for [[extraterritorial operation|extraterritorial military]] and [[clandestine operation]]s.

Soleimani began his military career at the beginning of the [[Iran–Iraq War]] of the 1980s, during which he eventually commanded the [[41st Tharallah Division|41st Division]]. He was later involved in extraterritorial operations, providing military assistance to [[Hezbollah]] in Lebanon. In 2012, Soleimani helped bolster the [[Syrian government]], a key Iranian ally, during the [[Syrian Civil War]], particularly in [[Iranian involvement in the Syrian Civil War|its operations]] against [[Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant|ISIL]] and its offshoots. Soleimani also assisted in the command of the combined Iraqi government and [[Popular Mobilization Forces (Iraq)|Shia militia forces]] that advanced against ISIL in 2014–2015.

Soleimani was killed in [[2020 Baghdad International Airport airstrike|a targeted U.S. drone strike]] on 3 January 2020 in [[Baghdad]], Iraq. Also killed were Iraqi [[Popular Mobilization Forces]] (PMF) deputy head, [[Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/01/02/middleeast/baghdad-airport-rockets/index.html|title=US drone strike ordered by Trump kills top Iranian commander in Baghdad|last=CNN|first=Zachary Cohen, Hamdi Alkhshali, Arwa Damon and Kareem Khadder|website=CNN|access-date=3 January 2020}}</ref> Soleimani was succeeded as commander of the Quds Force by [[Esmail Ghaani]].<ref name=":1" />

== Early life ==

Soleimani was born on 11 March 1957. Various sources offer conflicting evidence as to his place of birth: the Iranian government states he was born in the village of [[Qanat-e Malek, Kerman|Qanat-e Malek]], [[Kerman Province]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.radiofarda.com/a/iran-guards-intelligence-chief-says-plot-to-kill-soleimani-neutralized/30197639.html|title=Iran Guards Intelligence Chief Says Plot To Kill Soleimani Neutralized|website=Radio Farda|date=3 October 2019|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103050442/https://en.radiofarda.com/a/iran-guards-intelligence-chief-says-plot-to-kill-soleimani-neutralized/30197639.html|archive-date=3 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> while the [[United States Department of State]] in 2007 listed his birthplace as [[Qom]], [[Qom Province]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.treasury.gov/press-center/press-releases/Documents/hp644report.pdf|title=Treasury and State Department Iran Designations Identifier Information Pursuant to E.O. 13224 (Terrorism) and E.O. 13382 (WMD) October 25, 2007|last=|first=|date=25/10/2007|website=US Treasury Department|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=04/01/2019}}</ref> In his youth, he moved to the city of [[Kerman]] and worked as a construction worker to help repay a debt his father owed. In 1975, he began working as a contractor for the Kerman Water Organization.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=F9cJ1q-uFrcC&pg=PA85|title=Iran's Revolutionary Guard: The Threat That Grows While America Sleeps |last=O'Hern|first=Steven|date=31 October 2012|publisher=Potomac Books, Inc. |isbn=978-1-59797-701-2 |pages=85|language=en}}</ref><ref name="alfonehjan11" /> When not at work, he spent his time [[Weight training|lifting weights]] in local gyms and attending the sermons of a traveling preacher, Hojjat Kamyab, a [[protege]] of [[Ali Khamenei]].<ref name=filkins>{{cite web|last=Filkins|first=Dexter|title=The Shadow Commander|url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2013/09/30/130930fa_fact_filkins?currentPage=1|work=[[The New Yorker]]|accessdate=6 February 2014|authorlink=Dexter Filkins|date=30 September 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140628113000/http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2013/09/30/130930fa_fact_filkins?currentPage=1|archive-date=28 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Military career ==

[[File:Qasem Soleimani received Zolfaghar Order from Ali Khamenei 1.jpg|280px|left|thumb|Soleimani receiving the [[Order of Zolfaghar]] from [[Ali Khamenei]]]]

Soleimani joined the Revolutionary war Guard ([[IRGC]]) in 1979 following the [[Iranian Revolution]], which saw the Shah fall and Ayatollah Khomeini take power. Reportedly, his training was minimal, but he advanced rapidly. Early in his career as a guardsman, he was stationed in northwestern Iran, and participated in the suppression of a Kurdish separatist uprising in [[West Azerbaijan Province]].<ref name=filkins />

{{Rquote|align=right|quote=I entered the [Iran-Iraq] war on a fifteen-day mission, and ended up staying until the end. … We were all young and wanted to serve [[1979 Revolution|the revolution]].|author=Qassem Soleimani |source=Quoted in [[w:Dexter Filkins|Dexter Filkins]] (30 September 2013). [http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2013/09/30/130930fa_fact_filkins?currentPage=all "The Shadow Commander"]. ''The New Yorker''.}}
On 22 September 1980, when [[Saddam Hussein]] launched an invasion of Iran, setting off the [[Iran–Iraq War]] (1980–1988), Soleimani joined the battlefield serving as the leader of a military company, consisting of men from Kerman whom he assembled and trained.<ref name=almonitor-eingma /> He quickly earned a reputation for bravery,<ref name=thedailybeast>{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/07/02/iran-s-top-spy-is-the-modern-day-karla-john-le-carr-s-villainous-mastermind.html|title=Iran's Top Spy Is the Modern-Day Karla, John Le Carré's Villainous Mastermind|first=Michael|last=Weiss|date=2 July 2014|work=The Daily Beast|accessdate=14 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160621192945/http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/07/02/iran-s-top-spy-is-the-modern-day-karla-john-le-carr-s-villainous-mastermind.html|archive-date=21 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> and rose through the ranks because of his role in the successful operations in retaking the lands Iraq had occupied, eventually becoming the commander of the [[41st Tharallah Division]] while still in his 20s, participating in most major operations. He was mostly stationed at the southern front.<ref name=almonitor-eingma>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/10/the-enigma-behind-qassem-suleimani.html#ixzz434m8vciD|title=The enigma of Qasem Soleimani and his role in Iraq|date=13 October 2013|publisher=Al Monitor|accessdate=14 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160505161719/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/10/the-enigma-behind-qassem-suleimani.html#ixzz434m8vciD|archive-date=5 May 2016|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=alfonehmar11/> He was seriously injured in [[Operation Tariq-ol-Qods]]. In a 1990 interview, he mentioned [[Operation Fath-ol-Mobin]] as "the best" operation he participated in and "very memorable", due to its difficulties yet positive outcome.<ref name="yjc2">{{cite web|url=http://www.yjc.ir/fa/news/5415423/%D8%A8%D8%AE%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C-%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AC-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85|publisher=yjc.ir|title=بخش‌های خواندنی کتاب "حاج قاسم"|accessdate=22 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170209012048/http://www.yjc.ir/fa/news/5415423/%D8%A8%D8%AE%D8%B4%E2%80%8C%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C-%DA%A9%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8-%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AC-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85|archive-date=9 February 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> He was also engaged in leading and organizing [[irregular warfare]] missions deep inside Iraq carried out by the Ramadan Headquarters. It was at this point that Soleimani established relations with [[Iraqi Kurdistan|Kurdish Iraqi]] leaders and the Shia [[Badr Organization]], both of which were opposed to Iraq's Saddam Hussein.<ref name=almonitor-eingma />

On 17 July 1985, Soleimani opposed the IRGC leadership’s plan to deploy forces to two islands in western [[Arvand Rud]] (Shatt al-Arab).<ref name="aei.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.aei.org/files/2011/07/13/MEO-2011-07-No-4-g.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=18 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725085931/http://www.aei.org/files/2011/07/13/MEO-2011-07-No-4-g.pdf |archivedate=25 July 2012}}</ref>

After the war, during the 1990s, he was an IRGC commander in Kerman Province.<ref name=alfonehmar11 /> In this region, which is relatively close to [[Afghanistan]], Afghan-grown opium travels to [[Turkey]] and on to Europe. Soleimani's military experience helped him earn a reputation as a successful fighter against [[drug trafficking]].<ref name=filkins />

During the 1999 [[Iran student protests, July 1999|student revolt]] in Tehran, Soleimani was one of the IRGC officers who signed a letter to President [[Mohammad Khatami]]. The letter stated that if Khatami did not crush the student rebellion the military would, and it might also launch a coup against Khatami.<ref name=filkins /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.iranian.com/News/1999/July/irgc.html|title=News & Views|work=The Iranian|date=July 1999|accessdate=17 February 2013|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121012133424/http://www.iranian.com/News/1999/July/irgc.html|archivedate=12 October 2012}}</ref>

=== Command of Quds Force ===

[[File:Memorial ceremony of Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani at Beit Rahbari 09.jpg|right|thumb|Qasem Soleimani reading the [[Quran]] in Memorial ceremony of [[Akbar Hashemi Rafsanjani|Akbar Hashemi]]]]

The exact date of his appointment as commander of the IRGC's [[Quds Force]] is not clear, but Ali Alfoneh cites it as between 10 September 1997 and 21 March 1998.<ref name="alfonehjan11">{{cite journal|last=Alfoneh|first=Ali|date=January 2011|title=Brigadier General Qassem Suleimani: A Biography|url=http://www.aei.org/files/2011/01/24/suleimani.pdf|journal=Middle Eastern Outlooks|volume=1|pages=2|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725060634/http://www.aei.org/files/2011/01/24/suleimani.pdf|archive-date=25 July 2012|accessdate=18 February 2013}}</ref> He was considered one of the possible successors to the post of commander of the IRGC, when General [[Yahya Rahim Safavi]] left this post in 2007. In 2008, he led a group of Iranian investigators looking into the death of [[Imad Mughniyah]]. Soleimani helped arrange a ceasefire between the Iraqi Army and [[Mahdi Army]] in March 2008.<ref name="mcclatchy" />

Following the [[September 11 attacks]] in 2001, senior US State Department official [[Ryan Crocker]] flew to Geneva to meet with Iranian diplomats who were under the direction of Soleimani with the purpose of collaborating to destroy the [[Taliban]].<ref name="Filkins-Shadow"/> This collaboration was instrumental in defining the targets of bombing operations in Afghanistan and in capturing key [[Al-Qaeda]] operatives, but abruptly ended in January 2002, when President [[George W. Bush]] named Iran as part of the "[[Axis of evil]]" in his State of the Union address.<ref name="Filkins-Shadow"/>

Soleimani strengthened the relationship between Quds Force and [[Hezbollah]] upon his appointment, and supported the latter by sending in operatives to retake southern [[Lebanon]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/09/30/the-shadow-commander|title=The Shadow Commander|last=Filkins|first=Dexter|date=2013-09-23|access-date=2020-01-04|language=en|issn=0028-792X}}</ref> In an interview aired in October 2019, he said he was in Lebanon during the [[2006 Israel–Hezbollah War]] to oversee the conflict.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://iranprimer.usip.org/blog/2019/oct/14/soleimani-mastermind-iran%E2%80%99s-expansion|title=Soleimani: Mastermind of Iran’s Expansion|website=The Iran Primer|date=14 October 2019}}</ref>

In 2009, a leaked report stated that General Soleimani met [[Christopher R. Hill]] and General [[Raymond T. Odierno]] (America's two most senior officials in Baghdad at the time) in the office of Iraq’s president, [[Jalal Talabani]]. Hill and Odierno denied the occurrence of the meeting.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/middleeast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14920084 Iraq and its neighbours: A regional cockpit] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091124083415/http://www.economist.com/world/middleeast-africa/displaystory.cfm?story_id=14920084 |date=24 November 2009}} ''The Economist''</ref>

On 24 January 2011, Soleimani was promoted to Major General by Supreme Leader [[Ali Khamenei]].<ref name=alfonehmar11>{{cite journal|last=Alfoneh|first=Ali|title=Iran's Secret Network: Major General Qassem Suleimani's Inner Circle|journal=Middle Eastern Outlooks|date=March 2011|volume=2|url=http://www.aei.org/files/2011/03/03/MEO-2011-03-No-2-g.pdf|accessdate=18 February 2013|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120724182439/http://www.aei.org/files/2011/03/03/MEO-2011-03-No-2-g.pdf|archivedate=24 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=The Islamic Republic's 13 generals|url=http://iranbriefing.net/?p=4154|work=Iran Briefing|accessdate=13 August 2013|date=3 February 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002140823/http://iranbriefing.net/?p=4154|archive-date=2 October 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> Khamenei was described as having a close relationship with him, calling Soleimani a "living martyr" and helping him financially.<ref name=filkins />

Soleimani was described by an ex-[[CIA operative]] as "the single most powerful operative in the Middle East today" and the principal military strategist and tactician in Iran's effort to combat Western influence and promote the expansion of [[Shia Islam|Shiite]] and Iranian influence throughout the Middle East.<ref name=filkins /> In [[Iraq]], as the commander of the Quds force, he was believed to have strongly influenced the organization of the Iraqi government, notably supporting the election of previous Iraqi Prime Minister [[Nuri Al-Maliki]].<ref name=filkins /><ref name=abb12mar />

=== Syrian Civil War ===

{{Rquote|align=right|quote=We’re not like the Americans. We don’t abandon our friends.|source=Attributed to Soleimani by a former Iraqi leader, referring to Syria. Quoted in [[w:Dexter Filkins|Dexter Filkins]] (30 September 2013). [http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2013/09/30/130930fa_fact_filkins?currentPage=all "The Shadow Commander"]. ''The New Yorker''.}}
[[File:Qusayr map.svg|thumb|A map of Al-Qusayr and its environs. The [[Al-Qusayr offensive]] was reportedly orchestrated by Soleimani<ref name="Filkins-Shadow"/>]]

According to several sources, including [[Riad Hijab]], a former Syrian premier who defected in August 2012, he was also one of the staunchest supporters of the Syrian government of [[Bashar al-Assad]] in the [[Syrian Civil War]].<ref name=filkins/><ref name=abb12mar>{{cite news|last=Abbas|first=Mushreq|title=Iran's Man in Iraq and Syria|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/03/soleimani-iraq-syria-difference.html|accessdate=13 March 2013|newspaper=Al Monitor|date=12 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314202808/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/03/soleimani-iraq-syria-difference.html|archive-date=14 March 2013|url-status=live}}</ref> In the later half of 2012, Soleimani assumed personal control of the Iranian intervention in the Syrian Civil War, when the Iranians became deeply concerned about the Assad government's lack of ability to fight the opposition, and the fallout to the Islamic Republic if the Syrian government fell. He reportedly coordinated the war from a base in [[Damascus]] at which a Lebanese Hezbollah commander and an Iraqi Shiite militia coordinator were mobilized, in addition to Syrian and Iranian officers. Under Soleimani the command "coordinated attacks, trained militias, and set up an elaborate system to monitor rebel communications". According to a Middle Eastern security official Dexter Filkins talked to, thousands of Quds Force and Iraqi Shiite militiamen in Syria were "spread out across the entire country."<ref name=filkins /> The [[Battle of al-Qusayr (2013)|retaking of Qusayr]] in May 2013 from rebel forces and [[Al-Nusra Front]]<ref>{{cite news |title=Il ruolo di Hezbollah in Siria |url=https://it.insideover.com/schede/politica/hezbollah-guerra-siria.html |work=InsideOver |date=31 July 2018 |access-date=3 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190920231150/https://it.insideover.com/schede/politica/hezbollah-guerra-siria.html |archive-date=20 September 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> was, according to John Maguire, a former [[CIA]] officer in Iraq, "orchestrated" by Soleimani.<ref name=filkins />

Brigadier General [[Hossein Hamadani]], the [[Basij]]’s former deputy commander, helped to run irregular militias that Soleimani hoped would continue the fight if Assad fell.<ref name=filkins /> Soleimani helped establish the [[National Defence Forces (Syria)|National Defence Forces]] (NDF) in 2013 which would formalise the coalition of pro-Assad groups.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/iran-us-uk-relations-qasem-soleimani|title=In an attack on Iran, misunderstanding Qasim Soleimani could be America's downfall|last=Merat|first=Arron|date=10 October 2019|website=[[Prospect (magazine)|Prospect]]|language=en-US|url-status=live|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209084332/https://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/iran-us-uk-relations-qasem-soleimani|archive-date=9 December 2019}}</ref>

Soleimani was much credited in Syria for the strategy that assisted President Bashar al-Assad in finally repulsing rebel forces and recapturing key cities and towns.<ref name="bbc.co.uk">{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27883162|title=Iran's Qasem Soleimani wields power behind the scenes in Iraq|publisher=BBC News|date=6 March 2015|access-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180812091347/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-27883162|archive-date=12 August 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> He was involved in the training of government-allied militias and the coordination of decisive military offensives.<ref name=filkins/> The sighting of Iranian [[Unmanned Aerial Vehicle|UAV]]s in Syria strongly suggested that his command, the Quds Force, was involved in the civil war.<ref name=filkins />
In a visit to the Lebanese capital Beirut on Thursday 29 January 2015, Soleimani laid wreaths at the graves of the slain Hezbollah members, including [[Jihad Mughniyah]], which strengthened suspicions about collaboration between Hezbollah and the Quds Force.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://old.mehrnews.com/ar/newsdetail.aspx?NewsID=1849116|title=Iran's Soleimani pays tribute to fallen Hezbollah fighters|agency=Mehr News|access-date=30 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402091306/http://old.mehrnews.com/ar/newsdetail.aspx?NewsID=1849116|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==== Orchestration of military escalation in 2015 ====

In 2015, Soleimani started to gather support from various sources in order to combat the newly resurgent ISIL and rebel groups which were both successful in taking large swathes of territory away from Assad's forces. He was reportedly the main architect of the joint intervention involving Russia as a new partner with Assad and Hezbollah.<ref name="plot">{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2015/10/06/us-mideast-crisis-syria-soleimani-insigh-idUSKCN0S02BV20151006|title=How Iranian general plotted out Syrian assault in Moscow|publisher=Reuters|accessdate=14 October 2015|date=6 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009193524/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/10/06/us-mideast-crisis-syria-soleimani-insigh-idUSKCN0S02BV20151006|archive-date=9 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hngn.com/articles/137599/20151007/iranian-general-attended-moscow-meeting-to-plan-syrian-assault.htm|title=Iranian General Attended Moscow Meeting To Plan Syrian Assault|work=Headlines & Global News|date=7 October 2015|access-date=16 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151208152907/http://www.hngn.com/articles/137599/20151007/iranian-general-attended-moscow-meeting-to-plan-syrian-assault.htm|archive-date=8 December 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="reuters.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2015/10/06/us-mideast-crisis-syria-soleimani-insigh-idUSKCN0S02BV20151006|title=How Iranian general plotted out Syrian assault in Moscow|publisher=Reuters|date=6 October 2015|access-date=1 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151009193524/http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/10/06/us-mideast-crisis-syria-soleimani-insigh-idUSKCN0S02BV20151006|archive-date=9 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.aei.org/publication/how-an-iranian-terrorist-plotted-russias-syria-intervention/|title=How an Iranian terrorist plotted Russia's Syria intervention|publisher=American Enterprise Institute|last=Thiessen|first=Marc A.|date=7 October 2015|access-date=16 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151011012935/http://www.aei.org/publication/how-an-iranian-terrorist-plotted-russias-syria-intervention/|archive-date=11 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

According to Reuters, at a meeting in Moscow in July, Soleimani unfurled a map of Syria to explain to his Russian hosts how a series of defeats for President Bashar al-Assad could be turned into victory{{snd}}with Russia's help. Qasem Soleimani's visit to Moscow was the first step in planning for a Russian military intervention that has reshaped the Syrian war and forged a new [[Russia–Syria–Iran–Iraq coalition|Iranian–Russian alliance]] in support of the Syrian (and Iraqi) governments. Iran's supreme leader, Ali Khamenei also sent a senior envoy to Moscow to meet President Vladimir Putin. "Putin reportedly told [a senior Iranian envoy] 'Okay we will intervene. Send Qassem Soleimani.'" General Soleimani went to explain the map of the theatre and coordinate the strategic escalation of military forces in Syria.<ref name="reuters.com"/>

===== Operations in Aleppo =====

[[File:Aleppo Offensives 2015.svg|280px|left|thumb|Map of the 2015 Aleppo offensives.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-captures-al-nasiriyah-in-east-aleppo-7km-from-kuweires-military-airport/|title=Syrian Army Captures Al-Nasiriyah in East Aleppo: 7km from Kuweires Military Airport|author=Leith Fadel|agency=Al-Masdar News|access-date=25 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020003645/http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-captures-al-nasiriyah-in-east-aleppo-7km-from-kuweires-military-airport/|archive-date=20 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-and-hezbollah-capture-25km-of-territory-in-southern-aleppo-while-the-islamists-counter/|title=Syrian Army and Hezbollah Capture 25km of Territory in Southern Aleppo While the Islamists Counter|author=Leith Fadel|agency=Al-Masdar News|access-date=25 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151020210604/http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-and-hezbollah-capture-25km-of-territory-in-southern-aleppo-while-the-islamists-counter/|archive-date=20 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-and-hezbollah-continue-to-roll-in-southern-aleppo-several-sites-captured/|title=Syrian Army and Hezbollah Continue to Roll in Southern Aleppo: Several Sites Captured|author=Leith Fadel|agency=Al-Masdar News|access-date=25 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024045402/http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-and-hezbollah-continue-to-roll-in-southern-aleppo-several-sites-captured/|archive-date=24 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/cheetah-forces-press-further-in-east-aleppo-hilltops-overlooking-tal-sabeen-captured/|title=Cheetah Forces Press Further in East Aleppo: Hilltops Overlooking Tal Sab'een Captured|author=Leith Fadel|agency=Al-Masdar News|access-date=25 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024001451/http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/cheetah-forces-press-further-in-east-aleppo-hilltops-overlooking-tal-sabeen-captured/|archive-date=24 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/cheetah-forces-capture-tal-sabeen-amid-russian-airstrikes-in-east-aleppo/|title=Cheetah Forces Capture Tal Sab'een Amid Russian Airstrikes in East Aleppo|author=Leith Fadel|agency=Al-Masdar News|access-date=25 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151022154138/http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/cheetah-forces-capture-tal-sabeen-amid-russian-airstrikes-in-east-aleppo/|archive-date=22 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/hezbollah-and-the-syrian-army-seize-several-sites-in-southern-aleppo/|title=Hezbollah and the Syrian Army Seize Several Sites in Southern Aleppo|author=Leith Fadel|agency=Al-Masdar News|access-date=25 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151024223255/http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/hezbollah-and-the-syrian-army-seize-several-sites-in-southern-aleppo/|archive-date=24 October 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

Soleimani had a decisive impact on the theater of operations, which led to a strong advance in southern Aleppo with the government and allied forces re-capturing two military bases and dozens of towns and villages in a matter of weeks. There was also a series of major [[Kuweires offensive (September–November 2015)|advances towards Kuweiris air-base]] to the north-east.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/10/syria-aleppo-conquest-regime-armed-rebels.html|title=What the Aleppo offensive hides|date=23 October 2015|last=Alami|first=Mona|work=Al-Monitor|access-date=24 October 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170719080927/http://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2015/10/syria-aleppo-conquest-regime-armed-rebels.html|archive-date=19 July 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> By mid-November, the Syrian army and its allies had gained ground in southern areas of Aleppo Governorate, capturing numerous rebel strongholds. Soleimani was reported to have personally led the drive deep into the southern Aleppo countryside where many towns and villages fell into government hands. He reportedly commanded the Syrian Arab Army’s 4th Mechanized Division, Hezbollah, Harakat Al-Nujaba (Iraqi), Kata'ib Hezbollah (Iraqi), Liwaa Abu Fadl Al-Abbas (Iraqi), and Firqa Fatayyemoun (Afghan/Iranian volunteers).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/where-is-major-general-qassem-suleimani/#prettyPhoto|title=Where is Major General Qassem Suleimani?|author=Leith Fadel|agency=Al-Masdar News|access-date=12 November 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151113204111/http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/where-is-major-general-qassem-suleimani/#prettyPhoto|archive-date=13 November 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

Soleimani was lightly wounded while fighting in Syria, outside of Al-Eis. Reports initially speculated that he was seriously or gravely injured.<ref name="Yahoo News 2015">{{cite web |title=Iran general Soleimani lightly wounded in Syria |website=Yahoo News |date=25 November 2015 |url=https://news.yahoo.com/iran-general-soleimani-lightly-wounded-syria-131935602.html |accessdate=30 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151128060853/http://news.yahoo.com/iran-general-soleimani-lightly-wounded-syria-131935602.html |archive-date=28 November 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref> He was quoted as saying, "Martyrdom is what I seek in mountains and valleys, but it isn't granted yet".<ref name="اﻟﺘﺤﻟﻴﻟﻲ 2015">{{cite web |last=اﻟﺘﺤﻟﻴﻟﻲ |first=موقع الوقت |title=Alwaght Exclusive: Qasem Soleimani Talks about Rokn Abadi and Himselfs Death Rumors |website=الوقت |date=30 November 2015 |url=http://www.alwaght.com/en/News/21473/Alwaght-Exclusive-Qasem-Soleimani-Talks-about-Rokn-Abadi-and-Himselfs-Death-Rumors |accessdate=30 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151204072341/http://www.alwaght.com/en/News/21473/Alwaght-Exclusive-Qasem-Soleimani-Talks-about-Rokn-Abadi-and-Himselfs-Death-Rumors |archive-date=4 December 2015 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In early February 2016, backed by Russian and Syrian air force airstrikes, the 4th Mechanized Division{{snd}}in close coordination with Hezbollah, the National Defense Forces (NDF), Kata'eb Hezbollah, and Harakat Al-Nujaba{{snd}}launched [[Northern Aleppo offensive (2016)|an offensive]] in Aleppo Governorate's northern countryside,<ref>[http://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-hezbollah-launch-preliminary-offensive-in-northern-aleppo/ Syrian Army, Hezbollah launch preliminary offensive in northern Aleppo] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831101438/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-hezbollah-launch-preliminary-offensive-in-northern-aleppo/ |date=31 August 2019}} almasdarnews.com</ref> which eventually broke the three-year [[siege of Nubl and Al-Zahraa]] and cut off rebel's main supply route from Turkey. According to a senior, non-Syrian security source close to Damascus, Iranian fighters played a crucial role in the conflict. "Qassem Soleimani is there in the same area", he said.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKCN0VC169|title=Russia and Turkey trade accusations over Syria|date=5 February 2016|publisher=|accessdate=14 July 2016|via=Reuters|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190909181823/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-idUSKCN0VC169|archive-date=9 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> In December 2016, new photos emerged of Soleimani at the [[Citadel of Aleppo]], though the exact date of the photos is unknown.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/12/irgc-qods-force-chief-spotted-in-aleppo.php |title=IRGC Qods Force chief spotted in Aleppo |first=Amir |last=Toumaj |date=18 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219014605/http://www.longwarjournal.org/archives/2016/12/irgc-qods-force-chief-spotted-in-aleppo.php |archive-date=19 December 2016 |publisher=[[Long War Journal]] |quote=On Friday, photos emerged of Qassem Soleimani, the commander of the Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps (IRGC) Qods Force, in conquered eastern Aleppo, Syria (photos 1, 2). Another photo showed him by the Citadel of Aleppo (photo 3). It was not immediately clear when the photos were taken.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Syria: Iran's General Soleimani in Aleppo |quote=New photos show the Commander of the Quds Force of Iran's Islamic Revolution Guards Corps (IRGC) Major General Qassem Soleimani at the Citadel of Aleppo after its liberation as Syria is preparing to celebrate its victory in the crucially important city |publisher=[[Fars News Agency]] |url=http://en.farsnews.com/imgrep.aspx?nn=13950927000104 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219014910/http://en.farsnews.com/imgrep.aspx?nn=13950927000104 |archive-date=19 December 2016}}</ref>

==== Operations in 2016 and 2017 ====

In 2016, photos published by a Popular Mobilization Forces (PMF) source showed Iran's Quds Force commander Qassem Suleimani attending a meeting of PMF commanders in Iraq to discuss the [[Battle of Fallujah (2016)|Battle of Fallujah]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.farsnews.com/imgrep.aspx?nn=13950304001274 |title=Iran's Gen. Soleimani in Fallujah Operations Room |publisher=Fars News |date= |accessdate=27 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160526132944/http://en.farsnews.com/imgrep.aspx?nn=13950304001274 |archive-date=26 May 2016 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In late March 2017, Soleimani was seen in the northern [[Hama Governorate]] countryside in Syria, reportedly aiding Maj. Gen. [[Suheil al-Hassan]] in repelling a [[2017 Hama offensive|major rebel offensive]].<ref name="hama" />

CIA chief [[Mike Pompeo]] said that he sent Soleimani and other Iranian leaders a letter holding them responsible for any attacks on US interests by forces under their control. According to Mohammad Mohammadi Golpayegani, a senior aide for Iran's supreme leader, Soleimani ignored the letter when it was handed over to him during the [[2017 Abu Kamal offensive|Abu Kamal offensive]] against ISIL, saying "I will not take your letter nor read it and I have nothing to say to these people."<ref>{{cite news|title=CIA chief Pompeo says he warned Iran's Soleimani over Iraq aggression|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-pompeo/cia-chief-pompeo-says-he-warned-irans-soleimani-over-iraq-aggression-idUSKBN1DX02P|accessdate=3 December 2017|work=Reuters|date=2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203051441/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iran-pompeo/cia-chief-pompeo-says-he-warned-irans-soleimani-over-iraq-aggression-idUSKBN1DX02P|archive-date=3 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=CIA director sent warning to Iran over threatened US interests in Iraq|url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/dec/03/cia-director-sent-warning-to-iran-over-threatened-us-interests-in-iraq|accessdate=3 December 2017|work=The Guardian|agency=Associated Press|date=3 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171203175343/https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2017/dec/03/cia-director-sent-warning-to-iran-over-threatened-us-interests-in-iraq|archive-date=3 December 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== War against ISIS in Iraq ===

{{See also|Iraqi Civil War (2014–2017)}}
[[File:Salah Al-Din map.svg|left|thumb|The east of [[Saladin Governorate]] in Iraq, where Qasem Soleimani was involved in breaking the [[Siege of Amirli]] by ISIL<ref name="businessinsider.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.businessinsider.com/suleimani-was-present-during-battle-for-amerli-2014-9|title=Suleimani was present during battle for Amerli|date=3 September 2014|work=Business Insider|access-date=22 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141009070715/http://www.businessinsider.com/suleimani-was-present-during-battle-for-amerli-2014-9|archive-date=9 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

In 2014, Qasem Soleimani was in the Iraqi city of [[Amirli]], to work with the Iraqi forces to push back militants from ISIL.<ref name="BBC Win">{{cite web|title=Iraqi and Kurdish troops enter the sieged Amirli|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/arabic/middleeast/2014/08/140831_iraq_amerli_forces_enter.shtml|publisher=BBC News|date=31 August 2014|accessdate=31 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140831122854/http://www.bbc.co.uk/arabic/middleeast/2014/08/140831_iraq_amerli_forces_enter.shtml|archive-date=31 August 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=So hilft Israels Todfeind den USA im Kampf gegen ISIS!|url=http://www.bild.de/politik/ausland/isis/iran-usa-gemeinsam-gegen-isis-37536854.bild.html|newspaper=[[Bild]]|accessdate=4 September 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150128063153/http://www.bild.de/politik/ausland/isis/iran-usa-gemeinsam-gegen-isis-37536854.bild.html|archive-date=28 January 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> According to the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'', which reported that Amirli was the first town to successfully withstand an ISIS invasion, it was secured thanks to "an unusual partnership of Iraqi and Kurdish soldiers, Iranian-backed Shiite militias and U.S. warplanes". The U.S. acted as a force multiplier for a number of Iranian-backed armed groups{{snd}}at the same time that was present on the battlefield.<ref>{{cite web|title=In Iraq, residents of Amerli celebrate end of militant siege|url=http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-iraq-amerli-siege-20140902-story.html|newspaper=[[The Los Angeles Times]]|accessdate=5 September 2014|date=2 September 2014|last=Bengali|first=Shashank|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140905002601/http://www.latimes.com/world/middleeast/la-fg-iraq-amerli-siege-20140902-story.html|archive-date=5 September 2014|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tehrantimes.com/news/402931/Soleimani-Iran-to-help-Iraq-as-needed|title=Soleimani: Iran to help Iraq as needed|date=28 May 2016|work=Tehran Times|accessdate=14 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160625142133/http://www.tehrantimes.com/news/402931/Soleimani-Iran-to-help-Iraq-as-needed|archive-date=25 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>
[[File:Qasem Soleimani in Syrian Desert (June 2017).jpg|left|thumb| Iranian Major General Qasem Soleimani prays in the Syrian desert during a local pro-government offensive in 2017.]]

A senior Iraqi official told the BBC that when the city of Mosul fell, the rapid reaction of Iran, rather than American bombing, was what prevented a more widespread collapse.<ref name="Terra" /> Qasem Soleimani also seems to have been instrumental in planning the operation to relieve [[Amirli]] in Saladin Governorate, where ISIL had laid siege to an important city.<ref name="businessinsider.com" /> In fact the Quds force operatives under Soleimani's command seem to have been deeply involved with not only the Iraqi army and Shi'ite militias but also the Kurdish in the [[Siege of Amirli|Battle of Amirli]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/03/world/middleeast/waging-a-desperate-fight-an-iraqi-town-holds-off-militants.html?_r=0|title=Waging Desperate Campaign, Iraqi Town Held Off Militants|work=The New York Times|last=Ahmed|first=Azam|date=3 September 2014|accessdate=11 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141028075730/http://www.nytimes.com/2014/09/03/world/middleeast/waging-a-desperate-fight-an-iraqi-town-holds-off-militants.html?_r=0|archive-date=28 October 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> not only providing liaisons for intelligence-sharing but also the supply of arms and munitions in addition to "providing expertise".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/01/us-iraq-security-miltias-iran-idUSKBN0GW2Y420140901|title=Iranians play role in breaking ISIS siege of Iraqi town|date=1 September 2014|publisher=Reuters|access-date=1 July 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924203959/http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/09/01/us-iraq-security-miltias-iran-idUSKBN0GW2Y420140901|archive-date=24 September 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the [[Operation Ashura|operation to liberate Jurf Al Sakhar]], he was reportedly "present on the battlefield". Some Shia militia commanders described Soleimani as "fearless"{{snd}}one pointing out that the Iranian general never wears a [[flak jacket]], even on the front lines.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/iran-general-said-to-mastermind-iraq-ground-war/|title=Iran general said to mastermind Iraq ground war|work=The Times of Israel|date=5 November 2014|last1=Abdul-Zahra|first1=Qassim|last2=Salama|first2=Vivian|access-date=5 November 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141105221816/http://www.timesofisrael.com/iran-general-said-to-mastermind-iraq-ground-war/|archive-date=5 November 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Battle of Tikrit (2015) (digitized).jpg|300px|thumb|Soleimani was also intimately involved in the planning and execution of the [[Second Battle of Tikrit|operation to liberate Tikrit]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Iranian General Again in Iraq for Tikrit Offensive|url=http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense-news/blog/intercepts/2015/03/02/iraq-iran-is-war-terrorism/24270363/|accessdate=3 March 2015|publisher=defensenews.com|date=2 March 2015}}</ref><ref name="independent.co.uk">{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/iraqi-army-and-militias-surround-isis-in-major-offensive-in-the-battle-for-tikrit-10083338.html|title=Iraqi army and militias surround Isis in major offensive in the battle for Tikrit|date=3 March 2015|last=Rasheed|first=Ahmad|work=The Independent|accessdate=31 March 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402114826/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/iraqi-army-and-militias-surround-isis-in-major-offensive-in-the-battle-for-tikrit-10083338.html|archive-date=2 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>]]

[[Hadi al-Amiri]], the former Iraqi minister of transportation and the head of the [[Badr Organization]], highlighted the pivotal role of General Soleimani in defending Iraq's Kurdistan Region against ISIL, maintaining that if it were not for Iran, [[Haider al-Abadi]]'s government would have been a government-in-exile;<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.mehrnews.com/detail/News/105392|title=Iraq owes many victories against ISIL to Iran|agency=MehrNews|access-date=11 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150108222616/http://en.mehrnews.com/detail/News/105392|archive-date=8 January 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> he added there would have been no Iraq if General Soleimani had not helped Iraq.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://old.mehrnews.com/ar/newsdetail.aspx?NewsID=1847620|title=هادي العامري: لولا ايران وسليماني لما كانت الحكومة العراقية موجودة في بغداد|work=وكالة مهر للانباء|access-date=11 January 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150218142256/http://old.mehrnews.com/ar/newsdetail.aspx?NewsID=1847620|archive-date=18 February 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref>

There were reports by some Western sources that Soleimani was seriously wounded in action against ISIL in Samarra. The claim was rejected by Iranian Deputy Foreign Minister for Arab and African Affairs [[Hossein Amir-Abdollahian]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.presstv.ir/Detail/2015/01/15/393274/General-Soleimani-not-injured-Iran|title=Major General Soleimani not injured: Iran|publisher=Press TV|date=15 January 2015|accessdate=11 February 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150212013531/http://www.presstv.ir/Detail/2015/01/15/393274/General-Soleimani-not-injured-Iran|archive-date=12 February 2015|url-status=live}}</ref>

Soleimani played an integral role in the organisation and planning of the crucial operation to [[liberation of Tikrit|retake the city of Tikrit]] in Iraq from ISIS. The city of Tikrit rests on the left bank of the Tigris river and is the largest and most important city between Baghdad and Mosul, gifting it a high strategic value. The city fell to ISIS during 2014 when ISIS made immense gains in northern and central Iraq. After its capture, ISIL's [[Camp Speicher massacre|massacre at Camp Speicher]] led to 1,600 to 1,700 deaths of Iraqi Army cadets and soldiers. After months of careful preparation and intelligence gathering an offensive to encircle and capture Tikrit was launched in early March 2015.<ref name="independent.co.uk" /> Soleimani was directing the operations on the eastern flank from a village about 35 miles from Tikrit called Albu Rayash, captured over the weekend.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}} The offensive was the biggest military operation in the Salahuddin region since the previous summer when ISIS fighters killed hundreds of Iraq army soldiers who had abandoned their military base at Camp Speicher outside Tikrit.{{Citation needed|date=January 2020}}

== In politics ==

[[File:Qasem Soleimani in Imam Khomeini Hossainiah01.jpg|thumb|upright|General Soleimani in civilian attire during a public ceremony in 2015]]

In 1999, Soleimani, along with other senior IRGC commanders, signed a letter to then-President [[Mohammad Khatami]] regarding the [[Iran student protests, July 1999|student protests in July]]. They wrote "Dear Mr. Khatami, how long do we have to shed tears, sorrow over the events, practice democracy by chaos and insults, and have revolutionary patience at the expense of sabotaging the system? Dear president, if you don't make a revolutionary decision and act according to your Islamic and national missions, tomorrow will be so late and irrecoverable that cannot be even imagined."<ref name="IPD" />

Iranian media reported in 2012 that he might be replaced as the commander of Quds Force in order to allow him to run in the [[2013 Iranian presidential election|2013 presidential election]].<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.stratfor.com/analysis/irans-conservatives-grapple-power|title=Iran's Conservatives Grapple for Power|publisher=Stratfor|date=1 March 2012|access-date=1 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171010074258/https://www.stratfor.com/analysis/irans-conservatives-grapple-power|archive-date=10 October 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> He reportedly refused to be nominated for the election.<ref name="IPD">{{citation|url=https://intpolicydigest.org/2016/05/16/will-qasem-soleimani-become-next-president-iran/|title=Will Qasem Soleimani Become the Next President of Iran?|author=Nozhan Etezadosaltaneh|work=International Policy Digest|date=16 May 2016|access-date=1 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170415011728/https://intpolicydigest.org/2016/05/16/will-qasem-soleimani-become-next-president-iran/|archive-date=15 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref> According to [[BBC News]], in 2015 a campaign started among [[Iranian Principlists|conservative]] bloggers for Soleimani to stand for [[2017 Iranian presidential election|2017 presidential election]].<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27883162|title=General Qasem Soleimani: Iran's rising star|author=Bozorgmehr Sharafedin|publisher=BBC News|date=6 March 2015|access-date=1 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227192551/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-27883162|archive-date=27 December 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2016, he was speculated as a possible candidate,<ref name="IPD" /><ref>{{citation|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/akbar-ganji/iran-hardliners-comeback_b_6857656.html|title=Iran's Hardliners Might Be Making a Comeback -- And the West Should Pay Attention|work=[[Huffington Post]]|date=13 May 2015|access-date=1 January 2016|author=Akbar Ganji|author-link=Akbar Ganji|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160229180820/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/akbar-ganji/iran-hardliners-comeback_b_6857656.html|archive-date=29 February 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> however in a statement published on 15 September 2016, he called speculations about his candidacy as "divisive reports by the enemies" and said he will "always remain a simple soldier serving Iran and the Islamic Revolution".<ref>{{citation|url=http://theiranproject.com/blog/2016/09/29/who-will-be-irans-next-president/|title=Who will be Iran's next president?|publisher=The Iran Project|date=29 September 2016|access-date=1 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170104000952/http://theiranproject.com/blog/2016/09/29/who-will-be-irans-next-president/|archive-date=4 January 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

In the summer of 2018, Soleimani and Tehran exchanged public remarks related to Red Sea shipping with American President Donald Trump which heightened tensions between the two countries and their allies in the region.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Cunningham|first1=Erin|last2=Fahim|first2=Kareem|date=26 July 2018|title=Top Iranian general warns Trump that war would unravel U.S. power in region|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/powerful-iranian-general-warns-trump-that-war-would-destroy-all-that-he-owns/2018/07/26/c1499ec2-90b9-11e8-bcd5-9d911c784c38_story.html|newspaper=The Washington Post|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708010642/https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/middle_east/powerful-iranian-general-warns-trump-that-war-would-destroy-all-that-he-owns/2018/07/26/c1499ec2-90b9-11e8-bcd5-9d911c784c38_story.html |archive-date=8 July 2019 |access-date=16 November 2018}}</ref>

== Personal life and characteristics ==

His father was a farmer who died in 2017. His mother, Fatemeh, died in 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://salamdelfan.ir/12219/%d9%85%d8%a7%d8%af%d8%b1-%d8%ad%d8%a7%d8%ac-%d9%82%d8%a7%d8%b3%d9%85-%d8%b3%d9%84%db%8c%d9%85%d8%a7%d9%86%db%8c-%d8%af%d8%b1%da%af%d8%b0%d8%b4%d8%aa|title=مادر حاج قاسم سلیمانی درگذشت|date=18 June 1392|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713192603/http://salamdelfan.ir/12219/%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AC-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85-%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C-%D8%AF%D8%B1%DA%AF%D8%B0%D8%B4%D8%AA|archive-date=13 July 2019|url-status=live}}</ref> He came from a family of nine and had five sisters and one brother, Sohrab, who lived and worked with Soleimani in his youth.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://tanineiran.ir/-/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AE-%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D9%BE%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85-%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1 |title=پاسخ پرمعنای پدر سردار قاسم سلیمانی به استاندار |access-date=3 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161027144858/http://tanineiran.ir/-/%D9%BE%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AE-%D9%BE%D8%B1%D9%85%D8%B9%D9%86%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D9%BE%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85-%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C-%D8%A8%D9%87-%D8%A7%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1 |archive-date=27 October 2016 |url-status=dead}}</ref> Sohrab Soleimani is a warden and former director general of the Tehran Prisons Organization. The United States imposed sanctions on Sohrab Soleimani in April 2017 "for his role in abuses in Iranian prisons".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-iran-sanctions-idUSKBN17F2D0?il=0|title=U.S. sanctions brother of Iran's Quds force commander: White House|publisher=Reuters|date=13 April 2017|accessdate=13 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170413190522/http://www.reuters.com/article/us-usa-iran-sanctions-idUSKBN17F2D0?il=0|archive-date=13 April 2017|url-status=live}}</ref>

Soleimani practiced [[karate]] and was a fitness trainer in his youth. He has four children: two sons and two daughters.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.farsnews.com/news/13940521000224/رازهای-زندگی-سردار-ایرانی-حاج-قاسم-چگونه-زندگی-می‌کند|title=خبرگزاری فارس - رازهای زندگی سردار ایرانی/ حاج قاسم چگونه زندگی می‌کند|date=24 August 2015|website=خبرگزاری فارس|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206002759/https://www.farsnews.com/news/13940521000224/%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%87%D8%A7%DB%8C-%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C-%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1-%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C-%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AC-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85-%DA%86%DA%AF%D9%88%D9%86%D9%87-%D8%B2%D9%86%D8%AF%DA%AF%DB%8C-%D9%85%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D9%86%D8%AF|archive-date=6 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

He was described as having "a calm presence",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303816504577305742884577460|title=Iran's Spymaster Counters U.S. Moves in the Mideast|first=Jay Solomon And Siobhan|last=Gorman|date=6 April 2012|publisher=|accessdate=14 July 2016|via=Wall Street Journal|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160607210833/http://www.wsj.com/articles/SB10001424052702303816504577305742884577460|archive-date=7 June 2016|url-status=live}}</ref> and as carrying himself "inconspicuously and rarely rais[ing] his voice", exhibiting "understated [[charisma]]".<ref name=thedailybeast /> In Western sources, Soleimani's personality was compared to the fictional characters [[Karla (character)|Karla]], [[Keyser Söze]],<ref name=thedailybeast /> and [[The Scarlet Pimpernel]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/16/qassim-suleimani-iraq-iran-syria|title=Qassem Suleimani: commander of Quds force, puppeteer of the Middle East|first1=Ian|last1=Black|first2=Saeed Kamali|last2=Dehghan|date=16 June 2014|publisher=|accessdate=14 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190510185547/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/jun/16/qassim-suleimani-iraq-iran-syria|archive-date=10 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

Unlike other IRGC commanders, he usually did not appear in his official military clothing, even in the battlefield.<ref>{{cite web |title=Subscribe to read |url=https://www.ft.com/content/b40922da-d6c9-11e4-97c3-00144feab7de |website=Financial Times |accessdate=3 September 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180903215542/https://www.ft.com/content/b40922da-d6c9-11e4-97c3-00144feab7de |archive-date=3 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Azodi |first1=Sina |title=Qasem Soleimani, Iran's Celebrity Warlord |url=http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/qasem-soleimani-iran-s-celebrity-warlord |website=Atlantic Council |accessdate=3 September 2018 |language=en-gb |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180903215322/http://www.atlanticcouncil.org/blogs/iransource/qasem-soleimani-iran-s-celebrity-warlord |archive-date=3 September 2018 |url-status=live}}</ref>

In January 2015, Hadi Al-Ameri the head of the Badr Organization in Iraq said of him: "If Qasem Soleimani was not present in Iraq, [[Haider al-Abadi]] would not be able to form his cabinet within Iraq".<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ar.mehrnews.com/news/1847620/هادي-العامري-لولا-ايران-وسليماني-لما-كانت-الحكومة-العراقية-موجودة|date=5 January 2015|website=Mehr News Agency|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191206114115/https://ar.mehrnews.com/news/1847620/هادي-العامري-لولا-ايران-وسليماني-لما-كانت-الحكومة-العراقية-موجودة|title=هادي العامري: لولا ايران وسليماني لما كانت الحكومة العراقية موجودة في بغداد|archive-date=6 December 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Sanctions ==

[[File:Ayatollah Sayyed Ali Khamenei And Qasem Soleimani.jpg|thumb|Soleimani with [[Ali Khamenei]]]]

In March 2007, Soleimani was included on a list of Iranian individuals targeted with sanctions in [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N07/281/40/PDF/N0728140.pdf?OpenElement|title=United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747|publisher=United Nations|date=24 March 2007|accessdate=7 April 2008|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070711005638/http://daccessdds.un.org/doc/UNDOC/GEN/N07/281/40/PDF/N0728140.pdf?OpenElement|archivedate=11 July 2007}}</ref> On 18 May 2011, he was sanctioned again by the [[United States]] along with Syrian president [[Bashar al-Assad]] and other senior Syrian officials due to his alleged involvement in providing material support to the Syrian government.<ref name=alfonehjuly11>{{cite journal|last=Alfoneh |first=Ali |title=Iran's Most Dangerous General |url=http://www.aei.org/files/2011/07/13/MEO-2011-07-No-4-g.pdf |journal=Middle Eastern Outlooks |date=July 2011 |volume=4 |accessdate=18 February 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120725085931/http://www.aei.org/files/2011/07/13/MEO-2011-07-No-4-g.pdf |archivedate=25 July 2012}}</ref>

On 24 June 2011, the ''[[Official Journal of the European Union]]'' said the three Iranian Revolutionary Guard members now subject to sanctions had been "providing equipment and support to help the Syrian government suppress protests in Syria".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:164:0001:0003:EN:PDF|title=COUNCIL IMPLEMENTING REGULATION (EU) No 611/2011 of 23 June 2011|publisher=|access-date=29 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110828000644/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:164:0001:0003:EN:PDF|archive-date=28 August 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> The Iranians added to the EU sanctions list were two Revolutionary Guard commanders, Soleimani, Mohammad Ali Jafari, and the Guard's deputy commander for intelligence, Hossein Taeb.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13902967|work=BBC News|title=Syria: Deadly protests erupt against Bashar al-Assad|date=24 June 2011|access-date=20 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181102195627/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-middle-east-13902967|archive-date=2 November 2018|url-status=live}}</ref> Soleimani was also sanctioned by [[Swiss government|the Swiss government]] in September 2011 due to the same grounds cited by [[the European Union]].<ref name=swiss>{{cite web|title=Ordinance instituting measures against Syria|url=http://www.baselgovernance.org/fileadmin/docs/news/09.09.2011.Ordinance__amedment__Syria_ENG.draft.pdf|publisher=Federal Department of Economy|accessdate=24 February 2013|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002044324/http://www.baselgovernance.org/fileadmin/docs/news/09.09.2011.Ordinance__amedment__Syria_ENG.draft.pdf|archivedate=2 October 2013}}</ref>

He was listed by the [[United States]] as a known terrorist, which forbade U.S. citizens from doing business with him.<ref name="mcclatchy">{{cite news|url=http://www.mcclatchydc.com/iraq/story/32141.html|title=Iranian who brokered Iraqi peace is on U.S. terrorist watch list|newspaper=McClatchy Newspapers|date=31 March 2008|accessdate=7 April 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080718235649/http://www.mcclatchydc.com/iraq/story/32141.html|archive-date=18 July 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="state">{{cite web|url=https://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2007/oct/94193.htm|title=Designation of Iranian Entities and Individuals for Proliferation Activities and Support for Terrorism|publisher=United States Department of State|date=25 October 2007|accessdate=7 April 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204233237/http://2001-2009.state.gov/r/pa/prs/ps/2007/oct/94193.htm|archive-date=4 February 2009|url-status=live}}</ref> The list, published in the EU's Official Journal on 24 June 2011, also included a Syrian property firm, an investment fund and two other enterprises accused of funding the Syrian government. The list also included [[Mohammad Ali Jafari]] and [[Hossein Taeb]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/06/201162494326219146.html|title=EU expands sanctions against Syria|work=Al Jazeera|accessdate=17 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111024005923/http://english.aljazeera.net/news/middleeast/2011/06/201162494326219146.html|archive-date=24 October 2011|url-status=live}}</ref>

On 13 November 2018, the United States sanctioned an Iraqi military leader named Shibl Muhsin ‘Ubayd Al-Zaydi and others who allegedly were acting on Qasem Soleimani's behalf in financing military actions in Syria or otherwise providing support for terrorism in the region.<ref>United States Department of Treasury. (Press release 13 November 2018). "Action follows signing of new Hizballah sanctions legislation
and re-imposition of Iran-related sanctions". [https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm546 US. Dept of Treasury website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181117063220/https://home.treasury.gov/news/press-releases/sm546 |date=17 November 2018}} Retrieved 16 November 2018.</ref>

== Death ==

{{Main article|2020 Baghdad International Airport airstrike}}
[[File:Abu_Mahdi_al-Muhandes_%26_Qasem_Soleimani01.jpg|thumb|250px|Qasem Soleimani (left) with [[Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis]] (right) at a 2017 ceremony commemorating the father of Soleimani, in Mosalla, Tehran]]

Soleimani was killed on 3 January 2020 around 1:00{{nbsp}}a.m. local time (22:00 UTC on 2{{nbsp}}January),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2020/01/qassem-soleimani-death-missed/604396/|work=[[The Atlantic]]|title=Qassem Soleimani Haunted the Arab World|date=3 January 2020|accessdate=3 January 2020|authorlink=Kim Ghattas|last1=Ghattas|first1=Kim|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103215246/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2020/01/qassem-soleimani-death-missed/604396/|archive-date=3 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> after missiles shot from American drones targeted his convoy near [[Baghdad International Airport]].<ref name=NEWSWEEK01-02-2020>{{Cite web|url=https://www.newsweek.com/iraq-militia-official-killed-us-iran-tensions-1480181|title=Iraq Militia Officials, Iran's Quds Force Head Killed in U.S. Drone Strike|website=[[Newsweek]]|author1=Tom O'Connor|author2=James Laporta|access-date=2 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103030530/https://www.newsweek.com/iraq-militia-official-killed-us-iran-tensions-1480181|archive-date=3 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> He had just left his plane, which arrived in Iraq from [[Lebanon]] or [[Syria]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://apnews.com/5597ff0f046a67805cc233d5933a53ed?utm_medium=AP&utm_campaign=SocialFlow&utm_source=Twitter|title=US kills Iran's most powerful general in Baghdad airstrike|website=AP News|access-date=3 January 2020}}</ref> His body was identified using a ring he wore on his finger, with DNA confirmation still pending.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2020/01/02/793208096/iraqi-tv-says-top-iranian-military-leader-killed-in-rocket-strikes-on-iraqi-airp?|title=Iraqi TV Says Top Iranian Military Leader Killed In Rocket Strikes on Iraqi Airport|website=[[NPR]]|date=2 January 2020|access-date=2 January 2020|author=Barbara Campbell|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103025649/https://www.npr.org/2020/01/02/793208096/iraqi-tv-says-top-iranian-military-leader-killed-in-rocket-strikes-on-iraqi-airp|archive-date=3 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref> Also killed were four members of the [[Popular Mobilization Forces]], including [[Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis]], the Iraqi-Iranian military commander who headed the PMF.<ref name=NYT>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/02/world/middleeast/qassem-soleimani-iraq-iran-attack.html|title=Trump Orders Strike Killing Top Iranian General Qassim Suleimani in Baghdad|work=[[The New York Times]]|date=3 January 2020|access-date=3 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103022034/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/01/02/world/middleeast/qassem-soleimani-iraq-iran-attack.html|archive-date=3 January 2020|url-status=live}}</ref>

The airstrike followed [[Attack on the United States embassy in Baghdad|attacks on the American embassy in Baghdad]] by supporters of an Iran-backed [[Kata'ib Hezbollah|Iraqi Shia militia]] and the [[2019 K-1 Air Base attack]].<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/03/top-iranian-general-qassim-soleimani-killed-in-us-airstrike-in-baghdad-pentagon.html | title=Top Iranian general killed in US airstrike in Baghdad, Pentagon confirms | publisher=CNBC | date=2 January 2020 | accessdate=3 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103032150/https://www.cnbc.com/2020/01/03/top-iranian-general-qassim-soleimani-killed-in-us-airstrike-in-baghdad-pentagon.html | archive-date=3 January 2020 | url-status=live}}</ref> As the ''[[New York Times]]'' reported, "Trump tried to keep the focus on Iranian influence in Baghdad".<ref name="Trump Warns">{{cite web |last1=Crowley |first1=Michael |last2=Wong |first2=Edward |title=Trump Warns Iran as Risk of Wider Armed Conflict Grows |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/31/us/politics/trump-iran-baghdad-embassy.html |website=nytimes |accessdate=31 December 2019}}</ref>

The [[United States Department of Defense]] issued a statement that said the U.S. strike was carried out "at the direction of the [[Donald Trump|President]]" and asserted that Soleimani had been planning further attacks on American diplomats and military personnel and had approved the attacks on the American embassy in Baghdad in response to [[December 2019 United States airstrikes in Iraq and Syria|U.S. airstrikes in Iraq and Syria on 29 December 2019]], and that the strike was meant to deter future attacks.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/Article/2049534/statement-by-the-department-of-defense/ | title=Statement by the Department of Defense | publisher=[[United States Department of Defense]] | date=2 January 2020 | accessdate=3 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103031549/https://www.defense.gov/Newsroom/Releases/Release/Article/2049534/statement-by-the-department-of-defense/ | archive-date=3 January 2020 | url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/03/baghdad-airport-iraq-attack-deaths-iran-us-tensions | title=Iran general Qassem Suleimani killed in Baghdad drone strike ordered by Trump | publisher=The Guardian | date=3 January 2020 | accessdate=3 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200103013024/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/03/baghdad-airport-iraq-attack-deaths-iran-us-tensions | archive-date=3 January 2020 | url-status=live}}</ref>

According to [[Agnès Callamard]], the UN special rapporteur on extrajudicial killing, "The targeted killings of Qasem Soleimani and Abu Mahdi al-Muhandis most likely violate international law [including] human rights law". She said the US "need[s] to demonstrate that the persons targeted [constituted] an imminent threat to others." In addition, Callamard described the killing of other individuals alongside Soleimani as unlawful.<ref name="US denies">{{cite web |last1=Koran |first1=Mario |last2=Mohdin |first2=Aamna |last3=Quinn |first3=Ben |last4=E Greve |first4=Joan |title=US denies latest airstrikes targeting Iraqi militia in Baghdad – live |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2020/jan/03/iran-general-qassem-suleimani-killed-us-trump-drone-strike-baghdad-reaction-live-updates?page=with:block-5e0f11008f085eda5c11169e |website=theguardian |accessdate=3 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Iran's top">{{cite web |title=Iran's top general Soleimani killed in US strike |url=https://edition.cnn.com/middleeast/live-news/baghdad-airport-strike-live-intl-hnk/h_f4d89b41ef9e19a716edc8047bf923df |website=CNN |accessdate=4 January 2020}}</ref> Russian Foreign Minister [[Sergei Lavrov]], [[Medea Benjamin]] (the founder of anti-war advocacy group CodePink) and Hillary Mann Leverett (a political risk consultant and former director of Iran affairs at the White House's National Security Council) designated the assassination of Soleimani "flatly illegal".<ref name="Was Trump's">{{cite web |last1=Roberts |first1=William |title=Was Trump's order to assassinate Iran's Qassem Soleimani legal? |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/01/trump-order-assassinate-iran-qassem-soleimani-legal-200103212119366.html |website=aljazeera |accessdate=3 January 2020}}</ref><ref name="Russia Says">{{cite web |last1=Rapoza |first1=Kenneth |title=Russia Says Iran General’s Killing ‘Illegal’ |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2020/01/03/russia-says-iran-generals-killing-illegal/#436536b0ba63 |website=Forbes |accessdate=3 January 2020}}</ref>
Historian [[Ervand Abrahamian]] described the killing of Soleimani by the US as terrorism.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.democracynow.org/2020/1/3/right_wing_populists_will_sweep_the|title=“Right-Wing Populists Will Sweep the Elections”: U.S. Killing of Soleimani Helps Hard-Liners in Iran|website=Democracy Now!|language=en|access-date=2020-01-04}}</ref>
He was succeeded by [[Esmail Ghaani]] as commander of the Quds Force.<ref name=":1">{{cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2020-01-03/soleimani-s-deputy-esmail-ghaani-named-iran-s-quds-force-chief?srnd=markets-vp|title=Soleimani’s Deputy Esmail Ghaani Named Iran’s Quds Force Chief|date=3 January 2020|work=Bloomberg|accessdate=3 January 2020}}</ref>

==Funeral==

On 4 January, the funeral procession for Soleimani was held in Baghdad with thousands of mourners in attendance, waving Iraqi and militia flags<ref>{{cite web |title=Qasem Soleimani: Mourners gather in Baghdad for funeral procession |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-50991810 |website=BBC |accessdate=4 January 2020}}</ref> and chanting "death to America, death to Israel".<ref>{{cite web |title=Thousands march in Baghdad funeral procession for Qassem Suleimani – video |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2020/jan/04/thousands-of-mourners-march-in-suleimani-funeral-procession-video |website=The Guardian |accessdate=4 January 2020}}</ref> The procession started at the [[Al-Kadhimiya Mosque]] in Baghdad. Iraq's prime minister, [[Adil Abdul-Mahdi]], and leaders of Iran-backed militias attended the funeral procession.<ref name="Safi">{{cite web |last1=Safi |first1=Michael |title=Qassem Suleimani: chants of 'death to America' at Baghdad funeral |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jan/04/huge-crowds-expected-in-baghdad-for-funeral-of-iranian-general-killed-by-us |website=The Guardian |accessdate=4 January 2020}}</ref> Soleimani's body was taken to the holy Shia cities of Karbala and Najaf.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Ibrahim |first1=Arwa |title='You never let us down': Thousands mourn Soleimani in Baghdad |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2020/01/thousands-mourners-join-soleimani-funeral-baghdad-200104074845279.html |website=aljazeera |accessdate=4 January 2020}}</ref> The funeral was boycotted by Iranian protestors who participated in the [[2019 Iranian protests]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://ncr-iran.org/en/news/iran-protests/27168-people-in-iran-and-across-the-globe-celebrate-qassem-soleimani-s-death|title=People in Iran and Across the Globe Celebrate Qassem Soleimani’s Death|first=Sedighe|last=Shahrokhi|website=Official Website of the Foreign Affairs Committee of the National Council of Resistance of Iran. NCRI is a broad coalition of democratic Iranian organizations and personalities founded in 1981 in Tehran by Massoud Rajavi.}}</ref>. Many Iranians who showed supported Soleimani also expressed fear about war.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-iraq-security-iran-mood-idUSKBN1Z30FD|title=Sorrow mixed with fear as Iran mourns Soleimani's death|date=4 January 2020|via=www.reuters.com}}</ref>

[[Moqtada Sadr]] paid a visit to Soleimani's house to express his condolescence to his family.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.tasnimnews.com/fa/news/1398/10/14/2174505/%D8%AD%D8%B6%D9%88%D8%B1-%D9%85%D9%82%D8%AA%D8%AF%DB%8C-%D8%B5%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D8%AF%D8%B1-%D9%85%D9%86%D8%B2%D9%84-%D8%B3%D9%BE%D9%87%D8%A8%D8%AF-%D8%B4%D9%87%DB%8C%D8%AF-%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85-%D8%B3%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%8C-%D8%B9%DA%A9%D8%B3|title=حضور مقتدی صدر در منزل سپهبد شهید قاسم سلیمانی+عکس- اخبار بین الملل - اخبار تسنیم - Tasnim|website=خبرگزاری تسنیم - Tasnim}}</ref>

== Cultural depictions ==

In 2015 The British magazine ''[[The Week]]'' featured a cartoon of Soleimani in bed with [[Uncle Sam]], which alluded to both sides fighting ISIS, although Soleimani was leading militant groups that killed hundreds of Americans during the [[Iraq War]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/strange-bedfellows-the-war-on-isis-is-getting-weird-in-iraq-2015-3?r=DE&IR=T|title=The war on ISIS is getting weird in Iraq|website=Business Insider|date=25 March 2015}}</ref>

The 2016 movie ''[[Bodyguard (2016 film)|Bodyguard]]'', directed by [[Ebrahim Hatamikia]], was inspired by Soleimani's activities.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2016/0215/Gen.-Soleimani-A-new-brand-of-Iranian-hero-for-nationalist-times|title=Gen. Soleimani: A new brand of Iranian hero for nationalist times|first=Scott|last=Peterson|date=15 February 2016|publisher=|accessdate=14 July 2016|via=Christian Science Monitor|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160710080501/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Middle-East/2016/0215/Gen.-Soleimani-A-new-brand-of-Iranian-hero-for-nationalist-times|archive-date=10 July 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

The 2016 Persian book ''Noble Comrades 17: Hajj Qassem'', written by Ali Akbari Mozdabadi, contains memoirs of Qassem Soleimani.<ref name="ketabkhon">{{cite web|url=http://ketabkhon.ir/Book/3879/4546/%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%20%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%2017%20:%20%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AC%20%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85%20:%20%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%20%D8%AF%D8%B1...|publisher=ketabkhon.ir|title=یاران ناب 17 : حاج قاسم : جستاری در | خرید کتاب یاران ناب 17 : حاج قاسم : جستاری در | فروشگاه کتاب کتابخون|accessdate=22 August 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160812010404/http://ketabkhon.ir/Book/3879/4546/%DB%8C%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86%20%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%A8%2017%20:%20%D8%AD%D8%A7%D8%AC%20%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%85%20:%20%D8%AC%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%20%D8%AF%D8%B1...|archive-date=12 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

== Gallery ==

<gallery widths="180px" heights="180px" perrow="5">
Qasem Soleymani in Imam Khomeini Hossainiah.jpg|in [[Hussainiya]]
Qasem Soleimani Praying in Imam Khomeini Hossainiah.jpg|While praying
Qasem Soleiman in NAC conference.jpg|Soleimani in a conference.
Qasem Soleimani Praying in Imam Khomeini Hossainiah03.jpg|Qasem Soleimani on [[Sujud]]
</gallery>

== See also ==

* [[List of Iranian two-star generals since 1979]]
* [[Hossein Salami]]
* [[Mohammad Bagheri (Iranian commander)]]
* [[Iran–Saudi Arabia proxy conflict]]
* [[Iran–United States relations]]

== References ==

{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==

{{Sisterlinks|d=Q892014|q=Qasem Soleimani|c=Category:Qasem Soleimani|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|wikt=no|s=no|species=no}}
* [[David Ignatius]], [https://articles.washingtonpost.com/2008-06-08/opinions/36900999_1_quds-force-iran-s-revolutionary-guard-sadr-city At the Tip of Iran's Spear], ''[[Washington Post]]'', 8 June 2008
* Martin Chulov, [https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/jul/28/qassem-suleimani-iran-iraq-influence Qassem Suleimani: the Iranian general 'secretly running' Iraq], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 28 July 2011
* [[Dexter Filkins]], [https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2013/09/30/the-shadow-commander The Shadow Commander], ''[[The New Yorker]]'', 30 September 2013
* Ali Mamouri, [https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2013/10/the-enigma-behind-qassem-suleimani.html The Enigma of Qasem Soleimani And His Role in Iraq], ''[[Al-Monitor]]'', 13 October 2013
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b054gxpl BBC Radio 4 Profile]

{{s-start}}
{{s-mil}}
{{s-new}}
{{s-ttl|title=Commander of [[41st Tharallah Division]]|years=1982–1998}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Abdolmohammad Raufinejad]]}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Ahmad Vahidi]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=Commander of [[Quds Force]]|years=1998–2020}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Esmail Ghaani]]}}
{{s-end}}
{{IRGC commanders}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Soleimani, Qasem}}
[[Category:1957 births]]
[[Category:2020 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths by United States drone strikes in Iraq]]
[[Category:Persian people]]
[[Category:People from Kerman Province]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of Fath]]
[[Category:Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps Major generals]]
[[Category:Iranian Shia Muslims]]
[[Category:Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps personnel of the Iran–Iraq War]]
[[Category:Islamic Revolutionary Guard Corps personnel of the Syrian Civil War]]
[[Category:Quds Force personnel]]
[[Category:Assassinations in Iraq]]
[[Category:Criticism of the United States]]
[[Category:People of the Iraqi Civil War]]
[[Category:Assassinated Iranian people]]

Wyoming Craton

2019-09-30T23:53:17Z

Ciaurlec: changed an image description

{{short description|A craton in the west-central United States and western Canada}}
[[Image:North america basement rocks.png|thumb|300 px|Trans-Hudson orogen (blue) surrounded by the Wyoming [[Rae Craton|Hearne–Rae]] and [[Superior Craton|Superior]] [[craton]]s (fuchsia) that constitute the central core of the [[North American Craton]] (Laurentia).]]
[[Image:North america craton nps.gif|thumb|300 px|The North American Craton, also called [[Laurentia]]]]

The '''Wyoming Craton''' is a [[craton]] in the west-central United States and western Canada – more specifically, in [[Montana]], [[Wyoming]], southern [[Alberta]], southern [[Saskatchewan]], and parts of northern [[Utah]]. Also called the '''Wyoming Province''', it is the initial core of the [[continental crust]] of North America.

The Wyoming Craton was [[Suture (geology)|sutured]] together with the [[Superior Craton|Superior]] and [[Hearne Craton|Hearne]]-[[Rae Craton|Rae]] cratons in the [[Orogeny|mountain-building episode]] that created the [[Trans-Hudson Suture Zone]] to form the core of North America ([[Laurentia]]). It was incorporated into southwest Laurentia approximately 1.86 billion years ago.<ref name=Foster>

{{cite journal | author = Foster, David A., Paul A. Mueller, David W. Mogk, Joseph L. Wooden and James J. Vogi | year = 2006 | title = Proterozoic Evolution of the Western Margin of the Wyoming Craton: Implications for the Tectonic and Magmatic Evolution of the Northern Rocky Mountains | journal = Can. J. Earth Sci. | volume = 43 | issue = 10 | pages = 1601–1619 | doi = 10.1139/E06-052|bibcode = 2006CaJES..43.1601F }}</ref>

Local preservation of 3.6–3.0 Ga [[gneiss]]es and widespread [[isotope|isotopic]] evidence for crust of this age incorporated into younger [[plutons]] indicates that the Wyoming Craton originated as a 100,000 km2 middle [[Archean]] craton that was modified by late Archean volcanic magmatism and plate movements and [[Proterozoic]] extension and [[rift]]ing.<ref name=Chanmberlain>

{{cite journal | author = Chamberlain, Kevin R., Carol D. Frost, and B. Ronald Frost | year = 2003 | title = Early Archean to Mesoproterozoic evolution of the Wyoming Province: Archean origins to modern lithospheric architecture | journal = Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences | volume = 40 | issue = 10 | pages = 1357–1374 | url = http://rparticle.web-p.cisti.nrc.ca/rparticle/AbstractTemplateServlet?journal=cjes&volume=40&year=&issue=&msno=e03-054&calyLang=eng | doi = 10.1139/e03-054|bibcode = 2003CaJES..40.1357C }}</ref>

The Wyoming, Superior and Hearne-Ray cratons were once sections of separate continents, but today they are all welded together. The collisions of these cratons began before ca. 1.77 [[Gigaannum|Ga]], with post-[[tectonic]] [[magmatism]] at ca. 1.715 Ga (the [[Harney Peak]] [[granite]]). This tectonic-magmatic interval is 50–60 million years younger than that reported for the Hearne-Superior collision of the [[Trans-Hudson orogeny]] in Canada.

Younger [[Metamorphism|metamorphic]] dates (1.81–1.71 Ga) also typify the eastern and northern Wyoming province peripheries in the western [[The Dakotas|Dakotas]] and southeastern [[Montana]]. The final assembly of the eastern Wyoming Craton as part of the continent [[Laurentia]] began during the ca. 1.78–1.74 Ga interval of [[Volcanic arc|island-arc]] [[accretion (geology)|accretion]] along the southern margin of the growing craton.<ref name=Dahl>

{{cite journal | author = Dahl, Peter S., Daniel K. Holm, Edward T. Gardner, Fritz A. Hubacher, and Kenneth A. Foland | year = 1999 | title = New constraints on the timing of Early Proterozoic tectonism in the Black Hills (South Dakota), with implications for docking of the Wyoming province with Laurentia | journal = Geological Society of America Bulletin | volume = 111 | issue = 9 | pages = 1335–1349 | url = https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article-abstract/111/9/1335/183530/new-constraints-on-the-timing-of-early-proterozoic | archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20120229010101/https://pubs.geoscienceworld.org/gsa/gsabulletin/article%2Dabstract/111/9/1335/183530/new%2Dconstraints%2Don%2Dthe%2Dtiming%2Dof%2Dearly%2Dproterozoic| doi = 10.1130/0016-7606(1999)111<1335:NCOTTO>2.3.CO;2 | bibcode = 1999GSAB..111.1335D | archivedate = 2012-02-29 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==Geologic summary==
The [[Precambrian]] basement of Wyoming consists mainly of three major geologic [[terrane]]s, the [[Archean]] Wyoming Craton or Province, the [[Paleoproterozoic]] Trans-Hudson orogen, and the Paleoproterozoic [[Colorado orogeny]]. The Colorado orogen collided with the Wyoming Craton at 1.78–1.75 Ga. Collision of the Colorado orogen and the Trans-Hudson orogen with the Archean craton produced strong structural overprinting along the southern and eastern margins of the Wyoming craton.

The Wyoming Craton consists mainly of two gross rock units—granitoid [[pluton]]s (2.8–2.55 Ga) and [[gneiss]] and [[migmatite]]—together with subordinate (<10 percent) supracrustal metavolcanic-metasedimentary rocks. The granitoid rocks are mainly potassic granite and were derived principally from reworked older (3.1–2.8 Ga) gneiss. Magnetic contrast between the granitoid rocks and gneiss provides a means to map these gross rock units in covered areas. The overall structural pattern of the Archean units shown by magnetic data is crudely semi-circular and open to the north.<ref name=Sims>{{cite journal | author = Sims, P. K., C. A. Finn, and V. L. Rystrom | year = 2001 | title = Preliminary Precambrian Basement Map Showing Geologic-Geophysical Domains, Wyoming | publisher = United States Geological Survey: USGS Open-File Report 01-199 | url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/of/2001/ofr-01-0199}}</ref>

==Wyoming province subdivisions==
The present-day lithospheric architecture of the Wyoming Province is the result of cumulative processes of crustal growth, tectonic modification, and lithospheric contrasts that have apparently persisted for billions of years.

The Wyoming [[Geologic province|province]] can be subdivided into three subprovinces, namely, from oldest to youngest, the Montana metasedimentary province, the Beartooth–Bighorn magmatic zone, and the Southern accreted terranes. Archean rocks of the Montana metasedimentary province and the Beartooth-Bighorn magmatic zone are characterized by (1) their antiquity (rock ages to 3.5 Ga, [[detrital]] [[zircon]] ages up to 4.0 Ga, and [[Nd model ages]] exceeding 4.0 Ga); (2) a distinctly enriched [[lead-207|207Pb]]/[[lead-204|204Pb]] [[isotope|isotopic]] signature, which suggests that this part of the province was not produced by the amalgamation of already-formed exotic terranes; and (3) a distinctively thick (15–20 km), [[mafic]] lower crust. The Montana metasedimentary province and Beartooth–Bighorn magmatic zone were established as cratons by about 3.0–2.8 Ga. Crustal growth occurred through a combination of [[Volcanic arc|continental-arc]] magmatism resulting from oceanic crust subducted beneath continental crust on an adjacent plate, creating an arc-shaped mountain belt, together with [[terrane accretion]] in the Southern accreted terranes along the southern margin of the province at 2.68–2.50 Ga. By the end of the Archean, the three subprovinces were joined as part of what is now the Wyoming craton. Subsequent to amalgamation of the Wyoming crust to Laurentia at ca. 1.8–1.9 Ga, Paleoproterozoic crust (1.7–2.4 Ga) was juxtaposed along the southern and western boundaries of the province. Subsequent tectonism and magmatism in the Wyoming region are concentrated in the areas underlain by these Proterozoic mobile belts.<ref name=Mueller>{{cite journal |author1=Mueller, P. A. |author2=C. D. Frost |lastauthoramp=yes | year = 2006 | title = The Wyoming Province: a distinctive Archean craton in Laurentian North America | journal = Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences | volume = 43 | issue = 10 | pages = 1391–1397 | url = http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/toc/cjes/43/10 | doi = 10.1139/E06-075|bibcode = 2006CaJES..43.1391M }}</ref>

An analysis by Kevin Chamberlain ''et al.'' (2003), on the basis of differences in late Archean histories, subdivides the Wyoming Province into five subprovinces: three in the Archean core, (1) the Montana metasedimentary province, (2) the Bighorn subprovince, and (3) the Sweetwater subprovince, and two Archean terrains that may have originated elsewhere (that is, allochthonous to the 3.0 Ga craton), (4) the Sierra Madre – Medicine Bow block, and (5) the Black Hills – Hartville block. Based on imaging by the "Deep Probe" analysis, a thick lower crustal layer corresponds geographically with the Bighorn subprovince and may be an underplate associated with ca. 2.70 Ga mafic magmatism. The Sweetwater subprovince is characterized by an east–west-tending tectonic grain that was established by three or more roughly contemporaneous late Archean, pulses of basin development, shortening, and arc magmatism. This tectonic grain, including the 2.62 Ga Oregon Trail structure, controlled the locations and orientations of Proterozoic rifting and uplifts related to the [[Laramide orogeny]]. If there has been any net crustal growth of the Wyoming Province since 3.0 Ga, it has involved a combination of mafic underplating and arc magmatism.<ref name="Chanmberlain"/>

==Accretion events==
During the [[Paleoproterozoic]], island-arc terrane associated with the [[Colorado orogeny]] accreted to the Wyoming Craton along the [[Cheyenne belt]], a 500-km-wide belt of Proterozoic rocks named for [[Cheyenne, Wyoming]]. As a result of the collision, older, Archean rocks of the Wyoming province were intensely deformed and metamorphosed for at least 75 km inboard from the suture, which is marked today by the Laramie Mountains. Along the east margin of the craton, collision with the Paleoproterozoic Trans-Hudson orogen intensely deformed Archean cratonic rocks in the Hartville uplift. 

Mesoproterozoic (~1.4 Ga) [[anorthosite]] and [[syenite]]s of the Laramie Anorthosite Complex and granite ([[ilmenite]]-bearing Sherman Granite) intrude into rocks of the Colorado orogen in the Laramie and adjacent [[Medicine Bow Mountains]]. Both the anorthosite and granite transect the Cheyenne belt in the Laramide Mountains, and intrude crystalline rocks of the Wyoming province. These intrusions comprise the northernmost segment of a wide belt of 1.4 Ga granitic intrusions that occur throughout the Colorado orogen.<ref name="Sims"/>

Long after its assembly, the Wyoming Craton owes its spectacular mountainous terranes mainly to a regional episode of compressional deformation during the [[Laramide orogeny]] (ca.60 Ma). The basement blocks composed of Precambrian rocks were uplifted locally to high levels in the crust during the deformation, and subsequent erosion has molded the uplifted rocks into the rugged present-day topography. Vertical displacement of the basement surface was as much as 30,000 ft. (9250 m). By contrast, in western Wyoming [[thrust fault]]ing, associated with the [[Sevier orogeny]] of approximately the same age, was thin-skinned, and the lack of disruption of magnetic anomalies in the region indicates that the basement rocks were little disturbed and not significantly uplifted during the thrusting. Even younger high-angle faulting of [[Pliocene]]–[[Pleistocene]] age has formed the [[Teton Range]]. Vertical relief on the east face of the mountains is about 25,000 ft. (7800 m).<ref name="Sims"/>

==See also==
* [[North American Craton]]
* [[Cheyenne belt]]
* [[Colorado orogeny]]
* [[Grouse Creek block]] located west of the craton
* [[Superior Craton]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wyoming Craton}}
[[Category:Cratons]]
[[Category:Proterozoic geology]]
[[Category:Proterozoic North America]]
[[Category:Geology of North America]]
[[Category:Precambrian Canada]]
[[Category:Precambrian United States]]
[[Category:Geology of Wyoming]]
[[Category:Geology of Montana]]
[[Category:Geology of Alberta]]
[[Category:Geology of Saskatchewan]]
[[Category:Geology of Utah]]
[[Category:Geology of the United States]]

Trans-Hudson orogeny

2019-09-30T23:52:42Z

Ciaurlec: changed an image description

[[Image:North america basement rocks.png|thumb|300 px|Trans-Hudson orogen (blue) surrounded by the [[Wyoming Craton|Wyoming]] Hearne-[[Rae Craton|Rae]] and [[Superior Craton|Superior]] [[craton]]s (fuchsia) that constitute the central core of the [[North American Craton]] (Laurentia).]]

[[Image:North america craton nps.gif|thumb|300 px|The [[North America]]n Craton, also called [[Laurentia]].]]

[[Image:Wyoming, Mojave, Yavapai, Mazatzal, Trans-Hudson.gif|thumb|300 px|Trans-Hudson orogen and the [[Wyoming Craton|Wyoming]], [[Superior Craton|Superior]] and [[Hearne Craton|Hearne]] [[craton]]s]]

The '''Trans-Hudson orogeny''' or '''Trans-Hudsonian orogeny''' was the major [[mountain]] building event ([[orogeny]]) that formed the [[Precambrian]] [[Canadian Shield]], the [[North American Craton]] (also called [[Laurentia]]), and the forging of the initial [[North American]] [[continent]]. It gave rise to the '''Trans-Hudson orogen''' (THO), or '''Trans-Hudson Orogen Transect''' (THOT), (also referred to as the '''Trans-Hudsonian Suture Zone''' (THSZ) or '''Trans-Hudson suture''') which is the largest Paleoproterozoic orogenic belt in the world. It consists of a network of belts that were formed by Proterozoic [[crust (geology)|crust]]al [[accretion (geology)|accretion]] and the collision of pre-existing [[Archean]] [[continents]]. The event occurred 2.0-1.8 billion years ago.

The Trans-Hudson orogen sutured together the [[Hearne, Saskatchewan|Hearne]]-[[Rae craton|Rae]], [[Superior Craton|Superior]], and [[Wyoming Craton|Wyoming]] [[cratons]] to form the cratonic core of North America in a network of Paleoproterozoic orogenic belts. These orogenic belts include the margins of at least nine independent [[microcontinents]] that were themselves sections of at least three former major supercontinents, including [[Laurasia]], [[Pangaea]] and [[Kenorland]] (ca. 2.7 [[Gigaannum|Ga]]), and contain parts of some of the oldest cratonic [[continental crust]] on [[Earth]]. These old cratonic blocks, along with accreted [[Volcanic arc|island arc]] [[terrane]]s and [[Ocean|intraoceanic]] deposits from earlier Proterozoic and [[Mesozoic]] oceans and seaways, were sutured together in the Trans-Hudson Orogen (THO) and resulted in extensive folding and [[thrust fault]]ing along with metamorphism and hundreds of huge [[granitic]] [[intrusion]]s.<ref name=stauffer>{{cite journal | author = M. Stauffer | year = 2006 | title = Trans-Hudson Orogen | journal = The Encyclopedia of Saskatchwen | url = http://esask.uregina.ca/entry/trans-hudson_orogen.html }} Retrieved on 2008-02-11</ref>

The THO is a right-angled [[suture zone]] that extends eastward from [[Saskatchewan]] through collisional belts in the [[Churchill craton|Churchill province]], through northern [[Quebec]], parts of [[Labrador]] and [[Baffin Island]], and all the way to [[Greenland]] as the Rinkian belt and Nagssugtodidian Orogen. Westward it goes across [[Hudson Bay]] through Saskatchewan and then extends 90 degrees south through eastern [[Montana]] and the western [[The Dakotas|Dakota]]s, downward through eastern [[Wyoming]] and western [[Nebraska]], and is then cut off by the [[Cheyenne belt]] - the northern edge of the [[Yavapai province]] (see Trans-Hudson Orogen map<ref name=Canadian>{{cite journal | author = Canadian Plains Research Center Mapping Division | year = 2006 | title = Location of the Trans-Hudson Orogen | publisher = Canadian Plains Research Center Mapping Division | url = http://esask.uregina.ca/management/app/assets/img/enc2/PDF/51F2BCB8-1560-95DA-43931803F2DA21011.pdf|format=PDF }} Retrieved on 2008-02-11</ref> and the THOT Transect map.<ref name=LITHOPROBE>{{cite journal | author = Canada's National LITHOPROBE Geoscience Project | year = 1998(1) | title = Transects | publisher = Canada's National LITHOPROBE Geoscience Project | url = http://www.lithoprobe.ca/transects | accessdate = 2012-07-18 | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20120718090830/http://www.lithoprobe.ca/transects/ | archivedate = 2012-07-18 }}</ref> To the south, the orogen contributed to the subsurface [[Phanerozoic]] strata in Montana and the Dakotas that created the [[Great Plains]].

==Overview==
The Trans-Hudson orogeny was the culminating event of the Paleoproterozoic Laurentian assembly, which occurred after the [[Wopmay orogen]]y (West of [[Hudson Bay]], ca. 2.1-1.9 Ga.). The Trans-Hudson orogeny resulted from the collision of the Superior Craton of eastern [[Canada]] with the Hearne Craton in northern [[Saskatchewan]] and the Wyoming Craton of the western [[United States]], with the [[Archean]] microcontinent [[Sask Craton]] trapped in the THO western interior. Similar to the Himalayas, the Trans-Hudson orogeny was also the result of continent-continent collision along a suture zone. Only the roots of this mountain chain remain, but these can be seen in northeastern Saskatchewan and in the Black Hills of South Dakota. The Trans-Hudson orogeny and the consequent upheaval of the continental crust in the middle Proterozoic eon caused the area around the [[Great Lakes]] to become a flattened plain, which in turn led to the creation of the intercontinental basin and the interior and central plains of the [[United States]] (the [[Great Plains]] are the westernmost portion of North America's [[Interior Plains]], which extend east to the [[Appalachian Plateau]]).

The [[Black Hills]] of [[South Dakota]] is one of the few remaining exposed portions of the Trans-Hudson orogenic belt. The peaks of the Black Hills are 3,000 to 4,000 feet above the surrounding plains, while [[Black Elk Peak]] - the highest point in South Dakota - has an altitude of 7,242 feet above sea level.<ref name=Trimble>{{cite book | author = Trimble, Donald E. | title = The Geological Story of the Great Plains - Geological Survey Bulletin 1493 (A nontechnical description of the origin and evolution of the landscape of the Great Plains) | publisher = United States Government Printing Office, Washington 2004 | url = http://www.lib.ndsu.nodak.edu/govdocs/text/greatplains/text.html | year = 2008 | url-status = dead | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20090305001133/http://lib.ndsu.nodak.edu/govdocs/text/greatplains/text.html | archivedate = 2009-03-05 }} Retrieved on -02-04</ref> These central spires and peaks all are carved from granite and other igneous and metamorphic rocks that form the core of the uplift. The nature and timing of this portion of the THO event in southern Laurentia is poorly understood, when compared to the exposed northern segments in Canada. The Black Hills offer the only surface exposure of the deformed and metamorphosed belt of Paleoproterozoic continental margin rocks in the collisional zone between the [[Archean]] Wyoming and Superior provinces. Based on geophysical evidence, this zone has been broadly interpreted to be the southern extension of the THO that was later truncated by the ~1.680 Ga. [[Central Plains orogen]].<ref name=Hill>{{cite journal | author = Hill, Joseph C., Nabelek, Peter and Robert Bauer |title = Differential Deformational History of Fault-Bounded Blocks: "Southern Trans-Hudson" Orogen, Black Hills, South Dakota | journal = 2004 Denver Annual Meeting (November 7–10, 2004), Paper No. 244-12 | location = Denver, Colorado |url = http://gsa.confex.com/gsa/2004AM/finalprogram/abstract_76423.htm | year = 2008 }} Retrieved on -01-28</ref>

==Sequence of events==
Marine evidence indicates that the area initially opened to form an ocean called the [[Manikewan Ocean]]. Faulting, [[sedimentary]] and [[igneous rock]]s all indicate that divergence formed a [[rift valley]] that continued to spread until it resulted in a passive margin in which there was no tectonic activity. Shallow marine deposits formed on the continental shelves, and [[oceanic crust]] formed on the margins of the continental cratons as the divergence continued. Eventually the divergence stopped, then reversed direction, and collision occurred between continental land masses. During the Wopmay orogeny, subduction occurred as oceanic crust of the [[Slave Craton]] was [[subducted]] beneath an eastward moving continental plate. Likewise, during the Trans-Hudson orogeny, rifting at first separated the Superior craton from the rest of the continent. Then the Superior Craton reversed its direction and the ocean basin began to close. A subduction zone formed as the oceanic crust of the Superior Craton was subducted beneath the Hearne and Wyoming Craton with the Sask Craton in the middle. [[island arcs|Volcanic arcs]] developed as the cratons collided, eventually resulting in the THO mountain building (orogeny).

===Northwestern hinterland zone===
The Northwestern hinterland zone is a complex tectonically deformed region that includes the Peter Lake, Wollaston, and Seal River domains, and other parts of the Cree Lake Zone, now included in Hearne Province.

===Reindeer zone===
The Reindeer zone to the north is a 500 km wide collage of Paleoproterozoic (1.92-1.83 Ga) arc volcanic rocks, plutons, volcanogenic sediments, and younger [[molasse]], divisible into several lithostructural domains. Most of these rocks evolved in an oceanic to transitional, subduction-related arc setting, with increasing influence of Archean crustal components to the northwest. The zone overlies Archean basement exposed in structural window that are now recognized as the ''Sask craton.''

===Wathaman-Chipewyan batholith===
The Wathaman-Chipewyan [[batholith]] is an Andean-type continental-margin, magmatic arc emplaced 1.86-1.85 Ga.

===Flin Flon domain===
The Flin Flon domain is in the center of the Trans-Hudson Suture Zone and extends over the border of the Manitoba-Saskatchewan segment east and west. It is west of the Superior Craton, south of the Kisseynew Domain, and east of the Glennie Domain.

===Superior Boundary zone===
The Superior Boundary zone is a narrow, southeastern, [[Sial|ensialic]] foreland zone bordering Superior Craton, comprising the Thompson Belt, Split Lake Block, and Fox River Belt.

==Economic geology==
The [[Flin Flon greenstone belt]] is one of the largest Proterozoic [[Volcanogenic massive sulfide ore deposit|volcanic-hosted massive sulfide]] (VMS) districts in the world, containing 27 Cu-Zn- (Au) deposits from which more than 183 million tonnes of ore have been mined. Most of mined VMS deposits in the Flin Flon belt are associated with juvenile arc volcanic rocks providing a powerful focus for future explorations. Gold mineralization has been less studied, but at Reed Lake has been shown to be associated with late brittle-ductile shear zones that follow peak tectonic and metamorphic activity within the Trans-Hudson Orogen. At Snow Lake, preliminary investigations suggest a long history of gold mineralization with at least some gold introduced prior to metamorphism.<ref name=Ansdell>{{cite journal |author1=Bailes, Alan |author2=Ric Syme |lastauthoramp=yes |year=2001 |title=Trans-Hudson Orogen Overview |journal=WILDCAT Explorations LTD. |url=http://www.wildcat.ca/explorationdetailscontent.php?PAGEAREAID=31&AREAID=7 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070514140313/http://www.wildcat.ca/explorationdetailscontent.php?PAGEAREAID=31&AREAID=7 |archivedate=2007-05-14 }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Labrador Trough]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070927104231/http://www.3rivers.net/~dbaker/plate_tec/plate4.htm Trans-Hudsonian Suture--Collision of Superior with Hearne/Wyoming Province]
* John B. Brady, et al., eds. (2004) Precambrian Geology of the Tobacco Root Mountains, Montana (Special Papers (Geological Society of America), 377.) {{ISBN|0-8137-2377-9}}
* LITHOPROBE Seismic Processing Facility (LSPF). (1990). "Phase V Proposal - Executive Overview: Trans-Hudson Orogen Transect (THOT). [https://web.archive.org/web/20080724044223/http://www.lithoprobe.ca/about/forms-docs/phaseproposal5.asp]
* LITHOPROBE Seismic Processing Facility (LSPF). (1998). "Trans-Hudson Orogen Transect." [https://web.archive.org/web/20110706210912/http://www.litho.ucalgary.ca/atlas/thot/thot_blurb.html]

[[Category:Cratons]]
[[Category:Paleoproterozoic orogenies]]
[[Category:Precambrian Canada]]
[[Category:Precambrian United States]]
[[Category:Geology of North America]]
[[Category:Geology of Manitoba]]
[[Category:Geology of Montana]]
[[Category:Geology of Nebraska]]
[[Category:Geology of North Dakota]]
[[Category:Geology of Saskatchewan]]
[[Category:Geology of South Dakota]]
[[Category:Geology of Wyoming]]
[[Category:Black Hills]]
[[Category:Historical geology]]
[[Category:Precambrian North America]]

Innuitian orogeny

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[[Image:North america basement rocks.png|thumb|300 px|Innuitian orogeny (sage green) surrounded by the [[Slave craton|Slave]] and [[Rae craton|Rae]] [[craton]]s (fuchsia) that constitute the northern core of the [[North American craton]] (Laurentia).]]
The '''Innuitian orogeny''', sometimes called the '''Ellesmere orogeny''', was a major [[tectonics|tectonic]] ([[orogeny|mountain building]]) episode responsible for the formation of a series of [[mountain range]]s in the Canadian [[Arctic]] and Northernmost [[Greenland]].<ref>H.P. Trettin (ed.), ''Geology of the Innuitian Orogen and Arctic Platform of Canada and Greenland.'' 1991, p. 46</ref> The episode started with the earliest [[Paleozoic]] [[rift]]ing, extending from [[Ellesmere Island]] to [[Melville Island (Northwest Territories and Nunavut)|Melville Island]].<ref>[http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/geology/geologicalprovinces/1 The Atlas of Canada - Geological Provinces] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071128111020/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/environment/geology/geologicalprovinces/1 |date=2007-11-28 }}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Innuitian Mountains]]
*[[Roosevelt Range]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1SEC821211 Geological Regions: Innuitian orogen]

[[Category:Paleozoic orogenies]]
[[Category:Geology of the Northwest Territories]]
[[Category:Geology of Nunavut]]
[[Category:Geology of Greenland]]
{{NorthwestTerritories-geo-stub}}
{{Nunavut-geo-stub}}
{{tectonics-stub}}

Midcontinent Rift System

2019-09-30T23:51:13Z

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{{short description|Geological rift in the center of the North American continent}}
[[File:North america basement rocks.png|right|thumb|Geological map of North America showing (in beige) the Midcontinent Rift, here labeled Keweenawan Rift. Lake Superior occupies the apex of the rift.]]

The '''Midcontinent Rift System''' (MRS) or '''Keweenawan Rift''' is a {{convert|2000|km|mi|-2|abbr=on}} long geological [[rift]] in the center of the [[North America|North American continent]] and south-central part of the [[North American plate]]. It formed when the continent's core, the [[North American craton]], began to split apart during the [[Mesoproterozoic]] era of the [[Precambrian]], about 1.1 billion years ago. [[aulacogen|The rift failed]], leaving behind thick layers of [[igneous rock]] that are exposed in its northern reaches, but buried beneath later sedimentary formations along most of its western and eastern arms. Those arms meet at [[Lake Superior]], which is contained within the [[rift valley]]. The lake's [[North Shore (Lake Superior)|north shore]] in [[Ontario]] and [[Minnesota]] defines the northern arc of the rift. From the lake, the rift's eastern arm trends south to central lower [[Michigan]], and possibly into [[Indiana]], [[Ohio]], [[Kentucky]], [[Tennessee]], and [[Alabama]].<ref name="GSA Grenville Front">{{cite journal|last1=Stein|first1=Carol|title=Is the "Grenville Front" in the central United States really the Midcontinent Rift?|journal=GSA Today|date=May 2018|volume=28|issue=5|pages=4–10|url=https://www.geosociety.org/gsatoday/science/G357A/article.htm|accessdate=1 May 2018}}</ref> The western arm runs from Lake Superior southwest through portions of [[Wisconsin]], [[Minnesota]], [[Iowa]], and [[Nebraska]] to northeastern [[Kansas]],<ref name = MRW/> and possibly into [[Oklahoma]].<ref name=Schmus />

==Formation and failure==
[[File:Superior upland.jpg|thumb|right|Rift rocks are exposed in the [[buff (colour)|buff-colored]] areas around [[Lake Superior]] (black). The buff area on the north margin is the [[Lake Nipigon]] area.]]
The rock formations created by the rift included [[gabbro]] and [[granite]] [[intrusive rock]]s and [[basalt]] [[lava]]s.<ref name = MNGeol/> In the Lake Superior region, the upwelling of this molten rock may have been the result of a [[hotspot (geology)|hotspot]] which produced a [[triple junction]].<ref name = MRW>{{Cite web| title = Middle Proterozoic and The Mid-continent Rift | work = Minnesota's Rocks and Waters | publisher = [[Winona State University]] | url = http://geogroup4.wikispaces.com/file/view/Mid-continentRift.ppt| accessdate = 13 April 2008 }}(Powerpoint presentation)</ref> The hotspot domed the rocks of the Lake Superior area. Voluminous basaltic lava flows erupted from the central axis of the rift, similar to the present-day rifting under way in the [[Afar Depression]] of the [[East African Rift]] system.

The southwest and southeast extensions represent two arms of the triple junction while a third [[Aulacogen|failed arm]] extends north into Ontario as the [[Nipigon Embayment]].<ref name=Schmus>{{Cite journal |last=Van Schmus |first = W. R. |last2=Hinze |first2=W. J. |title=The Midcontinent Rift System |journal=Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=345–383 |date=May 1985 |url= https://kuscholarworks.ku.edu/dspace/bitstream/1808/104/1/fac6cit13.pdf |doi=10.1146/annurev.ea.13.050185.002021 |accessdate=10 June 2007 |bibcode=1985AREPS..13..345V |hdl = 1808/104 }}</ref><ref name=Kean>{{Cite web |last=Kean |first=William F. |title=Keweenawan Rift System |work=Field Trips, Northern Wisconsin and Upper Michigan |publisher=University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee |date=24 November 2000 |url=http://www.uwm.edu/People/wkean/fieldtrip/ArCraig/keewenaw.htm |accessdate=8 June 2007 |url-status=bot: unknown |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080706161521/http://www.uwm.edu/People/wkean/fieldtrip/ArCraig/keewenaw.htm |archivedate=6 July 2008 }}</ref> This failed arm includes [[Lake Nipigon]], Ontario.

The rift system may have been the result of extensional forces behind the continental collision of the [[Grenville Orogeny]] to the east which in part overlaps the timing of the rift development.<ref name=Schmus /> Later compressive forces from the Grenville Orogeny likely played a major role in the rift's failure and closure.<ref name=Schmus/><ref name=Meso/> Had the rifting process continued, the eventual result would have been sundering of the North American [[craton]] and creation of a sea. The Midcontinent Rift appears to have progressed almost to the point where the ocean intruded.<ref name = Reeves>{{Cite journal |last1= Reeves |first1= T. K. |last2=Carroll |first2=Herbert B. |title = Geologic Analysis of Priority Basins for Exploration and Drilling | publisher = U.S. Department of Energy, Office of Scientific and Technical Information | date=April 1999 | url = http://www.osti.gov/bridge/servlets/purl/6060-JKD5at/webviewable/6060.PDF |accessdate = 10 June 2007 |doi= 10.2172/6060 }}</ref> But after about 15–22 million years the rift failed.<ref name = Meso>{{Cite journal |last=Ojakangas |first=R. W. |last2=Morey |first2=G. B. |last3=Green |first3=J. C. |title=The Mesoproterozoic Midcontinent Rift System, Lake Superior Region, USA |journal=[[Sedimentary Geology (journal)|Sedimentary Geology]] |volume=141–142 |pages=421–442 |date = 1 June 2001 |doi=10.1016/S0037-0738(01)00085-9 |bibcode=2001SedG..141..421O }} (Abstract)</ref><ref name = Schneider>{{cite conference |first1=D. A. |last1=Schneider |first2=D. K. |last2=Holm |first3=V. |last3=Chandler |title=A Superior Swath: Proterozoic Geology of the North American Midcontinent |publisher=American Geophysical Union |date=Fall 2006 |bibcode=2006AGUFM.T42A..06S |id = Abstract #T42A-06 }}</ref> The Midcontinent Rift is the deepest closed or healed rift yet discovered; no known deeper rift ever failed to become an ocean.<ref name = Reeves/>

==The rift today==
[[File:Keweenaw structure.jpg|thumb|360px|right|Volcanic strata protrude at [[Isle Royale]] and the [[Keweenaw Peninsula]]<ref name = Huber>{{Cite web
| last = Huber
| first = Norman King
| title = The story of Isle Royale National Park
| work = Bulletin 1309
| publisher = [[United States Geological Survey]]
| url = http://www.minsocam.org/MSA/collectors_corner/usgs/b1309.htm
| date = 1975 }}</ref>]]
Lake Superior occupies a basin created by the rift.<ref name=Schmus/> Near that lake, rocks produced by the rift can be found on the surface of [[Isle Royale]] and the [[Keweenaw Peninsula]] of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan,<ref name = Huber/> northwest Wisconsin,<ref name = Anderson>{{Cite web
| last = Anderson
| first = Raymond R.
| title = Introduction to the Midcontinental Rift
| publisher = Iowa Department of Natural Resources Geological Survey
| url = http://www.iihr.uiowa.edu/igs/introduction-to-the-midcontinental-rift/
| date = 25 November 2014 }}</ref> and on the [[North Shore (Lake Superior)|North Shore]] of Superior in Minnesota and Ontario.<ref name = MNGeol>{{Cite book| last = Ojakangas | first = Richard W. |author2=Charles L. Matsch | others = Illus. Dan Breedy | title = Minnesota's Geology | year = 1982 | publisher = University of Minnesota Press | location= Minneapolis, Minnesota | isbn = 978-0-8166-0953-6 }}</ref> Similar rocks are exposed as far south as [[Interstate Park]] near [[Saint Paul, Minnesota]],<ref name=Schmus/><ref name=Jol>{{Cite web
|last = Jol
|first = Harry M.
|title = Interstate State Park, A Brief Geologic History
|publisher = University of Wisconsin at Eau Claire
|date = 2006
|url = http://www.uwec.edu/jolhm/Interstate2006/history.htm
|url-status = dead
|archiveurl = https://archive.is/20121215050555/http://www.uwec.edu/jolhm/Interstate2006/history.htm
|archivedate = 15 December 2012
|df = dmy-all
}}</ref><ref>[https://www.leg.state.mn.us/docs/2010/mandated/100444.pdf ''Interstate State Park Management Plan''], Minnesota Department of Natural Resources Division of Parks and Trails] (2009), p. 26.</ref> but elsewhere the rift is buried beneath more recent sedimentary rocks up to {{convert|9|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} thick.<ref name = Palacas/> Where buried, the rift has been mapped by [[Gravity anomaly|gravity anomalies]] (its dense [[basalt]]ic rock increases gravity locally),<ref name = Anderson1>{{Cite web
| last = Daniels
| first = David L.
|author2=Snyder, Stephen L.
| title = Bouguer gravity anomaly map of north-central United States
| publisher = Minnesota Geological Survey
| date = 1991
| url = http://conservancy.umn.edu/handle/11299/60081}}</ref>
[[aeromagnetic survey]]s, and [[seismic]] data.<ref name = Hinze2>{{Cite web
| last = Hinze
| first = W. |author2=Kellogg, D. |author3=Merritt, D.
| title = Gravity and Aeromagnetic Anomaly Maps of the Southern Peninsula of Michigan
| work = Report of Investigation 14
| publisher = Michigan State Geological Survey
| date = 1971
| url = http://www.michigan.gov/documents/deq/GIMDL-RI14_216260_7.pdf}}</ref>

A slightly older but possibly related geologic feature is the {{Convert|2700000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} [[Mackenzie Large Igneous Province]] in Canada, which extends from the [[Arctic]] in [[Nunavut]] to near the [[Great Lakes]] in [[Northwestern Ontario]].<ref>{{cite book|author1=National Research Council|author2=Division on Engineering and Physical Sciences|author3=Commission on Physical Sciences, Mathematics, and Applications|author4=Geophysics Research Board, Assembly of Mathematical and Physical Sciences, Geophysics Study Committee|title=Continental Tectonics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s1F2eoTkQm0C&pg=PT191|year=1980|publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=978-0-309-02928-5|page=191}}</ref>

==Natural resources==
[[File:Iowa magnetic map.jpg|thumb|right|Iowa magnetic anomaly map showing the rift curving from the north center to the southwest of the state.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mrdata.usgs.gov/catalog/cite-view.php?cite=64|title=Iowa magnetic and gravity maps and data|last=Kucks|first=Robert P.|author2=Hill, Patricia L.|date=2005|publisher=U.S. Geological Survey|accessdate=2009-09-03}}</ref>]]
The [[Proterozoic]] [[Nonesuch Shale]] formation in the Keweenawan Rift contains enough organic carbon (greater than 0.5%) to be considered a potential [[source rock]] for petroleum. Oil identified as Precambrian has been found seeping out of the Nonesuch Shale in the White Pine mine in Michigan.<ref>J.A. Seglund, "Midcontinent rift continues to show promise as petroleum prospect," ''Oil and Gas Journal'', 15 May 1989, p.55-58.</ref> A few deep wells were drilled to explore for oil and gas in rift rocks as far southwest as Kansas. No oil and gas were found, but the explorations did make some deep rock samples available.<ref name = Palacas>{{Cite web
| last = Palacas
| first = James G.
| title = Superior Province (051)
| work = National Oil and Gas Assessment
| publisher = United States Geological Survey
| date = 1995
| url = http://certmapper.cr.usgs.gov/data/noga95/prov51/text/prov51.pdf
| accessdate = 10 June 2007 }}</ref> These include two "dry holes" drilled by [[Amoco]]: a {{convert|7238|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} well in [[Alger County, Michigan]] in 1987 and 1988, and one in [[Bayfield County, Wisconsin]] to a depth of {{convert|4966|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} in 1992.<ref>Albert B. Dickas, ''Results of the Middle Proterozoic Midcontinent rift frontier play along Lake Superior's south shore'', Oil & Gas Journal, 18 September 1995, pp. 80–82.</ref> In 1987 [[Amoco]] also drilled a {{convert|17,851|ft|m|0|abbr=on}} dry hole that penetrated rift sediments in Iowa.<ref>"[https://www.iihr.uiowa.edu/igs/publications/uploads/RIFS-2006-2.pdf Exploring the Midcontinent Rift]". ''Iowa Geological Survey Resource Information Fact Sheet 2006-2.</ref>

The Michigan [[Copper Country]] in the [[Upper Peninsula]] and [[Isle Royale]] contains major [[native copper]] deposits in Keweenawan-age rocks associated with the rift. A [[Copper mining in Michigan|copper mining industry]] was developed in Precolumbian times, reactivated in the 1840s and continued for more than a century. Some low-grade copper and nickel deposits, among the largest in the world, also exist in the [[Duluth Complex]] North of the lake.<ref>{{Cite web | last = Kraker | first = Dan | title = FAQ: Everything you need to know about PolyMet | url = http://www.mprnews.org/story/2013/12/02/environment/copper-mining-faq | date = 2 December 2013 | accessdate = 2013-12-10 }}</ref> Once thought to be [[Economic geology|uneconomic to mine]],<ref name = Jira>{{Cite web |last=Jira |first=Mark |author2=David Southwick |title=Mineral potential and geology of the Duluth Complex |work=Mineral Potential and Geology of Minnesota |publisher=Minnesota Geological Survey, University of Minnesota |url=http://www.mngs.umn.edu/mnpot/dcmplx.html |accessdate=2008-04-13 }}</ref> these deposits have attracted renewed interest from resource companies.<ref>{{Cite web | last = Kraker | first = Dan | title = PolyMet's copper-nickel mine rekindles decades-old environmental debate | publisher = [[Minnesota Public Radio]] | date = 5 December 2013 | url = http://www.mprnews.org/story/2013/12/05/environment/polymet-copper-nickel-mining-history | accessdate = 10 December 2013}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery perrow=3 widths=210px heights=210px>
File:Isle Royale aerial.jpg|Eroded volcanic strata at [[Isle Royale]] in Michigan
Image:Mount McKay Thunder Bay.jpg|A mafic [[sill (geology)|sill]] related to volcanism of the Midcontinent Rift System in [[Thunder Bay]]
File:Sleeping Giant PP.JPG|[[Sleeping Giant (Ontario)]]
File:Palisade, Shovel Point.jpg|Surficial relics of the Midcontinent Rift: cliffs at [[Palisade Head]] and Shovel Point in Minnesota
File:JayCookeStatePark1.jpg|Saint Louis River in [[Jay Cooke State Park]]
File:InterstateStateParkMN arf3.JPG|Dalles of the [[St. Croix River (Wisconsin-Minnesota)|St. Croix River]] at [[Interstate State Park]], Minnesota-Wisconsin
</gallery>

==See also==
*{{annotated link|Coldwell Complex}}
*[[Geology of Ontario]]
*{{annotated link|Mamainse Point Formation}}
*{{annotated link|Volcanology of Canada}}
*{{annotated link|Volcanology of Eastern Canada}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [https://wim.usgs.gov/geonarrative/MRS_mineral_deposits/ "Mineral Deposits of the Midcontinent Rift System"]. United States Geological Survey Mineral Resources Program, Eastern Mineral and Environmental Resources Science Center. A detailed and well-illustrated resource focusing on the mineral resources of the Midcontinent Rift and its geologic history.
* Stein, Seth et al. (2016) [https://eos.org/features/new-insights-into-north-americas-midcontinent-rift "New Insights into North America’s Midcontinent Rift"]. ''[[Eos (magazine)|Eos]]'', 97, https://doi.org/10.1029/2016EO056659.

{{Large igneous provinces}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}

[[Category:Aulacogens]]
[[Category:Geologic provinces of the United States]]
[[Category:Geology of Michigan]]
[[Category:Geology of Minnesota]]
[[Category:Geology of Nebraska]]
[[Category:Geology of Iowa]]
[[Category:Geology of Wisconsin]]
[[Category:Geology of Kansas]]
[[Category:Geology of Ontario]]
[[Category:Mesoproterozoic rifts and grabens]]
[[Category:Large igneous provinces]]

Churchill Craton

2019-09-30T23:50:28Z

Ciaurlec: changed an image description

{{short description|The northwest section of the Canadian Shield from southern Saskatchewan and Alberta to northern Nunavut}}
[[Image:North america basement rocks.png|right|thumb|Palaeomap of North American and Scandinavian cratons and orogenic belts. The Churchill Craton comprises the Rae and Hearne provinces (both in magenta).]]
The '''Churchill Craton''' is the northwest section of the [[Canadian Shield]] and stretches from southern [[Saskatchewan]] and [[Alberta]] to northern [[Nunavut]]. It has a very complex geological history punctuated by at least seven distinct regional [[tectonic|tectono]][[metamorphic rocks|metamorphic]] intervals, including many discrete accretionary [[magmatic]] events. The Western Churchill [[province]] is the part of the Churchill Craton that is exposed north and west of the [[Hudson Bay]]. The [[Archean]] (ca. 1.83 Ga) Western Churchill province contributes to the complicated and protracted tectonic history of the craton, and marks a major change in the behaviour of the Churchill Craton with many remnants of Archean [[supracrustal rock|supracrustal]] and [[granitoid]] rocks.

==Major tectonometamorphic intervals==
* 2.69 Ga: deformation in the northern Hearne Domain.
* 2.685 Ga: [[greenschist]]-grade [[metamorphism]] and deformation in the central Hearne Domain.
* 2.60 Ga: granitoid [[plutonic|plutonism]] across the northern Hearne and Rae Domains.
* 2.50-2.55 Ga: metamorphism and deformation in the northern Hearne domain.
* 1.9 Ga: metamorphism and deformation in the northern Hearne Domain.
* 1.83 Ga: magmatism and deformation in the northern Hearne and Rae Domains.
* 1.755 Ga: plutonism in the western Hearne and eastern Rae Domains.
<ref>{{Harvnb|Sandeman|2001|pp=3–4}}</ref>

==Hearne Domain, Western Churchill province==
{{Main|Hearne Craton}}
A north-northwest-trending crustal segment transects from [[Kaminak Lake]] (central Hearne Domain) in the south to [[Yathkyed Lake]] (northern Hearne Domain) in the northwest, consisting of Archaen supracrustal belts that preserve mostly Archean [[mafic]] to [[felsic]] volcanic rocks ([[greenschist]]-grade supracrustal and granitoids), metamorphic cooling of [[hornblende]] and [[Proterozoic]] [[biotite]].

This section of the Churchill province was formerly called the Ennadai-Rankin [[greenstone belt]] and include the Kaminak, Yathkyed, MacQuoid and Rankin supracrustal belts, containing a wide range of intrusive Neoarchean plutonic rocks ranging in composition from [[gabbro]] to [[syenogranite]]. The Kaminak supracrustal belt preserves igneous textures including interlocking [[quartz]] and [[plagioclase]] that are intergrown with platy biotite (2.084-1.914 Ga) and stubby [[euhedral]] grains of [[prism (geometry)|prismatic]] [[titanite]] and hornblende. The Yathkyed belt contains a range of hornblende cooling (2.63-246 Ga) [[amphibolite|amphibolitic]] metamorphic rocks. The Kaminak and Yathkyed belts are overlain by the Proterozoic (2.45 Ga) Hurwitz Group. Deformation of the Hurwitz Group occurred after the 2.11 Ga [[intrusion]] of [[gabbro]] [[Sill (geology)|sills]], but prior to the intrusion of the 1.83 Ga [[lamprophyre]] [[dike (geology)|dykes]] associated with the ultra[[potassium|potassic]] [[lava]]s of the nearby [[Baker Lake (Nunavut)|Baker Lake]] Basin. Parallel to the [[Paleoproterozoic]] Hurwitz Group are massive [[Vein (geology)|veins]] of green biotite that are interpreted to have been emplaced there by a [[hydrothermal]] event accompanying a deformation along this contact area.<ref>{{Harvnb|Sandeman|2001|pp=4–5}}</ref>

==Murmac Bay Group, Western Churchill province==
The Murmac Bay Group exposed in the southwestern half of the Western Churchill Craton, near [[Uranium City, Saskatchewan]] consists of a mixed package of [[Precambrian]] [[volcanic]] and [[sedimentary rocks]] These rocks sit on ca. 3 Ga [[granitoid]]s and have been affected by several deformational and [[Metamorphism|metamorphic]] events.

==Taltson Magmatic Zone and Taltson basement==
The [[Taltson Magmatic Zone]] (south of 60°N) is a composite continental magmatic arc and collisional [[Orogeny|orogen]] resulting from the convergence of the [[Buffalo Head terrane]] with the Archean Churchill craton. The Taltson [[Basement rock|basement]] (ca. 3.2–3.0 Ga and 2.4–2.14 Ga) and Rutledge River supracrustal [[gneiss]]es (2.13–2.09 Ga) were intruded by voluminous I- and S-type [[magmatic rock]]s between 1.99 and 1.92 Ga.

==Economic geology==
There is aggressive diamond exploration drilling in the south Slave Province, NWT, Churchill Craton (at the northwest corner of the [[Hudson Bay]]) and in [[Ontario]]. The [[Northwest Territories]] (NWT), North [[Slave craton]] and [[Keewatin Region, Nunavut|Keewatin]] regions of Nunavut and the north-central region of Alberta are regions that are all underlain by [[diamond]]-friendly cratonic rocks of the Slave Craton, Churchill Craton and the Buffalo Head Craton. The diamonds being found in the NWT were created 50 to 600 mya during cataclysmic explosions of [[kimberlite]], a molten magma originating up to 400 kilometers beneath the Earth's surface.

Unlike the Slave Craton, which is covered with shallow lakes and swamp, the eastern part of the Churchill Craton is drier. Kimberlites may be obscured by foliage rather than water, therefore many targets may be drillable during the summer, not just during the short winter window when lakes are frozen and daylight is available. In comparison, drilling in the Eastern Arctic is too remote compared to the Slave Craton, which is serviced by the fully developed infrastructure of [[Yellowknife]]. The Eastern Arctic is serviced by the smaller town of [[Rankin Inlet]], which in turn is serviced by barge during summer.

==See also==
*[[Rae Craton]]
*[[Superior Craton]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal
| last = Sandeman | first = H. A.
| title = 40Ar-39Ar Geochronological Investigations of the Central Hearne Domain, Western Churchill Province, Nunavut: A Progress Report
| year = 2001 | journal = Geological Survey of Canada, Current Research | volume = 2001-F4
| url = http://publications.gc.ca/collections/Collection-R/GSC-CGC/M44-2001/M44-2001-F4E.pdf | accessdate = May 2016
| ref = harv}}
{{Refend}}

[[Category:Cratons]]
[[Category:Historical geology]]
[[Category:Economic geology]]
[[Category:Structural geology]]
[[Category:Geology of North America]]
[[Category:Geology of Alberta]]
[[Category:Geology of Nunavut]]
[[Category:Geology of Saskatchewan]]

Lake Nipigon

2019-09-30T23:49:18Z

Ciaurlec: changed an image description

{{for|the First Nations reserve|Animbiigoo Zaagi'igan Anishinaabek First Nation}}
{{Infobox lake
| name = Lake Nipigon
| image = Lake Nipigon.JPG
| caption =
| image_bathymetry =
| caption_bathymetry =
| location = [[Ontario]]
| coords = {{Coord|49|50|N|88|30|W|region:CA-ON_type:waterbody_scale:1000000|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| inflow =
| outflow = [[Nipigon River]]
| catchment = {{convert|25400|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}<ref name=atlas>{{cite web|title=Canada Drainage Basins|year=1985|work=The National Atlas of Canada, 5th edition|publisher=Natural Resources Canada|url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/archives/5thedition/environment/water/mcr4055|accessdate=24 November 2010|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110304184849/http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/archives/5thedition/environment/water/mcr4055|archivedate= 4 March 2011}}</ref>
| basin_countries = Canada
| length =
| width =
| area = {{convert|4848|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
| depth = {{convert|54.9|m|ft|abbr=on}}<ref name=database>{{cite web|title=Lake Nipigon|work=World Lake Database|publisher=International Lake Environment Committee Foundation (ILEC)|url=http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Lake.asp?LakeID=SNAM-099&RoutePrm=0%3A%3B4%3Aload%3B|accessdate=22 December 2011|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200835/http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Lake.asp?LakeID=SNAM-099&RoutePrm=0%3A%3B4%3Aload%3B|archivedate=4 March 2016}}</ref>
| max-depth = {{convert|165|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| volume = {{convert|248|km3|cumi e6acre.ft|abbr=on}}<ref name="database"/>
| residence_time =
| shore = {{convert|1044|km|abbr=on}}<ref name="database"/>
| elevation = {{convert|260|m|ft|abbr=on}}
| islands = Caribou Island, Geikie Island, Katatota Island, Kelvin Island, Logan Island, Murchison Island, Murray Island, and Shakespeare Island
| cities =
}}

'''Lake Nipigon''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|ɪ|p|ᵻ|ɡ|ə|n}}; {{lang-fr|lac Nipigon}}; {{lang-oj|Animbiigoo-zaaga'igan}}) is the largest lake entirely within the boundaries of the Canadian province of [[Ontario]]. It is part of the [[Great Lakes|Great Lake]] drainage basin.

==Geography and geology==
[[File:88.43153W 49.95886N Nipigon Lake.png|thumb|left|Satellite view of Lake Nipigon]]
Lying 260 metres (853 ft) above sea level, the lake drains into the [[Nipigon River]] and thence into Nipigon Bay of [[Lake Superior]]. The lake and river are the largest tributaries of Lake Superior. It lies about {{convert|120|km}} northeast of the city of [[Thunder Bay]], [[Ontario]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://agora.lakeheadu.ca/agora.php?st=60|title=Archived copy|accessdate=2012-05-21|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://archive.is/20120724013916/http://agora.lakeheadu.ca/agora.php?st=60|archivedate=2012-07-24}}</ref>

Lake Nipigon has a total area (including islands within the lake) of {{convert|4848|km2}}, compared to {{convert|3150|km2}} for [[Lake of the Woods]]. The largest islands are Caribou Island, Geikie Island, Katatota Island, [[Kelvin Island (Lake Nipigon)|Kelvin Island]], Logan Island, Murchison Island, Murray Island, and Shakespeare Island. Maximum depth is {{convert|165|m}}.
[[File:North america basement rocks.png|right|thumb|Geological map of [[North America]] showing (in beige) the [[Midcontinent Rift System|Midcontinent Rift]], here labeled Keweenawan Rift.]]

The lake is noted for its towering cliffs and unusual green-black sand beaches composed of the fine particles of a dark green mineral known as [[pyroxene]]. The lake basin provides an important habitat for woodland [[caribou]].

Abstract [[mafic]] rocks at Lake Nipigon give evidence of [[rift]]-related continental [[basalt]]ic magmatism during the [[Midcontinent Rift System]] event, estimated at 1,109 million years ago. Great [[sill (geology)|sill]]s up to {{convert|150|to(-)|200|m|ft}} thick are also related with the rifting event, forming [[cliff]]s hundreds of meters high. The mafic and [[ultramafic rock|ultramafic]] [[intrusion]]s centered on Lake Nipigon represent a ''[[Aulacogen|failed arm]]'' of the main rift called the [[Nipigon Embayment]].

==History==
As the last [[Ice Age]] was ending, Lake Nipigon was, at times, part of the drainage path for [[Lake Agassiz]].<ref>{{cite journal | last = Leverington | first = DW |author2=Teller JT | title = Paleotopographic reconstructions of the eastern outlets of glacial Lake Agassiz |journal=[[Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences]] |volume = 40 | issue = 9 | pages = 1259–78 | year = 2003 | doi = 10.1139/e03-043| bibcode = 2003CaJES..40.1259L | citeseerx = 10.1.1.468.8518 }}</ref>

===Historical names===
The French [[Jesuit]] [[Claude Allouez]] celebrated the first mass beside the Nipigon River May 29, 1667. He visited the village of the Nipissing Indians who had fled there during the Iroquois onslaught of 1649-50. In the Jesuit Relations the lake is called '''lac Alimibeg''', and was subsequently known as '''Alemipigon''' or '''Alepigon'''. In the 19th century it was frequently spelled as '''Lake Nepigon'''. This may have originated from the [[Ojibwe language|Ojibwe word]] ''Animbiigoong'', meaning 'at continuous water' or 'at waters that extends [over the horizon].' Though some sources claim the name may also be translated as 'deep, clear water,' this description is for [[Lake Temagami]]. Today, the Ojibwa bands call Lake Nipigon ''Animbiigoo-zaaga'igan''.

The 1778 ''Il Paese de' Selvaggi Outauacesi, e Kilistinesi Intorno al Lago Superiore'' map by John Mitchell identifies the lake as '''Lago Nepigon''' and its outlet as '''F. Nempissaki'''. In the 1807 map ''A New Map of Upper & Lower Canada'' by John Cary, the lake was called '''Lake St Ann or Winnimpig''', while the outflowing river as '''Red Stone R.''' Today, the [[Red Rock First Nation]] located along the Nipigon River still bears the "Red Stone" name. In the 1827 map ''Partie de la Nouvelle Bretagne.'' by Philippe Vandermaelen, the lake was called '''L. Ste Anne''', while the outflowing river as '''R. Nipigeon'''. In the 1832 map ''North America sheet IV. Lake Superior.'' by the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge, the lake was called '''St Ann or Red L.''', while the outflowing river as '''Neepigeon''' and the heights near the outlet of the Gull River as '''Neepigon Ho.''' By 1883, maps such as ''Statistical & General Map of Canada'' by Letts, Son & Co., consistently began identify the lake as '''Lake Nipigon'''.

===Late 17th century: French Era (Fort la Tourette)===
In 1683 [[Daniel Greysolon, Sieur du Lhut]] established a fur trading post on Lake Nipigon named Fort la Tourette after his brother, Claude Greysolon, Sieur de la Tourette. The Alexis Hubert Jaillot map of 1685 (''Partie de la Nouvelle-France'')<ref>Partie de la Nouvelle France {{cite web |url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/manitobamaps/2105367993 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2017-01-19 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20170120113129/https://www.flickr.com/photos/manitobamaps/2105367993 |archivedate=2017-01-20 }}; also, {{cite web |url=http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b67000664 |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-04-19 |url-status=live |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120421132448/http://gallica.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/btv1b67000664 |archivedate=2012-04-21 }}</ref> suggests that this fort was somewhere in Ombabika Bay at the northeast end of the lake where the Ombabika River and Little Jackfish River (Kabasakkandagaming) empty. (A copy of this map may be viewed at
[http://www.brocku.ca/maplibrary/images/113.jpg Brock University Map Library]) This post, like most of the western French posts, was closed in 1696 by order of the king, when, due to a surplus of beaver belts, the system of trading permits established in 1681 was abolished.<ref>Nive Voisine, «Robutel de la Noue, Zacharie» Dictionnaire de biographie canadienne, v. 2 (1701-1740); Gratien Allaire, «Les engagements pour la traite des fourrures : évaluation de la documentation,» Revue d'histoire de l'Amérique française, 34 (juin 1980), 9-10.</ref>

On 17 April 1744, the [[Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, Count of Maurepas|Count of Maurepas]], Minister of the Marine, informed the Canadian officials that [[Arnaud I de La Porte|Jean de La Porte]] was to be given the "fur ferme" (i.e. the profits) of Lac Alemipigon from that year forward as a reward for his services in New France.
[[File:The Prince of Wales with guides at Lake Nipigon, in Northern Ontario, 1919 - Le prince de Galles accompagné de guides au lac Nipigon, dans le Nord de l’Ontario, 1919.jpg|thumb|right|[[Edward VIII|The Prince of Wales]] at Lake Nipigon, 1919]]

===Mid 18th century: British, Ojibwe, and Canadian Territory ===
After the [[Treaty of Paris (1763)]], the area passed into the hands of the British, and the [[Hudson's Bay Company]] expanded its trading area to include the Lake. Although it was considered to be within [[British North America]], it was not until 1850 that the watershed draining into Lake Superior was ceded formally by the [[Ojibwe]] Indians to the [[Province of Canada]] (see [[Robinson Treaty]], 1850, also known as the [[Robinson Treaty#Lake Superior|Robinson Superior Treaty]]). A four square mile reservation was set aside on Gull River near Lake Nipigon on both sides of the river for the Chief Mishe-muckqua (from ''Mishi-makwa'', "Great Bear"). In 1871 Lake Nipigon was included in the new [[Thunder Bay District, Ontario]].

The Township of [[Nipigon]] was incorporated in 1908. The Municipality of [[Greenstone, Ontario|Greenstone]] (pop 5662) was incorporated in 2001 and includes Orient Bay, MacDiarmid, Beardmore, Nakina, Longlac, Caramat, Jellicoe and Geraldton.

In 1943 Canada and the United States agreed to the Ogoki diversion which diverts water into Lake Superior that would normally flow into [[James Bay]] and thence into [[Hudson Bay]]. The diversion connects the upper portion of the [[Ogoki River]] to Lake Nipigon. This water was diverted to support three [[hydroelectric]] plants on the [[Nipigon River]]. The diversion is governed by the International Lake Superior Board of Control which was established in 1914 by the [[International Joint Commission]].

[[Lake Nipigon Provincial Park]] is located on the east side of Lake Nipigon. In 1999 the park boundary was amended to reduce the park area from 14.58 to 9.18 square kilometres (3,603 to 2,268 [[acre]]s). The area was deregulated and transferred to the Government of Canada for a reserve for the Sand Point First Nation.
*Douglas, R., ed. ''Nipigon to Winnipeg : a canoe voyage through Western Ontario by [[Edward Umfreville]] in 1784, with extracts from the writings of other early travellers through the region''. Ottawa : Commercial Printing, 1929.

==First Nations==

The aboriginal population (primarily [[Ojibwe]]) include the [[Animbiigoo Zaagi'igan Anishinaabek First Nation|Animbiigoo Zaagi'igan Anishinaabek]] (Lake Nipigon Ojibway) First Nation, the [[Biinjitiwabik Zaaging Anishnabek First Nation|Biinjitiwaabik Zaaging (Rocky Bay whose name changed in 1961 from McIntyre Bay Indian Band) Anishinaabek First Nation]], the [[Bingwi Neyaashi Anishinaabek First Nation|Bingwi Neyaashi (Sand Point) Anishinaabek First Nation]], the [[Red Rock First Nation|Red Rock (Lake Helen) First Nation]] and the [[Gull Bay First Nation]]. Formerly, the [[Whitesand First Nation]] was also located along the northwestern shores of Lake Nipigon until they were relocated in 1942. The membership of these six First Nations total about 5,000. Additionally along Lake Nipigon, there are three [[Indian Reserve]]s : McIntyre Bay IR 54 (Rocky Bay First Nation), Jackfish Island IR 57 and Red Rock (Parmachene) IR 53 (Red Rock First Nation).

The first nations CBC TV series [[Spirit Bay]] was filmed on the lake at the [[Biinjitiwabik Zaaging Anishnabek First Nation]] Reserve in the mid-1980s.

==Transportation==

The main line of the [[Canadian National Railway]] runs to the north of the lake. Another branch of the CNR touches the southeastern section of the lake at Orient Bay and Macdiarmid before heading inland to [[Beardmore, Ontario|Beardmore]]. [[Ontario Highway 11]] also skirts the southeastern section of the lake.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cn.ca/|title=CN - Transportation Services - Rail Shipping, Intermodal, trucking, warehousing and international transportation|website=www.cn.ca|accessdate=24 April 2018|url-status=live|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20180422030725/https://www.cn.ca/|archivedate=22 April 2018}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20060426190502/http://atlas.gc.ca/site/english/learningresources/facts/lakes.html Facts about Canada - Lakes]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20031121231928/http://www.ijc.org/conseil_board/superior_lake/en/superior_home_accueil.htm International Lake Superior Board of Control]
*https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200835/http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Lake.asp?LakeID=SNAM-099&RoutePrm=0%3A%3B4%3Aload%3B
{{greatlakes}}

[[Category:Lakes of Thunder Bay District|Nipigon, Lake]]
[[Category:Hudson's Bay Company trading posts]]

Italian exonyms

2019-05-08T09:24:54Z

Ciaurlec: /* Geographic Features Shared By Various Countries */

{{original research|date=April 2018}}
{{Unreferenced|date=December 2009}}
''Below is list of [[Italian language]] exonyms for places in non-Italian-speaking areas of [[Europe]] :''

In recent years, the use of Italian [[exonyms]] for lesser known places has significantly decreased, in favour of the foreign [[toponym]].
However, major capitals and historically relevant cities and regions are still referred to with the Italian name.

In addition to the exonyms listed below, all toponyms starting with "New" or its equivalent in other languages can be translated as "Nuovo" or "Nuova". For example, until a couple of decades ago it would be common to refer to [[New York City|New York]] as "Nuova York".{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}
{{TOC right}}

==Europe==
{{lang-it|Europa}}
* [[Aegean Sea]]: Mar Egeo
* [[Baltic Sea]]: Mar Baltico
* [[Beskids]] Monti Beschidi
* [[Black Sea]]: Mar Nero
* [[Belarus]] Bielorussia
* [[Carpathian Mountains]] Monti Carpazi
* [[Celtic Sea]] Mar Celtico
* [[Ceraunian Mountains]] Monti Acrocerauni
* [[Danube]] Danubio
* [[Dinaric Alps]]: Alpi Dinariche
* [[Dnieper River|Dnepr/Dnipro/Dnjapro]]: Nipro
* [[Dniester|Dnestr/Dnister/Nistru]]: Nistro
* [[Estonia]] Estonia
* [[Elbe]] Elba
* [[Euskadi]]: Paesi Baschi
* [[English Channel]]: La Manica
* [[Frisian Islands]] Isole Frisone
* [[Gulf of Bothnia]] Golfo di Botnia
* [[Irish Sea]] Mare d'Irlanda
* [[Krkonoše]] Monti dei Giganti
* [[Lapland (region)|Lapland]] Lapponia
* [[Luxembourg (city)|Lëtzebuerg]] Lussemburgo
* [[Lusatia|Lausitz/Łužyca/Łużyce/Lužice]] Lusazia
* [[Lusatian Mountains]] Monti Lusaziani
* [[Mediterranean Sea]]: Mar Mediterraneo
* [[Meuse (river)|Meuse/Maas]]: Mosa
* [[Moldova]] Moldavia
* [[Norway]] Norvegia
* [[North Cape, Norway|North Cape]] Capo Nord
* [[North Sea]]: Mare del Nord
* [[Ore Mountains]] Monti Metalliferi
* [[Pyrenees]]: Pirenei
* [[Rhine]] Reno
* [[Saint George's Channel]] Canale San Giorgio
* [[Scheldt]] Schelda
* [[Tauern]] Monti Tauri

===Albania===
{{Expand list|date=August 2008}}

{{lang-it|Albania}}
*[[Bajram Curri]] Valbona
*[[Ballsh]] Balsidi
*[[Berat]] Berati, Belgrado
*[[Bilisht]] Biclista, Beliste
*[[Bulqizë]] Sant'Anastasia
*[[Burrel]] Birelli, Burelli
*[[Çorovodë]] Moscopoli
*[[Delvinë]] Delvino
*[[Dukat, Albania|Dukat]] Ducati
*[[Durrës]] Durazzo
*[[Elbasan]] Bassania, Albassania, / Scampa
*[[Ersekë]] Ersecco, Erseca
*[[Fier]] Fierica, Fieri
*[[Gjirokastër]] Argirocastro, / Girocastro
*[[Gramshi]] Gramsci, Gremsi
*[[Himarë]] Chimara
*[[Kavajë]] Cavaia, Cavaglia
*[[Koplik]] Copliacco, Cuplienicco, Coplicco
*[[Korçë]] Corizza, / Coriza, Corcia
*[[Krujë]] Croia
*[[Krumë]] Cruma, Icrama
*[[Kuçovë]] Cuciovia, Cluca
*[[Kukës]] Albanopoli, / Zuchisi
*[[Laç]] Lacci
*[[Lezhë]] Alessio
*[[Librazhd]] Liborasi, Casali di Sgombi, / Scampia
*[[Lushnjë]] Lisignano
*[[Peqin]] Pechigna, Pechini
*[[Përmet]] Premiti, Permeti
*[[Peshkopi]] Piscopia, Piscopeia, Episcopia
*[[Pogradec]] Basogrado
*[[Pukë]] Puca,/ Pubblicana, [Via Pubblica]
*[[Rrëshen]] Orosci, Sant'Alessandro di Orosci
*[[Sarandë]] Santi Quaranta/Porto Edda, Saranda
*[[Sazanit]] Isola di Saseno
*[[Shkodër]] Scutari
*[[Tirana|Tiranë]] Tirana, [Terranda]-(rare)
*[[Tepelenë]] Tepelenia
*[[Vlorë]] Valona, Vallona

===Austria===
{{lang-it|Austria}}
*[[Arnoldstein]] Oristagno (very rare)
*[[Gail (river)|Gail]] Zeglia (very rare)
*[[Hermagor-Pressegger See]] Sant'Ermagora (old)
*[[Innsbruck]] Eneborgo (old) Ponte sull'Eno (very rare)
*[[Carinthia (state)|Kärnten]] Carinzia
*[[Landeck]] Landecca (old)
*[[Lienz]] Luenza (old)
*[[Nauders]] Nodrio (old)
*[[Lower Austria|Niederösterreich]] Bassa Austria
*[[Upper Austria|Oberösterreich]] Alta Austria
*[[Niedere Tauern]] Bassi Tauri
*[[Salzburg]] Salisburgo
*[[Styria|Steiermark]] Stiria
*[[County of Tyrol|Tirol]] Tirolo
*[[Villach]] Villaco
*[[Vienna|Wien]] Vienna

===Belgium===
{{lang-it|Belgio}}

*[[Antwerp]] Anversa
*[[Province of Brabant|Brabant]] Brabante
*[[Bruges]] Bruges (old-fashioned, or rare, Bruggia)
*[[Brussels|Brussel/Bruxelles]] Bruxelles (old-fashioned or very rare Brusselle and Borsella)
*[[Charleroi]] Carloré (old-fashioned)
*[[Courtrai]] Cortraco (old-fashioned)
*[[Dendermonde]] Dendermonda (old-fashioned)
*[[Ghent|Gent]] Gand (old-fashioned Guanto)
*[[Ypres|Ieper]] Ypres (old-fashioned, or rare, Ipro)
*[[Leuven]] Lovanio
*[[Lille, Belgium|Lille]] Lillò (old-fashioned)
*[[Limburg (Belgium)|Limburg]] Limburgo
*[[Luxembourg, Belgium|Luxembourg]] Lussemburgo
*[[Mechelen]] Malines (old-fashioned, or rare, Mellina)
*[[Nieuwpoort, Belgium|Nieuwpoort]] Neoporto (old-fashioned)
*[[Liège (city)|Liège]] Liegi
*[[Ostend|Oostende]] Ostenda
*[[Flanders|Vlaanderen]] Fiandre
*[[Wallonia|Wallonie]] Vallonia

===Bulgaria===
{{lang-it|Bulgaria}}

*[[Dobrudzha]] Dobrugia
*[[Maritsa]] Evros, Ebro (historical)
*[[Nikopol, Bulgaria|Nikopol]] Nicopoli
*[[Plovdiv]] Filippopoli
*[[Struma (river)|Struma]] Strimone

===Croatia===
{{Expand list|date=August 2008}}

*''For Italian language exonyms in [[Istria]], see : [[Italian exonyms (Istria)]]''
*''For Italian language exonyms in [[Dalmatia]], see : [[Italian exonyms (Dalmatia)]]''

{{lang-it|Croazia}}

*[[Bakar]] Buccari
*[[Brač]] Brazza
*[[Cavtat]] Ragusavecchia
*[[Crikvenica]] Cirquenizza
*[[Cres]] Cherso
*[[Drniš]] Dernis
*[[Kastav]] Castua
*[[Dragonja]]: Dragogna
*[[Dubrovnik]] Ragusa
*[[Hvar]] Lesina
*[[Karlobag]] Carlopago
*[[Karlovac]] Carlostadio
*[[Knin]] Tenin
*[[Komiža]] Comisa
*[[Koprivnica]] Coprivniza
*[[Korčula]] Curzola
*[[Kraljevica]] Porto Re
*[[Krk]] Veglia
*[[Kvarner]]: Quarnaro
*[[Labin]] Albona
*[[Lastovo]] Lagosta
*[[Lokrum]] Lacroma
*[[Mirna (Croatia)|Mirna]]: Quieto
*[[Neretva]]: Narenta
*[[Ogulin]] Ugulino
*[[Omiš]] Almissa
*[[Osijek]] Essechio or Essecchio
*[[Pag (island)|Pag]] Pago
*[[Pazin]] Pisino
*[[Poreč]] Parenzo
*[[Požega, Croatia|Požega]] Possega
*[[Pula]] Pola
*[[Rab]] Arbe
*[[Raša, Istria County|Raša]]: Arsa
*[[Ravna Gora, Croatia|Ravna Gora]] Montecampo
*[[Rijeka]] Fiume
*[[Rječina]]: Eneo
*[[Rovinj]] Rovigno
*[[Senj]] Segna
*[[Šibenik]] Sebenico
*[[Sinj]] Signo
*[[Sisak]] Siscia
*[[Slavonija]]: Slavonia
*[[Skradin]] Scardona
*[[Susak]] Sansego
*[[Split (city)|Split]] Spalato
*[[Trogir]] Traù
*[[Učka]]: monte Maggiore
*[[Umag]] Umago
*[[Unije]] Unie
*[[Varaždin]] Varasdino
*[[Veprinac]] Apriano
*[[Vis (island)|Vis]] Lissa
*[[Vodnjan]] Dignano d'Istria
*[[Vukovar]] Volco
*[[Zadar]] Zara
*[[Zagreb]] Zagabria
*[[Zrmanja]]: Zermagna
(these Italian names are not real exonyms, since they are used by the autochthonous Italian population)

===Cyprus===
{{lang-it|Cipro}}

*[[Famagusta|Ammochostos-Gazimağusa]] Famagosta
*[[Larnaca|Larnaka]] Larnaca
*[[Limassol|Lemesos-Limasol]] Limisso (rare)
*[[Nicosia|Lefkosía-Lefkoşa]] Nicosia
*[[Mount Olympus (Cyprus)|Olympos]]: monte Olimpo
*[[Paphos]] Pafo

===Czech Republic===
{{lang-it|Repubblica Ceca}}
*[[Brno]] Bruna (old-fashioned)
*[[Bohemia|Čechy]] Boemia
*[[Czech Silesia|České Slezsko]] Slesia
*[[Moravia|Morava]] Moravia
*[[Opava]] Troppavia (old-fashioned)
*[[Plzeň]] Pilsen (German form)
*[[Prague|Praha]] Praga
* [[Šumava]] Selva Boema
*[[Valašsko]] Valacchia morava
*[[Vltava]] Moldava

===Denmark===
{{lang-it|Danimarca}}
*[[Fyn]] Fionia
*[[Helsingør]] Elsinore
*[[Jylland]] Jutland
*[[København]] Copenaghen, Copenhagen (rare)
*[[Sjælland]] Selandia

===France===
{{lang-it|Francia}} 
''Italian was the official language of [[Corsica]], the [[County of Nice]], and [[Savoy]] until 1859-1861''.

*[[Abbeville]] Abbevilla
*[[Adour]] Aturo
*[[Agde]] Agda / Agata
*[[Agen]] Agino / Agenno / Agia (old)
*[[Aigues-Mortes]] Acquamorta
*[[Ain]] Idano
*[[Aire, Ardennes|Aire]] Atura / Aturo (old)
*[[Aisne]] Assonia
*[[Aix-en-Provence]] Acchisi, Ecchisi / Acqui / Acque Sestie (old)
*[[Ajaccio]] Aiaccio (the Italian form being the original)
*[[Alais]] Alesia
*[[Alanches]] Alanca
*[[Albertville]] Villalberto [modern toponym]
*[[Albi]] Albi, Albia / Albiga, Albinga (old) / [Albi]
*[[Alençon]] Alenzone, Alenconio, Lanzona, Alanzone (old)
*[[Alsace]] Alsazia
*[[Ambletouse]] Ambletosa
*[[Amboise]] Ambosa
*[[Ambournay]] Ambroniaco (old)
*[[Amiens]] Ambiano, Amiene, Amiano / Ambiana (old)
*[[Angers]] Angersa, / Angiò / Angero (old)
*[[Angoulême]] Angoleme / Angolemme, Equolesima (old)
*[[Angoumois]] Angolemese, Angolmese
*[[Anjou]] Angiò
*[[Annecy]] Anessi, Anneci
*[[Annonay]] Annoneo, Annonai
*[[Antibes]] Antibo
*[[Apt, Vaucluse|Apt]] Apta
*[[Aquitanie]]-(Aquitaine) Aquitania
*[[Arcachon]] Arcasone, Arcassone (old)
*[[Ardennes]] Ardenne
*[[Argentan]] Argentano (old)
*[[Forest of Argonne|Argonne]] Argona
*[[Arles]] Arli / Arle (old)
*[[Armagnac (province)|Armagnac]] Armagnaco
*[[Armentieres]] Armentiera
*[[Armorica|Armorique]] Armorica
*[[Arras]] Arragia, Arasso / Arazzo (old)
*[[Artois]] Artesia
*[[Aubagne]] Albagna
*Aubusson Albossone, Albuzio
*[[Aurillac]] Origliaco (old)
*[[Auch]] Ausci, Oscia (old)
*[[Auge]] Algia
*[[Aumale]] Almala, Omala
*[[Aunis]] Anisio / Alniso, Alnisio, Alniense
*[[Autun]] Autuno / Aitone di Borgogna (old)
*[[Auvergne (province)|Auvergne]] Alvernia
*[[Auxerre]] Ausserra, Ausserre / Ausonna (old)
*[[Auxonne]] Aussona, Aussonna
*[[Avallon]] Avaglione (old)
*[[Avesnes]] Avenna
*[[Avignon]] Avignone
*[[Avranches]] Avaranca, Avranca, Avrange (old)
*[[Bapaume]] Bapalma
*[[Bar]] Bar, Bario
*[[Bar-le-Duc]] Bario il Duca
*[[Barcelonnette]] Barcellonetta / Barciloneta (old)
*[[Barege]] Baregio
*[[Barjols]] Bargiolio
*[[Bayeux]] Baioca, Bajoce (old)
*[[Bayonne]] Baiona
*[[Bazas]] Basate, Basato
*[[Béarn]] Bearne, Bearnia, Bearno
*[[Beaucaire, Gard|Beaucaire]] Belcaro (old)
*[[Beauce, France|Beauce]] Belsia
*[[Beaujeu, Rhône|Beaujeu]] Belgiuoco
*[[Beaujolais]] Belloiese
*[[Beaune]] Beona / Belna (old)
*[[Beauvais]] Bovesia, Bellovaco (old)
*[[Belgodère]] Belgodere (the Italian form being the original)
*[[Belley]] Bellei
*[[Bergerac, Dordogne|Bergerac]] Bergherago
*[[Berry (province)|Berry]] Berri, Beri, Bituria
*[[Besançon]] Besanzone, Bisanzone
*[[Béziers]] Besiera
*[[Bigorre]] Bigorra
*[[Strait of Bonifacio|Bouches de Bonifacio]] Bocche di Bonifacio (the Italian form being the original)
*[[Blaye]] Blaia, Blavia
*[[Blois]] Blesa
*[[Bordeaux]] Bordò / Bordea, Bordeo, Bordella (old)
*[[Boulogne-sur-Mer]] Bologna di mare, Bologna a mare, Bulogna
*[[Bourbonnais]] Borbonese, Burbonese (old)
*[[Bourges]] Borge / Borghi (old)
*[[Bourg-en-Bresse]] Borgo in Bressia / Borgonbrescia (very old)
*[[Bresse]] Bressia / (Brescia)- [hist. - rare]
*[[Brest, France|Brest]] Bresta, Bresto (old)
*[[Burgundy (French region)|Bourgogne]] Borgogna
*[[Briançon]] Brianzone, Briganzone (old)
*[[Brittany|Bretagne]] Bretagna, Brettagna
*[[Brie]] Brigia, Bregia
*[[Brignoles]] Brignolle
*[[Brioude]] Brioda (old)
*[[Brive-la-Gaillarde]] Briva-La Gagliarda (old)
*[[Caen]] Cadomo (old)
*[[Cahors]] Caorsa / Cadurco (old)
*[[Calais]] Calesia, Calesse, Caleto / Calei
*[[Cambrai]] Cameraco / Camaraco (old)
*[[Cannes]] Canna
*[[Cap Corse]] Capo Corso (the Italian form being the original)
*[[Carcassonne]] Carcassona (old), Carcassone, Carcasciona, Carcassonne (Italian pronunciation)
*[[Cargèse]] Cargese (the Italian form being the original)
*[[Carpentras]] Carpentrasso or Carpentorato
*[[Castelsarrasin]] Castel Sarassino
*[[Castres]] Castro
*[[Caudebec]] Caldabecca
*[[Caur]] Calete
*[[Cavaillon]] Cavaglione
*[[Cévennes]] Cevenne
*[[Chablais]] Chiablese, Ciablese / Sciablese
*[[Chalon-sur-Saône]] Cialone sulla Saona / Scialone / Celona in Borgogna / [Cabilone] (old)
*[[Châlons-en-Champagne]] Cialone sulla Marna / Scialona, Scialone / Cialona / [Catalauno] (old)
*[[Chambéry]] Sciamberì or Ciamberì (hist.)
*[[Champagne (wine region)|Champagne]] Sciampagna (old)
*[[Charente]] Caranta / Sciarenta (old)
*[[Charolais (county)|Charolais]] Carolese
*[[Charolles]] Sciarolla
*[[Chartres]] Sciartre, Ciartre / Sciartra, Carnuto (old)
*[[Grande Chartreuse|Chartreuse]] Certosa
*[[Châteaubriant]] Castel Briante
*[[Châteaudun]] Castelduno / Castelloduno (old)
*[[Châtellerault]] Castellaraldo, Castell' Araldo
*[[Chaumont, Haute-Marne|Chaumont]] Calcemonte
*[[Cherbourg]] Cerburgo, Scierborgo, Caroborgo (old)
*[[Chinon]] Chinone, Scinon
*[[Cholet]] Coleto / Cauleto (old)
*[[Clamecy, Nièvre|Clamecy]] Clamessi, Clamiaco
*[[Clermont-Ferrand]] Chiermonte, Clermonte, Chiaromonte or Chiaramonte -Ferrante / [Chiarmonferrando] (old)
*[[Cligny]] Cligni
*[[Cognac]] Cognacco (old)
*[[Colmar]] Colmaria, Columbaria (old)
*[[Combeaufontaine]] Combofontana (old)
*[[Comminges]] Comminge
*[[Compiègne]] Compigno / Compendio (old)
*[[Comtat Venaissin]] Contado Venassino
*[[Condom]] Condomio, Condonio / Condomo (old)
*[[La Corbière, Haute-Saône|Corbière]] Corbare
*[[Cornouailles]] Cornovaglia
*[[Corsica]] (French ''Corse'') Corsica
*[[Côte-d'Azur]] Costa Azzurra
*[[Côte-d'Or]] Costa d'Oro
*[[Canton of Coulommiers|Coulommiers]] Colombiera / La Colombaria (old)
*[[Coutances]] Cutanza
*[[Craon, Vienne|Craon]] Craone, Craonio
*[[Crech]] Cresci
*[[Dauphiné]] Delfinato
*[[Dax, Landes|Dax]] Acque / Dacia / Acquense (old)
*[[Die, Drôme|Die]] Dia
*[[Dieppe]] Dieppa
*[[Digne-les-Bains]] Digno delle Terme / Digna
*[[Dijon]] Digione
*[[Dinan]] Dinante
*[[Dole, Jura|Dole]] Dola
*[[Dombes]] Dombe
*[[Donzère]] Donzera
*[[Dordogne (river)|Dordogne]] Dordogna
*[[Douai]] Doaggio
*[[Draguignan]] Draghignano
*[[Dreux]] Droge, Droco / Durocassio (hist.)
*[[Drôme]] Droma
*[[Dunquerque]] Duncherche, Duncherque
*[[Durance]] Duranza, Druenza
*[[Elbeuf]] Elbovio (old)
*[[Embrun, Hautes-Alpes|Embrun]] Ambrone / Ambruno / Ebroduno, Embruno (old)
*[[Épernay]] Sparnaco (old)
*[[Épinal]] Spinale
*[[Scheldt|Escaut]] Schelda
*[[Essonne]] Esonna
*[[Étampes]] Stampa (old)
*[[Eure]] Eura, Ebura
*[[Évreux]] Ebroica (old)
*[[Falaise, Calvados|Falaise]] Falesia, Falesa (old)
*[[Fargeau]] Fargeoli
*[[Faucigny]] Fossigni
*[[Fayence]] Favenza, Faianza (old)
*[[Fismes]] Fima
*[[Foix]] Fois, Foro, Fusso (old)
*[[Fontainebleau]] Fontaneblo, Fontenblo, Fontanablò (old)
*[[Forcalquier]] Forcalcario, Forcalchieri
*[[Forez]] Forese
*[[Fougères]] Fogera (old)
*[[Franche-Comté]] Franca Contea
*[[Fréjus]] Frejo, Frejulo, Foro di Giulio [rare] / Fregiù (old)
*[[Frontignan]] Frontignano
*[[Galéria]] Galeria
*[[Gap, Hautes-Alpes|Gap]] Gape, Gapo
*[[Gard]] Gardo, Vardo
*[[Garonne]] Garonna
*[[Gascony]] Guascogna
*[[Gâtinais]] Gatinese, Guastinese
*[[Gers]] Gerso
*[[Gévaudan]] Gevodano, Gabalitano (old)
*[[Gex, Ain|Gex]] Gesio
*[[Gironde]] Gironda
*[[Gisors]] Gisorzio
*[[Glandeves]] Glandeva
*[[Graisivaudan]] Gresivodano
*[[Grasse]] Grassa
*[[Grenoble]] Granopoli, / Grazianopoli (old)
*[[Guadeloupe]] Guadalupa
*[[Guerche]] Guerscia
*[[Golfe du Lion]] Golfo del Leone
*[[Guyenne]] Guienna, Ghienna
*[[Hennebon]] Hennebono
*[[Houlme]] Holmia
*[[Hyères]] Iera
*[[Île-de-France]] Isola di Francia
*[[Ille-et-Vilaine]] Ille e Villena
*[[Isere]] Isera, Issara
*[[Issoudun]] Issolduno
*[[Joinville]] Gienvilla
*[[Labourd]] Laburdo
*[[Landes, Charente-Maritime|Landes]] Lande
*[[Landun]] Lauduno
*[[Langeac]] Langiaco
*[[Langres]] Langra, Lingone (old)
*[[Languedoc-Roussillon]] Linguadoca-Rossiglione
*[[Laon]] Laone
*[[La Rochelle]] La Roccella, La Roccelle
*[[Laval, Mayenne|Laval]] Lavalle
*[[Lavaur, Tarn|Lavaur]] Lavauro
*[[Lectoure]] Lettora (old)
*[[Le Havre]] Avro di Grazia (old)
*[[Le Mans]] Mansa, Cenomano, Mano [rare]
*[[Arrondissement of Lens|Lens]] Lenza (old)
*[[Le Puy, Gironde|Le Puy]] Podio / Poi / Poggio (old)
*[[Libourne]] Liborno / Liburno / Linborno (old)
*[[Lille]] Lilla
*[[Limagne]] Limagna
*[[Limoges]] Limoge
*[[Limousin (province)|Limousin]] Limosino
*[[L'Île-Rousse]] Isolarossa (the Italian form being the original)
*[[Lisieux]] Lisobia, Lesovio (old)
*[[Lodève]] Lodeva
*[[Loire]] Loira, Lora
*[[Longwy]] Lungovico / Longovico (old)
*[[Lons-le-Saunier]] Ledone Salinario / Ledone Salinaro (old)
*[[Lorraine (region)|Lorraine]] Lorena
*[[Loudun]] Luduno
*[[Lozere]] Lozera
*[[Luberon]] Leberone
*[[Lude (stream)|Lude]] Ludo
*[[Lure, Haute-Saône|Lure]] Ludera / Lura / Ludra (old)
*[[Luxeuil]] Lussovio (old)
*[[Lyon]] Lione
*[[Lyonnais]] Lionese
*[[Mâcon]] Macone, Mascone / Maconne / Matiscona (old)
*[[Mâconnais]] Maconese, Masconese
*[[Maine]] Mania, Maiese, Maini
*[[Maine-et-Loire]] [dep.] Maina e Loira
*[[Manche]] Manica
*[[Manosque]] Manosca, Manesco or Manosco
*[[Mantes]] Manta or Mante
*[[Marche]] Marca
*[[Marmande]] Marmanda
*[[Marne (department)|Marne]] Marna
*[[Marseille]] Marsiglia
*[[Martinique]] Martinica
*[[Marvejols]] Marvegio
*[[Massif Central]] Massiccio Centrale
*[[Maubeuge]] Mauboge
*[[Mauriac, Cantal|Mauriac]] Mauriaca
*[[Maurienne]] Moriana (hist.)
*[[Mayenne]] Maienna
*[[Meaux]] Meldi (old)
*[[Médoc]] Medoco, Medocche, Medolico
*[[Melun]] Meluno (old)
*[[Mende, Lozère|Mende]] Menda
*[[Menton]] Mentone (the Italian form being the original){{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}
*[[Metz]] Meta, Mes
*[[Millau]] Amilliavo (very old)
*[[Mirande]] Miranda or Meranda
*[[Mirebeau]] Mirabella
*[[Mirecourt]] Miracorte
*[[Mirepoix, Ariège|Mirepoix]] Mirapinca (old)
*[[Moïta]] Moita (the Italian form being the original)
*[[Montargis]] Montargì (old)
*[[Montauban]] Montalbano / Montealbano / Montelbano
*[[Montbard]] Monte Bardo (old)
*[[Montbéliard]] Monbeliardo, Monte Belicardo (old)
*[[Mont-de-Marsan]] Monte Marsano
*[[Montélimar]] Montelimare / Montiglio a mare (old)
*[[Montereau-Fault-Yonne|Montereau]] Monasteriolo (old)
*[[Montluçon]] Monte Lussone / Monlussone
*[[Montmirail, Marne|Montmirail]] Montemiraglio
*[[Montpellier]] Monpellieri, Monpeglieri / Monpolieri, Monpegliere / Mompeglieri (old)
*[[Mont Ventoux]] Monte Ventoso
*[[Morbihan]] Morbiano
*[[Morlaix]] Morlasso (old)
*[[Morvan]] Morvando
*[[Moselle]] Mosella
*[[Nancy, France|Nancy]] Nanci, Nansi / Nancea (old)
*[[Nantes]] Nante / Nanta / Nannete (old)
*[[Narbonne]] Narbona
*[[Navarrenx]] Navarrino
*[[Nemours]] Nemosio
*[[Nevers]] Niverno
*[[Nice]] Nizza, Nizza Marittima (the Italian form being the original){{Citation needed|date=February 2011}}
*[[Niçois]] Nizzardo
*[[Nievre]] Niva
*[[Nîmes]] Nimme, Nisma / Nimissi / Nimese / Nemauso (old)
*[[Niort]] Niorto, Noviorito (old)
*[[Nivernais]] Nivernese
*[[Normandy|Normandie]] Normandia
*[[Noyon]] Noione
*[[Nunts]] Nuzio
*[[Nyons]] Nione (old)
*[[Oise]] Oisa
*[[Oloron-Sainte-Marie]] Olerone
*[[Orange, Vaucluse|Orange]] Orangia, Arausione / Aurenga (old)
*[[Orchies]] Orchesio
*[[Orléans]] Orleano / Aureliano (old)
*[[Orléanais]] Orleanese
*[[Orthez]] Ortesio
*[[Palois]] Palomese
*[[Pamiers]] Pamiero / Apamea (old)
*[[Paris]] Parigi
*[[Parisien]] Parigino
*[[Pau, Pyrénées-Atlantiques|Pau]] Palo
*[[Pays-de-Caux]] Calchese
*[[Peaux-Rouges]] Pelli Rossi
*[[Perche]] Percese, Pertica
*[[Périgord]] Perigordia, Petrocoria
*[[Périgueux]] Petrogorio
*[[Péronne, Saône-et-Loire|Peronne]] Perona
*[[Perpignan]] Perpignano
*[[Picardy|Picardie]] Piccardia
*[[Marais Poitevin|Poitevin]] Pittovano
*[[Poissy]] Poassi
*[[Poitiers]] Potieri, Pittieri / Pottieri (old)
*[[Poitou]] Poatù, / Poitù, Pittavia
*[[Pons]] Ponte
*[[Pont-de-l'Arche]] Ponte dell'Arca
*[[Ponthieu]] Pontivia
*[[Pontoise]] Pontosa, Pontisara (old)
*[[Privas]] Privato
*[[Provence]] Provenza
*[[Provins]] Provino, Pruvino (old)
*[[Pujoles]] Puggiolo
*[[Pyrenees]] Pirenei
*[[Quercy]] Querci, Cadurcia
*[[Le Quesnoy|Quesnoy]] Querceto
*[[Quimper]] Quimpero
*[[Rambouillet]] Rambuglietto (old)
*[[Reims]] Remi / Remisi (old)
*[[Remiremont]] Romarimonte, Monte Romarico (old)
*[[Remois]] Remese
*[[Rennais]] Rennese
*[[Rennes]] Renna, Renne / Redona (old)
*[[Rhodez]] Rodesia
*[[Rhône]] Rodano
*[[Ribemont]] Ribemonte
*[[Rieux, Seine-Maritime|Rieux]] Rivi (old)
*[[Roanne]] Roana, Rodone (old)
*[[Romans-sur-Isère|Romans]] Romano
*[[Romorantin-Lanthenay]] Castel Romorantino (old)
*[[Roquebrune-Cap Martin|Roquebrune]] Roccabruna (the Italian form being the original)
*[[Roubaix]] Rubaci
*[[Rouen]] Roano
*[[Rouergue]] Roverga, Rutenico [hist.]
*[[Roussillon]] Rossiglione, Catalogna del Nord
*[[Saint-Brieuc]] San Brioco (old)
*[[Saint-Denys]] San Dionisio
*[[Saint-Dizier]] San Desiderio
*[[Saint-Étienne]] Santo Stefano
*[[Saint-Florent, Haute-Corse|Saint-Florent]] San Fiorenzo (the Italian form being the original)
*[[Saint-Flour, Puy-de-Dôme|Saint-Flour]] San Floro
*[[Saint-Ligier]] San Lizerio
*[[Saint-Lô]] San Lo, Santo Lo
*[[Saint-Malo]] San Malo
*[[Saint-Nazaire]] San Nazaro, San Nazario
*[[Saint-Omer]] Sant'Omero
*[[Saint-Quentin, Aisne|Saint-Quentin]] San Quintino (historical)
*[[Saint-Tropez]] San Torpe
*[[Saintes, Charente-Maritime|Saintes]] Santes / Santi (old)
*[[Saintonge]] Santongia, Santonia / Santonico (old)
*[[Sarlat-la-Canéda]] Sarlato
*[[Sartène]] Sartena (the Italian form being the original)
*[[Seine]] Senna
*[[Saône]] Saona
*[[Saulieu]] Salvoloco, Salvoluogo / Sedeloco (old)
*[[Saumur]] Salmuro / Salmure, Salmore (old)
*[[Savoie]] Savoia
*[[Senlis]] Silvanetto (old)
*[[Sens]] Senone, Seno
*[[Sisteron]] Sisterone
*[[Soissons]] Soassone, Suassone / Soissone (old)
*[[Sologne]] Sologna
*[[Sombernon]] Sombernone
*[[Strasbourg]] Strasburgo / Argentina (old)
*[[Tarascon]] Tarascona
*[[Moûtiers|Tarentaise]] Tarantasia, [Tarentasia]
*[[Tarbes]] Tarba, Tarbe, Turba / Turbia (old)
*[[Territoire de Belfort]] Territorio di Belforte
*[[Therouanne]] Teruana, Tarvenna (old)
*[[Thierache]] Tiraccia
*[[Thouars]] Toarcio / Toarco (old)
*[[Tonnerre, Yonne|Tonnerre]] Tonnero / Tornodero [rare]
*[[Toul]] Tulo
*[[Toulon]] Tolone
*[[Toulouse]] Tolosa
*[[Touraine]] Turenna
*[[Tournon, Savoie|Tournon]] Tornone (old)
*[[Tours]] Turse, Turone / Torso
*[[Tox]] Tocchisi (old)
*[[Troyes]] Tresetto (old)
*[[Tulle]] Tulla / Tutela (old)
*[[Vaison-la-Romaine]] Vaisone
*[[Valence, Drôme|Valence]] Valenza nel Delfinato
*[[Valenciennes]] Valenziana, Valenzino / Valenziano (old)
*[[Valenciennois]] Valenzianese
*[[Valentinois]] Valentinese
*[[Crépy-en-Valois|Valois]] Valese
*[[Vannes]] Vanna / Venne (old)
*[[Varennes]] Varenne
*[[Vaucluse]] Valchiusa
*[[Velay]] Velesia
*[[Vence]] Venza
*[[Vendée]] Vendea or Vandea
*[[Vendôme]] Vendoma or Vandomino, Vendomo, Vendosmo (old) / Vindocino (rare)
*[[Mont Ventoux]] Monte Ventoso
*[[Verdèse]] Verdese (the Italian form being the original)
*[[Verdun]] Verduno or Veroduno / Verdunno (old)
*[[Vermandois]] Vermandua
*[[Vernon, Eure|Vernon]] Vernone
*[[Versailles (city)|Versailles]] Versaglia (old)
*[[Vervins]] Verbino / Vervino (old)
*[[Vesoul]] Vesula, Vesulo / Vesolo (old)
*[[Vienne]] Vienna del Delfinato (old)
*[[Vire]] Vira
*[[Vivarais]] Vivarese
*[[Viviers, Ardèche|Viviers]] Vivierse
*[[Wissant]] Guizzante (old)
*[[Yonne]] Jonna
*[[Yssingeaux]] Issengio (old)

====Municipalities in the former County of Nice====
All these names were officially used until 1861, because the [[County of Nice]] was part of the [[Kingdom of Sardinia]], an Italian State. In 1861 the County passed to France.

*[[Ascros]] Ascroso, Scroso
*[[Aspremont, Alpes-Maritimes|Aspremont]] Aspromonte di Nizza
*[[Auvare]] Auvara
*[[Bairols]] Bairolo
*[[Beaulieu-sur-Mer]] Belluogo
*[[Beausoleil, Alpes-Maritimes|Beausoleil]] Belsole
*[[Belvédère]] Belvedere
*[[Bendejun]] Bendigiuno, Bendegiuno
*[[Berre-les-Alpes]] Berra, Berre dell'Alpi, Bera
*[[Beuil]] Boglio, Boglio Montano
*[[Blausasc]] Bleusasco, Blausasco
*[[Bonson, Alpes-Maritimes|Bonson]] Bonsone, Bausone
*[[Breil-sur-Roya]] Breglio, Breglio sul Roia
*[[Cantaron]] Cantarone
*[[Cap-d'Ail]] Capodaglio, Capo d'Aglio, Capo d'Aggio
*[[Castagniers]] Castagnera, Castagneto
*[[Castellar, Alpes-Maritimes|Castellar]] Castellaro, Castellaro di Mentone
*[[Castillon, Alpes-Maritimes|Castillon]] Castiglione, Castiglione di Mentone
*[[Châteauneuf-d'Entraunes]] Castelnuovo d'Entraune, Castelnuovo d'Entrone
*[[Châteauneuf-Villevieille]] Castelnuovo-Villavecchia
*[[Clans]] Clanzo, Clanso, Clanzio
*[[Coaraze]] Coarazza, Coarasa
*[[Colomars]] Colombar del Varo, Colomarte, Colombare
*[[Contes, Alpes-Maritimes|Contes]] Conte, Conti
*[[Cuébris]] Cuebri, Cuebris, Quebris
*[[Daluis]] Dàlui, Daluigi
*[[Drap]] Drappo, Drapo
*[[Duranus]] Duranuzzo, Duranusso
*[[Entraunes]] Entraune, Entrone
*[[Èze]] Eza, Esa
*[[Falicon]] Falicone
*[[Fontan (village)|Fontan]] Fontano
*[[Gilette]] Giletta
*[[Gorbio]] Gorbio
*[[Guillaumes]] Guglielmi
*[[Ilonse]] Ilonza, Illonza
*[[Isola, Alpes-Maritimes|Isola]] Isola nel Mercantore, Isola delle Cascate
*[[La Bollène-Vésubie]] Bollena, Bolena
*[[La Brigue]] Briga Marittima, Briga
*[[La Croix-sur-Roudoule]] La Croce sul Rodola
*[[La Roquette-sur-Var]] Rocchetta del Varo
*[[L'Escarène]] Scarena
*[[Lantosque]] Lantosca
*[[La Penne]] La Penna
*[[La Trinité, Alpes-Maritimes|La Trinité]] Trinità, Trinità Vittoria, Trinità Vittorio
*[[La Tour, Alpes-Maritimes|La Tour]] La Torre
*[[La Turbie]] Turbia, La Turbia
*[[Levens]] Levenzo, Levenso
*[[Lieuche]] Lieucia, Liuchia, Leuca
*[[Lucéram]] Lucerame, Luceramo, Lucera Nizzarda
*[[Malaussène]] Malaussena, Magliassene
*[[Marie, Alpes-Maritimes|Marie]] Maria
*[[Massoins]] Massoino, Maissone, Massoine
*[[Moulinet, Alpes-Maritimes|Moulinet]] Molinetto
*[[Peille]] Peglia, Peglio di Nizza
*[[Peillon]] Peglione
*[[Péone]] Peona
*[[Pierlas]] Pierlasso, Pietralasso, Pietralassa, (Pierlazzo)
*[[Pierrefeu]] Pietrafuoco, Pietrafoco
*[[Puget-Rostang]] Poggetto Rostagno, Poggetto Rostagni
*[[Puget-Théniers]] Poggetto Tenieri, Poggetto sul Varo
*[[Revest-les-Roches]] Revesto
*[[Rigaud, Alpes-Maritimes|Rigaud]] Rigaudo, Rigaldo
*[[Rimplas]] Rimplasso, Reimplasso, Rimpiazzo d'Ilonza
*[[Roquebillière]] Roccabigliera
*[[Roquebrune-Cap-Martin]] Roccabruna sul Capo Martino
*[[Roquesteron]] Roccasterone
*[[Roubion]] Robione, Robbione
*[[Roure]] Rorà
*[[Saint-André-de-la-Roche]] Sant'Andrea di Nizza
*[[Saint-Antonin, Alpes-Maritimes|Saint-Antonin]] Sant'Antonino
*[[Saint-Blaise, Alpes-Maritimes|Saint-Blaise]] San Biagio di Nizza
*[[Saint-Dalmas-le-Selvage]] San Dalmazzo il Selvatico, San Dalmazzo Selvaggio
*[[Sainte-Agnès, Alpes-Maritimes|Sainte-Agnès]] Sant'Agnese
*[[Saint-Étienne-de-Tinée]] Santo Stefano di Tinea
*[[Saint-Jean-Cap-Ferrat]] San Giovanni Capoferrato
*[[Saint-Léger, Alpes-Maritimes|Saint-Léger]] San Laugerio, San Leggero
*[[Saint-Martin-d'Entraunes]] San Martino d'Entraune, San Martino d'Entrone
*[[Saint-Martin-du-Var]] San Martino del Varo
*[[Saint-Martin-Vésubie]] San Martino Lantosca, San Martino Vesubia
*[[Saint-Sauveur-sur-Tinée]] San Salvatore di Tinea
*[[Sauze]] Salice, Sause, Salici
*[[Saorge]] Saorgio
*[[Sigale]] Cigalla, Cigala, Sigalla
*[[Sospel]] Sospello
*[[Tende]] Tenda
*[[Thiéry, Alpes-Maritimes|Thiéry]] Tieri
*[[Toudon]] Todone
*[[Touët-de-l'Escarène]] Toetto-Scarena
*[[Touët-sur-Var]] Toetto di Boglio, Toetto sul Varo
*[[Tourette-du-Château]] La Torretta
*[[Tourrette-Levens]] Torretta Levenzo, Torrette Chiabaudi
*[[Tournefort, Alpes-Maritimes|Tournefort]] Tornaforte
*[[Utelle]] Utello, Utelle, Utella, Uteglia
*[[Valdeblore]] Valdiblora
*[[Venanson]] Venanzone, Venansone
*[[Villefranche-sur-Mer]] Villafranca, Villafranca Marittima, Villafranca sul mare
*[[Villeneuve-d'Entraunes]] Villanova d'Entraune, Villanuova d'Entrone
*[[Villars-sur-Var]] Villar del Varo, Villare del Varo

====The Italian Placenames in Arrondissement of Grasse - (part of Alpes-Maritimes Department)====

*[[Aiglun, Alpes-Maritimes|Aiglun]] Aigluno
*[[Amirat]] Ammirato
*[[Andon, Alpes-Maritimes|Andon]] Andone
*[[Antibes]] Antibo or Antipoli
*[[Auribeau-sur-Siagne]] Auribello
*[[Bézaudun-les-Alpes]] Besalduno
*[[Biot, Alpes-Maritimes|Biot]] Biotto
*[[Bouyon]] Boione
*[[Briançonnet]] Brianzonetto
*[[Cabris]] Cabri
*[[Cagnes-sur-Mer]] Cagna, Cagno Ligure
*[[Caille, Alpes-Maritimes|Caille]] Caglia
*[[Cannes]] Canna, Canne
*[[Carros]] Carrosio
*[[Caussols]] Caussole
*[[Châteauneuf-Grasse]] Castelnuovo di Grassa
*[[Cipières]] Cippiera
*[[Collongues, Alpes-Maritimes|Collongues]] Coalunga, Cologna
*[[Conségudes]] Consecuta
*[[Courmes]] Corma, Cormi
*[[Coursegoules]] Corsegola
*[[Escragnolles]] Scragnola
*[[Gars, Alpes-Maritimes|Gars]] Garzo
*[[Gattières]] Gattiera
*[[Gourdon, Alpes-Maritimes|Gourdon]] Gordone
*[[Grasse]] Grassa
*[[Gréolières]] Agrioleri, Grisolia
*[[La Colle-sur-Loup]] Colla, La Colla
*[[La Gaude]] La Gauda
*[[La Roque-en-Provence]] Rocca
*[[La Roquette-sur-Siagne]] Rocchetta sulla Ciagna
*[[Le Bar-sur-Loup]] Albarno
*[[Le Broc, Alpes-Maritimes|Le Broc]] Brocco or Brocca
*[[Le Cannet]] Canneto or il Caneto
*[[Le Mas]] Masio
*[[Le Rouret]] Roreto or Rovereto
*[[Le Tignet]] Tignetto
*[[Les Ferres]] Ferre, Ferri
*[[Les Mujouls]] Moggioli
*[[Mandelieu-la-Napoule]] Mandaloco-la Napola
*[[Mouans-Sartoux]] Murziani-Sarti
*[[Mougins]] Mugini
*[[Opio]] Oppia
*[[Pégomas]] Pegomasso
*[[Peymeinade]] Poggio Mainata
*[[Roquefort-les-Pins]] Roccaforte dei Pini
*[[Saint-Auban]] Sant'Albano sull'Esterone
*[[Saint-Cézaire-sur-Siagne]] San Cesario
*[[Saint-Jeannet, Alpes-Maritimes|Saint-Jeannet]] San Giannetto
*[[Saint-Laurent-du-Var]] San Lorenzo sul Varo
*[[Saint-Paul-de-Vence]] San Paolo di Venza
*[[Saint-Vallier-de-Thiey]] San Valerio
*[[Sallagriffon]] Salagrifone, Sallagriffone
*[[Séranon]] Seranone
*[[Spéracèdes]] Speiraceta
*[[Théoule-sur-Mer]] Teola, Teula, Tegola
*[[Tourrettes-sur-Loup]] Torretta di Venza
*[[Valbonne]] Valbona
*[[Valderoure]] Val di Rora, Valdirora
*[[Vallauris]] Vallauria, Valloria
*[[Vence]] Venza
*[[Villeneuve-Loubet]] Villanuova Lopetto

====Municipalities in the Historical Part of County of Nice -(in Alpes-de-Haute-Provence Department)====

*[[Annot]] Annotta, Annoto
*[[Aurent]] Aurenco
*[[Braux, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence|Braux]] Brauso
*[[Castellet-les-Sausses]] Castelletto Salza
*[[Castellet-Saint-Cassien]] Castelletto San Cassiano
*[[Entrevaux]] Entrovalli, Entrevàuso
*[[La Rochette, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence|la Rochette]] Rocchetta
*[[le Fugeret]] Felceto
*[[Méailles]] Meaglia
*[[Peyresq]] Peiresco
*[[Saint-Benoît, Alpes-de-Haute-Provence|Saint-Benoît]] San Benedetto
*[[Sausses]] Salza
*[[Ubraye]] Ubraia or Ubraja
*[[Val-de-Chalvagne]] Val di Chiavagna
*[[Villevieille]] Cittavecchia di Entrevàuso, Villavecchia

===Municipalities in Aosta Valley===

fr. Vallée d'Aoste - it. Valle d'Aosta:
[Italian names to 1861], /1924-1928/, (1939-1947)

Under [[Benito Mussolini|Mussolini]], a forced programme of [[Italianization]] was applied, including the translation of all toponyms into Italian. As the region gained [[Autonomous regions with special statute (Italy)|special autonomous status]] after the end of World War Two; the province of Aosta ceased to exist in 1945 and all the original French toponyms were reestablished as all the Italian ones were abolished, except from Aosta (co-official with the French ''Aoste'').

*[[Allein]] [...], /Agliene d'Aosta/, (Alleno, Alliano)
*[[Antey-Saint-André]] [Antei], /Antei/, (Antei Sant'Andrea)
*[[Aoste]]- Aosta
*[[Arnad]] [...], /Arnado/, (Arnado, Arnaz)
*[[Arvier]] [Arviere], /Arviere/, (Arviero, Arverio, Arvie)
*[[Avise]] [...], /.../, (Aviso, Avisia)
*[[Ayas, Aosta Valley|Ayas]] [...], /Ajas/, (Aias, Aiassa, Aiazzo)
*[[Aymavilles]] [Aimavilla], /Aimaville/, (Aimavilla, Aimavilia)
*[[Bard]] [Bardo], /Bardo d'Aosta/, (Bardo)
*[[Bionaz]] [Bionazzo], /Bionazzo/, (Biona)
*[[Brissogne]] [...], /.../, (Brissogno)
*[[Brusson, Aosta Valley|Brusson]] [...], /Bruzzone/, (Brussone)
*[[Challand-Saint-Anselme]] [...], /.../, (Villa Sant'Anselmo)
*[[Challand-Saint-Victor]] [...], /.../, (Villa San Vittorio, Villa San Vittore)
*[[Chambave]] [Ciambava], /Ciambava/, (Ciambave, Cambavia)
*[[Chamois]] [Ciamese], /Ciamese/, (Camoscio, Camosio)
*[[Champdepraz]] [...], /Campo di Prazzo/, (Campodiprati)
*[[Champorcher]] [Camporciero, Campo Porcaro], /.../, (Campo Laris)
*[[Charvensod]] [...], /.../, (Carvenso, Carvensolo, Campo Mussolini)
*[[Châtillon, Aosta Valley|Châtillon]] [Ciatiglione], /Castiglion Dora/, (Castiglione Dora)
*[[Cogne]] [...], /.../, (Cogno)
*[[Courmayeur]] [Cortemaggiore, Cormaggiore], /Cortemaggiore o Cormaggiore d'Aosta/, (Cormaiore)
*[[Donnas]] [Donnazzo], /Donna/, (Donnaz, Donas)
*[[Doues]] [Dove], /Dué/, (Dovia d'Aosta, Dovia di Aosta, Dovesia)
*[[Emarèse]] [...], /.../, (Emarese)
*[[Étroubles]] [Estroble], /Ettruglie/, (Etroble, Stipule)
*[[Fontainemore]] [...], /.../, (Fontanamora)
*[[Fénis]] [...], /.../, (Fenisso, Fenice)
*[[Gaby, Aosta Valley|Gaby]] [...], /.../, (Gabi, Gabbio)
*[[Gignod]] [Gignodo], /Gignodo/, (Gigno, Gignolo)
*[[Gressan]] [...], /Grecciano/, (Gressano)
*[[Gressoney-La-Trinité]] [Gressonei, /Gressonei/, (Gressonei La Trinità)
*[[Gressoney-Saint-Jean]] [Gressonei], /Gressonei/, (Gressonei San Giovanni)
*[[Hône]] [Ona], /One/, (Ono)
*[[Introd]] [Introdo], /Introdo/, (Introdo)
*[[Issime]] [...], /.../, (Issimo, Issime)
*[[Issogne]] [...], /.../, (Issogno)
*[[Jovençan]] [Giovenzano], /Giovinazzo d'Aosta/, (Giovencano, Giovenzano)
*[[La Magdeleine]] [...], /La Maddalena d'Aosta/, (La maddalena d'Aosta, Antei La Maddalena)
*[[La Salle, Aosta Valley|La Salle]] [...], /.../, (Sala Dora)
*[[La Thuile, Aosta Valley|La Thuile]] [La Tuila], /La Tegola/, (Porta Littoria, Tuillia)
*[[Lillianes]] [Lilliane], /Ligliano/, (Liliana, Lilliana)
*[[Montjovet]] [...], /Montegiove d'Aosta/, (Mongiove)
*[[Morgex]] [Morgezzo], /Morgesso/, (Valdigna d'Aosta)
*[[Nus]] [Nusso], /Nuzzo/, (Noce di Aosta)
*[[Ollomont]] [Olomonte], /.../, (Ollomonte)
*[[Oyace]] [Ojace], /.../, (Oiasse, Ojace)
*[[Perloz]] [...], /Perlo'/, (Perlozzo)
*[[Pollein]] [...], /Poglieno/, (Polleno, Pollano)
*[[Pont-Saint-Martin, Aosta Valley|Pont-Saint-Martin]] [...], /Ponte di San Martino/, (Ponte San Martino)
*[[Pontboset]] [...], /Ponte del Duca d'Aosta/, (Pianboseto, Ponboseto)
*[[Pontey]] [Pontei], /Pontei/, (Pontesano, Pontei)
*[[Pré-Saint-Didier]] [...], /Prezzo di Savoia/, (San Desiderio Terme, Prato San Desiderio)
*[[Quart]] [Quarto], /Quarto d'Aosta/, (Quarto Pretoria, Quarto Praetoria)
*[[Rhêmes-Notre-Dame]] [...], /Vittorio Nostra Signora/, (Nostra Signora di Rema, Val di Rema di Sotto, Madonna di Rema)
*[[Rhêmes-Saint-Georges]] [...], /Vittorio San Giorgio/, (San Giorgio di Rema, Val di Rema di Sopra)
*[[Roisan]] [...], /Rossano del Monte/, (Roisano, Rosano)
*[[Saint-Christophe, Aosta Valley|Saint-Christophe]] [...], /San Cristoforo Vittorio/, (San Cristoforo)
*[[Saint-Denis, Aosta Valley|Saint-Denis]] [...], /San Denizzo/, (San Dionigi)
*[[Saint-Marcel, Aosta Valley|Saint-Marcel]] [...], /San Marcello d'Aosta/, (San Marcello)
*[[Saint-Nicolas, Aosta Valley|Saint-Nicolas]] [...], /San Nicola d'Aosta/, (San Nicola)
*[[Saint-Oyen, Aosta Valley|Saint-Oyen]] [...], /Sant, Oglieno/, (Sant'Eugenio, Santo Eugendo, Sant'Ogendo)
*[[Saint-Pierre, Aosta Valley|Saint-Pierre]] [...], /San Pietro Latino/, (San Pietro, San Pietro e Paolo)
*[[Saint-Rhémy-en-Bosses|Saint-Rhémy]] [...], /.../, (San Remigio)
*[[Saint-Vincent, Aosta Valley|Saint-Vincent]] [...], /San Vincenzo/, (San Vincenzo della Fonte)
*[[Sarre, Aosta Valley|Sarre]] [...], /.../, (Sarra)
*[[Torgnon]] [...], /Torgnone/, (Torgnone, Tornione)
*[[Valgrisenche]] [Val Grisanza], /Valgrisenze/, (Valgrisenza)
*[[Valpelline, Aosta Valley|Valpelline]] [Valpellina], /Valpellina/, (Valpellina)
*[[Valsavarenche]] [...], /Val Savarance/, (Valsavara)
*[[Valtournenche]] [Val Tornenza], /Valturnezze/, (Valtornenza, Val Tornenza)
*[[Verrayes]] [...], /.../, (Verraio, Verraglie)
*[[Verrès]] [Verrezzo], /Castelverres/, (Castel Verres)
*[[Villeneuve, Aosta Valley|Villeneuve]] [...], /Villanova de' Monti/, (Villanova Baltea)

===Germany===
{{lang-it|Germania}}

*[[Aachen]] Aquisgrana
*[[Augsburg]] Augusta
*[[Bamberg]] Bamberga
*[[Bavaria|Bayern]] Baviera
*[[Berlin]] Berlino
*[[Bonn]] Bona
*[[Brandenburg (town)|Brandenburg an der Havel]] Brandeburgo
*[[Braunschweig]] Brunsvico
*[[Breisgau]] Brisgovia
*[[Bremen (city)|Bremen]] Brema
*[[Coburg]] Coburgo
*[[Dresden]] Dresda
*[[Frankfurt|Frankfurt am Main]] Francoforte sul Meno
*[[Frankfurt (Oder)]] Francoforte sull'Oder
*[[Freiburg|Freiburg im Breisgau]] Friburgo in Brisgovia
*[[Freising]] Frisinga
*[[Göttingen]] Gottinga
*[[Hamburg]] Amburgo
*[[Heidelberg]] Aidelberga, Eidelberga (both old fashioned)
*[[Koblenz]] Coblenza
*[[Cologne|Köln]] Colonia
*[[Konstanz]] Costanza
*[[Leipzig]] Lipsia
*[[Lower Saxony|Niedersachsen]] Bassa Sassonia
*[[Lübeck]] Lubecca
*[[Lüneburg]] Luneburgo
*[[Magdeburg]] Magdeburgo
*[[Mainz]] Magonza
*[[Mecklenburg]] Meclemburgo
*[[Meißen]] Misnia (rare)
*[[Munich|München]] Monaco (di Baviera)
*[[Nuremberg|Nürnberg]] Norimberga
*[[Oldenburg]] Oldemburgo
*[[Passau]] Passavia
*[[Regensburg]] Ratisbona
*[[Rhineland-Palatinate|Rheinland-Pfalz]] Renania-Palatinato
*[[Saxony|Sachsen]] Sassonia
*[[Black Forest|Schwarzwald]] Foresta Nera
*[[Speyer]] Spira
*[[Stuttgart]] Stoccarda
*[[Thuringia|Thüringen]] Turingia
*[[Trier]] Treviri
*[[Tübingen]] Tubinga
*[[Ulm]] Ulma
*[[Vorpommern]] Pomerania Anteriore
*[[Westphalia|Westfalen]] Vestfalia, Westfalia
*[[Worms, Germany|Worms]] Vormazia (old fashioned)
*[[Wittenberg]] Vittemberga, Wittemberga (old)

===Greece===
{{lang-it|Grecia}}
*[[Acheloos (municipality)|Acheloos]]: Aspropotamo, Acheloo
*[[Aigina]] Egina
*[[Alexandroupoli]] Alessandropoli
*[[Alfeios]]: fiume Alfeo
*[[Agios Efstratios]] Agiostrati
*[[Agion Oros]]: Monte Athos, Monte Santo (rare)
*[[Aitolia-Akarnania]] Etolia-Acarnania
*[[Aliakmon]]: fiume Aliacmone
*[[Alimnia]] Lìmona (old-fashioned)
*[[Alonissos]] Alonneso, Chilidromi
*[[Amfipoli]] Anfipoli
*[[Amorgos]] Amorgo
*[[Andros]] Andro
*[[Antikythera|Antikythira]] Cerigotto, Anticitera
*[[Antiparos]] Antiparo
*[[Astypalaia]] Stampalia, Astipalea
*[[Argolis]] Argolide
*[[Argos]] Argo
*[[Athens|Athina]] Atene
*[[Attiki]] Attica
*[[Chaironeia]] Cheronea, Coronea
*[[Chalki]] Calchi
*[[Chalcis|Chalkida]] Calcide or Negroponte (old)
*[[Chania]] la Canea
*[[Chios]] Chio, Scio
*[[Cithaeron]]: Citerone
*[[Delos]] Delo
*[[Dodecanese|Dodekannisa]] Dodecaneso, Docecanneso
*[[Mount Helicon|Elikonas]]: monte Elicona
*[[Epidaurus|Epidavros]] Epidauro
*[[Epirus|Ipiros]] Epiro
*[[Euboea]] Negroponte (old, historical) Eubea
*[[Maritsa|Evros]] river Ebro (old)
*[[Eurotas (river)|Evrotas]]: fiume Eurota
*[[Folegandros]] Policandro
*[[Heraklion|Iraklion]] Candia
*[[Igoumenitsa]] Gomenizza, Igumenizza
*[[Ilissos]]: fiume Ilisso
*[[Ioannina]] Giannina
*[[Ionian Islands|Ionia Nisia]] Isole Ionie
*[[Irakleia, Cyclades|Irakleia]] Iraclia
*[[Ithome|Ithomi]]: monte Itome
*[[Kalymnos]] Càlino, Calimno
*[[Karpathos]] Scarpanto
*[[Kassos]] Caso
*[[Kea (island)|Kea]] Ceo
*[[Kechries]] Cencrea
*[[Kefalonia]] Cefalonia
*[[Corfu|Kerkyra]] Corcira (in historical geography), Corfù (nowadays)
*[[Karpathos]] Scarpanto
*[[Cephissus (Boeotia)|Kifisos]]: Cefiso
*[[Corinth|Korinthos]] Corinto
*[[Kos]] Coo
*[[Crete|Kriti]] Creta
*[[Cyclades|Kyklades]] Cicladi
*[[Kythira]] Cerigo, Citera
*[[Kynthos]]: monte Cinto
*[[Lakonia]] Laconia
*[[Lefkada]] Santa Maura
*[[Lykavittos]]: monte Licabetto
*[[Kastelorizo|Megisti]] Castelrosso
*[[Mainalo]]: monte Menalo
*[[Marathon, Greece|Marathonas]] Maratona
*[[Megalopolis, Greece|Megalopolis]] Megalopoli
*[[Methoni, Messenia|Methoni]] Modone
*[[Mesolongi]] Missolungi
*[[Messinia]] Messenia
*[[Monemvasia]] Malvasia (old-fashioned)
*[[Mystras]] Mistrà
*[[Mykines, Greece|Mykines]] and [[Mycenae]] Micene
*[[Mykonos]] Mìcono (rare)
*[[Nafpaktos]] Lepanto
*[[Naxos]] Nasso
*[[Nisyros]]: Nisiro
*[[Mount Olympus|Olympos]]: monte Olimpo
*[[Orchomenus (Boeotia)|Orchomenos]] Orcomeno
*[[Pangaio]]: monte Pangeo
*[[Patmos]] Patmo
*[[Patras]] Patrasso
*[[Pelion|Pilio]]: monte Pelio
*[[Peloponnese|Peloponnisos]] Peloponneso or Morea (historical)
*[[Penteliko Mountain|Penteliko]]: monte Pentelico
*[[Pineios (Peloponnese)|Pineios]]: fiume Pineo
*[[Pindos]]: monte Pindo
*[[Pireus|Pireás]] il Pireo
*[[Pylos]] Navarino, Pilo (historical)
*[[Rhodes|Rodos]] Rodi
*[[Samothrace|Samothraki]] Samotracia
*[[Santorini|Thira]] Santorino, Santorini
*[[Serifos]] Serfanto, Serifo
*[[Skiathos]] Sciato
*[[Skiros]] Sciro
*[[Skopelos]] Scopelo
*[[Sparta|Sparti]] Sparta
*[[Struma (river)|Strymonas]]: fiume Strimone
*[[Taygetos]]: monte Taigeto
*[[Thasos]] Taso
*[[Thessaloniki]] Salonicco
*[[Thessaly|Thessalia]] Tessaglia
*[[Thebes, Greece|Thiva]] Tebe
*[[Thrace|Thraki]] Tracia
*[[Tilos]] Píscopi
*[[Tinos]] Tine
*[[Voiotia]] Beozia
*[[Hymettus|Ymettos]]: monte Imetto
*[[Zakynthos]] Zante/Zacinto

===Hungary===
{{lang-it|Ungheria}}

*[[Pest, Hungary|Pest (Budapest)]] Ezzelburgo (hist.)
*[[Esztergom]] Strigonio (hist.)
*[[Pécs]] Cinquechiese (hist.)
*[[Szeged]] Seghedino
*[[Székesfehérvár]] Albareale (hist.)

===Iceland===
{{lang-it|Islanda}}

===Ireland===
{{lang-it|Irlanda}}

*[[Dublin]]: Dublino

===Latvia===
{{lang-it|Lettonia}}

*[[Courland|Kurzeme]] Curlandia
*[[Latgale]] Latgallia
*[[Zemgale]] Semgallia

===Lithuania===
{{lang-it|Lituania}}

*[[Lithuania Minor|Mažoji Lietuva]] Lituania minore
*[[Suvalkija]] Sudovia
*[[Vilnius]] Vilna (old)
*[[Samogitia|Žemaitija]] Samogizia

===Malta===
''Italian was Malta's official language until 1934''.

*[[Birgu]]: Vittoriosa
*[[Birkirkara]]: Birchircara
*[[Birżebbuġa]]: Birzebbugia
*[[Cospicua|Bormla]]: Cospicua
*[[Dingli]]: Dingle (old)
*[[Fgura]]: Figura
*[[Filfla]]: Filfola
*[[Fontana (Malta)|Fontana]]: Fontana
*[[Għajnsielem]]: Gainsielem
*[[Għarb]]: Garbo
*[[Għargħur]]: Gargur
*[[Għasri]]: Gasri, Ghasri
*[[Għawdex]]: Gozo, Gozzo (ancient).
*[[Gżira]]: Gezira
*[[Gudja]]: Gudia
*[[Ħal Għaxaq]]: Asciac
*[[Iklin]]: L'Iclin
*[[Isla (Malta)|Isla]]: Senglea
*[[Kemmuna]]: Comino
*[[Kemmunett]]: Cominotto, Cominetto
*[[Kerċem]]: Chercem
*[[Kirkop]]: Chircop
*[[Lija]]: Lia
*[[Mtarfa]]: Marfa
*[[Marsaxlokk]]: Marsaslocca, Marsa Scirocco
*[[Mdina]]: Medina, Notabile (hist.)
*[[Mqabba]]: Micabba
*[[Msida]]: Misida
*[[Mġarr]]: Mugiarro
*[[Mosta]]: Musta
*[[Munxar]]: Monsciar
*[[Naxxar]]: Nasciaro
*[[Qala, Malta|Qala]]: La Cala
*[[Qrendi]]: Crendi
*[[Qormi]]: Curmi, Città Pinto (old)
*[[Raħal Ġdid]]: Paola
*[[Victoria, Malta|Rabat]]: Rabatto del Castello.
*[[Rabat, Malta|Rabat]]: Rabato della Notabile (old)
*[[San Ġiljan]]: San Giuliano
*[[Santa Luċija]]: Santa Lucia
*[[San Ġwann]]: San Giovanni
*San Lawrenz: San Lorenzo
*[[San Pawl il-Baħar]]: Baia di San Paolo
*[[Siġġiewi]]: Suggeui
*[[Tarxien]]: (Casal) Tarscen
*[[Valletta]]: La Valletta
*[[Wied il-Għajn]]: Marsascala
*[[Xagħra]]: Casal Caccia (old), Sciara
*[[Xewkija]]: Casal Xeuchia
*[[Xgħajra]]: Sciaira
*[[Żebbuġ, Malta|Żebbuġ]]: Casal Zebbugi
* [[Żebbuġ, Gozo|Żebbuġ]]: Casal Zebbugia
*[[Żejtun]]: Zeitun, Santa Caterina (old)
*[[Żurrieq]]: Zurrico

===Montenegro===
All these names were used by the Italian autochthonous population and by [[Venetian Republic]]
*[[Bar, Montenegro|Bar]] Antivari
*[[Bojana (river)|Bojana]]: fiume Boiana
*[[Boka Kotorska]]: Bocche di Cattaro
*[[Budva]] Budua
*[[Cetinje]] Cettigne
*[[Herceg Novi]] Castelnuovo
*[[Kotor]] Cattaro
*[[Perast]] Perasto
*[[Prčanj]] Perzagno
*[[Risan]] Risano
*[[Tivat]] Teodo
*[[Ulcinj]] Dulcigno

===Netherlands===
{{lang-it|Olanda / Paesi Bassi}}
*[[North Brabant|Brabant]] Brabante
*[[The Hague|Den Haag]] l'Aia
*[[Friesland]] Frisia
*[[Gelderland]] Gheldria
*[[Groningen (city)|Groningen]] Groninga
*[['s-Hertogenbosch]] Boscoducale (hist.)
*[[Holland]] Olanda
*[[Leiden]] Leida
*[[Limburg (Netherlands)|Limburg]] Limburgo
*[[Nijmegen]] Nimega
*[[Vlissingen]] Flessinga
*[[Zeeland]] Zelanda

===Poland===
{{lang-it|Polonia}}

*[[Gdańsk]] Danzica
*[[Kraków]] Cracovia
*[[Kujawy]] Cuiavia
*[[Lublin]] Lublino
*[[Mazowsze]] Masovia
*[[Mazury]] Masuria
*[[Podlasie]] Podlachia
*[[Podkarpacie]] Precarpazia
*[[Pomerania|Pomorze]] Pomerania
*[[Silesia|Śląsk]] Slesia
*[[Szczecin]] Stettino
*[[Tatry]] Monti Tatra
*[[Toruń]] Turonia (old)
*[[Wisła]] Vistola
*[[Warmia]] Varmia
*[[Warsaw|Warszawa]] Varsavia
*[[Wrocław]] Breslavia

===Portugal===
{{lang-it|Portogallo}}

*[[Azores|Açores]] Azzorre
*[[Bragança (Portugal)|Bragança]] Braganza
*[[Lisbon|Lisboa]] Lisbona
*[[Madeira]] Madera (old)
*[[Porto]] Oporto (old)
*[[Tagus|Tejo]] Tago

===Romania===
*[[Banat]] Banato
*[[Basarabia]] Bessarabia
*[[Bucharest|Bucureşti]] Bucarest
*[[Constanţa]] Costanza, Tomi (historical)
*[[Dobruja]] Dobrugia
*[[Oradea Mare]] Gran Varadino (old)
*[[Valahia]] Valacchia

===Russia===
*[[Adygea]] Adighezia
*[[Arkhangelsk]] Arcangelo
*[[Bashkortostan]] Baschiria
*[[White Sea|Beloe More]]: Mar Bianco
*[[Buryatiya]]: Buriazia
*[[Chechnya]] Cecenia
*[[Chuvashiya]]: Ciuvascia
*[[Commander Islands]] Isole del Commodoro
*[[Dagestan]] Daghestan
*[[Ingushetia]] Inguscezia
*[[Kabardino-Balkaria]] Cabardino-Balcaria
*[[Kalmykia]] Calmucchia
*[[Karachay-Cherkessia]] Karačaj-Circassia
*[[Karelia]] Carelia, Finno-Carelia
*[[Kuril Islands]] Isole Curili
*[[Moscow|Moskva]] Mosca
*[[Moskva River]] Moscova
*[[Novaya Zemlya]] Terra Nuova
*[[Ossetia]] Ossezia
*[[Rostov-na-Donu]]: Rostov sul Don
*[[Saint Petersburg|Sankt Peterburg]] (San) Pietroburgo, Leningrado, Pietrogrado
*[[Severnaya Zemlya]] Terra del Nord
*[[Siberia|Sibir]]: Siberia
*[[Tatarstan]] Tartaria
*[[Tolyatti]] Togliattigrad (hypercorrection common in the press)
*[[Ural Mountains]] Monti Urali

===Serbia===
{{lang-it|Serbia}}
*[[Belgrade|Beograd]] Belgrado
*[[Niš]] Naisso/Nissa (rare)

===Slovakia===
{{lang-it|Slovacchia}}

*[[Bratislava]] Presburgo (hist.)
*[[Košice]] Cassovia (old)

===Slovenia===
{{Expand list|date=August 2008}}

*[[Ajdovščina]] Aidussina
*[[Ajševica]] Aisevizza
*[[Anhovo]]: Anicova
*[[Ankaran]]: Ancarano
*[[Banjšice]] Bainsizza
*[[Batuje]]: Battuglia
*[[Bovec]] Plezzo
*[[Branik]] Rifenbergo
*[[Brda (Slovenia)|Brda]] Collio
*[[Breginj]]: Bregogna
*[[Brje, Ajdovščina|Brje]]: Bria dei Furlani
*[[Budanje]]: Budagne
*[[Celje]]: Cilli or Celeia
*[[Čepovan]]: Chiapovano
*[[Cerknica]] Circonio
*[[Cerkno]] Circhina
*[[Črniče]]: Cernizza Goriziana
*[[Črni Vrh, Idrija|Črni Vrh]]: Montenero d'Idria
*[[Čepovan]] Chiappovano
*[[Col, Ajdovščina|Col]]: Zolla
*[[Dekani]]: Villa Deccani
*[[Divača]] Divaccia
*[[Dobravlje, Ajdovščina|Dobravlje]]: Dobraule
*[[Dobrovo]]: Castel Dobra
*[[Dolga Poljana]]: Campolongo di Vipacco
*[[Dornberk]] Montespino
*[[Drežnica, Kobarid|Drežnica]]: Dresenza
*[[Fiesa, Slovenia|Fiesa]] Fiesso
*[[Gaberje, Ajdovščina|Gaberje]]: Gabria
*[[Gradišče nad Prvačino]] Gradiscutta
*[[Grgar]] Gargaro
*[[Hrpelje-Kozina]] Erpelle-Cosina
*[[Idrija]] Idria
*[[Ilirska Bistrica]] Villa del Nevoso
*[[Izola]] Isola d'Istria
*[[Jalovec (mountain)|Jalovec]]: Monte Gialuz
*[[Kal nad Kanalom]]: Cal di Canale
*[[Kamnje, Ajdovščina|Kamnje]]: Camigna
*[[Kanal ob Soči]] Canale d'Isonzo
*[[Kanjavec]]: Cima degli Agnelli
*[[Kobarid]] Caporetto
*[[Komen]] Comeno
*[[Carinthia (state)|Koroška]]: Carinzia
*[[Koseč]]: Cossis
*[[Koper]] Capodistria
**[[Babiči]]: Babici
**[[Bertoki]]: Bertocchi
**[[Bezovica, Koper|Bezovica]]: Besovizza
**[[Boršt, Koper|Boršt]] Boste
**[[Bošamarin]] Bossamarin
**[[Butari]]: Buttari
**[[Čentur]]: Centora
**[[Čežarji]] Cesari
**[[Fiesa, Portorož|Fiesa]] Fiesso
**[[Kampel, Koper|Kampel]] Campel, Campello
**[[Krkavče]] Carcase
**[[Krnica, Koper|Krnica]]: Carnizza
**[[Rakitovec, Koper|Rakitovec]]: Acquaviva dei Vena
**[[Tinjan, Koper|Tinjan]]: Antignano
*[[Kranj]]: Cragno
*[[Kranjska]]: Carniola
*[[Krn]] Monte Nero
*[[Kromberk]] Moncorona
*[[Libušnje]]: Libussina
*[[Lipica, Sežana|Lipica]] Lipizza
*[[Ljubljana]] Lubiana
*[[Logatec]] Longatico
*[[Lokavec, Ajdovščina|Lokavec]]: Locavizza
*[[Marezige]]: Maresego
*[[Maribor]] Marburgo (hist.)
*[[Matavun]]: San Canziano
*[[Miren]]: Merna
*[[Most na Soči]] Santa Lucia
*[[Nova Gorica]] Nuova Gorizia (rare)
*[[Novo Mesto]]: Nova Urbe
*[[Gorenji Novaki|Novaki]]: Novacchi
*[[Opatje Selo]]: Opachiasella
*[[Ozeljan]] Ossegliano
*[[Piran]] Pirano
*[[Pivka]] San Pietro del Carso
*[[Podnanos]]: San Vito di Vipacco
*[[Pomjan]]: Paugnano
*[[Porezen]]: Monte Porsena
*[[Portorož]] Portorose
*[[Postojna]] Postumia
*[[Ptuj]] Petovio (historic)
*[[Prekmurje]]: Oltremura
*[[Renče-Vogrsko|Renče]] Renzano
*[[Rižana]]: fiume Risano
*[[Sečovlje]]: Secciole
*[[Šempas]] San Basso
*[[Šempeter-Vrtojba]] San Pietro-Vertoiba
*[[Sežana]] Sesana
*[[Škabrijel]]: Monte San Gabriele
*[[Skrilje]]: Scrilla
*[[Šmartno, Brda|Šmartno]]: San Martino
*[[Snežnik]] Monte Nevoso
*[[Solkan]] Salcano
*[[Šmarje, Ajdovščina|Šmarje]]: Samaria
*[[Soča, Bovec|Soča]]: Sonzia
*[[Štajerska]]: Stiria
*[[Štanjel]]: Monte San Daniele
*[[Strunjan]] Strugnano
*[[Šturje]]: Sturie delle Fusine
*[[Temnica]]: Temenizza
*[[Tolmin]] Tolmino
*[[Triglav]] Tricorno
*[[Ustje]]: Ustie
*[[Velike Žablje]]: Sable grande
*[[Vipava Valley|Vipava]] Vipacco
*[[Vipavski Križ]]: Santa Croce di Aidussina
*[[Vrhnika]] Verconico or Nauporto
*[[Vrtovin]]: Vertovino

===Spain===
{{lang-it|Spagna}}

*[[Andalusia|Andalucía]] Andalusia
*[[Aragon|Aragón]] Aragona
*[[Asturias]] Asturie
*[[Barcelona]] Barcellona
*[[Catalonia|Catalunya]] Catalogna
*[[Cádiz]] Cadice
*[[Castile (historical region)|Castilla]] Castiglia
*[[Cerdanya]] Cerdagna
*[[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] Cordova
*[[Ibiza|Eivissa]] Ibiza, Iviza (old)
*[[Extremadura]] Estremadura
*[[Galicia (Spain)|Galicia]] Galizia
*[[Granada]] Granata (old)
*[[Balearic Islands|Illes Balears]] Isole Baleari
*[[Canary Islands|Islas Canarias]] Isole Canarie
*[[Majorca|Mallorca]] Maiorca
*[[Menorca]] Minorca
*[[País Vasco]]: Paesi Baschi
*[[Palma de Mallorca]] Palma di Maiorca
*[[Seville|Sevilla]] Siviglia
*[[Tagus|Tajo]] Tago
*[[Valencia, Spain|València]] Valenza (rare)
*[[Biscay|Vizcaya]] Biscaglia
*[[Zaragoza]] Saragozza

===Sweden===
{{lang-it|Svezia}}

*[[Gothenburg]]: Gotemburgo (old)
*[[Stockholm]]: Stoccolma

===Switzerland===
{{lang-it|Svizzera}}

''Italian is one of the four official languages in Switzerland''.

*[[Aargau]] Argovia
*[[Appenzell (town)|Appenzell]] Appenzello
*[[Appenzell Ausserrhoden]] Appenzello esterno
*[[Appenzell Innerrhoden]] Appenzello interno
*[[Basel]] Basilea
*[[Bern]] Berna
*[[Bever, Switzerland|Bever]] Bevero
*[[Biel/Bienne]] Bienna
*[[Brig, Switzerland|Brig]] Briga
*[[Casti-Wergenstein]] Castello Vergasteno
*[[Chur]] Coira
*[[Davos]] Tavate
*[[Engiadina]] Engadina
*[[Fribourg]] Friborgo, Friburgo
*[[Geneva|Genève]] Ginevra
*[[Glarus]] Glarona
*[[Göschenen]] Casinotta (old)
*[[Graubünden]] Grigioni
*[[Habsburg, Switzerland|Habsburg]] Asburgo
*[[Jura Mountains|Jura]] Giura
*[[La Punt-Chamues-ch]] Ponte-Campovasto
*[[Lausanne]] Losanna
*[[Lohn, Graubünden|Lohn]] Laone (old)
*[[Lucerne|Luzern]] Lucerna
*[[Madulain]] Madolene
*[[Matterhorn]] Cervino
*[[Maloja District|Maloja]] Maloja, Maloggia
*[[Nufenen]] Nufena
*[[Nufenenpass]] Passo della Novena
*[[Piz Palü]] Pizzo Palù
*[[Prättigau]] Prettigovia
*[[Rongellen]] Roncaglia (old)
*[[S-chanf]] Scanevo (old)
*[[St. Gallen|Sankt Gallen]] San Gallo
*[[St. Moritz]] San Maurizio (rare)
*[[Schaffhausen]] Sciaffusa
*[[Schwyz]] Svitto
*[[Simplon, Valais|Simplon]] Sempione
*[[Sils im Engadin]] Sils in Engadina
*[[Solothurn]] Soletta
*[[Splügen]] Spluga
*[[Thusis]] Tosanna (old)
*[[Thurgau]] Turgovia
*[[Unterwalden]], [[Nidwalden]] and [[Obwalden]] Untervaldo, Nidvaldo and Obvaldo (the three as a set also 'I cantoni boscosi')
*[[Valais]] Vallese
*[[Zernez]] Cernezzo
*[[Zug]] Zugo
*[[Zürich]] Zurigo
*[[Zwischbergen]] Gondo (historical)

===Turkey===
{{lang-it|Turchia}}
*[[Anatolia|Anadolu]] Anatolia
*[[Ankara]] Angora (hist.)
*[[Antakya]] Antiochia
*[[Antalya]] Adalia
*[[Bodrum]] Alicarnasso
*[[Bosphorus|Boğaziçi, İstanbul Boğazı]]: Bosforo
*[[Bursa]] Brussa, Prusa
*[[Büyük Menderes]]: fiume Meandro
*[[Dardanelles|Çanakkale Boğazı]]: Dardanelli, Stretto dei Dardanelli, Ellesponto (historical)
*[[Edirne]] Adrianopoli
*[[Gelibolu]] Gallipoli
*[[Iskenderun]] Alessandretta
*[[Istanbul]] Costantinopoli, Bisanzio (hist.), Stambul (old)
*[[İzmir]] Smirne
*[[İzmit]] Nicomedia
*[[Cappadocia|Kapadokya]] Cappadocia
*[[Kayseri]] Cesarea
*[[Karamenderes]]: fiume Scamandro (rare)
*[[Cilicia|Kilikya]] Cilicia
*[[Kocabaş]]: fiume Granico
*[[Köprüçay River|Köprüçay]]: fiume Eurimedonte
*[[Sea of Marmara|Marmara Denizi]]: Mar di Marmara
*[[Trabzon]] Trebisonda
*[[Troy|Troya/Truva]]: Troia, Ilio

===Ukraine===
{{lang-it|Ucraina}}
*[[Crimea|Krim]]: Crimea
*[[Lviv]]: Leopoli
*[[Odesa]]: Odessa
*[[Podolia|Podillja]]: Podolia
*[[Sevastopol']]: Sebastopoli
*[[Simferopol]]: Sinferopoli
*[[Volyn']]: Volinia

===United Kingdom===
{{lang-it|Regno Unito}}

*[[Channel Islands]] Isole del Canale; Isole Anglo-normanne
*[[Cornwall]] Cornovaglia
*[[Edinburgh]] Edimburgo
*[[England]] Inghilterra
*[[English Channel]] Canale della Manica
*[[Gibraltar]] Gibilterra
*[[Glasgow]] Glascovia
*[[Gloucester]] Glocester
*[[Grampian Mountains]] Monti Grampiani
*[[Hebrides]] Isole Ebridi
*[[Isle of Man]] Isola di Man
*[[Isle of Wight]] Isola di Wight
*[[London]] Londra
*[[Northern Ireland]] Irlanda del Nord
*[[Pennines]] Monti Pennini
*[[Newcastle upon Tyne|Newcastle]] Novocastro (rare)
*[[Orkney Islands]] Isole Orcadi
*[[Scilly Islands]] Isole Sorlinghe (rare)
*[[Scotland]] Scozia
*[[Thames]] Tamigi
*[[Wales]] Galles

==Middle East==
* [[Middle East]] Medio Oriente
* [[Euphrates]] Eufrate
* [[Jordan River]] Giordano
* [[Orontes River]] Oronte
* [[Tigris]] Tigri

===Israel===
{{lang-it|Israele}}

* [[Acre, Israel|Akko]] Acri
* [[Ashkelon]] Ascalona
* [[Capernaum|Kefar Nachum]] Cafarnao
* [[Galilee|Ha-Galil]] Galilea
* [[Jaffa|Yafo]] Giaffa
* [[Jerusalem|Yerushalayim]] Gerusalemme
* [[Judea]] Giudea
* [[Nazareth|Natzrat]] Nazaret
* [[Tiberias|Tverya]] Tiberiade

===Lebanon===
{{lang-it|Libano}}

*[[Litani River|Litani]] Leonte (rare)
*[[Sidon|Sayda]] Sidone
*[[Tyre, Lebanon|Sur]] Tiro
*[[Tripoli, Lebanon|Trabalus]] Tripoli, Tripoli del Libano

===Palestine===
{{lang-it|Palestina}}
*[[aḍ-Ḍiffä l-Ġarbīyä]] Cisgiordania
*[[Hebron|al-Khalīl]] Hebron
*[[Jericho|Ariha]] Gerico
*[[Betlehem|Bayt Laḥm]] Betlemme
*[[Gaza City|Ġazzah]] Gaza
*[[Gaza Strip|Qiṭāʿ Ġazzah]] Striscia di Gaza
*[[Nablus|Nābulus]] Nablus, Sichem (biblical)

===Other Middle Eastern===
* [[Basra|al-Baṣra]] Bàssora
* [[Medina|al-Madīna al-munawwara]] Medina
* [[al-Mawṣil]] Mossul, Mosul
* [[Azerbaijan]] Azerbaigian
* [[Damascus|Dimashq]] Damasco
* [[Kurdistan|Kurdistān]] Kurdistan, Curdistan
* [[Halab]] Aleppo
* [[Ḥijāz]] Hegiaz
* [[Jordan]] Giordania
* [[Jeddah]] Gedda
* [[Makka]] La Mecca
* [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]] Mascate
* [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] Palestina
* [[Saudi Arabia]] Arabia Saudita
* [[Socotra|Suquţra]] Socotra
* [[Syria]] Siria
* [[United Arab Emirates]] Emirati Arabi Uniti

==Africa==
* [[Addis Ababa|Āddīs Ābabā]] Addis Abeba
* [[Alexandria|Al Iskandariyya]] Alessandria d'Egitto
* [[Algiers|Al-Jaza'ir]] Algeri
* [[Cairo|al-Qāhira]] Il Cairo
* [[Suez|al-Suways]] Suez
* [[Amba Aradam]] Ambaradan
* [[Amhara Region|Amhara]] Amara
* [[Annaba]] Bona (old)
* [[Ascension Island]] Isola dell'Ascensione
* [[Asmera]] Asmara, l'Asmara (hist.)
* [[Aswan]] Assuan
* [[Berbera|Barbara]] Berbera
* [[Bizerte|Binzart]] Biserta
* [[Botswana]] Beciuania (rare)
* [[Benghazi|Bingazi]] Bengasi
* [[Burkina Faso]] Alto Volta (old)
* [[Cabo Verde]] Capo Verde
* [[Cape Guardafui]] Capo Guardafui
* [[Cape Town]] Città del Capo
* [[Cape of Good Hope]] Capo di Buona Speranza
* [[Casablanca|Dar-el-Beyda]] Casablanca
* [[Côte d'Ivoire]] Costa d'Avorio
* [[Derna, Libya|Derna]] Derna
* [[Dessie]] Dessiè
* [[Djerba]] Gerba
* [[Djibouti]] Gibuti
* [[Dumyat]] Damietta
* [[Egypt]] Egitto
* [[Ertra]] Eritrea
* [[Ethiopia]] Etiopia, Abissinia (hist.)
* [[Ethiopian Highlands]] Acrocoro Etiopico
* [[Fez, Morocco|Fez]] Fes
* [[Gaalkacyo]] Gallacaio
* [[Guinea Ecuatorial]] Guinea Equatoriale
* [[Guinée]] Guinea
* [[Gulf of Sidra]] Golfo della Sirte/di Sidra
* [[Halq al Wadi]] La Goletta
* [[Atlas Mountains|Idurar n Watlas]] Atlante
* [[Jaghbub, Libya|Jaghbub]] Giarabub
* [[Juba]] Giuba
* [[Jubaland]] Oltre Giuba
* [[Jubba]] Giuba
* [[Kassala]] Cassala
* [[Kenya]] Chenia (rare)
* [[Kismayo]] Chisimaio
* [[Komori]] Comore
* [[Lake Victoria|Nam Lolwe]] Lago Vittoria
* [[Libya]] Libia
* [[Merca|Marka]] Merca
* [[Mek'ele]] Macallè
* [[Misrata]] Misurata
* [[Mitsiwa]] Massaua
* [[Mogadishu]] Mogadiscio
* [[Morocco]] Marocco
* [[Black Volta|Mouhoun]] Volta Nero
* [[Mozambique]] Mozambico
* [[Nakambe]] Volta Bianco
* [[Nazinon]] Volta Rosso
* [[Nafusa Mountains]] Gebel Nefusa
* [[Nile]] Nilo
* [[Port Said|Bur Sa'id]] Porto Said
* [[Puntland]] Migiurtinia (historic)
* [[Constantine, Algeria|Qusanṭīnah]] Costantina
* [[la Réunion]] Riunione
* [[Saint Helena]] Sant'Elena
* [[Sfax|Safaqus]] Sfax
* [[Seychelles]] Seicelle
* [[Shewa]] Scioa
* [[Soomaaliya]] Somalia
* [[South Africa]] Sudafrica
* [[Sirte|Surt]] Sirte
* [[Tangier|Tanjah]] Tangeri
* [[Tripoli|Tarabulus]] Tripoli
* [[Tigray Region|Tigray]] Tigrè
* [[Tchad]] Ciad
* [[Tubruq|Ţubruq]] Tobruk, Tobruch
* [[Tunis]] Tunisi
* [[Wahran]] Orano
* [[Wollo]] Uollo

===Ethiopia===

*[[Abba Kella]] Abba Chella
*[[Abergele]] Avergallè
*[[Abiy Adi]] Abbi Addi
*[[Adami Tulli]] Adami Tullo
*[[Adi Ar Kay]] Addi Arcai
*[[Adigala]] Addagolla
*[[Adigrat]] Adigrat
*[[Adis Alem]] Addis Alem
*[[Adwa]] Adua
*[[Agaro]] Aggarò
*[[Agere Maryam]] Aghere Mariam, Alghe, Alga
*[[Agula]] Agulà
*[[Akaki Beseka]] Acachi
*[[Aksum]] Axum
*[[Aleta Wondo (Wendo)]] Uando
*[[Amba Giyorgis]] Amba Georgis
*[[Ankober]] Ancober
*[[Ara Bure]] Ara Buri
*[[Arba Minch]] Arba Minghi
*[[Arjo]] Argio
*[[Asayita]] Asaita
*[[Chiro (town)|Asebe Teferi]] Asba Littoria
*[[Asella]] Asellè
*[[Asosa]] Asosà
*[[Awasa]] Auasa
*[[Awash, Ethiopia|Awash]] Auasc
*[[Badatino]] Batatino, Batatin
*[[Bahir Dar]] Bahr Dar Ghiorghis
*[[Bambesi]] Bombasci
*[[Bati, Ethiopia|Bati]] Batie
*[[Belfodiyo]] Belfodio
*[[Bichena]] Biccenà
*[[Birkuta]] Bircutan
*[[Biye Kobe]] Bio Caboba
*[[Bonga]] Caffa
*[[Bure, Africa|Bure]] Burei
*[[Ch'ando]] Ciando
*[[Chelenkko]] Cialanco
*[[Chenna]] Cianna
*[[Chichela]] Giocatà
*[[Dangila]] Danghila
*[[Debarq|Debark]] Debarech
*[[Debre Birhan]] Debra Brehan
*[[Debre Markos]] Debra Marcos
*[[Debre Sina, Ethiopia|Debre Sina]] Debra Sina
*[[Debre Tabor]] Debra Tabor
*[[Debre Werk]] Debra Uorc
*[[Debre Zeyit, Debre Zeit, / oromo: Bishoftu / Bushooftu]] Debra Zeit / Biscioftu
*[[Dejen]] Degen
*[[Dembecha]] Dembeccià
*[[Dembi Dolo, Dembidolo (Sayo)]] Dembi Dollo, Saio
*[[Dessie|Dese]] Dessiè
*[[Dire Dawa]] Diredaua, [Dirdabò]
*[[Dunkur]] Duncur
*[[Fiche]] Ficcè
*[[Finarwa]] Fenaroa
*[[Gambela, Ethiopia|Gambela]] Gambela, [(Porto)/(Villaggio)]
*[[Gedo]] Ghiedo
*[[Gendawa]] Ghendaua, Ghendaui
*[[Genet, Ethiopia|Genet]] Nanagoscia
*[[Gidami]] Ghidami
*[[Gimbi]] Ghimbi
*[[Ginir]] Ghigner
*[[Giyon, Waliso]] Ghion, Gion, Uolisò
*[[Goba]] Goba
*[[Gode, (Melka Teko)]] Malca Dube
*[[Godibedjei]] Cambilgè
*[[Goha Tsiyon]] Guatior
*[[Gonder]] Gondar
*[[Gore, Ethiopia|Gore]] Gore, [Ghenud]
*[[Goscia]] Gocciò
*[[Guba (woreda)|Guba]] Gubba
*[[Habru Woreda]] Gherado
*[[Harar, Harer]] Harrar
*[[Harewa]] Harraua
*[[Horn of Africa]] Corno d'Africa
*[[Hosaina]] Hosseinà
*[[Idga Hamus]] Edagà Hamus
*[[Iggia Kierransa]] Iggia Chierransa
*[[Imbabo]] Imbabò, (Gara Cacarba)
*[[Imi]] Imi
*[[Injibara]] Engiabara, Ingiabara
*Jarso Giarso
*[[Jeldesa]] Gildessa
*[[Jiga, Ethiopia|Jiga]] Gigga
*[[Jijiga]] Giggiga
*[[Jimma|Jima]] Gimma
*[[Jubaland]] Oltregiuba
*[[Kachisi]] Caccisì
*[[Kebri Dehar]] Gabredarre
*[[Keftiya]] Cafta
*[[Kembolcha, (Kobo)]] Cobbò
*[[Kibre Mengist]] Adola, Angedi
*Kirin Chirin
*[[Kobbo]] Cobbò
*[[Kobecha]] Cobaccia
*[[Koko, Ethiopia|Koko]] Coco
*[[K'orahe]] Gorrahei
*[[Korbeta]] Corbetà
*[[Korem]] Quoram
*[[Kosa]] Cossa
*[[Kulito]] Coluto
*[[Kurmuk]] Curmuc
*[[Kwiha]] Quiha
*[[Lalibela]] Lalibelà
*[[Mahdere Maryam]] Mahadera Mariam
*[[Maychew]] Mai Ceu
*[[Massawa]] Massaua
*[[Medebay]] Medebai
*[[Megalo]] Magalo
*[[Mekane Selame]] (Uoghiddi)
*[[Mekele]] Macallè
*[[Melka Jilo]] Malca Gilo
*[[Mertule Mariam]] Martula Mariam
*[[Metema]] Gallabat
*[[Mieso]] Miesso
*[[Mojo, Ethiopia|Mojo]] Moggio
*[[Moyale]] Moiale
*[[Nefas Meewcha]] Nefas Mocià
*Negele Neghelli
*[[Nejo]] Neggio
*[[Nekemte]] Lecamti, Lechemti, Lechenti
*[[Nogara]] Noggara
*[[Saka]] Saca
*Samre Sanrè
*[[Sekota]] Socota
*[[Selekleka]] Selaciaco
*[[Semara]] Sangherra
*[[Sembo]] Sombò
*[[Serdo]] Sardo
*[[Shashemene]] Sciasciamanna
*[[Shebe]] Sciabe
*[[Shehet]] Sechet
*[[Shek Husen]] Scech Hussein
*[[Sheki, Ethiopia|Sheki]] Scechi
*[[Sheno]] Sciano
*[[Sherada]] Sciaradda
*[[Shewa Gimira]] Scioa Ghimira, Sceui Ghimira, Ghimirra
*[[Sodo]] Soddo, Soddu
*Teda Tadda
*[[Tefki]] Tefchi
*[[Wacha]] Uaccia, Uaca
*[[Wagna]] Uacnè, Uacnia
*Web Anna Guia, Ueb
*[[Welkite]] Nonno
*[[Were Ilu]] Uorra Hailù
*[[Woldiya, Weldiya]] Uoldia, Ualdia
*[[Wota, Wolta]] Uota
*[[Wuchale]] Uccialli
*[[Wukro]] Ougerat
*[[Yirga Alem]] Irgalem
*[[Yubdo]] Iubdo
*[[Ziway]] Zuai

===Libya===

*[[Ajdabiya]] Agedabia
*[[Al Abraq, Libya|Al Abraq]] (Luigi di Savoia)
*[[Al 'Aziziyah]] El-Azizia
*[[Bayda, Libya|Al Bayda]] Beida, (Beda Littoria)
*[[Al Faqaha]] Fógaha
*[[Al Marj]] Barca / Barce
*[[Al Maya]] Lemaia
*[[Al Mikhili]] Mechilì
*[[Al Khums]] Homs
*[[Al-Nasiriyya]] el-Nasiria, (Giordani)
*[[Al Quawarishah]] Guarscia
*[[Al Jaghbub]] Giarabub
*[[Al Jawf, Libya|Al Jawf]] el-Giof
*[[Al Uqaylah]] Aghéila
*[[Al Wahat]] el-Uahat
*[[Al Zahra]] el-Zahra, (Bianchi)
*[[An Nawfaliyah]] en-Nofalia
*[[An Nawwaqiyah]] Nauaghia
*[[Ash Shu 'bah]] Esc-Sciáaba
*[[Ash Shurayf]] esc-Sciuàraf
*[[As Sultan]] As Sultán
*[[Awbari]] Ubari
*[[Awjilah, Libya|Awjilah]] Áugìla
*[[Az Zawiyah]] Zauia, Zavia
*[[Banghazi]] Bengasi
*[[Bani Walid]] Beni Ulid
*[[Bardiyah]] Bardia
*[[Bin Ghashir]] Fòndugh Ben Gascir, (Castel Benito)
*[[Bin Jawad]] Ben Giauad
*[[Bu al Ashhar]] Belascehar
*[[Bu Nujaym]] Bu Ngem
*[[Derna, Libya|Darnah]] Derna
*[[Farzughah]] Farzuga, (Baracca)
*[[Gasr Garabulli]] Casr Garabulli, (Castelverde)
*[[Ghadamis]] Gadames
*[[Gharyan]] Garian
*[[Ghat]] Gat
*[[Jadda'im]] Geddaim, (Oliveti)
*[[Jadu, Libya|Jadu]] Giado
*[[Jalu]] Giálo
*[[Jarafa]] Gefara
*[[Jufra]] Giofra
*[[Kambut]] Gasr Cambút
*[[Kufra]] Cufra
*[[Maradah]] Maráda
*[[Marawa, Libya|Marawah]] Maraua
*[[Marsa Susa]] Apollonia
*[[Mashashita]] Masciascita
*[[Massah]] Massa, (Luigi Razza)
*[[Misratah]] Misurata
*[[Mizdah]] Mizda
*[[Murzuq]] Murzuch
*[[Qaminis]] Ghemínes
*[[Quarqarish]] Gargáresc
*[[Ras al'Uwayjia]] Ras el-Augia
*[[Sabha, Libya|Sabha]] Sebha, Sabha
*[[Sawknah]] Socna
*[[Shahhat]] Cirene
*[[Sinawin]] Sinauen
*[[Sirte|Surt]] Sirte
*[[Tabaqah, Libya|Tabaqah]] Tobga
*[[Tripoli|Tarabulus]] Tripoli
*[[Tarhunah]] Tarhuna
*[[Tazirbu]] Tazerbo, Taiserbo
*[[Tolmeithah]] Tolmetta, Tolmeta, Tolemaide
*[[Tubruq]] Tobruch, Tobruk
*[[Waddan, Libya|Waddan]] Uaddan, Ueddan
*[[Wadi al Hayaa]] Uadi el-Agial
*[[Wadi al Shatii]] Uadi esc-Sciati
*[[Wazzin]] Uazzen
*[[Yafran]] Iefren
*[[Zella, Libya|Zillah]] Zella
*[[Zliten]] Zliten
*[[Zuwarah]] Zuára

==Asia==
* [[Apkhazeti]] Abcasia
* [[Beijing]] Pechino
* [[Bengal]] Bengala
* [[Cambodia]] Cambogia
* [[Caspian Sea]] Mar Caspio
* [[China]] Cina
* [[Dhaka]] Dacca
* [[Dzungaria]] Zungaria
* [[Ganges]] Gange
* [[Guangzhou]] Canton
* [[Hayastan]] Armenia
* [[Japan]] Giappone
* [[Java]] Giava
* [[Kalimantan]] Borneo
* [[Kampuchea]] Cambogia
* [[Sunda Islands]] Isole della Sonda
* [[Korea]] Corea
* [[Kuril Islands]] Isole Curili
* [[Kyrgyzstan]] Kirghizistan, Chirghisia (old)
* [[Malaysia]] Malesia
* [[Manchuria]] Manciuria
* [[Maluku Islands|Maluku]] Molucche
* [[Mariana Trench]] Fossa delle Marianne
* [[Mongol uls]] Mongolia
* [[Myanmar]] Birmania, Myanmar
* [[Nanjing]] Nanchino
* [[Inner Mongolia|Öbür mongγol]] Mongolia Interna
* [[Philippines]] (Le) Filippine
* [[Qazaqstan]] Kazakistan, Cosacchia (old)
* [[Sakartvelo]] Georgia
* [[Seoul]] Seul
* [[Shanghai]] Sciangai (old)
* [[Sindhu]] Indo
* [[Sulawesi]] Celebes
* [[Tajikistan|Todzhikiston]] Tagikistan
* [[Thailand]] Thailandia, Tailandia (rare)
* [[Timor Leste]] Timor Est
* [[Tokyo]] Tokio (rare), Tokyo
* [[Tonkin]] Tonchino
* [[Yangtze River]] Fiume Azzurro
* [[Yellow River]] Fiume Giallo

==North America==

=Geographic Features Shared By Various Countries=

* [[Gulf of Mexico]] Golfo del Messico
* [[Lake Superior]] Lago Superiore
* [[Saint Lawrence River]] Fiume San Lorenzo

=Greenland=
* [[Greenland]] Groenlandia

=Canada=
* [[British Columbia]] Columbia Britannica
* [[Great Slave Lake]] Grande Lago degli Schiavi
* [[Great Bear Lake]] Grande Lago degli Orsi
* [[Lesser Slave Lake]] Piccolo Lago degli Schiavi
* [[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]] Terranova
* [[Northwest Territories]] Territori del Nord-Ovest
* [[Nova Scotia]] Nuova Scozia
* [[Reindeer Lake]] Lago delle Renne

=USA=

*[[Aleutian Islands]], Alaska: Isole Aleutine
*[[Baltimore]], Maryland: Baltimora
*[[Death Valley]], California Valle della Morte
*[[Great Plains]] le Grandi Pianure
*[[Great Salt Lake]], Utah: Grande Lago Salato
* [[New England]] Nuova Inghilterra (rare)
* [[New Mexico]] Nuovo Messico
* [[New York (state)|New York]] Nuova York (rare)
* [[North Carolina]] Carolina del Nord
* [[North Dakota]] Nord Dakota, Dakota del Nord
* [[Platte River]] Rio della Plata
* [[Rocky Mountains]] Montagne Rocciose
* [[Philadelphia]] Filadelfia
*[[Pennsylvania]] Pènnsylvànìa
* [[South Carolina]] Carolina del Sud
* [[South Dakota]] Sud Dakota, Dakota del Sud
* [[West Virginia]] Virginia Occidentale

=Mexico=
* [[Mexico]] Messico

=Central America and the Caribbean=

* [[Antilles]] Antille
* [[Caribbean]] Caraibi
* [[Dominican Republic]] Repubblica Dominicana
* [[Greater Antilles]] Grandi Antille
* [[Jamaica]] Giamaica
* [[Lesser Antilles]] Piccole Antille
* [[Leeward Islands]] Isole Sopravento settentrionali
* [[Leeward Antilles]] Isole Sottovento
* [[Nederlandse Antillen]] Antille Olandesi
* [[Saint Lucia]] Santa Lucia
* [[Windward Islands]] Isole Sopravento meridionali
* [[Virgin Islands]] Isole Vergini

==South America==

=Geographic Features Shared By Various Countries=

*[[Amazon River]] Rio delle Amazzoni
* [[Andes]] Ande

=Brazil=
* [[Brazil]] Brasile

=Hispanophonic South America=

* [[Chile]] Cile
* [[Perú]] Perù

==Antarctica==
{{lang-it|Antartide}}
* [[Antarctic Peninsula]] Penisola Antartica

==Oceania==
*[[Christmas Island]] Isola di Natale
*[[Fiji]] Figi
*[[Great Barrier Reef]] Grande Barriera Corallina
*[[Mariana Islands]] Isole Marianne
*[[Mariana Trench]] Fossa delle Marianne
*[[New South Wales]] Nuovo Galles del Sud
*[[New Zealand]] Nuova Zelanda
*[[Northern Territory]] Territorio del Nord
*[[Nouvelle Calédonie]] Nuova Caledonia
*[[Papua New Guinea]] Papua Nuova Guinea, Papuasia (old)
*[[Solomon Islands]] Isole Salomone

==See also==
* [[List of European exonyms]]
* [[List of English exonyms for Italian toponyms]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Italian Exonyms}}
[[Category:Italian exonyms| ]]
[[Category:Italian language|Exonym]]
[[Category:Lists of exonyms]]

Principality of Lower Pannonia

2019-01-30T18:49:13Z

Ciaurlec: /* Geography */ format edit

{{multiple issues|
{{Disputed|date=July 2012}}
{{Original research|date=July 2012}}
}}
{{distinguish|Lower Pannonia (9th century)}}
{{other uses|Lower Pannonia (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name =
|conventional_long_name = Balaton Principality
|common_name = Balaton Principality
|country =
|era = Middle Ages
|status =
|nation =
|year_start = 846
|year_end = 875
|date_start =
|date_end =
|event_start =
|event_end =
|currency =
|
|
|p1 = Avar Khaganate
|image_p1 = [[File:Coats of arms of None.svg|x25px|link=Avar Khaganate]]
|s1 = Principality of Hungary
|image_s1 = [[File:Flag of Hungary (895-1000).svg|25px|link=Principality of Hungary]]
|
|image_flag =
|image_coat =
|image_map = Count Kocel's territories.PNG
|image_map_caption = Realm under Koceľ
|common_languages =
|capital = [[Zalavár|Mosapurc (Zalavár)]]
|national_anthem =
|religion={{plainlist|
* [[Historical Slavic religion|Slavic paganism]]
* [[Christianization of the Slavs|Slavic Christianity]]}}
|government_type = [[Principality]]
|leader1 =
|year_leader1 =
|leader2 =
|year_leader2 =
|leader3 =
|year_leader3 =
|leader4 =
|year_leader4 =
|leader5 =
|year_leader5 =
|title_leader =
|title_deputy =
|deputy1 =
|year_deputy1 =
|deputy2 =
|year_deputy2 =
|stat_year1 =
|stat_area1 =
|stat_pop1 =
|footnotes = }}

The '''Balaton Principality''' ({{lang-sk|Blatenské kniežatstvo}}, {{lang-sl|Blatenska kneževina}}) or '''Principality of Lower Pannonia''', was a Slavic principality, vassal to the [[Frankish Empire]],{{sfn|Bartl|2002|pp=19–20}} or according to others<ref>{{cite book|last=Szőke|first=Béla Miklós|editor=Henning, Joachim|title=New findings of the excavations in Mosaburg|work=Post-Roman Towns, Trade and Settlement in Europe and Byzantium: The heirs of the Roman West|url=http://www.mgh-bibliothek.de/dokumente/a/a150503+0001.pdf|year=2007|publisher=Walter de Gruyter|isbn=978-3-11-018356-6|p=435}}</ref> a ''[[Comes|comitatus]]'' (county) of the Frankish Empire, led initially by a ''[[dux]]'' ([[Pribina]]) and later by a [[comes]] ([[Kocel|Pribina's son, Kocel]]). It was one of the early Slavic polities (Kocel's title was "''Comes de Sclauis''" - Count of the Slavs){{sfn|Luthar|2008|p=105}} and was situated mostly in [[Transdanubia]] region of modern Hungary, but also included parts of modern Slovenia, Croatia, Serbia and Austria.

At the beginning of the 9th century, many [[Carantanians]] were moved as settlers in Balaton Principality/Lower Pannonia, which was referred in Latin sources as Carantanorum regio or "The Land of the Carantanians". [[Carantanians]]/Alpine Slavs were the ancestors of present-day [[Slovenians]]. The name Carantanians (Quarantani) was in use until the 13th century.

==Background==
The Slavic settlement of [[Pannonia]] started in the late 5th century after the fall of the [[Hun]]nic tribal union.{{citation needed|date= July 2012}} In the late 6th century the Slavs in the territory became subjects of the [[Pannonian Avars|Avar]] tribal union ([[Avar Khaganate]]).{{citation needed|date= July 2012}} Trouble by internal conflicts as well as external attacks by the [[Frankish Empire]] (led by [[Charles the Great]]) and the [[Bulgarian Khanate]] (led by Khan [[Krum]]), the Avar polity collapsed by the early 9th century. Initially, Lower Pannonia lay between the Drava, Danube and Sava rivers, whilst Upper Pannonia lay north of the Drava river. Collectively, the southeastern Slavic marches of the Carolingian empire were called the Eastland (''Plaga Orientalis''). During the first two decades of the ninth century, Lower Pannonia was ruled by Slavic Prince [[Ljudevit Posavski]], a Frankish vassal. After his rebellion, Louis removed the lands from the Friulian Duke and placed them under his son's (Louis the German) Bavarian sub-kingdom and the river Raab became the new border between Upper and [[Central Pannonia]], with the core and the name of Lower Pannonia moving north of the river Drava.{{fact|date=October 2017}} The turmoils did not end, as in 827, the Bulgarians invaded much of Lower Pannonia, but were then pushed back by Louis the German the following year.

==History==
{{Unreferenced section|date=November 2010}} [[File:Balaton principality.png|thumb|Principality during Prince Pribina's reign, around 846 AD]]
In the course of the creation of [[Great Moravia]] in 833 to the north of the Danube, [[Pribina]], until then the [[Principality of Nitra|Prince of Nitra]], was expelled from his country by [[Mojmír I]] of Moravia. After several adventures, he was eventually given the Frankish lands in Lower Pannonia in 846, where he founded a principality. This was a calculated move on the part of [[Louis the German]], who aimed to curtail the power of his prefect, [[Radbod (prefect)|Ratbod]], as well as gain an ally (and buffer) against the potential threats of Great Moravia and Bulgaria. Pribina's capital was [[Blatnograd]] (Mosapurc), a city built at the [[Zala River|Zala]] river near [[Keszthely]], between the small and large [[Lake Balaton|Balaton lakes]] (Blatno in Slavic, meaning "muddy [lake]"). He greatly fortified this city, and surrounded by swamps and dense forests, it lay in a strategically powerful position. Pribina was Louis the German's ''dux''. His state grew powerful and Pribina ruled for two decades. His state contained a retinue of followers, including Carantanians, Franks and even Slavicized Avars. Pribina allowed the Archbishop of Salzburg to consecrate churches in the area.

After an attack by [[Carloman, son of Charles the Bald|Carloman]] during his rebellion against Louis the German, Pribina's son, Kocel, fled to the court of Louis. He was soon re-instated in his father's lands. In the summer of 867, Kocel provided short-term hospitality to brothers [[Cyril and Methodius]] on their way from [[Great Moravia]] to the pope in Rome to justify the use of the [[Slavic language]] as a liturgical language. They and their disciples turned Blatnograd into one of the centers that spread the knowledge of the new Slavonic script ([[Glagolitic alphabet]]) and literature, educating numerous future missionaries in their native language.

Although a Frankish vassal, it later started resisting the influence of German feudal lords and clergy, trying to organize an independent Slavic archdiocese.{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}{{dubious|date=July 2012}} Eventually, after Kocel's death in 876, Lower Pannonia was again made a direct part of the [[East Francia]], ruled by [[Arnulf of Carinthia]]. During the succession strife in East Francia, in 884, the area was conquered by Great Moravia in ca. 894. After a few years of peace, Arnulf renewed his wars with Moravia, and recaptured Lower Pannonia. After he claimed the Imperial crown in 896, Arnulf gave Lower Pannonia to another Slavic duke, [[Braslav of Pannonia|Braslav]], ruler of [[Duchy of Pannonian Croatia|Pannonian Croatia]], as a fiefdom.{{fact|date=October 2017}} Soon afterwards, in 901 it was conquered by the [[Magyars|Magyars (Hungarians)]], who became the new ruling core, but retained many elements of Slavic political organization.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} The territory became part of the arising [[Principality of Hungary|Hungarian state]].

==Geography==
Pribina's authority stretched from the [[Rába]] river to the north, to [[Pécs]] to the southeast, and to [[Ptuj]] to the West.{{sfn|Luthar|2008|p=105}} Temporary, it also included territory in the east of the Danube<ref name="Dragan Brujić 2005">Dragan Brujić, Vodič kroz svet Vizantije - od Konstantina do pada Carigrada, drugo izdanje, Beograd, 2005.</ref> and in the south of the Drava,<ref name="Dragan Brujić 2005"/> i.e. parts of present-day central Hungary (between Danube and Tisa), northern Serbia ([[Bačka]], west [[Syrmia]]) and eastern Croatia (west [[Syrmia]], east [[Slavonia]]).

The capital or seat was Mosapurc (''Mosapurc regia civitate''),{{sfn|Bowlus|1995|pp=204–220}} present-day [[Zalavár]] (in [[Old Church Slavonic|Old-Slavonic]] ''Blatengrad'', in [[Latin]] ''Urbs Paludarum'').

== Rulers <ref>{{cite web |url=https://sk.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=O_obr%C3%A1ten%C3%AD_Bavorov_a_Korut%C3%A1ncov&oldid=6658393 |website=Conversio Bagoariorum et Carantanorum}}</ref>==
{|class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align:center"
|-
! Monarch
! Reign
|-
|[[File:Pribina, Nitra (2008).jpg|50px]] [[Pribina]]
|ca. 846–861{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}
|-
|[[File:Kocel.jpg|50px]] [[Koceľ]]
|ca. 861–876{{citation needed|date=May 2016}}
|}

==See also==
*[[Principality of Nitra]]
*[[East Francia]]
*[[Great Moravia]]
*[[Principality of Hungary]]
*[[Duchy of Pannonian Croatia]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Sources==
{{refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book|last=Bartl|first=Július|title=Slovak History: Chronology & Lexicon|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3orG2yZ9mBkC&pg=PA19|year=2002|publisher=Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers|isbn=978-0-86516-444-4|pages=19–|ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Bowlus|first=Charles R.|title=Franks, Moravians, and Magyars: The Struggle for the Middle Danube, 788-907|year=1995|location=Philadelphia|publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x5x0BAAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Curta|first=Florin|title=Southeastern Europe in the Middle Ages, 500–1250|year=2006|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YIAYMNOOe0YC}}
* {{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Fine|first=John Van Antwerp Jr.|authorlink=John Van Antwerp Fine Jr.|title=The Early Medieval Balkans: A Critical Survey from the Sixth to the Late Twelfth Century|year=1991|origyear=1983|location=Ann Arbor, Michigan|publisher=University of Michigan Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y0NBxG9Id58C}}
* {{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Goldberg|first=Eric J.|title=Struggle for Empire: Kingship and Conflict under Louis the German, 817-876|year=2006|location=Ithaca, NY|publisher=Cornell University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oyiTg0wgl58C}}
* {{Cite book|ref=harv|editor-last=Luthar|editor-first=Oto|title=The Land Between: A History of Slovenia|year=2008|location=Frankfurt am Main|publisher=Peter Lang|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G9tDboBJ70EC5}}
* {{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Richards|first=Ronald O.|title=The Pannonian Slavic Dialect of the Common Slavic Proto-language: The View from Old Hungarian|year=2003|location=Los Angeles|publisher=University of California|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eDFiAAAAMAAJ}}
* {{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Štih|first=Peter|title=The Middle Ages between the Eastern Alps and the Northern Adriatic: Select Papers on Slovene Historiography and Medieval History|year=2010|location=Leiden-Boston|publisher=Brill|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4d55DwAAQBAJ}}
* {{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Vlasto|first=Alexis P.|title=The Entry of the Slavs into Christendom: An Introduction to the Medieval History of the Slavs|year=1970|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fpVOAAAAIAAJ}}
{{refend}}

{{coord missing|Europe}}

[[Category:Medieval Slovenia]]
[[Category:9th century in Croatia]]
[[Category:9th century in Serbia]]
[[Category:Medieval history of Vojvodina]]
[[Category:Former Slavic countries|Pannonia]]
[[Category:Great Moravia]]
[[Category:Hungary in the Early Middle Ages]]
[[Category:History of Baranya (region)]]
[[Category:History of Somogy]]
[[Category:Pannonia]]
[[Category:846 establishments]]

Zhangye National Geopark

2018-10-24T22:40:20Z

Ciaurlec: Out of scope

{{Infobox protected area
| name = Zhangye National Geopark {{nobold|{{lang|zh-hans|张掖国家地质公园}}}}
| iucn_category =
| photo = Zhangye Danxia.JPG
| photo_alt =
| photo_caption = Colourful mountains of the Zhangye National Geopark
| photo_width =
| map = China Gansu
| map_alt =
| map_caption =
| map_width =
| relief =
| location = [[Linze County]] and [[Sunan Yugur Autonomous County|Sunan County]]
| nearest_city = [[Zhangye]]
| coordinates = {{coords|38|54|55.98|N|100|7|59.52|E|region:CN-62|display=inline, title}}
| area = {{convert|322|km2|abbr=on}}
| established = December 27, 2005 (as provincial geopark)
| visitation_num =
| visitation_year =
| governing_body =
| website =
}}

The '''Zhangye National Geopark''' ({{zh|s=张掖国家地质公园 |t=張掖國家地質公園 |p=Zhāngyè Guójiā Dìzhìgōngyuán}}) is located in [[Sunan Yugur Autonomous County|Sunan]] and [[Linze]] counties within the prefecture-level city of [[Zhangye]], in [[Gansu]], China. It covers an area of {{convert|322|km2}}. The site became a quasi-national geopark on April 23, 2012 (provisional name: '''Zhangye Danxia Geopark'''). It was formally designated as "Zhangye National Geopark" by the Ministry of Land and Resources on June 16, 2016 after it has passed the on-site acceptance test. Known for its colorful rock formations, it has been voted by Chinese media outlets as one of the most beautiful landforms in China.

==Location==
[[File:Striated rocks in Zhangye National Geopark.jpg|thumb|left|Layers in the geopark]]
The park is located in the northern foothills of the [[Qilian Mountains]], in the counties of [[Linze County|Linze]] and [[Sunan Yugur Autonomous County|Sunan]], which are under the administration of the [[prefecture-level city]] of Zhangye, Gansu province. The main areas of [[Danxia landform]] are in Kangle and Baiyin townships.{{sfn|GSJW|2013}}

The core area of the park, Linze Danxia Scenic Area, is located {{convert|30|km}} west of downtown Zhangye and {{convert|20|km}} south of the seat of Linze County. It is the most developed and most visited part of the park.{{sfn|GSJW|2013}} A second scenic area, Binggou ({{lang|zh-hans|冰沟}}), located on the north bank of Liyuan River ({{lang|zh-hans|梨园河}}), was officially inaugurated on 3 August 2014.{{sfn|Yong|2014}} Binggou covers an area of {{convert|300|km2}}, and its elevation ranges from 1,500 to 2,500 meters above sea level.{{sfn|Yong|2014}} A third area, Sunan Danxia Scenic Area, is located in Ganjun, south of Linze.

==Landscape==
[[File:Colorful strata (Zhangye National Geopark).jpg|thumb|right|Landscape of Zangye National Geopark]]
Zhangye Danxia is known for the unusual colours of the rocks, which are smooth, sharp and several hundred meters tall. They are the result of deposits of [[sandstone]] and other minerals that occurred over 24 million years. The result, similar to a [[layer cake]], is connected to the action of the same tectonic plates responsible for creating parts of the [[Himalayan mountains]]. Wind, rain, and time then sculpted extraordinary shapes, including towers, pillars, and ravines, with varying colours, patterns, and sizes.{{sfn|Chapple|Rex|2014}}

==Media and tourism==
In 2005, Zhangye Danxia was voted by a panel of reporters from 34 major media outlets as one of the most beautiful Danxia landform areas in China. In 2009, ''[[Chinese National Geography]]'' magazine chose Zhangye Danxia as one of the "six most beautiful landforms" in China.{{sfn|GSJW|2013}} The area has become a top tourist attraction for Zhangye. A series of boardwalks and access roads have been built to help visitors to explore the rock formations.{{sfn|Chapple|Rex|2014}} In 2014, 100 million yuan was invested to improve the facilities in the Binggou area.{{sfn|Yong|2014}}

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Landscape in Zhangye National Geopark.jpg
Buildings in Zhangye National Geopark.jpg
Flickr image 29851220573.jpg
Flickr image 29851221553.jpg
Flickr image 30483606125.jpg
Colourful mountains of the Zhangye National Geopark.jpg
</gallery>

==References==

=== Notes ===
{{reflist}}

=== Bibliography ===
* {{cite web
|script-title=zh:张掖丹霞国家地质公园
|url=http://www.gsjw.gov.cn/content/2013-06/1493.html
|trans-title=Zhangye Danxia National Geological Park
|author=GSJW
|publisher=Gansu Provincial Government
|accessdate=12 September 2014
|language=Chinese
|date=2013-06-17
|ref={{harvid|GSJW|2013}}
}}
* {{cite news
|title=张掖丹霞国家地质公园冰沟丹霞景区正式揭牌
|trans-title=Binggou Danxia Scenic Area of Zhangye Danxia National Geological Park inaugurated
|url=http://news.ifeng.com/a/20140804/41424689_0.shtml
|first=Cao
|last=Yong
|publisher=Phoenix TV
|language=Chinese
|date=2014-08-04
|ref={{harvid|Yong|2014}}
}}
* {{cite web
|title=Picture gallery: Colourful rock formations in the Zhangye Danxia Landform Geological Park
|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/picturegalleries/9550531/Colourful-rock-formations-in-the-Zhangye-Danxia-Landform-Geological-Park.html
|first=Amos
|last=Chapple
|author2=Rex Features
|publisher=Telegraph
|accessdate=11 September 2014
|ref={{harvid|Chapple|Rex|2014}}
}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
{{Wikivoyage|Zhangye|Zhangye National Geopark}}
*[http://www.tripadvisor.com/Attraction_Review-g1850955-d1857482-Reviews-Zhangye_Danxia_Geopark-Linze_County_Gansu.html Zhangye Danxia Geopark on TripAdvisor]

{{Gansu topics}}

[[Category:Geoparks in China]]
[[Category:Geography of Gansu]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Gansu]]
[[Category:Zhangye]]
[[Category:Danxia landform]]

Geology of North America

2017-07-03T21:16:13Z

Ciaurlec: removed from the less specific category

{{see|North America}}
[[File:World geologic provinces North America cropped.png|400px|thumbnail|right|This article discusses the regional geology of the geographic region of North America.]]
The '''geology of North America''' is a subject of [[regional geology]] and covers the [[North America]]n continent, third-largest in the world. Geologic units and processes are investigated on a large scale to reach a synthesized picture of the geological development of the continent.

The divisions of regional geology are drawn in different ways, but are usually outlined by a common geologic history, geographic vicinity or political boundaries. The regional geology of [[North America]] usually encompasses the geographic regions of [[Alaska]], [[Canada]], [[Greenland]], the continental [[United States]], [[Mexico]], [[Central America]], and the [[Caribbean]].<ref>{{cite book|editor-last=Dengo|editor-first=Gabriel|editor2-first=James E. |editor2-last=Case |title=The Caribbean Region|year=1990|series=Decade of North American Geology, Volume H |publisher=Geological Society of America|location=Boulder |isbn=9780813752129|edition=2nd}}</ref> The parts of the [[North American Plate]] that are not occupied by North American countries are usually not discussed as part of the regional geology. The regions that are not geographically North American but reside on the North American Plate include parts of [[Siberia]] (see the [[Geology of Russia]]),<ref name="Khain 1985">{{cite book|last=Khain|first=Victor E.|title=Geology of the USSR|year=1985|publisher=Gebr. Borntraeger|location=Berlin|isbn=978-3-443-11017-8}}</ref> and [[Geology of Iceland|Iceland]], and [[Bermuda]]. A discussion of North American geology can also include other continental plates including the [[Cocos plate|Cocos]] and [[Juan de Fuca plate]]s being subducted beneath western North America. A portion of the [[Pacific Plate]] underlies [[Baja California]] and part of [[California]] west of the [[San Andreas Fault]].

==North American Craton==
{{Main|Laurentia}}
The stable core of the continent is the [[North American Craton]]. Much of it was also the core of an earlier supercontinent, [[Laurentia]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Stanley|first=Steven M.|title=Earth system history|year=2005|publisher=Freeman|location=New York|isbn=9780716739074|pages=290–292|edition=2nd}}</ref> The part of the [[craton]] where the [[basement (geology)|basement]] rock is exposed is called the [[Canadian Shield]]. Surrounding this is a stable platform where the basement is covered by sediment; and surrounding that are a series of orogenic zones.

===Canadian Shield===
{{Main|Canadian Shield}}
[[File:North america rock metamorphic.jpg|300px|thumbnail|right|On a map showing only metamorphic rocks, the Canadian Shield forms a circular pattern north of the Great Lakes around [[Hudson Bay]].]]
The Canadian Shield is a large area of Archean through Proterozoic igneous and metamorphic rocks in eastern Canada and north central and northeastern United States.

The earliest part of the shield is metamorphosed [[Archean]] rocks, originally [[volcanic rock|volcanic]] in origin. Numerous [[terrane]]s were [[Accretion (geology)|accreted]] onto this Archean core during the [[Proterozoic]] to form the Canadian Shield.<ref name = MSUPrecam>{{cite web|title = The Precambrian Era|publisher = Michigan State University|url = http://www.geo.msu.edu/geogmich/Precambrian.html|accessdate = 10 Mar 2013}}</ref> The southern Archean province is the [[Superior Craton]], it is formed by the combination of a [[Greenstone belt|greenstone]]-granite and a gneiss terrane.<ref>{{cite conference|title=Precambrian Geology of the Southern Canadian Shield and the Eastern Baltic Shield |conference=USA-USSR-Canada Joint Seminar |publisher=Minnesota Geological Survey |date=21–23 August 1990 |url=http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/59387/1/MGS_IC_34.pdf |accessdate=10 Mar 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203005131/http://conservancy.umn.edu/bitstream/59387/1/MGS_IC_34.pdf |archivedate=2013-12-03 |df= }}</ref> The margins of the Canadian Shield have been covered by sedimentary rocks, such as in Michigan where a series of sediments has filled in the [[Michigan Basin]].<ref name = MSUPrecam/> The exposed sections are often where [[glacier]]s have removed this overlying [[regolith]] to reveal the underlying glacially scarred crystalline rock.<ref name=Larson2008>{{cite thesis|title=Quantification of Glacial Sediment Erosion, Entrainment, and Transport Processes and Their Implications for the Dynamic History of the Laurentide Ice Sheet |last=Larson |first=Phillip |type=Ph.D. |publisher=University of Minnesota |year=2008 |url=http://www.d.umn.edu/geology/research/thesis/larson_thesis.pdf |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203010007/http://www.d.umn.edu/geology/research/thesis/larson_thesis.pdf |archivedate=2013-12-03 |df= }}</ref>

===Stable platform===
[[File:North america craton nps.gif|thumb|The [[North American craton]]]]
The stable platform is an area in which the North American Craton forms a [[Basement (geology)|basement]] and is covered by sediment. This area now forms much of the [[Interior Plains]] and the slope of the [[Appalachian mountains|Appalachians]] below the mountains proper.<ref name = Hamblin2009_23>{{cite book|title = Earth's Dynamic Systems|last = Hamblin|first = W. Kenneth|last2 = Christiansen|first2 = Eric|edition = Web Edition 1.0|chapter = 23|year = 2009|url = http://www.earthds.info/index.html|accessdate = 1 Mar 2013}}</ref> This area has been covered by a shallow [[Inland sea (geology)|inland sea]], which became the [[Shallow water marine environment|site of deposition]] for most of the overlying sedimentary rock.{{citation needed|date=May 2013}} The sea [[Marine regression|receded]] as the continent rose becoming covered by [[Fluvial|stream]], lake, and [[Aeolian processes|wind]] deposits.<ref>{{cite web|title = The Geologic Story of the Great Plains|last = Trimble|first = Donald|publisher = Geological Survey Bulletin 1493|year = 1980|url = http://library.ndsu.edu/exhibits/text/greatplains/text.html|accessdate = 11 Mar 2013}}</ref> Orogenies in the surrounding provinces have had little effect on the craton, making it an [[Epeirogenic movement|epeirogenic region]],<ref name = DiPietro2012>{{cite book|title = Landscape Evolution in the United States|last = DiPietro|first = Joseph|publisher = Elsevier|year = 2012|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vZWWAA-USoUC&|accessdate = 15 Mar 2013}}</ref> and, as such, the stable platform is mostly a crystalline basement, covered by sedimentary rocks, interrupted only by occasional [[Dome (geology)|dome]]s, such as the [[Cincinnati Arch]], Wisconsin Dome, and [[Ozarks#Geology|Ozark Dome]].<ref name = Hamblin2009_23/>

===Midcontinent rift system===
One billion years ago, the [[Midcontinent Rift System]] began to extend along a {{convert|2000|km|mi}} path,<ref>{{cite web|title = Stratigraphy, Structure, and Ore Deposits of the Southern Limb of the Midcontinent Rift System|last = Bornhorst |last2 = Woodruff |last3 = Nicholson |url = http://www.geo.mtu.edu/great_lakes/MCRS/|accessdate = 14 April 2013}}</ref> across both the Canadian Shield and the Stable Platform. The rift, however, failed, and afterwards crustal movement reversed. A range formed then eroded, forming basins on either side of a [[Horst (geology)|horst]]. These rocks have been buried beneath sediment in many areas, but are exposed in some areas, especially around [[Lake Superior]].<ref>{{cite web|title=The Midcontinent Rift: Iowa's Almost Ocean |last=Anderson |first=Raymond |publisher=Iowa Department of Natural Resources |year=1997 |url=http://www.igsb.uiowa.edu/browse/rift97/rift97.htm |accessdate=5 Mar 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/19990417041131/http://www.igsb.uiowa.edu/Browse/rift97/rift97.htm |archivedate=1999-04-17 |df= }}</ref>

===Grenville Orogen===
The [[Grenville Orogeny|Grenville Orogen]] developed during the Proterozoic along eastern and southern margin of the North American Craton.<ref>{{cite web|title=The Grenville|url=http://instruct.uwo.ca/earth-sci/300b-001/grenv.htm}}</ref><ref name=Tollo>Tollo, Richard P., et al., ''Proterozoic Tectonic Evolution of the Grenville Orogen in North America,'' Geological Society of America, 2004 {{ISBN|0813711975}}</ref> The largest outcrop of Grenville age rocks is an approximately {{convert|400|km}} wide band southeast of the [[Grenville Front]] which stretches from the central [[Labrador]] coast southwest across southern [[Quebec]] and southeastern [[Ontario]] to [[Georgian Bay]] on [[Lake Huron]]. The southeastern boundary of this area is approximately the [[St. Lawrence River]]. Rocks of the Grenville outcrop in the [[Adirondack Mountains]] of northern [[New York (state)|New York]] and throughout the Appalachians.<ref name=Tollo/> The [[Llano Uplift]] of central [[Texas]] and the [[Franklin Mountains (Texas)|Franklin]] and [[Hueco Mountains]] of west Texas have been correlated with the Grenville as have occurrences in Mexico.<ref name=Tollo/>

===Appalachian Orogen===
{{Main|Geology of the Appalachians}}
[[File:Appalachian map.svg|thumb|right|300px|Map of Appalachian geological provinces]]
The [[fold and thrust belt]] of the Appalachians is continuously exposed for {{convert|2000|km|mi}} from [[Pennsylvania]] to [[Alabama]].<ref name = Hamblin2009_23/> In the south, it extends under the [[coastal plain]], but is covered by [[Mesozoic]] sediments.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Southwestern Appalachian Structural System Beneath the Gulf Coastal Plain|last = Thomas|first = William|journal = American Journal of Science|volume = 273|year = 1973| pages = 372–390|url = http://earth.geology.yale.edu/~ajs/1973/ajs_273A_11.pdf/372.pdf|accessdate = 5 Mar 2013}}</ref> North of this fold and thrust belt, the [[Acadian orogeny|Acadian Orogen]] of the middle [[Devonian]] is an area where deformation has exposed granite [[pluton]]s.<ref>{{citation|title = Continental Collisions in the Appalachian-Caledonian Orogenic Belt|last = Dewey|last2 = Kidd|journal = Geology|volume = 2|pages = 543–546|date = November 1974|url = http://www.atmos.albany.edu/facstaff/wkidd/Dewey&Kidd74Geol.pdf|accessdate = 5 Mar 2013|doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1974)2<543:ccitao>2.0.co;2}}</ref> The center of the range is a pair of provinces running north and south parallel to each other, the eastern [[Blue Ridge Mountains|Blue Ridge Province]] and the western [[Ridge-and-Valley Appalachians|Valley and Ridge]] provinces. These are surrounded by the [[Appalachian Plateau]] on the west, and the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont Province]] to the east.<ref>{{Citation|author=Robert D. Leighty |authorlink= |date=August 31, 2001 |chapter=5.1.2 Valley and Ridge Physiographic Province |title=Automated IFSAR Terrain Analysis System (Final Report) |url=http://www2.agc.army.mil/publications/ifsar/lafinal08_01/five/5.1.2.htm |archive-url=http://archive.is/20130626170442/http://www2.agc.army.mil/publications/ifsar/lafinal08_01/five/5.1.2.htm |dead-url=yes |archive-date=June 26, 2013 |publisher=US Army Aviation and Missile Command |page= |docket= |accessdate=May 9, 2013 |quote= }}</ref> [[Fault (geology)|Faulting]] extends throughout the region and is caused by numerous spatially and temporally varied sources.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Characterization of Appalachian Faults |last = Hatcher |first = Robert |last2 = Odom |last3 = Engelder |first3 = Terry |last4 = Dunn |last5 = Wise |last6 = Geiser |last7 = Schamel |first7 = Steven |last8 = Kish |journal = Geology |volume = 16 |pages = 178–181 |date = February 1988 |url = http://www3.geosc.psu.edu/~jte2/references/link071.pdf |accessdate = 14 April 2013 |doi=10.1130/0091-7613(1988)016<0178:coaf>2.3.co;2}}</ref>

[[Inliers and outliers (geology)|Inliers]] of Late [[Mesoproterozoic]] age are present on the west of the core of the Appalachians, and these inliers are associated with the [[Grenville orogeny]].<ref name = Tollo2004>{{citation|title = Proterozoic tectonic evolution of the Grenville orogen in North America|last = Tollo |first = Richard |last2 = Corriveau |first2 = Louise |last3 = McLelland |first3 = James |last4 = Bartolomew |first4 = Mervin| year = 2004|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=uT4HISRCon8C&| accessdate = 8 Mar 2013}}</ref> During the Proterozoic terranes were accreted onto the province.<ref name = Levin1999>{{cite journal|title = Thinning of the upper mantle during late Paleozoic Appalachian orogenesis|last = Levin|first = Vadim |last2 = Park |first2 = Jeffrey |last3 = Brandon |first3 = Mark |last4 = Menke |first4 = William |journal = Geology | volume = 28 | issue = 3 | pages = 239–242|url = http://geology.gsapubs.org/content/28/3/239.short|accessdate = 8 Mar 2013 | doi=10.1130/0091-7613(2000)28<239:totumd>2.0.co;2}}</ref> During the [[Taconic orogeny]] 445 to 435 million years ago, accretion continued, an [[island arc]] collided with the North American continent, and mountains were raised. These mountains slowly eroded and deposited sediment into the [[Catskill Formation|Catskill delta]], stretching from New York to Pennsylvania.<ref name = Tagg>{{cite web|title = Building the Appalachian Mountains|last = Tagg|first = John P.|url = http://www.geology2.pitt.edu/PAgeo/|accessdate = 5 May 2013}}</ref>

====Piedmont====
{{Main|Piedmont (United States)#Geology|l1=Geology of the Piedmont}}
The eastern portion of the orogen is made up of the [[Piedmont (United States)|Piedmont plateau]], a {{convert|150|to|300|m|ft}} elevation area composed of Paleozoic [[Pelagic sediment|marine]] and volcanic sediments deformed into crystalline metamorphic rocks and intruded by granite domes.<ref name = Aber2001>{{cite web|title = Appalachian Mountains|last = Aber|first = James|year = 2001|url = http://academic.emporia.edu/aberjame/struc_geo/appalach/appalach.htm|accessdate = 5 Mar 2013}}</ref>

During the Proterozoic a series of terranes were accreted onto the North American craton, forming the Piedmont of the central Appalachians.<ref>{{cite web|title = Central Appalachian Piedmont and Blue Ridge tectonic transect, Potomac River corridor|last = Drake|first = Avery|last2 = Brezinski|first2 = David|last3 = Wintsch|first3 = Robert|last4 = Kunk|first4 = Michael|last5 = Aleinkoff|first5 = John|last6 = Naeser|publisher = Geological Society of America|year = 2006|url = http://geology.er.usgs.gov/eespteam/smoky/ResearchAreas/NovaMD/fld008-08.pdf|accessdate = 10 Mar 2013}}</ref> Following the Grenville orogeny, mountains eroded, and the sediments from this erosion were deposited below the mountains.<ref name = Stoffer1996>{{cite web|title = The Atlantic Coastal Plain|last = Stoffer|first = Phil|last2 = Messina|first2 = Paula|year = 1996|url = http://www.geo.hunter.cuny.edu/bight/coastal.html|accessdate = 10 Mar 2013}}</ref> The [[bedrock]] of the plateau formed about 470 million years ago during the [[Taconic orogeny]], when a [[volcanic]] [[island arc]] collided with the ancestral North American Continent.<ref name = "USGS">{{cite map|title = Geology of the Southern Appalachian Mountains|publisher = USGS|url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/sim/2830/|accessdate = 5 Mar 2013}}</ref>

==Passive Margin==
As the Atlantic Ocean opened the Atlantic Coast turned from an active margin into a passive one. Terranes were no longer accreted onto the margin, instead, sediment eroded off the Appalachians began to be deposited on the coast, forming a coastal plain and [[continental shelf]].<ref name = Stoffer1996/> During the [[Jurassic]] and [[Triassic]], marine and other sediment was deposited to form the Atlantic coastline.<ref name=Hanner>{{cite web|title=Central Appalachian Piedmont and Blue Ridge tectonic transect, Potomac River corridor |last=Hanner |first=Charlie |last2=Davis |first2=Susan |last3=Brewer |first3=James |publisher=USDA Resources Conservation Service |year=2006 |url=http://www.sawgal.umd.edu/drainageditches/Symposium2006/FG_Maps/Formation%20and%20General%20Geology%20of%20the%20Mid%20Atlantic%20Coastal%20Plain.pdf |accessdate=10 Mar 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121021110856/http://www.sawgal.umd.edu:80/DrainageDitches/Symposium2006/FG_Maps/Formation%20and%20General%20Geology%20of%20the%20Mid%20Atlantic%20Coastal%20Plain.pdf |archivedate=2012-10-21 |df= }}</ref> The sediment has formed a [[clastic wedge]] making up most of the coastal plain and continental shelf.<ref name = Stoffer1996/>

The passive margin of the [[Gulf of Mexico]] is a series of sedimentary deposits from upland areas surrounding the margin. The environment of deposition for these sediments has changed, varying spatially and temporally. When the ocean level was high shallow marine deposits occurred; when they were low [[fluvial]] and [[River delta|deltaic]] deposits form the majority of mass.<ref name = Grubb1988>{{cite book |last=Grubb |first=Hayes|last2=Carillo|first2=J. Joel. |editor-first=William |editor-last=Back |editor2-first=Joseph |editor2-last=Rosenshein |editor3-first=Paul |editor3-last=Seaber |title=The Geology of North America |publisher=The Geological Society of America |year=1988 |pages=219–228 |chapter=Chapter 26: Region 23, Gulf of Mexico Coastal Plain|url=http://www.clemson.edu/ces/hydro/murdoch/Courses/Aquifer%20Systems/Hydrogeology%20book.htm|accessdate = 28 Feb 2013}}</ref> From the Triassic until the early Jurassic, faulting localized as extension faulting and wrench faulting. As the basement subsided, sediment accumulated, during the Mesozoic and [[Cenozoic]], forming the modern wedge, containing [[Evaporite|salt basins]].<ref>{{cite journal|title = Sequence-stratigraphic analysis of Jurassic and Cretaceous strata and petroleum exploration in the central and eastern Gulf coastal plain, United States|last = Mancini|first=Ernest|last2 = Obid|first2 = Jamal|last3 = Badali|first3=Marcello|last4=Liu|first4=Kaiyu|last5=Parcell|first5=William|journal=AAPG Bulletin|volume=92|issue=12|date = December 2008|pages=1655–1686|url=http://berg-hughes.tamu.edu/stratigraphic-analysis-studies|accessdate=28 Feb 2013|doi=10.1306/08130808046}}</ref>

The passive margin in eastern Mexico is made up of a series of basins. These basins are mostly [[igneous]] or metamorphic rocks covered by sediments,<ref name = Humapa2012>{{Cite book|title = Humapa|url = http://contratos.pemex.com/en/chicontepec/chicontepec_areas/humapa/Paginas/default.aspx|year = 2012|accessdate = 27 Jan 2013}}</ref> except in the Burgos Basin, where Cenozoic volcanism has occurred.<ref name = Cruz1993>{{cite thesis|title = Geological evolution of the Burgos Basin, northeastern Mexico|last = Cruz|first = Guillermo|year = 1993|url = http://scholarship.rice.edu/handle/1911/16657}}</ref> Much of the sediment is from erosion of the thrust belts west of the margin.<ref name = Hickman2002>{{cite journal|title = Geology and Exploration Potential of the Veracruz Basin|last = Hickman|first = Robert|last2 = Cuervo|first2 = Arturo|last3 = Valdivieso|first3 = Victor|last4 = Caraveo|first4=Carlos|last5 = Rivera|first5 = Sergio|last6 = Espinoza|first6 = Miguel|last7 = Cuevas|first7 = Marie|last8 = Ghosh|first8 = Santosh|last9 = Kroener|first9 = Robert|first10 = Carl|last10 = Marrullier|journal = Houston Geological Society Bulletin|volume = 45|issue = 2|date = Oct 2002|pages = 15, 17|url = http://archives.datapages.com/data/HGS/vol45/no02/15.htm?}}</ref>

The [[Yucatán Peninsula]] is a [[Cretaceous]] to [[Oligocene]] [[carbonate platform]]. Uplift started in the Oligocene and lasted till the [[Pleistocene]]. Today the platform is exposed and under the influence of [[karst]]ification.<ref name=caves_org_geology_yucatan>{{cite web|title=A Condensed Geological Chronicle of the Yucatan Platform|url=http://www.caves.org/project/qrss/geo.htm|accessdate=17 January 2013}}</ref>

==North American Cordillera==
[[File:North america rock volcanic.jpg|300px|thumbnail|right|On a map showing only volcanic rocks, the west coast of North America shows a striking continuous north-south structure, the American Cordillera.]]
The [[North American Cordillera]] extends up and down the coast of North America and roughly from the [[Great Plains]] westward to the [[Pacific Ocean]], narrowing somewhat from north to south. It includes the [[Cascade Range|Cascades]], [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]], and [[Basin and Range province]]; the [[Rocky Mountains]] are sometimes excluded from the cordillera proper, in spite of their tectonic history. The geology of [[Alaska]] is typical of that of the cordillera.

A rupture in [[Rodinia]] 750 million years ago formed a passive margin in the eastern Pacific Northwest. The breakup of [[Pangea]] 200 million years ago began the westward movement of the North American plate, creating an active margin on the western continent. As the continent drifted West, accretion of various terranes onto the west coast occurred.<ref name = Townsend2002>{{cite web|title = Northwest Origins|last = Townsend|first = Catherine|last2 = Figge|first2 = John|publisher = The Burke Museum|year = 2002|url = http://www.burkemuseum.org/static/geo_history_wa/}}</ref> As these accretions occurred, crustal shortening accompanied them during the [[Sevier orogeny]] and during the Mesozoic into the early Cenozoic, and was accompanied by faulting.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Dynamic models for metamorphic core complex formation and scaling|last = Bendick|first = Rebecca|last2 = Baldwin|first2 = Julia|journal = Tectonophysics|year = 2009|url = http://www.cas.umt.edu/geosciences//faculty/bendick/images/pdf/Bendick_Baldwin.pdf|accessdate = 19 April 2013|doi=10.1016/j.tecto.2009.03.017|volume=477|pages=93–101}}</ref> During the Cenozoic, [[Extensional tectonics|crustal extension]] began accompanied by [[magmatism]] that came to characterize much of the area.<ref>{{cite journal|title = Cenozoic extension and magmatism in the North American Cordillera|last = Liu|first = Mian|journal = Tectonophysic|issue = 342|year = 2001|pages = 407–433|url = http://web.missouri.edu/~lium/pdfs/Papers/Liu01tectono.pdf|accessdate = 19 April 2013}}</ref>

===Rocky Mountains===
{{Main|Geology of the Rocky Mountains}}
The Rocky Mountains were formed by a series of events, the last of which is the [[Laramide Orogeny]].<ref name = English2003>{{cite journal|title = Thermal modelling of the Laramide orogeny|last=English|first=Joseph|last2=Johnston|first2=Stephen|last3=Wang|first3=Kelin|url=http://web.uvic.ca/~stj/Assets/PDFs/03%20JE%20STJ%20KWl%20EPSL.pdf}}</ref> One of the outstanding features of the Rocky Mountains is the distance of the range from a [[Subduction|subducting]] plate; this has led to the theory that the Laramide Orogeny took place when the [[Farallon plate]] subducted at a low angle, causing uplift far from the margin under which the plate subducted.<ref name = Bunge2000>{{cite journal|title = Mesozoic plate-motion history below the Pacific Ocean from seismic images of the subducted Farallon slab|last = Bunge|first = Hans-Peter|last2 = Grand|first2 = Stephen|journal = Nature|volume = 405|pages = 337–340|date = 18 May 2000|doi=10.1038/35012586|pmid=10830960}}</ref>

The lithology of the Rocky Mountains in western Canada includes a [[Thin-skinned deformation|thin-skinned]] [[fold and thrust belt]] involving [[Neoproterozoic]] through [[Mississippian age|Mississippian]] series of [[Carbonate rock|carbonate]]s, [[shale]]s, [[argillite]]s and [[sandstone]]s.<ref name = McMechan2012>{{cite conference|title = Geology of the Rocky Mountains west of Calgary, Alberta in the Kananaskis west half map area|last = McMechan|first = Margot|last2 = Macey|first2 = Elizabeth|conference = GeoConvention 2012:Vision|url = http://www.cspg.org/documents/Conventions/Archives/Annual/2012/019_GC2012_Geology_of_the_Rocky_Mountains.pdf |accessdate = 15 May 2013}}</ref>

The [[Colorado Plateau]] is a stable region dating back at least 600 million years. As a relative lowland, it had been a site of deposition for [[sediment]]s eroded from surrounding mountain regions.<ref>{{cite web|title = Geology of the Colorado Plateau|last=Foos|first=Annabelle|url=http://www.nature.nps.gov/geology/education/foos/plateau.pdf|accessdate=5 March 2013}}</ref> Then, during the Laramide Orogeny, the entire plateau was [[Tectonic uplift|uplifted]] until about six million years ago. Erosion during and following the uplift removed sediment from the plateau. This load removal resulted in [[Tectonic uplift#Isostatic uplift|isostatic uplift]] and a second passive rise for the plateau.<ref name = Hanson2009>{{cite book|title = Canyons|chapter = The Grand Canyon|last = Hanson|first = Erik|publisher = Infobase Publishing|year = 2009| ISBN = 978-0816064359|accessdate = 15 March 2013}}</ref>

===Intermontane Province===
{{Main|Basin and Range Province#Geology|l1 = Geology of the Basin and Range Province}}
[[File:Hoodoos in Cedar Breaks.jpeg|thumb|right|Cedar Breaks National Monument, [[Utah]].]]
Between the Rocky Mountains and the coast ranges is an area dominated by extensional forces. The extension of this region has occurred both regionally and locally in events beginning in the Jurassic; however, most extension was localized until the mid [[Miocene]]. These local events occurred in the Jurassic, late Cretaceous, and one spanning from the [[Eocene]] until the Oligocene. Regional extension occurred during the middle of the Miocene from around 20 million years ago until 10 million years ago.<ref>{{cite web|title = Extension of the Basin and Range Province | last = Gans|first = Phillip |last2 = Miller | first2 = Elizabeth | year = 1993 | url = http://www.geol.ucsb.edu/faculty/gans/abstracts/gans1993.html | accessdate = 15 Mar 2013}}</ref>

The Basin and Range Province is a series of linear [[Block fault#Fault-block mountains|block fault mountains]] with adjacent sediment-filled downfaulted valleys, having been caused by crustal extension around 17 million years ago. The valley floors are made up of thick sediment deposits which have eroded off the mountains and filled the valleys, so that the region is a regular series of ridges spaced out by flat sediment valleys.<ref>{{cite web|title = Geologic Provinces of the United States:Basin and Range Province|publisher = US Department of the Interior|date = 13 Jan 2004|url = http://geomaps.wr.usgs.gov/parks/province/basinrange.html|accessdate = 15 Mar 2013}}</ref>

===Coast===
{{Main|Pacific Coast Ranges#Geology|l1=Geology of the Pacific Coast Ranges}}
On the West coast of North America, the coast ranges and the coastal plain form the margin, which is partially bounded by the [[San Andreas Fault]], a transform boundary of the [[Pacific Plate]]. Most of the land is made of terranes that have been accreted onto the margin. In the north, the insular belt is an accreted terrane, forming the margin. This belt extends from the [[Wrangellia Terrane]] in Alaska to the Chilliwack group of Canada.<ref name = Townsend2002/>

The timing of the accretion of the insular belt is uncertain, although the closure did not occur until at least 115 million years ago.<ref name = Townsend2002/> Other Mesozoic terranes that accreted onto the continent include the [[Klamath Mountains]], the [[Sierra Nevada (U.S.)|Sierra Nevada]], and the Guerrero super-terrane of western Mexico.<ref name = Dickinson2004>{{cite journal|title = Evolution of the North American Cordillera|last = Dickinson|first = William|journal = Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences|year = 2004|volume = 32|pages = 13–45|url = http://www.geo.arizona.edu/tectonics/Ducea/teaching/Dickinson2004.pdf|accessdate = 9 April 2013|doi=10.1146/annurev.earth.32.101802.120257}}</ref> 80 to 90 million years ago the subducting Farallon plate split and formed the [[Kula Plate]] to the North.<ref name = Townsend2002/> Many of the major batholiths date from the late Cretaceous.<ref name = Dickinson2004/> As the Laramide Orogeny ended around 48 million years ago, the accretion of the [[Siletzia|Siletzia terrane]] began in the Pacific Northwest. This began the volcanic activity in the [[Cascadia subduction zone]], forming the modern [[Cascade Range]], and lasted into the [[Miocene]]. As extension in the Basin and Range Province slowed by a change in North American Plate movement circa 7 to 8 Million years ago, rifting began on the [[Gulf of California]].<ref name = Humphreys2009>{{cite journal|title = Relation of flat subduction to magmatism and deformation in the Western United States|last = Humphreys|first = Eugene|publisher = GSA|year = 2009|accessdate = 9 April 2013}}</ref>

===Southern Cordillera===
The Sierra Madre mountain ranges of [[Mexico]] are separated by the [[Mexican Plateau]], and transected by the [[Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt]]. The Southern extent of the American Cordillera makes up Western Mexico and northern Central America.<ref name = King1969>{{cite book|title = The Tectonics of North America|last = King|first = Philip|page = 49|publisher = USGS Professional Paper 628|year = 1969|url = http://pubs.usgs.gov/pp/0628/report.pdf}}</ref> This includes the [[Sierra Madre Occidental]], the [[Sierra Madre del Sur]], and the [[Trans-Mexican Volcanic Belt]].

The Cordillera ends in the south in a belt of [[miogeocline]]s, including the [[Sierra Madre Oriental]] [[fold and thrust belt]], the [[Mesa Central]], and parts of the [[Sierra Madre del Sur]]. This belt also extends into [[Guatemala]] and [[Honduras]] in [[Central America]].<ref name = King1969/>

==See also==
{{portal|Geology|North America|Aruba|Bahamas|Barbados|Belize|British Virgin Islands|Canada|Costa Rica|Cuba|Dominican Republic|El Salvador|Greenland|Grenada|Guadeloupe|Guatemala|Haiti|Jamaica|Mexico|Nicaragua|Panama|Puerto Rico|Trinidad and Tobago|United States}}
*{{gray|Geology of North America}}
**[[Geology of Canada]]
**[[Geology of the Caribbean]]
***[[Geology of Jamaica]]
***[[Geology of Puerto Rico]]
**[[Geology of Central America]]
***[[Geology of Belize]]
**[[Geology of Greenland]]
**[[Geology of the Lucayan Archipelago]]
**[[Geology of Mexico]]
**[[Geology of the United States]]
*[[Geography of North America]]
*[[List of mountain peaks of North America]]
{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|last=Bally|first=Albert W.|title=The geology of North America: An Overview|year=1989|publisher=Geological Society of America|location=Boulder, Colo.|isbn=978-0813752075|page=629|editor=Allison R. Palmer}}
*{{cite book|last=Clark|first=Thomas H.|title=Geological Evolution of North America|year=1968|publisher=Ronald Press|isbn=978-0826020154|edition=2nd|author2=Colin W. Stearn}}
*{{cite book|last=Eisbacher|first=Gerhard H.|title=Nordamerika|year=1988|publisher=F. Enke|location=Stuttgart|isbn=978-3432969015|language=German}}
*{{cite book|last=King|first=Philip B.|title=The evolution of North America|year=1977|publisher=Princeton University Press|location=Princeton, N.J.|isbn=978-0691023595|edition=Revised}}
*{{cite book|last=McPhee|first=John A.|title=Annals of the Former World|year=1998|publisher=Farrar, Straus, and Giroux|location=New York, New York|isbn=0-374-10520-0|edition=first}}
*{{cite book|last=Petersen|first=Morris S.|title=Historical geology of North America|year=1980|publisher=W. C. Brown Co|location=Dubuque, Iowa|isbn=978-0697050625|edition=2d.|author2=J. Keith Rigby |author3=Lehi F. Hintze }}

[[Category:Regional geology]]
[[Category:Geology of North America| ]]

Geology of Europe

2017-07-03T21:15:45Z

Ciaurlec: removed from the less specific category

{{unreferenced|date=November 2010}}
[[File:Europe_geological_map-en.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Surficial geology of Europe]]
The '''geology of [[Europe]]''' is varied and complex, and gives rise to the wide variety of [[landscape]]s found across the [[continent]], from the [[Scottish Highlands]] to the rolling [[plain]]s of [[Hungary]]. Europe's most significant feature is the dichotomy between highland and mountainous [[Southern Europe]] and a vast, partially underwater, northern plain ranging from [[England]] in the west to the [[Ural Mountains]] in the east. These two halves are separated by the [[Pyrenees]] and the [[Alps]]-[[Carpathian Mountains|Carpathians]] [[mountain]] chain. The northern plains are delimited in the west by the [[Scandinavian Mountains]] and the mountainous parts of the [[British Isles]]. The southern mountainous region is bounded by the [[Mediterranean Sea]]. Major shallow [[water]] bodies submerging parts of the northern plains are the [[Celtic Sea]] the [[North Sea]], the [[Baltic Sea]] complex and [[Barents Sea]].

From the standpoint of [[plate tectonics]], the ongoing northward drive of the [[African plate]] into the [[Eurasian plate]] in the Mediterranean basin is the most prominent aspect of the European scene today. The pressure exerted by the African plate is the overall cause of the rise of the Pyrenees, the Alps and the Carpathian mountains. [[Limestones]] and other sediments, the ancient floor of the [[Tethys Sea]], are pushed high and now make up much of these ranges. A submarine [[back-arc basin]] develops south of [[Italy]], which is one of several Mediterranean mini-continental fragments caught between the two plates. This buckling of the Earth's crust forces up Italy's mountains and stimulates [[active fault]]s and [[volcanoes]] such as [[Vesuvius]]. [[Iberia]], another separate terrain unit, has been rotated and emplaced against the rest of Europe by the plate collision.

Moving north from the Alps and other ranges, tectonic activity largely fades away in the stable Baltic craton. One exception to this trend is a [[Hotspot (geology)|hot spot]], rising from the [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] underneath central [[Germany]], which has been responsible in geologic time for volcanoes such as the [[Vogelsberg]] in [[Hesse]] and currently provides heat to hot springs and lakes in the region.

==Components==
Europe consists of the following cratons and [[terranes]] and microcontinents:
* the [[Baltica]] craton - Scandinavia, [[Balticum]], [[Russia]], and Northern [[Poland]]/[[Germany]],
* [[Avalonia]]n fragments - England, [[Ireland]], [[Netherlands]], Northern Germany, etc.,
* [[Laurentia]]n ([[North America]]n) fragments - Western [[Norway]] and [[Scotland]],
* [[Gondwana]] Fragments - [[Spain]], [[Italy]]??, [[Malta]], possibly belonging to the [[Cimmeria (continent)|Cimmeria]]n Arc,
* [[Tethys Ocean|Neo-Tethys Ocean]] floor - the Pyrenees/Alps/[[Apennine Mountains|Apennine]]/[[Balkan Alps]]/Carpathian complex,
* the [[Anatolia]]n part of the Cimmerian Arc originating from Gondwana.

==See also==
*[[Geography of Europe]]
*[[European Cenozoic Rift System]]

==External links==
*[http://www.europe-geology.eu Geology of Europe]
*[http://www.onegeology-europe.org/home OneGeology-Europe]
*[http://cpgeosystems.com/eurotectonic.html Maps showing the tectonic development of Europe]

{{Geology of Europe}}
{{Europe topics (small)}}

[[Category:Geology of Europe| ]]

Geology of Antarctica

2017-07-03T21:15:27Z

Ciaurlec: removed from the less specific category

{{Refimprove|date=September 2010}}
[[File:AA bedrock bedmap2.4960.tif|thumb|right|The bedrock topography of Antarctica, critical to understand dynamic motion of the continental ice sheets.]]
[[File:AA bedrock surface.4960.tif|thumb|Visualization of NASA's mission [[Operation IceBridge]] dataset BEDMAP2, obtained with laser and ice-penetrating radar, collecting surface height, bedrock topography and ice thickness.]]
[[Image:AntarcticaRockSurface.jpg|thumb|Antarctica without its ice-shield. This map does not consider that sea level would rise because of the melted ice, nor that the landmass would rise by several hundred meters over a few tens of thousands of years after the weight of the ice was no longer depressing the landmass.]]
The '''geological history of Antarctica''' covers the [[Geology|geological]] development of the continent through the [[Proterozoic]] Eon, [[Paleozoic]], [[Mesozoic]] and [[Cenozoic]] [[Era (geology)|eras]].

More than 170 million years ago, Antarctica was part of the [[supercontinent]] [[Gondwana]]. Over time Gondwana broke apart and Antarctica as we know it today was formed around 35 million years ago.

==Proterozoic Eon==
The [[Mawson craton]] of [[East Antarctica]] and [[Australia]] preserves evidence of [[tectonic]] activity from the [[Archean]] through the [[Mesoproterozoic]] in the [[Terre Adelie]], [[King George V Land]] and the [[Miller Range]] of the central [[Transantarctic Mountains]].<ref>Fitzsimmons, I. C. W., ''Proterozoix Basement Provinces of Southern and Southwestern Australia, and There Correlation with Antarctica,'' pp 93-130 in Masaru Yoshida, M., B. F. Windley and S. Dasgupta (eds), ''Proterozoic East Gondwana: Supercontinent Assembly and Breakup,'' Geological Society of London, Special Publication No. 206, 2003 {{ISBN|978-1862391253}}</ref>

==Paleozoic Era (540–250 Ma)==
{{see also|Terra Australis Orogen}}
During the [[Cambrian]] period, Gondwana had a mild climate. West Antarctica was partially in the northern hemisphere, and during this period large amounts of [[sandstone]]s, [[limestone]]s and [[shale]]s were deposited. East Antarctica was at the equator, where sea-floor [[invertebrate]]s and [[trilobite]]s flourished in the tropical seas. By the start of the Devonian period (416 Ma) Gondwana was in more southern latitudes and the climate was cooler, though fossils of land plants are known from this time. [[Sand]] and [[silt]]s were laid down in what is now the [[Ellsworth Mountains|Ellsworth]], [[Horlick Mountains|Horlick]] and [[Pensacola Mountains]]. [[Glaciation]] began at the end of the Devonian period (360 Ma) as Gondwana became centered on the [[South Pole]] and the climate cooled, though flora remained. During the Permian period the plant life became dominated by fern-like plants such as ''[[Glossopteris]]'', which grew in swamps. Over time these swamps became deposits of coal in the [[Transantarctic Mountains]]. Towards the end of the Permian period continued warming led to a dry, hot climate over much of Gondwana.<ref name="Stonehouse">{{Cite book| editor = Stonehouse, B. (ed.) | title = Encyclopedia of Antarctica and the Southern Oceans |date=June 2002 | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | isbn = 0-471-98665-8}}</ref>

==Mesozoic Era (250–66 Ma)==
{{See also|Polar forests of the Cretaceous}}
As a result of continued warming, the polar ice caps melted and much of Gondwana became a desert. In East Antarctica the [[seed fern]] became established, and large amounts of sandstone and shale were laid down at this time. The Antarctic Peninsula began to form during the Jurassic period (206–146 Ma), and islands gradually rose out of the ocean. [[Ginkgo]] trees and [[cycad]]s were plentiful during this period, as were reptiles such as ''[[Lystrosaurus]]''. In West Antarctica [[conifer]] [[forest]]s dominated through the entire Cretaceous period (146–65 Ma), though [[Nothofagus|Southern beech]] began to take over at the end of this period. [[Ammonite]]s were common in the seas around Antarctica, and dinosaurs were also present, though only three [[South Polar dinosaurs|Antarctic dinosaur]] genera (in order of naming, ''[[Cryolophosaurus]]'', ''[[Antarctopelta]]'', and ''[[Glacialisaurus]]'') have been described to date. It was during this period that Gondwana began to break up.

==Geology of present-day Antarctica==
The geological study of Antarctica has been greatly hindered by the fact that nearly all of the continent is continuously covered with a thick layer of ice. However, new techniques such as [[remote sensing]] have begun to reveal the structures beneath the ice.

Geologically, West Antarctica closely resembles the [[Andes]] of [[South America]].<ref name="Stonehouse" /> The [[Antarctic Peninsula]] was formed by uplift and [[metamorphism]] of sea-bed sediments during the late [[Paleozoic]] and the early [[Mesozoic]] eras. This sediment uplift was accompanied by [[igneous]] intrusions and [[volcanism]]. The most common rocks in West Antarctica are [[andesite]] and [[rhyolite]] volcanics formed during the Jurassic Period. There is also evidence of volcanic activity, even after the ice sheet had formed, in [[Marie Byrd Land]] and [[Alexander Island]]. The only anomalous area of West Antarctica is the [[Ellsworth Mountains]] region, where the [[stratigraphy]] is more similar to the eastern part of the continent.

The [[West Antarctic Rift]], a major active [[rift valley]], lies between West and East Antarctica. The rift is still active with slow movement of West Antarctica away from East Antarctica.

East Antarctica is geologically very old, dating from the [[Precambrian]], with some rocks formed more than 3 billion years ago. It is composed of a [[Metamorphic rock|metamorphic]] and [[igneous]] platform which is the basis of the [[Shield (geology)|continental shield]]. On top of this base are various more modern rocks, such as [[sandstone]]s, [[limestone]]s, coal and [[shale]]s laid down during the Devonian and Jurassic periods to form the [[Transantarctic Mountains]]. In coastal areas such as [[Shackleton Range]] and [[Victoria Land]] some [[Fault (geology)|faulting]] has occurred.

The main [[mineral]] resource known on the continent is [[coal]]. It was first recorded near the [[Beardmore Glacier]] by [[Frank Wild]] on the [[Nimrod Expedition]], and now low-grade coal is known across many parts of the Transantarctic Mountains. The [[Prince Charles Mountains]] contain significant deposits of [[iron ore]]. The most valuable resources of Antarctica lie offshore, namely the [[oil field|oil]] and [[natural gas field]]s found in the [[Ross Sea]] in 1973. Exploitation of all mineral resources by [[signatory]] states is banned until 2048 by the [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]].

==See also==
*[[Climate of Antarctica]]
*[[Geography of Antarctica]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Antarctica}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Geology Of Antarctica}}
[[Category:Geology of Antarctica| ]]

List of newspapers in Bangladesh

2016-07-02T09:35:55Z

Ciaurlec: /* English-language newspapers */minor edit

{{Contains Bengali text}}
This '''list of newspapers in Bangladesh''' is a list of [[newspaper]]s printed and distributed in [[Bangladesh]]. Newspapers published in Bangladesh are written in [[Bengali language|Bengali]] or [[English language|English]] versions. Most Bangladeshi daily newspapers are usually printed in broadsheets; few daily tabloids exist. Daily newspapers in Bangladesh are published in the capital, [[Dhaka]], as well as in major regional cities such as [[Chittagong]], [[Khulna]], [[Rajshahi]], [[Sylhet]] and [[Barisal]]. All daily newspapers are morning editions; there are no evening editions in Bangladesh. Some newspapers offer online versions.

==Daily newspapers==

===Bengali-language newspapers===
{{Expand list|date=April 2013}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan=2 | Newspaper name
! rowspan=2 | Year founded
! rowspan=2 | Owner/Publisher
! rowspan=2 | Editor
! rowspan=2 | Region
! rowspan=2 data-sort-type="number" | Circulation
|-
! English
! Bengali
|-
| {{Sort|Alokito Bangladesh|''[[Alokito Bangladesh]]''}}
| আলোকিত বাংলাদেশ
| 2013
| Alokito Media Ltd.
| Kazi Rafiqul Alam
| National
|
|-
|-
| {{Sort|Gazipur Tribune|''[[Gazipur Tribune]]''}}
| গাজীপুর ট্রিবিউন
| 2016
| Cloud Tech Ltd.
| Md Ahasanul Alam
| National
|
|-
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Sangbad Konika|''[[Daily Sangbad Konika]]''}}
| দৈনিক সংবাদ কণিকা
| 1992
| Daily Sangbad Konika
| Md. Anisur Rahman
| National
|
|-
| {{Sort|Amader Shomoy|''[[Amader Shomoy]]''}}
| দৈনিক আমাদের সময়
| 2003
| New Vision Limited<ref>{{cite news |title=Nayeemul no longer publisher of Amader Shomoy |url=http://old-archives.newagebd.net/detail.php?date=2012-08-09&nid=20061 |newspaper=New Age |location=Dhaka |date=2012-08-09 |accessdate=2013-03-29 }}</ref><ref name="AmaderShomoyEditor" />
| [[Abu Hasan Shahriar]]<ref name=AmaderShomoyEditor>{{cite news|title=Hasan Shahriar Amader Shomoy Editor |publisher=banglanews24.com |date=2012-09-25 |accessdate=2013-04-21 |url=http://www.banglanews24.com/English/detailsnews.php?nssl=748c1f15089cb7bd92930c1526a0386e&nttl=0000000000000}}</ref>
| National
| 177,000<ref name="circ" />
|-
| {{Sort|Amar Desh|''[[Amar Desh]]''}}
| দৈনিক আমার দেশ
| 2004
| Amar Desh Publications<ref name=AmarDesh2008 />
| [[Mahmudur Rahman]]<ref name=AmarDesh2008>{{cite news |title=New owners take over Amar Desh |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/newDesign/news-details.php?nid=57624 |newspaper=The Daily Star |date=2008-10-07 |accessdate=2013-04-13}}</ref><ref name=listof2010editors>{{cite news|author=New Age |title=27 editors condemn Amar Desh closure |publisher=Dhaka Mirror |date=2010-06-06 |accessdate=2013-04-29 |url=http://www.dhakamirror.com/other-headlines/27-editors-condemn-amar-desh-closure/}}</ref><ref name=15concerned>{{cite news |title=15 editors concerned |url=http://archive.thedailystar.net/beta2/news/15-editors-concerned/ |newspaper=The Daily Star |location=Dhaka |date=2013-05-19 |accessdate=2013-05-25}}</ref>
| National
| 200,000<ref>{{cite news |title=Bangladesh arrests editor of top pro-opposition daily |url=http://www.livemint.com/Politics/hTqeK4y3xP9qiJzTLLQEWI/Bangladesh-arrests-editor-of-top-proopposition-daily.html |newspaper=livemint.com |agency=Agence France Presse |date=2013-04-11 |accessdate=2013-04-15}}</ref>
|-
| {{Sort|Bangladesh Pratidin|''[[Bangladesh Pratidin]]''}}
| বাংলাদেশ প্রতিদিন
|
| [[Bashundhara Group|East West Media Group]]<ref name=Pratidin />
| [[Naem Nizam]]<ref name=15concerned /><ref name=Pratidin>{{cite news |title=Nayem Nizam made Protidin acting editor, Peer Habibur executive editor |url=http://www.daily-sun.com/details_yes_16-11-2011_bnp%E2%80%99s-road-marches-aimed-to-protect-war-criminals:-al_394_1_10_1_3.html |newspaper=Daily Sun |location=Dhaka |date=2011-11-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515144403/http://www.daily-sun.com/details_yes_16-11-2011_bnp%E2%80%99s-road-marches-aimed-to-protect-war-criminals:-al_394_1_10_1_3.html |archive-date=2013-05-15 |accessdate=2013-04-21}}</ref><ref name=EWMG />
| National
| 553,000<ref name="circ">{{cite news |title=Bangladesh Pratidin tops circulation list |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/bangladesh-pratidin-tops-circulation-list-15026 |newspaper=The Daily Star |date=11 March 2014}}</ref>
|-
| {{Sort|Bhorer Kagoj|''[[Bhorer Kagoj]]''}}
| ভোরের কাগজ
| 1992
|
| Shyamal Dutta<ref name="listof2010editors" /><ref name="listof2012editors" />
| National
|
|-
| {{Sort|Bonik Barta|''Bonik Barta''}}
| বণিক বার্তা
|
|
| Dewan Hanif Mahmud<ref name=BSSboard>{{cite news |title=New management board for BSS |url=http://old.thefinancialexpress-bd.com/old/more.php?news_id=142527&date=2012-09-07 |newspaper=The Financial Express |location=Dhaka |date=2012-09-07 |access-date=2016-01-29 }}</ref>
| National
|
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Azadi|''The Daily Azadi''}}
| দৈনিক আজাদী
|
|
| MA Malek<ref name=listof2012editors /><ref name=BSSboard />
| Chittagong
|
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Bir Chattragram Mancha|''[[Daily Bir Chattagram Mancha]]''}}
| দৈনিক বীর চট্টগ্রাম মঞ্চ
| 1997
|
| Syed Omar Farooq<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ctgmancha.com/ |script-title=প্রথম পাতা |title=First Page |website=Daily Bir Chattragram Mancha |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116102730/http://www.ctgmancha.com/ |archive-date=16 January 2013}}</ref>
| Chittagong
|
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Destiny|''Daily Destiny''}}
| দৈনিক ডেস্টিনি
|
|
|
| National
|
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Dinkal|''Daily Dinkal''}}<ref name="growth2012" />
| দৈনিক দিনকাল
|
|
| Rezwan Siddiqui<ref name="listof2010editors" />
| National
|
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Inqilab|''[[Daily Inqilab|The Daily Inqilab]]''}}
| দৈনিক ইনকিলাব
|
|
| A.M.M. Bahauddin<ref name="listof2010editors" /><ref name="15concerned" /><ref name="listof2012editors" />
| National
| 125,000<ref name="circ" />
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Ittefaq|''[[The Daily Ittefaq]]''}}
| দৈনিক ইত্তেফাক
| 1953
| Ittefaq Group of Publications Ltd.
| Anwar Hossain Monju
| National
| 194,000<ref name="circ" />
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Janakantha|''[[Janakantha|The Daily Janakantha]]''}}
| দৈনিক জনকণ্ঠ
| 1993
|
| Mohammad Atikullah Khan
| National
| 164,000<ref name="circ" />
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Jugantor|''[[Jugantor|The Daily Jugantor]]''}}<ref name="growth2012" />
| দৈনিক যুগান্তর
|
|
| Salma Islam<ref name="listof2010editors" /><ref name="15concerned" />
| National
| 221,000<ref name="circ" />
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Manab Zamin|''[[Manab Zamin|Daily Manab Zamin]]''}}
| দৈনিক মানবজমিন
| 1997
|
| Matiur Rahman Chowdhury<ref name="listof2010editors" /><ref name="15concerned" /><ref name="listof2012editors" />
| National
|
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Naya Diganta|''[[Daily Naya Diganta]]''}}
| দৈনিক নয়াদিগন্ত
| 2004
|
| Alamgir Mahiuddin<ref name="listof2010editors" /><ref name="15concerned" />
| National
|
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Purbavash|''[[Daily Purbavash]]''}}
| দৈনিক পূর্বাভাস
| 1992
|
| Mahmudur Rahman Khan
| National
|
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Sangram|''[[The Daily Sangram|Daily Sangram]]''}}
| দৈনিক সংগ্রাম
| before 1971<ref>{{cite news |last=Yusuf |first=Ananta |date=20 February 2015 |title=Story of the Bangla Press |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/the-star/cover-story/story-the-bangla-press-3161 |newspaper=The Daily Star}}</ref>
|
| Mohammad Abul Asad<ref name="listof2010editors" />
| National
|
|-
| {{Sort|Jai Jai Din|''[[Jaijaidin|Jai Jai Din]]''}}
| যায় যায় দিন
| 1984<ref>{{cite book |last1=Rahman |first1=Golam |last2=Ahmed |first2=Helal Uddin |year=2012 |chapter=Newspapers and Periodicals |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Newspapers_and_Periodicals |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=Sirajul |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=Ahmed A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |edition=Second |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]]}}</ref>
|
| Kazi Rukanuddin Ahmed
| National
|
|-
| {{Sort|Kaler Kantho|''[[Kaler Kantho]]''}}
| কালের কন্ঠ
| 2010
| [[Bashundhara Group|East West Media Group]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Bashundhara Group to bear medication for journo Nikhil Vhadra |publisher=The New Nation (Bangladesh) |date=2012-01-09 |accessdate=2013-04-29 |url=http://www.thenewnationbd.com/newsdetails.aspx?newsid=27826}}</ref>
| [[Imdadul Haq Milon]]<ref name="15concerned" /><ref name="EWMG">{{cite news|title=Imadadul Haq Milon, Nayeem Nizam made editors |newspaper=banglanews24.com |date=2012-01-10 |accessdate=2013-05-25 |url=http://www.banglanews24.com/English/detailsnews.php?nssl=bd50f363001990ee1fe5d798702b1d5b&nttl=0000000000000}}</ref>
| National
| 250,000<ref name="circ" />
|-
| {{Sort|Karatoa|''Daily Karatoa''}}
| দৈনিক করতোয়া
|
|
| Mozammel Haque<ref name="listof2012editors" />
| National
| 33,190<ref name="circ" />
|-
| {{Sort|Prothom Alo|''[[Prothom Alo]]''}}
| দৈনিক প্রথমআলো
| 1998<ref name="adgully" />
| Media Star Limited/Transcom Group
| [[Matiur Rahman (journalist)|Matiur Rahman]]<ref name="listof2010editors" /><ref name="15concerned" /><ref name="listof2012editors" /><ref name="adgully">{{cite web|title=Bangladesh through Matiur Rahman of Prothom Alo's eyes |publisher=Adgully.com |date=2013-04-22 |url=http://www.adgully.com/bangladesh-through-matiur-rahman-of-prothom-alo-s-eyes-45063.html}}</ref>
| National
| 500,000<ref name="circ" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prothom-alo.com/currentCirculation |title=Current Circulation |date=2012-09-01 |website=Prothom Alo |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130115021801/http://prothom-alo.com/currentCirculation |archive-date=2013-01-15 |accessdate=2013-04-22}}</ref>
|-
| {{Sort|Samakal|''[[Samakal]]''}}
| দৈনিক সমকাল
| 2005
|
| Golam Sarwar<ref name="listof2010editors" /><ref name="15concerned" /><ref name="listof2012editors">{{cite news |title=13 editors condemn death threat to Golam Sarwar |url=http://www.newagebd.com/detail.php?date=2012-04-27 |newspaper=New Age |location=Dhaka |date=2012-04-27 |accessdate=2013-04-29}}</ref>
| National
| 164,000<ref name="circ" />
|-
| {{Sort|Shokaler Khobor|''Shokaler Khobor''}}
| সকালের খবর
|
|
| Rashid-un-Nabi<ref name="listof2010editors" />
| National
|
|-
| {{Sort|Suprobhat Bangladesh|''[[Suprobhat Bangladesh]]''}}
| দৈনিক সুপ্রভাত বাংলাদেশ
|
| Suprobhat Media Limited
| Rousseau Mahmud
| Chittagong
|
|-
|}

===English-language newspapers===
{{Expand list|date=April 2013}}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Newspaper name
! Year founded
! Owner/Publisher
! Editor
! Circulation
|-
| {{Sort|Bangladesh Today|''[[The Bangladesh Today]]''}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://thebangladeshtoday.com/about/ |title=About Us |website=The Bangladesh Today |accessdate=2015-04-11}}</ref>
| 2002
| Md. Jobaer Alam
| Iffat Hossain
|
|-
| {{Sort|Dhaka Courier|''[[Dhaka Courier]]''}}<ref name=growth2012 />
|
|
| Enayetullah Khan
|
|-
| {{Sort|Dhaka Tribune|''[[Dhaka Tribune]]''}}
| 2013<ref name=dt />
|
| [[Zafar Sobhan]]<ref name=dt>{{cite news|title=Dhaka Tribune set to launch 19 April |publisher=natunbarta.com |date=2013-04-08 |accessdate=2013-04-27 |url=http://www.natunbarta.com/english/media/2013/04/08/1288}}</ref>
|
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Star|''[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]]''}}
| 1991
|
| [[Mahfuz Anam]]<ref name=listof2010editors /><ref name=15concerned /><ref name=listof2012editors />
| 41,150<ref name="circ" />
|-
| {{Sort|Daily Sun|''[[Daily Sun (Bangladesh)]]''}}
|
| East West Media Group
| Amir Hossain
|
|-
| {{Sort|Financial Express|''[[Financial Express (Bangladesh)]]''}}<ref name=growth2012 />
| 1993<ref>{{cite news |last=Khan |first=Maswood Alam |date=2012-04-18 |title=Time to look back and ahead as FE comes of age |url=http://old.thefinancialexpress-bd.com/old/more.php?page=detail_news&date=2012-04-18&news_id=126956 |newspaper=Financial Express}}</ref>
| International Publications Limited
| Moazzem Hossain<ref name=listof2010editors /><ref name=15concerned /><ref name=listof2012editors />
|
|-
| {{Sort|Independent|''[[The Independent (Bangladesh)|The Independent]]''}}<ref name=growth2012 />
|
| Independent Publications Limited
| M. Shamsur Rahman<ref name=listof2010editors /><ref name=15concerned /><ref name=listof2012editors />
|
|-
| {{Sort|New Age|''[[New Age (Bangladesh)|New Age]]''}}<ref name=growth2012 />
|
|
| Nurul Kabir<ref name=listof2010editors /><ref name=15concerned />
|
|-
| {{Sort|New Nation|''The New Nation''}}
|
|
| Mostafa Kamal Majumder<ref name=listof2010editors /><ref name=15concerned />
|
|-
| {{Sort|News Today|''[[News Today]]''}}<ref name=growth2012 />
|
| Newscorp Publications
| Riazuddin Ahmed<ref name=listof2010editors /><ref name=15concerned /><ref name=listof2012editors />
|
|-
|}

===Online newspapers and portals ===
{{Expand list|date=April 2013}}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan="2" |

== Newspaper Name ==
!Contact Number
! rowspan="2" | Founded Date
! rowspan="2" | Owner/ Publisher
! rowspan="2" | Editor
! rowspan="2" | Circulation
|-
! English
! Bengali
!
|-
|[http://crimepatrolbd.com www.crimepatrolbd.com]
|ক্রাইম পেট্রোল বিডি
|01675826609
|2015
|C. P. Investigation Ltd.
|বীর মুক্তিযোদ্ধা আলতাবুর রহমান চৌধুরী
|cpbdnews@gmail.com
|-
|[http://www.sharebarta24.com// Latest Share News]
| শেয়ার বার্তা 24
|
| 2014
|চৌধুরী মো: নুরুল আজম
| মো: রাসেল
| গিয়াস উদ্দিন মামুন
|-
|[http://www.bhoreralo24.com www.bhoreralo24.com]
|ভোরের আলো ২৪
|01911369942
|2012
|Digital Telecast & Advertising Company Ltd.
|Mir Billal
|bhoreralo24.com
|-
|[http://www.rangpurcrimenews.com]
|রংপুর ক্রাইম নিউজ
|01869030006
|2005
|বাংলার বুকে সত্যের সন্ধানে .
|G.M.M. Motakabbaru Rahman
|rangpurcrimenews.com
|-
| [http://www.bangla.24livenewspaper.com/ 24 Live Newspaper]
| টুয়েন্টিফোর লাইভ নিউজপেপোর
|
| 2011
| 24 Live Newspaper
| -
| N/A
|-
|{{Sort|Bangladesh Politics News|''[[PoliticsNews24.com]]''}}
|রাজনীতির সর্বশেষ, জানুক বাংলাদেশ
|
|২০১৫
|সালেহ মোহাম্মদ রশীদ অলক
|সালেহ মোহাম্মদ রশীদ অলক
|Top BD Politics News
|-
|[https://sarabangla.com/ Sarabangla.com]
|সারা বাংলা নিউজ
|01721440052
|2014
|Sara Bangla Multimedia Ltd.
|শাকিল মাহমুদ চৌধুরী
|admin@sarabangla.online
|
|-
|[[Sorboshes.com]]
|সর্বশেষ
|
|2013
|Mrs. Arifa Rahman
|Md. Saiful Alam
|
|-
| 71sangbad.com
| ৭১সংবাদ
|
| 2015
| AH.M tarek
| belayet hossain
|
|-
| {{Sort|Risingbd.com|''[[Risingbd.com]]''}}
| রাইজিংবিডি
|
| 2013
| Skyroute Media Limited
| Taposh Roy
| 115,367 (November 2015)<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/risingbd.com |title= Alexa.com Site Info | publisher= Alexa Internet |accessdate=2015-11-15}}</ref>
|-
| [http://chaakaa.com// Chaakaa.com]
| চাকা ডটকম
|
| 2015
| Sabrina Sobhan
| Shah Muhammod Moshahid
| 115,367 (November 2015)<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/chaakaa.com |title= Alexa.com Site Info | publisher= Alexa Internet |accessdate=2015-11-15}}</ref>
|-
| [http://www.ebdnewspapers.com/ ebdnewspapers.com]
| ই-বিডিনিউজপেপারস
|
| 2016
| Media Text Communications
|
| 115,367 (November 2015)<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.alexa.com/siteinfo/ebdnewspapers.com |title= Alexa.com Site Info | publisher= Alexa Internet |accessdate=2015-11-15}}</ref>
|-
| [http://www.childrenvoice.com/ childrenvoice.com]
| চিলড্রেন ভয়েস
|
| 2008
| Ariful Islam Arman
|
|
|-
| {{Sort|ICT WORLD NEWS|''[[ictworldnews24.com]]''}}
| আইসিটি ওয়ার্ল্ড নিউজ ২৪. কম
|
| 2011
| Muhammad Mamunur Rashid
| [[Muhammad Mamunur Rashid]]<ref name="listof2010editors" />
|7,210,440 (August 2015)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worthofweb.com/website-value/ictworldnews24.com/ |title=ictworldnews24.com is worth $22,049 |website=Worth of web}}</ref>
|-
| {{Sort|Asian National News|''[[asiannationalnews.com]]''}}
|এশিয়ান ন্যাশনাল নিউজ. কম
|
| 2015
| Rashedul Islam Ibn Azher
| [[Rashedul Islam Ibn Azher]]<ref name="listof2010editors" />
|7,210,440 (August 2015)<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.worthofweb.com/website-value/ictworldnews24.com/ |title=ictworldnews24.com is worth $22,049 |website=Worth of web}}</ref>
|-
| {{Sort|somokal24|''[[somokal24.com]]''}}
| সমকাল২৪
|
| 2014
|Azizul Bulu,Shahjahan,Rani
| Bangla and English News 24 Hours Ltd.
|Somokal IT Department
|-
| {{Sort|BD News 24|''[[bdnews24.com]]''}}
| বিডি নিউজ ২৪
|
| 2005
| Bangladesh News 24 Hours Ltd.
| [[Toufique Imrose Khalidi]]<ref name="listof2010editors" />
| 6,250,000 (April 2015)<ref>{{cite news|url=http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2015/05/19/facebook-recognises-bangladeshs-first-internet-newspaper-bdnews24.com|title=Facebook recognises Bangladesh’s first internet newspaper|work=bdnews24.com|date=2015-05-19|access-date=2015-05-20}}</ref>
|-
| {{Sort|Bangla News 24|''[[Banglanews24.com]]''}}
| বাংলা নিউজ ২৪
|
| 2010
| East West Media Group
| Alamgir Hossain
|
|-
| [http://www.bdview24.com Bdview24]
| বিডিভিউ২৪
|
| 2013
| BDVIEW24.COM LTD.
| Muhammad Nabil
|
|-
| {{Sort|Sheershanews|''[[Sheershanews]]''}}
| শীর্ষ নিউজ
|
|
|
| Ekramul Haque
|
|-
| {{Sort|Ctg Times|''[[Ctgtimes.com]]''}}
| সিটিজি টাইমস
|
| 2012
| সিটিজি টাইমস (প্রাঃ) লিমিটেড
| Mosrur Zunaid
|
|-
| [http://www.newsttcbd.com newsttcbd.com]
| নিউজ টি টি সি বি ডি
|
| 2015
| The Time communication Ltd.
|Al Mamun Otu
|
|-
| {{Sort|BdMorning.com|''[[bdmorning.com]]''}}
| বিডিমর্নিং.কম
|
| 2015
| Ehsans Ltd
| Sajib Sarkar
|
|-
| {{Sort|The Report 24|''[[The report24]]''}}
| দ্য রিপোর্ট
|
|
|
| Touhidul Islam Mintu
|
|-
| {{Sort|Banglamail24|''[[Banglamail 24]]''}}
| বাংলামেইল
|
|
|
| Shahadat Ullah Khan
|
|-
| {{Sort|BBC Bangla|''[[BBC Bangla]]''}}
| বিবিসি বাংলা
|
|
| বিবিসি
|
|
|-
| Focus Bangla
| ফোকাস বাংলা
|
| 2010
|
|
|
|-
| {{Sort|sharebazarnews|''[[sharebazarnews]]''}}
| শেয়ারবাজার নিউজ ডট কম
|
| 2014
| M.M. Sany Ahammad
|
|
|-
| Dhaka Times
| ঢাকা টাইমস
|
|
|
| Arifur Rahman
|
|-
| CtgTribune.com

www.ctgtribune.com
| সিটিজি ট্রিবিউন ডট কম
|Contact:
01713787975
| 2014 Copyright "CtgTribune" 14163-copper
| Address: 4/2, 1st floor, Dosh Building, New Market, Chittagong, Bangladesh,চট্টগ্রাম 4000
| Chief Editor:Md. Sk. Razay Rabby
|ctgtribune@gmail.com

|-
| Natun Barta
| নতুন বার্তা
|
|
|
| Sardar Forid Ahmed
|
|-
| Poriborton
| পরিবর্তন
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [http://www.jagonews24.com/ jagonews24.com]
| জাগো নিউজ
|
|
|
| Sujon Mahmud
|
|-
| RTNN
| আরটিএনএন
|
|
|
| Elias Hossain
|
|-
| NTV
| এনটিভি
|
|
|
|
|
|-
| [[Bangla Tribune]]
| বাংলা ট্রিবিউন
|
|
|
| Kazi Anis Ahmed
|
|-
|[[Rajniti Protidin]]
|রাজনীতি প্রতিদিন
|
|2014
|Book-maker Publication (Bangladesh) Ltd.
|Iftekhar Amin
|5,82,348 (August 2015)
|-
| Rajpath24
| রাজপথ২৪ ডটকম
|
| 2014
|
| M M Rana
|
|-
|Children Times 24
|চিলড্রেন টাইমস টুয়েন্টিফোর ডটকম
|
|2013
|Bangladesh Children News Agency
|Palash Das
|Leading Children News Media
|-
|Darpon Bangla 24
|দর্পণ বাংলা টুয়েন্টিফোর ডটকম
|
|2015
|Darpon News Agency
|Maksudur Rahman
|Red Indigo Digital
|-
|[[BanglaNews24.today]]
|বাংলানিউজ২৪.টুডে
|
|
|
|Hr Ashraf
|
|}
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan=2 |Local online newspaper name
! rowspan=2 | Year founded
! rowspan=2 | Owner/publisher
! rowspan=2 | Editor
! rowspan=2 | Circulation{{efn|Circulation is defined as the number of unique visitors in a single month.}}
|-
! English
! Bengali
|-]
|[[Chandpur Times]]
| চাঁদপুর টাইমস
| 2014
| Kazi Mohammad Ibrahim Jewel 
| Kazi Mohammad Ibrahim Jewel 
|
|-
|[[Munshiganj Times]]
|মুন্সীগঞ্জ টাইমস
|2013
|Mrs. Arifa Rahman
|Mrs. Arifa Rahman
|
|-
| ''Bhorer Barta''
| ভোরের বারতা
| 2014
| Md. Al-Amin Khan
|
|
|-
| ''1 News BD''
| ওয়ান নিউজ বিডি
| 2012
| Al Mamun Shaon
| M. Zaman Kaka
|
|-
| ''Akash24''
| আকাশ ২৪
| 2014
|
|
|
|-

| ''Barisal News''
| বরিশাল নিউজ
| 2014
| Barisal News Media Group
| Hassan Saheena Azmeen
|
|-

| ''Business 24 BD''
| বিজনেস ২৪ বিডি
| 2014
|
| Jibon Islam
|
|-
| ''Islamic News 24''
| ইসলামিক নিউজ ২৪
| 2011
|
| S.M. Sakhawat Hossain
|
|-
| ''Chandpur Diganta''
| দৈনিক চাঁদপুর দিগন্ত
| 2014
| The Daily Chandpur Diganta 
| Ad. Mohammad Shajan Mia 
|
|-
|[[Www.raipurnews24.com|Raipurnews24.com]]
|রায়পুর নিউজ২৪
|2016
|Azam Khan
|Azad Khan
|
|-
| [http://www.lakshmipur24.com/ Lakshmipur24 ]
| লক্ষ্মীপুরটোয়েন্টিফোর
| 2012
| Media-lakshmipur 
| Sana Ullah Sanu 
|
|-
| ''Lekhapora 24''
| লেখাপড়া ২৪
| 2014
|
| Mohammad Imtiaz
|
|-
| ''News Media BD 24''
| নিউজ মিডিয়া বিডি ২৪
| 2013
| Newsmediabd24.com Group Ltd.
| Kamrul Hassan Rony
|
|-
| {{Sort|Satkahan|''[[Satkahan]]''}}
| সাতকাহন
| 2008
| Satkahan Media
| Abu Zafar
|
|-
| ''Shironaam''
| শিরোনাম ডট কম
| 2012
| Tahsin Ahmed
| Shironaam Media
|
|-

| [http://www.tangaildarpan.com/ Tangail Darpan ]

| টাঙ্গাইল দর্পণ
| 2015
| Abu Taher
| Abu Taher
|
|-
| {{Sort|Tech And Teen|''[[TechandTeen.com]]''}}
| টেক অ্যান্ড টিন
| 2014
|
|
|
|-
| ''Yes News 24''
| ইয়েস নিউজ ২৪
| 2013 
| Yes News Media Ltd.
| M.A.J Kajol 
|
|-
| ''Islamic News 24''
| ইসলামিক নিউজ ২৪
| 2011
|
| S.M. Sakhawat Hossain
|
|-
| ''Bartaprobah Dot Net''
| বার্তা প্রবাহ ডট নেট
| 2012
| I Next Limited
| Mohammad Manir Hosen Kazi
|
|}

{{notelist}}

===Suspended publications===
* ''Shersha Kagoj'' and ''Sheershanews.com'', the government suspended the weekly and its online website in 2011 after releasing the editor Ekramul Haque after four months in prison<ref name=listof2010editors /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.rsf.org/bangladesh-online-newspaper-editor-detained-05-08-2011,40760.html |title=Newspaper editor freed after three months, immediately re-arrested |website=Reporters without Borders |date=2011-11-04 |access-date=2016-02-02}}</ref>

===Defunct newspapers===
*''[[Ajker Kagoj]]'' ({{lang-bn|দৈনিক আজকের কাগজ}}; "Today's Paper"), a Bengali-language newspaper published in the modern approach between 1991-2007
*''[[The Azad]]'' ({{lang-bn|দৈনিক আজাদ}}; "Daily Free"), a Bengali-language newspaper published between 1936-1992
*''[[The Bangladesh Observer]]'', an English-language daily published between 1949-2010 and last edited by Iqbal Sobhan Chowdhury<ref name=listof2010editors />
*''[[Kishore Bangla]]'', a Bengali juvenile weekly published between 1977-1983

==News agencies==
Before 1972, news agencies in Bangladesh were local branches of international [[news agency|agencies]].

* [[Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha]] (BSS), the official [[state media|government-owned]] news agency of Bangladesh, was created on 1 January 1972 from the Dhaka bureau of the state-owned [[Associated Press of Pakistan]] (APP) (no relation to [[Associated Press]] (AP)). It exchanges news with [[Press Trust of India]] (PTI) and other foreign agencies.<ref name=growth2012 /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bssnews.net/bss-profile.php |title=BSS Profile |website=Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha |access-date=2016-01-29}}</ref> Abul Kalam Azad, who was formerly Prime Minister [[Sheikh Hasina]]'s press secretary, became its chief editor in 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bssnews.net/md-profile.php |title=Managing Director and Chief Editor's Profile |website=Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha |access-date=2016-01-29}}</ref>
* [[United News of Bangladesh]] (UNB) is a private news agency in service since 1988. It partners with AP, [[United News of India]] (UNI), and other foreign agencies.<ref name=growth2012 /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.unbnews.org/smartnews/unbsite.nsf/$all/8D891695EBC78E5D65256E980034F04C?OpenDocument&HomePage |title=About-UNB |website=United News of Bangladesh |access-date=2016-01-29}}</ref>
* BDNEWS was a private internet-based news agency launched in 2005. The following year it converted into an online newspaper and rebranded itself as [[bdnews24.com]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Hasina, Khaleda greet bdnews24.com |url=http://bdnews24.com/bangladesh/2013/10/24/hasina-khaleda-greet-bdnews24.com |work=bdnews24.com |date=2013-10-24 |access-date=2016-01-29}}</ref>

==Regional news networks==
* [[Asia News Network]], a cooperative of primarily Asian newspapers that share news items with members

==Monthly/weekly newspapers and magazines==
Monthly Bandhan-construction, Real estate, Interior & Architecture related Popular Monthly Magazine
* ''[[Forum (Bangladesh)|Forum]]'', a human rights oriented magazine published between 1969-1971, re-established in 2006
* ''Weekly SheershaSamachar Bengali weekly Magazine Published & Edited by Mir Billal Acting Editor is Mohammad Shahidul Islam Mollah
* ''Holiday'', an English-language weekly newspaper<ref name=growth2012 />
* ''[[Ice Today|ICE Today]]'', an English-language fashion and lifestyle magazine
* ''[[Likhoni]]'', a Bengali current affairs magazine published since 2013
* ''[[Monthly Bahgalir Ekushea]]'', a Bengali current affairs magazine published from Brahman Baria since 2016
* ''Perspective''
*''ShikkhaBichitra'', a national weekly newspaper on education, human resource and socio-economic development; published since 1993
* ''[[Weekly Alokito Chattagram]]'', a Bengali current affairs magazine published from Chittagong since 2004
* ''[[Weekly Blitz]]'', an English-language tabloid weekly founded in 2003 and edited by [[Salah Choudhury]]<ref name=growth2012>{{cite news |title=Blitz emerges as one of the fastest growing newspapers in Bangladesh |url=http://www.weeklyblitz.net/2711/blitz-emerges-as-one-of-the-fastest-growing |work=Weekly Blitz |date=2012-10-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130127024513/http://www.weeklyblitz.net/2711/blitz-emerges-as-one-of-the-fastest-growing |archive-date=2013-01-27 |accessdate=2013-04-29}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|first=Sohail |last=Choudhury |date=2013-03-15 |title=Not Only God, Fear us Too! |url=http://www.sunofindia.com/not-only-god-fear-us-too/ |newspaper=Sun of India |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004215139/http://www.sunofindia.com/not-only-god-fear-us-too/ |archive-date=2013-10-04 |accessdate=2013-04-20}}</ref>
* ''Weekly Nayapodokkhep'', a Bengali weekly
* '' Weekly Renaissance''a National Bengali weekly Magazine Published & Edited by H.N.M Shafiqur Rahman. Acting Editor is Abul Hossain Mahmud.
* ''Weekly Shaptahik'', a Bengali weekly magazine published from Bangladesh since 2007<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mediadirectorybd.com/index.php/bangla-magazine-site/168-shaptahik |title=Shaptahik |website=Media Directory BD}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shaptahik.com/v2/ |title=Weekly Shaptahik |website=Weekly Shaptahik}}</ref>
* ''Weekly Shomoyer Shathe''
* ''The Weekly View'', a bilingual newspaper published in Bangla and English from Brahmanbaria since 2005; publisher and editor is Sheikh Md. Shahidul Islam

==See also==
* [[Media of Bangladesh]]
* [[Communications in Bangladesh]]

==External links==
* [http://www.bssnews.net/ Bangladesh Sangbad Sangstha website]
* [http://www.unbnews.org/ United News of Bangladesh website]

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}
{{Newspapers in Bangladesh}}
{{Media of Bangladesh}}
{{Lists of newspapers in Asia}}

[[Category:Lists of newspapers by country|Bangladesh]]
[[Category:Newspapers published in Bangladesh| ]]
[[Category:Lists of Bangladeshi media|Newspapers]]

Quadripoint

2015-08-22T00:18:15Z

Ciaurlec: /* Multipoints of greater numerical complexity */ added a map

{{multiple issues|
{{Original research|date=August 2009}}
{{Synthesis|date=October 2010}}
}}

{{GeoGroupTemplate}}

A '''quadripoint''' is a point on the Earth that touches the [[border]] of four distinct territories.<ref name=akweenda>{{cite book |last= Akweenda |first= S. |title= International Law and the Protection of Namibia's Territorial Integrity: Boundaries and Territorial Claims |year= 1997 |publisher= Martinus Nijhoff |isbn= 978-90-411-0412-0 |pages= 201–203 |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=0-TSdvAg2IgC&pg=PA201}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last= Nolan |first= J. |date=December 2003 |title= There are numerous points where three countries meet. Are there any with four? |journal= [[Geographical (magazine)|Geographical]] |volume= 75 |issue= 12 |page= 19 |issn= 0016-741X}}</ref> The term has never been in common use — it may not have been used before 1964 when it was possibly invented by the Office of the Geographer of the [[United States Department of State]].<ref>http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS030.pdf</ref>{{#tag:ref|In common [[American English]] usage, the much more usual expression for the thing described by the term has been "four corners" (at least until the 1970s and perhaps even still), evidently because the most celebrated quadripoint in the world - which is located in the United States - is named "[[Four Corners Monument|the Four Corners]]". |name=quadripoint|group=n}} The word does not appear in the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' or ''[[Merriam-Webster|Merriam-Webster Online]]'' dictionary, but it does appear in the ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia |title=Zambia |encyclopedia= Encyclopædia Britannica |edition= 2010 Online Library Edition |publisher= Encyclopædia Britannica |url= http://www.library.eb.com/eb/article-44116 |accessdate= 17 November 2010}}</ref> as well as in the ''[[The World Factbook|World Factbook]]'' articles on [[Botswana]], [[Namibia]], [[Zambia]], and [[Zimbabwe]], dating as far back as 1990.<ref>{{cite web |title=The World Factbook 1990 Electronic Version |publisher= Central Intelligence Agency |year= 1993 |url= http://permanent.access.gpo.gov/lps35389/1990/world12.txt |accessdate= 17 November 2010}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Moresnet.png|thumb|right|The borders of the historic [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]] of [[Neutral Moresnet|Moresnet]]. Moresnet is colored blue, the [[Netherlands]] orange, [[Belgium]] yellow, and [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] green.]]
An early instance of four political divisions meeting at a point is in England (attested in the Domesday Book, 1086,<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=DX5aopCW8BsC&pg=PA127&dq=%22four+shires+stone%22&hl=en&ei=C9rdTNjgO8L48AbOvrzYDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDIQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q=%22four%20shires%20stone%22&f=false |title=at 238c: DB Warks., 3,4 |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=oUmfAAAAMAAJ&q=%22four+shires+stone%22&dq=%22four+shires+stone%22&hl=en&ei=nOHdTM2TKsL58AbstZjaDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=8&ved=0CEgQ6AEwBzgU |title=Domesday book: Gloucestershire - John Morris - Google Books |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref> and mentioned since 969 if not 772<ref>{{cite web|author=Pickard Trepess |url=http://www.hunimex.com/warwick/four_shire_stone.html |title=The Four Shire Stone - Moreton-in-Marsh |publisher=Hunimex.com |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref>); it combined until 1931 the English shires/counties of Gloucester, Oxford, Warwick and Worcester.

The earliest known quadripoint involving modern nation states existed from 1817 to 1821 where the present Alabama–Mississippi state line crossed the 31st parallel border between Spain and the United States. During that period, the part of West Florida between the Pearl and Perdido rivers (which Spain still owned but the United States forcibly occupied and annexed in 1810 after belatedly claiming it as part of the Louisiana Territory purchased from France in 1803) was subdivided and allocated partly to the State of Mississippi and partly to the Territory (and later State) of Alabama. There resulted, at the intersection of demarcated boundaries, an international quadripoint of four territories, which in the United States were named (clockwise) Baldwin and Mobile Counties of Alabama and Jackson and Greene Counties of Mississippi, though Mobile and Jackson Counties were actually still in Spain.<ref>''Boundaries of the United States and the Several States'', Franklin K. Van Zandt, 1976. pp. 22ff, 26f, 100-107.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://alabamamaps.ua.edu/contemporarymaps/alabama/historical/index.html |title=Alabama Maps - Historic |publisher=Alabamamaps.ua.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref>

Between 1839 and 1920 there was a quadripoint at the convergence of [[Belgium]], [[Prussia]]/[[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]], and [[Moresnet]] at {{coord|50.75|N|6.02|E|name=former quadripoint}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.moresnet.nl/english/geschiedenis_en.htm |title=Neutral-Moresnet/History |publisher=Moresnet.nl |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref> Moresnet was never truly a country but rather only a neutral territory or condominium of the Netherlands and Prussia (originally), and of Belgium and Germany (ultimately). If Moresnet is counted as a country, then national borders came together in this point from 5 different directions during the existence of Moresnet and the [[first world war]], although never more than four at the same time. Subsequent political changes have restored its quadripartition along municipal lines (Kelmis, Plombieres within Belgium) since 1976 (though it has also enjoyed fivefold partition along municipal lines at times).

==Four-nation quadripoints==
[[File:African quadripoint.svg|thumb|right|Map showing the Botswana-Namibia-Zambia-Zimbabwe purported quadripoint (circled)]]
[[File:Zambezi River at junction of Namibia, Zambia, Zimbabwe & Botswana.jpg|thumb|right|Zambezi River at the junction of Namibia (top left), Zambia (top), Zimbabwe (bottom right), and Botswana (bottom left)]]
{{Main|Kazungula}}
While some older sources claimed that a quadripoint existed in Africa,<ref>"Guinness Book of Records", 1979 ''et seq.''; see "Shortest Frontier"</ref> where the borders of [[Namibia]], [[Botswana]], [[Zambia]], and [[Zimbabwe]] come together at the confluence of the [[Cuando River|Cuando]] (also called Chobe) and [[Zambezi]] rivers (approximately {{coord|17|47|30|S|25|15|48|E|type:landmark_region:BW_dim:10000|display=inline}}),<ref>{{cite book |last= Arnold |first= Guy |title= The Resources of the Third World |year= 1997 |publisher= Taylor & Francis |isbn= 978-1-57958-014-8 |pages= 252, 319 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=1LpwLDoIkHwC&pg=PA252}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Anderson |first= Ewan W. |authorlink= Ewan Anderson |title= International Boundaries: A Geopolitical Atlas |year= 2003 |publisher= Psychology Press |isbn= 978-1-57958-375-0 |pages= 9, 116, 118 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=E7-menNPxREC&pg=PA9}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1= Hinz |first1= Manfred O. |last2= Gatter |first2= Frank Thomas |title= Global Responsibility – Local Agenda: The Legitimacy of Modern Self-Determination and African Traditional Authority |year= 2006 |publisher= LIT Verlag Münster |isbn= 978-3-8258-6782-9 |page= 45 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=eYhih1zKp8AC&pg=PA45}}</ref> it is now generally believed that two separate trijunctions exist perhaps some 100 or 150 meters apart.

In August 2007 the governments of Zambia and Botswana announced a deal to construct a bridge at the site to replace [[Kazungula Ferry|a ferry]].<ref>[http://palapye.wordpress.com/2007/08/04/zambia-botswana-reach-kazungula-bridge-deal/ "Zambia and Botswana reach Kazungula bridge deal."] ''Palapye News blog.'' Retrieved 12 November 2007.</ref> The existence of a short boundary of about 150 meters between Zambia and Botswana was apparently agreed during various meetings involving heads of state and/or officials from all four states in the 2006–10 period and is clearly shown in the [[African Development Fund]] project map<ref>
{{Cite book
|url= http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/Multinational%20(Zambia-Bostwana)%20-%20AR%20-%20Kazungula%20Bridge%20Project.pdf
|title= Kazungula Bridge Project
|last= Darwa
|first= P. Opoku
|publisher= African Development Fund
|year= 2011
|page= Appendix IV
|accessdate=2012-05-04}}</ref>
(matching the [[US Department of State]] Office of the Geographer depiction in [[Google Earth]]).

There have been a few international incidents revolving round this particular quadripoint, or near-quadripoint. In 1970, [[South Africa]] (which at the time occupied Namibia) informed Botswana that there was no common border between Botswana and Zambia, claiming that a quadripoint existed. As a result, South Africa claimed, the [[Kazungula Ferry]], which links Botswana and Zambia at the quadripoint, was illegal. Botswana firmly rejected both claims. There was actually a confrontation and shots were fired at the ferry;<ref>{{cite book |last= Griffiths |first= Ieuan Ll |title= The African Inheritance |year= 1995 |publisher= Psychology Press |isbn= 978-0-415-01092-4 |page= 56 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=O7rFC8o9dmAC&pg=PA56}}</ref> some years later, the Rhodesian Army attacked and sank the ferry, maintaining that it was serving military purposes.

[[Ian Brownlie]], who studied the case, wrote in 1979 that the possibility of a quadripoint could not be definitively ruled out at that time.<ref name=akweenda/>

However, a true four-country point did formerly exist in Africa (excluding Kazungula) – the only known quadricountry borderpoint (not involving condominial territories) – for a period of 8 months during 1960 and 1961, in southern [[Lake Chad]], at the location of the present [[Cameroon]]–[[Chad]]–[[Nigeria]] tripoint. Upon the 1 October 1960 independence of Nigeria, that borderpoint became common to the latter three countries and the territory of [[Northern Cameroons]], which was still governed under United Nations mandate by the United Kingdom, until it was finally integrated into Nigeria on 1 June 1961. This particular geographical multipoint, though notional since 1908, if not 1891, and definitely fixed and fully agreed since 1931, remains undemarcated, if not also undatumized, to this day.

==Quadripoints within and between nations==
[[File:Nebraska-SE-counties-PLSS.png|thumb|300px|right|A map of southeastern [[List of counties in Nebraska|Nebraska]], from about [[Gage County, Nebraska|Gage County]] to [[Hall County, Nebraska|Hall County]], showing [[County (United States)|county]] lines in black and [[Public Land Survey System|PLSS]] [[Survey township|township]] lines in purple. In many parts of the United States county lines are based on PLSS townships and [[Section (United States land surveying)|sections]]. There are occasional jogs in the grid, due to correction lines.]]

Quadripoints can exist at the meeting of political subdivisions of any type(s) or level(s). The most common are in the United States and Canada, where the grid-based Public Land Survey System (PLSS) and Dominion Land Surveys (DLS), respectively, resulted in a large number of quadripoints at the corners of survey units such as DLS townships, PLSS townships, sections, and various other gridded subdivisions. The borders of U.S. counties and towns are often defined by survey townships. There are dozens of quadripoints between U.S. counties, hundreds between U.S. municipalities, and indeed thousands (of usually bilateral ones) on the edges of checkerboard-patterned Indian reservations and other federally reserved territories. But of all the quadripoints that exist, the most noted are a few dozen that are situated on international borders, and about a dozen others involve primary national subdivisions (such as provinces or states).

Among the international quadripoints (examples below) a few general types can be distinguished. In the absence of four-country points, three-country quadripoints are perhaps most significant. These combine two divisions of one country with (one each of) two other countries. But there also exist merely binational quadripoints—of several varieties. Some of these combine two subdivisions of two countries, others three subdivisions of one country with (one of) another; while still others occur at points where international boundaries appear to touch or cross themselves—with or without subdivision—or where an international boundary appears to bifurcate around disputed territories.

Also below, by country, some quadripoints composed only of primary subdivisions.

===Argentina===
The [[Argentina|Argentine]] provinces of [[La Pampa Province|La Pampa]], [[Río Negro Province|Río Negro]], [[Mendoza Province|Mendoza]], and [[Neuquén Province|Neuquén]] may meet at {{coord|37|34|00|S|68|14|00|W|region:AR_scale:2000000}}. Rio Negro has disputed this since a 1966 resurvey cast the exact boundary convergence into some doubt. {{citation needed|date=November 2010}}

===Austria/Germany===

On the summit of [[Sorgschrofen]] peak, the international boundary touches (or crosses) itself at marker number 110, where two Austrian (Tyrolean: Reutte) and two German (Bavarian: Oberallgäu, Ostallgäu) municipalities meet at a quadripoint established politically in 1844, cadastrally 1342 or earlier: (in clockwise order) Jungholz AT, Pfronten DE, Schattwald AT, and Bad Hindelang DE.

===Bangladesh/India===
The international boundary touches (or crosses) itself at one (or possibly two) locations shared by India ([[West Bengal]] state, [[Cooch Behar district]]) and Bangladesh ([[Rangpur Division]], [[Lalmonirhat District]]). A confirmed instance occurs in [[Mathabhanga subdivision]] and a less definite one in [[Mekhliganj subdivision]] (of Cooch Behar), involving the Bara Saradubi enclave of Hatibandha thana and the Jote Nijjama enclave of [[Patgram]] thana (of Lalmonirhat), respectively. Additional political subdivision do not appear to result in either case. Its (or their) international stature has been intermittent since Mughal times and is a result of the [[Radcliffe Award]] of 1947.<ref>http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/baarle/coochbehar.gif</ref><ref>Waiting for the Eskimo: An historical and documentary study of the Cooch Behar enclaves of India and Bangladesh (Research paper) by Brendan R Whyte. School of Anthropology, Geography and Environmental Studies, 2002, University of Melbourne, figure 5b on page 479 and figure 4b on page 473, respectively, both instances personally attested by author expert at http://article.gmane.org/gmane.culture.discuss.boundary-point/8342</ref>

===Belgium/Netherlands===
[[File:Baarle-Nassau - Baarle-Hertog-nl.png|thumb|200px|right|The international boundaries in Baarle between Belgium (dark yellow) and Netherlands (pale yellow), with several enclaves and exclaves.]]
The international boundary touches (or crosses) itself, without imparting political subdivision, within the commingled municipalities of [[Baarle-Nassau]] (North Brabant, Netherlands) and [[Baarle-Hertog]] (Antwerp, Belgium). The peculiar situation, which occurs at Baarle but once, has existed at least [[Cadastre|cadastrally]] since about 1198, but its current international distinction dates only from 1830.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/baarle.htm |title=Baarle Nassau and Baarle Hertog |publisher=Ontology.buffalo.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://ontology.buffalo.edu/smith/baarle/baarlemap.html |title=quadripoint is shown just below and right of center of map above the word Rethse |publisher=Ontology.buffalo.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref>

===Canada===
{{main|Four corners (Canada)}}
The creation of the [[Provinces and territories of Canada|Canadian territory]] of [[Nunavut]] might have resulted in the creation of a quadripoint between the provinces of [[Saskatchewan]] and [[Manitoba]] and the territories of Nunavut and [[Northwest Territories]] (NWT). Nunavut was officially separated from the Northwest Territories in 1999, though the boundaries had been defined in 1993 by the Nunavut Act and the [[Nunavut Land Claims Agreement]]. Both documents define Nunavut's boundary as including the ''intersection of 60°00'N latitude with 102°00'W longitude, being the intersection of the Manitoba, Northwest Territories and Saskatchewan borders.'' However, the northernmost point of the Manitoba–Saskatchewan border as surveyed is slightly off from 60° north 102° west, therefore the laws are not perfectly clear about whether the Nunavut–NWT boundary, which has not been surveyed, is to meet the others in a quadripoint or not.<ref>{{cite web |title= Nunavut Act |publisher= Department of Justice, Canada |url= http://laws.justice.gc.ca/eng/N-28.6/FullText.html |accessdate= 28 October 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title= Nunavut Land Claims Agreement |publisher= [[Nunavut Tunngavik Incorporated]] |url= http://www.tunngavik.com/documents/publications/1993-00-00-Nunavut-Land-Claims-Agreement-English.pdf |accessdate= 28 October 2010}}</ref>{{#tag:ref|Although both the Nunavut Act and the Nunavut Land Claims Agreement state the intersection of 60°00'N latitude and 102°00'W longitude as the boundary between Manitoba, Saskatchewan, and the Northwest Territories, the actual, legal boundary point is marked by a [[Survey marker|survey monument]] [[boundary marker]] placed by the Manitoba Saskatchewan Boundary Commission in 1962.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bjbsoftware.com/corners/pointdetail.php3?point=139|title=Manitoba - Northwest Territories - Nunavut - Saskatchewan Multi-point|publisher=The Corner Corner|accessdate=2010-07-29}}</ref> According to [[Natural Resources Canada]], Geodetic Survey Division, that monument's precise location is {{coord|59|59|57.98511|N|102|0|27.24027|W|type:landmark_region:CA_dim:20000|display=inline}} ([[North American Datum|NAD83]]), or about {{convert|400|m}} west and slightly south of 60°N by 102°W.<ref>[http://www.geod.nrcan.gc.ca/online_data_e.php Canadian Spatial Reference System Online Database], Natural Resources Canada, Geodetic Survey Division. GSD LONG Report for: "MON 157 (name), 674002 (unique number)" (online database requires free registration).</ref> |name=nunavut|group=n}}

===Canada/United States of America===
Both of the only known international quadripoints in the Western Hemisphere occur on the Canadian-American border along remote mountain crests. One, which joins the Canadian provinces of Alberta (Improvement District Number 4) and British Columbia (Regional District of East Kootenay) with the Montana counties of Flathead and Glacier where the 49th parallel crosses the Continental Divide also unites an international peace park comprising national parks of both countries (Waterton Lakes and Glacier, respectively). It has been a politically important and precisely stipulated international boundary point since 1818; has been monumented since 1876 (now by a hollow metallic obeliskoid marker numbered 272); and has maintained a quadripartite status since 1893.<ref>Boundaries of the United States and the Several States, Van Zandt, supra, p. 14, 21</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://historical-county.newberry.org/website/Montana/viewer.htm |title= + theTitle + |publisher=Historical-county.newberry.org |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://mapserver.mytopo.com/homepage/index.cfm?lat=48.996182000000005&lon=-114.068995&scale=24000&zoom=100&type=1&icon=0&width=498&height=498&searchscope=dom&CFID=900660&CFTOKEN=45105238&scriptfile=http://mapserver.mytopo.com/homepage/index.cfm&latlontype=DMS |title=mapserver.mytopo.com |publisher=mapserver.mytopo.com |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://atlas.nrcan.gc.ca/site/english/maps/historical/territorialevolution/ |title=The Atlas of Canada - Territorial Evolution |publisher=Atlas.nrcan.gc.ca |date=2009-02-26 |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref>

The other of the pair occurs in the international boundary sector known as the Highlands, on the ridge separating the Gulf of Saint Lawrence watershed from the Gulf of Maine watershed, where three minor civil divisions of the state of Maine—namely Dennistown Plantation, Forsyth, and Sandy Bay Townships, all in Somerset County—meet Le Granit Regional County Municipality of the province of Quebec. This quadripoint, which was legally delimited in 1873 and validated in 1895, is marked (like all the corners of the minor civil divisions of Maine) by a brightly painted 8-foot wooden pole.<ref>Maine Geological Survey</ref><ref>http://docs.unh.edu/ME/attn25nw.jpg</ref><ref>Private and Special Laws (of Maine) 1895, Chapter 123, dated 5 March 1895, pursuant to Maine State Statutes (Secretary of State's Miscellaneous Papers, IV, p.53, dated 12 April 1873</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://factfinder.census.gov/servlet/ThematicMapFramesetServlet?_bm=y&-_MapEvent=&-errMsg=&-_useSS=N&-_dBy=100&-redoLog=false&-_zoomLevel=&-tm_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U_M00090&-tm_config=%7Cb=50%7Cl=en%7Ct=4001%7Czf=0.0%7Cms=thm_def%7Cdw=0.023158614706014335%7Cdh=0.012105159400508207%7Cdt=gov.census.aff.domain.map.EnglishMapExtent%7Cif=gif%7Ccx=-70.41842015335718%7Ccy=45.71267932787573%7Czl=2%7Cpz=2%7Cbo=%7Cbl=%7Cft=350:349:335:389:388:332:331%7Cfl=403:381:204:380:369:379:368%7Cg=06000US2302517285%7Cds=DEC_2000_SF1_U%7Csb=50%7Ctud=false%7Cdb=100%7Cmn=0%7Cmx=667%7Ccc=1%7Ccm=1%7Ccn=5%7Ccb=%7Cum=Persons/Sq%20Mile%7Cpr=0%7Cth=DEC_2000_SF1_U_M00090%7Csf=N%7Csg=&-PANEL_ID=tm_result&-_pageY=537&-_lang=en&-geo_id=06000US2302517285&-_pageX=428&-_mapY=204&-_mapX=267&-_latitude=&-_pan=&-ds_name=DEC_2000_SF1_U&-_longitude=&-_changeMap=ZoomIn |title=factfinder.census.gov |publisher=factfinder.census.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref>

===Croatia/Hungary/Serbia===
At a delimitation point determined partly following World War I and partly following World War II, and indirectly monumented by international pillars 415 and 420 on respective riverbanks, there is on the [[thalweg]] (center of downstream navigation channel) of the Danube a trinational quadripoint, where the Hungarian counties of Baranya and Bacs-Kiskun meet the Croatian county of Osječko-Baranjska and the Serbian (Vojvodina) District of West Bačka in practical fact (though Croatia continues to claim its former Yugoslav cadastral territory east of the Danube, leaving the quadripoint technically unsettled).<ref>[http://en.poehali.org/maps/100k--l34-074.html downloadable map (English prompts available)]{{dead link|date=May 2012}}</ref><ref>http://www.nuim.ie/staff/dpringle/igu_wpm/mladen.pdf</ref>

===Dominican Republic/Haiti===
On the border of the Dominican Republic and Haiti, there is a binational quadripoint where two departments of Haiti, [[Centre Department|Centre]] and [[Ouest Department|Ouest]], meet two provinces of the Dominican Republic, [[Elias Pina]] and [[Independencia Province|Independencia]], at the ridge line of a feature that is called the [[Sierra de Neiba]] in the Dominican Republic and the [[Chaine du Trou de l'Eau]] in Haiti, and which a 19th-century communal boundary followed before the intersecting 20th-century international boundary was created.<ref> http://desdelavegardubsolis.blogspot.com/2013/03/ocupacion-haitiana.html</ref>

===Hungary/Slovakia===
The border between Hungary and Slovakia most probably leads the world in international quadrimunicipal points with no fewer than 5, but this border is also unique for hosting the only known pair of quadrimunicipal points in the world -- which are shared in common by the towns of Skaros, Slovakia, and Fuzer, Hungary, in conjunction with Trstene Pri Hornade, Slovakia, and Hollohaza, Hungary, in one case, and Slaska Huta, Slovakia, and Pusztafalu, Hungary, in the other. All these towns are in either the Kosice Okolie district of the Kosice region of Slovakia or the Borsod-Abauj-Zemplen county of Hungary.

===Kenya===
The borders of [[Embu County|Embu]], [[Kirinyaga County|Kirinyaga]], [[Muranga County|Murang'a]], [[Nyeri County|Nyeri]], [[Tharaka-Nithi County|Tharaka-Nithi]] and [[Meru County|Meru]] counties form a quadripoint on [[Mount Kenya]] at {{coord|0.166364|S|37.312200|E|}}.

The borders of [[Meru County|Meru]], [[Kitui County|Kitui]], [[Tana River County|Tana River]] and [[Isiolo County|Isiolo]] counties form another quadripoint at {{coord|0.077444|S|38.413065|E|}} on the [[Tana River (Kenya)|Tana River]].

===Lithuania/Poland/Russia===
At {{coord|54.36435|N|22.79228|E|}}, there is a trinational quadripoint: to the northwest is [[Russia]] (specifically the Russian exclave [[Kaliningrad Oblast]]); to the northeast [[Lithuania]]; and to the southwest and southeast two Voivodships (provinces) of [[Poland]]: [[Warmian-Masurian Voivodship]] and [[Podlaskie Voivodeship]].<ref>http://maps.msn.se/map.aspx?C=54.36435,22.79228&L=EUR&S=800,740&A=49</ref> The quadripoint exists thanks to the way the border between Poland and [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]] was defined in 1945 by the [[Potsdam Agreement]]. The new border between Poland and the USSR bisected Germany's former province of [[East Prussia]]; the northern part became Kaliningrad Oblast, and most of the southern part is now Warmia-Masuria.{{Citation needed|reason=Something more than a map link required to verify|date=November 2010}}

===Mexico===
In [[Mexico]] there is only one precise quadripoint at {{coord|24|33|00|N|100|48|00|W|region:MX_scale:2000000}}. The "Mojonera de los cuatro estados" ("Four State Boundary Stone") was built to mark the point where [[Coahuila]], [[Nuevo Leon]], [[San Luis Potosi]], and [[Zacatecas]] [[states of Mexico|states]] effectively meet.{{citation needed|date=November 2010}}

===Norway/Sweden===
On the border of Sweden and Norway, there is a binational quadripoint where two counties of Norway, [[Nord-Trøndelag]] and [[Nordland]], meet two counties of Sweden, [[Västerbotten County|Västerbotten]] and [[Jämtland County|Jämtland]], at international boundary marker number 204.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://kart.statkart.no/adaptive2/default.aspx?gui=1&lang=2 |title=(zoomable map) |publisher=Kart.statkart.no |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref><ref>[http://www.skogsstyrelsen.se/episerver4/templates/skogensparlor.aspx (zoomable map)]{{dead link|date=May 2012}}</ref> Though the marker dates from 1760, the point became a quadripoint in the 19th century and became international upon the dissolution of Sweden and Norway in 1905.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.baldwinsmaps.com/maps/610.jpg |title=baldwinsmaps.com |publisher=baldwinsmaps.com |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://translate.google.com/translate?js=n&prev=_t&hl=en&ie=UTF-8&layout=2&eotf=1&sl=no&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.adressa.no%2Fnyheter%2Farticle79264.ece |title=Google Translate |publisher=Translate.google.com |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref>

===Oman/Saudi Arabia/Yemen===
Amid the Empty Quarter of Arabia—as trilaterally agreed and monumented in 2006 precisely at the intersection of the 19th parallel and 52nd meridian (datum uncertain) -- Oman (governorate of Dhofar) and Saudi Arabia (emirate of Ash Sharqiyah) meet Yemen (and its governorates of Al Mahrah and Hadramawt), in a tricountry quadripoint.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=r4FJXXciuhsC&pg=PA286&lpg=PA286&dq=oman+saudi+yemen+trijunction&source=bl&ots=mQPI-5LWkL&sig=_Dng2V5mUA5R3bk7Y0mBqm8hG_U&hl=en&ei=cQboTMCLI4PGlQf1rt3ACQ&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=2&ved=0CBsQ6AEwAQ#v=onepage&q=oman%20saudi%20yemen%20trijunction&f=false |title=for tricountry point |publisher=Books.google.com |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mophp-ye.org/english/data.html |title=for official zip file of Yemeni governorate boundaries |publisher=Mophp-ye.org |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref>

===Poland/Slovakia===
At a secondary summit of Pilsko Peak called Gora Pieciu Kopcow, where there is situated a prominent turnpoint on the border of Poland and Slovakia that is evidently demarcated by a primary border marker numbered III/109, there lies a binational quadripoint at which the rural gmina or municipality of Jelesnia in Zywiec County of the Silesian Voivodeship of Poland apparently meets three municipalities of Namestovo District of Zilina Region of Slovakia called, respectively, Mutne, Oravske Vesele and Namestovo, tho it is unclear if the lastmentioned is an outlier of the eponymous district seat or just an unorganized territory of the Namestovo District itself.<ref>{{http://www.mapy.cc/beskidy/zywiecki/pilsko.jpg}}</ref>

===Sweden===
Since 2007, the [[Heby Municipality|municipality of Heby]] is transferred to [[Uppsala County]], and causing Heby of [[Uppsala County]] to border the counties of [[Västmanland County|Västmanland]], Dalarna and [[Gävleborg County|Gävleborg]] at the junction of [[Dalälven]] and Norrsundet in [[Färnebofjärden]]. This was previously a county-level tripoint when Heby is a part of [[Västmanland County|Västmanland]]. The point forms approximate right angles.

=== United Kingdom ===
Due to changes to the borders and numbers of administrative counties in the last century (see [[Administrative counties of England]]), no true quadripoint remains in the United Kingdom.

But quite apart from the few shire/county quadripoints that have actually existed in England (see History, above), mistaken claims of an extant one are sometimes made about a place near [[Stamford, Lincolnshire|Stamford]] where [[Rutland]], [[Lincolnshire]], [[Cambridgeshire]], and [[Northamptonshire]] seem to meet at a point ({{coord|52|38|25|N|0|29|40|W|}}). However, the location actually consists of two tripoints around 66 ft (20 metres) apart.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.blanchflower.org/tripoints/quad.html|title=A real quadripoint?|publisher=blanchflower.org}}</ref>

===United States===
[[File:Fourcorners.jpg|thumb|right|The [[boundary marker]] inscribed at the center of the [[Four Corners Monument]], the only state quadripoint in the [[United States]]; where [[Arizona]], [[Utah]], [[Colorado]], and [[New Mexico]] meet.]]

The [[Four Corners Monument]] is the only point in the [[United States]] where four states meet: [[Colorado]], [[Utah]], [[New Mexico]], and [[Arizona]] meet at [[right angle]]s. The United States first acquired the area now called [[Four Corners]] from [[Mexico]] after the [[Mexican–American War]] in 1848. In 1863 Congress created [[Arizona Territory]] from the western part of [[New Mexico Territory]]. The boundary was defined as a line running due south from the southwest corner of [[Colorado Territory]], which had been created in 1861. By defining one boundary as starting at the corner of another Congress ensured the eventual creation of four states meeting at a point, regardless of the inevitable errors of boundary surveying.<ref>{{cite book |last= Hubbard |first= Bill, Jr. |title= American Boundaries: the Nation, the States, the Rectangular Survey |year= 2009 |publisher= University of Chicago Press |isbn= 978-0-226-35591-7 |page= 164 |url= http://books.google.com/books?id=LMacwod5KLwC&pg=PA164 |accessdate= 14 November 2010}}</ref> The monument is centered at {{coord|36|59|56.31532|N|109|02|42.62019|W|}}.<ref name=FourCorners>{{cite web |date=2003-05-07 |url=http://www.ngs.noaa.gov/cgi-bin/ds_mark.prl?PidBox=AD9256 |title=Four Corners PID AD9256 |work=NGS Survey Monument Data Sheet |format=[[text file]] |publisher= United States National Geodetic Survey |accessdate=2006-12-26}}</ref>

===Void or dispute-pendant quadripoints===
A pair of conflicting territorial claims can give rise to a void or dispute-pendant quadripoint: of the territory in dispute and the adjacent undisputed territories of the claimants with a fourth territory (or void area) claimed by neither of them.

An international case of such a quadripoint on dry land can be inferred, if not actually found, in a remote area of the Nubian Desert involving both the [[Hala'ib Triangle]] and [[Bir Tawil]] (about midway between the River Nile and the Red Sea) where the long established but undemarcated international border along the 22nd parallel, as claimed by Egypt, is intersected by a similarly well established administrative boundary preferred and claimed by Sudan as the true international border.<ref>http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS018.pdf</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/maps/bs18.html |title=Boundary Study - bs 18 map |publisher=Law.fsu.edu |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref>

A practically identical situation occurs on the boundaries of the [[Ilemi Triangle]], where South Sudan enjoys a void quadripoint, in this case shared with Kenya.

Another occurrence—actually a chain of three such quadripoints linked to two separate unclaimed areas—is inferred where the southern end of the Alaska sector of the Canadian border aberrates into two crisscrossing versions or claim lines. These conflicting lines produce, besides two areas of overlapping claims, two small triangles of void or virtual high seas—one having two pendant quadripoints and the other a third, all identifiable at fairly precise geocoordinates—as they lurch through the narrows of Dixon Entrance toward their still indefinite boundary termination in the true high seas of the Pacific.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dur.ac.uk/resources/ibru/publications/full/bsb5-3_gray.pdf |title=figure 2, page 62 |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref><ref>http://www.internationalboundarycommission.org/coordinates/PortlandCanal.htm</ref>

Yet another quadripoint of this type exists on the disputed Thai-Cambodian boundary a short distance northeast of [[Preah Vihear Temple]].

And finally, combining the only other two (of the 7 known) unclaimed or void areas on Earth, is a seventh dispute-pendant quadripoint, at the South Pole. Being at once a simple bilateral quadripoint and a far more complicated intersection of claim limits (an elevenfold 6-country point), the South Pole example combines two parcels of virgin unclaimed land with two parcels of Antarctic Treaty regulated territory (which have been variously claimed, disputed, recognized, ignored, disowned, reclaimed, etc., as national sovereign territory by Argentina, Australia, Chile, France, Great Britain, and New Zealand, if not also Norway). But whatever the ultimate disposition of disputed national sovereignty, the intersection and quadripoint of two undisputedly pristine and two highly disputable territories endures.<ref>http://www.icsm.gov.au/mapping/images/antarctica.jpg</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nsf.gov/od/opp/antarct/anttrty.jsp |title=US NSF - OPP - ANT - The Antarctic Treaty |publisher=Nsf.gov |date= |accessdate=2012-05-14}}</ref> The void areas meet the polar quadripoint between the 90th and 150th meridian west longitude (Marie Byrd Land) and, again, between the 20th meridian west and 45th meridian east (this latter sector, of indefinite extent, owing to the Norwegian exclusion of the South Pole from Queen Maud Land), while sovereign or treaty-regulated areas converge at the polar quadripoint in the two intervals between the void areas.

== Multipoints of greater numerical complexity ==
[[File:Kuhankuono.JPG|thumb|150px|right|Kuhankuono border marker.]]
Quadripoints are remarkable because borders and territories, naturally and randomly formed, do not normally meet in groups of more than three (viz., at tripoints), and so quadripoints are as exceptional and perhaps also as rare and felicitous as 4-leaf clovers, which they also resemble numerically. Correspondingly and proportionally rarer are points of more than fourfold constituency, such as quintipoints, etc.

In [[Finland]] near [[Turku]], the borders of seven municipalities merge on the same point: [[Pöytyä]], [[Aura, Finland|Aura]], [[Turku]], [[Rusko]], [[Masku]], [[Nousiainen]] and [[Mynämäki]] meet on the [[Kuhankuono]] border marker in [[Kurjenrahka National Park]]. The oldest recorded mention of the point dates to 1381, and the number and identity of municipalities participating has varied, with eight being the largest number; in 2009, [[Yläne]] merged back to [[Pöytyä]], bringing the number back to seven.

Presently eight communities of three districts of Papua-New Guinea also meet at a single point, at the summit of Mt. Taraka on Bougainville Island, in North Solomons province. The communities are Lato, Motuna-Huyono and Koraru (within Boku district); Makis, Konnou and Wisai (in Buin district); and Bakong and Bakada (in Kieta district). The resulting octopoint is thus a higher-level tripoint as well. (B. Whyte)

A municipal octapoint likewise exists in the Philippines at the top of [[Mayon Volcano]], and a municipal sexipoint also exists in the Philippines at the top of nearby [[Mount Isarog]]. Multipoints of greater than quintuple complexity are exceedingly rare. (But it is hardly less remarkable that five counties of [[Florida]], United States, meet in the middle of [[Lake Okeechobee]], and that perhaps another dozen quintipoints of various levels of geopolitical subdivisions are scattered around the world.)

Yet in [[Northern Ireland]], no fewer than ten [[townland]]s meet at the summit of Knocklayd (clearly shown by Ordnance Survey mapping at point 311518 436392).<ref>{{https://mapshop.nidirect.gov.uk/CreateMap/BespokeProduct/4480262e-6417-4d3e-94f9-40a9e7c02604}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.creativeinput.net/work/websites/peatlands/archaeology/tombs_details/tombs_10.html |title=Archaeology > Sites > Tombs|year=2004 |work=Peatlands |publisher=Northern Ireland Environment and Heritage Service |accessdate=31 October 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://apps.ehsni.gov.uk/ambit/Details.aspx?MonID=594|title=CARN AN TRUAGH, KNOCKLAYD|work=Northern Ireland Sites and Monuments Records|publisher=[[Northern Ireland Environment Agency]]|accessdate=1 November 2014}}</ref> The townlands are, clockwise from noon, Broom-More, Tavnaghboy, Kilrobert, Clare Mountain, Aghaleck, Corvally, Essan, Cleggan, Stroan and Tullaghore.

[[File:Provincia di Catania colori.svg|thumb|150px|right|Map of municipalities in the province of Catania.]]
And similarly in [[Italy]], the borders of ten municipalities meet on the summit of [[Mount Etna]]. These municipalities are [[Adrano]], [[Biancavilla]], [[Belpasso]], [[Bronte, Sicily|Bronte]], [[Castiglione di Sicilia]], [[Maletto]], [[Nicolosi]], [[Randazzo]], [[Sant'Alfio]], [[Zafferana Etnea]]. But the territory of Bronte touches the summit of Mount Etna from two sides, making this decimunicipal point one of elevenfold complexity, and thus evidently the most complicated geopolitical multipoint anywhere north of the South Pole (see above section) if not indeed anywhere in the world.<ref>{{http://www.globalgeografia.com/italia/comuni_etna.htm}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Tripoint]]
* [[Maritime boundary]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|group=n}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2011}}

[[Category:Borders]]

Talk:Geology of Great Britain

2015-07-14T23:13:29Z

Ciaurlec: /* New key of the geological map of Great Britain */

{{WikiProject Geology|class=start
|importance=mid
||}}
{{WikiProject UK geography|class=start|importance=High}}
{{User:WildBot/m04|sect={{User:WildBot/m03|1|British industrial narrow gauge railways#Sand and gravel extraction|Sand and Gravel}}|m04}}

==Thanks==
Assuming it is the same anon behind all those edits, good work... I'm impressed with the work you've done on this page... though all those red links must look tempting for you to fill in.. :) [[User:Pcb21|Pete/Pcb21]] [[User_talk:Pcb21|(talk)]] 08:07, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Thanks - you're right, it was and it is :-) ! May get some time soon... 10:04 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

==Proposed move==
I propose that this article be moved to [[Geology of the British Isles]], a more natural title given its content, or be cropped and moved to [[Geology of Britain]], which currently redirects to here.

[[User:Lapsed Pacifist|Lapsed Pacifist]] 02:59, 26 August 2005 (UTC)

==Summary==
Is there a chance someone from here could take a quick look at [[British Isles#Geology]] and make sure it is an appropriate summary? [[User:EricR|EricR]] 16:54, 7 July 2006 (UTC)

==more work to be done==
Just popped in looking for any information about the Slyne-Erris Trough, since I'm going to be working there next month. Clearly a lot of work to be done. The major point that springs out from the page as it stands is that it refers to the "British Isles", but seems to ignore the western of the islands, Eire.
I'll have a look around and see if I can come up with a list of structural elements, an appropriate map, and so on.
[[User:A Karley|A Karley]] 06:19, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

Now, we are being accurate when we talk about the British Isles. Finally! If only the irredentists over on [[British Isles]] could accept the limits of Britain.... [[User:193.1.172.163|193.1.172.163]] 12:17, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

==Naming consensus?==
'''Paleogene and Neogene''': Aren't we now recommended to use the terms "Paleogene" and "Neogene" rather than "Tertiary" and "Quaternary"? The current [[Geologic time scale]] seems to imply that. The Neogene would run from the start of the Miocene to the present, i.e. the Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. I realise the older terms may be more familiar to readers, but Wikipedia is meant to be up to date etc, and the old terms could still be mentioned in passing. Any votes for or against please? ML. 15.10.06.

Well, no-one seems to be objecting, so I'll go ahead. ML. 22.10.06.

== Picture? ==

Although the title and article infer the British Isles, the only picture in the article is that of Great Britain and outlying islands. I think it would add more to the article if a larger image was used - one inclusive of both Ireland/Northern Ireland and Shetland, if at all possible. [[User:Mouse Nightshirt|Mouse Nightshirt]] 18:13, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

Theres no point in doing that since the page is about Great Britain and not the U.K [[Special:Contributions/125.237.108.15|125.237.108.15]] ([[User talk:125.237.108.15|talk]]) 04:50, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

No key on map, so I can't understand it. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/131.111.100.36|131.111.100.36]] ([[User talk:131.111.100.36|talk]]) 23:56, 28 May 2010 (UTC) 

== Help with ages of rocks of the Mendip Hills ==

Hi, Could any experts in UK geology help me with the [[Mendip Hills]] article. It is currently an FA candidate & another editor has queried the accuracy of the geology section. The article says :

"The Mendip Hills are the most southerly Carboniferous Limestone Upland in Britain and are comprised of three major anticlinal structures, each with a core of older [[Devonian]] [[sandstone]] and [[Silurian]] [[Volcanism|volcanic]] rocks. The latter are quarried for use in road construction and as a [[concrete]] aggregate.<ref name="EN" />

200 million years ago the Mendips were considerably higher and steeper than they are today.<ref name="Barrington">{{cite book |last=Barrington |first=Nicholas |authorlink= |coauthors=Stanton, William |title=Mendip: The Complete Caves and a View of the Hills |year=1977 |publisher=Cheddar Valley Press |location= Cheddar |isbn=0950145920}}</ref> Since then weathering has resulted in a range of surface features, including [[Canyon|gorges]], dry valleys, [[scree]]s and [[Sinkhole|swallets]]. These are complemented underground by a large number of [[Caves of the Mendip Hills|caves]], including [[Wookey Hole]], both beneath the [[plateau]] and at the base of the southern [[escarpment]]. There are also [[limestone pavement]]s, [[karst]] and a number of [[gorge]]s, most famously [[Cheddar Gorge and Caves|Cheddar Gorge]] and [[Burrington Combe]]. [[spring (hydrosphere)|Springs]], a number of which deposit [[tufa]], are a particular feature of the eastern part of the hills.<ref name="EN" />"

& the challenge is:

"Geology If it's Carboniferous Limestone, there's something wrong—or insufficiently explained—about the reference to "200 million years ago" (which is roughly Triassic/Jurassic). You'd better check this. It's not necessarily wrong, but the Carboniferous was roughly 360-300 Mya. US geological usage divides the Carboniferous into Mississipian & Pennsylvanian: I suggest you make it clear in which period the Mendips were formed "

Does anyone have the expertise to edit/ correct/ explain the article? Any help appreciated.— [[User:Rodw|Rod]] [[User talk:Rodw|talk]] 19:32, 29 March 2007 (UTC)
:For the hills to be 'higher and steeper 200 million years ago' they must have existed (as land) then, i.e. they must (now) consist of rock more than 200 million years old. Unfortunately someone seems to have muddied the water since the above comments by altering '200' to '200 to 300'. For the hills to consist of Carb. limestone they must clearly have been under water in Carboniferous times. [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] ([[User talk:Pterre|talk]]) 11:37, 5 April 2008 (UTC)

== Renaming this page ==
Hi, while this page calls itself the "Geology of the British Isles", it's actually a Geology of Britain. There are only a few references at all to Ireland and these are obviously put in as late additions that don't affect the overall content. Unless there's a reason not to, this page should be renamed "Geology of Great Britain". [[User:81.32.183.150|81.32.183.150]] 08:03, 15 June 2007 (UTC)

::This page is redirected from "Geology of the UK" and from "Geology of Britain". The page's contents obviously refer to the island of Great Britain and really to nothing else. This page shouldn't be called "Geology of the British Isles". I'll put in a request to move on Friday, unless there's objection here. [[User:Hughsheehy|Hughsheehy]] 12:12, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

:::I think it might be more constructive to concentrate efforts on improving the coverage of Irish geology within the article, rather than in name changes. While Irish geology coverage in the article is certainly inadequate, to solve that problem by deleting it altogether is hardly an improvement.--[[User:86.31.232.172|86.31.232.172]] 22:54, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

::::This page has apparently been misnamed for several years and no editors capable or willing to improve the coverage of Irish Geology have appeared in all that time. It's time to rename. [[User:83.39.134.72|83.39.134.72]] 10:53, 19 June 2007 (UTC)

== British spelling ==

Since this is an article about the British Isles it would be appropriate to use British English. I'm thinking in particular about Palaeogene, Palaeocene (with separate letters, not the æ thingumywhatsit), as used on current BGS maps for example . I was also brought up on Palaeomagnetic, Palaeozoic, Caenozoic, Palaeontology, etc. Any dissent? [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] ([[User talk:Pterre|talk]]) 11:18, 5 April 2008 (UTC)
: It occurs to me interested parties might not bother to look at this from their watch list as I followed it soon after with another edit elsewhere on the page. So I'm editing it again. Last chance to object! [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] ([[User talk:Pterre|talk]]) 16:59, 5 April 2008 (UTC)

==Rename==
As far as I can see, the article refers only to Great Britain, and the previous discussion on a rename/move had gone nowhere but never been opposed. Let me know if there's discussion. [[User:Wotapalaver|Wotapalaver]] ([[User talk:Wotapalaver|talk]]) 13:36, 13 May 2008 (UTC)

== Deleted map ==

Does anyone know the history leading up to the deletion of the geological map formerly illustrating this article? It seemed to be a scan of an old map that should be well out of copyright, and we have a number of maps derived from it still in use. [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] ([[User talk:Pterre|talk]]) 21:02, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

== Where is the map legend? ==

I was interested to note what the geology was where I lived. However the map used to illustrate this page is wonderfully colourful but has no indents to say what the different rocks types are making pretty but pointless as a reference aid.

I make my point based on being a layman and with no formal knowledge of geology.

It needs fixing with a legend. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/86.174.136.253|86.174.136.253]] ([[User talk:86.174.136.253|talk]]) 15:16, 13 April 2009 (UTC) 

:I have the same problem - beautiful colours but what do they refer to? [[User:Richerman|Richerman]] ([[User talk:Richerman|talk]]) 11:03, 20 October 2009 (UTC)

== Map At Top Useless Without A Key ==

Map At Top is Useless Without A Key —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/212.50.171.227|212.50.171.227]] ([[User talk:212.50.171.227|talk]]) 15:15, 10 October 2010 (UTC) 

:That's corrrect, the color legend is missing. --[[Special:Contributions/89.247.203.163|89.247.203.163]] ([[User talk:89.247.203.163|talk]]) 09:18, 30 January 2011 (UTC)

::In answer to the various calls for a key to be supplied for the map, I have attempted that by way of captioning, not having the ability to provide a colour key. Doubtless someone can improve on my descriptions of the colours though there's a difficulty with some of the colours being very similar and there being what appear to be errors, at least to my eye: the Permo-triassic sedimentary rocks of the Vale of Eden for example are similar in colour to volcanics of other ages and the Devonian of Scotland is a different colour from that of the Anglo-Welsh basin. Anyway it's a start, until a better map comes along. cheers [[User:Geopersona|Geopersona]] ([[User talk:Geopersona|talk]]) 05:36, 15 February 2012 (UTC)

== Where should "Geology of the British Isles" redirect to? ==

Currently it redirects to [[British Isles#Geology]], however, there is no such section on the [[British Isles]] page.

Should it be changed to [[British Isles#Geography]] (which does exist), or to [[Geology of Great Britain]] (Its discussion page currently redirects to this one)?

[[User:Wardog|Wardog]] ([[User talk:Wardog|talk]]) 09:09, 13 April 2011 (UTC)
: The latter, definitely. [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] ([[User talk:Pterre|talk]]) 09:45, 13 April 2011 (UTC)

I think this needs addressing; "Geology of the British Isles" still redirects to the [[British Isles]] article, where there is only a minimum of information. In order to reach this page (where the majority of the information is), readers have to follow a 'See also' from the British Isles 'Geography' section. There's a danger that some readers may not find this page. [[User:PaleCloudedWhite|PaleCloudedWhite]] ([[User talk:PaleCloudedWhite|talk]]) 08:08, 15 February 2012 (UTC)
:: We have [[Geology of Wales]], [[Geology of England]] and [[Geology of Scotland]] articles as well as [[Geology of Great Britain]] whilst [[Geology of the United Kingdom]] redirects to [[Geography_of_the_United_Kingdom#Geology]] and both [[Geology of Ireland]] and [[Geology of Northern Ireland]] redirect to [[Geography of Ireland]] - there is amongst all this , some degree of repetition. There's even a [[Geology of South Wales]] (which I've proposed be merged into the article covering all of Wales) and there's a somewhat 'stubby' [[Geology of Europe]] too. How much do we need - and to what extent should we simply refer readers on to a limited number of higher quality articles?
::PS Thanks PaleCloudedWhite for tidying up the errors I left in the article - bit careless on my part - more sleep required! cheers[[User:Geopersona|Geopersona]] ([[User talk:Geopersona|talk]]) 19:49, 15 February 2012 (UTC)
This question might be more intractable than I had previously thought - I hadn't realised that there were so many articles within this general arena. To complicate things even more, a quick perusal of previous comments on this talk page led me to look at past versions of the article, and I found that initially it was called 'Geology of the United Kingdom', then it was changed to 'Geology of the British Isles', and then to 'Geology of Great Britain'. This article seems to be reflecting the collective identity crisis of its islands' inhabitants! I think the problem for this article is that whereas it began by being about the geology of a defined {{em|political}} area (similar to [[Geology of England]] or [[Geology of Monmouthshire]]), it has sort of side-stepped into being an article about an area which is more {{em|geographically}} defined, and hence less true to its original concept. I think if it is accepted (and I think it is) that politically-defined areas can have articles about the geology within their boundaries, then I propose that actually this article reverts to having its original title: "Geology of the United Kingdom". I appreciate that objections might be raised about the consequent awkwardness of describing the geology of Ulster but not of the rest of Ireland, but this cannot in practise be any more awkward than describing the geology of a particular county and not mentioning the geology of its neighbouring counties. Is this making sense? [[User:PaleCloudedWhite|PaleCloudedWhite]] ([[User talk:PaleCloudedWhite|talk]]) 00:40, 16 February 2012 (UTC)
: In my opinion we either need the "British Isles" (or some politically neutral equivalent term), or we need "Great Britain" (the island). "United Kingdom" (which has already changed its meaning through time and might soon cease to exist if the Scots Nats get their way) makes no sense as a geological unit, any more than the individual counties do. [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] ([[User talk:Pterre|talk]]) 09:57, 16 February 2012 (UTC)
I had a bit of a re-think after posting my last comment, and am inclined to agree with [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] about treating the GB/UK more as a geological unit, although my reasoning is perhaps different. I don't see it as particularly problematic to have an article about the geology of a politically-defined area like a country or county, because I think non-geologists are more likely to read about the history of rocks etc. if it relates to 'their' area, and if they are written well such articles can thus provide an entry point to the subject. However in my view there is a specific problem with the geology of the UK/GB etc. for 2 reasons: firstly, there isn't sufficient differentiation in the scale of analysis between looking at the UK/GB and looking at its constituent countries (Wales, England etc), which leads to a certain amount of repitition (as noted above), and secondly, the issue of what exactly the UK/GB is in terms of political identity is, of course, a bit of a hot potato. Hence I think I now favour going for a politically neutral version of 'Geology of the British Isles' (which would probably be something like 'Geology of the Atlantic Archipelago', if that's the favoured term); this would sit between the articles covering the constituent countries ('Geology of England/Wales/Scotland' etc.) and the larger scale 'Geology of Europe'. Of course, such an approach would mean that someone would first have to expand the article to include the geology of the Irish republic.... [[User:PaleCloudedWhite|PaleCloudedWhite]] ([[User talk:PaleCloudedWhite|talk]]) 20:36, 16 February 2012 (UTC)

== New key of the geological map of Great Britain ==

I have detected the original codes of the colours of the map and used them for the explanation list.

I should have preferred to use a light grey background instead of using a framed rectangle for the white colour.--[[User:Ulamm|Ulamm]] ([[User talk:Ulamm|talk]]) 22:07, 6 May 2014 (UTC)

:I've corrected what appeared to be some unexpected and obvious errors in the map key. cheers [[User:Geopersona|Geopersona]] ([[User talk:Geopersona|talk]]) 19:53, 10 September 2014 (UTC)

I think there is a problem with this map. It seems to have changed from the originally uploaded map and I can find no explanation. For instance, the original has three areas with granite outcrops (red) on a greyish background in the Scottish Highlands, Galloway and West Wales. In the newer version of the maps, the granite areas are three differently colour-coded backgrounds. Also the Highlands background (an orange) doesn't exactly match any of the key colours. This makes me think there is a problem with the current map, but I don't know what the correct map should be. [[User:Jts1882|Jts1882]] ([[User talk:Jts1882|talk]]) 10:16, 21 April 2015 (UTC)
::User:Ulamm in an edit on 6 May 2014 helpfully introduced the coloured box key, replacing one that had purely been descriptive text earlier. It appears that some mismatches between map and key arose at this point though were not picked up on. Someone with more knowledge of colouring in Wikipedia than I have, might attempt a fix! cheers [[User:Geopersona|Geopersona]] ([[User talk:Geopersona|talk]]) 18:14, 21 April 2015 (UTC)
:::As you can see from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geology_Map_UK.svg its history], the map itself has not been changed since December 2011.
:::The reason for my edit of last year was that, in the all-verbal explanation, more colours had been listed, than the map contains. You can read the codes of the colours in the source code of the key. I checked all areas of the map where more colours had been described.
:::I had noticed that bias, when I tried to translate the key to German.
:::Of course, I had a problem to reduce the discrimitations in the correct way. My only reference was my (German) school atlas, and that does not show Great Britain as detailed as this map.--[[User:Ulamm|Ulamm]] ([[User talk:Ulamm|talk]]) 21:09, 22 April 2015 (UTC)
:::::Difficult material to start to work with! Detailed on-line geological detail of all of the United Kingdom is available by using the geological map viewer at http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/geologyOfBritain/viewer.html - that ought to resolve any outstanding difficulties. cheers [[User:Geopersona|Geopersona]] ([[User talk:Geopersona|talk]]) 03:22, 23 April 2015 (UTC)
:::That's a nice map, you've linked.
:::To apply the informations of a more detailed map with a larger scale of classifications on the explanation of the Commons-map, is a challenge, too.
:::I've detected the colours.
:::I do not object against any improvement of the text.
:::If you are ready, I shall start to translate it :) [[User:Ulamm|Ulamm]] ([[User talk:Ulamm|talk]]) 12:44, 23 April 2015 (UTC)
:::P.S.: About a year ago, I had another geological problem. In the scientific sources on [[Moray Firth]] and its side-firths, some forms are derived on a maritime origin, which are common as well in freshwater fjords in the Alps. A typical feature are narrows caused by delta-like deposits of gravel, transported by lateral affluents.--[[User:Ulamm|Ulamm]] ([[User talk:Ulamm|talk]]) 12:44, 23 April 2015 (UTC)
::I agree there were problems introduced in the 2011 change to colour scheme. Our key has 20 colours. The [/media/wikipedia/commons/archive/5/55/20110701124619%21Geology_Map_UK.svg old version of the map] had 20 colours. There are 32 colours (excluding black) in the current map. I have left a note on the editor's [[c:User_talk:Ciaurlec|talk page]]. [[User:Burninthruthesky|Burninthruthesky]] ([[User talk:Burninthruthesky|talk]]) 08:55, 13 July 2015 (UTC)
:::Hallo, the color scheme here added in the key is not completely conform to the one i used when i edited that map [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aide:Cartographie#Cr.C3.A9ation:_Conventions_et_Recommandations (Palette pour la géologie v. 1.0 (Wikigeologic_age_1.0.gpl))]. Even if i'm not a specialist of british stratigraphy i guess the problem is limited about the proterozoic series. Surely [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_geological_map-en.jpg this] file could be useful to distinguish the gross lithology differencies. Regards. [[User:Ciaurlec|Ciaurlec]] ([[User talk:Ciaurlec|talk]]) 13:15, 13 July 2015 (UTC)
:::I try tentatively to suggest some solutions 1)Vale of Eden: probably the volcanics outcorp are of a bigger extent than that indicated on map by the red spots. So the polylines have to be modified. 2)Devonian outcrops: you could try to look if theese colours refers on different devonian stages (early-midle-late devonian), but it have probaly to be an error of mine. 3)Intrusives: it's probably another mismatch of mine. The legend i used wasn't useful for for non-sedimentariy rocks. I probably was inspired by [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geologic_map_Wales_%26_SW_England_EN.svg that] to distinguish the various ages. 4)Highlands: here i was sure i used the orange because of neoproterozoic age origin of rocks. Last but not least: remeber that the map could be useful for similar projects on other languages. In example "Lewisian" (that i tagged as paleoproterozoic) is a local term, by far the more appropriate for an english wikpedia article, but difficultly realtionable to other similar ages outcrops. So please don't change the file only to match the key you use in this arcticle, but consider other usages too. Regards. --[[User:Ciaurlec|Ciaurlec]] ([[User talk:Ciaurlec|talk]]) 14:22, 13 July 2015 (UTC)
::::Thank you for your help. I have no specialist knowledge in geology, so I don't know the best solution, but I fully support the principle of using uniform colours throughout the Wikipedia projects. In terms of pure data, I see some colours defined in this SVG that are not listed in [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aide:Cartographie#Cr.C3.A9ation:_Conventions_et_Recommandations (Palette pour la géologie v. 1.0 (Wikigeologic_age_1.0.gpl))] (they are: c87137 ffaaaa c81446 ff0000 ffd42a 93ac93 c6afe9). It would be good to have these, and our own key, all in sync. [[User:Burninthruthesky|Burninthruthesky]] ([[User talk:Burninthruthesky|talk]]) 14:53, 13 July 2015 (UTC)
::::I've made a start at improving the legend by adding Neoproterozoic and updating Devonian to cb8c37. This matches the French legend linked above and the map in Devon but areas of Scotland match the previous colour (c87137) – I assume these areas should be changed to match cb8c37?
::::I could have added Jurassic (e2f4e0) and Permian (f09652) to the legend, but as a non-geologist, I don't know if it makes sense to talk about Jurassic and upper Jurassic in the same list. Is one a subset of the other?
::::Also, the map has Proterozoic represented as both fb9a94 and 408521. I guess they should all be changed to fb9a94?
::::I see now that some of the colours are missing from the French legend because they represent non-sedimentary rocks. I think there are still some more mismatched colours to sort out. [[User:Burninthruthesky|Burninthruthesky]] ([[User talk:Burninthruthesky|talk]]) 09:22, 14 July 2015 (UTC)
:::::If the missing colours are about ignous rocks it could be nice to create some new colours. There is a general agreement in the various geological maps in using reddish tones for acid ignous (i.e. granite); but there is less agreement for the basic ones, that sometimes are depicted with darker tones, sometimes with other shades ranging from reddish-purple, passing blues till turquoises! For the metamorphics there is less more agreement, ranging from fuchsia, to bright greens! I can only suggest to evitate yellows, due to their use in recent sediments, (quaternary, mostly studied by geomorphologists) that are normally unindicated in maps of this scale.
:::::Frenchs develops a coulour key similar to the one used [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geologic_time_scale there] where systems=periods are defined, as you smartly guessed there are some "subsets" (and some "suprasets" too), due to the difficulty of dating some some outcrops (i.e. Lewisian that is a pre-Cambrian one), or to the great extent of some "subsets" (i.e. Lower cretaceous in the Weald area). So the file you're working to, comprehend such more detailed lithologic definitions (series=epoch), that you could find on the right side of french legend. I think that when possible it could be ok distinguish them, couldn't you add such "distincition" on the key? PS:I take a look at welsh/scottish devonian: i guess you could merge them.[[User:Ciaurlec|Ciaurlec]] ([[User talk:Ciaurlec|talk]]) 23:13, 14 July 2015 (UTC)

Talk:Geology of Great Britain

2015-07-13T14:22:46Z

Ciaurlec: /* New key of the geological map of Great Britain */

Talk:Geology of Great Britain

2015-07-13T13:30:56Z

Ciaurlec: /* New key of the geological map of Great Britain */

Talk:Geology of Great Britain

2015-07-13T13:15:33Z

Ciaurlec: /* New key of the geological map of Great Britain */

{{WikiProject Geology|class=start
|importance=mid
||}}
{{WikiProject UK geography|class=start|importance=High}}
{{User:WildBot/m04|sect={{User:WildBot/m03|1|British industrial narrow gauge railways#Sand and gravel extraction|Sand and Gravel}}|m04}}

==Thanks==
Assuming it is the same anon behind all those edits, good work... I'm impressed with the work you've done on this page... though all those red links must look tempting for you to fill in.. :) [[User:Pcb21|Pete/Pcb21]] [[User_talk:Pcb21|(talk)]] 08:07, 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

Thanks - you're right, it was and it is :-) ! May get some time soon... 10:04 27 Apr 2004 (UTC)

==Proposed move==
I propose that this article be moved to [[Geology of the British Isles]], a more natural title given its content, or be cropped and moved to [[Geology of Britain]], which currently redirects to here.

[[User:Lapsed Pacifist|Lapsed Pacifist]] 02:59, 26 August 2005 (UTC)

==Summary==
Is there a chance someone from here could take a quick look at [[British Isles#Geology]] and make sure it is an appropriate summary? [[User:EricR|EricR]] 16:54, 7 July 2006 (UTC)

==more work to be done==
Just popped in looking for any information about the Slyne-Erris Trough, since I'm going to be working there next month. Clearly a lot of work to be done. The major point that springs out from the page as it stands is that it refers to the "British Isles", but seems to ignore the western of the islands, Eire.
I'll have a look around and see if I can come up with a list of structural elements, an appropriate map, and so on.
[[User:A Karley|A Karley]] 06:19, 13 July 2006 (UTC)

Now, we are being accurate when we talk about the British Isles. Finally! If only the irredentists over on [[British Isles]] could accept the limits of Britain.... [[User:193.1.172.163|193.1.172.163]] 12:17, 19 July 2006 (UTC)

==Naming consensus?==
'''Paleogene and Neogene''': Aren't we now recommended to use the terms "Paleogene" and "Neogene" rather than "Tertiary" and "Quaternary"? The current [[Geologic time scale]] seems to imply that. The Neogene would run from the start of the Miocene to the present, i.e. the Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene and Holocene epochs. I realise the older terms may be more familiar to readers, but Wikipedia is meant to be up to date etc, and the old terms could still be mentioned in passing. Any votes for or against please? ML. 15.10.06.

Well, no-one seems to be objecting, so I'll go ahead. ML. 22.10.06.

== Picture? ==

Although the title and article infer the British Isles, the only picture in the article is that of Great Britain and outlying islands. I think it would add more to the article if a larger image was used - one inclusive of both Ireland/Northern Ireland and Shetland, if at all possible. [[User:Mouse Nightshirt|Mouse Nightshirt]] 18:13, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

Theres no point in doing that since the page is about Great Britain and not the U.K [[Special:Contributions/125.237.108.15|125.237.108.15]] ([[User talk:125.237.108.15|talk]]) 04:50, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

No key on map, so I can't understand it. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/131.111.100.36|131.111.100.36]] ([[User talk:131.111.100.36|talk]]) 23:56, 28 May 2010 (UTC) 

== Help with ages of rocks of the Mendip Hills ==

Hi, Could any experts in UK geology help me with the [[Mendip Hills]] article. It is currently an FA candidate & another editor has queried the accuracy of the geology section. The article says :

"The Mendip Hills are the most southerly Carboniferous Limestone Upland in Britain and are comprised of three major anticlinal structures, each with a core of older [[Devonian]] [[sandstone]] and [[Silurian]] [[Volcanism|volcanic]] rocks. The latter are quarried for use in road construction and as a [[concrete]] aggregate.<ref name="EN" />

200 million years ago the Mendips were considerably higher and steeper than they are today.<ref name="Barrington">{{cite book |last=Barrington |first=Nicholas |authorlink= |coauthors=Stanton, William |title=Mendip: The Complete Caves and a View of the Hills |year=1977 |publisher=Cheddar Valley Press |location= Cheddar |isbn=0950145920}}</ref> Since then weathering has resulted in a range of surface features, including [[Canyon|gorges]], dry valleys, [[scree]]s and [[Sinkhole|swallets]]. These are complemented underground by a large number of [[Caves of the Mendip Hills|caves]], including [[Wookey Hole]], both beneath the [[plateau]] and at the base of the southern [[escarpment]]. There are also [[limestone pavement]]s, [[karst]] and a number of [[gorge]]s, most famously [[Cheddar Gorge and Caves|Cheddar Gorge]] and [[Burrington Combe]]. [[spring (hydrosphere)|Springs]], a number of which deposit [[tufa]], are a particular feature of the eastern part of the hills.<ref name="EN" />"

& the challenge is:

"Geology If it's Carboniferous Limestone, there's something wrong—or insufficiently explained—about the reference to "200 million years ago" (which is roughly Triassic/Jurassic). You'd better check this. It's not necessarily wrong, but the Carboniferous was roughly 360-300 Mya. US geological usage divides the Carboniferous into Mississipian & Pennsylvanian: I suggest you make it clear in which period the Mendips were formed "

Does anyone have the expertise to edit/ correct/ explain the article? Any help appreciated.— [[User:Rodw|Rod]] [[User talk:Rodw|talk]] 19:32, 29 March 2007 (UTC)
:For the hills to be 'higher and steeper 200 million years ago' they must have existed (as land) then, i.e. they must (now) consist of rock more than 200 million years old. Unfortunately someone seems to have muddied the water since the above comments by altering '200' to '200 to 300'. For the hills to consist of Carb. limestone they must clearly have been under water in Carboniferous times. [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] ([[User talk:Pterre|talk]]) 11:37, 5 April 2008 (UTC)

== Renaming this page ==
Hi, while this page calls itself the "Geology of the British Isles", it's actually a Geology of Britain. There are only a few references at all to Ireland and these are obviously put in as late additions that don't affect the overall content. Unless there's a reason not to, this page should be renamed "Geology of Great Britain". [[User:81.32.183.150|81.32.183.150]] 08:03, 15 June 2007 (UTC)

::This page is redirected from "Geology of the UK" and from "Geology of Britain". The page's contents obviously refer to the island of Great Britain and really to nothing else. This page shouldn't be called "Geology of the British Isles". I'll put in a request to move on Friday, unless there's objection here. [[User:Hughsheehy|Hughsheehy]] 12:12, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

:::I think it might be more constructive to concentrate efforts on improving the coverage of Irish geology within the article, rather than in name changes. While Irish geology coverage in the article is certainly inadequate, to solve that problem by deleting it altogether is hardly an improvement.--[[User:86.31.232.172|86.31.232.172]] 22:54, 18 June 2007 (UTC)

::::This page has apparently been misnamed for several years and no editors capable or willing to improve the coverage of Irish Geology have appeared in all that time. It's time to rename. [[User:83.39.134.72|83.39.134.72]] 10:53, 19 June 2007 (UTC)

== British spelling ==

Since this is an article about the British Isles it would be appropriate to use British English. I'm thinking in particular about Palaeogene, Palaeocene (with separate letters, not the æ thingumywhatsit), as used on current BGS maps for example . I was also brought up on Palaeomagnetic, Palaeozoic, Caenozoic, Palaeontology, etc. Any dissent? [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] ([[User talk:Pterre|talk]]) 11:18, 5 April 2008 (UTC)
: It occurs to me interested parties might not bother to look at this from their watch list as I followed it soon after with another edit elsewhere on the page. So I'm editing it again. Last chance to object! [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] ([[User talk:Pterre|talk]]) 16:59, 5 April 2008 (UTC)

==Rename==
As far as I can see, the article refers only to Great Britain, and the previous discussion on a rename/move had gone nowhere but never been opposed. Let me know if there's discussion. [[User:Wotapalaver|Wotapalaver]] ([[User talk:Wotapalaver|talk]]) 13:36, 13 May 2008 (UTC)

== Deleted map ==

Does anyone know the history leading up to the deletion of the geological map formerly illustrating this article? It seemed to be a scan of an old map that should be well out of copyright, and we have a number of maps derived from it still in use. [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] ([[User talk:Pterre|talk]]) 21:02, 22 June 2008 (UTC)

== Where is the map legend? ==

I was interested to note what the geology was where I lived. However the map used to illustrate this page is wonderfully colourful but has no indents to say what the different rocks types are making pretty but pointless as a reference aid.

I make my point based on being a layman and with no formal knowledge of geology.

It needs fixing with a legend. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/86.174.136.253|86.174.136.253]] ([[User talk:86.174.136.253|talk]]) 15:16, 13 April 2009 (UTC) 

:I have the same problem - beautiful colours but what do they refer to? [[User:Richerman|Richerman]] ([[User talk:Richerman|talk]]) 11:03, 20 October 2009 (UTC)

== Map At Top Useless Without A Key ==

Map At Top is Useless Without A Key —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/212.50.171.227|212.50.171.227]] ([[User talk:212.50.171.227|talk]]) 15:15, 10 October 2010 (UTC) 

:That's corrrect, the color legend is missing. --[[Special:Contributions/89.247.203.163|89.247.203.163]] ([[User talk:89.247.203.163|talk]]) 09:18, 30 January 2011 (UTC)

::In answer to the various calls for a key to be supplied for the map, I have attempted that by way of captioning, not having the ability to provide a colour key. Doubtless someone can improve on my descriptions of the colours though there's a difficulty with some of the colours being very similar and there being what appear to be errors, at least to my eye: the Permo-triassic sedimentary rocks of the Vale of Eden for example are similar in colour to volcanics of other ages and the Devonian of Scotland is a different colour from that of the Anglo-Welsh basin. Anyway it's a start, until a better map comes along. cheers [[User:Geopersona|Geopersona]] ([[User talk:Geopersona|talk]]) 05:36, 15 February 2012 (UTC)

== Where should "Geology of the British Isles" redirect to? ==

Currently it redirects to [[British Isles#Geology]], however, there is no such section on the [[British Isles]] page.

Should it be changed to [[British Isles#Geography]] (which does exist), or to [[Geology of Great Britain]] (Its discussion page currently redirects to this one)?

[[User:Wardog|Wardog]] ([[User talk:Wardog|talk]]) 09:09, 13 April 2011 (UTC)
: The latter, definitely. [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] ([[User talk:Pterre|talk]]) 09:45, 13 April 2011 (UTC)

I think this needs addressing; "Geology of the British Isles" still redirects to the [[British Isles]] article, where there is only a minimum of information. In order to reach this page (where the majority of the information is), readers have to follow a 'See also' from the British Isles 'Geography' section. There's a danger that some readers may not find this page. [[User:PaleCloudedWhite|PaleCloudedWhite]] ([[User talk:PaleCloudedWhite|talk]]) 08:08, 15 February 2012 (UTC)
:: We have [[Geology of Wales]], [[Geology of England]] and [[Geology of Scotland]] articles as well as [[Geology of Great Britain]] whilst [[Geology of the United Kingdom]] redirects to [[Geography_of_the_United_Kingdom#Geology]] and both [[Geology of Ireland]] and [[Geology of Northern Ireland]] redirect to [[Geography of Ireland]] - there is amongst all this , some degree of repetition. There's even a [[Geology of South Wales]] (which I've proposed be merged into the article covering all of Wales) and there's a somewhat 'stubby' [[Geology of Europe]] too. How much do we need - and to what extent should we simply refer readers on to a limited number of higher quality articles?
::PS Thanks PaleCloudedWhite for tidying up the errors I left in the article - bit careless on my part - more sleep required! cheers[[User:Geopersona|Geopersona]] ([[User talk:Geopersona|talk]]) 19:49, 15 February 2012 (UTC)
This question might be more intractable than I had previously thought - I hadn't realised that there were so many articles within this general arena. To complicate things even more, a quick perusal of previous comments on this talk page led me to look at past versions of the article, and I found that initially it was called 'Geology of the United Kingdom', then it was changed to 'Geology of the British Isles', and then to 'Geology of Great Britain'. This article seems to be reflecting the collective identity crisis of its islands' inhabitants! I think the problem for this article is that whereas it began by being about the geology of a defined {{em|political}} area (similar to [[Geology of England]] or [[Geology of Monmouthshire]]), it has sort of side-stepped into being an article about an area which is more {{em|geographically}} defined, and hence less true to its original concept. I think if it is accepted (and I think it is) that politically-defined areas can have articles about the geology within their boundaries, then I propose that actually this article reverts to having its original title: "Geology of the United Kingdom". I appreciate that objections might be raised about the consequent awkwardness of describing the geology of Ulster but not of the rest of Ireland, but this cannot in practise be any more awkward than describing the geology of a particular county and not mentioning the geology of its neighbouring counties. Is this making sense? [[User:PaleCloudedWhite|PaleCloudedWhite]] ([[User talk:PaleCloudedWhite|talk]]) 00:40, 16 February 2012 (UTC)
: In my opinion we either need the "British Isles" (or some politically neutral equivalent term), or we need "Great Britain" (the island). "United Kingdom" (which has already changed its meaning through time and might soon cease to exist if the Scots Nats get their way) makes no sense as a geological unit, any more than the individual counties do. [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] ([[User talk:Pterre|talk]]) 09:57, 16 February 2012 (UTC)
I had a bit of a re-think after posting my last comment, and am inclined to agree with [[User:Pterre|Pterre]] about treating the GB/UK more as a geological unit, although my reasoning is perhaps different. I don't see it as particularly problematic to have an article about the geology of a politically-defined area like a country or county, because I think non-geologists are more likely to read about the history of rocks etc. if it relates to 'their' area, and if they are written well such articles can thus provide an entry point to the subject. However in my view there is a specific problem with the geology of the UK/GB etc. for 2 reasons: firstly, there isn't sufficient differentiation in the scale of analysis between looking at the UK/GB and looking at its constituent countries (Wales, England etc), which leads to a certain amount of repitition (as noted above), and secondly, the issue of what exactly the UK/GB is in terms of political identity is, of course, a bit of a hot potato. Hence I think I now favour going for a politically neutral version of 'Geology of the British Isles' (which would probably be something like 'Geology of the Atlantic Archipelago', if that's the favoured term); this would sit between the articles covering the constituent countries ('Geology of England/Wales/Scotland' etc.) and the larger scale 'Geology of Europe'. Of course, such an approach would mean that someone would first have to expand the article to include the geology of the Irish republic.... [[User:PaleCloudedWhite|PaleCloudedWhite]] ([[User talk:PaleCloudedWhite|talk]]) 20:36, 16 February 2012 (UTC)

== New key of the geological map of Great Britain ==

I have detected the original codes of the colours of the map and used them for the explanation list.

I should have preferred to use a light grey background instead of using a framed rectangle for the white colour.--[[User:Ulamm|Ulamm]] ([[User talk:Ulamm|talk]]) 22:07, 6 May 2014 (UTC)

:I've corrected what appeared to be some unexpected and obvious errors in the map key. cheers [[User:Geopersona|Geopersona]] ([[User talk:Geopersona|talk]]) 19:53, 10 September 2014 (UTC)

I think there is a problem with this map. It seems to have changed from the originally uploaded map and I can find no explanation. For instance, the original has three areas with granite outcrops (red) on a greyish background in the Scottish Highlands, Galloway and West Wales. In the newer version of the maps, the granite areas are three differently colour-coded backgrounds. Also the Highlands background (an orange) doesn't exactly match any of the key colours. This makes me think there is a problem with the current map, but I don't know what the correct map should be. [[User:Jts1882|Jts1882]] ([[User talk:Jts1882|talk]]) 10:16, 21 April 2015 (UTC)
::User:Ulamm in an edit on 6 May 2014 helpfully introduced the coloured box key, replacing one that had purely been descriptive text earlier. It appears that some mismatches between map and key arose at this point though were not picked up on. Someone with more knowledge of colouring in Wikipedia than I have, might attempt a fix! cheers [[User:Geopersona|Geopersona]] ([[User talk:Geopersona|talk]]) 18:14, 21 April 2015 (UTC)
:::As you can see from [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Geology_Map_UK.svg its history], the map itself has not been changed since December 2011.
:::The reason for my edit of last year was that, in the all-verbal explanation, more colours had been listed, than the map contains. You can read the codes of the colours in the source code of the key. I checked all areas of the map where more colours had been described.
:::I had noticed that bias, when I tried to translate the key to German.
:::Of course, I had a problem to reduce the discrimitations in the correct way. My only reference was my (German) school atlas, and that does not show Great Britain as detailed as this map.--[[User:Ulamm|Ulamm]] ([[User talk:Ulamm|talk]]) 21:09, 22 April 2015 (UTC)
:::::Difficult material to start to work with! Detailed on-line geological detail of all of the United Kingdom is available by using the geological map viewer at http://www.bgs.ac.uk/discoveringGeology/geologyOfBritain/viewer.html - that ought to resolve any outstanding difficulties. cheers [[User:Geopersona|Geopersona]] ([[User talk:Geopersona|talk]]) 03:22, 23 April 2015 (UTC)
:::That's a nice map, you've linked.
:::To apply the informations of a more detailed map with a larger scale of classifications on the explanation of the Commons-map, is a challenge, too.
:::I've detected the colours.
:::I do not object against any improvement of the text.
:::If you are ready, I shall start to translate it :) [[User:Ulamm|Ulamm]] ([[User talk:Ulamm|talk]]) 12:44, 23 April 2015 (UTC)
:::P.S.: About a year ago, I had another geological problem. In the scientific sources on [[Moray Firth]] and its side-firths, some forms are derived on a maritime origin, which are common as well in freshwater fjords in the Alps. A typical feature are narrows caused by delta-like deposits of gravel, transported by lateral affluents.--[[User:Ulamm|Ulamm]] ([[User talk:Ulamm|talk]]) 12:44, 23 April 2015 (UTC)
::I agree there were problems introduced in the 2011 change to colour scheme. Our key has 20 colours. The [/media/wikipedia/commons/archive/5/55/20110701124619%21Geology_Map_UK.svg old version of the map] had 20 colours. There are 32 colours (excluding black) in the current map. I have left a note on the editor's [[c:User_talk:Ciaurlec|talk page]]. [[User:Burninthruthesky|Burninthruthesky]] ([[User talk:Burninthruthesky|talk]]) 08:55, 13 July 2015 (UTC)
::Hallo, the color scheme added in the key is not conform to the one i used for the map [https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aide:Cartographie#Cr.C3.A9ation:_Conventions_et_Recommandations (Palette pour la géologie v. 1.0 (Wikigeologic_age_1.0.gpl))]. Even if i'm not a specialist of british stratigraphy i guess the problem is limited about the proterozoic series. Surely [https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Europe_geological_map-en.jpg this] file could be useful[[User:Ciaurlec|Ciaurlec]] ([[User talk:Ciaurlec|talk]]) 13:15, 13 July 2015 (UTC)

Calque

2015-04-05T18:25:07Z

Ciaurlec: /* Skyscraper */ sky-scraper would be "cielograttatore"

{{distinguish|Literal translation}}
{{Refimprove|article|date=March 2011}}
In [[linguistics]], a '''calque''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|æ|l|k}}) or '''loan translation''' is a [[word]] or [[phrase]] borrowed from another language by [[Literal translation|literal]], word-for-word ({{lang-la|verbum pro verbo}}) or root-for-root translation.

Used as a [[verb]], ''to calque'' means to borrow a word or phrase from another language while translating its components so as to create a new [[lexeme]] in the target language.

''Calque'' is a [[loanword]] from a French [[noun]], and derives from the [[verb]] ''calquer'' (to trace, to copy).<ref>[http://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Calque Calque, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000]</ref> "Loanword" is a calque of the [[German language|German]] ''Lehnwort'', just as "loan translation" is of ''Lehnübersetzung''.<ref>[http://germanenglishwords.com/ Robb: German English Words germanenglishwords.com]</ref>

Proving that a word is a calque sometimes requires more documentation than does an untranslated loanword because, in some cases, a similar phrase might have arisen in both languages independently. This is less likely to be the case when the grammar of the proposed calque is quite different from that of the borrowing language or when the calque contains less obvious imagery.

Calquing is distinct from [[phono-semantic matching]].<ref name="palgrave.com">{{cite book |last= [[Ghil'ad Zuckermann|Zuckermann]] |first= Ghil'ad |title= Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew |url= http://www.palgrave.com/products/title.aspx?is=140391723X |publisher= Palgrave Macmillan |year= 2003 |isbn= 1-4039-1723-X }}</ref> While calquing includes [[semantic]] [[translation]], it does not consist of [[phonetic]] matching (i.e. retaining the approximate [[sound]] of the [[loanword|borrowed]] [[word]] through matching it with a similar-sounding pre-existing [[word]] or [[morpheme]] in the target language).

==Types of calque==

One system classifies calques into five groups:<ref>May Smith, ''The Influence of French on Eighteenth-century Literary Russian'', p. 29-30.</ref>
* the '''semantic calque''', where additional meanings of the source word are transferred to the word with the same primary meaning in the target language;
* the '''phraseological calque''', where [[idiom|idiomatic phrases]] are translated word-for-word;
* the '''syntactic calque''', where a syntactic function or construction in the source language is imitated in the target language;
* the '''loan-translation''', where a word is translated [[morpheme]]-by-morpheme into another language;
* the '''morphological calque''', where the inflection of a word is transferred.

This terminology is not universal. Some authors call a morpheme-by-morpheme translation a "morphological calque".<ref name='gilliot'>Claude Gilliot, "The Authorship of the Qur'ān" in Gabriel Said Reynolds, ''The Qur'an in its Historical Context'', p. 97</ref>

== Examples ==
{{main|List of calques}}
=== ''Flea market'' ===
The common English phrase ''[[flea market]]'' is a phraseological calque of the French ''marché aux puces'' 'market with fleas',<ref name="autogenerated1">[http://www.bartleby.com/61/77/F0177700.html flea market. The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language: Fourth Edition. 2000]</ref> as are the German ''Flohmarkt'', Dutch ''vlooienmarkt'', Serbian ''buvlja pijaca'', Czech ''bleší trh'', Finnish ''kirpputori'', Hungarian ''bolhapiac'' and so on.

=== ''Skyscraper'' ===
An example of a morpheme-by-morpheme loan-translation is French [[:fr:gratte-ciel|''gratte-ciel'']] 'scrapes-sky', from English "[[skyscraper]]". Similarly:

{{div col|2}}
* [[Albanian language|Albanian]]: [[:sq:qiellgërvishtës|''qiellgërvishtës'']] ("sky-scraper")
* [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]]: [[:af:wolkekrabber|''wolkekrabber'']] ("clouds-scraper")
* [[Arabic language|Arabic]]: [[:ar:ناطحة سحاب|''ناطحة سحاب'']] (''nāṭiḥa suḥāb'', "clouds-rammer")
* [[Armenian language|Armenian]]: [[:hy:երկնաքեր|''երկնաքեր'']] (''yerg-n-a-ker'', "sky-scratcher")
* [[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]]: [[:tr:göydələn|''göydələn'']] ("sky-piercer")
* [[Bengali language|Bengali]]: "akash jharu আকাশ ঝাড়ু" ("sky-sweeper")
* [[Bosnian language|Bosnian]]: [[:bs:Neboder|''neboder'']] ("sky-ripper")
* [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: [[:bg:Небостъргач|''небостъргач'']] (''nebostărgač'', "sky-scraper")
* [[Catalan language|Catalan]]: [[:ca:Gratacels|''gratacels'']] ("scrapes-skies")
* [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: [[:zh:摩天大楼|摩天樓]] (''mótiānlóu'', "sky-scraping building")
* [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: [[:hr:Neboder|''neboder'']] ("sky-ripper")
* [[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: [[:sk:mrakodrap|''mrakodrap'']] ("cloud-scraper")
* [[Danish language|Danish]]: [[:dk:skyskraber|''skyskraber'']] ("cloud-scraper")
* [[Dutch language|Dutch]]: [[:nl:wolkenkrabber|''wolkenkrabber'']] ("clouds-scratcher")
* [[Estonian language|Estonian]]: [[:et:pilvelõhkuja|''pilvelõhkuja'']] ("cloud-breaker")
* [[Finnish language|Finnish]]: [[:fi:pilvenpiirtäjä|''pilvenpiirtäjä'']] ("cloud-sketcher")
* [[French language|French]]: [[:fr:gratte-ciel|''gratte-ciel'']] ("scrapes-sky")
* [[German language|German]]: [[:de:Wolkenkratzer|''Wolkenkratzer'']] ("clouds-scraper")
* [[Greek language|Greek]]: [[:el:ουρανοξύστης|''ουρανοξύστης'']] (''uranoxístis'', "sky-scraper")
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: [[:he:גורד שחקים|גורד שחקים]] (''gōred šḥāqim'', "scraper of skies")
* [[Hindi language|Hindi]]: [[:hi:गगनचुंबी]] (''gagan-chumbi'', "sky-kisser")
* [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]: [[:hu:felhőkarcoló|''felhőkarcoló'']] ("cloud-scraper")
* [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]]: [[:is:skýjakljúfur|''skýjakljúfur'']] ("cloud-splitter")
* [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[Standard Malay|Malay]]: [[:id:pencakar langit|''pencakar langit'']] ("scraper-sky")
* [[Italian language|Italian]]: [[:it:grattacielo|''grattacielo'']] ("scrapes-sky")
* [[Japanese language|Japanese]]: [[:jp:超高層建築物|摩天楼]] (''matenrou'', "sky-scraping tower")
* [[Latvian language|Latvian]]: [[:lv:debesskrāpis|''debesskrāpis'']] ("sky-scraper")
* [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]]: [[:lt:dangoraižis|''dangoraižis'']] ("sky-scraper")
* [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]: [[:mk:облакодер|''облакодер'']] (''oblakoder'', "cloud-scraper")
* [[Malayalam]]: [[:ml:അംബരചുംബി|''അംബരചുംബി'']] ("sky-kisser")
* [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]]: [[:no:skyskraper|''skyskraper'']] ("cloud-scraper")
* [[Persian language|Persian]]: [[:fa:ََََََََآسمانخراش|آسمانخراش]] (''âsmânkhrâsh'', "sky-scraper")
* [[Polish language|Polish]]: [[:pl:drapacz chmur|''drapacz chmur'']] ("cloud-scraper")
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: [[:pt:arranha-céu|''arranha-céu'']] ("scrapes-sky")
* [[Romanian language|Romanian]]: [[:ro:zgârie-nori|''zgârie-nori'']] ("scrapes-clouds")
* [[Russian language|Russian]]: [[:ru:небоскрёб|''небоскрёб'']] (''neboskryob'', "sky-scraper")
* [[Serbian language|Serbian]]: [[:sr:небодер|''небодер'']] (''neboder'', "sky-ripper")
* [[Slovene language|Slovene]]: [[:sl:nebotičnik|''nebotičnik'']] ("sky-rubber,-toucher")
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: [[:es:rascacielos|''rascacielos'']] ("scrapes-skies")
* [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: [[:sv:skyskrapa|''skyskrapa'']] ("sky-scraper")
* [[Tagalog language|Tagalog]]: [[:tl:gusaling tukudlangit|''gusaling tukudlangit'']] ("building poking the sky")
* [[Tamil language|Tamil]]: [[:ta:வானளாவி|வானளாவி]] ("sky-reacher")
* [[Thai language|Thai]]: [[:th:ตึกระฟ้า|ตึกระฟ้า]] ("sky-scraping building")
* [[Turkish language|Turkish]]: [[:tr:gökdelen|''gökdelen'']] ("sky-piercer")
* [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]: [[:uk:хмарочос|''хмарочос'']] (''hmaročos'', "cloud-scratcher")
* [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]: [[:vi:Nhà chọc trời|''nhà chọc trời'']] ("sky-poking building")
* [[Welsh language|Welsh]]: [[:cy:Cwmwlgrafwr|''cwmwlgrafwr'']] ("cloud scraper")
{{div col end}}

=== ''Translation'' ===
The word ''[[translation]]'', [[etymology|etymologically]], means a "carrying across" or "bringing across": the [[Latin]] ''translatio'' derives from ''trans'', "across" + ''latus'', "borne".<ref name="The Translator 1983, p. 83">[[Christopher Kasparek]], "The Translator's Endless Toil", ''[[The Polish Review]]'', vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, p. 83.</ref>

Some European languages have calqued their words for the [[concept]] of "translation" on the kindred Latin ''traducere'' ("to lead across" or "to bring across", from ''trans'', "across" + ''ducere'', "to lead" or "to bring").<ref name="The Translator 1983, p. 83" />

European languages of the Romance, Germanic and Slavic branches have calqued their terms for the concept of translation on these Latin models.<ref name="The Translator 1983, p. 83" />
{{col-begin}} {{col-3}}
[[Romance languages]]:
* [[Aragonese language|Aragonese]]: ''[[:an:Traducción|traducción]]'' <ref name="bringing across">"leading across" or "putting across"</ref>
* [[Catalan language|Catalan]]: ''[[:ca:Traducció lingüística|traducció]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[French language|French]]: ''[[:fr:Traduction|traduction]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[Italian language|Italian]]: ''[[:it:traduzione|traduzione]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]: ''[[:pt:Tradução|tradução]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[Romanian language|Romanian]]: ''[[:ro:Traducere|traducere]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[Spanish language|Spanish]]: ''[[:es:traducción|traducción]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
{{col-3}}
[[Germanic languages]]:
* [[Danish language|Danish]]: ''[[:da:Oversættelse|oversættelse]]'' <ref name="putting across">"putting across"</ref>
* [[English language|English]]: "[[translation]]"
* [[Frisian languages|Frisian]]: ''[[:fy:Oersetting|oersetting]]'' <ref name="putting across" />
* [[German language|German]]: ''[[:de:Übersetzung (Sprache)|Übersetzung]]'' <ref name="putting across" />
* [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] ([[Bokmål|NB]]): ''[[:no:Oversettelse|oversettelse]]'' <ref name="putting across" />
* Norwegian ([[Nynorsk|NN]]): ''[[:nn:Omsetjing|Omsetjing]]'' <ref name="putting across" />
* [[Swedish language|Swedish]]: ''[[:sv:Översättning|översättning]]'' <ref name="putting across" />
{{col-3}}
[[Slavic languages]]:
* [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]]: ''[[:be:Пераклад|пераклад]]'' <ref name="putting across" />
* [[Bosnian language|Bosanski]]: ''[[:bs:Prevođenje|prijevod]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]]: ''[[:bg:Превод|превод]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[Croatian language|Croatian]]: ''[[:hr:Prevođenje|prijevod]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[Czech language|Czech]]: ''[[:cs:Překlad|překlad]]'' <ref name="putting across" />
* [[Macedonian language|Macedonian]]: ''[[:mk:Преведување|превод]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[Polish language|Polish]]: ''[[:pl:przekład|przekład]]'' <ref name="putting across" />
* [[Russian language|Russian]]: ''[[:ru:Перевод|перевод]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[Serbian language|Serbian]]: ''[[:sr:Превод|превод]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[Serbo-Croatian language|Serbo-Croatian]]: ''[[:sh:Prijevod|prevod]]'' or ''[[:sh:Prijevod|prijevod]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[Slovak language|Slovak]]: ''[[:sk:Preklad (jazykoveda)|preklad]]'' <ref name="putting across" />
* [[Slovene language|Slovene]]: ''[[:sl:Prevajanje|prevod]]'' <ref name="bringing across" />
* [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]: ''[[:uk:переклад|переклад]]''<ref name="putting across" />
{{col-end}}

== See also ==

{{div col|3}}
* [[Anglicism]]
* [[Chinese Pidgin English]]
* [[Cognate]]
* [[Gallicism]]
* [[Germanism (linguistics)|Germanism]]
* [[Loanword]]
* [[Metatypy]]
* [[Semantic loan]]
* [[Translation#Etymology|Translation]]
* [[Wasei-eigo]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==

{{reflist|2}}

== References ==

* [[Christopher Kasparek]], "The Translator's Endless Toil", ''[[The Polish Review]]'', vol. XXVIII, no. 2, 1983, pp. 83–87.
* [http://germanenglishwords.com/ Robb: German English Words germanenglishwords.com]
* [[Ghil'ad Zuckermann]], [http://www.zuckermann.org/pdf/Hybridity_versus_Revivability.pdf "Hybridity versus Revivability: Multiple Causation, Forms and Patterns"], ''Journal of Language Contact'', Varia 2, 2009, pp. 40–67.
* [[Ghil'ad Zuckermann]], ''Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew'', Palgrave Macmillan, 2003, ISBN 1-4039-1723-X.

== External links ==
* [http://www.etymonline.com EtymOnline]
* [http://www.merriam-webster.com/ Merriam Webster Online]

{{Appropriation in the arts}}

[[Category:Etymology]]
[[Category:Calques| ]]
[[Category:Linguistic purism]]

[[sv:Lånord#Översättninglån]]

Far East

2014-12-17T17:04:48Z

Ciaurlec: /* Territories and regions conventionally included under the term Far East */

{{Other uses}}

{{Chinese
|title = Far Eastern countries
|float =
|pic = Far_east1.png
|piccap = Location of the Far East, geographically defined
|picsize = 200px
|t = 遠東
|s = 远东
|l = Far East
|p = Yuǎn Dōng
|tp = Yuǎn Dōng
|poj = Óan-tong
|j = Yuen5 Dong1
|y = 
|hangul = 극동
|hanja = 極東
|rr = Geuk Dong
|mr = Kŭk Tong
|ind = Timur Jauh
|tgl = Silanganan ([[Lupang Hinirang|poetic]]) Malayong Silangan (literal)
|kanji = 極東
|hirigana = きょくとう
|katakana = キョクトウ
|romaji = Kyoku Tō
|msa = تيمور جاوء Timur Jauh
|ms-Arab = تيمور جاوء
|mnc = 
|mon = Als Dornod
|my = {{my|အရှေ့ဖျား ဒေသ}}
|bi = {{IPA-my|ʔəʃḛbjá dèθa̰|}}
|por = Extremo Oriente
|rus = Дальний Восток {{IPA-ru|ˈdɑlʲnʲɪj vɐsˈtok|IPA}}
|rusr = Dál'niy Vostók
|spa = Extremo Oriente
|tha = ตะวันออกไกล Tawan-oak klai
|rtgs = 
|tib = 
|wylie = 
|thdl = 
|zwpy = 
|lhasa = 
|uig = 
|qn = Viễn Đông
|hn = {{linktext|遠|東}}
|zha = 
|dungan = 
|dungan-xej = 
|dungan-han = 
|dungan-latin = 
}}

The '''''Far East''''' is an [[English language|English]] term (with equivalents in various [[languages of Europe]] and [[languages of Asia|Asia]]; {{zh|c=遠東|p=yuǎn dōng|l=[[:wikt:遠|far]] [[:wikt:東|east]]}}) mostly describing [[East Asia]] (including [[Northeast Asia]]), [[Southeast Asia]], and the [[Russian Far East]] (part of [[North Asia]], a.k.a. [[Siberia]])<ref>[http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/fareast?view=uk AskOxford: Far East]</ref> with [[South Asia]] sometimes also included for economic and cultural reasons.<ref>[http://www.feer.com/ The 'Far Eastern Economic Review' for example covers news from India and Sri Lanka.]</ref>

The term came into use in [[Europe]]an geopolitical discourse in the 12th century, denoting the Far East as the "farthest" of the three "easts", beyond the [[Near East]] and the [[Middle East]]. For the same reason, [[Chinese people]] in the 19th and early 20th centuries called [[Western world|Western]] countries "[[Western Regions|Tàixī]] ({{lang|zh|泰西}})"—i.e. anything further west than the [[Arab world]]. The term is less commonly used than in the past<ref name="Economist">{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/15213613|title=A menagerie of monikers|date=7 January 2010|accessdate=9 July 2011|publisher=[[The Economist]]|quote=Remember... the Far East? If so, speak softly. Labels are handy ways of sorting out countries by history or geography. But lazily conceived and out-of-date ones are offensive and misleading.... The "Far East", as East Asia used to be called, is indeed far away from Europe but quite nearby for people who live there.}}</ref> as it allegedly connotes the "[[orientalism]]" of the 19th century more explicitly than [[East Asia]]. Since the 1960s, terms like East Asia and the [[Orient]] have become increasingly common.<ref name="Reischauer 1960">Reischauer, Edwin and John K Fairbank, ''East Asia: The Great Tradition,'' 1960.</ref> East Asia remains the most common media term for the region today.<ref name="Economist"/>

== Popularization ==
Prior to the colonial era, "Far East" referred to anything further east than the Middle East. In the 1500s, [[King John III of Portugal]] called [[India]] a "rich and interesting country in the Far East<ref>{{cite book|title=A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar; A Contribution to the History of India|author=Robert Sewell|year=1901}}</ref> (''Extremo Oriente'')." The term was popularized during the period of the [[British Empire]] as a blanket term for lands to the east of [[British Raj|British India]]. In pre-[[World War I]] European geopolitics, the ''[[Near East]]'' referred to the relatively nearby lands of the [[Ottoman Empire]], the ''[[Middle East]]'' denoted northwestern [[South Asia]] and [[Central Asia]], and the ''Far East'' meant countries along the western [[Pacific Ocean]] and eastern [[Indian Ocean]]. Many European languages have analogous terms, such as the [[French language|French]] (''[[:fr:Extrême-Orient|Extrême-Orient]]''), [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (''[[:es:Extremo Oriente|Extremo Oriente]]''), [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (''[[:pt:Extremo Oriente|Extremo Oriente]]''), [[German language|German]] (''[[:de:Ferner Osten|Ferner Osten]]''), [[Italian language|Italian]] (''[[:it:Estremo Oriente|Estremo Oriente]]''), [[Polish language|Polish]] (''[[:pl:Daleki Wschód|Daleki Wschód]]''), and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (''[[:nl:Verre Oosten|Verre Oosten]]'').

== Cultural as well as geographic meaning ==
{{main|East Asian cultural sphere}}

Significantly, the term evokes cultural as well as geographic separation; the ''Far East'' is not just geographically distant, but also culturally exotic. It never refers, for instance, to the culturally Western nations of [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], which lie even farther to the east of Europe than East Asia itself. This combination of cultural and geographic subjectivity was well illustrated in 1939 by [[Robert Menzies]], the [[Prime Minister of Australia]]. Reflecting upon his country's geopolitical concerns with the onset of [[World War II|war]], Menzies commented that:
<blockquote>
"The problems of the Pacific are different. '''What Great Britain calls the Far East is to us the Near North.'''"<ref>[http://www.info.dfat.gov.au/info/historical/HistDocs.nsf/(LookupVolNoNumber)/2~73 Broadcast Speech by Mr R.G. Menzies, Prime Minister]</ref>
</blockquote>

''Far East'' in its usual sense is comparable to terms such as ''the [[Orient]]'', which means [[East]]; the ''[[Eastern world]]''; or simply the ''East''. [[Southeast Asia]], the [[Russian Far East]], and occasionally the [[Indian Subcontinent]] might be included in the Far East to some extent.

Concerning the term, John K. Fairbank and Edwin O. Reischauer, professors of East Asian Studies at [[Harvard University]], wrote (in ''East Asia: The Great Tradition''): "When Europeans traveled far to the east to reach Cathay, Japan and the Indies, they naturally gave those distant regions the general name 'Far East.' Americans who reached China, Japan and Southeast Asia by sail and steam across the Pacific could, with equal logic, have called that area the 'Far West.' For the people who live in that part of the world, however, it is neither 'East' nor 'West' and certainly not 'Far.' A more generally acceptable term for the area is 'East Asia,' which is geographically more precise and does not imply the outdated notion that Europe is the center of the civilized world."<ref name="Reischauer 1960"/>

Today, the term remains in the names of some longstanding institutions, including the [[Far Eastern Federal University]] in [[Vladivostok]], [[Far Eastern University]] in [[Manila]], and the [[Far East University]] in [[South Korea]]. Furthermore, the [[United Kingdom]] and [[United States]] have historically used ''Far East'' for several military units and commands in the region:

* [[British Far East Command]]
* [[RAF Far East Air Force]]
* [[U.S. Far East Air Force]]
* The U.S. [[Far East Network]]

== Territories and regions conventionally included under the term ''Far East'' ==

<div style="clear:both"/>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" class="sortable references-small" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse"
|- bgcolor="#ECECEC"
! Name of [[subregion|region]]<ref>  Continental regions as per [[File:United Nations geographical subregions en.svg|thumb|center|UN categorisations (map)]], except 12. Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes 6, 11-13, 15, 17-19, 21-23) may be in [[Transcontinental nation|one or both of]] [[Asia]] and [[Europe]], [[Africa]], or [[Oceania]]. </ref> and territory, with [[flag]]
! [[List of countries by area|Area]] (km²)
! [[List of countries by population|Population]] (2008 est.)
! [[List of countries by population density|Population density]] (per km²)
! [[Capital (political)|Capital]]
! [[Government]]
! [[Currency]]
! [[Official languages]]
|-
!colspan="8" align="center" bgcolor="#F0F8FF"|[[East Asia]]
|-
| {{flag|China}}<ref>  The state is commonly known as simply "China", which is subsumed by the [[China|eponymous entity and civilisation (China)]]. Figures given are for [[Mainland China]] only, and do not include [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], and [[Taiwan]].</ref>
| align="right" | 9,598,094<ref>Includes PRC-administered area ([[Aksai Chin]] and [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]], both territories claimed by [[India]]).</ref> 
| align="right" | 1,370,536,875<ref>Information listed is for [[Mainland China]] only. The [[Special administrative region]] (i.e. Hong Kong and Macau), the island territories under the control of the Republic of China (which includes the islands of [[Taiwan]], [[Quemoy]], and [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]]) are excluded.</ref>
| align="right" | 161.0
| [[Beijing]]
| [[Single-party state|Single-party led state]],{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} [[Socialist state|Socialist republic]]
| [[Renminbi|Yuan (Renminbi)]]
| [[Standard Mandarin|Chinese (Mandarin)]]<ref name="langlaw">{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |title=Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) |publisher=Chinese Government|date=31 October 2000|accessdate=21 June 2013 |quote=For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.}}</ref>
|- bgcolor=lightblue
| {{flag|Hong Kong}}<ref>  [[Hong Kong]] is a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China </ref>
| align="right" | 1,104
| align="right" | 6,985,200
| align="right" | 6,352.0
| ''[[Hong Kong]]''
| [[Special administrative region]] of the People's Republic of China.
| [[Hong Kong dollar]]
| [[Standard Cantonese|Chinese (Cantonese)]],<ref>Cantonese, a dialect of Chinese, is a de facto official language of Hong Kong, as Hong Kong's constitution does not specify which dialect of Chinese is the territory's official language.</ref> [[English language|English]]
|- bgcolor=lightblue
| {{flag|Macau}}<ref>  [[Macau]] is a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China. </ref>
| align="right" | 28.6
| align="right" | 520,400
| align="right" | 17,310.0
| ''[[Macau]]''
| [[Special administrative region]] of the People's Republic of China
| [[Macanese pataca|Pataca]]
| [[Standard Cantonese|Chinese (Cantonese)]],<ref>Cantonese, a dialect of Chinese, is a de facto official language of Macau, as Macau's constitution does not specify which dialect of Chinese is the territory's official language.</ref> [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| align="right" | 377,873
| align="right" | 127,433,494
| align="right" | 337.0
| [[Tokyo]]
| [[parliamentary system|Parliamentary democracy]], [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Japanese yen|Yen]]
| None ([[Japanese language|Japanese]] as ''de facto'')
|-
| {{flag|Mongolia}}
| align="right" | 1,564,116
| align="right" | 2,951,786
| align="right" | 1.7
| [[Ulaanbaatar]]
| [[Parliamentary republic]]
| [[Mongolian tögrög|Tögrög]]
| [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
|-
| {{flag|North Korea}}
| align="right" | 120,540
| align="right" | 23,301,725
| align="right" | 190.0
| [[Pyongyang]]
| [[Juche]], [[Socialist Republic]]
| [[North Korean won]]
| [[Korean language|Korean]]
|-
| {{flag|South Korea}}
| align="right" | 100,032
| align="right" | 49,044,790
| align="right" | 493.0
| [[Seoul]]
| [[Presidential system|Presidential]] [[republic]]
| [[South Korean won]]
| [[Korean language|Korean]]
|-
| {{flag|Taiwan}}<ref>  Figures are for [[Free area of the Republic of China|the area]] under the ''de facto'' control of the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] (ROC) government, commonly referred to as [[Taiwan]]. Claimed in whole by the PRC; see [[political status of Taiwan]]. </ref>
| align="right" | 36,188
| align="right" | 22,911,292
| align="right" | 633.12
| [[Taipei]]
| [[Semi-presidential system]]
| [[New Taiwan dollar]]
| [[Standard Chinese|Chinese (Mandarin)]]
|-
!colspan="8" align="center" bgcolor="#F0F8FF"|Southeast Asia
|-
| {{flag|Brunei}}
| align="right" | 5,765
| align="right" | 381,371
| align="right" | 66.0
| [[Bandar Seri Begawan]]
| [[Absolute monarchy|Absolute]] [[Islamic]] [[Sultanate]]
| [[Brunei dollar]]
| [[Malay language|Malay]]
|-
| {{flag|Cambodia}}
| align="right" | 181,035
| align="right" | 14,241,640
| align="right" | 78.0
| [[Phnom Penh]]
| [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Riel (currency)|Riel]]
| [[Khmer language|Khmer]]
|-
| {{flag|East Timor}}<ref>  [[East Timor]] is often considered a transcontinental country in Southeastern Asia and [[Oceania]]. </ref>
| align="right" | 15,410
| align="right" | 1,115,000
| align="right" | 64.0
| [[Dili]]
| [[Parliamentary republic]]
| [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] / [[East Timorese centavo coins|Centavo coins]]
| [[Tetum]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|-
| {{flag|Indonesia}}<ref>[[Indonesia]] is often considered a transcontinental country in Southeastern Asia and Oceania; figures do not include [[Irian Jaya]] and [[Maluku Islands]], frequently reckoned in Oceania ([[Melanesia]]/[[Australasia]]). </ref>
| align="right" | 1,919,588
| align="right" | 237,512,355
| align="right" | 123.8
| [[Jakarta]]
| [[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
| [[Indonesian rupiah|Rupiah]]
| [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]
|-
| {{flag|Laos}}
| align="right" | 236,800
| align="right" | 6,521,998
| align="right" | 25.0
| [[Vientiane]]
| [[Socialist Republic]]
| [[Lao kip|Kip]]
| [[Lao language|Lao]]
|-
| {{flag|Malaysia}}
| align="right" | 329,847
| align="right" | 27,730,000
| align="right" | 83.0
| [[Kuala Lumpur]]
| [[Constitutional monarchy|Federal constitutional monarchy]], [[Parliamentary democracy]]
| [[Malaysian ringgit|Ringgit]]
| [[Malay language|Malay]]
|-
| {{flag|Burma|name=Myanmar (Burma)}}
| align="right" | 676,578
| align="right" | 55,390,000
| align="right" | 75.0
| [[Naypyidaw]]
| [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[constitutional republic]]
| [[Myanmar kyat|Kyat]]
| [[Burmese language|Burmese]]
|-
| {{flag|Papua New Guinea}}
| align="right" | 462,840
| align="right" | 6,732,000
| align="right" | 14.5
| [[Port Moresby]]
| [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Papua New Guinea kina|Kina]]
| [[Hiri Motu language|Hiri Motu]], [[Tok Pisin]], and English
|-
| {{flag|Philippines}}
| align="right" | 300,000
| align="right" | 90,500,000
| align="right" | 295.0
| [[Manila]]
| [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[constitutional republic]]
| [[Philippine peso|Peso (Piso)]]
| [[Filipino language|Tagalog]] and English
|-
| {{flag|Singapore}}
| align="right" | 707.1
| align="right" | 4,588,600
| align="right" | 6,489.0
| [[Singapore]]
| [[Parliamentary republic]]
| [[Singapore dollar]]
| [[Malay language|Malay]], English, [[Standard Mandarin|Chinese (Mandarin)]], and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
| {{flag|Thailand}}
| align="right" | 513,115
| align="right" | 63,038,247
| align="right" | 122.0
| [[Bangkok]]
| [[Parliamentary system|Parliamentary democracy]], [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Thai baht|Baht]]
| [[Thai language|Thai]]
|-
| {{flag|Vietnam}}
| align="right" | 331,690
| align="right" | 86,116,559
| align="right" | 253.0
| [[Hanoi]]
| [[Single-party state|Single-party led state]], [[Socialist Republic]]
| [[Vietnamese đồng|đồng]]
| [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]
|-
!colspan="8" align="center" bgcolor="#F0F8FF"|[[North Asia]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Russian Far East]] ([[Russia]])<ref>  [[Russia]] is generally considered a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe (UN region) and [[Northern Asia]]; ''population and area figures are for Asian portion only''.</ref>
| align="right" | 6,215,900<ref name="ReferenceA">Only includes the area of [[Far Eastern Federal District]].</ref>
| align="right" | 6,692,865<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
| align="right" | 3.0
| [[Moscow]]
| [[Federal system|Federal]] [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]]
| [[Russian ruble|Ruble]]
| Russian and [[Languages of Russia|27 other co-official languages]]
|}

== Cities ==
{{Further|Cities of East Asia|List of cities in the Far East by population}}

== See also ==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [[Adoption of Chinese literary culture]]
* [[East Asia]]
* [[East Asian cultural sphere]]
* [[Far Eastern Economic Review]]
* [[Four Asian Tigers]]
* [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]
* [[Indosphere]]
* [[Russian Far East]]
* [[South Asia]]
* [[Southeast Asia]]
* [[Spanish East Indies]]
* [[Y-DNA haplogroups by populations of East and Southeast Asia]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

== References ==
* Ankerl, Guy (2000). ''Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western''. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
* Whitaker, Brian (February 23, 2004). "[http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1154165,00.html From Turkey to Tibet]". ''[[The Guardian]]''.

{{Regions of the world}}

[[Category:Asia]]

Far East

2014-12-17T17:04:03Z

Ciaurlec: /* Territories and regions conventionally included under the term Far East */

{{Other uses}}

{{Chinese
|title = Far Eastern countries
|float =
|pic = Far_east1.png
|piccap = Location of the Far East, geographically defined
|picsize = 200px
|t = 遠東
|s = 远东
|l = Far East
|p = Yuǎn Dōng
|tp = Yuǎn Dōng
|poj = Óan-tong
|j = Yuen5 Dong1
|y = 
|hangul = 극동
|hanja = 極東
|rr = Geuk Dong
|mr = Kŭk Tong
|ind = Timur Jauh
|tgl = Silanganan ([[Lupang Hinirang|poetic]]) Malayong Silangan (literal)
|kanji = 極東
|hirigana = きょくとう
|katakana = キョクトウ
|romaji = Kyoku Tō
|msa = تيمور جاوء Timur Jauh
|ms-Arab = تيمور جاوء
|mnc = 
|mon = Als Dornod
|my = {{my|အရှေ့ဖျား ဒေသ}}
|bi = {{IPA-my|ʔəʃḛbjá dèθa̰|}}
|por = Extremo Oriente
|rus = Дальний Восток {{IPA-ru|ˈdɑlʲnʲɪj vɐsˈtok|IPA}}
|rusr = Dál'niy Vostók
|spa = Extremo Oriente
|tha = ตะวันออกไกล Tawan-oak klai
|rtgs = 
|tib = 
|wylie = 
|thdl = 
|zwpy = 
|lhasa = 
|uig = 
|qn = Viễn Đông
|hn = {{linktext|遠|東}}
|zha = 
|dungan = 
|dungan-xej = 
|dungan-han = 
|dungan-latin = 
}}

The '''''Far East''''' is an [[English language|English]] term (with equivalents in various [[languages of Europe]] and [[languages of Asia|Asia]]; {{zh|c=遠東|p=yuǎn dōng|l=[[:wikt:遠|far]] [[:wikt:東|east]]}}) mostly describing [[East Asia]] (including [[Northeast Asia]]), [[Southeast Asia]], and the [[Russian Far East]] (part of [[North Asia]], a.k.a. [[Siberia]])<ref>[http://www.askoxford.com/concise_oed/fareast?view=uk AskOxford: Far East]</ref> with [[South Asia]] sometimes also included for economic and cultural reasons.<ref>[http://www.feer.com/ The 'Far Eastern Economic Review' for example covers news from India and Sri Lanka.]</ref>

The term came into use in [[Europe]]an geopolitical discourse in the 12th century, denoting the Far East as the "farthest" of the three "easts", beyond the [[Near East]] and the [[Middle East]]. For the same reason, [[Chinese people]] in the 19th and early 20th centuries called [[Western world|Western]] countries "[[Western Regions|Tàixī]] ({{lang|zh|泰西}})"—i.e. anything further west than the [[Arab world]]. The term is less commonly used than in the past<ref name="Economist">{{Cite news|url=http://www.economist.com/node/15213613|title=A menagerie of monikers|date=7 January 2010|accessdate=9 July 2011|publisher=[[The Economist]]|quote=Remember... the Far East? If so, speak softly. Labels are handy ways of sorting out countries by history or geography. But lazily conceived and out-of-date ones are offensive and misleading.... The "Far East", as East Asia used to be called, is indeed far away from Europe but quite nearby for people who live there.}}</ref> as it allegedly connotes the "[[orientalism]]" of the 19th century more explicitly than [[East Asia]]. Since the 1960s, terms like East Asia and the [[Orient]] have become increasingly common.<ref name="Reischauer 1960">Reischauer, Edwin and John K Fairbank, ''East Asia: The Great Tradition,'' 1960.</ref> East Asia remains the most common media term for the region today.<ref name="Economist"/>

== Popularization ==
Prior to the colonial era, "Far East" referred to anything further east than the Middle East. In the 1500s, [[King John III of Portugal]] called [[India]] a "rich and interesting country in the Far East<ref>{{cite book|title=A Forgotten Empire: Vijayanagar; A Contribution to the History of India|author=Robert Sewell|year=1901}}</ref> (''Extremo Oriente'')." The term was popularized during the period of the [[British Empire]] as a blanket term for lands to the east of [[British Raj|British India]]. In pre-[[World War I]] European geopolitics, the ''[[Near East]]'' referred to the relatively nearby lands of the [[Ottoman Empire]], the ''[[Middle East]]'' denoted northwestern [[South Asia]] and [[Central Asia]], and the ''Far East'' meant countries along the western [[Pacific Ocean]] and eastern [[Indian Ocean]]. Many European languages have analogous terms, such as the [[French language|French]] (''[[:fr:Extrême-Orient|Extrême-Orient]]''), [[Spanish language|Spanish]] (''[[:es:Extremo Oriente|Extremo Oriente]]''), [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] (''[[:pt:Extremo Oriente|Extremo Oriente]]''), [[German language|German]] (''[[:de:Ferner Osten|Ferner Osten]]''), [[Italian language|Italian]] (''[[:it:Estremo Oriente|Estremo Oriente]]''), [[Polish language|Polish]] (''[[:pl:Daleki Wschód|Daleki Wschód]]''), and [[Dutch language|Dutch]] (''[[:nl:Verre Oosten|Verre Oosten]]'').

== Cultural as well as geographic meaning ==
{{main|East Asian cultural sphere}}

Significantly, the term evokes cultural as well as geographic separation; the ''Far East'' is not just geographically distant, but also culturally exotic. It never refers, for instance, to the culturally Western nations of [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]], which lie even farther to the east of Europe than East Asia itself. This combination of cultural and geographic subjectivity was well illustrated in 1939 by [[Robert Menzies]], the [[Prime Minister of Australia]]. Reflecting upon his country's geopolitical concerns with the onset of [[World War II|war]], Menzies commented that:
<blockquote>
"The problems of the Pacific are different. '''What Great Britain calls the Far East is to us the Near North.'''"<ref>[http://www.info.dfat.gov.au/info/historical/HistDocs.nsf/(LookupVolNoNumber)/2~73 Broadcast Speech by Mr R.G. Menzies, Prime Minister]</ref>
</blockquote>

''Far East'' in its usual sense is comparable to terms such as ''the [[Orient]]'', which means [[East]]; the ''[[Eastern world]]''; or simply the ''East''. [[Southeast Asia]], the [[Russian Far East]], and occasionally the [[Indian Subcontinent]] might be included in the Far East to some extent.

Concerning the term, John K. Fairbank and Edwin O. Reischauer, professors of East Asian Studies at [[Harvard University]], wrote (in ''East Asia: The Great Tradition''): "When Europeans traveled far to the east to reach Cathay, Japan and the Indies, they naturally gave those distant regions the general name 'Far East.' Americans who reached China, Japan and Southeast Asia by sail and steam across the Pacific could, with equal logic, have called that area the 'Far West.' For the people who live in that part of the world, however, it is neither 'East' nor 'West' and certainly not 'Far.' A more generally acceptable term for the area is 'East Asia,' which is geographically more precise and does not imply the outdated notion that Europe is the center of the civilized world."<ref name="Reischauer 1960"/>

Today, the term remains in the names of some longstanding institutions, including the [[Far Eastern Federal University]] in [[Vladivostok]], [[Far Eastern University]] in [[Manila]], and the [[Far East University]] in [[South Korea]]. Furthermore, the [[United Kingdom]] and [[United States]] have historically used ''Far East'' for several military units and commands in the region:

* [[British Far East Command]]
* [[RAF Far East Air Force]]
* [[U.S. Far East Air Force]]
* The U.S. [[Far East Network]]

== Territories and regions conventionally included under the term ''Far East'' ==

<div style="clear:both"/>

{| border="1" cellpadding="4" class="sortable references-small" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse"
|- bgcolor="#ECECEC"
! Name of [[subregion|region]]<ref>  Continental regions as per [[File:United Nations geographical subregions en.svg|thumb|UN categorisations (map)]], except 12. Depending on definitions, various territories cited below (notes 6, 11-13, 15, 17-19, 21-23) may be in [[Transcontinental nation|one or both of]] [[Asia]] and [[Europe]], [[Africa]], or [[Oceania]]. </ref> and territory, with [[flag]]
! [[List of countries by area|Area]] (km²)
! [[List of countries by population|Population]] (2008 est.)
! [[List of countries by population density|Population density]] (per km²)
! [[Capital (political)|Capital]]
! [[Government]]
! [[Currency]]
! [[Official languages]]
|-
!colspan="8" align="center" bgcolor="#F0F8FF"|[[East Asia]]
|-
| {{flag|China}}<ref>  The state is commonly known as simply "China", which is subsumed by the [[China|eponymous entity and civilisation (China)]]. Figures given are for [[Mainland China]] only, and do not include [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], and [[Taiwan]].</ref>
| align="right" | 9,598,094<ref>Includes PRC-administered area ([[Aksai Chin]] and [[Trans-Karakoram Tract]], both territories claimed by [[India]]).</ref> 
| align="right" | 1,370,536,875<ref>Information listed is for [[Mainland China]] only. The [[Special administrative region]] (i.e. Hong Kong and Macau), the island territories under the control of the Republic of China (which includes the islands of [[Taiwan]], [[Quemoy]], and [[Matsu Islands|Matsu]]) are excluded.</ref>
| align="right" | 161.0
| [[Beijing]]
| [[Single-party state|Single-party led state]],{{citation needed|date=September 2012}} [[Socialist state|Socialist republic]]
| [[Renminbi|Yuan (Renminbi)]]
| [[Standard Mandarin|Chinese (Mandarin)]]<ref name="langlaw">{{cite web |url=http://www.gov.cn/english/laws/2005-09/19/content_64906.htm |title=Law of the People's Republic of China on the Standard Spoken and Written Chinese Language (Order of the President No.37) |publisher=Chinese Government|date=31 October 2000|accessdate=21 June 2013 |quote=For purposes of this Law, the standard spoken and written Chinese language means Putonghua (a common speech with pronunciation based on the Beijing dialect) and the standardized Chinese characters.}}</ref>
|- bgcolor=lightblue
| {{flag|Hong Kong}}<ref>  [[Hong Kong]] is a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China </ref>
| align="right" | 1,104
| align="right" | 6,985,200
| align="right" | 6,352.0
| ''[[Hong Kong]]''
| [[Special administrative region]] of the People's Republic of China.
| [[Hong Kong dollar]]
| [[Standard Cantonese|Chinese (Cantonese)]],<ref>Cantonese, a dialect of Chinese, is a de facto official language of Hong Kong, as Hong Kong's constitution does not specify which dialect of Chinese is the territory's official language.</ref> [[English language|English]]
|- bgcolor=lightblue
| {{flag|Macau}}<ref>  [[Macau]] is a Special Administrative Region of the People's Republic of China. </ref>
| align="right" | 28.6
| align="right" | 520,400
| align="right" | 17,310.0
| ''[[Macau]]''
| [[Special administrative region]] of the People's Republic of China
| [[Macanese pataca|Pataca]]
| [[Standard Cantonese|Chinese (Cantonese)]],<ref>Cantonese, a dialect of Chinese, is a de facto official language of Macau, as Macau's constitution does not specify which dialect of Chinese is the territory's official language.</ref> [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|-
| {{flag|Japan}}
| align="right" | 377,873
| align="right" | 127,433,494
| align="right" | 337.0
| [[Tokyo]]
| [[parliamentary system|Parliamentary democracy]], [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Japanese yen|Yen]]
| None ([[Japanese language|Japanese]] as ''de facto'')
|-
| {{flag|Mongolia}}
| align="right" | 1,564,116
| align="right" | 2,951,786
| align="right" | 1.7
| [[Ulaanbaatar]]
| [[Parliamentary republic]]
| [[Mongolian tögrög|Tögrög]]
| [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]]
|-
| {{flag|North Korea}}
| align="right" | 120,540
| align="right" | 23,301,725
| align="right" | 190.0
| [[Pyongyang]]
| [[Juche]], [[Socialist Republic]]
| [[North Korean won]]
| [[Korean language|Korean]]
|-
| {{flag|South Korea}}
| align="right" | 100,032
| align="right" | 49,044,790
| align="right" | 493.0
| [[Seoul]]
| [[Presidential system|Presidential]] [[republic]]
| [[South Korean won]]
| [[Korean language|Korean]]
|-
| {{flag|Taiwan}}<ref>  Figures are for [[Free area of the Republic of China|the area]] under the ''de facto'' control of the [[Taiwan|Republic of China]] (ROC) government, commonly referred to as [[Taiwan]]. Claimed in whole by the PRC; see [[political status of Taiwan]]. </ref>
| align="right" | 36,188
| align="right" | 22,911,292
| align="right" | 633.12
| [[Taipei]]
| [[Semi-presidential system]]
| [[New Taiwan dollar]]
| [[Standard Chinese|Chinese (Mandarin)]]
|-
!colspan="8" align="center" bgcolor="#F0F8FF"|Southeast Asia
|-
| {{flag|Brunei}}
| align="right" | 5,765
| align="right" | 381,371
| align="right" | 66.0
| [[Bandar Seri Begawan]]
| [[Absolute monarchy|Absolute]] [[Islamic]] [[Sultanate]]
| [[Brunei dollar]]
| [[Malay language|Malay]]
|-
| {{flag|Cambodia}}
| align="right" | 181,035
| align="right" | 14,241,640
| align="right" | 78.0
| [[Phnom Penh]]
| [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Riel (currency)|Riel]]
| [[Khmer language|Khmer]]
|-
| {{flag|East Timor}}<ref>  [[East Timor]] is often considered a transcontinental country in Southeastern Asia and [[Oceania]]. </ref>
| align="right" | 15,410
| align="right" | 1,115,000
| align="right" | 64.0
| [[Dili]]
| [[Parliamentary republic]]
| [[United States dollar|U.S. dollar]] / [[East Timorese centavo coins|Centavo coins]]
| [[Tetum]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]
|-
| {{flag|Indonesia}}<ref>[[Indonesia]] is often considered a transcontinental country in Southeastern Asia and Oceania; figures do not include [[Irian Jaya]] and [[Maluku Islands]], frequently reckoned in Oceania ([[Melanesia]]/[[Australasia]]). </ref>
| align="right" | 1,919,588
| align="right" | 237,512,355
| align="right" | 123.8
| [[Jakarta]]
| [[Presidential system|Presidential republic]]
| [[Indonesian rupiah|Rupiah]]
| [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]]
|-
| {{flag|Laos}}
| align="right" | 236,800
| align="right" | 6,521,998
| align="right" | 25.0
| [[Vientiane]]
| [[Socialist Republic]]
| [[Lao kip|Kip]]
| [[Lao language|Lao]]
|-
| {{flag|Malaysia}}
| align="right" | 329,847
| align="right" | 27,730,000
| align="right" | 83.0
| [[Kuala Lumpur]]
| [[Constitutional monarchy|Federal constitutional monarchy]], [[Parliamentary democracy]]
| [[Malaysian ringgit|Ringgit]]
| [[Malay language|Malay]]
|-
| {{flag|Burma|name=Myanmar (Burma)}}
| align="right" | 676,578
| align="right" | 55,390,000
| align="right" | 75.0
| [[Naypyidaw]]
| [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[constitutional republic]]
| [[Myanmar kyat|Kyat]]
| [[Burmese language|Burmese]]
|-
| {{flag|Papua New Guinea}}
| align="right" | 462,840
| align="right" | 6,732,000
| align="right" | 14.5
| [[Port Moresby]]
| [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Parliamentary system|parliamentary]] [[constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Papua New Guinea kina|Kina]]
| [[Hiri Motu language|Hiri Motu]], [[Tok Pisin]], and English
|-
| {{flag|Philippines}}
| align="right" | 300,000
| align="right" | 90,500,000
| align="right" | 295.0
| [[Manila]]
| [[Unitary state|Unitary]] [[Presidential system|presidential]] [[constitutional republic]]
| [[Philippine peso|Peso (Piso)]]
| [[Filipino language|Tagalog]] and English
|-
| {{flag|Singapore}}
| align="right" | 707.1
| align="right" | 4,588,600
| align="right" | 6,489.0
| [[Singapore]]
| [[Parliamentary republic]]
| [[Singapore dollar]]
| [[Malay language|Malay]], English, [[Standard Mandarin|Chinese (Mandarin)]], and [[Tamil language|Tamil]]
|-
| {{flag|Thailand}}
| align="right" | 513,115
| align="right" | 63,038,247
| align="right" | 122.0
| [[Bangkok]]
| [[Parliamentary system|Parliamentary democracy]], [[Constitutional monarchy]]
| [[Thai baht|Baht]]
| [[Thai language|Thai]]
|-
| {{flag|Vietnam}}
| align="right" | 331,690
| align="right" | 86,116,559
| align="right" | 253.0
| [[Hanoi]]
| [[Single-party state|Single-party led state]], [[Socialist Republic]]
| [[Vietnamese đồng|đồng]]
| [[Vietnamese language|Vietnamese]]
|-
!colspan="8" align="center" bgcolor="#F0F8FF"|[[North Asia]]
|-
| {{flagicon|Russia}} [[Russian Far East]] ([[Russia]])<ref>  [[Russia]] is generally considered a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe (UN region) and [[Northern Asia]]; ''population and area figures are for Asian portion only''.</ref>
| align="right" | 6,215,900<ref name="ReferenceA">Only includes the area of [[Far Eastern Federal District]].</ref>
| align="right" | 6,692,865<ref name="ReferenceA"/>
| align="right" | 3.0
| [[Moscow]]
| [[Federal system|Federal]] [[semi-presidential system|semi-presidential]] [[republic]]
| [[Russian ruble|Ruble]]
| Russian and [[Languages of Russia|27 other co-official languages]]
|}

== Cities ==
{{Further|Cities of East Asia|List of cities in the Far East by population}}

== See also ==
{{Wiktionary}}
* [[Adoption of Chinese literary culture]]
* [[East Asia]]
* [[East Asian cultural sphere]]
* [[Far Eastern Economic Review]]
* [[Four Asian Tigers]]
* [[Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere]]
* [[Indosphere]]
* [[Russian Far East]]
* [[South Asia]]
* [[Southeast Asia]]
* [[Spanish East Indies]]
* [[Y-DNA haplogroups by populations of East and Southeast Asia]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

== References ==
* Ankerl, Guy (2000). ''Coexisting Contemporary Civilizations: Arabo-Muslim, Bharati, Chinese, and Western''. Geneva: INU Press. ISBN 2-88155-004-5.
* Whitaker, Brian (February 23, 2004). "[http://www.guardian.co.uk/elsewhere/journalist/story/0,7792,1154165,00.html From Turkey to Tibet]". ''[[The Guardian]]''.

{{Regions of the world}}

[[Category:Asia]]

Qadan culture

2014-06-14T15:37:33Z

Ciaurlec: corrected infobox syntax

{{Infobox archaeological culture
|name = Qadan Culture
|map = Qadan Culture Spread.png|center|thumb|Upper Egypt- shows the spread of Qadan Culture along the Nile River (approx. 15,000 years ago)
|mapalt =
|altnames =
|horizon =
|region = [[Upper Egypt]]
|period = [[Paleolithic]]
|dates = 13,000-9,000 BC
|typesite =
|majorsites =
|extra =
|precededby = Fakhurian Culture
|followedby =
}}

The '''Qadan culture '''(13,000-9,000 BC) was a [[Archaeological culture|culture]] that, [[Archaeology|archaeological]] evidence suggests, originated in Northeast [[Africa]] approximately 15,000 years ago,<ref name="Phillipson">Phillipson, DW: ''African Archaeology'', page 149. Cambridge University Press, 2005.</ref><ref name="Shaw">Shaw, I & Jameson, R: ''A Dictionary of Archaeology'', page 136. Blackwell Publishers Ltd, 2002.</ref> specifically in [[Upper Egypt]] (present day south [[Egypt]]). This way of life is estimated to have persisted for approximately 4,000 years, and was characterized by [[hunting]], as well as a unique approach to food gathering that incorporated the preparation and consumption of wild grasses and [[Cereal|grains]].<ref name="Phillipson" /><ref name="Shaw" /> Systematic efforts were made by the Qadan people to water, care for, and harvest local plant life, but grains were not planted in ordered rows. <ref name="Darvill" />

<nowiki> </nowiki>Sites from this period span from the [[Cataracts of the Nile|Second Cataract of the Nile]] to Tushka (approximately 250 kilometers upriver from Aswan).<ref>{{Cite book|title = Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East|last = Facts On File, Incorporated|first = |publisher = Infobase Publishing|year = 2009|isbn = |location = |pages = 777}}</ref>

In archaeological terms, this culture is generally viewed as a cluster of Mesolithic Stage communities living in [[Nubia]] in the upper [[Nile Valley]] prior to 9000 BC, at a time of relatively high water levels in the Nile, characterized by a diverse stone tool industry that is taken to represent increasing degrees of specialization and locally differentiated regional groupings.<ref name="Darvill">Darvill, T: ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Archaeology'', Copyright © 2002, 2003 by Oxford University Press.</ref> Large numbers of grinding stones and blades have been found with glossy films of [[silica]] on them, which could possibly be the result of cutting grass stems on their surfaces. <ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.touregypt.net/ebph3.htm|title = Egypt: History - The Upper Paleolithic|date = June 20, 2011|accessdate = June 12, 2014|website = Tour Egypt|publisher = Tour Egypt|last = |first = }}</ref> There is some evidence of conflict between the groups, suggesting periods of invasion or intense inter-tribal war.<ref name="Darvill" /> In fact, about 40 percent of individuals buried in the [[Cemetary 117|Jebel Sahaba cemetary]] near the border of [[Sudan]] on the Nile river show signs of fatal wounds caused by projectiles,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Encyclopedia of the Peoples of Africa and the Middle East|last = Facts On File, Incorporated|first = |publisher = Infobase Publishing|year = 2009|isbn = |location = |pages = 777}}</ref> from weapons such as spears, darts, or arrows.<ref name=":0" /> The remains found in the cemeteries suggest that ritual burials were practiced.<ref name=":0" />

The Qadan economy was based on fishing, hunting, and, as mentioned, the extensive use of wild grain.<ref name="Darvill" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Anthropology]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Egypt]]
[[Category:Archaeology of Sudan]]

{{Anthropology-stub}}

User talk:Garudaeion/sandbox

2014-05-06T14:36:10Z

Ciaurlec: ←Created page with 'Hallo, i have signaled some of files you done fore deletion due to a possible copyviol, but i think that the work you done about silk road is a very interesting...'

Hallo, i have signaled some of files you done fore deletion due to a possible copyviol, but i think that the work you done about silk road is a very interesting one; i hope that will not create you much problems. I suggest you to Ask for help [[https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Graphics_Lab/Map_workshop here]]. Someone will surely help you redrawing all the maps with a different copyright. Regards. --[[User:Ciaurlec|Ciaurlec]] ([[User talk:Ciaurlec|talk]]) 14:36, 6 May 2014 (UTC)

Edizioni Edicusano

2013-10-01T13:11:55Z

Ciaurlec: deleted a dead link

{{Infobox publisher
| image =
| parent = [[Università degli Studi Niccolò Cusano]]
| status =
| founded = 2006
| founder = [[Stefano Bandecchi]]
| successor =
| country = Italy
| headquarters = [[Rome]], Via don Carlo Gnocchi 3
| distribution =
| keypeople =
| publications = [[Academic publishing]]
| topics =
| imprints =
| revenue =
| numemployees =
| nasdaq =
| url = [http://www.unicusano.it/]
}}
'''Edizioni Edicusano''' is the publishing house of the [[Università degli Studi Niccolò Cusano]].<ref>http://www.unicusano.it/images/pdf/unicusano_brochure.pdf</ref>

==History==
Edizioni Edicusano was founded in 2006 and the owner is [[Stefano Bandecchi]]. The name of university's publisher derives from the homonymous university founded and by [[Stefano Bandecchi]].

==See also==
*[[Università degli Studi Niccolò Cusano]]
*[[Fondazione Niccolò Cusano]]
*[[Stefano Bandecchi]]
*[[Stefano Ranucci]]

==References==
<references/>

{{Università degli Studi Niccolò Cusano}}

[[Category:Niccolò Cusano University of Rome]]
[[Category:University presses of Italy]]
[[Category:Media in Rome]]

List of lingua francas

2013-06-11T21:29:51Z

Ciaurlec: /* Italian */ corrected a syntax mistype

{{Original research|date=August 2010}}
{{Refimprove|date=August 2010}}

A [[lingua franca]] is a language systematically used to make communication possible between people not sharing a [[first language]], in particular when it is a third language, distinct from both speakers' first languages. Examples of lingua francas are numerous, and exist on every continent. The most obvious example is English, which is the current lingua franca of international business, science, technology and aviation. There are many other lingua francas centralized on particular regions, such as Arabic, Chinese, French, Russian and Spanish.

The popularity of languages changes over time, and there are many lingua francas that are of historical importance. These include French, which was the language of European [[diplomacy]] from the 17th century until the mid-20th century, and [[Classical Chinese]], which served as both the written lingua franca and the diplomatic language in [[Far East Asia]] until the early 20th century. French and Chinese are still significant lingua francas today.

==Africa==

===Afrikaans===
[[Afrikaans]] is spoken as a first language by many millions of people in South Africa, both white and non-white, and as a second language by millions more. During apartheid, the South African government aimed to establish it as the primary 'lingua franca' in South Africa and South African-controlled [[South-West Africa]] (now Namibia), although English was also in common use. Since the end of apartheid, to avoid any political or ethnic problems, English has been widely adopted as the sole lingua franca. Many Afrikaans company names have been dropped, such as those of [[South African Airways]] and the [[South African Broadcasting Corporation]], which are now solely to be referred to by their English names in official documentation. Afrikaans is still widely used, especially by the adult population in everyday speech; however, English is becoming more popular among the younger generation. Afrikaans itself is also still developing, recently including many more English loan words and spelling conventions.

In [[Namibia]], Afrikaans holds a more universal role than in South Africa, across ethnic groups and races and is the spoken lingua franca in the capital [[Windhoek]] and throughout most of central and southern Namibia, although there are pockets where [[German language in Namibia|German]] is the lingua franca. English is the sole official language and thus important in government spheres and is also dominant on written signs, however its role as a spoken lingua franca is secondary to Afrikaans.

===Arabic===
There are more [[Arabic]] speakers in Africa than Asia. It is spoken not only in the countries on the south coast of the Mediterranean, but also across the Sahara as far as the Sahel. There are Arabic speakers in Mali, Chad and Maidaguri State in Nigeria. It is also widely spoken as a second language in the Horn of Africa and is an official language in both Eritrea and Somalia. Arabic is also an official language in Comoros. (See Arabic in Asia below.)

===Berber===
During the rise of Berber dynasties like [[Almoravids]] and [[Almohads]] between 1040 and 1500, [[Berber languages|Berber]] was the lingua franca of North Africa. Today the language is less influential due to its suppression and marginalization, and the adoption of French and Arabic by the political regimes of the Berber world as working languages. However, [[Tuareg languages|Tuareg]], a branch of the [[Berber languages]], is still playing the role of a lingua franca to some extent in some vast parts of the [[Sahara Desert]] especially in southern [[Algeria]], [[Mali]], [[Niger]], and [[Libya]].

===Fanagalo===
[[Fanagalo]] or Fanakalo is a [[pidgin]] based on the [[Zulu language|Zulu]], English, and [[Afrikaans]] languages. It was used as a lingua franca mainly in the mining industries in [[South Africa]], however in this role it is being increasingly eclipsed by English which is viewed as being more neutral politically.<ref>[http://salanguages.com/fanagalo/ FANAGALO] – © J. Olivier (2009) – SA Languages.</ref>

===Fula===
[[Fula language|Fula]] ({{lang-ff|Fulfulde ''or'' Pulaar ''or'' Pular'', depending on the region}}''; {{lang-fr|Peul}}) the language of the [[Fula people]] or Fulani ({{lang-ff|Fulɓe}}; {{lang-fr|Peuls}}) and associated groups such as the [[Toucouleur]]. Fula is spoken in all countries directly south of the Sahara (such as [[Cameroon]], [[Chad]], [[Nigeria]], [[Niger]], [[Mali]]…). It is spoken mainly by Fula people, but is also used as a lingua franca by several populations of various origin, throughout Western Africa.{{Citation needed|date=April 2007}}

===Hausa===
[[Hausa language|Hausa]] is widely spoken through Nigeria and Niger and recognised in neighbouring states such as [[Ghana]], [[Benin]], and [[Cameroon]]. The reason for this is that Hausa people used to be traders who led caravans with goods (cotton, leather, slaves, food crops etc.) through the whole West African region, from the Niger Delta to the Atlantic shores at the very west edge of Africa. They also reached North African states through Trans-Saharan routes. Thus trade deals in [[Timbuktu]] in modern Mali, [[Agadez]], [[Ghat, Libya|Ghat]], [[Fes, Morocco|Fez]] in Northern Africa, and other trade centers were often concluded in Hausa.

===Krio===
[[Krio language|Krio]] is the most widely spoken language throughout [[Sierra Leone]] even though its native speakers, the [[Sierra Leone Creole people]] or Krios (a community of about 300,000 descendants of formerly enslaved people from the [[West Indies]], United States and Britain), make up only about 5% of the country's population. The Krio language unites all the different ethnic groups, especially in their trade and interaction with each other. Krio is also spoken in [[The Gambia]].

===Lingala===
[[Lingala language|Lingala]] is used by over 10 million speakers throughout the northwestern part of the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] and a large part of the [[Republic of the Congo]], as well as to some degree in Angola and the Central African Republic, although it has only about two million native speakers.<ref name="Bokamba2009">{{cite book | title=The Languages of Urban Africa | publisher=Continuum | author=Bokamba, Eyamba G. | year=2009 | location=London, New York | isbn=978-1-84706-116-4 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=VD0vV48p8XIC&pg=PA50#v=onepage&q&f=false | accessdate=21 July 2011 | editor=McLaughlin, Fiona | chapter=The spread of Lingala as a lingua franca in the Congo Basin | pages=50–70}}</ref> Its status is comparable to that of Swahili in eastern Africa.

Between 1880 and 1900, the colonial administration, in need of a common language for the region, adopted a simplified form of [[Bangi language|Bobangi]], the language of the [[Ngala (people)|Bangala]] people, which became Lingala. Spoken Lingala has many loanwords from French, inflected with Lingala affixes.

===Manding===
The largely interintelligible [[Manding languages]] of West Africa serve as lingua francas in various places. For instance [[Bambara language|Bambara]] is the most widely spoken language in [[Mali]], and [[Jula language|Jula]] (almost the same as Bambara) is commonly used in western [[Burkina Faso]] and northern [[Côte d'Ivoire]]. Manding languages have long been used in regional commerce, so much so that the word for trader, ''jula'', was applied to the language currently known by the same name. Other varieties of Manding are used in several other countries, such as [[Guinea]], [[The Gambia]], and [[Senegal]].

===Sango===
The [[Sango language]] is a lingua franca developed for intertribal trading in the [[Central African Republic]]. It is based on the Northern [[Ngbandi language]] spoken by the Sango people of the Democratic Republic of the Congo but with a large vocabulary of French loan words. It has now been institutionalised as an official language of the Central African Republic.

===Swahili===
[[Swahili language|Swahili]] is used throughout large parts of East Africa as a lingua franca, despite being the mother tongue of a relatively small ethnic group on the East African coast and nearby islands in the [[Indian Ocean]]. At least as early as the late 18th century, Swahili was used along trading and slave routes that extended west across Lake Tanganyika and into the present-day [[Democratic Republic of Congo]]. Swahili rose in prominence throughout the colonial era, and has become the predominant African language of [[Tanzania]] and [[Kenya]]. Some contemporary members of non-Swahili ethnic groups speak Swahili more often than their mother tongues, and many choose to raise their children with Swahili as their first language, leading to the possibility that several smaller East African languages will fade as Swahili transitions from being a regional lingua franca to a regional first language.

===Wolof===
[[Wolof language|Wolof]] is a widely spoken lingua franca of Senegal and The Gambia (especially the capital, Banjul). It is the native language of approximately 5 million [[Wolof people]] in Senegal, and is spoken as a second language by an equal number.

==Asia==

===Akkadian===
In the Middle East, from around 2500BCE to 1500BCE, forms of [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] were the universally recognized language. It was used throughout the Akkadian empire as well as internationally as a diplomatic language — for example between Egypt and Babylon — well after the fall of the Akkadian empire itself and even while Aramaic was more common in Babylon.

===Arabic===
[[File:Learning Arabic calligraphy.jpg|thumb|300px|right|An example of a text written in [[Arabic calligraphy]].]]
[[Arabic]], the native language of the [[Arabs]], who originally came from the [[Arabian Peninsula]], became the "lingua franca" of the [[Caliphate|Islamic (Arab) Empire]] (from CE 733 – 1492), which at a certain point spread from the borders of China and [[North India|Northern India]] through Central Asia, [[Persian Empire|Persia]], [[Asia Minor]], Middle East, North Africa all the way to Spain and Portugal in the west.

Arabic was also used by people neighbouring the Islamic Empire. During the [[Islamic Golden Age]], Arabic was the language of science and diplomacy (around CE 1200), when more books were written in Arabic than in any other language in the world at that time period.{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}} It influenced many sub-Saharan African languages, with stronger influences on east African languages, such as [[Swahili language|Swahili]] and loaned many words to [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Urdu]], [[Arabic influence on the Spanish language|Spanish]] and [[List of Portuguese words of Arabic origin|Portuguese]], countries it ruled for 700 years (see [[Al-Andalus]]). It also had some [[List of Arabic loanwords in English|influence over the English language]].

[[Arabic script]] was adopted by many other languages such as Urdu, Persian, [[Swahili language|Swahili]] (changed to Latin in the late 19th century) and [[Turkish language|Turkish]] (switched to Latin script in 1928). Arabic became the lingua franca of these regions not simply because of commerce or diplomacy, but also on religious grounds since Arabic is the language of the [[Qur'an]], Islam's [[holy book]] and these populations became heavily Muslim. Arabic remains as the [[List of official languages#Official languages of sovereign countries|lingua franca for 22 countries]] (24 if one was to include the Palestinian territories and Western Sahara), in the Middle East and North Africa in addition to [[Chad]]. Despite a few language script conversions from Arabic to Latin as just described, Arabic is the second most widely used alphabetic system in the world after Latin.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9008156/Arabic-alphabet |title=Arabic Alphabet |accessdate=2007-11-23 |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica online}}</ref> Arabic script is/has been used in languages including [[Arabic Afrikaans|Afrikaans]], [[Azerbaijani_language|Azeri]], [[Arebica|Bosnian]], [[Hausa language|Hausa]], [[Kashmiri language|Kashmiri]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Kurdish language|Kurdish]], [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]], [[Malay Language|Malay]], [[Morisco]], [[Pashto]], [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]], [[Sindhi language|Sindhi]], [[Tatar_language|Tatar]], [[Turkish language|Turkish]], [[Turkmen_language|Turkmen]], [[Urdu language|Urdu]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], and [[Uzbek_language|Uzbek]].<ref name="United Nations">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/Depts/OHRM/sds/lcp/Arabic/|title=United Nations Arabic Language Programme|accessdate=2008-01-25 |publisher=United Nations}}</ref>

According to ''[[List of languages by number of native speakers#More than 100 million native speakers|Encarta]]'', which classified Chinese as a single language, Arabic is the second largest native language.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://encarta.msn.com/media_701500404/Languages_Spoken_by_More_Than_10_Million_People.html |title=Languages Spoken by More Than 10 Million People |accessdate=2007-02-18 |publisher=Microsoft Encarta 2006|archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/query?id=1257013011437361|archivedate=2009-10-31|deadurl=yes}}</ref> Used by more than a billion Muslims around the world,<ref name="United Nations" /> it is also one of the six official languages of the [[United Nations]].<ref name="un.org">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/Depts/DGACM/faq_languages.htm|title=Department for General Assembly and Conference Management – What are the official languages of the United Nations? |accessdate=2008-01-25 |publisher=United Nations |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071012035848/http://www.un.org/Depts/DGACM/faq_languages.htm  |archivedate = 2007-10-12}}</ref>

===Aramaic===
[[Aramaic language|Aramaic]] was the native language of the [[Aramaeans]] and became the ''lingua franca'' of the [[Assyrian Empire]] and the western provinces of the [[Persian Empire]], and was adopted by conquered peoples such as the Hebrews. A dialect of Old Aramaic developed into the literary language [[Syriac]]. The Syriacs, such as the [[Syriac flag|Syriac-Aramaean]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrian]] and [[Chaldean Christians]], continued the use of Aramaic which ultimately evolved into the [[Neo-Aramaic]] dialects of the Middle East.

===Azeri===
[[Azerbaijani language|Azeri]] served as a ''lingua franca'' in [[Transcaucasia]] (except the [[Black Sea]] coast and most of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]), [[Republic of Dagestan|Southern Daghestan]],<ref>Pieter Muysken, "Introduction: Conceptual and methodological issues in areal linguistics", in Pieter Muysken, ''From Linguistic Areas to Areal Linguistics'', 2008 ISBN 90-272-3100-1, p. 30–31 [http://books.google.com/books?id=n9p4rl09ec0C&printsec=frontcover&dq=azeri+lingua+franca&ei=8voWSYynLJWszASRneW3Ag#PPA30,M1]</ref><ref>Viacheslav A. Chirikba, "The problem of the Caucasian Sprachbund" in Muysken, p. 74</ref><ref>Lenore A. Grenoble, Language Policy in the Soviet Union, 2003 ISBN 1-4020-1298-5,p. 131 [http://books.google.com/books?id=Nn3xDTiL0PQC&pg=PA127&dq=azeri+lingua+franca&ei=7fwWSf3mNY3IMtCxtOcN#PPA131,M1]</ref> and [[Azerbaijan (Iran)|Iranian Azerbaijan]] from the 16th century to the early 20th century. Its role has now been taken over by Russian in the North Caucasus, and by the official languages of the various independent states of the South Caucasus.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=gxXtKAAACAAJ&dq=Nasledie+Chingiskhana Nasledie Chingiskhana] by [[Nikolai Trubetzkoy]]. Agraf, 1999; p. 478</ref><ref>J. N. Postgate. ''Languages of Iraq''. British School of Archaeology in Iraq, 2007; ISBN 0-903472-21-X; p. 164</ref>

===Chinese===
[[File:LetterFromKhubilaiToJapan1266.jpg|280px|thumb|A letter dated 1266 from [[Kublai Khan]] of the [[Mongol Empire]] to the "[[Emperor of Japan|King of Japan]]" (日本國王) was written in [[Classical Chinese]]. Now stored in [[Todai-ji]], [[Nara, Nara|Nara]], Japan.]]

Until the early 20th century, [[Classical Chinese]] served as both the written lingua franca and the diplomatic language in [[Far East Asia]] including China, [[Mongolia]], [[Korea]], Japan, the [[Ryūkyū Kingdom]], and [[Vietnam]]. In the early 20th century, [[vernacular written Chinese]] replaced Classical Chinese within China as both the written and spoken lingua franca for speakers of different Chinese dialects, and because of the falling power and cultural influence of China in East Asia, English has since replaced Classical Chinese as the lingua franca in East Asia. Outside of China, [[Cantonese language|Cantonese]] and [[Hokkien]] have served as the lingua francas among [[overseas Chinese]] because most Chinese emigrants were from Guangdong and Fujian. However, since the late 20th century when China started [[Economic reform in the People's Republic of China|economic reform]], [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] has become the lingua franca because overseas Chinese now include people coming from many different regions of China. Today in [[Mainland China]] of the [[People's Republic of China]] and [[Taiwan]], Mandarin is the lingua franca between speakers of different and [[mutually unintelligible]] [[Chinese languages|languages]], and between the [[Han Chinese]] and other [[ethnicity|ethnic groups]]; however in [[Guangdong province]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Macau]], [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]] remains the spoken lingua franca. [[Hokkien]] used to be the spoken lingua franca among ethnic Chinese in [[Singapore]] and some parts of [[Malaysia]], though this too is being supplanted by the use of Mandarin.

===Hebrew===
Throughout the centuries of Jewish exile, [[Hebrew]] has served the Jewish people as a lingua franca; allowing Jews from different areas of the world to communicate effectively with one another. This was particularly valuable for cross-culture mercantile trading that became one of the default occupations held by Jews in exilic times. Without the need for translators, documents could easily be written up to convey significant legal trade information. Among early Zionists, a newly reconstructed form of Hebrew served as a common language between Jews from nations as diverse as Poland and Yemen. In modern Israel, Hebrew is the commonly accepted language of administration and trade, even among [[Israeli-Arabs]] whose mother-tongue remains [[Arabic]].

===Hindi-Urdu===
[[Hindustani language|Hindustani]], or [[Hindi]]–[[Urdu]], is commonly spoken in India and Pakistan. It encompasses two [[standard language|standardized]] [[Register (sociolinguistics)|register]]s in the form of the official languages of Hindi and Urdu, as well as several [[nonstandard dialect]]s. Hindi is one of the official languages of India, and Urdu is the national language and lingua franca of Pakistan. Urdu is also an official language in India. However, whilst the words and much of the speaking may sound similar, small differences are present, and Urdu is written in [[Nastaliq]] script while Hindi is written in the [[Devanagari]] script.

Hindi is also a lingua franca in [[Nepal]]. It has been proven that most of the people in Nepal understand Hindi, and a large proportion can even speak and write it. In the [[Terai]] i.e. floodplain districts of Nepal (along the Indian border), Hindi is the dominant language, though the people's mother tongues are typically [[Avadhi]], [[Maithili language|Maithili]], or [[Bhojpuri]]. Additionally, Hindi-Urdu is useful throughout the world due to the export of labor from South Asia. It is commonly spoken among working populations on land and at sea throughout the Middle East and East Africa.
===Kannada===
Kannada is a language spoken in India prednominantly in the state of Karnataka. Kannada, whose native speakers are called Kannadigas. The Kannada language is written using the Kannada script, which evolved from the 5th century Kadamba script. Kannada is attested epigraphically for about one and a half millennia, and has a literature that dates from the ninth century, and is spoken not only in Karnataka, but to some extent in the neighboring states of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra. The literacy rate in Kannada is estimated to be about 60%. Kannada is written with its own script, which is similar to the script used also for Telugu. The Kannada script is also used for writing Tulu. With an unbroken literary history of over a thousand years, the excellence of Kannada literature continues to the present day. Works of Kannada literature have received eight Jnanpith awards( Highest for any language next only to Hindi) and fifty-six Sahitya Akademi awards.

===Malay-Indonesian===
In the 15th century, during the [[Malacca Sultanate]], [[Malay language|Malay]] was used as a ''lingua franca'' in the [[Malay archipelago]], by the locals as much as by the traders and artisans that stopped at [[Malacca]] via the [[Straits of Malacca]]. [[Malay language|Malay]] was also presumably used as a [[Malay trade and creole languages|language of trade]] among the [[Tumao|elites]] and artisans around the [[Islands of the Philippines|islands]] of modern-day [[Philippines]]. [[Netherlands|Dutch]] scholar, [[Francois Valentijn]] (1666–1727) described the use of Malay in the region as being equivalent to the contemporary use of [[Latin]] and [[French language|French]] in [[Europe]].<ref>{{ms}} [http://appw05.dbp.gov.my/dokumen/buku_pelan_strategik.pdf Wawasan: Bahasa Melayu Salah Satu Bahasa Utama Dunia, ''Buku Pelan Tindakan Strategik DBP 2011-2015 (Memartabatkan Bahasa dan Persuratan Melayu)''. page 10. Terbitan Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (DBP).]</ref>

Nowadays, Malay is used mostly in [[Malaysia]] (officially called [[Bahasa Malaysia]]) and [[Brunei]], and to a lesser extent in [[Singapore]] and various parts of [[Sumatra]]. One of Singapore's four official languages, the Malay language or 'Bahasa Melayu' was the ''lingua franca'' for Malays in Singapore prior to the introduction of English as a working and instructional language, and remains so for the elder generation.

[[Indonesian language|Indonesian]], a language based on traditional Malay, but also influenced by various languages such as Dutch, Arabic, and Portuguese, serves as a ''lingua franca'' throughout [[Indonesia]] and [[East Timor]] (where it is considered a working language), areas that are home to over 700 [[Languages of Indonesia|indigenous languages]].

===Nepali===
[[Nepali language|Nepali]] is the lingua franca of the many ethnic, religious and cultural communities of [[Nepal]], and is also spoken in [[Bhutan]], parts of India and parts of [[Myanmar]] (Burma). It is one of 23 [[official languages of India]] incorporated in 8th annex of the [[Indian Constitution]]. It has official language status in the formerly independent state of [[Sikkim]] and in [[West Bengal]]'s [[Darjeeling district]]. Similarly, it is widely spoken in the state of [[Uttarakhand]], as well as in the state of [[Assam]]. While Nepali is closely related to the [[Hindi]]–[[Urdu]] complex and is mutually intelligible to a degree, it has more [[Sanskrit]]ic derivations and fewer Persian or English loan words. Nepali is commonly written in the [[Devanagari]] script, as are Hindi, Sanskrit and Marathi.

===Persian===
[[Persian language|Persian]] became the second lingua franca of the Islamic world, in particular of the eastern regions.<ref>Dr Seyyed Hossein Nasr, ''Islam: Religion, History, and Civilization'', HarperCollins,Published 2003</ref> Besides serving as the state and administrative language in many Islamic dynasties, some of which included [[Samanids]], [[Ghurids]], [[Ghaznavids]], [[Ilkhanid]]s, [[Seljuqids]], [[Mughal Empire|Moguls]] and early [[Ottomans]], Persian cultural and political forms, and often the Persian language, were used by the cultural elites from the Balkans to India.<ref>Robert Famighetti, ''The World Almanac and Book of Facts'', World Almanac Books, 1998, p. 582</ref> For example, Persian was the only oriental language known and used by [[Marco Polo]] at the Court of [[Kubla Khan]] and in his journeys through China.<ref>John Andrew Boyle, ''SOME THOUGHTS ON THE SOURCES FOR THE IL-KHANID PERIOD OF PERSIAN HISTORY'', in Iran: Journal of the British Institute of Persian Studies, British Institute of Persian Studies, vol. 12 (1974), p. 175</ref> [[Arnold Joseph Toynbee]]'s assessment of the role of the Persian language is worth quoting in more detail:
<blockquote>In the Iranic world, before it began to succumb to the process of Westernization, the New Persian language, which had been fashioned into literary form in mighty works of art ... gained a currency as a lingua franca; and at its widest, about the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries of the Christian Era, its range in this role extended, without a break, across the face of South-Eastern Europe and South-Western Asia.<ref>Arnold J. Toynbee, A Study of History,V, pp. 514–15</ref></blockquote>
Persian remains the lingua franca in [[Iran]], [[Afghanistan]] and [[Tajikistan]] and was the lingua franca of India before the British conquest. It is still understood by many in South Asia, mainly in Pakistan.

===Sanskrit===
[[Sanskrit]] was widely used across South Asia, Southeast Asia, East Asia and Central Asia at various times in ancient and medieval times; it has religious significance for those religious traditions that arose from the [[Historical Vedic religion|Vedic religion]].

===Tamil===
[[Tamil language|Tamil]] is the lingua franca not just in the Indian state of [[Tamil Nadu]] and [[Puducherry]], but also a much larger swathe of [[South India]], with many second language speakers in neighbouring Indian states.<ref name="Ethnologue">{{cite web | url=http://www.ethnologue.com/show_language.asp?code=tam | title=Tamil | accessdate=2011-02-02 | publisher=Ethnologue}}</ref> It is one of the official languages of India,<ref name="tnofflang">{{citation |last=Commissioner Linguistic Minorities |title=42nd report: July 2003 – June 2004 |page=para 15.4 |url=http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm | accessdate = 2007-07-16 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071008113359/http://nclm.nic.in/shared/linkimages/35.htm  |archivedate = 2007-10-08}}.</ref> as well as one of the official languages of [[Singapore]] and the national language of [[Sri Lanka]].<ref name="Ethnologue" /> There are significant numbers of Tamil speakers in [[Malaysia]], [[South Africa]], [[Bahrain]], the United Kingdom, and Canada.<ref name="Ethnologue" /> Tamil is a classical language, with a long and rich history.<ref name="companion">{{Harvnb|Zvelebil|1992|p=12}}: "...the most acceptable periodisation which has so far been suggested for the development of Tamil writing seems to me to be that of A Chidambaranatha Chettiar (1907–1967): 1. Sangam Literature – 200BC to AD 200; 2. Post Sangam literature – AD 200 – AD 600; 3. Early Medieval literature – AD 600 to AD 1200; 4. Later Medieval literature – AD 1200 to AD 1800; 5. Pre-Modern literature – AD 1800 to 1900"</ref>

===Telugu===
[[Telugu language|Telugu]] is the lingua franca in the Indian state of [[Andhra Pradesh]] and [[Yanam district|Yanam]] district of [[Puducherry]]. {{As of|2001}}, it had the third largest number of native speakers in India, behind Hindi and Bengali.<ref name="language">{{cite web |url= http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement4.htm |title= Scheduled Languages in Descending Order of Speakers' Strength |accessdate=2008-11-01 |last= |first= |coauthors= |date= |work= 2001 Census |publisher= Office of the Registrar General and Census Commissioner, India |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071130133941/http://www.censusindia.gov.in/Census_Data_2001/Census_Data_Online/Language/Statement4.htm |archivedate = 2007-11-30}}</ref> Telugu is one of the four classical languages as declared by the Government of India.{{Citation needed|date=June 2011}}

===Malayalam===
[[Malayalam language|Malayalam]] is the lingua franca in the Indian state of [[Kerala]], [[Lakshadweep]] and [[Mahe district|Mahé]] district of [[Puducherry]] with many second language speakers in neighbouring Indian states.<ref name="Ethnologue" /> It is one of the official languages of India.<ref name="tnofflang" /> There are significant numbers of Malayalam speakers in [[Malaysia]], [[Singapore]], [[South Africa]], [[Middle East]], the United Kingdom, and Canada.<ref name="Ethnologue" /> {{As of|2001}}, it had the eighth largest number of native speakers in India and has twenty-eighth rank in most spoken languages of the world.<ref name="language" /> Malayalam is one of the languages that demanded classical language status from the Government of India, as it is about 1500 years old.

==Europe==

===Danish===
[[Danish language|Danish]] served as the ''lingua franca'' of the territories under [[Kalmar Union]]; nowadays, Danish is the ''lingua franca'' of 2 territories belong to Kalmar Union, [[Faroe Islands]] and [[Greenland]].

===English===
English is the current ''lingua franca'' of international business, education, science, technology, diplomacy, entertainment, radio, seafaring, and aviation. It has replaced French as the lingua franca of diplomacy since World War II. The rise of English in diplomacy began in 1919, in the aftermath of World War I, when the [[Treaty of Versailles]] was written in English as well as in French, the dominant language used in diplomacy until that time. The widespread use of English was further advanced by the prominent international role played by English-speaking nations (the United States and the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]) in the aftermath of World War II, particularly in the establishment and organization of the [[United Nations]]. English is one of the six [[official languages of the United Nations]] (the other five being French, Arabic, Chinese, Russian and Spanish). The seating and roll-call order in sessions of the United Nations and its subsidiary and affiliated organizations is determined by alphabetical order of the English names of the countries.

When the United Kingdom became a colonial power, English served as the ''lingua franca'' of the colonies of the [[British Empire]]. In the post-colonial period, some of the newly created nations which had multiple [[indigenous language]]s opted to continue using English as an official language to avoid the political difficulties inherent in promoting any one indigenous language above the others. The British Empire established the use of English in regions around the world such as North America, India, Africa, Australia and New Zealand, so that by the late 19th century its reach was truly global,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ehistling-pub.meotod.de/01_lec06.php |title=Lecture 7: World-Wide English |accessdate=2007-03-26|publisher=EHistLing }}</ref> and in the latter half of the 20th century, widespread international use of English was much reinforced by the global economic, financial, scientific, military, and cultural pre-eminence of the English-speaking countries and especially the U.S. Today, more than half of all [[scientific journals]] are published in English, while in France, almost one third of all natural science research appears in English,<ref>Reinhold Wagnleitner, "Coca-colonization and the Cold War: the cultural mission of the United States in Austria after the Second World War", p. 162</ref> lending some support to English being the lingua franca of science and technology. English is also the ''lingua franca'' of international [[Air Traffic Control]] and seafaring communications.

===French===
French was the language of [[diplomacy]] from the 17th century until the mid-20th century, and is still a working language of some [[List of international organisations which have French as an official language|international institutions]]. It was also the lingua franca of European [[literature]] in the 18th century. French is still seen on documents ranging from passports to airmail letters. Until the accession of the United Kingdom, Ireland, and Denmark in 1973, French and German were the official working languages of the [[European Economic Community]].

French was spoken by educated people in cosmopolitan cities of the Middle East and North Africa and remains so in the former French colonies of the [[Maghreb]], where French is particularly important in economic capitals such as [[Algiers]], [[Casablanca]] and [[Tunis]]. Until the outbreak of the [[Lebanese Civil War|civil war]] in Lebanon, French was spoken by the upper-class Christian population. French is still a lingua franca in most [[West Africa|Western]] and [[Central Africa]]n countries and an official language of some, a remnant of French and Belgian colonialism. These African countries and others are members of the [[Francophonie]]. French is the official language of the [[Universal Postal Union]], with English added as a working language in 1994.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upu.int/en/the-upu/languages.html |title=The UPU: Languages |publisher=Universal Postal Union |accessdate=2012-01-04}}</ref> French is the main language of [[Québec]], an official language of Canada, and the second language of [[Luxembourg]], Belgium, and Switzerland. French today enjoys a status in administrative and education sectors in former [[French Indochina]] ([[Cambodia]], [[Laos]], and [[Vietnam]]) that the language makes the lingua franca of many educated people within those countries.

===German===
German served as a ''lingua franca'' in large portions of Europe for centuries, mainly the [[Holy Roman Empire]].

Previously one of the official languages of the [[Austro-Hungarian Empire]], German remained an important second language in much of [[Central and Eastern Europe]] long after the dissolution of that empire after World War I. Today, it is still the most common second language in some of the countries in the region (e.g. in [[Slovenia]] (45% of the pop.), [[Croatia]] (34%),<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ec.europa.eu/public_opinion/archives/ebs/ebs_243_en.pdf|title=Europeans and their languages – European commission special barometer FEB2006|accessdate=2010-01-05}}</ref> the [[Czech Republic]] (31%) and [[Slovakia]] (28%). In others, it is also known by significant numbers of the population (in Poland by 18%, in Hungary by 16%).

During the construction of the [[Snowy Mountains Scheme]] in Australia, German was the lingua franca for workers from central and east Europe.

In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, German was a prerequisite language for scientists. Despite the anti-German sentiment after World War II it remains a widespread language among scientists.

Within Western Europe, it is also (along with English and French) one of the most spoken foreign languages. It is most widely known in the Netherlands, in Denmark and in Sweden. It is also the primary language of Switzerland. Within the European Union, German native speakers (in Austria, parts of Belgium, Germany, Luxembourg and in the Italian province South Tyrol/Alto Adige) form the most numerous language group with just under 100 million members.

===Greek and Latin===
During the time of the [[Hellenistic civilization]] and [[Roman Empire]], the ''lingua franca''s were [[Koine Greek]] and [[Latin]]. During the [[Middle Ages]], the ''lingua franca'' was Greek in the parts of Europe, Middle East and Northern Africa where the [[Byzantine Empire]] held hegemony, and Latin was primarily used in the rest of Europe. Latin, for a significant portion of the expansion of the [[Roman Catholic Church]], was used as the basis of the Church. During the [[Second Vatican Council]], Catholic liturgy changed to local languages, although Latin remains the official language of the [[Vatican City|Vatican]]. Latin was used as the language of scholars in Europe until the early 19th century in most subjects. For instance, Christopher Simpson's "Chelys or The Division viol" on how to improvise on the viol (viola da gamba) was published in 1665 in a multilingual edition in Latin and English, to make the material accessible for the wider European music community. Another example is the Danish-Norwegian writer Ludvig Holberg, who published his book "Nicolai Klimii iter subterraneum" in 1741 about an ideal society "Potu" ("Utop" backwards) with equality between the genders and an egalitarian structure, in Latin in Germany to avoid Danish censorship and to reach a greater audience. Newton's [[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]] was published in Latin in 1687: the first English translation did not appear until 1729. In subjects like medicine and theology Latin has been a subject of study until the present day in most European universities, despite declining use in recent years.

===Italian===
The [[Mediterranean Lingua Franca]] was largely based on Italian and [[Provençal dialect|Provençal]]. This language was spoken from the 11th to 19th centuries around the Mediterranean basin, particularly in the European commercial empires of Italian cities ([[Genoa]], [[Venice]], [[Florence]], [[Milan]], [[Pisa]], [[Siena]]) and in trading ports located throughout the eastern Mediterranean rim.<ref>Henry Romanos Kahane. ''The Lingua Franca in the Levant'' (Turkish Nautical Terms of Italian and Greek Origin)</ref>

During the [[Renaissance]], standard Italian was spoken as a language of culture in the main royal courts of Europe, and among intellectuals. This lasted from the 14th century to the end of the 16th century, when French replaced Italian as the usual lingua franca in northern Europe{{citation needed|date=July 2012}}. On the other hand, Italian [[musical terms]], in particular dynamic and tempo notations, have continued in use to the present day, especially for [[classical music]], in music reviews and program notes as well as in printed scores.<ref>http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=15040264</ref>

In the Catholic ecclesiastic hierarchy, Italian is known by a large part of members and is used in substitution of Latin in some official documents as well. The presence of Italian as the second official language in [[Vatican City]] indicates its use not only in the seat in Rome, but also anywhere in the world where an episcopal seat is present.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}

In the 1950s and 1960s Italian was the ''lingua franca'' of some colonies of the former [[Italian Colonial Empire|Italian Empire]], like [[Eritrea]] and [[Italian Somalia]].<ref>[http://www.uwm.edu/~corre/franca/edition3/lingua5.html Lingua Franca (in Italian)]</ref> At present, Italian is the lingua franca of educated people in Eritrea, [[Libya]], and [[Somalia]].

Even today countries close to Italy, such as [[Slovenia]] and [[Croatia]], retain a high percentage of population speaking Italian, especially in the coastal regions which were under the influence of the [[Republic of Venice]]. 23% of Croatian population speak Italian whilst citizens of [[Istria]] and [[Kvarner]] costline (northern [[Adriatic]], close to Italy) areas are the best and the most frequent practicians of that language (in some areas as high 60% of population). In the region of north-west, about 18% of the population is familiar with that language.<ref>[http://www.step-in.hr/index.php/foreign-language-knowledge</ref>

===Low German===
From about 1200 to 1600, [[Middle Low German]] was the language of the [[Hanseatic League]] which was present in most [[Northern Europe]]an seaports, even London.{{Citation needed|date=January 2008}} It resulted in numerous Low German words being borrowed into Danish, Norwegian and Swedish. After the Middle Ages, modern High German began to displace Low German, and it has now been reduced to a regional dialect.

===Polish===
Polish was a ''lingua franca'' in areas of Eastern Europe, especially regions that belonged to the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]]. Polish was for several centuries the main language spoken by the ruling classes in [[Lithuania]] and [[Ukraine]], and the modern state of [[Belarus]].<ref name="Barbour">{{cite book
| last = Barbour
| first = Stephen
| authorlink =
| coauthors = Cathie Carmichael
| title = Language and Nationalism in Europe
| publisher = Oxford UP
| year = 2000
| location =
| page = 194
| url = http://books.google.com/books?id=1ixmu8Iga7gC&pg=PA194
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 0-19-925085-5}}</ref> After the [[Partitions of Poland]] and the incorporation of most of the Polish areas into the [[Russian Empire]] as [[Congress Poland]], the Russian language almost completely supplanted Polish.

===Portuguese===
Portuguese served as ''lingua franca'' in Africa, South America and Asia in the 15th and 16th centuries. When the Portuguese started exploring the seas of Africa, America, Asia and Oceania, they tried to communicate with the natives by mixing a Portuguese-influenced version of Lingua Franca with the local languages. When English or French ships came to compete with the Portuguese, the crews tried to learn this "broken Portuguese". Through a process of change the Lingua Franca and Portuguese lexicon was replaced with the languages of the people in contact.

Portuguese remains an important ''lingua franca'' in Africa ([[Portuguese-speaking African countries|PALOP]]), [[East Timor]], [[Goa]], and to a certain extent in [[Macau]] where it is recognized as an official language alongside Chinese though in practice not commonly spoken.

===Russian===
Russian is in use and widely understood in Northern and Central Asia, areas formerly part of the Soviet Union or [[Soviet bloc|bloc]], and may be understood by older people in Central and Eastern Europe, formerly part of the [[Warsaw Pact]]. It remains the lingua franca in the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]. Russian is also one of the [[Official languages of the United Nations|six official languages of the United Nations.]]<ref name="un.org"/>

===Serbian and Croatian===
[[Serbian language|Serbian]] and/or [[Croatian language|Croatian]] is lingua franca in the territories of the former [[SFRY|Yugoslavia]], that is, modern [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Croatia]], [[Macedonia (country)|Macedonia]], [[Montenegro]], [[Serbia]] and [[Slovenia]].

===Spanish===

With the growth of the [[Spanish Empire]], Spanish became established in the Americas, as well as in parts of Africa, Asia and Oceania. It became the language of global trade until [[Napoleonic Wars]] and the breakup of the Spanish Empire at the beginning of the 19th century. Spanish was used as lingua franca throughout the former Spanish Colonial Empire, except territory in present day U.S., but particularly in present-day [[Mexico]], [[Spanish Caribbean]], [[Central America]] and South America, and it's still a lingua franca within [[Hispanic America]].

Presently it is the second most used language in international trade, after English, and the third most used in politics, diplomacy and culture, after English and French.<ref>[http://www.quadernsdigitals.net/index.php?accionMenu=secciones.VisualizaArticuloSeccionIU.visualiza&proyecto_id=361&articuloSeccion_id=4463 "¿Por qué los brasileños deben aprender español?"] – Copyright 2003 Quaderns Digitals Todos los derechos reservados ISSN 1575-9393.</ref>

===Yiddish===
[[Yiddish]] originated in the Ashkenazi culture that developed from about the 10th century in the [[Rhineland]] and then spread to [[Central Europe|central]] and [[eastern Europe]] and eventually to other continents. For a significant portion of its history, Yiddish was the primary spoken language of the [[Ashkenazi Jews]]. [[Yiddish dialects|Eastern Yiddish]], three dialects of which are still spoken today, includes a significant but varying percentage of words from [[Slavic languages|Slavic]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]] and other local languages.

On the eve of World War II, there were 11 to 13 million Yiddish speakers, for many of whom Yiddish was not the primary language. [[The Holocaust]], however, led to a dramatic, sudden decline in the use of Yiddish, as the extensive Jewish communities, both secular and religious, that used Yiddish in their day-to-day life were largely destroyed. Although millions of Yiddish speakers survived the war, further assimilation in countries such as the United States and the Soviet Union, along with the strictly [[Hebrew]] monolingual stance of the [[Zionist]] movement, led to a decline in the use of Yiddish. However, the number of speakers within the widely dispersed [[Orthodox Judaism|Orthodox]] (mainly [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]]) communities is now increasing. It is a home language in most [[Hasidic Judaism|Hasidic]] communities, where it is the first language learned in childhood, used in schools, and in many social settings.

In the United States, as well as South America, the Yiddish language bonded Jews from many countries. Most of the Jewish immigrants to the New York metropolitan area during the years of [[Ellis Island]] considered Yiddish their native language. Later, Yiddish was no longer the primary language for the majority of the remaining speakers and often served as lingua franca for the Jewish immigrants who did not know each other's primary language, particularly following the collapse of the Soviet Union. Yiddish was also the language in which second generation immigrants often continued to communicate with their relatives who remained in Europe or moved to Israel, with English, Spanish or Portuguese being primary language of the first and Russian, Romanian, or Hebrew that of the second.

== Pre-Columbian North America ==

===Chinook Jargon===
[[Chinook Jargon]] was originally constructed from a great variety of Amerind words of the Pacific Northwest, arising as an intra-indigenous contact language in a region marked by divisive geography and intense linguistic diversity. The participating peoples came from a number of very distinct language families, speaking dozens of individual languages.

After European contact, the Jargon also acquired English and French loans, as well as words brought by other European, Asian, and Polynesian groups. Some individuals from all these groups soon adopted the Jargon as a highly efficient and accessible form of communication. This use continued in some business sectors well into the 20th century and some of its words continue to feature in company and organization names as well as in the regional [[toponymy]].

In the [[Diocese of Kamloops]], [[British Columbia]], hundreds of speakers also learned to read and write the Jargon using the [[Duployan shorthand]] via the publication ''[[Kamloops Wawa]]''. As a result, the Jargon also had the beginnings of its own literature, mostly translated scripture and classical works, and some local and episcopal news, community gossip and events, and diaries. Novelist and early Native American activist, Marah Ellis Ryan (1860?–1934) used Chinook words and phrases in her writing.

According to Nard Jones, Chinook Jargon was still in use in Seattle until roughly the eve of World War II, especially among the members of the Arctic Club, making Seattle the last city where the language was widely used. Writing in 1972, he remarked that at that later date "Only a few can speak it fully, men of ninety or a hundred years old, like [[Henry Broderick (Seattle)|Henry Broderick]], the realtor, and [[Joshua Green (seaman and banker)|Joshua Green]], the banker."

Jones estimates that in pioneer times there were about 100,000 speakers of Chinook Jargon.

===Nahuatl===
[[Classical Nahuatl language|Classical Nahuatl]] was the lingua franca of the [[Aztec Empire]] in Mesoamerica prior to the Spanish invasion in the 16th century. An extensive corpus of the language as spoken exists. Like Latin and Hebrew (prior to the founding of Israel), Classical Nahuatl was more of a [[sociolect]] spoken among the elites (poets, priests, traders, teachers, bureaucrats) than a language spoken in any common family household.

After the Spanish conquest, Nahuatl remained the lingua franca of [[New Spain]]. Spanish friars matched the language to a [[Latin alphabet]], and schools were established to teach Nahuatl to Spanish priests, diplomats, judges, and political leaders. In 1570, Nahuatl was made the official language of New Spain, and it became the ''lingua franca'' throughout Spanish North America, used in trade and the courts. During the prolonged [[Spanish conquest of Guatemala]] Spain's native allies, mostly from [[Tlaxcala (Nahua state)|Tlaxcala]] and [[Cholula (Mesoamerican site)|Cholula]], spread Nahuatl to [[Maya]]{{disambiguation needed|date=October 2012}} areas where it was not spoken prior to the arrival of the Spanish, resulting in Nahuatl placenames across Guatemala which persist up to the present.<ref name="SharerTraxler06p764">Sharer and Traxler 2006, p. 764.</ref> In 1696, the official use of any language other than Spanish was banned throughout the empire. Especially since Mexican independence, the use of Nahuatl has dwindled.

==South America==
Portuguese and Spanish started to grow as lingua francas in the region in since the conquests of the 16th century. In the Case of Spanish this process was not even and as the Spanish used the structure of Inca Empire to consolidate their rule Quechua remained the lingua franca of large parts of what is now Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia. Quechua importance as a language for trade and dealing with Spanish-approved indigenous authorities ([[curaca]]) made the language expand even after the Spanish conquest. It was not until the [[rebellion of Túpac Amaru II]] that the Spanish authorities changed to a policy of Hispanization that was continued by the republican states of Peru, Ecuador and Bolivia. Quechua also lost influence to Spanish as the commerce circuits grew to integrate other parts of the Spanish Empire were Quechua was unknown, for example [[Rio de la Plata]] and [[Chile]].

===Quechua===
Also known as [[Runa Simi]], as the [[Inca empire]] rose to prominence in South America, this imperial language became the most widely spoken language in the western regions of the continent. Even among tribes that were not absorbed by the empire Quechua still became an important language for trade because of the empire's influence. Even after the [[Spanish conquest of the Inca Empire|Spanish conquest]] of [[Peru]], Quechua for a long time was the most common language. Today it is still widely spoken although it has given way to Spanish as the more common lingua franca. It is spoken by some 10 million people through much of South America (mostly in Peru, south-western and central Bolivia, southern Colombia and Ecuador, north-western Argentina and northern Chile).

===Mapudungun===
[[Mapudungun]] was for a long time used as lingua franca in large portions of Chile and Argentine Patagonia. Adoption of Spanish was in Chile a slow process and by the 19th century the unconquered Indians of [[Araucanía (historic region)|Araucanía]] had spread their language across the Andes during a process called [[Araucanization]]. Pehuenches were among the first non-Mapuche tribes to adopt the language. The increasing commerce over the Andes and the migration of Mapuches into the Patagonian plains contributed to the adoption of Mapudungun by other tribes of a more simple material culture. Even in [[Chiloé Archipelago]] Spaniards and mestizos adopted a dialect of Mapudungun as their main language.

===Tupi===
The [[Old Tupi language]] served as the ''lingua franca'' of Brazil among speakers of the various indigenous languages, mainly in the coastal regions. Tupi as a lingua franca, and as recorded in colonial books, was in fact a creation of the Portuguese, who assembled it from the similarities between the coastal indigenous [[Tupi–Guarani languages]]. The language served the Jesuit priests as a way to teach natives, and it was widely spoken by Europeans. It was the predominant language spoken in Brazil until 1758, when the Jesuits were expelled from Brazil by the Portuguese government and the use and teaching of Tupi was banned.<ref>[http://www.nautilus.com.br/~ensjo/tupi/abanheengaoiebyr.html "Abá nhe'enga oîebyr – Tradução: a língua dos índios está de volta", by Suzel Tunes] essay in Portuguese.</ref> Since then, Tupi as Lingua Franca was quickly replaced by Portuguese, although various Tupi–Guarani languages are still spoken by small native groups in Brazil.

==Pidgins and creoles==
{{further2|[[Pidgin]] and [[Creole language]].}}
Various [[pidgin]] languages have been used in many locations and times as a common trade speech. They can be based on English, French, Chinese, or indeed any other language. A pidgin is defined by its use as a lingua franca, between populations speaking other mother tongues. When a pidgin becomes a population's first language, then it is called a [[creole language]].

===Guinea-Bissau Creole===
[[Guinea-Bissau Creole]] is a [[Portuguese Creole]] used as a ''lingua franca'' of [[Guinea-Bissau]] and [[Casamance]], [[Senegal]] among people of different ethnic groups. It is also the mother tongue of many people in Guinea-Bissau.

===Tok Pisin===
[[Tok Pisin]] is widely spoken in [[Papua New Guinea]] as a ''lingua franca''. It developed as an Australian English-based creole with influences from local languages and to a smaller extent German or [[Unserdeutsch language|Unserdeutsch]] and Portuguese. Tok Pisin originated as a pidgin in the 19th century, hence the name 'Tok Pisin' from 'Talk Pidgin', but has now evolved into a modern language.

Also called Pidgin English, this Lingua Franca is also spoken in the Solomon Islands and Vanuatu. The versions of Pidgin vary between PNG, the Solomons and Vanuatu, but all Pidgin speakers from these countries are able to communicate and often understand each other's language variations.

== See also ==
* [[Interlinguistics]]
* [[International auxiliary language]]
* [[International English]]
* [[Lingua franca]]
* [[Esperanto]]

== Notes ==
{{reflist|2}}

[[Category:Interlinguistics]]
[[Category:Lists of languages]]
[[Category:Lists by continent]]
[[Category:Languages by continent]]

Template:Alps orography

2013-06-04T13:34:30Z

Ciaurlec: Resized labels to make them more readable

{| class="wikitable" align="right" style="text-align: center; margin-right:0px;"
|-
|{{Image label begin|image=Alps orographic.png|width={{{width|450}}}|float={{{float|none}}}}}
{{Image label small|x=0.21|y=0.28|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Valais]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.35|y=0.29|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Ticino]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.4|y=0.33|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Adda (river)|Adda]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.08|y=0.4|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Isere]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.05|y=0.58|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Durance]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.22|y=0.58|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Var (river)|Var]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.55|y=0.3|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Adige]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.63|y=0.31|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Piave (river)|Piave]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.22|y=0.34|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Aosta Valley|Dora Baltea]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.32|y=0.19|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Reuss (river)|Reuss]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.29|y=0.22|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Aare]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.46|y=0.23|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Inn (river)|Inn]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.6|y=0.14|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Inn (river)|Inn]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.8|y=0.12|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Enns River|Enns]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.84|y=0.16|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Mur River|Mura]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.75|y=0.22|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Drava]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.83|y=0.29|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Sava River|Sava]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.25|y=0.11|scale={{{width|450}}}|text='''[[Rhine]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.35|y=0.22|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Vorderrhein|Rhine]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.85|y=0.04|scale={{{width|450}}}|text='''[[Danube]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.02|y=0.33|scale={{{width|450}}}|text='''[[Rhone]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.47|y=0.42|scale={{{width|450}}}|text='''[[Po (river)|Po]]'''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.26|y=0.45|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Po (river)|Po]]}}
{{Image label small|x=0.60|y=0.1|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Northern Limestone Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.5|y=0.19|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Central Eastern Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.65|y=0.26|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Southern Limestone Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.36|y=0.14|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Appenzell Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.34|y=0.17|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Glarus Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.31|y=0.27|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Lepontine Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.2|y=0.25|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Bernese Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.16|y=0.31|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Pennine Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.11|y=0.36|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Graian Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.15|y=0.40|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Dauphiné Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.10|y=0.44|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Cottian Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.06|y=0.51|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Maritime Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.20|y=0.54|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=''[[Ligurian Alps]]''}}
{{Image label small|x=0.42|y=0.48|scale={{{width|450}}}|text=[[Geography of the Alps|Orographical map of the Alps]] {{legend0|#ff0000|[[Rhone basin]]}} – {{legend0|#00ff00|[[Rhine basin]]}} – {{legend0|#ff00ff|[[Po basin]]}} – {{legend0|#ffff00|[[Danube basin]]}}}}
{{Image label end}}
|-
|}
<noinclude>
<hr style="clear: both;" />
{{Documentation, template|Template:Image label begin/doc}}
</noinclude>

List of governors of Uttarakhand

2013-02-21T18:49:05Z

Ciaurlec: Corrected a synntax mistype

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2012}}

[[File:India Uttarakhand locator map.svg|upright|thumb|The state of [[Uttarakhand]] is in northern India.]]

This is a '''list of the Governors of Uttarakhand''', a state in northern India. The [[Governors of India|Governor]] has his official residence at the [[Raj Bhavan (Uttarakhand)|Raj Bhavan]] in the state capital of [[Dehradun]].

==Powers and functions==
{{See also|Governors of India#Powers and functions|l1=Powers and functions of the Governor}}
The Governor enjoys many different types of powers:

*'''Executive powers''' related to administration, appointments and removals,
*'''Legislative powers''' related to lawmaking and the state legislature, that is Vidhan Sabha or Vidhan Parishad, and
*'''Discretionary powers''' to be carried out according to the discretion of the Governor.

==Governors==
Following is the list of the Governors of Uttarkhand since its inception on 9 November 2000:
{| class="wikitable"
| bgcolor=#cccccc | '''#'''
| bgcolor=#cccccc | '''Name'''
| bgcolor=#cccccc | '''Took Office'''
| bgcolor=#cccccc | '''Left Office'''
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 1
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Surjit Singh Barnala]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 9 Nov 2000
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 8 Jan 2003
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 2
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Sudarshan Agarwal|Sudershan Agarwal]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 8 Jan 2003
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 22 Oct 2007
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 3
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Banwari Lal Joshi]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 29 Oct 2007
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 18 July 2009
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 4
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Margaret Alva]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 19 July 2009
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 28 April 2012
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 5
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Aziz Qureshi]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 28 April 2012
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 19 December 2012

|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 6
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Puneeth Tadiparthi]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 19 December 2012
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | inaquident
|}

==See also==
* [[Uttarakhand]]

==References==
{{reflist}}
* [http://www.worldstatesmen.org/India_states.html India States]

==External links==
* [http://gov.ua.nic.in/rajbhawan Governor of Uttarakhand, Official website]

{{Governors_and_Lt_Governors_of_Indian_States}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:List Of Governors Of Uttarakhand}}
[[Category:Lists of governors of Indian states|Uttarakhand]]
[[Category:Governors of Uttarakhand| ]]
[[Category:Uttarakhand-related lists|Governors]]

[[de:Liste der Gouverneure von Uttarakhand]]
[[hi:उत्तराखण्ड के राज्यपालों की सूची]]
[[ta:உத்தர்காண்ட் ஆளுநர்களின் பட்டியல்]]
[[uk:Губернатор штату Уттаракханд]]

List of governors of Haryana

2013-02-21T15:55:27Z

Ciaurlec: /* Governors of Haryana */Corrected a syntax mistype

This is a '''list of Governors''' of the [[India]]n state of [[Haryana]], which was carved out from [[Punjab (India)|Punjab]] on 1 November 1966.

==Governors of Haryana==
{| class="wikitable"
! bgcolor=#cccccc | #
! bgcolor=#cccccc | Urmil
! bgcolor=#cccccc | Took Office
! bgcolor=#cccccc | Left Office
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 1
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Dharma Vira]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 1 November 1966
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 15 September 1967
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 2
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Birendra Narayan Chakraborty]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 15 September 1967
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 26 March 1976
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 3
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | Ranjit Singh Narula
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 27 March 1976
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 14 August 1976
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 4
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | Jaisukh Lal Hathi
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 14 August 1976
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 24 September 1977
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 5
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Harcharan Singh Brar]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 24 September 1977
| bgcolor=#DDEDFF | 10 December 1979
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 6
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | S.S. Sandhawalia
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 10 December 1979
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 28 February 1981
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 7
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Ganpatrao Devji Tapase]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 28 February 1980
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 14 June 1984
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 8
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | Saiyid Muzaffar Husain Burney
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 14 June 1984
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 22 February 1988
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 9
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | Hari Anand Barari
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 22 February 1988
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 7 February 1990
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 10
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Dhanik Lal Mandal]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 7 February 1990
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 14 June 1995
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 11
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Mahabir Prasad]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 14 June 1995
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 19 June 2000
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 12
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Babu Parmanand]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 19 June 2000
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 2 July 2004
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 13
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Om Prakash Verma]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 2 July 2004
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 7 July 2004
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 14
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Akhlaqur Rahman Kidwai]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 7 July 2004
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 27 July 2009
|-
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 15
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | [[Jagannath Pahadia]]
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | 27 July 2009
| bgcolor=#DDEEFF | Current
|}

{{HaryanaGovernors}}

==See also==
* [[Haryana]]
* [[Governors of India]]
{{Governors_and_Lt_Governors_of_Indian_States}}<big>⅔</big>

==External links==
* http://haryana.gov.in/government/rajbhawan.htm

[[Category:Governors of Haryana| ]]
[[Category:Lists of governors of Indian states|Haryana]]
[[Category:Haryana-related lists|Governors]]

{{India-gov-stub}}

[[de:Liste der Gouverneure von Haryana]]
[[ta:அரியானா ஆளுநர்களின் பட்டியல்]]

Mureș County

2012-09-10T20:36:42Z

Ciaurlec: Syntax correction

{{For|other uses|Mureș (disambiguation)}}
{{Romanian counties infobox
|name=Mureș
|coa=Actual_Mures_county_CoA.png
|map=Judetul Mures 3D map.jpg
|Historic region=Transylvania
|lDevelopment region=[[Centru (development region)|Centru]]
|capital=Târgu Mureș
|ind=MS
|population=581,628
|population_rank=14th
|population_footnotes=<ref name="INSSER">{{cite web|url=http://www.insse.ro/cms/rw/resource/populatia%20stabila%20la%201%20ianuarie%202009%20si%2018.xls?download=true|title=Populaţia stabilă la 1.01.2009|date=May 19, 2009|accessdate=May 20, 2009|publisher=INSSE|language=Romanian}}</ref>
|asof=2009
|density=86
|area=6,714
|area_rank=11th
|latd = 46.59
|longd = 24.61
|webc=http://www.cjmures.ro/
|webp=http://www.prefecturams.ro/
|telpref=65}}

'''Mureș''' ({{IPA-ro|ˈmureʃ}}, {{lang-hu|Maros megye}}) is a county ([[județ]]) of [[Romania]], in the [[Historical regions of Romania|historical region]] of [[Transylvania]], with the administrative centre in [[Târgu Mureș]].

==Name==
In [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]], it is known as ''Maros megye'' (Hungarian pronunciation: {{convertIPA-hu||'|m|a|r|o|s}}), and in [[German language|German]] as ''Kreis Mieresch''. During Austro-Hungarian administration, from 1876 to 1918, there was a county with similar name (see: [[Maros-Torda County]]).

==Geography==
The county has a total area of 6,714 km².

The northeastern side of the county consists of the [[Călimani Mountains|Călimani]] and [[Gurghiu Mountains|Gurghiu]] Mountains and the sub-Carpathian hills, members of the [[Divisions of the Carpathians|Inner Eastern Carpathians]]. The rest of the county is part of the [[Transylvanian Plateau]], with deep but wide valleys.

The main river crossing in the county is the [[Mureș River]]. The [[Târnava Mare River]] and the [[Târnava Mică River]] also cross the county.

===Neighbours===

{{Romanian counties map}}
* [[Harghita County]] in the East.
* [[Alba County]] and [[Cluj County]] in the West.
* [[Bistrița-Năsăud County]] and [[Suceava County]] in the North.
* [[Sibiu County]] and [[Brașov County]] in the South.

==Demographics==
[[File:Mures (Maros) county ethnic.PNG|The ethnic map pof Mures county|220px|right]]
In 2011, Mureș had a population of 531,380<ref>National Institute of Statistics, ''[http://www.recensamant.ro/pagini/tabele/t40a.pdf "Populaţia după etnie"]''</ref> and the [[population density]] was 79/km².
{| class="toccolours" style="margin: 0 1em 0 1em;" width="60%"
|-
! align="left" colspan="14" style="background:#ccccff;" | '''Ethnic structure''' (2011)
|-
! align="center" | '''Total'''
! align="center" | [[Romanians]]
! align="center" | [[Hungarians]]
! align="center" | [[Romani people|Roma]]
! align="center" | [[Germans]]
! align="center" | Other
|-
| align="center" |'''531,380'''
| align="center" | 279,488
| align="center" | 200,989
| align="center" | 46,637
| align="center" | 1,471
| align="center" | 792
|-
| align="center" | '''100%'''
| align="center" | 52.59%
| align="center" | 37.82%
| align="center" | 8.77%
| align="center" | 0.27%
| align="center" | 0.14%
|}

In terms of religion:

*[[Romanian Orthodox Church|Romanian Orthodox]] - 53.3%
*[[Reformed Church]] - 27%
*[[Roman Catholic Church]] - 9.5%
*Other Christian denominations - 8.2%
*Jewish, Muslim, [[Atheist]], [[Non-religious]], other or undeclared - 1.9%

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==Tourism==
Some of the main tourist attractions in the county are:
* The medieval city of [[Sighișoara]].
* The old city of [[Târgu Mureș]].
* [[Sovata]] Resort.
* [[Călimani Mountains]] - [[Gurghiu Mountains]].
* The city of [[Reghin]]
* [[Peninsula / Félsziget Festival]] - Romania's biggest music festival

==Economy==
The predominant industries in the county are:
* Wood industry.
* Food industry.
* Textile industry.
* Glass and ceramics industry.
* Construction materials.
* Musical instruments ([[Reghin]]).

Mureș County and [[Sibiu County]] together produce about 50% of the [[natural gas]] developed in [[Romania]]. [[Salt]] is also extracted in the county.

== Politics ==
The '''Mureș County Council''' has 34 members. After the [[Romanian local election, 2008|2008 local elections]], the structure of Mureș County Council by [[List of political parties in Romania|political parties]] is the following:

{| class="wikitable"
! Political Party
! Number of Seats
|-
| [[Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania| Democratic Union of Hungarians in Romania (RMDSZ)]]
| 13
|-
| [[National Liberal Party (Romania)|National Liberal Party (PNL)]]
| 8
|-
| [[Liberal Democratic Party (Romania)|Liberal Democratic Party (PD-L)]]
| 7
|-
| [[Social Democratic Party (Romania)|Social Democratic Party (PSD)]]
| 6
|}

==Administrative divisions==
Mureș County has 4 municipalities, 7 towns and 91 communes
*Municipalities
**[[Reghin]]
**[[Sighișoara]]
**[[Târgu Mureș]] - capital city; population: 153,609 (as of 2011)
**[[Târnăveni]]
*Towns
**[[Iernut]]
**[[Luduș]]
**[[Miercurea Nirajului]]
**[[Sângeorgiu de Pădure]]
**[[Sărmașu]]
**[[Sovata]]
**[[Ungheni, Mureș|Ungheni]]
{{col-begin}}
{{col-6}}
*Communes
**[[Acățari]]
**[[Adămuș]]
**[[Albești, Mureș|Albești]]
**[[Aluniș, Mureș|Aluniș]]
**[[Apold]]
**[[Ațintiș]]
**[[Bahnea]]
**[[Band, Mureș|Band]]
**[[Batoș]]
**[[Băgaciu]]
**[[Băla]]
**[[Bălăușeri]]
**[[Beica de Jos]]
**[[Bereni]]
**[[Bichiș]]
**[[Bogata, Mureș|Bogata]]
{{col-6}}
**[[Brâncovenești, Mureș|Brâncovenești]]
**[[Breaza, Mureș|Breaza]]
**[[Ceuașu de Câmpie]]
**[[Chețani]]
**[[Chibed]]
**[[Chiheru de Jos]]
**[[Coroisânmărtin]]
**[[Corunca]]
**[[Cozma, Mureș|Cozma]]
**[[Crăciunești]]
**[[Cucerdea]]
**[[Crăiești]]
**[[Cristești, Mureș|Cristești]]
**[[Cuci, Mureș|Cuci]]
**[[Daneș]]
{{col-6}}
**[[Deda]]
**[[Eremitu]]
**[[Ernei]]
**[[Fântânele, Mureș|Fântânele]]
**[[Fărăgău]]
**[[Gălești, Mureș|Gălești]]
**[[Gănești]]
**[[Gheorghe Doja, Mureș|Gheorghe Doja]]
**[[Ghindari]]
**[[Glodeni, Mureș|Glodeni]]
**[[Gornești]]
**[[Grebenișu de Câmpie]]
**[[Gurghiu, Mureș|Gurghiu]]
**[[Hodac]]
**[[Hodoșa]]
{{col-6}}
**[[Ibănești, Mureș|Ibănești]]
**[[Iclănzel]]
**[[Ideciu de Jos]]
**[[Livezeni]]
**[[Lunca, Mureș|Lunca]]
**[[Lunca Bradului]]
**[[Mădăraș, Mureș|Mădăraș]]
**[[Măgherani]]
**[[Mica, Mureș|Mica]]
**[[Miheșu de Câmpie]]
**[[Nadeș]]
**[[Neaua]]
**[[Ogra]]
**[[Papiu Ilarian]]
**[[Pănet]]
{{col-6}}
**[[Păsăreni]]
**[[Petelea]]
**[[Pogăceaua]]
**[[Râciu]]
**[[Răstolița]]
**[[Rușii-Munți]]
**[[Sâncraiu de Mureș]]
**[[Sângeorgiu de Mureș]]
**[[Sânger]]
**[[Sânpaul, Mureș|Sânpaul]]
**[[Sânpetru de Câmpie]]
**[[Sântana de Mureș]]
**[[Sărățeni, Mureș|Sărățeni]]
**[[Saschiz]]
**[[Solovăstru]]
{{col-6}}
**[[Stânceni]]
**[[Suplac]]
**[[Suseni, Mureş|Suseni]]
**[[Şăulia]]
**[[Şincai]]
**[[Tăureni]]
**[[Valea Largă]]
**[[Vânători, Mureş|Vânători]]
**[[Vărgata]]
**[[Vătava]]
**[[Veţca]]
**[[Viişoara, Mureş|Viişoara]]
**[[Voivodeni]]
**[[Zagăr]]
**[[Zau de Câmpie]]
{{col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{commons cat|Mureş County }}
*{{hu icon}} [http://www.euromaros.ro EuroMaros]
*{{hu icon}} [http://www.mediatica.ro Mediatica News]
*{{ro icon}} [http://www.MuresInfo.ro Mureş Info]
*{{ro icon}}{{hu icon}} [http://www.muresonline.ro Mureş online]

{{Mureş County}}
{{Counties (judete) of Romania}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Mures County}}
[[Category:Mureș County| ]]
[[Category:Counties of Romania]]

[[ace:Propinsi Mureş]]
[[an:Provincia de Mureş]]
[[bg:Муреш]]
[[ca:Província de Mureș]]
[[cs:Mureș (župa)]]
[[da:Mureș (distrikt)]]
[[de:Kreis Mureș]]
[[et:Mureși maakond]]
[[es:Mureș (distrito)]]
[[eo:Distrikto Mureș]]
[[fr:Județ de Mureș]]
[[gl:Condado de Mureş]]
[[ko:무레슈 주]]
[[hr:Mureș (županija)]]
[[id:Provinsi Mureş]]
[[it:Distretto di Mureș]]
[[la:Mureș (circulus)]]
[[lt:Murešo apskritis]]
[[hu:Maros megye]]
[[nl:District Mureș]]
[[ja:ムレシュ県]]
[[no:Mureș (fylke)]]
[[nn:Mureş fylke]]
[[pnb:موریش کاؤنٹی]]
[[pl:Okręg Marusza]]
[[pt:Mureș (distrito)]]
[[ro:Județul Mureș]]
[[ru:Муреш (жудец)]]
[[simple:Mureş County]]
[[sk:Mureş (župa)]]
[[sr:Муреш (округ)]]
[[fi:Mureș (piirikunta)]]
[[sv:Mureș (județ)]]
[[tg:Вилояти Муреш]]
[[tr:Mureș ili]]
[[uk:Муреш (повіт)]]
[[zh:穆列什縣]]

Category:User vec-2

2012-04-12T13:50:16Z

Ciaurlec:

{{User lang subcat|
|level = 2
|code = vec
|lang = Venetian
|text = Sto utente el połe partesipar co un liveło '''[[:Category:User vec-2|medio]]''' de '''[[:Category:User vec|vèneto]]'''.
|}}
{{Commons cat|User vec-2}}

[[Category:User vec]]

[[an:Categoría:Usuario vec-2]]
[[br:Rummad:Implijerien vec-2]]
[[eo:Kategorio:Vikipediisto vec-2]]
[[eu:Kategoria:Veneziera maila ertainean]]
[[fa:رده:User vec-2]]
[[fr:Catégorie:Utilisateur vec-2]]
[[it:Categoria:Utenti vec-2]]
[[lad:Katēggoría:User vec-2]]
[[lt:Kategorija:User vec-2]]
[[hu:Kategória:User vec-2]]
[[pms:Categorìa:User vec-2]]
[[pt:Categoria:Usuário vec-2]]
[[sr:Категорија:Корисник vec-2]]
[[tr:Kategori:User vec-2]]
[[vec:Categoria:Utenti vec-2]]

Canastra Mountains

2012-02-07T22:01:40Z

Ciaurlec: Corrected a refuse

{{Geobox|Range
| name=Canastra Mountains | native_name =Serra da Canastra
| image=Serra da Canastra.jpg
| image_size=275
| image_caption= | image_alt=
| etymology=
| country=Brazil
| region=Minas Gerais| region_type=State
| border=
| parent=
| highest=
| highest_elevation=
| highest_lat_d=| highest_lat_m=| highest_lat_s=| highest_lat_NS=N
| highest_long_d=| highest_long_m=| highest_long_s=| highest_long_EW=
| length= | length_orientation=
| width= | width_orientation=
| geology= | period= | orogeny=
| map=
| map_size=275
| map_caption=
}}
The '''Canastra Mountains''' ('''Serra da Canastra''')
are a range of hills in the [[Minas Gerais]] state of southwestern [[Brazil]]. The headwaters of the [[São Francisco River]] begin at this range and it is the location of the [[Serra da Canastra National Park]] and the Casca d'Anta waterfall.<ref name=st_louis_draffen2005/> The altitude ranges from 900 m to 1,496 m.<ref name=box_eggington_day2002/> [[Kimberlite]] sites in this range have proven to be a rich source of diamonds.<ref name=diamonds/>

==References==
{{reflist|refs=

<ref name=st_louis_draffen2005>{{cite book | author=St. Louis, Regis; Draffen, Andrew | year=2005 | page=483 | title=Brazil | series=Country Guides | edition=6th | publisher=Lonely Planet | isbn=1741040213 }}</ref>

<ref name=box_eggington_day2002>{{cite book | author=Box, Ben; Egginton, Jane; Day, Mick | page=274 | title=Brazil handbook | year=2002 | series=Travel Guides | edition=3rd | publisher=Footprint Travel Guides | isbn=1903471443 }}</ref>

<ref name=diamonds>{{cite web | title=Projects: Serra da Canastra | work=Brazilian Diamonds Limited. | url=http://www.braziliandiamonds.com/s/SerradaCanastra.asp | accessdate=2011-03-16 }}</ref>

}}
{{Brazil-geo-stub}}

{{coord missing|Brazil}}

[[Category:Mountain ranges of Brazil]]

[[cs:Serra da Canastra]]
[[nl:Serra da Canastra]]
[[pt:Serra da Canastra]]

Talk:Romaine lettuce

2012-01-23T23:09:39Z

Ciaurlec:

{{WikiProject Food and drink|class=Start |importance=Mid }}
{{WikiProject Plants|class=start|importance=}}

== Old posts ==
In updating the nutrition section the Nutrition Almanac (John D. Kirschmann & Lavon J. Dunne) was used as the reference source. There was a 300% discrepency between the original article and the almanac with regards to fiber (1.2 grams vs. 0.4 grams). I opted to use a single reference source and updated the article accordingly (due in no small part to the original post being a stub). (edit by user bmolai)

== Rename to 'cos'? ==

Why is this article 'romaine' when cos appears to be the more dominant (and certainly older) term? (cos = c. 1700, romaine = c. 1885) —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Natebailey|Natebailey]] ([[User talk:Natebailey|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Natebailey|contribs]]) 07:57, 28 January 2008 (UTC) 
: While where I am in Australia 'cos' is the common term, Google says 'romaine' is overwhelmingly more common. [[Special:Contributions/143.92.3.8|143.92.3.8]] ([[User talk:143.92.3.8|talk]]) 02:37, 2 June 2008 (UTC)
::: I've worked in grocery store produce departments in LA; Phoenix; NYC; Sarasota, Florida and Bangor, Maine and the term always used was Romaine lettuce. The word "cos" is never used in the US.[[Special:Contributions/98.165.103.109|98.165.103.109]] ([[User talk:98.165.103.109|talk]]) 18:30, 14 August 2010 (UTC)

==No eytmolgy given for Romaine==

The article gives etymology for Cos lettuce, yet does not give etymology for the name "Romaine". This is all the more surprising, given that this is titled "Romaine lettuce". [[User:ACEOREVIVED|ACEOREVIVED]] ([[User talk:ACEOREVIVED|talk]]) 22:15, 8 February 2011 (UTC)
:Per [[WP:ENGVAR]], the English dialect the article was first written in should be maintained. That is probably why it is called romaine instead of cos. See the discussion page of [[rutabaga]] for precedent. --[[User:Jerem43|Jeremy]] ([[User talk:Jerem43|blah blah]] • [[Special:Contributions/Jerem43|I did it!]]) 06:14, 9 February 2011 (UTC)
:As suggested in spanish wikipedia [http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lechuga_romana] probably the ethymology is "Roman Lettuce" in the sense of originary from Rome; "Romaine" could be a french word meaning "Roman", and the in the same usage is translated in most of the Neolatines languagesas italian and spanish. Is not specificated if Rome is related to the italian city or to "Romania", intended as Byzantine empire; this last interpretation may well fit with "Cos" ethymolgy too. [[User:Ciaurlec|Ciaurlec]] ([[User talk:Ciaurlec|talk]]) 23:09, 23 January 2012 (UTC)