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Spider taxonomy

2024-09-17T00:02:31Z

Coriander77:

{{short description|Science of naming, defining and classifying spiders}}
[[File:Araneus-angulatus-figure1757.jpg|thumb|Paintings of ''[[Araneus angulatus]]'' from ''[[Svenska Spindlar]]'' of 1757, the first major work on spider taxonomy]]
'''Spider taxonomy''' is the part of [[taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]] that is concerned with the science of naming, defining and classifying all [[spider]]s, members of the Araneae [[order (biology)|order]] of the [[Arthropoda|arthropod]] [[class (biology)|class]] [[Arachnida]], which has more than 48,500 described [[species]].{{sfnp|Dimitrov|Hormiga|2021}} However, there are likely many species that have escaped the human eye as well as [[specimen (biology)|specimens]] stored in [[collection (museum)|collections]] waiting to be described and classified. It is estimated that only one-third to one half of the total number of existing species have been described.{{sfnp|Platnick|Raven|2013|p=600}}

[[Arachnology|Arachnologists]] currently divide [[spider]]s into two [[suborder (biology)|suborder]]s with about 129 [[family (taxonomy)|families]].

Due to constant research, with new species being discovered every month and others being recognized as [[synonym (zoology)|synonyms]], the number of species in the families is bound to change and only reflects the present state of knowledge. Nevertheless, the species numbers given here are useful as a guideline – see the [[Spider taxonomy#Table of families|table of families]] at the end of the article.

==History==
Spider taxonomy can be traced to the work of Swedish naturalist [[Carl Alexander Clerck]], who in 1757 published the first [[binomial nomenclature|binomial scientific names]] of some 67 spiders species in his ''[[Svenska Spindlar]]'' ("Swedish Spiders"), one year before [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] named over 30 spiders in his [[10th edition of Systema Naturae|''Systema Naturae'']]. In the ensuing 250 years, thousands more species have been described by researchers around the world, yet only a dozen taxonomists are responsible for more than one-third of all species described. The most prolific authors include [[Eugène Simon]] of France, [[Norman Platnick]] and [[Herbert Walter Levi]] of the United States, [[Embrik Strand]] of Norway, and [[Tamerlan Thorell]] of Sweden, each having described well over 1,000 species.{{sfnp|Platnick|Raven|2013|p=597}}

==Overview of phylogeny==
At the very top level, there is broad agreement on the [[phylogeny]] and hence classification of spiders, which is summarized in the [[cladogram]] below. The three main [[clade]]s into which spiders are divided are shown in bold; {{as of|2015|lc=yes}}, they are usually treated as one suborder, [[Mesothelae]], and two infraorders, [[Mygalomorphae]] and [[Araneomorphae]], grouped into the suborder [[Opisthothelae]].{{sfnp|Bond|Garrison|Hamilton|Godwin|2014}}{{sfnp|Coddington|2005}} The Mesothelae, with about 140 species in 8 genera {{as of|2020|October|lc=yes}}, make up a very small proportion of the total of around 49,000 known species. Mygalomorphae species comprise around 7% of the total, the remaining 93% being in the Araneomorphae.<ref group=note name=Note1>Species counts from {{Harvtxt|World Spider Catalog|2020|loc=[http://wsc.nmbe.ch/statistics/ Currently valid spider genera and species]}}, family classification from {{Harvtxt|Coddington|2005|p=20}}.</ref>

{{clade |style=line-height:100%;
|label1=Araneae (spiders)
|1={{clade
|1='''[[Mesothelae]]'''
|2={{clade
|label1=[[Opisthothelae]]
|1={{clade
|1='''[[Mygalomorphae]]'''
|2={{clade
|label1='''[[Araneomorphae]]'''
|1={{clade
|1=[[Austrochiloidea]]
|2=[[Entelegynae]]
|3=[[Haplogynae]]
|4=[[Hypochiloidea]]
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}
}}

The Araneomorphae are divided into two main groups: the [[Haplogynae]] and the [[Entelegynae]]. The Haplogynae make up about 10% of the total number of spider species, the Entelegynae about 83%.<ref group=note name=Note1/> The phylogenetic relationships of the Haplogynae, Entelegynae and the two smaller groups [[Hypochiloidea]] and [[Austrochiloidea]] remain uncertain {{as of|2015|lc=yes}}. Some analyses place both Hypochiloidea and Austrochiloidea outside Haplogynae;{{sfnp|Coddington|2005|p=20}} others place the Austrochiloidea between the Haplogynae and the Entelegynae;{{sfnp|Griswold|Ramirez|Coddington|Platnick|2005}}{{sfnp|Blackledge|Scharff|Coddington|Szüts|2009|p=5232}} the Hypochiloidea have also been grouped with the Haplogynae.{{sfnp|Bond|Garrison|Hamilton|Godwin|2014|p=1766}} Earlier analyses regarded the Hypochiloidea as the sole representatives of a group called the Paleocribellatae, with all other araneomorphs placed in the Neocribellatae.{{sfnp|Coddington|Levi|1991|p=577}}

The Haplogynae are a group of araneomorph spiders with simpler male and female reproductive anatomy than the Entelegynae. Like the mesotheles and mygalomorphs, females have only a single genital opening ([[gonopore]]), used both for copulation and egg-laying;{{sfnp|Eberhard|Huber|2010|pp=256–257}} males have less complex [[palpal bulb]]s than those of the Entelegynae.{{sfnp|Eberhard|Huber|2010|p=250}} Although some studies based on both morphology and [[DNA]] suggest that the Haplogynae form a [[Monophyly|monophyletic]] group (i.e. they comprise all the descendants of a common ancestor),{{sfnp|Coddington|2005|p=22}}{{sfnp|Bond|Garrison|Hamilton|Godwin|2014|p=1766}} this hypothesis has been described as "weakly supported", with most of the distinguishing features of the group being inherited from ancestors shared with other groups of spiders, rather than being clearly indicative of a separate common origin (i.e. being [[synapomorphies]]).{{sfnp|Michalik|Ramírez|2014|p=312}} One phylogenetic hypothesis based on molecular data shows the Haplogynae as a [[Paraphyly|paraphyletic]] group leading to the Austrochilidae and Entelegynae.{{sfnp|Agnarsson|Coddington|Kuntner|2013|p=40}}

The Entelegynae have a more complex reproductive anatomy: females have two "copulatory pores" in addition to the single genital pore of other groups of spiders; males have complex palpal bulbs, matching the female genital structures ([[epigyne]]s).{{sfnp|Coddington|2005|p=22}} The monophyly of the group is well supported in both morphological and molecular studies. The internal phylogeny of the Entelegynae has been the subject of much research. Two groups within this clade contain the only spiders that make vertical orb webs: the [[Deinopoidea]] are [[cribellum|cribellate]] – the adhesive properties of their webs are created by packets of thousands of extremely fine loops of dry silk; the [[Araneoidea]] are ecribellate – the adhesive properties of their webs are created by fine droplets of "glue". In spite of these differences, the webs of the two groups are similar in their overall geometry.{{sfnp|Hormiga|Griswold|2014|p=488}} The evolutionary history of the Entelegynae is thus intimately connected with the evolutionary history of orb webs. One hypothesis is that there is a single clade, Orbiculariae, uniting the orb web makers, in whose ancestors orb webs evolved. A review in 2014 concluded that there is strong evidence that orb webs evolved only once, although only weak support for the monophyly of the Orbiculariae.{{sfnp|Hormiga|Griswold|2014|p=505}} One possible phylogeny is shown below; the type of web made is shown for each terminal node in order of the frequency of occurrence.{{sfnp|Blackledge|Scharff|Coddington|Szüts|2009|loc=Fig. 3}}

{{clade
|label1=Entelegynae
|1={{clade
|1=Eresoidea, [[RTA clade]] – no web; substrate-defined web|state1=double
|label2=[[Orbiculariae]]
|2={{clade
|1=[[Deinopoidea]] – orb web
|2={{clade
|1=[[Araneoidea]] – orb web; aerial sheet web; cobweb; no web
|2=[[Nicodamidae]] – aerial sheet web
}}
}}
}}
}}

If this is correct, the earliest members of the Entelegynae made webs defined by the substrate on which they were placed (e.g. the ground) rather than suspended orb webs. True orb webs evolved once, in the ancestors of the Orbiculariae, but were then modified or lost in some descendants.

An alternative hypothesis, supported by some molecular phylogenetic studies, is that the Orbiculariae are [[Paraphyly|paraphyletic]], with the phylogeny of the Entelegynae being as shown below.{{sfnp|Bond|Garrison|Hamilton|Godwin|2014|loc=Fig 3|ps=. Web types defined as {{Harvtxt|Blackledge|Scharff|Coddington|Szüts|2009|loc=Fig. 3}}}}

{{clade
|label1=Entelegynae
|1={{clade
|1=[[Araneoidea]] – orb web; aerial sheet web; cobweb; no web
|2={{clade
|1=[[Deinopoidea]], [[Oecobiidae]]– orb web; substrate-defined web
|2=[[RTA clade]] – no web; substrate-defined web
}}
}}
}}

On this view, orb webs evolved earlier, being present in the early members of the Entelegynae, and were then lost in more groups,{{sfnp|Bond|Garrison|Hamilton|Godwin|2014|p=1768}} making web evolution more convoluted, with different kinds of web having evolved separately more than once.{{sfnp|Hormiga|Griswold|2014|p=505}} Future advances in technology, including comparative genomics studies,{{sfnp|Dimitrov|Hormiga|2021}} and whole-genome sampling should lead to "a clearer image of the evolutionary chronicle and the underlying diversity patterns that have resulted in one of the most extraordinary radiations of animals".{{sfnp|Hormiga|Griswold|2014|p=505}}

==Suborder Mesothelae==
{{unreferenced section|date=September 2015}}
[[Mesothelae]] resemble the [[Solifugae]] ("wind scorpions" or "sun scorpions") in having segmented plates on their abdomens that create the appearance of the segmented abdomens of these other arachnids. They are both few in number and also limited in geographical range.
*†[[Arthrolycosidae]] (primitive spiders, extinct)
*†[[Arthromygalidae]] (primitive spiders, extinct)
*[[Liphistiidae]] (primitive burrowing spiders)
*[[Heptathelidae]] (primitive burrowing spiders)
[[Image:Sphodros rufipes non-crossing chel.jpg|thumb|200px|Digitally enhanced image of a ''[[Sphodros rufipes]]'' that shows the nearly perfectly vertical orientation of the fangs, a prime characteristic of the Mygalomorphae.]]

==Suborder Opisthothelae==
{{unreferenced section|date=September 2015}}
Suborder [[Opisthothelae]] contains the spiders that have no plates on their abdomens. Opisthothelae is divided into two infraorders, Mygalomorphae and Araneomorphae, which can be distinguished by the orientation of their fangs. It can be somewhat difficult on casual inspection to determine whether the fang orientation would classify a spider as a mygalomorph or araneomorph. The spiders that are called "[[tarantulas]]" in English are so large and hairy that inspection of their fangs is hardly necessary to categorize one of them as a mygalomorph. Other, smaller, members of this suborder, however, look little different from the araneomorphs. (See the picture of ''[[Sphodros rufipes]]'' below.) Many araneomorphs are immediately identifiable as such since they are found on webs designed for the capture of prey or exhibit other habitat choices that eliminate the possibility that they could be mygalomorphs.

===Infraorder Mygalomorphae===
[[Image:Megaphobema robustum 1.jpg|right|thumb|200px|''[[Megaphobema robustum]]'', one of the many kinds of spiders called "[[tarantula]]s"]]
Spiders in infraorder [[Mygalomorphae]] are characterized by the vertical orientation of their fangs and the possession of four book lungs.

===Infraorder Araneomorphae===
[[File:Cheiracanthium punctorium frei 1 17 Forst Jungfernhdeide Jg 46 070920.jpg|right|thumb|200px|Photograph showing orientation of the fangs of the Araneomorphae.]]
Most, if not all, of the spiders one is likely to encounter in everyday life belong to infraorder [[Araneomorphae]]. It includes a wide range of spider families, including the [[orb-weaver spider]]s that weave their distinctive webs in gardens, the [[Theridiidae|cobweb spiders]] that frequent window frames and the corners of rooms, the [[Thomisidae|crab spiders]] that lurk on flowers waiting for nectar- and pollen-gathering insects, the [[jumping spider]]s that patrol the outside walls of buildings, and so on. They are characterized by having [[fangs]] whose tips approach each other as they bite, and (usually) having one pair of [[book lung]]s.

==Classification above families==
Spiders were long classified into families that were then grouped into superfamilies, some of which were in turn placed into a number of higher taxa below the level of infraorder. When more rigorous approaches, such as [[cladistics]], were applied to spider classification, it became clear that most of the major groupings used in the 20th century were not supported. Many were based on shared characteristics inherited from the ancestors of multiple [[clade]]s ([[Plesiomorphy|plesiomorphies]]), rather than being distinct characteristics originating in the ancestors of that clade only ([[Apomorphy|apomorphies]]). According to [[Jonathan A. Coddington]] in 2005, "books and overviews published prior to the last two decades have been superseded".{{sfnp|Coddington|2005|p=24}} Listings of spiders, such as the [[World Spider Catalog]], currently ignore classification above the family level.{{sfnp|Coddington|2005|p=24}}{{sfnp|World Spider Catalog|2020}}

At the higher level, the phylogeny of spiders is now often discussed using informal clade names, such as the "[[RTA clade]]",{{sfnp|Hormiga|Griswold|2014|p=491}} the "Oval Calmistrum" clade or the "Divided Cribellum" clade.{{sfnp|Ramírez|2014|p=4}} Older names previously used formally are used as clade names, e.g. [[Entelegynae]] and [[Orbiculariae]].{{sfnp|Hormiga|Griswold|2014|pp=490–491}}

==Table of families==
{| class="wikitable"
|+Key
|-
|Genera||bgcolor="lightblue" | 1 || bgcolor="lightgreen" | ≥2 || bgcolor="#FFA" | ≥10 || bgcolor="pink" | ≥100
|-
|Species||bgcolor="lightblue" | 1–9 || bgcolor="lightgreen" | ≥10 || bgcolor="#FFA" | ≥100 || bgcolor="pink" | ≥1000
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+Spider families{{refn|group=note|name=Note2|Unless otherwise shown, currently accepted families and counts based on the [[World Spider Catalog]] version 22.5 {{as of|lc=yes|2021|November|5}}.{{sfnp|World Spider Catalog|2021|loc=[http://wsc.nmbe.ch/statistics/ Currently valid spider genera and species]}} In the World Spider Catalog, "species" counts include subspecies. Assignment to sub- and infraorders based on {{Harvtxt|Coddington|2005|p=20}} (when given there).}}
|-
!Family||Genera||Species||Common name||Example
|-
|colspan=5|'''[[Mesothelae]]'''
|-
|[[Heptathelidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen" | 7 || bgcolor="#FFA" | 113 || ||[[Kimura spider]]
|-
|[[Liphistiidae]]||bgcolor="lightblue" | 1 ||bgcolor="lightgreen" | 70 || || ''[[Liphistius batuensis]]''
|-
|colspan=5|'''[[Opisthothelae]]: [[Mygalomorphae]]'''
|-
|[[Actinopodidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|3||bgcolor="#FFA"|118|| ||''[[Missulena]]'' (mouse spiders)
|-
|[[Anamidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|10|| bgcolor="#FFA" |111|| ||''[[Aname diversicolor]]'' (black wishbone spider)
|-
|[[Antrodiaetidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|4||bgcolor="lightgreen"|37||folding trapdoor spiders ||''[[Atypoides riversi]]''
|-
|[[Atracidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|3||bgcolor="lightgreen"|36||Australian funnel-web spiders||''[[Illawarra wisharti]]''
|-
|[[Atypidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|3||bgcolor="lightgreen"|56||purseweb spiders ||''[[Sphodros rufipes]]'' (red-legged purseweb spider)
|-
|[[Barychelidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|40|| bgcolor="#FFA" |282||trapdoor baboon spiders ||''[[Sason sundaicum]]''
|-
|[[Bemmeridae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|4||bgcolor="lightgreen"|47|| ||''[[Spiroctenus personatus]]''
|-
|[[Ctenizidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightblue"|5||cork-lid trapdoor spiders ||''[[Cteniza sauvagesi]]''
|-
|[[Cyrtaucheniidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|6||bgcolor="lightgreen"|93||wafer trapdoor spiders ||''[[Amblyocarenum nuragicus]]''
|-
|[[Dipluridae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|7|| bgcolor="lightgreen" |95||funnel-web tarantulas ||[[Spruce-fir moss spider]] (''Microhexura montivaga'')
|-
|[[Entypesidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|6|| bgcolor="lightgreen" |42|| ||''[[Entypesa andohahela]]''
|-
|[[Euagridae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|14|| bgcolor="lightgreen" |87|| ||''[[Euagrus formosanus]]''
|-
|[[Euctenizidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|8||bgcolor="lightgreen"|77|| ||''[[Aptostichus simus]]''
|-
|[[Halonoproctidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|6||bgcolor="#FFA"|130|| ||''[[Ummidia algarve]]''
|-
|[[Hexathelidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|7||bgcolor="lightgreen"|45||venomous funnel-web tarantulas ||''[[Hexathele hochstetteri]]''
|-
|[[Hexurellidae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightblue"|4|| ||
|-
|[[Idiopidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|23|| bgcolor="#FFA" |437||armored trapdoor spiders ||''[[Idiosoma nigrum]]'' (black rugose trapdoor spider)
|-
|[[Ischnothelidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|5||bgcolor="lightgreen"|26|| ||
|-
|[[Macrothelidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightgreen"|47|| ||
|-
|[[Mecicobothriidae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightblue"|2||dwarf tarantulas ||
|-
|[[Megahexuridae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightblue"|1|| ||
|-
|[[Microhexuridae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightblue"|2|| ||
|-
|[[Microstigmatidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|11||bgcolor="lightgreen"|38|| ||''[[Envia garciai]]''
|-
|[[Migidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|11||bgcolor="#FFA"|103||tree trapdoor spiders ||''[[Moggridgea rainbowi]]''
|-
|[[Nemesiidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|10||bgcolor="#FFA"|148||funnel-web trapdoor spiders||''[[Aname atra]]'' (black wishbone spider)
|-
|[[Paratropididae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|4|| bgcolor="lightgreen" |16||baldlegged spiders ||''[[Paratropis tuxtlensis]]''
|-
|[[Porrhothelidae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightblue"|5|| ||
|-
|[[Pycnothelidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|15|| bgcolor="#FFA" |137|| ||
|-
|[[Rhytidicolidae]]|| bgcolor="lightgreen" |2|| bgcolor="lightgreen" |14|| ||''[[Fufius lucasae]]''
|-
|[[Stasimopidae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightgreen"|47|| ||
|-
|[[Theraphosidae]]||bgcolor="pink"|156|| bgcolor="pink" |1039||tarantulas ||[[Goliath birdeater]] (''Theraphosa blondi'')
|-
|colspan=5|'''Opisthothelae: [[Araneomorphae]]'''
|-
|[[Agelenidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|90|| bgcolor="pink" |1366||araneomorph funnel-web spiders ||[[Hobo spider]] (''Eratigena agrestis'')
|-
|[[Amaurobiidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|50|| bgcolor="#FFA" |283||tangled nest spiders ||''[[Callobius claustrarius]]''
|-
|[[Anapidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|58||bgcolor="#FFA"|232|| ||
|-
|[[Anyphaenidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|58|| bgcolor="#FFA" |614||anyphaenid sac spiders ||''[[Hibana velox]]'' (yellow ghost spider)
|-
|[[Araneidae]]||bgcolor="pink"|184|| bgcolor="pink" |3097||orb-weaver spiders ||''[[Zygiella x-notata]]''
|-
|[[Archaeidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|6||bgcolor="lightgreen"|90||pelican spiders ||''[[Madagascarchaea gracilicollis]]''
|-
|[[Archoleptonetidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightblue"|8|| ||''[[Archoleptoneta gertschi]]''
|-
|[[Arkyidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightgreen"|38|| ||
|-
|[[Austrochilidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightblue"|9|| ||''[[Hickmania troglodytes]]''
|-
|[[Caponiidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|20||bgcolor="#FFA"|139|| ||''[[Diploglena capensis]]''
|-
|[[Cheiracanthiidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|14||bgcolor="#FFA"|363|| ||
|-
|[[Cithaeronidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightblue"|9|| ||
|-
|[[Clubionidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|19|| bgcolor="#FFA" |662||sac spiders ||''[[Clubiona trivialis]]''
|-
|[[Corinnidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|73|| bgcolor="#FFA" |824||dark sac spiders ||''[[Castianeira]]'' sp.
|-
|[[Ctenidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|48|| bgcolor="#FFA" |532||wandering spiders||''[[Phoneutria fera]]''
|-
|[[Cyatholipidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|23||bgcolor="lightgreen"|58|| ||
|-
|[[Cybaeidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|21||bgcolor="#FFA"|303|| ||[[Diving bell spider]] (''Argyroneta aquatica'')
|-
|[[Cycloctenidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|8||bgcolor="lightgreen"|80|| ||
|-
|[[Deinopidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|3||bgcolor="lightgreen"|67||net-casting spiders ||''[[Deinopis subrufa]]'' (rufous net-casting spider)
|-
|[[Desidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|60||bgcolor="#FFA"|296||intertidal spiders ||''[[Phryganoporus candidus]]''
|-
|[[Dictynidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|53||bgcolor="#FFA"|475|| ||''[[Nigma walckenaeri]]''
|-
|[[Diguetidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightgreen"|15||coneweb spiders ||
|-
|[[Drymusidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightgreen"|17||false violin spiders ||
|-
|[[Dysderidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|25||bgcolor="#FFA"|591||woodlouse hunter spiders ||[[Woodlouse spider]] (''Dysdera crocata'')
|-
|[[Eresidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|9||bgcolor="#FFA"|102||velvet spiders ||''[[Eresus sandaliatus]]''
|-
|[[Filistatidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|19||bgcolor="#FFA"|189||crevice weavers ||[[Southern house spider]] (''Kukulcania hibernalis'')
|-
|[[Fonteferridae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightblue"|1|| || ''[[Fonteferrea|Fonteferrea minutissima]]''
|-
|[[Gallieniellidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|5||bgcolor="lightgreen"|41|| ||
|-
|[[Gnaphosidae]]||bgcolor="pink"|145|| bgcolor="pink" |2430||ground spiders ||''[[Drassodes cupreus]]''
|-
|[[Gradungulidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|8||bgcolor="lightgreen"|17||large-clawed spiders ||''[[Progradungula carraiensis]]'' (Carrai cave spider)
|-
|[[Hahniidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|24|| bgcolor="#FFA" |353||dwarf sheet spiders ||
|-
|[[Hersiliidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|16||bgcolor="#FFA"|187||tree trunk spiders ||''[[Hersilia savignyi]]''
|-
|[[Homalonychidae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightblue"|2|| ||
|-
|[[Huttoniidae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightblue"|1|| ||''[[Huttonia palpimanoides]]''
|-
|[[Hypochilidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightgreen"|33||lampshade spiders ||''[[Hypochilus thorelli]]''
|-
|[[Lamponidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|23||bgcolor="#FFA"|192|| ||[[White-tailed spider]] (''Lampona'' spp.)
|-
|[[Leptonetidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|22|| bgcolor="#FFA" |370|| ||[[Tooth Cave spider]] (''Tayshaneta myopica'')
|-
|[[Linyphiidae]]||bgcolor="pink"|624|| bgcolor="pink" |4724||dwarf / money spiders ||''[[Linyphia triangularis]]''
|-
|[[Liocranidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|35|| bgcolor="#FFA" |311||liocranid sac spiders ||
|-
|[[Lycosidae]]||bgcolor="pink"|127|| bgcolor="pink" |2457||wolf spiders ||''[[Lycosa tarantula]]''
|-
|[[Malkaridae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|13||bgcolor="lightgreen"|57||shield spiders ||
|-
|[[Mecysmaucheniidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|7||bgcolor="lightgreen"|25|| ||
|-
|[[Megadictynidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightblue"|2|| ||
|-
|[[Mimetidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|8||bgcolor="#FFA"|159||pirate spiders ||''[[Oarces reticulatus]]''
|-
|[[Miturgidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|29||bgcolor="#FFA"|141||long-legged sac spiders ||
|-
|[[Myrmecicultoridae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightblue"|1|| ||
|-
|[[Mysmenidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|14||bgcolor="#FFA"|158||spurred orb-weavers ||
|-
|[[Nesticidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|18||bgcolor="#FFA"|285||scaffold web spiders ||''[[Nesticella marapu]]''
|-
|[[Nicodamidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|7||bgcolor="lightgreen"|27|| ||
|-
|[[Ochyroceratidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|10||bgcolor="#FFA"|177||midget ground weavers ||''[[Theotima minutissima]]''
|-
|[[Oecobiidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|6||bgcolor="#FFA"|120||disc web spiders ||''[[Oecobius navus]]''
|-
|[[Oonopidae]]||bgcolor="pink"|115|| bgcolor="pink" |1888||dwarf hunting spiders ||''[[Oonops domesticus]]''
|-
|[[Orsolobidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|30||bgcolor="#FFA"|188|| ||
|-
|[[Oxyopidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|9||bgcolor="#FFA"|443||lynx spiders ||''[[Peucetia viridans]]'' (green lynx spider)
|-
|[[Pacullidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|4||bgcolor="lightgreen"|38|| ||
|-
|[[Palpimanidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|21|| bgcolor="#FFA" |165||palp-footed spiders ||
|-
|[[Penestomidae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightblue"|9|| ||
|-
|[[Periegopidae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightblue"|3|| ||
|-
|[[Philodromidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|30||bgcolor="#FFA"|535||philodromid crab spiders ||''[[Philodromus dispar]]''
|-
|[[Pholcidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|97|| bgcolor="pink" |1893||daddy long-legs spiders ||''[[Pholcus phalangioides]]''
|-
|[[Phrurolithidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|20||bgcolor="#FFA"|313|| ||
|-
|[[Physoglenidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|13||bgcolor="lightgreen"|72|| ||
|-
|[[Phyxelididae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|14||bgcolor="lightgreen"|68|| ||
|-
|[[Pimoidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2|| bgcolor="lightgreen" |85|| ||''[[Pimoa cthulhu]]''
|-
|[[Pisauridae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|51||bgcolor="#FFA"|353||nursery web spiders ||''[[Pisaura mirabilis]]''
|-
|[[Plectreuridae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightgreen"|31|| ||
|-
|[[Prodidomidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|23||bgcolor="#FFA"|192|| ||
|-
|[[Psechridae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightgreen"|61|| ||
|-
|[[Psilodercidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|11||bgcolor="#FFA"|224|| ||
|-
|[[Salticidae]]||bgcolor="pink"|665|| bgcolor="pink" |6433||jumping spiders ||[[Zebra spider]] (''Salticus scenicus'')
|-
|[[Scytodidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|4||bgcolor="#FFA"|241||spitting spiders ||''[[Scytodes thoracica]]''
|-
|[[Segestriidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|5|| bgcolor="#FFA" |152||tubeweb spiders ||''[[Segestria florentina]]''
|-
|[[Selenopidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|9||bgcolor="#FFA"|262||wall spiders ||''[[Selenops radiatus]]''
|-
|[[Senoculidae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightgreen"|31|| ||
|-
|[[Sicariidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|3||bgcolor="#FFA"|172||recluse spiders ||[[Brown recluse spider|Brown recluse]] (''Loxosceles reclusa'')
|-
|[[Sparassidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|95||bgcolor="pink"|1337||huntsman spiders ||''[[Delena cancerides]]''
|-
|[[Stenochilidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|2||bgcolor="lightgreen"|13|| ||
|-
|[[Stiphidiidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|20||bgcolor="#FFA"|125|| sheetweb spiders||''[[Tartarus mullamullangensis]]''
|-
|[[Symphytognathidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|10||bgcolor="lightgreen"|98||dwarf orb-weavers ||''[[Patu digua]]''
|-
|[[Synaphridae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|3||bgcolor="lightgreen"|13|| ||
|-
|[[Synotaxidae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightgreen"|11|| ||
|-
|[[Telemidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|16||bgcolor="#FFA"|104||long-legged cave spiders ||
|-
|[[Tetrablemmidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|27||bgcolor="#FFA"|151||armored spiders ||
|-
|[[Tetragnathidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|46||bgcolor="#FFA"|982||long jawed orb-weavers ||''[[Leucauge venusta]]'' (orchard spider)
|-
|[[Theridiidae]]||bgcolor="pink"|125|| bgcolor="pink" |2538||cobweb spiders ||[[Redback spider]] (''Latrodectus hasselti'')
|-
|[[Theridiosomatidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|20||bgcolor="#FFA"|135||ray spiders ||''[[Theridiosoma gemmosum]]''
|-
|[[Thomisidae]]||bgcolor="pink"|171|| bgcolor="pink" |2167||crab spiders ||''[[Misumena vatia]]'' (goldenrod crab spider)
|-
|[[Titanoecidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|5||bgcolor="lightgreen"|56|| ||''[[Goeldia obscura]]''
|-
|[[Toxopidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|14||bgcolor="lightgreen"|82|| ||
|-
|[[Trachelidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|20|| bgcolor="#FFA" |263|| ||
|-
|[[Trachycosmidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|20|| bgcolor="#FFA" |148|| ||
|-
|[[Trechaleidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|20||bgcolor="#FFA"|148|| ||
|-
|[[Trochanteriidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|6||bgcolor="lightgreen"|51|| ||
|-
|[[Trogloraptoridae]]||bgcolor="lightblue"|1||bgcolor="lightblue"|1|| ||''[[Trogloraptor marchingtoni]]''
|-
|[[Udubidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|4||bgcolor="lightgreen"|15|| ||
|-
|[[Uloboridae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|19||bgcolor="#FFA"|291||hackled orb-weavers||''[[Uloborus walckenaerius]]''
|-
|[[Viridasiidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|3||bgcolor="lightgreen"|14|| ||
|-
|[[Xenoctenidae]]||bgcolor="lightgreen"|4||bgcolor="lightgreen"|33|| ||
|-
|[[Zodariidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|89||bgcolor="pink"|1251||ant spiders ||''[[Zodarion germanicum]]''
|-
|[[Zoropsidae]]||bgcolor="#FFA"|27||bgcolor="#FFA"|182|| ||''[[Zoropsis spinimana]]''
|}

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=note|refs=
}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em|refs=}}

==Bibliography==
*{{Cite book |last1=Agnarsson |first1=Ingi |last2=Coddington |first2=Jonathan A. |last3=Kuntner |first3=Matjaž |year=2013 |editor-last=Penney |editor-first=David |contribution=Systematics : Progress in the study of spider diversity and evolution |title=Spider research in the 21st century: trends & perspectives |location=Manchester, UK |publisher=Siri Scientific Press |isbn=978-0-9574530-1-2 |name-list-style=amp }}
*{{Cite journal |last1=Blackledge |first1=Todd A. |last2=Scharff |first2=Nikolaj |last3=Coddington |first3=Jonathan A. |last4=Szüts |first4=Tamas |last5=Wenzel |first5=John W. |last6=Hayashi |first6=Cheryl Y. |last7=Agnarsson |first7=Ingi |year=2009 |title=Reconstructing web evolution and spider diversification in the molecular era |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=106 |issue=13 |pages=5229–5234 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0901377106 |pmid=19289848 |name-list-style=amp |pmc=2656561|bibcode=2009PNAS..106.5229B |doi-access=free }}
*{{Cite journal |last1=Bond |first1=Jason E. |last2=Garrison |first2=Nicole L. |last3=Hamilton |first3=Chris A. |last4=Godwin |first4=Rebecca L. |last5=Hedin |first5=Marshal |last6=Agnarsson |first6=Ingi |year=2014 |title=Phylogenomics Resolves a Spider Backbone Phylogeny and Rejects a Prevailing Paradigm for Orb Web Evolution |journal=Current Biology |volume=24 |issue=15 |pages=1765–1771 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2014.06.034 |name-list-style=amp |pmid=25042592|doi-access=free |bibcode=2014CBio...24.1765B }}
*{{Cite book |last=Coddington |first=Jonathan A. |year=2005 |editor1-last=Ubick |editor1-first=D. |editor2-last=Paquin |editor2-first=P. |editor3-last=Cushing |editor3-first=P.E. |editor4-last=Roth |editor4-first=V. |contribution=Phylogeny and classification of spiders |title=Spiders of North America: an identification manual |pages=18–24 |publisher=American Arachnological Society |access-date=2015-09-24 |contribution-url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/4365/CoddingtonSNAPhylogeny05.pdf |name-list-style=amp }}
*{{Cite journal |last1=Coddington |first1=Jonathan A. |last2=Levi |first2=Herbert W. |year=1991 |title=Systematics and evolution of spiders (Araneae) |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=22 |pages=565–592 |jstor=2097274 |name-list-style=amp |doi=10.1146/annurev.es.22.110191.003025}}
* {{cite journal |last1=Dimitrov |first1=Dimitar |last2=Hormiga |first2=Gustavo |title=Spider Diversification Through Space and Time |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |date=7 January 2021 |volume=66 |issue=1 |pages=225–241 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-061520-083414 |s2cid=221235817 |url=https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-061520-083414 |issn=0066-4170 |name-list-style=amp }}
*{{Cite book |last1=Eberhard |first1=W.G. |last2=Huber |first2=B.A. |year=2010 |editor-last=Leonard |editor-first=Janet L. |editor2-last=Córdoba-Aguilar |editor2-first=Alex |contribution=Spider genitalia: precise manoeuvers with a numb structure in a complex lock |title=The evolution of primary sexual characters in animals |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-971703-3 |contribution-url=http://www.stri.si.edu/sites/publications/PDFs/2010_spider_chapter_Leonard-Cordoba_Ch12_D.pdf |access-date=2015-09-20 |name-list-style=amp }}
*{{Cite journal |last1=Griswold |first1=C.E. |last2=Ramirez |first2=M.J. |last3=Coddington |first3=J.A. |last4=Platnick |first4=N.I. |date=2005 |title=Atlas of phylogenetic data for entelegyne spiders (Araneae: Araneomorphae: Entelegynae) with comments on their phylogeny |journal=Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences |volume=56 |issue=Suppl. 2 |pages=1–324 |url=https://repository.si.edu/bitstream/handle/10088/14866/ent_Griswold__2005_Atlas_Entelegynae.pdf |access-date=2015-10-11 |name-list-style=amp }}
*{{Cite journal |last1=Hormiga |first1=Gustavo |last2=Griswold |first2=Charles E. |year=2014 |title=Systematics, Phylogeny, and Evolution of Orb-Weaving Spiders |journal=Annual Review of Entomology |volume=59 |issue=1 |pages=487–512 |doi=10.1146/annurev-ento-011613-162046 |pmid=24160416 |name-list-style=amp |doi-access=free }}
*{{Cite journal |last1=Michalik |first1=Peter |last2=Ramírez |first2=Martín J. |year=2014 |title=Evolutionary morphology of the male reproductive system, spermatozoa and seminal fluid of spiders (Araneae, Arachnida)–Current knowledge and future directions |journal=Arthropod Structure & Development |volume=43 |issue=4 |pages=291–322 |name-list-style=amp |doi=10.1016/j.asd.2014.05.005|pmid=24907603 |bibcode=2014ArtSD..43..291M |hdl=11336/19081 |hdl-access=free }}
*{{Cite journal |last1=Platnick |first1=Norman I. |last2=Raven |first2=Robert J. |title=Spider Systematics: Past and Future |journal=Zootaxa |date=2013 |volume=3683 |issue=5 |pages=595–600 |doi=10.11646/zootaxa.3683.5.8 |pmid=25250473 |name-list-style=amp |doi-access=free }}
*{{Cite book |last=Ramírez |first=Martín J. |year=2014 |title=The morphology and phylogeny of dionychan spiders (Araneae, Araneomorphae) |series=Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History |volume=390 |hdl=2246/6537 }}
*{{cite web |last=World Spider Catalog |author-link=World Spider Catalog |date=2020 |title=World Spider Catalog version 21.5 |publisher=Natural History Museum Bern |url=http://wsc.nmbe.ch |access-date=2020-10-31 }}

==External links==
*[http://hbs.bishopmuseum.org/codens/codens-inst.html Abbreviations for Insect and Spider Collections of the World]
*[http://www.iczn.org/iczn/index.jsp?article=23&nfv=#9 International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature]
*[http://www.xs4all.nl/~ednieuw European and Australian spiders - info and identification]
*[http://www.jorgenlissner.dk/ Spiders of Europe and Greenland]
*[http://www.largestspider.info/ Information about the largest spider]

{{Spider nav}}
{{Araneae|0}}
{{Taxonomy of...}}

[[Category:Spiders|Taxonomy]]

Ginger

2024-08-29T21:24:45Z

Coriander77:

{{Short description|Species of plant used as a spice}}
{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}}
{{About|the plant|other uses|Ginger (disambiguation)}}
{{redirect|Ginger Root|the music project|Ginger Root (music project)}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2021}}
{{Speciesbox
| image = Koeh-146-no_text.jpg
| image_caption = 1896 color plate from ''[[Köhler's Medicinal Plants]]''
| image2 = Ginger inflorescence.jpg
| image2_caption = Inflorescence
| genus = Zingiber
| species = officinale
| authority = [[William Roscoe|Roscoe]]<ref name="GRIN">{{GRIN|access-date=10 December 2017}}</ref>
}}

'''Ginger''' (''Zingiber officinale'') is a [[flowering plant]] whose [[rhizome]], '''ginger root''' or ginger, is widely used as a [[spice]] and a [[folk medicine]].<ref name="nccih">{{cite web|url=https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ginger|title=Ginger, NCCIH Herbs at a Glance|date=1 December 2020|publisher=US [[NCCIH]]|access-date=4 September 2023}}</ref> It is an [[herbaceous]] [[perennial]] that grows annual pseudostems (false stems made of the rolled bases of leaves) about one meter tall, bearing narrow leaf blades. The [[inflorescence]]s bear flowers having pale yellow petals with purple edges, and arise directly from the rhizome on separate shoots.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Plant resources of South-East Asia: no.13: Spices|vauthors=Sutarno H, Hadad EA, Brink M|publisher=Backhuys Publishers|year=1999|veditors=De Guzman CC, Siemonsma JS|location=Leiden (Netherlands)|pages=238–244|chapter=Zingiber officinale Roscoe}}</ref>

Ginger is in the [[family (taxonomy)|family]] [[Zingiberaceae]], which also includes [[turmeric]] (''Curcuma longa''),<ref>{{cite web|title=''Curcuma longa'' L.|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:796451-1|publisher=Plants of the World Online, Kew Science, Kew Gardens, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, England|access-date=26 March 2018|year=2018}}</ref> [[cardamom]] (''Elettaria cardamomum''), and [[galangal]]. Ginger originated in [[Maritime Southeast Asia]] and was likely domesticated first by the [[Austronesian peoples]]. It was transported with them throughout the [[Indo-Pacific]] during the [[Austronesian expansion]] ({{circa|5,000}} [[Before Present|BP]]), reaching as far as [[Hawaii]]. Ginger is one of the first spices to have been exported from Asia, arriving in [[Europe]] with the [[spice trade]], and was used by [[ancient Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]].<ref name="Kew"/> The distantly related [[dicots]] in the genus ''[[Asarum]]'' are commonly called wild ginger because of their similar taste.

Ginger has been used in [[traditional medicine]] in China, India and Japan for centuries, and as a [[dietary supplement]]. There is no good evidence that ginger helps alleviate nausea and vomiting associated with pregnancy or [[chemotherapy]], and its safety has not been demonstrated.<ref name=preg/><ref name=chemo/> It remains uncertain whether ginger is effective for treating any disease, and use of ginger as a [[prescription drug|drug]] has not been approved by the [[FDA]].<ref name=drugs/> In 2020, world production of ginger was 4.3 million [[tonne]]s, led by [[India]] with 43% of the world total.

==Etymology==

The English origin of the word "ginger" is from the mid-14th century, from [[Old English]] {{lang|ang|gingifer}}, which derives in turn from the [[Medieval Latin]] {{lang|la|gingiber}}, {{lang|la|gingiber}} from the Greek {{lang|grc|ζιγγίβερις}} {{transliteration|grc|zingiberis}}<ref>{{LSJ|ziggi/beris|ζιγγίβερις|ref}}.</ref> from the [[Prakrit]] (Middle Indic) {{transliteration|pra|siṅgabera}}, and {{transliteration|pra|siṅgabera}} from the [[Sanskrit]] {{transliteration|sa|śṛṅgavera}}. The Sanskrit word is thought to come from an ancient [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] word that also produced the [[Tamil language|Tamil]]<ref>{{Cite book |last=Das |first=Abhaya Prasad |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ei4gAQAAIAAJ&q=Tamil+inchi+ver+ginger |title=Perspectives of Plant Biodiversity: Proceedings of National Seminar on Plant Biodiversity – Systematics, Conservation and Ethnobotany, Department of Botany, North Bengal University, November 9-11, 2000 |date=2002 |publisher=Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal Singh |isbn=978-81-211-0298-8 |pages=292 |language=en}}</ref> and [[Malayalam]] term {{transliteration|ml|iñci-vēr}} (from {{transliteration|ml|vēr}}, "root");<ref name=":4" /><ref name="W1" /> an alternative explanation is that the Sanskrit word comes from {{transliteration|sa|srngam}}, meaning "horn", and {{transliteration|sa|vera}}, meaning "body" (describing the shape of its root), but that may be [[folk etymology]].<ref name="W1">{{OEtymD|ginger}}</ref> The word probably was readopted in [[Middle English]] from the [[Old French]] {{lang|fro|gingibre}} (modern French {{lang|fr|gingembre}}).<ref name=":4">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5PPCYBApSnIC&q=ginger+from+tamil+word+inji&pg=PA578|title=A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Or South-Indian Family of Languages|last=Caldwell|first=Robert|date=1 January 1998|publisher=Asian Educational Services|isbn=978-81-206-0117-8|edition=3rd|location=New Delhi}}</ref>

==Origin and distribution==
[[File:Zingiber officinale flower crop.jpg|thumb|left|Ginger flower]]
[[File:Flower of Ginger1.jpg|thumb|Ginger flower]]
Ginger originated from [[Maritime Southeast Asia]]. It is a true [[cultigen]] and does not exist in its wild state.<ref name="Ravindran2016">{{cite book|title=Ginger: The Genus Zingiber|last1=Ravindran|first1=P.N.|last2=Nirmal Babu|first2=K.|date=2016|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-2336-7|location=Boca Raton|page=7}}</ref><ref name="singh"/> The most ancient evidence of its domestication is among the [[Austronesian peoples]] where it was among several species of [[Zingiberaceae|ginger]] cultivated and exploited since ancient times. They cultivated other gingers including turmeric (''[[Curcuma longa]]''), white turmeric (''[[Curcuma zedoaria]]''), and bitter ginger (''[[Zingiber zerumbet]]''). The rhizomes and the leaves were used to flavour food or eaten directly. The leaves were also used to weave mats. Aside from these uses, ginger had religious significance among Austronesians, being used in rituals for healing and for asking protection from spirits. It was also used in the blessing of [[Austronesian ships]].<ref name="Viestad">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TvQhVrQ7bzkC|title=Where Flavor Was Born: Recipes and Culinary Travels Along the Indian Ocean Spice Route|last1=Viestad|first1=Andreas|publisher=Chronicle Books|year=2007|isbn=978-0-8118-4965-4|location=San Francisco|pages=89}}</ref><ref name="Ross2008Lexicon">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://openresearch-repository.anu.edu.au/handle/1885/106908|title=The lexicon of Proto Oceanic: The culture and environment of ancestral Oceanic society|last1=Ross|first1=Malcolm|publisher=Pacific Linguistics|year=2008|isbn=978-0-85883-589-4|editor1-last=Ross|editor1-first=Malcolm|volume=3|location=Canberra|pages=389–426|chapter=Other cultivated plants|editor2-last=Pawley|editor2-first=Andrew|editor3-last=Osmond|editor3-first=Meredith}}</ref><ref name="blusttrusell">{{cite journal|vauthors=Robert B, Trussel S|date=2013|title=The Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: A Work in Progress|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/265931196|journal=[[Ocean. Linguist.]]|volume=52|issue=2|pages=493–523|doi=10.1353/ol.2013.0016|s2cid=146739541 |issn = 0029-8115 }}</ref><ref name="Ujang2015">{{cite journal|vauthors=Zanariah U, Nordin NI, Subramaniam T|date=2015|title=Ginger Species and Their Traditional Uses in Modern Applications|url=https://docplayer.net/48110504-Ginger-species-and-their-traditional-uses-in-modern-applications-section-2-p-o-box-7035-40700-shah-alam-selangor-malaysia-2.html|journal=Journal of Industrial Technology|volume=23|issue=1|pages=59–70|doi=10.21908/jit.2015.4|doi-broken-date=14 March 2024 }}</ref><ref name="Dalby2002">{{cite book|title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices|last=Dalby|first=Andrew|publisher=University of California Press|year=2002|isbn=978-0-520-23674-5}}</ref><ref name="KikusawaReid">{{cite book|chapter-url=https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/33035/A67.2007.pdf|title=Language Description, History and Development: Linguistic indulgence in memory of Terry Crowley|last1=Kikusawa|first1=Ritsuko|last2=Reid|first2=Lawrence A.|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Co.|year=2007|isbn=978-90-272-9294-0|editor1-last=Siegel|editor1-first=Jeff|pages=339–352|chapter=Proto who used turmeric, and how?|editor2-last=Lynch|editor2-first=John Dominic|editor3-last=Eades|editor3-first=Diana|access-date=23 January 2019|archive-date=25 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211125193557/https://scholarspace.manoa.hawaii.edu/bitstream/10125/33035/A67.2007.pdf|url-status=dead}}</ref>

Ginger was carried with them in their voyages as [[canoe plant]]s during the [[Austronesian expansion]], starting from around 5,000 [[Before Present|BP]]. They introduced it to the [[Pacific Island]]s in prehistory, long before any contact with other civilizations. [[reflex (linguistics)|Reflexes]] of the [[Proto-Malayo-Polynesian]] word ''*{{lang|mis|laqia}}'' are found in Austronesian languages all the way to [[Hawaii]].<ref name="Blust1985">{{cite journal| title=The Austronesian Homeland: A Linguistic Perspective|journal=Asian Perspectives|last=Blust|first=Robert|volume=26|issue=1|year=1984|page=61|publisher=University of Hawai'i Press|jstor=42928105}}</ref><ref name="blusttrusell"/> They also presumably introduced it to India along with other Southeast Asian food plants and [[Outrigger canoe|Austronesian sailing technologies]], during early contact by Austronesian sailors with the [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]]-speaking peoples of [[Sri Lanka]] and [[South India]] at around 3,500 [[Before Present|BP]].<ref name="Viestad"/><ref name="Dalby2002"/><ref name="Mahdi1999">{{cite book|title=Archaeology and Language III: Artefacts languages, and texts|last1=Mahdi|first1=Waruno|publisher=Routledge|year=1999|isbn=978-0-415-51870-3|editor1-last=Blench|editor1-first=Roger|series=One World Archaeology|volume=34|location=London|pages=144–179|chapter=The Dispersal of Austronesian boat forms in the Indian Ocean|editor2-last=Spriggs|editor2-first=Matthew}}</ref> It was also carried by Austronesian voyagers into [[Madagascar]] and the [[Comoros]] in the 1st millennium CE.<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Beaujard P|s2cid=55763047|date=2011|title=The first migrants to Madagascar and their introduction of plants: linguistic and ethnological evidence|journal=Azania: Archaeological Research in Africa|volume=46|issue=2|pages=169–189|doi=10.1080/0067270X.2011.580142|url=https://halshs.archives-ouvertes.fr/halshs-00706173/file/Beaujard.azania2.pdf}}</ref>

From India, it was carried by traders into the [[Middle East]] and the [[Mediterranean]] by around the 1st century CE. It was primarily grown in [[southern India]] and the [[Greater Sunda Islands]] during the [[spice trade]], along with [[Piper (genus)|peppers]], [[clove]]s, and numerous other spices.<ref name="singh">{{cite book|title=Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement|last1=Singh|first1=Ram J.|date=2011|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-7386-7|series=Medicinal Plants|volume=6|location=Boca Raton|pages=398}}</ref><ref name="Doran">{{cite book|title=South East Asia in the World-Economy|last1=Doran|first1=Charles F.|last2=Dixon|first2=Chris|date=1991|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-31237-0|location=Cambridge}}</ref>

== History ==
The first written record of ginger comes from the ''[[Analects]]'', written by the [[Disciples of Confucius]]<ref name="Rainey2010">{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ID4gMCaLr0MC&pg=PA10 |title=Confucius and Confucianism: The Essentials|author=Lee Dian Rainey |page=10|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|year=2010 |isbn=978-1-4443-2360-3 }}</ref> in China during the [[Warring States period]] (475–221 BCE).<ref name="pickersgill">{{cite book |editor1-last=Prance |editor1-first=Ghillean |editor2-last=Nesbitt |editor2-first=Mark |last1=Pickersgill |first1=Barbara |author-link=Barbara Pickersgill |date=2005 |title=The Cultural History of Plants |publisher=Routledge |pages=163–164 |isbn=0-415-92746-3}}</ref> In it, [[Confucius]] was said to eat ginger with every meal.<ref name="pickersgill" /> In 406, the monk [[Faxian]] wrote that ginger was grown in pots and carried on Chinese ships to prevent [[scurvy]].<ref name="pickersgill" /> During the [[Song Dynasty]] (960–1279), ginger was being imported into China from southern countries.<ref name="pickersgill" />

Ginger was introduced to the Mediterranean by the Arabs, and described by writers like [[Dioscorides]] (40–90) and [[Pliny the Elder]] (24–79).<ref name="pickersgill" /> In 150, [[Ptolemy]] noted that ginger was produced in [[Ceylon]] (Sri Lanka).<ref name="pickersgill" /> Ginger – along with its relative, [[galangal]] — was imported into the [[Roman Empire]] as part of very expensive herbal remedies that only the wealthy could afford, e.g. for the kidneys. [[Aëtius of Amida]] describes both ginger and galangal as ingredients in his complex herbal prescriptions.<ref name="dalby2000">{{cite book |last1=Dalby |first1=Andrew |title=Dangerous Tastes: The Story of Spices |date=2000 |publisher=University of California Press | pages = 78 |isbn=0-520-22789-1 }}</ref> Raw and preserved ginger was imported into Europe in increased quantity during the [[Middle Ages]] after European tastes shifted favorably towards its culinary properties; during this time, ginger was described in the official [[Pharmacopoeia|pharmacopeias]] of several countries.<ref name="drugs">{{cite web |title=Ginger |url=https://www.drugs.com/npp/ginger.html |publisher=Drugs.com |date=26 September 2022 |accessdate=4 September 2023}}</ref> In 14th century England, a pound of ginger cost as much as a sheep.<ref name="pickersgill" />

Archaeological evidence of ginger in northwest Europe comes from the wreck of the Danish-Norwegian flagship, Gribshunden. The ship sank off the southern coast of Sweden in the summer of 1495 while conveying King Hans to a summit with the Swedish Council. Among the luxuries carried on the ship were ginger, cloves, saffron, and pepper.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Larsson |first1=Mikael |last2=Foley |first2=Brendan |date=2023-01-26 |title=The king's spice cabinet–Plant remains from Gribshunden, a 15th century royal shipwreck in the Baltic Sea |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=e0281010 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0281010 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=9879437 |pmid=36701280|bibcode=2023PLoSO..1881010L }}</ref>

==Horticulture==

Ginger produces [[Inflorescence|clusters]] of white and pink [[flower bud]]s that bloom into yellow flowers. Because of its aesthetic appeal and the adaptation of the plant to warm climates, it is often used as [[landscaping]] around [[subtropical]] homes. It is a [[perennial]] [[Reed bed|reed]]-like plant with annual leafy stems, about a meter (3 to 4 feet) tall. Traditionally, the rhizome is gathered when the stalk [[wikt:wither|withers]]; it is immediately [[wikt:Special:Search/scald|scalded]], or washed and scraped, to kill it and prevent [[sprouting]]. The fragrant [[perisperm]] of the Zingiberaceae is used as [[sweetmeat]]s by [[Bantu peoples|Bantu]], and also as a condiment and [[sialagogue]].<ref>{{Cite book|title=Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of Southern and Eastern Africa|last1=Watt|first1=John Mitchell|last2=Breyer-Brandwijk|first2=Maria Gerdina|publisher=E & S Livingstone|year=1962}}</ref>

==Production==
{| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:18em; text-align:center;"
|-
! colspan=2|Ginger production, 2020 
|-
! style="background:#ddf; width:75%;"| Country
! style="background:#ddf; width:25%;"| Production (tonnes)
|-
| {{IND}} || 1,844,000
|-
| {{NGA}} || 734,295
|-
| {{CHN}} || 618,904
|-
| {{NEP}} || 298,945
|-
| {{IDN}} || 183,518
|-
| {{THA}} || 167,021
|-
|- style="background:#ccc;"
||{{noflag}}'''World'''
| style="text-align:right;"| '''4,328,277'''
|-
|colspan=5 style="font-size:.7em; text-align:left;"|
Source: Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations, Statistics Division (FAOSTAT)<ref name="fao">{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC|title=Ginger production in 2019, Crops/Regions/World/Production/Quantity (from pick lists)|date=2021|website=FAOSTAT|publisher=[[FAO]], Statistics Division|access-date=25 November 2021}}</ref>
|}

In 2020, global production of ginger was 4.3 million [[tonnes]], led by [[India]] with 43% of the world total. [[Nigeria]], [[China]], and [[Nepal]] also had substantial production.<ref name=fao/>

=== Production in India ===
Though it is grown in many areas across the globe, ginger is "among the earliest recorded spices to be cultivated and exported from southwest India".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Münster|first=Daniel|date=2015-03-01|title=Ginger is a gamble|journal=Focaal|volume=2015|issue=71|pages=100–113|doi=10.3167/fcl.2015.710109|issn=0920-1297|doi-access=free}}</ref> India holds the seventh position in ginger export worldwide, however is the "largest producer of ginger in the world".<ref>{{Citation|last=Madan|first=M. S.|chapter=Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger|pages=444–477|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-2336-7|doi=10.1201/9781420023367-16|title=Ginger|year=2016}}</ref> Regions in southwest and Northeast India are most suitable for ginger production due to their warm and humid climate, average rainfall and land space.<ref>{{Citation|last=Nair|first=Kodoth Prabhakaran|chapter=Ginger as a Spice and Flavorant|date=2019|pages=541–554|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-29188-4|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_26|title=Turmeric (Curcuma longa L.) and Ginger (Zingiber officinale Rosc.) - World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices|s2cid=208647553}}</ref>

Ginger has the ability to grow in a wide variety of land types and areas, however is best produced when grown in a warm, humid environment, at an elevation between {{convert|300|and|900|m|ft|abbr=on|-2}}, and in well-drained soils at least 30 cm deep.<ref>{{Citation|last=Nybe|first=E.V.|chapter=Ginger Production in India and Other South Asian Countries|pages=224–253|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-2336-7|doi=10.1201/9781420023367-9|title=Ginger|year=2016}}</ref> A period of low rainfall prior to growing and well-distributed rainfall during growing are also essential for the ginger to thrive well in the soil.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Aryal|first=Suman|date=2013-02-10|title=Rainfall And Water Requirement of Rice During Growing Period|journal=Journal of Agriculture and Environment|volume=13|pages=1–4|doi=10.3126/aej.v13i0.7576|issn=2091-1009|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Ginger produced in India is most often farmed through homestead farming, with work adaptively shared by available family and community members.<ref>{{Citation|last=Nybe|first=E.V.|chapter=Ginger Production in India and Other South Asian Countries|pages=224–253|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-2336-7|doi=10.1201/9781420023367-9|title=Ginger|year=2016}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Citation|last1=Pachuau|first1=Lalduhsanga|title=Wild Edible Fruits of Northeast India: Medicinal Values and Traditional Practices|date=2019-09-11|work=Herbal Medicine in India|pages=437–450|publisher=Springer Singapore|isbn=978-981-13-7247-6|last2=Dutta|first2=Rajat Subhra|doi=10.1007/978-981-13-7248-3_27|s2cid=203378390}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|journal=ITAA Annual Conference Proceedings|last1=Sneed|first1=Christoper|last2=Kwon|first2=Theresa Hyunjin|last3=Fairhurst|first3=Ann|date=2017|title=Do They Matter? The Impact of Atmospherics on Farmers' Market Consumers' Purchase Intention and Word-of-Mouth|location=Ames|doi=10.31274/itaa_proceedings-180814-389|url=https://lib.dr.iastate.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=2328&context=itaa_proceedings}}</ref>

== Ginger farming ==
[[File:gingerfield.jpg|thumb|Ginger field]]

The size of the ginger rhizome is essential to the production of ginger. The larger the rhizome piece, the faster ginger will be produced and therefore the faster it will be sold onto the market.<ref name=":1">{{Citation|last=Nair|first=Kodoth Prabhakaran|chapter=Ginger as a Spice and Flavorant|date=2019|pages=541–554|publisher=Springer International Publishing|isbn=978-3-030-29188-4|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-29189-1_26|title=Turmeric (''Curcuma longa'' L.) and Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'' Rosc.) - World's Invaluable Medicinal Spices|s2cid=208647553}}</ref> Prior to planting the seed rhizomes, farmers are required to treat the seeds to prevent pests, and rhizome rot and other [[seed-borne disease]]s.<ref name=":1" /> There are various ways farmers do seed treatment in India. These include dipping the seeds in cow dung emulsion, smoking the seeds before storage, or hot water treatment.<ref name=":1" />

Once the seeds are properly treated, the farmland in which they are to be planted must be thoroughly dug or ploughed by the farmer to break up the soil.<ref name=":1" /> After the soil is sufficiently ploughed (at least 3–5 times), water channels are made {{convert|60–80|ft}} apart to irrigate the crop.<ref name=":1" />

The next step is planting the rhizome seed. In India, planting the irrigated ginger crop is usually done in the months between March and June as those months account for the beginning of the monsoon, or rainy season.<ref name=":1" /> Once the planting stage is done, farmers go on to mulch the crop to conserve moisture and check weed growth, as well as check surface run-off to conserve soil.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carpenter|first=Philip|date=1975|title=An Evaluation of Several Mulch Materials on Landscape Plant Growth, Weed Control, Soil Temperature and Soil Moisture : Interim Report|journal=Purdue University E-Pubs|location=West Lafayette, IN|doi=10.5703/1288284313900|doi-access=free}}</ref> Mulching is done by applying mulch (green leaves for example) to the plant beds directly after planting and again 45 and 90 days into growth.<ref name=":1" /> After mulching comes hilling, which is the stirring and breaking up of soil to check weed growth, break the firmness of the soil from rain, and conserve soil moisture.<ref name=":1" /> Farmers must ensure that their ginger crops are receiving supplemental irrigation if rainfall is low in their region. In India, farmers must irrigate their ginger crops every two weeks at the least between September and November (when the monsoon is over) to ensure maximum yield and high quality product.<ref name=":1" />

The final farming stage for ginger is the harvesting stage. When the rhizome is planted for products such as vegetable, soda, and candy, harvesting should be done between four and five months of planting, whereas when the rhizome is planted for products such as dried ginger or ginger oil, harvesting must be done eight to ten months after planting.<ref name=":1" />

Dry ginger is one of the most popular forms of ginger in commerce.<ref name=":2">{{Citation|last=Balakrishnan|first=K.V.|chapter=Postharvest and Industrial Processing of Ginger|pages=401–443|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-2336-7|doi=10.1201/9781420023367-15|title=Ginger|year=2016}}</ref> Ginger rhizomes for dry ginger are harvested at full maturity (8–10 months).<ref name=":2" /> After soaking them in water, the outer skin is scraped off with a bamboo splinter or wooden knife by hand as it is too delicate a process to be done by machinery.<ref name=":2" /> The whole dried rhizomes are ground in the consuming centres.<ref name=":3">{{Citation|last=Madan|first=M. S.|chapter=Production, Marketing, and Economics of Ginger|pages=444–477|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-2336-7|doi=10.1201/9781420023367-16|title=Ginger|year=2016}}</ref> Fresh ginger does not need further processing after harvest, and it is harvested much younger.<ref name=":3" />

== Transportation and export of ginger ==
Ginger is sent through various stages to be transported to its final destination either domestically or internationally. The journey begins when farmers sell a portion of their produce to village traders who collect produce right at the farm gate.<ref name=":3" /> Once the produce is collected, it is transported to the closest assembly market where it is then taken to main regional or district level marketing centres.<ref name=":3" /> Farmers with a large yield of produce will directly take their produce to local or regional markets. Once the produce has "reached [the] regional level markets, they are cleaned, graded, and packed in sacks of about 60 kg".<ref name=":3" /> They are then moved to terminal markets such as in New Delhi, Kochi, and Bombay.<ref name=":3" />

States from which ginger is exported follow the marketing channels of vegetable marketing in India, and the steps are similar to those when transported domestically. However, instead of reaching a terminal market after the regional forwarding centres, the produce will reach an export market and then be sent off by vehicle, plane or boat to reach its final international destination, where it will arrive at a local retail market and finally reach the consumer once purchased.<ref name=":3" />

Dry ginger is most popularly traded between Asian countries through a unique distribution system involving a network of small retail outlets.<ref name=":3" /> Fresh and preserved ginger are often sold directly to supermarket chains, and in some countries fresh ginger is seen exclusively in small shops unique to certain ethnic communities.<ref name=":3" /> India frequently exports its ginger and other vegetable produce to nearby Pakistan and Bangladesh, as well as "Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, Morocco, the United States, Yemen Republic, the United Kingdom, and Netherlands".<ref name=":3" />

Though India is the largest ginger producer in the world, it fails to play the role of a large exporter and only accounts for about 1.17% of total ginger exports.<ref name=":3" /> Ginger farming in India is a costly and risky business, as farmers do not gain much money from exports and "more than 65% of the total cost incurred is toward labor and seed material purchase".<ref name=":3" /> The farm owner may benefit given that there is no losses in production or price decreases, which is not easily avoidable.<ref name=":3" /> Production of dry ginger proves to have a higher benefit-cost ratio, as well as ginger cultivated in intercropping systems rather than as a pure crop.<ref name=":3" />

==Uses==
===Culinary===
[[File:Ingwer 2 (fcm).jpg|thumb|right|Fresh ginger rhizome]]
[[File:Fresh ginger.jpg|thumb|Freshly washed ginger]]

Ginger is a common spice used worldwide, whether for meals or as a folk medicine.<ref>{{Citation|last=Ravindran|first=P.N.|chapter=Introduction|pages=16–29|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-2336-7|doi=10.1201/9781420023367-5|title=Ginger|year=2016}}</ref> Ginger can be used for a variety of food items such as vegetables, candy, soda, pickles, and alcoholic beverages.<ref name=":1" />

Ginger is a fragrant kitchen spice.<ref name="Kew">{{cite web|url=http://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:798372-1|title=''Zingiber officinale'' Roscoe|date=2017|website=Kew Science, Plants of the World Online|publisher=[[Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew]]|access-date=25 November 2017}}</ref> Young ginger rhizomes are juicy and fleshy with a mild taste. They are often [[pickled]] in [[vinegar]] or [[sherry]] as a snack or cooked as an ingredient in many dishes. They can be [[steeped]] in boiling water to make ginger [[herb tea]], to which [[honey]] may be added. Ginger can be made into candy or [[ginger wine]].

====Asia====
Mature ginger rhizomes are [[fibrous]] and nearly dry. The juice from ginger roots is often used as a seasoning in [[Indian cuisine|Indian recipes]] and is a common ingredient of [[Chinese Cuisine|Chinese]], [[Korean cuisine|Korean]], [[Japanese Cuisine|Japanese]], [[Vietnamese cuisine|Vietnamese]], and many South Asian cuisines for [[flavoring]] dishes such as [[seafood]], [[meat]], and [[vegetarian dishes]].

[[File:Ginger in China 01.jpg|thumb|Two varieties of ginger in China]]

In Indian cuisine, ginger is a key ingredient, especially in thicker gravies, as well as in many other dishes, both vegetarian and meat-based. Ginger has a role in traditional [[Ayurvedic]] medicine. It is an ingredient in traditional Indian drinks, both cold and hot, including spiced ''[[masala chai]]''. Fresh ginger is one of the main spices used for making [[pulse (legume)|pulse]] and [[lentil]] curries and other vegetable preparations. Fresh ginger together with peeled garlic cloves is crushed or ground to form [[ginger garlic masala]]. Fresh, as well as dried, ginger is used to spice tea and coffee, especially in winter. In south India, "sambharam" is a summer yogurt drink made with ginger as a key ingredient, along with green chillies, salt and curry leaves. Ginger powder is used in food preparations intended primarily for pregnant or [[nursing]] women, the most popular one being ''katlu'', which is a mixture of gum resin, ''[[ghee]]'', nuts, and sugar. Ginger is also consumed in candied and pickled form. In Japan, ginger is pickled to make ''[[beni shōga]]'' and ''[[gari (ginger)|gari]]'' or grated and used raw on [[tofu]] or [[noodle]]s. It is made into a candy called ''shoga no [[Sugar|sato]] [[Tsukemono|zuke]]''. In the traditional [[Korean cuisine|Korean]] ''[[kimchi]]'', ginger is either finely minced or just juiced to avoid the fibrous texture and added to the ingredients of the spicy paste just before the fermenting process.

[[File:Steamed salted fish diced chicken rice 02.jpg|thumb|upright|A Chinese dish with ginger slices. It shows the typical amount of ginger consumed each meal.]]
In [[Myanmar]], ginger is called ''gyin''. It is widely used in cooking and as a main ingredient in [[traditional medicine]]s. It is consumed as a [[salad]] dish called ''gyin-thot'', which consists of shredded ginger preserved in oil, with a variety of nuts and seeds. In Thailand' where it is called ขิง ''khing'', it is used to make a ginger garlic paste in cooking. In [[Indonesia]], a beverage called ''[[wedang jahe]]'' is made from ginger and [[palm sugar]]. Indonesians also use ground ginger root, called ''jahe'', as a common ingredient in local recipes. In [[Malaysia]], ginger is called ''halia'' and used in many kinds of dishes, especially soups. Called ''luya'' in the [[Philippines]], ginger is a common ingredient in local dishes and is brewed as a tea called ''salabat''.<ref name="hardon">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0HzoNfy-__EC&q=ginger+philippines+sore+throat|title=Applied health research manual: anthropology of health and health care|vauthors=Hardon A, Boonmongkon P, Streefland P, Tan ML|publisher=Het Spinhuis|year=2001|isbn=978-90-5589-191-7|edition=3rd|location=Amsterdam}}</ref><ref name="co">{{cite book|title=Common medicinal plants of the Cordillera region (Northern Luzon, Philippines)|vauthors=Co LL, Taguba YB|publisher=Community Health Education, Services and Training in the Cordillera Region (CHESTCORE)|year=1984|isbn=978-971-8640-00-5}}</ref> In [[Vietnam]], the fresh leaves, finely chopped, can be added to shrimp-and-yam soup (''canh khoai mỡ'') as a top garnish and spice to add a much subtler flavor of ginger than the chopped root. In China, sliced or whole ginger root is often paired with savory dishes such as fish, and chopped ginger root is commonly paired with meat, when it is cooked. Candied ginger is sometimes a component of Chinese candy boxes, and a [[herbal tea]] can be prepared from ginger. Raw ginger juice can be used to set milk and make a [[dessert]], [[ginger milk curd]].

====North America====
In the [[Caribbean]], ginger is a popular spice for cooking and for making drinks such as [[sorrel (drink)|sorrel]], a drink made during the Christmas season. [[Jamaican cuisine|Jamaicans]] make ginger beer both as a carbonated beverage and also fresh in their homes. Ginger tea is often made from fresh ginger, as well as the famous regional specialty Jamaican ginger cake.

====Western countries====
[[File:Gingerbread landscape.jpg|thumb|[[Gingerbread man]] and his wife with a [[Gingerbread house]]]]

In [[Western cuisine]], ginger is traditionally used mainly in sweet foods such as [[ginger ale]], [[gingerbread]], [[ginger snap]]s, [[parkin (cake)|parkin]], and [[speculaas]]. A ginger-flavored [[liqueur]] called [[Domaine de Canton (liqueur)|Canton]] is produced in [[Jarnac]], France. [[Ginger wine]] is a ginger-flavoured wine produced in the United Kingdom, traditionally sold in a green glass bottle. Ginger is also used as a spice added to hot coffee and tea. On the island of [[Corfu]], Greece, a traditional drink called τσιτσιμπύρα (''tsitsibira''), a type of [[ginger beer]], is made. The people of Corfu and the rest of the Ionian islands adopted the drink from the British, during the period of the [[United States of the Ionian Islands]].

Fresh ginger can be substituted for ground ginger at a ratio of six to one, although the flavours of fresh and dried ginger are somewhat different. Powdered dry ginger root is typically used as a flavouring for recipes such as [[gingerbread]], [[cookie]]s, [[cracker (food)|crackers]] and cakes, [[ginger ale]], and [[ginger beer]]. Candied or [[crystallized ginger]], known in the UK as "'''stem ginger'''", is the root cooked in sugar until soft, and is a type of [[confectionery]]. Fresh ginger may be peeled before eating. For longer-term storage, the ginger can be placed in a plastic bag and refrigerated or frozen.

====Middle East====
Ginger is used in [[Iranian cuisine]]. Ginger bread is a kind of cookie traditionally prepared in the city of [[Gorgan]] on the holiday of [[Nowruz]] (New Year's Day).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.isna.ir/amp/golestan-17943/|title=National registration of Gorgan gingerbread as an intangible cultural heritage in the national monuments of the country (translated from Farsi)|publisher=Iranian Students News Agency}}</ref>

===Similar ingredients===
Other members of the family [[Zingiberaceae]] are used in similar ways. They include the ''[[myoga]]'' (''[[Zingiber mioga]]''), the several types of [[galangal]], the fingerroot (''[[Boesenbergia rotunda]]''), and the bitter ginger (''[[Zingiber zerumbet]]'').

A [[dicotyledon]]ous native species of eastern North America, ''[[Asarum canadense]]'', is also known as "[[Asarum|wild ginger]]", and its root has similar aromatic properties, but it is not related to true ginger. The plant contains [[aristolochic acid]], a [[carcinogen]]ic compound.<ref name="2001FDA">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/SafetyAlertsAdvisories/ucm096388.htm|title=Aristolochic Acid: FDA Warns Consumers to Discontinue Use of Botanical Products that Contain Aristolochic Acid|date=11 April 2001|publisher=US [[FDA]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170603091617/https://www.fda.gov/Food/RecallsOutbreaksEmergencies/SafetyAlertsAdvisories/ucm096388.htm|archive-date=3 June 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref> The United States Food and Drug Administration warns that consumption of aristolochic acid-containing products is associated with "permanent kidney damage, sometimes resulting in kidney failure that has required kidney dialysis or kidney transplantation. In addition, some patients have developed certain types of cancers, most often occurring in the urinary tract."<ref name=2001FDA/>

==Nutrition==
{{Infobox nutritional value
| name = Ginger root (raw)
| image = Ginger cross section.jpg
| caption = Cross-section of ginger root
| kJ=333
| water=79 g
| protein=1.82 g
| fat=0.75 g
| carbs=17.77 g
| fiber=2 g
| sugars=1.7 g
| calcium_mg=16
| iron_mg=0.6
| magnesium_mg=43
| phosphorus_mg=34
| potassium_mg=415
| sodium_mg=13
| zinc_mg=0.34
| manganese_mg=0.229
| vitC_mg=5
| thiamin_mg=0.025
| riboflavin_mg=0.034
| niacin_mg=0.75
| pantothenic_mg=0.203
| vitB6_mg=0.16
| folate_ug=11
| vitE_mg=0.26
| source_usda = 1
| note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/169231/nutrients Full link to USDA Database entry]
}}

Raw ginger is 79% water, 18% [[carbohydrates]], 2% [[protein (nutrient)|protein]], and 1% [[fat]] (table). In a reference amount of {{cvt|100|g}}, raw ginger supplies {{convert|333|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]] and moderate amounts of [[potassium in biology|potassium]] (14% of the [[Daily Value]], DV), [[magnesium in biology|magnesium]] (10% DV) and [[manganese in biology|manganese]] (10% DV), but otherwise is low in [[micronutrient]] content (table).

==Composition and safety==
If consumed in reasonable quantities, ginger has few negative [[side effect]]s, although large amounts may cause [[adverse event]]s, such as [[gastrointestinal]] discomfort, and undesirable interactions with [[prescription drug]]s.<ref name=drugs/><ref name="Spinella2001">{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/psychopharmacolo0000spin|url-access=registration|title=The Psychopharmacology of Herbal Medications: Plant Drugs That Alter Mind, Brain, and Behavior|vauthors=Spinella M|publisher=MIT Press|year=2001|isbn=978-0-262-69265-6|pages=[https://archive.org/details/psychopharmacolo0000spin/page/272 272]}}</ref> It is on the [[FDA]]'s "[[generally recognized as safe]]" list,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=182.20|title=Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Part 182, Sec. 182.20: Essential oils, oleoresins (solvent-free), and natural extractives (including distillates): Substances Generally Recognized As Safe|date=1 September 2014|publisher=US [[FDA]]|access-date=21 December 2014}}</ref> though it does [[drug interaction|interact]] with some medications, including the [[anticoagulant]] drug [[warfarin]]<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Shalansky S, Lynd L, Richardson K, Ingaszewski A, Kerr C|s2cid=3905654|year=2007|title=Risk of warfarin-related bleeding events and supratherapeutic international normalized ratios associated with complementary and alternative medicine: a longitudinal analysis|journal=[[Pharmacotherapy (journal)|Pharmacotherapy]]|volume=27|issue=9|pages=1237–47|doi=10.1592/phco.27.9.1237|pmid=17723077}}</ref> and the [[cardiovascular]] drug [[nifedipine]].<ref name=nccih/>

===Chemistry===
The characteristic fragrance and flavor of ginger result from [[volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] [[essential oil|oils]] that compose 1–3% of the weight of fresh ginger, primarily consisting of [[sesquiterpene]]s, such as [[bisabolene|beta-bisabolene]] and [[zingiberene]], [[zingerone]], [[shogaol]]s, and [[gingerol]]s with [6]-gingerol (1-[4'-hydroxy-3'-methoxyphenyl]-5-hydroxy-3-decanone) as the major pungent compound.<ref name=drugs/><ref name="an">{{cite journal|vauthors=An K, Zhao D, Wang Z, Wu J, Xu Y, Xiao G|year=2016|title=Comparison of different drying methods on Chinese ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe): Changes in volatiles, chemical profile, antioxidant properties, and microstructure|journal=[[Food Chem.]]|volume=197|issue=Part B|pages=1292–300|doi=10.1016/j.foodchem.2015.11.033|pmid=26675871}}</ref> Some 400 chemical compounds exist in raw ginger.<ref name=drugs/>

Zingerone is produced from gingerols during drying, having lower pungency and a spicy-sweet aroma.<ref name=an/> Shogaols are more pungent, and are formed from gingerols during heating, storage or via acidity.<ref name=drugs/><ref name=an/> Numerous [[monoterpene]]s, [[amino acid]]s, [[dietary fiber]], protein, [[phytosterol]]s, [[vitamin]]s, and [[dietary mineral]]s are other constituents.<ref name=drugs/> Fresh ginger also contains an enzyme [[zingibain]] which is a [[cysteine protease]] and has similar properties to [[rennet]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Huang |first1=X. W. |last2=Chen |first2=L. J. |last3=Luo |first3=Y. B. |last4=Guo |first4=H. Y. |last5=Ren |first5=F. Z. |date=2011-05-01 |title=Purification, characterization, and milk coagulating properties of ginger proteases |journal=Journal of Dairy Science |language=en |volume=94 |issue=5 |pages=2259–2269 |doi=10.3168/jds.2010-4024 |pmid=21524515 |issn=0022-0302|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Research==
Evidence that ginger use is associated with reduced [[nausea]] during pregnancy is of low quality.<ref name=preg>{{cite journal |vauthors=McParlin C, O'Donnell A, Robson SC, Beyer F, Moloney E, Bryant A, Bradley J, Muirhead CR, Nelson-Piercy C, Newbury-Birch D, Norman J, Shaw C, Simpson E, Swallow B, Yates L, Vale L |title=Treatments for Hyperemesis Gravidarum and Nausea and Vomiting in Pregnancy: A Systematic Review |journal=JAMA |volume=316 |issue=13 |pages=1392–1401 |date=October 2016 |pmid=27701665 |doi=10.1001/jama.2016.14337 |url=https://research.tees.ac.uk/en/publications/6b0f7e5c-6bc8-4f8e-9419-bf43b3eea727 |type=Systematic review}}</ref> There is no good evidence ginger helps alleviate chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting.<ref name=chemo>{{cite journal |vauthors=Lee J, Oh H |title=Ginger as an antiemetic modality for chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting: a systematic review and meta-analysis |journal=Oncol Nurs Forum |volume=40 |issue=2 |pages=163–70 |date=March 2013 |pmid=23448741 |doi=10.1188/13.ONF.163-170 |url=}}</ref>

There is no clear evidence that taking ginger to treat [[nausea]] during pregnancy is safe.<ref name=drugs/><ref name="Giacosa">{{cite journal|vauthors=Giacosa A, Morazzoni P, Bombardelli E, Riva A, Bianchi Porro G, Rondanelli M|year=2015|title=Can nausea and vomiting be treated with ginger extract?|url=https://www.europeanreview.org/wp/wp-content/uploads/1291-1296.pdf|journal=European Review for Medical and Pharmacological Sciences|volume=19|issue=7|pages=1291–6|issn=1128-3602|pmid=25912592}}</ref><ref name="ernst-meta">{{cite journal|vauthors=Ernst E, Pittler MH|date=2000|title=Efficacy of ginger for nausea and vomiting: a systematic review of randomized clinical trials|journal=[[Br. J. Anaesth.]]|volume=84|issue=3|pages=367–371|doi=10.1093/oxfordjournals.bja.a013442|pmid=10793599|doi-access=free}}</ref> Ginger is not effective for treating [[dysmenorrhea]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Pattanittum P, Kunyanone N, Brown J, Sangkomkamhang US, Barnes J, Seyfoddin V, Marjoribanks J|year=2016|title=Dietary supplements for dysmenorrhoea|journal=[[Cochrane Library#The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews|Cochrane Database Syst. Rev.]]|volume=2016|issue=3|at=CD002124|doi=10.1002/14651858.CD002124.pub2|pmid=27000311|pmc=7387104|doi-access=free}}</ref> There is some evidence for it having an [[anti-inflammatory]] effect, and improving digestive function, but insufficient evidence for it affecting pain in [[osteoarthritis]].<ref>{{cite journal|vauthors=Terry R, Posadzki P, Watson LK, Ernst E|year=2011|title=The use of ginger (Zingiber officinale) for the treatment of pain: A systematic review of clinical trials|journal=Pain Medicine|volume=12|issue=12|pages=1808–18|doi=10.1111/j.1526-4637.2011.01261.x|pmid=22054010|doi-access=free}}</ref> The evidence that ginger retards blood clotting is mixed.<ref name="Marx McKavanagh McCarthy Bird p=e0141119">{{cite journal | last1=Marx | first1=Wolfgang | last2=McKavanagh | first2=Daniel | last3=McCarthy | first3=Alexandra L. | last4=Bird | first4=Robert | last5=Ried | first5=Karin | last6=Chan | first6=Alexandre | last7=Isenring | first7=Liz | editor-last=Freson | editor-first=Kathleen | title=The Effect of Ginger (''Zingiber officinale'') on Platelet Aggregation: A Systematic Literature Review | journal=PLOS ONE| publisher=Public Library of Science (PLoS) | volume=10 | issue=10 | date=21 October 2015 | issn=1932-6203 | doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0141119 | page=e0141119| pmid=26488162 | pmc=4619316 | bibcode=2015PLoSO..1041119M | doi-access=free }}</ref>

A 2018 review found evidence that ginger could decrease body weight in obese subjects and increase [[HDL-cholesterol]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Maharlouei|first1=N|last2=Tabrizi|first2=R| last3=Lankarani|first3= KB|last4= Rezaianzadeh|first4=A|last5=Akbari|first5=M|last6=Kolahdooz|first6=F|last7=Rahimi|first7=M|last8= Keneshlou|first8=F|last9=Asemi|first9=Z.|year=2019|title=The effects of ginger intake on weight loss and metabolic profiles among overweight and obese subjects: A systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials|journal=Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/10408398.2018.1427044|volume=59|issue=11|pages=1753–1766|doi=10.1080/10408398.2018.1427044|pmid=29393665|s2cid=35645698}}</ref>

==Adverse effects==
Although [[generally recognized as safe]], ginger can cause [[heartburn]] and other side effects, particularly if taken in powdered form.<ref name="nccih"/> It may adversely affect individuals with [[gallstone]]s, and may interfere with the effects of [[anticoagulant]]s, such as [[warfarin]] or [[aspirin]], and other [[prescription drug]]s.<ref name=nccih/><ref name=drugs/>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:Ginger Plant vs.jpg|Ginger plant with flower
File:Opening ginger flower.jpg|Ginger flower about to bloom
File:Ginger flower stamen.jpg|Ginger flower stamen
File:Ginger crop.jpg|Ginger crop, Myanmar
File:Ginger on Dark Board.jpg|Chopped ginger
File:Gari ginger.jpg|[[Gari (ginger)|''Gari'']], a type of pickled ginger
File:German Ginger wine with stem ginger decoration 4.jpg|German ginger-flavored wine (grape-based) with stem ginger decoration
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[Domesticated plants and animals of Austronesia]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wiktionary}}
{{Commons category|Zingiber officinale}}
{{Wikispecies|Zingiber officinale}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20041114064602/http://sun.ars-grin.gov:8080/npgspub/xsql/duke/plantdisp.xsql?taxon=1078 ''Zingiber officinale'' List of Chemicals (Dr. Duke's)] (archived 14 November 2004)

{{Ginger Plant}}
{{Herbs & spices}}
{{Medicinal herbs & fungi}}
{{Transient receptor potential channel modulators}}
{{Taxonbar|from=Q35625}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Ginger| ]]
[[Category:Indian spices]]
[[Category:Medicinal plants]]
[[Category:Rhizomatous plants]]
[[Category:Spices]]
[[Category:Zingiber]]
[[Category:Austronesian agriculture]]

Hand web piercing

2024-07-30T15:13:35Z

Coriander77: added reference

{{Unreferenced stub|auto=yes|date=December 2009}}
{{Infobox Piercing
| name = Hand web piercing
| nicknames =
| image = Handweb.JPG
| image_size = 250px
| location = [[Hand|Skin between fingers]]
| jewelry = [[barbell (piercing)|barbell]], [[captive bead ring]]
| healing time =
}}
A '''hand web piercing''' is a piercing through the [[Hand#Skin|web of the hand]] ([[Skinfold|Interdigital Fold]]) between two digits, such as between the [[fore-finger]] and middle-finger or fore-finger and thumb. This piercing has a high rate of rejection because of the nature of the tissue and how dynamic or mobile the area is<ref>{{Cite book |last=Angel |first=Elayne |title=The Piercing Bible |date=July 30, 2024 |publisher=Clarkson Potter/Ten Speed |year=2011 |isbn=9780307777911 |edition=2nd |publication-date=February 16, 2011 |pages=25 |language=English}}</ref>. This piercing is not commonly performed by reputable professionals because of its low success rate. Typical body jewelry used is a [[barbell (piercing)|barbell]] or a [[captive bead ring]].

Another type of hand piercing is across the top of the finger.

The healing can take anywhere from 6 weeks to 1 year.
{{Body Piercing}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hand Web Piercing}}
[[Category:Surface piercings]]

{{Bodypiercing-stub}}

[[de:Oberflächenpiercing#Handweb]]

Pointe de la Grande Journée

2024-07-30T15:06:10Z

Coriander77: Added citation

{{Unreferenced|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox mountain
| name = Pointe de la Grande Journée
| photo =
| photo_caption =
| elevation_m = 2460
| elevation_ref =
| prominence_m =
| prominence_ref =
| location = [[Savoie]], [[France]]
| range = [[Beaufortain Massif]]
| map = France
| map_caption = Location in France
| range_coordinates =
| label_position = left
| coordinates = {{coord|45|40|02|N|06|30|04|E|type:mountain_region:FR_scale:100000|format=dms|display=inline,title}}
| type =
| first_ascent =
| easiest_route =
}}
'''Pointe de la Grande Journée''' is a mountain of [[Savoie]], [[France]]. It lies in the [[Beaufortain Massif]]. It has an elevation of 2,460 metres above sea level<ref>{{Cite web |last=PeakVisor |title=Pointe de la Grande Journée |url=https://peakvisor.com/peak/pointe-de-la-grande-journee.html |access-date=2024-07-30 |website=PeakVisor |language=en}}</ref>.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pointe de la Grande Journee}}
[[Category:Mountains of the Alps]]
[[Category:Mountains of Savoie]]

{{Savoie-geo-stub}}

Ethion

2024-07-30T14:41:55Z

Coriander77:

{{Chembox
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 455008977
| ImageFile = Ethion_ACS.svg
| ImageSize = 220px
| ImageAlt = Skeletal formula of ethion
| ImageFile1 = Ethion 3D ball.png
| ImageSize1 = 240px
| ImageAlt1 = Ball-and-stick model of the ethion molecule
| IUPACName = ''O,O,{{prime|O}},{{prime|O}}''-Tetraethyl ''S,{{prime|S}}''-methylene bis(phosphorodithioate)
| OtherNames = Diethion; Bis[S-(diethoxyphosphinothioyl)mercapto]methane;[(Diethoxyphosphinothioylthio)methylthio]-diethoxy-thioxophosphorane
| Section1 = {{Chembox Identifiers
| InChI = 1/C9H22O4P2S4/c1-5-10-14(16,11-6-2)18-9-19-15(17,12-7-3)13-8-4/h5-9H2,1-4H3
| InChIKey = RIZMRRKBZQXFOY-UHFFFAOYAJ
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C9H22O4P2S4/c1-5-10-14(16,11-6-2)18-9-19-15(17,12-7-3)13-8-4/h5-9H2,1-4H3
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|correct|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = RIZMRRKBZQXFOY-UHFFFAOYSA-N
| CASNo_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| CASNo=563-12-2
| PubChem=3286
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = 2TI07NO12Y
| ChEBI_Ref = {{ebicite|correct|EBI}}
| ChEBI = 38663
| SMILES = S=P(SCSP(=S)(OCC)OCC)(OCC)OCC
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|correct|chemspider}}
| ChemSpiderID = 3171
| KEGG_Ref = {{keggcite|correct|kegg}}
| KEGG = C18725
}}
| Section2 = {{Chembox Properties
| Formula=C9H22O4P2S4
| MolarMass=384.48 g/mol
| Appearance=Colorless to amber-colored, odorless liquid
| Density=1.22 g/cm3
| MeltingPtC=-12.2
| BoilingPtC=150
| BoilingPt_notes = (decomposes)
| Solubility=0.0001% (20 °C)<ref name=PGCH/>
| VaporPressure = 0.0000015 mmHg (20 °C)<ref name=PGCH/>
}}
| Section3 = {{Chembox Hazards
| MainHazards=Combustible<ref>[https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0257.html CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards]</ref>
| FlashPtC = 176.1
| AutoignitionPtC =
| PEL = none<ref name=PGCH>{{PGCH|0257}}</ref>
| IDLH = N.D.<ref name=PGCH/>
| REL = TWA 0.4 mg/m3 [skin]<ref name=PGCH/>
}}
}}

'''Ethion''' (C9H22O4P2S4) is an [[organophosphate]] [[insecticide]]. It is known to affect a neural enzyme called [[acetylcholinesterase]] and prevent it from functioning.

==Review==
Ethion was one of many substances approved for use based on data from [[Industrial Bio-Test Laboratories]], which prompted the [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] and [[World Health Organization]] to recommend its reanalysis in 1982.<ref name="FAO-UN 1982">{{citation | contribution = Pesticide Residues in Food | title = Data and recommendations of the joint meeting of the FAO Panel of Experts on Pesticide Residues in Food and the Environment and the WHO Expert Group on Pesticide Residues | publisher = Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations | place = Rome | date = 2 December 1982| contribution-url = http://www.inchem.org/documents/jmpr/jmpmono/v82pr17.htm | access-date = 2012-07-16}}</ref>

== History ==
Ethion was first registered in the US as an insecticide in the 1950s. However, annual usage of ethion has varied depending on overall crop yields and weather conditions. For example, 1999 was a very dry year; since the drought reduced yields, the use of ethion became less economically advantageous.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://archive.epa.gov/pesticides/reregistration/web/html/ethion_red.html|title=Ethion RED {{!}} Pesticides {{!}} US EPA|last=Programs|first=US EPA, Office of Pesticide|website=archive.epa.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-03-16}}</ref> Since 1998, [[risk assessment]] studies have been conducted by (among others) the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|EPA (United States Environmental Protection Agency)]]. Risk assessments for ethion were presented at a July 14, 1999 briefing with stakeholders in [[Florida]], which was followed by an opportunity for public comment on risk management for this pesticide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/jmpr/jmpmono/v075pr22.htm|title=335. Ethion (WHO Pesticide Residues Series 5)|website=www.inchem.org|access-date=2017-03-16}}</ref>

== Synthesis ==
Ethion is produced under controlled pH conditions, by reacting [[dibromomethane]] with [[Diethyl dithiophosphoric acid]] in [[ethanol]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp.asp?id=983&tid=206|title=ATSDR - Toxicological Profile: Ethion|date=September 2000|website=www.atsdr.cdc.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-03-16}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/ethion#section=Use-and-Manufacturing|title=ethion {{!}} C9H22O4P2S4 - PubChem|last=Pubchem|website=pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov|language=en|access-date=2017-03-16}}</ref> Other methods of synthesis include the reaction of [[methylene bromide]] and sodium diethyl phosphorodithioate or the reaction of diethyl dithiophosphoric acid and [[formaldehyde]].<ref name=":1" />

== Reactivity and mechanism ==
Ethion is a small [[Lipophilicity|lipophilic]] molecule. Because of these characteristics, rapid [[Absorption (skin)|absorption]] across [[cell membrane]]s is expected. This absorption through skin, lungs, and the gut into the blood occurs via passive [[diffusion]]. Furthermore, ethion is metabolized in the liver via [[desulfurization]], producing the metabolite ethion monoxon. This transformation leads to liver damage.<ref name=":0" /> Ethion monoxon is an [[Reaction inhibitor|inhibitor]] of the neuroenzyme [[cholinesterase]] (ChE), which normally facilitates [[Action potential|nerve impulse]] transmission; secondary damage thus occurs in the brain. Because the chemical structure of ethion monoxon is similar to that of an organophosphate, its mechanism of action is thought to be the same.<ref name=":0" /> See the figure, "Inhibition of cholinesterase by ethion monoxon." The figure depicts enzyme inhibition as a two-step process. Here, a [[Hydroxy group|hydroxyl group]] (OH) from a [[Serine|serine residue]] in the active site of ChE is [[Phosphorylation|phosphorylated]] by an organophosphate, causing [[enzyme]] inhibition and preventing the serine hydroxyl group from participating in the [[hydrolysis]] of another enzyme called [[Acetylcholine|acetylcholinesterase]] (Ach). The phosphorylated form of the enzyme is highly stable, and depending on the R and {{prime|R}} groups attached to phosphorus, this inhibition can be either reversible or irreversible.<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Fukuto|first=T. Roy|year=1990|title=Mechanism of Action of Organophosphorus and Carbamate Insecticides|journal=Environmental Health Perspectives|volume=97|pages=245–254|pmc=1567830|pmid=2176588|doi=10.1289/ehp.9087245}}</ref>[[File:Ethion reaction mechanism.jpg|alt= In this figure ChE is represented by En-OH, in which the OH is the hydroxygroup from the serine residue. R and {{prime|R}} represent the different groups that can be attached to the phosphorus and X is the leaving group. Kd is the dissociation constant between the enzyme-inhibitor complex and reactants, kp is the phosphorylation constant and ki is the bimolecular rate constant for inhibition|thumb|406x406px|Inhibition of cholinesterase by ethion monoxon.]]

== Metabolism ==
Goats exposed to ethion showed clear distinctions in [[excretion]], absorption [[half-life]] and [[Bioavailability|bioavailabilities]]. These differences depend on the [[Route of administration|method of administration]]. [[Intravenous therapy|Intravenous injection]] resulted in a half-life time of 2 hours, while oral administration resulted in a half-life time of 10 hours. Dermal administration lead to a half-life time of even 85 hours. These differences in half-life times can be completed with a difference in bio-availability. The bio-availability of ethion in oral administration was less than 5%, whereas the bio-availability of dermal administration of ethion was 20%.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Mosha|first1=Resto D.|last2=Gyrd-Hansen|first2=N.|last3=Nielsen|first3=Poul|date=1990-09-01|title=Fate of Ethion in Goats after Intravenous, Oral and Dermal Administration|journal=Pharmacology & Toxicology|language=en|volume=67|issue=3|pages=246–251|doi=10.1111/j.1600-0773.1990.tb00822.x|pmid=2255681|issn=1600-0773}}</ref>

In a study conducted among rats, it was found that ethion is quite readily [[Metabolism|metabolized]]<nowiki/>after oral administration. The metabolization products in found in urine are four to six [[Chemical polarity|polar]] water-soluble products.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/jmpr/jmpmono/v86pr05.htm|title=739. Ethion (Pesticide residues in food: 1986 evaluations Part II Toxicology)|website=www.inchem.org|access-date=2017-03-16}}</ref>

A study among chickens reveals more about the ethion distribution in the body. After 10 days of ethion exposure liver, muscle, and fat tissues were examined. In all three cases, ethion or ethion derivatives were present, indicating that it is widely spread in the body. Chicken eggs were also investigated, and it was found that the egg white reaches a steady ethion derivative concentration after four days, while the concentration in yolk was still rising after ten days. In the investigated chickens, about six polar water-soluble metabolites were also found to be present.<ref name=":2" />

In a study performed on goats, heart in kidney tissue was investigated after a period of ethion exposure, and in these tissues, ethion-derivatives were found. This study indicates that the highest level were found in the liver and kidneys, and the lowest levels in fat. In goat milk, derivatives were also present.<ref name=":2" />

== Biotransformation ==
[[Biotransformation]] of ethion occurs in the liver. Here it undergoes [[Desulfurisation|desulfurization]] and is thus changed to its [[active metabolite]] form: ethion monoxon. The enzyme [[Cytochrome P450|cytochrome P-450]] catalyzes this step.<ref name=":0" /> Because it contains an [[Oxygen|active oxygen]], ethion monoxon is an inhibitor of the neuroenzyme cholinesterase (ChE). ChE can [[Dephosphorylation|dephosphorylate]] organophosphate, so in the next step of the biotransformation, ethion monoxon is dephosphorylated and ChE is phosphorylated.<ref name=":4" /> The subsequent step in the biotransformation process is not yet completely known, yet it is understood that this happens via [[esterase]]s in the blood and liver (1). Besides the dephosphorylation of ethion monoxon by ChE, it is likely that the ethion monoxon is partially [[Redox|oxidized]] toward ethion dioxon.<ref name=":2" />

After [https://chem.libretexts.org/Core/Analytical_Chemistry/Lab_Techniques/Liquid-Liquid_Extraction/Solvent_Partitioning_(Liquid_-_Liquid_Extraction) solvent partitioning] of urine from rats that had been fed ethion, it became clear that the metabolites found in the urine were 99% dissolved in the aqueous phase. This means that only nonsignificant levels (<1 %) were present in the organic phase and that the metabolites are very [[Hydrophile|hydrophilic]].<ref name=":2" />

In a parallel study in goats, [[radioactive label]]ed ethion with incorporated [[Carbon-14|14C]] was used. After identification of the 14C residues in organs of the goats, such as the liver, heart, kidneys, muscles and fat tissue, it appeared that 0.03 [[Part per million|ppm]] or less of the 14C compounds present was non-metabolized ethion. The metabolites ethion monoxon and ethion dioxon were also not detected in any samples with a substantial threshold (0.005-0.01 ppm). In total, 64% to 75% of the metabolites from the tissues were soluble in methanol. After the addition of a [[protease]], another 17% to 32% were solubilized. In the aqueous phase, at least four different radioactive metabolites were found. However, characterization of these compounds was repeatedly unsuccessful due to their high [[Volatility (chemistry)|volatility]]. One compound was trapped in the kidney and was identified as formaldehyde. This is an indication that the 14C of ethion is used in the formation of natural products.<ref name=":2" />

== Toxicity ==

=== Summary of toxicity ===
[[Exposure to toxins|Exposure]] to ethion can happen by ingestion, absorption via the skin, and inhalation. Exposure can lead to vomiting, diarrhea, headache, sweating, and confusion. Severe poisoning might lead to fatigue, involuntary muscle contractions, loss of reflexes and slurred speech. In even more severe cases, death will be the result of [[respiratory failure]] or [[cardiac arrest]].<ref name=":0" />

When being exposed through skin contact, the lowest dose to kill a rat was found to be 150 mg/kg for males and 50 mg/kg for females. The minimum survival time was 6 hours for female rats and 3 hours for male rats, and the maximum time of death was 3 days for females and 7 days for males. The [[LD50]] was 245 mg /kg for male rats and 62 mg/kg for female rats.<ref name=":0" />

When being exposed through ingestion, 10 mg/kg/day and 2 mg/kg/day showed no histopathological effect on the respiratory track of rats, nor did 13-week testing on dogs (8.25 mg/kg/day).<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bailey|first=D.E.|year=1988|title=90-day subchronic toxicity study of ethion technical in dogs. Unpublished revised final|journal=Hazelton Laboratories America, Inc}}</ref>

LD50 values for pure ethion in rats is 208 mg/kg, and for technical ethion is 21 to 191 mg/kg. Other reported oral LD50 values are 40 mg/kg in mice and guinea pigs. Furthermore, inhalation of ethion is very toxic - during one study which was looking at [[chemical purity|technical-grade]] ethion, an [[LC50]] of 2.31 mg/m^3 was found in male rats and of 0.45 mg/m^3 in female rats. Other data reported a 4-hour LC50 in rats of 0.864 mg/L.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Feiser|first=S.|year=1983|title=Acute inhalation toxicity study in rats: Ethion Technical (FMC1240). Unpublished study prepared by Hazelton Laboratories America, Inc.|journal=Hazelton Laboratories America, Inc}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book|title=Farm Chemicals Handbook '92.|last=Meister|first=R.T.|publisher=Meister Publishing Company, Willoughby, OH.|year=1992}}</ref>

=== Acute toxicity ===
Ethion will result in toxic effects by absorption via the skin, ingestion and via inhalation, and may cause burns when skin is exposed to it.<ref name=":0" /> According to Extoxnet,<ref name=":5" /> any form of exposure could result in the following symptoms: pallor, nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, abdominal cramps, headache, dizziness, eye pain, blurred vision, constriction or dilation of the eye pupils, tears, salivation, sweating, and confusion may develop within 12 hours. Severe poisoning may result in distorted coordination, loss of reflexes, slurred speech, fatigue and weakness, tremors of the tongue and eyelids, involuntary muscle contractions and can also lead to paralysis and respiratory problems. In more severe cases, ethion poisoning can lead to involuntary discharge of urine or feces, irregular heart beats, psychosis, loss of consciousness, and, in some cases, coma or death. Death will be a result of respiratory failure or cardiac arrest.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5">{{Cite web|url=http://pmep.cce.cornell.edu/profiles/extoxnet/dienochlor-glyphosate/ethion-ext.html|title=Ethion|website=pmep.cce.cornell.edu ETOXNET|access-date=2017-03-16}}</ref> Hypothermia, AC heart blocks and arrhythmias are also found to be possible consequences of ethion poisoning.<ref name=":0" /> Ethion may also lead to delayed symptoms of other organophosphates.

==== Skin exposure ====
In rabbits receiving 250 mg/kg of technical-grade ethion for 21 days, the dermal exposure lead to increased cases of [[erythema]] and [[desquamation]]. It also lead to inhibition of brain acetylcholinesterase at 1 mg/kg/day and the [[NOAEL]] was determined to be 0.8 mg/kg/day. In guinea pigs, ethion ALS lead to a slight erythema that cleared in 48 hours, and it was determined that the compound was not a [[skin sensitizer]].<ref name=":0" />

In a study determining the LD50 of ethion, 80 male and 60 female adult rats were dermally exposed to ethion dissolved in [[xylene]]. The lowest dose to kill a rat was found to be 150 mg/kg for males and 50 mg/kg for females. The minimum survival time was 6 hours for females and 3 hours for males, while the maximum time of death was 3 days for females and 7 days for males. The LD50 was 245 mg /kg for males and 62 mg/kg for females. Skin contact with organophosphates, in general, may cause localized sweating and involuntary muscle contractions. Other studies found the LC50 via the dermal route to be 915 mg/kg in guinea pigs and 890 mg/kg in rabbits.<ref name=":0" />

Ethion can also cause slight redness and [[inflammation]] to the eye and skin that will clear within 48 hours. It is also known to cause blurred vision, pupil constriction and pain.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":5" />

==== Ingestion ====
A six-month-old boy experienced shallow [[Diaphragmatic excursion|excursions]] and intercostal retractions after accidentally ingesting 15.7 mg/kg ethion. The symptoms started one hour after ingestion, and were treated. Five hours after ingestion, respiratory arrest occurred and mechanical ventilation was needed for three hours. Following examinations after one week, one month and one year suggested that full recovery was made. The same boy also showed occurrence of [[tachycardia]], frothy saliva (1 hour after ingestion), watery bowel movements (90 minutes after ingestion), increased urine [[White blood cell|WBC]] counts, inability to control his head and limbs, occasional twitching, pupils non-reactive to light, purposeless eye movements, palpable liver and spleen, and there were some symptoms of paralysis.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Comstock|first=E.G.|year=1967|title=Acute ethion poisoning|journal=Tex Med|volume=63|issue=6 |pages=71–75|pmid=6044229 }}</ref>

Testing on rats with 10 mg/kg/day and 2 mg/kg/day showed no [[Histopathology|histopathological]] effect on the [[respiratory tract]], nor did 13 week testing on dogs (8.25 mg/kg/day). {{LD50}} values for pure ethion in rats of 208 mg/kg, and for technical-grade ethion of 21 to 191 mg/kg,. Other reported oral LD50 values (for the technical product) are 40 mg/kg in mice and guinea pigs. In a group of six male volunteers no differences in blood pressure or pulse rate were noted, neither in mice or dogs. Diarrhea did occur in mice orally exposed to ethion, severe signs of neurotoxicity were also present. The effects were consistent with cholinergic overstimulation of the gastrointestinal tract.<ref name=":0" />

No [[hematological]] effects were reported in an experiment with six male volunteers, nor in rats or dogs. The volunteers did not show differences in muscle tone after intermediate-duration oral exposure, nor did the testing animals to different exposure. It is however knows that ethion can result in muscle tremors and [[fasciculation]]s. The animal-testing studies on rats and dogs showed no effect on the kidneys and liver, but a different study showed an increased incidence in orange-colored urine. The animal-testing studies on rats and dogs did also not show dermal or ocular effects.<ref name=":0" />

Rabbits, receiving 2.5 mg/kg/day of ethion showed a decrease in body weight, but no effects were seen at 0.6 mg/kg/day. The decrease body, combined with reduced food consumption, was observed for rabbits receiving 9.6 mg/kg/day . Male and female dogs receiving 0.71 mg/kg/day did not show a change in body weight, but dogs receiving 6.9 and 8.25 mg/kg/day showed reduced food consumption and reduced body weight.<ref name=":0" />

In a study with human volunteers, a decrease of [[Blood plasma|plasma]] cholinesterase was observed during 0.075 mg/kg/day (16% decrease), 0.1 mg/kg/day (23% decrease) and 0.15 mg/kg/day (31%decrease) treatment periods. This was partially recovered after 7 days, and fully recovered after 12 days. No effect on [[Red blood cell|erythrocyte]] acetylcholinesterase was observed, nor signs of adverse neurological effects. Another study showed severe neurological effects after a single oral exposure in rats. For male rats, salivation, tremors, nose bleeding, urination, diarrhea, and convulsions occurred at 100 mg/kg, and for female rats, at 10 mg/kg. In a study with albino rats, it was observed that brain acetylcholinesterase was inhibited by 22%, erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase by 87%, and plasma cholinesterase by 100% in male rats after being fed 9 mg/kg/day of ethion for 93 days. After 14 days of recovery, plasma cholinesterase recovered completely, and erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase recovered 63%. There were no observed effects at 1 mg/kg/day. In a study involving various rats, researchers observed no effects on erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase at 0, 0.1, 0.2, and 2 mg/kg/day of ethion. In a 90-day study on dogs, in which the males received 6.9 mg/kg/day and the females 8.25 mg/kg/day, ataxia, emesis, miosis, and tremors were observed. Brain and erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase were inhibited (61-64% and 93-04%, respectively). At 0.71 mg/kg/day in male dogs, the reduction in brain acetylcholinesterase was 23%. There were no observed effects at 0.06 and 0.01 mg/kg/day. Based on these findings, a minimal risk level of 0,002 mg/kg/day for oral exposure for acute and intermediate durations was established. Researchers also calculated a chronic-duration minimal risk level of 0.0004 mg/kg/day.<ref name=":0" />

In one study, in which rats received a maximum of 1.25 mg/kg/day, no effects on reproduction were observed. In a study on pregnant river rats, eating 2.5 mg/kg/day, it was observed that the fetuses had increased incidences{{verify spelling|date=September 2022|reason=''incidence'' is normally used only in the singular form, perhaps ''incidence'' or ''incidents'' was intended}} of delayed ossification of pubes. Another study found that the fetuses of pregnant rabbits, eating 9.6 mg/kg/day had increased incidences{{verify spelling|date=September 2022|reason=''incidence'' is normally used only in the singular form, perhaps ''incidence'' was intended}} of fused sterna centers.<ref name=":0" />

==== Inhalation ====
Ethion is quite toxic to lethal via inhalation. One study, looking at technical-grade ethion, found an LC50 of 2.31 mg/m3 in male rats and of 0.45 mg/m3 in female rats. Other data reported a 4-hour LC50 in rats of 0.864 mg/L. As stated earlier, ethion can also lead to pupillary constriction, muscle cramps, excessive salivation, sweating, nausea, dizziness, labored breathing, convulsions, and unconsciousness. A sensation of tightness in the chest and rhinorrhea are also very common after inhalation.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6">{{Cite web|url=http://www.inchem.org/documents/icsc/icsc/eics0888.htm|title=ICSC 0888 - ETHION|date=23 March 1998|website=www.inchem.org|access-date=2017-03-16}}</ref>

=== Carcinogenic effects ===
There are no indications that ethion is carcinogenic in rats and mice. When rats and mice were fed ethion for two years, the animals did not develop cancer any faster than the control group of animals that were not given ethion. Ethion has not been classified for [[carcinogen]]icity by the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]] (DHHS), the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]] (IARC) or the EPA.<ref name=":5" />

== Treatment ==
When orally exposed, [[gastric lavage]] shortly after exposure can be used to reduce the peak absorption. It is also suspected that treatment with [[Activated carbon|active charcoal]] could be effective to reduce peak absorption. Safety guidelines also encourage to induce vomiting to reduce oral exposure, if the victim is still conscious.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" />

In case of skin exposure, it is advised to wash and rinse with plenty of water and soap to reduce exposure. In case of inhalation, fresh air is advised to reduce exposure.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":6" />

Treating the ethion-exposure itself is done in the same way as exposure with other organophosphates. The main danger lies in respiratory problems - if symptoms are present, then artificial respiration with an [[endotracheal tube]] is used as a treatment. The effect of ethion on muscles or nerves is counteracted with [[atropine]]. [[Pralidoxime]] can be used to act against organophosphate poisoning, this must be given as fast as possible after the ethion poisoning, for its [[Efficacy (pharmacology)|efficacy]] is inhibited by the chemical change of ethion-enzyme in the body that occurs over time.<ref name=":0" />

== Effects on animals ==
Ethion has an influence on the environment as it is persistent and thus might accumulate through plants and animals. When looking at songbirds, ethion is very toxic. The LD50 in [[red-winged blackbird]]s is 45 mg/kg. However, it is moderately toxic to birds like the [[bobwhite quail]] (LD50 is 128.8 mg/kg) and [[starling]]s (LD50 is greater than 304 mg/kg). These birds would be classified as 'medium sized birds. When looking at larger, upland game birds (like the [[ring-necked pheasant]] and waterfowl like the mallard duck, ethion varies from barely toxic to nontoxic. Ethion, however, is very toxic to aquatic organisms like freshwater and marine fish, and is extremely toxic to freshwater [[invertebrate]]s, with an average LD50 of 0.056 μg/L to 0.0077 mg/L. The LD50 for marine and estuarine invertebrates are 0.04 to 0.05 mg/L.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://extoxnet.orst.edu/pips/ethion.htm|title=EXTOXNET PIP - ETHION|date=1996|website=extoxnet.orst.edu|access-date=2017-03-16}}</ref>

In a [[chronic toxicity]] study, rats were fed 0, 0.1, 0.2 or 2 mg/kg/day ethion for 18 months, and no severe toxic effects were observed. The only significant change was a decrease of cholinesterase levels in the group with the highest dose. Therefore, the [[No-observed-adverse-effect level|NOEL]] of this study was 0.2 mg/kg. The oral LD50 for pure ethion in rats is 208 mg/kg. The dermal LD50 in rats is 62 mg/kg, 890 mg/kg in rabbits, and 915 mg/kg in guinea pigs. For rats, the 4-hour LD50 is 0.864 mg/L ethion.<ref name=":5" />

== Detection Methods ==
Insecticides such as ethion can be detected by using a variety of chemical analysis methods. Some analysis methods, however, are not specific for this substance. In a recently introduced method, the interaction of [[silver nanoparticle]]s (AgNPs) with ethion results in the [[Quenching the Light|quenching]] of the resonance relay scattering (RRS) intensity. The change in RRS was shown to be linearly correlated to the concentration of ethion (range: 10.0–900 mg/L). Another advantage of this method over general detection methods is that ethion can be measured in just 3 minutes with no requirement for pretreatment of the sample. From [[Interference (wave propagation)|interference]] tests, it was shown that this method achieves good selectivity for ethion. The [[limit of detection]] (LOD) was 3.7 mg/L and [[Detection limit|limit of quantification]] (LOQ) was 11.0 mg/L. [[Coefficient of variation|Relative standard deviations]] (RSDs) for samples containing 15.0 and 60.0 mg/L of ethion in water were 4.1 and 0.2 mg/L, respectively.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Parham|first1=H.|last2=Saeed|first2=S.|year=2015|title=Resonance Rayleigh scattering method for determination of ethion using silver nanoparticles as probe|journal=Talanta|volume=131|pages=570–576|doi=10.1016/j.talanta.2014.08.007|pmid=25281142}}</ref>

== Microbial degradation ==
Ethion remains a major environmental [[contaminant]] in Australia, among other locations, because of its former usage in agriculture. However, there are some [[Microorganism|microbes]] that can convert ethion into less toxic compounds. Some [[Pseudomonas]] and [[Azospirillum]] bacteria were shown to degrade ethion when cultivated in minimal salts [[Growth medium|medium]], where ethion was the only source of carbon. Analysis of the compounds present in the medium after bacterial digestion of ethion demonstrated that no [[Abiotic component|abiotic]] [[Hydrolysis|hydrolytic]] degradation products of ethion (e.g., ethion dioxon or ethion monoxon) were present. The biodigestion of ethion is likely used to support rapid growth of these bacteria.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=R. Foster|first1=L. John|last2=Kwan|first2=Bia H.|last3=Vancov|first3=Tony|date=2004-11-01|title=Microbial degradation of the organophosphate pesticide, Ethion|journal=FEMS Microbiology Letters|language=en|volume=240|issue=1|pages=49–53|doi=10.1016/j.femsle.2004.09.010|pmid=15500978|s2cid=45604309 |issn=0378-1097|doi-access=free}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==

{{Insecticides}}
{{Acetylcholine metabolism and transport modulators}}

[[Category:Acetylcholinesterase inhibitors]]
[[Category:Organophosphate insecticides]]
[[Category:Phosphorodithioates]]
[[Category:Ethyl esters]]

Oaksterdam University

2024-07-17T14:42:27Z

Coriander77:

{{short description|First cannabis college in the United States}}
{{Tone|date=June 2024}}
{{coord|37|48|27.42|N|122|16|8.29|W|region:US|display=title}}

'''Oaksterdam University''' is an unaccredited [[trade school]] located in [[Oakland, California]]. It was founded in 2007 by marijuana rights activist [[Richard Lee (activist)|Richard Lee]]. The school offers asynchronous, online, and in-person courses covering cannabis horticulture, the business of cannabis, cannabis extraction and manufacturing, and bud-tending.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Oaksterdam University |url=https://oaksterdamuniversity.com/ |access-date=2024-07-09 |website=Oaksterdam University |language=en-US}}</ref>
{{Infobox company
| name = Oaksterdam University
| logo = Oaksterdam logo 2024.svg
| caption =
| type = Not-for-Profit
| slogans =
| foundation = {{Start date and age|2007|11}} in [[Oakland, California|Oakland]], [[California]], [[United States|U.S.]]<ref name=Whiting/>
| location = Oakland, California
| key_people = Dale Sky Jones, Jeff Jones, [[Richard Lee (activist)|Richard Lee]]
| industry = Cannabis Education
| products =
| services =
| revenue =
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| assets =
| equity =
| owner =
| num_employees = 23
| parent =
| divisions =
| subsid =
| homepage = {{Official website|OaksterdamUniversity.com}}
| footnotes =
| intl =
}}

==History==
Jeff Jones co-founded the [[Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative]] (OCBC) in 1995. The OCBC initially functioned as a bicycle delivery service, providing cannabis to patients with medical needs in Oakland, California. Richard Lee, a cultivator from Houston, Texas, regularly provided the OCBC with high-quality cannabis, contributing to the reduction of prices. In July 1996, the City of Oakland formally endorsed the OCBC through a resolution.

Subsequently, Jones established the first medical cannabis dispensary sanctioned by the city government at 1755 Broadway. In the same year, California voters approved Proposition 215, which legalized the possession and cultivation of medical cannabis under state law.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-12-30 |title=Medicinal Cannabis Guidelines |url=https://oag.ca.gov/medicinal-cannabis |access-date=2024-07-13 |website=State of California - Department of Justice - Office of the Attorney General |language=en}}</ref>

In 1997, Lee relocated to [[Oakland, California|Oakland]] and co-founded the Hemp Research Company. The Oakland City Council established a committee to clarify the medical use of cannabis and to define the city's role in enforcing drug laws. Attorney Robert Reich provided educational opportunities to the Oakland Police Department, advocating for cannabis to be considered their lowest law enforcement priority. In 2000, a District Court case involving Jeff Jones progressed to the U.S. Supreme Court. In [[United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative|United States v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers Cooperative]], OCBC argued for the right to manufacture and distribute marijuana for medical patients, but the U.S. Supreme Court did not rule in their favor.<ref>{{Cite web |title=United States of America v. Oakland Cannabis Buyers' Cooperative and Jeffrey Jones |url=https://www.aclu.org/cases/united-states-america-v-oakland-cannabis-buyers-cooperative-and-jeffrey-jones |access-date=2024-07-06 |website=American Civil Liberties Union |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2003, Lee opened Coffeeshop SR-17, which would later become Coffeeshop Blue Sky, joining other medical cannabis dispensaries that had cropped up in the now cannabis-friendly Oakland.

Lee later said he was inspired to create Oaksterdam University after visiting the [[Cannabis College]] in [[Amsterdam]]. Lee recalled:
{{blockquote|In November of 2006 I visited Amsterdam and saw the Cannabis College there. I've seen in California that there are not enough good people who want to work in the cannabis industry in a professional way, who want to pay taxes and obey regulations and help improve their community. I came back from Amsterdam and the idea just popped into the back of my head...<ref name=Whiting/>}}

Lee placed an ad in the East Bay Express that read, "Cannabis Industry, Now Hiring." In the first week, he received more than 200 calls, and Oaksterdam University was born. The university offered its first classes to 22 students in November 2007.<ref name="Whiting">{{cite news |last=Whiting |first=Sam |date=April 6, 2008 |title=Richard Lee's Oaksterdam U will teach you all you need to know about the weed business |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article/article?f=/c/a/2008/04/06/CMQ7UH8IO.DTL |accessdate=December 1, 2009 |work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]}}</ref> They were taught horticulture, cooking, extracts, legal issues and successful law enforcement encounters, plus politics and history, from leaders in the cannabis movement, including Jeff Jones, Chris Conrad, Attorney Lawrence Lichter, Dennis Peron, and Lee himself. Oaksterdam University quickly became "ground zero" for the international cannabis reform movement.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cannabis Legal Context |url=https://projekter.aau.dk/projekter/files/281075736/Extended_Master_Thesis___Mathies_kolja_Suszkiewicz.pdf}}</ref>

Demand for classes grew quickly, with multi-month-long waitlists. Dale Sky Jones joined Oaksterdam's staff as a science instructor in February 2008 and was determined to add satellite schools nationwide, starting with the first in Los Angeles, a second in Ann Arbor, Michigan, and a third in Sebastopol, California.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Home |url=https://www.cityofsebastopol.gov/ |access-date=2024-07-17 |website=City of Sebastopol, California |language=en-US}}</ref>

By November 2009, two years after the school's inception, the Oakland campus at 1600 Broadway was renovated to meet increased demand. The new 30,000-square-foot school included multiple classrooms, an auditorium, a hands-on grow lab, a theater, and a 10,000-square-foot basement nursery full of cannabis plants.<ref name=":0">Oaksterdam University Legacy Book 10th Anniversary Edition, 2018</ref>

In 2009, the City of Oakland Marijuana Tax Measure F passed, making Oakland, California, the first city in the country to assess a tax on medical cannabis clubs and dispensaries. Oaksterdam welcomed thousands of students from around the world, contributing to the revitalization of the neighborhood.<ref name=":0" />

In addition to educating students, Oaksterdam University leaders acted as activists in the legalization movement, beginning with supporting [[2010 California Proposition 19|California Proposition 19]] in 2010. Lee spent $1.3 million, including profits from OU, to get the initiative on the ballot. While Prop 19 failed, the campaign became a blueprint for the cannabis legalization movement in California and subsequent states.<ref name=":0" />

OU faculty helped write California's Proposition 215 Medical Marijuana Initiative (1996);<ref>{{Cite web|title=California Proposition 215, Medical Marijuana Initiative (1996)|url=https://ballotpedia.org/California_Proposition_215,_Medical_Marijuana_Initiative_(1996)|access-date=2021-09-16|website=Ballotpedia|language=en}}</ref> 1996 California Senate Bill 420 (also known as the Compassionate Care Act<ref>{{Citation |title=California Senate Bill 420 |date=2020-10-22 |url=http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/pub/03-04/bill/sen/sb_0401-0450/sb_420_bill_20031012_chaptered.html |access-date=2021-09-16 |language=en}}</ref>), 2016 California Proposition 64;<ref>{{Citation |title=2016 California Proposition 64 |date=2021-06-20 |url=http://publichealth.lacounty.gov/sapc/public/proposition64.htm |access-date=2021-09-16 |language=en}}</ref> and multiple state-level ballot initiatives. Faculty continue to advise on the legislation and regulation of cannabis by local, state, and international governments and agencies.<ref name=":0" />

===Raid===
[[File:Balaclavaed dea agent.JPG|thumb|upright=0.75|A masked DEA agent during the April 2, 2012 raid]]
On April 2, 2012, Oaksterdam University was raided by the [[IRS]], accompanied by the [[Drug Enforcement Administration|DEA]] and US Marshals Service.<ref name="Kuruvila">{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2012/04/02/BABJ1NTK9T.DTL|title=Feds raid downtown Oakland pot school|date=April 2, 2012|accessdate=April 2, 2012|work=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]|first=Matthai|last=Kuruvila}}</ref> The raid additionally targeted Coffeeshop Blue Sky and the Oaksterdam Museum, both affiliated with Oaksterdam University. A number of the university's assets were seized, including plants, records, computers, and bank accounts.<ref name="resign_la">{{cite news| url=http://latimesblogs.latimes.com/lanow/2012/04/oaksterdam-raid-richard-lee.html | work=Los Angeles Times | title=L.A. Now}}</ref>

Due to the city of Oakland's university support, the Oakland Police Department was not informed of the raid.{{fact|date=July 2024}} Subsequently, on the same day, there was a shooting in a nearby school, and the Oakland Police Department was not prepared to handle the numerous protestors (which included city council members) and respond to the shooting in time.{{fact|date=July 2024}} Oaksterdam University continued classes less than 48 hours later. Incorrect reports often cite that the event was conducted by the DEA.{{fact|date=July 2024}} Although the university was only one of many businesses under the corporate umbrella subject to the investigation, it was the Oaksterdam University name that was mentioned in the news due to its on-air and international recognition.{{fact|date=July 2024}} No charges have been filed. Richard Lee retired, announcing he would focus on legislative activism.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Richard Lee stepping down from Oaksterdam University |url=https://api.theworld.org/stories/2016/07/31/richard-lee-stepping-down-oaksterdam-university |access-date=2024-06-29 |website=The World from PRX |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=ABC13 |title=California pot school founder Richard Lee calling it quits {{!}} ABC13 Houston {{!}} abc13.com |url=https://abc13.com/archive/8611434/ |access-date=2024-06-29 |website=ABC13 Houston |language=en}}</ref>

After the raid, Oaksterdam University officials stated that they would immediately reopen.<ref>{{cite news |last=Boghani |first=Priyanka |date=3 April 2012 |title=Oaksterdam University, medical marijuana school, raided by feds |url=http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/americas/united-states/120403/oaksterdam-university-medical-marijuana-school-r |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120406171220/http://www.globalpost.com/dispatch/news/regions/americas/united-states/120403/oaksterdam-university-medical-marijuana-school-r |archive-date=2012-04-06 |accessdate=3 April 2012 |newspaper=Global Post}}</ref> Founder Richard Lee said he would be giving up ownership of the organization, citing mounting debt and concern for incurring federal charges.<ref name="resign_la" /><ref name="debt_san">{{cite web|url=http://www.mercurynews.com/breaking-news/ci_20345101/oaksterdam-founder-leave-cannabis-business |title=Oaksterdam founder to leave cannabis business – The Mercury News |work=Mercurynews.com |date=2012-04-06 |accessdate=2017-01-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/USA/Society/2012/0406/Setback-for-legal-marijuana-Pot-raid-rattles-top-cannabis-crusader |title=Setback for legal marijuana? Pot raid rattles top cannabis crusader. |publisher=CSMonitor.com |date=2012-04-06 |accessdate=2017-01-19}}</ref> Consequently, Dale Sky Jones took over the school as Executive Chancellor, and OU's practice of growing plants on site came to an end. School officials continued to teach classes.{{fact|date=July 2024}}

==Curriculum==
The university's [[curriculum]] covers all aspects of the medical marijuana industry, including [[horticulture]], business management, budtending, law, politics, history, civics, economics, manufacturing, extraction, advocacy, CBD, hemp, pain management, and more.<ref name=Berton>{{cite news|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/c/a/2008/04/21/MNR5107CP0.DTL|title=Marijuana 101: School teaches ins, outs of pot|first=Justin|last=Berton|date=April 21, 2008|accessdate=December 1, 2009|work=San Francisco Chronicle}}</ref>

The school has two main programs: live and self-paced.

Certificates are awarded upon completing classes, however the university has failed to receive accreditation due to the federal legality of marijuana.<ref>{{Cite web |title=List of Schedule 1 Drugs |url=https://www.drugs.com/article/csa-schedule-1.html |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=Drugs.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hess |first=Abigail Johnson |date=2019-10-03 |title=You can now go to school to train for cannabis jobs—but it may not be the best way to land a role |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2019/10/03/you-can-go-to-school-for-cannabis-jobs-but-it-may-not-be-necessary.html |access-date=2024-07-11 |website=CNBC |language=en}}</ref>

==Notable faculty==
* [[Ed Rosenthal]] – author of books on cannabis horticulture
* [[Richard Lee (activist)|Richard Lee]] – founder of Oaksterdam University, proponent of California's Proposition 19 (2010)
* [[Chris Conrad (Author)|Chris Conrad]] – author of Cannabis history and industrial hemp
*[[Paul Armentano]] — executive director of [[NORML]]
*[[Bruce Margolin]] — cannabis defense attorney
*[[Kyle Kushman]] — American author

==Opposition==
Opposition to the university has been shown by the [[Drug Enforcement Administration]], claiming in 2008 that the school "sends the wrong message in the country's fight against drugs and promotes criminal activity."<ref name=Ioffee>{{cite news|url=http://news.smh.com.au/world/marijuana-university-offers-higher-education-20080604-2lfx.html|title=Marijuana university offers 'higher' education|first=Karina|last=Ioffee|date=June 4, 2008|accessdate=December 1, 2009|work=[[The Sydney Morning Herald]]|publisher=[[Fairfax Media]]}}</ref> However, popular opinion has since shifted. More doctors including U.S. surgeon general [[Vivek Murthy]] claimed that marijuana can be helpful. Retired DEA Administrative Law Judge Francis L. Young stated, "The evidence in this record [9-6-88 ruling] clearly shows that marijuana has been accepted as capable of relieving the distress of great numbers of very ill people and doing so with safety under medical supervision. It would be unreasonable, arbitrary and capricious for DEA to continue to stand between those sufferers and the benefits of this substance in light of the evidence in this record."{{fact|date=July 2024}}

The ongoing legal risk to the university has also recently shifted in light of federal guidance released by the [[Cole Memorandum]] on August 29, 2013, which de-emphasized federal prosecutions of cannabis businesses in states which had legalized the drug for medical or other adult use.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Q&A: Legal Marijuana in Colorado and Washington |url=https://www.brookings.edu/articles/qa-legal-marijuana-in-colorado-and-washington/ |access-date=2024-07-02 |website=Brookings |language=en-US}}</ref>

Now, agencies turn to Oaksterdam University to help them create a taxable, regulated, and safe cannabis industry within their communities.{{fact|date=July 2024}} Oaksterdam University also provides technical assistance to the cities of Los Angeles, San Francisco, and Palm Springs.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://oaksterdamuniversity.com/equity/|title = Equity}}</ref>{{fact|date=July 2024}}

==In media==
Oaksterdam University has been featured in worldwide press articles as an organization on the forefront of the cannabis legalization movement and expert source on cannabis business, horticulture, science and medicine.

Oaksterdam is featured in the TV movie ''Going to Pot: The Highs and Lows of It''.

Oaksterdam University is the subject of the 2012 documentary ''California, 90420''.<ref>{{citation|title="California, 90420": The great marijuana hypocrisy–As a new documentary makes clear, social attitudes on pot are half-baked and even dangerous|author=Andrew O'Hehir |date=April 18, 2012|work=[[Salon (website)|Salon]]|url=http://www.salon.com/2012/04/18/california_90420_the_great_marijuana_hypocrisy/}}</ref><ref>{{citation|title=Film Review: California 90420 – Everything you ever wanted to know about marijuana, but were too buzzed, lethargic or just plain hungry to ask|date=April 18, 2012|work=[[Film Journal International]]|url=http://www.filmjournal.com/node/6654}}</ref>

Dale Sky Jones and Oaksterdam are featured in the 2017 documentary ''The Legend of 420.''

Oaksterdam University is the subject of the 2014 documentaries ''Legalize It'' and ''Let Timmy Smoke.''

Oaksterdam was featured in a 2014 episode of ''[[10 Things You Don't Know About]].''

Oaksterdam University was part of the 2013 video short ''Clippin' the Buds: Medical Marijuana and the Marijuana Pill''.

The 2010 TV movie documentary, ''Marijuana: A Chronic History,'' featured OU.<ref>{{citation|title=" oaklands-university ": Oakland's Oaksterdam University offers education in marijuana |author= Kevin O'Toole |date=Sep 17, 2016|work=[[Salon (website)|Salon]]|url=https://www.news10.com/news/oaklands-oaksterdam-university-offers-education-in-marijuana/}}</ref>
Oaksterdam is the primary focus of the 2023 documentary ''American Pot Story.''{{fact|date=July 2024}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite news|url=http://bayarea.blogs.nytimes.com/2009/10/28/the-legalization-chronicles-part-xxi/|title=Push to Legalize Marijuana Gains Ground in California|newspaper=The New York Times|date=October 27, 2009|last=McKinley|first=Jesse}}

==External links==
* {{Official website|http://www.oaksterdamuniversity.com}}
* [http://kron4.com/2016/09/15/video-oaklands-oaksterdam-university-offers-education-in-marijuana/ Oakland's Oaksterdam University offers education in marijuana] [[KRON-TV]] San Francisco, September 15, 2016

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Oaksterdam University| ]]
[[Category:Education in Oakland, California]]
[[Category:Universities and colleges in Alameda County, California]]
[[Category:Educational institutions established in 2007]]
[[Category:For-profit universities and colleges in the United States]]
[[Category:Medicinal use of cannabis organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Unaccredited institutions of higher learning in California]]
[[Category:Cannabis in California]]
[[Category:2007 in cannabis]]
[[Category:Private universities and colleges in California]]
[[Category:2007 establishments in California]]

Domestic sheep reproduction

2024-07-17T14:39:53Z

Coriander77:

{{short description|Reproduction of sheep}}
[[Image:First Lamb 2008 suckles.jpg|thumb|right|A cross-bred ewe suckles her lamb, which was the first of the 2008 spring lambing at a farm in Coventry, England]]

Domestic [[sheep]] reproduce [[Sexual reproduction|sexually]] like other mammals, and their reproductive strategy is very similar to other domestic [[herd]] animals. A flock of sheep is generally mated by a single ram, which has either been chosen by a farmer or has established dominance through physical contest with other rams (in [[feral]] populations).<ref name="living">{{cite book |title=Living with Sheep: Everything You Need to Know to Raise Your Own Flock |last=Wooster |first=Chuck |others=Geoff Hansen (Photography) |year=2005 |publisher=The Lyons Press |location=Guilford, Connecticut |isbn= 978-1-59228-531-0}}</ref> Most sheep have a breeding season (''tupping'') in the autumn, though some are able to breed year-round.<ref name="living"/>

Largely as a result of the influence of humans in sheep breeding, ewes often produce multiple lambs. This increase in lamb births, both in number and birth weight, may cause problems in delivery and lamb survival, requiring the intervention of shepherds.

==Sexual behavior==
Ewes generally reach sexual maturity at six to eight months of age, and rams generally at four to six (ram lambs have occasionally been known to impregnate their mothers at two months).<ref name="living"/> Sheep are seasonally polyoestrus animals.<ref>{{Cite book|title=New Techniques in Sheep Production|last=Marai|first=Ibrahim Fayez Mahmoud|publisher=Butterworths|year=1987|isbn=978-0-408-10134-9|pages=222}}</ref> Ewes enter into [[oestrus]] cycles about every 17 days, which last for approximately 30 hours.<ref name="living"/> In addition to emitting a scent, they indicate readiness through physical displays towards rams. The phenomenon of the [[freemartin]], a female bovine that is behaviorally masculine and lacks functioning [[ovaries]], is commonly associated with cattle, but does occur to some extent in sheep.<ref name="freemartin">{{cite journal |last=Padula |first=A.M. |year=2005 |title=The freemartin syndrome: an update |journal=Animal Reproduction Science |volume= 87|issue= 1/2 |pages=93–109 |doi=10.1016/j.anireprosci.2004.09.008 |pmid=15885443 }} {{Dead link|date=June 2010}}</ref> The instance of freemartins in sheep may be increasing in concert with the rise in twinning (freemartins are the result of male-female twin combinations).<ref name="freemartin"/> The [[Flehmen response]] is exhibited by rams when they smell the urine of a ewe in oestrous. The vomeronasal organ has receptors which detect the oestrogens in the ewe's urine.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Behaviour of Sheep|last=Lynch|first=J.J.|publisher=CSIRO Publications|year=1992|isbn=978-0643053298|location=Victoria|pages=105}}</ref> The ram displays this by extending his neck and curling his lip.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.animalbehaviour.net/for-kids/farm-animals/sheep/|title=SHEEP {{!}} Animal Behaviour|language=en-US|access-date=2019-03-28}}</ref>
[[File:Courting, Bighorn Sheep Style (22623154384).jpg|thumb|[[Bighorn sheep]] exhibiting the Flehmen response]]

===Rutting===
Without human intervention, rams may fight during the [[Rut (mammalian reproduction)|rut]] to determine which individuals may mate with ewes. Rams, especially unfamiliar ones, will also fight outside the breeding period to establish dominance; rams can kill one another if allowed to mix freely.<ref name="living"/> During the rut, even normally friendly rams may become aggressive towards humans, especially older females, due to increases in their hormone levels.<ref name="storey">{{cite book |title=Storey's Guide to Raising Sheep |last=Simmons |first=Paula |author2=Carol Ekarius |year=2001 |publisher=Storey Publishing LLC |location=North Adams, MA |isbn=978-1-58017-262-2 }}</ref>
[[Image:Pregnant ewe on Tortola.jpg|thumb|right|A pregnant [[St Croix sheep|St Croix]] ewe]]
Historically, especially aggressive rams were sometimes blindfolded or [[Hobble (device)|hobbled]].<ref name="begin">{{cite book |title= Beginning Shepherd's Manual, Second Edition|last=Smith M.S. |first=Barbara |author2=Mark Aseltine PhD|author3=Gerald Kennedy DVM |year=1997 |publisher=Iowa State University Press |location=Ames, Iowa |isbn=978-0-8138-2799-5 }}</ref> Today, those who keep rams typically prefer softer preventative measures, such as moving within a clear line to an exit, never turning their back on a ram, and possibly dousing with water or a diluted solution of bleach or vinegar to dissuade charges.<ref name="living"/><ref name="hobby">{{cite book |title=Sheep: small-scale sheep keeping for pleasure and profit |last=Weaver |first=Sue |year=2005 |publisher=Hobby Farm Press, an imprint of BowTie Press, a division of BowTie Inc. |location=3 Burroughs Irvine, CA 92618 |isbn=978-1-931993-49-4 }}</ref>

==Pregnancy==
Without [[ultrasound]] or other special tools, determining if a sheep is pregnant is difficult.<ref name="living"/><ref name="begin"/> Ewes only begin to visibly show a pregnancy about six weeks before giving birth, so shepherds often rely on the assumption that a ram will impregnate all the ewes in a flock.<ref name="living"/> However, by fitting a ram with a chest harness called a ''marking harness'' that holds a special [[crayon]] (or ''raddle'', sometimes spelled [[reddle]]), ewes that have been mounted are marked with a color. Dye may also be directly applied to the ram's [[brisket]]. This measure is not used in flocks where wool is important, since the color of a raddle contaminates it.{{Citation needed|date=September 2010}} The crayon in the marking harness can be changed during the breeding cycle to allow for lambing date predictions for each ewe.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.premier1supplies.com/sheep-guide/2012/10/breeding-tools-for-better-management/|title=Breeding tools for better management –|website=www.premier1supplies.com|date=10 October 2012 |access-date=2019-04-01}}</ref>

After [[mating]], sheep have a [[gestation]] period of around five months. Within a few days of the impending birth, ewes begin to behave differently. They may lie down and stand erratically, paw the ground, or otherwise act out of sync with normal flock patterns. An ewe's [[udder]] will quickly fill out, and her [[vulva]] will swell. [[pelvic organ prolapse|Vaginal]], [[uterine prolapse|uterine]] or [[anal prolapse]] may also occur, in which case either [[Surgical suture|stitching]] or a physical retainer can be used to hold the orifice in if the problem persists.<ref name="storey"/> Usually ewes that experience serious issues while lambing such as prolapse, will be discarded from the flock to avoid further complications in upcoming years.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sheep husbandry and diseases|last=Fraser|first=Allan|publisher=Collins|year=1987|isbn=978-0632026623|oclc=20416719}}</ref>

===Artificial insemination and embryo transfer===
In addition to natural insemination by rams, [[artificial insemination]] and [[embryo transfer]]s have been used in sheep breeding programs for many years in Australia and New Zealand.<ref>{{cite book |last= Cottle|first= D.J. |title= Australian Sheep and Wool Handbook|publisher= Inkata Press, Melbourne|year= 1991|isbn= 978-0-909605-60-5}}</ref> These programs became more commonplace in the United States during the 2000s as the number of veterinarians qualified to perform these types of procedures with proficiency have grown.<ref name=IETS>{{cite web|title=International Embryo Transfer Society|url=https://www.iets.org/|website=Iets.org/|access-date=19 October 2014}}</ref> However, ovine AI is a relatively complicated procedure compared to other livestock. Unlike cattle or goats, which have straight [[cervices]] that can be vaginally inseminated, ewes have a curved cervix that is more difficult to access. Additionally, until recently, breeders were unable to control their ewe's estrus cycles.<ref name="lai">{{cite web|url=http://toprams.com/lai.htm|title=Laparscopic Artificial Insemination: A Means to Improve Genetics|last=Dally |first=Martin Animal Science Department, [[University of California]] |work=toprams.com|access-date=2008-11-02}}</ref> The ability to control the estrus cycle is much easier today because of products that safely assist in aligning heat cycles. Some examples of products are PG600, CIDRs, Estrumate and Folltropin V. These products contain progesterone which will bring on the induction of estrus in ewes (sheep) during seasonal anestrus. Seasonal anestrus is when ewes do not have regular estrous cycles outside the natural breeding season.

Historically, vaginal insemination of sheep only produced 40-60% success rates, and was thus called a "shot in the dark" (SID). In the 1980s, Australian researchers developed a [[laparoscopic]] insemination procedure which, combined with the use of [[progestogen]] and pregnant [[mare]]'s [[Blood serum|serum]] [[gonadotropin]] ([[Equine chorionic gonadotropin|PMSG]]), yielded much higher success rates (50-80% or more), and has become the standard for artificial insemination of sheep in the 21st century.<ref name="lai"/>

Semen collection is an integral component of this process. Once semen has been collected it can be used immediately for insemination or slowly frozen for use at a later date. Fresh semen is recognized as the method of choice as it lives longer and yields higher conception rates. Frozen semen will work, but it must be the highest quality of semen and the ewes must be inseminated twice in the same day.<ref name=tad>{{cite web|title=Reproduction Specialty Group|url=http://Reprospecialty.com|access-date=19 October 2014}}</ref> The marketing of ram semen is a major part of this industry. Producers owning prize winning rams have found this to be a good avenue to leverage the accolades of their most famous animals.

Embryo transfer (ET) is a minor surgical procedure with almost no risk of injury or infection when performed properly; sheep laparoscopy allows the importation of improved genetics, even of breeds that may otherwise be non-existent in certain countries due to the regulation of live animal imports.<ref name="lai"/> ET procedures are used to allow producers to maximize those females that produce the best lambs/kids either for retention into the flock or for sale to other producers. ET also allows producers to continue to utilize a ewe/doe that may not physically be able to carry or feed a set of lambs. With ET, a flock can be grown quickly with above average individuals of similar bloodlines. The primary industry to utilize this technology in the United States is the club lamb breeders and exhibitors. It is a common practice in the commercial sheep industries of Australia, New Zealand, and South America.<ref name=AETA>{{cite web|title=American Embryo Transfer Association|url=http://Aeta.org|access-date=19 October 2014}}</ref>

Average success rates of ET in terms of embryos recovered can vary widely. Each breed will respond differently to the ET process. Typically, white faced ewes and does are more fertile than black faced ewes. A range of zero to the mid 20s in terms of viable embryos recovered from a flush procedure can be expected. Over the course of a year the average is 6.8 transferable eggs per donor with a 75% conception rate for those eggs.<ref name=tad/>

=== Infertility ===
Infertility can be attributed to many aspects in managerial practices as well as health factors. One of the main reasons low lambing percentages can be seen in a flock is due to mineral and vitamin deficiencies.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=Healthy sheep : naturally|first=Pat|last=Coleby|publisher=Landlinks Press|year=2000|isbn=978-0643065246|location=Victoria|pages=133|oclc=975196851}}</ref> The main vitamins and minerals that play a major role in fertility are selenium, copper, vitamin A and D.<ref name=":0" /> Other factors that affect fertility and potentially cause abortion are infectious diseases, inappropriate body condition or toxins in feed.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.agric.wa.gov.au/livestock-biosecurity/infertility-and-abortion-ewes|title=Infertility and abortion in ewes|website=www.agric.wa.gov.au|language=en|access-date=2019-04-01}}</ref>

==Lambing==
As the time for lambing approaches, the lamb will drop causing the ewe to have a swayback, exhibiting restless behaviour and show a sunken appearance in front of the hipbone area.<ref>{{Cite book|title=STOREY'S GUIDE TO RAISING SHEEP : breeding, care, facilities|first=PAULA|last=SIMMONS|date=2019|publisher=STOREY Books|isbn=978-1612129846|oclc=1041893745}}</ref> When birth is imminent, [[contraction (childbirth)|contractions]] begin to take place, and the fitful behavior of the ewe may increase. A normal labor may take one to several hours, depending on how many lambs are present, the age of the ewe, and her physical and nutritional condition prior to the birth.<ref name="living"/> Though some breeds may regularly produce larger litters of lambs (records stand around nine lambs at once), most produce either single or twin lambs.<ref name="storey"/><ref name="quints">{{cite news |title=Quintuplet birth takes sheep breeder by surprise |url=http://www.praguemonitor.com/en/258/czech_business/17581/ |work=Prague Daily Monitor |publisher=Czech News Agency |date=2008-01-24 |access-date=2008-01-25 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080129030117/http://www.praguemonitor.com/en/258/czech_business/17581/ |archive-date = January 29, 2008|url-status=dead}}</ref> The number of lambs a ewe produces per year is known as the lambing percentage.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Sheep Production and Management|last=Ross|first=C.V.|publisher=Prentice-Hall Incorporated|year=1989|isbn=978-0-13-808510-0|location=New Jersey|pages=123}}</ref> The condition of the ewe during breeding season will impact the lambing percentage as well as the size of the lambs.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Lamb Production|last=Prescott|first=J.H.D.|publisher=U.S. Feed Grains Council|year=1971|location=England|pages=12}}</ref> At some point, usually at the beginning of labor or soon after the births have occurred, ewes and lambs may be confined to small [[Glossary of sheep husbandry|lambing jugs]].<ref name="begin"/> These pens, which are generally two to eight feet (0.6 to 2.4 m) in length and width, are designed to aid both careful observation of ewes and to cement the bond between them and their lambs.<ref name="living"/><ref name="modern">{{cite book |title=The Modern Shepherd |last=Brown |first=Dave |author2=Sam Meadowcroft |year=1996 |publisher=Farming Press |location=Wharfedale Road, Ipswich 1P1 4LG, United Kingdom |isbn=978-0-85236-188-7 }}</ref> [[Image:Emerging lamb cropped.jpg|thumb|The second of twins being born on a New Zealand pasture]]

Ovine [[obstetric]]s can be problematic. By selectively breeding ewes that produce multiple offspring with higher birth weights for generations, sheep producers have inadvertently caused some domestic sheep to have difficulty lambing.<ref name="storey"/> However, it is a myth that sheep cannot lamb without human assistance; many ewes give birth directly in pasture without aid.<ref name="begin"/> Balancing ease of lambing with high productivity is one of the dilemmas of sheep breeding.<ref name="storey"/> While the majority of births are relatively normal and do not require intervention, many complications may arise. A lamb may present in the normal fashion (with both legs and head forward), but may be too large to slide out of the [[birth canal]]. This often happens when large rams are crossed with diminutive ewes (this is related to breed, rams are naturally larger than ewes by comparison).<ref name="begin"/> Lambs may also present themselves with one shoulder to the side, completely backward, or with only some of their limbs protruding.<ref name="living"/> Lambs may also be spontaneously [[miscarriage|aborted]] or [[stillbirth|stillborn]]. Reproductive failure is a common consequence of infections such as [[toxoplasmosis]] and [[foot-and-mouth disease]].<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Anderson ML, Barr BC, Conrad PA |title=Protozoal causes of reproductive failure in domestic ruminants |journal=Vet. Clin. North Am. Food Anim. Pract. |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=439–61 |year=1994 |pmid=7728629|doi=10.1016/S0749-0720(15)30531-4 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Musser JM |title=A practitioner's primer on foot-and-mouth disease |journal=J. Am. Vet. Med. Assoc. |volume=224 |issue=8 |pages=1261–1268 |year=2004 |pmid=15112774 |doi=10.2460/javma.2004.224.1261}}</ref> Some types of abortion in sheep are preventable by vaccinations against these infections.<ref>{{cite journal |author=García de la Fuente JN |title=Efficacy of different commercial and new inactivated vaccines against ovine enzootic abortion |journal=Vet. Microbiol. |volume=100 |issue=1–2 |pages=65–76 |year=2004 |pmid=15135514 |doi=10.1016/j.vetmic.2004.01.015 }}</ref>

In the case of any such problems, those present at lambing (who may or may not include a [[veterinarian]], most shepherds become accomplished at lambing to some degree) may assist the ewe in extracting or repositioning lambs.<ref name="living"/> In severe cases, a cesarean section will be required to remove the lamb.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jackson|first1=Peter|last2=Thorne|first2=Mike|date=2000-10-01|title=Caesarean section in the ewe |journal=In Practice|language=en|volume=22|issue=9|pages=546–553|doi=10.1136/inpract.22.9.546 |s2cid=72494500}}</ref> After the birth, ewes ideally break the [[amniotic sac]] (if it is not broken during labor), and begin licking to clean the lamb. The licking clears the nose and mouth, dries the lamb, and stimulates it.<ref name="living"/> Lambs that are breathing and healthy at this point begin trying to stand, and ideally do so between a half and full hour, with help from the mother.<ref name="living"/> Generally after lambs stand, the [[umbilical cord]] is trimmed to about an inch (2.5 centimeters). Once trimmed, a small container (such as a film canister) of [[iodine]] is held against the lamb's belly over the remainder of the cord to prevent infection.<ref name="begin"/>

==Postnatal care==
{{Further|Olfactory imprinting in sheep}}
[[File:Lamb - no docking.jpg|thumb|A lamb in Australia which, unusually, has not had its tail docked.]]
In normal situations, lambs nurse after standing, receiving vital [[colostrum]] milk. Lambs that either fail to nurse or are prevented from doing so by the ewe require aid in order to live. If coaxing the pair to accept nursing does not work, one of several steps may then be taken. Ewes may be held or tied to force them to accept a nursing lamb. If a lamb is not eating, a stomach tube may also be used to [[force feeding|force feed]] the lamb in order to save its life.<ref name="living"/> In the case of a permanently rejected lamb, a shepherd may then attempt to foster an orphaned lamb onto another ewe. Lambs are also sometimes fostered after the death of their mother, either from the birth or other event.

Scent plays a large factor in ewes recognizing their lambs, so disrupting the scent of a newborn lamb with washing or over-handling may cause a ewe to reject it.<ref name="living"/><ref name="storey"/><ref name="modern"/> Conversely, various methods of imparting the scent of a ewe's own lamb to an orphaned one may be useful in fostering. If an orphaned lamb cannot be fostered, then it usually becomes what is known as a bottle lamb—a lamb raised by people and fed via bottle.<ref name="living"/> [[Image:Mudchute farm sheep with lambs.jpg|thumb|right|An [[Oxford (sheep)|Oxford Down]] ewe and her twins in a lambing jug, note the iodine stains on the lambs]]

After lambs are stabilized, [[Glossary of sheep husbandry|lamb marking]] is carried out – this includes [[Glossary of sheep husbandry|ear tagging]], [[Docking (animal)|docking]], [[castration]] and usually [[vaccination]].<ref name="living"/> Ear tags with numbers are the primary mode of identification when sheep are not named; it is also the legal manner of animal identification in the [[European Union]]: the number may identify the individual sheep or only its flock. When performed at an early age, ear tagging seems to cause little or no discomfort to lambs.<ref name="living"/><ref name="storey"/> However, using tags improperly or using tags not designed for sheep may cause discomfort, largely due to excess weight of tags for other animals.<ref name="living"/>

Ram lambs not intended for breeding are castrated, though some shepherds choose to avoid the procedure for ethical, economic or practical reasons.<ref name="living"/> Ram lambs that will be slaughtered or separated from ewes before sexual maturity are not usually castrated.<ref name="modern"/> In most breeds, lambs' tails are docked for health reasons.<ref name="begin"/> The tail may be removed just below the lamb's [[Caudal (anatomical term)|caudal]] tail flaps (docking shorter than this may cause health problems such as [[rectal]] prolapse),<ref name="begin"/> but in some breeds the tail is left longer, or is not docked at all. Docking is not necessary in [[Northern European short-tailed sheep|short-tailed breeds]], and it is not usually done in breeds in which a long tail is valued, such as [[Zwartbles]].
Though docking is often considered cruel and unnatural by [[animal rights activist]]s, it is considered to be a critical step in maintaining the health of the sheep by sheep producers.<ref name="living"/><ref name="begin"/><ref name="hobby"/><ref name="modern"/> Long, wooly tails make shearing more difficult, interfere with mating, and make sheep extremely susceptible to parasites, especially those that cause flystrike.<ref name="living"/> Both castration and docking can be performed with several instruments. An [[elastrator]] places a tight band of rubber around an area, causing it to [[atrophy]] and fall off in a number of weeks. This process is bloodless and does not seem to cause extended suffering to lambs, who tend to ignore it after several hours.<ref name="living"/><ref name="storey"/><ref name="hobby"/><ref name="modern"/> In addition to the elastrator, a [[Burdizzo]], [[emasculator]], heated [[chisel]] or [[knife]] are sometimes used.<ref name="living"/> After one to three days in the lambing jugs, ewes and lambs are usually sufficiently stabilized to allow reintroduction to the rest of the flock.<ref name="storey"/>

==Commercial sheep breeding==
[[Image:Merino ewes & lambs-crop.JPG|thumb|Merino ewes and lambs in [[Walcha, New South Wales]]]]
In the large sheep producing nations of [[South America]], [[Australia]] and [[New Zealand]] sheep are usually bred on large tracts of land with much less intervention from the graziers or breeders. [[Merino]]s{{sentence fragment|date=August 2022}}, and much of the land in these countries does not lend itself to the mob intervention that is found in smaller flock breeding countries.<ref>{{cite encyclopedia
| title = Cunha, Ton J
| encyclopedia = World Book Encyclopaedia
| volume = 17
| pages = 309
| publisher = Field Enterprises
| location = USA
| year = 1977
| id = Sheep
}}
</ref>
In these countries there is little need, and no option but for ewes to lamb outdoors as there are insufficient structures to handle the large flocks of ewes there.<ref>{{cite web|title=Wake up call for Irish sheep farming|url=http://www.ifj.ie/2005/0521/farmmanagement/sheep/feature.shtml |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070630184513/http://www.ifj.ie/2005/0521/farmmanagement/sheep/feature.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=June 30, 2007 |access-date=October 19, 2008 }}</ref> New Zealand ewes produce 36 million lambs each spring time, which is an average of 2,250 lambs per farm.<ref>{{cite web|title=Performance-Based Selection|url=http://www.agritech.org.nz/sheep.shtml |access-date=October 19, 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014140026/http://www.agritech.org.nz/sheep.shtml |archive-date=October 14, 2008 }}</ref> Australian graziers, too, do not receive the financial support that governments in other countries provide to sheep breeders. Low-cost sheep breeding is based on large numbers of sheep per labour unit and having ewes that are capable of unsupervised lambing to produce hardy, active lambs.<ref>Beyond the Bale. AWI, Issue 36 October- November 2008</ref>

==Managerial aspects==
For breeders intent on strict improvements to their flocks, ewes are classed and inferior sheep are removed prior to mating in order to maintain or improve the quality of the flock.<ref name="D’Arcy">D’Arcy, J.B., Sheep Management & Wool Technology, NSW University Press, 1986, {{ISBN|0-86840-106-4}}</ref> Muffled (wooly) faces have long been associated with lower fertility rates.<ref name="L&GPA">Livestock & Grain Producers Association of NSW, Sheep Production Guide, Macarthur Press, Parramatta, 1978, {{ISBN|0-9599973-2-6}}</ref> [[Stud (animal)|Stud]] or specially selected rams are chosen with aid of objective measurements, genetic information and evaluation services that are now available in Australia and New Zealand.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Blair |first1=H. T. |last2=Garrick |first2=D. J. |title=Application of new technologies in sheep breeding |journal=New Zealand Journal of Agricultural Research |date=June 2007 |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=89–102 |id={{INIST|18908365}} |doi=10.1080/00288230709510285 |bibcode=2007NZJAR..50...89B |s2cid=85414333 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sheepcrc.org.au/index.php?id=269 |title=Australian Sheep CRC |website=Sheepcrc.org.au |access-date=2016-02-24}}</ref> The choice of mating time is governed by many factors including climate, market requirements and feed availability. Rams are typically mated at about 2.5% depending on the age of the sheep, plus consideration as to the size and type of mating paddocks.<ref name="L&GPA"/> The mating period ranges from about 6 to 8 weeks in commercial flocks. Longer mating times result in management problems with lamb marking and [[Sheep shearing|shearing]] etc.<ref name=" D’Arcy " />

[[File:Paridera Cueva del Río Piedra.jpg|thumb|A Middle age [[Paridera]] in a Natural Cave near to [[Monasterio de Piedra]].]]

Good nutrition is vital to ewes during the last 6 weeks of pregnancy in order to prevent pregnancy toxaemia, especially in twin bearing ewes. Overfeeding, however, may result in overly large single lambs and [[dystocia]]. Shearing ewes before lambing reduces the number of ewes that are cast (i.e., unable to rise unassisted), and the number of lambs and ewes that are lost. Lambs, too, are aided in finding the udder and suckling a shorn ewe.<ref name=" D’Arcy " /> In addition, shearing the ewe before lambing can increase the quality of the fleece as wool breaking can occur since giving birth is such a major stress on the ewe's body.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://shroedershearing.com/8-reasons-to-shear-before-lambing/|title=8 Reasons to Shear Before Lambing {{!}} Shroeder Shearing|website=shroedershearing.com|access-date=2019-04-01}}</ref> It is important to keep in mind weather conditions prior to shearing ewes, especially in colder climates.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ablamb.ca/images/documents/factsheets/Shearing-Your-Sheep.pdf|title=Shearing Your Sheep|last=Read|first=Lianne|date=2007|website=Alberta Lamb Producers|access-date=April 1, 2019}}</ref>

After shearing ewes are typically placed in well sheltered paddocks that have good feed and water. Attention to ewes that are lambing varies according to the breed, size and locations of properties. Unless they are stud ewes it unlikely that they will receive intensive care. On [[Station (Australian agriculture)|stations]] with large paddocks there is a policy of non-interference. On other properties the mobs are inspected by [[Stockman (Australia)|stockmen]] at varying intervals to stand cast ewes and deal with dystocia. Producers also sometimes drift pregnant ewes away from ewes that have already lambed, in order to prevent mis-mothering.<ref name="L&GPA"/><ref name=" D’Arcy " />

Lambs are usually marked at three to six weeks of age, but a protracted lambing season may necessitate two markings.<ref name=" D’Arcy " />

===Inbreeding depression===

[[Inbreeding]] tends to occur in flocks of limited size and where only a single or a few rams are used. Associated with inbreeding is a decline in progeny performance usually referred to as [[inbreeding depression]]. Inbreeding depression has been found for lamb birthweight, average daily weight gain from birth until two months, and litter size.<ref name="pmid17235016">{{cite journal |vauthors=Norberg E, Sørensen AC |title=Inbreeding trend and inbreeding depression in the Danish populations of Texel, Shropshire, and Oxford Down |journal=J. Anim. Sci. |volume=85 |issue=2 |pages=299–304 |year=2007 |pmid=17235016 |doi=10.2527/jas.2006-257 }}</ref> Inbreeding depression can cause diseases and deformities to arise in a flock.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Selvaggi |first1=M. |last2=Dario |first2=C. |last3=Peretti |first3=V. |last4=Ciotola |first4=F. |last5=Carnicella |first5=D. |last6=Dario |first6=M. |title=Inbreeding depression in Leccese sheep |journal=Small Ruminant Research |date=March 2010 |volume=89 |issue=1 |pages=42–46 |doi=10.1016/j.smallrumres.2009.12.005 }}</ref>

==Other countries==
In the major sheep countries of Argentina, Uruguay, Brazil, Peru and Chile, breeders are also utilizing fleece testing and performance recording schemes as a means of improving their flocks.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Cardellino |first1=Roberto C. |first2=Joaquín Pablo |last2=Mueller |title=Fiber production and sheep breeding in South America |journal=Proceedings of the Association for the Advancement of Animal Breeding and Genetics |volume=18 |year=2009 |pages=366–73 |url=http://www.aaabg.org/proceedings/2009/cardellino366.pdf |citeseerx=10.1.1.521.7891 }}</ref>

==New research==
In 2008, for the first time in history, researchers at Chiswick CSIRO research station, between [[Uralla, New South Wales|Uralla]] and [[Armidale, New South Wales]] used [[stem cell]]s to develop surrogate rams and bulls. These males then produce the viable semen of another male.

The approach in these sheep experiments involves irradiating a ram's testes while placing stem cells from a second ram into the testes of the first, ram A. In the following weeks ram A produces semen the usual way, but is using the stem cells of ram B and therefore producing semen carrying the genetics of ram B rather than those of his own. Ram A therefore has effectively become a surrogate ram.

The viable semen is then implanted in the ewe and the many lambs born through this process are proving to be normal and healthy. DNA tests have proved that up to 10% of the lambs are sired by the surrogate ram and the rest carry the genetics of the donor ram.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://nqr.farmonline.com.au/files/70/17/01/000011770/publish_to_web/index.html |title=Surrogate rams through stem cell research |website=Nqr.farmonline.com.au |access-date=2016-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303174206/http://nqr.farmonline.com.au/files/70/17/01/000011770/publish_to_web/index.html |archive-date=2016-03-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>The Land, “Stem cell revolution”, Marius Cuming, p.3, ''Rural Press'', Richmond, 13 November 2008</ref>

Another area of research that is growing in importance is the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions, mainly methane, from livestock. Ruminants are responsible for contributing the highest emissions out of all types of animals. Many researchers are conducting studies to determine how manipulating sheep diets may help reduce these dangerous emissions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Haque|first=Md Najmul|date=2018-06-18|title=Dietary manipulation: a sustainable way to mitigate methane emissions from ruminants |journal=Journal of Animal Science and Technology|volume=60|pages=15|doi=10.1186/s40781-018-0175-7 |pmc=6004689|pmid=29946475 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.sheep101.info/201/ramrepro.html Reproduction in the ram]
* [http://www.sheep101.info/201/ewerepro.html Reproduction in the ewe]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081222025525/http://www.dpi.nsw.gov.au/agriculture/livestock/sheep/management Sheep breeding and selection]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080728104359/http://www2.dpi.qld.gov.au/sheep/4989.html General ram management]

{{sheep navbox}}
{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Domestic Sheep Reproduction}}
[[Category:Sheep farming]]
[[Category:Reproduction in mammals]]
[[Category:Theriogenology]]

Customer relationship management

2024-06-27T20:25:50Z

Coriander77: copyediting

{{Short description|Process of managing interactions with customers}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2017}}

{{Business administration}}
'''Customer relationship management''' ('''CRM''') is a process in which a business or other organization administers its interactions with customers, typically using [[data analysis]] to study [[big data|large amounts of information]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Anshari |first1=Muhammad |last2=Almunawar |first2=Mohammad Nabil |last3=Lim |first3=Syamimi Ariff |last4=Al-Mudimigh |first4=Abdullah |date=2019-07-01 |title=Customer relationship management and big data enabled: Personalization & customization of services |journal=Applied Computing and Informatics |language=en |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=94–101 |doi=10.1016/j.aci.2018.05.004 |s2cid=67296369 |issn=2210-8327|doi-access=free }}</ref>

CRM systems [[data collection|compile data]] from a range of different [[communication channel]]s, including a company's [[website]], telephone (which many software come with a [[softphone]]), [[email]], [[live chat]], marketing materials and more recently, [[social media]].<ref>{{Cite book|title = Computer-Aided Marketing & Selling|last = Shaw|first = Robert|publisher = Butterworth Heinemann|year = 1991|isbn = 978-0-7506-1707-9|url-access = registration|url = https://archive.org/details/computeraidedmar0000shaw}}</ref> They allow businesses to learn more about their target audiences and how to better cater to their needs, thus [[customer retention|retaining customers]] and driving [[sales]] growth.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Management Tools – Customer Relationship Management – Bain & Company|url = http://www.bain.com/publications/articles/management-tools-customer-relationship-management.aspx|website = www.bain.com|access-date = 23 November 2015}}</ref> CRM may be used with past, present or potential customers. The concepts, procedures, and rules that a corporation follows when communicating with its consumers are referred to as CRM. This complete connection covers direct contact with customers, such as sales and service-related operations, forecasting, and the analysis of consumer patterns and behaviours, from the perspective of the company.<ref>{{Cite web|first1=Marshall|last1=Hargrave|title=Customer Relationship Management – CRM goes beyond just software|url=https://www.investopedia.com/terms/c/customer_relation_management.asp|access-date=2021-06-05|website=Investopedia|language=en}}</ref> According to [[Gartner]], the global CRM market size is estimated at $69 billion in 2020.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.statista.com/statistics/294537/customer-relationship-management-crm-software-revenue-worldwid | title=CRM software revenue worldwide 2010-2020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.gartner.com/en/documents/4001096 | title=Market Share: Customer Experience and Relationship Management, Worldwide, 2020 }}</ref>

The global customer relationship management market size is projected to grow from $101.41 billion in 2024 to $262.74 billion by 2032, at a CAGR of 12.6% <ref>{{Cite web |title=Customer Relationship Management [CRM] Market Size, 2032 |url=https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/customer-relationship-management-crm-market-103418 |access-date=2024-06-25 |website=www.fortunebusinessinsights.com |language=en}}</ref>

==History==
The concept of customer relationship management started in the early 1970s, when customer satisfaction was evaluated using annual surveys or by front-line asking.<ref>{{Cite web|title=CRM History: The Evolution Of Better Customer Service|url=https://www.streetdirectory.com/travel_guide/124130/enterprise_information_systems/crm_history_the_evolution_of_better_customer_service.html|website=www.streetdirectory.com|access-date=2020-05-24}}</ref> At that time, businesses had to rely on [[Mainframe computer|standalone mainframe systems]] to automate sales, but the extent of technology allowed them to categorize customers in [[spreadsheet]]s and lists. One of the best-known precursors of modern-day CRM is the [[Farley File]]. Developed by [[Franklin Roosevelt]]'s campaign manager, [[James Farley]], the Farley File was a comprehensive set of records detailing political and personal facts about people FDR and Farley met or were supposed to meet. Using it, people that FDR met were impressed by his "recall" of facts about their family and what they were doing professionally and politically.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Software survey: CRM systems in 2021|date=27 May 2021|url=https://www.accountingtoday.com/news/software-survey-crm-systems-in-2021|access-date = 2 June 2021}}</ref> In 1982, Kate and Robert D. Kestenbaum introduced the concept of [[database marketing]], namely applying statistical methods to analyze and gather customer data.{{citation needed|date=November 2018}} By 1986, [[Pat Sullivan (programmer)|Pat Sullivan]] and [[Mike Muhney]] had released a customer evaluation system called [[Act! CRM|ACT!]] based on the principle of a digital Rolodex, which offered a contact management service for the first time.

The trend was followed by numerous companies and independent developers trying to maximize lead potential, including [[Thomas Siebel|Tom Siebel]] of [[Siebel Systems]], who designed the first CRM product, [[Siebel Systems#Key dates|Siebel Customer Relationship Management]], in 1993.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nojitter.com/post/240172247/how-context-sits-at-intersection-of-crm-acd|title=How Context Sits at Intersection of CRM, ACD|access-date=8 June 2017}}</ref> In order to compete with these new and quickly growing stand-alone CRM solutions, established [[enterprise resource planning]] (ERP) [[software companies]] like [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]], [[Zoho Corporation]],<ref name="Mukherjee-2017">{{Cite web |last=Mukherjee |first=Sharmistha |date=2017-02-02 |title=How to build a global company from a small town: The Zoho story |url=https://techseen.com/2017/02/02/global-company-zoho-story/ |access-date=2022-05-17 |website=TECHSEEN |language=en-US}}</ref> [[SAP SE|SAP]],<ref>{{Cite web|title = SAP R/3 SD Wiki|url = https://wiki.scn.sap.com/wiki/display/ERPLO/ERP+SD|access-date = 7 January 2019}}</ref> [[PeopleSoft|Peoplesoft]] (an Oracle subsidiary as of 2005)<ref name="McMillan-2005">{{Cite web|date=2005-01-10|title=It's official: Oracle closes on PeopleSoft acquisition|url=https://www.computerworld.com/article/2568706/it-s-official--oracle-closes-on-peoplesoft-acquisition.html|access-date=2021-08-18|website=Computerworld|language=en}}</ref> and [[Microsoft Dynamics NAV|Navision]]<ref>{{Cite web|title = Navision 3.0|url = https://dynamicsuser.net/nav/w/history/131/navision-solutions-3-00|access-date = 7 January 2019|archive-date = 3 June 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210603095805/https://dynamicsuser.net/nav/w/history/131/navision-solutions-3-00|url-status = dead}}</ref> started extending their sales, distribution and customer service capabilities with [[List of embedded CRM systems|embedded CRM modules]]. This included embedding [[Sales force management system|sales force automation]] or extended customer service (e.g. inquiry, activity management) as CRM features in their ERP.

Customer relationship management was popularized in 1997 due to the work of Siebel, [[Gartner]], and [[IBM]]. Between 1997 and 2000, leading CRM products were enriched with shipping and marketing capabilities.<ref name="COMP">{{cite news|title=History of CRM Software|url=http://comparecamp.com/introduction-history-crm-software/|access-date=8 February 2017|publisher=comparecamp.com}}</ref> Siebel introduced the first mobile CRM app called Siebel Sales Handheld in 1999. The idea of a stand-alone, cloud-hosted customer base was soon adopted by other leading providers at the time, including [[PeopleSoft]] (acquired by Oracle),<ref name="McMillan-2005" /> [[Oracle CRM|Oracle]], [[SAP CRM|SAP]] and [[Salesforce.com]].<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NbnZwhUjlF0C|title=Customer Relationship Management: A Strategic Approach|first=Lakshman|last=Jha|access-date=8 June 2017|isbn=9788190721127|year=2008|publisher=Global India Publications }}</ref>

The first open-source CRM system was developed by [[SugarCRM]] in 2004. During this period, CRM was rapidly migrating to the cloud, as a result of which it became accessible to sole entrepreneurs and small teams. This increase in accessibility generated a huge wave of price reduction.<ref name="COMP"/> Around 2009, developers began considering the options to profit from social media's momentum and designed tools to help companies become accessible on all users' favourite networks. Many startups at the time benefited from this trend to provide exclusively [[social CRM]] solutions, including [[Base CRM|Base]] and [[Nutshell CRM|Nutshell]].<ref name="COMP"/> The same year, Gartner organized and held the first Customer Relationship Management Summit, and summarized the features systems should offer to be classified as CRM solutions.<ref>{{cite news|title=Gartner Announces Customer Relationship Management Summit 2009|url=http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/1114712|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140122085755/http://www.gartner.com/newsroom/id/1114712|url-status=dead|archive-date=22 January 2014|access-date=8 February 2017|publisher=gartner.com|date=5 August 2009}}</ref> In 2013 and 2014, most of the popular CRM products were linked to business intelligence systems and communication software to improve corporate communication and end-users' experience. The leading trend is to replace standardized CRM solutions with industry-specific ones, or to make them customizable enough to meet the needs of every business.<ref>{{cite news|title=Industry Specific/Vertical Market CRM Solutions|url=http://www.smallbizcrm.com/vertical-market-crm/|access-date=8 February 2017|publisher=smallbizcrm.com}}</ref> In November 2016, ''Forrester'' released a report where it "identified the nine most significant CRM suites from eight prominent vendors".<ref name=forrester-crm>{{Citation|date=21 November 2016 |title=The Forrester Wave: CRM Suites For Enterprise Organizations, Q4 2016 |publisher=[[Forrester Research|Forrester]] |url=https://www.forrester.com/report/The+Forrester+Wave+CRM+Suites+For+Enterprise+Organizations+Q4+2016/-/E-RES129311 |access-date=13 September 2017 }}</ref>

== Types ==
=== Strategic ===
Strategic CRM concentrates upon the development of a customer-centric business culture.<ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=slGhBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 | title=Customer Relationship Management: Concepts and Technologies| isbn=9781317654766| last1=Buttle| first1=Francis| last2=Maklan| first2=Stan| date=2015-02-11| publisher=Routledge}}</ref>

The focus of a business on being customer-centric (in design and implementation of their CRM strategy) will translate into an improved [[Customer lifetime value|CLV]].<ref>Feiz, Ghotbabadi, Khalifah, (2016-01) [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/301826901_Customer_Lifetime_Value_in_Organizations Customer Lifetime Value in Organisations]</ref>

=== Operational ===
The primary goal of CRM systems is integration and [[Business process automation|automation]] of sales, marketing, and customer support. Therefore, these systems typically have a dashboard that gives an overall view of the three functions on a [[single customer view]], a single page for each customer that a company may have. The dashboard may provide client information, past sales, previous marketing efforts, and more, summarizing all of the relationships between the customer and the firm. Operational CRM is made up of 3 main components: sales force automation, marketing automation, and service automation.<ref name="crmsoftware-2015">{{Cite web|title = Types of CRM and Examples {{!}} CRM Software|url = http://www.crmsoftware.com/types-of-crm-and-examples/|website = www.crmsoftware.com|access-date = 22 November 2015}}</ref>
* [[Sales force management system|Sales force automation]] works with all stages in the sales cycle, from initially entering contact information to converting a prospective client into an actual client.<ref name="WhatIs-2015">{{Cite web|title = What is sales force automation (SFA)? - Definition from WhatIs.com|url = http://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/sales-force-automation-SFA|website = WhatIs.com|access-date = 26 November 2015|language = en-US}}</ref> It implements [[sales promotion]] analysis, automates the tracking of a client's account history for repeated sales or future sales and coordinates sales, marketing, call centers, and retail outlets. It prevents duplicate efforts between a salesperson and a customer and also automatically tracks all contacts and follow-ups between both parties.<ref name="WhatIs-2015" /><ref>{{Cite book|title=Customer relationship management|last=Buttle|first=Francis|publisher=Routledge|year=2003|isbn=9781136412578|location=London}}</ref>
* [[Marketing automation]] focuses on easing the overall marketing process to make it more effective and efficient. CRM tools with marketing automation capabilities can automate repeated tasks, for example, sending out automated marketing emails at certain times to customers or posting marketing information on social media. The goal with marketing automation is to turn a sales lead into a full customer. CRM systems today also work on [[customer engagement]] through social media.<ref name="SearchCRM-2015">{{Cite web|title = What is customer relationship management (CRM) ? - Definition from WhatIs.com|url = http://searchcrm.techtarget.com/definition/CRM|website = SearchCRM|access-date = 22 November 2015|language = en-US}}</ref>
* Service automation is the part of the CRM system that focuses on direct customer service technology. Through service automation, customers are supported through multiple channels such as phone, email, [[knowledge base]]s, ticketing portals, FAQs, and more.<ref name="crmsoftware-2015"/>

=== Analytical ===
The role of analytical CRM systems is to analyze customer data collected through multiple sources and present it so that business managers can make more informed decisions.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Josiah |first1=Ahaiwe |last2=Ikenna |first2=Oluigbo |date=February 2015 |title=Role of Technology in Accounting and E-accounting |url=https://www.academia.edu/12111029 |journal=International Journal of Computer Science and Mobile Computing |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=208–215 |access-date=27 October 2018 }}</ref> Analytical CRM systems use techniques such as data mining, correlation, and [[pattern recognition]] to analyze customer data. These analytics help improve customer service by finding small problems which can be solved, perhaps by marketing to different parts of a consumer audience differently.<ref name="crmsoftware-2015"/> For example, through the analysis of a customer base's buying behavior, a company might see that this customer base has not been buying a lot of products recently. After reviewing their data, the company might think to market to this subset of consumers differently to best communicate how this company's products might benefit this group specifically.

=== Collaborative ===

The third primary aim of CRM systems is to incorporate external stakeholders such as suppliers, vendors, and distributors, and share customer information across groups/departments and organizations. For example, feedback can be collected from technical support calls, which could help provide direction for marketing products and services to that particular customer in the future.<ref name="Tavana-2013">{{Cite journal|title = Theoretical Models of Customer Relationship Management in Organizations|author1=Tavana, Ali Feizbakhsh. |author2=Fili, Saeed. |author3=Tohidy, Alireza. |author4=Vaghari, Reza. |author5= Kakouie, Saed. |name-list-style=amp|date = November 2013 |journal = International Journal of Business and Behavioral Sciences|volume=3|issue=11}}</ref>

===Customer data platform===
{{main|Customer data platform}}
A [[customer data platform]] (CDP) is a computer system used by marketing departments that assembles data about individual people from various sources into one database, with which other software systems can interact.<ref name=ZDnet/> As of February 2017, there were about twenty companies selling such systems and revenue for them was around US$300 million.<ref name=ZDnet>{{Cite news|url=http://www.zdnet.com/article/introduction-to-customer-data-platforms/|title=How customer data platforms can benefit your business|last=Greenberg|first=Paul|work=ZDNet|date=13 February 2017|language=en}}</ref>

== Components ==
[[File:CRMTypesComponents2.png|thumb|762px|Components in the different types of CRM<ref name="Tavana-2013"/>]]The main components of CRM are building and managing customer relationships through marketing, observing relationships as they mature through distinct phases, managing these relationships at each stage and recognizing that the distribution of the value of a relationship to the firm is not homogeneous. When building and managing customer relationships through marketing, firms might benefit from using a variety of tools to help organizational design, incentive schemes, customer structures, and more to optimize the reach of their marketing campaigns. Through the acknowledgment of the distinct phases of CRM, businesses will be able to benefit from seeing the interaction of multiple relationships as connected transactions. The final factor of CRM highlights the importance of CRM through accounting for the profitability of customer relationships. Through studying the particular spending habits of customers, a firm may be able to dedicate different resources and amounts of attention to different types of consumers.<ref name="Reinartz-2004">{{Cite journal|title = The Customer Relationship Management Process: Its Measurement and Impact on Performance|last1=Reinartz |first1=Werner |last2=Krafft |first2=Manfred |last3=Hoyer |first3=Wayne D. |date = August 2004|journal = Journal of Marketing Research|doi = 10.1509/jmkr.41.3.293.35991|volume = 41 |issue = 3 |pages = 293–305|s2cid = 167683988}}</ref>

Relational Intelligence, which is the awareness of the variety of relationships a customer can have with a firm and the ability of the firm to reinforce or change those connections, is an important component to the main phases of CRM. Companies may be good at capturing [[demographic data]], such as gender, age, income, and education, and connecting them with purchasing information to categorize customers into [[profitability]] tiers, but this is only a firm's industrial view of customer relationships.<ref name="Brown-2015">{{Cite web|title = What's Your Relational Intelligence?|url = http://www.strategy-business.com/article/15103?gko=5de4a|website = strategy+business|access-date = 23 November 2015}}</ref> A lack in relational intelligence is a sign that firms still see customers as resources that can be used for [[up-selling|up-sell]] or [[cross-sell]] opportunities, rather than people looking for interesting and personalized interactions.<ref name="Avery-2014a">{{Cite journal|title = Unlock the Mysteries of Your Customer Relationships|url = https://hbr.org/2014/07/unlock-the-mysteries-of-your-customer-relationships|journal = Harvard Business Review| date=July 2014 |access-date = 22 November 2015| last1=Avery | first1=Jill | last2=Fournier | first2=Susan | last3=Wittenbraker | first3=John }}</ref>

CRM systems include:

* [[Data warehouse]] technology, which is used to aggregate transaction information, to merge the information with CRM products, and to provide key performance indicators.
* [[Opportunity management]], which helps the company to manage unpredictable growth and demand and implement a good forecasting model to integrate sales history with sales projections.<ref name="Zeng-2003">{{Cite journal|title = Customer relationship management (CRM) in business-to-business (B2B) e-commercenull|journal = Information Management & Computer Security|date = 1 March 2003|issn = 0968-5227|pages = 39–44|volume = 11|issue = 1|doi = 10.1108/09685220310463722|last1 = Zeng|first1 = Yun E|last2 = Wen|first2 = H. Joseph|last3 = Yen|first3 = David C}}</ref>
* CRM systems that track and measure marketing campaigns over multiple networks, tracking customer analysis by customer clicks and sales.
* Some CRM software is available as a [[software as a service]] (SaaS), delivered via the internet and accessed via a web browser instead of being installed on a local computer. Businesses using the software do not purchase it but typically pay a recurring subscription fee to the software vendor.<ref name="crmsoftware-2015" />
* For small businesses, a CRM system may consist of a contact management system that integrates emails, documents, jobs, faxes, and scheduling for individual accounts. CRM systems available for specific markets (legal, finance) frequently focus on event management and relationship tracking as opposed to financial [[return on investment]] (ROI).
* CRM systems for [[eCommerce]] focus on marketing automation tasks such as cart rescue, re-engaging users with email, and personalization.
* Customer-centric relationship management (CCRM) is a nascent sub-discipline that focuses on customer preferences instead of customer leverage. CCRM aims to add value by engaging customers in individual, interactive relationships.<ref name="Reinartz-2004" />
* Systems for non-profit and membership-based organizations help track constituents, fundraising, sponsors' demographics, membership levels, membership directories, volunteering and communication with individuals.
* CRM not only indicates technology and strategy but also indicates an integrated approach that includes employees knowledge and organizational culture to embrace the CRM philosophy.

==Effect on customer satisfaction==
[[Customer satisfaction]] has important implications for the economic performance of firms because it has the ability to increase customer loyalty and usage behavior and reduce customer complaints and the likelihood of customer defection.<ref>Bolton, Ruth N. (1998), "A Dynamic Model of the Duration of the Customer's Relationship with a Continuous Service Provider: The Role of Satisfaction," Marketing Science, 17 (1), 45–65.</ref><ref>Fornell, Claes (1992), "A National Customer Satisfaction Barometer: The Swedish Experience", Journal of Marketing, 56 (January), 6-22</ref> The implementation of a CRM approach is likely to affect customer satisfaction and customer knowledge for a variety of different reasons.

Firstly, firms can customize their offerings for each customer.<ref name="Mithas-2005">{{Cite journal|title = Why Do Customer Relationship Management Applications Affect Customer Satisfaction?|author1=Mithas, Sunil. |author2=Krishnan, M.S. |author3= Fornell, Claes |name-list-style=amp |date = October 2005|journal = Journal of Marketing|volume=69|issue=4|pages=201–209|doi = 10.1509/jmkg.2005.69.4.201 |s2cid = 4650003|doi-access=free}}</ref> By accumulating information across customer interactions and processing this information to discover hidden patterns, CRM applications help firms customize their offerings to suit the individual tastes of their customers.<ref name="Mithas-2005" /> This customization enhances the perceived quality of products and services from a customer's viewpoint, and because the perceived quality is a determinant of customer satisfaction, it follows that CRM applications indirectly affect customer satisfaction. CRM applications also enable firms to provide timely, accurate processing of customer orders and requests and the ongoing management of customer accounts.<ref name="Mithas-2005" /> For example, Piccoli and Applegate discuss how Wyndham uses IT tools to deliver a consistent service [[customer experience|experience]] across its various properties to a customer. Both an improved ability to customize and reduced variability of the consumption experience enhance perceived quality, which in turn positively affects customer satisfaction.<ref>Piccoli, Gabriele and L. Applegate (2003), "Wyndham International: Fostering High-Touch with High-Tech", Case Study No. 9-803-092, Harvard Business School</ref> CRM applications also help firms manage customer relationships more effectively across the stages of relationship initiation, maintenance, and termination.<ref>Piccoli, Gabriele and L. Applegate (2003), "Wyndham International: Fostering High-Touch with High-Tech", Case Study No. 9-803-092, Harvard Business School.</ref>

=== Customer benefits ===
With CRM systems, customers are served on the day-to-day process. With more reliable information, their demand for [[self-service]] from companies will decrease. If there is less need to interact with the company for different problems, then the [[customer satisfaction]] level is expected to increase.<ref>Business Strategy; 1999.22. Leach, B., Success of CRM systems hinges on the establishment of measurable benefits. Pulp & Paper 2003. 77(6): p. 48</ref> These central benefits of CRM will be connected hypothetically to the three kinds of equity, which are relationship, value, and brand, and in the end to [[customer equity]]. Eight benefits were recognized to provide value drivers.<ref>Richards, A. Keith, and E. Jones, Customer relationship management: Finding value drivers. Industrial Marketing Management, 2008. 37(2): p.120-130.</ref>
# Enhanced ability to [[:wikt:targeting|target]] profitable customers.
# Integrated assistance across channels.
# Enhanced [[sales|sales force]] efficiency and effectiveness.
# Improved [[pricing]].
# Customized products and services.
# Improved customer service efficiency and effectiveness.
# Individualized marketing messages are also called campaigns.
# Connect customers and all channels on a single platform. 
In 2012, after a review of previous studies, one article summarized some of the most significant benefits to customer satisfaction as follows:<ref>Mohammadhossein, N., & Zakaria, N. H. (2012). Customer relationship management Benefits for Customers: Literature Review (2005-2012).</ref>

# Improve customer service: In general, customers have questions, concerns, or requests. CRM services provide companies the ability to produce, allocate, and manage requests or other tasks generated by customers. For example, [[call centre]] software, which helps to connect a customer to the manager or person who can best assist them with their existing problem, is one of the CRM abilities that can be implemented to increase efficiency.<ref>Bolte, T. Still Struggling to Reduce Call Center Costs Without Losing Customers? 2007.</ref>
# Increase personalized service or one-to-one service: [[Personalization|Personalizing]] customer service or one-to-one service provides companies to improve understanding and gaining knowledge of the customers and also to have better knowledge about their customers' preferences, requirements and demands.
# Improve responsiveness to customer's needs: Customers' situations and needs can be better understood by firms focusing on customer needs and requirements.<ref>Silverman, L.L., CUSTOMERS: RESPONSIVENESS, FOCUS, OR OBSESSION? The Australasian Powder Coater Painter-Fabricator, 2000. 29(2).</ref>
# Better customer segmentation: In CRM, [[Market segmentation|segmentation]] is used to [[categorize]] customers according to some similarity, such as industry, job or some other characteristics, into similar groups.<ref>Collica, R.S., CRM Segmentation and Clustering Using SAS Enterprise Miner.2007.</ref> However, these characteristics can be one or more attributes. Segmentation can be defined as a subdividing customers based on an already known good discriminator.
# Improve marketing customization: Marketing customization allows a firm or organization to adapt and change its services or products based on presenting a different and unique product or service for each customer. To ensure that customer needs and requirements are met, customization can be used by the organization. Companies can put investment in information from customers and then customize their products or services to maintain customer interests.
# Offers multichannel integration: [[Multichannel marketing|Multichannel]] integration illustrates the point of co-creation of customer value in CRM. However, a company's skill to perform multichannel integration successfully is heavily dependent on the organization's ability to collect customer information from all channels and incorporate it with other related information.<ref>Adrian Payne, P.F., A Strategic Framework for Customer Relationship Management. Journal of Marketing, 2005.69.</ref>
# Time savings: CRM systems let companies interact with customers more frequently using personalized messaging and communication that can be produced rapidly and matched on a timely basis. This allows for companies to better understand their customers and therefore forecast their needs.<ref>Corie. The Top 5 Time-Saving Benefits of CRM. 2011.</ref>
# Improve customer knowledge: Firms can make and improve products and services through the information obtained from tracking [[customer behaviour]] (e.g., via [[website tracking]]) to suit customer tastes and needs.<ref>Nambisan, S., Designing Virtual Customer Environment for New Product Development: Toward a Theory. Academy of Management Review, 2002. 27(3).</ref> CRM could contribute to a competitive advantage in improving a firm's ability to collect customer information to customize products and services according to customer needs.

=== Examples ===
Research has found a 5% increase in [[customer retention]] boosts lifetime customer{{what|date=March 2024}} [[Profit (economics)|profit]]s by 50% on average across multiple industries, as well as a boost of up to 90% within specific industries such as [[insurance industry|insurance]].<ref name="Gillies-2002">{{Cite web|title = The story behind successful CRM - Bain & Company|url = http://www.bain.com/publications/articles/the-story-behind-successful-crm.aspx|website = www.bain.com| date=June 2002 |access-date = 23 November 2015}}</ref> Companies that have mastered customer relationship strategies have the most successful CRM programs. For example, [[MBNA]] Europe has had a 75% annual profit growth since 1995. The firm heavily invests in screening potential cardholders. Once proper clients are identified, the firm retains 97% of its profitable customers. They implement CRM by marketing the right products to the right customers. The firm's customers' card usage is 52% above the industry norm, and the average expenditure is 30% more per transaction. Also 10% of their account holders ask for more information on cross-sale products.<ref name="Gillies-2002" />

[[Amazon.com|Amazon]] has also seen successes through its [[customer proposition]]. The firm implemented personal greetings, [[collaborative filtering]], and more for the customer. They also used CRM training for the employees to see up to 80% of customers repeat.<ref name="Gillies-2002" />

==Customer profile==
{{see|Consumer behaviour|Biology and consumer behaviour|Buying decision}}
A customer profile is a detailed description of any particular classification of customer which is created to represent the typical users of a product or service. Customer profiling is a method to understand your customers in terms of demographics, behaviour and lifestyle. It is used to help make customer-focused decisions without confusing the scope of the project with personal opinion. Overall profiling is gathering information that sums up [[consumption (economics)|consumption]] habits so far and [[extrapolation|projects them into the future]] so that they can be grouped for marketing and [[advertising]] purposes.<ref>{{cite web | last=DeVault | first=Gigi | title=Wondering How to Create the Ideal Consumer Profile? Learn the Basics | website=The Balance Small Business | date=2012-03-28 | url=https://www.thebalancesmb.com/consumer-profile-defining-the-ideal-customer-2296932 | access-date=2018-08-15}}</ref>
Customer or consumer profiles are the essences of the [[customer data|data]] that is collected alongside core data (name, address, company) and processed through [[customer analytics]] methods, essentially a type of [[profiling (information science)|profiling]].
The three basic methods of customer profiling are the psychographic approach, the consumer typology approach, and the consumer characteristics approach. These customer profiling methods help you design your business around who your customers are and help you make better customer-centered decisions.

== Improving CRM ==
Consultants hold that it is important for companies to establish strong CRM systems to improve their relational intelligence.<ref>{{Cite web|title = A Dozen Simple Ways to Improve Customer Relations - Enterprise Apps Today|url = http://www.enterpriseappstoday.com/crm/ways-to-improve-customer-relations-1.html|website = www.enterpriseappstoday.com| date=27 July 2011 |access-date = 23 November 2015}}</ref> According to this argument, a company must recognize that people have many different types of relationships with different brands. One research study analyzed relationships between consumers in China, Germany, Spain, and the United States, with over 200 brands in 11 industries including airlines, cars, and media. This information is valuable as it provides demographic, behavioral, and value-based customer segmentation. These types of relationships can be both positive and negative. Some customers view themselves as friends of the brands, while others as enemies, and some are mixed with a love-hate relationship with the brand. Some relationships are distant, intimate, or anything in between.<ref name="Avery-2014a"/>

=== Data analysis ===
Managers must understand the different reasons for the types of relationships, and provide the customer with what they are looking for. Companies can [[data collection|collect]] this information by using [[survey (human research)|surveys]], interviews, and more, with current customers.
Companies must also improve the relational intelligence of their CRM systems. Companies store and receive huge amounts of data through [[email]]s, [[online chat]] sessions, phone calls, and more.<ref>{{Cite web|title = A CRM success story|url = http://www.computerworld.com/article/2578532/crm/a-crm-success-story.html|website = Computerworld| date=7 November 2002 |access-date = 23 November 2015}}</ref> Many companies do not properly make use of this great amount of data, however. All of these are signs of what types of relationships the customer wants with the firm, and therefore companies may consider investing more time and effort in building out their relational intelligence.<ref name="Brown-2015"/> Companies can use [[data mining]] technologies and [[web search]]es to understand relational signals. [[Social media]] such as social networking sites, [[blog]]s, and forums can also be used to collect and analyze information. Understanding the customer and capturing this data allows companies to convert customers' signals into information and knowledge that the firm can use to understand a potential customer's desired relations with a brand.<ref name="Avery-2014">Avery, Jill. (2014). "Unlock the Mysteries of Your Customer Relationships", Harvard Business Review. August 2014. https://hbr.org/2014/07/unlock-the-mysteries-of-your-customer-relationships Retrieved: 20 November 2015</ref>

=== Employee training ===
Many firms have also implemented training programs to [[Employee training|teach employees]] how to recognize and create strong customer-brand relationships. Other employees have also been trained in [[social psychology]] and the [[social science]]s to help bolster customer relationships. [[Customer service]] representatives must be trained to value customer relationships and trained to understand existing customer profiles. Even the finance and legal departments should understand how to manage and build relationships with customers.<ref>{{Cite web|title = 9 Ways to Improve Your Company's CRM System|url = http://www.cio.com/article/2376209/enterprise-software/9-ways-to-improve-your-company-s-crm-system.html|website = CIO|access-date = 23 November 2015}}</ref>

==In practice==
===Call centers===
[[Call centre|Contact centre]] CRM providers are popular for small and mid-market businesses. These systems codify the interactions between the company and customers by using analytics and [[key performance indicator]]s to give the users information on where to focus their marketing and customer service. This allows agents to have access to a caller's history to provide personalized customer communication. The intention is to maximize [[average revenue per user]], decrease [[churn rate]] and decrease idle and unproductive contact with the customers.<ref name=sap1>SAP Insider (15 November 2007) [http://www.sdn.sap.com/irj/scn/go/portal/prtroot/docs/library/uuid/e044e180-8375-2a10-a2b2-b5709ea68ccb Still Struggling to Reduce Call Center Costs Without Losing Customers?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120116092748/http://www.sdn.sap.com/irj/scn/go/portal/prtroot/docs/library/uuid/e044e180-8375-2a10-a2b2-b5709ea68ccb |date=16 January 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.genesys.com/definitions/what-is-contact-center-crm| title=What Is Contact Center CRM?| author=Genesys}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.networkworld.com/article/3176118/software/the-contact-center-and-crm-collision-leads-to-a-new-dominant-species.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170302235025/http://www.networkworld.com/article/3176118/software/the-contact-center-and-crm-collision-leads-to-a-new-dominant-species.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=2 March 2017| title=The contact center and CRM collision leads to a new dominant species| work=Network World| date=2 March 2017}}</ref>

Growing in popularity is the idea of gamifying, or using game design elements and game principles in a non-game environment such as customer service environments. The gamification of customer service environments includes providing elements found in games like rewards and bonus points to customer service representatives as a method of feedback for a job well done.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Gamification Comes to the Contact Center|url = http://www.destinationcrm.com/Articles/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleID=93677|website = CRM Magazine|access-date = 26 November 2015}}</ref>
[[Gamification]] tools can motivate agents by tapping into their desire for rewards, recognition, achievements, and competition.<ref>{{Cite web|title = CRM in Customer Service|url = http://www.destinationcrm.com/Articles/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleID=99909|website = CRM Magazine|access-date = 22 November 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150923214157/http://www.destinationcrm.com/Articles/ReadArticle.aspx?ArticleID=99909|archive-date = 23 September 2015|url-status = dead}}</ref>

===Contact-center automation===
Contact-center [[automation]], CCA, the practice of having an integrated system that coordinates contacts between an organization and the public, is designed to reduce the repetitive and tedious parts of a contact center agent's job. Automation prevents this by having pre-recorded audio messages that help customers solve their problems. For example, an automated contact center may be able to re-route a customer through a series of commands asking him or her to select a certain number to speak with a particular contact center agent who specializes in the field in which the customer has a question.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Contact center automation takes flight|url = http://searchcrm.techtarget.com/tip/Contact-center-automation-takes-flight|website = SearchCRM|access-date = 26 November 2015|language = en-US|archive-date = 21 August 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180821031646/https://searchcrm.techtarget.com/tip/Contact-center-automation-takes-flight|url-status = dead}}</ref> Software tools can also integrate with the agent's desktop tools to handle customer questions and requests. This also saves time on behalf of the employees.<ref name="SearchCRM-2015"/>

=== Social media ===
[[Social CRM]] involves the use of social media and technology to engage and learn from consumers.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Setting the future of digital and social media marketing research: Perspectives and research propositions |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0268401220308082 |journal=International Journal of Information Management |access-date=25 June 2023 |date=August 2021|doi=10.1016/j.ijinfomgt.2020.102168 |last1=Dwivedi |first1=Yogesh K. |last2=Ismagilova |first2=Elvira |last3=Hughes |first3=D. Laurie |last4=Carlson |first4=Jamie |last5=Filieri |first5=Raffaele |last6=Jacobson |first6=Jenna |last7=Jain |first7=Varsha |last8=Karjaluoto |first8=Heikki |last9=Kefi |first9=Hajer |last10=Krishen |first10=Anjala S. |last11=Kumar |first11=Vikram |last12=Rahman |first12=Mohammad M. |last13=Raman |first13=Ramakrishnan |last14=Rauschnabel |first14=Philipp A. |last15=Rowley |first15=Jennifer |last16=Salo |first16=Jari |last17=Tran |first17=Gina A. |last18=Wang |first18=Yichuan |volume=59 |hdl=10454/18041 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Because the public, especially young people, are increasingly using social networking sites, companies use<ref name="Avery-2014a"/> these sites to draw attention to their products, services and brands, with the aim of building up customer relationships to increase demand. With the increase in the use of social media platforms, integrating CRM with the help of social media can potentially be a quicker and more cost-friendly process.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Roberts-Phelps|first=Graham|title=Customer Relationship Management: How to Turn a Good Business Into a Great One!|publisher=Thorogood|year=2001|isbn=978-1854181190|pages=140}}</ref>

Some CRM systems integrate social media sites like Twitter, LinkedIn, and Facebook to track and communicate with customers. These customers also share their own opinions and experiences with a company's products and services, giving these firms more insight. Therefore, these firms can both share their own opinions and also track the opinions of their customers.<ref name="Tavana-2013"/>

Enterprise feedback management software platforms combine internal survey data with trends identified through social media to allow businesses to make more accurate decisions on which products to supply.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = Customer relationship management from theory to practice: Implementation steps|last = Prasongsukarn|first = Kriengsin|date = 2006|journal = Inspire Research Company}}</ref>

=== Location-based services ===
CRM systems can also include technologies that create geographic marketing campaigns. The systems take in information based on a customer's physical location and sometimes integrates it with popular [[location-based services|location-based]] GPS applications. It can be used for networking or contact management as well to help increase sales based on location.<ref name="SearchCRM-2015" />

===Business-to-business transactions===
Despite the general notion that CRM systems were created for customer-centric businesses, they can also be applied to B2B environments to streamline and improve customer management conditions. For the best level of CRM operation in a B2B environment, the software must be personalized and delivered at individual levels.<ref name=Henderson>Rebekah Henderson, ''B2B Insights'' (2013) [http://www.b2binsights.com/how-to-build-a-b2b-friendly-crm/ How to build a B2B-friendly CRM] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171228232740/http://b2binsights.com/how-to-build-a-b2b-friendly-crm/ |date=28 December 2017 }}</ref>

The main differences between business-to-consumer (B2C) and [[business-to-business]] CRM systems concern aspects like sizing of contact databases and length of relationships.<ref>{{Cite web|title = B2B Marketing: What Makes It Special? {{!}} B2B International|url = https://www.b2binternational.com/publications/b2b-marketing/|website = B2B International|access-date = 22 November 2015|language = en-US}}</ref>

==Market trends==

=== Social networking ===
In the Gartner CRM Summit 2010 challenges like "system tries to capture data from social networking traffic like Twitter, handles Facebook page addresses or other online social networking sites" were discussed and solutions were provided that would help in bringing more clientele.<ref>[http://www.hcltech.com/sites/default/files/CRM_Trends_Insurance.pdf CRM Trends in Insurance Industry] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210717210736/https://www.hcltech.com/sites/default/files/CRM_Trends_Insurance.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141210081118/http://www.hcltech.com/sites/default/files/CRM_Trends_Insurance.pdf |archive-date=2014-12-10 |url-status=live |date=17 July 2021 }}''CRM Trends in Insurance Industry'': April 2010</ref>

The era of the "social customer" refers to the use of social media by customers.<ref>{{cite book|last=Greenberg|first=Paul|title=CRM at the Speed of Light|publisher=McGraw Hill|year=2009|edition=4th|page=7}}</ref>

=== Mobile ===
Some CRM systems are equipped with mobile capabilities, making information accessible to remote sales staff.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-08-23 |title=Closing More Deals With NoCRM.io's Improved Mobile App |url=https://crm.org/news/closing-more-deals-with-nocrmios-improved-mobile-app |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=CRM.org |language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Salesforce Platform |url=https://www.salesforce.com/eu/campaign/sem/platform/ |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=Salesforce.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-12-19 |title=What Is Mobile CRM? Definition, Features & Best Apps |url=https://crm.org/crmland/mobile-crm |access-date=2022-06-29 |website=CRM.org |language=en-us}}</ref>

=== Cloud computing and SaaS ===
Many CRM vendors offer subscription-based web tools ([[cloud computing]]) and [[Software as a service|SaaS]]. [[Salesforce.com]] was the first company to provide enterprise applications through a web browser, and has maintained its leadership position.<ref>[https://www.pcworld.com/article/193463/put_cloud_crm_to_work.html Put Cloud CRM to Work] ''PC World'': April 2010</ref>

Traditional providers moved into the cloud-based market via acquisitions of smaller providers: [[Oracle Corporation|Oracle]] purchased [[RightNow]] in October 2011,<ref>[https://techcrunch.com/2011/10/24/oracle-buys-cloud-based-customer-service-company-rightnow-for-1-5-billion/ Oracle Buys Cloud-based Customer Service Company RightNow For $1.5 Billion] ''Techcrunch'': 24 October 2011</ref> and [[Taleo]]<ref>{{Cite web|date=2012-02-09|title=News Analysis: The Implications Of Oracle's Acquisition Of Taleo|url=https://enterpriseirregulars.com/45817/news-analysis-the-implications-of-oracles-acquisition-of-taleo/|access-date=2021-08-04|website=Enterprise Irregulars|language=en-US}}</ref> and Eloqua<ref>{{Cite news|date=2012-12-20|title=Oracle to Buy Eloqua in $810 Million Deal|language=en-US|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|url=https://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887323777204578191171409150846.html|access-date=2021-08-04|issn=0099-9660}}</ref> in 2012; [[SAP AG|SAP]] acquired [[SuccessFactors]] in December 2011<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120106051646/http://www.businessweek.com/news/2011-12-07/sap-challenges-oracle-with-3-4-billion-successfactors-purchase.html SAP Challenges Oracle With $3.4 Billion SuccessFactors Purchase] ''Bloomberg Businessweek'': 7 December 2011</ref> and [[NetSuite]] acquired Verenia in 2022.<ref>{{Cite web |title=NetSuite acquires most of Verenia, the CPQ and CRM vendor |url=https://www.enterprisetimes.co.uk/2022/01/10/netsuite-acquires-most-of-verenia-the-cpq-and-crm-vendor/ |website=enterprise times}}</ref>

=== Sales and sales force automation ===
Sales forces also play an important role in CRM, as maximizing [[Sales Effectiveness|sales effectiveness]] and increasing sales [[productivity]] is a driving force behind the adoption of CRM software. Some of the top CRM trends identified in 2021 include focusing on customer service automation such as chatbots, hyper-personalization based on customer data and insights, and the use of unified CRM systems.<ref>{{Cite web|title=CRM Trends 2021: How the Pandemic Altered Customer Behavior Forever|url=https://www.informationweek.com/software/enterprise-applications/crm-trends-2021-how-the-pandemic-altered-customer-behavior-forever/d/d-id/1340192|access-date=2021-08-04|website=www.informationweek.com|date=18 February 2021 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Forrester|title=Three Key CRM Trends In 2021 That Will Allow You To Better Engage Your Customers|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/forrester/2021/04/09/three-key-crm-trends-in-2021-that-will-allow-youtobetter-engage-your-customers/|access-date=2021-08-04|website=Forbes|language=en}}</ref> CRM vendors support sales productivity with different products, such as tools that measure the effectiveness of ads that appear in 3D video games.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Gagliordi|first=Natalie|title=Oracle announces in-game ad measurement technology in new CX portfolio update|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/oracle-announces-in-game-ad-measurement-technology-in-new-cx-portfolio-update/|access-date=2021-08-18|website=ZDNet|language=en}}</ref>

Pharmaceutical companies were some of the first investors in sales force automation (SFA) and some are on their third- or fourth-generation implementations. However, until recently, the deployments did not extend beyond SFA—limiting their scope and interest to Gartner analysts.<ref>{{cite web | title = Gartner's Top 54 CRM Case Studies, Sorted by Industry, for 2005 | url=https://www.gartner.com/doc/481170/gartners-top--crm-case | access-date=20 May 2005}}</ref>

=== Vendor relationship management ===
Another related development is [[vendor relationship management]] (VRM), which provide tools and services that allow customers to manage their individual relationship with vendors. VRM development has grown out of efforts by ProjectVRM at Harvard's [[Berkman Center for Internet & Society]] and Identity Commons' Internet Identity Workshops, as well as by a growing number of startups and established companies. VRM was the subject of a cover story in the May 2010 issue of ''CRM'' Magazine.<ref>[http://www.destinationcrm.com/Issue/1776-May-2010.htm Destinationcrm.com] ''CRM Magazine'': May 2010</ref>

=== Customer success ===
Another trend worth noting is the rise of [[Customer Success]] as a discipline within companies. More and more companies establish Customer Success teams as separate from the traditional Sales team and task them with managing existing customer relations. This trend fuels demand for additional capabilities for a more holistic understanding of customer health, which is a limitation for many existing vendors in the space.<ref>Nirpaz G., Pizarro F., Farm Don't Hunt: The Definitive Guide to Customer Success, March 2016, p. 101</ref> As a result, a growing number of new entrants enter the market while existing vendors add capabilities in this area to their suites.

=== AI and predictive analytics ===
In 2017, [[artificial intelligence]] and [[predictive analytics]] were identified as the newest trends in CRM.<ref>{{Cite web| url=http://www.cmswire.com/customer-experience/7-top-crm-trends-for-2017-a-look-ahead/| title=7 Top CRM Trends for 2017: A Look Ahead| work=CMS Wire}}</ref>

==Criticism==
{{see also|Anonymization|Customer rights}}
Companies face large challenges when trying to implement CRM systems. Consumer companies frequently manage their customer relationships haphazardly and unprofitably.<ref>{{Cite web|title = CRM and ERP: What's The Difference?|url = http://www.crmswitch.com/crm-value/understanding-crm-erp/|website = CRM Switch| date=8 August 2013 |access-date = 26 November 2015}}</ref> They may not effectively or adequately use their connections with their customers, due to misunderstandings or misinterpretations of a CRM system's analysis. Clients may be treated like an exchange party, rather than a unique individual, due to, occasionally, a lack of a bridge between the CRM data and the CRM analysis output. Many studies show that customers are frequently frustrated by a company's inability to meet their relationship expectations, and on the other side, companies do not always know how to translate the data they have gained from CRM software into a feasible action plan.<ref name="Avery-2014a"/> In 2003, a [[Gartner]] report estimated that more than $2 billion had been spent on software that was not being used. According to CSO Insights, less than 40 percent of 1,275 participating companies had end-user adoption rates above 90 percent.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Demystifying CRM Adoption Rates|url = http://www.destinationcrm.com/Articles/Columns-Departments/Reality-Check/Demystifying-CRM-Adoption-Rates-42496.aspx|website = CRM Magazine|date = 1 July 2006|access-date = 22 November 2015}}</ref> Many corporations only use CRM systems on a partial or fragmented basis.<ref>It's all about the Customer, Stupid – The Importance of Customer-Centric Partners.</ref> In a 2007 survey from the UK, four-fifths of senior executives reported that their biggest challenge is getting their staff to use the systems they had installed. Forty-three percent of respondents said they use less than half the functionality of their existing systems.<ref>Jim Dickie, ''CSO Insights'' (2006) Demystifying CRM Adoption Rates.</ref> However, market research regarding consumers' preferences may increase the adoption of CRM among developing countries' consumers.<ref>Joachim, David. "CRM tools improve access, usability." (cover story). ''B to B'' 87, no. 3 (11 March 2002).</ref>

[[Data collection|Collection]] of customer data such as [[personally identifiable information]] must strictly obey [[customer privacy]] [[privacy law|laws]], which often requires extra expenditures on legal support.

Part of the paradox with CRM stems from the challenge of determining exactly what CRM is and what it can do for a company.<ref>{{cite journal|title=From customer relationship management to customer-managed relationship: unraveling the paradox with a co-creative perspective|year=2003|journal=Marketing Intelligence & Planning|volume=21|issue=1|pages=51–60|doi=10.1108/02634500310458153|first1=Monica|last1=Law|first2=Theresa|last2=Lau|first3=Y.H.|last3=Wong|hdl=10397/60525}}</ref> The CRM paradox, also referred to as the "dark side of CRM",<ref>{{Cite journal |doi = 10.1108/07363761311290812|title = The dark side of CRM: Advantaged and disadvantaged customers|journal = Journal of Consumer Marketing|volume = 30|pages = 17–30|year = 2013|last1 = Nguyen|first1 = Bang|last2 = Simkin|first2 = Lyndon|url = https://eprints.soas.ac.uk/21171/1/Chapter%209%20-%2010%20Dec%202014%20-%20ANA-ACT%5B1%5D.pdf}}</ref> may entail favoritism and differential treatment of some customers. This can happen because a business prioritizes customers who are more profitable, more relationship-orientated or tend to have increased loyalty to the company. Although focusing on such customers by itself isn't a bad thing, it can leave other customers feeling left out and alienated potentially decreasing profits because of it.<ref>Nguyen, B, Lee-Wingate, SN & Simkin, L (2014), ''The customer relationship management paradox: Five steps to create a fairer organisation'' Social Business, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 207-230. https://dx.doi.org/10.1362/204440814X14103454934177
</ref>

CRM technologies can easily become ineffective if there is no proper management, and they are not implemented correctly. The data sets must also be connected, distributed, and organized properly so that the users can access the information that they need quickly and easily. Research studies also show that customers are increasingly becoming dissatisfied with contact center experiences due to lags and wait times. They also request and demand multiple channels of communication with a company, and these channels must transfer information seamlessly. Therefore, it is increasingly important for companies to deliver a cross-channel customer experience that can be both consistent as well as reliable.<ref name="SearchCRM-2015"/>

==See also==
{{div col}}
* {{annotated link|Comparison of CRM systems}}
* {{annotated link|Corporate social responsibility}}
* {{annotated link|Customer value model}}
* {{annotated link|Farley file}}
* {{annotated link|History of marketing}}
* {{anl|Healthcare CRM}}
* {{annotated link|Intersubjectivity}}
* {{annotated link|Relationship marketing}}
* {{annotated link|Socially responsible marketing}}
* {{annotated link|Sustainable market orientation}}
* {{annotated link|Vendor relationship management}}
{{div col end}}
* {{portal-inline|Business}}

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Management}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Customer relationship management| ]]
[[Category:Business computing]]
[[Category:Office and administrative support occupations]]
[[Category:Marketing techniques]]
[[Category:Services marketing]]

Water fluoridation by country

2024-06-11T17:13:18Z

Coriander77: /* Health effects */

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[[Water fluoridation]] is the controlled addition of [[fluoride]] to a [[water supply|public water supply]] to reduce [[tooth decay]],<ref name=FRWG>{{cite journal |title=Recommendations for using fluoride to prevent and control dental caries in the United States |author=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |journal=MMWR Recomm Rep |volume=50 |issue=RR-14 |pages=1–42 |year=2001 |pmid=11521913 |url=http://cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5014a1.htm}}</ref> and is handled differently by countries across the world. Fluoridated water has fluoride at a level that is proven effective for preventing cavities; this can occur naturally or by adding fluoride.<ref name=FRWG /> Fluoridated water operates on tooth surfaces: in the mouth it creates low levels of fluoride in [[saliva]], which reduces the rate at which [[tooth enamel]] demineralizes and increases the rate at which it [[Remineralisation of teeth|remineralizes]] in the early stages of cavities.<ref name=Pizzo>{{cite journal |author=Pizzo G, Piscopo MR, Pizzo I, Giuliana G |title=Community water fluoridation and caries prevention: a critical review |journal=Clin Oral Investig |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=189–93 |year=2007 |pmid=17333303 |doi=10.1007/s00784-007-0111-6|s2cid=13189520 }}</ref> Typically a fluoridated compound is added to [[drinking water]], a process that in the U.S. costs an average of about ${{inflation|US|0.72|1999|r=2}} per person-year.<ref name=FRWG />{{inflation-fn|US}} Defluoridation is needed when the naturally occurring fluoride level exceeds recommended limits.<ref name=Taricska>{{cite book |author=Taricska JR, Wang LK, Hung YT, Li KH |chapter=Fluoridation and Defluoridation |title=Advanced Physicochemical Treatment Processes |editor=Wang LK, Hung YT, Shammas NK, editors |series=Handbook of Environmental Engineering 4 |doi=10.1007/978-1-59745-029-4_9 |isbn=978-1-59745-029-4 |publisher=Humana Press |year=2006 |pages=293–315}}</ref> In 2011 the [[World Health Organization]] suggested a level of fluoride from 0.5 to 1.5 mg/L (milligrams per litre), depending on climate, local environment, and other sources of fluoride.<ref name=WHO2011>[http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/44584/1/9789241548151_eng.pdf Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality, 4th Edition] WHO, 2011. {{ISBN|9789241548151}}. Page 168, 175, 372 and see also pp 370-73. See also J. Fawell, et al [http://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/43514/1/9241563192_eng.pdf?ua=1 Fluoride in Drinking-water]. WHO, 2006. Page 32. Quote: "Concentrations in drinking-water of about 1 mg l–1 are associated with a lower incidence of dental caries, particularly in children, whereas excess intake of fluoride can result in dental fluorosis. In severe cases this can result in erosion of enamel. The margin between the beneficial effects of fluoride and the occurrence of dental fluorosis is small and public health programmes seek to retain a suitable balance between the two"</ref> [[Bottled water]] typically has unknown fluoride levels.<ref name=Hobson>{{cite journal |author=Hobson WL, Knochel ML, Byington CL, Young PC, Hoff CJ, Buchi KF |title=Bottled, filtered, and tap water use in Latino and non-Latino children |journal=Arch Pediatr Adolesc Med |volume=161 |issue=5 |pages=457–61 |year=2007 |pmid=17485621 |doi=10.1001/archpedi.161.5.457 |url=http://archpedi.ama-assn.org/cgi/content/full/161/5/457}}</ref>

== Health effects ==
[[Tooth decay|Dental caries]] remain a major [[public health]] concern in most [[industrialized countries]], affecting 60–90% of schoolchildren and the vast majority of adults.<ref name="Petersen-2004">{{cite journal |author=Petersen PE, Lennon MA |title=Effective use of fluorides for the prevention of dental caries in the 21st century: the WHO approach |journal=Community Dent Oral Epidemiol |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=319–21 |year=2004 |pmid=15341615 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0528.2004.00175.x |url=https://www.who.int/oral_health/media/en/orh_cdoe_319to321.pdf }}</ref> Water fluoridation reduces cavities in children, while efficacy in adults is less clear.<ref name="Cochrane2015">{{cite journal|last1=Iheozor-Ejiofor |first1=Z |last2=Worthington |first2=HV |last3=Walsh |first3=T |last4=O'Malley |first4=L |last5=Clarkson |first5=JE |last6=Macey |first6=R |last7=Alam |first7=R |last8=Tugwell |first8=P |last9=Welch |first9=V |last10=Glenny |first10=AM |title=Water fluoridation for the prevention of dental caries |journal=The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews |date=18 June 2015 |volume=6 |issue=6 |pages=CD010856 |pmid=26092033 |doi=10.1002/14651858.CD010856.pub2|pmc=6953324 |url=http://roar.uel.ac.uk/3352/1/JPHCCochraneCornerDec2013.pdf }}</ref><ref name="Scher2011">{{cite web |title=Introduction to the SCHER opinion on Fluoridation |url=http://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/fluoridation/en/l-3/1.htm#0 |publisher=European Commission Scientific Committee on Health and Environmental Risks (SCHER) |access-date=18 April 2016|date=2011}}</ref><ref name="Tienman2013">{{cite web |last1=Tiemann |first1=Mary |title=Fluoride in Drinking Water: A Review of Fluoridation and Regulation Issues |url=https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/RL33280.pdf |access-date=19 April 2016 |date=5 April 2013|pages= 1–4}}</ref> A Cochrane review estimates a reduction in cavities when water fluoridation was used by children who had no access to other sources of fluoride to be 35% in baby teeth and 26% in permanent teeth.<ref name="Cochrane2015" /> Most European countries have experienced substantial declines in tooth decay without its use. Recent studies suggest that water fluoridation, particularly in industrialized countries, may be unnecessary because topical fluorides (such as in toothpaste) are widely used and cavity rates have become low.<ref name="Pizzo" /> For this reason, some scientists consider fluoridation to be unethical due to the lack of [[informed consent]].<ref name="Unde-2018">{{cite journal |author=Maitreyee P. Unde, Raju Umaji Patil, and Persis P. Dastoor |title=The Untold Story of Fluoridation: Revisiting the Changing Perspectives |journal=Indian Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine |volume=22 |issue=3 |pages=121–127 |year=2018 |doi=10.4103/ijoem.IJOEM_124_18 |doi-access=free|pmid=30647513 |pmc=6309358 }}</ref> However, recent study funded by NHS found no significant difference between individuals who receive fluoridated water and those who don't in terms of missing teeth and reducing social inequities.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Future benefits of water fluoridation not guaranteed, study shows |url=https://www.manchester.ac.uk/discover/news/future-benefits-of-water-fluoridation-not-guaranteed-study-shows/ |access-date=2024-04-22 |website=Future benefits of water fluoridation not guaranteed, study shows |language=en}}</ref>


Although fluoridation can cause [[dental fluorosis]], which can alter the appearance of [[Human tooth development|developing teeth]] or [[Tooth enamel|enamel fluorosis]],<ref name=Pizzo /> the differences are mild and usually not considered to be of aesthetic or public-health concern.<ref name=NHMRC>{{cite book |url=http://nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/file/publications/synopses/Eh41_Flouridation_PART_A.pdf |access-date=13 October 2009 |year=2007 |title=A systematic review of the efficacy and safety of fluoridation |author=National Health and Medical Research Council (Australia) |isbn=978-1-86496-415-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014191758/http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/_files_nhmrc/file/publications/synopses/Eh41_Flouridation_PART_A.pdf |archive-date=14 October 2009 |url-status=dead }} Summary: {{cite journal |author=Yeung CA |title=A systematic review of the efficacy and safety of fluoridation |journal=Evid Based Dent |volume=9 |issue=2 |pages=39–43 |year=2008 |pmid=18584000 |doi=10.1038/sj.ebd.6400578 |s2cid=205675585 |doi-access=free }}</ref> There is no clear evidence of other [[adverse effect]]s from water fluoridation, as revealed by the York review from 2000.<ref name=YorkReview2000>{{cite web |author=McDonagh M, Whiting P, Bradley M |display-authors=etal|title=A systematic review of public water fluoridation |url=http://www.york.ac.uk/media/crd/crdreport18.pdf |year=2000}} Report website: {{cite web |title=Fluoridation of drinking water: a systematic review of its efficacy and safety |publisher=NHS Centre for Reviews and Dissemination |date=2000 |url=http://www.york.ac.uk/inst/crd/fluorid.htm |access-date=26 May 2009}} Authors' summary: {{cite journal |author=McDonagh MS, Whiting PF, Wilson PM |display-authors=etal |title=Systematic review of water fluoridation |journal=BMJ |volume=321 |issue=7265 |pages=855–9 |year=2000 |doi=10.1136/bmj.321.7265.855 |pmid=11021861 |pmc=27492 |url=|format=}} Authors' commentary: {{cite journal |author=Treasure ET, Chestnutt IG, Whiting P, McDonagh M, Wilson P, Kleijnen J |title=The York review—a systematic review of public water fluoridation: a commentary |journal=Br Dent J |volume=192 |issue=9 |pages=495–7 |year=2002 |pmid=12047121 |doi=10.1038/sj.bdj.4801410a |doi-access=free }}</ref> A 2007 Australian systematic review used the same inclusion criteria as York's, plus one additional study. This did not affect the York conclusions.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Richards|first1=Derek|title=Fluoridation|journal=Evidence-Based Dentistry|date=1 January 2008|volume=9|issue=2|pages=34|doi=10.1038/sj.ebd.6400575|pmid=18583997|issn=1462-0049|doi-access=free}}</ref> Fluoride's effects depend on the total daily intake of fluoride from all sources. Drinking water is typically the largest source;<ref name=Fawell>{{cite book |chapter=Environmental occurrence, geochemistry and exposure |title=Fluoride in Drinking-water |author=Fawell J, Bailey K, Chilton J, Dahi E, Fewtrell L, Magara Y |publisher=World Health Organization |isbn=92-4-156319-2 |year=2006 |url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/fluoride_drinking_water_full.pdf |pages=5–27}}</ref> other methods of [[fluoride therapy]] include fluoridation of toothpaste, salt, and milk.<ref name=Jones-PH>{{cite journal |author=Jones S, Burt BA, Petersen PE, Lennon MA |title=The effective use of fluorides in public health |journal=Bull World Health Organ |volume=83 |issue=9 |pages=670–6 |year=2005 |pmid=16211158 |pmc=2626340 |url=http://scielosp.org/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0042-96862005000900012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100314074115/http://www.scielosp.org/scielo.php?pid=S0042-96862005000900012&script=sci_arttext |archive-date=14 March 2010 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> The views on the most effective method for community prevention of tooth decay are mixed. The Australian government states that water fluoridation is the most effective means of achieving fluoride exposure that is community-wide.<ref name=NHMRC /> The World Health Organization states water fluoridation, when feasible and culturally acceptable, has substantial advantages, especially for subgroups at high risk,<ref name=Petersen-2004 /> while the [[European Commission]] finds no advantage to water fluoridation compared with topical use.<ref name=EU2011>{{cite web|title=What role does fluoride play in preventing tooth decay?|url=http://ec.europa.eu/health/scientific_committees/opinions_layman/fluoridation/en/l-3/5.htm#0|year=2011|access-date=18 April 2016}}</ref>

Currently about 372 million people (around 5.7% of the world population) receive artificially-fluoridated water in about 24 countries, including Australia, Brazil, Canada, Chile, Republic of Ireland, Malaysia, the U.S., and Vietnam.<ref name="extent">{{cite book |chapter=The extent of water fluoridation |chapter-url=http://bfsweb.org/onemillion/09%20One%20in%20a%20Million%20-%20The%20Extent%20of%20Fluoridation.pdf |url=http://bfsweb.org/onemillion/onemillion.htm |title=One in a Million: The facts about water fluoridation |edition=2nd |year=2004 |publisher=The British Fluoridation Society, The UK Public Health Association; The British Dental Association; The Faculty of Public Health |isbn=978-0-9547684-0-9 |pages=55–80 |location=Manchester |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122032013/http://www.bfsweb.org/onemillion/onemillion.htm |archive-date=22 November 2008 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name=EndFinIsrael0 /><ref name=Cheng2007 /> 57.4 million people receive naturally occurring fluoridated water at or above optimal levels in countries such as Sweden, China, Sri Lanka, Finland, Zimbabwe and Gabon.<ref name="extent" /> Community water fluoridation is rare in [[Continental Europe]], with 97–98% choosing not to fluoridate drinking water.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://topinfopost.com/2014/02/13/98-per-cent-of-europe-banned-water-fluoridation |title=98 percent of Europe banned water fluoridation – TIP |access-date=2016-02-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160305020901/http://topinfopost.com/2014/02/13/98-per-cent-of-europe-banned-water-fluoridation |archive-date=5 March 2016 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Fluoridated salt and milk is promoted in some European countries instead. Water fluoridation has been replaced by other modes in many countries where water supplies are too decentralized for it to be a practical choice, or existing natural fluoride levels were already ample, including Germany, Finland, Japan, Netherlands, Sweden, Switzerland (Switzerland has 1 mg fluoride per 1 liter,<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.kantonslabor.bs.ch/|title=Willkommen beim Kantonalen Laboratorium|website=www.kantonslabor.bs.ch}}</ref> USA only between 0.3 mg and 0.7 mg)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aerzteblatt.de/nachrichten/83664/Leitungswasser-in-den-USA-Viele-Kinder-mit-besseren-Zaehnen-nur-wenige-mit-mehr-Blei-im-Blut|title=Leitungswasser in den USA: Viele Kinder mit besseren Zähnen, nur wenige mit mehr Blei im Blut|first=Deutscher Ärzteverlag GmbH, Redaktion Deutsches|last=Ärzteblatt|date=30 November 2017|website=Deutsches Ärzteblatt}}</ref> water<ref name=Cheng2007>{{cite journal |vauthors=Cheng KK, Chalmers I, Sheldon TA |title= Adding fluoride to water supplies |journal=BMJ |volume=335 |issue=7622 |pages=699–702 |year=2007 |pmid=17916854 |pmc=2001050 |doi=10.1136/bmj.39318.562951.BE}}</ref> Denmark and at a time Israel.<ref name=EndFinIsrael0 /> Cessation of water fluoridation has been demonstrated in scientific studies such as a recent one in Calgary, Alberta, to result in increased rates of dental decay.<ref>[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cdoe.12685 Fluoridation cessation and children’s dental caries: A 7-year follow-up evaluation of Grade 2 schoolchildren in Calgary and Edmonton, Canada], July 26, 2021</ref> While fluoridation can result in mild dental fluorosis, this effect is barely detectable and causes no concerns with the appearance or health of teeth. Countries practicing artificial water fluoridation vary in their recommended fluoride levels according to what health authorities in each have determined to be most effective for its citizens. The US recently reset the recommended optimal level of fluoride in drinking water, lowering it slightly, because of observed increased [[Dental fluorosis|Fluorosis]] levels, likely due to additional fluoride sources like toothpaste and mouthwash which were not present when this level was originally set.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/apr/27/fluoride-levels-us-drinking-water-lowered-splotchy-teeth|title=US lowers fluoride levels in drinking water for first time in over 50 years|agency=Associated Press in New York|date=27 April 2015|website=The Guardian}}</ref>

{{TOC right}}

== Africa ==
Of Africa's 1.1 billion people, about 400,000 get artificially-fluoridated water (in Libya, data pre-2003).<ref name="OIMextent0" />

=== Egypt ===
Water is fluoridated in [[Egypt]], with no recommended minimum value but with a maximum value of 0.4 mg/L.

=== Libya ===
Before 2003, 400,000 Libyans were receiving artificially-fluoridated water.<ref name="OIMextent0" />

=== Nigeria ===
Only a fraction of Nigerians receive water from waterworks, so water fluoridation affects very few people. A 2009 study found that about 21% of water sources naturally contain fluoride to the recommended range of 0.3–0.6 ppm. About 62% have fluoride below this range.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Akpata ES, Danfillo IS, Otoh EC, Mafeni JO |title=Geographical mapping of fluoride levels in drinking water sources in Nigeria |journal=Afr Health Sci |date=2009 |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=227–33 |doi= |pmid=21503173 |pmc=3074395 |url=http://ajol.info/index.php/ahs/article/viewFile/52143/40772 |format=PDF}}</ref>

=== South Africa ===
[[South Africa]]'s Health Department recommends adding fluoridation chemicals to drinking water in some areas. It also advises removal of fluoride from drinking water (defluoridation) where the fluoride content is too high.<ref>ml "Water Fluoridation – The Facts", from South Africa's [http://www.doh.gov.za/department/ Department of Health] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210149/http://www.doh.gov.za/department/ |date=27 September 2007 }} website. Retrieved 29 April 2006.</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.africanwater.org/randwater_fluoride.htm|title=The Water Page – Rand Water and Fluoridation|website=www.africanwater.org}}</ref>

Legislation around mandatory fluoridation was introduced in 2002, but has been delayed since then pending further research after opposition from water companies, municipalities and the public.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iol.co.za/index.php?set_id=1&click_id=125&art_id=vn20030108054021972C918779 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020212014/http://www.iol.co.za/news/south-africa/fluoridation-scheme-halted-by-health-concerns-1.99625| archive-date=2012-10-20 | title=Fluoridation scheme halted by health concerns | access-date=2023-11-07}}</ref>

=== Zambia ===
Approximately 947,000 (7% of the population) receives water with naturally occurring fluoride in it.<ref name="extent" />

=== Zimbabwe ===
Roughly 2,600,000 (21% of the population) receives water with naturally occurring fluoride in it.<ref name="extent" />

== Asia ==

=== China ===
Many areas in China have fluoride at levels far higher than recommended due to natural occurrence or industrial contamination, which has resulted in high incidences{{verify spelling|date=September 2022|reason=''incidence'' is normally used only in the singular form, perhaps ''incidence'', ''incidents'', or ''instances'' was intended}} of skeletal fluorosis.<ref name="scmp.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/society/article/1825033/chinas-unsafe-drinking-water-afflicts-millions-disease-state|title = Fluoride, arsenic and iodine in China's drinking water poisons 50 million people|date = 23 June 2015}}</ref> Water fluoridation levels are set at a national standard of 1 mg/L, with higher levels for rural areas at 1.2 mg/L.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.chinacdc.cn/jdydc/200701/P0200701183221449199226657492006497.pdf | access-date=2023-11-07 | title=Standards for Drinking Water Quality|language=zh}}</ref> Water fluoridation began in 1965 in the urban area of [[Guangzhou]]. It was interrupted during 1976–1978 due to the shortage of sodium silico-fluoride. It was resumed only in the [[Fangcun, Guangzhou|Fangcun]] district of the city, but was halted in 1983 after opponents claimed that fluoride levels were already sufficiently high in local foods and tea. Later analysis in 1988 found that the incidence of dental caries among 4-year-old children had increased by 62%. The fluoridation reduced the number of cavities, but increased [[dental fluorosis]]; the fluoride levels could have been set too high, and low-quality equipment led to inconsistent, and often excessive, fluoride concentrations.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Petersen PE, Kwan S, Zhu L, Zhang BX, Bian JY |title=Effective use of fluorides in the People's Republic of China--a model for WHO Mega Country initiatives |journal=Community Dental Health |volume=25 |issue=4 Suppl 1 |pages=257–67 |date=December 2008 |pmid=19202775 |doi=10.1922/CDH_2475Petersen11}}</ref>

=== Hong Kong ===
All [[Hong Kong]] residents receive natural occurring fluoride in water,<ref name=OIMextent0 /> at about half the traditionally-recommended fluoride level. The [[Water Supplies Department]] fluoridates rainwater from 17 local reservoirs, in 21 treatment plants.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wsd.gov.hk/en/water_resources/water_treatment_and_distribution_process/water_treatment_process/index.html |title=Water Treatment Process |work=www.wsd.gov.hk |publisher=Water Supplies Department, The Government of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region |access-date=13 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930041851/http://www.wsd.gov.hk/en/water_resources/water_treatment_and_distribution_process/water_treatment_process/index.html |archive-date=30 September 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Recent tests showed drinking water to have an average fluoride level of 0.48 mg/L, and a maximum of 0.69 mg/L.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wsd.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_135/drinking_b-e.pdf |title=Drinking Water Quality for the Period of October 2013 – September 2014 |publisher=Water Supplies Department, The Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region |work=www.wsd.gov.hk |access-date=13 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141015042019/http://www.wsd.gov.hk/filemanager/en/content_135/drinking_b-e.pdf |archive-date=15 October 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

=== India ===
Water fluoridation is not practiced in India.<ref>Ingram, Colin. (2006). ''The Drinking Water Book''. pp. 15-16</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.windsofchange.eu.com/fluoride03.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080819143455/http://www.windsofchange.eu.com/fluoride03.html|url-status=dead|title=Control of Fluorosis in India|archive-date=19 August 2008}}</ref> Due to naturally-occurring fluoride, both [[Skeletal fluorosis|skeletal]] and [[dental fluorosis]] have been '''endemic in India''' in at least 20 states, including [[Uttarakhand]], [[Jharkhand]] and [[Chhattisgarh]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laleva.org/eng/2004/06/fluoridation_and_fluorosis_disaster_india_fluoride_in_water_takes_its_toll_in_assam.html|title=Fluoridation and Fluorosis Disaster – India: Fluoride in water takes its toll in Assam – La Leva di Archimede (ENG)|website=www.laleva.org}}</ref> The maximum permissible limit of fluoride in drinking water in India is 1.2 mg/L,<ref name="autogenerated9">{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/naturalhazards/en/index2.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080630020322/http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/naturalhazards/en/index2.html|url-status=dead|title=WHO | Naturally occurring hazards|archive-date=30 June 2008}}</ref> and the government has been obligated to install fluoride removal plants of various technologies to reduce fluoride levels from industrial waste and mineral deposits. Now reverse osmosis plants are widely used. Household and public system reverse osmosis plants are common in the market. Alleppey in [[Kerala]] is most affected with over-fluoridated water. Government-installed reverse osmosis plants supply free filtered water. Rotary International Club, Saratoga USA, helped to install 3 RO Plants in rural [[Alappuzha|Alleppey]].

{{As of|2014}}, there are 14,132 habitations in 19 States still containing fluoride above the permissible levels in drinking water. [[Rajasthan]] has the highest number of habitations (7,670) with high amount of fluoride in drinking water. [[Telangana]] has 1174, [[Karnataka]] has 1122 and Madhya Pradesh has 1055 habitation. Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Maharashtra, Odisha, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh also has such habitations.

The government of India launched the National Programme for Prevention and Control of Fluorosis in 2008–2009. In 2013–2014, the programme was brought under the National Rural Health Mission, which has so far covered 111 districts. The programme includes surveillance of fluorosis in the community, training and manpower support, establishment of diagnostic facilities, treatment and health education. The Indian Council of Medical Research has formed a task force on fluorosis to address issues related to prevention and control.<ref name="The Hindu14">{{cite news|title=Huge population at fluorosis risk|publisher=The Hindu: Mobile Edition|date=28 December 2014|url=http://m.thehindu.com/sci-tech/health/policy-and-issues/huge-population-at-fluorosis-risk/article6733103.ece/|access-date=29 December 2014|first=Smriti|last=Kak Ramachandran|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150507185338/http://m.thehindu.com/sci-tech/health/policy-and-issues/huge-population-at-fluorosis-risk/article6733103.ece/|archive-date=7 May 2015|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

=== Israel ===
Fluoride was required in water supplies nationwide by legislation passed in 2002,<ref name=Zusman0>{{cite web |url=http://www.publichealthreviews.eu/upload/pdf_files/11/00_Zusman.pdf |title=Water Fluoridation in Israel: Ethical and Legal Aspects |author=Shlomo P. Zusman |work=Public Health Reviews, Vol. 34, No. 1 |access-date=2 January 2014}}</ref> but the requirement was repealed in 2014, and artificial fluoridation was disparaged by national health officials, effectively ending the practice in Israel for a short while.<ref name=EndFinIsrael0>Press Releases (17 August 2014) [http://www.health.gov.il/English/News_and_Events/Spokespersons_Messages/Pages/17082014_1.aspx End of Mandatory Fluoridation in Israel] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141117131814/http://www.health.gov.il/English/News_and_Events/Spokespersons_Messages/Pages/17082014_1.aspx |date=17 November 2014 }}, [[Ministry of Health (Israel)]]. Retrieved 29 September 2014.</ref> After the election of 2015 the fluoridation program was to be re-debated the new deputy Health Minister [[Yaakov Litzman]].<ref name=Litzman00>{{cite web |date=31 May 2015 |work=www.israelnationalnews.com |title=Deputy health minister moves to restore water fluoridation|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/deputy-health-minister-moves-to-restore-water-fluoridation/ |access-date=31 May 2015}}</ref>

[[Mekorot]], Israel's national water company states, "In the South of the country, it is unnecessary to add fluoride because it is found naturally in the water."<ref name=Mekerot00>{{cite web |url=http://www.mekorot.co.il/Eng/Mekorot/Faq/Pages/default.aspx?CurrentPage=3 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130108051943/http://www.mekorot.co.il/Eng/Mekorot/Faq/Pages/default.aspx?CurrentPage=3 |url-status=dead |archive-date=8 January 2013 |title=F.A.Q. |access-date=2 June 2012 |work=www.mekorot.co.il }}</ref> Water fluoridation was introduced in Israel's large cities in 1981, and a national effort to fluoridate all the country's water was approved in 1988.<ref name=INNlev00 />

In 2002, the Union of Local Authorities (ULA) and others petitioned Israel's High Court to stop the Health Ministry from forcing cities to implement water fluoridation. The court soon issued a restraining order,<ref name=INN01>{{cite web |date=28 May 2002 |work=www.israelnationalnews.com |title=Court Petition to Stop Fluorination of Drinking Water |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/Flash.aspx/24222#.T8rfxrmVJQI |access-date=2 June 2012}}</ref><ref name=INN02>{{cite web |title=Cities Can\'t Be Forced to Add Fluoride |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/25829#.T8rfarmVJQI |date=26 June 2002 |work=www.israelnationalnews.com |access-date=2 June 2012}}</ref> but after half a year ULA withdrew its petition upon the request of the court.<ref name=Haaretz00>{{cite web |url=http://www.haaretz.com/print-edition/news/court-paves-way-for-fluoridated-water-1.27671 |title=Court paves way for fluoridated water |date=21 November 2002 |last1=Rinat |first1=Zafir |last2=Reinfeld |first2=Moshe |work=www.haaretz.com |access-date=3 June 2012}}</ref>

By 2011, about 65% of the municipalities and local authorities in Israel had agreed to allow fluoridation, and there was active opposition to the spread of fluoridation to the towns where it has not yet been instituted.<ref name=INNlev00>{{cite web |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/144299#.T8rUcLmVJQI |title=The Fluoride Debate Goes On – in the Knesset |last=Lev |first=David |date=18 May 2011 |work=www.israelnationalnews.com |access-date=2 June 2012}}</ref> In 2011, the Health and Welfare Committee of the [[Knesset]] criticized the Health Ministry for continuation of water fluoridation.<ref name=INN03>{{cite web |title=If Danger is Proven – We Will Stop Fluorination |work=www.israelnationalnews.com |url=http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/Flash.aspx/211729#.T8rpLLmVJQI |date=30 May 2011 |access-date=2 June 2012}}</ref>

On 26 August 2014, Israel officially stopped adding fluoride to its water supplies.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsweek.com/israel-has-officially-banned-fluoridation-its-drinking-water-267411|title=Israel Bans Water Fluoridation|website=[[Newsweek]]|date=29 August 2014}}</ref> According to a [[Ministry of Health (Israel)|Ministry of Health]] press release statement, the reasons it ended water fluoridation were: "Only some 1% of the water is used for drinking, while 99% of the water is intended for other uses (industry, agriculture, flushing toilets etc.). There is also scientific evidence that fluoride in large amounts can lead to damage to health. When fluoride is supplied via drinking water, there is no control regarding the amount of fluoride actually consumed, which could lead to excessive consumption. Supply of fluoridated water forces those who do not so wish to also consume water with added fluoride."<ref name=EndFinIsrael0 /> Many in the medical and dental communities in Israel criticized the decision as a mistake.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Jalil|first1=Justin|title=Israel to discontinue fluoridation of tap water|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-to-discontinue-fluoridation-of-tap-water/|access-date=3 March 2015|date=25 August 2014}}</ref>

After the election of 2015, the new deputy Health Minister [[Yaakov Litzman]] announced that the fluoridation program will be re-debated.<ref name="Litzman00" />

As of July 2021, although in practice there is no legal impediment today to the return of drinking water fluoridation, it has not yet been returned in practice, and for about seven years there has been no drinking water fluoridation in Israel.<ref>{{Cite news|date=2021-07-19|title=פלואוריד במשחת שיניים - כבר מהשן הראשונה, וכמה צריך בכל גיל?|url=https://www.ynet.co.il/health/article/hkc8o9zro|access-date=2021-07-24|newspaper=Ynet|language=he|last1=מזור|first1=ד"ר סיגל}}</ref>

=== Japan ===
The first community water fluoridation programme was in Kyoto prefecture in 1952, lasting 13 years. The second was established by US military authorities in Okinawa prefecture in 1957, lasting 15 years. The last experience was in Mie Prefecture in 1967, lasting 4 years.<ref>{{Cite journal |url=http://jos.dent.nihon-u.ac.jp/journal/53/3/313.pdf |title=Associations between oral health behavior and anxiety about water fluoridation and motivation to establish water fluoridation in Japanese residents |date=2011 |journal=Journal of Oral Science }}</ref>

Less than 1% of Japan practices water fluoridation.<ref name="NCFPR">NCFPR. [http://waterfluoridationcenter.org/papers/2001/antifluoride.html Fluoridation Facts: Antifluoride Assertion – "Advanced Countries Shun Fluoridation"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120425152351/http://waterfluoridationcenter.org/papers/2001/antifluoride.html |date=25 April 2012 }}. Drawn from the ADA [http://www.ada.org/sections/newsAndEvents/pdfs/fluoridation_facts.pdf Fluoridation Facts] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160315070748/http://www.ada.org/sections/newsAndEvents/pdfs/fluoridation_facts.pdf |date=15 March 2016 }} document.</ref> Instead, as of March 2010, a total of 7,479 schools and 777,596 preschool to junior high school children were participating in school-based fluoride mouth-rinsing programme (S-FMR), with an estimate of 2,000,000 children participating in 2020.<ref>{{Cite journal |title=National survey on school-based fluoride mouth-rinsing programme in Japan: regional spread conditions from preschool to junior high school in 2010 |journal=International Dental Journal |date=1 June 2014 |issn=1875-595X |pmc=4255315 |pmid=24256345 |pages=127–137 |volume=64 |issue=3 |doi=10.1111/idj.12068 |first1=Karin |last1=Komiyama |first2=Kazunari |last2=Kimoto |first3=Katsuhiko |last3=Taura |first4=Osamu |last4=Sakai}}</ref>

=== South Korea ===
In 2005, the ruling [[Uri Party]] proposed legislation for compulsory water fluoridation for municipalities. The legislation failed, and only 29 out of around 250 municipal governments had introduced water fluoridation at that time.<ref name=KT2005>{{cite web |title=NGOs Oppose Water Fluoridation |url=http://cafe986.daum.net/_c21_/bbs_search_read?grpid=wVX8&fldid=4LLz&contentval=0001Zzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzzz&nenc=&fenc=&q=&nil_profile=cafetop&nil_menu=sch_updw |last=Moon |first=Gwang-lip |date=7 November 2005 |access-date=17 May 2012}}</ref> Fluoridation was proposed again in 2012.<ref name=KoreaOoska>{{cite web |url=http://www.ooskanews.com/international-water-weekly/south-korea-debates-water-fluoridation_20934 |title=South Korea Debates Water Fluoridation |date=17 January 2012 |access-date=17 May 2012}}</ref>

=== Malaysia ===
In 1998, 66% of Malaysians were getting fluoridated water.<ref name=NST00>{{citation |title=Dental Fluorosis: Facts and Myths |work=New Sunday Times |date=14 June 1998 |author=Rahimah A. Kadir}}</ref>

In 2010, Bernama reported, "Principal Director (Oral Health) in the Health Ministry, Datuk Dr Norain Abu Taib said that only 75.5% of the country's population are enjoying the benefits of water fluoridation".<ref name=StarMy00>{{cite web |title=Water fluoridation re-introduced |url=http://thestar.com.my/metro/story.asp?sec=southneast&file=/2010/12/31/southneast/7700998 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130219045744/http://thestar.com.my/metro/story.asp?sec=southneast&file=/2010/12/31/southneast/7700998 |url-status=dead |archive-date=19 February 2013 |date=31 December 2010 |work=thestar.com.my |publisher=Bernama |access-date=21 May 2012 }}</ref>

=== Singapore ===
In 1956, [[Singapore]] was the first Asian country to institute a water fluoridation program that covered 100% of the population.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Loh T |title=Thirty-eight years of water fluoridation--the Singapore scenario |journal=Community Dental Health |volume=13 |issue=Suppl 2 |pages=47–50 |date=September 1996 |pmid=8897751}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Teo CS |title=Fluoridation of public water supplies in Singapore |journal=Annals of the Academy of Medicine, Singapore |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=247–51 |date=April 1984 |pmid=6497322}}</ref> Water is fluoridated to a typical value of 0.4-0.6 mg per litre.<ref>Water Treatment, [[Public Utilities Board|Public Utility Board]]. {{cite web |url=http://www.pub.gov.sg/general/Pages/WaterTreatment.aspx |title=PUB |access-date=2009-08-10 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090326084915/http://www.pub.gov.sg/GENERAL/Pages/WaterTreatment.aspx |archive-date=26 March 2009 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

=== Vietnam ===
Only about 4% of the population of [[Vietnam]] has water fluoridation, whereas only 70% get their water from public supplies.<ref name=OIMextent0>{{cite web |title=Extent of Water Fluoridation |work=One in a Million: the facts about water fluoridation, 3rd Ed |url=http://www.bfsweb.org/onemillion/09%20One%20in%20a%20Million%20-%20The%20Extent%20of%20Fluoridation.pdf |publisher=British Fluoridation Society |date=May 2012 |access-date=13 June 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120616215106/http://www.bfsweb.org/onemillion/09%20One%20in%20a%20Million%20-%20The%20Extent%20of%20Fluoridation.pdf |archive-date=16 June 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Many places in Vietnam already have sufficient levels of fluoride or in some cases, fluoride concentrations were already too high and needed to be reduced to avoid the effects of fluorosis.<ref>{{Cite web|title=High fluoride levels in water endanger health|url=http://vietnamnews.vn/society/population-development/193385/high-fluoride-levels-in-water-endanger-health.html|access-date=2021-10-17|website=vietnamnews.vn|language=en|archive-date=19 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019205923/https://vietnamnews.vn/society/population-development/193385/high-fluoride-levels-in-water-endanger-health.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

== Europe ==
Out of a population of about three-quarters of a billion, under 14 million people (approximately 2%) in Europe receive artificially-fluoridated water. Those people are in the UK (5,797,000), Republic of Ireland (4,780,000), Spain (4,250,000), and Serbia (300,000).<ref name=OIMextent0 />

The first water fluoridation in Europe was in [[West Germany]] and Sweden in 1952, bringing fluoridated water to about 42,000 people. By mid-1962, about 1 million Europeans in 18 communities in 11 countries were receiving fluoridated water.<ref name=EuropeEarlyFluoride />

Many European countries have rejected water fluoridation, including: Austria, Belgium, Finland, France, Germany, Hungary, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Northern Ireland, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland,<ref name=SLW00>{{cite web |url=http://www.slweb.org/europe.html |title=Statements from European Health & Environment Authorities on Fluoridation |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> Scotland,<ref name=BBCscot00>{{cite web |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/scotland/4022833.stm |title=Fluoride plan goes down the drain |date=18 November 2004 |work=www.bbc.co.uk |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref> Iceland, and Italy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/magazine/magazine_article/fluoridated-drinking-water/|title=Is Fluoridated Drinking Water Safe? |date=19 July 2016 |newspaper=Harvard Public Health Magazine|access-date=4 December 2016}}</ref> A 2003 survey of over 500 Europeans from 16 countries concluded that "the vast majority of people opposed water fluoridation".<ref name=PMgrif00>{{citation |title=European citizens' opinions on water fluoridation |journal=Community Dent Oral Epidemiol |date=April 2008 |volume=36 |issue=2 |pages=95–102 |pmid=18333872 |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0528.2007.00373.x |vauthors=Griffin M, Shickle D, Moran N}}</ref>

=== Austria ===
Austria has never implemented fluoridation due to an adequate level of fluoride in drinking water according to a study conducted in 1993. (Nell A, Sperr W. Fluoridgehaltuntersuchung des Trinkwassers in Osterreich 1993 [Analysis of the fluoride content of drinking water in Austria 1993]. Wien Klin Wochenschr. 1994;106(19):608-14. German. PMID 7998407.)

=== Belgium ===
Belgium does not fluoridate its water supply, although legislation permits it.<ref name="NCFPR" />

=== Czech Republic ===
Czech Republic (previously [[Czechoslovakia]]) started water fluoridation in 1958 in [[Tábor]]. In [[Prague]] fluoridation started in 1975. It was stopped in Prague in 1988 and subsequently in the whole country. Since 2008 no water has been fluoridated.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tribune.cz/clanek/11911|title=MEDICAL TRIBUNE CZ > Sláva a pád jedné preventivní metody|website=www.tribune.cz|language=cs|access-date=2018-02-13|archive-date=18 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718185216/http://www.tribune.cz/clanek/11911|url-status=dead}}</ref> Fluoridated salt is available.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.zuby.cz/articles/r.aspx?id=83f0cf9c-dac0-4d0c-89ab-da1d560a1dc0|title=Malý zub taky zub aneb zoubky našich dětí IV.}}</ref>

=== Croatia ===
Croatia does not fluoridate their tap water.

=== Denmark ===
Denmark has released test results for levels of various water contaminants, including fluoride, in the drinking water of some cities: Copenhagen,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Regionale-vaerker-2012.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=29 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221174221/http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Regionale-vaerker-2012.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Brøndby,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Broendby.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=29 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221174928/http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Broendby.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Albertslund,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Albertslund.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=29 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221175306/http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Albertslund.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Dragør,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Dragoer.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=29 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221180325/http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Dragoer.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Hvidovre,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/vandbehandling_og_kvalitet_hvidovre_web5.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=29 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221180427/http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/05/vandbehandling_og_kvalitet_hvidovre_web5.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Rødovre,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Roedovre.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=29 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221173823/http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Roedovre.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Vallensbæk,<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Vallensbaek.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=29 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221174825/http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Vallensbaek.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref> and Herlev.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Herlev.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=29 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141221180431/http://www.hofor.dk/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/Herlev.pdf |archive-date=21 December 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Estonia ===
There is no water fluoridation in Estonia.<ref name=OIMextent0 /> About 5% of the population may be exposed to excessive natural fluoride in drinking waters, and there are measures to remove excess fluoride.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Reducing Exposure to High Fluoride Drinking Water in Estonia—A Countrywide Study |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health|author=Ene Intermitte|display-authors=etal|pmc=3987025|pmid=24637908|doi=10.3390/ijerph110303132|volume=11|issue=3|year=2014|pages=3132–42|doi-access=free}}</ref>

=== Finland ===
[[Kuopio]] is the only community in Finland with at least 70,000 people that has ever had water fluoridated.<ref name=NCFPR /> Kuopio stopped fluoridation in 1992.<ref name="Caries Research">{{cite journal |title=Caries Occurrence in a Fluoridated and a Nonfluoridated Town in Finland: A Retrospective Study Using Longitudinal Data from Public Dental Records | pmid=12399690 | volume=36 | issue=5 |vauthors=Seppä L, Hausen H, Kärkkäinen S, Larmas M | journal=Caries Res | pages=308–14 | doi=10.1159/000065960| year=2002 | s2cid=37559071 }}</ref> In regions with [[rapakivi]] bedrock (small, but densely populated regions), 22% of well waters and 55% of drilled well waters exceed the legal limit of 1.5 mg/L; generally, surface and well waters have 0.5-2.0 mg/L fluoride in affected regions.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arkisto.gtk.fi/abs/tr149abssu.htm|title=HAKKU – Portti Suomen geologiseen tietoon – Gateway to Finland's geological information|last=GTK|website=arkisto.gtk.fi|access-date=24 May 2014|archive-date=25 May 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140525232427/http://arkisto.gtk.fi/abs/tr149abssu.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== France ===
Fluoridated salt is available in France,<ref name="NCFPR" /> and 3% of the population uses naturally fluoridated water,<ref name=OIMextent0 /> but the water is not artificially fluoridated.<ref name=OIMextent0 /><ref name=SLW00 />

=== Germany ===
Public drinking water supplies are not currently fluoridated in any part of Germany,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wda.org/wp_super_faq/european-countries-have-rejected-fluoridation-so-why-should-we-fluoridate-water |title=Question: European countries have rejected fluoridation, so why should we fluoridate water? |access-date=27 July 2017 |archive-date=6 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170206122513/http://www.wda.org/wp_super_faq/european-countries-have-rejected-fluoridation-so-why-should-we-fluoridate-water |url-status=dead }}</ref> however for children and adolescents use of fluoridated salt and toothpaste, as well as fluoride tablets and washes is strongly encouraged by the German Ministry of Health.<ref>. Recognize – Assess – Act : On the Health of Children and Adolescents in Germany, Germany Ministry of Health. [http://www.bmg.bund.de/fileadmin/dateien/Downloads/K/Kindergesundheit/KiGGS_GPA.pdf Erkennen – Bewerten – Handeln: Zur Gesundheit von Kindern und Jugendlichen in Deutschland] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160705135806/http://www.bmg.bund.de/fileadmin/dateien/Downloads/K/Kindergesundheit/KiGGS_GPA.pdf |date=5 July 2016 }}. 2008.</ref>

[[Kassel]]-Wahlershausen in [[West Germany]] became the second location in Europe where water fluoridation was practiced in 1952. By 1962, no other part of the FRG was fluoridating,<ref name=EuropeEarlyFluoride>{{cite journal |author1=E. Auermann |author2=H. Lingelbach |doi=10.2105/AJPH.54.9.1545 |title=Status and Prospects of Fluoridation in Europe |journal=American Journal of Public Health and the Nation's Health |volume=54 |issue= 9 |date=September 1964 |pages=1545–50 |pmc=1255008 |pmid=14215898}} This paper includes some history of water fluoridation in Europe, 1952–1962.</ref> and Kassel-Wahlershausen discontinued the practice in 1971.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

In the [[German Democratic Republic|GDR]] (East Germany) in the late 1980s, about 3.4 million people (20%) were receiving water with added fluoride. [[Fluoride tablets]] were also provided.<ref name=bmartin0>{{cite web |title=Scientific knowledge in controversy: the social dynamics of the fluoridation debate, electronic edition |url=http://www.bmartin.cc/pubs/91skic.pdf |date=1991 |author=Brian Martin |publisher=SUNY Press |work=www.bmartin.cc |access-date=23 January 2015}} This work contains a world survey of water fluoridation ca. 1988.</ref> The fluoridated areas of the GDR included the towns of [[Chemnitz|Karl-Marx-Stadt]] (now Chemnitz), [[Plauen]], [[Zittau]], and [[Spremberg]]. Children in those towns were part of large long-running studies of caries prevalence. A fluoride cessation study found that consistent with a previously observed population-wide phenomenon that the rate of cavities continued to drop after the fluoride concentration in water fell from the augmented 1.0 ppm to its natural level below 0.2 ppm.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Rise and fall of caries prevalence in German towns with different F concentrations in drinking water |journal=Caries Res. |vauthors=Künzel W, Fischer T |year=1997 |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=166–173 |pmid=9165185 |doi=10.1159/000262393}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |title=Decline of caries prevalence after the cessation of water fluoridation in the former East Germany |journal=Community Dent Oral Epidemiol |vauthors=Künzel W, Fischer T, Lorenz R, Brühmann S | date=October 2000 |volume=28 |issue=5 |pages=328–9 |pmid=11014515|doi=10.1034/j.1600-0528.2000.028005382.x }}</ref> Water fluoridation was discontinued after the German reunification although still exists on some US military bases.

=== Greece ===
There is no water fluoridation in Greece.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ododiatros.com.gr/ell/categories/%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1-%CE%A6%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85-%CE%A4%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%B4%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B1 |title=Θεραπεία Φθορίου & Τερηδόνα |work=www.ododiatros.com.gr |access-date=28 July 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140325193353/http://www.ododiatros.com.gr/ell/categories/%CE%98%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%80%CE%B5%CE%AF%CE%B1-%CE%A6%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%BF%CF%85-%CE%A4%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B7%CE%B4%CF%8C%CE%BD%CE%B1 |archive-date=25 March 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

=== Hungary ===
In the early 1960s the city of [[Szolnok]] briefly fluoridated its water. The program was discontinued due to technical problems and a public view that fluoridation did not seem reasonable.{{Clarify|date=May 2013}} Hungary has not used artificially fluoridated water since then.{{Citation needed|date=May 2013}}

=== Ireland ===
Ireland is the only European country with a policy of mandatory water fluoridation. Worldwide, the Irish Republic and [[Singapore]] are the only countries which implement mandatory water fluoridation.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.ie/lifestyle/argument-for-fluoridation-doesnt-hold-water-30033931.html|title=Argument for fluoridation doesn't hold water?|work=Irish Independent|access-date=2019-06-15}}</ref>

The majority of drinking water in the Republic, (but not Northern Ireland), is fluoridated. In 2012, roughly 3.25 million people received artificially-fluoridated water.<ref name=OIMextent0 /> Almost 71% of the population in 2002 resided in fluoridated communities.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121220184438/http://www.dohc.ie/publications/pdf/fluoridation_forum.pdf?direct=1 Report of the Forum on Fluoridation 2002], p.76 – [http://www.dohc.ie/ Dept of Health and Children] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081108125459/http://www.dohc.ie/ |date=8 November 2008 }} - Ireland</ref> All public water supplies are fluoridated and the remainder of the supplies are group water schemes which are privately owned and not fluoridated artificially.<ref name="fluoridefreewater.ie">{{Cite web|url=http://www.fluoridefreewater.ie/|title=Fluoride-Free Water – Anti-Fluoridation Campaign for Drinking Water in Ireland|website=www.fluoridefreewater.ie}}</ref> The fluoridation agent used is [[hydrofluorosilicic acid]] (HFSA; H2SiF6).<ref>Report of the Forum on Fluoridation 2002, pp.29–30</ref> In a 2002 public survey, 45% of respondents expressed some concern about fluoridation.<ref>Report of the Forum on Fluoridation 2002, p.37</ref>

In 1957, the [[Department of Health (Ireland)|Department of Health]] established a ''Fluorine Consultative Council'' which recommended fluoridation at 1.0 ppm of public water supplies, then accessed by approximately 50% of the population.<ref name=FOF2002_71>{{cite web |url=http://www.fluoridesandhealth.ie/download/documents/fluoridation_forum.pdf |title=Forum on Fluoridation, 2002 |publisher= Stationery Office, Government of Ireland |page=71 |work=www.fluoridesandhealth.ie |access-date=3 March 2015}}</ref> This was felt to be an effective way of preventing tooth decay, in an era before fluoridated toothpaste was commonly used.<ref name="dohcie72">Report of the Forum on Fluoridation 2002, p.72</ref> This led to the ''Health (Fluoridation of Water Supplies) Act'' 1960, which mandated compulsory fluoridation by [[local government in the Republic of Ireland|local authorities]].<ref name="dohcie72" /><ref>[http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/1960/en/act/pub/0046/print.html Health (Fluoridation of Water Supplies) Act, 1960], [[Irish Statute Book]]</ref> The [[statutory instrument]]s made in 1962–65 under the 1960 Act were separate for each local authority, setting the level of fluoride in drinking water to 0.8–1.0 ppm.<ref>Report of the Forum on Fluoridation 2002, p.170</ref><ref>A full list is in
{{cite web |url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2007/en/si/0042.html#sched2 |title=Schedule 2: Revocations |work=S.I. No. 42 of 2007: Fluoridation of Water Supplies Regulations 2007 |date=2 February 2007 |publisher=Irish Statute Book |access-date=12 October 2009}}</ref> The current regulations date from 2007, and set the level to 0.6–0.8 ppm, with a target value of 0.7 ppm.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishstatutebook.ie/2007/en/si/0042.html |title=S.I. No. 42 of 2007: Fluoridation of Water Supplies Regulations 2007 |date=2 February 2007 |publisher=Irish Statute Book |access-date=12 October 2009}}</ref>

Implementation of fluoridation was held up by preliminary dental surveying and water testing,<ref>Report of the Forum on Fluoridation 2002, p.73</ref> and a court case, ''Ryan v. Attorney General''.<ref name="ryan-ag-1965">{{cite BAILII |country=ie |litigants=Ryan v. Attorney General |court=IESC |year=1965 |num=1 |date=3 July 1965}}</ref>

In 1960, the [[Fianna Fáil]] minister for health, [[Seán MacEntee]], brought forward the ''Health (Fluoridation of Water Supplies) Act'' and a [[Dublin]] housewife Gladys Ryan challenged the Act as an “invasion of family rights”.<ref name="Irish Times">{{Cite news|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/life-and-style/people/brave-woman-who-challenged-state-over-fluoridation-1.1316971|title='Brave woman' who challenged State over fluoridation|work=Irish Times|access-date=2019-06-15}}</ref> Ryan lost the case, which lasted 65 days, at the [[High Court (Ireland)]], and appealed to the [[Supreme Court (Ireland)|Supreme Court]]. Ryan was represented in court by [[Seán MacBride]] who argued that fluoridation was an infringement of [[human rights]] since people had no option but to drink it. Ryan's lawyers, including [[Richie Ryan (politician)]] worked on a pro bono basis and expenses were paid by fundraising.<ref name="Irish Times" /> In 1965, the [[Supreme Court (Ireland)|Supreme Court]] rejected Gladys Ryan's appeal that the Act violated the [[Constitution of Ireland]]'s guarantee of the right to bodily integrity.<ref name="ryan-ag-1965" /><ref>Report of the Forum on Fluoridation 2002, pp.74–76</ref>

By 1965, [[Greater Dublin]]'s water was fluoridated; by 1973, other urban centers were too.<ref>Report of the Forum on Fluoridation 2002, p.76</ref> Studies from the late 1970s to mid 1990s showed a decrease in (and lower incidence of) dental decay in school children living in areas where water was fluoridated than in areas where water was not fluoridated.<ref>Report of the Forum on Fluoridation 2002, pp.76–78</ref> The government of the Republic of Ireland has yet to carry out a [[public health]] survey on the effects of fluoridation, even though this is required to under the 1960 ''Health (Fluoridation of Water Supplies) Act''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/fluoride-in-our-water-are-we-brushing-with-danger-26123011.html|title=Fluoride in our water: are we brushing with danger?|work=Irish Independent|access-date=2019-06-15}}</ref>

A [[private member's bill]] to end fluoridation was defeated in the Dáil on 12 November 2013.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oireachtas.ie/viewdoc.asp?DocID=23449&&CatID=59|title=Health (Fluoridation of Water Supplies) (Repeal) Bill 2013 [PMB] (Number 47 of 2013)|work=Bills|date=9 May 2013|publisher=Oireachtas|access-date=12 November 2013}}</ref><ref name="dail20131112">{{cite web|url=http://oireachtasdebates.oireachtas.ie/debates%20authoring/debateswebpack.nsf/takes/dail2013111200029?opendocument|title=Dáil Éireann – 12/Nov/2013 Health (Fluoridation of Water Supplies)(Repeal) Bill 2013: Second Stage (Resumed) (Continued)|date=12 November 2013|work=Dáil Éireann debates|access-date=12 November 2013}}</ref> It was supported by [[Sinn Féin]] and some of the [[technical group]] and opposed by the [[Government of the 31st Dáil|Fine Gael-Labour government]] and [[Fianna Fáil]].<ref name="dail20131112" /><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.herald.ie/news/fluoride-will-stay-in-water-after-charges-29740280.html|title=Fluoride will stay in water after charges|last=Brennan|first=Michael|date=9 November 2013|work=[[Evening Herald]]|access-date=12 November 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rte.ie/news/2013/1108/485469-tds-call-for-an-end-to-fluoride-in-water/|title=TDs call for end to fluoride in water|date=9 November 2013|work=[[RTÉ.ie]]|access-date=12 November 2013}}</ref>

There is much local government opposition to compulsory fluoridation, legally mandated nationwide by [[Dáil Éireann]]. Early in 2014, [[Cork County Council]] and [[Laois County Council]] passed motions for the cessation of water fluoridation. In Autumn 2014, [[Cork City Council]], [[Dublin City Council]] and [[Kerry County Council]] passed similar motions.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://iaomt.org/ireland-begins-give-water-fluoridation/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150102211502/http://iaomt.org/ireland-begins-give-water-fluoridation/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2015-01-02|title=Ireland Begins To Give Up On Water Fluoridation|work=IAOMT.org|access-date=2019-06-15}}</ref> However, because of the 1960 law forcing artificial fluoridation of the public water, city councils and corporations can only vote to stop fluoridation but have no power to stop it, unless the law is repealed.<ref name="fluoridefreewater.ie" />

[[Fine Gael]] was opposed to compulsory water fluoridation but they now support the policy.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.independent.ie/irish-news/fg-election-promise-to-ban-fluoride-in-drinking-water-26099298.html|title=FG election promise to ban fluoride in drinking water|work=Irish Independent|access-date=2019-06-15}}</ref> [[Fianna Fáil]] is in favour of compulsory water fluoridation and in 2004 [[Micheal Martin]] set up the pro-fluoride ''Irish Expert Body on Fluorides and Health''.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.dentalhealth.ie/dentalhealth/fluorides/forum.html|title=Forum on Fluoridation|work=dentalhealth.ie|access-date=2019-06-15|archive-date=17 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117112048/https://www.dentalhealth.ie/dentalhealth/fluorides/forum.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>

=== Italy ===
There is no water or food fluoridation in Italy. Except for isolated locations near volcanos or polluters, fluoride in water is low across the country.<ref>{{cite journal| title=The Italian perspective on fluoride intake in children and adolescents| author1=R. Ferro|author2=A. Besostri|author3=M.R. Giuca |author4=R. Docimo| author5=R. Gatto| author6=G. Marzo|journal=European Journal of Paediatric Dentistry| volume=15/1-2014| url=http://admin.ejpd.eu/download/EJPD_2014_1_10.pdf| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416173611/http://admin.ejpd.eu/download/EJPD_2014_1_10.pdf |archive-date=2019-04-16|access-date=2023-11-07 }}</ref>

=== Latvia ===
There is no water fluoridation in Latvia.<ref name=OIMextent0 /> [[Riga]]'s upper limit on natural fluoride is 1.5 mg/L.<ref name=Fluoride>{{cite web |title=Water quality |url=https://www.rigasudens.lv/water-quality/en/ |date=3 July 2014 |access-date=3 July 2014 |archive-date=14 July 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714230932/https://www.rigasudens.lv/water-quality/en/ |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== Netherlands ===
Water was fluoridated in large parts of the Netherlands from 1960 to 1973, when the [[Hoge Raad der Nederlanden|High Council of The Netherlands]] declared fluoridation of drinking water unauthorized.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3UoZAAAAIAAJ&q=fluoridering+nederland&pg=PA487|title=De Gids|first1=Everhardus Johannes|last1=Potgieter|first2=Johan Theodoor|last2=Buijis|first3=Jakob Nikolaas van|last3=Hall|first4=Pieter Nicolaas|last4=Muller|first5=Hendrik Peter Godfried|last5=Quack|date=13 February 1976|publisher=G. J. A. Beijerinck|via=Google Books}}</ref> Dutch authorities had no legal basis for adding chemicals to drinking water if they would not contribute to a sound water supply.<ref name="Bestuursrecht 1, 2de druk">{{cite web |url=http://www.boomuitgeversdenhaag.nl/cache/ab/aba2a7206d9b151808b5c433455b63f8/9054545372_hoofdstuk.pdf |author1=L.J.A. Damen |author2=P. Nicolaï |author3=J.L. Boxum |author4=K.J. de Graaf |author5=J.H. Jans |author6=A.P. Klap |author7=A.T. Marseille |author8=A.R. Neerhof |author9=B.K. Olivier |author10=B.J. Schueler |author11=F.R. Vermeer |author12=R.L. Vucsán |date=2005 |title=Bestuursrecht 1, 2de druk |publisher=Boom Uitgevers, Den Haag |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070929180043/http://www.boomuitgeversdenhaag.nl/cache/ab/aba2a7206d9b151808b5c433455b63f8/9054545372_hoofdstuk.pdf |archive-date=29 September 2007 |access-date=4 November 2009}}</ref> Drinking water has not been fluoridated in any part of the Netherlands since 1973.

=== Norway ===
In 2000, representatives of the [[Norwegian National Institute for Public Health]] reported that no cities in Norway were practicing water fluoridation. There had been intense discussion of the issue around 1980, but no ongoing political discussion in 2000.<ref name=NorwayNIPH00>{{cite web |title=Norway Has Rejected Fluoridation |url=http://www.fluoridation.com/c-norway.htm |date=1 March 2000 |last1=Krogh |last2=Hofshagen |access-date=3 June 2012}}</ref>

=== Serbia ===
About 300,000 people in Serbia (3%) were receiving fluoridated water before 2003.<ref name=OIMextent0 />

=== Spain ===
Around 10% of the population<ref name="PMID 16215546">{{cite journal |author=Mullen J |title=History of water fluoridation |journal=British Dental Journal |volume=199 |issue=7 Suppl |pages=1–4 |date=October 2005 |pmid=16215546 |doi=10.1038/sj.bdj.4812863 |author2=European Association for Paediatric Dentistry|s2cid=56981 }}</ref> (4,250,000 people)<ref name=OIMextent0 /> receive fluoridated water.

=== Sweden ===
In 1952, [[Norrköping]] in Sweden became one of the first cities in Europe to fluoridate its water supply.<ref name=Larsson1981>{{cite book |last=Larsson | first = Gerhard |author2=Bengt Bengtsson |author3=Eva Hjelmström |author4=Ove Karlsson |author5=Maj-Inger Klingvall |author6=Knut Wachtmeister |author7=Karin Östergren |title=Fluor i kariesförebyggande syfte – Betänkande av fluorberedningen | publisher = Statens offentliga utredningar / Socialdepartementet |date=May 1981 |language=sv |location=Stockholm | pages = 12 |id=SOU 1981:32 }}</ref> It was declared illegal by the [[Supreme Administrative Court of Sweden]] in 1961, re-legalized in 1962<ref>{{cite news |title=Fluoreringsfrågan avgjord |work=Västmanlands läns tidning |language=sv |date=22 November 1962}}</ref> and finally prohibited by the parliament in 1971,<ref>{{cite news |title=Stopp för fluor |work=Västmanlands läns tidning |pages=1 |language=sv |date=19 November 1971}}</ref> after considerable debate. The parliament majority said that there were other and better ways of reducing tooth decay than water fluoridation. Four cities received permission to fluoridate tap water when it was legal.<ref name=Larsson1981 />{{rp|56–57}} An official commission was formed, which published its final report in 1981. They recommended other ways of reducing tooth decay (improving food and [[oral hygiene]] habits) instead of fluoridating tap water. They also found that many people found fluoridation to infringe upon personal liberty/[[freedom of choice]] by forcing them to be medicated, and that the long-term effects of fluoridation were insufficiently acknowledged. They also lacked a proper study on the effects of fluoridation on formula-fed infants.<ref name=Larsson1981 />{{rp|29}} In the year 2004 the allowed amount of fluoride in the water was decreased to 1,5 mg/L.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.svensktvatten.se/vattentjanster/dricksvatten/riskanalys-och-provtagning/kemiska-amnen-i-vatten/fluorid/|title=Fluor – Svenskt Vatten|website=www.svensktvatten.se|date=30 March 2023 }}</ref>

=== Switzerland ===
In Switzerland, since 1962, two fluoridation programs had operated in tandem: water fluoridation in the City of [[Basel]], and salt fluoridation in the rest of Switzerland (around 83% of domestic salt sold had fluoride added). However it became increasingly difficult to keep the two programs separate. As a result, some of the population of Basel were assumed to use both fluoridated salt and fluoridated water. In order to correct the situation, in April 2003 the [[Grand Council of Basel-Stadt]] resolved to cease water fluoridation and expand salt fluoridation to Basel.<ref>J. MEYER and P. Wiehl in Schweiz Monatsschr. Zahnmed 2003; 113: 702 (in French) and 728-729 (in German)</ref><ref name=newsch00>{{cite web |title=Basel-Stadt schafft umstrittene Trinkwasserfluoridierung ab (tr: Basel-Stadt abolishes controversial water fluoridation) |url=http://www.news.ch/Basel+Stadt+schafft+umstrittene+Trinkwasserfluoridierung+ab/136556/detail.htm |date=9 April 2012 |publisher=bsk/sda |work=news.ch |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref>

=== United Kingdom ===
Around 14% of the population of the United Kingdom receives fluoridated water.<ref name="PMID 16215546"/> About half a million people receive water that is naturally fluoridated with [[calcium fluoride]], and about 6 million total receive fluoridated water.<ref name="Gibson-Moore" /> The Water Act 2003 required water suppliers to comply with requests from local health authorities to fluoridate their water.<ref name="Gibson-Moore" />

The following UK water utility companies fluoridate their supply:
* [[Anglian Water]] Services Ltd
* [[Northumbrian Water]] Ltd
* [[South Staffordshire Water]] plc
* [[Severn Trent]] plc
* [[United Utilities]] Water plc

Earlier plans were undertaken in the Health Authority areas of [[Bedfordshire]], [[Hertfordshire]], [[Birmingham]], [[Black Country]], [[Cheshire]], [[Merseyside]], [[County Durham]], [[Tees Valley]], [[Cumbria]], [[Lancashire]], [[North Yorkshire|North]], [[East Yorkshire]], Northern [[Lincolnshire]], [[Northumberland]], [[Tyne and Wear]], [[Shropshire]], [[Staffordshire]], Trent and [[West Midlands (region)|West Midlands]] South whereby fluoridation was introduced progressively in the years between 1964 and 1988.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/Water+fluoridation#Hansard|title=BMA – Home|website=www.bma.org.uk|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517084646/http://www.bma.org.uk/ap.nsf/Content/Water+fluoridation#Hansard|archive-date=17 May 2008|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

The South Central Strategic Health Authority carried out the first public consultation under the Water Act 2003, and in 2009 its board voted to fluoridate water supplies in the [[Southampton]] area to address the high incidence of tooth decay in children there.<ref name="Gibson-Moore">{{cite journal |author=Gibson-Moore H |year=2009 |title=Water fluoridation for some—should it be for all? |journal=Nutrition Bulletin |volume=34 |issue=3 |pages=291–5 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-3010.2009.01762.x}}</ref> Surveys had found that the majority of surveyed Southampton residents opposed the plan, but the Southampton City Primary Care Trust decided that "public vote could not be the deciding factor and that medical evidence shows fluoridation will reduce tooth decay – and failed to back up claims of serious negative side effects".<ref>[http://www.dentistry.co.uk/2009/06/30/southampton-fluoridation-challenge-launched/ "Southampton Fluoridation Challenge Launched"] Seb Evans in ''Dentistry.co.uk'', 30 June 2009.</ref> Fluoridation plans in the northwest of England were delayed after concerns over increased projected costs and health risks were raised.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/4510845.Fluoride_plan_costs_increase/|title=Fluoride plan costs increase|website=Lancashire Telegraph|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100326123124/http://www.lancashiretelegraph.co.uk/news/4510845.Fluoride_plan_costs_increase/|archive-date=2010-03-26|url-status=dead}}</ref> In October 2014, [[Public Health England]] abandoned plans for water fluoridation for 195,000 people in Southampton and neighbouring parts of south-west Hampshire due to opposition from both Hampshire County Council and Southampton City Council.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gov.uk/government/news/southampton-water-fluoridation-scheme |title=Public Health England (PHE) takes no further action to implement fluoridation scheme in Hampshire |author=Public Health England |date=28 October 2014 |access-date=21 December 2014}}</ref>

It was reported in 2007 that the UK Milk Fluoridation Programme, centered in the northwest of England, involved more than 16,000 children.<ref name=OHSNI00>{{cite web |title=Oral Health Strategies for Northern Ireland |url=http://www.dhsspsni.gov.uk/2007_06_25_ohs_full_7.0.pdf |year=2007 |publisher=UK Department of Health, Social Services, and Public Safety |access-date=20 May 2012}}</ref>

The water supply in Northern Ireland has never been artificially fluoridated except in two small localities where fluoride was added to the water for about 30 years. By 1999, fluoridation ceased in those two areas, as well.{{citation needed|date=May 2012}}

In 2004, following a public consultation, Scotland's parliament rejected proposals to fluoridate public drinking water.<ref name=BBCscot00 />

There are currently no community fluoridation schemes in Wales. The Welsh Government stated in November 2014 that it had no plans to fluoridate the water supply, but said that it was something the Welsh Government will continue to review.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.nhsdirect.wales.nhs.uk/encyclopaedia/f/article/fluoride|title=Fluoride|website=nhsdirectwales.wales.nhs.uk|language=en-gb|access-date=2020-01-10}}</ref>

In September 2021, the UK's chief medical officers concluded that fluoridation of water supplies would cut tooth decay.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/society/2021/sep/23/fluoride-will-be-added-to-uk-drinking-water-to-cut-tooth-decay|title=Fluoride will be added to UK drinking water to cut tooth decay|website=[[The Guardian]]|date=23 September 2021|access-date=2021-09-24}}</ref>

== North America ==
=== Canada ===
The decision to fluoridate lies with local governments, with guidelines set by provincial, territorial, and federal governments. Brantford, Ontario, became the first city in Canada to fluoridate its water supplies in 1945.<ref name="Rabb-Waytowich" /> In 1955, Toronto approved water fluoridation, but delayed implementation of the program until 1963 due to a campaign against fluoridation by broadcaster [[Gordon Sinclair]].<ref>[http://archives.cbc.ca/IDC-1-75-341-1816/science_technology/fluoride/clip4 "Gordon Sinclair's rant"], from the [http://archives.cbc.ca/index.asp?IDLan=1 Canadian Broadcasting Corporation Archives] website. Retrieved 27 March 2006.</ref> The city continues to fluoridate its water today.<ref>[http://www.toronto.ca/water/supply/supply_facilities/rlclark/filtration_process.htm "Water supply – R. L. Clark Filtration Plant"], from [http://www.toronto.ca/index.htm Toronto's] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090316100503/http://www.toronto.ca/index.htm |date=16 March 2009 }} website. Retrieved 27 March 2006.</ref> In 2008 the recommended fluoride levels in Canada were reduced from 0.8 to 1.0 mg/L to 0.7 mg/L to minimize the risk of dental fluorosis. Ontario, Alberta, and Manitoba have the highest rates of fluoridation, about 70–75%. The lowest rates are in Quebec (about 6%), British Columbia (about 4% - Vancouver does not add Fluoride), and Newfoundland and Labrador (1.5%), with Nunavut and the Yukon having no fluoridation at all.<ref name="Rabb-Waytowich" /> Overall, about 45% of the [[Canadians|Canadian]] population had access to fluoridated water supplies in 2007.<ref name="Rabb-Waytowich">{{cite journal |author=Rabb-Waytowich D |title=Water fluoridation in Canada: past and present |journal=J Can Dent Assoc |volume=75 |issue=6 |pages=451–4 |year=2009 |pmid=19627654 |url=http://cda-adc.ca/jcda/vol-75/issue-6/451.pdf }}</ref> A 2008 telephone survey found that about half of Canadian adults knew about fluoridation, and of these, 62% supported the idea.<ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Quiñonez CR, Locker D |title=Public opinions on community water fluoridation |journal=Can J Public Health |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=96–100 |year=2009 |pmid=19839282|doi=10.1007/BF03405514 |pmc=6973630 }}</ref>

In 2010, the [[Regional Municipality of Waterloo|Region of Waterloo]] held a non-binding referendum for residents to decide whether water fluoridation should continue.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.regionofwaterloo.ca/en/regionalGovernment/pastresults.asp |title=Past Results, 2010 Municipal Election: Monday, Oct. 25, 2010 |access-date=14 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114164607/http://www.regionofwaterloo.ca/en/regionalGovernment/pastresults.asp |archive-date=14 January 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name=ctvnws /> The result of the vote was 50.3% voting against fluoridation.<ref name=ctvnws>{{cite news|url=http://kitchener.ctvnews.ca/servlet/an/local/CTVNews/20101026/fluoride-vote-outcome-101026/20101026/?hub=SWOHome|title=City officials to support 'no' vote on fluoridation|date=26 October 2010|work=[[CKCO-DT]]|access-date=16 March 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.jcda.ca/article/a152 |title=Ontario Cities Vote Against Water Fluoridation |journal=J Can Dent Assoc |year=2010 |volume=76 |access-date=14 January 2015}}</ref> The regional council honored the vote, and over forty years of fluoridation in Waterloo Region ended in November.<ref>{{cite web |title=Fluoride officially turned off |url=http://www.waterloochronicle.ca/news/fluoride-officially-turned-off/ |work=www.waterloochronicle.ca |date=30 November 2010 |access-date=14 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114174111/http://www.waterloochronicle.ca/news/fluoride-officially-turned-off/ |archive-date=14 January 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

In 2011, [[Calgary]] city council voted 10–3 to stop adding fluoride to the city's drinking water, having started water fluoridation in 1991.<ref name=CBCcalgary>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/story/2011/02/08/calgary-fluoride-city-water-supply-removal.html |title=Calgary removing fluoride from water supply |date=8 February 2011 |work=www.cbc.ca |access-date=18 May 2012}}</ref><ref name=CBCcalgary1>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/story/2011/05/19/calgary-fluoride-water-stops.html |title=Calgary stops adding fluoride to water |date=19 May 2011 |work=www.cbc.ca |access-date=18 May 2012}}</ref> A research project has been planned to study the effects of Calgary's cessation, using [[Edmonton, Alberta|Edmonton]] as a control.<ref>{{cite journal |url=http://www.jcda.ca/article/e30 |title=The Impact of Removing Fluoridation from Municipal Water Supplies in Canada: a Tale of Two Cities |journal=J Can Dent Assoc |volume=80 |date=11 February 2014 |access-date=20 January 2015}}</ref>

[[Lakeshore, Ontario|Lakeshore]] and [[Amherstburg, Ontario|Amherstberg]] have voted to end water fluoridation.<ref name=windsor0 />

[[Hamilton, Ontario|Hamilton]], [[London, Ontario|London]], and [[Toronto]] have recently chosen to continue fluoridation. Toronto treats its water to 0.6 mg/L.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://news.nationalpost.com/2011/04/04/flouride-to-stay-in-tap-water/ |title=Fluoride to stay in tap water |date=5 April 2011 |author=Natalie Alcoba |work=news.nationalpost.com |access-date=15 January 2015}}</ref>

On 28 January 2013, [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]] city council voted 8–3 to cease fluoridation of Windsor's drinking water for five years, honoring a February 2012 recommendation by the Windsor Utilities Commission. [[Tecumseh, Ontario|Tecumseh]] gets its water from Windsor, and Tecmuseh's council had voted on 13 March 2012 to ask Windsor to stop fluoridating. Money formerly spent on fluoridation was reallocated to oral health and nutrition education programs. Windsor's water had been fluoridated for over fifty years.<ref name=windsor0>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.windsorstar.com/news/windsor-votes-to-remove-fluoride-from-drinking-water |title=Windsor votes to remove fluoride from drinking water |work=blogs.windsorstar.com |author=Doug Schmidt |date=30 January 2013 |access-date=13 January 2015 |archive-date=14 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150114063613/http://blogs.windsorstar.com/news/windsor-votes-to-remove-fluoride-from-drinking-water |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref name=windsor1>{{cite web |url=https://www.thestar.com/news/canada/2013/01/29/windsor_to_stop_adding_fluoride_to_water.html |title=Windsor to stop adding fluoride to water |work=www.thestar.com |date=29 January 2013 |publisher=The Canadian Press |access-date=14 January 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/tecumseh-wants-fluoride-out-of-water-1.1186207 |title=Tecumseh wants fluoride out of water |date=14 March 2012 |work=www.cbc.ca |access-date=14 January 2015}}</ref>

On 14 December 2018, [[Windsor, Ontario|Windsor]] city council voted 8–3 to reintroduce fluoridation of Windsor's drinking water. According to the Oral Health 2018 report released by the health unit, the percentage of children with tooth decay or requiring urgent care has increased by 51 per cent in 2016–17 compared to 2011–12.<ref name=windsor2>{{cite web |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/windsor/windsor-council-water-fluoride-1.4947723 |title=Windsor to put fluoride back into the water after council vote |work=www.cbc.ca |author=CBC News |date=14 December 2018 |access-date=13 March 2019}}</ref>

=== Mexico ===
Mexico has no water fluoridation program; instead it has a table salt fluoridation program. But the potable water in Mexico City has higher levels of fluoride than recommended by WHO.<ref>Galicia Chacon, Luis et al. [http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?script=sci_arttext&pid=S0188-49992011000400001 "Análisis de la concentración de fluoruro en agua potable de la delegación Tláhuac, Ciudad de México"]. ''Rev. Int. Contam. Ambient'', 2011, vol.27, n.4, pp. 283–289. {{ISSN|0188-4999}}.</ref>

[[File:US-fluoridation-1992-2006.jpeg|thumb|U.S. residents served with community water fluoridation, 1992 and 2006. The percentages are the proportions of the resident population served by public water supplies who are receiving fluoridated water.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/otheract/hpdata2010/focusareas/fa21-oral2_ppt.htm |author=Klein RJ |title=Healthy People 2010 Progress Review, Focus Area 21, Oral Health |publisher=National Center for Health Statistics |date=7 February 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090121022906/http://www.cdc.gov/nchs/about/otheract/hpdata2010/focusareas/fa21-oral2_ppt.htm |archive-date=21 January 2009 |access-date=5 January 2009}}</ref>]]

=== United States ===
{{Main|Water fluoridation in the United States}}
As of May 2000, 42 of the 50 largest U.S. cities had water fluoridation.<ref name=CDC1>{{cite web|title=The Benefits of Fluoride |url=https://www.cdc.gov/fluoridation/fact_sheets/benefits.htm |publisher=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060828015905/http://www.cdc.gov/fluoridation/fact_sheets/benefits.htm |archive-date=28 August 2006 |access-date=19 March 2006}}</ref> In 2010, 66% of all U.S. residents and 74% of U.S. residents with access to community water systems receive fluoridated water.<ref name=CDC2>{{cite web |title=2010 Water Fluoridation Statistics |url=https://www.cdc.gov/fluoridation/statistics/2010stats.htm |publisher=CDC |access-date=30 July 2012}}</ref> In 2010, a U.S. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention]] study determined that "40.7% of adolescents aged 12–15 had dental fluorosis [in 1999–2004]".<ref name="cdc.gov">{{cite report |last1=Beltrán-Aaguilar |first1=Eugenio D. |last2=Barker |first2=Laurie |last3=Dye |first3=Bruce A. |title=Prevalence and Severity of Dental Fluorosis in the United States, 1999–2004 |url=https://www.cdc.gov/nchs/data/databriefs/db53.pdf |date=November 2010 |publisher=CDC, National Center for Health Statistics |location=Hyattsville, MD |id=NCHS Data Brief No. 53 |issn=1941-4935}}</ref> In response, in 2011 the U.S. [[Department of Health and Human Services]] and the U.S. [[Environmental Protection Agency]] (EPA) proposed to reduce the recommended level of fluoride in drinking water to the lowest end of the current range, 0.7 milligrams per liter of water (mg/L), from the previous recommended maximum of 0.7 to 1.2 mg/L in recognition of the increase in sources of fluoride such as fluoridated toothpastes and mouthwashes.<ref name="ReferenceA">{{cite web |url=https://www.cdc.gov/fluoridation/faqs/|title=Community Water Fluoridation FAQs |date=2020-01-21 |website=Oral Health |publisher=CDC}}</ref>{{Failed verification|date=April 2020}} <ref>{{cite news |last=Barclay |first=Eliza |url=https://www.npr.org/blogs/health/2011/01/07/132735857/feds-lowering-fluoride-limits-in-water-to-avoid-damaging-kids-teeth |title=Feds To Lower Fluoride Limits For Water To Avoid Tooth Damage |date=2011-01-07 |work=National Public Radio}}</ref> This could effectively terminate municipal water fluoridation in areas where fluoride levels from mineral deposits and industrial pollution exceed the new recommendation.<ref>fluoridealert.org/re/thiessen-2-14-11.hhs.pdf{{dead link|date=June 2018}}</ref> As of 2021 the federal [[maximum contaminant level]] for fluoride in public water systems remains at 4.0 mg/L, which had been promulgated by EPA in 1986.<ref name="EPA DW contaminants">{{cite web |url=https://www.epa.gov/ground-water-and-drinking-water/national-primary-drinking-water-regulations |title=National Primary Drinking Water Regulations |author= |date=2021-01-05 |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) |location=Washington, D.C.}}</ref> Several states have set more stringent standards, including [[New York (state)|New York]], where the fluoride MCL is 2.2 mg/L.<ref>{{cite web |publisher=New York State Department of Health |location=Albany, NY |date=2018 |title=New York Codes, Rules and Regulations. Title 10, SubPart 5-1—Public Water Supplies. Public Water Systems; Maximum Contaminant Levels; Monitoring Requirements; Notification Requirements. |url=https://www.health.ny.gov/regulations/nycrr/title_10/part_5/docs/subpart_5-1_tables.pdf |id=Section 5-1.52—Tables}}</ref>

== Oceania ==

=== Australia ===
[[File:Percentage of Australian population with access to fluoridated water as of 2012.jpg|thumb|Australian residents served with community water fluoridation, 2005<ref>P Forster, Queensland Health Systems Review. The Consultancy Bureau, Brisbane, 2005, p. 53. Forster acknowledges this diagram as that of AJ Spencer.</ref> and 2012. The percentages are the proportions of the resident population served by public water supplies who are receiving fluoridated water.]]

{{Main|Water fluoridation in Australia}}

Australia now provides fluoridated water for 70% or more of the population in all states and territories. Many of Australia's drinking water supplies began fluoridation in the 1960s and 1970s. By 1984 almost 66% of the Australian population had access to fluoridated drinking water, represented by 850 towns and cities.<ref name="parliament">{{Cite web|url=http://www.parliament.act.gov.au/downloads/reports/1SP%20Flouridation%20part%201%20of%204.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120326182200/http://www.parliament.act.gov.au/downloads/reports/1SP%20Flouridation%20part%201%20of%204.pdf|url-status=dead|title=Inquiry into Water Fluoridation in the ACT – Report by the Standing Committee on Social Policy, 1991|archive-date=26 March 2012}}</ref><ref name="commonwealth">Commonwealth Department of Health, Fluoridation of Water: A Collection. 9; Commonwealth Department of Health, Fluoridation of Water in Australia 1984 (Canberra: Australian Government Publishing Service, 1985), 13.</ref> Some areas within Australia have [[Fluoride#Occurrence|natural fluoride]] levels in the groundwater, which was estimated in 1991 to provide drinking water to approximately 0.9% of the population.<ref name="parliament" />

The first town to fluoridate the water supply in Australia was [[Beaconsfield, Tasmania]] in 1953.<ref>{{cite book |editor1=Graham Aplin |editor2=S.G. Foster |editor3=Michael McKernan |title=Australians:Events and Places |year=1987 | publisher = Fairfax, Syme & Weldon Associates |location=Sydney, NSW, Australia | isbn = 978-0-521-34073-1 | pages = 366 | chapter = Tasmania}}</ref> [[Queensland]] became the last state to formally require the addition of fluoride to public drinking water supplies in December 2008.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/news/stories/2007/12/05/2110402.htm|title=Qld to get fluoridated water|website=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]|date=5 December 2007}}</ref>

=== Fiji ===
In 2011, [[Water Authority of Fiji]] announced that it would add fluoride to water supplied to residents of the [[Suva-Nausori corridor]], with the long term goal of adding fluoride to water nationwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.fijivillage.com/news/SuvaNausori-corridor-residents-benefit-from-fluoride-in-water-supply-rk5s92/|title=Suva/Nausori corridor residents benefit from fluoride in water supply|website=www.fijivillage.com}}</ref>

=== New Zealand ===
The use of water fluoridation first began in [[Hastings, New Zealand]] in 1954. A Commission of Inquiry was held in 1957 and then its use rapidly expanded in the mid 1960s.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/preventative-health-wellness/fluoridation/water-fluoridation/fluoridation-history| title=Fluoridation history| publisher=New Zealand Ministry of Health| date=30 August 2011| url-status=dead| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141022233058/http://www.health.govt.nz/our-work/preventative-health-wellness/fluoridation/water-fluoridation/fluoridation-history| archive-date=22 October 2014| df=dmy-all}}</ref> New Zealand now has fluoridated water supplied to about half of the total population.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.drinkingwater.org.nz/supplies/fluoridation.asp|title=Drinking Water Supplies of New Zealand by LA District|date=20 January 2011|publisher=ESR Water Group|access-date=28 January 2011|archive-date=24 July 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110724200136/http://www.drinkingwater.org.nz/supplies/fluoridation.asp|url-status=dead}}</ref> Of the six main centers, only [[Christchurch]]<ref>{{cite news|title=Christchurch targeted for new fluoridation drive|last=Newman|first=Sue|date=14 June 2005|work=Ashburton Guardian}}</ref> and [[Tauranga]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tauranga.govt.nz/council-services/water-drainage/water-supply/water-quality/fluoride.aspx|title=Tauranga City Council > Council Services > Water & Drainage > Water Supply > Water Quality > Fluoride|date=12 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121004074536/http://tauranga.govt.nz/council-services/water-drainage/water-supply/water-quality/fluoride.aspx|archive-date=4 October 2012|df=dmy-all}}</ref> do not have a fluoridated water supply. [[Wellington]]'s water supply is mostly fluoridated, but the suburbs of [[Petone]] and [[Korokoro, New Zealand|Korokoro]] receive a non-fluoridated supply.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.gw.govt.nz/fluoride-2/ |title=Fluoride |publisher=Greater Wellington Regional Council |access-date=1 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150127145029/http://www.gw.govt.nz/fluoride-2/ |archive-date=27 January 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> In [[Auckland]], the suburbs [[Onehunga]] and [[Huia Village]] do not fluoridate water.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://fluoridefree.org.nz/campaigns/auckland-city/|title=Auckland City}}</ref>

In 2013, a [[Hamilton, New Zealand|Hamilton]] [[Hamilton City Council|City Council]] committee voted to remove fluoride from late June 2013.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://tvnz.co.nz/national-news/fluoride-removed-hamilton-s-water-supply-5456588| title=Fluoride to be removed from Hamilton's water supply| date=5 June 2014| work=[[1 News]] |publisher=[[TVNZ]]}}</ref> A referendum was held during the council elections in October 2013 with approximately 70% of voters voting for fluoride to be added back into the water supply, and in March 2014, the council voted 9 to 1 to re-introduce fluoride into the supply.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.nzherald.co.nz/nz/news/article.cfm?c_id=1&objectid=11227031 |title=Hamilton votes to restart fluoridation |first1=Natalie |last1=Akoorie |first2=James |last2=Ihaka |publisher=The New Zealand Herald |date=27 March 2014 |access-date=1 April 2014}}</ref> In a 2007 referendum about half of voters in the Central Otago, South Otago and the [[Southland Region]] did not want fluoridation<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.stuff.co.nz/southland-times/news/11271 |title=Voters say no to water fluoridation|date=3 November 2007|work=[[The Southland Times]]|access-date=29 January 2011}}</ref> and voters in the [[Waitaki District]] were against water fluoridation for all Wards.<ref>{{citation |title=Waitaki District Council: all Wards with referendum vote NO to fluoridation |date=18 October 2007 }}</ref> Ashburton and Greymouth also voted against fluoridation.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.nzhealthtrust.co.nz/pdf/Fluoride_article.pdf|title=Ashburton fluoride bid fails|last=Keast|first=John|date=12 March 2007|work=[[The Press]]|access-date=29 January 2011}}</ref>

In 2014, the Prime Minister's Chief Science Advisor and the [[Royal Society of New Zealand]] published a report on the health effects of water fluoridation.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://assets.royalsociety.org.nz/media/2014/08/Health-effects-of-water-fluoridation_Aug_2014.pdf |title=Health Effects of Water Fluoridation: a Review of the Scientific Evidence |date=August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160124211204/http://assets.royalsociety.org.nz/media/2014/08/Health-effects-of-water-fluoridation_Aug_2014.pdf |archive-date=24 January 2016 |access-date=27 July 2017}}</ref>

In June 2018, the [[Supreme Court of New Zealand]] in ''New Health New Zealand Inc v South Taranaki District Council'' upheld the legality of water fluoridation in New Zealand.<ref>{{cite court |litigants= New Health New Zealand Incorporated v South Taranaki District Council |vol= 2018 |reporter= NZSC |opinion= 59 |date= 27 June 2018 |url=http://www.courtsofnz.govt.nz/cases/new-health-new-zealand-incorporated-v-south-taranaki-district-council-1/@@images/fileDecision?r=604.0641}}</ref>

In late July 2022, Director-General of Health [[Ashley Bloomfield]] ordered 14 [[Territorial authorities of New Zealand|territorial authorities]] to add fluoride to their water supplies. Bloomfield stated that this measure would boost the number of the New Zealand population receiving water fluoridation by from 51% to 60%.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Harris |first1=Sophie |title=Dr Ashley Bloomfield orders 14 councils' water supplies to be fluoridated |url=https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/300647397/dr-ashley-bloomfield-orders-14-councils-water-supplies-to-be-fluoridated |access-date=1 August 2022 |work=[[Stuff (website)|Stuff]] |date=27 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220730073811/https://www.stuff.co.nz/national/health/300647397/dr-ashley-bloomfield-orders-14-councils-water-supplies-to-be-fluoridated |archive-date=30 July 2022|url-status=live}}</ref>

== South America ==
{{Expand section|date=February 2018}}

=== Brazil ===
By 2008, 41% of people (73.2 million) in Brazil were getting artificially-fluoridated water.<ref name="OIMextent0" />

Water fluoridation was first adopted in Brazil in the city of [[Baixo Guandu]], [[Espírito Santo|ES]], in 1953. A 1974 federal law required new or enlarged water treatment plants to have fluoridation, and its availability was greatly expanded in the 1980s, with optimum fluoridation levels set at 0.8 mg/L. Today, the expansion of fluoridation in Brazil is a governmental priority; Between 2005 and 2008, fluoridation became available to 7.6 million people in 503 [[municipalities of Brazil|municipalities]].{{citation needed|date=August 2013}} As of 2008, 3,351 municipalities (60.6%) had adopted fluoridation, up from 2,466 in 2000.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/condicaodevida/pnsb2008/PNSB_2008.pdf |title=Pesquisa Nacional de saneamento Básico, 2008 |publisher=Ministro do Planejamento, Orçamento e Gestão |author=INSTITUTO BRASILEIRO DE GEOGRAFIA E ESTATÍSTICA (IBGE) |access-date=13 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150413211858/http://www.ibge.gov.br/home/estatistica/populacao/condicaodevida/pnsb2008/PNSB_2008.pdf |archive-date=13 April 2015 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

=== Chile ===
In [[Chile]] 70.5% of the population receives fluoridated water (10.1 million added by chemical means, 604,000 naturally occurring).<ref>Information from the Oral Health Department of the Chilean Ministry of Health. December 2004.</ref> The [[Biobio Region]] is the only administrative division that doesn't fluoridate water.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huellasdigitales.cl/portal/index.php/estampas-de-canete/480?task=view |title=Octava Región gana pelea por la no fluoración del agua potable |trans-title=Eighth Region wins the fight for non-fluoridation of drinking water |language=es |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408191135/http://www.huellasdigitales.cl/portal/index.php/estampas-de-canete/480?task=view |archive-date=8 April 2017 |access-date=27 July 2017 }}</ref>{{unreliable source?|date=April 2017}}

=== Colombia ===

In [[Bogotá|Bogota]], the average drinking water fluoride concentration is 0.08 ppm. [[Medellín|Medellin]] is the only city which preserves an annual oral health prevention programme based on education and fluoridated mouth rinses in public schools since 1981, and its drinking water contains an average Fluoride concentration of 0.05 ppm. Cartagena is located in the coastal region of Colombia, presenting one of the highest average temperatures in the country and its drinking water has an average Fluoride concentration of 0.08 ppm.

The average fluoride residing in Bogota and Medellin is comparable with the values reported for the optimally waterfluoridated area of Indianapolis <ref name="Franco et al">{{cite journal |last1=Franco |first1=Angela |title=Total fluoride intake in children aged 22–35 months in four Colombian cities |url=https://repositorio.uchile.cl/bitstream/handle/2250/123825/Franco_A.pdf?sequence=1#:~:text=In%20Bogot%C3%A1%2C%20the%20average%20drinking%20water%20fluoride%20concentration%20is%200.08ppm. |journal=Community Dentistry and Oral Epidemiology |date=2005 |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=1–8 |publisher=CES University, Medellin, Antioquia University, Medellin |doi=10.1111/j.1600-0528.2004.00164.x |pmid=15642041 |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Fluoridation By Country}}
[[Category:Water fluoridation|*]]
[[Category:Water by country|Fluoridation]]

Cinderella effect

2024-06-11T17:10:15Z

Coriander77: /* Background */

{{Short description|Higher prevalence of mistreatment by stepparents}}
{{about|parenting|the effect with the same name in semiconductors|floating body effect|the effect in sports, referring to a [[Cinderella (sports)|Cinderella team]]|Flutie effect}}

In [[evolutionary psychology]], the '''Cinderella effect''' is the phenomenon of higher incidence of different forms of [[child abuse]] and mistreatment by [[Stepfamily|stepparents]] than by biological parents. It takes its name from the [[fairy tale]] character [[Cinderella]], which is about a girl who is mistreated by her stepmother and stepsisters. Evolutionary psychologists describe the effect as a byproduct of a bias towards kin, and a conflict between reproductive partners of investing in young that are unrelated to one partner.

==Background==
In the early 1970s, a theory arose on the connection between stepparents and [[child maltreatment]]. In 1973, forensic psychiatrist P. D. Scott summarized information on a sample of "fatal battered-baby cases" perpetrated in anger ... 15 of the 29 killers – 52% – were stepfathers.<ref name=TAC33>Daly & Wilson (1999), p. 33</ref> Although initially there was no analysis of this raw data, empirical evidence has since been collected on what is now called the Cinderella effect through official records, reports, and census.

For over 30 years, data has been collected regarding the validity of the Cinderella effect, with a wealth of evidence indicating a direct relationship between step-relationships and abuse. This evidence of [[child abuse]] and [[homicide]] comes from a variety of sources including official reports of child abuse, clinical data, victim reports, and official homicide data.<ref name=DalyWilson2007>Daly & Wilson (2007) [http://psych.mcmaster.ca/dalywilson/Cinderella_Effect.pdf Is the "Cinderella Effect" controversial?] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110516102016/http://psych.mcmaster.ca/dalywilson/Cinderella_Effect.pdf |date=May 16, 2011 }} In Crawford & Krebs (Eds) Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology, pp. 383-400. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.</ref> Studies have concluded that "stepchildren in [[Canada]], [[Great Britain]], and the [[United States]] indeed incur greatly elevated risk of child maltreatment of various sorts, especially lethal beatings".<ref name="DalyWilson2001">{{cite journal|last=Daly|first=M.|author2=M. Wilson|title=An assessment of some proposed exceptions to the phenomenon of nepotistic discrimination against stepchildren|journal=Annales Zoologici Fennici|year=2001|volume=38|pages=287–296|url=http://www.martindaly.ca/uploads/2/3/7/0/23707972/d_w_2001_azf.pdf}}</ref>

Powerful evidence in support of the Cinderella effect comes from the finding that when abusive parents have both step and genetic children, they generally spare their genetic children. In such families, stepchildren were exclusively targeted 9 out of 10 times in one study and in 19 of 22 in another.<ref name="Crawford2008p387">Crawford (2008), p. 387</ref> In addition to displaying higher rates of negative behaviors (e.g., abuse) toward stepchildren, stepparents display fewer positive behaviors toward stepchildren than do the genetic parents. For example, on average, stepparents invest less in education, play with stepchildren less, take stepchildren to the doctor less, etc.<ref name="Crawford2008p388">Crawford (2008), p. 388</ref> This discrimination against stepchildren is unusual compared with abuse statistics involving the overall population given "the following additional facts: (1) when child abuse is detected, it is often found that ''all'' the children in the home have been victimized; and (2) stepchildren are almost always the eldest children in the home, whereas the general ... tendency in families of uniform parentage is for the youngest to be most frequent victims."<ref name="DalyWilson2001" />

==Evolutionary psychology theory==
{{See also|Infanticide (zoology)|Kin selection}}

[[Evolutionary psychology|Evolutionary psychologists]] [[Martin Daly (professor)|Martin Daly]] and [[Margo Wilson]] propose that the Cinderella effect is a direct consequence of the [[Evolution|modern evolutionary]] theory of [[inclusive fitness]], especially [[Parental investment|parental investment theory]]. They argue that human child rearing is so prolonged and costly that "a parental psychology shaped by natural selection is unlikely to be indiscriminate".<ref name="DalyWilson1985">{{Cite journal | last1 = Daly | first1 = M. | last2 = Wilson | first2 = M. | doi = 10.1016/0162-3095(85)90012-3 | title = Child abuse and other risks of not living with both parents | journal = Ethology and Sociobiology | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | pages = 197–210 | year = 1985 | s2cid = 145192777 }}</ref> According to them, "research concerning animal social behaviour provide a rationale for expecting parents to be discriminative in their care and affection, and more specifically, to discriminate in favour of their own young".<ref name=TAC8>Daly & Wilson (1999), p. 8</ref> Inclusive fitness theory proposes a selective criterion for the evolution of social traits, where social behavior that is costly to an individual organism can nevertheless emerge when there is a statistical likelihood that significant benefits of that social behavior accrue to (the survival and reproduction of) other organisms whom also carry the social trait (most straightforwardly, accrue to close genetic relatives). Under such conditions, a net overall increase in reproduction of the social trait in future generations can result.

The initial presentation of inclusive fitness theory (in the mid 1960s) focused on making the mathematical case for the possibility of social evolution, but also speculated about possible mechanisms whereby a social trait could effectively achieve this necessary statistical correlation between its likely bearers. Two possibilities were considered: The first possibility is that a social trait might reliably operate straightforwardly via social context in species where genetic relatives are usually concentrated in a local home area where they were born ("viscous populations"). The second is that genetic detection mechanisms ("supergenes") might emerge that go beyond statistical correlations, and reliably detect ''actual'' genetic relatedness between the social actors using direct "kin recognition". The relative place of these two broad types of social mechanisms has been debated (see [[Kin selection]] and [[Kin recognition]]), but many biologists consider "kin recognition" to be an important possible mechanism. Martin Daly and Margo Wilson follow this second mechanism, and expect that parents "discriminate in favour of their own young", i.e., their ''actual'' genetic relatives.

===Daly and Wilson research===
The most abundant data on stepchild mistreatment has been collected and interpreted by psychologists Martin Daly and Margo Wilson, who study with an emphasis in Neuroscience and Behavior at [[McMaster University]]. Their first measure of the validity of the Cinderella effect was based on data from the [[American Humane Association]] (AHA), an archive of child abuse reports in the United States holding over twenty thousand reports.<ref name=TAC26>Daly & Wilson (1999), p. 26</ref> These records led Wilson and Daly to conclude that "a child under three years of age who lived with one genetic parent and one stepparent in the United States in 1976 was about seven times more likely to become a validated child-abuse case in the records than one who dwelt with two genetic parents".<ref name="TAC27">Daly & Wilson (1999), p. 27</ref> Their overall findings demonstrate that children residing with stepparents have a higher risk of abuse even when other factors are considered.<ref name="DalyWilson1985" />

====Explanation====
All organisms face [[trade-off]]s as to how to invest their time, energy, risk, and other resources, so investment in one domain (e.g., [[parental investment]]) generally takes away from their ability to invest in other domains (e.g. [[mating|mating effort]], growth, or investment in other offspring).<ref name="Trivers1971">{{Cite journal | last1 = Trivers | first1 = R. L. | doi = 10.1086/406755 | title = The Evolution of Reciprocal Altruism | journal = The Quarterly Review of Biology | volume = 46 | pages = 35–57 | year = 1971 | s2cid = 19027999 }}</ref> Investment in non-genetic children therefore reduces an individual's ability to invest in itself or its genetic children, without directly bringing reproductive benefits. Thus, from an [[evolutionary biology]] perspective, one would not expect organisms to regularly and deliberately care for unrelated offspring.

Daly and Wilson point out that [[infanticide]] is an extreme form of biasing parental investment that is widely practiced in the animal world.<ref name="DalyWilson1980">{{cite journal | last1 = Daly | first1 = Martin | last2 = Wilson | first2 = Margo | year = 1980 | title = Discriminative Parental Solicitude: A Biological Perspective | journal = Journal of Marriage and Family | volume = 42 | issue = 2 | pages = 277–288 | jstor = 351225 | doi = 10.2307/351225 }}</ref> For example, when an immigrant male [[lion]] enters a pride, it is not uncommon for him to kill the cubs fathered by other males.<ref name="Bertram1975">{{Cite journal | last1 = Bertram | first1 = B. C. R. | title = Social factors influencing reproduction in wild lions | doi = 10.1111/j.1469-7998.1975.tb02246.x | journal = Journal of Zoology | volume = 177 | issue = 4 | pages = 463–482 | year = 2009 }}</ref> Since the pride can only provide support for a limited number of cubs to survive to adulthood, the killing of the cubs in [[competition (biology)|competition]] with the new male's potential offspring increases the chances of his progeny surviving to maturity.<ref name="Bertram1975" /> In addition, the act of infanticide speeds the return to [[Estrous cycle#Estrus|sexual receptivity]] in the females, allowing for the male to father his own offspring in a timelier manner.<ref name="PackerPusey1983">{{Cite journal | last1 = Packer | first1 = C. | last2 = Pusey | first2 = A. E. | doi = 10.1086/284097 | title = Adaptations of Female Lions to Infanticide by Incoming Males | journal = The American Naturalist | volume = 121 | issue = 5 | pages = 716 | year = 1983 | s2cid = 84927815 }}</ref> These observations indicate that in the animal world, males employ certain measures in order to ensure that parental investment is geared specifically toward their own offspring.<ref name="DalyWilson1980" />

Unlike the lion, however, humans in a stepparenting situation face a more complicated tradeoff since they cannot completely disown their partner's offspring from a previous relationship, as they would risk losing sexual access to their partner and any chance of producing potential offspring. Thus, according to Daly and Wilson, step-parental investment can be viewed as mating effort to ensure the possibility of future reproduction with the parent of their stepchild.<ref name="DalyWilson1996a">{{Cite journal | last1 = Daly | first1 = M. | last2 = Wilson | first2 = M. I. | doi = 10.1111/1467-8721.ep10772793 | title = Violence Against Stepchildren | journal = Current Directions in Psychological Science | volume = 5 | issue = 3 | pages = 77–81 | year = 1996 | s2cid = 3100319 }}</ref> This mating effort hypothesis suggests that humans will tend to invest more in their genetic offspring and invest just enough in their stepchildren. It is from this theoretical framework that Daly and Wilson argue that instances of child abuse towards non-biological offspring should be more frequent than towards biological offspring.<ref name="DalyWilson1996a" />

One would therefore expect greater parental responsiveness towards one's own offspring than towards unrelated children, and this will result in more positive outcomes and fewer negative outcomes towards one's own children than towards other children in which one is expected to invest (i.e., stepchildren). "If child abuse is a behavioral response influenced by natural selection, then it is more likely to occur when there are reduced [[inclusive fitness]] payoffs owing to uncertain or low relatedness".<ref name="Burgess1999">{{Cite journal | last1 = Burgess | first1 = R. L. | last2 = Drais | first2 = A. A. | doi = 10.1007/s12110-999-1008-7 | title = Beyond the "Cinderella effect" | journal = Human Nature | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 373–398 | year = 1999 | pmid = 26196415| s2cid = 24333328 }}</ref> Owing to these adaptations from natural selection, child abuse is more likely to be committed by stepparents than genetic parents—both are expected to invest heavily in the children, but genetic parents will have greater child-specific parental love that promotes positive caretaking and inhibits maltreatment.

Daly and Wilson also note that this parental love can explain why genetic offspring are more immune to lashing out by parents.<ref name="DWHomP.83">Daly & Wilson (1988), p. 83</ref> They assert that, "Child-specific parental love is the emotional mechanism that permits people to tolerate—even to rejoice in—those long years of expensive, unreciprocated parental investment".<ref name="DWHomP.83" /> They point to a study comparing natural father and stepfather families as support for the notion that stepparents do not view their stepchildren the same as their biological children, and likewise, children do not view their stepparents the same as their biological parents.<ref name="DWBussP.22">Buss (1996), p. 22</ref><ref name="Perkins1979">{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1111/j.1545-5300.1979.00175.x
| last1 = Perkins | first1 = T. F.
| last2 = Kahan | first2 = J. P.
| title = An empirical comparison of natural-father and stepfather family systems
| journal = Family Process
| volume = 18
| issue = 2
| pages = 175–183
| year = 1979
| pmid = 456500
}}</ref> This study, based on a series of questionnaires which were then subjected to statistical analyses, reports that children are less likely to go to their stepfathers for guidance and that stepfathers rate their stepchildren less positively than do natural fathers.<ref name="Perkins1979" />

Daly and Wilson's reports on the overrepresentation of stepparents in [[child murder|child homicide]] and abuse statistics support the evolutionary principle of maximizing one's inclusive fitness, formalized under [[Kin selection#Hamilton's rule|Hamilton's rule]], which helps to explain why humans will preferentially invest in close kin.<ref name="DalyWilson1985" /><ref name="DalyWilson1988a">{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1126/science.3175672
| last1 = Daly | first1 = M.
| last2 = Wilson | first2 = M.
| title = Evolutionary social psychology and family homicide
| journal = Science
| volume = 242
| issue = 4878
| pages = 519–524
| year = 1988
| pmid = 3175672
| bibcode = 1988Sci...242..519D }}</ref><ref name="Hamilton1964">{{Cite journal | last1 = Hamilton | first1 = W. D. | title = The genetical evolution of social behaviour. I | doi = 10.1016/0022-5193(64)90038-4 | journal = Journal of Theoretical Biology | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–16 | year = 1964 | pmid = 5875341| bibcode = 1964JThBi...7....1H }}</ref> [[Adoption]] statistics also substantiate this principle, in that non-kin adoptions represent a minority of worldwide adoptions.<ref name="DalyWilson1980" /> Research into the high adoption rates of [[Oceania]] shows that [[childlessness]] is the most common reason for adopting and that, in the eleven populations for which data was available, a large majority of adoptions involved a relative with a [[coefficient of relationship|coefficient of relatedness]] greater than or equal to 0.125 (e.g., genetic cousins).<ref name="Silk1980">{{Cite journal | last1 = Silk | first1 = J. B. | title = Adoption and Kinship in Oceania | doi = 10.1525/aa.1980.82.4.02a00050 | journal = American Anthropologist | volume = 82 | issue = 4 | pages = 799–820 | year = 1980 | doi-access = free }}</ref> It is also observed that parents with both biological and adopted children bias the partitioning of their estates in favor of the biological children, demonstrating again that parental behavior corresponds to the principles of [[kin selection]].<ref name="Silk1980" />

====Methods====
In their 1985 Canadian sample, Daly and Wilson classify the frequencies of different living arrangements (two natural parents, one natural parent, one natural parent with one stepparent, or other) according to child age. This was accomplished by administering a randomized telephone survey.<ref name="DalyWilson1985" />

Records of child abuse from children's aid organizations as well as police reports on runaways and juvenile offenders were then used to determine whether children from step-parental living situations were overrepresented as abuse victims when compared to the demographic data gathered from the telephone survey data. The results indicate that the only living situation that has a significant correlation to increased child abuse is one natural parent and one stepparent in the same household. While rates of running away and crime were comparable for children living with stepparents and children of single-parents, abuse rates for children living with stepparents were much higher.<ref name="DalyWilson1985" />

Daly and Wilson examined several potentially [[confounding| confounding variables]] in their research, including [[socioeconomic status]], family size, and maternal age at childbirth. However, only minor differences between natural-parent and stepparent families with respect to these factors were found, indicating that none of these are major contributing factors to the observed Cinderella effect.<ref name="DalyWilson1985" />

===Attachment theory===
{{further|Attachment theory}}

Evolutionary psychologists have also suggested that one of the causes of stepchild abuse may be the lack of a parental [[attachment theory|attachment bond]] that the mother would normally form with her own child.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Daly |first=Martin |last2=Wilson |first2=Margo |date=November 2005 |title=The ‘Cinderella effect’ is no fairy tale |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.tics.2005.09.007 |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=9 |issue=11 |pages=507–508 |doi=10.1016/j.tics.2005.09.007 |issn=1364-6613}}</ref> An attachment bond will, in general, be more secure if formed before the age of two, and adoption can often disrupt the development of this bond. An infant who is fed by the primary parental figure, usually the mother, and has the mother present during severely physically painful events will have formed a stronger parental attachment bond, and either a consistent omission of the mother from this process or an alteration between two people (the original mother and the adoptive mother) can cause either an insecure attachment or disorganized attachment from the parent to the child {{Citation needed |date=February 2016}}. As a result, it is highly recommended by most psychologists that the adoptive mother be present very early in the infant's life, preferably immediately after its birth, in order to avoid attachment disruptions and attachment disorders.<ref name=Cooper1998>{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1037/0022-3514.74.5.1380
| last1 = Cooper | first1 = M. L.
| last2 = Shaver | first2 = P. R.
| last3 = Collins | first3 = N. L.
| title = Attachment styles, emotion regulation, and adjustment in adolescence
| journal = Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
| volume = 74
| issue = 5
| pages = 1380–1397
| year = 1998
| pmid = 9599450
}}</ref> This theory cannot be a whole explanation for the Cinderella effect, as psychological research has shown that secure attachment bonds can be developed between a parent and adopted child, and the quality of the relationship between parent and child will more often depend on the child's pre-adoption experiences, such as length of time in social care and previous trauma, more than characteristics of the parents.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=van Londen |first1=W. Monique |last2=Juffer |first2=Femmie |last3=van IJzendoorn |first3=Marinus H. |author3-link=Marinus van IJzendoorn |title=Attachment, Cognitive, and Motor Development in Adopted Children: Short-term Outcomes after International Adoption |journal=Journal of Pediatric Psychology |date=20 June 2007 |volume=32 |issue=10 |pages=1249–1258 |doi=10.1093/jpepsy/jsm062|pmid=17709336 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===Misunderstandings===

It is sometimes argued that this evolutionary psychological account does not explain why the majority of stepparents do not abuse their partners' children, or why a significant minority of genetic parents do abuse their own offspring. However, their argument is based on a misunderstanding: the evolutionary psychological account is that (all else equal) parents will love their own children more than other people's children – it does not argue that stepparents will "want" to abuse their partner's children, or that genetic parenthood is absolute proof against abuse. Under this account, step-parental care is seen as "mating effort" towards the genetic parent, such that most interactions between stepparent and stepchildren will be generally positive or at least neutral, just usually not as positive as interactions between the genetic parent and the child would be.<ref name=TAC>Daly & Wilson (1999)</ref>

Robert Burgess and Alicia Dais offer an explanatory model for child maltreatment that adds on to the evolutionary psychological theories regarding child maltreatment. Burgess and Dais state that ecological conditions in conjunction with conflicting parent and child personality traits may also play a role in child maltreatment seen in the Cinderella effect.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Burgess |first=Robert |last2=Drais |first2=Alicia L. |date=December 1999 |title=Beyond the 'Cinderella effect': Life history theory and child maltreatment. |journal=Human Nature |volume=10 |issue=4 |pages=373–398 |doi=10.1007/s12110-999-1008-7 |pmid=26196415 |s2cid=24333328 |via=EBSCO}}</ref>

==Supportive evidence==
Strong support for the Cinderella effect as described by Daly and Wilson comes from a study of unintentional childhood fatal injuries in [[Australia]].<ref name="Tooley2006">{{Cite journal| last1 = Tooley | first1 = G.| last2 = Karakis | first2 = M.| last3 = Stokes | first3 = M.| last4 = Ozannesmith | first4 = J.| title = Generalising the Cinderella Effect to unintentional childhood fatalities| journal = Evolution and Human Behavior| volume = 27| issue = 3| pages = 224–230| year = 2006| doi = 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2005.10.001}}</ref> Tooley et al. follow the argument of Daly and Wilson to extend the Cinderella effect from cases of abuse to incidents of unintentional fatalities. Children are not only vulnerable to abuse by their parents, but they are also dependent on their parents for supervision and protection from a variety of other harms.<ref name="Tooley2006" /><ref name="Wadsworth1983">{{Cite journal | last1 = Wadsworth | first1 = J. | last2 = Burnell | first2 = I. | last3 = Taylor | first3 = B. | last4 = Butler | first4 = N. | title = Family type and accidents in preschool children | doi = 10.1136/jech.37.2.100 | journal = Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health | volume = 37 | issue = 2 | pages = 100–104 | year = 1983 | pmid = 6886577| pmc = 1052270}}</ref> Given that parental supervision is fundamentally correlated to incidents {{verify spelling|date=September 2022|reason=''incidence'' is normally used only in the singular form, perhaps ''incidence'', ''incidents'', or ''instances'' was intended}} of unintentional childhood injury as shown by Wadsworth et al. and Peterson & Stern, Tooley et al. posit that selective pressures would favor an inclination towards parental vigilance against threats to offspring well-being.<ref name="Tooley2006" /><ref name="Wadsworth1983" /><ref name="Peterson1997">{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1016/S0005-7967(96)00100-3
| last1 = Peterson | first1 = L.
| last2 = Stern | first2 = B. L.
| title = Family processes and child risk for injury
| journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy
| volume = 35
| issue = 3
| pages = 179–190
| year = 1997
| pmid = 9125098
}}</ref> Tooley et al. further argue that parental vigilance is not as highly engaged in stepparents as genetic parents, therefore placing stepchildren at greater risk for unintentional injury.<ref name="Tooley2006" />

Based on data gathered from the Australia National Coroners' Information System, stepchildren under five years of age are two to fifteen times more likely to experience an unintentional fatal injury, especially drowning, than genetic children.<ref name="Tooley2006" /> Additionally, the study finds that the risks of unintentional fatal injury are not significantly higher for genetic children in single parent homes versus two-parent homes.<ref name="Tooley2006" /> This difference suggests that removing one biological parent from the home does not significantly increase risk to the children, but that adding a non-biological parent to the home results in a drastic increase in the risk of unintentional fatal injury.<ref name="Tooley2006" /> Despite the fact that adding a stepparent to the home increases the available resources in terms of supervision in comparison to a single-parent home, risk of unintentional fatal injury still significantly rises.<ref name="Tooley2006" /> This higher risk of injury for stepchildren can be attributed to the fact that stepparents occupy the same supervisory role as a genetic parent, yet they have a lower intrinsic commitment to protecting the child and therefore are less likely to be adequately vigilant.<ref name="Tooley2006" /> The authors conclude that the Cinderella effect applies not only to purposeful abuse by stepparents, but is also relevant to explaining increased rates of accidental fatalities among stepchildren.<ref name="Tooley2006" />

Furthermore, a study of parental investment behaviors among American men living in [[Albuquerque]], New Mexico, reveals a trend of increasing financial expenditures on genetic offspring in comparison to step-offspring, which also suggests that parents are less inclined to preserve the well-being of stepchildren.<ref name="Anderson1999a">{{Cite journal | last1 = Anderson | first1 = K. G. | last2 = Kaplan | first2 = H. | last3 = Lancaster | first3 = J. | doi = 10.1016/S1090-5138(99)00023-9 | title = Paternal Care by Genetic Fathers and Stepfathers I | journal = Evolution and Human Behavior | volume = 20 | issue = 6 | pages = 405–431 | year = 1999 }}</ref> The study assesses paternal investment based on four measures: the probability that a child attends college, the probability that the child receives money for college, the total money spent on children, and the amount of time per week spent with children.<ref name="Anderson1999a" /> Four different classifications of father-child relationships are examined and compared, including fathers living with their genetic children and stepfathers living with the stepchildren of their current mates.<ref name="Anderson1999a" /> Though the study finds a clear trend of increasing investment in genetic children, the data also shows that stepfathers do still invest substantially in stepchildren.<ref name="Anderson1999a" /> The authors explain the parental investment exhibited by stepfathers towards stepchildren as possibly motivated by the potential to improve the quality or increase the duration of the man's relationship with the stepchildren's mother.<ref name="Anderson1999a" /> This studied corroborates the findings of Lynn White, that stepparents in general provide less [[social support]] to stepchildren than their genetic children.<ref name="White1994">White (1994), pp. 109–137</ref>

Though the general trend of the data from this study supports the Cinderella effect, Anderson and colleagues note that the observed differences between investment in children and stepchildren might be slightly reduced by a few confounding factors.<ref name="Anderson1999a" /> For example, the authors point out that stepparenting is a [[self-selection bias|self-selective]] process, and that when all else is equal, men who bond with unrelated children are more likely to become stepfathers, a factor that is likely to be a confounding variable in efforts to study the Cinderella effect.<ref name="Anderson1999a" /> Anderson and colleagues also conducted a similar study of [[xhosa people|Xhosa]] students in [[South Africa]] that analyzes the same four classifications of adult-child relationships, and this study offers similar results to those observed among men in Albuquerque.<ref name="Anderson1999b">{{Cite journal | last1 = Anderson | first1 = K. G. | last2 = Kaplan | first2 = H. | last3 = Lam | first3 = D. | last4 = Lancaster | first4 = J. | title = Paternal Care by Genetic Fathers and Stepfathers II | doi = 10.1016/S1090-5138(99)00022-7 | journal = Evolution and Human Behavior | volume = 20 | issue = 6 | pages = 433–451 | year = 1999 }}</ref>

Additionally, a study of [[Hadza people|Hadza]] foragers in [[Tanzania]] by Marlowe also finds evidence of decreased care provided by men to stepchildren when compared with genetic children.<ref name="Marlowe1999">{{Cite journal | last1 = Marlowe | first1 = F. | doi = 10.1007/s002650050592 | title = Male care and mating effort among Hadza foragers | journal = Behavioral Ecology and Sociobiology | volume = 46 | pages = 57–64 | year = 1999 | s2cid = 1962960 }}</ref> The author uses the [[Mann-Whitney U|Mann-Whitney U-tests]] to evaluate most of the observed differences in care exhibited towards children and stepchildren, and finds that Hadza men spend less time with (U=96), communicate less with (U=94.5), nurture less, and never play with their stepchildren.<ref name="Marlowe1999" /> Marlowe further argues that any care that is provided towards stepchildren is likely attributable to the man's mating efforts and not parental interest in the well-being of the stepchildren.<ref name="Marlowe1999" />

In further support of the Cinderella effect as elaborated by Daly and Wilson, a study conducted in a rural village in [[Trinidad]] demonstrates that in households containing both genetic children and stepchildren, fathers devote approximately twice as much time to interaction with genetic offspring in comparison to stepchildren.<ref name="Flinn1988">{{Cite journal | last1 = Flinn | first1 = M. V. | title = Step- and genetic parent/offspring relationships in a Caribbean village | doi = 10.1016/0162-3095(88)90026-X | journal = Ethology and Sociobiology | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 335–377 | year = 1988 }}</ref> Additionally, this study finds that the duration of the relationship between the stepfather and stepchildren is negatively correlated with the relative proportion of interaction time and positively correlated with the relative proportion of antagonistic interactions between the two.<ref name="Flinn1988" /> As a proportion of total time spent interacting with genetic and stepchildren, stepfathers are shown to have approximately 75 percent more antagonistic interactions with stepchildren.<ref name="Flinn1988" /> In this study, antagonistic interactions are defined as involving physical or verbal combat or an expression of injury. This includes, for example, spanking, screaming, crying, and arguing. The duration of the relationship between genetic fathers and children shows a positive correlation with both relative proportion of interaction time and antagonistic interaction.<ref name="Flinn1988" /> The author argues that these results show that in terms of time invested, men favor their children over stepchildren, and this preference is not attributable to the duration of the adult-child relationship, a factor which is sometimes believed to be a confounding variable in the Cinderella effect.<ref name="Flinn1988" /> Though this study does claim a significant increase in antagonistic behavior between stepparents and stepchildren and therefore supports the Cinderella effect, it also notes that only six percent of all the observed parent-child interactions were considered antagonistic, and that the researchers never noticed any blatant physical child abuse.<ref name="Flinn1988" />

==Criticism==

=== David Buller ===
[[Philosopher of science]] David Buller, as a part of his general critique of evolutionary psychology,<ref name="Holcomb2005">{{cite journal|last=Holcomb|first=H. R.|title=Book Review: Buller does to Evolutionary Psychology what Kitcher did to Sociobiology|journal=Evolutionary Psychology|year=2005|volume=3|pages=392–401|url=http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/ep03392401.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080216074805/http://www.epjournal.net/filestore/ep03392401.pdf|url-status=usurped|archive-date=February 16, 2008|doi=10.1177/147470490500300127|s2cid=17404130|doi-access=free}}</ref> has reviewed Daly and Wilson's data. He argues that evolutionary psychology (EP) mistakenly attempts to discover human [[psychological adaptation]]s rather than "the evolutionary causes of psychological traits". Buller also argues that Daly and Wilson's 1985 Canadian sample included cases of sexual abuse as well as cases of unintentional omission, such as not buckling a child's seatbelt in the car. Buller asserts that unintentional omission does not fall under the realm of dangerous acts, and rather should be designated "maltreatment". He argues that since sexual abuse is not often accompanied by physical abuse, it is unreasonable to assume that it is motivated by the same kind of psychological mechanism as child homicide.<ref name="Buller2005a">{{Cite journal | last1 = Buller | first1 = D. J. | author1-link = David Buller | title = Evolutionary psychology: The emperor's new paradigm | doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2005.04.003 | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 9 | issue = 6 | pages = 277–283 | year = 2005 | pmid = 15925806 | s2cid = 6901180 | url = http://commons.lib.niu.edu/handle/10843/13182 | hdl = 10843/13182 | hdl-access = free | access-date = 2019-08-16 | archive-date = 2020-07-29 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200729000254/http://commons.lib.niu.edu/handle/10843/13182 | url-status = dead }}</ref> Buller also points out that the conclusion that non-biological parents are more likely to abuse children is contradicted by the fact that even if the rate of abuse among stepparents was disproportionate, the lowest rate of child abuse is found among adoptive parents.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Buller |first=David J. |author-link=David Buller |title=Adapting minds: evolutionary psychology and the persistent quest for human nature |year=2006 |orig-year=2005 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=0-262-52460-0 |pages=378–381 |oclc=300314794}}</ref> Daly and Wilson respond to Buller's criticism by stating that Buller confuses the empirical statistical findings, which define the Cinderella effect, with the proposed theoretical framework, which offers an evolutionary explanation for the data.<ref name="DalyWilson2005" />

Buller also argues that Daly and Wilson's findings are inherently biased since they use data from official documents, and the officials collecting that data are trained to take special notice of stepparents versus biological parents.<ref name="Buller2005b">{{Cite journal | last1 = Buller | first1 = D. J. | author1-link = David Buller | last2 = Fodor | first2 = J. | last3 = Crume | first3 = T. L. | doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2005.09.008 | title = The emperor is still under-dressed | journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences | volume = 9 | issue = 11 | pages = 508–510 | year = 2005 | s2cid = 54394486 | url = https://commons.lib.niu.edu/handle/10843/22464 }}</ref> Furthermore, Buller states that since Daly and Wilson rely on official reports (such as death certificates) for their data, and that this data is inherently biased against stepparents.<ref name="Buller2005b" /> He cites a [[Colorado]] study, in which it was found that maltreatment fatalities were more likely to be correctly reported on death certificates when an unrelated individual was the perpetrator rather than when a parent was the perpetrator, suggesting that the data is empirically skewed to support the Cinderella effect.<ref name="Crume2002">{{Cite journal
| doi = 10.1542/peds.110.1.1
| last1 = Tan | first1 = T. Q.
| last2 = Mason Jr | first2 = E. O.
| last3 = Wald | first3 = E. R.
| last4 = Barson | first4 = W. J.
| last5 = Schutze | first5 = G. E.
| last6 = Bradley | first6 = J. S.
| last7 = Givner | first7 = L. B.
| last8 = Yogev | first8 = R.
| last9 = Kim | first9 = K. S.
| last10 = Kaplan | first10 = S. L.
| title = Clinical characteristics of children with complicated pneumonia caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae
| journal = Pediatrics
| volume = 110
| issue = 1 Pt 1
| pages = 1–6
| year = 2002
| pmid = 12093940
}}</ref> According to this study, by Crume et al., when the perpetrator of the murder was a parent, maltreatment was correctly noted on the death certificate only 46 percent of the time. Furthermore, they found that when the perpetrator was an "Other unrelated (including boyfriend)" individual, maltreatment was reported on the death certificate 86 percent of the time, significantly higher than for parents.<ref name="Crume2002" /> Although these statistics seem to provide evidence of bias against stepparents, further review of the data undermines this conclusion. As Crume et al. and Daly and Wilson note, maltreatment was only likely to be reported on the death certificates 47 percent of the time in the case of "Other relatives (including step-parents)", which represents a marginal increase from the amount of parental maltreatment.<ref name="DalyWilson2005">{{Cite journal
| last1 = Daly | first1 = M.
| last2 = Wilson | first2 = M.
| doi = 10.1016/j.tics.2005.09.007
| title = The 'Cinderella effect' is no fairy tale
| journal = Trends in Cognitive Sciences
| volume = 9
| issue = 11
| pages = 507–508; author 508 508–508
| year = 2005
| pmid = 16213186
| s2cid = 4108029
}}</ref><ref name="Crume2002" /> Therefore, as Daly and Wilson respond to Buller's critique, this does not seem to be a significant source of error in studying the Cinderella effect and does not provide evidence for inherent bias in their data.<ref name="DalyWilson2005" />

=== Temrin et al. Sweden study ===
The findings of Daly and Wilson have been called into question by one study of child homicides in [[Sweden]] between 1975 and 1995, which found that children living in households with a non-genetic parent were not at an increased risk of homicide when compared to children living with both genetic parents. The study, published in 2000 and conducted by Temrin and colleagues argued that when Daly and Wilson classified homicides according to family situation, they did not account for the genetic relatedness of the parent who actually committed the crime. In the Swedish sample, in two out of the seven homicides with a genetic and non-genetic parent, the offender was actually the genetic parent and thus these homicides do not support Daly and Wilson's definition of the Cinderella effect.<ref name="Temrin2000">{{Cite journal | last1 = Temrin | first1 = H. | last2 = Buchmayer | first2 = S. | last3 = Enquist | first3 = M. | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2000.1094 | title = Step-parents and infanticide: New data contradict evolutionary predictions | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences | volume = 267 | issue = 1446 | pages = 943–945 | year = 2000 | pmid = 10853739| pmc = 1690621}}</ref>

Daly and Wilson attribute the contrasting findings of the Swedish study to an analytical oversight. Temrin and colleagues neglect to consider the fact that the proportion of children in living situations with a stepparent is not constant for all child age groups, but rather increases with age. After correcting for age differences, the Swedish data set produces results in accordance with the previous findings of Daly and Wilson. The Swedish sample does show, however, decreased risk to children living with a stepparent compared to the North American samples collected by Daly and Wilson, suggesting that there is some degree of cross-cultural variation in the Cinderella effect.<ref name="DalyWilson2001" />

===Alternative hypotheses===
It has been noted by multiple researchers that child abuse is an intricate issue and is affected by other factors.<ref name="Burgess1999" /><ref name="Temrin2000" /><ref name="Giles-Sims1984">{{cite journal | last1 = Giles-Sims | first1 = Jean | last2 = Finkelhor | first2 = David | author2-link = David Finkelhor | year = 1984 | title = Child Abuse in Stepfamilies | journal = Family Relations | volume = 33 | issue = 3 | pages = 407–413 | jstor = 584711 | doi = 10.2307/584711 }}</ref> Daly and Wilson state, however, that even if evolutionary psychology cannot account for every instance of step-parental abuse, this does not invalidate their empirical findings.<ref name="DalyWilson2005" />

Burgess and Drais propose that child maltreatment is too complex to be explained fully by genetic relatedness alone and cite other reasons for child maltreatment, such as social factors, ecological factors and child traits such as disability and age.<ref name="Burgess1999" /> However, they also note that these traits are simply indicative, and do not inevitably lead to child maltreatment.<ref name="Burgess1999" /> Temrin and colleagues also suggest that there may be other factors involved with child homicide, such as prior convictions, drug abuse problems, lost custody battles and mental health problems.<ref name="Temrin2000" />

In 1984, Giles-Sims and [[David Finkelhor]] categorized and evaluated five possible hypotheses that could explain the Cinderella effect: "social-evolutionary theory", "normative theory", "stress theory", "selection factors", and "resource theory". The social-evolutionary theory is based on the proposal that non-genetically related parents will invest less in costly parental duties, due to the fact that their genes are not being passed on by that individual. The normative theory proposes that, due to genetic repercussions, incest among genetically related individuals is a widespread taboo and would thus be less common among biological relatives. They propose that incest among stepfamilies would be less taboo, since there is no risk of genetic degradation. The stress theory proposes that increased stressors, which are inherently more common among stepfamilies, cause an increased risk of abuse. The selection factors theory proposes that individuals who are likely to be stepparents (divorcees) are likely to be inherently more violent due to emotional disturbances, aggressive impulses, and self-esteem issues. Due to this, stepparents as a group would have a higher proportion of individuals with violent-prone characteristics, which would suggest that the abuse is happening due to personality factors, rather than the step-parental relationship directly. Finally, according to resource theory, individuals who contribute resources are granted authority, while individuals that lack resources are denied authority and more likely to resort to violence to obtain authority. It is therefore hypothesized that stepparents who are able to contribute resources to a family and have those resources be accepted by the family are less likely to be abusive. However, this hypothesis had yet to be tested directly on stepfamilies.<ref name="Giles-Sims1984" />

===Ethical issues===
Discussing the implications of this line of research, Australian psychologist Greg Tooley, author of a 2006 study confirming the existence of the effect,<ref name="Tooley2006" /> confessed that "it is certainly difficult to talk about because it is such a hot issue".<ref name=Trounson2008>Andrew Trounson, [http://flwg.com.au/pg/news/view/general_2/children-safer-with Children 'safer with biological parent'] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129225231/http://flwg.com.au/pg/news/view/general_2/children-safer-with |date=2018-11-29 }}, ''[[The Australian]]'', May 07, 2008</ref>

==See also==
{{columns-list|colwidth=22em|
*[[Rotten kid theorem]]
* [[Cinderella complex]]
* [[Family]]
* [[Maternal bond]]
* [[Nuclear family]]
* [[Parental investment]] theory
* [[Parenting]]
* [[Paternal bond]]
* [[The WAVE Trust]]
}}

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*Burgess, R. L., & Drais, A. A. (1999). Beyond the “Cinderella effect”: Life history theory and child maltreatment. Human Nature, 10(4), 373–398. {{doi|10.1007/s12110-999-1008-7}}
*{{cite book|author1=Martin Daly|author2=Margo Wilson|title=Homicide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3p4br9FRAUgC|access-date=4 November 2012|year=1988|publisher=Transaction Publishers|isbn=978-0-202-01178-3}}
*{{cite book|author1=Martin Daly|author2=Margo Wilson|title=The Truth about Cinderella: A Darwinian View of Parental Love|url=https://archive.org/details/truthaboutcinder00mart|url-access=registration|access-date=4 November 2012|date=11 October 1999|publisher=Yale University Press|isbn=978-0-300-08029-2}}
*{{cite book|last=Crawford|first=Charles|author2=Dennis Krebs|title=Foundations of Evolutionary Psychology|year=2008|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum Associates|location=New York|isbn=978-0-8058-5957-7}}
*{{cite book|last=Buss|first=David|title=Sex, power, conflict: feminist and evolutionary perspectives|year=1996|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-0-19-510357-1}}
*{{cite book|editor1-last=Booth|editor1-first=A.|editor2-last=Dunn|editor2-first=J.|author=White, Lynn|title=Stepfamilies. Who benefits? Who does not?|year=1994|publisher=Lawrence Erlbaum|location=Hillsdale|isbn=978-0-8058-1544-3}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite journal
| last1=Gelles |first1=Richard J.
| last2=Harrop |first2=John W.
|date=January 1991
| title = The Risk of Abusive Violence Among Children with Nongenetic Caretakers
| journal = Family Relations
| doi = 10.2307/585662
| jstor =585662
| volume = 40
| issue = 1
| pages = 78–83
}}
* [[Nigel Barber]] (June 1, 2009), [http://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/the-human-beast/200906/do-parents-favor-natural-children-over-adopted-ones Do parents favor natural children over adopted ones?], ''The Human Beast'' blog on ''[[Psychology Today]]'', discussing:
* {{Cite journal| last1 = Hamilton | first1 = L.| last2 = Cheng | first2 = S.| last3 = Powell | first3 = B.| title = Adoptive Parents, Adaptive Parents: Evaluating the Importance of Biological Ties for Parental Investment| journal = American Sociological Review| volume = 72| pages = 95–116| year = 2007| doi = 10.1177/000312240707200105| s2cid = 145210023}}
* {{Cite journal| last1 = Gibson | first1 = K.| title = Differential parental investment in families with both adopted and genetic children| journal = [[Evolution and Human Behavior]]| volume = 30| issue = 3| pages = 184–189| year = 2009| doi = 10.1016/j.evolhumbehav.2009.01.001}}
* Mindelle Jacobs (July 4, 2010), [http://www.edmontonsun.com/comment/columnists/2010/07/02/14594536.html The Cinderella effect is not just a fairy tale] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202010258/http://www.edmontonsun.com/comment/columnists/2010/07/02/14594536.html |date=2017-02-02 }}, [[Edmonton Sun]]

==External links==
*[https://www.psychvarsity.com/The-Cinderella-Effect The Cinderella Effect - The dark truth behind your stepparents]

{{Parenting}}
{{Evolutionary psychology}}
{{Cinderella}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cinderella Effect}}
[[Category:Child abuse]]
[[Category:Evolutionary psychology]]
[[Category:Childhood]]
[[Category:Abuse]]
[[Category:Family]]
[[Category:Foster care]]
[[Category:Parenting]]
[[Category:Kinship and descent]]
[[Category:Cinderella]]

Osemozotan

2024-06-11T16:56:35Z

Coriander77: /* Pharmacokinetics */ copyediting

{{Short description|Pharmaceutical drug}}
{{Drugbox
| Verifiedfields = changed
| Watchedfields = changed
| verifiedrevid = 451554517
| IUPAC_name = 5-(3-[((2S)-1,4-benzodioxan-2-ylmethyl)amino]propoxy)-1,3-benzodioxole
| image = Osemozotan.svg


| tradename =
| pregnancy_category =
| legal_status = Uncontrolled
| routes_of_administration =


| bioavailability =
| metabolism =
| elimination_half-life =
| excretion =


| CAS_number_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| CAS_number = 137275-81-1
| ATC_prefix =
| ATC_suffix =
| PubChem = 198746
| ChemSpiderID_Ref = {{chemspidercite|changed|chemspider}}
| UNII_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII = M65825806Q
| ChemSpiderID = 172023
| index2_label = HCl
| CAS_number2_Ref = {{cascite|correct|CAS}}
| CAS_number2 = 137275-80-0
| UNII2_Ref = {{fdacite|correct|FDA}}
| UNII2 = F0WKFYPQL8

| C=20 | H=23 | N=1 | O=4
| smiles = C1[C@@H](OC2=CC=CC=C2O1)CNCCCOC3=CC4=C(C=C3)OCO4
| StdInChI_Ref = {{stdinchicite|changed|chemspider}}
| StdInChI = 1S/C19H21NO5/c1-2-5-18-16(4-1)22-12-15(25-18)11-20-8-3-9-21-14-6-7-17-19(10-14)24-13-23-17/h1-2,4-7,10,15,20H,3,8-9,11-13H2/t15-/m0/s1
| StdInChIKey_Ref = {{stdinchicite|changed|chemspider}}
| StdInChIKey = MEEQBDCQPIZMLY-HNNXBMFYSA-N

}}

'''Osemozotan''' ('''MKC-242''') is a [[binding selectivity|selective]] [[5-HT1A receptor|5-HT1A receptor]] [[agonist]] with some [[functional selectivity]], acting as a [[full agonist]] at presynaptic and a [[partial agonist]] at postsynaptic 5-HT1A receptors.<ref name="pmid8786639"/> 5-HT1A receptor stimulation influences the release of various [[neurotransmitter]]s including [[serotonin]], [[dopamine]], [[norepinephrine]], and [[acetylcholine]].<ref name= "Main">{{cite journal | vauthors = Matsuda T | title = Neuropharmacologic studies on the brain serotonin1A receptor using the selective agonist osemozotan | journal = Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin | volume = 36 | issue = 12 | pages = 1871–82 | date = 2013 | pmid = 24292048 | doi = 10.1248/bpb.b13-00645 | doi-access = free }}</ref> 5-HT1A receptors are inhibitory [[G protein-coupled receptor]].<ref name="pmid7894328">{{cite journal | vauthors = Saudou F, Hen R | title = 5-Hydroxytryptamine receptor subtypes in vertebrates and invertebrates | journal = Neurochemistry International | volume = 25 | issue = 6 | pages = 503–32 | date = December 1994 | pmid = 7894328 | doi = 10.1016/0197-0186(94)90150-3 | s2cid = 34436470 }}</ref>

Osemozotan has been show to have [[antidepressant]], [[anxiolytic]], [[antiobsessional]], [[serenic]], and [[analgesic]] effects through animal studies.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Abe M, Tabata R, Saito K, Matsuda T, Baba A, Egawa M | title = Novel benzodioxan derivative, 5-[3-[((2S)-1,4-benzodioxan-2-ylmethyl) amino]propoxy]-1,3-benzodioxole HCl (MKC-242), with anxiolytic-like and antidepressant-like effects in animal models | journal = The Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapeutics | volume = 278 | issue = 2 | pages = 898–905 | date = August 1996 | pmid = 8768745 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sakaue M, Ago Y, Sowa C, Koyama Y, Baba A, Matsuda T | title = The 5-HT1A receptor agonist MKC-242 increases the exploratory activity of mice in the elevated plus-maze | journal = European Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 458 | issue = 1–2 | pages = 141–4 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12498918 | doi = 10.1016/S0014-2999(02)02786-3 }}</ref><ref name="Marbles">Abe, Michikazu, Hiroshi Nakai, Reiko Tabata, Ken-Ichi Saito, and Mitsuo Egawa. "Effect of 5-{3-[((2S)-1,4-Benzodioxan-2-ylmethyl)amino]propoxy}-1,3-benzodioxole HCL (MKC-242), a Novel 5-HT1A-Receptor Agonist, on Aggressive Behavior and Marble Burying Behavior in Mice." ''Jpn. J. Pharmacol.'' '''76''' (1998): 297-304.</ref><ref name="Main" /> It is used to investigate the role of 5-HT1A receptors in modulating the release of [[dopamine]] and [[serotonin]] in the brain<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sakaue M, Somboonthum P, Nishihara B, Koyama Y, Hashimoto H, Baba A, Matsuda T | title = Postsynaptic 5-hydroxytryptamine(1A) receptor activation increases in vivo dopamine release in rat prefrontal cortex | journal = British Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 129 | issue = 5 | pages = 1028–34 | date = March 2000 | pmid = 10696105 | pmc = 1571922 | doi = 10.1038/sj.bjp.0703139 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ago Y, Koyama Y, Baba A, Matsuda T | title = Regulation by 5-HT1A receptors of the in vivo release of 5-HT and DA in mouse frontal cortex | journal = Neuropharmacology | volume = 45 | issue = 8 | pages = 1050–6 | date = December 2003 | pmid = 14614948 | doi = 10.1016/S0028-3908(03)00304-6 | s2cid = 20463997 }}</ref> and their involvement in addiction to stimulants such as cocaine and methamphetamine.<ref name="pmid16863654" /><ref name="pmid16962650" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ago Y, Nakamura S, Baba A, Matsuda T | title = Neuropsychotoxicity of abused drugs: effects of serotonin receptor ligands on methamphetamine- and cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization in mice | journal = Journal of Pharmacological Sciences | volume = 106 | issue = 1 | pages = 15–21 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18198473 | doi = 10.1254/jphs.FM0070121 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsuchida R, Kubo M, Kuroda M, Shibasaki Y, Shintani N, Abe M, Köves K, Hashimoto H, Baba A | display-authors = 6 | title = An antihyperkinetic action by the serotonin 1A-receptor agonist osemozotan co-administered with psychostimulants or the non-stimulant atomoxetine in mice | journal = Journal of Pharmacological Sciences | volume = 109 | issue = 3 | pages = 396–402 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19270432 | doi = 10.1254/jphs.08297FP | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Tsuchida R, Kubo M, Shintani N, Abe M, Köves K, Uetsuki K, Kuroda M, Hashimoto H, Baba A | display-authors = 6 | title = Inhibitory effects of osemozotan, a serotonin 1A-receptor agonist, on methamphetamine-induced c-Fos expression in prefrontal cortical neurons | journal = Biological & Pharmaceutical Bulletin | volume = 32 | issue = 4 | pages = 728–31 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19336914 | doi = 10.1248/bpb.32.728 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==Pharmacodynamics==
The binding target of Osemozotan is 5-HT1A receptors. Osemozotan binds with almost 1000 times greater affinity to 5-HT1A receptors than to most other 5-HT, dopamine, or adrenergic receptors.<ref name= "Main"/> With repeated exposure of Osemozotan at the 5-HT1A receptors, there seems to be no change in the number of receptors, which is not typically seen with pharmaceutical [[agonist]]s.<ref name="pmid9195299">{{cite journal | vauthors = Asano S, Matsuda T, Yoshikawa T, Somboonthum P, Tasaki H, Abe M, Baba A | title = Interaction of orally administered 5-[3-[((2S)-1,4-benzodioxan-2-ylmethyl)amino]propoxy]-1,3-benzodioxole (MKC-242) with 5-HT1A receptors in rat brain | journal = Japanese Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 74 | issue = 1 | pages = 69–75 | date = May 1997 | pmid = 9195299 | doi = 10.1254/jjp.74.69 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

==Pharmacokinetics==
Pharmacokinetic data was collected from animal studies performed in mice and rats. The [[CMax]] was obtained 15 minutes after oral ingestion of Osemozotan, the [[area under the curve]] was 2,943 ng x hr/mL and the [[half-life]] was 1.3 hours.<ref name= "Marbles" /> Pharmacokinetic testing has been able to help explain the longer acting pharmacologic effects of Osemozotan, and the increased potency. Osemozotan was shown to have increased duration of pharmacologic effects compared to [[azapirone]]s and requires a substantially lower dose to produce its pharmacologic effects.<ref name= "Marbles"/> This may be attractive to populations who have to take this medication in that they may not have to take the medication as often throughout the day. In these studies, here was a difference in dosage amount necessary for the indication it is used.<ref name= "Marbles" /> Osemozotan has not been found to be metabolized to [[1-(2-pyrimidinyl)-piperazine]], a common metabolite found with the azapirone class of medications.<ref name= "Marbles"/> 1-(2-pyrimidinyl)-piperazine has affinity for receptors other than 5-HT1A, decreasing its specificity and increasing the risk of unwanted effects.<ref name= "Marbles" /> Since Osemozotan does not express this metabolite, it has greater specificity to 5-HT1A compared to other anxiolytic medications.

==Uses==
Osemozotan is being investigated in its usage to treat pain, aggressive behavior, anxiety, depression, [[obsessive-compulsive disorder]], and drug dependence with methamphetamine and cocaine.<ref name= "Main" /><ref name= "Marbles" />

===Pain===
It has been proposed that Osemozotan could be used as an analgesic agent because of its activation of 5-HT 1A receptors that lead to inhibitory serotonin signaling pathway within the spinal cord to cause [[hypoalgesia]] and decrease mechanical [[allodynia]].<ref name= "Main" /><ref name="pmid24161684">{{cite journal | vauthors = Horiguchi N, Ago Y, Hasebe S, Higashino K, Asada K, Kita Y, Takuma K, Matsuda T | display-authors = 6 | title = Isolation rearing reduces mechanical allodynia in a mouse model of chronic inflammatory pain | journal = Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior | volume = 113 | pages = 46–52 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 24161684 | doi = 10.1016/j.pbb.2013.10.017 | s2cid = 19975118 }}</ref>

===Aggressive behavior===
Osemozotan was found to decrease the number of fighting incidences{{verify spelling|date=September 2022|reason=''incidence'' is normally used only in the singular form, perhaps ''incidence'', ''incidents'', or ''instances'' was intended}} in mice similar to [[buspirone]], [[diazepam]], and [[tandospirone]] but required a lower pharmacologic dose to produce beneficial effects.<ref name= "Marbles" /> Osemozotan showed dose-dependent anti-aggressive effects and was not shown to decrease motor coordination within the mice.<ref name= "Marbles"/>

===Anxiety and depression===
When stimulated, 5-HT 1A receptors are shown to have anxiolytic and antidepressant pharmacologic effects.<ref name= "Main" />

===Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)===
OCD patients have been found to have increased 5-HT levels within the brain.<ref name="pmid8786639">{{cite journal | vauthors = Matsuda T, Yoshikawa T, Suzuki M, Asano S, Somboonthum P, Takuma K, Nakano Y, Morita T, Nakasu Y, Kim HS | display-authors = 6 | title = Novel benzodioxan derivative, 5-(3-[((2S)-1,4-benzodioxan-2- ylmethyl)amino]propoxy)-1,3-benzodioxole HCl (MKC-242), with a highly potent and selective agonist activity at rat central serotonin1A receptors | journal = Japanese Journal of Pharmacology | volume = 69 | issue = 4 | pages = 357–66 | date = December 1995 | pmid = 8786639 | doi = 10.1254/jjp.69.357 | doi-access = free }}</ref><ref name="pmid2439924">{{cite journal | vauthors = McMillen BA, Scott SM, Williams HL, Sanghera MK | title = Effects of gepirone, an aryl-piperazine anxiolytic drug, on aggressive behavior and brain monoaminergic neurotransmission | journal = Naunyn-Schmiedeberg's Archives of Pharmacology | volume = 335 | issue = 4 | pages = 454–64 | date = April 1987 | pmid = 2439924 | doi = 10.1007/bf00165563 | s2cid = 23396992 }}</ref> With the use of Osemozotan as a 5-HT 1A agonist, there is a decrease in serotonergic activity within the brain, leading to possible anti-obsessional pharmacological action.<ref name= "Marbles" /> One animal mouse model used to test for OCD is known as the marble burying test, in which the amount of marbles buried within a certain time frame is recorded.<ref name= "Marbles" /> Mice performed the marble burying test both with and without Osemozotan. With Osemozotan administration, the number of marbles buried was decreased with apparently little to no loss in motor coordination; these test results support the theory that Osemozotan may be useful in the treatment of OCD.<ref name= "Marbles" />

===Drug dependence===
It has been noted that [[sensitization]] of cocaine may stem from action of the 5-HT 1A receptor.<ref name="pmid16962650">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ago Y, Nakamura S, Hayashi A, Itoh S, Baba A, Matsuda T | title = Effects of osemozotan, ritanserin and azasetron on cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization in mice | journal = Pharmacology, Biochemistry, and Behavior | volume = 85 | issue = 1 | pages = 198–205 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16962650 | doi = 10.1016/j.pbb.2006.07.036 | s2cid = 1794862 }}</ref><ref name="pmid16952156">{{cite journal | vauthors = Nakamura S, Ago Y, Hayashi A, Itoh S, Kakuda M, Hashimoto H, Baba A, Matsuda T | display-authors = 6 | title = Modification of cocaine-induced behavioral and neurochemical effects by serotonin1A receptor agonist/antagonist in mice | journal = Synapse | volume = 60 | issue = 7 | pages = 479–84 | date = December 2006 | pmid = 16952156 | doi = 10.1002/syn.20323 | s2cid = 29597138 }}</ref> While the role of 5-HT receptors with methamphetamine is still not certain, the use of osemozotan was found to decrease 5-HT levels in patients with repeated methamphetamine exposure; this may be a possibility for treatment of drug dependence with cocaine and methamphetamine.<ref name="pmid16863654">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ago Y, Nakamura S, Uda M, Kajii Y, Abe M, Baba A, Matsuda T | title = Attenuation by the 5-HT1A receptor agonist osemozotan of the behavioral effects of single and repeated methamphetamine in mice | journal = Neuropharmacology | volume = 51 | issue = 4 | pages = 914–22 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16863654 | doi = 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2006.06.001 | s2cid = 38888234 }}</ref>

==Prevalence of mental disease states==
About 18% of American adults suffer from some type of anxiety disorder, <ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.adaa.org/about-adaa/press-room/facts-statistics | title=Facts & Statistics | Anxiety and Depression Association of America, ADAA}}</ref> and 1 in 5 adults in the United States are on some type of medication to help control or improve their behavior.<ref name= "USA">{{Cite web | url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/health/healthcare/health/healthcare/story/2011-11-16/Report-1-in-5-of-US-adults-on-behavioral-meds/51241236/1 | title=Report: 1 in 5 of U.S. Adults on behavioral meds}}</ref> The prevalence of prescription medication use for mental illnesses has noticeably increased in the past few years, with increasing numbers in the younger adults and in men.<ref name= "USA" /> Around 60 billion dollars are spent annually for treatments dealing with mental illnesses.<ref>{{Cite web | url=http://www.nimh.nih.gov/health/statistics/cost/mental-healthcare-cost-data-for-all-americans-2006.shtml | title=NIMH » Statistics}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Piclozotan]]
* [[Robalzotan]]
* [[Sarizotan]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Serotonergics}}

[[Category:Benzodioxoles]]
[[Category:Phenol ethers]]
[[Category:Chromanes]]

Aporphine

2024-05-30T14:26:50Z

Coriander77: Copy editing and added a link to endothelial cells in the process.

{{short description|Chemical compound}}
{{Infobox drug
| drug_name = Aporphine
| image = Aporphine.svg
| width =
| caption =


| pronounce =
| tradename =
| Drugs.com =
| MedlinePlus =
| licence_CA =
| licence_EU =
| DailyMedID =
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| ATC_prefix =
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| bioavailability =
| protein_bound =
| metabolism =
| metabolites =
| onset =
| elimination_half-life =
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| CAS_number = 478-57-9
| CAS_supplemental =
| PubChem = 114911
| IUPHAR_ligand =
| DrugBank =
| ChemSpiderID = 102860
| UNII = 13NS2KTD6H
| KEGG =
| ChEBI = 35643
| ChEMBL =
| NIAID_ChemDB =
| PDB_ligand =
| synonyms =


| IUPAC_name = 6-methyl-5,6,6a,7-tetrahydro-4''H''-dibenzo[''de'',''g'']quinoline
| C=17 | H=17 | N=1
| SMILES = c12c(cccc1)CC4c3c(cccc23)CCN4C
| StdInChI = 1S/C17H17N/c1-18-10-9-12-6-4-8-15-14-7-3-2-5-13(14)11-16(18)17(12)15/h2-8,16H,9-11H2,1H3
| StdInChIKey = BZKUYNBAFQJRDM-UHFFFAOYSA-N
}}

'''Aporphine''' is an [[alkaloid]] with the chemical formula {{chem2|C17H17N}}. It is the core chemical substructure of the [[aporphine alkaloids]], a subclass of [[quinoline alkaloids]]. It can exist in either of two [[enantiomer]]ic forms, (''R'')-aporphine and (''S'')-aporphine.

==Derivatives==
Many different [[derivative (chemistry)|derivatives]] have been isolated from plants.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Stévigny C, Bailly C, Quetin-Leclercq J | title = Cytotoxic and antitumor potentialities of aporphinoid alkaloids | journal = Current Medicinal Chemistry. Anti-Cancer Agents | volume = 5 | issue = 2 | pages = 173–182 | date = March 2005 | pmid = 15777224 | doi = 10.2174/1568011053174864 | hdl = 2078.1/10136 }}</ref> For example, many water lilies (''[[Nymphaea]]'' species) produce aporphine alkaloids such as nymphaeine, nymphaline, nupharine, α- and β-nupharidine.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Oliver-Bever B | title = Medicinal plants in tropical West Africa. II. Plants acting on the nervous system | journal = Journal of Ethnopharmacology | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 1–93 | date = January 1983 | pmid = 6132025 | doi = 10.1016/0378-8741(83)90082-X }}</ref>

''[[In vitro]]'' tests of some aporphine derivatives isolated from ''[[Cassytha filiformis]]'', namely, actinodaphnine, cassythine, and [[dicentrine]], showed [[antiparasitic]] activity against ''[[Trypanosoma brucei]]''. Investigation of possible mechanisms revealed that the compounds bind to DNA and act as [[Intercalation (biochemistry)|intercalating]] agents in addition to inhibiting [[topoisomerase]] activity.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoet S, Stévigny C, Block S, Opperdoes F, Colson P, Baldeyrou B, Lansiaux A, Bailly C, Quetin-Leclercq J | display-authors = 6 | title = Alkaloids from Cassytha filiformis and related aporphines: antitrypanosomal activity, cytotoxicity, and interaction with DNA and topoisomerases | journal = Planta Medica | volume = 70 | issue = 5 | pages = 407–413 | date = May 2004 | pmid = 15124084 | doi = 10.1055/s-2004-818967 }}</ref>

Aporphine natural products occur with either the (R)- or (S)- [[Isomer|isomeric forms]], or they can be [[Chirality|achiral]]. Furthermore, morphine-based natural products can be heated in acid to give aporphine degradation products; one example is the FDA-approved Parkinson's drug apomorphine, which was first discovered by the Finnish chemist Adolf Arppe in 1845.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Auffret M, Drapier S, Vérin M | title = The Many Faces of Apomorphine: Lessons from the Past and Challenges for the Future | journal = Drugs in R&D | volume = 18 | issue = 2 | pages = 91–107 | date = June 2018 | pmid = 29546602 | pmc = 5995787 | doi = 10.1007/s40268-018-0230-3 }}</ref>
[[File:Aporphines.png|thumb|Aporphines can occur as either (R)- or (S)-isomers, or as achiral compounds, and while many of these are toxic, some have been used for their medicinal value and have been approved by the FDA and world markets.]]

=== Apomorphine ===
A derivative of aporphine is [[apomorphine]]. The compound is historically obtained by heating morphine with [[hydrochloric acid]]. Contrary to its name, apomorphine does not contain morphine or its skeleton, nor does it bind to [[Opioid receptor|opioid receptors]]. The apo- prefix indicates that it is a morphine derivative.

Historically, apomorphine has seen a variety of clinical uses, including as a treatment for [[anxiety]] and cravings in alcoholics, an [[Vomiting|emetic]], and more recently in treating [[erectile dysfunction]]. It was also used as a private treatment for heroin addiction. Still, there is no clinical evidence that apomorphine is an effective and safe treatment for [[Opioid use disorder|opiate addiction]].

Currently, apomorphine is used in the treatment of [[Parkinson's disease]]. It is a potent emetic, typically administered with an antiemetic such as [[domperidone]]. Apomorphine is also utilized in [[veterinary medicine]] to induce therapeutic emesis in canines that have recently ingested toxic or foreign substances.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Guardia J, Casas M, Prat G, Trujols J, Segura L, Sánchez-Turet M | title = The apomorphine test: a biological marker for heroin dependence disorder? | journal = Addiction Biology | volume = 7 | issue = 4 | pages = 421–426 | date = October 2002 | pmid = 14578019 | doi = 10.1080/1355621021000006206 | s2cid = 32386793 }}</ref>

== Effects ==
Aporphine is a [[dopamine receptor agonist]], specifically [[Dopamine_receptor_D1|D1]] and [[Dopamine_receptor D2|D2]].<ref name="Goldman Kebabian 1984 pp. 18–23">{{cite journal | vauthors = Goldman ME, Kebabian JW | title = Aporphine enantiomers. Interactions with D-1 and D-2 dopamine receptors | journal = Molecular Pharmacology | volume = 25 | issue = 1 | pages = 18–23 | date = January 1984 | pmid = 6231468 }}</ref> In rodents, aporphine administration has been demonstrated to activate gene expression, specifically in the nuclei of the [[hypothalamus]], resulting in stereotypical behavior of erection and yawning. In humans, aporphine produces nonsexual erections that are enhanced by erotic stimulation without changes in libido, but significant side effects can occur. A sublingual formulation of aporphine 2-4 mg with a rapid onset of action has been developed, proven to be efficacious in erectile dysfunction patients with controlled [[diabetes]], [[hypertension]], [[Benign prostatic hyperplasia|benign prostatic hypertrophy]] or coronary vascular disease.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Anastasiadis AG, Droggin D, Davis AR, Salomon L, Shabsigh R | chapter = Male and Female Sexual Dysfunction: Epidemiology, Pathophysiology, Classifications, and Treatment. | title = Principles of Gender-Specific Medicine: Aporphine SL | date = January 2004 | pages = 573-585 | publisher = Academic Press | doi = 10.1016/B978-012440905-7/50321-2 }}</ref>

== Synthesis ==
Aporphine and its derivatives can be obtained through various synthetic methods, as shown in the image below:

[[File:Revised aporphine synthesis route.png|thumb|The aporphine core has been synthesized using a number of different methods in the total synthesis of aporphine natural products. The methods, from left to right, are as follows: [[Cross dehydrogenative coupling|dehydrogenative coupling]], [[Palladium-catalyzed coupling reaction|palladium catalysed coupling]], [[Pschorr cyclization|pschorr reaction]], photocyclization of [[(Z)-Stilbene|Z-stilbene]], and a [[Diels–Alder reaction|Diels-Alder reaction]] involving a [[benzyne]] intermediate.]]
Several natural products including semisynthetic analogs belonging to the aporphine class have been synthesized. These include apomorphine by Neumeyer<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Neumeyer JL, Neustadt BR, Oh KH, Weinhardt KK, Boyce CB, Rosenberg FJ, Teiger DG | title = Aporphines. 8. Total synthesis and pharmacological evaluation of (plus or minus)-apomorphine, (plus or minus)-apocodeine, (plus or minus)-N-n-propylnorapomorphine, and (plus or minus)-N-n-propylnorapocodeine | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 16 | issue = 11 | pages = 1223–1228 | date = November 1973 | pmid = 4201182 | doi = 10.1021/jm00269a601 }}</ref> and Raminelli,<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Muraca AC, Perecim GP, Rodrigues A, Raminelli C |date=2017-06-20 |title=Convergent Total Synthesis of (±)-Apomorphine via Benzyne Chemistry: Insights into the Mechanisms Involved in the Key Step |journal=Synthesis |volume=49 |issue=16 |pages=3546–3557 |doi=10.1055/s-0036-1588855 |issn=0039-7881}}</ref> Pukateine by Happel,<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Zymalkowski F, Happel KH | title = [The total synthesis of (plus minus)-pukatein] | journal = Chemische Berichte | volume = 102 | issue = 9 | pages = 2959–2966 | date = September 1969 | pmid = 5806148 | doi = 10.1002/cber.19691020910 }}</ref> Isocorydine by Di,<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Zhong M, Jiang Y, Chen Y, Yan Q, Liu J, Di D |date=2015-11-01 |title=Asymmetric total synthesis of (S)-isocorydine |journal=Tetrahedron: Asymmetry |language=en |volume=26 |issue=20 |pages=1145–1149 |doi=10.1016/j.tetasy.2015.09.008 |issn=0957-4166}}</ref> Nuciferine and Oliveroline by Cuny,<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Cuny GD |date=2004-02-10 |title=Intramolecular ortho-Arylation of Phenols Utilized in the Synthesis of the Aporphine Alkaloids (.+-.)-Lirinidine and (.+-.)-Nuciferine. |journal=ChemInform |volume=35 |issue=6 |doi=10.1002/chin.200406170 |issn=0931-7597}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Ku AF, Cuny GD | title = Synthetic studies of 7-oxygenated aporphine alkaloids: preparation of (-)-oliveroline, (-)-nornuciferidine, and derivatives | journal = Organic Letters | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 1134–1137 | date = March 2015 | pmid = 25710592 | doi = 10.1021/acs.orglett.5b00007 }}</ref> Glaucine by Meyers,<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Gottlieb L, Meyers AI |date=October 1990 |title=An asymmetric synthesis of aporphine and related alkaloids via chiral formamidines. (+)-glaucine, (+)-homoglaucine, and (-)-8,9-didemethoxythalisopavine |journal=The Journal of Organic Chemistry |language=en |volume=55 |issue=21 |pages=5659–5662 |doi=10.1021/jo00308a029 |issn=0022-3263}}</ref> Dicentrine by Cava,<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Cava MP, Stern P, Wakisaka K |date=1973-01-01 |title=An improved photochemical aporphine synthesis: New syntheses of dicentrine and cassameridine |journal=Tetrahedron |language=en |volume=29 |issue=15 |pages=2245–2249 |doi=10.1016/S0040-4020(01)93344-7 |issn=0040-4020}}</ref> and Lysicamine by Raminelli.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Rossini AF, Muraca AC, Casagrande GA, Raminelli C | title = Total Syntheses of Aporphine Alkaloids via Benzyne Chemistry: An Approach to the Formation of Aporphine Cores | journal = The Journal of Organic Chemistry | volume = 80 | issue = 20 | pages = 10033–10040 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26375603 | doi = 10.1021/acs.joc.5b01634 }}</ref> An overview of some of the synthetic approaches toward the aporphine ring system is outlined in the figure at the right.

== Toxicity ==
Most aporphine alkaloids are toxic and typically exhibit antagonistic effects to dopamine. Many of them have anticonvulsant activity or induce convulsions in animals due to [[Cytotoxicity|cytotoxic]] activity.<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Wu YC | chapter = New research and development on the Formosan Annonaceous plants. Aporphinoids | title = Studies in natural products chemistry | date = 2006 | pages = 957-1023 | publisher = Elsevier }}</ref>

Some aporphine alkaloids (such as crebanine) have been found to present [[Arrhythmia|arrhythmic]] activity and higher toxicity. In one study, a couple of target derivatives were evaluated for their anti-arrhythmic potential in the mouse model of [[ventricular fibrillation]]. Here, preliminary structure-activity/toxicity relationship analyses were carried out. Of these target derivatives, a certain bromo-substituted product of crebanine displayed significant anti-arrhythmic activity and a lower toxicity. In a significant number of rats, this product caused reduction in the incidence of VF, increase in the resumption of [[sinus rhythm]] from arrhythmia, and increase in maintaining sinus rhythm. The results indicate that this specific aporphine alkaloid could be considered as a promising candidate in the treatment of arrhythmia.<ref>{{Cite web | author = US EPA National Center for Environmental Assessment|date=2009-03-15 |title=Synthesis and Structure-Activity Relationships of a Series of Aporphine Derivatives with Antiarrhythmic Activities and Acute Toxicity |url=https://hero.epa.gov/hero/index.cfm/reference/details/reference_id/7167107 |access-date=2022-03-17 |website=hero.epa.gov |language=en}}</ref>

==Pharmacology==
According to the U.S. Patent & Trademark Office, aporphine derivatives can treat oxidative stress-induced diseases. Specifically, it inhibits lipid peroxidase and performs free radical-scavenging activities, thereby exhibiting a protective effect on [[Endothelium|endothelial cells]]. This reduces oxidative stress which may induce diseases such as cardiovascular disease, Alzheimer's disease, kidney disease, diabetes, cancer etc.<ref>{{Cite journal |date=November 2012 |title=Broad US patent issued to Dyadic International |journal=Focus on Catalysts |volume=2012 |issue=11 |pages=7 |doi=10.1016/s1351-4180(12)70458-0 |issn=1351-4180}}</ref>

Aporphine alkaloids are present in [[Litsea glutinosa]], a tropical plant with antioxidant and anti-parasitic properties, are claimed to contribute to anti-cancer activity. Research has illustrated the antiproliferative and cytotoxic effects of aporphine-containing extracts of Litsea glutinosa.<ref>{{Cite journal | vauthors = Chawra HS, Gupta G, Singh SK, Pathak S, Rawat S, Mishra A, Gilhotra RM |date=2021-11-30 |title=Phytochemical constituents, Ethno medicinal properties and Applications of Plant: Litsea glutinosa (Lour.) C.B. Robinson (Lauraceae) |journal=Research Journal of Pharmacy and Technology |pages=6113–6118 |doi=10.52711/0974-360x.2021.01062 |issn=0974-360X}}</ref>

(''R'')-Aporphine is a [[Dopamine receptor D1|dopamine receptor D1]] antagonist with a ''K''i of 717nM<ref name="pmid8784448">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hedberg MH, Linnanen T, Jansen JM, Nordvall G, Hjorth S, Unelius L, Johansson AM | title = 11-substituted (R)-aporphines: synthesis, pharmacology, and modeling of D2A and 5-HT1A receptor interactions | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 39 | issue = 18 | pages = 3503–3513 | date = August 1996 | pmid = 8784448 | doi = 10.1021/jm960189i }}</ref> and a [[Dopamine receptor D2|dopamine receptor D2]] antagonist with a ''K''i of 527nM.<ref name="pmid11311055">{{cite journal | vauthors = Linnanen T, Brisander M, Unelius L, Rosqvist S, Nordvall G, Hacksell U, Johansson AM | title = Atropisomeric derivatives of 2',6'-disubstituted (R)-11-phenylaporphine: selective serotonin 5-HT(7) receptor antagonists | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 44 | issue = 9 | pages = 1337–1340 | date = April 2001 | pmid = 11311055 | doi = 10.1021/jm0108505 }}</ref> Aporphine and its related alkaloids [[bulbocapnine]], [[boldine]], [[glaucine]], and corytuberine are antipsychotic, exert [[naloxone]]-reversible [[Nociception|antinociceptive]] activity and, except for corytuberine, are anticonvulsant.<ref name="pmid2907279">{{cite journal | vauthors = Zetler G | title = Neuroleptic-like, anticonvulsant and antinociceptive effects of aporphine alkaloids: bulbocapnine, corytuberine, boldine and glaucine | journal = Archives Internationales De Pharmacodynamie Et De Therapie | volume = 296 | pages = 255–281 | year = 1988 | pmid = 2907279 }}</ref> Some derivatives of aporphine such as (''S'')-(+)-''N''-propylnorapomorphine have potential as low side effect profile antipsychotics. (''S'')-(+)-''N''-[[Propylnorapomorphine]] is highly selective for ''meso''-limbic dopaminergic tracts and function as efficacious partial agonists, with no elevation in prolactin.<ref name="pmid7830962">{{cite journal | vauthors = Baldessarini RJ, Campbell A, Ben-Jonathan N, Ellingboe J, Zong R, Neumeyer JL | title = Effects of aporphine isomers on rat prolactin | journal = Neuroscience Letters | volume = 176 | issue = 2 | pages = 269–271 | date = August 1994 | pmid = 7830962 | doi = 10.1016/0304-3940(94)90098-1 | s2cid = 38264784 }}</ref>

== Pharmacokinetics==
Aporphine is [[hydroxylated]] in the body to form [[apomorphine]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bertol E, Fineschi V, Karch SB, Mari F, Riezzo I | title = Nymphaea cults in ancient Egypt and the New World: a lesson in empirical pharmacology | journal = Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine | volume = 97 | issue = 2 | pages = 84–85 | date = February 2004 | pmid = 14749409 | pmc = 1079300 | doi = 10.1177/014107680409700214 }}</ref>

== Psychoactive effects ==
{{Tone|date=May 2024}}
The ''[[Nymphaea]]'' species (''[[Nymphaea caerulea]]'') is commonly used in society.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Seligman |first=Sian |date=2023-01-13 |title=Blue Lotus Flower: Smoking, Tea & More |url=https://doubleblindmag.com/blue-lotus/ |access-date=2023-01-19 |website=DoubleBlind Mag |language=en-US}}</ref> Its plant extracts can be ingested or smoked. Intake of Nymphaea at high doses is known to produce euphoria and hallucinations. ''Nymphaea caerulea'', also called the blue lotus, is sold in several forms such as dried plant material, teas, or as extract for electronic cigarettes. The psychoactive effect of the flower is due to two aporphine alkaloids; apomorphine and [[nuciferine]]. The compound has mixed effects on serotonin and dopamine receptors, causing the compound to be a dopaminergic agonist.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schimpf M, Ulmer T, Hiller H, Barbuto AF | title = Toxicity From Blue Lotus (Nymphaea caerulea) After Ingestion or Inhalation: A Case Series | journal = Military Medicine | date = August 2021 | pmid = 34345890 | doi = 10.1093/milmed/usab328 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

== Effects on animals ==
There are no studies on aporphine in animals. However, studies on subcutaneous apomorphine injection, the bioactive form of aporphine, have been carried out. In a 5-day study, mice were administered up to 10 mg/kg apomorphine subcutaneously daily. No adverse effects were observed other than a slight increase in dopamine levels.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Grünblatt E, Mandel S, Berkuzki T, Youdim MB | title = Apomorphine protects against MPTP-induced neurotoxicity in mice | journal = Movement Disorders | volume = 14 | issue = 4 | pages = 612–618 | date = July 1999 | pmid = 10435498 | doi = 10.1002/1531-8257(199907)14:4<612::aid-mds1010>3.0.co;2-6 }}</ref> Notably, apomorphine is used in veterinary clinics as an emetic due to severe off-target effects that lead to vomiting.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Scott KA, Qureshi MH, Cox PB, Marshall CM, Bellaire BC, Wilcox M, Stuart BA, Njardarson JT | display-authors = 6 | title = A Structural Analysis of the FDA Green Book-Approved Veterinary Drugs and Roles in Human Medicine | journal = Journal of Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 63 | issue = 24 | pages = 15449–15482 | date = December 2020 | pmid = 33125236 | doi = 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.0c01502 | s2cid = 226218045 }}</ref>

In another study, mice were administered a single 40 mg/kg dose of apomorphine. Slight DNA damage was observed in brain tissue three hours after treatment.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Picada JN, Flores DG, Zettler CG, Marroni NP, Roesler R, Henriques JA | title = DNA damage in brain cells of mice treated with an oxidized form of apomorphine | journal = Brain Research. Molecular Brain Research | volume = 114 | issue = 1 | pages = 80–85 | date = May 2003 | pmid = 12782396 | doi = 10.1016/s0169-328x(03)00127-x }}</ref>

== See also ==
*[[Anonaine]]
*[[Liriodenine]]
*[[Magnoflorine]]
*[[Nantenine]]
*[[Nuciferine]]

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Aporphine alkaloids| ]]

Global Call to Action Against Poverty

2024-04-26T18:49:34Z

Coriander77: copyediting

{{short description|Global anti-poverty movement/coalition}}
{{advert|date=November 2017}}
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The '''Global Call to Action Against Poverty (GCAP)''' is a network of more than 11,000 civil society organizations (CSOs) dedicated to social justice, established in 2005 during the [[World Social Forum]] in Porto Allegre. It represents approximately 58 national groups. It serves as a platform for individuals and organizations to unite against systemic factors perpetuating [[poverty]] and [[social inequality|inequalities]].

At its foundation, GCAP adopted the whiteband symbol. It co-led the significant single-issue campaign, "Stand UP Against Poverty," earning international recognition, including a certification from the [[Guinness World Records]] for its participation of 173 million people in 2009.

GCAP is recognized as one of the world's largest civil society movements.<ref name="oxfam">{{cite web |last1=Blaser |first1=Caitlin |title=The Global Call to Action against Poverty: International voices for change |url=https://policycommons.net/artifacts/1821218/the-global-call-to-action-against-poverty/2559369/ |access-date=25 January 2024 |website=Policy Commons |publisher=Oxfam International}}</ref>

==History==

The concept for GCAP emerged in 2003 at a meeting of non-governmental organizations in Maputo, Mozambique, hosted by advocate for women's and children's rights, Graca Machel.<ref name="oxfam" /> The campaign was established at a conference in [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]] in late 2004 and officially launched on January 1, 2005, during the [[World Social Forum]] in [[Brazil]]. It rapidly gained traction, becoming the largest anti-poverty campaign, notably during the [[31st G8 summit]] at Gleneagles.<ref name="oxfam" />

GCAP co-chair Ana Agostino said that the initial burst of energy could only be described as a passionate love affair. "We’re now an old, married coalition, and we need to find a way to adjust to our new circumstances," Agostina said in 2008.<ref name="oxfam" /> GCAP faced challenges in the years following its establishment, notably an identity crisis in 2006-2007 when attempting to transforming that momentum into a global coalition. However, it persevered and in 2007, issued the Montevideo Declaration, advocating for democratizing global governance processes to prioritize equity, human security, and inclusion.

The network has constituency groups for women, youth, and socially-excluded people.

== Demands ==
Global Call to Action Against Poverty advocates for:

*Public accountability, just governance, and human rights fulfilment
*[[Women's rights]] and gender justice
*[[Climate Justice|Climate justice]]
*[[Trade justice]]
*Aid and financing for development
*[[Debt relief|Debt cancellation]]
*Peace and security
The campaign underscores the importance of recognizing gender equality and ensuring the rights and equal participation of marginalized groups in poverty eradication efforts.

== Structure ==
GCAP operates as a global coalition with 58 national coalitions, comprising over 11,000 civil society organizations.

National coalitions play a vital role in decision-making and actions at the local level, representing diverse groups committed to poverty eradication.

A national coalition is made up of any and all organisations of a particular country that are committed to making poverty a thing of the past and support GCAP's platform. The campaign is not restrictive and is currently an alliance of existing coalitions, community groups, trade unions, individuals, actors, religious and faith groups, campaigners, [[non-governmental organization]]s, and more.

During the course of 2005 GCAP grew rapidly, and by the end of the year the campaign boasted more the 70 national coalitions.

== Operation ==

The campaign is guided by the Beirut Platform, established during GCAP's review session in March 2006. Operating in English, Spanish, French, and Arabic, GCAP convenes periodically to review its performance and plan future actions. The global coalition is based on the Beirut Platform (a revised version of the [[Johannesburg Declaration]] of 2005) from GCAP's review session in March 2006 in [[Beirut]], [[Lebanon]].

The campaign will convene in [[Nairobi]] in January to further review the campaigns performance through 2006 and discuss the campaign's future through and beyond 2007.

== Mobilisation dates ==
Throughout 2005, GCAP mobilised millions through a series of 'White Band Days', when the symbol was used to highlight the injustice of global poverty.

* White Band Day 1 – 1 July 2005
* White Band Day 2 – 10 September 2005
* White Band Day 3 – 10 December 2005
* White Band Day 4 – 17 October 2006 (part of the Month of Mobilization)
* White Band Day 5 – 17 October 2007

A month of mobilization was launched on 16 September 2005 (to coincide with the annual meetings of the [[International Monetary Fund|IMF]] and [[World Bank]]) which will build up to a climax on White Band Day 4 on the 17 October ([[International Day for the Eradication of Poverty]]). During the month, countries around the world undertook an array of actions, culminating in the global white band day. The white band remains the campaign's symbol and expression of solidarity against poverty.

During 2007, national campaigns and coalitions were activated on significant national dates, including the international white band day.

From 1 September – 20 October 2008, concerned citizens in over 100 countries will unite again for 50 Global Days of Action Against Poverty, united by the symbol of the white band. They will be calling for governments to eradicate poverty, dramatically lessen inequality, and achieve the Millennium Development Goals.

The main body of the UK programme for the 50 Global Days of Action currently features 23 events, with over 50 NGOs and civil society organisations involved to date. It includes opportunities to influence major international meetings, lobbying at party conferences, an activist training forum, a stunt, public meetings, and a major demonstration against [[child poverty]] in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.bond.org.uk/campaign/50daysprogramme.htm |title=Global Call to Action Against Poverty 2008 Mobilisation |access-date=1 September 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080911210141/http://www.bond.org.uk/campaign/50daysprogramme.htm |archive-date=11 September 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== 'Stand UP' Against Poverty ==

GCAP together with the UN-Millennium Campaign jointly set a [[Guinness World Records|Guinness World Record]] for the most people ever to simultaneously 'Stand Up' against poverty within a 24-hour period. The initiative was held as a part of GCAP's Month of Mobilization and the release of the record numbers was set to coincide with the last day of the Month, The International Day for the Eradication of Poverty.

''2009 "Stand Up and Take Action against Poverty" campaign''

A total of 173 million people around the world, 2.5% of the world population, took part in the fourth Stand Up. This was a new Guinness World Record. Over 3,000 events were held in more than 120 countries in the fourth year of the "Stand Up, Take Action, End Poverty Now!" campaign. At least 100 million people in Asia took part in the campaign: [[Africa]] saw the participation of almost 40 million, the [[Arab region]] over 30 million, [[Europe]] more than 2 million, [[Latin America]] and [[North America]] some 200,000 each, and [[Oceania]] more than 170,000.

''2006''

In 2006, the 24-hour period started at 10:00am GMT on 15 October and ended at 10:00am GMT on 16 October. The record was confirmed and released by Guinness officials on 17 October. The official record, that Guinness calls ''the largest single coordinated movement of people in the history of the Guinness World Record'', is set at '''23,542,614'''.

Stand Up events were registered in 85 countries across the world.

From 17 to 19 October 2008, citizens worldwide will attempt to break this record again. It is possible to register events at www.standagainstpoverty.org.

In the UK, around 200 events are expected as part of Stand Up and Take Action Against Poverty and Inequality. These will be supported by organisations and networks including [[ActionAid]], [[WaterAid]], [[Jubilee Debt Campaign]], [[Stop Aids Campaign]], DEA, [[Muslim Aid]], [[Quaker Peace and Social Witness]], [[CND]], [[Skillshare]], TIDAL, [[AMREF]], [[Micah Challenge]], [[World Association of Girl Guides and Girl Scouts]], the [[Diocese of London]], [http://pantstopoverty.org.uk Pants To Poverty], and the [[International Young Professionals Association]].

== National Campaign Coalitions ==

GCAP has coalitions present in over a hundred countries, a few of which are listed below. For a detailed list please see [https://web.archive.org/web/20061108201335/http://www.whiteband.org/GlobalPages/GcapNearYou]

* 2005: plus d’excuses – France [http://www.2005plusdexcuses.org]
* Deine Stimme Gegen Armut – Germany [http://www.deine-stimme-gegen-armut.de]
* Hottokenai, Sekai no Mazushisa – Japan [http://www.hottokenai.jp]
* Make Poverty History – Australia [https://web.archive.org/web/20050417232632/http://www.makepovertyhistory.com.au/]
* Make Poverty History – Canada [https://web.archive.org/web/20061030234702/http://www.makepovertyhistory.ca/]
* Make Poverty History – Ireland [https://web.archive.org/web/20061004045311/http://makepovertyhistory.ie/]
* Make Poverty History – Emirates (UAE) [https://web.archive.org/web/20070803045423/http://www.makepovertyhistory.ae/]
* Make Poverty History – United Kingdom [https://web.archive.org/web/20040916042045/http://www.makepovertyhistory.org/]
* Make Poverty History – Nigeria [https://web.archive.org/web/20091122175129/http://www.makepovertyhistoryng.org/]
* The ONE Campaign – Singapore [http://www.onesingapore.org]
* The ONE Campaign – USA [http://www.one.org]
* EEN – Armoede de Wereld uit – The Netherlands [http://www.een.nl] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161021230523/http://www.een.nl/ |date=21 October 2016 }}
* SANGOCO – South Africa
* Wada Na Todo – India
* No More Excuses – Philippines [http://www.rockedphilippines.org]
* Gemeinsam gegen Armut – Switzerland [http://www.gemeinsamgegenarmut.ch]

==See also==
* [[EndPoverty.org]]
* [[Extreme poverty]]
* [[Make Poverty History]]
* [[Make Poverty History Emirates]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}
{{more citations needed|date=October 2006}}

==External links==
* [http://www.whiteband.org/ Whiteband.org – Global Call to Action Against Poverty Official site]
* [http://www.whitebandbook.org/ White Band Book – A review of people and events in 2005]
* [http://www.testimonies-whiteband.org/ GCAP Testimonies]

[[Category:International development agencies]]
[[Category:Make Poverty History]]

[[de:Deine Stimme gegen Armut]]

Newtown, Johannesburg

2024-04-26T18:44:41Z

Coriander77: /* Cleanup */

{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=December 2018}}
{{Tone|date=January 2019}}
}}
{{Infobox settlement
| name = Newtown
| native_name=
| other_name=
| image_skyline = File:Newtown_Johannesburg_01.jpg
| image_caption= Newtown, with [[Nelson Mandela Bridge]] in the background
| coordinates= {{coord|26.204|S|28.034|E|region:ZA|display=inline,title}}
| subdivision_type = Country
| subdivision_name = [[South Africa]]
| subdivision_type1 = Province
| subdivision_name1 = [[Gauteng]]
| subdivision_type2 = District
| subdivision_type3 = Municipality
| subdivision_name3 = [[City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality|City of Johannesburg]]
| subdivision_type4 = Main Place
| subdivision_name4 = [[Johannesburg]]
| established_date =
| population_total = 2,505
| population_as_of = 2011
| population_density_km2 = auto
| population_footnotes = <ref name="census2011">{{citation|url=https://census2011.adrianfrith.com/place/798015125|title=Newport|date=2011|publisher=Statistics South Africa|access-date=4 June 2019}}</ref>
| area_total_km2=0.85
| government_type = 
| leader_party = [[African National Congress]]
| leader_title = Councillor
| leader_name = Nokuthula Albertina Xaba
| government_footnotes=<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elections.org.za/content/For-Voters/2016-Municipal-Elections---Gazetted-Councillors-(PDF)/|title=LGE 2016 List of Councillors|publisher=Electoral Commission of South Africa|date=August 2016}}</ref>

| demographics_type1 = Racial makeup (2011)
| demographics1_footnotes = <ref name="census2011"/>
| demographics1_title1 = [[Bantu peoples of South Africa|Black African]]
| demographics1_info1 = 90.0%
| demographics1_title2 = [[Coloureds|Coloured]]
| demographics1_info2 = 1.9%
| demographics1_title3 = [[Indian South African|Indian]]/[[Asian South African|Asian]]
| demographics1_info3 = 6.4%
| demographics1_title4 = [[White South African|White]]
| demographics1_info4 = 1.2%
| demographics1_title5 = Other
| demographics1_info5 = 0.6%

| demographics_type2 = Language (2011)
| demographics2_footnotes = <ref name="census2011"/>
| demographics2_title1 = [[isiZulu|Zulu]]
| demographics2_info1 = 20.9%
| demographics2_title2 = English
| demographics2_info2 = 12.5%
| demographics2_title3 = [[Setswana|Tswana]]
| demographics2_info3 = 10.0%
| demographics2_title4 = [[Northern Sotho]]
| demographics2_info4 = 8.1%
| demographics2_title5 = Other
| demographics2_info5 = 48.6%
| elevation_m =
| postal_code = 2113
| area_code =
| website = {{URL|https://www.newtown.gov.za}}
}}
'''Newtown''' is a [[Suburbs of Johannesburg|suburb]] of [[Johannesburg]], [[South Africa]]. It is located in the capital city of [[Gauteng Province]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mudzamatira|first=Witness|date=2019|title=The Efficacy of Cultural Resources Management in Southern Gauteng Province, South Africa|journal=The South African Archaeological Bulletin|volume=74|issue=209|pages=3–15|jstor=26841984 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26841984}}</ref> and in Region F of the [[City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality]]. It has the [[Geographic coordinate system|coordinates]] of 26.204°S and 28.034°E. The suburb originated as a manufacturing district for brick production.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Newtown Improvement District - History|url=https://www.newtown.co.za/content/history#:~:text=Newtown,%20located%20near%20the%20Johannesburg,of%20its%20kind%20in%20Johannesburg.|access-date=2021-04-09|website=www.newtown.co.za}}</ref>

==Historical background==
In the early 20th century, the Newtown Precinct was named "the Brickfields". In 1896, approximately 7,000 people<ref>{{Cite web|title=Region F Suburbs|url=https://www.joburg.org.za:443/about_/regions/Pages/Region%20F%20-%20Inner%20City/Suburbs.aspx|access-date=2021-04-09|website=www.joburg.org.za|language=en-ZA}}</ref> lived in the town.

A number of industries developed at Brickfields, such as trade firms, banks, brick factories, a brewery, and fisheries. Immigrants from other nations, also settled in Brieckfields.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Herbst|first=Michael|date=1998|title=Second Johannesburg Biennale: Alternating Currents|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3337580|journal=African Arts|volume=31|issue=3|pages=74|doi=10.2307/3337580|jstor=3337580}}</ref>

In April 1904, [[Mahatma Gandhi|Mahatma Gandi]] declared an outbreak of the [[bubonic plague]] in Brickfield. The plague caused 82 fatalities and 112 people were reportedly diagnosed with it.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mitchell|first=J. Alexander|date=1921|title=Plague in South Africa: Perpetuation and Spread of Infection by Wild Rodents|journal=The Journal of Hygiene|volume=20|issue=4|pages=377–382|doi=10.1017/s0022172400034112|jstor=3859059|pmid=20474748|pmc=2207056|issn=0022-1724}}</ref> The local government initiated the fire brigade to start fires within the town, aiming to cease the plague.

==Turbine Hall==
Originally built between 1927 and 1934, the [[Turbine Hall]] became the largest "three steam-driven" power stations. It is situated in the middle of Newtown and has been deemed an iconic building in the art and culture precinct.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Gaugle|date=2005|title=Alternating Currents of Power: From Colonial to Post-apartheid Spatial Patterns in Newtown, Johannesburg|journal=Urban Studies|volume=42|issue=13|pages=2335–2361|doi=10.1080/00420980500379453 |jstor=43084426 |s2cid=154869892 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43084426}}.</ref>

==Cleanup==
The Greater Newtown Construction was initiated by City of Johannesburg Municipality Council, which rehabilitated old suburb structures, enhanced public open spaces, and introduced closed-circuit television.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Newtown Improvement District - History|url=https://www.newtown.co.za/content/history#:~:text=Newtown,%20located%20near%20the%20Johannesburg,of%20its%20kind%20in%20Johannesburg.|access-date=2021-04-04|website=www.newtown.co.za}}</ref>

Newtown's street lighting was designed by the French engineer [[Patrick Rimoux]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Dirsuweit|first=Teresa|date=1999-06-01|title=From fortress city to creative city|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF03036618|journal=Urban Forum|language=en|volume=10|issue=2|pages=183–213|doi=10.1007/BF03036618|s2cid=154503763|issn=1874-6330}}</ref>

==Regeneration==
[[City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality|Johannesburg City Council]] partnered with Gauteng Agency, [[Blue IQ]], in a project to develop the community of Newtown.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Development Planning|url=https://www.joburg.org.za:443/departments_/Pages/City%20directorates%20including%20departmental%20sub-directorates/Development-Planning.aspx|access-date=2021-04-04|website=www.joburg.org.za|language=en-ZA}}</ref> The project included building five housing developments in which Council states, "[it will] cater for different levels of income".<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=ROGERSON|first1=Christian M.|last2=ROGERSON|first2=Jayne M.|date=2016|title=Intra-urban spatial differentiation of tourism:: Evidence from Johannesburg, South Africa|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24921001|journal=Urbani Izziv|volume=27|issue=2|pages=125–137|jstor=24921001|issn=0353-6483}}</ref>

The plan details that over 2,000 housing units will be built within the next few years. The [[Nelson Mandela Bridge]], inaugurated on 20 July 2003,<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-05-27|title=Steel offers numerous advantages in bridge construction, says SAISC|url=https://www.leadingarchitecture.co.za/steel-offers-numerous-advantages-in-bridge-construction-says-saisc/|access-date=2021-04-04|website=Leading Architecture & Design|language=en-US}}</ref> is the northern entrance to Newtown.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{commons category}}

{{Greater Johannesburg|communities}}
{{City of Johannesburg Metropolitan Municipality|selected=regf}}

[[Category:Chinatowns in Africa]]
[[Category:Chinese-South African culture]]
[[Category:Johannesburg Region F]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Johannesburg]]
[[Category:Urban decay in South Africa]]

SCIEX

2024-04-25T18:35:41Z

Coriander77: commas

{{Short description|Mass spectrometer company and brand, now owned by Danaher.}}

{{advert|date=November 2022}}
'''SCIEX''' is a manufacturer of [[mass spectrometry]] instrumentation used in biomedical and environmental applications. Originally started by scientists from the University of Toronto Institute for Aerospace Studies, it is now part of [[Danaher Corporation]] with the SCIExe R&D division still located in Toronto, Canada.

==History==
SCIEX was founded in 1974<ref>{{Cite web |title=French, Barry - Discover Archives |url=https://discoverarchives.library.utoronto.ca/index.php/zdg5a |access-date=2022-07-05 |website=discoverarchives.library.utoronto.ca}}</ref> by Canadian scientists [[Barry French (scientist)|Barry French]],<ref>{{Cite web |last=General |first=Office of the Secretary to the Governor |title=Dr. J. Barry French |url=https://www.gg.ca/en/honours/recipients/146-14030 |access-date=2022-04-11 |website=The Governor General of Canada}}</ref> Neil Reid, Adele Buckley, and businessman [[William Breukelman]], to develop a mass spectrometer system based on atmospheric pressure ionisation and direct air sampling.

In 1981, SCIEX was acquired by [[Nordion|MDS Inc.]], a Canadian medical services and equipment company.<ref>{{Cite web |title=MDS Sciex, Division Of MDS Inc., Concord, Ontario |url=http://www.companylisting.ca/MDS_Sciex_Division_Of_MDS_Inc/default.aspx |access-date=2022-05-16 |website=www.companylisting.ca}}</ref> A joint venture was formed with [[PerkinElmer]] for sales and marketing of the [[inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry]] (ICPMS) product line. In 1986, the joint venture was extended to include the [[liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry]] (LC/MS) business, managed through the [[Applied Biosystems]] division of Perkin Elmer.

In 2008, Applied Biosystems merged with [[Invitrogen]] to form Life Technologies.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |last2= |first2= |title=Invitrogen Corporation And Applied Biosystems Complete Merger |url=https://www.biospace.com/article/releases/invitrogen-corporation-and-applied-biosystems-complete-merger-/ |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=biospace.com |language=en}}</ref> In 2009, Danaher Corporation paid approximately $1.1{{nbsp}}billion<ref>{{Cite web |last1=Obel |first1=Mike |last2=Writer |first2=AP Manufacturing |title=Danaher buying MDS, Life Technologies unit |url=https://phys.org/news/2009-09-danaher-mds-life-technologies.html |access-date=2022-04-19 |website=phys.org |language=en}}</ref> to buy SCIEX from MDS and the Applied Biosystems/MDS SCIEX joint venture business from Life Technologies. The business unit now operates as SCIEX within the Life Sciences Division of Danaher and is one of the major players in the global mass spectrometry market estimated (in 2018) at $5.5 billion worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mass Spectrometer Market Size, Share, Trends, Growth Report 2026 |url=https://www.fortunebusinessinsights.com/industry-reports/mass-spectrometer-market-101068 |access-date=2022-05-29 |website=www.fortunebusinessinsights.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Real-time air monitoring==
The first SCIEX product, introduced in 1979, was the TAGA (Trace Atmospheric Gas Analyzer) quadrupole mass spectrometer system which used [[atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization]] (APCI) for direct air analysis.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book |last=Cappiello |first=Achille |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rJAWmOW_HuMC&dq=TAGA+triple+quadrupole+mobile+van+1981&pg=PA13 |title=Advances in LC-MS Instrumentation |date=2006-12-05 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-08-046798-6 |language=en}}</ref> Use of a [[cryopumped vacuum]] system run by a liquid helium compressor allowed the instrument to be mounted in a large van for mobile operation, and operated while in motion to monitor concentrations of [[air pollutants]]. In 1981 the TAGA 6000, the first commercial triple quadrupole mass spectrometer<ref name=":0" /> was introduced, also in both lab-based and mobile configurations. Systems were acquired by, among others, government environmental agencies in Ontario<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Chen |first=QF |date=2002 |title=Air Monitoring Of A Coal Tar Cleanup Using A Mobile TAGA LPCI MS MS |url=https://coek.info/pdf-air-monitoring-of-a-coal-tar-cleanup-using-a-mobile-taga-lpcims-ms-.html |journal=Journal of Hazardous Materials |volume=B91 |issue=1–3 |pages=271–84|doi=10.1016/S0304-3894(01)00395-8 |pmid=11900918 }}</ref> and New York State, and the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|USEPA]], and have been used in various applications such as tracking fugitive emission plumes from industrial sites,<ref>{{Cite book |last=DeBrou |first=Gary B. |url=http://archive.org/details/reiairqualitysurv00debruoft |title=Air quality survey (TAGA 6000), Reichhold Limited, North Bay July, 1989 : report |date=1991 |publisher=[Toronto] : Environment Ontario |others=Ontario Ministry of the Environment |isbn=978-0-7729-7998-8}}</ref> analysis of gases from contaminated homes in the [[Love Canal]] area and for air monitoring in the Gulf area after the [[Bp spill|BP spill]] in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Trace Atmospheric Gas Analyzer (TAGA) Volatile Organic Compound (VOC) Data for BP Spill/Deepwater Horizon - June 2010 - CKAN |url=https://catalog.data.gov/ro/dataset/trace-atmospheric-gas-analyzer-taga-volatile-organic-compound-voc-data-for-bp-spill-deepwa-20101 |access-date=2022-04-11 |website=catalog.data.gov}}</ref> In 1979, the TAGA 3000 was used for real-time monitoring of toxic gas plumes of chlorine, styrene and other gases released from the [[1979 Mississauga train derailment|Mississauga train derailment]] and fire<ref>{{Cite web |date=November 9, 2019 |title=Mississauga Miracle: Remembering the disaster that forced 240,000 people to flee |url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/mississauga-miracle-remembering-the-disaster-that-forced-240-000-people-to-flee-1.5354329 |access-date=April 10, 2022 |website=cbc.ca/news}}</ref> providing timely information for emergency personnel.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lane |first1=DA |last2=Thomson |first2=BA |date=1981 |title=Monitoring a Chlorine Spill from a Train Derailment |journal=Journal of the Air Pollution Control Association |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=122–127 |doi=10.1080/00022470.1981.10465198 |issn=0002-2470|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==Inductively-Couple Plasma/Mass Spectrometry (ICPMS)==
In 1983, SCIEX introduced the first commercial [[Inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry|ICPMS]] system for inorganic analysis.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/neuroscience/inductively-coupled-plasma-mass-spectrometry#:~:text=1%20Introduction&text=In%201983,%20the%20first%20commercial,by%20the%20Canadian%20company%20Sciex |access-date=2022-04-11 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> Shortly after introduction, a joint venture was formed with [[PerkinElmer|Perkin Elmer]] to market and sell this product. The ICPMS joint venture business was fully acquired by PerkinElmer in 2010.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2010-02-26 |title=PerkinElmer Purchases Mass Spec Joint Venture from Danaher's AB Sciex |url=https://www.genomeweb.com/proteomics/perkinelmer-purchases-mass-spec-joint-venture-danahers-molecular-devices-busines |access-date=2022-04-11 |website=Genomeweb |language=en}}</ref>

==Contraband detection==
In 1984, a joint venture was formed between MDS SCIEX and [[British Aerospace]] to develop a tandem mass spectrometer system for contraband detection. Based on the TAGA platform, the AROMIC was a triple quadrupole instrument that was part of the CONDOR, an integrated contraband detection system for screening shipping containers for the presence of drugs and explosives.<ref>{{Citation |last1=Pasilis |first1=Sofie P. |title=Modern Atmospheric Pressure Surface Sampling/Ionization Techniques in Mass Spectrometry |date=2017 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/b978-0-12-803224-4.00063-7 |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Spectroscopy and Spectrometry |pages=819–829 |publisher=Elsevier |access-date=2022-04-11 |last2=Van Berkel |first2=Gary J.|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-803224-4.00063-7 |isbn=9780128032244 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Government of Canada |first=Public Services and Procurement Canada |title=Information archivée dans le Web |url=https://publications.gc.ca/site/archivee-archived.html?url=https://publications.gc.ca/collections/collection_2008/ps-sp/PS63-2-1991-10E.pdf |access-date=2022-04-11 |website=publications.gc.ca}}</ref> The CONDOR system consisted of a large X-Ray facility for imaging whole shipping containers, combined with the AROMIC mass spectrometer system to sample container air space for the presence of vapours and particulates indicative of the presence of drugs, alcohol or explosives. Designed for rapid screening of containers at border crossings, systems were sold and installed in two countries in the Middle and Far East.<ref>{{Cite web |title=AVIATION BRIEFS {{!}} JOC.com |url=https://www.joc.com/air-cargo/aviation-briefs_19871025.html |access-date=2022-04-11 |website=www.joc.com}}</ref>

==Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS)==
{{Technical|date=November 2023|section}}
In collaboration with Professor Jack Henion at [[Cornell University]] and Dr. Peter Dawson at the [[National Research Council Canada|National Research Council of Canada]], the first application of liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry-mass spectrometry (LC-MS-MS) was demonstrated on the TAGA 6000 in 1982.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Henion |first1=JD |last2=Thomson |first2=BA |last3=Dawson |first3=PH |date=March 1982 |title=Determination of sulfa drugs in biological fluids by liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry/mass spectrometry |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1021/ac00240a023 |journal=Analytical Chemistry |volume=54 |issue=3 |pages=451–56 |doi=10.1021/ac00240a023 |issn=0003-2700 |pmid=7072965}}</ref> This proof of concept led to the development of the heated nebulizer LC interface for APCI,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gelpí |first=Emilio |date=July 27, 2009 |title=From large analogical instruments to small digital black boxes: 40 years of progress in mass spectrometry and its role in proteomics. Part II 1985-2000: Analog to digital: 40 years of progress in MS |journal=Journal of Mass Spectrometry |language=en |volume=44 |issue=8 |page=1148 |doi=10.1002/jms.1621|pmid=19637251 |doi-access=free }}</ref> using pneumatic nebulization to allow the full LC flow to enter the ion source. In 1983, LC-MS-MS using ion evaporation, a spray method similar to electrospray but compatible with higher flow rates of up to 1 mL/min, was demonstrated on the TAGA 6000 but was not commercialized.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Iribarne |first1=J. V. |last2=Dziedzic |first2=P. J. |last3=Thomson |first3=B. A. |date=1983 |title=Atmospheric Pressure Ion Evaporation-Mass Spectrometry |journal=International Journal of Mass Spectrometry and Ion Physics |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=331–347|doi=10.1016/0020-7381(83)87009-0 |bibcode=1983IJMSI..50..331I }}</ref>

The API III LC-MS-MS system introduced in 1989 provided both ion spray (developed by Bruins, Covey and Henion at Cornell University<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bruins |first1=Andries P. |last2=Covey |first2=Thomas R. |last3=Henion |first3=Jack D. |date=1987 |title=Ion Spray Interface For Combined Liquid Chromatography/Atmospheric Pressure Ionization Mass Spectrometry |journal=Analytical Chemistry |volume=59 |issue=22 |pages=2642–2646|doi=10.1021/ac00149a003 }}</ref>) and heated nebulizer LC inlets on a triple quadrupole platform based on the TAGA 6000 architecture. It was the second commercial LC-MS in the market,<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Top 10 Milestones in MS |url=https://theanalyticalscientist.com/techniques-tools/the-top-10-milestones-in-ms |access-date=2022-05-28 |website=The Analytical Scientist |date=5 November 2021 |language=en}}</ref> and the first that provided electrospray ionization.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web |last=Today |first=Chromatography |title=The fascinating history of the development of LC-MS; a personal perspective |url=http://www.chromatographytoday.com/article/hplc-uhplc/31/unassigned-independent-article/the-fascinating-history-of-the-development-of-lc-ms-a-personal-perspective/601 |access-date=2022-05-28 |website=Chromatography Today |language=en}}</ref> The atmospheric pressure spray methods of electrospray, ion spray and APCI which helped to drive the burgeoning LC-MS market are now available on a wide variety of MS platforms and from a variety of vendors.<ref name=":02" />

In 1998, the cryopump API III platform began to be replaced with turbo-molecular-pumped single and triple quadrupole mass spectrometer products that evolved from the API 2000 (benchtop) and API 3000 to the current API 7500 series.

In the 1990s, collaboration with physicist Ken Standing's group at the University of Manitoba led to the introduction of the QSTAR quadrupole/time-of-flight (QTOF) instrument in 1999,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Gelpí |first=Emilio |date=2009 |title=From large analogical instruments to small digital black boxes: 40 years of progress in mass spectrometry and its role in proteomics. Part II 1985-2000: Analog to digital: 40 years of progress in MS |journal=Journal of Mass Spectrometry |language=en |volume=44 |issue=8 |page=1140 |doi=10.1002/jms.1621|pmid=19637251 |doi-access=free }}</ref> which evolved into the present day line of ZENO TOF 7600 series and benchtop X500-Series products.

In 2010, SCIEX acquired the liquid chromatography business of Eksigent Corporation and now offers a range of liquid chromatographs that couple to their mass spectrometers. The SelectION differential ion mobility spectrometer was introduced as an alternative method of separation in front of the mass spectrometer.

==Linear ion trap==
The QTrap, introduced by SCIEX in 1995, is a linear ion trap consisting of a [[Quadrupole mass analyzer|quadrupole mass filter]] that can act as either a mass filter or a trap/scan mass spectrometer.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Sandra |first1=K |last2=Devreese |first2=B |last3=Van Beeumen |first3=J |last4=Stals |first4=I |last5=Claeyssens |first5=M |date=March 2004 |title=The Q-Trap mass spectrometer, a novel tool in the study of protein glycosylation |journal=Journal of the American Society for Mass Spectrometry |language=en |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=413–23 |doi=10.1016/j.jasms.2003.11.003 |pmid=14998545 |s2cid=44486624 |issn=1044-0305|doi-access= }}</ref>

==Patent infringement lawsuit==
In 2002, MDS (at that time owner of SCIEX) and joint venture partner Applied Biosystems, won a $52.6 million judgement against Micromass UK for infringement of U.S. Patent No. 4,963,736 that describes a method of ion focusing using RF fields and gas collisions.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2002-03-15 |title=Applied Biosystems, MDS Win Patent Suit Against Micromass; Victors Awarded $47M |url=https://www.genomeweb.com/archive/applied-biosystems-mds-win-patent-suit-against-micromass-victors-awarded-47m |access-date=2022-04-22 |website=Genomeweb |language=en}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Technology companies of Canada]]
[[Category:Laboratory equipment manufacturers]]
[[Category:Love Canal]]

African Forum for Agricultural Advisory Services

2024-04-25T18:34:07Z

Coriander77: /* Overview */

{{Advert|date=April 2020}}

{{Infobox organisation
|name = African Forum for Agricultural Advisory Services
|abbreviation = AFAAS
|image = AFAAS logo new.png
|type = [[Non Government Organisation|NGO]]
|industry = [[Agriculture]]
|foundation = 2011
|location = [[Africa]]
|key_people = '''Adolphus Johnson''' [[Board chairman]]<ref name= AFAAS5 >{{cite web |url= http://legacy.landportal.info/resource/advocacy/uganda-african-governments-need-protect-farmers-more |title= Uganda: African Governments Need to Protect Farmers More |publisher= landportal.info |access-date= 2015-06-15 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150518084027/http://legacy.landportal.info/resource/advocacy/uganda-african-governments-need-protect-farmers-more |archive-date= 2015-05-18 |url-status= dead }}</ref> '''Dr Jeff Mutimba''' [[Vice chairman]]
|region_served = [[Africa]]
|membership = 40 countries
|language = English, French, Arabic & Portuguese
|leader_title = Executive Director
|leader_name = Dr. Silim Nahdy<ref name=AFAAS4>{{cite web |url= http://www.newvision.co.ug/mobile/Detail.aspx?NewsID=646204&CatID=408 |title= Better funding can increase food production |publisher= [[New Vision]] |access-date= 2015-06-15 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20150531190139/http://www.newvision.co.ug/mobile/Detail.aspx?NewsID=646204&CatID=408 |archive-date= 2015-05-31 |url-status= dead }}</ref>
|homepage = [http://www.afaas-africa.org/ Homepage] [http://networking.afaas-africa.org/ Virtual Platform]
}}

The '''African Forum for Agricultural Advisory Services''' ('''AFAAS'''), is an African organization for strengthening Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services (AEAS) in [[Africa]]. It operates within the framework of the Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP), a venture of the [[African Union]] in the [[New Partnership for Africa's Development]] (NEPAD). AFAAS is an autonomous subsidiary of the [[Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA)]].<ref name= AFAAS4 /><ref name=AFAAS1>{{cite web |url= http://fr.afaas-africa.org/propos-du-programme/ |title= A propos du Programme |publisher= AFAAS |access-date= 2015-06-15 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20150531190128/http://fr.afaas-africa.org/propos-du-programme/ |archive-date= 2015-05-31 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref name= AFAAS2 >{{cite web|url= http://www.slideshare.net/afaas|title= AFAAS |publisher=slideshare}}</ref>

==Overview==
AFAAS is the continental umbrella organization for strengthening national Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services (AEAS) in Africa. Each member country is ultimately expected to establish a Country Forum (CF) through which its activities are to be implemented.

The agricultural body has the mandate to implement the agricultural advisory services aspects of CAADP, a programme of the [[African Union|AU]]. CAADP has four pillars. AFAAS works in close collaboration with other continental and sub-regional bodies contributing to CAADP, most notably those in the areas of agricultural research, organizing farmers, and private sector involvement.

Cognisant of the fact that the [[African Union Commission]] (AUC) recommitted itself to enhancing the CAADP momentum by adopting the ''Malabo Declaration on Accelerated Agricultural Growth and Transformation for Shared Prosperity and Improved Livelihoods'' in June 2014, AFAAS reaffirmed its commitment to the cause by signing an MoU with the AUC in April 2015.<ref name= AFAAS5 /><ref name= AFAAS21 >{{cite web|url= http://www.resakss.org/2014conference/fr/side.html |title= ÉVÉNEMENTS PARALLELES |publisher= ReSAKSS}}</ref>

==History==
The African Forum for Agricultural Advisory Services (AFAAS) was initially formed as the ''Sub-Saharan African Network on Agricultural Advisory Services'' (SSANAAS). The SSANAAS was created at the first Regional Networking Symposium on Innovations in Agricultural Advisory Services, which was held in Kampala, Uganda in October 2004. The initial member countries were Kenya, Malawi, Mali, Namibia, South Africa, Tanzania and Uganda.

The second Symposium was held in September 2006 in Kampala. It brought together the additional African countries of Eritrea, Ethiopia, Ghana, Mozambique, Nigeria, Rwanda and Zambia; this brought the total of participating member African countries to fourteen. At this Symposium, it was decided that the network should go beyond [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] (SSA) and include all of Africa. This changed its name to the African Forum for Agricultural Advisory Services, and AFAAS was consequentially legally set up as an NGO in Uganda and became the successor body to SSANAAS in 2011.<ref name=AFAAS14>{{cite web |url= http://www.afaas-africa.org/apps/news/item/5/ |title= Inaugural Executive Director of AFAAS takes up his appointment |publisher= AFAAS |access-date= 2015-06-15 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20150531190129/http://www.afaas-africa.org/apps/news/item/5/ |archive-date= 2015-05-31 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref name= AFAAS15 >{{cite web|url= http://www.researchintouse.com/nrk/RIUinfo/PF/CPH33.htm |title= New formulas for success are helping farmers to make vital choices |publisher= RIU|website=www.researchintouse.com}}</ref>

==Member Countries==
AFAAS has 13 country offices and is currently operating in 40 countries, which includes:
{{div col}}
#{{flagcountry|Angola}}
#{{flagcountry|Benin}}
#{{flagcountry|Botswana}}
#{{flagcountry|Burkina Faso}}
#{{flagcountry|Burundi}}
#{{flagcountry|Cameroon}}
#{{flagcountry|Central African Republic}}
#{{flagcountry|Democratic Republic of Congo}}
#{{flagcountry|Egypt}}
#{{flagcountry|Eritrea}}
#{{flagcountry|Ethiopia}}
#{{flagcountry|Gabon}}
#{{flagcountry|Gambia}}
#{{flagcountry|Ghana}}
#{{flagcountry|Côte d'Ivoire}}
#{{flagcountry|Kenya}}
#{{flagcountry|Liberia}}
#{{flagcountry|Mali}}
#{{flagcountry|Madagascar}}
#{{flagcountry|Malawi}}
#{{flagcountry|Mauritania}}
#{{flagcountry|Mozambique}}
#{{flagcountry|Namibia}}
#{{flagcountry|Nigeria}}
#{{flagcountry|Congo}}
#{{flagcountry|Rwanda}}
#{{flagcountry|Senegal}}
#{{flagcountry|Seychelles}}
#{{flagcountry|Sierra Leone}}
#{{flagcountry|Somalia}}
#{{flagcountry|South Africa}}
#{{flagcountry|South Sudan}}
#{{flagcountry|Sudan}}
#{{flagcountry|Swaziland}}
#{{flagcountry|Tanzania}}
#{{flagcountry|Togo}}
#{{flagcountry|Uganda}}<ref name=AFAAS12>{{cite web |url= http://www.afaas-africa.org/aas-directory/ |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140118091134/http://www.afaas-africa.org/aas-directory/ |url-status= dead |archive-date= 2014-01-18 |title= Map view of service providers of Agricultural Advisory Services |publisher= African Forum for Agricultural Advisory Services }}</ref>
#{{flagcountry|Zambia}}
#{{flagcountry|Zimbabwe}}
{{div col end}}

===Country Fora===
AFAAS supports the emergence of associations of AEAS stakeholders under a common umbrella where they can identify, from among the issues that AFAAS has to address, priority areas of concern that can be addressed through collaborative information sharing, joint activities and partnerships. The CF are necessary to enable AAS actors to relate to each other within a framework of a set of agreed principles, rules and well defined roles and responsibilities. AFAAS' Country Fora are established in 13 of the 40 member countries.<ref name=AFAAS11>{{cite web |url= http://www.afaas-africa.org/country-fora/ |title= Rationale of Country Fora |publisher= African Forum for Agricultural Advisory Services |access-date= 2015-06-15 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20150531190128/http://www.afaas-africa.org/country-fora/ |archive-date= 2015-05-31 |url-status= dead }}</ref>

'''Regional fora establishment'''

The West and Central Africa Network Agricultural and Rural Advisory Services (RESCAR-AOC) regional forum was formally launched during a workshop held in Abidjan, Côte d'Ivoire in February 2015. This was organized by CORAF in collaboration with AFAAS, GFRAS, and ANADER plus 70 participants.<ref name= AFAAS17 >{{cite web|url= http://www.g-fras.org/en/594-western-and-central-africa-regional-ras-network-launched.html |title= Western and Central Africa Regional RAS Network launched |publisher=GFRAS}}</ref>

''Southern Africa Regional Forum for Agricultural Advisory Services (SARFAAS)'' Interim Steering Committee (ISC) members met in Johannesburg in April, 2014.

==Projects==
'''IFAD Project 1'''

The [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] (IFAD) provided a grant to AFAAS to help implement its strategic plan of establishing Country Fora in five countries (Burkina Faso, Malawi, Mozambique, Sierra Leone and Uganda) and their knowledge management and information sharing mechanisms within the framework of the AFAAS strategic plan. The project's two interrelated components are:
*Establishing Country Fora
*Communication, Information and Knowledge Management (CIKM) for Agricultural Extension and Advisory Services (AEAS) Innovation.

'''Postharvest Management in Sub-Saharan Africa (PHM-SSA) project'''

This project is coordinated by HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation (HSI) and implemented in a consortium of FANRPAN (Food, Agriculture and Natural Resources Policy Analysis Network), with AFAAS and AGRIDEA as further partners.

Phase 1 started in April 2013 and ended in December 2017. The project was localised in two pilot countries: Republic of Benin: communities in departments of [[Atakora Department|Atacora]] (North) and [[Savalou]] (South) and Mozambique: communities in Northern provinces of [[Nampula]] and [[Cabo Delgado Province|Cabo Delgado]].

The project aims to improve the food security of [[smallholding|smallholder]] farmers in [[Sub-Saharan Africa|SSA]] through reduction of post-harvest losses of food crops (grains and pulses) by addressing major constraining factors of technology dissemination and adoption, knowledge and information sharing, rural advisory services (RAS) and policies related to PHM.<ref name= AFAAS18 >{{cite web|url= http://www.fanrpan.org/projects/sdc-phm/about/ |title= Postharvest Management in Sub-Saharan Africa (PHM-SSA) |publisher=FANRPAN}}</ref><ref name= AFAAS19 >{{cite web|url= http://www.fanrpan.org/projects/sdc-phm/about/ |title= Projects |publisher=FANRPAN}}</ref>

The project's interventions focus on two levels:
*Validation and promotion of PHM practices and systems at rural household and communities level through use of innovative RAS and private sector linkages,
*Linking national and regional level through active promotion of sharing and learning, capacity-building, and advocacy and policy dialogue related to PHM.

==Partner Organizations==
AFAAS cohorts with the following and other organizations in fulfilling its mandates:
{{div col}}
#[[The World Bank]]<ref name= AFAAS7 >{{cite web|url= http://www.afaas-africa.org/ |title= World Bank supervision mission to AFAAS|publisher=AFAAS}}</ref>
#[[European Union]]
#The [[Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation ACP-EU (CTA)]]
#The Forum for Agricultural Research in Africa (FARA)
#The Global Forum for Rural Advisory Services (GFRAS)<ref name= AFAAS8 >{{cite web|url= http://www.g-fras.org/en/community/members.html |title= Regional Network Members |publisher=GFRAS}}</ref><ref name=AFAAS28>{{cite web |url= http://www.icra-edu.org/page.cfm?pageid=partenaireGFRAS |title= Forum Mondial pour le Conseil Rural (GFRAS) |publisher= ICRA |access-date= 2015-06-15 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20150602151530/http://www.icra-edu.org/page.cfm?pageid=partenaireGFRAS |archive-date= 2015-06-02 |url-status= dead }}</ref>
#The [[International Fund for Agricultural Development]] (IFAD)
#The [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO)
#ASARECA
#The Alliance for a Green Revolution in Africa (AGRA)
#The [[New Partnership for Africa's Development]] Planning and Coordinating Agency (NEPAD Agency)
#The International Centre for development oriented Research in Agriculture (ICRA)
#The [[World Agroforestry Centre]] (ICRAF)
#Rescar AOC
#The African Network for Agriculture, Agroforestry and Natural Resources Education (ANAFE)
#[[African Union Commission]]
#The European Initiative on Agricultural Research for Development (EIARD)<ref name=AFAAS6>{{cite web |url= http://extensionconference2011.cta.int/about |title= 2011 Extension Conference website |publisher= Innovations in Extension and Advisory Services |access-date= 2015-06-15 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150307021200/http://extensionconference2011.cta.int/about |archive-date= 2015-03-07 |url-status= dead }}</ref>
#[[Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit|GIZ]]
#[[HELVETAS Swiss Intercooperation]]
#Access Agriculture
{{div col end}}

==See also==
[[Agribusiness]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://afaas-africa.org/ Official Website]
*[http://networking.afaas-africa.org/ Official Virtual Platform]

[[Category:Non-profit organisations based in Uganda]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 2011]]
[[Category:2011 establishments in Uganda]]

Autumn Leaf Festival

2024-04-25T18:32:21Z

Coriander77: grammatical changes

{{Short description|Annual festival in America}}
{{tone|date=November 2013}}
'''The Allegheny Toyota Autumn Leaf Festival''' is a nine-day annual festival held in [[Clarion, Pennsylvania]] that features food, events, entertainment, carnival rides, and cultural nights. [[Pennsylvania Western University, Clarion|Pennsylvania Western University]], located in Clarion, hosts its annual homecoming football game and concerts during the festival. More than 300,000 people attend the festival annually, of whom 10,000 or more are students who come out to observe, buy from, or promote the craft stands that line the thoroughfare of the town's main street. <ref>{{Cite web |last=techreadypro |title=70th Annual Allegheny Toyota Autumn Leaf Festival™ |url=https://www.clarionpa.com/events/autumn-leaf-festival/ |access-date=2023-08-28 |website=Clarion Chamber of Business & Industry {{!}} Clarion PA |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-09-23 |title=The Ultimate Guide to the 69th Annual Autumn Leaf Festival |url=https://explorevenango.com/69th-annual-autumn-leaf-festival-kicks-off-this-weekend/ |access-date=2023-08-28 |website=exploreVenango.com}}</ref>

==History==

[[File:ALF main street.jpg|thumb|A picture of Crafter's Day during the Autumn Leaf Festival where patrons come to find goods from food to furniture.]]

The first recognized Autumn Leaf Festival was held in 1953 during [[Clarion State College]]'s homecoming. Businesses were asked to decorate for the occasion, with Ruth Neiger from [[Brockway, PA|Brockway]] serving as Homecoming Queen.<ref name="auto">{{cite web |title=History |url=http://www.autumnleafclarionpa.com/eventsite/history-of-the-festival |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090701063305/http://www.autumnleafclarionpa.com/eventsite/history-of-the-festival |archive-date=July 1, 2009 |access-date=June 8, 2011 |website=autumnleafclarionpa.com}}</ref>

In 1954, there were two parades to attract visitors to the area. The first parade included [[Veterans of Foreign Wars]], [[Girl Scouts of the USA|Girl Scouts]], volunteer firefighters, the [[Lions Club]], the Autumn Leaf Queen’s float, and seven Clarion County bands. The second was the Clarion State Teachers College homecoming parade, held two and a half hours later. It included floats made by local fraternities and sororities.

In 1956, the annual "Tournament of Leaves" parade was a part of the Clarion State Teachers College Homecoming. Local businesses contributed monetary prizes for the float competition, which was movie themed.<ref name="auto"/>

In 1958, the Autumn Leaf Festival became a permanent event, and the Chamber implemented a committee to organize the annual festivities. The Miss Teen Autumn Leaf Festival scholarship pageant, which started as a [[homecoming queen]] riding in the parade, became a permanent event in 1977.

Farmers and Crafter's Day usually occurs on the last Friday of the nine-day festival. The event started in 1977 and was originally called the Farmers and Merchants Day Craft Show. On this day, 10,000-plus [[patrons]] and students come out to peruse, buy from, or promote the craft stands that line both sides of the main street in Clarion. [[PennWest Clarion]] gives its students a "mid-semester break" so they can attend the Crafter's Day the following day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/ALF.html|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130515194327/http://www.pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/ALF.html|archivedate=2013-05-15|url-status=dead|title=Changing Leaves|author=Scott Lyon|website=pabook.libraries.psu.edu}}</ref>

The annual fair welcomes turnout from high schools and colleges, which work together to produce floats for the festival parade. During the 2009 festival, the parade lasted an hour and 15 minutes with bands, cars, horses, marching units, and [[drill team]]s joining the floats. The ''Clarion Republican'' wrote that year was the “Best Autumn Leaf Festival Yet”.<ref name="auto" />

==Past Autumn Leaf Festival Themes==
''No Autumn Leaf Festival was held in 1966''
*1965 "I-80: Main Street, USA"
*1967 "100 Years of Education"
*1968 "America, the Beautiful"
*1969 "Time and Space"
*1970 "Man and His Environment"
*1971 "Accent on Youth"
*1972 "Gay Nineties"
*1973 "Peace the World Awaited"
*1974 "Pennsylvania Revisited"
*1975 "Wonderful World of Animation"
*1976 "American, Let's Celebrate"
*1977 "Autumn Wonderland"
*1978 "ALF Silver Anniversary"
*1979 "A Child's Fantasy"
*1980 "Energy: Rainbow to the Future"
*1981 "America Goes Country"
*1982 "Clarion Gets Physically Fit"
*1983 "Clarion Salutes the Movies"
*1984 "Autumn Art Spectacular"
*1985 "Clarion Salutes Miss Liberty"
*1986 "Pennsylvania Higher Education - 100 Autumns in Clarion"
*1987 "Volunteers"
*1988 "Clarion's Colorful Heritage"
*1989 "Clarion County's Sesquicentennial Celebration"
*1990 "90's Clarion Celebrates World Freedom"
*1991 "Clarion County Proud and Productive"
*1992 "Discover Autumn in Clarion County"
*1993 "Clarion County Through the Years"
*1994 "Celebrate the Season"
*1995 "Autumn's Tapestry"
*1996 "Carousel of Colors"
*1997 "Pennsylvania's Outstanding Community"
*1998 "Autumn in the Air"
*1999 "An Autumn Mardi Gras"
*2000 "Twenty Centuries of Autumn"
*2001 "Pinnacle of Success"
*2002 "There's No Place Like Home"
*2003 "Leaves of Gold"
*2004 "Clarion's Treasure Chest of Leaves"
*2005 "Autumn Leaves You Breathless"
*2006 "A Symphony of Color"
*2007 "Autumn Magic"
*2008 "Cruise into Autumn"
*2009 "Clarion River's Show of Leaves"
*2010 "Celebration of Nature"
*2011 "An Autumn to Remember"
*2012 "Autumn's Quilt of Colors"
*2013 "Diamond Jubilee of Color"
*2014 "An Autumn Safari"
*2015 "Clarion: A Canvas of Color"
*2016 "Autumn Through the Looking Glass"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Clarion Chamber of Business and Industry |url=https://www.clarionpa.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Schedule-of-Events-16-8-10-16b.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240421205729/https://www.clarionpa.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/Schedule-of-Events-16-8-10-16b.pdf |archive-date=2024-04-21 |access-date=2024-04-21 |website=web.archive.org}}</ref>
*2017 "Leaves of Blue and Gold Celebrating Clarion University's 150 Anniversary"
*2018 "A Timeless Tradition"
*2019 "An American Autumn"
*2020 "Falling into the Future"
*2021 "Turn Over a New Leaf"
*2022 "Autumn Adventures"
*2023 "Groovin Into Autumn"
*2024 “Flavors of Fall”

==References==
<references />

[[Category:Clarion County, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Annual events in Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Festivals in Pennsylvania]]

Hemagglutinin

2024-04-22T19:49:23Z

Coriander77: minor grammatical changes for clarity

{{Multiple issues|
{{More footnotes needed|date=June 2009}}
{{Tone|date=December 2020}}
}}
[[File:CSIRO ScienceImage 354 Influenza Protein Attaching to Cell Membrane.jpg|thumb|300px|Illustration showing [[influenza virus]] attaching to [[cell membrane]] via the surface [[protein]] hemagglutinin]]
In [[molecular biology]], '''hemagglutinins''' (alternatively spelled ''haemagglutinin'', from the Greek {{lang|el|haima}}, 'blood' + Latin {{lang|el|gluten}}, 'glue') are receptor-binding membrane fusion [[glycoprotein]]s produced by [[Virus|viruses]] in the ''[[Paramyxoviridae]] and [[Orthomyxoviridae]]'' families.<ref>{{Citation |last=Couch |first=Robert B. |title=Orthomyxoviruses |date=1996 |work=Medical Microbiology |editor-last=Baron |editor-first=Samuel |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK8611/ |access-date=2024-01-30 |edition=4th |place=Galveston (TX) |publisher=University of Texas Medical Branch at Galveston |isbn=978-0-9631172-1-2 |pmid=21413353}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Paramyxoviridae - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/medicine-and-dentistry/paramyxoviridae |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}}</ref> Hemagglutinins are responsible for binding to [[Cell surface receptor|receptors]] on [[Red blood cell|red blood cells]] to initiate [[viral attachment]] and [[infection]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Nobusawa |first=E. |date=October 1997 |title=[Structure and function of the hemagglutinin of influenza viruses] |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/9360372/ |journal=Nihon Rinsho. Japanese Journal of Clinical Medicine |volume=55 |issue=10 |pages=2562–2569 |issn=0047-1852 |pmid=9360372}}</ref> The [[agglutination (biology)|agglutination]] of red cells occurs when [[Antibody|antibodies]] on one cell bind to those on others, causing amorphous aggregates of clumped cells.{{pb}}Hemagglutinins recognize [[Cell membrane|cell-surface]] [[glycoconjugate]]s containing [[sialic acid]] on the surface of host [[red blood cell]]s with a low affinity, and use them to enter the [[endosome]] of host cells.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Bangaru |first1=Sandhya |last2=Lang |first2=Shanshan |last3=Schotsaert |first3=Michael |last4=Vanderven |first4=Hillary A. |last5=Zhu |first5=Xueyong |last6=Kose |first6=Nurgun |last7=Bombardi |first7=Robin |last8=Finn |first8=Jessica A. |last9=Kent |first9=Stephen J. |last10=Gilchuk |first10=Pavlo |last11=Gilchuk |first11=Iuliia |date=2019 |title=A Site of Vulnerability on the Influenza Virus Hemagglutinin Head Domain Trimer Interface |journal=Cell |language=en |volume=177 |issue=5 |pages=1136–1152.e18 |doi=10.1016/j.cell.2019.04.011 |pmc=6629437 |pmid=31100268}}</ref> In the endosome, hemagglutinins are activated at a [[pH]] of 5 - 6.5 to undergo conformational changes that enable viral attachment through a fusion [[peptide]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Medeiros |first1=R. |last2=Escriou |first2=N. |last3=Naffakh |first3=N. |last4=Manuguerra |first4=J. C. |last5=van der Werf |first5=S. |date=2001-10-10 |title=Hemagglutinin residues of recent human A(H3N2) influenza viruses that contribute to the inability to agglutinate chicken erythrocytes |journal=Virology |volume=289 |issue=1 |pages=74–85 |doi=10.1006/viro.2001.1121 |issn=0042-6822 |pmid=11601919|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Virologist [[George Hirst (virologist)|George K. Hirst]] discovered agglutination and hemagglutinins in 1941. [[Alfred Gottschalk (biochemist)|Alfred Gottschalk]] proved in 1957 that hemagglutinins bind a [[virus]] to a host cell by attaching to [[sialic acid]]s on [[carbohydrate]] side chains of [[Cell membrane|cell-membrane]] [[glycoprotein]]s and [[glycolipid]]s.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Henry |first1=Ronnie |last2=Murphy |first2=Frederick A. |title=Etymologia: Hemagglutinin and Neuraminidase |journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases |date=October 2018 |volume=24 |issue=10 |pages=1849 |doi=10.3201/eid2410.ET2410 |pmc=6154157 }}</ref>

==Types==
* [[Influenza hemagglutinin]]: a [[homotrimer]]ic [[glycoprotein]] that is found on the surface of [[influenza viruses]] which is responsible for their infectivity.<ref>{{Cite web |last=CDC |date=2021-11-02 |title=Types of Influenza Viruses |url=https://www.cdc.gov/flu/about/viruses/types.htm |access-date=2022-10-18 |website=Centers for Disease Control and Prevention |language=en-us}}</ref> Influenza strains are named for the specific hemagglutinin variant they produce, along with the specific variant of another surface protein, [[Viral neuraminidase|neuraminidase]].
* [[Measles hemagglutinin]]: a hemagglutinin produced by the [[measles]] virus<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Hashiguchi |first1=Takao |last2=Maenaka |first2=Katsumi |last3=Yanagi |first3=Yusuke |date=2011-12-16 |title=Measles Virus Hemagglutinin: Structural Insights into Cell Entry and Measles Vaccine |journal=Frontiers in Microbiology |volume=2 |pages=247 |doi=10.3389/fmicb.2011.00247 |issn=1664-302X |pmc=3267179 |pmid=22319511|doi-access=free }}</ref> that [[Encoding (semiotics)|encodes]] six [[structural proteins]], with hemagglutinin and fusion proteins being surface glycoproteins involved in attachment and entry.<ref>{{cite journal |title= Use of Vaxfectin Adjuvant with DNA Vaccine Encoding the Measles Virus Hemagglutinin and Fusion Proteins Protects Juvenile and Infant Rhesus Macaques against Measles Virus |author= Pan CH, Jimenez GS, Nair N |journal= Clinical and Vaccine Immunology |orig-year= August, 2008 |date= August 21, 2014 |volume= 15 |issue= 8 |pages= 1214–1221 |doi= 10.1128/CVI.00120-08 |pmid= 18524884 |pmc= 2519314 }}</ref>
* [[Parainfluenza hemagglutinin-neuraminidase]]: a type of [[hemagglutinin-neuraminidase]] produced by [[Human parainfluenza viruses|parainfluenza]], which is closely associated with both human and veterinary disease.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tappert |first1=Mary M. |last2=Porterfield |first2=J. Zachary |last3=Mehta-D'Souza |first3=Padmaja |last4=Gulati |first4=Shelly |last5=Air |first5=Gillian M. |date=August 2013 |title=Quantitative Comparison of Human Parainfluenza Virus Hemagglutinin-Neuraminidase Receptor Binding and Receptor Cleavage |journal=Journal of Virology |volume=87 |issue=16 |pages=8962–8970 |doi=10.1128/JVI.00739-13 |issn=0022-538X |pmc=3754076 |pmid=23740997}}</ref>
* [[Mumps hemagglutinin-neuraminidase]]: a kind of hemagglutinin that the [[mumps virus]] (MuV) produces, which is the [[virus]] that causes [[mumps]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Kubota |first1=Marie |last2=Hashiguchi |first2=Takao |title=Lectin Purification and Analysis |date=2020 |chapter=Large-Scale Expression and Purification of Mumps Virus Hemagglutinin-Neuraminidase for Structural Analyses and Glycan-Binding Assays |chapter-url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32306363/ |series=Methods in Molecular Biology |volume=2132 |pages=641–652 |doi=10.1007/978-1-0716-0430-4_55 |issn=1940-6029 |pmid=32306363|isbn=978-1-0716-0429-8 |s2cid=216030421 }}</ref>
* Hemagglutinin is the PH-E form of [[phytohaemagglutinin]].

==Structure==
Hemagglutinins are small proteins that project from the virus membrane surface as 135 [https://www.britannica.com/science/angstrom Angstrom (Å)] long spikes with a diameter of 30-50 Å.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gamblin |first1=Steven J. |last2=Vachieri |first2=Sébastien G. |last3=Xiong |first3=Xiaoli |last4=Zhang |first4=Jie |last5=Martin |first5=Stephen R. |last6=Skehel |first6=John J. |date=2021-10-01 |title=Hemagglutinin Structure and Activities |url=http://perspectivesinmedicine.cshlp.org/content/11/10/a038638 |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine |language=en |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=a038638 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a038638 |issn=2157-1422 |pmid=32513673|pmc=8485738 }}</ref> Each spike is made up of three identical [[monomer]] subunits, making the protein a [[homotrimer]]. These monomers are formed of two [[glycopeptide]]s, HA1 and HA2, and linked by two [[Disulfide|disulphide]] [[polypeptides]], including membrane-distal HA1 and the smaller membrane-proximal HA2. X-Ray crystallography and spectroscopy were used to identify that the majority of the protein structures is made of [[Alpha helix|α-helical]] proteins.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Gamblin |first1=Steven J. |last2=Vachieri |first2=Sébastien G. |last3=Xiong |first3=Xiaoli |last4=Zhang |first4=Jie |last5=Martin |first5=Stephen R. |last6=Skehel |first6=John J. |date=2021-10-01 |title=Hemagglutinin Structure and Activities |url=http://perspectivesinmedicine.cshlp.org/content/11/10/a038638 |journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine |language=en |volume=11 |issue=10 |pages=a038638 |doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a038638 |issn=2157-1422 |pmid=32513673|pmc=8485738 }}</ref> In addition to the homotrimeric core structure, hemagglutinins have four subdomains: the membrane-distal receptor binding R subdomain, the vestigial domain E, that functions as a receptor-destroying [[esterase]], the fusion domain F, and the membrane anchor subdomain M. The membrane anchor subdomain forms elastic protein chains linking the hemagglutinin to the ectodomain.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Donald J. Benton, Andrea Nans, Lesley J. Calder, Jack Turner, Ursula Neu, Yi Pu Lin, Esther Ketelaars, Nicole L. Kallewaard, Davide Corti, Antonio Lanzavecchia, Steven J. Gamblin, Peter B. Rosenthal, John J. Skehel |date=Oct 2, 2018 |title=Hemagglutinin membrane anchor |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=115 |issue=40 |pages=10112–10117 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1810927115 |pmc=6176637 |pmid=30224494 |doi-access=free |orig-year=Sep 17, 2018}}</ref>

==Uses in serology==
* ''[[Hemagglutination assay|Hemagglutination Inhibition Assay]]'':<ref>{{cite book |doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-803109-4.00004-0 |chapter=Methods to Study Viruses |title=Viruses |year=2017 |last1=Payne |first1=Susan |pages=37–52 |isbn=978-0-12-803109-4 |s2cid=89981392 }}</ref> A serologic assay which can be used either to screen for antibodies using [[Red blood cell|RBCs]] with known surface [[antigen]]s, or to identify RBCs surface antigens such as viruses or bacteria using a panel of known antibodies. This method, performed first by [[George Hirst (virologist)|George K. Hirst]] in 1942, consists of mixing virus samples with serum dilutions so that antibodies bind to the virus before RBCs are added to the mix. Consequently, those viruses bound to antibodies are unable to link RBCs, meaning that a test’s positive result due to [[hemagglutination]] has been inhibited. On the contrary, if hemagglutination occurs, the test will result negative.

[[File:Experimental setup to detect hemagglutination.png|thumb|A schematic diagram of the experimental setup to detect [[hemagglutination]] for blood typing.|249x249px]]
* ''Hemagglutination blood typing detection'':<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Ashiba |first1=Hiroki |last2=Fujimaki |first2=Makoto |last3=Awazu |first3=Koichi |last4=Fu |first4=Mengying |last5=Ohki |first5=Yoshimichi |last6=Tanaka |first6=Torahiko |last7=Makishima |first7=Makoto |title=Hemagglutination detection for blood typing based on waveguide-mode sensors |journal=Sensing and Bio-Sensing Research |date=March 2015 |volume=3 |pages=59–64 |doi=10.1016/j.sbsr.2014.12.003 |doi-access=free }}</ref> This method consists of measuring the blood’s reflectance spectrum alone (non-agglutination), and that of blood mixed with antibody reagents (agglutination) using a waveguide-mode sensor. As a result, some differences in reflectance between the samples are observed. Once antibodies are added, [[blood type]]s and [[Rh blood group system|Rh(D)]] typing can be determined using the waveguide-mode sensor. This technique is able to detect weak agglutinations that are almost impossible to detect with the human eye.
* ''[[ABO]] [[blood group]] determination'': Using ''anti-A and anti-B antibodies'' that bind specifically to either the A or to the B [[blood type|blood group]] surface antigens on [[red blood cell|RBCs]], it is possible to test a small sample of blood and determine the ABO blood group (or blood type) of an individual. It does not identify the [[Rh blood group system|Rh(D)]] antigen (Rh blood type).
* The ''bedside card method'' of blood grouping relies on visual agglutination to determine an individual's blood group. The card contains dried blood group antibody [[reagent]]s fixed onto its surface. A drop of the individual's blood is placed on each blood group area on the card. The presence or absence of flocculation (visual agglutination) enables a quick and convenient method of determining the [[ABO blood group system|ABO]] and [[Rh blood group system|Rhesus]] status of the individual. As this technique depends on human eyes, it is less reliable than the blood typing based on waveguide-mode sensors.
* The agglutination of red blood cells is used in the ''[[Coombs test]]'' in diagnostic [[Immunohaematology|immunohematology]] to test for [[autoimmune hemolytic anemia]].<ref>{{Citation |last1=Theis |first1=Samuel R. |title=Coombs Test |date=2022 |url=http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK547707/ |work=StatPearls |place=Treasure Island (FL) |publisher=StatPearls Publishing |pmid=31613487 |access-date=2022-12-16 |last2=Hashmi |first2=Muhammad F.}}</ref>
* In the case of red blood cells, transformed cells are known as [[kodecyte]]s. ''Kode technology'' exposes exogenous antigens on the surface of cells, allowing antibody-antigen responses to be detected by the traditional hemagglutination test.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Focosi |first1=Daniele |last2=Franchini |first2=Massimo |last3=Maggi |first3=Fabrizio |date=2022-03-08 |title=Modified Hemagglutination Tests for COVID-19 Serology in Resource-Poor Settings: Ready for Prime-Time? |journal=Vaccines |volume=10 |issue=3 |pages=406 |doi=10.3390/vaccines10030406 |pmid=35335038 |pmc=8953758 |issn=2076-393X|doi-access=free }}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Cold agglutinin disease]]
* [[Hemagglutination assay]]
* [[Neuraminidase]]
* [[Hemagglutinin (influenza)|Influenza hemagglutinin (HA)]]
* [[Agglutination (biology)|Agglutination]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline}}

{{Immunologic techniques and tests}}

[[Category:Hematology]]
[[Category:Immunologic tests]]

Carboxymethyl cellulose

2024-04-22T19:40:05Z

Coriander77: minor copyediting

{{Short description|Cellulose derivative grafted with carboxymethyl groups}}
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{{Chembox
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| ImageFile = Carboxymethyl cellulose.png
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| OtherNames = Carboxymethylcellulose; carmellose; E466
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'''Carboxymethyl cellulose''' ('''CMC''') or '''cellulose gum'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fao.org/gsfaonline/additives/details.html?id=51 |author=Codex Alimentarius Commission |title=Sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (Cellulose gum) |year=2016 |work=GFSA Online |publisher=FAO |access-date=2017-05-08 |archive-date=2017-09-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170912060109/http://www.fao.org/gsfaonline/additives/details.html?id=51 |url-status=live }}</ref> is a [[cellulose]] [[derivatization|derivative]] with [[carboxymethyl]] groups (-CH2-COOH) bound to some of the [[hydroxyl]] groups of the [[glucose|glucopyranose]] [[monomer]]s that make up the cellulose [[polymer|backbone]]. It is often used as its [[Sodium salts|sodium salt]], sodium carboxymethyl cellulose. It used to be marketed under the name Tylose, a registered trademark of SE Tylose.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Products – SE Tylose |url=https://www.setylose.com/en/products |access-date=2022-11-17 |website=www.setylose.com}}</ref>

== Preparation ==
Carboxymethyl cellulose is [[chemical synthesis|synthesized]] by the [[alkali]]-[[catalyst|catalyzed]] [[chemical reaction|reaction]] of cellulose with [[chloroacetic acid]].<ref name="Hollabaugh1945">{{cite journal |last1=Hollabaugh |first1=C. B. |last2=Burt |first2=Leland H. |last3=Walsh |first3=Anna Peterson |title=Carboxymethylcellulose. Uses and Applications |journal=Industrial & Engineering Chemistry |date=October 1945 |volume=37 |issue=10 |pages=943–947 |doi=10.1021/ie50430a015 }}</ref> The [[polar molecule|polar]] (organic [[acid]]) [[carboxyl group]]s render the cellulose [[soluble]] and chemically reactive.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.colonygums.com/uploads/COLONYGUMS_CMC.pdf|title=CMC Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose|website=colonygums.com|access-date=19 May 2023|archive-date=12 April 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230412132035/https://www.colonygums.com/uploads/COLONYGUMS_CMC.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> Fabrics made of cellulose—e.g., cotton or viscose rayon—may also be converted into CMC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Wu |first=Jiamin |last2=Feng |first2=Zhaoxue |last3=Dong |first3=Chaohong |last4=Zhu |first4=Ping |last5=Qiu |first5=Jianhui |last6=Zhu |first6=Longxiang |date=2022-03-29 |title=Synthesis of Sodium Carboxymethyl Cellulose/Poly(acrylic acid) Microgels via Visible-Light-Triggered Polymerization as a Self-Sedimentary Cationic Basic Dye Adsorbent |url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c03196 |journal=Langmuir |language=en |volume=38 |issue=12 |pages=3711–3719 |doi=10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c03196 |issn=0743-7463 |access-date=2023-11-02 |archive-date=2023-11-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231102202851/https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/acs.langmuir.1c03196 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Following the initial reaction, the resultant mixture produces approximately 60% CMC and 40% salts ([[sodium chloride]] and [[sodium glycolate]]). This product, called technical CMC, is used in [[detergents]].{{citation needed|date = November 2022}} An additional purification process is used to remove salts to produce pure CMC, which is used for food and pharmaceutical applications.{{citation needed|date = November 2022}} An intermediate "semi-purified" grade is also produced, which is typically used in paper applications such as the restoration of archival documents.{{citation needed|date = November 2022}}

=== Structure and properties ===
{{multiple issues|section = yes|
{{unreferenced section|date = November 2022}}
{{expand section|with = a more thorough, sourced description of the variability in structure and function that are available through synthesis| small = no | date = November 2022}}
}}

The functional properties of CMC depend on the degree of [[substitution (chemistry)|substitution]] of the cellulose structure [i.e., how many of the hydroxyl groups have been converted to carboxymethylene(oxy) groups in the substitution reaction], as well as the chain length of the cellulose backbone structure and the degree of clustering of the carboxymethyl substituents. {{citation needed|date = November 2022}}

== Uses ==
{{Advert section|date=April 2024}}
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=== Introduction ===
Carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) is used in a large variety of applications ranging from food production to medical treatments.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=Md Saifur |last2=Hasan |first2=Md Saif |last3=Nitai |first3=Ashis Sutradhar |last4=Nam |first4=Sunghyun |last5=Karmakar |first5=Aneek Krishna |last6=Ahsan |first6=Md Shameem |last7=Shiddiky |first7=Muhammad J. A. |last8=Ahmed |first8=Mohammad Boshir |date=2021 |title=Recent Developments of Carboxymethyl Cellulose |journal=Polymers |language=en |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=1345 |doi=10.3390/polym13081345 |pmid=33924089 |pmc=8074295 |issn=2073-4360 |doi-access=free }}</ref> It is commonly used as a [[viscosity]] modifier or [[thickener]] and to [[Stabilizer (chemistry)|stabilize]] [[emulsion]]s in both food and non-food products. It is used primarily because it has high [[viscosity]], is nontoxic, and is generally considered to be [[hypoallergenic]], as the major source fiber is either softwood pulp or [[cotton linter]]. Non-food products include products such as [[toothpaste]], [[laxative]]s, [[diet (nutrition)|diet]] pills, [[water]]-based [[paint]]s, [[detergent]]s, textile [[sizing#Textile warp sizing|sizing]], reusable [[Ice pack|heat packs]], various [[paper]] products, filtration materials, synthetic membranes, wound healing applications, and also in leather crafting to help burnish edges.<ref name="cpkelco">{{cite web|title=CP Kelco Cellulose Gum / Carboxymethyl Cellulose|url=http://www.cpkelco.com/products-cellulose-gum.html|access-date=2013-07-17|archive-date=2013-08-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130824005851/http://cpkelco.com/products-cellulose-gum.html|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name=Dow>{{cite web |title=Sodium Carboxymethylcellulose – The Ideal Hydrocolloid for Bakery & Dough Products |url=http://msdssearch.dow.com/PublishedLiteratureDOWCOM/dh_0163/0901b803801632c7.pdf?filepath=/194-01430.pdf&fromPage=GetDoc |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150626142113/http://msdssearch.dow.com/PublishedLiteratureDOWCOM/dh_0163/0901b803801632c7.pdf?filepath=%2F194-01430.pdf&fromPage=GetDoc |archive-date=2015-06-26 }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tudoroiu |first1=Elena-Emilia |last2=Dinu-Pîrvu |first2=Cristina-Elena |last3=Albu Kaya |first3=Mădălina Georgiana |last4=Popa |first4=Lăcrămioara |last5=Anuța |first5=Valentina |last6=Prisada |first6=Răzvan Mihai |last7=Ghica |first7=Mihaela Violeta |date=2021 |title=An Overview of Cellulose Derivatives-Based Dressings for Wound-Healing Management |journal=Pharmaceuticals |language=en |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1215 |doi=10.3390/ph14121215 |pmid=34959615 |pmc=8706040 |issn=1424-8247 |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{Verify source|date = November 2022}}

=== Food science ===
CMC is registered as E466 or E469 (when it is [[Enzymatic hydrolysis|enzymatically hydrolyzed]]). CMC used for a [[viscosity]] modifier or [[thickener]] and to [[Stabilizer (chemistry)|stabilize]] [[emulsion]]s in various products, including [[ice cream]], mayonnaise, and beverages. CMC is also used extensively in gluten-free and reduced-fat food products.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.foodhealthinnovation.com/media/4041/food_processing_technologies_for_reduction_of_fat_in_products_final.pdf |title=Food Processing Technologies for Reduction of Fat in Products |last=Stanford |first=John |date=January 2012 |website=Food & Health Innovation Service |publisher=Scotland Food & Drink |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141023145749/http://www.foodhealthinnovation.com/media/4041/food_processing_technologies_for_reduction_of_fat_in_products_final.pdf |archive-date=2014-10-23 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

'''Marshmallows:''' CMC not only prevents dehydration and shrinkage of the product but also contributes to a more airy structure. When combined with gelatin, it can significantly increase the viscosity of the gelatin. A high molecular weight CMC (DS around 1.0) should be selected.

'''Ice cream:''' CMC has a lower viscosity at higher temperatures, and its viscosity increases upon cooling, which is conducive to the improvement of the expansion rate of the product and facilitates operation. It is advisable to use CMC at a concentration less than 0.4% (viscosity: 250~260 mPa·s or DS around 0.6).

'''Fruit juice beverages, soups, sauces, and instant soluble drinks:''' Due to its good rheological properties (pseudoplasticity), CMC delivers a refreshing taste, and its excellent suspension stability ensures uniform flavor and texture throughout the product. For acidic fruit juices, a CMC with good uniformity in degree of substitution is required. If it is further blended with a certain proportion of other water-soluble gums (such as xanthan gum), the effect can be even better. A high viscosity CMC (DS0.6~0.8) should be selected.

'''Instant noodles:''' The addition of 0.1% CMC helps to control moisture content, reduce oil absorption, and enhance the glossiness of the noodles.

'''Dehydrated vegetables, tofu skin, and dried tofu sticks, and other dehydrated foods:''' They rehydrate well and easily, and have a good appearance. It is advisable to use high viscosity CMC (with a degree of substitution around 0.6).

'''Noodles, bread, and frozen foods:''' CMC can prevent starch retrogradation and dehydration, and control the viscosity of pastes. The effect is further improved when used in combination with konjac flour, xanthan gum, certain emulsifiers, and phosphates. A medium viscosity CMC (DS0.5 to 0.8) should be selected.

'''Orange juice, pulpy orange, coconut juice, and fruit tea:''' Because it provides excellent suspension and support, it is even better when combined with xanthan gum or agar. A medium viscosity CMC (DS around 0.6) should be selected.

'''Soy sauce:''' The addition of salt-tolerant CMC to adjust its viscosity can make the soy sauce have a delicate and smooth taste.

'''Vegetarian burgers:''' CMC is used to enhance the texture, stability, and shelf life of vegetarian burgers, making them more palatable and easier to handle during cooking and consumption.
<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cmccellulose.com/food-grade-carboxymethyl-cellulose/|title=FOOD GRADE CARBOXYMETHYL CELLULOSE APPLICATIONS}}</ref>

====Food fraud====
* '''Shrimp and prawns:''' CMC injections have been used to fraudulently increase the weight and visual appeal.

=== Detergent uses===
Detergent Grade Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) is a cornerstone ingredient in modern cleaning products. CMC is used for its thickening and stabilizing properties, enhancing the texture and efficiency of detergents. It plays an important role in improving soil suspension and preventing redeposition, making it essential for high-performance laundry and dishwashing detergents. With a tailored viscosity range, CMC ensures detergents maintain optimal consistency, crucial for both liquid and powder formulas. Its compatibility with diverse detergent ingredients, including surfactants and builders, allows for versatile applications.

'''Laundry Detergents:''' Incorporate 5% CMC to improve soil suspension and fabric care. Blend with surfactants, builders, and fragrance. This formulation ensures efficient cleaning and fabric protection, making laundry detergents more effective.

'''Dishwashing Liquids:''' Use 3% CMC for enhanced grease removal and suds stability. Combine with cleaning agents and scents. This mix results in a powerful dishwashing liquid that cuts through grease and leaves dishes spotless.

'''Powdered Detergents:''' Add 4% CMC to prevent caking and ensure smooth texture. Mix with cleaning agents, brighteners, and fragrance. This formulation keeps powdered detergents free-flowing and effective.

Hand Washes: Blend 2% CMC for a luxurious, moisturizing feel. Include cleansing agents and essential oils. This composition creates hand washes that clean effectively while being gentle on the skin.

'''Surface Cleaners:''' Incorporate 1.5% CMC to enhance cleaning power and leave a streak-free finish. Mix with disinfectants and fragrances. This formula is ideal for multi-surface cleaners that effectively clean and freshen surfaces.

'''Car Wash Solutions:''' Use 2% CMC to remove tough dirt and grime. Combine with cleaning agents and wax for shine. This formulation results in a car wash solution that cleans effectively without damaging the vehicle’s finish.

'''Fabric Softeners:''' Add 3% CMC to fabric softeners for improved texture and fabric conditioning. Blend with softening agents and scents. This formula makes fabrics feel soft and smell fresh.

'''Toilet Bowl Cleaners:''' Incorporate 2% CMC for enhanced cling to bowl surfaces. Mix with disinfectants and cleaning agents. This formula ensures a thorough clean and lasting freshness in toilet bowl cleaners.

<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cmccellulose.com/detergent-grade-carboxymethyl-cellulose/|title=DETERGENT GRADE CARBOXYMETHYL CELLULOSE APPLICATIONS}}</ref>

=== Textile uses===
Textile Grade Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) is an essential component in the textile industry, widely used for its diverse applications. Primarily, it’s employed as a thickening agent in textile printing, constituting about 2-3% of printing pastes, to achieve sharp, clear designs. In dyeing processes, CMC, at a concentration of 1-2%, aids in uniform dye dispersion and fixation, ensuring vibrant and consistent colors. It’s also used in fabric finishing, at about 0.5-1%, to enhance fabric hand feel and texture. Additionally, CMC serves as a binding agent in non-woven fabrics, contributing to the strength and stability of the material. In sizing applications, about 1-3% of CMC is used to protect yarns during weaving, reducing breakages. The product’s role in fabric softening and conditioning is pivotal, improving the overall quality and wearability of textiles.

'''Textile Printing:''' Mix 3% CMC to create thickened printing pastes, ensuring precise and vibrant prints on fabrics. Blend with dyes and water to achieve desired consistency. This application results in sharp, clear textile designs that are visually appealing.

'''Fabric Dyeing:''' Use 2% CMC for even dye distribution and improved color fixation in fabric dyeing. Combine with fabric dyes and water, ensuring uniform application. This leads to consistently colored fabrics with long-lasting hues.

'''Fabric Finishing:''' Incorporate 1% CMC in finishing solutions to enhance fabric feel and appearance. Mix with finishing agents and apply to textiles. This application gives fabrics a soft, luxurious texture and improves wear resistance.

'''Yarn Sizing:''' Apply 3% CMC in sizing mixtures to protect yarn during weaving. Blend with starches and size mixtures, enhancing yarn strength and reducing breakages in the loom. This ensures smoother weaving and higher-quality textiles.

'''Non-Woven Fabric Production:''' Use 2% CMC as a binder in non-woven fabrics for increased strength and stability. Combine with fibrous materials, creating durable and cohesive non-woven textiles used in various applications.

'''Fabric Softening:''' Add 1.5% CMC to softening solutions for a softer fabric hand feel. Mix with softeners and apply to textiles, resulting in comfortable and pleasant-to-touch fabrics, ideal for clothing and home textiles.

'''Textile Coatings:''' Incorporate 2.5% CMC in coating formulations to improve fabric coating uniformity. Blend with coating materials, enhancing the protective properties of coated fabrics used in specialty applications.

'''Printing Thickener Replacement:''' Use CMC as an eco-friendly alternative to synthetic thickeners in printing pastes. Mix 3% CMC to achieve the desired viscosity, providing a sustainable and effective solution for textile printing.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cmccellulose.com/textile-grade-carboxymethyl-cellulose/|title=TEXTILE GRADE CARBOXYMETHYL CELLULOSE APPLICATIONS}}</ref>
=== Cosmetics uses===
Cosmetics Grade Carboxymethyl Cellulose (CMC) is a versatile ingredient used in over 50% of cosmetic products for its exceptional properties. As a thickening agent, it’s crucial in formulations where viscosity needs to be precisely controlled, commonly found in 30-40% of skincare products. In hair care, about 25% of shampoos and conditioners utilize CMC for its conditioning and detangling effects. It’s also a staple in makeup, contributing to the texture and stability of around 20% of foundations and mascaras. In toothpaste, making up approximately 15% of the market, CMC enhances texture and consistency. Its moisture retention properties are vital in 35% of moisturizers and lotions, ensuring skin hydration. Moreover, CMC serves as a film-forming agent in approximately 10% of sunscreens, improving application and wear. These diverse applications underscore CMC’s critical role in enhancing the quality and performance of cosmetic products.
Cleansing Lotion: Formulate with 1.5% CMC (FH9), 5% Beta-Cyclodextrin Hydrate, 15% Liquid Paraffin, and 5% Glycerin. Add suitable preservatives and fragrances. Mix with distilled water to make up to 100%. This emulsion serves as an excellent and stable cosmetic product.

'''Almond Cream:''' Use 1.3% CMC (FH9), 9.9% Almond Oil, 0.2% Bitter Almond Oil, 0.8% Geranium Oil, and 90% Ethanol. Include appropriate amounts of preservatives and fragrances. Mix well, then dilute with 100% distilled water. This almond cream offers excellent skin protection and anti-wrinkle benefits.

'''Lipstick:''' CMC aids in pigment suspension and dispersion, binding other ingredients for even distribution. For more information, contact Carboxymethyl Cellulose suppliers. Dosage: 0.5%-1.0%, using grade FH9.

'''Royal Jelly Face Mask:''' Royal Jelly, a precious natural nourisher, stimulates gland activity and disease resistance, offering special skin protection. Adding CMC to the face mask ensures uniform distribution of ingredients and enhances skin hydration. It also has excellent film-forming properties. Formula: 2% CMC (FH9), 1% Sodium Alginate, 5% Polyethylene Glycol, 1% Carbomer 940, 1.5% Polyoxyethylene Lauryl Ether, 10% Ethanol, 0.5% Triethanolamine, 5% Glycerin, 0.5% Royal Jelly, and 73.5% Refined Water, with a suitable amount of preservative.

'''Shampoo:''' CMC combined with Fatty Acid Ethanolamine or 2,2'-Iminodiethanol forms a thin film around hair, providing a sleek effect. Typical Formula: 2.5% CMC (FH9), 10% Propylene Glycol (plasticizer), 44.6% Water, Triethanolamine, 20% Sodium Lauryl Sulfate (cleansing agent), Sorbitol, 3% Polyoxethylene (adjusting agent), 2% Sodium Stearate (brightener), 0.8% Dye, Fragrances, and a suitable amount of preservative.

'''Anti-Aging Serum:''' A formula comprising 0.7% CMC (FH9) for a smooth, gel-like texture. It includes 10% Hyaluronic Acid for deep hydration, 2% Vitamin C for skin brightening, and 5% Collagen for elasticity. The base is a mixture of 70% water and 10% Glycerin, enhanced with natural antioxidants and preservatives.

'''Sunscreen Lotion:''' Formulated with 2% CMC (FH9) for consistency and stability. It contains 10% Zinc Oxide and 5% Titanium Dioxide for broad-spectrum UV protection. Additional ingredients include 5% Aloe Vera for soothing and 3% Vitamin E for skin repair. The base is 70% water, with added emollients and preservatives.

'''Hand Cream:''' This cream uses 1.5% CMC (FH9) for a rich texture. Key ingredients include 5% Shea Butter for moisturizing, 2% Glycerin for hydration, and 0.5% Allantoin for skin repair. The formula is enhanced with 80% water, essential oils for fragrance, and preservatives to maintain shelf life.

'''Hair Styling Gel:''' A formulation with 1.2% CMC (FH9) for strong hold and flexibility. It includes 5% Vegetable Glycerin for moisture, 2% Pro-Vitamin B5 for hair strength, and 0.5% Argan Oil for shine. The base consists of 85% water, along with natural fragrances and preservatives for a lasting effect.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://cmccellulose.com/cosmetics-grade-carboxymethyl-cellulose/|title=COSMETICS GRADE CARBOXYMETHYL CELLULOSE APPLICATIONS}}</ref>

CMC is used to achieve [[tartrate]] or cold stability in wine, an innovation that may save megawatts of electricity used to chill wine in warm climates. It is more stable than [[metatartaric acid]] and is very effective in inhibiting tartrate precipitation. It is reported that [[Potassium bitartrate|KHT]] crystals, in presence of CMC, grow slower and change their morphology.<ref>{{cite thesis |last=Gerbaud |first=Vincent |date=18 October 1996 |title=Determination de l'etat de sursaturation et effet des polysaccharides sur la cristallisation du bitartrate de potassium dans les vins |trans-title=Determination of the state of supersaturation and effect of polysaccharides on the crystallization of potassium bitartrate in wines |type=Ph.D. |publisher=[[National Polytechnic Institute of Toulouse|Institut National Polytechnique de Talouse]] |docket=961NP1030G |url=http://ethesis.inp-toulouse.fr/archive/00001182/01/gerbaud.pdf |access-date=2017-05-07 |language=fr |archive-date=2016-10-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013123118/http://ethesis.inp-toulouse.fr/archive/00001182/01/gerbaud.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>{{primary source inline|date = November 2022}}{{better source needed|date= November 2022}} Their shape becomes flatter because they lose 2 of the 7 faces, changing their dimensions. CMC molecules, negatively charged at wine pH, interact with the electropositive surface of the crystals, where potassium ions are accumulated. The slower growth of the crystals and the modification of their shape are caused by the competition between CMC molecules and bitartrate ions for binding to the KHT crystals.<ref>Cracherau et al. 2001.{{full citation needed|date = November 2022}}</ref>{{full citation needed|date = November 2022}}

=== Specific culinary uses ===
CMC powder is widely used in the ice cream industry, to make ice creams without churning or extremely low temperatures, thereby eliminating the need for conventional churners or salt ice mixes.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Bahramparvar |first1=Maryam |last2=Mazaheri Tehrani |first2=Mostafa |title=Application and Functions of Stabilizers in Ice Cream |journal=Food Reviews International |date=October 2011 |volume=27 |issue=4 |pages=389–407 |doi=10.1080/87559129.2011.563399 |s2cid=43187328 }}</ref> CMC is used in baking breads and cakes. The use of CMC gives the loaf an improved quality at a reduced cost, by reducing the need of fat. CMC is also used as an emulsifier in biscuits. By dispersing fat uniformly in the dough, it improves the release of the dough from the moulds and cutters, achieving well-shaped biscuits without any distorted edges. It can also help to reduce the amount of egg yolk or fat used in making the biscuits. Use of CMC in candy preparation ensures smooth dispersion in flavor oils, and improves texture and quality. CMC is used in chewing gums, margarines and peanut butter as an emulsifier.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.tarladalal.com/glossary-cmc-1226i|title=C.m.c. Glossary – Recipes with C.m.c. - Tarladalal.com|access-date=9 November 2016|archive-date=15 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161215035833/http://www.tarladalal.com/glossary-cmc-1226i|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Medical applications ===
{{multiple issues|section = yes|
{{unreferenced section|date = November 2022}}
{{expand section|with = a more expert, thorough description of CMC use in biomedicine| small = no | date = November 2022}}
}}
CMC is also used in numerous medical applications.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Rahman |first1=Md Saifur |last2=Hasan |first2=Md Saif |last3=Nitai |first3=Ashis Sutradhar |last4=Nam |first4=Sunghyun |last5=Karmakar |first5=Aneek Krishna |last6=Ahsan |first6=Md Shameem |last7=Shiddiky |first7=Muhammad J. A. |last8=Ahmed |first8=Mohammad Boshir |date=2021 |title=Recent Developments of Carboxymethyl Cellulose |journal=Polymers |language=en |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=1345 |doi=10.3390/polym13081345 |pmid=33924089 |pmc=8074295 |issn=2073-4360 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Tudoroiu |first1=Elena-Emilia |last2=Dinu-Pîrvu |first2=Cristina-Elena |last3=Albu Kaya |first3=Mădălina Georgiana |last4=Popa |first4=Lăcrămioara |last5=Anuța |first5=Valentina |last6=Prisada |first6=Răzvan Mihai |last7=Ghica |first7=Mihaela Violeta |date=2021 |title=An Overview of Cellulose Derivatives-Based Dressings for Wound-Healing Management |journal=Pharmaceuticals |language=en |volume=14 |issue=12 |pages=1215 |doi=10.3390/ph14121215 |pmid=34959615 |pmc=8706040 |issn=1424-8247 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Zennifer |first1=Allen |last2=Senthilvelan |first2=Praseetha |last3=Sethuraman |first3=Swaminathan |last4=Sundaramurthi |first4=Dhakshinamoorthy |date=2021-03-15 |title=Key advances of carboxymethyl cellulose in tissue engineering & 3D bioprinting applications |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0144861720317343 |journal=Carbohydrate Polymers |language=en |volume=256 |pages=117561 |doi=10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117561 |pmid=33483063 |s2cid=231689461 |issn=0144-8617 |access-date=2023-08-08 |archive-date=2023-11-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109194558/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0144861720317343 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Ciolacu |first1=Diana Elena |last2=Nicu |first2=Raluca |last3=Ciolacu |first3=Florin |date=2020 |title=Cellulose-Based Hydrogels as Sustained Drug-Delivery Systems |journal=Materials |language=en |volume=13 |issue=22 |pages=5270 |doi=10.3390/ma13225270 |pmid=33233413 |pmc=7700533 |issn=1996-1944 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

Some examples include:
# Device for [[epistaxis]] (nose bleeding). A [[poly-vinyl chloride]] (PVC) balloon is covered by CMC knitted fabric reinforced by [[nylon]]. The device is soaked in water to form a gel, which is inserted into the nose of the balloon and inflated. The combination of the inflated balloon and the therapeutic effect of the CMC stops the bleeding.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}
# Fabric used as a dressing following ear nose and throat surgical procedures.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}
# [[Water]] is added to form a [[gel]], and this gel is inserted into the sinus cavity following surgery.{{citation needed|date=October 2017}}

In [[ophthalmology]], CMC is used as a lubricating agent in [[artificial tears]] solutions for the treatment of dry eyes.<ref>{{Cite web |last= |title=Carboxymethylcellulose: Indications, Side Effects, Warnings |url=https://www.drugs.com/cdi/carboxymethylcellulose.html |access-date=2023-08-08 |website=Drugs.com |language=en |archive-date=2023-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230810225015/https://www.drugs.com/cdi/carboxymethylcellulose.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

In veterinary medicine, CMC is used in abdominal surgeries in large animals, particularly horses, to prevent the formation of bowel adhesions.{{citation needed|date = November 2022}}

=== Research applications ===
{{more citations needed section|date=July 2019}}

Insoluble CMC (water-insoluble) can be used in the purification of proteins, particularly in the form of charged filtration membranes or as granules in cation-exchange resins for [[ion-exchange chromatography]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Whatman Filters & Sample Collection |url=http://www.whatman.com/CationExchangeCelluloses.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502011636/http://www.whatman.com/CationExchangeCelluloses.aspx |archive-date=2 May 2013 |access-date=9 November 2016}}</ref> Its low solubility is a result of a lower DS value (the number of carboxymethyl groups per anhydroglucose unit in the cellulose chain) compared to soluble CMC.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Mengying |last2=Jia |first2=Xiangxiang |last3=Liu |first3=Wanshuang |last4=Lin |first4=Xiaobo |date=2021-03-01 |title=Water insoluble and flexible transparent film based on carboxymethyl cellulose |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0144861720315265 |journal=Carbohydrate Polymers |language=en |volume=255 |pages=117353 |doi=10.1016/j.carbpol.2020.117353 |pmid=33436193 |s2cid=228813982 |issn=0144-8617 |access-date=2023-08-08 |archive-date=2023-11-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109194558/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0144861720315265 |url-status=live }}</ref> Insoluble CMC offers physical properties similar to insoluble cellulose, while the negatively charged carboxylate groups allow it to bind to positively charged proteins.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Lopez |first1=Carlos G. |last2=Colby |first2=Ralph H. |last3=Cabral |first3=João T. |date=2018-04-24 |title=Electrostatic and Hydrophobic Interactions in NaCMC Aqueous Solutions: Effect of Degree of Substitution |journal=Macromolecules |language=en |volume=51 |issue=8 |pages=3165–3175 |doi=10.1021/acs.macromol.8b00178 |issn=0024-9297|doi-access=free |hdl=10044/1/58673 |hdl-access=free }}</ref> Insoluble CMC can also be chemically cross-linked to enhance the mechanical strength of the material.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Nakayama |first1=Ryo-ichi |last2=Yano |first2=Tomoya |last3=Namiki |first3=Norikazu |last4=Imai |first4=Masanao |date=2019-11-01 |title=Highly Size-Selective Water-Insoluble Cross-Linked Carboxymethyl Cellulose Membranes |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-019-01532-w |journal=Journal of Polymers and the Environment |language=en |volume=27 |issue=11 |pages=2439–2444 |doi=10.1007/s10924-019-01532-w |s2cid=199474275 |issn=1572-8919 |access-date=2023-08-08 |archive-date=2023-11-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109194559/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10924-019-01532-w |url-status=live }}</ref>

Moreover, CMC has been used extensively to characterize enzyme activity from endoglucanases (part of the [[cellulase]] complex); it is a highly specific substrate for endo-acting cellulases, as its structure has been engineered to decrystallize [[cellulose]] and create amorphous sites that are ideal for endoglucanase action.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} CMC is desirable because the catalysis product ([[glucose]]) is easily measured using a [[reducing sugar]] assay, such as [[3,5-dinitrosalicylic acid]].{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} Using CMC in enzyme assays is especially important in screening for cellulase enzymes that are needed for more efficient [[cellulosic ethanol]] conversion.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}} CMC was misused in early work with cellulase enzymes, as many had associated whole cellulase activity with CMC hydrolysis.{{according to whom|date=November 2022}} As the mechanism of cellulose depolymerization became better understood, it became clear that exo-cellulases are dominant in the degradation of crystalline (e.g. Avicel) and not soluble (e.g. CMC) cellulose.{{citation needed|date=November 2022}}

=== Other uses ===
{{more citations needed section | date = November 2022}}
In laundry detergents, it is used as a soil suspension polymer designed to deposit onto cotton and other cellulosic fabrics, creating a negatively charged barrier to soils in the wash solution.{{citation needed|date = November 2022}} CMC is also used as a thickening agent, for example, in the oil-drilling industry as an ingredient of [[drilling fluid|drilling mud]], where it acts as a viscosity modifier and water retention agent.{{citation needed|date = November 2022}}

CMC is sometimes used as an electrode binder in advanced battery applications (i.e. [[lithium ion batteries]]), especially with [[graphite#Batteries|graphite]] anodes.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Park |first1=Jeong Hoon |last2=Kim |first2=Sun Hyung |last3=Ahn |first3=Kyung Hyun |date=2023-05-05 |title=Role of carboxymethyl cellulose binder and its effect on the preparation process of anode slurries for Li-ion batteries |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0927775723002145 |journal=Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects |language=en |volume=664 |pages=131130 |doi=10.1016/j.colsurfa.2023.131130 |s2cid=256917952 |issn=0927-7757 |access-date=2023-08-09 |archive-date=2023-11-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231109194559/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0927775723002145 |url-status=live }}</ref> CMC's water solubility allows for less toxic and costly processing than with non-water-soluble binders, like the traditional [[polyvinylidene fluoride]] (PVDF), which requires toxic [[n-methylpyrrolidone]] (NMP) for processing.{{Citation needed|date=August 2023|reason=This claim needs a reliable source}} CMC is often used in conjunction with [[styrene-butadiene]] rubber (SBR) for electrodes requiring extra flexibility, e.g. for use with silicon-containing anodes.<ref>[http://celluloseether.com/applications-sodium-carboxymethyl-cellulose-binder-batteries/] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171204114543/http://celluloseether.com/applications-sodium-carboxymethyl-cellulose-binder-batteries/|date=2017-12-04}} Applications of sodium carboxymethyl cellulose As a Binder In Batteries</ref>

CMC is also used in [[ice pack]]s to form a [[Eutectic system|eutectic mixture]] resulting in [[Freezing point depression|a lower freezing point]], and therefore more cooling capacity than ice.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.coldchaintech.com/faqs-refrigerants.php|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708174610/http://www.coldchaintech.com/faqs-refrigerants.php|url-status=dead|title=Use in ice packs|archivedate=July 8, 2011}}</ref>

Aqueous solutions of CMC have also been used to disperse carbon nanotubes, where the long CMC molecules are thought to wrap around the nanotubes, allowing them to be dispersed in water.{{citation needed|date = November 2022}}

In conservation-restoration, it is used as an adhesive or fixative (commercial name Walocel, Klucel).{{citation needed|date = November 2022}}

== Adverse reactions ==
{{primary sources|section|date = November 2022}}
Effects on [[inflammation]], microbiota-related [[metabolic syndrome]], and [[colitis]] are a subject of research.<ref name="LAT">{{cite news |last=Healy |first=Melissa |url=http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-metabolic-bowel-emulsifiers-20150225-story.html |title=Is common food additive to blame for rising rates of bowel disease? |work=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=2015-02-25 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170712013742/http://www.latimes.com/science/sciencenow/la-sci-sn-metabolic-bowel-emulsifiers-20150225-story.html |archive-date=2017-07-12 |access-date=2017-07-12 }}</ref> Carboxymethyl cellulose is suggested as a possible cause of inflammation of the gut, through alteration of the [[human gastrointestinal microbiota]], and has been suggested as a triggering factor in [[inflammatory bowel disease]]s such as ulcerative colitis and [[Crohn's disease]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Martino |first1=John Vincent |last2=Van Limbergen |first2=Johan |last3=Cahill |first3=Leah E. |title=The Role of Carrageenan and Carboxymethylcellulose in the Development of Intestinal Inflammation |journal=Frontiers in Pediatrics |date=1 May 2017 |volume=5 |pages=96 |doi=10.3389/fped.2017.00096 |pmid=28507982 |pmc=5410598 |doi-access=free }}</ref>{{primary source inline|date = November 2022}}

While thought to be uncommon, case reports of severe reactions to carboxymethyl cellulose exist.<ref name=NAN>{{cite journal |first1=Benoit |last1=Chassaing |first2=Charlene |last2=Compher |first3=Brittaney |last3=Bonhomme |first4=Qing |last4=Liu |first5=Yuan |last5=Tian |first6=William |last6=Walters |first7=Lisa |last7=Nessel |first8=Clara |last8=Delaroque |first9=Fuhua |last9=Hao |first10=Victoria |last10=Gershuni |first11=Lillian |last11=Chau |first12=Josephine |last12=Ni |first13=Meenakshi |last13=Bewtra |first14=Lindsey |last14=Albenberg |first15=Alexis |last15=Bretin |first16=Liam |last16=McKeever |first17=Ruth E. |last17=Ley |first18=Andrew D. |last18=Patterson |first19=Gary D. |last19=Wu |first20=Andrew T. |last20=Gewirtz |first21=James D. |last21=Lewis |title=Randomized Controlled-Feeding Study of Dietary Emulsifier Carboxymethylcellulose Reveals Detrimental Impacts on the Gut Microbiota and Metabolome |journal=Gastroenterology |date=11 November 2021 |volume=162 |issue=3 |pages=743–756 |doi=10.1053/j.gastro.2021.11.006 |pmid=34774538 |pmc=9639366 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Skin testing is believed to be a useful diagnostic tool for this purpose.<ref name="AAAAI">{{cite web |url=http://www.aaaai.org/ask-the-expert/carboxymethylcellulose |title=Anaphylaxis to carboxymethylcellulose |last=Lieberman |first=Phil |publisher=[[American Academy of Allergy, Asthma, and Immunology]] |url-status=live |archive-url=https://archive.today/20170712011138/http://www.aaaai.org/ask-the-expert/carboxymethylcellulose |archive-date=2017-07-12 |access-date=2017-07-12 }}</ref>
Carboxymethyl cellulose was the active ingredient in an eye drop brand Ezricare Artificial Tears which was recalled due to potential bacterial contamination.<ref name="LiveMint">{{cite web |url=https://www.livemint.com/news/india/drug-regulatory-body-takes-eye-drop-samples-from-pharma-firm-linked-to-us-deaths-11675525216374.html |title=Drug regulatory body takes eye drop samples from pharma firm linked to US deaths |date=4 February 2023 |access-date=5 April 2023 |archive-date=5 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230405082243/https://www.livemint.com/news/india/drug-regulatory-body-takes-eye-drop-samples-from-pharma-firm-linked-to-us-deaths-11675525216374.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Croscarmellose sodium]]
* [[Hydroxypropyl cellulose]]
* [[Methyl cellulose]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051225045241/http://www.lsbu.ac.uk/water/hycmc.html CMC chemical structure and properties]
* [http://aic.stanford.edu/sg/bpg/annual/v01/bp01-04.html MC and CMC: commercial preparations and various uses, including paper conservation; bibliography]

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Cellulose]]
[[Category:Food additives]]
[[Category:Cellulose ethers]]
[[Category:E-number additives]]

Robert Koch

2024-03-07T16:46:47Z

Coriander77:

{{Short description|German physician and bacteriologist (1843–1910)}}
{{other people}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021|cs1-dates=y}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Robert Koch
| image = RobertKoch cropped.jpg
| birth_name = Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1843|12|11}}
| birth_place = [[Clausthal]], [[Kingdom of Hanover]], [[German Confederation]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1910|5|27|1843|12|11}}
| death_place = [[Baden-Baden]], [[Grand Duchy of Baden]], [[German Empire]]
| nationality = [[Germany|German]]
| field = [[Microbiology]]
| work_institutions = Imperial Health Office, Berlin [[University of Berlin]]
| education = [[University of Göttingen]]
| doctoral_advisor = [[Georg Meissner]]
| academic_advisors = [[Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle]] [[Karl Ewald Hasse]] [[Rudolf Virchow]]
| known_for = [[Koch's postulates]] [[Koch–Pasteur rivalry]] [[Microbiological culture|Bacterial culture method]] [[Germ theory of disease]] [[Medical microbiology]] [[Bacillus anthracis|Discovery of anthrax bacillus]] [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis|Discovery of tuberculosis bacillus]] and [[tuberculin]] [[Vibrio cholerae|Discovery of cholera bacillus]]
| prizes = {{Plainlist|
* [[Fellow of the Royal Society|ForMemRS]] (1897)
* [[Nobel Prize in Medicine]] (1905)
* [[List of recipients of the Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts|Pour le Mérite]] (1906)}}
}}
'''Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|k|ɒ|x}} {{respell|KOKH}},<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/koch "Koch"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref><ref name="AHD">{{Citation |title="Koch". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Koch}}</ref> {{IPA-de|ˈʁoːbɛʁt ˈkɔx|lang|De-Robert Koch.ogg}}; 11 December 1843 – 27 May 1910) was a German [[physician]] and [[microbiologist]]. As the discoverer of the specific causative agents of deadly infectious diseases including [[tuberculosis]], [[cholera]] and [[anthrax]], he is regarded as one of the main founders of modern [[bacteriology]]. As such he is popularly nicknamed the father of microbiology (with [[Louis Pasteur]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|date=1952|title=Freelance of Science|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=2|issue=4778|pages=269|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.4778.269|pmc=2020971}}</ref>), and as the father of medical bacteriology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tan|first1=S. Y.|last2=Berman|first2=E.|date=2008|title=Robert Koch (1843-1910): father of microbiology and Nobel laureate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19037548|journal=Singapore Medical Journal|volume=49|issue=11|pages=854–855|pmid=19037548}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Gradmann|first=Christoph|date=2006|title=Robert Koch and the white death: from tuberculosis to tuberculin|journal=Microbes and Infection|volume=8|issue=1|pages=294–301|doi=10.1016/j.micinf.2005.06.004|pmid=16126424|doi-access=free}}</ref> His discovery of the anthrax bacterium (''[[Bacillus anthracis]]'') in 1876 is considered as the birth of modern bacteriology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lakhani|first=S. R.|date=1993|title=Early clinical pathologists: Robert Koch (1843-1910)|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=46|issue=7|pages=596–598|doi=10.1136/jcp.46.7.596|pmc=501383|pmid=8157741}}</ref> Koch used his discoveries to establish that germs "could cause a specific disease"<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK24649/#:~:text=In%20the%20final%20decades%20of,and%20suspected%20they%20caused%20anthrax | title=Science, Medicine, and Animals | chapter=A Theory of Germs | date=20 October 2023 | publisher=National Academies Press (US) }}</ref> and directly provided proofs for the [[germ theory of diseases]], therefore creating the scientific basis of [[public health]],<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Lakhtakia|first=Ritu|date=2014|title=The Legacy of Robert Koch: Surmise, search, substantiate|journal=Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal|volume=14|issue=1|pages=e37–41|doi=10.12816/0003334|pmc=3916274|pmid=24516751}}</ref> saving millions of lives.<ref>https://history.info/on-this-day/1843-robert-koch-man-saved-millions-lives/</ref> For his life's work Koch is seen as one of the founders of modern medicine.<ref>https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=245261433654285</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XCVnOb6VXmg | title=Louis Pasteur vs Robert Koch: The History of Germ Theory | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref>

While working as a private physician, Koch developed many innovative techniques in microbiology. He was the first to use the [[oil immersion lens]], [[Condenser (optics)|condenser]], and [[microphotography]] in microscopy. His invention of the [[Growth medium|bacterial culture method]] using [[Agar plate|agar]] and glass plates (later developed as the [[Petri dish]] by his assistant [[Julius Richard Petri]]) made him the first to grow bacteria in the laboratory. In appreciation of his work, he was appointed to government advisor at the [[Federal Health Agency|Imperial Health Office]] in 1880, promoted to a senior executive position (''Geheimer Regierungsrat'') in 1882, Director of Hygienic Institute and Chair (Professor of hygiene) of the Faculty of Medicine at [[Berlin University]] in 1885, and the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases (later renamed [[Robert Koch Institute]] after his death) in 1891.

The methods Koch used in bacteriology led to establishment of a medical concept known as [[Koch's postulates]], four generalized medical principles to ascertain the relationship of pathogens with specific diseases. The concept is still in use in most situations and influences subsequent epidemiological principles such as the [[Bradford Hill criteria]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Margo|first=Curtis E.|date=11 April 2011|title=From Robert Koch to Bradford Hill: Chronic Infection and the Origins of Ocular Adnexal Cancers|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaophthalmology/fullarticle/427189|journal=Archives of Ophthalmology|language=en|volume=129|issue=4|pages=498–500|doi=10.1001/archophthalmol.2011.53|pmid=21482875|issn=0003-9950}}</ref> A major controversy followed when Koch discovered [[tuberculin]] as a medication for tuberculosis which was proven to be ineffective, but developed for diagnosis of tuberculosis after his death. For his research on tuberculosis, he received the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1905.<ref name="Robert Koch A Life">Brock, Thomas. ''Robert Koch: A life in medicine and bacteriology.'' ASM Press: Washington DC, 1999. Print.</ref> The day he announced the discovery of the tuberculosis bacterium, 24 March 1882, has been observed by the [[World Health Organization]] as "[[World Tuberculosis Day]]" every year since 1982.

==Early life and education==
Koch was born in [[Klausthal|Clausthal, Germany]], on 11 December 1843, to Hermann Koch (1814–1877) and Mathilde Julie Henriette (née Biewend; 1818–1871).<ref name="The Founders">Metchnikoff, Elie. ''The Founders of Modern Medicine: Pasteur, Koch, Lister.'' Classics of Medicine Library: Delanco, 2006. Print.</ref> His father was a mining engineer. He was the third of thirteen siblings.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Blevins|first1=Steve M.|last2=Bronze|first2=Michael S.|date=2010|title=Robert Koch and the 'golden age' of bacteriology|journal=International Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=14|issue=9|pages=e744–751|doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2009.12.003|pmid=20413340|doi-access=free}}</ref> He excelled academically from an early age. Before entering school in 1848, he had taught himself how to read and write.<ref name=":4" /> He completed secondary education in 1862, having excelled in science and math.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Akkermans|first=Rebecca|date=2014|title=Robert Heinrich Herman Koch|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24717622|journal=The Lancet|volume=2|issue=4|pages=264–265|doi=10.1016/S2213-2600(14)70018-9|pmid=24717622}}</ref>

At the age of 19, in 1862, Koch entered the [[University of Göttingen]] to study natural science.<ref name="Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch">"Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch." ''World of Scientific Discovery.'' Gale, 2006. Biography in Context. Web. 14 April 2013.</ref> He took up mathematics, physics and botany. He was appointed assistant in the university's Pathological Museum.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Ernst|first=H. C.|date=1918|title=Robert Koch (1843-1910)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25130022|journal=Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences|volume=53|issue=10|pages=825–827|jstor=25130022}}</ref> After three semesters, he decided to change his area of study to medicine, as he aspired to be a physician. During his fifth semester at the medical school, [[Jacob Henle]], an anatomist who had published a [[Germ theory of disease|theory of contagion]] in 1840, asked him to participate in his research project on uterine nerve structure. This research won him a research prize from the university and enabled him to briefly study under [[Rudolf Virchow]], who was at the time considered as "Germany's most renowned physician."<ref name=":0" /> In his sixth semester, Koch began to research at the Physiological Institute, where he studied the secretion of [[succinic acid]], which is a signaling molecule that is also involved in the [[Citric acid cycle|metabolism of the mitochondria]]. This would eventually form the basis of his dissertation.<ref name="Robert Koch A Life" /> In January 1866, he graduated from the medical school, earning honours of the highest distinction, ''[[Latin honors|maxima cum laude]]''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Sakula|first=A.|date=1982|title=Robert Koch: centenary of the discovery of the tubercle bacillus, 1882|journal=Thorax|volume=37|issue=4|pages=246–251|doi=10.1136/thx.37.4.246|pmc=459292|pmid=6180494}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Sakula|first=A.|date=1983|title=Robert koch: centenary of the discovery of the tubercle bacillus, 1882|journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=127–131|pmc=1790283|pmid=17422248}}</ref>

==Career==
After graduation in 1866, Koch briefly worked as an assistant in the General Hospital of Hamburg. In October that year he moved to Idiot's Hospital of Langenhagen, near Hanover, as a general physician. In 1868, he moved to Neimegk and then to Rakwitz in 1869. As the [[Franco-Prussian War]] started in 1870, he enlisted in the German army as a volunteer surgeon in 1871 to support the war effort.<ref name=":1" /> He was discharged a year later and was appointed as a district physician (''Kreisphysikus'') in Wollstein in [[Prussia]]n [[Province of Posen|Posen]] (now [[Wolsztyn]], Poland). As his family settled there, his wife gave him a microscope as a birthday gift. With the microscope, he set up a private laboratory and started his career in microbiology.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

Koch began conducting research on microorganisms in a laboratory connected to his patient examination room.<ref name="Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch" /> His early research in this laboratory yielded one of his major contributions to the field of microbiology, as he developed the technique of growing bacteria.<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms">Madigan, Michael T., et al. ''Brock Biology of Microorganisms: Thirteenth edition.'' Benjamin Cummings: Boston, 2012. Print.</ref> Furthermore, he managed to isolate and grow selected pathogens in a [[pure culture|pure laboratory culture]].<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms" /> His discovery of the anthrax bacillus (later named ''[[Bacillus anthracis]]'') hugely impressed [[Ferdinand Julius Cohn]], professor at the University of Breslau (now the [[University of Wrocław]]), who helped him publish the discovery in 1876.<ref name=":1" /> Cohn had established the Institute of Plant Physiology<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pick|first=E.|date=2001|title=Medical luminaries|journal=Nature|volume=411|issue=6840|pages=885|doi=10.1038/35082239|pmid=11418826|bibcode=2001Natur.411..885P|s2cid=30630349|doi-access=free}}</ref> and invited Koch to demonstrate his new bacterium there in 1877.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Salomonsen|first=C. J.|date=1950|title=Reminiscences of the summer semester, 1877, at Breslau|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15434544|journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine|volume=24|issue=4|pages=333–351|jstor=44443542|pmid=15434544}}</ref> Koch was transferred to Breslau as district physician in 1879. A year after, he left for Berlin when he was appointed a government advisor at the Imperial Health Office, where he worked from 1880 to 1885.<ref name="Tuberculosis, overview">O’Connor, T.M. "Tuberculosis, Overview." ''International Encyclopedia of Public Health.'' 2008. Web.</ref> Following his discovery of the tuberculosis bacterium, he was promoted to ''Geheimer Regierungsrat'', a senior executive position, in June 1882.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Gradmann|first=C.|date=2001|title=Robert Koch and the pressures of scientific research: tuberculosis and tuberculin|journal=Medical History|volume=45|issue=1|pages=1–32|doi=10.1017/s0025727300000028|pmc=1044696|pmid=11235050}}</ref>

In 1885, Koch received two appointments as an administrator and professor at [[Berlin University]]. He became Director of Hygienic Institute and Chair (Professor of hygiene) of the Faculty of Medicine.<ref name=":1" /> In 1891, he relinquished his professorship and became a director of the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases (now the [[Robert Koch Institute]]) which consisted of a clinical division and beds for the division of clinical research. For this he accepted harsh conditions. The Prussian Ministry of Health insisted after the 1890 scandal with [[tuberculin]], which Koch had discovered and intended as a remedy for tuberculosis, that any of Koch's inventions would unconditionally belong to the government and he would not be compensated. Koch lost the right to apply for patent protection.<ref name=":14">Christoph Gradmann: Laboratory Disease, Robert Koch's Medical Bacteriology. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2009, {{ISBN|978-0-8018-9313-1}}, p. 111 ff.</ref> In 1906, he moved to East Africa to research a cure for [[trypanosomiasis]] (sleeping sickness). He established the Bugula research camp where up to 1000 people a day were treated with the experimental drug [[Arsanilic acid|Atoxyl]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bonhomme|first=Edna|title=When Africa was a German laboratory|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/10/6/when-africa-was-a-german-laboratory/|access-date=7 October 2020|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref>

==Scientific contributions==
===Techniques in bacteria study===
Robert Koch made two important developments in microscopy; he was the first to use an [[oil immersion lens]] and a [[Condenser (optics)|condenser]] that enabled smaller objects to be seen.<ref name=":0" /> In addition, he was also the first to effectively use photography ([[microphotograph]]y) for microscopic observation. He introduced the "bedrock methods" of bacterial staining using [[methylene blue]] and [[Bismarck brown Y|Bismarck (Vesuvin) brown dye]].<ref name=":16" /> In an attempt to grow bacteria, Koch began to use solid nutrients such as [[potato]] slices.<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms"/> Through these initial experiments, Koch observed individual colonies of identical, pure cells.<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms"/> He found that potato slices were not suitable media for all organisms, and later began to use nutrient solutions with [[gelatin]].<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms"/> However, he soon realized that gelatin, like potato slices, was not the optimal medium for bacterial growth, as it did not remain solid at 37 °C, the ideal temperature for growth of most human pathogens.<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms"/> And also many bacteria can hydrolyze gelatin making it a liquid. As suggested to him by his post-doctoral assistant [[Walther Hesse]], who got the idea from his wife [[Fanny Hesse]], in 1881, Koch started using [[agar]] to grow and isolate pure cultures.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Hufford|first=David C.|date=1988-03-01|title=A Minor Modification by R. J. Petri|url=https://academic.oup.com/labmed/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/labmed/19.3.169|journal=Laboratory Medicine|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=169–170|doi=10.1093/labmed/19.3.169|issn=0007-5027}}</ref> Agar is a [[polysaccharide]] that remains solid at 37 °C, is not degraded by most bacteria, and results in a stable transparent medium.<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms"/><ref name=":5">{{cite book|author=Koch|first=Robert|title=Robert Koch |chapter=Die Ätiologie der Tuberkulose (1882) |series=Klassische Texte der Wissenschaft |date=24 March 1882|trans-title=The Etiology of Tuberculosis|chapter-url=http://edoc.rki.de/docviews/abstract.php?id=610|journal=Physiologische Gesellschaft zu Berlin/Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift|volume=19|pages=221–30|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-56454-7_4|isbn=978-3-662-56454-7|quote=From page 225: ''"{{lang|de|Die Tuberkelbacillen lassen sich auch noch auf anderen Nährsubstraten kultivieren, wenn letztere ähnliche Eigenschaften wie das erstarrte Blutserum besitzen. So wachsen sie beispielsweise auf einer mit Agar-Agar bereiteten, bei Blutwärme hart bleibenden Gallerte, welche einen Zusatz von Fleischinfus und Pepton erhalten hat.}}"'' (The tubercule bacilli can also be cultivated on other media, if the latter have properties similar to those of congealed [[blood serum]]. Thus they grow, for example, on a gelatinous mass prepared with [[agar-agar]], which remains solid at blood temperature, and which has received a supplement of meat [[broth]] and [[peptone]].)}}</ref>

==== Development of Petri dish ====
Koch's booklet published in 1881 titled "''Zur Untersuchung von Pathogenen Organismen''" (''Methods for the Study of Pathogenic Organisms'')<ref>{{Cite book|last=Koch|first=Robert|url=https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/5146|title=Zur Untersuchung von Pathogenen Organismen|publisher=Robert Koch-Institut|year=2010|location=Berlin|doi=10.25646/5071|orig-year=1881}}</ref> has been known as the "Bible of Bacteriology."<ref>{{Citation|last1=Booss|first1=John|date=2014|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444534880000018|series=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|volume=123|pages=3–44|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-53488-0.00001-8|isbn=978-0-444-53488-0|access-date=2021-04-15|last2=Tselis|first2=Alex C.|title=Neurovirology |chapter=A history of viral infections of the central nervous system |pmid=25015479}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hurt|first=Leslie|date=2003|title=Dr. Robert Koch:: a founding father of biology|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1068607X02001671|journal=Primary Care Update for OB/GYNS|language=en|volume=10|issue=2|pages=73–74|doi=10.1016/S1068-607X(02)00167-1}}</ref> In it he described a novel method of using glass slide with agar to grow bacteria. The method involved pouring a liquid agar on to the glass slide and then spreading a thin layer of gelatin over. The gelatin made the culture medium solidify, in which bacterial samples could be spread uniformly. The whole bacterial culture was then put in a glass plate together with a small wet paper. Koch named this container as ''feuchte Kammer'' (moist chamber). The typical chamber was a circular glass dish 20 cm in diameter and 5 cm in height and had a lid to prevent contamination. The glass plate and the transparent culture media made observation of the bacterial growth easy.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Shama|first=Gilbert|date=2019|title=The "Petri" Dish: A Case of Simultaneous Invention in Bacteriology|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31030894|journal=Endeavour|volume=43|issue=1–2|pages=11–16|doi=10.1016/j.endeavour.2019.04.001|pmid=31030894|s2cid=139105012}}</ref>

Koch publicly demonstrated his plating method at the Seventh [[International Medical Congress]] in London in August 1881. There, [[Louis Pasteur]] exclaimed, ''"C'est un grand progrès, Monsieur''!" ("What a great progress, Sir!")<ref name=":2" /> It was using Koch's microscopy and agar-plate culture method that his students discovered new bacteria. [[Friedrich Loeffler]] discovered the bacteria of [[glanders]] (''[[Burkholderia mallei]]'') in 1882 and [[diphtheria]] (''[[Corynebacterium diphtheriae]]'') in 1884; and [[Georg Theodor August Gaffky]], the bacterium of [[typhoid]] (''[[Salmonella enterica]]'') in 1884.<ref name=":6" /> Koch's assistant [[Julius Richard Petri]] developed an improved method and published it in 1887 as "''Eine kleine Modification des Koch’schen Plattenverfahrens''" (A minor modification of the plating technique of Koch).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Petri|first=Julius Richard|date=1887|title=Eine kleine Modification des Koch'schen Plattenverfahrens|url=https://archive.org/details/1887-petri-eine-kleine-modification-des-koch-schen-plattenverfahrens-2020-braus-|journal=Centralblatt für Bacteriologie und Parasitenkunde|volume=1|pages=279–280}}</ref> The culture plate was given an eponymous name [[Petri dish]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mahajan|first=Monika|date=2021|title=Etymologia: Petri Dish|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=27|issue=1|pages=261|doi=10.3201/eid2701.ET2701|pmc=7774570}}</ref> It is often asserted that Petri developed a new culture plate,<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Shuguang|date=2004|title=Beyond the Petri dish|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14755282|journal=Nature Biotechnology|volume=22|issue=2|pages=151–152|doi=10.1038/nbt0204-151|pmid=14755282|s2cid=36391864}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grzybowski|first1=Andrzej|last2=Pietrzak|first2=Krzysztof|date=2014|title=Robert Koch (1843-1910) and dermatology on his 171st birthday|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24887990|journal=Clinics in Dermatology|volume=32|issue=3|pages=448–450|doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2013.10.005|pmid=24887990}}</ref> but this was not so. He simply discarded the use of glass plate and instead used the circular glass dish directly, not just as moist chamber, but as the main culture container. This further reduced chances of contaminations.<ref name=":7" /> It would also have been appropriate if the name "Koch dish" had been given.<ref name=":8" />

===Anthrax===
Robert Koch is widely known for his work with [[anthrax]], discovering the causative agent of the fatal disease to be ''[[Bacillus anthracis]]''.<ref name="Germ theory of disease" /> He published the discovery in a booklet as "''Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, Begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis''" (''The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis'') in 1876 while working at in Wöllstein.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Robert|date=2010|orig-year=1876|others=Robert Koch-Institut|title=Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis|url=https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/5139|journal=Cohns Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen|language=de|volume=2|issue=2|pages=277 (1–22)|doi=10.25646/5064}}</ref> His publication in 1877 on the structure of anthrax bacterium<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Robert|date=2010|orig-year=1877|title=Verfahren zur Untersuchung, zum Konservieren und Photographieren der Bakterien|url=https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/5140|journal=Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen|language=de|volume=2|pages=399–434|doi=10.25646/5065|via=Robert Koch-Institut}}</ref> marked the first photography of a bacterium.<ref name=":0" /> He discovered the formation of [[bacterial spore|spores]] in anthrax bacteria, which could remain dormant under specific conditions.<ref name="Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch" /> However, under optimal conditions, the spores were activated and caused disease.<ref name="Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch" /> To determine this causative agent, he dry-fixed bacterial cultures onto glass slides, used dyes to stain the cultures, and observed them through a microscope.<ref name="Robert Koch">"Robert Koch." ''World of Microbiology and Immunology.'' Ed. Brenda Wilmoth Lerner and K. Lee Lerner. Detroit: Gale, 2006. Biography in Context. Web. 14 April 2013.</ref> His work with anthrax is notable in that he was the first to link a specific microorganism with a specific disease, rejecting the idea of [[spontaneous generation]] and supporting the [[germ theory of disease]].<ref name="Germ theory of disease">"Germ theory of disease." ''World of Microbiology and Immunology.'' Ed. Brenda Wilmoth Lerner and K. Lee Lerner. Detroit: Gale, 2007. Biography in Context. Web. 14 April 2013.</ref>

===Tuberculosis===
[[File:Aetiologie der Tuberkulose.jpg|thumb|Koch's drawing of tuberculosis bacilli in 1882 (from ''Die Ätiologie der Tuberkulose'')]]
During his time as the government advisor with the Imperial Health Agency in Berlin in the 1880s, Koch became interested in [[tuberculosis]] research. At the time, it was widely believed that tuberculosis was an inherited disease. However Koch was convinced that the disease was caused by a bacterium and was infectious. In 1882, he published his findings on tuberculosis, in which he reported the causative agent of the disease to be the slow-growing ''[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]''.<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms" /> He published the discovery as "''Die Ätiologie der Tuberkulose''" (''The Etiology of Tuberculosis''),<ref name=":5" /> and presented before the German Physiological Society at Berlin on 24 March 1882. Koch said,<blockquote>When the cover-glasses were exposed to this staining fluid [methylene blue mixed with [[potassium hydroxide]]] for 24 hours, very fine rod-like forms became apparent in the tubercular mass for the first time, having, as further observations showed, the power of multiplication and of spore formation and hence belonging to the same group of organisms as the anthrax bacillus... Microscopic examination then showed that only the previously blue-stained cell nuclei and detritus became brown, while the tubercle bacilli remained a beautiful blue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /></blockquote>

There was no particular reaction to this announcement. Eminent scientists such as [[Rudolf Virchow]] remained skeptical. Virchow clung to his theory that all diseases are due to faulty cellular activities.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Kaufmann|first1=Stefan H. E.|last2=Schaible|first2=Ulrich E.|date=2005|title=100th anniversary of Robert Koch's Nobel Prize for the discovery of the tubercle bacillus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16112578|journal=Trends in Microbiology|volume=13|issue=10|pages=469–475|doi=10.1016/j.tim.2005.08.003|pmid=16112578}}</ref> On the other hand, [[Paul Ehrlich]] later recollected that this moment was his "single greatest scientific experience."<ref name=":9" /> Koch expanded the report and published under the same title as a booklet in 1884, in which he concluded that the discovery of tuberculosis bacterium fulfilled the three principles, eventually known as Koch's [[postulates]], which were formulated by his assistant Friedrich Loeffler in 1883, saying:<blockquote>All these factors together allow me to conclude that the bacilli present in the tuberculous lesions do not only accompany tuberculosis, but rather cause it. These bacilli are the true agents of tuberculosis.<ref name=":12" /></blockquote>

===Cholera===
[[File:Robert Koch (Deutsche Cholera-Expedition in Ägypten 1884).jpg|thumb|left|Photograph of Koch (third from the right) and other members of the German Cholera Commission in Egypt, 1884]]
[[File:Professors Koch and Pfeiffer working in a laboratory, invest Wellcome L0030175.jpg|thumb|Koch (on the microscope) and his colleague [[Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer]] (standing) investigating cholera outbreak in Bombay, India. ]]
In August 1883, the German government sent a medical team led by Koch to [[Alexandria, Egypt]], to investigate a cholera epidemic there.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Howard-Jones|first=N.|date=1984|title=Robert Koch and the cholera vibrio: a centenary|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=288|issue=6414|pages=379–381|doi=10.1136/bmj.288.6414.379|pmc=1444283|pmid=6419937}}</ref> Koch soon found that the [[intestinal mucosa]] of people who died of cholera always had bacterial infection, yet could not confirm whether the bacteria were the causative pathogens. As the outbreak in Egypt declined, he was transferred to Calcutta (now [[Kolkata]]) India, where there was a more severe outbreak. He soon found that the river [[Ganges]] was the source of cholera. He performed autopsies of almost 100 bodies, and found in each bacterial infection. He identified the same bacteria from water tanks, linking the source of the infection.<ref name=":0" /> He isolated the bacterium in pure culture on 7 January 1884. He subsequently confirmed that the bacterium was a new species, and described as "a little bent, like a comma."<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last1=Lippi|first1=D.|last2=Gotuzzo|first2=E.|date=2014|title=The greatest steps towards the discovery of Vibrio cholerae|journal=Clinical Microbiology and Infection|volume=20|issue=3|pages=191–195|doi=10.1111/1469-0691.12390|pmid=24191858|doi-access=free}}</ref> His experiment using fresh blood samples indicated that the bacterium could kill red blood cells, and he hypothesized that some sort of poison was used by the bacterium to cause the disease.<ref name=":0" /> In 1959, Indian scientist [[Sambhu Nath De]] discovered this poison, the [[cholera toxin]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nair|first1=G. Balakrish|last2=Takeda|first2=Yoshifumi|date=2011|title=Dr Sambhu Nath De: unsung hero|journal=The Indian Journal of Medical Research|volume=133|issue=2 |pages=127|pmc=3089041|pmid=21415484}}</ref> Koch reported his discovery to the German Secretary of State for the Interior on 2 February, and published it in the ''Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift'' (''German Medical Weekly'') the following month.<ref>Koch, R. (20 March 1884) {{lang|de|2=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yY41AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA191 "Sechster Bericht der deutschen wissenschaftlichen Commission zur Erforschung der Cholera"]}} (Sixth report of the German scientific commission for research on cholera), ''{{lang|de|Deutsche medizinische Wochenscrift}}'' (German Medical Weekly), '''10''' (12): 191–192. On page 191, he mentions the characteristic comma shape of ''Vibrio cholerae'': ''"{{lang|de|Im letzten Berichte konnte ich bereits gehorsamst mittheilen, dass an den Bacillen des Choleradarms besondere Eigenschaften aufgefunden wurden, durch welche sie mit aller Sicherheit von anderen Bakterien zu unterscheiden sind. Von diesen Merkmalen sind folgende die am meisten charakteristischen: Die Bacillen sind nicht ganz geradlinig, wie die übrigen Bacillen, sondern ein wenig gekrümmt, einem Komma ähnlich.}}"'' (In the last report, I could already respectfully report that unusual characteristics were discovered in the bacteria of enteric cholera, by which they are to be distinguished with complete certainty from other bacteria. Of these features, the following are the most characteristic: the bacteria are not quite straight, like the rest of the bacilli, but a little bent, similar to a comma.)</ref>

Although Koch was convinced that the bacterium was the cholera pathogen, he could not entirely establish a critical evidence the bacterium produced the symptoms in healthy subjects (following [[Koch's postulates]]). His experiment on animals using his pure bacteria culture did not cause the disease, and correctly explained that animals are immune to human pathogen. The bacterium was then known as "the comma bacillus", and scientifically as ''Bacillus comma''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Winslow|first1=C. E.|last2=Broadhurst|first2=J.|last3=Buchanan|first3=R. E.|last4=Krumwiede|first4=C.|last5=Rogers|first5=L. A.|last6=Smith|first6=G. H.|date=1920|title=The Families and Genera of the Bacteria: Final Report of the Committee of the Society of American Bacteriologists on Characterization and Classification of Bacterial Types|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|volume=5|issue=3|pages=191–229|doi=10.1128/JB.5.3.191-229.1920|pmc=378870|pmid=16558872}}</ref> It was later realised that the bacterium was already described by an Italian physician [[Filippo Pacini]] in 1854,<ref>See:
* Fillipo Pacini (1854) {{lang|it|2=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xdtQAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA397 "Osservazioni microscopiche e deduzioni patologiche sul cholera asiatico"]}} (Microscopic observations and pathological deductions on Asiatic cholera), ''{{lang|it|Gazzetta Medica Italiana: Toscana}}'', 2nd series, '''4'''(50):397–401; '''4'''(51):405–12.
* Reprinted (more legibly) as a [https://books.google.com/books?id=F9s_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1 pamphlet.]</ref> and was also observed by the [[Catalonia|Catalan]] physician Joaquim Balcells i Pascual around the same time.<ref name="Real Academia de la Historia 2018">{{cite web|year=2018|editor=Real Academia de la Historia|editor-link=Real Academia de la Historia|title=Joaquín Balcells y Pasqual|url=http://dbe.rah.es/biografias/18541/joaquin-balcells-y-pasqual|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708211444/http://dbe.rah.es/biografias/18541/joaquin-balcells-y-pasqual|archive-date=8 July 2019|access-date=1 August 2020|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|year=2015|editor=Col·legi Oficial de Metges de Barcelona|editor-link=:ca:Col·legi Oficial de Metges de Barcelona|title=Joaquim Balcells i Pascual|url=http://www.galeriametges.cat/galeria-fitxa.php?icod=EGMM|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801110910/http://www.galeriametges.cat/galeria-fitxa.php?icod=EGMM|archive-date=1 August 2020|access-date=1 August 2020|language=ca}}</ref> But they failed to identify the bacterium as the causative agent of cholera. Koch's colleague [[Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer]] correctly identified the comma bacillus as Pacini's ''vibrioni'' and renamed it as ''[[Vibrio cholerae|Vibrio cholera]]'' in 1896.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Hugh|first=Rudolph|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NP7AY38J1hcC|title=Public Health Service Publication|date=1965|publisher=U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Environmental Health Service, National Air Pollution Control Administration|pages=1–4|language=en|chapter=Nomenclature and taxonomy of Vibrio cholerae Pacini 1854 and Vibrio eltor Pribam 1933}}</ref>

=== Tuberculosis treatment and tuberculin ===
Koch gave much of his research attention on tuberculosis throughout his career. After medical expeditions to various parts of the world, he again focussed on tuberculosis from the mid-1880s. By that time the Imperial Health Office was carrying out a project for disinfection of [[sputum]] of tuberculosis patients. Koch experimented with [[arsenic]] and [[creosote]] as possible disinfectants. These chemicals and other available drugs did not work.<ref name=":0" /> His report in 1883 also mentioned a failed experiment on an attempt to make tuberculosis vaccine.<ref name=":11" /> By 1888, Koch turned his attention to [[synthetic dyes]] as antibacterial chemicals. He developed a method for examining antibacterial activity by mixing the gelatin-based culture media with a yellow dye, [[Auramine O|auramin]]. His notebook indicates that by February 1890, he tested hundreds of compounds.<ref name=":9" /> In one of such tests, he found that an extract from the tuberculosis bacterium culture dissolved in glycerine could cure tuberculosis in guinea pigs. Based on a series of experiments from April to July 1891, he could conclude that the extract did not kill the tuberculosis bacterium, but destroyed (by [[necrosis]]) the infected tissues, thereby depriving bacterial growth. He made a vague announcement in August 1890 at the Tenth [[International Medical Congress]] in Berlin,<ref name=":12" /> saying,<blockquote>In a communication which I made a few months ago to the International Medical Congress [in London in 1881], I described a substance of which the result is to make laboratory animals insensitive to inoculation of tubercle bacilli, and in the case of already infected animals, to bring the tuberculous process to a halt.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

I can tell […] that much, that guinea pigs, which are highly susceptible to the disease [tuberculosis], no longer react upon inoculation with tubercle virus [bacterium] when treated with that substance and that in guinea pigs, which are sick (with tuberculosis), the pathological process can be brought to a complete standstill.<ref name=":9" /></blockquote>By November 1890, Koch was able to show that the extract was effective in humans as well.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Sakula|first=Alex|date=1985|title=Robert Koch: The story of his discoveries in tuberculosis|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02938285|journal=Irish Journal of Medical Science|language=en|volume=154|issue=S1|pages=3–9|doi=10.1007/BF02938285|pmid=3897123|s2cid=38056335}}</ref> Many patients and doctors went to Berlin to get Koch's remedy.<ref name=":0" /> But his experiments showed that tuberculosis infected guinea pigs developed severe symptoms when the substance was inoculated. The severity was more so in humans.<ref name=":12" /> This development of severe immune response, which is now known to be due to [[hypersensitivity]], is known as the "Koch phenomenon."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hunter|first=Robert L.|date=2020|title=The Pathogenesis of Tuberculosis-The Koch Phenomenon Reinstated|journal=Pathogens|volume=9|issue=10|pages=e813|doi=10.3390/pathogens9100813|pmc=7601602|pmid=33020397|doi-access=free}}</ref> The chemical nature was not known, and among several independent experiments done by the next year, only his son-in-law, Eduard Pfuhl, was able to reproduce similar results.<ref name=":9" /> It nevertheless became a medical sensation, and the unknown substance was referred to as "Koch's Lymph." Koch published his experiments in the 15 January 1891 issue of ''Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Robert|date=2010|orig-year=1891|title=Fortsetzung der Mitteilungen über ein Heilmittel gegen Tuberkulose|url=https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/5175|journal=Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift|language=de|volume=17|pages=101–102|doi=10.25646/5100|via=Robert Koch-Institut}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Robert|date=1891|title=A Further Communication on a Remedy for Tuberculosis|journal=The Indian Medical Gazette|volume=26|issue=3|pages=85–87|pmc=5150357|pmid=29000631}}</ref> and ''[[The British Medical Journal]]'' immediately published the English version simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=R.|date=1891|title=A Further Communication on a Remedy for Tuberculosis|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=1|issue=1568|pages=125–127|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.1568.125|pmc=2196966|pmid=20753227}}</ref> The English version was also reproduced in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1891|title=Dr. Koch's Remedy for Tuberculosis|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=43|issue=1108|pages=281–282|doi=10.1038/043281a0|bibcode=1891Natur..43..281.|s2cid=4050612|doi-access=free}}</ref> and ''[[The Lancet]]'' in the same month.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richmond|first=W.S.|date=1891|title=Professor Koch's Remedy for Tuberculosis|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602157059|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=137|issue=3514|pages=56–57|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)15705-9}}</ref> ''The Lancet'' presented it as "glad tidings of great joy."<ref name=":10" /> Koch simply referred to the medication as "brownish, transparent fluid."<ref name=":4" /> Josephs Pohl-Pincus had used the name tuberculin in 1844 for tuberculosis culture media,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Caspary|date=1884|title=Angioneurotische Dermatosen|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02097828|journal=Vierteljahresschrift für Dermatologie und Syphilis|language=de|volume=16|issue=1|pages=141–155|doi=10.1007/BF02097828|s2cid=33099318|quote=Pohl-Pincus wrote: Wir werden deshalb alas Tuberculin darzustellen suchen [We shall therefore endeavor to describe it as tuberculin]}}</ref> and Koch subsequently adopted as "tuberkulin."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=R.|date=1891|title=Weitere Mittheilung über das Tuberkulin|url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0029-1206810|journal=Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift|language=de|volume=17|issue=43|pages=1189–1192|doi=10.1055/s-0029-1206810|s2cid=73993276 }}</ref>

The first report on the clinical trial in 1891 was disappointing. By then 1061 patients with tuberculosis of internal organs and of 708 patients with tuberculosis of external tissues were given the treatment. An attempt to use tuberculin as a therapeutic drug is regarded as Koch's "greatest failure."<ref name=":12" /> With it his reputation greatly waned. But he devoted the rest of his life trying to make tuberculin as a usable medication.<ref name=":10" /> His discovery was not a total failure: the substance is now used to test for hypersensitivity in tuberculosis patients.<ref name=":0" />

=== Acquired immunity ===
Koch observed the phenomenon of acquired [[immunity (medical)|immunity]]. On 26 December 1900, he arrived as part of an expedition to [[German New Guinea]], which was then a protectorate of the German Reich. Koch serially examined the [[Papuan people]], the indigenous inhabitants, and their blood samples and noticed they contained ''[[Plasmodium]]'' parasites, the cause of [[malaria]], but their bouts of malaria were mild or could not even be noticed, i.e. were [[subclinical]]. On the contrary, German settlers and Chinese workers, who had been brought to New Guinea, fell sick immediately. The longer they had stayed in the country, however, the more they too seemed to develop a resistance against it.<ref>{{lang|de|Hugo Kronecker: Hygienische Topographie}} In: A. Pfeiffer (Editor): {{lang|de|21. Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte und Leistungen auf dem Gebiete der Hygiene.}} 1903. Publisher: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, Braunschweig, 1905. p. 68</ref>

=== Koch's postulates ===
{{Main|Koch's postulates}}
During his time as government advisor, Koch published a report on how he discovered and experimentally showed tuberculosis bacterium as the pathogen of tuberculosis. He described the importance of pure cultures in isolating disease-causing organisms and explained the necessary steps to obtain these cultures, methods which are summarized in [[Koch's postulates|Koch's four postulates]].<ref name="Bacteriology, historical">Amsterdamska, Olga. "Bacteriology, Historical." ''International Encyclopedia of Public Health.'' 2008. Web.</ref> Koch's discovery of the causative agent of anthrax led to the formation of a generic set of [[wikt:postulate|postulates]] which can be used in the determination of the cause of most infectious diseases.<ref name="Germ theory of disease" /> These postulates, which not only outlined a method for linking cause and effect of an infectious disease but also established the significance of laboratory culture of infectious agents, became the "gold standard" in infectious diseases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tabrah|first=Frank L.|date=2011|title=Koch's postulates, carnivorous cows, and tuberculosis today|journal=Hawaii Medical Journal|volume=70|issue=7|pages=144–148|pmc=3158372|pmid=21886302}}</ref>

Although Koch worked out the principles, he did not formulate the postulates, which were introduced by his assistant Friedrich Loeffler. Loeffler, reporting his discovery of diphtheria bacillus in 1883, stated three postulates as follows:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loeffler |first1=Friedrich |title=Untersuchungen über die Bedeutung der Mikroorganismen für die Entstehung der Diphtherie beim Menschen, bei der Taube und beim Kalbe |journal=Mittheilungen aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte (Reports from the Imperial Office of Public Health) |date=1884 |volume=2 |pages=421–499 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y6lQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA421 |trans-title=Investigations of the relevance of microorganisms to the development of diphtheria among humans, among doves, and among heifers |language=German}} From 424: ''"Wenn nun die Diphtherie eine durch Mikroorganismen bedingte Krankheit ist, so müssen sich auch bei ihr jene drei Postulate erfüllen lassen, deren Erfüllung für den stricten Beweis der parasitäten Natur einer jeden derartigen Krankheit unumgänglich nothwendig ist:'' 
''1) Es müssen constant in den local erkrankten Parteien Organismen in typischer Anordnung nachgewiesen werden.'' 
''2) Die Organismen, welchen nach ihrem Verhalten zu den erkrankten Theilen eine Bedeutung für das Zustandekommen dieser Veränderungen beizulegen wäre, müssen isolirt und rein gezüchtet werden.'' 
''3) Mit den Reinculturen muss die Krankheit experimentell wieder erzeugt werden können."'' 
(Now if diphtheria is a disease that's caused by microorganisms, then it must also be able to fulfill those three postulates whose fulfillment is absolutely necessary for the strict proof of the parasitic nature of any such disease: 
1) In the given diseased patients, there must always be shown [to be present] organisms in typical disposition. 
2) The organisms to which one would attribute — according to their behavior in the diseased parts — a relevance for the occurrence of these changes, must be isolated and cultured in pure form. 
3) The disease must be able to be reproduced experimentally via pure cultures.)</ref>
:1. The organism must always be present in every case of the disease, but not in healthy individuals.
:2. The organism must be isolated from a diseased individual and grown in pure culture.
:3. The pure culture must cause the same disease when inoculated into a healthy, susceptible individuals.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Weiss|first=Robin A.|date=2005|title=Robert Koch: the grandfather of cloning?|journal=Cell|volume=123|issue=4|pages=539–542|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2005.11.001|pmid=16286000|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Byrd|first1=Allyson L.|last2=Segre|first2=Julia A.|date=2016|title=Adapting Koch's postulates|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26816362|journal=Science|volume=351|issue=6270|pages=224–226|doi=10.1126/science.aad6753|pmid=26816362|bibcode=2016Sci...351..224B|s2cid=29595548}}</ref>

The fourth postulate was added by an American plant pathologist [[Erwin Frink Smith]] in 1905, and is stated as:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Erwin F. |title=Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases |date=1905 |publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington |location=Washington. D.C. |volume=1 |page=9 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/60542#page/31/mode/1up}}</ref>

:4. The same pathogen must be isolated from the experimentally infected individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hadley|first=Caroline|date=2006|title=The infection connection|journal=EMBO Reports|volume=7|issue=5|pages=470–473|doi=10.1038/sj.embor.7400699|pmc=1479565|pmid=16670677}}</ref>

==Personal life==
In July 1867, Koch married Emma (Emmy) Adolfine Josephine Fraatz, and the two had a daughter, Gertrude, in 1868.<ref name="Robert Koch A Life" /> Their marriage ended after 26 years in 1893, and later that same year, he married actress Hedwig Freiberg (1872–1945).<ref name="Robert Koch A Life" />

On 9 April 1910, Koch suffered a heart attack and never made a complete recovery.<ref name="Robert Koch" /> On 27 May, three days after giving a lecture on his tuberculosis research at the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]], Koch died in [[Baden-Baden]] at the age of 66.<ref name="Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch" /> Following his death, the Institute named its establishment after him in his honour. He was irreligious.<ref>Thomas D. Brock (1988). Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology. ASM Press. p. 296. {{ISBN|978-1-55581-143-3}}. "He loved seeing new things, but showed no interest in politics. Religion never entered his life."</ref>

== Awards and honors ==
{| style="margin:auto"
| [[File:Christmas Seal, Robert Koch, 1938 issue.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|In 1938 the National Tuberculosis Association paid tribute to Koch and issued a U.S.[[Christmas Seal]]. Christmas seals were and continue to be sold as a way of raising funds to fight tuberculosis.<ref> {{cite book |editor-last= Denune |editor-first=John Jr. |title=The Christmas Seal Catalog |volume= |author-link= |publisher=The Christmas Seal and Charity Stamp Society |location= |year=2014 |isbn= |url=https://www.seal-society.org/sites/default/files/pdf/news/166/The%20Christmas%20Seal%20Catalog-1.pdf |quote=The Christmas Seal Catalog is a simplified version of Green’s Catalog of TB Seals of the World, part 1, U.S. National Christmas Seals. |ref=catalog2014}}</ref>]]
| [[File:Statue of Robert Koch in Berlin.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Statue of Koch at Robert-Koch-Platz (Robert Koch square) in Berlin]]
| [[File:Robert Koch's name on the Frieze of LSHTM .jpg|alt=Koch's name as it appears on the LSHTM Frieze in Keppel Street|thumb|upright=1.2|Koch's name as it appears on the [[LSHTM]] frieze in Keppel Street, Bloomsbury, London|right]]

|}
Koch was made a Knight Grand Cross in the Prussian [[Order of the Red Eagle]] on 19 November 1890,<ref name="prus">{{citation|title=Königlich Preussische Ordensliste (supp.)|volume=1|chapter-url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878823&view=1up&seq=7&skin=2021|page=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878823&view=1up&seq=13&skin=2021 7]|language=German|location=Berlin|year=1886|chapter=Rother Adler-orden|via=hathitrust.org}}</ref> and was elected a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1897|Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS)]] in 1897.<ref name="frs">{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316060617/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows/|archive-date=16 March 2015|url=https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows/|publisher=Royal Society|location=London|title=Fellows of the Royal Society}}</ref> In 1905, he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] in Physiology and Medicine "for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis."<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1905/summary/|access-date=2021-04-21|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1906, research on tuberculosis and tropical diseases won him the [[Order Pour le Merite]] and in 1908, the [[Robert Koch Medal]], established to honour the greatest living physicians.<ref name="Robert Koch" /> Emperor Wilhelm I awarded him the Order of the Crown, 100,000 marks and appointment as Privy Imperial Councillor,<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Ligon|first=B. Lee|date=2002|title=Robert Koch: Nobel laureate and controversial figure in tuberculin research|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12491235|journal=Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases|volume=13|issue=4|pages=289–299|doi=10.1053/spid.2002.127205|pmid=12491235}}</ref> Surgeon-General of Health Service, and Fellow of the Science Senate of Kaiser Wilhelm Society.<ref name=":1" />

Koch established the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases in Berlin 1891. After his death it was renamed Robert Koch Institute in his honour.<ref name=":16" />

The World Health Organization observes "[[World Tuberculosis Day]]" every 24 March since 1982 to commemorate the day Koch discovered tuberculosis bacterium.<ref name=":4" />

Koch's name is one of 23 from the fields of hygiene and tropical medicine featured on the frieze of the [[London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine]] building in [[Keppel Street]], [[Bloomsbury]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lshtm.ac.uk/aboutus/introducing/history/behind-frieze|title=Behind the frieze|website=LSHTM}}</ref>

A large marble statue of Koch stands in a small park known as Robert Koch Platz, just north of the [[Charité|Charity Hospital]], in the [[Mitte]] section of [[Berlin]]. His life was the subject of a 1939 German produced motion picture that featured Oscar winning actor [[Emil Jannings]] in the title role. On 10 December 2017, Google showed a [[Doodle]] in celebration of Koch's birthday.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/doodles/celebrating-robert-koch|title=Celebrating Robert Koch|website=www.google.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEeBZceXjfg| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211111/lEeBZceXjfg| archive-date=2021-11-11 | url-status=live|title=Robert Koch Google Doodle|via=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Koch and his relationship to [[Paul Ehrlich]], who developed a mechanism to diagnose TB, were portrayed in the 1940 movie ''[[Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet]]''.

== Controversies ==

=== Louis Pasteur ===
{{Further|Koch–Pasteur rivalry}}
At their first meeting at the Seventh [[International Medical Congress]] in London in August 1881, Koch and Pasteur were friendly towards each other. But the rest of their careers followed with scientific disputes. The conflict started when Koch interpreted his discovery of anthrax bacillus in 1876 as causality, that is, the germ caused the anthrax infections. Although his postulates were not yet formulated, he did not establish the bacterium as the cause of the disease: it was an inference. Pasteur therefore argued that Koch's discovery was not the full proof of causality, but Pasteur's [[anthrax vaccine]] developed in 1881 was.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter|first=K. C.|date=1988|title=The Koch-Pasteur dispute on establishing the cause of anthrax|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3285924|journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine|volume=62|issue=1|pages=42–57|jstor=44449292|pmid=3285924}}</ref> Koch published his conclusion in 1881 with a statement: "anthrax never occurs without viable anthrax bacilli or spores. In my opinion no more conclusive proof can be given that anthrax bacilli are the true and only cause of anthrax," and that vaccination such as claimed by Pasteur would be impossible.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Koch|first=R.|url=https://edoc.rki.de/bitstream/handle/176904/5148/174-206.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|title=Mittheilungen aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte|publisher=Robert Koch-Institut|year=2010|location=Berlin|pages=174–206|chapter=Zur Ätiologie des Milzbrandes|trans-chapter=On the etiology of anthrax|orig-year=1881}}</ref> To prove his vaccine, Pasteur sent his assistant [[Louis Thuillier]] to Germany for demonstration and disproved Koch's idea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rietschel|first1=Ernst Th|last2=Cavaillon|first2=Jean-Marc|date=2002|title=Endotoxin and anti-endotoxin. The contribution of the schools of Koch and Pasteur: life, milestone-experiments and concepts of Richard Pfeiffer (Berlin) and Alexandre Besredka (Paris)|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12028747|journal=Journal of Endotoxin Research|volume=8|issue=2|pages=71–82|doi=10.1179/096805102125000218|pmid=12028747}}</ref> They had a heated public debate at the International Congress for Hygiene in Geneva in 1882, where Koch criticised Pasteur's methods as "unreliable," and claimed they "are false and [as such ] they inevitably lead to false conclusions."<ref name=":4" /> Koch later continued to attack Pasteur, saying, "Pasteur is not a physician, and one cannot expect him to make sound judgments about pathological processes and the symptoms of disease."<ref name=":0" />

=== Tuberculin ===
When Koch discovered tuberculin in 1890 as a medication for tuberculosis, he kept the experiment secret and avoided disclosing the source. It was only after a year under public pressure that he publicly announced the experiment and the source.<ref name=":9" /> Clinical trials with tuberculin were disastrous and complete failures. Rudolf Virchow's autopsy report of 21 subjects treated with tuberculin to the Berlin Medical Society on 7 January 1891 revealed that instead of healing tuberculosis, the subjects died because of the treatment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leibowitz|first=D.|date=1993|title=Scientific failure in an age of optimism: public reaction to Robert Koch's tuberculin cure|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8429953|journal=New York State Journal of Medicine|volume=93|issue=1|pages=41–48|pmid=8429953}}</ref> One week later, Koch publicised that the drug was a glycerine extract of a pure cultivation of the tuberculosis bacilli.<ref name=":9" /> The German official report in late 1891 declared that tuberculosis was not cured with tuberculin.<ref name=":12" /> From this moment onwards, Koch's prestige fell apart. The reason for his initial secrecy was due to an ambition for monetary benefits for the new drug, and with that establishment of his own research institute.<ref name=":13" /> Since 1885, he had tried to leave government service and create an independent state-run institute of his own.<ref name=":4" /> Following the disappointment, he was released from the University of Berlin and forced to work as Director of the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases, a newly established institute, in 1891. He was prohibited from working on tuberculin and from claim for patent rights in any of his subsequent works.<ref name=":14" />

=== Human and cattle tuberculosis ===
Koch initially believed that human (''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'') and cattle tuberculosis bacilli (now called ''[[Mycobacterium bovis]]'') were different pathogens when he made the discovery in 1882. Two years later, he revoked that position and asserted that the two bacilli were the same type.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Packer|first=R. A.|date=1987|title=Veterinarians challenge Dr. Robert Koch regarding bovine tuberculosis and public health: a chronology of events|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11621492|journal=Veterinary Heritage|volume=10|issue=2|pages=7–11|pmid=11621492}}</ref> This later assumption was taken as a fact in veterinary practice. Based on it, legislations were made in US for inspection of meat and milk.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Packer|first=R. A.|date=1990|title=Veterinarians challenge Dr. Robert Koch regarding bovine tuberculosis and public health|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2406233|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=196|issue=4|pages=574–575|doi=10.2460/javma.1990.196.04.574 |pmid=2406233}}</ref> In 1898, an American veterinarian [[Theobald Smith]] published a detailed comparative study and found that the tuberculosis bacteria are different based on their structure, growth patterns, and pathogenicity. In addition he also discovered that there were variations in each type. In his conclusion, he made two important points:

# Human tuberculosis bacillus cannot infect cattle.
# But cattle bacillus may infect humans since it is very pathogenic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=T.|date=1898|title=A comparative study of bovine tubercle bacilli and of human bacilli from sputum|journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=3|issue=4–5|pages=451–511|doi=10.1084/jem.3.4-5.451|pmc=2117982|pmid=19866892}}</ref>

By that time, there was evidence that cattle tuberculosis was transmitted to humans through meat and milk.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bergey|first=D. H.|date=1897|title=Bovine Tuberculosis in its Relation to the Public Health|journal=Public Health Papers and Reports|volume=23|pages=310–320|pmc=2329987|pmid=19600776}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1881|title=Reviews and Notices|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=2|issue=1072|pages=85–86|pmc=2263995}}</ref> Upon these reports, Koch conceded that the two bacilli were different but still advocated that cattle tuberculosis was of no health concern. Speaking at the Third [[International Congress on Tuberculosis]], held in London in July 1901, he said that cattle tuberculosis is not dangerous to humans and there is no need for medical attention.<ref name=":4" /> He said, "I therefore consider it unnecessary to take any measures against this form of TB. The fight against TB clearly has to concentrate on the human ''bacillus.''"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaufmann|first=Stefan H. E.|date=2003|title=A short history of Robert Koch's fight against tuberculosis: those who do not remember the past are condemned to repeat it|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12758195|journal=Tuberculosis (Edinburgh, Scotland)|volume=83|issue=1–3|pages=86–90|doi=10.1016/s1472-9792(02)00064-1|pmid=12758195}}</ref> Chair of the congress, [[Joseph Lister]] reprimanded Koch and explained the medical evidences of cattle tuberculosis in humans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clark|first=Paul F.|date=1920|title=Joseph Lister, his Life and Work|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/6707|journal=The Scientific Monthly|volume=11|issue=6|pages=518–539|bibcode=1920SciMo..11..518C}}</ref>

=== The 1902 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ===
The Nobel Committee selected the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to be awarded for the discovery of the transmission of malaria. But it could not make the final decision on whom to give it to — the British surgeon [[Ronald Ross]] or the Italian biologist [[Giovanni Battista Grassi]]. Ross had discovered that the human malarial parasite was carried by certain mosquitoes in 1897, and the next year that bird malaria could be transmitted from infected to healthy birds by the bite of a mosquito.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Cox FEG|year=2010|title=History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors|journal=Parasites & Vectors|volume=3|issue=1|pages=5|doi=10.1186/1756-3305-3-5|pmc=2825508|pmid=20205846 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Grassi had discovered ''[[Plasmodium vivax]]'' and the bird malaria parasite, and towards the end of 1898 the transmission of ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]'' between humans through mosquitoes ''[[Anopheles claviger]]''.<ref name=":15">{{cite journal|author=Capanna E|year=2012|title=Grassi versus Ross: who solved the riddle of malaria?|url=http://revistes.iec.cat/index.php/IM/article/viewFile/4c457c86cb18b.002/9548|journal=International Microbiology|volume=9|issue=1|pages=69–74|pmid=16636993}}</ref> To the surprise of the Nobel Committee, the two nominees exchanged polemic arguments against each other publicly justifying the importance of their own works. Robert Koch was then appointed as a "neutral arbitrator" to make the final decision.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pai-Dhungat|first1=J. V.|last2=Parikh|first2=Falguni|date=2015|title=Battista Grassi (1854-1925) & Malaria Controversy|url=https://www.japi.org/oldwebsitecontent/march_2015/103_battista_grassi.pdf|journal=The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India|volume=63|issue=3|pages=108|pmid=26543977}}</ref> To his disadvantage, Grassi had criticised Koch on his malaria research in 1898 during an investigation of the epidemic,<ref name=":15" /> while Ross had established a cordial relationship with Koch.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=R.|date=1925|title=The mosquito-theory of malaria and the late Prof. G. B. Grassi|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43427633|journal=Science Progress in the Twentieth Century (1919-1933)|volume=20|issue=78|pages=311–320|jstor=43427633}}</ref> Ross was selected for the award, as Koch "threw the full weight of his considerable authority in insisting that Grassi did not deserve the honor."<ref>{{cite book|author=Esch GW|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=88RH-7br9OAC|title=Parasites and Infectious Disease: Discovery by Serendipity and Otherwise|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=9781139464109|pages=137–138}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Brock |first=Thomas D. |author-link= Thomas D. Brock|title=Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology |publisher=ASM Press |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-55581-143-3 |oclc=39951653}}
* {{cite book|last=de Kruif|first=Paul|author-link=Paul de Kruif|date=1926|pages=105–144|title=Microbe Hunters|chapter=ch. IV Koch: The Death Fighter|series=Blue Ribbon Books|publisher=Harcourt Brace & Company Inc.|location=New York|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.221187/page/n3/mode/2up|access-date=14 October 2020}}
* {{cite book |last=Morris |first=Robert D |title=The blue death: disease, disaster and the water we drink |url=https://archive.org/details/bluedeathdisease0000morr |url-access=registration |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |location=New York |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-06-073089-5 |oclc=71266565}}
* {{cite book |last=Gradmann|first=Christoph |title=Laboratory Disease: Robert Koch's Medical Bacteriology |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |location=Baltimore |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8018-9313-1}}
* Weindling, Paul. "Scientific elites and laboratory organization in fin de siècle Paris and Berlin: The Pasteur Institute and Robert Koch’s Institute for Infectious Diseases compared," in Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams, eds. ''The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine'' (Cambridge University Press, 1992) pp: 170–88.
* Christoph, Hans Gerhard: Robert Koch " Trias deutschen Forschergeistes " Naturheilpraxis / Pflaum- Verlag / Munich 70.Jahrgang December 2017 pages 90–93

==External links==
{{Commons category|Robert Koch}}
* [[Robert Koch Institute]]
* [https://soundcloud.com/charles-smyth488/robert-koch Audio version of this page]
* {{Nobelprize}} including the Nobel Lecture on 12 December 1905 ''The Current State of the Struggle against Tuberculosis''
* [http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/data?id=per99 MPIWG-Berlin], Robert Koch Biography and bibliography in the [[Virtual Laboratory]] of the [[Max Planck Institute for the History of Science]]
* [http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/robertkoch.aspx Biography on the Science Museum web site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125125409/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/robertkoch.aspx |date=2016-01-25 }}
* [http://www.musoptin.com/zeiss_3479.html Musoptin.com], original microscope out of the laboratory Robert Koch used in Wollstein (1877)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081218213235/http://www.musoptin.com/seibert_photoobjektive.html Musoptin.com], microscope objectives: as they were used by Robert Koch for his first photos of microorganisms (1877–1878)
* {{Gutenberg author | id=32531| name=Robert Koch}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Robert Koch}}
* {{PM20}}
* {{Wikisource-inline|list=
** {{Cite Americana|wstitle=Koch, Robert|year=1920 |short=x |noicon=x}}
** {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Koch, Robert |short=x |noicon=x}}
** {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Koch, Robert|year=1905 |short=x |noicon=x}}
}}
{{Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Laureates 1901-1925}}
{{1905 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{History of infectious disease}}
{{Tuberculosis}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Koch, Robert}}
[[Category:Robert Koch| ]]
[[Category:1843 births]]
[[Category:1910 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Goslar (district)]]
[[Category:German bacteriologists]]
[[Category:German infectious disease physicians]]
[[Category:19th-century German inventors]]
[[Category:German microbiologists]]
[[Category:German military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War]]
[[Category:German Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:German military doctors]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin]]
[[Category:Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine]]
[[Category:People from the Kingdom of Hanover]]
[[Category:Tuberculosis researchers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)]]
[[Category:University of Göttingen alumni]]
[[Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Prussian Army personnel]]
[[Category:Robert Koch Institute people]]
[[Category:Cholera]]
[[Category:Tuberculosis]]
[[Category:Physicians of the Charité]]
[[Category:19th-century German biologists]]
[[Category:19th-century German physicians]]

Robert Koch

2024-03-07T16:46:27Z

Coriander77: minor changes for clarity

{{Short description|German physician and bacteriologist (1843–1910)}}
{{other people}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021|cs1-dates=y}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Robert Koch
| image = RobertKoch cropped.jpg
| birth_name = Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1843|12|11}}
| birth_place = [[Clausthal]], [[Kingdom of Hanover]], [[German Confederation]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1910|5|27|1843|12|11}}
| death_place = [[Baden-Baden]], [[Grand Duchy of Baden]], [[German Empire]]
| nationality = [[Germany|German]]
| field = [[Microbiology]]
| work_institutions = Imperial Health Office, Berlin [[University of Berlin]]
| education = [[University of Göttingen]]
| doctoral_advisor = [[Georg Meissner]]
| academic_advisors = [[Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle]] [[Karl Ewald Hasse]] [[Rudolf Virchow]]
| known_for = [[Koch's postulates]] [[Koch–Pasteur rivalry]] [[Microbiological culture|Bacterial culture method]] [[Germ theory of disease]] [[Medical microbiology]] [[Bacillus anthracis|Discovery of anthrax bacillus]] [[Mycobacterium tuberculosis|Discovery of tuberculosis bacillus]] and [[tuberculin]] [[Vibrio cholerae|Discovery of cholera bacillus]]
| prizes = {{Plainlist|
* [[Fellow of the Royal Society|ForMemRS]] (1897)
* [[Nobel Prize in Medicine]] (1905)
* [[List of recipients of the Pour le Mérite for Sciences and Arts|Pour le Mérite]] (1906)}}
}}
'''Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch''' ({{IPAc-en|lang|k|ɒ|x}} {{respell|KOKH}},<ref>[http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/koch "Koch"]. ''[[Random House Webster's Unabridged Dictionary]]''.</ref><ref name="AHD">{{Citation |title="Koch". The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |url=https://ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=Koch}}</ref> {{IPA-de|ˈʁoːbɛʁt ˈkɔx|lang|De-Robert Koch.ogg}}; 11 December 1843 – 27 May 1910) was a German [[physician]] and [[microbiologist]]. As the discoverer of the specific causative agents of deadly infectious diseases including [[tuberculosis]], [[cholera]] and [[anthrax]], he is regarded as one of the main founders of modern [[bacteriology]]. As such he is popularly nicknamed the father of microbiology (with [[Louis Pasteur]]<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Fleming|first=Alexander|date=1952|title=Freelance of Science|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=2|issue=4778|pages=269|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.4778.269|pmc=2020971}}</ref>), and as the father of medical bacteriology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Tan|first1=S. Y.|last2=Berman|first2=E.|date=2008|title=Robert Koch (1843-1910): father of microbiology and Nobel laureate|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19037548|journal=Singapore Medical Journal|volume=49|issue=11|pages=854–855|pmid=19037548}}</ref><ref name=":9">{{Cite journal|last=Gradmann|first=Christoph|date=2006|title=Robert Koch and the white death: from tuberculosis to tuberculin|journal=Microbes and Infection|volume=8|issue=1|pages=294–301|doi=10.1016/j.micinf.2005.06.004|pmid=16126424|doi-access=free}}</ref> His discovery of the anthrax bacterium (''[[Bacillus anthracis]]'') in 1876 is considered as the birth of modern bacteriology.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Lakhani|first=S. R.|date=1993|title=Early clinical pathologists: Robert Koch (1843-1910)|journal=Journal of Clinical Pathology|volume=46|issue=7|pages=596–598|doi=10.1136/jcp.46.7.596|pmc=501383|pmid=8157741}}</ref> Koch used his discoveries to establish that germs "could cause a specific disease"<ref>{{cite book | chapter-url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK24649/#:~:text=In%20the%20final%20decades%20of,and%20suspected%20they%20caused%20anthrax | title=Science, Medicine, and Animals | chapter=A Theory of Germs | date=20 October 2023 | publisher=National Academies Press (US) }}</ref> and directly provided proofs for the [[germ theory of diseases]], therefore creating the scientific basis of [[public health]],<ref name=":16">{{Cite journal|last=Lakhtakia|first=Ritu|date=2014|title=The Legacy of Robert Koch: Surmise, search, substantiate|journal=Sultan Qaboos University Medical Journal|volume=14|issue=1|pages=e37–41|doi=10.12816/0003334|pmc=3916274|pmid=24516751}}</ref> saving millions of lives.<ref>https://history.info/on-this-day/1843-robert-koch-man-saved-millions-lives/</ref> For his life's work Koch is seen as one of the founders of modern medicine.<ref>https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=245261433654285</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XCVnOb6VXmg | title=Louis Pasteur vs Robert Koch: The History of Germ Theory | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref>

While working as a private physician, Koch developed many innovative techniques in microbiology. He was the first to use the [[oil immersion lens]], [[Condenser (optics)|condenser]], and [[microphotography]] in microscopy. His invention of the [[Growth medium|bacterial culture method]] using [[Agar plate|agar]] and glass plates (later developed as the [[Petri dish]] by his assistant [[Julius Richard Petri]]) made him the first to grow bacteria in the laboratory. In appreciation of his work, he was appointed to government advisor at the [[Federal Health Agency|Imperial Health Office]] in 1880, promoted to a senior executive position (''Geheimer Regierungsrat'') in 1882, Director of Hygienic Institute and Chair (Professor of hygiene) of the Faculty of Medicine at [[Berlin University]] in 1885, and the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases (later renamed [[Robert Koch Institute]] after his death) in 1891.

The methods Koch used in bacteriology led to establishment of a medical concept known as [[Koch's postulates]], four generalized medical principles to ascertain the relationship of pathogens with specific diseases. The concept is still in use in most situations and influences subsequent epidemiological principles such as the [[Bradford Hill criteria]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Margo|first=Curtis E.|date=11 April 2011|title=From Robert Koch to Bradford Hill: Chronic Infection and the Origins of Ocular Adnexal Cancers|url=https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jamaophthalmology/fullarticle/427189|journal=Archives of Ophthalmology|language=en|volume=129|issue=4|pages=498–500|doi=10.1001/archophthalmol.2011.53|pmid=21482875|issn=0003-9950}}</ref> A major controversy followed when Koch discovered [[tuberculin]] as a medication for tuberculosis which was proven to be ineffective, but developed for diagnosis of tuberculosis after his death. For his research on tuberculosis, he received the [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] in 1905.<ref name="Robert Koch A Life">Brock, Thomas. ''Robert Koch: A life in medicine and bacteriology.'' ASM Press: Washington DC, 1999. Print.</ref> The day he announced the discovery of the tuberculosis bacterium, 24 March 1882, has been observed by the [[World Health Organization]] as "[[World Tuberculosis Day]]" every year since 1982.

==Early life and education==
Koch was born in [[Klausthal|Clausthal, Germany]], on 11 December 1843, to Hermann Koch (1814–1877) and Mathilde Julie Henriette (née Biewend; 1818–1871).<ref name="The Founders">Metchnikoff, Elie. ''The Founders of Modern Medicine: Pasteur, Koch, Lister.'' Classics of Medicine Library: Delanco, 2006. Print.</ref> His father was a mining engineer. He was the third of thirteen siblings.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last1=Blevins|first1=Steve M.|last2=Bronze|first2=Michael S.|date=2010|title=Robert Koch and the 'golden age' of bacteriology|journal=International Journal of Infectious Diseases|volume=14|issue=9|pages=e744–751|doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2009.12.003|pmid=20413340|doi-access=free}}</ref> He excelled academically from an early age. Before entering school in 1848, he had taught himself how to read and write.<ref name=":4" /> He completed secondary education in 1862, having excelled in science and math.<ref name=":13">{{Cite journal|last=Akkermans|first=Rebecca|date=2014|title=Robert Heinrich Herman Koch|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24717622|journal=The Lancet|volume=2|issue=4|pages=264–265|doi=10.1016/S2213-2600(14)70018-9|pmid=24717622}}</ref>

At the age of 19, in 1862, Koch entered the [[University of Göttingen]] to study natural science.<ref name="Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch">"Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch." ''World of Scientific Discovery.'' Gale, 2006. Biography in Context. Web. 14 April 2013.</ref> He took up mathematics, physics and botany. He was appointed assistant in the university's Pathological Museum.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last=Ernst|first=H. C.|date=1918|title=Robert Koch (1843-1910)|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/25130022|journal=Proceedings of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences|volume=53|issue=10|pages=825–827|jstor=25130022}}</ref> After three semesters, he decided to change his area of study to medicine, as he aspired to be a physician. During his fifth semester at the medical school, [[Jacob Henle]], an anatomist who had published a [[Germ theory of disease|theory of contagion]] in 1840, asked him to participate in his research project on uterine nerve structure. This research won him a research prize from the university and enabled him to briefly study under [[Rudolf Virchow]], who was at the time considered as "Germany's most renowned physician."<ref name=":0" /> In his sixth semester, Koch began to research at the Physiological Institute, where he studied the secretion of [[succinic acid]], which is a signaling molecule that is also involved in the [[Citric acid cycle|metabolism of the mitochondria]]. This would eventually form the basis of his dissertation.<ref name="Robert Koch A Life" /> In January 1866, he graduated from the medical school, earning honours of the highest distinction, ''[[Latin honors|maxima cum laude]]''.<ref name=":2">{{Cite journal|last=Sakula|first=A.|date=1982|title=Robert Koch: centenary of the discovery of the tubercle bacillus, 1882|journal=Thorax|volume=37|issue=4|pages=246–251|doi=10.1136/thx.37.4.246|pmc=459292|pmid=6180494}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite journal|last=Sakula|first=A.|date=1983|title=Robert koch: centenary of the discovery of the tubercle bacillus, 1882|journal=The Canadian Veterinary Journal|volume=24|issue=4|pages=127–131|pmc=1790283|pmid=17422248}}</ref>

==Career==
After graduation in 1866, Koch briefly worked as an assistant in the General Hospital of Hamburg. In October that year he moved to Idiot's Hospital of Langenhagen, near Hanover, as a general physician. In 1868, he moved to Neimegk and then to Rakwitz in 1869. As the [[Franco-Prussian War]] started in 1870, he enlisted in the German army as a volunteer surgeon in 1871 to support the war effort.<ref name=":1" /> He was discharged a year later and was appointed as a district physician (''Kreisphysikus'') in Wollstein in [[Prussia]]n [[Province of Posen|Posen]] (now [[Wolsztyn]], Poland). As his family settled there, his wife gave him a microscope as a birthday gift. With the microscope, he set up a private laboratory and started his career in microbiology.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

Koch began conducting research on microorganisms in a laboratory connected to his patient examination room.<ref name="Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch" /> His early research in this laboratory yielded one of his major contributions to the field of microbiology, as he developed the technique of growing bacteria.<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms">Madigan, Michael T., et al. ''Brock Biology of Microorganisms: Thirteenth edition.'' Benjamin Cummings: Boston, 2012. Print.</ref> Furthermore, he managed to isolate and grow selected pathogens in a [[pure culture|pure laboratory culture]].<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms" /> His discovery of the anthrax bacillus (later named ''[[Bacillus anthracis]]'') hugely impressed [[Ferdinand Julius Cohn]], professor at the University of Breslau (now the [[University of Wrocław]]), who helped him publish the discovery in 1876.<ref name=":1" /> Cohn had established the Institute of Plant Physiology<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pick|first=E.|date=2001|title=Medical luminaries|journal=Nature|volume=411|issue=6840|pages=885|doi=10.1038/35082239|pmid=11418826|bibcode=2001Natur.411..885P|s2cid=30630349|doi-access=free}}</ref> and invited Koch to demonstrate his new bacterium there in 1877.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Salomonsen|first=C. J.|date=1950|title=Reminiscences of the summer semester, 1877, at Breslau|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15434544|journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine|volume=24|issue=4|pages=333–351|jstor=44443542|pmid=15434544}}</ref> Koch was transferred to Breslau as district physician in 1879. A year after, he left for Berlin when he was appointed a government advisor at the Imperial Health Office, where he worked from 1880 to 1885.<ref name="Tuberculosis, overview">O’Connor, T.M. "Tuberculosis, Overview." ''International Encyclopedia of Public Health.'' 2008. Web.</ref> Following his discovery of the tuberculosis bacterium, he was promoted to ''Geheimer Regierungsrat'', a senior executive position, in June 1882.<ref name=":11">{{Cite journal|last=Gradmann|first=C.|date=2001|title=Robert Koch and the pressures of scientific research: tuberculosis and tuberculin|journal=Medical History|volume=45|issue=1|pages=1–32|doi=10.1017/s0025727300000028|pmc=1044696|pmid=11235050}}</ref>

In 1885, Koch received two appointments as an administrator and professor at [[Berlin University]]. He became Director of Hygienic Institute and Chair (Professor of hygiene) of the Faculty of Medicine.<ref name=":1" /> In 1891, he relinquished his professorship and became a director of the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases (now the [[Robert Koch Institute]]) which consisted of a clinical division and beds for the division of clinical research. For this he accepted harsh conditions. The Prussian Ministry of Health insisted after the 1890 scandal with [[tuberculin]], which Koch had discovered and intended as a remedy for tuberculosis, that any of Koch's inventions would unconditionally belong to the government and he would not be compensated. Koch lost the right to apply for patent protection.<ref name=":14">Christoph Gradmann: Laboratory Disease, Robert Koch's Medical Bacteriology. The Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore 2009, {{ISBN|978-0-8018-9313-1}}, p. 111 ff.</ref> In 1906, he moved to East Africa to research a cure for [[trypanosomiasis]] (sleeping sickness). He established the Bugula research camp where up to 1000 people a day were treated with the experimental drug [[Arsanilic acid|Atoxyl]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bonhomme|first=Edna|title=When Africa was a German laboratory|url=https://www.aljazeera.com/opinions/2020/10/6/when-africa-was-a-german-laboratory/|access-date=7 October 2020|website=www.aljazeera.com|language=en}}</ref>

==Scientific contributions==
===Techniques in bacteria study===
Robert Koch made two important developments in microscopy; he was the first to use an [[oil immersion lens]] and a [[Condenser (optics)|condenser]] that enabled smaller objects to be seen.<ref name=":0" /> In addition, he was also the first to effectively use photography ([[microphotograph]]y) for microscopic observation. He introduced the "bedrock methods" of bacterial staining using [[methylene blue]] and [[Bismarck brown Y|Bismarck (Vesuvin) brown dye]].<ref name=":16" /> In an attempt to grow bacteria, Koch began to use solid nutrients such as [[potato]] slices.<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms"/> Through these initial experiments, Koch observed individual colonies of identical, pure cells.<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms"/> He found that potato slices were not suitable media for all organisms, and later began to use nutrient solutions with [[gelatin]].<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms"/> However, he soon realized that gelatin, like potato slices, was not the optimal medium for bacterial growth, as it did not remain solid at 37 °C, the ideal temperature for growth of most human pathogens.<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms"/> And also many bacteria can hydrolyze gelatin making it a liquid. As suggested to him by his post-doctoral assistant [[Walther Hesse]], who got the idea from his wife [[Fanny Hesse]], in 1881, Koch started using [[agar]] to grow and isolate pure cultures.<ref name=":7">{{Cite journal|last=Hufford|first=David C.|date=1988-03-01|title=A Minor Modification by R. J. Petri|url=https://academic.oup.com/labmed/article-lookup/doi/10.1093/labmed/19.3.169|journal=Laboratory Medicine|language=en|volume=19|issue=3|pages=169–170|doi=10.1093/labmed/19.3.169|issn=0007-5027}}</ref> Agar is a [[polysaccharide]] that remains solid at 37 °C, is not degraded by most bacteria, and results in a stable transparent medium.<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms"/><ref name=":5">{{cite book|author=Koch|first=Robert|title=Robert Koch |chapter=Die Ätiologie der Tuberkulose (1882) |series=Klassische Texte der Wissenschaft |date=24 March 1882|trans-title=The Etiology of Tuberculosis|chapter-url=http://edoc.rki.de/docviews/abstract.php?id=610|journal=Physiologische Gesellschaft zu Berlin/Berliner Klinische Wochenschrift|volume=19|pages=221–30|doi=10.1007/978-3-662-56454-7_4|isbn=978-3-662-56454-7|quote=From page 225: ''"{{lang|de|Die Tuberkelbacillen lassen sich auch noch auf anderen Nährsubstraten kultivieren, wenn letztere ähnliche Eigenschaften wie das erstarrte Blutserum besitzen. So wachsen sie beispielsweise auf einer mit Agar-Agar bereiteten, bei Blutwärme hart bleibenden Gallerte, welche einen Zusatz von Fleischinfus und Pepton erhalten hat.}}"'' (The tubercule bacilli can also be cultivated on other media, if the latter have properties similar to those of congealed [[blood serum]]. Thus they grow, for example, on a gelatinous mass prepared with [[agar-agar]], which remains solid at blood temperature, and which has received a supplement of meat [[broth]] and [[peptone]].)}}</ref>

==== Development of Petri dish ====
Koch's booklet published in 1881 titled "''Zur Untersuchung von Pathogenen Organismen''" (''Methods for the Study of Pathogenic Organisms'')<ref>{{Cite book|last=Koch|first=Robert|url=https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/5146|title=Zur Untersuchung von Pathogenen Organismen|publisher=Robert Koch-Institut|year=2010|location=Berlin|doi=10.25646/5071|orig-year=1881}}</ref> has been known as the "Bible of Bacteriology."<ref>{{Citation|last1=Booss|first1=John|date=2014|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B9780444534880000018|series=Handbook of Clinical Neurology|volume=123|pages=3–44|publisher=Elsevier|language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-444-53488-0.00001-8|isbn=978-0-444-53488-0|access-date=2021-04-15|last2=Tselis|first2=Alex C.|title=Neurovirology |chapter=A history of viral infections of the central nervous system |pmid=25015479}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hurt|first=Leslie|date=2003|title=Dr. Robert Koch:: a founding father of biology|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S1068607X02001671|journal=Primary Care Update for OB/GYNS|language=en|volume=10|issue=2|pages=73–74|doi=10.1016/S1068-607X(02)00167-1}}</ref> In it he described a novel method of using glass slide with agar to grow bacteria. The method involved pouring a liquid agar on to the glass slide and then spreading a thin layer of gelatin over. The gelatin made the culture medium solidify, in which bacterial samples could be spread uniformly. The whole bacterial culture was then put in a glass plate together with a small wet paper. Koch named this container as ''feuchte Kammer'' (moist chamber). The typical chamber was a circular glass dish 20 cm in diameter and 5 cm in height and had a lid to prevent contamination. The glass plate and the transparent culture media made observation of the bacterial growth easy.<ref name=":8">{{Cite journal|last=Shama|first=Gilbert|date=2019|title=The "Petri" Dish: A Case of Simultaneous Invention in Bacteriology|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31030894|journal=Endeavour|volume=43|issue=1–2|pages=11–16|doi=10.1016/j.endeavour.2019.04.001|pmid=31030894|s2cid=139105012}}</ref>

Koch publicly demonstrated his plating method at the Seventh [[International Medical Congress]] in London in August 1881. There, [[Louis Pasteur]] exclaimed, ''"C'est un grand progrès, Monsieur''!" ("What a great progress, Sir!")<ref name=":2" /> It was using Koch's microscopy and agar-plate culture method that his students discovered new bacteria. [[Friedrich Loeffler]] discovered the bacteria of [[glanders]] (''[[Burkholderia mallei]]'') in 1882 and [[diphtheria]] (''[[Corynebacterium diphtheriae]]'') in 1884; and [[Georg Theodor August Gaffky]], the bacterium of [[typhoid]] (''[[Salmonella enterica]]'') in 1884.<ref name=":6" /> Koch's assistant [[Julius Richard Petri]] developed an improved method and published it in 1887 as "''Eine kleine Modification des Koch’schen Plattenverfahrens''" (A minor modification of the plating technique of Koch).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Petri|first=Julius Richard|date=1887|title=Eine kleine Modification des Koch'schen Plattenverfahrens|url=https://archive.org/details/1887-petri-eine-kleine-modification-des-koch-schen-plattenverfahrens-2020-braus-|journal=Centralblatt für Bacteriologie und Parasitenkunde|volume=1|pages=279–280}}</ref> The culture plate was given an eponymous name [[Petri dish]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Mahajan|first=Monika|date=2021|title=Etymologia: Petri Dish|journal=Emerging Infectious Diseases|volume=27|issue=1|pages=261|doi=10.3201/eid2701.ET2701|pmc=7774570}}</ref> It is often asserted that Petri developed a new culture plate,<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Zhang|first=Shuguang|date=2004|title=Beyond the Petri dish|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14755282|journal=Nature Biotechnology|volume=22|issue=2|pages=151–152|doi=10.1038/nbt0204-151|pmid=14755282|s2cid=36391864}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Grzybowski|first1=Andrzej|last2=Pietrzak|first2=Krzysztof|date=2014|title=Robert Koch (1843-1910) and dermatology on his 171st birthday|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24887990|journal=Clinics in Dermatology|volume=32|issue=3|pages=448–450|doi=10.1016/j.clindermatol.2013.10.005|pmid=24887990}}</ref> but this was not so. He simply discarded the use of glass plate and instead used the circular glass dish directly, not just as moist chamber, but as the main culture container. This further reduced chances of contaminations.<ref name=":7" /> It would also have been appropriate if the name "Koch dish" had been given.<ref name=":8" />

===Anthrax===
Robert Koch is widely known for his work with [[anthrax]], discovering the causative agent of the fatal disease to be ''[[Bacillus anthracis]]''.<ref name="Germ theory of disease" /> He published the discovery in a booklet as "''Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, Begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis''" (''The Etiology of Anthrax Disease, Based on the Developmental History of Bacillus Anthracis'') in 1876 while working at in Wöllstein.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Robert|date=2010|orig-year=1876|others=Robert Koch-Institut|title=Die Ätiologie der Milzbrand-Krankheit, begründet auf die Entwicklungsgeschichte des Bacillus Anthracis|url=https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/5139|journal=Cohns Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen|language=de|volume=2|issue=2|pages=277 (1–22)|doi=10.25646/5064}}</ref> His publication in 1877 on the structure of anthrax bacterium<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Robert|date=2010|orig-year=1877|title=Verfahren zur Untersuchung, zum Konservieren und Photographieren der Bakterien|url=https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/5140|journal=Beiträge zur Biologie der Pflanzen|language=de|volume=2|pages=399–434|doi=10.25646/5065|via=Robert Koch-Institut}}</ref> marked the first photography of a bacterium.<ref name=":0" /> He discovered the formation of [[bacterial spore|spores]] in anthrax bacteria, which could remain dormant under specific conditions.<ref name="Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch" /> However, under optimal conditions, the spores were activated and caused disease.<ref name="Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch" /> To determine this causative agent, he dry-fixed bacterial cultures onto glass slides, used dyes to stain the cultures, and observed them through a microscope.<ref name="Robert Koch">"Robert Koch." ''World of Microbiology and Immunology.'' Ed. Brenda Wilmoth Lerner and K. Lee Lerner. Detroit: Gale, 2006. Biography in Context. Web. 14 April 2013.</ref> His work with anthrax is notable in that he was the first to link a specific microorganism with a specific disease, rejecting the idea of [[spontaneous generation]] and supporting the [[germ theory of disease]].<ref name="Germ theory of disease">"Germ theory of disease." ''World of Microbiology and Immunology.'' Ed. Brenda Wilmoth Lerner and K. Lee Lerner. Detroit: Gale, 2007. Biography in Context. Web. 14 April 2013.</ref>

===Tuberculosis===
[[File:Aetiologie der Tuberkulose.jpg|thumb|Koch's drawing of tuberculosis bacilli in 1882 (from ''Die Ätiologie der Tuberkulose'')]]
During his time as the government advisor with the Imperial Health Agency in Berlin in the 1880s, Koch became interested in [[tuberculosis]] research. At the time, it was widely believed that tuberculosis was an inherited disease. However Koch was convinced that the disease was caused by a bacterium and was infectious. In 1882, he published his findings on tuberculosis, in which he reported the causative agent of the disease to be the slow-growing ''[[Mycobacterium tuberculosis]]''.<ref name="Brock Biology of Microorganisms" /> He published the discovery as "''Die Ätiologie der Tuberkulose''" (''The Etiology of Tuberculosis''),<ref name=":5" /> and presented before the German Physiological Society at Berlin on 24 March 1882. Koch said,<blockquote>When the cover-glasses were exposed to this staining fluid [methylene blue mixed with [[potassium hydroxide]]] for 24 hours, very fine rod-like forms became apparent in the tubercular mass for the first time, having, as further observations showed, the power of multiplication and of spore formation and hence belonging to the same group of organisms as the anthrax bacillus... Microscopic examination then showed that only the previously blue-stained cell nuclei and detritus became brown, while the tubercle bacilli remained a beautiful blue.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" /></blockquote>

There was no particular reaction to this announcement. Eminent scientists such as [[Rudolf Virchow]] remained skeptical. Virchow clung to his theory that all diseases are due to faulty cellular activities.<ref name=":12">{{Cite journal|last1=Kaufmann|first1=Stefan H. E.|last2=Schaible|first2=Ulrich E.|date=2005|title=100th anniversary of Robert Koch's Nobel Prize for the discovery of the tubercle bacillus|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16112578|journal=Trends in Microbiology|volume=13|issue=10|pages=469–475|doi=10.1016/j.tim.2005.08.003|pmid=16112578}}</ref> On the other hand, [[Paul Ehrlich]] later recollected that this moment was his "single greatest scientific experience."<ref name=":9" /> Koch expanded the report and published under the same title as a booklet in 1884, in which he concluded that the discovery of tuberculosis bacterium fulfilled the three principles, eventually known as Koch's [[postulates]], which were formulated by his assistant Friedrich Loeffler in 1883, saying:<blockquote>All these factors together allow me to conclude that the bacilli present in the tuberculous lesions do not only accompany tuberculosis, but rather cause it. These bacilli are the true agents of tuberculosis.<ref name=":12" /></blockquote>

===Cholera===
[[File:Robert Koch (Deutsche Cholera-Expedition in Ägypten 1884).jpg|thumb|left|Photograph of Koch (third from the right) and other members of the German Cholera Commission in Egypt, 1884]]
[[File:Professors Koch and Pfeiffer working in a laboratory, invest Wellcome L0030175.jpg|thumb|Koch (on the microscope) and his colleague [[Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer]] (standing) investigating cholera outbreak in Bombay, India. ]]
In August 1883, the German government sent a medical team led by Koch to [[Alexandria, Egypt]], to investigate a cholera epidemic there.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Howard-Jones|first=N.|date=1984|title=Robert Koch and the cholera vibrio: a centenary|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=288|issue=6414|pages=379–381|doi=10.1136/bmj.288.6414.379|pmc=1444283|pmid=6419937}}</ref> Koch soon found that the [[intestinal mucosa]] of people who died of cholera always had bacterial infection, yet could not confirm whether the bacteria were the causative pathogens. As the outbreak in Egypt declined, he was transferred to Calcutta (now [[Kolkata]]) India, where there was a more severe outbreak. He soon found that the river [[Ganges]] was the source of cholera. He performed autopsies of almost 100 bodies, and found in each bacterial infection. He identified the same bacteria from water tanks, linking the source of the infection.<ref name=":0" /> He isolated the bacterium in pure culture on 7 January 1884. He subsequently confirmed that the bacterium was a new species, and described as "a little bent, like a comma."<ref name=":32">{{Cite journal|last1=Lippi|first1=D.|last2=Gotuzzo|first2=E.|date=2014|title=The greatest steps towards the discovery of Vibrio cholerae|journal=Clinical Microbiology and Infection|volume=20|issue=3|pages=191–195|doi=10.1111/1469-0691.12390|pmid=24191858|doi-access=free}}</ref> His experiment using fresh blood samples indicated that the bacterium could kill red blood cells, and he hypothesized that some sort of poison was used by the bacterium to cause the disease.<ref name=":0" /> In 1959, Indian scientist [[Sambhu Nath De]] discovered this poison, the [[cholera toxin]].<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Nair|first1=G. Balakrish|last2=Takeda|first2=Yoshifumi|date=2011|title=Dr Sambhu Nath De: unsung hero|journal=The Indian Journal of Medical Research|volume=133|issue=2 |pages=127|pmc=3089041|pmid=21415484}}</ref> Koch reported his discovery to the German Secretary of State for the Interior on 2 February, and published it in the ''Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift'' (''German Medical Weekly'') the following month.<ref>Koch, R. (20 March 1884) {{lang|de|2=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yY41AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA191 "Sechster Bericht der deutschen wissenschaftlichen Commission zur Erforschung der Cholera"]}} (Sixth report of the German scientific commission for research on cholera), ''{{lang|de|Deutsche medizinische Wochenscrift}}'' (German Medical Weekly), '''10''' (12): 191–192. On page 191, he mentions the characteristic comma shape of ''Vibrio cholerae'': ''"{{lang|de|Im letzten Berichte konnte ich bereits gehorsamst mittheilen, dass an den Bacillen des Choleradarms besondere Eigenschaften aufgefunden wurden, durch welche sie mit aller Sicherheit von anderen Bakterien zu unterscheiden sind. Von diesen Merkmalen sind folgende die am meisten charakteristischen: Die Bacillen sind nicht ganz geradlinig, wie die übrigen Bacillen, sondern ein wenig gekrümmt, einem Komma ähnlich.}}"'' (In the last report, I could already respectfully report that unusual characteristics were discovered in the bacteria of enteric cholera, by which they are to be distinguished with complete certainty from other bacteria. Of these features, the following are the most characteristic: the bacteria are not quite straight, like the rest of the bacilli, but a little bent, similar to a comma.)</ref>

Although Koch was convinced that the bacterium was the cholera pathogen, he could not entirely establish a critical evidence the bacterium produced the symptoms in healthy subjects (following [[Koch's postulates]]). His experiment on animals using his pure bacteria culture did not cause the disease, and correctly explained that animals are immune to human pathogen. The bacterium was then known as "the comma bacillus", and scientifically as ''Bacillus comma''.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Winslow|first1=C. E.|last2=Broadhurst|first2=J.|last3=Buchanan|first3=R. E.|last4=Krumwiede|first4=C.|last5=Rogers|first5=L. A.|last6=Smith|first6=G. H.|date=1920|title=The Families and Genera of the Bacteria: Final Report of the Committee of the Society of American Bacteriologists on Characterization and Classification of Bacterial Types|journal=Journal of Bacteriology|volume=5|issue=3|pages=191–229|doi=10.1128/JB.5.3.191-229.1920|pmc=378870|pmid=16558872}}</ref> It was later realised that the bacterium was already described by an Italian physician [[Filippo Pacini]] in 1854,<ref>See:
* Fillipo Pacini (1854) {{lang|it|2=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xdtQAAAAcAAJ&pg=PA397 "Osservazioni microscopiche e deduzioni patologiche sul cholera asiatico"]}} (Microscopic observations and pathological deductions on Asiatic cholera), ''{{lang|it|Gazzetta Medica Italiana: Toscana}}'', 2nd series, '''4'''(50):397–401; '''4'''(51):405–12.
* Reprinted (more legibly) as a [https://books.google.com/books?id=F9s_AAAAcAAJ&pg=PA1 pamphlet.]</ref> and was also observed by the [[Catalonia|Catalan]] physician Joaquim Balcells i Pascual around the same time.<ref name="Real Academia de la Historia 2018">{{cite web|year=2018|editor=Real Academia de la Historia|editor-link=Real Academia de la Historia|title=Joaquín Balcells y Pasqual|url=http://dbe.rah.es/biografias/18541/joaquin-balcells-y-pasqual|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190708211444/http://dbe.rah.es/biografias/18541/joaquin-balcells-y-pasqual|archive-date=8 July 2019|access-date=1 August 2020|language=es}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|year=2015|editor=Col·legi Oficial de Metges de Barcelona|editor-link=:ca:Col·legi Oficial de Metges de Barcelona|title=Joaquim Balcells i Pascual|url=http://www.galeriametges.cat/galeria-fitxa.php?icod=EGMM|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200801110910/http://www.galeriametges.cat/galeria-fitxa.php?icod=EGMM|archive-date=1 August 2020|access-date=1 August 2020|language=ca}}</ref> But they failed to identify the bacterium as the causative agent of cholera. Koch's colleague [[Richard Friedrich Johannes Pfeiffer]] correctly identified the comma bacillus as Pacini's ''vibrioni'' and renamed it as ''[[Vibrio cholerae|Vibrio cholera]]'' in 1896.<ref name=":42">{{Cite book|last=Hugh|first=Rudolph|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NP7AY38J1hcC|title=Public Health Service Publication|date=1965|publisher=U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, Public Health Service, Environmental Health Service, National Air Pollution Control Administration|pages=1–4|language=en|chapter=Nomenclature and taxonomy of Vibrio cholerae Pacini 1854 and Vibrio eltor Pribam 1933}}</ref>

=== Tuberculosis treatment and tuberculin ===
Koch gave much of his research attention on tuberculosis throughout his career. After medical expeditions to various parts of the world, he again focussed on tuberculosis from the mid-1880s. By that time the Imperial Health Office was carrying out a project for disinfection of [[sputum]] of tuberculosis patients. Koch experimented with [[arsenic]] and [[creosote]] as possible disinfectants. These chemicals and other available drugs did not work.<ref name=":0" /> His report in 1883 also mentioned a failed experiment on an attempt to make tuberculosis vaccine.<ref name=":11" /> By 1888, Koch turned his attention to [[synthetic dyes]] as antibacterial chemicals. He developed a method for examining antibacterial activity by mixing the gelatin-based culture media with a yellow dye, [[Auramine O|auramin]]. His notebook indicates that by February 1890, he tested hundreds of compounds.<ref name=":9" /> In one of such tests, he found that an extract from the tuberculosis bacterium culture dissolved in glycerine could cure tuberculosis in guinea pigs. Based on a series of experiments from April to July 1891, he could conclude that the extract did not kill the tuberculosis bacterium, but destroyed (by [[necrosis]]) the infected tissues, thereby depriving bacterial growth. He made a vague announcement in August 1890 at the Tenth [[International Medical Congress]] in Berlin,<ref name=":12" /> saying,<blockquote>In a communication which I made a few months ago to the International Medical Congress [in London in 1881], I described a substance of which the result is to make laboratory animals insensitive to inoculation of tubercle bacilli, and in the case of already infected animals, to bring the tuberculous process to a halt.<ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

I can tell […] that much, that guinea pigs, which are highly susceptible to the disease [tuberculosis], no longer react upon inoculation with tubercle virus [bacterium] when treated with that substance and that in guinea pigs, which are sick (with tuberculosis), the pathological process can be brought to a complete standstill.<ref name=":9" /></blockquote>By November 1890, Koch was able to show that the extract was effective in humans as well.<ref name=":10">{{Cite journal|last=Sakula|first=Alex|date=1985|title=Robert Koch: The story of his discoveries in tuberculosis|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02938285|journal=Irish Journal of Medical Science|language=en|volume=154|issue=S1|pages=3–9|doi=10.1007/BF02938285|pmid=3897123|s2cid=38056335}}</ref> Many patients and doctors went to Berlin to get Koch's remedy.<ref name=":0" /> But his experiments showed that tuberculosis infected guinea pigs developed severe symptoms when the substance was inoculated. The severity was more so in humans.<ref name=":12" /> This development of severe immune response, which is now known to be due to [[hypersensitivity]], is known as the "Koch phenomenon."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hunter|first=Robert L.|date=2020|title=The Pathogenesis of Tuberculosis-The Koch Phenomenon Reinstated|journal=Pathogens|volume=9|issue=10|pages=e813|doi=10.3390/pathogens9100813|pmc=7601602|pmid=33020397|doi-access=free}}</ref> The chemical nature was not known, and among several independent experiments done by the next year, only his son-in-law, Eduard Pfuhl, was able to reproduce similar results.<ref name=":9" /> It nevertheless became a medical sensation, and the unknown substance was referred to as "Koch's Lymph." Koch published his experiments in the 15 January 1891 issue of ''Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift'',<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Robert|date=2010|orig-year=1891|title=Fortsetzung der Mitteilungen über ein Heilmittel gegen Tuberkulose|url=https://edoc.rki.de/handle/176904/5175|journal=Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift|language=de|volume=17|pages=101–102|doi=10.25646/5100|via=Robert Koch-Institut}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=Robert|date=1891|title=A Further Communication on a Remedy for Tuberculosis|journal=The Indian Medical Gazette|volume=26|issue=3|pages=85–87|pmc=5150357|pmid=29000631}}</ref> and ''[[The British Medical Journal]]'' immediately published the English version simultaneously.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=R.|date=1891|title=A Further Communication on a Remedy for Tuberculosis|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=1|issue=1568|pages=125–127|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.1568.125|pmc=2196966|pmid=20753227}}</ref> The English version was also reproduced in ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'',<ref>{{Cite journal|date=1891|title=Dr. Koch's Remedy for Tuberculosis|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=43|issue=1108|pages=281–282|doi=10.1038/043281a0|bibcode=1891Natur..43..281.|s2cid=4050612|doi-access=free}}</ref> and ''[[The Lancet]]'' in the same month.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Richmond|first=W.S.|date=1891|title=Professor Koch's Remedy for Tuberculosis|url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0140673602157059|journal=The Lancet|language=en|volume=137|issue=3514|pages=56–57|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(02)15705-9}}</ref> ''The Lancet'' presented it as "glad tidings of great joy."<ref name=":10" /> Koch simply referred to the medication as "brownish, transparent fluid."<ref name=":4" /> Josephs Pohl-Pincus had used the name tuberculin in 1844 for tuberculosis culture media,<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Caspary|date=1884|title=Angioneurotische Dermatosen|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF02097828|journal=Vierteljahresschrift für Dermatologie und Syphilis|language=de|volume=16|issue=1|pages=141–155|doi=10.1007/BF02097828|s2cid=33099318|quote=Pohl-Pincus wrote: Wir werden deshalb alas Tuberculin darzustellen suchen [We shall therefore endeavor to describe it as tuberculin]}}</ref> and Koch subsequently adopted as "tuberkulin."<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Koch|first=R.|date=1891|title=Weitere Mittheilung über das Tuberkulin|url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-0029-1206810|journal=Deutsche Medizinische Wochenschrift|language=de|volume=17|issue=43|pages=1189–1192|doi=10.1055/s-0029-1206810|s2cid=73993276 }}</ref>

The first report on the clinical trial in 1891 was disappointing. By then 1061 patients with tuberculosis of internal organs and of 708 patients with tuberculosis of external tissues were given the treatment. An attempt to use tuberculin as a therapeutic drug is regarded as Koch's "greatest failure."<ref name=":12" /> With it his reputation greatly waned. But he devoted the rest of his life trying to make tuberculin as a usable medication.<ref name=":10" /> His discovery was not a total failure, the substance is now used to test for hypersensitivity in tuberculosis patients.<ref name=":0" />

=== Acquired immunity ===
Koch observed the phenomenon of acquired [[immunity (medical)|immunity]]. On 26 December 1900, he arrived as part of an expedition to [[German New Guinea]], which was then a protectorate of the German Reich. Koch serially examined the [[Papuan people]], the indigenous inhabitants, and their blood samples and noticed they contained ''[[Plasmodium]]'' parasites, the cause of [[malaria]], but their bouts of malaria were mild or could not even be noticed, i.e. were [[subclinical]]. On the contrary, German settlers and Chinese workers, who had been brought to New Guinea, fell sick immediately. The longer they had stayed in the country, however, the more they too seemed to develop a resistance against it.<ref>{{lang|de|Hugo Kronecker: Hygienische Topographie}} In: A. Pfeiffer (Editor): {{lang|de|21. Jahresbericht über die Fortschritte und Leistungen auf dem Gebiete der Hygiene.}} 1903. Publisher: Friedrich Vieweg und Sohn, Braunschweig, 1905. p. 68</ref>

=== Koch's postulates ===
{{Main|Koch's postulates}}
During his time as government advisor, Koch published a report on how he discovered and experimentally showed tuberculosis bacterium as the pathogen of tuberculosis. He described the importance of pure cultures in isolating disease-causing organisms and explained the necessary steps to obtain these cultures, methods which are summarized in [[Koch's postulates|Koch's four postulates]].<ref name="Bacteriology, historical">Amsterdamska, Olga. "Bacteriology, Historical." ''International Encyclopedia of Public Health.'' 2008. Web.</ref> Koch's discovery of the causative agent of anthrax led to the formation of a generic set of [[wikt:postulate|postulates]] which can be used in the determination of the cause of most infectious diseases.<ref name="Germ theory of disease" /> These postulates, which not only outlined a method for linking cause and effect of an infectious disease but also established the significance of laboratory culture of infectious agents, became the "gold standard" in infectious diseases.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Tabrah|first=Frank L.|date=2011|title=Koch's postulates, carnivorous cows, and tuberculosis today|journal=Hawaii Medical Journal|volume=70|issue=7|pages=144–148|pmc=3158372|pmid=21886302}}</ref>

Although Koch worked out the principles, he did not formulate the postulates, which were introduced by his assistant Friedrich Loeffler. Loeffler, reporting his discovery of diphtheria bacillus in 1883, stated three postulates as follows:<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Loeffler |first1=Friedrich |title=Untersuchungen über die Bedeutung der Mikroorganismen für die Entstehung der Diphtherie beim Menschen, bei der Taube und beim Kalbe |journal=Mittheilungen aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte (Reports from the Imperial Office of Public Health) |date=1884 |volume=2 |pages=421–499 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y6lQAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA421 |trans-title=Investigations of the relevance of microorganisms to the development of diphtheria among humans, among doves, and among heifers |language=German}} From 424: ''"Wenn nun die Diphtherie eine durch Mikroorganismen bedingte Krankheit ist, so müssen sich auch bei ihr jene drei Postulate erfüllen lassen, deren Erfüllung für den stricten Beweis der parasitäten Natur einer jeden derartigen Krankheit unumgänglich nothwendig ist:'' 
''1) Es müssen constant in den local erkrankten Parteien Organismen in typischer Anordnung nachgewiesen werden.'' 
''2) Die Organismen, welchen nach ihrem Verhalten zu den erkrankten Theilen eine Bedeutung für das Zustandekommen dieser Veränderungen beizulegen wäre, müssen isolirt und rein gezüchtet werden.'' 
''3) Mit den Reinculturen muss die Krankheit experimentell wieder erzeugt werden können."'' 
(Now if diphtheria is a disease that's caused by microorganisms, then it must also be able to fulfill those three postulates whose fulfillment is absolutely necessary for the strict proof of the parasitic nature of any such disease: 
1) In the given diseased patients, there must always be shown [to be present] organisms in typical disposition. 
2) The organisms to which one would attribute — according to their behavior in the diseased parts — a relevance for the occurrence of these changes, must be isolated and cultured in pure form. 
3) The disease must be able to be reproduced experimentally via pure cultures.)</ref>
:1. The organism must always be present in every case of the disease, but not in healthy individuals.
:2. The organism must be isolated from a diseased individual and grown in pure culture.
:3. The pure culture must cause the same disease when inoculated into a healthy, susceptible individuals.<ref name=":6">{{Cite journal|last=Weiss|first=Robin A.|date=2005|title=Robert Koch: the grandfather of cloning?|journal=Cell|volume=123|issue=4|pages=539–542|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2005.11.001|pmid=16286000|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Byrd|first1=Allyson L.|last2=Segre|first2=Julia A.|date=2016|title=Adapting Koch's postulates|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26816362|journal=Science|volume=351|issue=6270|pages=224–226|doi=10.1126/science.aad6753|pmid=26816362|bibcode=2016Sci...351..224B|s2cid=29595548}}</ref>

The fourth postulate was added by an American plant pathologist [[Erwin Frink Smith]] in 1905, and is stated as:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Erwin F. |title=Bacteria in Relation to Plant Diseases |date=1905 |publisher=Carnegie Institution of Washington |location=Washington. D.C. |volume=1 |page=9 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/60542#page/31/mode/1up}}</ref>

:4. The same pathogen must be isolated from the experimentally infected individuals.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Hadley|first=Caroline|date=2006|title=The infection connection|journal=EMBO Reports|volume=7|issue=5|pages=470–473|doi=10.1038/sj.embor.7400699|pmc=1479565|pmid=16670677}}</ref>

==Personal life==
In July 1867, Koch married Emma (Emmy) Adolfine Josephine Fraatz, and the two had a daughter, Gertrude, in 1868.<ref name="Robert Koch A Life" /> Their marriage ended after 26 years in 1893, and later that same year, he married actress Hedwig Freiberg (1872–1945).<ref name="Robert Koch A Life" />

On 9 April 1910, Koch suffered a heart attack and never made a complete recovery.<ref name="Robert Koch" /> On 27 May, three days after giving a lecture on his tuberculosis research at the [[Prussian Academy of Sciences]], Koch died in [[Baden-Baden]] at the age of 66.<ref name="Heinrich Hermann Robert Koch" /> Following his death, the Institute named its establishment after him in his honour. He was irreligious.<ref>Thomas D. Brock (1988). Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology. ASM Press. p. 296. {{ISBN|978-1-55581-143-3}}. "He loved seeing new things, but showed no interest in politics. Religion never entered his life."</ref>

== Awards and honors ==
{| style="margin:auto"
| [[File:Christmas Seal, Robert Koch, 1938 issue.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|In 1938 the National Tuberculosis Association paid tribute to Koch and issued a U.S.[[Christmas Seal]]. Christmas seals were and continue to be sold as a way of raising funds to fight tuberculosis.<ref> {{cite book |editor-last= Denune |editor-first=John Jr. |title=The Christmas Seal Catalog |volume= |author-link= |publisher=The Christmas Seal and Charity Stamp Society |location= |year=2014 |isbn= |url=https://www.seal-society.org/sites/default/files/pdf/news/166/The%20Christmas%20Seal%20Catalog-1.pdf |quote=The Christmas Seal Catalog is a simplified version of Green’s Catalog of TB Seals of the World, part 1, U.S. National Christmas Seals. |ref=catalog2014}}</ref>]]
| [[File:Statue of Robert Koch in Berlin.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Statue of Koch at Robert-Koch-Platz (Robert Koch square) in Berlin]]
| [[File:Robert Koch's name on the Frieze of LSHTM .jpg|alt=Koch's name as it appears on the LSHTM Frieze in Keppel Street|thumb|upright=1.2|Koch's name as it appears on the [[LSHTM]] frieze in Keppel Street, Bloomsbury, London|right]]

|}
Koch was made a Knight Grand Cross in the Prussian [[Order of the Red Eagle]] on 19 November 1890,<ref name="prus">{{citation|title=Königlich Preussische Ordensliste (supp.)|volume=1|chapter-url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878823&view=1up&seq=7&skin=2021|page=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015049878823&view=1up&seq=13&skin=2021 7]|language=German|location=Berlin|year=1886|chapter=Rother Adler-orden|via=hathitrust.org}}</ref> and was elected a [[List of Fellows of the Royal Society elected in 1897|Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS)]] in 1897.<ref name="frs">{{cite web|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316060617/https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows/|archive-date=16 March 2015|url=https://royalsociety.org/about-us/fellowship/fellows/|publisher=Royal Society|location=London|title=Fellows of the Royal Society}}</ref> In 1905, he was awarded the [[Nobel Prize]] in Physiology and Medicine "for his investigations and discoveries in relation to tuberculosis."<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 1905|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/prizes/medicine/1905/summary/|access-date=2021-04-21|website=NobelPrize.org|language=en-US}}</ref> In 1906, research on tuberculosis and tropical diseases won him the [[Order Pour le Merite]] and in 1908, the [[Robert Koch Medal]], established to honour the greatest living physicians.<ref name="Robert Koch" /> Emperor Wilhelm I awarded him the Order of the Crown, 100,000 marks and appointment as Privy Imperial Councillor,<ref name=":16" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|last=Ligon|first=B. Lee|date=2002|title=Robert Koch: Nobel laureate and controversial figure in tuberculin research|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12491235|journal=Seminars in Pediatric Infectious Diseases|volume=13|issue=4|pages=289–299|doi=10.1053/spid.2002.127205|pmid=12491235}}</ref> Surgeon-General of Health Service, and Fellow of the Science Senate of Kaiser Wilhelm Society.<ref name=":1" />

Koch established the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases in Berlin 1891. After his death it was renamed Robert Koch Institute in his honour.<ref name=":16" />

The World Health Organization observes "[[World Tuberculosis Day]]" every 24 March since 1982 to commemorate the day Koch discovered tuberculosis bacterium.<ref name=":4" />

Koch's name is one of 23 from the fields of hygiene and tropical medicine featured on the frieze of the [[London School of Hygiene & Tropical Medicine]] building in [[Keppel Street]], [[Bloomsbury]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lshtm.ac.uk/aboutus/introducing/history/behind-frieze|title=Behind the frieze|website=LSHTM}}</ref>

A large marble statue of Koch stands in a small park known as Robert Koch Platz, just north of the [[Charité|Charity Hospital]], in the [[Mitte]] section of [[Berlin]]. His life was the subject of a 1939 German produced motion picture that featured Oscar winning actor [[Emil Jannings]] in the title role. On 10 December 2017, Google showed a [[Doodle]] in celebration of Koch's birthday.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.google.com/doodles/celebrating-robert-koch|title=Celebrating Robert Koch|website=www.google.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lEeBZceXjfg| archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211111/lEeBZceXjfg| archive-date=2021-11-11 | url-status=live|title=Robert Koch Google Doodle|via=www.youtube.com}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Koch and his relationship to [[Paul Ehrlich]], who developed a mechanism to diagnose TB, were portrayed in the 1940 movie ''[[Dr. Ehrlich's Magic Bullet]]''.

== Controversies ==

=== Louis Pasteur ===
{{Further|Koch–Pasteur rivalry}}
At their first meeting at the Seventh [[International Medical Congress]] in London in August 1881, Koch and Pasteur were friendly towards each other. But the rest of their careers followed with scientific disputes. The conflict started when Koch interpreted his discovery of anthrax bacillus in 1876 as causality, that is, the germ caused the anthrax infections. Although his postulates were not yet formulated, he did not establish the bacterium as the cause of the disease: it was an inference. Pasteur therefore argued that Koch's discovery was not the full proof of causality, but Pasteur's [[anthrax vaccine]] developed in 1881 was.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Carter|first=K. C.|date=1988|title=The Koch-Pasteur dispute on establishing the cause of anthrax|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/3285924|journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine|volume=62|issue=1|pages=42–57|jstor=44449292|pmid=3285924}}</ref> Koch published his conclusion in 1881 with a statement: "anthrax never occurs without viable anthrax bacilli or spores. In my opinion no more conclusive proof can be given that anthrax bacilli are the true and only cause of anthrax," and that vaccination such as claimed by Pasteur would be impossible.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Koch|first=R.|url=https://edoc.rki.de/bitstream/handle/176904/5148/174-206.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y|title=Mittheilungen aus dem Kaiserlichen Gesundheitsamte|publisher=Robert Koch-Institut|year=2010|location=Berlin|pages=174–206|chapter=Zur Ätiologie des Milzbrandes|trans-chapter=On the etiology of anthrax|orig-year=1881}}</ref> To prove his vaccine, Pasteur sent his assistant [[Louis Thuillier]] to Germany for demonstration and disproved Koch's idea.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rietschel|first1=Ernst Th|last2=Cavaillon|first2=Jean-Marc|date=2002|title=Endotoxin and anti-endotoxin. The contribution of the schools of Koch and Pasteur: life, milestone-experiments and concepts of Richard Pfeiffer (Berlin) and Alexandre Besredka (Paris)|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12028747|journal=Journal of Endotoxin Research|volume=8|issue=2|pages=71–82|doi=10.1179/096805102125000218|pmid=12028747}}</ref> They had a heated public debate at the International Congress for Hygiene in Geneva in 1882, where Koch criticised Pasteur's methods as "unreliable," and claimed they "are false and [as such ] they inevitably lead to false conclusions."<ref name=":4" /> Koch later continued to attack Pasteur, saying, "Pasteur is not a physician, and one cannot expect him to make sound judgments about pathological processes and the symptoms of disease."<ref name=":0" />

=== Tuberculin ===
When Koch discovered tuberculin in 1890 as a medication for tuberculosis, he kept the experiment secret and avoided disclosing the source. It was only after a year under public pressure that he publicly announced the experiment and the source.<ref name=":9" /> Clinical trials with tuberculin were disastrous and complete failures. Rudolf Virchow's autopsy report of 21 subjects treated with tuberculin to the Berlin Medical Society on 7 January 1891 revealed that instead of healing tuberculosis, the subjects died because of the treatment.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Leibowitz|first=D.|date=1993|title=Scientific failure in an age of optimism: public reaction to Robert Koch's tuberculin cure|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8429953|journal=New York State Journal of Medicine|volume=93|issue=1|pages=41–48|pmid=8429953}}</ref> One week later, Koch publicised that the drug was a glycerine extract of a pure cultivation of the tuberculosis bacilli.<ref name=":9" /> The German official report in late 1891 declared that tuberculosis was not cured with tuberculin.<ref name=":12" /> From this moment onwards, Koch's prestige fell apart. The reason for his initial secrecy was due to an ambition for monetary benefits for the new drug, and with that establishment of his own research institute.<ref name=":13" /> Since 1885, he had tried to leave government service and create an independent state-run institute of his own.<ref name=":4" /> Following the disappointment, he was released from the University of Berlin and forced to work as Director of the Royal Prussian Institute for Infectious Diseases, a newly established institute, in 1891. He was prohibited from working on tuberculin and from claim for patent rights in any of his subsequent works.<ref name=":14" />

=== Human and cattle tuberculosis ===
Koch initially believed that human (''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'') and cattle tuberculosis bacilli (now called ''[[Mycobacterium bovis]]'') were different pathogens when he made the discovery in 1882. Two years later, he revoked that position and asserted that the two bacilli were the same type.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Packer|first=R. A.|date=1987|title=Veterinarians challenge Dr. Robert Koch regarding bovine tuberculosis and public health: a chronology of events|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11621492|journal=Veterinary Heritage|volume=10|issue=2|pages=7–11|pmid=11621492}}</ref> This later assumption was taken as a fact in veterinary practice. Based on it, legislations were made in US for inspection of meat and milk.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Packer|first=R. A.|date=1990|title=Veterinarians challenge Dr. Robert Koch regarding bovine tuberculosis and public health|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/2406233|journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association|volume=196|issue=4|pages=574–575|doi=10.2460/javma.1990.196.04.574 |pmid=2406233}}</ref> In 1898, an American veterinarian [[Theobald Smith]] published a detailed comparative study and found that the tuberculosis bacteria are different based on their structure, growth patterns, and pathogenicity. In addition he also discovered that there were variations in each type. In his conclusion, he made two important points:

# Human tuberculosis bacillus cannot infect cattle.
# But cattle bacillus may infect humans since it is very pathogenic.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Smith|first=T.|date=1898|title=A comparative study of bovine tubercle bacilli and of human bacilli from sputum|journal=The Journal of Experimental Medicine|volume=3|issue=4–5|pages=451–511|doi=10.1084/jem.3.4-5.451|pmc=2117982|pmid=19866892}}</ref>

By that time, there was evidence that cattle tuberculosis was transmitted to humans through meat and milk.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Bergey|first=D. H.|date=1897|title=Bovine Tuberculosis in its Relation to the Public Health|journal=Public Health Papers and Reports|volume=23|pages=310–320|pmc=2329987|pmid=19600776}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|date=1881|title=Reviews and Notices|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=2|issue=1072|pages=85–86|pmc=2263995}}</ref> Upon these reports, Koch conceded that the two bacilli were different but still advocated that cattle tuberculosis was of no health concern. Speaking at the Third [[International Congress on Tuberculosis]], held in London in July 1901, he said that cattle tuberculosis is not dangerous to humans and there is no need for medical attention.<ref name=":4" /> He said, "I therefore consider it unnecessary to take any measures against this form of TB. The fight against TB clearly has to concentrate on the human ''bacillus.''"<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kaufmann|first=Stefan H. E.|date=2003|title=A short history of Robert Koch's fight against tuberculosis: those who do not remember the past are condemned to repeat it|url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12758195|journal=Tuberculosis (Edinburgh, Scotland)|volume=83|issue=1–3|pages=86–90|doi=10.1016/s1472-9792(02)00064-1|pmid=12758195}}</ref> Chair of the congress, [[Joseph Lister]] reprimanded Koch and explained the medical evidences of cattle tuberculosis in humans.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Clark|first=Paul F.|date=1920|title=Joseph Lister, his Life and Work|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/6707|journal=The Scientific Monthly|volume=11|issue=6|pages=518–539|bibcode=1920SciMo..11..518C}}</ref>

=== The 1902 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine ===
The Nobel Committee selected the 1902 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine to be awarded for the discovery of the transmission of malaria. But it could not make the final decision on whom to give it to — the British surgeon [[Ronald Ross]] or the Italian biologist [[Giovanni Battista Grassi]]. Ross had discovered that the human malarial parasite was carried by certain mosquitoes in 1897, and the next year that bird malaria could be transmitted from infected to healthy birds by the bite of a mosquito.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Cox FEG|year=2010|title=History of the discovery of the malaria parasites and their vectors|journal=Parasites & Vectors|volume=3|issue=1|pages=5|doi=10.1186/1756-3305-3-5|pmc=2825508|pmid=20205846 |doi-access=free }}</ref> Grassi had discovered ''[[Plasmodium vivax]]'' and the bird malaria parasite, and towards the end of 1898 the transmission of ''[[Plasmodium falciparum]]'' between humans through mosquitoes ''[[Anopheles claviger]]''.<ref name=":15">{{cite journal|author=Capanna E|year=2012|title=Grassi versus Ross: who solved the riddle of malaria?|url=http://revistes.iec.cat/index.php/IM/article/viewFile/4c457c86cb18b.002/9548|journal=International Microbiology|volume=9|issue=1|pages=69–74|pmid=16636993}}</ref> To the surprise of the Nobel Committee, the two nominees exchanged polemic arguments against each other publicly justifying the importance of their own works. Robert Koch was then appointed as a "neutral arbitrator" to make the final decision.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Pai-Dhungat|first1=J. V.|last2=Parikh|first2=Falguni|date=2015|title=Battista Grassi (1854-1925) & Malaria Controversy|url=https://www.japi.org/oldwebsitecontent/march_2015/103_battista_grassi.pdf|journal=The Journal of the Association of Physicians of India|volume=63|issue=3|pages=108|pmid=26543977}}</ref> To his disadvantage, Grassi had criticised Koch on his malaria research in 1898 during an investigation of the epidemic,<ref name=":15" /> while Ross had established a cordial relationship with Koch.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Ross|first=R.|date=1925|title=The mosquito-theory of malaria and the late Prof. G. B. Grassi|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/43427633|journal=Science Progress in the Twentieth Century (1919-1933)|volume=20|issue=78|pages=311–320|jstor=43427633}}</ref> Ross was selected for the award, as Koch "threw the full weight of his considerable authority in insisting that Grassi did not deserve the honor."<ref>{{cite book|author=Esch GW|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=88RH-7br9OAC|title=Parasites and Infectious Disease: Discovery by Serendipity and Otherwise|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2007|isbn=9781139464109|pages=137–138}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Brock |first=Thomas D. |author-link= Thomas D. Brock|title=Robert Koch: A Life in Medicine and Bacteriology |publisher=ASM Press |location=[[Washington, D.C.]] |year=1999 |isbn=978-1-55581-143-3 |oclc=39951653}}
* {{cite book|last=de Kruif|first=Paul|author-link=Paul de Kruif|date=1926|pages=105–144|title=Microbe Hunters|chapter=ch. IV Koch: The Death Fighter|series=Blue Ribbon Books|publisher=Harcourt Brace & Company Inc.|location=New York|chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.221187/page/n3/mode/2up|access-date=14 October 2020}}
* {{cite book |last=Morris |first=Robert D |title=The blue death: disease, disaster and the water we drink |url=https://archive.org/details/bluedeathdisease0000morr |url-access=registration |publisher=[[HarperCollins]] |location=New York |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-06-073089-5 |oclc=71266565}}
* {{cite book |last=Gradmann|first=Christoph |title=Laboratory Disease: Robert Koch's Medical Bacteriology |publisher=[[Johns Hopkins University Press]] |location=Baltimore |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8018-9313-1}}
* Weindling, Paul. "Scientific elites and laboratory organization in fin de siècle Paris and Berlin: The Pasteur Institute and Robert Koch’s Institute for Infectious Diseases compared," in Andrew Cunningham and Perry Williams, eds. ''The Laboratory Revolution in Medicine'' (Cambridge University Press, 1992) pp: 170–88.
* Christoph, Hans Gerhard: Robert Koch " Trias deutschen Forschergeistes " Naturheilpraxis / Pflaum- Verlag / Munich 70.Jahrgang December 2017 pages 90–93

==External links==
{{Commons category|Robert Koch}}
* [[Robert Koch Institute]]
* [https://soundcloud.com/charles-smyth488/robert-koch Audio version of this page]
* {{Nobelprize}} including the Nobel Lecture on 12 December 1905 ''The Current State of the Struggle against Tuberculosis''
* [http://vlp.mpiwg-berlin.mpg.de/people/data?id=per99 MPIWG-Berlin], Robert Koch Biography and bibliography in the [[Virtual Laboratory]] of the [[Max Planck Institute for the History of Science]]
* [http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/robertkoch.aspx Biography on the Science Museum web site] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125125409/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/broughttolife/people/robertkoch.aspx |date=2016-01-25 }}
* [http://www.musoptin.com/zeiss_3479.html Musoptin.com], original microscope out of the laboratory Robert Koch used in Wollstein (1877)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081218213235/http://www.musoptin.com/seibert_photoobjektive.html Musoptin.com], microscope objectives: as they were used by Robert Koch for his first photos of microorganisms (1877–1878)
* {{Gutenberg author | id=32531| name=Robert Koch}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Robert Koch}}
* {{PM20}}
* {{Wikisource-inline|list=
** {{Cite Americana|wstitle=Koch, Robert|year=1920 |short=x |noicon=x}}
** {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Koch, Robert |short=x |noicon=x}}
** {{Cite NIE|wstitle=Koch, Robert|year=1905 |short=x |noicon=x}}
}}
{{Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine Laureates 1901-1925}}
{{1905 Nobel Prize winners}}
{{History of infectious disease}}
{{Tuberculosis}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Koch, Robert}}
[[Category:Robert Koch| ]]
[[Category:1843 births]]
[[Category:1910 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Goslar (district)]]
[[Category:German bacteriologists]]
[[Category:German infectious disease physicians]]
[[Category:19th-century German inventors]]
[[Category:German microbiologists]]
[[Category:German military personnel of the Franco-Prussian War]]
[[Category:German Nobel laureates]]
[[Category:German military doctors]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Humboldt University of Berlin]]
[[Category:Members of the Prussian Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine]]
[[Category:People from the Kingdom of Hanover]]
[[Category:Tuberculosis researchers]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)]]
[[Category:University of Göttingen alumni]]
[[Category:Foreign Members of the Royal Society]]
[[Category:Foreign associates of the National Academy of Sciences]]
[[Category:Prussian Army personnel]]
[[Category:Robert Koch Institute people]]
[[Category:Cholera]]
[[Category:Tuberculosis]]
[[Category:Physicians of the Charité]]
[[Category:19th-century German biologists]]
[[Category:19th-century German physicians]]

Animal Diversity Web

2024-02-23T20:13:39Z

Coriander77: copy editing and some sentence restructuring for clarity

{{short description|Online database of animal natural history, distribution, classification, and conservation biology}}
{{advert|date=January 2016}}
The '''Animal Diversity Web''' ('''ADW''') is a non-profit group that hosts an online [[database]] site that collects [[natural history]], [[Biological classification|classification]], [[species]] characteristics, [[conservation biology]], and [[Range (biology)|distribution]] information on species of [[animal]]s. The website includes photographs, [[media clip|sound clip]]s, and a [[Virtuality|virtual]] [[museum]].

The local, [[relational database]] is written and maintained by staff and student contributors from the [[University of Michigan]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=ADW: About Us |url=https://animaldiversity.org/about/ |access-date=2022-11-02 |website=animaldiversity.org}}</ref> The website has a virtual museum, containing mostly mammals and a collection of skulls that can be virtually handled, and there is also a cell phone app.<ref>Tarng, Wermhuar, et al. “The Development of a Virtual Marine Museum for Educational Applications.” ''Journal of Educational Technology Systems'', vol. 37, no. 1, 2008, pp. 39–59., doi:10.2190/et.37.1.d.</ref> Resources are available for K–12 instructors.<ref>''Animal Diversity Web'', www.learnnc.org/lp/external/1798?style=print.</ref><ref name="TADW">[http://animaldiversity.org The Animal Diversity Web] Myers, P., R. Espinosa, C. S. Parr, T. Jones, G. S. Hammond, and T. A. Dewey. 2017.</ref> The ADW markets itself as a resource for constructing scholarly documents.

== Background ==
The ADW was created in 1995 by Philip Myers, a former biology professor at the University of Michigan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ur.umich.edu/update/archives/130104/adw|title=Revamped Animal Diversity Web reaching millions worldwide 18 years after launch|last=Erickson|first=Jim|date=4 January 2013|work=The University Record|access-date=25 August 2013|archive-date=7 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907023211/https://www.ur.umich.edu/update/archives/130104/adw|url-status=dead}}</ref> The site contains around 2,150 animal species with around 11,500 images and 725 sounds.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ADW: Statistics and Facts |url=https://animaldiversity.org/about/stats/ |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=animaldiversity.org}}</ref>{{When|date=December 2023}} The developers of the website planned to add 250 more species by the end of 2017.<ref name="TADW" /> The ADW has over 250 accounts of higher [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] groups.<ref name="TADW" />

Most of the contributors to the website are undergraduate students. ADW has collaborated with 30 colleges and universities across the United States. The undergraduate students often submit reports on species as part of their course requirements.<ref name="Parr">{{cite journal| doi=10.2481/dsj.4.1| title=Building a biodiversity content management system for science, education, and outreach| year=2005| last1=Parr| first1=CS| last2=Espinosa| first2=R.| last3=Dewey| first3=T.| last4=Hammond| first4=G.| last5=Myers| first5=P.| journal=Data Science Journal| volume=4| pages=1–11| doi-access=free}}</ref> Each account is edited by both the professors and the staff at the ADW.<ref name="Parr" /> {{as of|2017|November}}, the Animal Diversity Web had 3,675 contributors.<ref name="TADW" />

== Partnerships ==
ADW has partnered with the [[Encyclopedia of Life]] (EOL).<ref>“Animal Diversity Web.” ''Encyclopedia of Life'', eol.org/content_partners/8.</ref> The BioKIDS Critter Catalog, created by the University of Michigan, provides a simplified version of the animal accounts.<ref>“Critter Catalog.” ''BioKIDS - Kids' Inquiry of Diverse Species, Critter Catalog'', www.biokids.umich.edu/critters/.</ref> [[AmphibiaWeb]] is a partner that provides information on amphibian species.<ref>“AmphibiaWeb.” ''AmphibiaWeb'', amphibiaweb.org/.</ref>

== Staff ==
The current staff of the Animal Diversity Web is employed at the University of Michigan (as of 2017):

*Phil Myers, Ph.D.: Director and founder of the Animal Diversity Web. Curator of Mammals in the Museum of Zoology and Professor of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology.<ref name="TADW" />
*Tricia Jones, Ph.D.: Educational researcher, assessment and usability coordinator, and site design consultant.
*Roger Espinosa, M.S.: Technical lead in content management, XML templates, search engines, and taxonomy database.
*Tanya Dewey, Ph.D.: Content expert, curriculum consultant, and ADW upkeep.
*George Hammond, M.S.: Content expert, curriculum consultant, and ADW upkeep.<ref name="TADW" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Wikidata property|P4024|P5036}}
*[http://animaldiversity.org/ Animal Diversity Web]

[[Category:Internet properties established in 1995]]
[[Category:Online taxonomy databases]]

Commercial animal cloning

2024-02-23T20:08:28Z

Coriander77: copyediting

{{short description|Commercial cloning of animals}}
{{Multiple issues|section=y|{{Cleanup rewrite|date=December 2023}}
{{Citations broken|date=December 2023}}
{{too many sections|date=December 2023}}
{{tone|date=December 2023}}
{{missing information|the differences between the Roslin, Honolulu, and Artificial Twinning techniques|date=December 2023}}}}
'''Commercial animal cloning''' is the [[Animal cloning|cloning of animals]] for [[Commerce|commercial]] purposes, including [[animal husbandry]], medical research, competition camels and horses, pet cloning, and restoring populations of endangered and extinct animals.<ref name=FDA>{{Cite journal|date=May 20, 2021|title=A Primer on Cloning and Its Use in Livestock Operations|url=https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-cloning/primer-cloning-and-its-use-livestock-operations|journal=FDA|language=en}}</ref> The practice was first demonstrated in 1996 with [[Dolly (sheep)|Dolly the sheep]].

==Cloning methods==
Moving or copying all (or nearly all) genes from one [[animal]] to form a second, genetically nearly identical, animal is usually done using one of three methods: the Roslin technique, the Honolulu technique, or Artificial Twinning.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.thoughtco.com/cloning-techniques-373338 | title= Cloning techniques | date= Aug 3, 2021 | author=Regina Bailey}}</ref> The first two of these involve a process known as [[somatic cell nuclear transfer]].<ref name=":02">{{cite journal|last1=Keefer|first1=Carol|date=July 21, 2015|title=Artificial cloning of domestic animals|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|volume=112|issue=29|pages=8874–8|bibcode=2015PNAS..112.8874K|doi=10.1073/pnas.1501718112|pmc=4517265|pmid=26195770|doi-access=free}}</ref> In this process, an [[oocyte]] is taken from a [[Surrogate pregnancy|surrogate]] mother and undergoes enucleation, a process that removes the nucleus from inside the oocyte. [[Somatic cells]] are then taken from the animal that is being cloned, transferred into the blank oocyte in order to provide genetic material, and fused with the oocyte using an electrical current. The oocyte is then activated and re-inserted into the [[Surrogacy|surrogate]] mother. The result is the formation of an animal that is almost genetically identical to the animal the somatic cells were taken from.<ref name=":02" /><ref>{{cite journal|last1=Kim|first1=Min Jung|last2=Oh|first2=Hyun Ju|last3=Kim|first3=Geon A|last4=Setyawan|first4=Erif Maha Nugraha|last5=Choi|first5=Yoo Bin|last6=Lee|first6=Seok Hee|last7=Petersen-Jones|first7=Simon M.|last8=Ko|first8=CheMyong J.|last9=Lee|first9=Byeong Chun|date=November 10, 2017|title=Birth of clones of the world's first cloned dog|journal=Scientific Reports|volume=7|issue=1|pages=15235|bibcode=2017NatSR...715235K|doi=10.1038/s41598-017-15328-2|pmc=5681657|pmid=29127382}}</ref> While somatic cell nuclear transfer was previously believed to only work using genetic material from somatic cells that were unfrozen or were frozen with [[cryoprotectant]] (to avoid cell damage caused by freezing), successful dog cloning in various breeds has now been shown using somatic cells from unprotected specimens that had been frozen for up to four days.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Jeong|first1=Yeonik|last2=Olson|first2=Olof P.|last3=Lian|first3=Cai|last4=Lee|first4=Eun Song|last5=Jeong|first5=Yeon Woo|last6=Hwang|first6=Woo Suk|date=2020-12-01|title=Dog cloning from post-mortem tissue frozen without cryoprotectant|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S001122401930313X|journal=Cryobiology|language=en|volume=97|pages=226–230|doi=10.1016/j.cryobiol.2020.03.013|pmid=32268132|s2cid=215610926 |issn=0011-2240}}</ref> The third method of cloning involves embryo splitting, the process of taking the [[blastomere]]s from a very early animal embryo and separating them before they become [[Cellular differentiation|differentiated]] in order to create two or more separate organisms. When using embryo splitting, cloning must occur before the birth of the animal, and clones grow up at the same time (in a similar fashion to [[Twin|monozygotic twins]]).<ref name=":02" />

==Livestock cloning==
The US Food and Drug Administration has concluded that "Food from cattle, swine, and goat clones is as safe to eat as food from any other cattle, swine, or goat."<ref name=FDA/> It has also been noted that the main use of agricultural clones is to produce breeding stock, not food. Clones allow farmers to upgrade the overall quality of their herds by producing more copies of the best animals in the herd. These animals are then used for conventional breeding, and the sexually reproduced offspring become the food producing animals. [[Tianjin animal cloning center]] was proposed in 2015 "to be put into use in the first half of 2016",<ref>[http://www.ecns.cn/2015/11-24/189892.shtml "Animal cloning center to be built in Tianjin"]. Boyalife. Press release. November 23, 2015</ref> but as of 2022, no opening had been reported. The goals of cloning listed by the FDA include "disease resistance ... suitability to climate ... quality body type .. fertility ... and market preference (leanness, tenderness, color, size of various cuts, etc.)"<ref name=FDA/> Milk productivity is another desirable trait that cloning is used for, including in the case of cloned "[[Supercow (dairy)|supercows]]".<ref>{{cite news |last1=Gan |first1=Nectar |title=China says it successfully cloned 3 highly productive 'super cows' {{!}} CNN Business |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/02/01/business/china-super-cow-cloning-intl-hnk-scn/index.html |access-date=17 February 2023 |work=CNN |date=2 February 2023 |language=en |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216194639/https://edition.cnn.com/2023/02/01/business/china-super-cow-cloning-intl-hnk-scn/index.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Medical uses==
Organs from cloned pigs have been transplanted into human patients.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://nypost.com/2022/03/05/how-pig-organ-transplants-will-save-thousands-of-human-lives/ | title=How pigs will save thousands of human lives through organ transplants | publisher=New York Post | author= Eric Spitznagel | date=March 5, 2022}}</ref>{{better source needed|date=March 2023}} (See [[Xenotransplantation]])

Cancer-sniffing dogs have also been cloned. A [[scientific review|review]] concluded that "qualified [[elite]] working dogs can be produced by cloning a working dog that exhibits both an appropriate temperament and good health."<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Kim |first1=Min Jung |last2=Oh |first2=Hyun Ju |last3=Hwang |first3=Sun Young |last4=Hur |first4=Tai Young |last5=Lee |first5=Byeong Chun |title=Health and temperaments of cloned working dogs |journal=Journal of Veterinary Science |date=1 September 2018 |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=585–591 |doi=10.4142/jvs.2018.19.5.585 |pmid=29929355 |pmc=6167335 |language=English |issn=1229-845X}}</ref>

==Other working animals with high performance==
{{See also|Working animal}}
Cloning of super [[sniffer dog]]s for airports was reported in 2011, four years after the dog that served as their genetic donor retired.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Webster |first1=Becky Anderson,George |title='Super clone' sniffer dogs: Coming to an airport near you? {{!}} CNN Business |url=https://edition.cnn.com/2011/09/30/tech/innovation/sniffer-dog-clone-incheon/index.html |access-date=8 March 2023 |work=CNN |date=30 September 2011 |language=en}}</ref> Cloning of a successful rescue dog was reported in 2009<ref>{{cite news |last1=Pilkington |first1=Ed |title=Dog hailed as hero cloned by California company |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/jun/18/trakr-dog-september-11-clone |access-date=8 March 2023 |work=The Guardian |date=18 June 2009}}</ref> and of a police dog in 2019.<ref>{{cite news |title=China's first cloned police dog reports for duty |url=https://www.scmp.com/news/china/science/article/3002346/chinas-first-cloned-police-dog-reports-duty |access-date=8 March 2023 |work=South China Morning Post |date=19 March 2019 |language=en}}</ref>

==Endangered and extinct animals==
{{importance section|date=December 2023}}
{{Further|Cloning#Cloning extinct and endangered species}}
The only extinct animal to be cloned as of 2022 is a [[Pyrenean ibex]], born on July 30, 2003, in [[Spain]], which died minutes later due to physical defects in the lungs.<ref name=r5>{{cite journal |author1=J. Folch |author2=J. Cocero |author3=M. J. Chesne |author4=P. Alabart |author5=J. K. Dominguez |author6=V. Congnie |author7=Y. Roche |author8=A. Fernández-Árias |author9=A. Marti |author10=J. I. Sánchez |author11=P. Echegoyen |author12=E. Beckers |author13=J. F. Sánchez |author14=A. Bonastre |author15=X. Vignon | title = First birth of an animal from an extinct subspecies (Capra pyrenaica pyrenaica) by cloning | journal = Theriogenology | year = 2009 | volume = 71 | issue = 6 | pages = 1026–1034 | doi = 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2008.11.005 | pmid=19167744|doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name=Zimmer>{{cite web|last=Zimmer|first=Carl|title=Bringing Them Back To Life|url=http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/125-species-revival/zimmer-text|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130501033944/http://ngm.nationalgeographic.com/2013/04/125-species-revival/zimmer-text|url-status=dead|archive-date=May 1, 2013|access-date=September 13, 2014}}</ref>

Some animals have been cloned to add genetic diversity to endangered species with small remaining populations, thereby avoiding [[inbreeding depression]]. Centers performing this include [[ViaGen]], aided by the [[Frozen zoo|San Diego Frozen Zoo]], and [[Revive & Restore]].<ref name=endangered/> This is also referred to as "conservation cloning".<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Marshall|first=Andrew|date=2000-11-01|title=Cloning for conservation|journal=Nature Biotechnology|language=en|volume=18|issue=11|pages=1129|doi=10.1038/81057|pmid=11062403|issn=1546-1696|doi-access=free}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=December 2, 2015|title=Debating Science{{!}}Conservation Cloning: Feasible Way to Save Species|url=https://blogs.umass.edu/natsci397a-eross/conservation-cloning-feasible-way-to-save-species/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-03-07|website=blogs.umass.edu|language=en-US|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190219230255/https://blogs.umass.edu/natsci397a-eross/conservation-cloning-feasible-way-to-save-species/ |archive-date=2019-02-19 }}</ref> Two examples are the [[black-footed ferret]] and [[Przewalski's horse]].<ref name=endangered>{{cite news | url= https://www.nbcnews.com/news/animal-news/scientists-clone-first-u-s-endangered-species-n1258310 | title=Scientists clone the first U.S. endangered species |date=Feb 18, 2021 | agency=Associated Press}}</ref>

In 2022, the world's first cloned Arctic wolf "Maya" was born in Beijing by Sinogene. Although Arctic wolves are no longer listed by the [[IUCN Red List]] as an endangered species, the technique can be used to help other animals at risk of extinction, such as Mexican gray wolves and red wolves. The team of Sinogene plans to restore lost species or boost numbers in endangered animal populations.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Beagle gives birth to world's first cloned Arctic wolf |newspaper=The Telegraph |date=28 September 2022 |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2022/09/28/beagle-gives-birth-worlds-first-cloned-arctic-wolf/ |access-date=2023-04-27 |agency=The Telegraph |language=en-US |last1=Knapton |first1=Sarah }}</ref>

In a recent study using sturgeons (species of fish in the Acipenseridae family), scientists have made improvements to a technique known as somatic nuclear cell transfer, with the ultimate goal being to save endangered species. Sturgeons are endangered due to the high levels of [[poaching]], increased destruction to habitats, water pollution, and overfishing. The somatic nuclear cell transfer technique is a well-known cloning method that has been used for years but focuses on species that are thriving rather than endangered or extinct species. This technique usually uses a single somatic donor cell with a single manipulation and inserts it into a recipient egg of the species of interest. It has recently been found that the position by which that somatic cell is located inside the recipient is very important in order to successfully clone a species. By making adjustments to the original method of using a single somatic cell and instead use multiple somatic donor cells to insert into the recipient egg, the likeliness of the somatic donor cells being in the crucial position on the egg will increase tremendously. This increase will then result in higher success rates with cloning. There is ongoing research using this improved method, but from the data collected thus far, it seems to be a reasonable method to continue and soon be able to help stop species like the sturgeons from becoming endangered and possibly stop extinction from occurring.<ref>{{Cite journal |last1=Fatira |first1=Effrosyni |last2=Havelka |first2=Miloš |last3=Labbé |first3=Catherine |last4=Depincé |first4=Alexandra |last5=Pšenička |first5=Martin |last6=Saito |first6=Taiju |date=2019-07-18 |title=A newly developed cloning technique in sturgeons; an important step towards recovering endangered species |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=10453 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-46892-4 |issn=2045-2322 |pmc=6639416 |pmid=31320687|bibcode=2019NatSR...910453F }}</ref>

Cloning long-extinct animals using current methods is impossible because DNA begins to [[Denaturation (biochemistry)|denature]] after death, meaning the entire genome of an extinct species is not available to be reproduced. However, new studies using [[genome editing]] have suggested it may be possible to "bring back" traits of extinct species by incorporating genes from the extinct species into the genome of a closely related living organism. Currently, George Church's lab at [[Harvard University]]'s Wyss Institute is conducting research into genetically modifying [[Asian elephant|Asian elephants]] to express genes from the extinct [[woolly mammoth]].<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Shapiro |first=Beth |date=2015-11-04 |title=Mammoth 2.0: will genome engineering resurrect extinct species? |journal=Genome Biology |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=228 |doi=10.1186/s13059-015-0800-4 |issn=1474-760X |pmc=4632474 |pmid=26530525 |doi-access=free}}</ref> Their goals in doing this are to expand the habitat available to Asian elephants and reestablish the ecological interactions woolly mammoths played a role in prior to their extinction.

==History and commercialization==
[[ViaGen]] began by offering cloning to the livestock and equine industry in 2003,<ref>{{cite web|last=Castillo|first=Michelle|date=2018-03-08|title=This woman paid $50,000 to clone her dead chihuahua...twice|url=https://www.cnbc.com/2018/03/08/viagen-pets-cloned-a-chihuahua-for-50000.html|access-date=2020-06-06|website=CNBC|language=en}}</ref> and later as [[ViaGen Pets]] included cloning of cats and dogs in 2016.<ref>{{cite web|title=Viagen Pets take animal cloning from research lab to marketplace|url=https://www.wtoc.com/2020/05/18/viagen-pets-take-animal-cloning-research-lab-marketplace/|access-date=2020-06-06|website=www.wtoc.com|date=18 May 2020 |language=en-US}}</ref> [[ViaGen Pets|ViaGen's]] subsidiary, start licensing, owns a cloning patent which is licensed to their only competitor as of 2018, who also offers animal cloning services.<ref>{{cite web|last=Baron|first=Jessica|title=If You Love Animals, Don't Clone Your Pet | url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/jessicabaron/2018/12/24/if-you-love-animals-dont-clone-your-pet/ | access-date=2020-06-06|website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref> (Viagen is a subsidiary of [[Precigen]].<ref>{{cite web | title=PGEN annual report | date=2019 | url= https://www.annualreports.com/HostedData/AnnualReportArchive/p/NASDAQ_PGEN_2019.pdf}}</ref>)

The first commercially cloned pet was a cat named [[Little Nicky (cat)|Little Nicky]], produced in 2004 by [[Genetic Savings & Clone]] for a north [[Texas]] woman for the fee of [[USD|US$]]50,000.<ref name="MITTechRev">{{cite journal|last1=Roush|first1=Wade|title=Genetic Savings and Clone: No Pet Project|journal=[[MIT Technology Review]] |url=https://www.technologyreview.com/s/405345/genetic-savings-and-clone-no-pet-project/|date=February 17, 2006}}</ref> On May 21, 2008, BioArts International<ref>[http://www.bioarts.com BioArts International]</ref> announced a limited commercial dog cloning service (through a program it called Best Friends Again) in partnership with a Korean company named [[Sooam Bioengineering Research Institute|Sooam Biotech]]. This program came after the announcement of the successful cloning of a family dog named Missy, an achievement widely publicized in the [[Missyplicity]] Project. In September 2009, BioArts announced the end of its dog cloning service.<ref name="Hawthorne">{{cite web|last1=Hawthorne|first1=Lou|title=Six Reasons We're No Longer Cloning Dogs|url=http://www.bioartsinternational.com/press_release/ba09_09_09.htm|website=Bioarts|accessdate=23 March 2016|date=10 September 2009}}</ref> In July 2008, the [[Seoul National University]] (co-parents of [[Snuppy]], reputedly the world's first cloned dog in 2005) created five clones of a dog named Booger for its Californian owner. The woman paid $50,000 for this service.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Arnold|first1=Paul|title=Animal Cloning: Pet Cloning Controversy|url=http://www.brighthub.com/science/genetics/articles/4132.aspx|date = 14 September 2009|accessdate = 23 March 2016}}</ref>

Sooam Biotech continued developing proprietary techniques for cloning dogs<ref>{{cite news|last1=Agence France-Presse|title=South Korea scientist wins dog cloning court battle|url=http://www.chinapost.com.tw/asia/korea/2009/09/20/225437/south-korea.htm|work=[[The China Post]]|date=September 20, 2009|language=en}}</ref> based on a licence from [[ViaGen Pets|ViaGen's]] subsidiary, stART Licensing (which owned the original patent for the process of animal cloning<ref name="Bloomberg">{{cite news|last1=Dean|first1=Josh|title=For $100,000, You Can Clone Your Dog|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/bw/articles/2014-10-22/koreas-sooam-biotech-is-the-worlds-first-animal-cloning-factory|accessdate=26 February 2016|publisher=Bloomberg business|date=22 October 2014}}</ref>). (Although the animal itself is not patentable, the process is protected by a patent).<ref>{{cite news | title=No Patent for Dolly the Cloned Sheep, Court Rules | url=https://www.science.org/content/article/no-patent-dolly-cloned-sheep-court-rules-adding-industry-jitters | date = 14 May 2014 | author=Kelly Servick}}</ref> Sooam created cloned puppies for owners whose dogs had died, charging $100,000 per clone.<ref name="Guardian"/><ref name="Sooam">{{cite news|last1=Baer|first1=Drake|title=This Korean lab has nearly perfected dog cloning, and that's just the start|url=http://www.techinsider.io/how-woosuk-hwangs-sooam-biotech-mastered-cloning-2015-8|accessdate=27 February 2016|work=[[Tech Insider]], Innovation|date=8 September 2015}}</ref> Sooam Biotech was reported to have cloned approximately 700 dogs by 2015<ref name="Guardian">{{cite news|last1=Taylor|first1=Diane|title=UK couple have dead dog cloned in South Korea|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/dec/23/uk-couple-await-birth-of-two-clones-of-dead-dog|accessdate=24 February 2016|work=[[The Guardian]] |date=24 December 2015}}</ref> and to be producing 500 cloned embryos of various breeds a day in 2016.<ref name="NewScientist500">{{cite news|last1=Zastrow|first1=Mark|title=Inside the cloning factory that creates 500 new animals a day|url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2076681-inside-the-cloning-factory-that-creates-500-new-animals-a-day/|accessdate=23 February 2016|work=[[New Scientist]] |date=8 February 2016}}</ref> In 2015, the longest period after which Sooam Biotech could clone a puppy was 12 days from the death of the original pet dog.<ref name=Boxer2015>{{cite news|title=British couple celebrate after birth of first cloned puppy of its kind|url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2015/dec/26/british-couple-celebrate-after-birth-of-first-cloned-puppy-of-its-kind|accessdate=27 December 2015|work=The Guardian|date=26 December 2015}}</ref>
Sinogene Biotechnology created the first Chinese clone dog in 2017 before commercializing the cloning service and joining in the pet cloning market.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2017/12/25/health/china-dog-cloning-for-disease-intl/index.html|title=Chinese firm clones gene-edited dog in bid to treat cardiovascular disease|date=2017-12-27|publisher = CNN|access-date=2020-07-09|language=en}}</ref> In 2019, Sinogene successfully created the first Chinese cloned cat.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/09/04/business/china-cat-clone.html|title=His Cat's Death Left Him Heartbroken. So He Cloned It.|date=2019-09-04|work = The New York Times|access-date=2020-07-09|language=en}}</ref> In June 2022, "Zhuang Zhuang" was cloned by the Beijing laboratory Sinogene. He is the first from the "warmblood" group of breeds to be born in China and to be officially approved by the China Horse Industry Association.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Cloned horse raises hopes for equestrian sports in China |date=12 January 2023 |url=https://www.france24.com/en/live-news/20230112-cloned-horse-raises-hopes-for-equestrian-sports-in-china/ |access-date=2023-04-27 |language=en-US}}</ref>

==Controversies==
{{Further|Cloning#Ethical issues of cloning}}

===Animal welfare===
The mortality rate for cloned animals is higher than for those born of natural processes. This includes a discrepancy pre-birth, during birth, and after birth in survival rates and quality of life, leading to ethical concerns.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Heðinsdóttir|first1=K.|last2=Kondrup|first2=S.|last3=Röcklinsberg|first3=H.|last4=Gjerris|first4=M.|date=2018|title=Can Friends be Copied? Ethical Aspects of Cloning Dogs as Companion Animals|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10806-018-9706-y|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics|language=en|volume=31|issue=1|pages=17–29|doi=10.1007/s10806-018-9706-y|s2cid=148814791|issn=1187-7863}}</ref> Many of these discrepancies are thought to come from [[Messenger RNA|maternal mRNA]] already present in the oocyte prior to the transfer of genetic material as well as from [[DNA methylation]], both of which contribute to the development of the animal in the womb of the surrogate.<ref name=":02"/> Some common issues seen with cloned animals are shortened [[telomere]]s, the repetitive end sequences of DNA whose decreasing length over the lifespan of an organism have been associated with aging;<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal|last1=Ibtisham|first1=F.|last2=Fahd Qadir|first2=M. M.|last3=Xiao|first3=M.|last4=An|first4=L.|date=2017|title=Animal cloning applications and issues|url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1134/s102279541709006x|journal=Russian Journal of Genetics|volume=53|issue=9|pages=965–971|doi=10.1134/s102279541709006x|s2cid=19932688|issn=1022-7954}}</ref> large offspring syndrome, the abnormal size of cloned individuals due to [[Epigenetics|epigenetic]] (gene expression) changes; and methylation patterns of genetic material that are so abnormal compared to standard embryos of the species being cloned as to be incompatible with life.<ref name=":02"/>

===Pet cloning===
While pet cloning is sometimes advertised as a prospective method for re-gaining a deceased companionship animal,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Pet Cloning |url=https://www.petcloning.eu/ |access-date=2024-01-02 |website=www.petcloning.eu |language=en}}</ref> pet cloning does not result in animals that are exactly like the previous pet (in looks or personality).<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Heðinsdóttir|first1=K.|last2=Kondrup|first2=S.|last3=Röcklinsberg|first3=H.|last4=Gjerris|first4=M.|date=2018-02-01|title=Can Friends be Copied? Ethical Aspects of Cloning Dogs as Companion Animals|url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10806-018-9706-y|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics|language=en|volume=31|issue=1|pages=17–29|doi=10.1007/s10806-018-9706-y|s2cid=148814791|issn=1573-322X}}</ref> Although the animal in question is cloned, there are still phenotypical differences that may affect its appearance or health. This issue was brought to light in the cloning of a cat named Rainbow. Rainbow's clone, later named CC, was genetically identical to Rainbow, yet CC's coloring patterns were not the same due to the development of the kitten inside the womb as well as random genetic disparities in the clone such as variable [[X-inactivation|X-chromosome inactivation]].<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Shin|first1=Taeyoung|last2=Kraemer|first2=Duane|last3=Pryor|first3=Jane|last4=Liu|first4=Ling|last5=Rugila|first5=James|last6=Howe|first6=Lisa|last7=Buck|first7=Sandra|last8=Murphy|first8=Keith|last9=Lyons|first9=Leslie|last10=Westhusin|first10=Mark|date=February 14, 2002|title=A cat cloned by nuclear transplantation|journal=Nature|volume=415|issue=6874|pages=859|doi=10.1038/nature723|pmid=11859353|s2cid=4431855|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Despite its controversies, the study of pet cloning holds the potential to contribute to [[Science|scientific]], veterinary, and medical knowledge, and it is a potential resource in efforts to preserve endangered cousins of the cat and dog.<ref name=":1" />

In 2005, [[California]] Assembly Member [[Lloyd Levine]] introduced a bill to ban the sale or transfer of pet clones in California.<ref>{{cite web | author=Mott, Maryann|date=February 23, 2005|title=Pet-Clone Sales Spur Call for Ban | url=https://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/02/0223_050223_pet_cloning.html| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050226043807/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2005/02/0223_050223_pet_cloning.html| url-status=dead| archive-date=February 26, 2005| accessdate=April 12, 2018|work=[[National Geographic News]]}}</ref> That bill was voted down.<ref>{{cite web|date=July 1, 2005|title=Cloned pets escape retail sales ban in California|url=http://veterinarynews.dvm360.com/cloned-pets-escape-retail-sales-ban-california|accessdate=April 12, 2018|work=dvm360 magazine|publisher=dvm360}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Biobank]]
* [[Cultivar]]: term used in botany to refer to specific breeds (made using selective cross breeding and sometimes genetic modification) that have distinct properties. Often reproduced using cloning to avoid properties being lost due to sexual propagation.
* [[List of animals that have been cloned]]
* [[Working animal]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Pets]]
[[Category:Cloning]]

Mark Boguski

2024-02-14T23:04:26Z

Coriander77: /* Bioinformatics and computational biology */

{{Short description|American pathologist (died 2021)}}
{{advert|date=August 2019}}
{{Infobox person
|name = Mark Boguski
|image = Mark_Boguski.png
|caption = Boguski in September 2013
|website =
}}
'''Mark S. Boguski''' (died on March 18, 2021)<ref>[https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/obituary-mark-boguski-mdphd-monica-boguski-calzolari-mba Obituary of Mark Boguski, MD/PhD]</ref><ref>[https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/signs-symptoms-suicide-monica-calzolari-mba/ Signs and Symptoms of Suicide], March 23, 2021</ref> was an American pathologist specializing in [[Genome analysis|computational analysis]] and [[structural biology]]. He was elected in 2001 to the [[U.S. National Academy of Medicine]],<ref>[https://nam.edu/member/?member_id=SHOmcgJRrkgrumYXqQqF7Q%3D%3D Member profile], [[National Academy of Medicine]]. Accessed 2019-08-26.</ref> and was a Fellow of the [[American College of Medical Informatics]] (elected 2001).<ref>[https://www.amia.org/about-amia/leadership/acmi-fellow/mark-s-boguski-md-phd-facmi Fellow profile], [[American College of Medical Informatics]]. Accessed 2019-08-26.</ref>

==Education==
Boguski earned his M.D. and Ph.D. in molecular biology in December 1986 from the [[Washington University School of Medicine]] and the Division of Biology and Biomedical Sciences,<ref name="WUSTL">{{Cite web|url=http://dbbs.wustl.edu/Pages/index.aspx|title=The Division of Biology & Biomedical Sciences|website=dbbs.wustl.edu}}</ref> Medical Scientist Training Program,<ref name="MSTP">{{Cite web|url=http://mstp.wustl.edu/Pages/index.aspx|title=Medical Scientist Training Program|website=mstp.wustl.edu}}</ref> St. Louis, Missouri. He was [[Jeffrey I. Gordon|Jeff Gordon]]'s first graduate student. In 1989, Boguski became a Medical Staff Fellow under [[David J. Lipman]] at the [[Nationalism|National]] Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases at the U.S. [[National Institutes of Health]] and joined the nascent [[National Center for Biotechnology Information]] as an [[Investigator Group|Investigator]] in 1990. He was tenured as a Senior Investigator in 1995.

== Career ==
Boguski served on the faculties of the U.S. National Institutes of Health, the [[Johns Hopkins School of Medicine|Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine]], and [[Harvard Medical School]], and as an executive in the biotechnology and pharmaceutical industries. He was a former vice president and global head of Genome and Protein Sciences at [[Novartis]]. Subsequently, he became the chief medical officer of Liberty BioSecurity, LLC and founded the Precision Medicine Network in 2014. He has written a series of books on cancer for the general public under the series title ''Reimagining Cancer''. Boguski was a past Editor-in-Chief of the journal [[Genomics (journal)|''Genomics'']].<ref>[https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/genomics/vol/85/issue/1 Editorial Board], [[Genomics (journal)|''Genomics'']], vol. 85, no. 1 (2005), p. IFC</ref>

==Research==
===Bioinformatics and computational biology===
Boguski's work in [[computational biology]] included algorithm development (e.g., [[Gibbs sampler]], [[text mining]]), database design, development and implementation (dbEST, XREFdb, ArrayDB) and data mining, data analysis and data annotation. One database effort in particular, the database of [[Expressed Sequence Tag]]s (dbEST,<ref name="dbEST">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/dbest/|title=What is dbEST?|website=www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> 1993), has contributed to gene discovery and succeeding generations of genomics applications, namely transcript mapping, design and construction of microarrays, discovery [[in silico]] of [[single nucleotide polymorphism]]s and, ultimately, analysis and annotation of the [[human genome]].

===Genome and proteome research===
*''Comparative Genomics & Evolution'' - Boguski's group first coined the term [[comparative genomics]] in 1995 to describe their work on the large-scale sequence analysis of the homologs of human disease genes in [[model organism]]s and the first comparative genomics database, XREFdb.<ref name="XREFdb">{{Cite web|url=http://markboguski.net/docs/publications/Bassett-etal-XREFdb.pdf|title=Genome cross-referencing and XREFdb: Implications for the identification and analysis of genes mutated in human disease}}</ref> Over the next six years they studied thousands of gene sets in humans, rats, mice, [[Drosophila]], nematodes, and yeast and established the basic evolutionary parameters<ref name="evolutionary parameters">{{Cite web|url=http://markboguski.net/docs/publications/Makalowski-Boguski.pdf|title=Evolutionary parameters of the transcribed mammalian genome: An analysis of 2,820 orthologous rodent and human species}}</ref> for interpretation of conserved protein-encoding genes in the human genome.
*''Transcript Mapping'' - Clusters of human genes and [[Expressed sequence tag|EST]]s ("UniGenes"<ref name="unigenes">{{Cite web|url=http://markboguski.net/docs/publications/Boguski-Schuler-UniGene.pdf|title=ESTablishing a human transcript map}}</ref>) were utilized to construct the first comprehensive transcript map of the human genome<ref name="genome">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/genome/genemap96/|title=The Human Transcript Map|website=www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref> (1996, 1998<ref name="genemap99">{{Cite web|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/projects/genome/genemap99/|title=GeneMap'99|website=www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov}}</ref>). Historically, this was the first instance of the academic journal ''Science'' using the [[World Wide Web]] to publish results, provide hyper-linked information resources and supplemental data sets. These maps facilitated and accelerated the positional cloning of hundreds of genes and this mapping approach was widely applied to other organisms.
*''Functional Genomics'' - Boguski's group used human UniGenes to design and construct the first human [[Complementary DNA|cDNA]] microarray (representing 10,000 genes) and were first to provide a rigorous definition of functional genomics<ref name="functional genomics">{{Cite web|url=http://markboguski.net/docs/publications/Hieter-Boguski.pdf|title=Functional Genomics: It's All How You Read It}}</ref> for the community. While on sabbatical at NHGRI, their group implemented the first relational database and analysis system, [http://genome.nhgri.nih.gov/arraydb/ ArrayDB], for microarray data. This design was copied by numerous academic and commercial groups. Their group was also first to apply methods of statistical text-mining<ref name="text-mining">{{Cite web|url=http://markboguski.net/docs/publications/Shatkay-etal-2000.pdf|title=Genes, Themes, and Microarrays}}</ref> to the interpretation of [[gene expression]] profiles. In the 2001 Genome Issue of [[Nature (journal)#Landmark papers|''Nature'']], they immediately followed the first publication of the human genome sequence with a paper showing how to use microarray technology to experimentally annotate and correct computational gene predictions.
*''Pharmacogenomics'' - They cloned and sequenced the [[pregnane X receptor]]<ref>[http://markboguski.net/pharmacogenomics.php pregnane X receptor (PXR) gene]</ref> that encodes the key [[transcription factor]] regulating the expression of genes encoding drug and xenobiotic metabolizing enzymes. They also identified functional sequence polymorphisms in the [[Promoter (genetics)|promoters]] of these genes, [[Cytochrome P450|cytochromes P450]] 3A ([[CYP3A]]), and studied the [[genotype]]s and corresponding molecular [[phenotype]]s in several populations differing in their drug-metabolizing abilities.
*''Neurogenomics'' - They pioneered the application of genome-scale approaches to neurobiology with the construction of a comprehensive, 3-dimensional transcript map of the mouse brain, the [[Allen Brain Atlas]].<ref>[http://brain-map.org/welcome.do;jsessionid=811DC68E45759FEE840E61DF81CF053F Allen Brain Atlas]</ref>
*''Proteomics and Knowledge Mining'' - At Novartis, Boguski's division was responsible for the application of [[proteomics]] technologies and computational knowledge-mining Systems Biology for drug target and [[biomarker]] discovery.<ref name="knowledge-mining">{{Cite web|url=http://markboguski.net/docs/presentations/Proteomics_SysBiol_Biomarkers_2007.pdf|title=Proteomics, and Knowledge-Mining in Drug and Biomarker Discovery}}</ref>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://markboguski.net/index.php Mark Boguski's website]

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Boguski, Mark}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]
[[Category:Suicides in the United States]]
[[Category:Washington University School of Medicine alumni]]
[[Category:Johns Hopkins School of Medicine faculty]]
[[Category:Harvard Medical School faculty]]
[[Category:Members of the National Academy of Medicine]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:2021 suicides]]

Wikipedia:WikiProject Alternative medicine

2024-02-14T22:08:14Z

Coriander77: /* Open Tasks */

{{short description|subject-area collaboration}}
{{WikiProject status|Inactive}}
'''Welcome to the WikiProject on [[Alternative Medicine]]'''.

<div style="float:right;margin:0 0 1em 1em;">
<table border=1><tr><th bgcolor="#ffcc99">
'''WikiProject on Alternative Medicine'''<tr><td>
'''[[P:CAM|CAM Portal]]'''<tr><td>
'''[[Wikipedia:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)|Use the best sources]]'''<tr><td>
'''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Alternative medicine/Standards of Quality|Standards of Quality]]'''<tr><td>
'''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Alternative medicine/To Do List|To Do List]]'''</td>
</table>
</div>

These project pages are only ''suggestions'', as all WikiProjects are, that are designed to stop the madness of edit wars or editing articles in a never ending spiral of circular editing on articles related to alternative medicine.

==Scope and goals==
This [[WikiPedia:WikiProject|WikiProject]] aims primarily to facilitate the development of professional articles on all aspects of complementary, alternative and integrative medicine. The scope of this WikiProject will be referred to throughout our project pages simply as CAM ([[complementary and alternative medicine]]).

===Scope===
The scope of a Wikiproject identifies the types of articles that participants of a project will be working on.
*[[Glossary of alternative medicine]] - Short definitions of important terms and concepts unique to CAM. This annotated list is the primary introduction to alternative medicine and a comprehensive gateway to Wikipedia's articles on CAM.
*[[List of branches of alternative medicine]]
*[[Famous people in alternative medicine]] - This list directs readers to articles about historical people in CAM.
*[[:Category:Concepts in alternative medicine]] - These articles are about an alternative position on health, healing, and/or illness; or are related to these topics.
**Issues related to the promotion and definition of [[health]], [[Wellness (alternative medicine)|wellness]] and [[healing]].
**[[Illness]], along with its prevention, conception, and specific forms targeted by alternative treatments.
*[[History of alternative medicine]] - These articles are about the history of CAM. Here, CAM is approached from the perspective of how CAM developed historically.
*what about evidence base?

===Goals===
# To improve the number and quality of articles edited by our participants.
#* To develop and promote ''standards of quality guidelines'' to be followed in CAM related articles participating in this WikiProject.
#* To help stabilize controversial CAM articles and reduce [[WP:EW|edit warring]].
#* To support the use of the highest-quality sources, not merely the sources that support the "right" conclusions.
# To develop and promote ''classification systems'' that are suitable for comparing the various systems or schools of CAM to each other.
# To function as the centralized sounding board or watchlist for all CAM-related issues.

==Related WikiProjects==
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Alternative education|WikiProject Alternative education]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Alternative Views|WikiProject Alternative Views]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Chiropractic|WikiProject Chiropractic]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Paranormal|WikiProject Paranormal]]
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Medicine|WikiProject Medicine]]

==Participants==
Participants in this [[WP:WikiProject]] may do as little or as much as they'd like. As with all Wikipedia articles, anybody may edit articles related to CAM.

You may place <code><nowiki>{{User WikiProject Alternative medicine}}</nowiki></code> on your user page to display the following userbox:
{{User WikiProject Alternative medicine}}{{clear|left}}
This template will add your user page to:
*[[:Category:WikiProject Alternative medicine participants]]
 
<center>
{| cellpadding=3 cellspacing=0 border=1 style="border-collapse:collapse, vertical-align:top"
|bgcolor="#cccccc"| '''User name'''
|bgcolor="#cccccc"| '''Talk page'''
|bgcolor="#cccccc"| '''Special interests or contributions'''
|bgcolor="#cccccc"| '''Additional Comments'''

|-
| style="background:#faf5ff; border:#ddcef2"|[[User:Mr-Natural-Health|John Gohde, aka Mr-Natural-Health]]
|[[User talk:Mr-Natural-Health|Talk]]
|[[Natural health]], [[natural therapy]] and Psychosocial or [[Mind-Body Intervention|Mind - Body Interventions]], as well as the founder and developer of this WikiProject.

Alternative Medicine covers a big topic area. My interest lies in the subset of topics covered by the intersection of [[Wellness (alternative medicine) | Wellness Movement]] and [[Natural philosophy]].

If pornography can be treated neutrally on Wikipedia, I see no reason why alternative medicine should not be.
|I prefer to work on meta pages. In other words, on stuff that would really make a major impact. So, far things are going quite well. While the graveyard of portals that were never quite launched is vast and deep, I got our portal up in just one day.

'''I wont be spending much time here, unless I see more of a collaborative group effort taking place on this project.''' But, I will be checking in often enough to keep this project active. And, to see that the topic of Alternative Medicine on Wikipedia gets fairly treated. -- [[User:John Gohde|John Gohde]] ([[User talk:John Gohde|talk]]) 02:23, 13 January 2009 (UTC)
|-
| [[User:Ashibaka|Ashibaka]]
| [[User talk:Ashibaka|Talk]]
| alternative medicine <s>and other areas of pseudoscience</s>
|

|-
| [[User:Autumn Siegel|Autumn Siegel]]
| [[User talk:Autumn Siegel|Talk]]
| Herbal medicine, Ayurveda and Energy Therapy.
|

|-
| [[User:Heidimo|Heidimo]]
| [[User talk:Heidimo|Talk]]
| [[traditional Chinese medicine]], [[medical intuitive|medical intuition]], [[auriculotherapy]]
| I have practical expertise in these fields as well as writing/proofreading/editing skills. I teach and write on these topics regularly.

|-
| [[User:Ksvaughan2|Karen S Vaughan]]
| [[User talk:Ksvaughan2|Talk]]
| Interested in forming a subproject on Herbalism. I have written or extensively modified a number of articles on herbs, herbalists and herbal medicine, adding references, correcting information from secondary sources and improving accuracy.
| Clinical herbalist and licensed acupuncturist in NY State, have written, been interviewed for books and television on the subject. Also certified in essential oils and have had various energy medicine trainings.

|-
| [[User:Greenman|Greenman]]
| [[User talk:Greenman|Talk]]
|
|

|-
| [[User:DryGrain|DryGrain]]
| [[User talk:DryGrain|Talk]]
|
|

|-style="background:#faf5ff; border:#ddcef2"
| [[User:xyberdoc|xyberdoc]]
| [[User talk:xyberdoc|Talk]]
|
| Homer Lim, MD from St Carlos Medical Center

|-style="background:#faf5ff; border:#ddcef2"
| [[User:ALargeElk|ALargeElk]]
| [[User talk:ALargeElk|Talk]]
|
|

|-style="background:#faf5ff; border:#ddcef2"
| [[User:SargonZ|SargonZ]]
| [[User talk:SargonZ|Talk]]
|
| First year osteopathic medical student at Touro University College of Osteopathic Medicine.
|-
| [[User:Smithfarm|Smithfarm]]
| [[User talk:Smithfarm|Talk]]
|
|

|-
| [[User:Ballista|Ballista]]
| [[User talk:Ballista|Talk]]
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|

|-style="background:#faf5ff; border:#ddcef2"
| [[User:AnaBryce|AnaBryce]]
| [[User talk:AnaBryce|Talk]]
| This is one of my primary areas of interest.
| I have been learning and working with various alternative healing methods for about 4-5 years.

|-
| [[User:Merkinsmum|Merkinsmum]]
| [[User talk:Merkinsmum|Talk]]
| ''I've studied reiki and other forms of CAM''
| ''But also scepticism, so think I can write with NPOV''

|-
| [[User:WACourson|William Courson]]
| [[User talk:WACourson|Talk]]
| Interested in discussing all topics relevant to ayurvedic medicine and ayurvedic medical education in India and abroad. Special interests include ayurvedic 'subtle therapies' and the place of energy healing in ayurvedic praxis.
| Clinical herbalist and ayurvedic practitioner in New Jersey (USA). Author of numerous professional and popular articles on the subjects of ayurveda, herbalism (ayurvedic and western) and energy healing, esp. Reiki. Usui Reiki Master, also certified in Bach and other systems of flower essence therapy. Director, New Jersey Institute of Ayurveda (distance education program for ayurvedic practitioners). Principal, Vedic Energy Healing, L.L.C.

|-
| [[User:Fyslee|Fyslee]]
| [[User talk:Fyslee|Talk]]
| Interests: quackery, chiropractic, homeopathy, applied kinesiology, vaccine controversy, fanaticism, Hulda Clark, medical ethics, conspiracy theories, scientific method, etc..
| Physical Therapist and Physicians Assistant, and (previously) assistant to MDs in cardiovascular research. As a former practitioner of alternative medicine and a scientific skeptic I can provide balance, since I can see things from both sides, having "been there and done that."

|-
| [[User:Friarslantern|Friarslantern]]
| [[User talk:Friarslantern|Talk]]
| personal experience with use (success, failure, and everything in between) of alt. med.; interest in the anthropology of alt. med & the socio-economic factors affecting science research as it relates to acceptance of alt. med.
| none

|-
| [[User:Anthon01|Anthon01]]
| [[User talk:Anthon01|Talk]]
|
|

|-
| [[User:Remark_knights|Remark_knights]]
| [[User talk:Remark_knights|Talk]]
| Interests: Chinese medicine and philosophy, acupuncture, and meditation.
| Profile: I am an active acupuncturist in Berlin, NH. I also practice [[Chinese herbology]].

|-
| [[User:MasterOfHisOwnDomain|MasterOfHisOwnDomain]]
| [[User talk:MasterOfHisOwnDomain|Talk]]
| Interested in Ancient Medicine, creator of [[Prehistoric medicine]] article
|

|-
| [[User:David_notMD|David_notMD]]
| [[User talk:David_notMD|Talk]]
| Evidence-based science in support of complementary and alternative medicine, with focus on dietary supplements and functional foods.
| PhD in nutritional biochemistry; 25 years working in industry; currently a science consultant to companies wanting to make health claims for their products

|-
| [[User:Mitchel2|Mitchel2]]
| [[User talk:Mitchel2|Talk]]
| Tradition African medicine
| I'm new to Wikipedia and am doing a school project on Traditional African Medicine for my Shaping of the Modern World class at Duquesne University. It's taking me a while to get used to the wikimark-up and templates, so if anyone is able to help or edit my article that would be amazing. The goal of the project is to reach Good Article status, so hopefully I will be able to eventually get my article there and help further the alternative medicine project.

|-
| [[User:DJBarney24|DJBarney24]]
| [[User talk:DJBarney24|Talk]]
| Lack of Encyclopaedic entries in the Alternative Medicine field
| While doing voluntary work for the Human Rights campaign group MindFreedom International I noticed a lack of NPOV and lack of obvious references in many articles. For example the Schizophrenia article has a single reference to R D Laing, at least in its [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Schizophrenia&oldid=374262481 current form]. His name is not even mentioned in the main text and yet he is a major figure in this field. Perry is completely absent. Mosher and Soteria are in the main text but the text looks muddled and confusing. Editors do not seem to be aware of the wealth of references out there; "Although research evidence is limited", and yet they are there. For example you can see many of them [http://files.mindfreedom.org.uk/ here] that I rescued from my local University.

Some alternative health practitioners like Dr Matthias Rath have accused Wikipedia of becoming a mouthpiece for commercially driven "mainstream" health (see [http://www4.dr-rath-foundation.org/THE_FOUNDATION/wiki_rath/about_wiki_rath.html here]). His criticisms are valid but he makes the mistake of attacking Wikipedia. For instance, to use Rath as an example, he could join this WikiProject and do what everyone else is doing in other areas with NPOV problems. Judging by my work with MindFreedom this appears to be a major problem with people making valid edits, having them removed and then backing off never to return. So there appears to be a widespread misunderstanding in this field with what Wikipedia actually is and does, that can be addressed with some simple education. [[User:DJBarney24|DJ Barney]] ([[User talk:DJBarney24|talk]]) 13:53, 19 July 2010 (UTC)

|-
| [[User:Sebbi|Sebbi]]
| [[User talk:Sebbi|Talk]]
| Somatics - working with movement and touch in experiential learning processes
| I am a student of Choreography with Community Practice and a huge part of my training has been in somatics and release technique (a dance technique based on similar principles). My main area of study in this has been experiential anatomy, especially informed by the work of Bonnie Bainbridge-Cohen. This work sees the human experience as a continuous whole, not recognising an absolute distinction between body and mind. In the next year or two I plan to begin post-graduate training as a Somatic Movement Educator.

I am interested in how different traditions relate and correlate with each other, or not.

|-
| [[User:Mdavid9|Mdavid9]]
| [[User talk:Mdavid9|Talk]]
| Alchemy, Reiki, healing and everything related to energies
| I am a Master Alchemist and study everything related to energies, healing and emotions. Several articles contain inaccurate or incomplete information about several topics related to energies and alternative medicine. I won't spend time writing the major parts of the articles. However, when I find something wrong or missing, I'll tweak some information and comment about it. The undoing of valid edits is a major problem in controversial topics such as energies and alternative medicine. I am sure this can be resolved with proper communication and education.
|-
| [[User:Arunjithp|Arunjith Puthussery]]
| [[User talk:Arunjithp|Talk]]
| Ayurveda, Ayurvedic Ophthalmology, Shalakya Thantra
| Propagation of Ayurveda as a Science, and the existence of specialization in the field of Ayurveda
|-
| [[User:IRWolfie-|IRWolfie-]]
| [[User talk:IRWolfie-|Talk]]
| Pseudoscience
| FTN Regular

|-
| [[User:Victoria.Lee.Croasdell|Victoria.Lee.Croasdell]]
| [[User talk:Victoria.Lee.Croasdell|Talk]]
| Have been studying, teaching and practicing aspects of the Vedic Sciences since 1999
| I have been making my own medicinal formulas for family use for many years.

|-
| [[User:Depthdiver|depthdiver]]
| [[User talk:Depthdiver|Talk]]
| Interested in body-centred practices. Wary of people's exploitation by 'cure-all' and often expensive, unsubstantiated treatments, so interested in scientific evidence to ensure rigor in our understanding of psychological, political and spiritual realities.
| Undergrad training as a physicist and love the clarity of maths and the rigor of science. Went on to the humanities, and drawn personally to yoga and body work. After a stint as a professional massage therapist completed a PhD on the philosophy and implications of mind-body techniques.

|-
| [[User:EMP|EMP]]
| [[User talk:EMP|Talk]]
| I am interested in the scientific research on meditation, yoga, fitness
| Personal interest in fitness and health, and what science has to tell us about these subjects

|-
| [[User:Docia49|Docia49]]
|
|
|

|-
| [[User:Blindvei|Blindvei]]
| [[User talk:Blindvei|Talk]]
| Reflexology
| Teacher and practitioner since 1998.

|-
| [[User:Reefswaggie |Reefswaggie]]
| [[User talk:Reefswaggie|Talk]]
| I am a biologist with an interest in some alternative medicine topics. I practice yoga, meditation and martial arts.

|-
| [[User:Gudzwabofer|Gudzwabofer]]
| [[User talk:Gudzwabofer|Talk]]
| I'm a Bachelor of Health Science (Naturopathy) student. At the moment I'm seeing how I can improve the Naturopathy page. After that I guess I'll see where the rabbit hole leads.
|

|-
| [[User:Clr324|Clr324]]
| [[User talk:Clr324|say hi!]]
| Herbalism and homeopathy
| I am biased, I support some forms of herbalism (many herbs contain active chemicals!) and I strongly oppose homeopathy. I will try to be neutral as much as possible though.

|-
| [[User:Anna jasmine33|Anna jasmine33]]
| [[User talk:Anna jasmine33|Talk]]
| Traditional Natural remedies
| The listed links are physical remedies, but how about natural remedies? For example, what natural remedy can we take instead of ibuprofen?

|-
| [[User:xMiSSiL|xMiSSiL]]
| [[User talk:xMiSSiL|Talk]]
| Traditional Chinese Veterinary Medicine, orthomolecular medicine, Applied kinesiology, regenerative therapies, mesotherapy, prolotherapy
| I fight internet misinformation and try to update evidence with current research.

|-
| [[User:Trymianc|Trymianc]]
| [[User talk:Trymianc|Talk]]
|
|

|-
| [[User:Rp2006|Rp2006]]
| [[User talk:Rp2006|Talk]]
| [[Scientific skepticism]]
| I work to fight BS on Wikipedia, in other words, information contradicted by or not backed by science.

|-
| [[User:Pyrrho the Skeptic|Pyrrho the Skeptic]]
| [[User talk:Pyrrho the Skeptic|Talk]]
|
|

|- New Participant should edit this
| Participant Name
| Participant talk
| Participant interests and contributions
| Participant comments

|}
</center>

==Standards of quality guidelines==
Our [[Wikipedia:Wikiproject:Alternative Medicine/Standards of Quality|Standard of Quality Guidelines]] are the unofficial advice from our participants. They are not part of "official" Wikipedia policy, but they may provide useful advice. Similarly, the official guideline, [[WP:Manual of Style (medicine)]], is often useful.

This project fully supports the main content policies: [[WP:Verifiability]] of all material in published sources, [[WP:No original research]] or use of personal experiences by Wikipedians, and [[WP:Neutral point of view]] as determined by the overall balance of reliable sources. Be careful not to [[WP:GEVAL|pretend that all viewpoints are equally accepted]].

Substantial formal research has been conducted on CAM. Information about finding and understanding research papers is available at [[WP:Identifying reliable sources (medicine)]]. To find recent medical articles about alternative medicine, look for [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/?term=%22Complementary+Therapies%22%5BMAJR%5D+AND+%28Review%5Bptyp%5D+AND+%222008%2F01%2F01%22%5BPDat%5D+%3A+%222020%2F12%2F31%22%5BPDat%5D%29 recent reviews of complementary medicine in medical journals at PubMed].

==Templates==
===Infoboxes===
Many CAM articles benefit from inclusion of {{tl|Infobox alternative medicine}}.

===Project banner===
This project tags articles, lists, categories, and templates within its scope. To tag a page, paste {{tlp|WikiProject Alternative Medicine |class= |importance= }} at the top of its talk page. The template looks like this:

{{WikiProject Alternative medicine|category=no}}

We use the [[Wikipedia:Version 1.0 Editorial Team/Assessment]] standards, and articles should be tagged as {{code|stub, start, C, or B}} class. (See section [[#Article assessment|Article assessment]])

===[[NCCAM]] classifications===

The U.S. National Center for Complementary and Alternative Medicine (NCCAM) was renamed [[National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health]] in December 2014.

These classifications have been adopted by our WikiProject. They are to be used for tagging '''only''' the branches of CAM articles. The article definitely should be mostly about CAM.
#{{tl|Alternative medical systems}}
#{{tl|Mind-body interventions}}
#{{tl|Biologically based therapy}}
#{{tl|Manipulative methods}}
#{{tl|Energy therapy}}

===Userboxes===
Participants may choose to paste {{tlx|User WikiProject Alternative medicine}} on their user pages. This displays this [[WP:USERBOX|userbox]]:

{{User WikiProject Alternative medicine}}
{{-}}

==CAM Portal==
{{Shortcut|P:CAM}}
Portals are pages intended to serve as ''''Main Pages'''' for specific topics or areas. Portals may be associated with one or more [[Wikipedia:WikiProject|WikiProjects]]; unlike WikiProjects, however, they are meant for both readers and editors of Wikipedia, and should promote content and encourage contribution.

This WikiProject supports [[Portal:Complementary and Alternative Medicine]].

Unlike normal articles, the content of portals are spread over dozens of different pages or files. Please do not edit the ''main'' CAM portal page without a working knowledge of [[Cascading Style Sheets]] (CSS). However, you are encouraged to edit its many subpages, which work very much like regular articles.

The CAM Portal is built around 13 boxes in 10 rows. Each box is assigned a number in ascending order. When the portal page is displayed, either two boxes share one row, or one box fills the full width of the row.

Most of the boxes contain static information about CAM and this project, and these boxes are easy for anyone to improve. Just click on the '''edit''' hyperlink in the box's title bar, and edit like any other page. (If it contains a code that you'd don't understand, just leave the code alone.) Section headings used in any display box should be ===Level 3=== headings. Using section headers levels 1 and 2 will mess up the box number count sequence.

Four of the boxes are special: They display different content each time the portal is viewed. These boxes can be maintained with introductions to various articles, biographies, pictures, and quotes.
* The main CAM portal page contains a separate random number generator for each of these specific boxes. If, for example, the project has written 24 quote pages, then you would set the quote random number generator to 24 (i.e., <code>max=24</code>). A smaller number would also work, but won't display the content of additions that are greater than the respective number.
* Each new quote page/file should be created sequentially (i.e., '''/Quotes/24''') on the '''More Quotes...''' page. Adding additional introductions to selected articles, biographies, and pictures would work essentially the same way.
* With due care, most editors should be able to correctly maintain these files. See our '''Open Tasks''', below, for additional details.

==Open Tasks==
'''Participants of this project are expected to edit stuff on Wikipedia on their own initiative, unless someone is attempting to organize a group project on our talk pages.''' A few good places to start would be:
* [[Glossary of alternative medicine]] -- A major list of the terms and concepts used in alternative medicine. Always something to be fine tuned or added to this gateway to CAM articles.
* [[:Category:Alternative medicine stubs]] -- You can help Wikipedia by expanding these articles. Then be sure to remove them from the stub category.
*The abandoned [[Template:Alternative medical systems]] series of templates / infoboxes should be adopted by this WikiProject since they have been accepted by the Wikipedian community, to date.
** Whoever started this series of infoboxes did not complete the task.
*** <s>Some of the sub-category infoboxes were never created.</s>
*** Some of the tagged articles are using the wrong template/box, when another one would be more appropriate.
*** Not all of the branches of alternative medicine articles have been tagged with this template/infobox.
* [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Alternative medicine/To Do List | Our Wikiproject's Official To Do List of New Topics]] -- List of Missing Topics that our participants would like to see covered.
* Maintain our [[Portal:Complementary and Alternative Medicine]]
** There are some 1,000+ CAM related articles, all of which a short introduction can be written for and added to our archive of articles. The introductions should be copied directly from the respective articles, along with the '''read more''' hyperlink teaser.
*** [[Portal:Complementary and Alternative Medicine/Selected article|Selected Articles]] box
*** [[Portal:Complementary and Alternative Medicine/Selected biography|Selected Biographies]] box
** Copies of the pictures used to illustrated CAM related articles can be added to our [[Portal:Complementary and Alternative Medicine/Selected picture|Selected Pictures]] box.
*** Simply copy the image coding directly from the article. The coding, however, should be changed in order to center the image, before saving it.
** CAM related quotations can be added to our [[Portal:Complementary and Alternative Medicine/Quotes|Quotes]] box.

===Article assessment===
Volunteers for the project may rate articles for quality and completeness. The [[Wikipedia:Version 1.0 Editorial Team/Assessment|Wikipedia article rating system]] uses letter grades to indicate how complete an article is. The first step in this process is to place our [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:WikiProject_Alternative_medicine#Templates Wikiproject banner] on the talk page of a CAM article.

<div style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; margin-bottom: 0.5em; ">{{Wikipedia:Version 1.0 Editorial Team/Alternative medicine articles by quality statistics}}</div>

===Core Project Articles===
The following lists/categories are considered important to our WikiProject.

====Core Lists====
Every CAM article in Wikipedia needs to be represented in one of these master lists. Otherwise, people may not be able to find our articles.

#[[Glossary of alternative medicine]]
#[[List of branches of alternative medicine]]
#[[List of famous people in alternative medicine]]

====Core Categories====
* List of {{subpages}}
{{category tree|Alternative medicine}}

*[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special%3ASearch&redirs=1&search=prefix%3AWikipedia%3AWikiProject+Alternative+medicine Search] for subpages belonging to this WikiProject

{{WikiProject Footer}}

[[Category:WikiProject Alternative medicine| ]]

Marcos Suzano

2024-02-14T21:21:45Z

Coriander77: copyediting and changed tense of a sentence to adjust the tone to be more neutral

{{Short description|Brazilian percussionist}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{BLP sources|date=March 2008}}
{{wikipuffery|date=February 2024}}
{{one source|date=February 2024}}}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| background = person
| name = Marcos Suzano
| image = Marcos Suzano.jpg
| alt =
| caption = Marcos Suzano
| alias =
| birth_date = {{birth year and age|1963}}
| birth_place = [[Rio de Janeiro]], Brazil
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| genre =
| occupation =
| instrument = [[Pandeiro]]
| discography =
| years_active = 
| label =
| current_member_of =
| past_member_of =
| spouse = 
| partner = 
| website = 
}}
'''Marcos Suzano''' (Born August 14th, 1963) is a Brazilian [[percussionist]] known for playing with many Brazilian and international musicians, such as [[Gilberto Gil]], [[Nando Reis]], and [[Titãs]]. He was born in [[Rio de Janeiro]]. Originally a rock fan, he witnessed a [[Brazilian Carnival|carnival]] [[bloco]] and became passionate about percussion. He quickly settled on the [[pandeiro]] as his primary instrument after discovering Jorginho do Pandeiro of the [[choro]] group Época de Ouro.

By the 1990s, Suzano had become one of the most recorded and widely hailed [[percussionist|percussionists]] in Brazil. His technical innovations on pandeiro include an active left hand, which simultaneously holds and flips the instrument, and a very rapid right-hand technique that emphasizes bass strokes from the fingertips as well as the thumb. He has researched African rhythms and freely mixes modern funk riffs with traditional Brazilian folk patterns.

==Discography==
=== As a leader ===
*''Olho de Peixe'' (with Lenine) (1993)
*''Sambatown'' (1996)
*''Flash'' (2000)
*''Satolep Sambatown'' (with Vitor Ramil) (2007) <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.vitorramil.com.br/discos/satsamb.htm |title=Satolep Sambatown at Vitorramil.com |access-date=2008-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160118150720/http://www.vitorramil.com.br/discos/satsamb.htm |archive-date=2016-01-18 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

=== As a featured artist ===
*''Suite Três Rios'' - [[Dan Costa (Composer)]] (2016)

== External links ==
* {{AllMusic|class=artist|id=p129786}}
* [https://archive.today/20130411144217/http://www.pandeiro.com/suzano.php More about Suzano on Pandeiro.com]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Suzano, Marcos}}
[[Category:1963 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Brazilian percussionists]]
[[Category:Musicians from Rio de Janeiro (city)]]
[[Category:Brazilian session musicians]]

{{Brazil-musician-stub}}

American Bus Association

2024-02-06T01:47:22Z

Coriander77: minor grammatical changes for clarity

{{Short description|American trade association}}
{{Advert|date=March 2020}}
[[File:USSRankinReunion2009.jpg|right|thumb|A tour group boarding their bus. Technically speaking, it is a motorcoach.]]
The '''American Bus Association''' ('''ABA''') is a [[trade association]] for [[motorcoach|motorcoach operators]] and [[tourism|tour companies]] in the [[United States]] and [[Canada]]. Its membership consists of about 1,000 companies that operate [[bus]]es or bus-based tours, about 2,800 organizations representing the travel and tourism industry, and several hundred suppliers of buses and related products and services. Its headquarters are in [[Washington, D.C.]]<ref name="ALLBUSINESS">{{cite web | url = http://www.allbusiness.com/membership-organizations/business-associations-business/4028149-1.html | title = American Bus Association | access-date = 2011-01-01 | publisher = AllBusiness, a D&B Company}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|title=Directory of Business Information Resources, 16th Edition|publisher=Grey House Publishing|year=2009|isbn=978-1-59237-399-4|location=Millerton, New York|last1=Grey House}}</ref>

The organization was founded in 1926 as the Motor Bus Division of the [[American Automobile Association]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2018-01-18 |title=The American Bus Association |url=https://businessviewmagazine.com/the-american-bus-association/ |access-date=2024-01-13 |website=Business View Magazine |language=en-US}}</ref> It was reorganized in 1930 as the National Association of Motor Bus Operators, and in 1960, it changed its name to the National Association of Motor Bus Owners. It adopted its present name in 1977.

==Members==
[[Image:AmericanBusAssociationLogo.png|right|thumb|Logo of the American Bus Association]]
The organization has four types of members:<ref name="ABAWEBSITE">{{cite web|url=http://www.buses.org/|title=American Bus Association web site|access-date=2011-01-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110207150649/http://www.buses.org/|archive-date=7 February 2011 |url-status=live}}</ref>

'''Motorcoach Operators:''' companies that own motorcoaches and provide privately contracted services such as charters, tours, sightseeing, scheduled service, airport express service, school bus service, and/or local receptive operations. (The membership does not include [[public transport bus service]]s).

'''Tour Operators:''' companies that organize tours without owning equipment. They offer travel packages by arranging for transportation to hotels, attractions and other travel suppliers.

'''Travel Industry Members:''' tourism-related companies and organizations that work in partnership with the North American motorcoach industry. They include travel and tourism companies, [[convention and visitor bureau]]s, [[destination marketing organization]]s, [[Lodging|accommodations]], [[Tourist attraction|attractions]], [[Foodservice|food service organizations]], and tourism service professionals such as receptive operators who specialize in tour planning for a local area.

'''Associate Members:''' manufacturers and suppliers of buses and bus-related products and services.

==Major activities==
The ABA provides networking and business development opportunities, government advocacy, and information about the industry. It works to connect members in several segments of the motorcoach, tour, and travel communities.

Specific activities include the following:<ref name='ABAWEBSITE'/>

'''ABA Annual Meeting & Marketplace'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=American Bus Association (ABA) Marketplace {{!}} South Dakota Tourism Industry |url=https://sdvisit.com/events/american-bus-association-aba-marketplace |access-date=2024-01-13 |website=sdvisit.com}}</ref>''':''' Holds an annual [[Convention (meeting)|convention]], attended by delegates of the group travel industry. It is held in a different city each year, with a typical attendance of about 3,000 people. The meeting presents an annual opportunity for members of the group travel and motorcoach industry to build business relationships, view new products and services, learn about the latest industry trends, and develop personal networks. The Marketplace includes a series of face-to-face, prescheduled, seven-minute appointments between attendees. Other Marketplace events include professional education seminars, exhibits provided by suppliers, and familiarization tours of attractions in the host city.

'''Bus Industry Safety Council'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=Tackett |first=Richard |date=2022-03-01 |title=HOT TOPICS Presented in collaboration with the ABA Bus Industry Safety Council |url=https://busride.com/hot-topics-presented-in-collaboration-with-the-aba-bus-industry-safety-council/ |access-date=2024-01-13 |website=BUSRide |language=en-US}}</ref>''':''' The Bus Industry Safety Council is dedicated to elevating safety standards within the intercity bus and motorcoach industry. This mission is pursued through collaborative efforts involving industry professionals within a workshop and educational framework.

'''Bus Maintenance & Repair Council'''<ref>{{Cite web |last=June 2 |last2=Bookmark + |first2=2015 • Metro Magazine Staff • |title=ABA forms Bus Maintenance and Repair Council |url=https://www.metro-magazine.com/10036889/aba-forms-bus-maintenance-and-repair-council |access-date=2024-01-13 |website=www.metro-magazine.com}}</ref>''':''' The Bus Maintenance and Repair Council (BusMARC) fulfills the imperative for ongoing maintenance education and compliance training. Additionally, it serves as a platform for interaction between equipment, parts, and service providers in the bus industry.

'''Entertainer Motorcoach Council:''' The Entertainer Motorcoach Council is guided by a mission to instill confidence in the safety, reliability, and quality of service associated with entertainer coaches engaged in charter or lease operations. Furthermore, it actively promotes the exceptional services provided by its members, thereby emphasizing a commitment to high standards within the industry.

'''Hispanic Motorcoach Council:''' The Hispanic Motorcoach Council endeavors to promote the continued growth, fellowship, and development of the Hispanic business community in the motorcoach industry. It will do this by serving as a resource center and forum to promote safe motorcoach operations, encourage interaction among operators and transportation planners, and advocate for Hispanic and minority-owned businesses.

'''Women in Buses Council:''' According to the ABA website, the mission of the Women in Buses Council is to recognize and advance the role of women in the motorcoach industry through networking, education, and mentoring programs.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Women in Buses Council—American Bus Association |url=https://www.buses.org/about/councils/wib |access-date=2024-02-03 |website=www.buses.org |language=en}}</ref>

'''Publications:''' The ABA publishes ''Destinations'' magazine for the tour and travel industry, including the annual Best of the Best issue, and ''The Insider'', a biweekly newsletter for members and subscribers. The ABA compiles and distributes ''The ABA Motorcoach Marketer'', an annual member directory and travel guide. The ABA also publishes ''Marketplace Today'', which is the official publication of the ABA's Annual Meeting & Marketplace.

'''Continuing Education:''' Sponsors the ''Certified Travel Industry Specialist (CTIS)'' program, providing motorcoach and group travel professionals with industry-specific education and credentialing. The education is provided through correspondence courses at [[Indiana University – Purdue University Indianapolis]] and attendance at specialized ABA educational seminars. The ABA conducts [[webinar]]s online, and educational talks and [[seminar]]s at its annual Marketplace event.

'''Awards'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Awards—American Bus Association |url=https://www.buses.org/awards |access-date=2024-02-05 |website=www.buses.org |language=en}}</ref>''':''' Sponsors a ''Lifetime Achievement Award'' for individuals who have made major contributions to the motorcoach, tourism, and hospitality industry, and a ''Kaleidoscope Award'' for individuals or organizations that have directly impacted the advancement of diversity within the industry.

'''Code of Ethics'''<ref>{{Cite web |title=Code of Ethics—American Bus Association |url=https://www.buses.org/about/about-aba/ethics |access-date=2024-02-05 |website=www.buses.org |language=en}}</ref>''':''' Sponsors a [[code of ethics]] for its members. The code was adopted to promote and maintain high standards of business and personal conduct. Its ten points cover general business integrity and several specific items of financial behavior.

'''Government Affairs:''' Represents the industry before elected officials and regulatory bodies. Monitors pertinent legislative and regulatory activity, and keeps members informed of developments in these areas. These activities have helped in securing [[Americans with Disabilities Act]] grants to assist coach operators in equipping coaches with wheelchair lifts, and [[Transportation Security Administration]] funds in support of industry efforts to improve security measures for drivers and passengers.

==Affiliated organizations==
The ABA sponsors the '''ABA Foundation''', which funds research, scholarships, and internships related to its mission. It supports '''BUSPAC''', a [[political action committee]] that works to advance the interests of the industry and the traveling public.

The ABA maintains strategic partnerships with about 20 other industry organizations and a similar number of state and provincial bus associations.<ref name='ABAWEBSITE'/>

==See also==
*[[Charabanc]]
*[[Double-decker bus]]
*[[Roadside attraction]]
*[[Sleeper bus]]
*[[Tour bus service]]
*[[Tour guide]]
*[[Tourist destination]]
*[[Tourist trap]]
*[[Travel behavior]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.buses.org American Bus Association web site]
*[http://www.leisuregrouptravel.com Group travel industry statistics]

{{Tourism}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Trade associations based in the United States]]
[[Category:Bus transportation in the United States]]
[[Category:Traveling business organizations]]
[[Category:Transportation organizations based in the United States]]
[[Category:1926 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:1926 establishments in Washington, D.C.]]

Herpetology

2024-02-06T01:45:22Z

Coriander77: grammatical changes

{{short description|Study of amphibians and reptiles}}
{{for|the study of hepatic things (the liver, hepatitis, and so on)|Hepatology}}
{{for|the study of herpes|Herpes simplex research}}
{{Redirect|Herp|other uses|Herp (disambiguation)}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{more citations needed|date=April 2014}}
{{Tone|date=June 2022}}
}}

[[File:Dendrobates tinctorius var. azureus - Karlsruhe Zoo 04.jpg|thumb|[[Blue poison dart frog]]]]
'''Herpetology''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ἑρπετόν ''herpetón'', meaning "[[reptile]]" or "creeping animal") is a branch of [[zoology]] concerned with the study of [[amphibian]]s (including [[frog]]s, [[toad]]s, [[salamander]]s, [[newt]]s, and caecilians ([[gymnophiona]])) and [[reptile]]s (including [[snake]]s, [[lizard]]s, [[amphisbaenia|amphisbaenids]], [[turtle]]s, [[terrapin]]s, [[tortoise]]s, [[crocodilia]]ns, and [[tuatara]]s).<ref>{{Cite web|title=Herpetology - Latest research and news - Nature|url=https://www.nature.com/subjects/herpetology|access-date=2020-09-10|website=www.nature.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Herpetology - Reptiles, Amphibians, Conservation - Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/herpetology |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Herpetology - Latest research and news - Nature |url=https://www.nature.com/subjects/herpetology |access-date=2023-11-24 |website=www.nature.com}}</ref> [[Birds]], which are [[Cladistics|cladistically]] included within Reptilia, are traditionally excluded here; the separate scientific study of birds is the subject of [[ornithology]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ornithology - Bird Identification, Behavior & Conservation - Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/ornithology |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref>

The definition of herpetology can be more precisely stated as the study of [[ectothermic|ectothermic (cold-blooded)]] [[tetrapod]]s. This definition of "herps" (otherwise called "herptiles" or "herpetofauna") excludes [[fish]]; however, it is not uncommon for herpetological and [[ichthyology|ichthyological]] scientific societies to collaborate. For instance, groups such as the [[American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists]] have co-published [[Academic journal|journals]] and hosts [[conference]]s to foster the exchange of ideas between the fields.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Recent Meetings |url=https://www.asih.org/meetings/recent-meetings |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=American Society of Ichthyologists and Herptetologists |language=en-US}}</ref> [[Herpetological society|Herpetological societies]] are formed to promote interest in reptiles and amphibians, both [[Captivity|captive]] and wild.

Herpetological studies can offer benefits relevant to humanity-centric fields by researching the role of amphibians and reptiles in [[ecology|global ecology]]. For example, by monitoring amphibians that are very sensitive to environmental changes, herpetologists record visible warnings that significant climate changes are taking place.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Why are amphibian populations declining? - U.S. Geological Survey |url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/why-are-amphibian-populations-declining |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=www.usgs.gov}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Amphibians as indicators of environmental health |url=https://www.amphibianark.org/the-crisis/amphibians-as-indicators/ |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=Amphibian Ark |language=en-US}}</ref> Although they can be deadly, some [[toxin]]s and [[venom]]s produced by reptiles and amphibians are useful in [[human medicine]]. Currently, some [[snake venom]] has been used to create [[anti-coagulants]] that work to treat [[stroke]]s and [[Myocardial infarction|heart attacks]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=How venoms are shaping medical advances - BBC Earth |url=https://www.bbcearth.com/news/how-venoms-are-shaping-medical-advances |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=www.bbcearth.com |language=en}}</ref>

==Naming and etymology==
The word ''herpetology'' is from [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]]: ἑρπετόν, ''herpetón'', "creeping animal" and {{lang|grc|-λογία}}, ''[[-logy|-logia]]'', "knowledge".

"Herp" is a [[Vernacular|vernacular term]] for non-avian reptiles and amphibians. It is derived from the old term "herpetile", with roots back to [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus's]] classification of animals, in which he grouped reptiles and amphibians in the same class. There are over 6700 [[species]] of amphibians<ref name="AmphibiaWeb">{{cite web|url=http://amphibiaweb.org/ |title=AmphibiaWeb |publisher=AmphibiaWeb |access-date=2012-08-13}}</ref> and over 9000 species of reptiles.<ref name="ReptileSpecies">{{cite web|url=http://www.reptile-database.org/db-info/SpeciesStat.html |title=Species Statistics February 2012 |publisher=Reptile-database.org |access-date=2012-08-13}}</ref> Despite its modern taxonomic irrelevance, the term has persisted, particularly in the names of herpetology, the scientific study of non-avian reptiles and amphibians, and [[herpetoculture]], the captive care and breeding of reptiles and amphibians.

==Subfields==
The field of herpetology can be divided into areas dealing with particular '''[[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] groups''' such as frogs ([[batrachology]]),<ref name="Wareham2005">{{cite book|author=D.C. Wareham|title=Elsevier's Dictionary of Herpetological and Related Terminology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bqDDmwLgMXcC&pg=PR9|date=2005|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-046017-8}}</ref><ref name="Angelici2015">{{cite book|author=Francesco M. Angelici|title=Problematic Wildlife: A Cross-Disciplinary Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S1c-CwAAQBAJ&pg=PA584|date= 2015|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-319-22246-2|pages=584–585}}</ref> snakes (ophiology or ophidiology), lizards (saurology) and turtles (cheloniology, chelonology, or testudinology).<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Rhodin |first=Anders G. J. |date=2 August 2017 |title=Turtles of the World: Annotated Checklist and Atlas of Taxonomy, Synonymy, Distribution, and Conservation Status (8th Ed.) |url=https://www.academia.edu/53519041/Turtles_of_the_World_Annotated_Checklist_and_Atlas_of_Taxonomy_Synonymy_Distribution_and_Conservation_Status_8th_Ed_ |journal=Chelonian Research Foundation and Turtle Conservancy |via=[[Academia.edu]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal |last=Inger |first=Robert F. |date=1992 |title=A Bimodal Feeding System in a Stream-Dwelling Larva of Rhacophorus from Borneo |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1446167 |journal=Copeia |volume=1992 |issue=3 |pages=887–890 |doi=10.2307/1446167 |issn=0045-8511}}</ref>

More generally, herpetologists work on '''functional problems''' in the [[ecology]], [[evolution]], [[physiology]], [[behavior]], [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomy]], or [[molecular biology]], of amphibians and reptiles. Amphibians or reptiles can be used as [[model organism]]s for specific questions in these fields, such as the role of frogs in the ecology of a [[wetland]]. All of these areas are related through their evolutionary history, an example being the evolution of [[viviparity]] (including behavior and [[reproduction]]).<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Blackburn|first=Daniel G.|title=Squamate Reptiles as Model Organisms for the Evolution of Viviparity|date=December 2006|journal=Herpetological Monographs|volume=20|issue=1|pages=131–146|doi=10.1655/0733-1347(2007)20[131:SRAMOF]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=86044099 |issn=0733-1347}}</ref>

==Careers==
Career options in the field of herpetology include [[Research|lab research]], [[Field research|field studies]] and surveys, assistance in veterinary and medical procedures, zoological staff, museum staff, and college teaching.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Herpetologist Job Description [Updated for 2023] |url=https://www.indeed.com/ |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=www.indeed.com |language=en-US}}</ref>

In modern academic science, it is rare for individuals to consider themselves a herpetologist first and foremost. Most individuals focus on a particular field such as ecology, evolution, taxonomy, physiology, or molecular biology, and within that field ask questions pertaining to or best answered by examining reptiles and amphibians. For example, an [[evolutionary biologist]] who is also a herpetologist may choose to work on an issue such as the evolution of warning coloration in [[coral snake]]s.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Rojas|first1=Bibiana|last2=Valkonen|first2=Janne|last3=Nokelainen|first3=Ossi|date=2015-05-04|title=Aposematism|journal=Current Biology|language=en|volume=25|issue=9|pages=R350–R351|doi=10.1016/j.cub.2015.02.015|pmid=25942542|issn=0960-9822|doi-access=free}}</ref>

Modern herpetological writers include [[Mark O'Shea (herpetologist)|Mark O'Shea]]<ref>{{Cite web |title=Mark O'Shea - The Official Website |url=https://www.markoshea.info/home.php |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=www.markoshea.info}}</ref> and Philip Purser. Modern herpetological showmen include [[Jeff Corwin]], [[Steve Irwin]] (popularly known as the "Crocodile Hunter"), and [[Austin Stevens]], popularly known as "Austin Snakeman" in the TV series ''[[Austin Stevens: Snakemaster]]''.

Herpetology is an established hobby around the world due to the varied biodiversity in many environments. Many amateur herpetologists coin themselves "herpers".<ref>{{Cite web |last=jlp342 |date=2020-04-21 |title=What the Heck is Herping? |url=https://cwhl.vet.cornell.edu/article/what-heck-herping |access-date=2023-09-05 |website=cwhl.vet.cornell.edu |language=en}}</ref>

==Study==
Most colleges or universities do not offer a major in herpetology at the [[undergraduate education|undergraduate]] or the [[graduate school|graduate level]]. Instead, persons interested in herpetology select a major in the [[biology|biological sciences]]. The knowledge learned about all aspects of the [[Animal biology|biology of animals]] is then applied to an individual study of herpetology.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to Become a Herpetologist - EnvironmentalScience.org |url=https://www.environmentalscience.org/career/herpetologist |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=www.environmentalscience.org}}</ref>

==Journals==
Herpetology research is published in academic journals including ''[[Ichthyology & Herpetology]],'' founded in 1913<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ichthyology & Herpetology |url=http://www.ichthyologyandherpetology.org/ |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=Ichthyology & Herpetology |language=en-US}}</ref> (under the name ''Copeia'' in honour of [[Edward Drinker Cope]]); ''[[Herpetologica]],'' founded in 1936;<ref>{{Cite web |title=Herpetologica on JSTOR |url=https://www.jstor.org/journal/herpetologica |access-date=2023-11-16 |website=www.jstor.org |language=en}}</ref> ''Reptiles and amphibians'', founded in 1990;<ref>{{Cite web |title=About the Journal - Reptiles & Amphibians |url=https://journals.ku.edu/reptilesandamphibians/about |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=journals.ku.edu}}</ref> and ''Contemporary Herpetology,'' founded in 1997 and stopped publishing in 2008.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Contemporary Herpetology |url=https://journals.ku.edu/ch |access-date=2023-09-06 |website=journals.ku.edu}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Amphibians|Reptiles}}
* [[Herping]]
* [[List of herpetologists]]
* [[:Category:Herpetology journals|List of herpetology academic journals]]
*[[Reptile Database]]
*[[AmphibiaWeb]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*[[species:Kraig Kerr Adler|Adler, Kraig]] (1989). ''Contributions to the History of Herpetology''. Society for the Study of Amphibians and Reptiles (SSAR).
*Eatherley, Dan (2015). ''Bushmaster: Raymond Ditmars and the Hunt for the World's Largest Viper''. New York: Arcade. 320 pp. {{ISBN|978-1628725117}}.
*[[:fr:Coleman Jett Goin|Goin, Coleman J.]]; [[species:Olive Lynda Bown Goin|Goin, Olive B.]]; [[:de:George Robert Zug|Zug, George R.]] (1978). ''Introduction to Herpetology, Third Edition''. San Francisco: W. H. Freeman and Company. xi + 378 pp. {{ISBN|0-7167-0020-4}}.

==External links==
{{wikibooks|Snakes of Europe}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20180830144519/https://iranian-herp.ir/ Iranian Herpetological Studies Institute (IHSI)]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110512224437/http://www.field-herpetology.co.uk/ Field Herpetology Guide]
*[http://www.asih.org American Society of Ichthyologists and Herpetologists]
*[http://www.herpconbio.org Herpetological Conservation and Biology]
*[http://www.seh-herpetology.org/ Societas Europaea Herpetologica] Distribution Maps for European Reptiles and Amphibians
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20050403114823/http://www.cnah.org/index.asp Center for North American Herpetology] over 500 species of reptiles and amphibians
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20190201081324/http://www.euroherp.com/ European Field Herping Community]
*[http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/research/wildlifeecol/herpetology/ New Zealand Herpetology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071020033530/http://www.landcareresearch.co.nz/research/wildlifeecol/herpetology/ |date=2007-10-20 }}
*[http://www.chicagoherp.org/ Chicago Herpetological Society]
*[http://carlgans.org/biology-reptilia-online/ Biology of the Reptilia] is an online copy of the full text of a 22-volume 13,000-page summary of the state of research of reptiles.
*[http://www.herpmapper.org HerpMapper] is a database of [[reptile]] and [[amphibian]] sightings
*[http://herpatlas.sdnhm.org/ Amphibian and Reptile Atlas of Peninsular California], [[San Diego Natural History Museum]]
*[https://www.learnaboutcritters.org/primer A Primer on Reptiles and Amphibians]
*[http://www.fieldherpforum.com/forum/index.php Field Herp Forum]

{{Amphibians}}
{{Reptiles}}
{{Zoology}}
{{Branches of biology}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Herpetology| ]]
[[Category:Subfields of zoology]]
[[Category:Scoutcraft]]

Dr. Prakash Baba Amte – The Real Hero

2024-02-06T01:39:51Z

Coriander77: punctuation

{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2019}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2019}}
{{advert|date=October 2014}}

{{Infobox film
| name = Dr. Prakash Baba Amte – The Real Hero
| image = Dr. Prakash Baba Amte – The Real Hero (2014 film) poster.jpg
| caption = Theatrical release poster
| director = [[Samruddhi Porey]]
| writer = Samruddhi Porey
| producer = Samruddhi Porey, [[Essel Vision]]
| starring = [[Nana Patekar]] [[Sonali Kulkarni]] [[Mohan Agashe]]
| cinematography = [[Mahesh Anye]]
| music = [[Rahul Ranade]] & [[Aniruddha Wankar]] [[Guru Thakur]] (lyrics)
| distributor = [[Essel Vision Productions]]
| released = {{Film date|df=yes|2014|10|10}}
| runtime = 137 minutes
| country = India
| language = [[Marathi language|Marathi]]
| budget = {{INRConvert |2.5|C }}
| gross = {{INRConvert |15|C }}<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.livemint.com/Leisure/4WDkUhMhrHfBuD39hekOmN/Essels-big-vision-for-Marathi-cinema.html|title=Essel's big vision for Marathi cinema|first=Lata|last=Jha|date=29 June 2016|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zeetalkies.tv/gossip/dawn-of-new-era-in-marathi-cinema.html|title=Dawn of new era in Marathi cinema|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mid-day.com/articles/heres-why-marathi-cinema-is-doing-better-than-bollywood/16111160|title=Here's why Marathi cinema is doing better than Bollywood|publisher=}}</ref>
}}

'''''Dr. Prakash Baba Amte – The Real Hero''''' is a [[Marathi language|Marathi]] film starring [[Nana Patekar]], [[Sonali Kulkarni]] and [[Mohan Agashe]] in lead roles. It is a biopic on the lives of Dr. [[Prakash Amte|Prakash Baba Amte]], the son of the social worker [[Baba Amte]], and his wife [[Mandakini Amte]]. Dr. Prakash Amte is a doctor and social worker who devotes his life to the development and uplifting of the tribal people in the forests of eastern [[Maharashtra]] state.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nana loves pairing up with Sonali |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/Nana-loves-pairing-up-with-Sonali/articleshow/44501761.cms|website=indiatimes.com|publisher=Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd.|accessdate=5 November 2014}}</ref>

==Release==
The film was released in [[Maharashtra]] with overall positive reviews on 10 October 2014.

==Plot==
This movie showcases the life of Dr. Prakash Baba Amte, a man who dedicates himself to helping those in society who suffer from disadvantages. He was unaware of the extent to which his efforts were being noticed and became an inspiration to others by teaching the attitude of self-actualization.

After finishing his medical degree, Prakash's father, [[Baba Amte]], took him on a picnic to [[Hemalkasa]]. This was a turning point in Prakash's life. He became restless seeing that, while mankind had reached the moon, there were people who still lived in abject poverty. They used to hunt and sleep under trees. Prakash moved there to treat them and help them by sharing their privations.

Dr. Mandakini and Prakash had been in love since their college days. Leaving her luxurious life behind, she accompanied Prakash without any conditions. This is where the real story begins—in the dense forest of Hemalkasa. They struggle with tribal communities, wild animals, Naxalite insurgents, and corrupt government officials. Today, after 45 years, Hemalkasa has become an example of positive development in the world.

==Cast==
*[[Nana Patekar]] as [[Dr. Prakash Amte|Dr. Prakash Baba Amte]]
*[[Sonali Kulkarni]] as [[Mandakini Amte]]
*[[Mohan Agashe]] as [[Baba Amte]]
*[[Mayuri Deshmukh]]
*[[Tejashri Pradhan]] as Young Mandakini Amte
*Ashish Chougule
*Vikram Gaikwad
*[[Bharat Ganeshpure]]
*Aniruddha Wankar
*Vinayak Patwardhan
*Kunal Gajbhare
*Sushant Kakde
*Sukumar Day
*Prasad Dhakulkar
*Naina Rani
*Krishna Dharme
*williemgc
*Vinod Raut

==Filming==
The film was shot in locations including [[Hemalkasa]], [[Mumbai]], [[United States]], etc.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nana to make a film on Baba Amte|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/marathi/movies/news/Nana-to-make-a-film-on-Baba-Amte/articleshow/44315872.cms|website=indiatimes.com|publisher=Bennett, Coleman & Co. Ltd.|accessdate=5 November 2014}}</ref>

==Reception==
The release clashed with two other [[Marathi cinema|Marathi]] films, ''[[Ishq Wala Love]]'' and ''[[Punha Gondhal Punha Mujra]]''.

The acting prowess of [[Nana Patekar]], [[Sonali Kulkarni]] & [[Mohan Aagashe]] added more stars to the inspiring story. ''Times of India'' gave it 3.5 stars, calling it a must-watch film with the whole family. It earned {{INRConvert|7.5|C}} in the first 2 weeks. ''Dr. Prakash'' continued its success and collected {{INRConvert|12|C}} within 6 weeks, becoming one of the top hit movies of the year 2014.

== Awards ==
[[Filmfare Marathi Awards|'''Filmfare Marathi''' '''Awards''']]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.filmfare.com//news/winners-of-the-ajeenkya-dy-patil-filmfare-awards-marathi-11282.html|title=Winners of the Ajeenkya DY Patil Filmfare Awards (Marathi)|website=filmfare.com|language=en|access-date=2020-01-25}}</ref>

* Best Film (won)
* Best Actor - [[Nana Patekar]] (won)
* Best Actress - [[Sonali Kulkarni]] (won)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{facebook|dpbathefilm}}
* {{IMDBtitle|3817950}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Dr. Prakash Baba Amte - The Real Hero}}
[[Category:2010s Marathi-language films]]
[[Category:Marathi-language biographical films]]
[[Category:Indian biographical films]]
[[Category:2010s biographical films]]