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European Green Party

2024-09-13T10:07:01Z

Cyon: /* Full members */ One Latvian MEP

{{Short description|European political party}}
{{EngvarB|date=January 2020}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}
{{Reorganize|date=May 2024}}{{format references|date=May 2024}}
{{Infobox political party
| colorcode = #{{wikidata|property|P465}}
| name = European Green Party
| abbreviation = EGP
| logo = EGP-Logo 2017.svg
| president = {{ubl|class=nowrap|
|[[Mélanie Vogel]] ([[France|FR]])
|[[Thomas Waitz]] ([[Austria|AT]])
}}
| secretary_general= Benedetta De Marte ([[Italy|IT]])
| foundation = {{start date and age|df=y|2004|2|21}}
| predecessor = European Federation of Green Parties
| headquarters = Rue du Taciturne 34, 1000 [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]]
| think_tank = [[Green European Foundation]]
| youth_wing = [[Federation of Young European Greens|Young European Greens]]
| ideology = [[Green politics]]<ref name="Nordsieck">{{cite web|url=http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/eu.html|title=European Union|website=Parties and Elections in Europe|last=Nordsieck|first=Wolfram|year=2019|access-date=30 May 2019|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170608032858/http://www.parties-and-elections.eu/eu.html|archive-date=8 June 2017}}</ref> [[Pro-Europeanism]]
| position = {{nowrap|[[Centre-left politics|Centre-left]] to [[Left-wing politics|left-wing]]}}
| international = [[Global Greens]]
| europarl = [[Greens–European Free Alliance]]
| colours = {{color box|#{{wikidata|property|P465}}|border=darkgray}} Green
| seats1_title = [[European Parliament]]
| seats1 = {{composition bar|{{wikidata|property|P1410|P194=Q8889}}|{{wikidata|property|Q8889|P1342}}|hex=#{{wikidata|property|P465}}}} 
| seats2_title = [[European Council]]
| seats2 = {{Composition bar|{{wikidata|property|P1410|P208=Q8886}}|{{wikidata|property|Q8886|P1342}}|hex=#{{wikidata|property|P465}}|width=80%}} 
| seats3_title = {{nobr|[[European Commission]]}}
| seats3 = {{Composition bar|{{wikidata|property|P1410|P208=Q8880}}|{{wikidata|property|Q8880|P1342}}|hex=#{{wikidata|property|P465}}|width=80%}} 
| website = {{Official URL}}
| country = European Union
}}
{{green politics sidebar|Organizations}}
The '''European Green Party''' ('''EGP'''), also referred to as '''European Greens''', is a transnational, [[European political party]] representing national parties from across Europe who share Green values.

The European Greens works closely with the [[Greens–European Free Alliance]] (Greens/EFA) [[Political groups of the European Parliament|parliamentary group]] in the [[European Parliament]] which is formed by elected Green party members along with the [[European Free Alliance]], [[European Pirate Party]] and [[Volt Europa]]. The European Greens' partners include its youth wing the [[Federation of Young European Greens]] (FYEG), the [[Green European Foundation]] (GEF) and the [[Global Greens]] family.

Green parties are in government in seven countries in Europe: [[Austria]] ([[The Greens – The Green Alternative|The Greens]]), [[Belgium]] ([[Groen (political party)|Groen]] and [[Ecolo]]), [[Bulgaria]] ([[Green Movement (Bulgaria)|Green Movement]]), [[Germany]] ([[Alliance 90/The Greens]]), the [[Republic of Ireland]] ([[Green Party (Ireland)|Green Party]]), [[Latvia]] ([[The Progressives (Latvia)|The Progressives]]) and [[Montenegro]] ([[United Reform Action]]), [[Poland]], ([[The Greens (Poland)|Zieloni]]/[[Civic Coalition (Poland)|Civic Coalition]]) [[Spain]] ([[Catalunya en Comú]] / [[Sumar (electoral alliance)|Sumar]]).

== Ideology and positions ==
The European Greens have committed themselves to the basic tenets of [[Green politics]] as seen across Western Europe, namely [[environmental responsibility]], climate action, [[individual freedom]], [[Inclusive Democracy|inclusive democracy]], [[Multiculturalism|diversity]], [[social justice]], [[gender equality]], global [[sustainable development]] and [[Nonviolence|non-violence]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Tatiana |first=Rovinskaya |date=2015 |title=Greens in Europe: Incremental Growth |url=https://www.imemo.ru/en/publications/periodical/meimo/archive/2015/12-t-59/europe-new-realities/greens-in-europe-incremental-growth |journal=World Economy and International Relations |volume=59 |issue=12 |pages=58–71 |doi=10.20542/0131-2227-2015-59-12-58-71 |issn=0131-2227}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |first1=Jon |last1=Henley |date=2019-05-28 |title=European elections: triumphant Greens demand more radical climate action |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/may/28/greens-eu-election-mandate-leverage-climate-policy |access-date=2024-05-29 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

The European Greens was the first party to form out of various national movements to become a European entity, committed to the integration of Europe.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Keating |first=Joshua |date=2019-06-03 |title=An Answer to Climate Change—and the Far Right |url=https://slate.com/news-and-politics/2019/06/european-parliament-elections-green-party-climate-change-far-right.html |access-date=2024-05-29 |work=Slate |language=en-US |issn=1091-2339}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Heyman |first=Taylor |date=2019-09-17 |title=Green wave could change the balance of power in European Parliament |url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/world/europe/green-wave-could-change-the-balance-of-power-in-european-parliament-1.866717 |access-date=2024-05-29 |website=The National |language=en}}</ref> The party aims to amplify the views of member parties by having common policy positions, mutual election manifestos, and cohesive European election campaigns. The European Greens also has networks which brings Green politicians together, such as the Local Councillors Network.<ref name="History of the European Green Party" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Join Local Councillors Network |url=https://localcouncillors.europeangreens.eu/ |website=Local Councillors Network}}</ref>

=== Charter ===
According to its charter,<ref name="charter">{{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230620152102/https://europeangreens.eu/charter|date=20 June 2023}}</ref> the European Greens is working towards a just and sustainable transition towards societies "respectful of human rights and built upon the values of environmental responsibility, freedom, justice, diversity and non-violence". The charter’s guiding principles provide a framework for the political actions taken by member parties.

The priorities outlined in the charter include protecting human health and wellbeing, maintaining biological diversity, combatting global warming, transitioning to a just and sustainable economy, strengthening inclusive democracies, safeguarding diversity, and ensuring social justice.

== History ==
{{copyedit|section|date=May 2024}}
Green politics in Europe emerged from several grassroots political movements, including the peace movements, the ecology movement and movements for women's rights.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book |title=Green identity in a changing Europe |publisher=[[Heinrich Böll Stiftung]] |year=2008 |editor-last=Fücks |editor-first=Ralf |location=Brussels |publication-date=October 2008}}</ref>

The [[Anti-nuclear movement in Germany]] first had political expression as [[Alliance 90/The Greens|Vereinigung Die Grünen]], which formed in March 1979, and established itself as a party for the European Parliament in January 1980.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Franceschini |first=Georgio |title=Germany and nuclear weapons in the 21st century: atomic Zeitenwende? |date=2024 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-032-37639-4 |editor-last=Kühn |editor-first=Ulrich |series=Routledge global security studies |location=Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY |page=182}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |title=Green Parties: reflections on the first three decades |publisher=Heinrich Böll Foundation North America |year=2006 |editor-last=Zelko |editor-first=Frank |editor-last2=Brinkmann |editor-first2=Carolin}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=The History of Alliance 90/The Greens {{!}} Heinrich Böll Stiftung |url=https://www.boell.de/en/2016/02/18/history-of-alliance-90-the-greens |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=www.boell.de |language=en}}</ref> Similarly, activists in Britain's [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] would eventually form the [[Ecology Party]].<ref>{{Cite book |last1=Haq |first1=Gary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=haOpAgAAQBAJ&dq=%22campaign+for+nuclear+disarmament%22+%22ecology+party%22+%22caroline+lucas%22&pg=PT25 |title=Environmentalism since 1945 |last2=Paul |first2=Alistair |date=2013-03-01 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-136-63654-7 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-07-20 |title=The big divide: is ideology holding back greens from embracing nuclear power? |url=https://theecologist.org/2011/jul/20/big-divide-ideology-holding-back-greens-embracing-nuclear-power |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=theecologist.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{cite book |last=Wall |first=Derek |author-link=Derek Wall |title=Weaving a Bower Against Endless Night: an illustrated history of the UK Green Party [published March 1994 to mark the 21st anniversary of the party] |publisher=Green Party |year=1994 |isbn=1-873557-08-6}}</ref> However, it also brought in ecological movements, which had become active across Western European nations in the 1970s.<ref name=":1" /><ref>{{Cite web |title=Ideas, actors and political practices in the environmental history of Europe {{!}} EHNE |url=https://ehne.fr/en/encyclopedia/themes/ecology-and-environment-in-europe/ideas-actors-and-political-practices/ideas-actors-and-political-practices-in-environmental-history-europe |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=ehne.fr |language=en}}</ref> Environmental groups became especially political after the [[Chernobyl disaster]] in 1986, which strengthened groups such as the [[Italian Green Party]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2011-06-24 |title=Nuclear Power, No Thanks! The Aftermath of Chernobyl in Italy and the Nuclear Power Referendum of 1987 |url=https://www.environmentandsociety.org/arcadia/nuclear-power-no-thanks-aftermath-chernobyl-italy-and-nuclear-power-referendum-1987 |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=Environment & Society Portal |language=en}}</ref> In the Netherlands, feminists dominated [[GroenLinks]] party.<ref name=":2" /> Elements of all these national parties would go on to form the European Green Party.

Representatives from these and other parties sat in the European Parliament after the [[1984 European Parliament election]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=The Green Party in the European Parliament – Taking Stock {{!}} Heinrich Böll Stiftung |url=https://www.boell.de/en/2017/04/07/green-party-european-parliament-taking-stock |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=www.boell.de |language=en}}</ref> The following 11 members of this grouping, which was briefly known as the [[Rainbow Group (1984–1989)|Rainbow Group]], came from parties which went on to be part of the European Greens:<ref name=":4" />

* 1 [[Agalev]] MEP and 1 [[Ecolo]] MEP from Belgium
* 1 [[Pacifist Socialist Party|Pacifist Socialist]] MEP and 1 [[Political Party of Radicals|Radicals]] MEP from the Netherlands
* 7 [[Alliance 90/The Greens|Grünen]] MEPs from German

The European Green Party itself was officially founded at the 4th Congress of the European Federation of Green Parties on 20–22 February 2004 in Rome.<ref>{{Cite web |title=European Greens Found European Greens – DW – 02/23/2004 |url=https://www.dw.com/en/european-greens-found-european-greens/a-1119463 |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=dw.com |language=en}}</ref> At the convention, 32 Green parties from across Europe joined this new pan-European party.<ref name="History of the European Green Party">{{Cite web|url=https://europeangreens.eu/about/|title=About|date=9 May 2023|website=European Greens}}</ref><ref name=":5">{{Cite book |last=HENDRICK |first=Annette |url=https://www.oram.be/fileadmin/images_et_fichiers_PDF/INVENTAIRES_REALISES/INVENTAIRES_ETOPIA_PDF/20170302_EGP_english_Inventaire_VF.pdf |title=European Green Party 1981-2009 |date=August 2014 |publisher=Etopia |publication-date=2014}}</ref> As such, the European Greens became a trans-national party, and the very first European political party.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Bittersweet victories: The European Greens and the elections of 2021 {{!}} Heinrich Böll Stiftung {{!}} Brussels office - European Union |url=https://eu.boell.org/en/greens-elections-2021 |access-date=2024-05-30 |website=eu.boell.org |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5" />

In the [[2004 European Parliament election]], member parties won 35 Seats and the Greens/EFA group in the European Parliament secured 43 in total.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/election-results-2019/en/european-results/2004-2009/outgoing-parliament/ | title=Home | 2024 European election results | European Union | European Parliament }}</ref>

In the [[2009 European Parliament election]], even though the European Parliament was reduced in size, the European Greens' member parties won 46 seats, the best result of the Green Parties in 30 years. The Greens/EFA group in the European Parliament secured 55 seats in total.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/election-results-2019/en/european-results/2009-2014/constitutive-session/ | title=Home | 2024 European election results | European Union | European Parliament }}</ref>

In the [[2014 European Parliament election]] the Green candidates were [[José Bové]] and [[Ska Keller]]. These elections marked the first time there were primaries including Spitzenkandidaten] at the European elections, which allows Europeans to not only vote for who should represent them in the European Parliament, but also help to decide who should lead the European Commission. In May they presented a common programme including the [[Green New Deal]] at the launch of the European Greens' campaign which called for "a new direction of economic policy aimed at reducing our carbon footprint and improving our quality of life". The slogan of the campaign was 'Change Europe, vote Green'.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/eu-elections-2014/news/greens-present-green-new-deal-at-campaign-convention/ | title=Greens present 'Green New Deal' at campaign convention | date=24 February 2014 }}</ref> The Greens/EFA group in the European Parliament obtained 50 seats in total.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/elections2014-results/en/election-results-2014.html | title=Results of the 2014 European elections - European Parliament }}</ref>

The candidates for the [[2019 European Parliament election]] were [[Ska Keller]] and [[Bas Eickhout]], who campaigned for climate protection, a social Europe, more democracy and stronger rule of law.<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/may/26/greens-surge-as-parties-make-strongest-ever-showing-across-europe | title=Greens surge as parties make strongest ever showing across Europe | newspaper=The Guardian | date=26 May 2019 | last1=Henley | first1=Jon }}</ref> That year, the Greens made the strongest ever showing across Europe,<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.theguardian.com/politics/2019/may/26/greens-surge-as-parties-make-strongest-ever-showing-across-europe | title=Greens surge as parties make strongest ever showing across Europe | newspaper=The Guardian | date=26 May 2019 | last1=Henley | first1=Jon }}</ref> in part due to rising public awareness about climate change<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/climate-environment/news/climate-will-be-key-issue-in-eu-elections-poll-shows/ | title=Climate change will be key issue in EU elections, poll shows | date=16 April 2019 }}</ref> and the impact of youth movements for climate. The strongest surge was in Germany as [[Alliance 90/The Greens]] replaced the centre-left [[Social Democratic Party of Germany]] as the second-strongest party.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://eu.boell.org/en/2019/07/16/green-wave-tsunami-or-just-storm-teacup | title=The Green Wave: A tsunami or just a storm in a teacup? | Heinrich Böll Stiftung | Brussels office - European Union }}</ref> The Greens/EFA group in the European Parliament obtained 74 seats in total.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.europarl.europa.eu/election-results-2019/en | title=Home | 2024 European election results | European Union | European Parliament }}</ref> The Greens' results signified a new balance of power<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.dw.com/en/eu-election-surge-for-greens-and-euroskeptics-losses-for-centrist-blocs/a-48883806 | title=EU election: Surge for Greens, losses for centrist blocs – DW – 05/26/2019 | website=[[Deutsche Welle]] }}</ref> as the [[European People's Party]] (EPP) and the [[Progressive Alliance of Socialists and Democrats]] (S&D) lost their majority.

By 2023, The Economist analysed that "the policies espoused by environmentalists sit squarely at the centre of today’s political agenda".<ref>''[https://www.economist.com/europe/2023/12/07/in-europe-green-policies-rule-while-green-politicians-struggle In Europe, green policies rule while green politicians struggle]'', The Economist, 7 December 2023</ref>

[[Terry Reintke]] and [[Bas Eickhout]] were elected by the European Greens to be lead candidates for the 2024 European Parliament election. The campaign ran under the slogan "Choose Courage". .<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-02-03 |title=European Greens field Terry Reintke and Bas Eickhout as top candidates ('Spitzenkandidaten') for EU elections |url=https://europeangreens.eu/news/european-greens-field-terry-reintke-and-bas-eickhout-as-top-candidates-spitzenkan/ |access-date=2024-05-13 |website=European Greens}}</ref> They were elected by more than 300 delegates at an Extended Congress in Lyon, France in February 2024. The campaign is focused on a Green and Social Deal, and the fight against the rise of the [[Far-right politics|Far Right]] in Europe.

At the 2024 [[Maastricht Debate]], organised by [[Politico]] and the [[University of Maastricht]], European Green top candidate [[Bas Eickhout]] asked directly to [[Ursula von der Leyen]], top candidate of the [[European People's Party]], what her position was towards the far right in Europe, [[European Conservatives and Reformists Group|European Conservatives and Reformists]] (ECR) and [[Identity and Democracy]]. Von der Leyen told the audience that a collaboration with the ECR “depends very much on how the composition of the Parliament is, and who is in what group.” <ref>{{cite news |last1=Wax |first1=Eddy |title=Von der Leyen opens the door to Europe's hard right |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/von-der-leyen-hard-right-maastricht-debate-giorgia-meloni-viktor-orban-schmit/ |access-date=26 May 2024 |publisher=Politico |date=30 April 2024}}</ref>

Numerous analyses in European quality media consider this as a win for the Greens <ref>{{cite news |last1=Mathiesen |first1=Karl |title=Greens lionized by Europe's young voters at EU presidential debate |url=https://www.politico.eu/article/maastricht-debate-ursula-von-der-leyen-greens-remember-what-it-was-like-to-be-popular/ |access-date=22 May 2024 |publisher=POLITICO |date=29 April 2024}}</ref> the turning point of the 2024 election campaign.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Infobae |title=Scholz defiende que la Comisión Europea no debería contar con apoyo de la extrema derecha el próximo mandato |url=https://www.infobae.com/america/agencias/2024/05/25/scholz-defiende-que-la-comision-europea-no-deberia-contar-con-apoyo-de-la-extrema-derecha-el-proximo-mandato/ |access-date=25 May 2024 |publisher=Infobae |date=24 May 2024}}</ref> The European Greens criticised heavily that von der Leyen, as incumbent president of the European Commission and lead candidate for the EPP, opened the door to collaboration with the far-right.

== Organisational structure ==
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| footer = [[Ulrike Lunacek]], ex vice-president of the [[European Parliament]] and [[Michaele Schreyer]], the only Green [[European Commission]] member so far
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The European Green Party is a [[European political party]], constituted out of political parties from European countries. Parties can also become associate members. Members of the [[Greens/EFA]] group in the European Parliament not belonging to a member party can be admitted as a special member with speaking rights but no vote.
[[File:Alice Bah Kuhnke 2014-12-17 001.jpg|thumb|right|110px|[[Alice Bah Kuhnke]], Deputy chairwoman of the [[Greens–European Free Alliance]] (Greens/EFA) group in the [[European Parliament]].]]
The governing bodies of the EGP are the Council and the Committee.<ref>{{cite web|url = https://europeangreens.eu/sites/europeangreens.eu/files/EGP%20Statutes%20as%20adopted%20in%20Antwerp%20Council%20track%20changes%20accepted.pdf|title = Statutes of the European Green Party|website = europeangreens.eu|date = 20 May 2018|access-date = 24 January 2019|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190125020522/https://europeangreens.eu/sites/europeangreens.eu/files/EGP%20Statutes%20as%20adopted%20in%20Antwerp%20Council%20track%20changes%20accepted.pdf|archive-date = 25 January 2019|url-status = dead}}</ref>
*The ''Council'' takes place twice a year and is the main decision-making body of the European Greens and consists of delegates of member parties. During Councils, delegates from European Greens parties set a common political direction, linked to the development of the European project and its values. They do so by debating and vote on resolutions on key issues in Europe. Delegates are allotted based on their most recent European or national election results. Each party has at least two delegates. consists of delegates of member parties. These are allotted on the basis of their most recent European or national election results. Each party has at least two delegates.<ref>{{cite web |title=EGP Rule Book |url=https://europeangreens.eu/sites/europeangreens.eu/files/EGP%20Rule%20Book%20as%20amended%2035th%20EGP%20Council%20June%202022.pdf |website=europeangreens.eu |access-date=17 November 2022 |archive-date=19 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231019093744/https://europeangreens.eu/sites/europeangreens.eu/files/EGP%20Rule%20Book%20as%20amended%2035th%20EGP%20Council%20June%202022.pdf |url-status=dead }}</ref>
*The ''Committee'' consists of nine members, including two Co-Chairs (one man and one woman), a Secretary General and a Treasurer. They are responsible for daily political affairs, execution of the Council's decisions and the activities of the EGP office and staff. Co-Chairs [[Thomas Waitz]] and [[Mélanie Vogel]], Secretary General Benedetta De Marte, Treasurer Ute Michel, and Committee Members Vula Tsetsi, Sibylle Steffan, [[Małgorzata Tracz]], [[Rasmus Nordqvist]] and [[Mina Tolu|Mina Jack Tolu]] were elected at the 35th European Green Party in Riga, Latvia. The EGP has had several Co-Chairs.

=== Co-chairs of the European Greens ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Mandate
!Co-chairs
!Member party
!Years
!Secretary General
!Council election
|-
! rowspan="2" |May 2022 –
|{{flagicon|France}} [[Mélanie Vogel]]
|[[Europe Ecology – The Greens|EELV]]
|05/2022 – present
| rowspan="2" |{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Benedetta De Marte]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Riga]], {{flag|Latvia}}, November 2022
|-
|{{flagicon|Austria}} [[Thomas Waitz]]
|[[The Greens – The Green Alternative|Die Grünen]]
|05/2022 – present
|-
! rowspan="2" |Nov 2019 – May 2022
|{{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Evelyne Huytebroeck]]
|[[Ecolo]]
|11/2019 – 05/2022
| rowspan="2" |{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Mar Garcia]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Tampere]], {{flag|Finland}}, November 2019
|-
|{{flagicon|Austria}} [[Thomas Waitz]]
|[[The Greens – The Green Alternative|Die Grünen]]
|11/2019 – 05/2022
|-
! rowspan="2" |Nov 2015 – Nov 2019
|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Monica Frassoni]]
|[[Federation of the Greens|Federazione dei Verdi]]
|11/2015 – 11/2019
| rowspan="2" |{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Mar Garcia]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Lyon]], {{flag|France}}, November 2015
|-
|{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Reinhard Bütikofer]]
|[[Alliance 90/The Greens|Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen]]
|11/2015 – 11/2019
|-
! rowspan="2" |Nov 2012 – Nov 2015
|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Monica Frassoni]]
|[[Federation of the Greens|Federazione dei Verdi]]
|11/2012 – 11/2015
| rowspan="2" |{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Jacqueline Cremers]] (until end 2014)
{{flagicon|Spain}} [[Mar Garcia]] (from January 2015)
| rowspan="2" |[[Athens]], {{flag|Greece}}, November 2012
|-
|{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Reinhard Bütikofer]]
|[[Alliance 90/The Greens|Bündnis 90 / Die Grünen]]
|11/2012 – 11/2015
|-
! rowspan="2" |Oct 2009 – Nov 2012
|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Monica Frassoni]]
|[[Federation of the Greens|Federazione dei Verdi]]
|10/2009 – 11/2012
| rowspan="2" |{{flagicon|Netherlands}} [[Jacqueline Cremers]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Malmö]], {{flag|Sweden}}, October 2009
|-
|{{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Philippe Lamberts]]
|[[Ecolo]]
|10/2009 – 11/2012
|-
! rowspan="2" |May 2006 – Oct 2009
|{{flagicon|Austria}} [[Ulrike Lunacek]]
|[[The Greens – The Green Alternative|Die Grünen]]
|05/2006 – 10/2009
| rowspan="2" |{{flagicon|Germany}} [[Juan Behrend]]
| rowspan="2" |[[Helsinki]], {{flag|Finland}}, May 2006
|-
|{{flagicon|Belgium}} [[Philippe Lamberts]]
|[[Ecolo]]
|05/2006 – 10/2009
|-
! rowspan="2" |May 2003 – May 2006
|{{flagicon|Italy}} [[Grazia Francescato]]
|[[Federation of the Greens|Federazione dei Verdi]]
|05/2003 – 05/2006
| rowspan="2" |{{flagicon|Malta}} [[Arnold Cassola]]
| rowspan="2" |[[St. Andrew's, Malta|Saint Andrews]], {{flag|Malta}}, May 2003
|-
|{{flagicon|Finland}} [[Pekka Haavisto]]
|[[Green League|Vihreä Liitto]]
|05/2003 – 05/2006
|}

*The ''Congress'' is an enlarged meeting of the Council which is convened by the Council at least once every 5 years and hosts more delegates.

=== Networks ===
The EGP hosts a collection of networks that have specific special interest focus, including:<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://europeangreens.eu/networks/|title=Networks|date=27 September 2023|website=European Greens}}</ref>
* Balkan Network
* Mediterranean Network
* Gender Network
* European Queer Greens
* Local Councillors Networks
* European Green Disability Network
* European Network of [[Green seniors|Green Seniors]]

=== Partnerships ===
* [[Federation of Young European Greens]]
* [[Greens–European Free Alliance|Greens/EFA group in the European Parliament]]
* [[Global Greens]]
* [[Green European Foundation]]

== Membership ==
{{Update section|date=May 2024}}
[[File:European Greens - countries with member and candidate parties.svg|thumb|220px|{{legend|#22b14c|States with member parties}}{{legend|#2BD85C|States with associate parties}}{{legend|#b5e61d|States with candidate parties}}]]

=== Full members ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan=2 |Country
! Name
! MEPs{{efn|The number of MEPs listed below may not match the total number of MEPs of the European party, as it does not include MEPs who join as individual members.}}
! National MPs
! Government status
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Albania}} || [[Green Party of Albania]] || ''Not in EU'' || {{Composition bar|0|140|hex={{party color|Green Party of Albania}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Austria}} || [[The Greens – The Green Alternative]] || {{Composition bar|3|18|hex={{party color|The Greens – The Green Alternative}}}} || {{Composition bar|26|183|hex={{party color|The Greens – The Green Alternative}}}} || {{yes|Government}}
|-
| rowspan=2|{{Flag|Belgium}} || {{flag|Flemish Community|name=Flemish}} || [[Groen (political party)|Groen]] || {{Composition bar|1|12|hex={{party color|Green (political party)}}}}{{efn|[[Dutch-speaking electoral college]]}} ||{{Composition bar|8|102|hex={{party color|Green (political party)}}}} {{efn|Flemish seats in the Belgian [[Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)|Chamber of Representatives]], including seats for bilingual [[Brussels]].}} || {{yes|Government}}
|-
| {{flag|French Community|name=French}} {{flag|German-speaking Community|name=German}} || [[Ecolo]] || {{Composition bar|2|9|hex={{party color|Ecolo}}}} {{efn|All seats for the [[French-speaking electoral college|French]] and [[German-speaking electoral college]]s.}}|| {{Composition bar|13|63|hex={{party color|Ecolo}}}} {{efn|All seats for French and German-speaking Communities in the Belgian [[Chamber of Representatives (Belgium)|Chamber of Representatives]], including seats for bilingual [[Brussels]].}} || {{yes|Government}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Bulgaria}} || [[Green Movement (Bulgaria)|Green Movement]]|| {{Composition bar|0|17|hex={{party color|Green Movement (Bulgaria)}}}}|| {{Composition bar|0|240|hex={{party color|Green Movement (Bulgaria)}}}}|| {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Croatia}} || [[We Can! (Croatia)|We Can!]] || {{Composition bar|1|12|hex={{party color|We can! (Croatia)}}}}|| {{Composition bar|10|151|hex={{party color|We can! (Croatia)}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Cyprus}} || [[Movement of Ecologists – Citizens' Cooperation]] || {{Composition bar|0|6|hex={{party color|Movement of Ecologists – Citizens' Cooperation}}}} || {{Composition bar|2|56|hex={{party color|Movement of Ecologists – Citizens' Cooperation}}}} || {{no|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Czech Republic}} || [[Green Party (Czech Republic)|Green Party]] || {{Composition bar|0|22|hex={{party color|Green Party (Czech Republic)}}}} || {{Composition bar|0|200|hex={{party color|Green Party (Czech Republic)}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Denmark}} || [[Green Left (Denmark)|Green Left]] || {{Composition bar|2|13|hex={{party color|Green Left (Denmark)}}}} || {{Composition bar|15|179|hex={{party color|Green Left (Denmark)}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Estonia}} || [[Estonian Greens]] || {{Composition bar|0|7|hex={{party color|Estonian Greens}}}} || {{Composition bar|0|101|hex={{party color|Estonian Greens}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Finland}} || [[Green League]] || {{Composition bar|3|14|hex={{party color|Green League}}}} || {{Composition bar|13|200|hex={{party color|Green League}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|France}} || [[Europe Ecology – The Greens]] || {{Composition bar|11|74|hex={{party color|Europe Écologie}}}} || {{Composition bar|16|577|hex={{party color|Europe Écologie}}}}|| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Georgia (country)|name=Georgia}} || [[Greens Party of Georgia]] || ''Not in EU'' || {{Composition bar|0|150|hex={{party color|Greens Party of Georgia}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Germany}} || [[Alliance 90/The Greens]] || {{Composition bar|21|96|hex={{party color|Alliance 90/The Greens}}}} || {{Composition bar|118|736|hex={{party color|Alliance 90/The Greens}}}} || {{yes|Government}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Greece}} || [[Ecologist Greens]] || {{Composition bar|0|21|hex={{party color|Ecologist Greens}}}} || {{Composition bar|0|300|hex={{party color|Ecologist Greens}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Hungary}} || {{no|[[LMP – Hungary's Green Party]] (suspended)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://europeangreens.eu/news/european-green-party-supports-budapest-mayor-gergely-karacsony/|title=European Green Party supports Budapest mayor Gergely Karácsony|date=25 Mar 2024|access-date=14 Apr 2024|work=European Green Party}}</ref>}} || {{Composition bar|0|21|hex={{party color|LMP – Hungary's Green Party}}}}|| {{Composition bar|5|199|hex={{party color|LMP – Hungary's Green Party}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Ireland}} || [[Green Party (Ireland)|Green Party]]{{efn|The Irish Green Party operates also in [[Northern Ireland]] as the "[[Green Party in Northern Ireland]]". The Northern Irish party is separately listed in this table although it does not have separate membership in the EGP.}} || {{Composition bar|0|14|{{party color|Green Alliance}}}} || {{Composition bar|12|160|hex={{party color|Green Alliance}}}} || {{yes|Government}}
|-
| scope=rowgroup colspan=2|{{Flag|Italy}} || [[Green Europe]] || {{Composition bar|4|76|hex={{party color|Green Europe}}}}|| {{Composition bar|6|400|hex={{party color|Green Europe}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| style="border-top:hidden"| || {{flag|South Tyrol}} || [[Greens (South Tyrol)|Greens]] || {{Composition bar|0|76|hex={{party color|Greens (South Tyrol)}}}} || {{Composition bar|0|400|hex={{party color|Greens (South Tyrol)}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2| {{Flag|Latvia}} || [[The Progressives (Latvia)|The Progressives]] || {{Composition bar|1|8|hex={{party color|The Progressives (Latvia)}}}} || {{composition bar|10|100|hex={{party color|The Progressives (Latvia)}}}} || {{yes|Government}}
|-
| colspan=2| {{Flag|Lithuania}} || [[Union of Democrats "For Lithuania"]] || {{Composition bar|0|11|hex=#0A1172}} || {{composition bar|16|141|hex=#0A1172}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Luxembourg}} || [[The Greens (Luxembourg)|The Greens]] || {{Composition bar|1|6|hex={{party color|The Greens (Luxembourg)}}}} || {{Composition bar|4|60|hex={{party color|The Greens (Luxembourg)}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Malta}} || [[AD+PD]] || {{Composition bar|0|6|hex={{party color|AD+PD}}}} || {{Composition bar|0|79|hex={{party color|AD+PD}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Moldova}} || [[Ecologist Green Party (Moldova)|Ecologist Green Party]] || ''Not in EU'' || {{Composition bar|0|101|hex={{party color|Ecologist Green Party (Moldova)}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Montenegro}} || [[United Reform Action]] || ''Not in EU'' || {{Composition bar|4|81|hex={{party color|United Reform Action}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Netherlands}} || [[GroenLinks]] || {{Composition bar|3|26|hex={{party color|GroenLinks}}}} || {{Composition bar|13|150|hex={{party color|GroenLinks}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|North Macedonia}} || [[Democratic Renewal of Macedonia]] || ''Not in EU'' || {{Composition bar|1|120|hex={{party color|Democratic Renewal of Macedonia}}}} || {{yes2|Confidence and supply}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Norway}} || [[Green Party (Norway)|Green Party]] || ''Not in EU'' || {{Composition bar|3|169|hex={{party color|Green Party (Norway)}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Poland}} || [[The Greens (Poland)|The Greens]] || {{Composition bar|1|51|hex={{party color|The Greens (Poland, 2022)}}}} || {{Composition bar|3|460|hex={{party color|The Greens (Poland, 2022)}}}} || {{yes|Government}}
|-
| rowspan=2 colspan=2 | {{Flag|Portugal}} || [[LIVRE]] || {{Composition bar|0|21|hex={{party color|LIVRE}}}} || {{Composition bar|4|230|hex={{party color|LIVRE}}}}|| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| [[Ecologist Party "The Greens"]] || {{Composition bar|0|21|hex={{party color|Ecologist Party "The Greens"}}}} || {{Composition bar|0|230|hex={{party color|Ecologist Party "The Greens"}}}}|| {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Romania}} || [[Green Party (Romania)|Green Party]] || {{Composition bar|0|32|hex={{party color|Green Party (Romania)}}}} || {{Composition bar|0|330|hex={{party color|Green Party (Romania)}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Slovenia}} || [[Youth Party – European Greens]] || {{Composition bar|0|8|hex={{party color|Youth Party – European Greens}}}} || {{Composition bar|0|90|hex={{party color|Youth Party – European Greens}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| scope=rowgroup colspan=2|{{Flag|Spain}} || [[Greens Equo]] || {{Composition bar|0|54|hex={{party color|Greens Equo}}}} || {{Composition bar|0|350|hex={{party color|Greens Equo}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| style="border-top:hidden"| || {{Flag|Catalonia}} || [[Green Left (Catalonia)|Green Left]]|| rowspan=1|{{Composition bar|1|54|{{party color|Green Left (Catalonia)}}}}{{efn|name=Urtasun|[[Ernest Urtasun]] is member of both ''[[Catalunya en Comú]]'' and ''[[Green Left (Catalonia)|Green Left]]''.}} || {{Composition bar|2|48|{{party color|Green Left (Catalonia)}}}}{{efn|name=cat|Catalan seats in the [[Congress of Deputies]]; two [[Catalunya en Comú]] deputies are also members of [[Green Left (Catalonia)|Green Left]].}} || {{yes|Government}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Sweden}} || [[Green Party (Sweden)|Green Party]] || {{Composition bar|3|20|hex={{party color|Green Party (Sweden)}}}}|| {{Composition bar|18|349|hex={{party color|Green Party (Sweden)}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Switzerland}} || [[Green Party of Switzerland]] || ''Not in EU'' || {{Composition bar|28|200|hex={{party color|Green Party of Switzerland}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Ukraine}} || [[Party of Greens of Ukraine]] || ''Not in EU'' || {{Composition bar|0|450|hex={{party color|Party of Greens of Ukraine}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| rowspan=3|{{Flag|United Kingdom}} || {{Flag|England}} {{Flag|Wales}} || [[Green Party of England and Wales]] || rowspan=3|''Not in EU''|| {{Composition bar|4|573|hex={{party color|Green Party of England and Wales}}}} {{efn|English and Welsh seats in the [[House of Commons (United Kingdom)|House of Commons]].}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| {{Flag|Scotland}} || [[Scottish Greens]] || {{Composition bar|0|59|hex={{party color|Scottish Greens}}}} {{efn|Scottish seats in the [[House of Commons (United Kingdom)|House of Commons]] (the party has 7 seats in the devolved [[Scottish Parliament]]).}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| {{flagdeco|UK}} [[Northern Ireland]] || ''[[Green Party in Northern Ireland]]'' {{efn|It does not have separate membership in the EGP because it is a part of the Irish Green Party.}} || {{Composition bar|0|18|hex={{party color|Green Party in Northern Ireland}}}} {{efn|Northern Irish seats in the [[House of Commons (United Kingdom)|House of Commons]].}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
|colspan=6 align="right"|sources<ref name="2023 nembers">{{cite web|url=https://europeangreens.eu/sites/europeangreens.eu/files/Adopted%20EGP%20Statutes%20with%20annexes%20-%20Annex%20B%2037th%20EGP%20EoCongress%2C%20Vienna%203%20June%202023.pdf|title=Adopted Annex B - EGP Membership List - 37th EGP EoCongress, Vienna 3 June 2023 |website=[[European Greens]] |publisher=European Green Party |access-date=10 August 2023|page=24}}</ref>
|}
{{Clear}}

=== Associate members ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan=2 |Country
! Name
! MEPs
! National MPs
! Government status
|-
| colspan=2| {{Flag|Azerbaijan}} || Azerbaijan Green Party || ''Not in EU'' ||{{Composition bar|0|125|hex=#{{wikidata|property|P465}}}}|| {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
|colspan=2| {{Flag|Croatia}} || [[Green Alternative – Sustainable Development of Croatia]] || {{Composition bar|0|11|hex=#{{wikidata|property|P465}}}} || {{Composition bar|0|151|hex=#{{wikidata|property|P465}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
|{{Flag|Finland}}|| {{flag|Åland}} || [[Sustainable Initiative]] || {{Composition bar|0|13|hex={{party color|Sustainable Initiative}}}} || {{Composition bar|0|1|hex={{party color|Sustainable Initiative}}}}{{efn|Ålandic seats in the [[Parliament of Finland]].}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Hungary}} || [[Dialogue – The Greens' Party]] || {{Composition bar|0|21|hex={{party color|Dialogue – The Greens' Party}}}}|| {{Composition bar|6|199|hex={{party color|Dialogue – The Greens' Party}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2 | {{Flag|Portugal}} || [[People-Animals-Nature]] || {{Composition bar|0|21|hex={{party color|People-Animals-Nature}}}} || {{Composition bar|1|230|hex={{party color|People-Animals-Nature}}}}|| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan=2| {{Flag|Russia}} || [[Union of Greens of Russia]] || ''Not in EU'' || {{Composition bar|0|450|hex={{party color|Union of Greens of Russia}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2| {{Flag|Slovenia}} || [[Vesna – Green Party]] || {{Composition bar|0|8|hex={{party color|Vesna – Green Party}}}} || {{Composition bar|0|90|hex={{party color|Vesna – Green Party}}}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| {{Flag|Spain}} || {{Flag|Catalonia}} || [[Catalunya en Comú]] || {{Composition bar|1|59|hex={{party color|Catalunya en Comú}}}}{{efn|name=Urtasun}} || {{Composition bar|5|48|hex={{party color|Catalunya en Comú}}}}{{efn|name=cat}} || {{yes|Government}}
|-
| colspan=2| {{Flag|Turkey}} || [[Green Left Party]] || ''Not in EU'' || {{Composition bar|57|600|hex={{party color|Green Left Party}}}} || {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|colspan=6 align="right"|sources<ref name="2023 nembers"/>
|}

=== Former members ===

{| class="wikitable sortable"
! Country
! Year left
! Name
! MEPs (current)
! National MPs (current)
|-
|{{Flag|Belarus}}
|2023
|[[Belarusian Green Party]]
| colspan="2" |''n/a – defunct''
|-
|{{Flag|Denmark}}
|2012
|[[The Greens (Denmark)|De Grønne]]
| colspan="2" |''n/a – defunct''
|-
| {{Flag|Hungary}} || 2015 || [[Green Left (Hungary)|Green Left]] || colspan=2|''n/a – defunct''
|-
| {{Flag|Latvia}} || 2019 || [[Latvian Green Party]] || – || {{Composition bar|4|100|hex=#808000}}
|-
| {{Flag|Netherlands}} || 2017 || [[The Greens (Netherlands)|The Greens]] || – || -
|-
| {{Flag|Russia}} || 2016{{efn|Full member from 1994 to 2016. Downgraded to associate member in 2016.}} || [[Civil United Green Alternative|Green Alternative]] || ''Not in EU'' || -
|-
| {{Flag|Spain}} || 2012 || [[Confederation of the Greens]] || – ||
|}

== Electoral standing and political representation ==
{{Update|date=August 2020|reason=}}
{{Main|European Greens election results}}
The table below shows the results of the Greens in each election to the European Parliament, in terms of seats and votes. It also shows how many European Commissioners the European Greens have, and who led the parliamentary group. It also lists how the Green parliamentary group and supra-national organisations was named and what European parliamentary group they joined.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.europarl.europa.eu/meps/en/directory.html;jsessionid=E9454D4F8435789E10AB5DFA004B28FB.node2|title=Directory|access-date=26 August 2015}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
!Year
![[Member of the European Parliament|MEP]]s
!MEPs %
!Votes %
![[European Commission|EC]]
!Leaders
!EP Subgroup
!EP group
!Organization
|-
|[[1979 European Parliament election|1979]]
|0
|0
|2.4%
|0
|''none''
|''none''
|''none''
|Coordination of European Green and Radical Parties
|-
|[[1984 European Parliament election|1984]]
|11
|2.5%
|4.2%
|0
|[[Friedrich-Wilhelm Graefe zu Baringdorf]] (1984–86) [[Bram van der Lek]] (1984–86) [[Brigitte Heinrich]] (1986) [[François Roelants du Vivier]] (1986) [[Frank Schwalba-Hoth]] (1986–87) [[Paul Staes]] (1987–88) [[Wilfried Telkämper]] (1987–89)
|Green Alternative European Link
|[[Rainbow Group (1984–89)|Rainbow Group]]
|European Green Coordination
|-
|[[1989 European Parliament election|1989]]
|25
|4.8%
|7.4%
|0
|[[Maria Amelia Santos]] (1989–90) [[Alexander Langer]] (1990) [[Adelaide Aglietta]] (1990–94) [[Paul Lannoye]] (1990–94)
|colspan=2|[[The Green Group in the European Parliament|Green Group in the European Parliament]]
|European Green Coordination
|-
|[[1994 European Parliament election|1994]]
|21
|3.7%
|7.4%
|0
|[[Claudia Roth]] (1994–98), [[Alexander Langer]] (1994–95), [[Magda Aelvoet]] (1997–99)
|colspan=2|Green Group in the European Parliament
|European Federation of Green Parties
|-
|[[1999 European Parliament election|1999]]
|38
|6.1%
|7.7%
|1{{efn|[[Michaele Schreyer]] for [[Alliance '90/The Greens]]}}
|[[Heidi Hautala]] (1999–2002), [[Paul Lannoye]] (1999–2002), [[Monica Frassoni]] (2002–04), [[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]] (2002–04)
|European Greens
|[[Greens–European Free Alliance]]
|European Federation of Green Parties
|-
|[[2004 European Parliament election|2004]]
|35
|4.8%
|7.3%
|0
|[[Monica Frassoni]] (2004–09), [[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]] (2004–09)
|European Greens
|Greens–European Free Alliance
|European Green Party
|-
|[[2009 European Parliament election|2009]]
|48{{efn|includes 6 independent MEPs elected for the Europe Écologie group}}
|6.2%
|7.3%
|0
|[[Rebecca Harms]] (2009–14), [[Daniel Cohn-Bendit]] (2009–14)
|European Greens
|Greens–European Free Alliance
|European Green Party
|-
|[[2014 European Parliament election|2014]]
|50<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.results-elections2014.eu/en/election-results-2014.html|title=Results of the 2014 European elections – European Parliament|work=results-elections2014.eu|access-date=16 October 2016}}</ref>{{efn|Includes 14 MEPs, from 8 countries, NOT affiliated with EGP member parties.}}
|6.7%
|7.3%
|0
|[[Rebecca Harms]] (2014–2016), [[Ska Keller]] (2017– ), [[Philippe Lamberts]] (2014– )
|European Greens
|Greens–European Free Alliance
|European Green Party
|-
|[[2019 European Parliament election|2019]]
|67
|11.4%
|10.0%
|0
|[[Ska Keller]] and [[Bas Eickhout]]
|European Greens
|Greens-EFA
|European Green Party
|}

=== Current electoral standing ===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
! colspan=2 |Country
! Name
!Votes
!Total
! Last EU election
!Votes
!Total
! Last national election
! Government status
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Austria}} || [[The Greens – The Green Alternative|The Greens – The Green Alternative]]
|532,193
|3,834,662
| 14.1%
|664,055
|4,835,469
| 13.9%|| {{yes|Government}}
|-
| rowspan="2" |{{Flag|Belgium}} || {{flag|Flemish Community|name=Flemish}} || [[Groen (political party)|Groen]]
|525,908
| rowspan="2" |6,732,157
|7.8%
|413,836
| rowspan="2" |6,780,538
| 6.1%|| {{yes|Government}}
|-
| {{flag|French Community|name=French}} {{flag|German-speaking Community|name=German}} || [[Ecolo]]
|492,330
|7.2%
|416,452
| 6.1%|| {{yes|Government}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Bulgaria}} || [[The Greens (Bulgaria)|The Greens]]
|''EPP''
|2,015,320
|6.1%<ref name="ReferenceA">In a coalition with [[Yes, Bulgaria!]] and [[Democrats for a Strong Bulgaria]]

as [[Democratic Bulgaria]]</ref>
|EPP
|2,658,548
| 6.3%<ref name="ReferenceA"/>|| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Croatia}} || [[We Can! (Croatia)|We Can!]]
|44,670
|764,089
| 5.9%
|193,051
|2,180,411
| 9.1%|| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Cyprus}} || [[Movement of Ecologists – Citizens' Cooperation|Movement of Ecologists – Citizens' Cooperation]]
|9,232
|280,935
|3.3%<ref>with SYPOL</ref>
|15,762
|357,712
| 4.4%|| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Czech Republic}} || [[Green Party (Czech Republic)|Green Party]]
|0
|2,370,765
|''did not compete''
|53,343
|5,375,090
| 1.0%|| {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Denmark}} || [[Socialist People's Party (Denmark)|Socialist People's Party]]
|364,895
|2.758.855
|13.2%
|272,304
|3,569,521
| 7.7%|| {{yes2|Confidence and supply}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Estonia}} || [[Estonian Greens|Estonian Greens]]
|5,824
|332,104
|1.8%
|10,226
|561,131
| 1.8%|| {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Finland}} || [[Green League|Green League]]
|292,892
|1,830,045
|16.0%
|354,194
|3,081,916
| 11.5%|| {{yes|Government}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|France}} || [[Europe Ecology – The Greens|Europe Ecology – The Greens]]
|3,055,023
|22,654,164
|13.5%
|973,527
|22,655,174
| 4.3%|| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Germany}} || [[Alliance 90/The Greens|Alliance 90/The Greens]]
|7,677,071
|37,396,889||20.5%
|6,852,206
|46,442,023
| 14.8%|| {{yes|Government}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Greece}} || [[Ecologist Greens|Ecologist Greens]]
|49,099
|5,656,122
|0.9%
|0
|5,769,542
| ''did not compete''|| {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Hungary}} || [[LMP – Hungary's Green Party|LMP – Hungary's Green Party]]
|75,498
|3,470,257
|2.2%
|404,429
|5,732,283
| 7.1%|| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Ireland}} || [[Green Party (Ireland)|Green Party]]{{efn|The Irish Green Party operates also in [[Northern Ireland]] as the "[[Green Party in Northern Ireland]]". The Northern Irish party is separately listed in this table although it does not have separate membership in the EGP.}}
|190,755
|1,678,003
|11.4%
|155,695
|2,183,489
| 7.1%|| {{yes|Government}}
|-
| colspan="2" scope="rowgroup" |{{Flag|Italy}} || rowspan="2" | [[Green Europe|Green Europe]]
| rowspan="2" |621,492
| rowspan="2" |26,783,732
| rowspan="2" |2.3%
| rowspan="2" |1.071.663
| rowspan="2" |29,172,085
| rowspan="2" | ''3.6%''|| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| style="border-top:hidden"| || {{flag|South Tyrol}} || {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Luxembourg}} || [[The Greens (Luxembourg)|The Greens]]
|39.535
|217,086
|18.9%
|32.177
|216,177
| 15.1%|| {{yes|Government}}
|-
| colspan=2|{{Flag|Malta}} || [[AD+PD]]
|7,142
|260,212
|''did not compete''
|0
|310,665
| ''did not compete''|| {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Netherlands}} || [[GroenLinks]]
|599,283
| 5,497,813|| 10.9%
|1.643.073
|10,432,726
|15.75%<ref>As part of the [[GroenLinks–PvdA|GreenLeft-Labour]] alliance.</ref>|| {{maybe|TBD}} ([[2023 Dutch general election|Election]])
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Poland}} || [[The Greens (Poland)|The Greens]]
|''EPP''
| 13,647,311|| ''38.5%''<ref>Parties included in the coalition are the [[Democratic Left Alliance (Poland)|Democratic Left Alliance]] (since 16 February), [[The Greens (Poland)|The Greens]] (since 17 February), [[Now! (political party)|Now!]] (since 18 February), [[Civic Platform]] (since 21 February), [[.Modern|Modern]], [[Alliance of Democrats (Poland)|Democratic Party]] (since 22 February), [[Polish People's Party]], [[Union of European Democrats]] (since 23 February), [[Social Democracy of Poland]] (since 2 March), [[Union of the Left (Poland)|Liberty and Equality]] (since 3 March), [[League of Polish Families]] (since 11 March) and [[Feminist Initiative (Poland)|Feminist Initiative]] (since 15 March).

The Coalition also gained the support from [[Barbara Nowacka]] and her movement, the [[Polish Initiative]] and civic organisation [[Committee for the Defence of Democracy]].

The Coalition came in second place in the [[2019 European Parliament election in Poland|2019 European Parliament election]] with 38.5% of the vote, returning 22 MEPs.</ref>
|EPP
|18,470,710
| ''27.4%''<ref>The party participate in the [[2019 Polish parliamentary election]] as part of the [[Civic Coalition (Poland)|Civic Coalition]].</ref>|| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
| colspan="2" rowspan="2" | {{Flag|Portugal}} || [[Ecologist Party "The Greens"|Ecologist Party "The Greens"]]
|''LEFT''
|3,314,414
|6.9%<ref name="ReferenceB">''These are the results for [[Unitary Democratic Coalition]].''</ref>
|LEFT
|5,340,890
| 6.3%<ref name="ReferenceB"/>|| {{no2|Opposition}}
|-
|[[LIVRE]]
|60,575
|3,084,505
|1.8%<ref>{{Citation |title=2019 European Parliament election in Portugal |date=2023-06-12 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2019_European_Parliament_election_in_Portugal&oldid=1159699618 |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-19 |language=en}}</ref>
|5,417,715
|71,232
|1.3%<ref>{{Citation |title=2022 Portuguese legislative election |date=2023-08-08 |url=https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2022_Portuguese_legislative_election&oldid=1169251105 |work=Wikipedia |access-date=2023-10-19 |language=en}}</ref>
|
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Romania}} || [[Green Party (Romania)|Green Party]]
|0
|9,069,822
|''did not compete''
|23,085
|5,908,331
| 0.4%|| {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Slovenia}} || [[Youth Party – European Greens|Youth Party – European Greens]]
|0
|482,075
|''did not compete''
|0
|891,097
| ''did not compete''|| {{no|Extra-parliamentary}}
|-
| colspan="2" scope="rowgroup" |{{Flag|Spain}} || [[Equo]]
|0
| rowspan="3" |22,426,066
|''did not compete''
|582,306
| rowspan="3" |24,258,228
| 2.4%|| {{yes2|Confidence and supply}}
|-
| style="border-top:hidden" | || rowspan="2" |{{Flag|Catalonia}} || [[Esquerra Verda]]{{efn|Esquerra Verda is member party of Catalunya en Comú.}}
|''[[GUE-NGL|LEFT]]''
|''Run with UP''<ref name=":0">On 2 July 2020, former ICV members announced the founding of a new party and that it would be part of the [[En Comú Podem]], with David Cid, Marta Ribas and Ernest Urtasun being members of the new party.</ref>
|0
| ''did not compete''|| {{yes|Government}}
|-
| style="border-top:hidden" | || [[Catalunya en Comú|Catalunya en Comú]]
|''[[GUE-NGL|LEFT]]''
|''Run with UP''<ref name=":0" />
|''LEFT''
| ''Run with UP''|| {{yes|Government}}
|-
| colspan="2" |{{Flag|Sweden}} || [[Green Party (Sweden)|Green Party]]
|478,258
|4,151,470
|11.5%
|285,899
|6,535,271
| 4.4%|| {{yes|Government}}
|-
| colspan="10" |
|-
| colspan="3" |European Greens
|15,061,100
|177,624,368
|8.48%
|12,240,131
|214,300,854
|5.71%
|
|}

=== Current political representation in European institutions ===
{| class="wikitable"
!Organisation !! Institution !! Number of seats
|-
| rowspan=5| {{EU}} || [[European Parliament]] || {{Composition bar|{{wikidata|property|P1410|P194=Q8889}}|{{wikidata|property|Q8889|P1342}}|hex=#{{wikidata|property|P465}}}} 
|-
| [[European Commission]] || {{Composition bar|{{wikidata|property|P1410|P208=Q8880}}|{{wikidata|property|Q8880|P1342}}|hex=#{{wikidata|property|P465}}}} 
|-
| [[European Council]] (Heads of Government) || {{Composition bar|{{wikidata|property|P1410|P208=Q8886}}|{{wikidata|property|Q8886|P1342}}|hex=#{{wikidata|property|P465}}}}
|-
| [[Council of the European Union]] (Participation in Government) || {{Composition bar|8|{{SeatCountInstitutionsInEurope|COEU}}|hex=#{{wikidata|property|P465}}}}
|-
| [[Committee of the Regions]] ||
|-
| {{flag|Council of Europe}} || [[Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe|Parliamentary Assembly]] || {{Composition bar|3|{{SeatCountInstitutionsInEurope|PACE}}|hex=#{{wikidata|property|P465}}}}
|}

== See also ==
{{Portal|Environment}}

{{div col|colwidth=15em}}
* [[Alter-globalization]]
* [[Anti-nuclear movement]]
* [[Club of Rome]]
* [[Common good (economics)]]
* [[Communalism (Bookchin)|Communalism]]
* [[Ecofeminism]]
* [[Ecological economics]]
* [[Environmental movement]]
* [[Ethics of care]]
* [[Participatory economics]]
* [[Political ecology]]
* [[Tobin tax]]
* [[Universal Basic Income]]
* [[Via Campesina]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|European Green Party}}
* {{Official website}}

{{European political parties}}
{{Political organisations at European Union level}}
{{Green parties}}
{{Authority control}}
{{Portal bar|European Union|Politics|Environment|Ecology|Earth sciences|Energy}}

[[Category:2004 establishments in Europe]]
[[Category:Political parties established in 2004]]
[[Category:European Green Party| ]]
[[Category:Green parties in Europe|*]]
[[Category:Pan-European political parties]]
[[Category:European political parties]]
[[Category:The Greens–European Free Alliance]]
[[Category:Criticisms of bullfighting]]
[[Category:Pan-European Pro-European political parties]]

History of the Jews in Riga

2024-09-05T19:45:30Z

Cyon: Corrected dates of Polish and Swedish rule of Riga

{{short description|none}}
[[File:V10p417001 Riga.jpg|thumb|The [[Great Choral Synagogue (Riga)|Great Synagogue in Riga]]]]
'''The Jewish community of Riga,''' [[Latvia]], began to exist in the 17th century and was interrupted several times due to the expulsion of the city's Jews. The number of Jews in the city grew significantly during the 19th century, reaching a peak before the [[The Holocaust|Holocaust]].<ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Latvia: historical Jewish identity |url=https://www.chabad.lv/templates/articlecco_cdo/aid/4090018/jewish/-.htm}}</ref>

== Establishment ==
Jewish settlement within the city limits was forbidden since its establishment.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=The Jewish Community of Riga |url=https://dbs.anumuseum.org.il/skn/en/c6/e243768/Place/Riga |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=dbs.anumuseum.org.il}}</ref> In 1301, a decree was issued stating that anyone who provided shelter to a Jew in their home would be heavily punished.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web |title=ריגה |url=https://www.daat.ac.il/daat/history/kehilot/riga.htm |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=www.daat.ac.il}}</ref> From the 16th century, Jewish merchants were allowed to stay outside the city limits, and in 1638, a hostel was opened for them outside the city limits.<ref name=":0" /> In the years 1581-1621, during Polish rule in Riga, Jews were allowed to reside within the city walls, and their number in the city and province grew. Those Jews were intermediaries between the city's merchants and merchants from other districts in the area. In the years 1621-1710, the Swedes ruled Riga and treated the Jews harshly. Upon the conquest of Riga, [[Gustavus Adolphus|King Gustav Adolf]] said: "Jews and foreigners who cause harm to local merchants should not be tolerated in the city." Rabbi Joseph Solomon Bomdiglio passed through Riga on his journey to Lithuania and claimed that most of the Jews of Lithuania were spiritual people, while in Riga and the neighboring towns, most of the Jews were merchants and manual laborers.<ref>{{Cite web |title=ריגה (Riga) {{!}} האנציקלופדיה של הגטאות |url=https://www.yadvashem.org/yv/he/research/ghettos_encyclopedia/ghetto_details.asp?cid=1038 |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=www.yadvashem.org}}</ref><ref name=":1" />

== Rule of Tsarist Russia ==
Before the rule of Tsarist Russia in Riga, there were nineteen Jews in the city.<ref name=":1" /> In 1710, Riga was conquered by Tsarist Russia.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" /> Later in the 18th century, a few Jewish trade agents on behalf of the Tsarist Russian government were allowed to live within the city walls, and in 1725 they were even allowed to sanctify a cemetery. At that time, between 60 and 70 Jews settled in Riga.<ref name=":0" /> In 1743, the city's Jewish residents were expelled as part of the expulsion of Jews from Russia, by decree of Empress Elizabeth. Some of the local merchants, who relied economically on the Jewish trade agents, tried to prevent the expulsion but failed.<ref name=":1" /> The expulsion significantly damaged the city's economy.<ref name=":0" /> Most of the expelled Jews continued to engage in trade and settled near ports: some near the port of Ventspils (Windau) and others near the port of Königsberg.<ref name=":1" /> With the rise to power of Catherine II, the entry of Jewish merchants into the city was approved. This empress allowed any skilled merchant who wished to enter the city to do so without discrimination based on differences in religion or origin.<ref name=":1" /> In certain documents from 1764, "protected Jews" are mentioned, wealthy merchants who were among the first to return to the city and received special rights.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />
[[File:Great Choral Synagogue (Riga).jpg|thumb|Great Choral Synagogue in Riga]]

== The flourishing of the community ==
In 1736, there were 736 Jews in the city. The first rabbi of the community was appointed in those years and was Rabbi Shlomo-Pesach Raber.<ref name=":1" /> According to the instructions of the local government in Riga, an unofficial leader was chosen for the Jews who was nicknamed the "Elder of the Congregation" and was responsible for arranging religious services in the city and for prayer in temporary prayer houses. He was granted a status of honor among the city's residents and a monthly ascent to the Land of Israel free of charge as an appreciation for his work.<ref name=":1" /> The Elder of the Congregation led the community committee, which assisted him in arranging religious and community services. The community committee had five members.<ref name=":0" /> The Elder of the Congregation was also responsible for the charity institutions that were established in the city. In 1893, this responsibility was transferred to the municipality. In 1785, Jewish settlement was allowed in the Baltic Sea coast region, and additional Jews arrived in Riga. They traded and settled there but were considered residents of the town of Shlok, located 38 kilometers from Riga.<ref name=":0" /> During these years, the community flourished, with hundreds of Jews concentrating in it, establishing synagogues and schools, and having community life. A conflict also developed between those "protected Jews" mentioned in 1764 and the descendants of Jews who had previously lived in Riga but were expelled from it and were nicknamed "foreign Jews".<ref name=":1" /> In 1810, about 700 Jews lived in the city in three classes: protected Jews, foreign Jews, and Shlok Jews.<ref name=":1" /><ref name=":0" />

Starting from 1822, protected Jews were allowed to make a living from managing shelters and soup kitchens but were not allowed to engage in goldsmithing.<ref name=":0" /> In 1842, the Jewish community in the city was officially established,<ref name=":1" /> with 409 Jews registered in the city as official residents.<ref name=":0" /> At the same time, a Jewish school was established in Riga under the management of Dr. Menachem Max Lilienthal, who was appointed to this position by the government. In 1843, the first synagogue in the city was established. The rabbi of the synagogue was Rabbi Aharon bar Elchanan, a student of the Volozhin Yeshiva. After his death, he was replaced by Rabbi Yaakov Rivlin.<ref name=":1" /> Many Jews immigrated to the city under the rule of Alexander II for economic reasons. Alexander II was interested in developing the Baltic region commercially and industrially, allowed the immigration of many residents to it, and thus harmed the livelihood of the Jews (the immigrants created a lot of competition for the Jewish merchants and harmed their livelihood). Jews began to immigrate to Riga with certificates proving that they were merchants, craftsmen, and industrialists, and thus received permission to reside in the city.<ref name=":1" />

The number of residents in the city continued to grow, and in 1864 there were already 2,641 Jews in the city. One of the early Hasidim who settled in Riga was Rabbi Yeshayahu Berlin, who settled in Riga in 1877-1878. In 1897, the number of Jews in the city grew to 22,000.<ref name=":0" /> That same year, Lev Shlit participated in the [[First Zionist Congress]] held in Basel, Switzerland as a representative of the "Zion" association that developed in Riga. The following year, A. Ettingen represented Riga at the Second Zionist Congress and the First Russian Zionist Conference. In 1913, there were already 33,651 Jews in it. Most of the Jews were merchants and industrialists. Most of the merchants were engaged in the export of wood, grain, and flax. The industrialists among them opened and managed factories, flour mills, and printing houses. In addition, many Jews chose to engage in the medical profession.<ref name=":1" />

Over the years, many synagogues were opened in the city: in 1850, the Altneuschul synagogue was established, in 1871 the Great Synagogue "Cor Schul" (the Choral Synagogue of Riga) was opened, and in 1873 a school for soldiers was inaugurated. By 1915, about 40 [[Synagogue|synagogues]] and minyanim were established in the city.

== World War I ==
On the eve of [[World War I]], there were 33,651 Jews in Riga, 7% of the total population. During the war, over forty thousand Jewish war refugees arrived in Riga, mainly from Courland. From Courland alone, forty thousand Jews were deported by cruel means on the pretext that they were spies for the German army.<ref name=":1" /> The refugees were transferred to central Russia by freight trains and many of them passed through Riga on the way.<ref name=":1" /> Rabbi Alexander Zuskind Berlin, Rabbi Eliyahu Shlitt, Professor P. Mintz, Rabbi Eliezer Ettinger and other leaders of the local community at that time established an aid committee for refugees and war victims.<ref name=":1" /> A third of Riga's residents voluntarily left the city in 1916, and among those residents were also many Jews. At the beginning of September 1917, the German army managed to break through the Russian front in Latvia and advance towards Riga,<ref>{{Cite web |title=⁨?_ןורחאזו? עגרב ⁩ — ⁨⁨העם (מוסקבה)⁩ 4 ספטמבר 1917⁩ — הספרייה הלאומית של ישראל │ עיתונים |url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/ham/1917/09/04/01/article/13 |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=www.nli.org.il |language=he}}</ref> and before September 10, 1917, Riga fell into German hands.

== Inter-war period ==
In 1918, there were 28,000 Jews in Riga. With the surrender of the [[German Empire]], the Russians tried to reconquer Latvia but were stopped by the Latvians. For many months, Latvia and Russia negotiated a peace agreement,<ref>{{Cite web |title=⁨מלחמת תנופה עד הבולשביפים באוקראינה. ור 18 _םפרואר ⁩ — ⁨⁨הצפירה⁩ 19 פברואר 1920⁩ — הספרייה הלאומית של ישראל │ עיתונים |url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/hzf/1920/02/19/01/article/2 |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=www.nli.org.il |language=he}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=⁨לשאלת השלום ⁩ — ⁨⁨הצפירה⁩ 14 אפריל 1920⁩ — הספרייה הלאומית של ישראל │ עיתונים |url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/hzf/1920/04/14/01/article/3 |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=www.nli.org.il |language=he}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=⁨המשא־ומתז ביז רםלנדיה ורוסיה, ⁩ — ⁨⁨הצפירה⁩ 3 מאי 1920⁩ — הספרייה הלאומית של ישראל │ עיתונים |url=https://www.nli.org.il/he/newspapers/hzf/1920/05/03/01/article/4 |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=www.nli.org.il |language=he}}</ref> and on August 11, 1920, a peace agreement was signed in which Russia recognized Latvia's independence.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web |last=מאור |first=יעקב |date=2019-08-29 |title=ריגה היהודית בעבר ובהווה |url=https://www.jewishtraveler.co.il/riga-jewish-0819/ |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=Jewish Traveler ותוליכנו לשלום |language=he-IL}}</ref> In January 1921, the United Kingdom, France, Japan, Poland, and other countries recognized Latvia's independence.<ref name=":2" /> At the end of 1919, the Riga City Council established new Jewish educational institutions where the language of instruction was Yiddish. Jewish schools where the language of instruction was Russian or German switched to teaching in Yiddish and Hebrew.

In 1920, 24,725 Jews lived in Riga. Latvia's economy was severely damaged in World War I, and Latvian Jews played an important role in its recovery,<ref name=":2" /> mainly through the import of goods and currencies. In 1927, the Betar movement was founded in the city.<ref name=":2" /> Other sports movements also operated in the city, such as the Peretz Sports Association, HaKoach, Maccabi, and Hapoel. By 1934, schools, kindergartens, and a teacher training institute operated in Riga under the auspices of the "Tsentraler Yiddisher Shul Organizatsye" (TsYShO - Central Organization for Yiddish Schools). In addition, a gymnasium where the language of instruction was Hebrew and a music school operated in the city under the auspices of the Society for the Advancement of Science and Arts in Latvia. The city also had a Jewish theater, a drama club, two choirs, several libraries, and several publishing houses. In 1934, religious educational institutions came under the auspices of Agudath Israel. In 1935, there were 43,000 Jews in the city. On the eve of World War II, almost half of Latvia's Jews, 46.7% of Latvia's Jews, lived in Riga.<ref name=":2" />
[[File:Bundesarchiv Bild 183-N1212-319, Riga, Juden müssen aus dem Fahrdamm gehen..jpg|thumb|Jews in Riga wearing the yellow patch, around 1942]]

== World War II ==
With the outbreak of World War II and under the influence of the [[Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact|Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact]], the [[Soviet Union]] invaded Latvia as a whole, and Riga in particular. From the summer of 1940, Soviet rule was established in the area. Many young Jews migrated to Riga from other nearby cities and settled there. In a short time, the number of Jews in the city rose to 50,000. The Soviet regime gradually dismantled the community institutions and [[Zionist Movement|Zionist movements]].<ref name=":4">{{Cite web |title=Riga |url=https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/riga |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=encyclopedia.ushmm.org |language=en}}</ref>

On June 14, 1941, six thousand Jews from Riga were exiled to [[Siberia]]. Five days after the Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact was violated, the Soviet Union retreated from Latvia. Five thousand Jews joined the retreating Soviet forces and were concentrated in camps and villages. Some of the Jews joined the [[Red Army]]. On July 1 of that year, Riga was occupied by the [[Wehrmacht|Nazi German army]]. On July 21, 1941, it was decided to concentrate the Jews in a [[ghetto]].<ref name=":3" />

On July 23, the Jews were ordered to wear a yellow star and register at the police station. They were also forced to hand over their property to the Germans and were required to perform forced labor. The Riga Ghetto was established in the "[[Moscow districts|Moscow District]]," on the outskirts of the city. According to an order issued by the Nazi authorities, all Jews had to be relocated to the ghetto no later than October 25. In the ghetto, a "Council of Elders" operated, headed by Michael Elyashiv.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Riga - jewish heritage, history, synagogues, museums, areas and sites to visit |url=https://jguideeurope.org/en/region/latvia/riga/ |access-date=2024-06-07 |website=JGuide Europe |language=en}}</ref> <ref name=":4" />

On November 26, the northeastern part of the ghetto was evacuated of its residents and fenced off. This part was called the "Small Ghetto" and later served as a labor camp for able-bodied men who survived the Rumbula Forest massacre. By the end of the year, most of Riga's Jews, about 27,000 people, had been murdered. The survivors, approximately 4,800 people, were moved to the small ghetto. The large ghetto (the remaining part of the ghetto) was filled with Jews transferred to the Riga Ghetto from other ghettos, mainly from the Kovno Ghetto. In June 1942, 15 people who smuggled medicines and food into the ghetto were murdered. On October 28 of that year, a group of Jews attempting to escape from the ghetto was murdered. One member of the group managed to return to the ghetto and survived. In retaliation, the Germans executed 108 Jews and 42 Jewish policemen were shot. On November 2, 1943, the second major Aktion took place in the ghetto, and 2,000 people were murdered. The remaining Jews were sent to extermination camps in Poland, to [[Treblinka extermination camp|Treblinka]] and [[Auschwitz concentration camp|Auschwitz]]. On October 13, 1944, the city was liberated by the Red Army.<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":3" />

== Commemoration ==
In 1989, the "[[Jews in Latvia (museum)|Jews in Latvia Museum]]" was established in Riga, focusing on the research and preservation of all testimonies related to Latvian Jewry and specifically the Jews of Riga. In September 2010, the "Riga Ghetto and Latvian Holocaust Museum" was opened in the ghetto area. The museum features a reconstructed Jewish apartment and a reconstructed barrack from that period. The site also includes a reconstructed street with a gate and barbed wire fence. Along the street, there are signs with the names of more than 75,000 Latvian Jews who perished in the Holocaust. In the Rumbula Forest, a memorial site was established for the Jews massacred there, centered around a memorial shaped like a menorah, surrounded by stones arranged in the shape of a Star of David with the names of the victims engraved on them.<gallery>
File:Riga Ghetto museum (6).JPG|A wall of the names of the murdered in the Riga Ghetto Museum and the Latvian Jewish Holocaust
File:Riga Ghetto museum (1).JPG|Memorial in the Riga Ghetto Museum
File:Rumbula forest memorial near Riga.JPG|A monument in Rumbula forest to the memory of the Jews of the Riga ghetto who were [[Rumbula massacre|murdered on the site]]
File:5-Riga Syna-DSC04895.JPG|[[Peitav Synagogue]], the only synagogue in Riga to have survived the Holocaust and to be currently active
</gallery>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

[[Category:Jews and Judaism in Riga| ]]
[[Category:Jewish history by city]]
[[Category:Jewish Latvian history]]

Vincenzo Bellini

2024-07-09T10:20:30Z

Cyon: /* Songs */ capitalization

{{short description|Italian opera composer (1801–1835)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2023}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2021}}
{{Infobox classical composer
| image = Lucchini-Bellini.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Bellini, portrait by Pietro Lucchini
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1801|11|03|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Catania]], [[Kingdom of Sicily]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1835|09|23|1801|11|03|df=y}}
| death_place = Paris, France
| era =
}}
'''Vincenzo Salvatore Carmelo Francesco Bellini''' ({{IPA-it|vinˈtʃɛntso salvaˈtoːre karˈmɛːlo franˈtʃesko belˈliːni|lang|It-Vincenzo Bellini.ogg}}; 3 November 1801 – 23 September 1835) was an Italian [[opera]] composer,<ref>The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica, [https://www.britannica.com/biography/Vincenzo-Bellini "Vincenzo Bellini, Italian Composer"], ''Encyclopædia Britannica'', 15 January 2018.</ref><ref name=L&M1>{{harvnb|Lippmann|McGuire|1998|p=389}}</ref> who was known for his long-flowing melodic lines for which he was named "the Swan of [[Catania]]".<ref>Giovanni (no surname provided) to "Uncle Ignazio" ("identified as Ignazio Giuffrida-Moschetti, Catanese friend of Bellini" in Weinstock), 18 January 1832, quoted in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=109–110}}: the actual original wording was "the Swan of Sicily, or to phrase it better, of Catania".</ref> Many years later, in 1898, [[Giuseppe Verdi]] "praised the broad curves of Bellini's melody: 'there are extremely long melodies as no-one else had ever made before'."<ref>Verdi to Camille Belaigue, 2 May 1898, {{harvnb|Lippmann|McGuire|1998|p=392}}</ref>

A large amount of what is known about Bellini's life and activity comes from surviving letters that were written, except for a short period, throughout his lifetime to [[Francesco Florimo]], whom he had met as a fellow student in Naples and with whom he maintained a lifelong friendship. Other sources of information come from correspondence saved by other friends and business acquaintances.

Bellini was the quintessential composer of the Italian ''[[bel canto]]'' era of the early 19th century, and his work has been summed up by the London critic Tim Ashley as:
<blockquote>... also hugely influential, as much admired by other composers as he was by the public. Verdi raved about his "long, long, long melodies such as no one before had written." [[Richard Wagner|Wagner]], who rarely liked anyone but himself, was spellbound by Bellini's almost uncanny ability to match music with text and psychology. [[Franz Liszt|Liszt]] and [[Frédéric Chopin|Chopin]] professed themselves fans. Of the 19th-century giants, only [[Hector Berlioz|Berlioz]] demurred. Those [[musicologist]]s who consider Bellini to be merely a melancholic tunesmith are now in the minority.<ref name=TIM>Tim Ashley, [https://www.theguardian.com/education/2001/nov/02/arts.highereducation "Opera must make you weep and die"], ''[[The Guardian]]'' (London), 1 November 2001.</ref></blockquote>

In considering which of his operas can be seen to be his greatest successes over the almost two hundred years since his death, ''[[Il pirata]]'' laid much of the groundwork in 1827, achieving very early recognition in comparison to [[Gaetano Donizetti|Donizetti]]'s having written thirty operas before his major 1830 triumph with ''[[Anna Bolena]]''. Both ''[[I Capuleti e i Montecchi]]'' at [[La Fenice]] in 1830 and ''[[La sonnambula]]'' in Milan in 1831 reached new triumphal heights, although initially ''[[Norma (opera)|Norma]]'', given at [[La Scala]] in 1831 did not fare as well until later performances elsewhere. "The genuine triumph"{{sfn|Lippmann|McGuire|1998|pp=389–390}} of ''[[I puritani]]'' in January 1835 in Paris capped a significant career. Certainly, ''Il pirata'', ''Capuleti'', ''La sonnambula'', ''Norma'', and ''I puritani'' are regularly performed today.<ref>[http://operabase.com/oplist.cgi?id=none&lang=en&is=&by=Bellini&loc=&stype=abs&sd=1&sm=1&sy=2012&etype=abs&ed=&em=&ey= List of "671 performances of 146 productions in 95 cities"] on [[Operabase]], from 1 January 2012 into 2015 on operabase.com. Retrieved 24 June 2014</ref>

After his initial success in Naples, most of the rest of his short life was spent outside of both Sicily and Naples, those years being followed with his living and composing in Milan and Northern Italy, and—after a visit to London—then came his final masterpiece in Paris, ''[[I puritani]]''. Only nine months later, Bellini died in [[Puteaux]], France, at the age of 33.

==Catania: early life==
[[File:Vincenzo Bellini-Catania birthplace c1800.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Bellini's birthplace, the [[Palazzo Gravina-Cruyllas]], Catania, circa 1800]]
Born in [[Catania]], at the time part of the [[Kingdom of Sicily]], the eldest<ref name=Weinstock1>{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|loc="1801–1819" pp. 4–13}}</ref> of seven children in the family, he became a child prodigy within a highly musical family. His grandfather, Vincenzo Tobia Bellini, had studied at the [[Music Conservatories of Naples|conservatory in Naples]] and, in Catania from 1767 forward, had been an organist and teacher, as had Vincenzo's father, Rosario.<ref name=L&M1/>

An anonymous twelve-page hand-written history, held in Catania's [[Museo Civico Belliniano]], states that he could sing an aria by [[Valentino Fioravanti]] at eighteen months, that he began studying [[music theory]] at two years of age and the piano at three.<ref>{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=5–6}} refers to "an anonymous précis of his life, twelve handwritten pages" held in Catania's Museo Belliniaro</ref> By the age of five, he could apparently play "marvelously".<ref>Quoted by {{harvnb|Lippmann|McGuire|1998|p=389}}, which also references the anonymous précis.</ref> The document states that Bellini's first five pieces were composed when he was just six years old and "at seven he was taught Latin, modern languages, rhetoric, and philosophy".<ref name=L&M1/> Bellini's biographer [[Herbert Weinstock]] regards some of these accounts as no more than myths, not being supported from other, more reliable sources. Additionally, he makes the point in regard to Bellini's apparent knowledge of languages and philosophy: "Bellini never became a well-educated man".<ref name=Weinstock1/>

One critic, Stellios Galatopoulos, deliberates the "facts" presented in the précis, but also provides a reliable source for these compositions, Galatopoulos expresses some skepticism regarding the young Bellini's child prodigy status.{{sfn|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=16–23}}

After 1816, Bellini began living with his grandfather, from whom he received his first music lessons. Soon after, the young composer began to write compositions. Among them were the nine ''Versetti da cantarsi il Venerdi Santo'', eight of which were based on texts by [[Metastasio]].

By 1818 Bellini had independently completed several additional orchestral pieces and at least two settings of the [[Mass (music)|Mass Ordinary]]: one in D Major, the other in G Major, both of which survive and have been commercially recorded.

He was ready for further study. For well-off students, this would include moving to Naples. While his family wasn't wealthy enough to support that lifestyle, Bellini's growing reputation could not be overlooked. His break came when Stefano Notabartolo, the duca di San Martino e Montalbo and his duchess, became the new [[intendente]] of the province of Catania. They encouraged the young man to petition the city fathers for a stipend to support his musical studies. This was successfully achieved in May 1819 with unanimous agreement for a four-year pension to allow him to study at the [[Music conservatories of Naples#Conservatorio di San Sebastiano|Real Collegio di Musica di San Sebastiano]] in Naples. Thus, he left Catania in July carrying letters of introduction to several powerful individuals, including Giovanni Carafa who was the ''intendente'' of the Real Collegio as well as being in charge of the city's royal theatres. The young Bellini was to live in Naples for the following eight years.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=12}}

==Naples: musical education==
[[File:Nicola Antonio Zingarelli.jpg|thumb|Composer [[Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli]]]]
[[File:Adelson e Salvini autograph.jpg|thumb|''Adelson e Salvini'': autograph of the score]]
The Conservatorio di San Sebastiano (as it had been named when the original Real Collegio di Musica, established in 1806 and then renamed as such in 1808) had moved to more spacious facilities close to the church of Gesù Novo and the building formerly occupied by the nuns of San Sabastiano, was run by the government and there, students, who wore a semi-military uniform, were obliged to live under a tight daily regimen of classes in principal subjects, in singing and instrumental coaching, plus basic education. Their days were long, going from early morning mass at 5:15 am to finally ending by 10 pm.{{sfn|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=28–30}} Although beyond the normal age for admission, Bellini had submitted ten pieces of music for consideration; these clearly demonstrated his talent, although he did need to do remedial work to correct some of his faulty technique.

The focus of study was on the masters of the Neapolitan school and the orchestral works of [[Joseph Haydn|Haydn]] and [[Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart|Mozart]], with the emphasis put upon the Italian classical era composers such as [[Giovanni Battista Pergolesi|Pergolesi]] and [[Paisiello]], rather than the "modern-day" approaches of composers such as [[Rossini]].{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|pp=14–15}} The young student's first teacher was [[Giovanni Furno]], with whom "he studied exercises in harmony and accompaniment";<ref name=WEIN17-18>{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=17–18}}</ref> another, from whom he learned [[counterpoint]], was the composer of over 50 operas, [[Giacomo Tritto]], but whom he found to be "old fashioned and doctrinaire".<ref name=WEIN17-18/> However, the artistic director of the school was the opera composer, [[Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli]].<ref name=L&M1/>

By 1822/23, Bellini had become a member of a class which he taught: the older man appears to have recognised Bellini's potential and treated his student like a son, giving him some firm advice:
<blockquote>If your compositions "sing", your music will most certainly please. ... Therefore, if you train your heart to give you melody and then you set it forth as simply as possible, your success will be assured. You will become a composer. Otherwise, you will end up being a good organist in some village.<ref>{{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002}}, quoting Zingarelli, p. 34</ref></blockquote>

It was during these early years at the Collegio that Bellini met Francesco Florimo with whom he had a lifetime of correspondence. Other fellow students—who were to become opera composers—included Francesco Stabile and the Ricci brothers—[[Luigi Ricci (composer)|Luigi]] and [[Federico Ricci|Federico]]—as well as [[Saverio Mercadante]] who, by this time, was a graduate student.

Another person to whom the young student/composer was introduced was [[Gaetano Donizetti]] whose ninth opera—which had been a great success in Rome—was given at the [[Teatro di San Carlo]]. About 50 years later, Florimo gave an account of the meeting of the two men: "Carlo Conti [one of Bellini's tutors] said to Bellini and me, "Go and hear Donizetti's ''[[La zingara]]'', for which my admiration increases at every performance." After hearing the opera, Bellini acquired the score, convinced Conti to introduce him, and [Florimo] reports that Bellini's reaction was that he was "a truly beautiful, big man, and his noble countenance—sweet, but at the same time majestic—arouses affection as well as respect."<ref>Florimo, quoted in {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=32–33}}</ref>

=== First Naples compositions ===
Increasingly, Bellini did better and better in his studies: in January 1820 he passed his examinations in theory, and was successful enough to gain an annual scholarship, which meant that his stipend from Catania could be used to help his family.<ref name=WEIN-ED>{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=14–23}}</ref> In the following January he was equally successful and, to fulfill his obligations to write music for Catania – a condition of his scholarship – he sent a ''Messa di Gloria'' in A Minor for soloists, choir and orchestra, which was performed the following October.

Besides this melodious work, his output from these study years in Naples included two other settings of the Mass: a full Ordinary in E Minor and a second full Ordinary in G Minor, both of which probably date from 1823. There are two settings of the ''[[Salve Regina]]'' (one in A Major for solo soprano and organ, the other in F Minor for choir and orchestra), but these are less accomplished and may date from the first year of study after leaving Catania, 1820. His brief two-movement Oboe Concerto in E-flat from 1823 also survives and has been recorded by no less than the [[Berlin Philharmonic]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.deutschegrammophon.com/en/cat/4297502|title = Catalogue}}</ref>

Bellini's involvement in Zingarelli's class took place over the 1822/23 school year. By January 1824, after passing examinations in which he did well, he attained the title ''primo maestrino'', requiring him to tutor younger students and allowing him a room of his own in the ''collegio'' and visits to the [[Teatro di San Carlo]] on Thursdays and Sundays,<ref name=WEIN-ED/> where he saw his first opera by Rossini, ''[[Semiramide]]''. While Weinstock gives an account of how he was "clearly captivated by the music of Rossini [and] put Rossini on a pedestal", he relates that, returning from ''Semiramide'' Bellini was unusually quiet and then "suddenly exclaimed to his companions, 'Do you know what I think? After ''Semiramide'', it's futile for us to try and achieve anything!'"{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=35}}

But a tougher challenge confronted the young composer: how to win the hand of young Maddalena Fumarolis, whom he had met as a guest in her home and to whom he had become music tutor. As their affair became obvious to her parents, they were forbidden to see each other. Bellini was determined to obtain the parents' permission for them to marry, and some writers regard this as the propelling reason for his writing his first opera.

=== ''Adelson e Salvini'' ===
The impetus to write this opera came about in late summer of 1824, when his ''primo maestrino'' status at the conservatory resulted in an assignment to compose an opera for presentation in the institute's ''teatrino''.<ref name=WEIN-ED/> This became ''[[Adelson e Salvini]]'', an ''opera semi-seria'' (half-serious) to a libretto by the Neapolitan [[Andrea Leone Tottola]], who had written the one for Donizetti's ''La zingara''. ''Adelson'' was first given sometime between mid-January and mid-March 1825,<ref>{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=37–38}}: Weinstock explains that the reason for the uncertainty over the exact date is due to a series of deaths of prominent people (including Bourbon King Ferdinand I) which caused all public entertainment to stop during periods of mourning.</ref> and featured an all-male cast of fellow students. It proved to be so popular among the student body that it was performed every Sunday for a year.

With that achievement behind him, it is believed that the young Bellini, who had been away from home for six years, set out for Catania to visit his family. However, some sources attribute the visit to 1824, others to 1825. However, it is known that he was back in Naples by the summer or early autumn of 1825 in order to fulfill a contract to write an opera for the San Carlo or one of the other royal theatres, the Teatro Fondo.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=30}}

==Beginnings of a career==
[[File:Carlo De Falco - Ritratto di Francesco I.jpg|thumb|King [[Francis I of the Two Sicilies|Francesco I]], who gave his personal approval to Bellini's ''[[Bianca e Gernando]]'']]
Following the presentation of ''Adelson e Salvini'' and while he was in Milan, Bellini—requesting help from Florimo—began to make some revisions, shortening the opera to two acts in the hope that it might be given stagings by [[Domenico Barbaja]], the Intendant at the Teato di San Carlo since 1809. But little is known about exactly how much Bellini or Florimo contributed to the revisions, and Weinstock asserts that no performances were ever given after 1825, but in March 1829, we find Bellini writing to Florimo that "I have written you the changes that you should make in ''Adelson'' ".<ref>Bellini to Florimo, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=9, 27–28}}</ref>

In the summer or early autumn of 1825 Bellini began work on what was to become his first professionally produced opera. A contract between the Conservatory and the royal theatres obliged the Conservatory—when it nominated a sufficiently talented student—to require that student to write a cantata or one-act opera to be presented on a gala evening in one of the theatres.<ref name=WEIN30>{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=30–31}}</ref> After Zingarelli used his influence to secure this honour for his promising student, Bellini was able to obtain agreement that he could write a full-length opera and, furthermore, that the libretto did not have to be written by Tottola, the theatres' official dramatic poet. However, as Intendant of the San Carlo, "Barbaja was the chief beneficiary: 'With a small investment he found among those young men the one who would lead him to large profits'" notes Florimo.<ref>Florimo 1882, ''Bellini: Memorie e lettere'', in {{harvnb|Eisenbeiss|2013|p=155}}</ref>

=== ''Bianca e Gernando'' ===
The young composer chose [[Domenico Gilardoni]], a young writer who then prepared his first libretto, which he named ''Bianca e Fernando'', based on an 1820 play, ''Bianca e Fernando alla tomba di Carlo IV, Duca d'Agrigento'' and set in Sicily.

However, the title ''Bianca e Fernando'' had to be changed, because Ferdinando was the name of the [[Ferdinand II of the Two Sicilies|heir to the throne]], and no form of it could be used on a royal stage. After some delays caused by King [[Francis I of the Two Sicilies|Francesco I]] forcing postponement, the opera—now named ''[[Bianca e Gernando]]''—was given its premiere performance at the Teatro di San Carlo on 30 May 1826, Prince Ferdinando's name day.

It was very successful, helped by the approval of the King, who broke the custom of there being no applause at a performance attended by royalty.<ref name=GALA54>{{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=54–55}}</ref> It was also attended by Donizetti who enthusiastically wrote to [[Simon Mayr]]: "It is beautiful, beautiful, beautiful, especially as it is his first opera."<ref>Donzietti to Mayr, quoted in {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|p=54}}</ref> Bellini's music was highly regarded, with the ''Giornale delle Due Sicilie'' on 13 June noting that "[several of the arias and duets] are some of the most laudable pieces of new music heard in recent times at the [San Carlo]."<ref name=GALA54/> However, there were reservations about Gilardoni's contribution.

Within nine months, in February/March 1827, Domenico Barbaja offered Bellini a commission for an opera to be presented in the autumn of 1827 at [[Teatro alla Scala|La Scala]] in Milan, of which between 1821 and 1832, Barbaja was also part of the management.{{sfn|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=57–58}}<ref name="WEIN30–34">{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=30–34}}</ref>

==Northern Italy==
[[File:Felice Romani-younger.jpg|thumb|Librettist Felice Romani]]
[[File:Vincenzo Bellini (1801 -1835), by Anonymous.jpg|thumb|Bellini around 1830 (artist unknown)]]
Bellini spent 1827 to 1833 mostly in Milan, never holding any official position within an opera company and living solely from the income produced from his compositions, for which he was able to ask higher than usual fees.

Upon his arrival, he met Antonio Villa of La Scala and composer [[Saverio Mercadante]] whose new opera, ''Il Montanaro'' was in rehearsal. The latter introduced him to [[Francesco Pollini|Francesco]] and Marianna Pollini (an older couple, the husband a retired professor of piano, the wife a better-than-amateur musician) who immediately took the young man under their wing.

In addition, Bellini was introduced to the librettist [[Felice Romani]], who proposed the subject of the composer's first project, ''[[Il pirata]]'', to which the young man willingly agreed especially when he realised that the story "provided several passionate and dramatic situations.. [and]..that such Romantic characters were then an innovation on the operatic stage."{{sfn|Galatopoulos|2002|p=62}} A strong professional relationship with Romani began from that time; he became Bellini's primary creative partner, providing the libretti for six of Bellini's operas which followed, in addition to about 100 libretti written for the major composers of the day, up to and including Verdi.<ref name=EIS>{{harvnb|Eisenbeiss|2013|p=157}}</ref> As has been observed, "no other Italian opera composer of the time showed such an attachment to a single librettist"<ref name=L&M389/> and although Romani was known to treat composers poorly, he evidently had great respect for Bellini, even acceding to his requests for revisions.<ref name=CICC>{{harvnb|Cicconetti|1859|pp=39–40}}</ref> For his part, Bellini admired "the sonorous and elegance of the poet's verses"<ref name=L&M389/>

While in Milan, "[Bellini] quickly gained an entrée into higher social circles",<ref name=L&M389>{{harvnb|Lippmann|McGuire|1998|p=389}}</ref> although he also stayed for months at a time with friends, the Cantù and the Turina families. It was with Giuditta Turina that he began an affair in 1828 during the premiere performances of ''Bianca e Fernando'' in Genoa.

The four years in Northern Italy between 1827 and 1831 produced four great masterpieces, ''[[Il pirata]]'', ''[[I Capuleti e i Montecchi]]'', ''[[La sonnambula]]'', and ''[[Norma (opera)|Norma]]'', along with a revival and a setback.

=== ''Il pirata'' for Milan ===
The collaboration with Romani on ''Il pirata'' began in May 1827 and, by August, the music was being written. By then, the composer was aware that he was to write music for his favourite tenor [[Giovanni Battista Rubini]] and the soprano was to be [[Henriette Méric-Lalande]]. Both singers had starred in ''Bianca'' in the original 1826 production. The strong cast also included [[Antonio Tamburini]], a major bass-baritone of the time. But rehearsals did not progress without some difficulties, as both Weinstock and Galatopoulos recount: it appears that Bellini found Rubini, while singing beautifully, to be lacking expressiveness: he was urged to "throw yourself with all your soul into the character you are representing" and to use [your] body, "to accompany your singing with gestures", as well as to act with [your] voice.{{sfn|Galatopoulos|2002|p=64}} It appears that Bellini's exhortations bore fruit, based on his own account of the audience's reactions to the first performance,<ref name=WEIN40>{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=40–41}}</ref> as well as the reaction of the ''[[Gazzetta privilegiata di Milano]]'' of 2 December which noted that this opera "introduced us to Rubini's dual personality as a singer and actor". The reviewer continued to declare that this duality had never been expressed in other operas in which he had performed.<ref>''Gazzetta privilegiata'' review, in {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=67–68}}</ref>

The premiere, given on 17 October 1827, was "an immediate and then an increasing, success. By Sunday, December 2, when the season ended, it had been sung to fifteen full houses".<ref name=WEIN40 /> For Rubini, "it marked the defining performance for the tenor",<ref name=EIS/> and the newspaper reviews which followed all agreed with the composer's own assessment.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=42}}

After its Milanese debut, the opera received very successful performances in Vienna in February 1828 and also in Naples three months later. Both productions starred Rubini, Tamburini, and—in the role of Imogene—Rubini's wife, Adelaide Comelli-Rubini, about whom Bellini had initial misgivings, although it appears that she acquitted herself very well. By this time, Bellini had begun to achieve international fame.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|pp=43–44}}

=== ''Bianca'' revised ===
After ''Il pirata'', Bellini remained in Milan with the hope of securing another commission. One came from Genoa via [[Bartolomeo Merelli]] on 13 January 1828 for a new opera for presentation on 7 April. However, without knowing which singers would be engaged, he was unwilling to commit at that time, but remained in hope of something definite from La Scala for the autumn. When no alternatives appeared, he accepted Genoa's offer in February, but it was then too late to write anything new. He immediately proposed a revival and re-working of ''Bianca e Gernando'', this time with the original title ''[[Bianca e Fernando]]'', there being no royal by the name of Fernando in the House of Savoy.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=46}} Romani wrote to Florimo in Naples and told him that he had taken on the re-construction of the libretto, with the result that "out of the whole of ''Bianca'', the only pieces entirely unchanged are the big duet and the ''romanza''; everything else is altered, and about half of it is new",<ref>Romani to Florimo, approx. February 1828, in {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|p=73}}</ref> Bellini then re-arranged the music to suit the singers' voices, now knowing that the Bianca was to be [[Adelaide Tosi]] and the Fernando to be [[Giovanni David]].

As Bellini reports, he had problems with Tosi wanting changes to be made to a ''[[cavatina]]'' and a ''[[stretto|stretta]]'' in one scene, but he stuck to his own opinion, proving to be correct when he reported the audience's reaction to Florimo: "the public was very happy with the entire opera, particularly with the second act".<ref>Bellini to Florimo, 10 April 1828, in {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|p=95}}</ref> Overall, the first performance was even greater than it had been in Naples, and the opera was given a total of 21 times. However, critical reaction was not as positive as that of the audience: "The second act is a long bore" stated ''L'Eco di Milano'', although the ''Gazzetta di Genova'' was more helpful, noting "the more we listen to the style of the music, the more we appreciate its merit".<ref>Press reactions to ''Bianca'' in {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=96–97}}</ref>

=== After ''Bianca'' ===
Bellini remained in Genoa until 30 April and then returned to Milan, but with no specific opportunity in place. His initial opposition to Comelli-Rubini being allowed to reprise the role of Imogene in ''Il pirata'' for performances in Naples (as she had done in Vienna—but successfully) was proved to be wrong, since she did sing well there and received general approval. But this issue had caused complications in his relationship with Barbaja, who controlled both theatres, and when he visited Milan in June, he offered Bellini the opportunity to choose between Naples and Milan as the venue for his next opera. For the composer, the decision hung on the availability of singers for each of the houses, especially because Rubini was contracted to sing only in Naples.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=53}} However, by 16 June, he had decided on the location to be Milan, and then signed a contract to write a new opera for the Carnival season for a fee of one thousands ducati, compared to 150 ducati for his first opera.<ref name=WEIN55>{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=55}}</ref>

=== ''La straniera'' for Milan ===

For ''[[La straniera]]'', Bellini received a fee which was sufficient for him to be able to make his living solely by composing music, and this new work became an even greater success<ref name=L&M389/> than ''Il pirata'' had been. As for singers, it appears there was some doubt about the tenor, but that Henriette Méric-Lalande, [[Luigi Lablache]] (or Tamburini), would be available. In consultation with Romani as to the subject, it was agreed that it would be based on the novel ''L'étrangère'' (''Il solitario'') of 1825 by Charles-Victor Prévot, vicomte d'Arlincourt, and planned for the premiere on the opening night of the season on 26 December.

However, by 20 September, Bellini told Florimo that he did not think the performance could take place as scheduled due to Romani being ill. In addition, he was concerned about who would sing the tenor role when he had been unable to obtain Rubini's release from his Naples contract. Berardo Calvari (known as Winter) was rejected because audiences had disliked him the previous July when he appeared in both a [[Giovanni Pacini|Pacini]] and a Donizetti opera at La Scala.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=63}} Fortunately, having received good reports of the young tenor [[Domenico Reina]], he was able to secure his services, describing him in a letter to Florimo as "one who will want to do himself honour; everyone tells me that his voice is beautiful, and that he has all the acting and spirit one could wish for."<ref>Bellini to Raina, in {{harvnb|Cambi|1943}} and quoted in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=63}}</ref>

Following Romani's recovery, the delivery of the libretto arrived piecemeal, but Bellini set to work again; progress was slow. By 7 January 1829, with Romani having recovered and set off for Venice to fulfill a contract, the composer was "almost up to the 2nd act". Filippo Cicconetti, in his 1859 biography, gives an account of Bellini's working methods, explaining how he set texts to music always with the words in front of him in order to see how inspired to compose he might become. When it came time to compose the final aria ''Or sei pago, ol ciel tremendo'', the librettist's words gave him no inspiration at all and, at their next meeting, Romani agreed to re-write the text. Returning within half an hour, the second version left Bellini equally cold—as did a third draft. Finally, when asked what it was that he was seeking, Bellini replied: "I want a thought that will be at one and the same time a prayer, an imprecation, a warning, a delirium ...". A fourth draft was quickly prepared: "Have I entered into your spirit?" asked the librettist—and he was embraced by the young composer.<ref name=CICC/>

Rehearsals began in early January with the premiere planned for 14 February 1829; it was an immediate and resounding success with the ''Gazzetta privilegiata di Milano'' on 16 February declaring it to be a:
<blockquote>clamorous success..[with] the poet [serving] the composer well, and the composer could not have served the singers better; all competed to render themselves pleasing to the public, and succeeded in such a way as to be applauded greatly.<ref name=PAPERS>''La Gazzetta'', 16 and 19 February 1829, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=66}}</ref></blockquote>

Three days later, the same publication praised the quality of the music, describing Bellini as "a modern Orpheus" for the beauty of his melodies.<ref name=PAPERS/> Reporting to Romani, who was still in Venice, Bellini gave an account of the success: "the thing went as we never had imagined it. We were in seventh heaven. With [this letter] receive my gratitude more than ever ..."<ref>Bellini to Romani, 15 February 1829, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=67}}</ref> Others wrote equally enthusiastic reports, with abundant praise being given to the singers as well. However, there were detractors who criticised both the opera and its composer: its new style and its restless harmonic shifts into remote keys did not please all. 45 years later it was stated that "Bellini's style was abstruse, discontinuous, distorted, and lacking in distinction, that it alternated among the ''serio'' and the ''buffo'' and the ''semi-serio''..."<ref>Giuseppe Rovani, 1874, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=68–69}}</ref>

=== ''Zaira'': a setback in Parma ===
[[File:Teatro regio.jpg|thumb|The Nuovo Teatro Ducale in 1829]]
[[File:Teatro Regio Parma Apertura.jpg|thumb|Poster for Nuovo's opening night]]
''[[Zaira (opera)|Zaira]]'' was the opera which came into being following discussions with Barbaja in Milan in June 1828 for a second opera for La Scala. At around the same time, Bellini reported to Florimo that he had been approached by Merelli about writing an inaugural opera for the soon-to-be completed Teatro Ducale (now the [[Teatro Regio (Parma)|Teatro Regio]]) in Parma which was due to open during the following year<ref name=WEIN55/> on 12 May 1829.<ref name="Holden">{{harvnb|Kimbell|2001|p=49}}</ref> Initially, the opera was to be ''Carlo di Borgogna'', but composer and librettist decided to tackle "a drama so ... hallowed as [[Voltaire]]'s ''[[Zaïre (play)|Zaïre]]''",{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=75}} but this proved to be more challenging for Romani than first imagined.

With this opera, Bellini encountered "the first serious setback of a hitherto brilliant career".<ref name="Holden"/> Several reasons have been put forward: Lippmann and McGuire note, it was because "Bellini showed too little enthusiasm for the undertaking".<ref name=L&M390/> Another writer attributes it to Parma's traditional love of and favouritism towards the music of [[Gioachino Rossini|Rossini]],<ref name="Holden"/> while yet another notes that a combination of the composer being constantly seen in cafes around the city (when it was assumed that he should have been composing) and the fact that Romani had included a long explanation of the difficulties of adapting Voltaire in the printed libretto provided to all operagoers. The librettist was critical of his own work: "the style should have been more careful, and that here and there, certain repetitions of phrases and concepts should have been edited out". At the same time, he stated that, with music composed to those verses now in place, "I was not permitted to go back over what already had been done; and poetry and music were finished in less than a month".<ref>Felice Romani's ''Promio dell'autore'', in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=76}}</ref><ref name="Lippmann">Friedrich Lippmann, (Trans. T. A. Shaw) "''Ziara'' Yesterday and Today" in booklet accompanying the Nuevo Era recording.</ref> This short period of time compares to the months which, for example, it took Bellini to write ''Il pirata''.

In fact, Bellini arrived in Parma on 17 March giving him 56 days before the opening, but he then learned that some of the singers would only arrive 14 days before the date of the premiere, a date that was—in theory— unchangeable. In fact, it had to be changed due to the inability of Lalande to arrive in time for sufficient rehearsal. Both composer and librettist were somewhat dilatory, delaying work as much and as long as possible. Count Sanvitale's request on 17 April, asking "to let me know the reasons why our copyists are kept idle", did not receive much of response to satisfy the theatre's management.<ref name=GALA147>{{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=147–150}}</ref> Eventually, both men got down to work and finished on time, although the premiere was delayed by four days.

The general impression given by reports in the press was that, overall, the music was weak, although some numbers and the trio were liked. However, for the most part, the singers were applauded, even if the composer received little. The opera received eight performances, followed by some poorly received ones in Florence in 1836, and then it disappeared until 1976.{{sfn|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=150–151}}

==Major achievements==
After the poor response in Parma to ''Zaira'', Bellini stayed with Ferdinando and Giuditta Turina's family for a short period in May/June and then returned to Milan by the end of June and discovered that his grandfather, then 85, had died in Catania. No contract for another opera in sight, except for the possibility of working with the [[Teatro La Fenice]] in Venice. As is revealed by Herbert Weinstock, there is limited knowledge of what happened to Bellini between June 1833 and February 1834, since no letters to Florimo from that period have survived, and the only sources are those letters sent to others.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=78}}

[[Giovanni Pacini]], another Catanese composer, was still in Milan in late June after the well-received premiere on 10 June of his opera ''Il Talismano'' at La Scala, where it went on to receive a total of 16 performances. To Bellini, he appeared to be a rival,<ref name=WEIN79>{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=79–82}}</ref> and with his recent success, Pacini received offers to compose an opera for both Turin and Venice for the Carnival season. He accepted both offers, but the La Fenice impresario included a proviso that if he were to be unable to fulfill the Venice contract, then it would be transferred to Bellini.

Bellini then became preoccupied with staging a revival of his ''Il pirata'' during the summer season at the Teatro Canobbiana because La Scala was closed for repairs. ''Il Pirata'' was staged with the original cast and again was a triumph: it received 24 consecutive performances between 16 July and 23 August 1829, thus outnumbering Pacini's.<ref name=WEIN79/>

During July and August, the composer [[Gioachino Rossini]] visited Milan on his way to Bologna. He saw the ''Il Pirata'' production and met Bellini; the two men were taken with each other, to the extent that when the younger composer was in Paris a year or two later, he developed a very strong bond with Rossini.<ref>Bellini to his uncle, Vincenzo Ferlito, 28 August 1829, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=80–81}}</ref>

A firm offer of a contract for a new opera for Venice appeared in the autumn, a contract which also included a provision that ''Il pirata'' would be given during the Carnival 1830 season. Tearing himself away from dalliances with Mrs. Turina, by mid-December Bellini was in Venice where [[Giuseppe Persiani]]'s ''Constantino in Arles'' was in rehearsal with the same singers who were to perform in ''Pirata'': they were Giuditta Grisi, the tenor Lorenzo Bonfigli, and Giulio Pellegrini.

===''I Capuleti e i Montecchi'': Venice, March 1830===
[[File:Maria Malibran as Bellini's Romeo-1832.jpg|thumb|[[Maria Malibran]] as Romeo-Bologna, 1832]]
With rehearsals for ''Pirata'' underway in late December, Bellini was given notice by the La Fenice impresario, Alessandro Lanari, that it was doubtful whether Pacini would be present in time to stage an opera and that a contract was to be prepared with the proviso that it would only become effective on 14 January. Accepting the offer 5 January, Bellini stated that he would set Romani's libretto for ''Giulietta Capellio'', that he required 45 days between receipt of the libretto and the first performance, and that he would accept 325 napoleoni d'oro (about 8,000 lire).<ref>Bellini to Lanari, 5 January 1830, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=83}}: Weinstock notes that Romani had used "Capellio" as Juliet's last name in the libretto.</ref>

The tentative contract deadline was extended until 20 January, but by that date Romani was in Venice, having already re-worked much of his earlier libretto which he had written for [[Nicola Vaccai]]'s 1825 opera, ''[[Giulietta e Romeo (Vaccai)|Giulietta e Romeo]]'', the source for which was the play of the same name by [[Luigi Scevola]] which had been written in 1818. The two men set to work, but with the winter weather in Venice becoming increasingly bad, Bellini fell ill; however, he had to continue to work under great pressure within a now-limited timetable. Eventually, revisions to Romani's libretto were agreed to, a new title was given to the work, and Bellini reviewed his score of ''Zaira'' to see how some of the music could be set to the new text, but composing the part of Romeo for Grisi. He also took Giulietta's "''Oh quante volte''" and Nelly's ''romanza'' from ''Adelson e Salvini''. The Giulietta was to be sung by [[Rosalbina Caradori-Allan]].

At the premiere of ''[[I Capuleti e i Montecchi]]'' on 11 March 1830 success for Bellini returned. Weinstock describes the premiere as "an unclouded and immediate success"<ref name=WEIN85/> but it was only able to be performed eight times before the La Fenice season closed on 21 March.<ref name=WEIN85>{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=85}}</ref> A local newspaper, ''I Teatri'', reported that "all things considered, this opera by Bellini has aroused as much enthusiasm in Venice as ''La straniera'' aroused in Milan from the first evening on".<ref>{{harvnb|Cambi|1943}} in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=85}}</ref>

By this time, Bellini knew that he had achieved a degree of fame: writing on 28 March, he stated that "My style is now heard in the most important theatres in the world ... and with the greatest enthusiasm."<ref>Bellini, quoted by {{harvnb|Lippmann|McGuire|1998|p=390}}</ref>

Before leaving Venice, Bellini was offered a contract to produce another new opera for La Fenice for the 1830–31 Carnival season, and—upon his return to Milan after a reunion with Turina—he also found an offer from Genoa for a new opera but proposed for the same time period, an offer he was forced to reject.

Later that year, Bellini prepared a version of ''Capuleti'' for La Scala which was given on 26 December, lowering Giulietta's part for the mezzo-soprano [[Amalia Schütz Oldosi]].

===''La sonnambula'': Milan, March 1831===
[[File:Millet-Bellini.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Bellini by [[Jean-François Millet]]]]
Returning to Milan after the ''Capuleti'' performances, little occurred until the latter part of April when changes began to appear in the management of La Scala. The organisation, "Crivelli and Company" which had managed both that house as well as La Fenice, was negotiating with a triumvirate consisting of Count [[Pompeo Litta Biumi|Pompeo Litta]] and two businessmen, their immediate concern being the engagement of singers and composers for La Scala. In order to contract with Bellini, he had to be released from his obligation to Venice; this was achieved by Litta buying out the Venice contract. When Bellini laid out his terms for writing for Milan, Litta gave him a very favourable response: "I shall earn almost twice as much as if I had composed for Crivelli [then the Venetian impresario]" he noted in a letter to his uncle.<ref>Bellini to Vincenzo Ferlito, April 1830, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=87–88}}</ref>

However, the group led by Duke Litta failed to come to terms with the Crivelli-Lanari-Barbaja group which continued to manage both La Scala and La Fenice. As a result, in the April–May 1830 period, Bellini was able to negotiate a contract with both the Litta group—which was planning performances in a smaller Milan house, the [[Teatro Carcano]]—and with the Crivelli group to obtain a contract for an opera for the autumn of 1831 and another for the 1832 Carnival season. These were to become ''Norma'' for La Scala and ''Beatrice di Tenda'' for La Fenice.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=89}}

Bellini then experienced the re-occurrence of an illness which had emerged in Venice due to pressure of work and the bad weather, but which consistently recurred after each opera and which would eventually cause his death. The gastro-enteric condition—which he describes as "a tremendous inflammatory gastric bilious fever"—<ref name=WEIN88>Bellini to Vincenzo Ferlito [his uncle], late May/early June 1830, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=88}}</ref> resulted in his being cared for by Francesco Pollini and his wife at their home because, as Bellini wrote, "he loves me more than a son".<ref name=WEIN88/>

Having recovered from his illness by the summer, Bellini went to stay near Lake Como. The need to decide on the subject for the following winter's opera became pressing, although it had already been agreed that [[Giuditta Pasta]], who had achieved success in the Teatro Carcano in 1829 and 1830 with in several major operas, would be the principal artist. That she owned a house near Como and would be staying there over the summer was the reason that Romani traveled to meet her and Bellini.

====Attempts to create ''Ernani''====
By 15 July they had decided on an adaptation of [[Victor Hugo]]'s play, ''[[Hernani (drama)|Hernani]]'', although Weinstock speculates as to how this decision could have come about. The play's political subject matter would have been known to the group and they would certainly know of the strict censorship then in existence in Austrian-controlled Lombardy. In addition, it was uncertain as to whether Pasta was interested in singing a [[trousers role]], that of the protagonist, Ernani. While it seems that all three were in agreement, no further progress was made. Romani, who promised to begin the ''Ernani'' libretto immediately, went off to write one for what became Donizetti's ''[[Anna Bolena]]'' (which opened the Carcano's season in December 1830). Rather than resting, Bellini immediately set off for Bergamo to stage ''La straniera'', then went back to the mountains. But, by the end of November, nothing had been achieved in the way of writing either the libretto or the score of ''Ernani''.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|pp=93–94}}

On 3 January 1831, a letter from Bellini stated: "... I am no longer composing ''Ernani'' because the subject would have had to undergo some modifications at the hands of the police. ... [Romani] is now writing ''La sonnambula, ossia I Due Fidanzati Svizzeri''. ... It must go on stage on 20 February at the latest."<ref>Bellini to his Venetian friend Giovanni Battista Peruchinni, 3 January 1831, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=94}}</ref>

====''La sonnambula'' replaces ''Ernani''====
Romani's libretto for ''[[La sonnambula]]'' was based on a ''ballet-pantomime'' by [[Eugène Scribe]] and [[Jean-Pierre Aumer]] called ''[[La somnambule, ou L'arrivée d'un nouveau seigneur]]''. With its [[pastoral]] setting and story, ''La sonnambula'' was to become another triumphant success during Bellini's five years in Milan.

The title role of Amina (the [[Sleepwalking|sleepwalker]]) with its high [[tessitura]] is renowned for its difficulty, requiring a complete command of [[Trill (music)|trills]] and florid technique.{{sfn|Eaton|1974|p=135}} It was written for Pasta who has been described as a ''[[soprano sfogato]]''.
{{multiple image
| width1 = 171
| image1 = La Malibran (Maria) par F. Bouchot.jpg
| caption1 = Soprano sfogato Maria Malibran sang Amina in 1834
| width2 = 222
| image2 = La-Sonnambula-Alessandro-Sanquirico-2.jpg
| caption2 = [[Alessandro Sanquirico]]'s set design for the act. 2 sc. 2 sleepwalking scene for the premiere production
}}
That music which he was beginning to use for ''Ernani'' was transferred to ''La Sonnambula'' is not in doubt, and as Weinstein comments, "he was as ready as most other composers of his era to reuse in a new situation musical passages created for a different, earlier one".{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=94}}

The opera's premiere performance took place on 6 March 1831, a little later than the original date, at the Teatro Carcano. Its success was partly due to the differences between Romani's earlier libretti and this one, as well as "the accumulation of operatic experience which both [Bellini] and Romani had brought to its creation."{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=95}} Press reactions were universally positive, as was that of the Russian composer, [[Mikhail Glinka]], who attended and wrote overwhelmingly enthusiastically:
<blockquote>Pasta and Rubini sang with the most evident enthusiasm to support their favourite conductor [''sic'']; the second act the singers themselves wept and carried the audience along with them.<ref>Glinka, ''Memoires'', in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=97}}</ref></blockquote>

After its premiere, the opera was performed in London on 28 July 1831 at the [[Her Majesty's Theatre|King's Theatre]] and in New York on 13 November 1835 at the [[Park Theatre (Manhattan)|Park Theatre]].{{sfn|Kimbell|2001|p=50}}

During Bellini's lifetime another ''sfogato'', [[Maria Malibran]], was to become a notable exponent of the role.

===''Norma'': Milan, December 1831===
[[File:Norma-Bellini-original-1831-cast.jpg|thumb|''Norma'': Donzelli, Grisi, and Pasta, the original cast]]
{{listen|type=music
|title="Casta Diva" from ''Norma''
|filename=Bellini Casta diva par Claudia Muzio.ogg
|description=[[Claudia Muzio]], circa 1936
}}
With ''La sonnambula'' successfully behind them, Bellini and Romani began to consider the subject of the opera for which they had been contracted by the Crivelli group for a December 1831 premiere at La Scala and which would mark Giuditta Pasta's debut at that house. By the summer, they had decided upon ''[[Norma (opera)|Norma, ossia L'Infanticidio]]'' which was based on the play of the same name, ''Norma, or The [[Infanticide]]'' by [[Alexandre Soumet]] which was being performed in Paris at around that time and which Pasta would have seen.

For the roles of Adalgisa and Pollione, La Scala had engaged [[Giulia Grisi]], the sister of Giuditta, and the well-known tenor [[Domenico Donzelli]], who had made a name for himself with Rossini roles, especially that of Otello. He provided Bellini with precise details of his vocal capabilities which were confirmed by a report which Mercadante also provided. By the end of August it appears that Romani had completed a considerable amount of the libretto, enough at least to allow Bellini to begin work, which he certainly did in the first weeks of September as the verses were supplied.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=100}} He reported in a letter to Pasta on 1 September:
<blockquote>I hope that you will find this subject to your liking. Romani believes it to be very effective, and precisely because of the all-inclusive character for you, which is that of Norma. He will manipulate the situations so that they will not resemble other subjects at all, and he will retouch, even change, the characters to produce more effect, if need be.<ref>Bellini to Pasta, 1 September 1831, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=100}}</ref></blockquote>
Pasta's vocal and dramatic ranges were extensive: that March, she had created the very different Bellini role of Amina, the Swiss village maiden, in ''La sonnambula''.

As the year progressed, several things appeared which began to disturb the composer. Firstly, an outbreak of cholera had occurred in Austria in July, and concern about its spread to Italy was real, to the point that, by late September, Bellini was writing to Florimo: "I am composing the opera without any real zeal because I am almost certain that the cholera will arrive in time to close the theatres; but as soon it threatens to come near, I'll leave Milan."<ref name=WEIN101>Bellini to Florimo, 27(?) September 1831, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=101}}</ref>

About this time he had received an offer to compose for the [[Teatro di San Carlo]] in Naples and, in return, had imposed some harsh terms, totally objecting to the English soprano Marianna Lewis, "a donna who is below mediocrity: does not know how to sing, is a sausage on stage ..."<ref name=WEIN101/> He continues by stressing the need for a good tenor were he to come to Naples and, in a separate letter to be forwarded by Florimo, tells Principe di Ruffano, then the superintendent of the royal theatres, that he doubts that Barbaja would even agree to the fee already offered to him by La Scala, a total of 2,400 ducati, when he would want 3,000 ducati from Naples for all the additional expenses which he would incur.<ref name=RUFF>Bellini to Count di Ruffano, 19 September 1831, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=102}}</ref> In a post script, Bellini adds an indignant objection to what he has heard about the proposed casting of ''Capuleti'' in Naples. It is clear that he regards Barbaja as an enemy.<ref name=RUFF/>

''Norma'' was completed by about the end of November. Bellini then had to deal with the issue of piracy in regard to vocal reductions for piano of ''La sonnambula'' as published by [[Casa Ricordi]]. These scores were then fully orchestrated and sold to unsuspecting opera houses as full orchestral scores. This illegal action caused Bellini to publish a notice in major Italian newspapers putting such "pirates" on notice, but Weinstock comments that such attempts to control were not likely to succeed until Italian unification provided laws applicable to the country as a whole.<ref name="Weinstock 1971, p. 104">{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=104}}</ref>

After rehearsals began on 5 December, Pasta baulked at singing the ''Casta diva'' in act 1, now one of the most famous [[aria]]s of the nineteenth century. She felt that it was "ill adapted to her vocal abilities",<ref>Sherillo, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=104}}</ref> but Bellini was able to persuade her to keep trying for a week, after which she adapted to it and confessed her earlier error.<ref name="Weinstock 1971, p. 104"/> At the opening night, the opera was received with what Weinstock describes as "chill indifference".{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=105}} To Florimo on the night of the premiere, Bellini wrote "Fiasco! Fiasco! Solemn fiasco!" and proceed to tell him of the indifference of the audience and how it affected him.<ref>Bellini to Florimo, 26 December 1831, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=105}}</ref>

In addition, in a letter to his uncle on 28 December, Bellini tries to explain the reasons for the reactions. As other commentators have also noted, some problems were innate to the structure and content of the opera, while others were external to it. Bellini discusses the tiredness of the singers (after rehearing the entire second on the day of the premiere) as well as noting how certain numbers failed to please—and failed to please the composer as well! But then he explains that most of the second act was very effective. It appears from the letter that the second evening's performance was more successful. Among the external reasons, Bellini cites the adverse reaction caused by the attitudes of both the owner of a journal (and his [[claque]]) and also of "a very rich woman"—who Weinstock identifies as Contessa Giulia Samoyloff— who was Pacini's mistress. He also notes that on this second evening, the theatre was full.<ref>Bellini to Vincenzo Ferlito, 28 December 1831, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=106}}</ref>

In all, ''Norma'' was given 39 performances in its first season at La Scala, and reports from elsewhere, especially those from Bergamo when performances were given there in late 1832, suggested that it was becoming more and more popular. Bellini left Milan for Naples, and then Sicily, on 5 January 1832, but for the first time since 1827, it was a year in which he did not write an opera.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|pp=107–108}}

===Naples, Sicily, Bergamo: January to September 1832===
[[File:Theater Vittorio Emanuelle before 1908.jpg|thumb|Teatro della Munizione, Messina (as known in the early 19th century)]]
Bellini traveled to Naples, although he may have stopped in Rome to see Giuditta Turina and her brother Gaetano Cantù. However, the sister and brother also went to Naples where Giuditta was finally able to meet Florimo and see the city in which Bellini had triumphed. Within six days, Bellini was in Naples where he remained for six weeks.

During that time he remained busy, spending some time with Turina (who was ill for part of it), visiting the conservatory and meeting with many of the students and his old teacher, [[Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli|Zingarelli]] (to whom he had dedicated ''Norma''),{{sfn|Galatopoulos|2002|p=248}} and attending a performance of ''Capuleti'' at the San Carlo with Turina and Florimo on 5 February in the presence of King Ferdinand II. The King led the applause for the composer, resulting in his being called to the stage and thus enjoying a very warm welcome from the people of Naples.<ref>Report in the ''Giornali delle Due Sicilie'', 7 February 1832</ref>

Planning to leave Naples by 25 February, he dealt with the invitation from Lanari at La Fenice to compose for that house by stating that he would not work for less than the sum received from the last production, and that he was also in discussions with the San Carlo. Arriving in Messina along with Florimo on the morning of 27 February, Bellini was greeted by several members of his family including his father. They remained in Messina for two days, attending a performance of ''Il pirata'' at the Teatro della Munizione, where he was greeted with "loud shouts of pleasure, hand-clapping, and words of praise".<ref>''L'Osservatore peloritano'', 27 February 1832, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=113–114}}</ref>

Bellini arrived in Catania on 3 March to a civic welcome. He was greeted by the city's authorities and citizens who also feted him at a concert the following evening. This included excerpts from ''La sonnambula'' and ''Il pirata'' at the Teatro Communale, now replaced by the [[Teatro Massimo Bellini]] which was opened in 1890 and named in Bellini's honour.<ref name=GALLA252>{{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=252–255}}</ref> After a month, Bellini and Florimo left for Palermo where, once again, there was a "royal welcome" and where he made the acquaintance of Filippo Santocanale and his wife. Although weather delayed their departure for Naples, they continued to spend an enjoyable time there, but Bellini was anxious to return to Naples before Easter and to be with Giuditta Turina, who had remained in that city.<ref name=GALLA252/> They reached Naples on 25 April where he was reunited with Turina.

Upon his arrival, Bellini wrote to his new friend Santocanale in Palermo, telling him that he would be accepting a contract from La Fenice<ref>Bellini to Santocanale, 28 April 1832, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=118}}</ref> so the issue had resurfaced in the form of a contract from Lanari which appeared to have accepted the composer's terms. But he had forgotten how much he had demanded: writing to Giuditta Pasta's husband, Giuseppe, he asked for the letter he had written to him (in which he had revealed the terms offered) to be sent to him to await his arrival in Florence.<ref>Bellini to Giuseppe Pasta, 28 April 1828, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=118}}</ref>
[[File:Teatro della Pergola.JPG|thumb|right|Foyer of the Teatro della Pergola, after redecoration in the 1850s]]
When returning to Naples, the couple reached Rome on 30 April. There is speculation that, when there, Bellini composed a one-act opera, ''Il fu ed il sarà'' (''The Past and the Present'') for a private performance (which was supposedly not given until 1832), but little further information—nor any of the music—has been forthcoming.{{sfn|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=254–255}} It appears that the couple (along with Giuditta's brother) left for Florence on or around 20 May traveling by private coach and that he attended what he described as "a quite unrecognisable" performance of ''La sonnumbula'' at the [[Teatro della Pergola]]. In the same letter, Bellini informed his publisher that: "I have arranged the contract with Lanari to compose the opera for Venice; there I'll have the divine Pasta, and on the same terms as the contract with La Scala for ''Norma''".<ref>Bellini to Ricordi, 24 May 1832, in {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|p=256}}</ref> He continues by stating that, in addition, he will receive one hundred per cent of the rental rights of the scores.

Within a few days, Bellini was in Milan, from there writing to his friend Santocanale in Palermo that "I'm ... trying to find a good subject for my new opera for Venice. In August, I shall go to Bergamo for the production of my ''Norma'' with Pasta."<ref name=NORM-BOL>Bellini to Santocanale, 1 July 1832, {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=256–257}}</ref> From Bergamo, he wrote to Romani, excited to tell him that:
<blockquote>Our ''Norma'' is decidedly a great success. If you heard how it's performed in Bergamo, you'd almost think that it was a new work ... [Pasta] even moves me. In fact, I wept [with] the emotions I felt in my soul. I wanted you near me so that I could have these emotions with you, my good advisor and collaborator, because you alone understand me. My glory is intrinsic to yours.<ref>Bellini to Ricordi, 2 August 1832, in {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=256–257}}</ref></blockquote>

After the successful production in Bergamo, which was favourably reviewed by the same writer from the ''Gazzetta privilegiata di Milano'' who was not enthusiastic about the original Milan production, Bellini spent a few days with Turina, and then, by mid-September, had returned to Milan anxious to meet Romani to decide on the subject for the following February's opera for La Fenice for which a contract had become official. In addition, it had been agreed that the new opera would be preceded by performances of ''Norma'' and that they would open the season.

===''Beatrice di Tenda'': Venice 1833===
[[File:Giuditta Pasta.jpg|thumb|[[Giuditta Pasta]] sang Beatrice]]

''[[Beatrice di Tenda]]'', with the leading role requiring a strong female character to be written for Pasta, composer and librettist met to consider a subject. Much of the initial work fell upon Romani, who had to look at a number of possible sources, and he became irritated by the task, finally hoping that a shipment of books from Paris would reveal a suitable one. It appears that by 6 October, a subject had been agreed upon: it would be ''Cristina regina di Svenzia'' from a play by [[Alexandre Dumas]] which had appeared in Paris in 1830. However, by one month later, Bellini was writing to Pasta to state that: "The subject has been changed, and we'll write ''Beatrice di Tenda'' [after the play of the same name by Carlo Tedaldi-Fores.] I had a hard time persuading Romani, but persuade him I did, and with good reasons. Knowing that the subject pleases you, as you told me the evening when you saw the ballet [in September 1832 in Milan when it accompanied a Mercadante opera] ... He is a man of good will, and I want him to show it also in wanting to prepare at least the first act for me swiftly."<ref>Bellini to Pasta, 3 November 1832, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=125}}</ref>

Bellini's expectation that Romani's good will would be demonstrated promptly, turned out to be a mistake. The librettist had vastly over-committed himself: by the time that ''Cristina'' became ''Beatrice'', he had made commitments to Mercadante for an October opera; also to [[Carlo Coccia]] for an opera for La Scala on 14 February 1833; and further, to Luigi Majocchi for a Parma production on 26 February; to Mercadante for La Scala on 10 March; and to Donizetti for Florence on 17 March.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|pp=125–126}} Nothing happened in November; Bellini announced that he would arrive in Venice in early December and after 10th, he became preoccupied with rehearsals for ''Norma''. However, the lack of any verses—for an opera which was supposed to be staged in the second half of February—caused him to have to take action against Romani. This involved a complaint lodged with the governor of Venice who then contacted the governor of Milan, who then had his police contact Romani. The librettist finally arrived in Venice on 1 January 1833. He holed up to write Bellini's libretto, but, at the same time, Donizetti was equally incensed at delays in receiving a libretto from Romani for an opera which was to be ''[[Parisina (Donizetti)|Parisina]]''.

When ''Norma'' opened on 26 December, it was a success but only because of Pasta. The Adalgisa of Anna Del Serre and the Pollione of Alberico Curioni were mediocre; Bellini feared for how ''Beatrice'' would turn out. Writing to Santocanale on 12 January, Bellini was in despair, complaining of the short time to write his opera because "Whose fault is that? that of my usual and original poet, the God of Sloth!"<ref>Bellini to Santocanale, 12 January 1833, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=128}}</ref> Their relationship quickly began to deteriorate: greetings including ''tu'' (the informal "you") gave way to ''voi'' (the formal "you") and they lived in different parts of Venice. However, by 14 February, Bellini was reporting that he had only "another three pieces of the opera to do" and that "I hope to go onstage here on 6 March if I am able to finish the opera and prepare it."<ref>Bellini to Vincenzo Ferlito, 14 February 1833, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=128–129}}</ref>

As it turned out, Bellini was only able to prepare the opera for rehearsals by deleting sections of the libretto as well as some of the music for the finale. To create more time for Bellini to finish, at La Fenice Lanari padded the programme with older works or revivals, but that allowed only eight days for ''Beatrice'' before the scheduled end of the season. Not surprisingly, the audience greeted the opening night on 16 March with little enthusiasm, especially after Romani's plea for "the reader's full indulgence" appeared in the libretto,<ref>Romani's apology in the printed libretto, quoted in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=129}}</ref> but at the following two performances there was a large crowd. For Bellini, his opera "was not unworthy of her sisters".<ref>quoted in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=130–131}}, but its authenticity is suspect.</ref>

===The break with Romani===
[[File:Felice Romani.jpg|thumb|Librettist Felice Romani]]
There then began what Herbert Weinstock describes in over twelve pages of text, which include the long letters written by both sides in the dispute:
<blockquote>The journalistic storm over ''Beatrice di Tenda'' was about to evolve into the bitterest, most convoluted, and—at our distance from it—most amusing polemic in the annals of early nineteenth-century Italian opera.<ref name=WEIN131>{{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=131–142}}</ref></blockquote>
Three days before the premiere, the Venetian daily, the ''Gazzetta privilegiata di Venezia'', had published a letter purportedly written to its editor by 'A.B.' of Fonzaso, in Weinstein's view most certainly fabricated by Tommaso Locatelli, the musically sophisticated man who edited the paper. In the letter, he complained about the delay in the production of ''Beatrice'' as the end of the season became closer.<ref name=WEIN131/>

Weinstock assumes that it is Locatelli who replied to "A.B.", asserting that Bellini and Romani were trying to achieve perfection before taking the opera to London. Then a torrent of anti-''Beatrice'' letters appeared after the first performance, followed by a pro-Bellini reply, signed "A friend of M. Bellini". This letter removes the blame from Bellini and lays it at the feet of Romani, outlining the timetable for the delivery of the libretto, which was contracted to be due in two parts: one in October and then the second in November. The author states that, except for a limited amount of text, nothing had been received by mid-January and the piece continues by describing the legal proceedings taken by Bellini and the various setbacks which occurred even after Romani arrived in Venice. On 2 April, this provoked a response from Romani himself, presenting his case against Bellini based largely on the composer's inability to decide on a subject, as well as justifying all the work which he did after arriving in Venice, only to find his ''melodramma'' "touched up in a thousand ways", in order to make it acceptable to "the Milords of the Thames [who] await him", a sarcastic reference to planned trip to London. Another, a more "venomous" version of this letter, was sent to Milan's ''L'Eco''.<ref name=WEIN131/>

"Pietro Marinetti" replied from the pro-Bellini camp in the Milan journal, ''Il Barbiere di Siviglia'' on 11 April. In "Two Words for Signor Felice Romani" [but which takes five pages in print], he states that it is not his intention to defend the composer but "only to vent my displeasure given me and all sensitive people by the very sarcastic manner, full of personal rancor and hauteur, with which Signor Romani has undertaken to assail his antagonist."<ref>Pietro Marinetti, "Two Words for Signor Felice Romani", ''Il Barbiere di Siviglia'', 11 April 1833, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=135–139}}</ref> Not unexpectedly, a further "cannonade" (says Weinstock) appeared from Romani, published this time in ''L'Eco'' on 12 April 1833 with both an editor's preface, decrying the poor taste displayed by both sides, and a brief final response from Marinetti.<ref>Detailed in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=140–142}}, who notes that the entire contents of the letters is reprinted in {{harvnb|Cambi|1943}}.</ref>

====The relationship begins to be repaired====
Having been invited to write a new opera for the San Carlo for the 1834–35 Carnival season, but declined because of his Paris commitment, he stated that May 1835 might be possible when he knew who were to be the contracted singers. Florimo immediately began to try to persuade his friend, indicating that Malibran had been engaged for Naples in January 1835. Continuing his letter to Florimo, he states:
<blockquote>why the Management ... doesn't make a contract with Romani; not just for one libretto, but by the year ... with the understanding that he come to live in Naples; thus he could write the libretto for me as the only poet attached to the theatre, and if they want to negotiate with him, they can commission me to arrange it; I'd like to return good for evil to that wrongheaded and very talented man ...<ref name=WEIN160>Bellini to Florimo, 11 March 1834, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=160–161}}</ref></blockquote>

From that statement of March 1834, it does not appear that animosity still existed on the composer's part. Through an intermediary, Bordesi (or Bordese), a mutual friend of both men, Romani initially expressed interest in re-establishing friendly relations with Bellini. Thus, Bellini wrote back to the intermediary stating: "Tell my dear Romani that I still love him even though he is a cruel man" and he continues by wondering if Romani ever thinks about him where he, Bellini, says "whereas I do nothing but to talk about him to the entire universe". Then he ends with: "Give him a kiss for me".<ref>Bellini to Bordese, 11 June 1834, a letter published by Antonino Amore in 1894 (in addition to a draft of Bellini's unsent letter to Romani), in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=166–167}}</ref> This was followed by a letter to Florimo in late May where Bellini wishes to know if Romani reciprocated his feelings, which—it appears—did happen when he writes to Romani himself (most likely expansion of the initial draft) laying out a series of concerns, but quoting back to him a part of his own letter to Bordese in which Romani states "I have not ceased to love him [Bellini], for I recognise that the blame is not all his".<ref name=WEIN167>Romani being quoted in the letter from Bellini to Romani, 29 May 1834, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=167}}</ref>

In conclusion, Bellini suggests "draw[ing] a veil over everything that happened", stating that he cannot come to Milan at this time but, since he was planning to write the opera for Naples for 1836, he could do so in January [1835: presumably after ''I puritani'']. He ends by saying that, if he does not hear back from Romani, he will not write to him again.<ref name=WEIN167/> Little is known about Romani's reply, but reply he did, as indicated in Bellini's letter to Florimo in October followed by a very friendly one on 7 October 1834 to the librettist (who had been engaged in Turin) and in which he states: "It seemed impossible to exist without you", closing with "Write for Turin or for wherever, write {{em|for me alone: only for me}}, for your Bellini".<ref>Bellini to Romani, 7 October 1834, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=168–169}}</ref>

Within a year of writing that letter, Bellini was dead. The two men never did meet again.

==London: April to August 1833==
[[File:Italian Opera House, Haymarket by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd 1827-28.JPG|thumb|King's Theatre, London (aka Italian Opera House) by Thomas Hosmer Shepherd, 1827–28]]
After leaving Venice on 26 March, before the barrage of letter-writing began, it is known that Bellini spent some time with Mrs. Turina in Milan and, leaving many of his personal possessions with her, appears to have planned to return there by August since he did not give up his rooms in the contrade dei Tre Monasteri.

With the Pasta and other members of the Italian troupe contracted for London by the impresario of the [[King's Theatre, London|King's Theatre]], Pierre-François Laporte, Bellini and his troupe set off. On the journey it is known that he stopped in Paris and discussed with Dr. [[Louis Véron]], the director of the [[Paris Opéra]], the possibility of writing a French opera, but his intention was to focus on that subject on his return in the coming July.

As Weinstock notes, when the Italians arrived in London by 27 April, Bellini was a known factor, many of his operas having already been given over the previous few years. His name is listed as an attendee in the ''Morning Chronicle'' of 29 April at a performance of Rossini's ''[[La Cenerentola]]'', along with those of Maria Malibran, [[Felix Mendelssohn]], [[Niccolò Paganini]], as well as Pasta, Rubini, and other visiting Italian singers. His operas which had been presented in London included ''Il pirata'' (with Henriette Méric-Lalande in April 1830) followed by ''La sonnambula'' (with Pasta) and ''La straniera'' (with Giuditta Grisi).
[[File:Theatre Royal Drury Lane 1812.jpg|thumb|left|Theatre Royal, Drury Lane, 1812]]
In addition—and separate from Bellini's troupe at the King's Theatre—Maria Malibran was about to present her London debut in ''La sonnambula'' at the [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]] on 1 May in an English version with "an adapted Bellini score".{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|pp=142–143}} It appears that Bellini had his first meeting with Malibran when attending a performance where, as he states:
<blockquote>my music was tortured, torn to shreds. ... Only when Malibran was singing did I recognise my [opera] ... but in the ''allegro'' of the final scene, and precisely at the words 'Ah! m'abbraccia' ... I was the first to shout at the top of my voice: 'Viva, viva, brava, brava,' and to clap my hands as much as I could. [When he was recognised by the audience, who became more and more enthusiastic, he was called to the stage where he embraced Malibran. He continues:] My emotion was at its climax. I thought I was in Paradise.<ref>Purported to be an (undated) letter from Bellini to Florimo from London, published by Florimo. No original exists. In {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=143–145}}</ref></blockquote>

As the opera season progressed, Bellini found himself caught up in the social whirl, with invitations coming from all around him. His fame was now secure—''La sonnambula'' having established it—and the premiere of ''Norma'', given on 21 June with Pasta in the title role, was a triumph according to a long letter which Giuseppe Pasta wrote about the experience and his wife's huge success.<ref>Giuseppe Pasta to Rachele Negri [his mother in law], 22 June 1833, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=149–150}}</ref> Additionally, reports in the London press were favourable including the review which appeared in ''The Times'' of 23 June 1833. It took until late July for ''I Capuleti e i Montecchi'' to be given its London premiere and his contract was then over, after which he left for Paris by about mid-August.

==Paris: August 1833 to January 1835==
[[File:Salle Favart (première salle).jpg|thumb|The Théâtre-Italien in 1829]]
When he arrived in Paris in mid-August 1833, Bellini had intended to stay only about three weeks, the main aim being to continue the negotiations with the Opéra which had begun on his way to London a few months earlier.<ref>Weinstein 1971, pp. 156–157</ref> While there was no agreement with Véron at the Opéra, the [[Théâtre-Italien]] made him an offer which, Bellini notes, he accepted because "the pay was richer than what I had received in Italy up to then, though only by a little; then because of so magnificent a company; and finally so as to remain in Paris at others' expense."<ref>Bellini to Vincenzo Ferlito, 1 April 1835, in Walker 1971, p. 157{{incomplete short citation|date=December 2021}}; original source {{harvnb|Cambi|1943}}.</ref>

In fact, Éduard Robert and Carlo Severini of the ''Italien'' had written to the composer, offering a seat in their theatre during his stay in the city and telling him that Grisi, Unger, and Rubini would be singing ''Pirata'' in October and ''Capuleti'' in November. But with no definite arrangements having been made to compose for the Italian house—and Bellini essentially not wishing to proceed with an offer from Turin to stage ''Norma''—he settled into a new, small apartment. He wrote to Florimo, telling him about the lodgings and that he had written to Turina not to sell any of his furniture, but to send some of it to him.<ref>Bellini to Florimo, 4 September 1834, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=158}}</ref>

Quickly, Bellini entered the fashionable world of the Parisian [[Salon (gathering)|salon]], most importantly that run by the Italian exile [[Cristina Trivulzio Belgiojoso|Princess Belgiojoso]] whom he had met in Milan and who "was by far the most overtly political of the salonnières".{{sfn|Smart|2010|p=51}} Her salon became a meeting place for Italian revolutionaries such as [[Vincenzo Gioberti]], [[Niccolò Tommaseo]], and [[Camillo Cavour]], and it was there that he would have most likely made the acquaintance of Count [[Carlo Pepoli]]. Others that Bellini would have met included [[Victor Hugo]], [[George Sand]], [[Alexandre Dumas]] pėre, and [[Heinrich Heine]]. Among the many musical figures were several Italian such as [[Michele Carafa]] and the imposing [[Luigi Cherubini]], then in his seventies.

In terms of musical activity—or lack thereof—Bellini pleaded guilty in the letter to Florimo in March 1834: "If you reflect for a moment that a young man in my position, in London and Paris for the first time, cannot help amusing himself immensely, you will excuse me."<ref>Bellini to Florimo, 11 March 1834, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=159}}</ref> However, in January 1834, he had signed a contract to write a new opera for the Théâtre-Italien which would be presented at the end of the year. At the same time, he had been invited to write a new opera for the San Carlo in Naples for the 1834–35 Carnival season, but declined given the Paris commitment and stated that it might be possible to do so by May 1835 when he knew who were to be the contracted singers. Florimo immediately began to try to persuade his friend to take up this offer, indicating that Malibran had been engaged for Naples in January 1835.

On a professional level, Bellini became very concerned around the middle of April 1834, when he learned that Donizetti would be composing for the Théâtre-Italien during the same season, 1834–35. According to Weinstock, quoting letters sent to Florimo in Italy at around that time (and continuing almost up to the premiere of ''I puritani''), Bellini perceived this to be a plot orchestrated by Rossini. In a long, rambling letter of 2,500 words to Florino of 11 March 1834, he expresses his frustrations.<ref>Bellini to Florimo, 11 March 1834, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=163}}</ref>

But over a year later and with hindsight—after ''Puritani''{{'}}s great success which came way ahead of that of Donizetti's first work for Paris, ''[[Marin Faliero]]''—he outlines "the plot which was being hatched against me" and the strategies which he adopted to counter it. These strategies included expanding his contacts with Rossini to secure his growing friendship by continuing to see him on numerous occasions to seek his advice, noting "I have always adored Rossini, and I succeeded, and happily ... [having] tamed Rossini's hatred, I no longer was frightened and finished that work of mine which won me so much honour".<ref>Bellini to Vincenzo Ferlito, [day, month unknown, 1835 after ''Puritani's success''], in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=163–164}}</ref> In a series of letters to Florimo throughout the year, he wrote of Rossini's increasing support, even love: "I hear that he speaks well of me" (4 September 1834); "... if I have Rossini's protection, I'll be situated very well" (4 November); "The most beautiful is that Rossini loves me very, very, very much" (18 November); and "... my very dear Rossini who now loves me as a son" (21 January 1835, following the dress rehearsal).<ref name=WEIN179>Letters from Bellini to Florimo, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=179–182}}</ref>

However, during the time during which he was composing ''Puritani'', Bellini recounted the details of another bout of what he describes as "gastric fever"<ref>Bellini to Florimo, 30 April 1834, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=164–165}}</ref> and which Weinstock describes as "that brief indisposition, which had been recurring almost every year at the onset of warm weather".{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p=165}}

===''I puritani'': January 1834 to January 1835===

[[File:Carlo Pepoli.jpg|thumb|Librettist Carlo Pepoli]]
Having signed the contract for a new opera, Bellini began to look around for a suitable subject and, in a letter to Florimo of 11 March 1834, he alludes to the opera which was to become ''[[I puritani]]'', noting: "I am about to lose my mind over the plot of the opera for Paris, as it has been impossible to find a suitable subject for my purpose and adaptable to the company".<ref name=WEIN160/>

In the same letter he continues by stating that he was working towards finding a subject with the Italian émigré, Count Pepoli, who came from a prominent Bologna family and who had been active in opposition to Austrian rule of Italy, until forced into exile in France and England. Although Pepoli had yet to write for the opera house, he made acquaintance with Bellini at one of the salons both attended. The process of writing the libretto and working with the composer was a struggle (notes Weinstock), added to by a period of illness which Bellini reports, although—on 11 April—he is able to report in a letter to Ferlito that he was well and that "I have chosen the story for my Paris opera; it is of the times of Cromvello [Cromwell], after he had King Charles I of England beheaded."<ref>Bellini to Vincenzo Ferlito, 11 April 1834, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=161}}</ref> In his letter, he continues by providing a synopsis, indicating that his favourite singers—Giulia Grisi, Rubini, Tamburini, and Lablache—would be available for the principal roles, and that he would begin to write the music by 15 April if he has received the verses. He also referred to the offer from Naples for April 1836 and noting his financial demands with the questions as to how this might be received.

The chosen source was a play performed in Paris only six months before, ''Têtes Rondes et Cavalieres'' (''Roundheads and Cavaliers''), written by [[Jacques-François Ancelot]] and [[X. B. Saintine|Joseph Xavier Saintine]], which some sources state was based on [[Walter Scott]]'s novel ''[[Old Mortality]]'', while others state that there is no connection.<ref>Osbourne 1994, p. 350</ref> The composer had prepared the way for his librettist by providing him with a scenario of thirty-nine scenes (thus compressing the original drama into manageable proportions), reducing the number of characters from nine to seven and at the same time, giving them names of a more Italianate, singable quality.<ref name=WEIN162/>

Continuing to work on the yet-unnamed ''I Puritani'', Bellini moved to Puteaux—"a half an hour by road" from central Paris, as the guest of an English friend, Samuel Levys, "where I hope to complete my opera more carefully".<ref name=WEIN162>Bellini to Florimo, 26 May 1834, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=162–163}}</ref> At some in the late Spring (specific date unknown) Bellini wrote to Pepoli to remind him that he should bring the first act of the opera with him the following day "so that we can finish discussing the first act, which ... will be interesting, magnificent, and proper poetry for music in spite of you and all your absurd rules ..."<ref name=WEIN170>Bellini to Pepoli, no date given, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=170–171}}</ref> At the same time, he lays out one basic rule for the librettist to follow:
<blockquote>Carve into your head in adamantine letters: ''The opera must draw tears, terrify people, make them die through singing''<ref name=WEIN170 /></blockquote>

By late June, there had been considerable progress and, in a letter copied into one written to Florimo on 25 July, Bellini writes in reply to Alesandro Lanari, now the director of the Royal Theatres of Naples. Because Lanari had written to him on 10 April 1834 regarding an opera for Naples, Bellini tells him that the first act of ''Puritani'' is finished and that he expects to complete the opera by September, in order that he may then have time to write for Naples. In this letter to Lanari, the composer lays down some very strict terms, some of which received counter-offers in August, but none of which were accepted by the composer.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|pp=171–172}} Finally, Bellini stated that he did not want "to negotiate with anybody until I see what success my opera will have". This included a proposal from the [[Opéra-Comique]] for a new opera for them.)<ref>Bellini to Santocanale, 21 September 1834, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=173}}</ref>

By September he was writing to Florimo of being able to "polish and re-polish" in the three remaining months before rehearsals and he expresses happiness with Pepoli's verses ("a very beautiful trio for the two basses and ''La Grisi''")and by around mid-December he had submitted the score for Rossini's approval, with rehearsals planned for late December/early January.<ref name=WEIN179/> The dress rehearsal on 20 January 1835 was attended by many people—"All of high society, all the great artists, and everyone most distinguished in Paris were in the theatre, enthusiastic."—and the premiere, postponed by two days, took place on 24 January 1835. Bellini's ecstatic letter to Florimo which followed recounts the enthusiastic reception of many of the numbers throughout the performance, most especially the second act ''[[stretto|stretta]]'' so that, by its end:
<blockquote>The French had all gone mad; there were such noise and such shouts that they themselves were astonished at being so carried away. ... In a word, my dear Florimo, it was an unheard of thing, and since Saturday, Paris has spoken of it in amazement. ... I showed myself to the audience, which shouted as if insane. ... How satisfied I am! [He concludes by noting the success of the singers]: "Lablache sang like a god, Grisi like a little angel, Rubini and Tamburini the same."<ref>Bellini to Florimo, [date unknown; postmarked 26 January 1835], in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=184}}</ref></blockquote>
The opera became "the rage of Paris" and was given 17 performances to end the season on 31 March.

==Paris: January to September 1835==
[[File:Giovanni-Battista-Rubini as Arturo in I Puritani.jpg|thumb|Rubini as Arturo in ''I Puritani'', Paris 1835]]
In the immediate aftermath of ''I puritani''{{'}}s success, Bellini was awarded two honours: the first by [[King Louis-Philippe]], naming him as ''chevalier'' of the [[Légion d'honneur]]; the second by King Ferdinand II in Naples, awarding him the cross of the "Order of Francesco I". Bellini then dedicated ''I puritiani'' "To the Queen of the French", Queen Marie-Emélie. But from a personal point of view, Bellini expressed his sadness at not having seen Florimo for so long, and there flowed a succession of invitations, then demands that Florimo come to Paris to visit him,{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|pp=187–188}} but from February to July, Florimo ignored the offers and finally, in a letter to him, Bellini stated: "I'll no longer ask for reasons, and I'll see you when I see you."<ref>Bellini to Florimo, 1 July 1835, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=189}}</ref> After that, he attempted to persuade his uncle, Vincenzo Ferlito, to visit, but without success.

During the final preparations in 1834 for the staging of ''Puritani'' and up to its delay into 1835, Bellini had concluded an agreement with Naples to present three operas there—including the re-writing of parts of the music for Malibran—beginning in the following January. All that went by the wayside when the revised score failed to arrive on time, and performances were abandoned and the contract scrapped. Thus, during March, Bellini did nothing, but did attend the final performance of ''Puritani'' on 31st. On 1 April, he wrote a very lengthy letter to Ferlito laying out the entire history of his life in Paris to date, as well as reviving the old jealousies about Donizetti and Rossini's so-called "enmity" toward him. He ended by mentioning that "my future plans are to be able to arrange a contract with the French Grand Opéra and remain in Paris, making it my home for the present." Additionally, he discusses the prospect of marriage to a young woman who "is not rich, but she has an uncle and aunt who are: if they will give her 200,000 francs, I'll marry her", but remarks that he is in no hurry.<ref>Bellimo to Ferlito, 1 April 1835, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=192–194}}</ref>

Throughout May, accounts came to him from London of the success of ''I puritani'' and the failure of a revival of ''Norma'' (due to the poor performances by both the Adalgisa and Pollione), although later reports of Giulietta Grisi's Norma—in contrast to those of Pasta—were not good either, and Bellini was pleased that it was not Grisi who gave the opera in Paris.<ref>Bellini to Florimo, 25 May 1825, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=196–197}}</ref> Over the summer, Bellini's general mood was reported to be "dark": discussion with the Opéra could not proceed until a new director was appointed; "he writes long letters, crowded with projects, ideas, reveries that the hand seems to have trouble restraining"; and, as Weintock concludes, all of these things seem to "inescapably suggest a man deeply disturbed physically, psychologically, or both".<ref>Weinstock 1971, quoting and commenting on what he interprets from the statements by Francesco Pastura contained in ''Vincenzo Bellini'', Catania; Torino; SEI (1959), in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=197–198}}</ref>

At one of the literary gatherings which Bellini attended earlier in the year, Bellini met the writer [[Heinrich Heine]]. Both men then attended a dinner that summer, at which the writer is reported to have remarked:
<blockquote>You are a genius, Bellini, but you will pay for your great gift with a premature death. All the great geniuses died very young, like Raphael and like Mozart.<ref name=JOUB>Madame C. Joubert, quoting Heine, ''Souvenirs'', Paris 1881, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=201–202}}</ref></blockquote>

The rather superstitious Bellini was horrified.<ref name=JOUB/> Also, Heine's literary portrait of Bellini, which became part of his unfinished novel ''Florentinische Nächte'' (''Florentine Nights'') published in 1837, emphasized the less-appealing aspects of the composer's personality, summing up a description of him as "a sigh in dancing pumps".<ref>Heine, ''Florentinische Nächte'', in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=200–201}}</ref>

In his last-known letter to Filippo Santocanale Bellini wrote on 16 August, followed by one to Florimo on 2 September. In the latter, he mentions that "for three days I've been slightly disturbed by a diarrhea, but I am better now, and think that it is over."<ref>Bellini to Florimo, 2 September 1835, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=199}}</ref>

===Final illness and death===
[[File:Marty - Les principaux monuments funéraires - Bellini.jpg|thumb|Monument to Bellini erected in 1839 at Père Lachaise Cemetery]]

It was clear from Bellini's reaction to Heine's remarks that he did not like Heine. Attempting to reconcile the two men, Madame Joubert, who had attended the summer event, invited both to dinner, along with her friend the Princess Belgiojoso. Bellini failed to appear, instead he sent a note stating that he was too ill. Weinstock reports that the princess sent Doctor Luigi Montallegri to Puteaux. Over a few days, he reported to Carlo Severini of the Théatre-Italien with four notes, the first (on 20 September) stated "no appreciable improvement". On the following day, Montallegri reported a slight improvement, and on 22nd, the doctor stated that he "hopes to declare him out of danger tomorrow". However, the fourth note—on 22 September—is far more pessimistic; it reported that it was the thirteenth day of the illness and that Bellini had "passed a very restless night". And then, during the daytime of the 23rd, Montallegri indicated that there had been what Weinstock describes as "a terrifying convulsion" and that death was close. It appears that Bellini died at around 5 pm on 23 September 1835.<ref>Luigi Montallegri's reports to Severini; reports from other sources, including diaries written by Baron Augusto Aymé d'Aquino of the Two Sicilies' Embassy in Paris, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=202–204}}</ref>
[[File:Catania BW 2012-10-06 11-55-16.jpg|thumb|Bellini's tomb in the [[Catania Cathedral]] in Sicily|left]]
Immediately taking charge of arrangements, Rossini began to plan Bellini's funeral and entombment, as well as caring for his estate. He ordered that a post-mortem be performed, following an order which came directly from the King. The distinguished Court-appointed Doctor Dalmas performed the autopsy and reported his findings on the cause of death:
<blockquote>It is evident that Bellini succumbed to an acute inflammation of the colon, compounded by an abscess in the liver. The inflammation of the intestine had produced violent symptoms of dysentery during life.<ref>Dr. Dalmas' post-mortem report, supported by quotations from a report made in 1969 by Doctor Victor de Sabata, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=204–205}}</ref></blockquote>

Rossini then created a committee of Parisian musicians in order to find support for a subscription to build a monument to the dead composer, as well as supporting a funeral mass to be celebrated on 2 October in the chapel of the Hôtel des Invalides.
[[File:Annoncredamirarti.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|Musical notation, inscribed on Bellini's tomb, from Amina's last aria in ''La sonnambula'': "Ah! non-credea mirarti / Sì presto estinto, o fiore", translated as: "I did not believe you would fade so soon, oh flower"]]
On 27 September and 3 October, Rossini wrote to Santocanale in Palermo providing very detailed accounts of all that he had done immediately following Bellini's death as well as what had taken place on 2 October.<ref>Rossini to Santocanale, letters of 27 September and 3 October 1835, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|pp=206–209}}</ref> Initially, Rossini regarded burial in [[Père Lachaise Cemetery]] as a short-term arrangement, not knowing where the final resting place would turn out to be. Despite attempts over many years to have Bellini's remains transferred to Catania, that did not take place until 1876, when the casket containing his remains was taken to the cathedral in Catania and reburied.<ref name=L&M390>{{harvnb|Lippmann|McGuire|1998|p=390}}</ref> His elaborate now empty tomb in Père Lachaise Cemetery remains and is neighbouring that of Rossini's whose bones were also eventually transferred back to Italy.

Of the many tributes which poured forth following Bellini's death, one stands out. It was written by Felice Romani and published in Turin on 1 October 1835. In it, he stated:
<blockquote>... Perhaps no composers other than ours, know as well as Bellini the necessity for a close union of music with poetry, dramatic truth, the language of emotions, the proof of expression. ... I sweated for fifteen years to find a Bellini! A single day took him from me!<ref>Romani's tribute to Bellini, in ''Gazzetta piemontese'' (Turin), 1 October 1835, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=211}}</ref></blockquote>

Today, the Museo Belliniano, housed in the [[Palazzo Gravina-Cruyllas]] in Catania—Bellini's birthplace—preserves memorabilia and manuscripts. He was commemorated on the front of [[:File:Lire 5000 (Vincenzo Bellini).JPG|the Banca d'Italia 5,000 lire banknote in the 1980s and 90s]] (before Italy switched to the Euro) with the back showing a scene from the opera ''Norma''.

==Bellini, romanticism and melodrama==
When planning the subject of his next opera after La Scala's ''Il pirata'', Bellini had been invited to write an opera for Parma's inauguration of the new Teatro Ducale in early 1829. In the initial contract, Bellini was given power over who was to write the libretto and, after meeting the composer and ''prima donna'', the Parman librettist Luigi Torrigiani's work had been rejected. The aspiring librettist laid a complaint against Bellini in a report to Parma's Grand Chamberlain in December 1828 (which was ignored). In it, the aggrieved librettist sums up Bellini's tastes in Romantic drama: "[he] likes Romanticism and exaggeration. He declares that Classicism is cold and boring. ... He is entranced by unnatural meetings in forests, among graves, tombs and the like ..."<ref>Torrigiani to Parma's Grand Chamberlain, 14 December 1828, in {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|p=145}}</ref>

In writing the libretto for ''Zaira'', Romani expressed his position in relation to Voltaire's tragedy by noting in the preface to the libretto: "''Zaira'' therefore is not covered with the ample cloak of Tragedy but wrapped in the tight form of Melodrama."<ref>Romani, preface to the printed libretto of ''Zaira'', Parma 1829, quoted in {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|p=155}}</ref>

==Personal life and relationships==
Bellini was a notorious womanizer as evidenced in his letters to Francesco Florimo.<ref name="auto">Rosselli 1996</ref> However, three people had a prominent place in his life: Francesco Florimo, Maddelena Fumaroli and Giuditta Turina.

===Francesco Florimo===
[[File:Francisco Florimo.jpg|thumb|A portrait of [[Francesco Florimo]] in later life]]
One of the closest people in Bellini's life was [[Francesco Florimo]], whom he met as a fellow student at the [[Naples Conservatory]]. Throughout Bellini's lifetime, the two shared a close correspondence.{{sfn|Libby|1998|p=242}} During the 1820 revolution, Bellini and Florimo joined a secret society, the Carboneria. Their closeness is evident in their letters. For example, on 12 January 1828 Bellini wrote that theirs were "hearts made only to be friends to the last breath."<ref name="auto"/> Bellini wrote in 1825 that "Your existence is necessary to mine".<ref name="auto"/> Further, on 11 February 1835, Bellini wrote: " my excellent, my honest, my angelic friend! The more we know the world, the more we shall see how rare is our friendship."<ref name="auto"/> Based on these letters, some have speculated about Bellini's [[homosexuality|sexuality]],<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2001/nov/02/arts.highereducation|title=Feature: Vincenzo Bellini|author=Tim Ashley|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=2 November 2001}}</ref>{{sfn|Galatopoulos|2002}} but Weinstock (1971) believed such interpretations are anachronistic.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|p={{page needed|date=December 2021}}}} Rosselli (1996) expands on this point: contrary to how they may seem to modern readers, the expressions of close friendship in these letters were commonplace in Mediterranean societies and the world of early 1800s Italian opera rather than a reflection of sexual attachment.<ref name="auto"/> Once Bellini left Naples for Milan, the two men seldom saw one another; their last meeting was in Naples in late 1832, when Bellini was there with Giuditta Turina, before the pair departed for Milan via Florence. Florimo's published recollections—written fifty years after the events they recall—may be flawed. In later years, Bellini declared that Florimo "was the only friend in whom [I] could find comfort".{{sfn|Galatopoulos|2002|p=30}} Interpretation of Florimo's collection of letters is complicated however by evidence that he often altered or completely fabricated some of his correspondences with Bellini to create an idealized image of the composer.<ref name="auto1">Della Seta 2018{{incomplete short citation|date=December 2021}}</ref><ref name="auto"/> Florimo was also known to have destroyed some compromising letters involving Bellini's affairs with married women, including some in which Bellini wrote in detail about his affair with Giuditta Turina.<ref name="auto1"/><ref name="auto"/>{{sfn|Walker|1959}} After Bellini's death Florimo became his literary executor.<ref name=TIM/>

===Maddalena Fumaroli===
Although the frustrating affair with Maddalena Fumaroli which, as noted above, came to nothing during these early years, the success achieved by ''Bianca e Gernado'' gave Bellini fresh hope that her parents would finally relent, and a new appeal was made through a friend. This was utterly rejected by Maddalena's father, who returned all the letters which she had received along with a letter from him stating that "my daughter will never marry a poor piano player (''suonatore di cembalo'')".<ref>Fumarolis to Bellini (date unknown), in {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|p=56}}</ref> However, when Florimo gave him the news, he said that he was going to try again and win, but the next move was to come later from the Fumaroli family.

At some time before March 1828, after the major success of ''Il pirata'' and just as Bellini was about to leave Milan for his production of ''Bianca e Ferdinando'' in Genoa, he received a notification from his go-between with the Fumaroli family that they had withdrawn their rejection of his proposal. But by then—with the efforts to build his career and with time and distance between him and Maddalena—his feelings had changed and, using Florimo to communicate to the family, he rejected the offer, expressing the feeling that he would be unable to support her financially. Even Maddalena's own pleas in three letters which followed failed to change his mind.{{sfn|Galatopoulos|2002|pp=73–74}}

===Giuditta Turina===
[[File:Giuditta Turina-by Luigi Bianchi-c1828.jpg|thumb|Giuditta Turina]]
The one significant relationship which Bellini had after 1828 was the five-year relationship with Giuditta Turina, a young married woman with whom he began a passionate affair when both were in Genoa in April 1828 for the production of ''Bianca e Fernando''. Their relationship lasted until Bellini went to Paris. Bellini's letters to his friend Florimo indicate his satisfaction with the nature of the liaison, particularly because it kept him from having to marry—and thus becoming distracted from his work.

However, in May 1833 while he was in London, a significant change in Bellini's relationship with Giuditta followed from the discovery by her husband of a compromising letter from Bellini.{{sfn|Weinstock|1971|pp=153–154}} The result was that he decided to seek a legal separation and have her removed from his house. For Bellini, it meant the possibility of taking on responsibility for her, and he had no interest in doing that, having cooled in his feelings for her.<ref>Giuditta Turina to Florimo, 4 August 1834, referencing a September 1833 letter to her from Bellini where he stated that his career is "avant tout".</ref> When he wrote to Florimo from Paris the following year, he clearly stated that "I constantly am being threatened from Milan with Giuditta's coming to Paris", at which point he says he'll leave that city if that were to happen. Then he continues: "I no longer want to be put in the position of renewing a relationship that made me suffer great troubles".<ref>Bellini to Florimo, 11 March 1834, in {{harvnb|Weinstock|1971|p=154}}</ref> When Turina announced that she was leaving her husband, Bellini left her, saying "with so many commitments, such a relationship would be fatal to me," expressing his fear of romantic attachments getting in the way of his musical career.<ref name="auto"/> Ultimately, he resisted any long-term emotional commitment, and never married.

However, Turina maintained contact with Florimo throughout her life, although [nothing] was heard from her after his death until she wrote a sad-but-friendly letter to Florimo.<ref>Turina to Florimo, no date, in {{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|p=304}}</ref> Florimo eventually returned the friendship and, as Galatopoulos notes, "the death of Bellini was a mutual loss and Florimo needed Giuditta as much as she needed him"<ref name=GAL305>{{harvnb|Galatopoulos|2002|p=305}}</ref> so that the two corresponded for years and Florimo visited her in Milan "at least once, in 1858".<ref name=GAL305/> She died on 1 December 1871.

==Complete works of Bellini==

===Operas===
In 1999, the Italian music publisher [[Casa Ricordi]], in collaboration with the [[Teatro Massimo Bellini]] in [[Catania]], embarked on a project to publish critical editions of the complete works of Bellini.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.ricordi.it/catalogue/?sort=title+asc&fq=active%3A%22true%22&fq=c_detail%3A%22EDIZIONE+CRITICA+O+RIVEDUTA%22&fq=origin%3A%22django%22&fq=content_type%3Aopera-opera+OR+content_type%3Aopera-publication&fq=author%3A%22Vincenzo+Bellini%22&fq=language%3A%22en%22&facet.mincount=1&facet.sort=lex+desc&facet.field=channel&facet.field=c_genre&facet.field=c_type&facet.field=c_organic&facet.field=author&facet.field=year&facet=true&facet.limit=100&rows=15|title=Ricordi}}</ref>
{| class = "wikitable sortable plainrowheaders"
|-
|+ Operas by Vincenzo Bellini
|-
! rowspan="2" | Title
! rowspan="2" | Genre
! rowspan="2" | Acts
! rowspan="2" | Libretto
! colspan="2" | Premiere
|-
! Date
! Venue
|-
|''[[Adelson e Salvini]]''
|[[opera semiseria]]
|3 acts
|{{Hs|Tottola}}[[Andrea Leone Tottola]]
| 12 (?) February 1825
|Naples, [[Music conservatories of Naples#Conservatorio di San Sebastiano|Teatro del Conservatorio di San Sebastiano]]
|-
|''[[Bianca e Gernando]]''
|melodramma
|2 acts
|{{Hs|Gilardoni}}[[Domenico Gilardoni]]
|30 May 1826
|Naples, [[Teatro San Carlo]]
|-
|{{Hs|Pirata}}''[[Il pirata]]''
|melodramma
|2 acts
|{{Hs|Romani}}[[Felice Romani]]
|27 October 1827
|Milan, [[Teatro alla Scala]]
|-
|''[[Bianca e Fernando]]'' (revision of ''Bianca e Gernando'')
|melodramma
|2 acts
|{{Hs|Romani}}[[Felice Romani]]
|7 April 1828
|Genoa, [[Teatro Carlo Felice]]
|-
|{{Hs|Straniera}}''[[La straniera]]''
|melodramma
|2 acts
|{{Hs|Romani}}[[Felice Romani]]
|14 February 1829
|Milan, [[Teatro alla Scala]]
|-
|''[[Zaira (opera)|Zaira]]''
|tragedia lirica
|2 acts
|{{Hs|Romani}}[[Felice Romani]]
|16 May 1829
|Parma, [[Teatro Regio (Parma)|Teatro Ducale]]
|-
|{{Hs|Capuleti e i Montecchi}}''[[I Capuleti e i Montecchi]]''
|tragedia lirica
|2 acts
|{{Hs|Romani}}[[Felice Romani]]
|11 March 1830
|Venice, [[Teatro La Fenice]]
|-
|{{Hs|Sonnambula}}''[[La sonnambula]]''
|opera semiseria
|2 acts
|{{Hs|Romani}}[[Felice Romani]]
|6 March 1831
|Milan, [[Teatro Carcano]]
|-
|''[[Norma (opera)|Norma]]''
|tragedia lirica
|2 acts
|{{Hs|Romani}}[[Felice Romani]]
|26 December 1831
|Milan, [[Teatro alla Scala]]
|-
|''[[Beatrice di Tenda]]''
|tragedia lirica
|2 acts
|{{Hs|Romani}}[[Felice Romani]]
|16 March 1833
|Venice, [[Teatro La Fenice]]
|-
|{{Hs|Puritani}}''[[I puritani]]''
|melodramma serio
|3 acts
|{{Hs|Pepoli}}[[Carlo Pepoli]]
|24 January 1835
|Paris, [[Théâtre-Italien (1801–1878)|Théâtre-Italien]]
|-
|}

===Songs===
The following fifteen songs were published as a collection, ''[[Composizioni da Camera (Bellini)|Composizioni da Camera]]'', by [[Casa Ricordi]] in 1935 on the centenary of Bellini's death.
{{Div col|colwidth=20em|rules=yes}}
'''Six Early Songs'''
* "La farfalletta" – canzoncina
* "Quando incise su quel marmo" – scena ed aria
* "Sogno d'infanzia" – romanza
* "L'abbandono" – romanza
* "L'allegro marinaro" – ballata
* "Torna, vezzosa Fillide" – romanza
'''Tre Ariette'''
* "Il fervido Desiderio"
* "Dolente immagine di Fille mia"
* "[[Vaga luna, che inargenti]]"
'''Sei Ariette'''
* "Malinconia, Ninfa gentile"
* "Vanne, o rosa fortunata"
* "Bella Nice, che d'amore"
* "Almen se non poss'io"
* "Per pietà, bell'idol mio"
* "Ma rendi pur contento"
{{Div col end}}

===Other works===
* Eight symphonies, including a ''Capriccio, ossia Sinfonia per studio'' (Capriccio or Study Symphony), composed around 1820. Bellini's symphonies are short works (typically under ten minutes) in the Italian overture tradition rather than in the Germanic tradition of [[Beethoven]].
* [[Oboe Concerto (Bellini)|Oboe Concerto in E-flat major]]
* seven piano works, three of them for four hands
* an Organ Sonata in G major
* 40 sacred works, including:
** ("Catania" No. 1) Mass in D major (1818)
** ("Catania" No. 2) Mass in G major (1818)
** ''Messa di Gloria'' in A minor for soloists, choir and orchestra (1821)
** Mass in E minor (Naples, c. 1823)
** Mass in G minor (Naples, c. 1823)
** ''Salve Regina'' in A major for choir and orchestra (c. 1820)
** ''Salve Regina'' in F minor for soprano and piano (c. 1820)

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography|Opera}}
Other important [[bel canto]] opera composers:
* [[Gioachino Rossini]]
* [[Gaetano Donizetti]]
* [[Saverio Mercadante]]

==References==
'''Notes'''
{{reflist|30em}}
'''Cited sources'''
* {{cite book|editor-last=Cambi|editor-first=Luisa|year=1943|title=Vincenzo Bellini: Epistolario|location=Milan|publisher=Mondadori}}
* {{cite book|last=Cicconetti|first=Filippo|year=1859|title=Vita di Vincenzo Bellini|location=Prato}} Republished by Nabu Press, US, 2013 (Book on demand) {{ISBN|1289392072|9781289392079}}
* {{cite book|last=Eaton|first=Quaintance|author-link=Quaintance Eaton|year=1974|title=Opera Production 1: A Handbook|publisher=Da Capo Press|isbn=0-306-70635-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Eisenbeiss|first=Philip|year=2013|title=Bel Canto Bully: The Life of the Legendary Opera Impresario Domenico Barbaja|location=London|publisher=Haus Publishing|isbn=978-1-908323-25-5}}
* {{cite book|last=Galatopoulos|first=Stelios|year=2002|title=Bellini: Life, Times, Music: 1801–1835|location=London|publisher=Sanctuary Publishing|isbn=9781860744051}}
* {{cite book|last=Kimbell|first=David|year=2001|chapter=Vincenzo Bellini|editor=[[Amanda Holden (writer)|Holden, Amanda]]|title=The New Penguin Opera Guide|pages=46–55|location=New York|publisher=Penguin Putnam|isbn=0-140-29312-4}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last=Libby|first=Dennis|year=1998|title=Florimo, Francesco|editor=Stanley Sadie|editor1-link=Stanley Sadie|encyclopedia=[[The New Grove Dictionary of Opera]]|volume=2|location=London|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=0-333-73432-7}}
* {{cite encyclopedia|last1=Lippmann|first1=Friedrich|last2=McGuire|first2=Simon|year=1998|title=Bellini, Vincenzo|editor=[[Stanley Sadie]]|encyclopedia=[[The New Grove Dictionary of Opera]]|volume=1|location=London|publisher=Macmillan|isbn=0-333-73432-7}}
* {{cite journal|author1-link=Mary Ann Smart|last=Smart|first=Mary Ann|title=Parlor Games: Italian Music and Italian Politics in the Parisian Salon|journal=[[19th-Century Music]]|volume=34|number=1|date=Summer 2010|publisher=University of California|pages=39–60|doi=10.1525/ncm.2010.34.1.039|jstor=10.1525/ncm.2010.34.1.039}} {{subscription required}}
* {{cite journal|last=Walker|first=Frank|title=Giuditta Turina and Bellini|journal=[[Music & Letters]]|volume=40|number=1|date=January 1959|pages=19–34|doi=10.1093/ml/XL.1.19|jstor=730397}} {{subscription required}}
* {{cite book|last=Weinstock|first=Herbert|author-link=Herbert Weinstock|year=1971|title=Bellini: His Life and His Operas|location=New York|publisher=Knopf|isbn=0394416562}}

==Further reading==
* [[William Ashbrook|Ashbrook, William]], "Donizetti and Romani", ''American Association of Teachers of Italian'', Vol. 64, No. 4, Winter, 1987, pp. 606–631. {{JSTOR|479240}} (by subscription)
* Orrey, Leslie (1973), ''Bellini'' (The Master Musicians Series), London: J. M. Dent. {{ISBN|0-460-02137-0}}
* [[Charles Osborne (music writer)|Osborne, Charles]] (1994), ''The Bel Canto Operas of Rossini, Donizetti, and Bellini'', Portland, Oregon: Amadeus Press. {{ISBN|0931340713}}
* Rosselli, John (1996), [https://books.google.com/books?id=bVCPmc7nkV4C ''The Life of Bellini''], New York: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-46781-0}}
* Smart, Mary Ann (Spring 2000), "In Praise of Convention: Formula and Experiment in Bellini's Self-Borrowings", ''[[Journal of the American Musicological Society]]'', vol. 53, no. 1. pp. 25–68 {{JSTOR|831869}} {{subscription required}}
* Thiellay, Jean; Jean-Philippe Thiellay, (2013), ''Bellini'', Paris: Actes Sud, {{ISBN|978-2-330-02377-5}} {{in lang|fr}}
* Willier, Stephen Ace (2002), [https://books.google.com/books?id=BPrARpPBGv ''Vincenzo Bellini: A Guide to Research'']. New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|0-8153-3805-8}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
* [http://cylinders.library.ucsb.edu/search.php?query_type=keyword&query=Vincenzo+Bellini&nq=1 Vincenzo Bellini cylinder recordings], from the [[UCSB Cylinder Audio Archive]] at the [[University of California, Santa Barbara]] Library.
* [https://adp.library.ucsb.edu/names/102890 Vincenzo Bellini recordings] at the [[Discography of American Historical Recordings]].
* {{IMSLP|id=Bellini,_Vincenzo}}
* {{ChoralWiki}}
* [http://www.ricordi.it/catalogue/composers/vincenzo-bellini/ "Vincenzo Bellini": Outline of his life (in English) and list of critical editions of his works published by Ricordi], [[Casa Ricordi]]. Retrieved 13 December 2013. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160605220432/http://www.ricordi.it/catalogue/composers/vincenzo-bellini/ |date=5 June 2016 }}
* [http://www.teatromassimobellini.it/ Teatro Massimo Bellini, Catania's web site]

{{Vincenzo Bellini}}
{{Romanticism}}
{{Romantic music}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bellini, Vincenzo}}
[[Category:1801 births]]
[[Category:1835 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century classical composers]]
[[Category:19th-century Italian male musicians]]
[[Category:Burials at Catania Cathedral]]
[[Category:Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery]]
[[Category:Composers from Sicily]]
[[Category:Italian male classical composers]]
[[Category:Italian male opera composers]]
[[Category:Italian opera composers]]
[[Category:Italian Romantic composers]]
[[Category:Kingdom of Sicily people]]
[[Category:Knights of the Legion of Honour]]
[[Category:Musicians from Catania]]

History of Go

2021-08-01T07:52:07Z

Cyon: /* Growth in east Asia */ restoring some lost formatting

{{Short description|Aspect of history}}
{{GoBoardGame}}

The game of '''[[Go (board game)|Go]]''' ({{zh|t=圍棋|s=围棋|p={{audio|Zh-wéiqí.ogg|wéiqí|help=no}}}}) originated in [[China]] in ancient times. It was considered one of the [[four arts|four essential arts]] of a cultured Chinese scholar in antiquity and is described as a worthy pastime for a gentleman in the ''[[Analects of Confucius]]''. It reached [[Korea]] by the 5th century,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://sentego.net/history-of-go/|title=history of Go|website=Sentego|access-date=2018-11-09}}</ref> in the 7th century it had reached [[Japan]]. The game was described by [[Thomas Hyde]] in 1694, but it did not become popular in the West until the late 19th century.

According to legend, the game was created as a teaching tool after the ancient [[Chinese Emperor]] [[Emperor Yao|Yao]] {{lang|zh|堯}} (2356–2255 BCE) designed it for his son, [[Danzhu]] {{lang|zh|丹朱}}, to learn discipline, concentration, and balance. Another suggested genesis for the game is that [[Han Chinese|Chinese]] [[warlord]]s and generals used pieces of stone to map attacking positions. Other plausible theories relate Go equipment to [[divination]] or flood control.

== Origin in China ==
[[File:Zhou Wenju 重屏会棋图 Palace Museum, Illustrated Section.jpg|thumb|right|350px|[[Li Jing (Southern Tang)|Li Jing]] playing Go with his brothers. Painting by [[Zhou Wenju]] (fl. 942-961), [[Southern Tang]] dynasty.]]
Go's early history is debated, but there are myths about its existence, one of which assuming that Go was an ancient fortune telling device used by Chinese astrologers to simulate the universe's relationship to an individual.{{citation needed|date=July 2016}}

The earliest written reference of the game is usually taken to be the historical annal ''[[Zuo Zhuan]]''<ref name=ZhuoZhuan>Potter 1985; [[John Fairbairn (writer)|Fairbairn]] 1995</ref> (c. 4th century BC), referring to a historical event of 548 BC. It is also mentioned in Book XVII of the ''[[Analects of Confucius]]'' and in two of the books of [[Mencius]]<ref name=Confucius>Potter 1984; [[John Fairbairn (writer)|Fairbairn]] 1995</ref> (c. 3rd century BC). In all of these works, the game is referred to as {{transl|zh|ISO|yì}} ({{lang|zh-Hant|弈}}).

Chinese archaeologists have discovered a broken piece of a pottery [[Go (board game)|go board]] from the [[Western Han Dynasty]] (206 BC – 24 AD) in [[Shaanxi Province]]. This is the earliest discovery of an existing board unearthed in China. The board was found in the ruins of a watchtower at the tombs of Emperor [[Jingdi]] and [[Empress Wang Zhi]] of the Western Han Dynasty. The broken fragment of the board measures 5.7 cm to 28.5 cm long, 17 cm to 19.7 cm wide and 3.6 cm thick. Li Gang, a research fellow with the Shaanxi Provincial Archaeological Research Institute, said that this board might have been made from a floor tile, and that it did not belong to the royal family since the carvings are too rough. Li said the board could have been made by the tomb guards who played go to pass the time. "That proves that go was being played not only by nobles, but also by ordinary people like tomb guards, more than 2,000 years ago", Li noted.

In 1954 a complete Go board made out of stone was found in a tomb dating to the [[Eastern Han dynasty]] (25–220) in [[Wangdu County]], [[Hebei Province]]. This board has a 17 × 17 grid, which confirms the statement by the 3rd century author Handan Chun in the ''[[Classic of Arts]]'' that Go was at this time played on a 17 × 17 grid:

<blockquote>
The go board has 17 lines along its length and breadth, making 289 points in all. The black and white stones each number 150.<ref>Fairbairn 1995</ref>
</blockquote>

The earliest board with a 19 × 19 grid to have been found is a [[ceramic]] board dating to the [[Sui dynasty]] (581-618) that was excavated from [[Anyang]] in [[Henan Province]], so sometime between the 3rd and 6th centuries a change in grid size must have taken place. However, the 17 × 17 board has survived in the version of Go played in Tibet.<ref>Peter Shotwell, ''The Game of Go in Ancient and Modern Tibet'', Tibetan Journal of Social Science, 1994.</ref>

The first book dedicated to Go is the ''[[Dunhuang Go Manual]]'' (c. 6th century CE), and was found in the [[Mogao Caves]] in [[Dunhuang]], and discusses the game as played on a 19 x 19 board. More books devoted to the game were written during the [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] and [[Song dynasty|Song]] dynasties.<ref name=":0" />

In ancient [[China]], Go was often seen as the refined pastime of the scholars, while [[xiangqi]] was the game of the masses. According to Japanese historian Miyoshi, Go flourished in China from about A.D. 200 to 600, when the interest in art and literature was at a high point.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|last=Lasker|first=Edward|title=Go and Go-Moku: The Oriental Board Games|publisher=[[Dover Publications]]|year=1960|isbn=0486206130|location=|pages=}}</ref> Go was one of the [[Four Arts of the Chinese Scholar|four cultivated arts]] of the [[Junzi|Chinese scholar gentleman]], along with [[Chinese calligraphy|calligraphy]], [[Chinese painting|painting]] and playing the musical instrument [[guqin]], and examinations of skill in those arts was used to qualify candidates for service in the [[bureaucracy]].<ref name="FourAccomp">Pinckard 1989</ref>

==Growth in east Asia==
[[Image:Kano Eitoku 010.jpg|thumb|upright|[[China|Chinese]] Go players during the [[Ming dynasty]], depicted on a painted screen by a Japanese artist of the [[Kanō school]]. [[Momoyama Period]], 16th century.]]

Go is believed to have been introduced to Japan by [[Kibi no Makibi]] who had studied in [[Tang dynasty|Tang]] China at the beginning of the 8th century. But the [[Taihō Code]], enacted in 701, has a description of Go and therefore the game may have been introduced a little earlier. After it was introduced from China, Go came to be actively played during the [[Nara period]] (710–794), and during the following [[Heian period]] (794–1185) Go was a favourite aristocratic pastime, as is described in typical literary works of this period such as ''[[The Pillow Book]]'' and ''[[The Tale of Genji]]''.

During the [[Muromachi period]] (1336–1573), potentates employed semi-professional Go players, called Go-uchi ({{nihongo2|碁打ち}}) or Jouzu ({{nihongo2|上手}}) who competed against other clans. At the end of the 16th century, Nikkai ([[Hon'inbō Sansa]]) served [[Oda Nobunaga]], [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] and [[Tokugawa Ieyasu]] as a Go teacher, and in 1578 was recognized as the first ''[[Meijin (go)|Meijin]]'' of Go by Oda Nobunaga; he also became the first [[Hon'inbō]]. Around this time, free opening of the game started; before, the game started from a set position of several stones on the board.

In 1612, at the beginning of the [[Edo period]] (1603–1868), the [[Tokugawa shogunate]] established [[four go houses|Four hereditary "houses"]] to teach the game of Go: {{nihongo|[[Hon'inbō]]|本因坊|Hon'inbō}}, {{nihongo|[[Hayashi house|Hayashi]]|林|Hayashi}}, {{nihongo|[[Inoue house|Inoue]]|井上|Inoue}} and {{nihongo|[[Yasui house|Yasui]]|安井|Yasui}}. These four houses (''[[iemoto]]'') competed with each other throughout the 300 years of the [[Edo period]]. Professional matches between the four houses, as well as other high profile players, were called ''[[oshirogo]]'' ("castle Go"), because they were held at castles of the [[shogun]].

The wave of Westernization and modernization accompanying the [[Meiji Restoration]] in 1868 caused the dissolution of the official ''[[iemoto]]'' Go system and a wane in general popularity for the game. In the wake of this upheaval, the [[Hon'inbō]] title was transformed into a tournament title.

==Development in the West==
[[Image:FarmworkersplayGo.jpg|thumb|left|Japanese-American [[Farm Security Administration]] workers play go in [[Twin Falls, Idaho]], during the 1940s. Asian immigration to the U.S. was a factor in the growth of the game in the Americas.]]
Despite its widespread popularity in [[East Asia]], Go has been slow to spread to the rest of the world, unlike other games of ancient Asian origin, such as [[chess]]. Schadler<ref name=travel>{{Cite journal | last = Schadler | first = Ulrich | title = Some Games Travel, Some Don't | year = 2001}} in The Proceedings of the First International Conference on Baduk, the Hankuk Kiwon, 2001</ref> speculates that chess has more widespread appeal because culturally congruent game pieces can be created in chess (e.g. [[Queen (chess)|Queen]] and [[Bishop (chess)|Bishop]] in [[Chess|Western Chess]], [[Chinese Chess#Advisor.2FGuard|Advisor]] and [[Chinese Chess#Minister.2FWar Elephant|Elephant]] in [[Chinese Chess]]), while Go is totally abstract. Also, there is no climactic ending in Go (such as [[checkmate]] in chess). New players often have trouble figuring out when a game of Go is over. Other theories center around the existence of fundamental differences in the level and type of thinking required by Go players as opposed to chess players. While pure analytical thought and the ability to plan many moves in advance are advantageous in chess, in Go a more intuitive approach based on pattern recognition and experience is stressed. A purely analytical approach, due to the sheer number of moves available for consideration, can be paralyzing.

The first detailed description of Go in a European language, ''De Circumveniendi Ludo Chinensium'' (''About the Chinese encircling game''), was written in Latin by [[Thomas Hyde]], and included in his 1694 treatise on Oriental board games, ''De Ludis Orientalibus'' (''About Oriental games''), pp. 195–201; [[Oskar Korschelt]], a German [[engineer]], is credited with being the first person to try to popularize Go outside of East Asia. He learned about the game from [[Hon'inbō Shūho]] (Murase Shūho) when he worked in [[Japan]] from 1878 to 1886. Korschelt published a detailed article on Go in 1880. A few years later he published a book based on this article. He brought the game to Europe, especially to [[Germany]] and [[Austria]], and thus became the first person to systematically describe Go in a Western language. Since he learned Go in Japan, the terms of Go in Western languages come from [[Japanese language|Japanese]], not [[Chinese language|Chinese]].

By the early 20th century, Go had spread throughout the [[German Empire|German]] and [[Austria-Hungary|Austro-Hungarian]] empires.<ref name=eugo18801945>{{cite web|url=http://www.leipzig-go.de/fruehgeschichte_e.php |title=History of Go in Europe 1880–1945 |author=Leipzig Go |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060528115529/http://www.leipzig-go.de/fruehgeschichte_e.php |archive-date=2006-05-28 }}</ref> In 1905, [[Edward Lasker]] learned the game while in Berlin. When he moved to New York, Lasker founded the New York Go Club together with (amongst others) Arthur Smith, who had learned of the game while touring the East and had published the book ''The Game of Go'' in 1908.<ref name=agahbk95>{{cite web | url = http://www.usgo.org/archive/agahbk95.html | title = American Go Association 1995 Historical Book | author = American Go Association | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110806204728/http://www.usgo.org/archive/agahbk95.html | archive-date = 2011-08-06 }}</ref> Lasker's book ''Go and Go-moku'' (1934) helped spread the game throughout the US,<ref name=agahbk95/> and in 1935, the [[American Go Association]] was formed. Two years later, in 1937, the German Go Association was founded.<ref name=eugo18801945/> [[World War II]] put a stop to most Go activity, but after the war, Go continued to spread.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://shinbo.free.fr/TheMagicOfGo/index.php?tmog=40 | title = The Magic of Go – 40. Go in Europe | author = Richard Bozulich | access-date = 2008-04-28 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070730222854/http://shinbo.free.fr/TheMagicOfGo/index.php?tmog=40 | archive-date = 2007-07-30 | url-status = dead }}</ref>

Western players' interest increased in the 1950s. In 1978, Manfred Wimmer<ref>[http://pokspace.goverband.at/essays/wimmer_e.htm Manfred Wimmer]</ref> became the first Westerner to receive a professional player's certificate from an East Asian professional Go association. It was not until 2000 that a Westerner, [[Michael Redmond (Go player)|Michael Redmond]], achieved a professional 9 dan rating, the top rank awarded by East Asian Go associations.

For most of the 20th century, the [[Nihon Ki-in|Japan Go Association]] played a leading role in spreading Go outside East Asia, publishing the English-language magazine ''Go Review'' in the 1960s, establishing [[Go centers]] in the US, Europe and South America, and often sending professional teachers on tour to Western nations.<ref name=ProVisits>{{cite web | url = http://www.britgo.org/history/pros.html | title = Pro Go Player visits to UK & Ireland (since 1964) | author = British Go Association | access-date= 2007-11-17}}</ref>
By 2005, the European Go Federation had a total of 35 member countries.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.eurogofed.org/history/index.htm | title = EGF History | author = European Go Federation | access-date = 2007-10-31 }}</ref>

In 1996, [[NASA]] astronaut [[Daniel T. Barry|Daniel Barry]] and Japanese astronaut [[Koichi Wakata]] became the first people to play Go in space, they used a special Go set designed by Wai-Cheung Willson Chow.<ref name=SvenskGo>Peng & Hall 1996</ref> Both astronauts were awarded honorary [[dan rank]]s by the [[Nihon Kiin]].<ref name=SvenskGo/>

In 2016 [[Lee Sedol]] was defeated by the computer program ''[[AlphaGo]]''.

==Trivia==
The first recorded game of Go in Europe was played in 1872 between [[Kido Takayoshi]] and [[Ōkubo Toshimichi]]. Both were vice ambassadors of the [[Iwakura Mission]], which traveled to the United States and Europe between 1871 and 1873. Kido was an enthusiastic Go player, as can be seen from his diary (translated by Sidney DeVere Brown and Akiko Hirota as ''The Diary of Kido Takayoshi'', Vol. I–III, Tokyo, The University of Tokyo Press, 1983–1986). During his journey, after arriving at Birmingham on 1 November 1872 and staying at the Queen's Hotel in Room No. 10, Kido notes two days later in his diary (Vol. II, p. 243):

<blockquote>'''3 November 1872 [Meiji 5/10/3]''' Fair, then rain. I stayed in my room all day to recuperate from my illness, and had a special diet. I played ''go'' with Ōkubo. (Note) Sunday.</blockquote>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Japan|China}}
* [[Go at the 2010 Asian Games]]
* [[International Go Federation]]
* [[List of professional Go tournaments]]
* ''[[Dunhuang Go Manual]]''
* ''[[Classic of Arts]]''
{{Clear}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Notes ==
* {{cite journal | last = Potter | first = Donald L. | year = 1984 | title= Go in the Classics | journal = [[Go World]] | issue = 37 | publisher = Ishi Press | location = Tokyo | pages =16–18 | url = http://www.kiseido.com/classics.htm | access-date = 2007-11-02}}
* {{cite journal | last = Potter | first = Donald L. | year = 1985 | title= Go in the Classics (ii): the Tso-chuan | journal = [[Go World]] | issue = 42 | publisher = Ishi Press | location = Tokyo | pages =19–21 | url = http://www.kiseido.com/classics.htm | access-date = 2007-11-02}}
* {{cite web | url = http://www.pandanet.co.jp/English/essay/goancientchina.html | title = Go in Ancient China | last = Fairbairn | first = John | author-link = John Fairbairn (writer) | year = 1995 | access-date = 2007-11-02}}
* {{cite web|url=http://www.msoworld.com/mindzine/news/orient/go/history/origin_korea.html |title=History of Go in Korea |last=Fairbairn |first=John |author-link=John Fairbairn (writer) |year=2000 |access-date=2007-11-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608021308/http://www.msoworld.com/mindzine/news/orient/go/history/origin_korea.html |archive-date=2011-06-08 }}
* {{cite book | last = Lasker | first = Edward | author-link = Edward Lasker | title = Go and Go-Moku | isbn = 0-486-20613-0 | year = 1960 | orig-year = 1934 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/gogomokuoriental00lask }}
* {{Cite book | url = http://www.kiseido.com/printss/ukiyoedx.html | chapter-url = http://www.kiseido.com/printss/four.html | title = Japanese Prints and the World of Go | chapter = The Four Accomplishments | year = 1989 | last = Pinckard | first = William | editor = Richard Bozulich | access-date = 2007-11-02 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080316051106/http://www.kiseido.com/printss/ukiyoedx.html | archive-date = 2008-03-16 | url-status = dead }}.
* {{Cite journal|title=One Giant Leap For Go |url=http://homepage.mac.com/bjornwendsjo/go/2-96.pdf |journal=Svensk gotidning |volume=96 |issue=2 |year=1996 |pages=7–8 |last=Peng |first=Mike |last2=Hall |first2=Mark |access-date=2007-11-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120304121705/http://homepage.mac.com/bjornwendsjo/go/2-96.pdf |archive-date=2012-03-04 }}
* {{Cite web | title = The Game of Go in Ancient and Modern Tibet | url = http://www.usgo.org/resources/downloads/go_in_tibet.pdf | last = Shotwell | first = Peter | year = 2003 | access-date = 2008-07-16 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081007023631/http://www.usgo.org/resources/downloads/go_in_tibet.pdf | archive-date = 2008-10-07 | url-status = dead }}

==External links==
* [http://gobase.org/history/ History of Go in ancient China, Korea and Japan]

[[Category:History of go|*]]

Dragon

2021-06-06T03:55:09Z

Cyon: /* Post-classical Eastern */ Changing a Polish name to its basic nominative form instead of accusative

{{pp|small=yes}}
{{hatnote|This article is about the legendary creature, not to be confused with [[Draconian (disambiguation)|Draconian]] or [[Dragoon (disambiguation)|Dragoon]]. For other uses see [[Dragon (disambiguation)]].}}
{{short description|Large, serpentine, legendary creature that appears in the folklore of many cultures worldwide}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}}
[[File:Friedrich-Johann-Justin-Bertuch Mythical-Creature-Dragon 1806.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Illustration of a winged, fire-breathing dragon by [[Friedrich Justin Bertuch]] from 1806]]
[[File:Ninedragonwallpic1.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Carved imperial Chinese dragons at [[Nine-Dragon Wall]], [[Beihai Park]], [[Beijing]] ]]
[[File:Zmei Gorynich - Ystad-2019.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|Dragons in the bow of a Russian Viking ship.
[[Ystad]] 2019.]]
A '''dragon''' is a large, [[snake|serpent]]ine, [[legendary creature]] that appears in the [[folklore]] of many cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but [[European dragon|dragons in western cultures]] since the [[High Middle Ages]] have often been depicted as winged, horned, [[Quadrupedalism|four-legged]], and capable of [[Fire breathing|breathing fire]]. [[Chinese dragon|Dragons in eastern cultures]] are usually depicted as wingless, four-legged, serpentine creatures with above-average intelligence.

The earliest attested reports of draconic creatures resemble giant snakes. Draconic creatures are first described in the mythologies of the [[ancient Near East]] and appear in [[Art of Mesopotamia|ancient Mesopotamian art]] and literature. Stories about [[Weather god|storm-gods]] slaying giant serpents occur throughout nearly all [[Proto-Indo-European religion|Indo-European]] and Near Eastern mythologies. Famous prototypical draconic creatures include the ''[[mušḫuššu]]'' of [[Mesopotamia|ancient Mesopotamia]]; [[Apep]] in [[Egyptian mythology]]; [[Vritra|Vṛtra]] in the ''[[Rigveda]]''; the [[Leviathan]] in the [[Hebrew Bible]]; [[Big Ghoul|Grand'Goule]] in the Poitou region in [[France]], [[Python (mythology)|Python]], [[Ladon (mythology)|Ladon]], [[Wyvern]], and the [[Lernaean Hydra]] in [[Greek mythology]]; [[Jörmungandr]], [[Níðhöggr]], and [[Fafnir]] in [[Norse mythology]]; and [[The dragon (Beowulf)|the dragon]] from ''[[Beowulf]]''.

The popular western image of a dragon is based on a conflation of earlier dragons from different traditions, and of inaccurate scribal drawings of snakes. In western cultures, dragons are portrayed as monsters to be tamed or overcome, usually by [[saint]]s or [[culture hero]]es, as in the popular legend of [[Saint George and the Dragon]]. They are often said to have ravenous appetites and to live in caves, where they hoard treasure. These dragons appear frequently in western [[fantasy]] literature, including ''[[The Hobbit]]'' by [[J. R. R. Tolkien]], the ''[[Harry Potter]]'' series by [[J. K. Rowling]], and ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'' by [[George R. R. Martin]].

The word "dragon" has also come to be applied to the Chinese ''lung'' (traditional 龍, simplified 龙, Japanese simplified 竜, [[Pinyin]] ''lóng''), which are associated with good fortune and are thought to have power over rain. Dragons and their associations with rain are the source of the Chinese customs of [[dragon dance|dragon dancing]] and [[dragon boat|dragon boat racing]]. Many [[East Asia]]n deities and demigods have dragons as their personal mounts or companions. Dragons were also identified with the [[Emperor of China]], who, during later Chinese imperial history, was the only one permitted to have dragons on his house, clothing, or personal articles.

Commonalities between dragons' traits are often a hybridization of avian, feline, and reptilian features, and may include: snakelike features, reptilian scaly skin, four legs with three or four toes on each, spinal nodes running down the back, a tail, and a serrated jaw with rows of teeth. Several modern scholars believe huge extinct or migrating [[crocodile]]s bear the closest resemblance, especially when encountered in forested or swampy areas, and are most likely the template of modern dragon imagery.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/where-did-dragons-come-from-23969126/|title=Where Did Dragons Come From?|last=Stromberg|first=Joseph|date=23 January 2012|website=Smithsonian|access-date=2 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004073045/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/where-did-dragons-come-from-23969126/|archive-date=4 October 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://en.people.cn/english/200004/29/eng20000429_40001.html|title=Archeologists Find Crocodile is Prototype of Dragon|date=29 April 2000|website=People's Daily|access-date=2 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190902190613/http://en.people.cn/english/200004/29/eng20000429_40001.html|archive-date=2 September 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Etymology==
[[File:Beowulf - dracan.jpg|thumb|An early appearance of the [[Old English]] word ''dracan'' in ''[[Beowulf]]''<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=OCc8TF53RhMC&pg=PA196 Beowulf; a heroic poem of the 8th century, with tr., note and appendix by T. Arnold], 1876, p. 196.</ref>]]
The word ''dragon'' entered the [[English language]] in the early 13th century from [[Old French]] ''dragon'', which in turn comes from {{lang-la|draconem}} (nominative ''draco'') meaning "huge serpent, dragon", from [[Ancient Greek]] {{lang|grc|[[:wikt:δράκων|δράκων]]}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|drákōn}}'' (genitive {{lang|grc|[[:wikt:δράκοντος|δράκοντος]]}}, ''{{lang|grc-Latn|drákontos}}'') "serpent, giant seafish".{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=4}}<ref name="LiddelScott">[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Ddra%2Fkwn2 Δράκων] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620113648/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Ddra%2Fkwn2 |date=20 June 2010 }}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', at Perseus project</ref> The Greek and Latin term referred to any great serpent, not necessarily mythological.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=2–4}} The Greek word {{lang|grc|δράκων}} is most likely derived from the Greek verb {{lang|grc|[[:wikt:δέρκομαι|δέρκομαι]]}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|dérkomai}}'') meaning "I see", the [[aorist]] form of which is {{lang|grc|ἔδρακον}} (''{{lang|grc-Latn|édrakon}}'').<ref name="LiddelScott"/> This is thought to have referred to something with a "deadly glance,"<ref>https://www.etymonline.com/word/dragon</ref> or unusually bright<ref>https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/morph?l=de%2Frkomai&la=greek&can=de%2Frkomai0&prior=to/de&d=Perseus:text:1999.01.0041:card=699&i=1#lexicon</ref> or "sharp"<ref>https://blog.oup.com/2015/04/st-georges-day-dragon-etymology/</ref> eyes.

==Myth origins==
[[File:Bone of Wawel Dragon.JPG|thumb|upright=1.1|Several bones purported to belong to the [[Wawel Dragon]] hang outside of [[Wawel Cathedral]], but actually belong to a [[Pleistocene]] mammal.]]
Draconic creatures appear in virtually all cultures around the globe.{{sfn|Malone|2012|page=96}} Nonetheless, scholars dispute where the idea of a dragon originates from{{sfn|Malone|2012|page=98}} and a wide variety of hypotheses have been proposed.{{sfn|Malone|2012|page=98}}

In his book ''[[An Instinct for Dragons]]'' (2000), [[anthropologist]] [[David E. Jones]] suggests a hypothesis that humans, like [[monkey]]s, have inherited instinctive reactions to snakes, [[Big cat|large cats]], and [[Bird of prey|birds of prey]].{{sfn|Jones|2000|page=32-40}} He cites a study which found that approximately 39 people in a hundred are afraid of snakes{{sfn|Jones|2000|page=63}} and notes that fear of snakes is especially prominent in children, even in areas where snakes are rare.{{sfn|Jones|2000|page=63}} The earliest attested dragons all resemble snakes or have snakelike attributes.{{sfn|Jones|2000|pages=166–168}} Jones therefore concludes that dragons appear in nearly all cultures because humans have an innate fear of snakes and other animals that were major predators of humans' primate ancestors.{{sfn|Jones|2000|page=32}} Dragons are usually said to reside in "dank caves, deep pools, wild mountain reaches, sea bottoms, haunted forests", all places which would have been fraught with danger for early human ancestors.{{sfn|Jones|2000|page=108}}

In her book ''The First Fossil Hunters: Dinosaurs, Mammoths, and Myth in Greek and Roman Times'' (2000), [[Adrienne Mayor]] argues that some stories of dragons may have been inspired by ancient discoveries of fossils belonging to [[dinosaur]]s and other prehistoric animals.{{sfn|Mayor|2000|pages=xiii–xxii}} She argues that the dragon lore of northern India may have been inspired by "observations of oversized, extraordinary bones in the fossilbeds of the [[Siwalik Hills]] below the [[Himalayas]]"{{sfn|Mayor|2000|page=xxii}} and that ancient Greek artistic depictions of the [[Cetus (mythology)|Monster of Troy]] may have been influenced by fossils of ''[[Samotherium]]'', an extinct species of giraffe whose fossils are common in the Mediterranean region.{{sfn|Mayor|2000|page=xxii}} In China, a region where fossils of large prehistoric animals are common, these remains are frequently identified as "dragon bones"{{sfn|Mayor|2000|page=xix}} and are commonly used in Chinese [[traditional medicine]].{{sfn|Mayor|2000|page=xix}} Mayor, however, is careful to point out that not all stories of dragons and giants are inspired by fossils{{sfn|Mayor|2000|page=xix}} and notes that Scandinavia has many stories of dragons and sea monsters, but has long "been considered barren of large fossils."{{sfn|Mayor|2000|page=xix}} In one of her later books, she states that "Many dragon images around the world were based on folk knowledge or exaggerations of living reptiles, such as [[Komodo dragon]]s, [[Gila monster]]s, [[iguana]]s, [[alligator]]s, or, in California, [[Elgaria|alligator lizards]]."{{sfn|Mayor|2005|page=149}}

Robert Blust in ''The Origin Of Dragons'' (2000) argues that, like many other creations of traditional cultures, dragons are largely explicable as products of a convergence of rational pre-scientific speculation about the world of real events. In this case, the event is the natural mechanism governing rainfall and drought, with particular attention paid to the phenomenon of the rainbow.<ref>Blust, Robert. “The Origin of Dragons.” ''Anthropos'', vol. 95, no. 2, 2000, pp. 519–536. ''JSTOR'', www.jstor.org/stable/40465957. Accessed 6 June 2020.</ref>

==Africa==
=== Egypt ===
[[File:Set speared Apep.jpg|thumb|left|Illustration from an ancient Egyptian papyrus manuscript showing the god [[Set (deity)|Set]] spearing the serpent [[Apep]] as he attacks the [[Matet boat|sun boat]] of [[Ra]]]]

In [[Egyptian mythology]], [[Apep]] is a giant serpentine creature who resides in the [[Duat]], the Egyptian Underworld.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=11}}{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=35}} The Bremner-Rhind papyrus, written in around 310 BC, preserves an account of a much older Egyptian tradition that the setting of the sun is caused by [[Ra]] descending to the Duat to battle Apep.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=11}}{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=35}} In some accounts, Apep is as long as the height of eight men with a head made of [[flint]].{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=35}} Thunderstorms and earthquakes were thought to be caused by Apep's roar{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=36}} and [[solar eclipse]]s were thought to be the result of Apep attacking Ra during the daytime.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=36}} In some myths, Apep is slain by the god [[Set (deity)|Set]].{{sfn|Niles|2013|pages=35–36}} [[Nehebkau]] is another giant serpent who guards the Duat and aided Ra in his battle against Apep.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=36}} Nehebkau was so massive in some stories that the entire earth was believed to rest atop his coils.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=36}} Denwen is a giant serpent mentioned in the [[Pyramid Texts]] whose body was made of fire and who ignited a conflagration that nearly destroyed all the gods of the Egyptian pantheon.{{sfn|Niles|2013|pages=36–37}} He was ultimately defeated by the [[Pharaoh]], a victory which affirmed the Pharaoh's divine right to rule.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=37}}

The [[ouroboros]] was a well-known Egyptian symbol of a serpent swallowing its own tail.{{sfn|Hornung|2001|page=13}} The precursor to the ouroboros was the "Many-Faced",{{sfn|Hornung|2001|page=13}} a serpent with five heads, who, according to the [[Amduat]], the oldest surviving [[Book of the Dead|Book of the Afterlife]], was said to coil around the corpse of the sun god Ra protectively.{{sfn|Hornung|2001|page=13}} The earliest surviving depiction of a "true" ouroboros comes from the gilded shrines in [[KV62|the tomb]] of [[Tutankhamun]].{{sfn|Hornung|2001|page=13}} In the early centuries AD, the ouroboros was adopted as a symbol by [[Gnosticism|Gnostic]] Christians{{sfn|Hornung|2001|page=44}} and chapter 136 of the ''[[Pistis Sophia]]'', an early Gnostic text, describes "a great dragon whose tail is in its mouth".{{sfn|Hornung|2001|page=44}} In medieval alchemy, the ouroboros became a typical western dragon with wings, legs, and a tail.{{sfn|Hornung|2001|page=13}} A famous image of the dragon gnawing on its tail from the eleventh-century [[Codex Marcianus CCXXVIII (406)|Codex Marcianus]] was copied in numerous works on alchemy.{{sfn|Hornung|2001|page=13}}

==Asia==
[[File:Al-Soltani, Rostam and the Dragon.jpg|thumb|upright|15th-century Persian miniature of [[Rostam]] slaying a dragon]]

===East===
{{split|East Asian dragon|date=May 2020|section=y|discuss=Talk:Dragon#Proposal to split off “East Asian dragons” section}}
====China====
[[File:Shan hai jing Zhuyin.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the dragon [[Zhulong (mythology)|Zhulong]] from a seventeenth-century edition of the ''[[Classic of Mountains and Seas|Shanhaijing]]'']]
[[File:Pot Eivormige pot met met een feng huang en een draak, AK-MAK-110.jpg|thumb|Dragon art on a vase, [[Yuan dynasty]]]]
{{Main|Chinese dragon}}
Archaeologist Zhōu Chong-Fa believes that the Chinese word for dragon is an [[onomatopoeia]] of the sound of thunder<ref>''People's Daily On-line'' (2001), "Chinese Dragon Originates From Primitive Agriculture: Archaeologist". Retrieved 5 June 2011.</ref> or ''lùhng'' in [[Cantonese]].<ref>Guan, Caihua. (2001) ''English-Cantonese Dictionary: Cantonese in Yale Romanization''. {{ISBN|9622019706}}.</ref>

The Chinese dragon ({{zh|t=龍|s=龙|p=lóng}}) is the highest-ranking creature in the Chinese animal hierarchy. Its origins are vague, but its "ancestors can be found on Neolithic pottery as well as Bronze Age ritual vessels."<ref>Welch, Patricia Bjaaland. ''Chinese Art: A Guide to Motifs and Visual Imagery'', Tuttle Publishing, 2008, p. 121</ref> A number of popular stories deal with the rearing of dragons.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}} The ''[[Zuo zhuan]]'', which was probably written during the [[Warring States period]], describes a man named Dongfu, a descendant of Yangshu'an, who loved dragons{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}} and, because he could understand a dragon's will, he was able to tame them and raise them well.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}} He served Emperor Shun, who gave him the family name Huanlong, meaning "dragon-raiser".{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}} In another story, [[Kongjia]], the fourteenth emperor of the [[Xia dynasty]], was given a male and a female dragon as a reward for his obedience to the god of heaven,{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}} but could not train them, so he hired a dragon-trainer named Liulei, who had learned how to train dragons from Huanlong.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}} One day, the female dragon died unexpectedly, so Liulei secretly chopped her up, cooked her meat, and served it to the king,{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}} who loved it so much that he demanded Liulei to serve him the same meal again.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}} Since Liulei had no means of procuring more dragon meat, he fled the palace.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}}

One of the most famous dragon stories is about the Lord Ye Gao, who loved dragons obsessively, even though he had never seen one.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=106}} He decorated his whole house with dragon motifs{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=106}} and, seeing this display of admiration, a real dragon came and visited Ye Gao,{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=106}} but the lord was so terrified at the sight of the creature that he ran away.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=106}} In Chinese legend, the culture hero [[Fu Hsi]] is said to have been crossing the [[Luo River (Henan)|Lo River]], when he saw the ''[[Longma|lung ma]]'', a Chinese horse-dragon with seven dots on its face, six on its back, eight on its left flank, and nine on its right flank.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=64}} He was so moved by this apparition that, when he arrived home, he drew a picture of it, including the dots.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=64}} He later used these dots as letters and invented [[Written Chinese|Chinese writing]], which he used to write his book ''[[I Ching]]''.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=64}} In another Chinese legend, the physician Ma Shih Huang is said to have healed a sick dragon.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} Another legend reports that a man once came to the healer Lo Chên-jen, telling him that he was a dragon and that he needed to be healed.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} After Lo Chên-jen healed the man, a dragon appeared to him and carried him to heaven.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}}

In the ''[[Classic of Mountains and Seas|Shanhaijing]]'', a classic mythography probably compiled mostly during the [[Han dynasty]], various deities and demigods are associated with dragons.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|pages=103–104}} One of the most famous Chinese dragons is Ying Long ("responding dragon"), who helped the [[Yellow Emperor|Huangdi]], the Yellow Emperor, defeat the tyrant [[Chiyou]].{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=104}} The dragon [[Zhulong (mythology)|Zhulong]] ("torch dragon") is a god "who composed the universe with his body."{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=104}} In the ''Shanhaijing'', many mythic heroes are said to have been conceived after their mothers copulated with divine dragons, including Huangdi, [[Shennong]], [[Emperor Yao]], and [[Emperor Shun]].{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=104}} The god [[Zhurong]] and the emperor [[Qi of Xia|Qi]] are both described as being carried by two dragons,{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|pages=104–105}} as are Huangdi, [[Zhuanxu]], [[Yuqiang]], and Roshou in various other texts.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}} According to the ''[[Huainanzi]]'', an evil black dragon once caused a destructive deluge,{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}} which was ended by the mother goddess [[Nüwa]] by slaying the dragon.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}}

[[File:Met, china, casting model for a belt plaque, north china, 2-1st century BC clay.jpg|thumb|Casting for a Chinese belt-plaque showing the ''[[longma|lung ma]]'', or "dragon horse", dating to the first or second century AD]]
A large number of ethnic myths about dragons are told throughout China.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}} The ''[[Houhanshu]]'', compiled in the fifth century BC by [[Fan Ye (historian)|Fan Ye]], reports a story belonging to the Ailaoyi people, which holds that a woman named Shayi who lived in the region around [[Mount Lao]] became pregnant with ten sons after being touched by a tree trunk floating in the water while fishing.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=104}} She gave birth to the sons and the tree trunk turned into a dragon, who asked to see his sons.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=104}} The woman showed them to him,{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=104}} but all of them ran away except for the youngest, who the dragon licked on the back and named Jiu Long, meaning "sitting back".{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=104}} The sons later elected him king and the descendants of the ten sons became the Ailaoyi people, who [[tattoo]]ed dragons on their backs in honor of their ancestor.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=104}} The [[Miao people]] of southwest China have a story that a divine dragon created the first humans by breathing on monkeys that came to play in his cave.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=105}} The [[Han Chinese|Han people]] have many stories about Short-Tailed Old Li, a black dragon who was born to a poor family in [[Shandong]].{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=106}} When his mother saw him for the first time, she fainted{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=106}} and, when his father came home from the field and saw him, he hit him with a spade and cut off part of his tail.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=106}} Li burst through the ceiling and flew away to the [[Amur River|Black Dragon River]] in northeast China, where he became the god of that river.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|pages=106–107}} On the anniversary of his mother's death on the Chinese lunar calendar, Old Li returns home, causing it to rain.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=107}} He is still worshipped as a rain god.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=107}}

[[File:Dragon Gods.svg|thumb|left|Diagram representing the Four Dragon Kings of the [[Four Seas]] in relation to the central Dragon King of the Earth]]
In China, dragons are closely associated with rain{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|pages=107–108}} and [[drought]] is thought to be caused by a dragon's laziness.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=108}} Prayers invoking dragons to bring rain are common in Chinese texts.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|pages=107–108}} The ''[[Luxuriant Dew of the Spring and Autumn Annals]]'', attributed to the Han dynasty scholar [[Dong Zhongshu]], prescribes making clay figurines of dragons during a time of drought and having young men and boys pace and dance among the figurines in order to encourage the dragons to bring rain.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|pages=107–108}} Texts from the [[Qing dynasty]] advise hurling the bone of a tiger or dirty objects into the pool where the dragon lives;{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=108}} since dragons cannot stand tigers or dirt, the dragon of the pool will cause heavy rain to drive the object out.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=108}} Rainmaking rituals invoking dragons are still very common in many Chinese villages, where each village has its own god said to bring rain and many of these gods are dragons.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=108}} Although stories of the [[Dragon King]]s are among the most popular dragon stories in China today, these stories did not begin to emerge until the [[Eastern Han]], when Buddhist stories of the serpent rain-god [[Nāga]] became popular.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=108}} [[Taoism|Taoists]] began to invent their own dragon kings and eventually such stories developed in every major Chinese religion.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=108}} According to these stories, every body of water is ruled by a dragon king, each with a different power, rank, and ability,{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=108}} so people began establishing temples across the countryside dedicated to these figures.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=108}}

[[File:Chinese draak.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Head of a dragon from a Chinese [[dragon dance]] performed in [[Helsinki]] in the year 2000.]]
Many traditional Chinese customs revolve around dragons.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|pages=108–109}} During various holidays, including the [[Chinese New Year|Spring Festival]] and [[Lantern Festival]], villagers will construct an approximately sixteen-foot-long dragon from grass, cloth, bamboo strips, and paper, which they will parade through the city as part of a [[dragon dance]].{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=109}} The original purpose of this ritual was to bring good weather and a strong harvest,{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=109}} but now it is done mostly only for entertainment.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=109}} During the [[Dragon Boat Festival|Duanwu]] festival, several villages, or even a whole province, will hold a [[Dragon boat|dragon boat race]], in which people race across a body of water in boats carved to look like dragons, while a large audience watches on the banks.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=109}} The custom is traditionally said to have originated after the poet [[Qu Yuan]] committed suicide by drowning himself in the [[Miluo River]] and people raced out in boats hoping to save him,{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=109}} but most historians agree that the custom actually originated much earlier as a ritual to avert ill fortune.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=109}} Starting during the Han dynasty and continuing until the Qing dynasty, the [[Emperor of China|Chinese emperor]] gradually became closely identified with dragons,{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=109}} and emperors themselves claimed to be the incarnations of a divine dragon.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=109}} Eventually, dragons were only allowed to appear on clothing, houses, and articles of everyday use belonging to the emperor{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=109}} and any commoner who possessed everyday items bearing the image of the dragon were ordered to be executed.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|page=109}} After the last Chinese emperor was overthrown in 1911, this situation changed and now many ordinary Chinese people identify themselves as descendants of dragons.{{sfn|Yang|An|Turner|2005|pages=109–110}}

<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
File:Changshadragon.jpg|[[Silk painting depicting a man riding a dragon]], dated to 5th–3rd centuries BC
File:Attributed to Li Zhaodao Dragon-boat Race. Palace Museum, Beijing.jpg|Tang dynasty painting of a [[dragon boat|dragon boat race]] attributed to Li Zhaodao
File:Flag of China (1889–1912).svg|[[Flag of the Qing dynasty]] from 1889 to 1912, showing a Chinese dragon
File:Dragon on Longshan Temple.JPG|Dragon sculpture on top of [[Lungshan Temple (Taipei)|Lungshan Temple]], Taipei, Taiwan
File:Fengdu Ghost City - dragon.JPG|[[Chinese dragon]] in [[Fengdu Ghost City]], China
File:Dança do dragão.jpg|Members of the Chinese Youth Society of [[Melbourne]] performing for Chinese New Year, at [[Crown Melbourne|Crown Casino]], demonstrate a basic "corkscrew" routine
</gallery>

====Korea====
[[File:청룡_조선고적도보.jpg|thumb|The Blue Dragon mural depiction at the [[Goguryeo tombs]].]]
{{Main|Korean dragon}}
The Korean dragon is in many ways similar in appearance to other East Asian dragons such as the [[Chinese dragon|Chinese]] and [[Japanese dragon]]s. It differs from the Chinese dragon in that it developed a longer beard. Very occasionally a dragon may be depicted as carrying an orb known as the Yeouiju (여의주), the Korean name for the mythical [[Cintamani]], in its claws or its mouth. It was said that whoever could wield the Yeouiju was blessed with the abilities of omnipotence and creation at will, and that only four-toed dragons (who had thumbs with which to hold the orbs) were both wise and powerful enough to wield these orbs, as opposed to the lesser, three-toed dragons. As with China, the number nine is significant and auspicious in Korea, and dragons were said to have 81 (9×9) scales on their backs, representing yang essence. Dragons in Korean mythology are primarily benevolent beings related to water and agriculture, often considered bringers of rain and clouds. Hence, many Korean dragons are said to have resided in rivers, lakes, oceans, or even deep mountain ponds. And human journeys to undersea realms, and especially the undersea palace of the Dragon King (용왕), are common in Korean folklore.<ref>{{cite book| last= Hayward | first = Philip| title= Scaled for Success: The Internationalisation of the Mermaid | year = 2018|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=978-0861967322}}</ref>

In Korean myths, some kings who founded kingdoms were described as descendants of dragons because the dragon was a symbol of the monarch. [[Lady Aryeong]], who was the first queen of [[Silla]] is said to have been born from a [[cockatrice]],<ref>[[Samguk yusa]]</ref> while the grandmother of [[Taejo of Goryeo]], founder of [[Goryeo]], was reportedly the daughter of the dragon king of the West Sea.<ref>The book of the genealogy of [[Taejo of Goryeo]] - ''Pyeonnyeon-Tong-Long'' (편년통록)</ref> And [[Munmu of Silla|King Munmu]] of Silla, who on his deathbed wished to become a dragon of the East Sea in order to protect the kingdom. Dragon patterns were used exclusively by the royal family. The royal robe was also called the dragon robe (용포). In [[Joseon Dynasty]], the royal insignia, featuring embroidered dragons, were attached to the robe's shoulders, the chest, and back. The King wore five-taloned dragon insignia while the Crown Prince wore four-taloned dragon insignia.<ref>{{cite book| title=우리 옷 만들기 | year = 2004|publisher=Sungshin Women's University Press|isbn=978-8986092639|pages=25–26 }}</ref>

Korean folk mythology states that most dragons were originally [[:ko:이무기|Imugis]] (이무기), or lesser dragons, which were said to resemble gigantic serpents. There are a few different versions of Korean folklore that describe both what imugis are and how they aspire to become full-fledged dragons. Koreans thought that an Imugi could become a true dragon, ''yong'' or ''mireu'', if it caught a Yeouiju which had fallen from heaven. Another explanation states they are hornless creatures resembling dragons who have been cursed and thus were unable to become dragons. By other accounts, an Imugi is a ''proto-dragon'' which must survive one thousand years in order to become a fully fledged dragon. In either case they are said to be large, benevolent, [[Pythonidae|python]]-like creatures that live in water or caves, and their sighting is associated with good luck.<ref>{{cite book| last= Seo | first = Yeong Dae| title= 용, 그 신화와 문화 | year = 2002|publisher=Min sokwon|isbn=978-8956380223|page= 85}}</ref>

====Japan====
[[File:Hokusai Dragon.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Painting of a Japanese dragon by [[Hokusai]] ({{circa}} 1730 – 1849)]]
{{Main|Japanese dragon}}
Japanese dragon myths amalgamate native legends with imported stories about dragons from China. Like those other Asian dragons, most Japanese ones are [[water deities]] associated with rainfall and bodies of water, and are typically depicted as large, wingless, serpentine creatures with clawed feet. Gould writes (1896:248),<ref>[[Charles Gould (geologist)|Gould, Charles]]. 1896. [https://archive.org/details/mythicalmonster00goulgoog  Mythical Monsters"]. W. H. Allen & Co.</ref> the Japanese dragon is "invariably figured as possessing three claws". A story about the ''[[samurai]]'' [[Minamoto no Mitsunaka]] tells that, while he was hunting in his own territory of [[Settsu Province|Settsu]], he fell asleep under a tree and had a dream in which a beautiful woman appeared to him and begged him to save her land from a giant serpent which was defiling it.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} Mitsunaka agreed to help and the maiden gave him a magnificent horse.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} When he woke up, the horse was standing before him.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} He rode it to the [[Sumiyoshi taisha|Sumiyoshi]] temple, where he prayed for eight days.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} Then he confronted the serpent and slew it with an arrow.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}}

It was believed that dragons could be appeased or [[exorcism|exorcised]] with metal.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} [[Nitta Yoshisada]] is said to have hurled a famous sword into the sea at [[Sagami Province|Sagami]] to appease the dragon-god of the sea{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} and [[Ki no Tsurayuki]] threw a metal mirror into the sea at Sumiyoshi for the same purpose.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} Japanese Buddhism has also adapted dragons by subjecting them to [[Buddhist law]];{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} the Japanese Buddhist deities [[Benten]] and [[Kwannon]] are often shown sitting or standing on the back of a dragon.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} Several Japanese ''[[sennin]]'' ("immortals") have taken dragons as their mounts.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} [[Bômô]] is said to have hurled his staff into a puddle of water, causing a dragon to come forth and let him ride it to heaven.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} The ''[[Arhat|rakan]]'' Handaka is said to have been able to conjure a dragon out of a bowl, which he is often shown playing with on ''kagamibuta''.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} The ''[[shachihoko]]'' is a creature with the head of a dragon, a bushy tail, fishlike scales, and sometimes fire emerging from its armpits.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} The ''[[shifun]]'' has the head of a dragon, feathered wings, and the tail and claws of a bird.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=62}} A white dragon was believed to reside in a pool in [[Yamashiro Province]]{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=63}} and, every fifty years, it would turn into a bird called the Ogonchô, which had a call like the "howling of a wild dog".{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=63}} This event was believed to herald terrible famine.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=63}} In the Japanese village of Okumura, near [[Edo]], during times of drought, the villagers would make a dragon effigy out of straw, [[magnolia]] leaves, and [[bamboo]] and parade it through the village to attract rainfall.{{sfn|Volker|1975|page=63}}

====Southeast====
[[File:Rồng thời Nguyễn, Tử cấm thành, Huế.jpg|alt=Vietnamese Dragon typical type.|thumb|Nguyễn dynasty dragon, [[Imperial City of Huế]]|right]]
{{Main|Vietnamese dragon}}
The Vietnamese dragon ({{lang-vi|rồng}} [[Wikt:龍|龍]]) was a mythical creature that was often used as a deity symbol and associated with royalty.<ref>https://www.vietnam-culture.com/articles-221-34/Tale-of-Vietnamese-Dragon.aspx</ref> Similar to other cultures, dragons in Vietnamese culture represent yang and godly being associated with creation and life.

===West===
====Ancient====
=====Mesopotamia=====
[[File:Sirrush.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The ''[[mušḫuššu]]'' is a serpentine, draconic monster from [[Ancient Mesopotamian religion|ancient Mesopotamian mythology]] with the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=166}} Here it is shown as it appears in the [[Ishtar Gate]] from the city of [[Babylon]].{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=166}}]]

Ancient peoples across the [[Near East]] believed in creatures similar to what modern people call "dragons".{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=71}} These ancient peoples were unaware of the existence of [[dinosaur]]s or similar creatures in the distant past.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=71}} References to dragons of both benevolent and malevolent characters occur throughout ancient [[Mesopotamia]]n literature.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=71}} In [[Sumerian poetry]], great kings are often compared to the ''[[Ušumgallu|ušumgal]]'', a gigantic, serpentine monster.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=71}} A draconic creature with the foreparts of a lion and the hind-legs, tail, and wings of a bird appears in [[Art of Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian artwork]] from the [[Akkadian Empire|Akkadian Period]] ({{circa}} 2334 – 2154 BC) until the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian Period]] (626 BC–539 BC).{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=121}} The dragon is usually shown with its mouth open.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=121}} It may have been known as the ''(ūmu) nā’iru'', which means "roaring weather beast",{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=121}} and may have been associated with the god [[Hadad|Ishkur]] (Hadad).{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=121}} A slightly different lion-dragon with two horns and the tail of a scorpion appears in art from the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian Period]] (911 BC–609 BC).{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=121}} A relief probably commissioned by [[Sennacherib]] shows the gods [[Ashur (god)|Ashur]], [[Sin (mythology)|Sin]], and Adad standing on its back.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=121}}

Another draconic creature with horns, the body and neck of a snake, the forelegs of a lion, and the hind-legs of a bird appears in Mesopotamian art from the Akkadian Period until the [[Hellenistic Period]] (323 BC–31 BC).{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=166}} This creature, known in [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]] as the ''[[mušḫuššu]]'', meaning "furious serpent", was used as a symbol for particular deities and also as a general protective emblem.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=166}} It seems to have originally been the attendant of the Underworld god [[Ninazu]],{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=166}} but later became the attendant to the [[Hurrian religion|Hurrian]] storm-god [[Tishpak]], as well as, later, Ninazu's son [[Ningishzida]], the Babylonian [[national god]] [[Marduk]], the scribal god [[Nabu]], and the Assyrian national god Ashur.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=166}}

Scholars disagree regarding the appearance of [[Tiamat]], the Babylonian goddess personifying primeval chaos slain by Marduk in the Babylonian creation epic ''[[Enûma Eliš]]''.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=177}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=153}} She was traditionally regarded by scholars as having had the form of a giant serpent,{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=153}} but several scholars have pointed out that this shape "cannot be imputed to Tiamat with certainty"{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=153}} and she seems to have at least sometimes been regarded as anthropomorphic.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=177}}{{sfn|Fontenrose|1980|page=153}} Nonetheless, in some texts, she seems to be described with horns, a tail, and a hide that no weapon can penetrate,{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=177}} all features which suggest she was conceived as some form of dragoness.{{sfn|Black|Green|1992|page=177}}

=====Levant=====
[[File:Destruction of Leviathan.png|thumb|upright=1.3|''The Destruction of [[Leviathan]]'' (1865) by [[Gustave Doré]]]]
In the [[Ugarit]]ic [[Baal Cycle]], the sea-dragon [[Lotan|Lōtanu]] is described as "the twisting serpent/ the powerful one with seven heads."{{sfn|Ballentine|2015|page=130}} In ''KTU'' 1.5 I 2–3, Lōtanu is slain by the storm-god [[Baal]],{{sfn|Ballentine|2015|page=130}} but, in ''KTU'' 1.3 III 41–42, he is instead slain by the virgin warrior goddess [[Anat]].{{sfn|Ballentine|2015|page=130}} In the [[Psalms|Book of Psalms]], [[Psalm 74]], Psalm 74:13–14, the sea-dragon [[Leviathan]], whose name is a [[cognate]] of ''Lōtanu'',{{sfn|Ballentine|2015|page=130}}{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}}{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=12}} is slain by [[Yahweh]], the national god of the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Israel (Samaria)|Israel]] and [[Kingdom of Judah|Judah]], as part of the creation of the world.{{sfn|Ballentine|2015|page=130}}{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}} In Isaiah 27:1, Yahweh's destruction of Leviathan is foretold as part of Yahweh's impending overhaul of the universal order:{{sfn|Ballentine|2015|pages=129–130}}{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=14}}

{| class="wikitable"
|-
|'''Original Hebrew text'''<ref>{{bibleverse||Isaiah|27:1|HE}}</ref>||'''English translation'''
|-
|<poem lang="gmh">
א בַּיּוֹם הַהוּא יִפְקֹד יְהוָה בְּחַרְבּוֹ הַקָּשָׁה וְהַגְּדוֹלָה וְהַחֲזָקָה, עַל לִוְיָתָן נָחָשׁ בָּרִחַ, וְעַל לִוְיָתָן, נָחָשׁ עֲקַלָּתוֹן; וְהָרַג אֶת-הַתַּנִּין, אֲשֶׁר בַּיָּם. {ס}
</poem>
|<poem style="font-style:italic;">
On that day Yahweh shall punish
with his sharp, great, and strong sword,
Leviathan the fleeing serpent, Leviathan the twisting serpent;
He will slay the dragon that is in the sea.{{sfn|Ballentine|2015|page=130}}
</poem>
|}

Job 41:1–34 contains a detailed description of the Leviathan, who is described as being so powerful that only Yahweh can overcome it.{{sfn|Day|2002|page=102}} Job 41:19–21 states that the Leviathan exhales fire and smoke, making its identification as a mythical dragon clearly apparent.{{sfn|Day|2002|page=102}} In some parts of the Old Testament, the Leviathan is historicized as a symbol for the nations that stand against Yahweh.{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}} Rahab, a synonym for "Leviathan", is used in several Biblical passages in reference to [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]].{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}} Isaiah 30:7 declares: "For Egypt's help is worthless and empty, therefore I have called her 'the silenced [[Rahab (Egypt)|Rahab]]'."{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}} Similarly, Psalm 87:3 reads: "I reckon Rahab and Babylon as those that know me..."{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}} In Ezekiel 29:3–5 and Ezekiel 32:2–8, the [[pharaoh]] of Egypt is described as a "dragon" (''tannîn'').{{sfn|Day|2002|page=103}} In the story of [[Bel and the Dragon]] from the apocryphal [[additions to Daniel]], the prophet [[Daniel (biblical figure)|Daniel]] sees a dragon being worshipped by the Babylonians.{{sfn|Morgan|2009|page=}} Daniel makes "cakes of pitch, fat, and hair";{{sfn|Morgan|2009|page=}} the dragon eats them and bursts open.<ref>Daniel 14:23–30</ref>{{sfn|Morgan|2009|page=}}

====Post-classical====
In [[Sufism|Sufi]] literature, [[Rumi]] writes in his ''[[Masnavi]]''<ref>III: 976–1066; IV: 120</ref> that the dragon symbolizes the sensual soul, greed and lust, that need to be mortified in a spiritual battle.<ref>{{cite book |author=Savi, Julio |year=2008 |title=Towards the Summit of Reality |publisher=George Ronald |location=Oxford, UK |isbn=978-0-85398-522-8 |ol=23179261M }}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |publisher = University of North Carolina Press |ol = 5422370M |isbn = 0807812234 |location = Chapel Hill |title = Mystical dimensions of Islam |url = https://archive.org/details/mysticaldimensio00schi |last=Schimmel |first=Annemarie |lccn = 73016112 |date = 1975 |author-link = Annemarie Schimmel |access-date = 29 December 2018 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191215224913/https://archive.org/details/mysticaldimensio00schi |archive-date = 15 December 2019 |url-status = live}}</ref>

[[File:Rustam kills the dragon, folio from Shahnameh of Shah Ismail II, attrib. Sadegi (Beg), Iran, Tabriz, c. 1576 AD, view 1 - Aga Khan Museum - Toronto, Canada - DSC06935.jpg|thumb|Rustam kills the dragon, folio from Shahnameh of Shah Ismail II, attrib. Sadegi (Beg), Iran, Tabriz, c. 1576 AD, view 1 – Aga Khan Museum – Toronto, Canada]]

In Ferdowsi's ''[[Shahnameh]],'' the [[Iranian peoples|Iranian]] hero [[Rostam]] must slay an 80-meter-long dragon (which renders itself invisible to human sight) with the aid of his legendary horse, [[Rakhsh]]. As Rostam is sleeping, the dragon approaches; Rakhsh attempts to wake Rostam, but fails to alert him to the danger until Rostam sees the dragon. Rakhsh bites the dragon, while Rostam decapitates it. This is the third trial of Rostam's [[Rostam's Seven Labours|Seven Labors]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/inside/gallery/dragon/dragon.html|title=Rakhsh helping Rostam defeat the dragon|website=British Library|access-date=5 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190527031848/http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/inside/gallery/dragon/dragon.html|archive-date=27 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=231078&partId=1&searchText=Shahnameh&page=1|title=Rustam killing a dragon|website=British Museum}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/inside/corner/shah/synopsis.html|title=Shahname Synopsis|website=British Library|access-date=5 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190501133912/http://www.bl.uk/learning/cult/inside/corner/shah/synopsis.html|archive-date=1 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

Rostam is also credited with the slaughter of other dragons in the ''Shahnameh'' and in other Iranian oral traditions, notably in the myth of ''[[Babr-e Bayan|Babr-e-Bayan]]''. In this tale, Rostam is still an adolescent and kills a dragon in the "Orient" (either India or China depending on the source) by forcing it to swallow either ox hides filled with quicklime and stones or poisoned blades. The dragon swallows these foreign objects and its stomach bursts, after which Rostam flays the dragon and fashions a coat from its hide called the ''babr-e bayān''. In some variants of the story, Rostam then remains unconscious for two days and nights, but is guarded by his steed [[Rakhsh]]. On reviving, he washes himself in a spring. In the [[Mandaeism|Mandean]] tradition of the story, Rostam hides in a box, is swallowed by the dragon and kills it from inside its belly. The king of China then gives Rostam his daughter in marriage as a reward.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azdaha-dragon-various-kinds#pt1|title=Azdaha|website=Encyclopedia Iranica|access-date=5 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190511102415/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azdaha-dragon-various-kinds#pt1|archive-date=11 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babr-e-bayan-or-babr|title=Babr-e-Bayan|website=Encyclopedia Iranica|access-date=5 May 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190505023908/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/babr-e-bayan-or-babr|archive-date=5 May 2019|url-status=live}}</ref>

===South===
[[File:Paphal (Musée du Quai Branly) (4489839164).jpg|thumb|Head of the dragon-god [[Pakhangba]] depicted on a musical instrument from [[Manipur]], India]]
In the ''[[Rigveda]]'', the oldest of the four [[Vedas]], [[Indra]], the Vedic god of storms, battles [[Vritra|Vṛtra]], a giant serpent who represents drought.{{sfn|West|2007|pages=255–257}} Indra kills Vṛtra using his ''[[vajra]]'' (thunderbolt) and clears the path for rain,{{sfn|West|2007|pages=256–257}}{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=16}} which is described in the form of cattle: "You won the cows, hero, you won the [[Soma (drink)|Soma]],/You freed the seven streams to flow" (''Rigveda'' 1.32.12).{{sfn|West|2007|page=257}} In another Rigvedic legend, the three-headed serpent [[Trisiras|Viśvarūpa]], the son of [[Tvastar|Tvaṣṭṛ]], guards a wealth of cows and horses.{{sfn|West|2007|page=260}} Indra delivers Viśvarūpa to a god named [[Trita|Trita Āptya]],{{sfn|West|2007|page=260}} who fights and kills him and sets his cattle free.{{sfn|West|2007|page=260}} Indra cuts off Viśvarūpa's heads and drives the cattle home for Trita.{{sfn|West|2007|page=260}} This same story is alluded to in the [[Younger Avesta]],{{sfn|West|2007|page=260}} in which the hero [[Fereydun|Thraētaona]], the son of Āthbya, slays the three-headed dragon [[Zahhak|Aži Dahāka]] and takes his two beautiful wives as spoils.{{sfn|West|2007|page=260}} Thraētaona's name (meaning "third grandson of the waters") indicates that Aži Dahāka, like Vṛtra, was seen as a blocker of waters and cause of drought.{{sfn|West|2007|page=260}}

The [[Druk]] ({{lang-dz|འབྲུག་}}), also known as 'Thunder Dragon', is one of the [[National symbols of Bhutan]]. In the [[Dzongkha]] language, [[Bhutan]] is known as ''Druk Yul'' "Land of Druk", and Bhutanese leaders are called [[Druk Gyalpo]], "Thunder Dragon Kings". The druk was adopted as an emblem by the [[Drukpa Lineage]], which originated in [[Tibet]] and later spread to Bhutan.<ref>{{cite book|last=Waddell|first=Laurence |author-link= Laurence Waddell |title=The Buddhism of Tibet Or Lamaism|year=1895|pages=199|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7PYwcfE_bLUC&q=Bhutan+thunder+dug&pg=PA199|isbn=9781602061378 }}</ref>

==Europe==
===Proto-Indo-European===
{{further|Chaoskampf|Sea serpent|Proto-Indo-European religion#Dragon or Serpent|Serpents in the Bible}}

The story of a hero slaying a giant serpent occurs in nearly every [[Indo-European mythology]].{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|pages=436–437}}{{sfn|West|2007|pages=255–263}} In most stories, the hero is some kind of [[weather god|thunder-god]].{{sfn|West|2007|pages=255–263}} In nearly every iteration of the story, the serpent is either multi-headed or "multiple" in some other way.{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|pages=436–437}} Furthermore, in nearly every story, the serpent is always somehow associated with water.{{sfn|West|2007|pages=255–263}} [[Bruce Lincoln]] has proposed that a Proto-Indo-European dragon-slaying myth can be reconstructed as follows:{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=437}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pages=134–135}} First, the sky gods give cattle to a man named ''*Tritos'' ("the third"), who is so named because he is the third man on earth,{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=437}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pages=134–135}} but a three-headed serpent named *''{{PIE|Ngwhi}}'' steals them.{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=437}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pages=134–135}} ''*Tritos'' pursues the serpent and is accompanied by ''*Hanér'', whose name means "man".{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=437}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pages=134–135}} Together, the two heroes slay the serpent and rescue the cattle.{{sfn|Mallory|Adams|2006|page=437}}{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pages=134–135}}

===Ancient Greece and Rome===
[[File:Fragmentary jar with scene of Herakles slaying the Hydra of Lerna, South Italy, 375-340 BC, ceramic - Fitchburg Art Museum - DSC08671.JPG|thumb|upright=1.3|right|Greek [[red-figure]] vase painting depicting [[Heracles]] slaying the [[Lernaean Hydra]], {{circa}} 375–340 BC]]
{{Main|Dragons in Greek mythology}}
The ancient Greek word usually translated as "dragon" (δράκων ''drákōn'', [[genitive]] δράκοντοϛ ''drákontos'') could also mean "snake",<ref>Chad Hartsock, ''Sight and Blindness in Luke-Acts: The Use of Physical Features in Characterization'', Brill, Leiden-Boston, 2008, [https://archive.org/details/sightblindnessin00chad/page/193 pp. 193–4].</ref>{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=2–4}} but it usually refers to a kind of giant serpent that either possesses supernatural characteristics or is otherwise controlled by some supernatural power.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=2–3}} The first mention of a "dragon" in [[ancient Greek literature]] occurs in the ''[[Iliad]]'', in which [[Agamemnon]] is described as having a blue dragon motif on his sword belt and an emblem of a three-headed dragon on his breast plate.<ref>Drury, Nevill, ''The Dictionary of the Esoteric'', Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 2003 {{ISBN|81-208-1989-6}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=k-tVr09oq3IC&pg=PA79&lpg=PA79&dq=earliest+mention+of+dragon&source=web&ots=fxq_n3SLTa&sig=zKfmIXx1BT3nQAZq3I0vkx9akhM&hl=en p.79] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161227000311/https://books.google.com/books?id=k-tVr09oq3IC&pg=PA79&lpg=PA79&dq=earliest+mention+of+dragon&source=web&ots=fxq_n3SLTa&sig=zKfmIXx1BT3nQAZq3I0vkx9akhM&hl=en |date=27 December 2016 }}.</ref> In lines 820–880 of the ''[[Theogony]]'', a Greek poem written in the seventh century BC by the [[Boeotia]]n poet [[Hesiod]], the Greek god [[Zeus]] battles the monster [[Typhon]], who has one hundred serpent heads that breathe fire and make many frightening animal noises.{{sfn|West|2007|page=257}} Zeus scorches all of Typhon's heads with his lightning bolts and then hurls Typhon into [[Tartarus]].{{sfn|West|2007|page=258}} In the ''[[Homeric Hymns|Homeric Hymn to Apollo]]'', the god [[Apollo]] uses his [[Arrow poison|poisoned arrows]] to slay the serpent [[Python (mythology)|Python]], who has been causing death and pestilence in the area around [[Delphi]].{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=47–48}}{{sfn|West|2007|page=258}} Apollo then sets up his shrine there.{{sfn|West|2007|page=258}}

The Roman poet [[Virgil]] in his poem [[Appendix Vergiliana#Culex ("The Gnat")|''Culex'']], lines 163–201 [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/appvergculex.html], describing a shepherd having a fight with a big [[constriction|constricting snake]], calls it "[[wikt:serpent|serpens]]" and also "[[wikt:draco|draco]]", showing that in his time the two words were probably interchangeable.

[[File:Douris cup Jason Vatican 16545.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Attic red-figure kylix painting from {{circa}} 480–470 BC showing Athena observing as the [[Colchis|Colchian]] dragon disgorges the hero [[Jason]]{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=59}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=62}}]]
Hesiod also mentions that the hero [[Heracles]] slew the [[Lernaean Hydra]], a multiple-headed serpent which dwelt in the swamps of [[Lerna]].{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=28–29}} The name "Hydra" means "water snake" in Greek.{{sfn|West|2007|page=258}}{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=28}} According to the ''[[Bibliotheca (Pseudo-Apollodorus)|Bibliotheka]]'' of Pseudo-Apollodorus, the slaying of the Hydra was the second of the [[Labors of Hercules|Twelve Labors of Heracles]].{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=26–27}}{{sfn|West|2007|page=258}} Accounts disagree on which weapon Heracles used to slay the Hydra,{{sfn|West|2007|page=258}} but, by the end of the sixth century BC, it was agreed that the clubbed or severed heads needed to be [[Cauterization|cauterized]] to prevent them from growing back.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=26}}{{sfn|West|2007|page=258}} Heracles was aided in this task by his nephew [[Iolaus]].{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=26}} During the battle, a giant crab crawled out of the marsh and pinched Heracles's foot,{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=26–27}} but he crushed it under his heel.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=27}} [[Hera]] placed the crab in the sky as the constellation [[Cancer (constellation)|Cancer]].{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=27}} One of the Hydra's heads was immortal, so Heracles buried it under a heavy rock after cutting it off.{{sfn|West|2007|page=258}}{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=27}} For his Eleventh Labor, Heracles must procure a [[golden apple]] from the tree in the [[Hesperides|Garden of the Hesperides]], which is guarded by an enormous serpent that never sleeps,{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=33}} which Pseudo-Apollodorus calls "[[Ladon (mythology)|Ladon]]".{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=33–34}} In earlier depictions, Ladon is often shown with many heads.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=37}} In Pseudo-Apollodorus's account, Ladon is immortal,{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=37}} but [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]] both describe Heracles as killing him, although neither of them specifies how.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=37}} The mythographer [[Herodorus]] is the first to state that Heracles slew him using his famous club.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=37}} [[Apollonius of Rhodes]], in his epic poem the ''[[Argonautica]]'', describes Ladon as having been shot full of poisoned arrows dipped in the blood of the Hydra.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=38}}

In [[Pindar]]'s ''Fourth Pythian Ode'', [[Aeëtes]] of [[Colchis]] tells the hero [[Jason]] that the [[Golden Fleece]] he is seeking is in a [[Coppicing|copse]] guarded by a dragon, "which surpassed in breadth and length a fifty-oared ship".{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=59–60}} Jason slays the dragon and makes off with the Golden Fleece together with his co-conspirator, Aeëtes's daughter, [[Medea]].{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=60}} The earliest artistic representation of this story is an Attic red-figure ''[[kylix]]'' dated to {{circa}} 480–470 BC,{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=58–59}} showing a bedraggled Jason being disgorged from the dragon's open mouth as the Golden Fleece hangs in a tree behind him and [[Athena]], the goddess of wisdom, stands watching.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=58–59}}{{sfn|Deacy|2008|page=62}} A fragment from [[Pherecydes of Athens]] states that Jason killed the dragon,{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=60}} but fragments from the ''Naupactica'' and from Herodorus state that he merely stole the Fleece and escaped.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=60}} In Euripides's ''[[Medea (play)|Medea]]'', Medea boasts that she killed the Colchian dragon herself.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=60}} In the most famous retelling of the story from Apollonius of Rhodes's ''Argonautica'', Medea drugs the dragon to sleep, allowing Jason to steal the Fleece.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=60–61}} Greek vase paintings show her feeding the dragon the sleeping drug in a liquid form from a ''phialē'', or shallow cup.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=61}}

[[File:Kadmos dragon Louvre N3157.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|left|[[Paestum|Paestan]] red-figure kylix-krater ({{circa}} 350–340 BC) showing Cadmus fighting the dragon of [[Ares]]{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=49}}]]
In the [[founding myth]] of [[Thebes, Greece|Thebes]], [[Cadmus]], a [[Phoenicia]]n prince, was instructed by Apollo to follow a heifer and found a city wherever it laid down.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=48}} Cadmus and his men followed the heifer and, when it laid down, Cadmus ordered his men to find a spring so he could sacrifice the heifer to Athena.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=48}} His men found a spring, but it was guarded by a dragon, which had been placed there by the god [[Ares]], and the dragon killed them.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=48}} Cadmus killed the dragon in revenge,{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=48}}{{sfn|Mayor|2000|page=266}} either by smashing its head with a rock or using his sword.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=48}} Following the advice of Athena, Cadmus tore out the dragon's teeth and planted them in the earth.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=48}}{{sfn|Mayor|2000|page=266}} An army of giant warriors (known as ''[[spartoi]]'', which means "sown men") grew from the teeth like plants.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=48}}{{sfn|Mayor|2000|page=266}} Cadmus hurled stones into their midst, causing them to kill each other until only five were left.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=48}} To make restitution for having killed Ares's dragon, Cadmus was forced to serve Ares as a slave for eight years.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=48}} At the end of this period, Cadmus married [[Harmonia (mythology)|Harmonia]], the daughter of Ares and [[Aphrodite]].{{sfn|Ogden|2013|page=48}} Cadmus and Harmonia moved to [[Illyria]], where they ruled as king and queen, before eventually being transformed into dragons themselves.{{sfn|Ogden|2013|pages=48–49}}

In the fifth century BC, the Greek historian [[Herodotus]] reported in Book IV of his ''[[Histories (Herodotus)|Histories]]'' that western Libya was inhabited by monstrous serpents{{sfn|Charlesworth|2010|page=169}} and, in Book III, he states that [[Pre-Islamic Arabia|Arabia]] was home to many small, winged serpents,{{sfn|Jones|2000|page=168}}{{sfn|Charlesworth|2010|pages=169–170}} which came in a variety of colors and enjoyed the trees that produced [[frankincense]].{{sfn|Jones|2000|page=168}}{{sfn|Charlesworth|2010|page=169}} Herodotus remarks that the serpent's wings were like those of bats{{sfn|Charlesworth|2010|page=170}} and that, unlike vipers, which are found in every land, winged serpents are only found in Arabia.{{sfn|Charlesworth|2010|page=170}} The second-century BC Greek astronomer [[Hipparchus]] ({{circa}} 190 BC – {{circa}} 120 BC) listed the constellation [[Draco (constellation)|Draco]] ("the dragon") as one of forty-six constellations.{{sfn|Grasshoff|1990|pages=35–36}} Hipparchus described the constellation as containing fifteen stars,{{sfn|Grasshoff|1990|page=36}} but the later astronomer [[Ptolemy]] ({{circa}} 100 – {{circa}} 170 AD) increased this number to thirty-one in his ''[[Almagest]]''.{{sfn|Grasshoff|1990|page=36}}

[[File:Reggio calabria museo nazionale mosaico da kaulon.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Ancient Greek mosaic from [[Caulonia (ancient city)|Caulonia]], [[Italy]], depicting a ''[[Cetus (mythology)|cetus]]'' or sea-dragon]]
In the [[New Testament]], Revelation 12:3, written by [[John of Patmos]], describes a vision of a [[Serpents in the Bible#Ancient serpent|Great Red Dragon]] with seven heads, ten horns, seven crowns, and a massive tail,{{sfn|Kelly|2006|pages=149–150}} an image which is clearly inspired by the vision of the [[Four kingdoms of Daniel|four beasts from the sea]] in the [[Book of Daniel]]{{sfn|Kelly|2006|page=150}} and the [[Leviathan]] described in various Old Testament passages.{{sfn|Kelly|2006|pages=150–151}} The Great Red Dragon knocks "a third of the sun ... a third of the moon, and a third of the stars" out the sky{{sfn|Kelly|2006|page=151}} and pursues the [[Woman of the Apocalypse]].{{sfn|Kelly|2006|page=151}} Revelation 12:7–9 declares: "[[War in Heaven|And war broke out in Heaven]]. Michael and his angels fought against Dragon. Dragon and his angels fought back, but they were defeated, and there was no longer any place for them in Heaven. Dragon the Great was thrown down, that ancient serpent who is called Devil and Satan, the one deceiving the whole inhabited World – he was thrown down to earth and his angels were thrown down with him."{{sfn|Kelly|2006|pages=151–152}} Then a voice booms down from Heaven heralding the defeat of "the Accuser" (''ho Kantegor'').{{sfn|Kelly|2006|page=152}}

In {{nobr|217 AD}}, [[Philostratus|Flavius Philostratus]] discussed dragons (δράκων, drákōn) in India in ''The Life of [[Apollonius of Tyana]]'' (II,17 and III,6–8). The [[Loeb Classical Library]] translation (by F.C. Conybeare) mentions (III,7) that "In most respects the tusks resemble the largest swine's, but they are slighter in build and twisted, and have a point as unabraded as sharks' teeth." According to a collection of books by [[Claudius Aelianus]] called ''On Animals'', [[Aethiopia|Ethiopia]] was inhabited by a species of dragon that hunted elephants and could grow to a length of 180 feet (55 m) with a lifespan rivaling that of the most enduring of animals.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theoi.com/Thaumasios/DrakonesAithiopikoi.html|title=ETHIOPIAN DRAGON (Drakon Aithiopikos) – Giant Serpent of Greek & Roman Legend|access-date=30 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160818141410/http://www.theoi.com/Thaumasios/DrakonesAithiopikoi.html|archive-date=18 August 2016|url-status=live}}</ref>

=== Post-classical Germanic ===
{{main|Sea serpent|Lindworm}}
[[File:Sigurd.svg|thumb|upright=1.3|Drawing of the [[Ramsund carving]] from {{circa}} 1030, illustrating the ''[[Völsunga saga]]'' on a rock in [[Sweden]]. At (5), [[Sigurd]] plunges his sword into [[Fafnir]]'s underside.]]

In the [[Old Norse]] poem ''[[Grímnismál]]'' in the ''[[Poetic Edda]]'', the dragon [[Níðhöggr]] is described as gnawing on the roots of [[Yggdrasil]], the world tree.{{sfn|MacCulloch|1998|page=156}} In [[Norse mythology]], [[Jörmungandr]] is a giant serpent that encircles the entire realm of [[Midgard|Miðgarð]] in the sea around it.{{sfn|West|2007|page=159}} According to the ''[[Gylfaginning]]'' from the ''[[Prose Edda]]'', written by the thirteenth-century Icelandic mythographer [[Snorri Sturluson]], [[Thor]], the Norse god of thunder, once went out on a boat with the giant Hymnir to the outer sea and fished for Jörmungandr using an ox-head as bait.{{sfn|West|2007|page=159}} Thor caught the serpent and, after pulling its head out of the water, smashed it with his hammer [[Mjölnir]].{{sfn|West|2007|page=159}} Snorri states that the blow was not fatal: "and men say that he struck its head off on the sea bed. But I think the truth to tell you is that the Miðgarð Serpent still lives and lies in the surrounding sea."{{sfn|West|2007|page=159}}

Towards the end of the [[Old English]] epic poem ''[[Beowulf]]'', a slave steals a cup from the hoard of [[The dragon (Beowulf)|a sleeping dragon]],{{sfn|Rauer|2000|pages=81–81}} causing the dragon to wake up and go on a rampage of destruction across the countryside.{{sfn|Rauer|2000|pages=74–77}} The [[Beowulf (hero)|eponymous hero of the poem]] insists on confronting the dragon alone, even though he is of advanced age,{{sfn|Rauer|2000|pages=77–81}}{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=122}} but [[Wiglaf]], the youngest of the twelve warriors Beowulf has brought with him, insists on accompanying his king into the battle.{{sfn|Niles|2013|pages=122–123}} Beowulf's sword shatters during the fight and he is mortally wounded,{{sfn|Rauer|2000|pages=80–82}}{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=123}} but Wiglaf comes to his rescue and helps him slay the dragon.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=123}} Beowulf dies and tells Wiglaf that the dragon's treasure must be buried rather than shared with the cowardly warriors who did not come to the aid of their king.{{sfn|Niles|2013|pages=123–124}}

In the Old Norse ''[[Völsunga saga]]'', the hero [[Sigurd]] catches the dragon [[Fafnir]] by digging a pit between the cave where he lives and the spring where he drinks his water{{sfn|Haimerl|2013|pages=36–38}} and kills him by stabbing him in the underside.{{sfn|Haimerl|2013|pages=36–38}} At the advice of [[Odin]], Sigurd drains Fafnir's blood and drinks it, which gives him the ability to understand the [[language of the birds]],{{sfn|Haimerl|2013|page=41}} who he hears talking about how his mentor [[Regin]] is plotting to betray him so that he can keep all of Fafnir's treasure for himself.{{sfn|Haimerl|2013|page=41}}{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=119}} The motif of a hero trying to sneak past a sleeping dragon and steal some of its treasure is common throughout many [[Old Norse]] sagas.{{sfn|Rauer|2000|page=85}} The fourteenth-century ''Flóres saga konungs ok sona hans'' describes a hero who is actively concerned not to wake a sleeping dragon while sneaking past it.{{sfn|Rauer|2000|page=85}} In the ''[[Yngvars saga víðförla]]'', the protagonist attempts to steal treasure from several sleeping dragons, but accidentally wakes them up.{{sfn|Rauer|2000|page=85}}

===Post-classical Western===
[[File:Vortigern-Dragons.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Fifteenth-century manuscript illustration of the battle of the [[Welsh Dragon|Red]] and [[White dragon|White Dragons]] from [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]]'s ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae|History of the Kings of Britain]]'']]
[[File:Owain Glyndwr Siegel 2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Great seal]] of [[Owain Glyndŵr]] (c. 1359 – c. 1415), prince of [[Wales]]: with dragon (or [[wyvern]]) crest on his helmet]]
{{Main|European dragon|Welsh Dragon|Wyvern|Saint George and the Dragon|Margaret the Virgin|Dacian Draco}}
The modern, western image of a dragon developed in [[western Europe]] during the [[Middle Ages]] through the combination of the snakelike dragons of classical Graeco-Roman literature, references to Near Eastern European dragons preserved in the Bible, and western European folk traditions.{{sfn|Fee|2011|page=7}} The period between the eleventh and thirteenth centuries represents the height of European interest in dragons as living creatures.{{sfn|Jones|2000|page=101}} The twelfth-century [[Wales|Welsh]] monk [[Geoffrey of Monmouth]] recounts a famous legend in his ''[[Historia Regum Britanniae]]'' in which the child prophet [[Merlin]] witnesses the Romano-Celtic warlord [[Vortigern]] attempt to build a tower on [[Snowdon|Mount Snowdon]] to keep safe from the [[Anglo-Saxons]],{{sfn|Hughes|2005|page=106}} but the tower keeps being swallowed into the ground.{{sfn|Hughes|2005|page=106}} Merlin informs Vortigern that, underneath the foundation he has built, is a pool with two dragons sleeping in it.{{sfn|Hughes|2005|page=106}} Vortigern orders for the pool to be drained, exposing a [[Welsh Dragon|red dragon]] and a [[white dragon]], who immediately begin fighting.{{sfn|Hughes|2005|page=106}} Merlin delivers a prophecy that the white dragon will triumph over the red, symbolizing England's conquest of Wales,{{sfn|Hughes|2005|page=106}} but declares that the red dragon will eventually return and defeat the white one.{{sfn|Hughes|2005|pages=106–107}} This story remained popular throughout the fifteenth century.{{sfn|Hughes|2005|pages=106–107}}

[[File:Dragon Harley MS 3244.png|thumb|upright=1.3|right|''MS Harley 3244'', a medieval manuscript dated to around 1260 AD, contains the oldest recognizable image of a fully modern, western dragon.{{sfn|Malone|2012|page=98}}]]
The oldest recognizable image of a fully modern, western dragon appears in [[:File:Dragon Harley MS 3244.png|a hand-painted illustration]] from the medieval manuscript ''MS Harley 3244'', which was produced in around 1260 AD.{{sfn|Malone|2012|page=98}} The dragon in the illustration has two sets of wings and its tail is longer than most modern depictions of dragons,{{sfn|Malone|2012|page=98}} but it clearly displays many of the same distinctive features.{{sfn|Malone|2012|page=98}} Dragons are generally depicted as living in rivers or having an underground lair or cave.<ref name=Ormen>{{cite book|last=Ørmen|first=Torfinn|title=Drager, mellom myte og virkelighet (Dragons: between myth and reality)|year=2005|publisher=Humanist forlag A/S|location=Oslo|isbn=978-82-90425-76-5|pages=252|edition=1st|language=no}}</ref> They are envisioned as greedy and gluttonous, with voracious appetites.{{sfn|Fee|2011|page=7}} They are often identified with Satan, due to the references to Satan as a "dragon" in the Book of Revelation.{{sfn|Fee|2011|page=7}} The thirteenth-century ''[[Golden Legend]]'', written in Latin, records the story of [[Margaret the Virgin|Saint Margaret of Antioch]],{{sfn|Morgan|2009|page=}} a virgin martyr who, after being tortured for her faith in the [[Diocletianic Persecution]] and thrown back into her cell, is said to have been confronted by a monstrous dragon,{{sfn|Morgan|2009|page=}} but she made the [[sign of the cross]] and the dragon vanished.{{sfn|Morgan|2009|page=}} In some versions of the story, she is actually swallowed by the dragon alive and, after making the sign of the cross in the dragon's stomach, emerges unharmed.{{sfn|Morgan|2009|page=}}

[[File:St George and the Dragon Verona ms 1853 26r.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|right|Manuscript illustration from [[Verona]] of [[Saint George and the Dragon|Saint George slaying the dragon]], dating to {{circa}} 1270]]
The legend of [[Saint George and the Dragon]] may be referenced as early as the sixth century AD,{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=53}}{{sfn|Thurston|1909|pages=453–455}} but the earliest artistic representations of it come from the eleventh century{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=53}} and the first full account of it comes from an eleventh-century [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] text.{{sfn|Walter|2003|page=141}} The most famous version of the story from the ''Golden Legend'' holds that a dragon kept pillaging the sheep of the town of Silene in [[Ancient Libya|Libya]].{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=53}} After it ate a young shepherd, the people were forced to placate it by leaving two sheep as sacrificial offerings every morning beside the lake where the dragon lived.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=53}} Eventually, the dragon ate all of the sheep{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=54}} and the people were forced to start offering it their own children.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=54}} One day, the king's own daughter came up in the lottery and, despite the king's pleas for her life, she was dressed as a bride and chained to a rock beside the lake to be eaten.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=54}} Then, Saint George arrived and saw the princess.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=54}} When the dragon arrived to eat her, he stabbed it with his lance and subdued it by making the sign of the cross and tying the princess's [[girdle]] around its neck.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=54}} Saint George and the princess led the now-docile dragon into the town and George promised to kill it if the townspeople would convert to Christianity.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=55}} All the townspeople converted and Saint George killed the dragon with his sword.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=55}} In some versions, Saint George marries the princess,{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=55}} but, in others, he continues wandering.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=55}}

[[Gargoyle]]s are carved stone figures sometimes resembling dragons that originally served as waterspouts on buildings.{{sfn|Sherman|2015|page=183}}{{sfn|Cipa|2008|pages=1–3}} Precursors to the medieval gargoyle can be found on [[ancient Greek temple|ancient Greek]] and [[Egyptian temple]]s,{{sfn|Sherman|2015|page=183}}{{sfn|Dinsmoor|1973|page=96}}{{sfn|Swaddling|1989|pages=17–18}} but, over the course of the Middle Ages, many fantastic stories were invented to explain them.{{sfn|Sherman|2015|pages=183–184}} One medieval French legend holds that, in ancient times, a fearsome dragon known as ''[[Gargouille|La Gargouille]]'' had been causing floods and sinking ships on the river [[Seine]],{{sfn|Sherman|2015|page=184}} so the people of the town of [[Rouen]] would offer the dragon a [[human sacrifice]] once each year to appease its hunger.{{sfn|Sherman|2015|page=184}} Then, in around 600 AD, a priest named [[Romanus of Rouen|Romanus]] promised that, if the people would build a church, he would rid them of the dragon.{{sfn|Sherman|2015|page=184}} Romanus slew the dragon and its severed head was mounted on the walls of the city as the first gargoyle.{{sfn|Sherman|2015|page=184}}{{sfn|Cipa|2008|pages=1–30}}

Dragons are prominent in medieval [[heraldry]].{{sfn|Friar|Ferguson|1993|page=168}} [[Uther Pendragon]] was famously said to have had two gold dragons crowned with red standing back-to-back on his royal [[coat of arms]].{{sfn|Friar|Ferguson|1993|page=28}} Originally, heraldic dragons could have any number of legs,{{sfn|Friar|Ferguson|1993|page=168}} but, by the late Middle Ages, due to the widespread proliferation of bestiaries, heraldry began to distinguish between a "dragon" (which could only have exactly four legs) and a "[[wyvern]]" (which could only have exactly two).{{sfn|Friar|Ferguson|1993|page=168}} In myths, wyverns are associated with viciousness, envy, and pestilence,{{sfn|Friar|Ferguson|1993|page=168}} but, in heraldry, they are used as symbols for overthrowing the tyranny of Satan and his demonic forces.{{sfn|Friar|Ferguson|1993|page=168}} Late medieval heraldry also distinguished a draconic creature known as a "[[cockatrice]]".{{sfn|Friar|Ferguson|1993|page=168}} A cockatrice is supposedly born when a serpent hatches an egg that has been laid on a dunghill by a rooster{{sfn|Friar|Ferguson|1993|page=168}} and it is so venomous that its breath and its gaze are both lethal to any living creature, except for a weasel, which is the cockatrice's mortal enemy.{{sfn|Friar|Ferguson|1993|page=168}} A [[basilisk]] is a serpent with the head of a dragon at the end of its tail that is born when a toad hatches an egg that has been laid in a [[midden]] by a nine-year-old cockatrice.{{sfn|Friar|Ferguson|1993|page=168}} Like the cockatrice, its glare is said to be deadly.{{sfn|Friar|Ferguson|1993|page=168}}

===Post-classical Eastern===
[[File:Ivan Bilibin 065.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|[[Zmey Gorynych]], a [[Polycephaly|three-headed]] dragon from [[Folklore of Russia|Russian folklore]].]]
[[File:Münster wawelski.jpg|thumb|Illustration of the [[Wawel Dragon]] from [[Sebastian Münster]]'s ''[[Cosmographia (Sebastian Münster)|Cosmographie Universalis]]'' (1544).]]
{{main|Slavic dragon|Kulshedra}}

In [[Albanian mythology|Albanian mythology and folklore]], ''[[stihi]]'', ''[[ljubi]]'', ''[[Kulshedra|bolla, bollar, errshaja and kulshedra]]'' are mythological figures described as serpentine dragons. It is believed that ''bolla'', a water and chthonic demonic serpent, undergoes [[metamorphosis]] passing through four distinct phases if it lives many years without being seen by a human. The ''bollar'' and ''errshaja'' are the intermediate stages, while the ''kulshedra'' is the ultimate phase, described as a huge multi-headed fire-spitting female serpent which causes drought, storms, flooding, earthquakes and other natural disasters against mankind. She is usually fought and defeated by a [[drangue]], a semi-human winged divine hero and protector of humans. Heavy thunderstorms are thought to be the result of their battles.{{sfnp|Doja|2005|p=449–462}}{{Sfn|Elsie|2001|pp=46-47, 74-76, 153-156}}

In [[Slavic mythology]], the words ''"zmey"'', ''"zmiy"'' or ''"zmaj"'' are used to describe dragons. These words are masculine forms of the Slavic word for "snake", which are normally feminine (like Russian ''zmeya''). In [[Romania]], there is a similar figure, derived from the Slavic dragon and named ''[[zmeu]]''. Exclusively in Polish and Belarusian folklore, as well as in the other Slavic folklores, a dragon is also called (variously) ''смок'', ''цмок'', or ''smok''. In South Slavic folklores, the same thing is also called ''lamya'' (ламя, ламjа, lamja). Although quite similar to other [[European dragon]]s, Slavic dragons have their peculiarities.

In [[Folklore of Russia|Russian]] and [[Ukrainian folklore]], [[Zmey Gorynych]] is a dragon with three heads, each one bearing twin goatlike horns.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=146}} He is said to have breathed fire and smelled of [[sulfur]].{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=146}} It was believed that [[eclipse]]s were caused by Gorynych temporarily swallowing the sun.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=147}} According to one legend, Gorynych's uncle was the evil sorcerer Nemal Chelovek, who abducted the daughter of the [[tsar]] and imprisoned her in his castle in the [[Ural Mountains]].{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=147}} Many knights tried to free her, but all of them were killed by Gorynych's fire.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=147}} Then a palace guard in [[Moscow]] named [[Ivan Tsarevich]] overheard two crows talking about the princess.{{sfn|Niles|2013|pages=147–148}} He went to the tsar, who gave him a magic sword, and snuck into the castle.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=148}} When Chelovek attacked Ivan in the form of a giant, the sword flew from Ivan's hand unbidden and killed him.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=148}} Then the sword cut off all three of Gorynych's heads at once.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=148}} Ivan brought the princess back to the tsar, who declared Ivan a nobleman and allowed him to marry the princess.{{sfn|Niles|2013|page=148}}

A popular Polish folk tale is the legend of the [[Wawel Dragon]],{{sfn|Sikorski|1997|page=235}}{{sfn|Dębicka}}{{sfn|Kitowska-Łysiak|Wolicka|1999|page=231}} which is first recorded in the ''[[Chronica seu originale regum et principum Poloniae|Chronica Polonorum]]'' of [[Wincenty Kadłubek]], written between 1190 and 1208.{{sfn|Dębicka}}{{sfn|Kitowska-Łysiak|Wolicka|1999|page=231}} According to Kadłubek, the dragon appeared during the reign of [[Krakus|King Krakus]]{{sfn|Dębicka}} and demanded to be fed a fixed number of cattle every week.{{sfn|Dębicka}} If the villagers failed to provide enough cattle, the dragon would eat the same number of villagers as the number of cattle they had failed to provide.{{sfn|Dębicka}} Krakus ordered his sons to slay the dragon.{{sfn|Dębicka}} Since they could not slay it by hand,{{sfn|Dębicka}} they tricked the dragon into eating calfskins filled with burning sulfur.{{sfn|Dębicka}} Once the dragon was dead, the younger brother attacked and murdered his older brother and returned home to claim all the glory for himself,{{sfn|Dębicka}} telling his father that his brother had died fighting the dragon.{{sfn|Dębicka}} The younger brother became king after his father died, but his secret was eventually revealed and he was banished.{{sfn|Dębicka}} In the fifteenth century, [[Jan Długosz]] rewrote the story so that King Krakus himself was the one who slew the dragon.{{sfn|Sikorski|1997|page=235}}{{sfn|Dębicka}}{{sfn|Kitowska-Łysiak|Wolicka|1999|page=231}} Another version of the story told by [[Marcin Bielski]] instead has the clever shoemaker Skuba come up with the idea for slaying the dragon.{{sfn|Dębicka}}{{sfn|Rożek|1988|page=27}} Bielski's version is now the most popular.{{sfn|Dębicka}}

==Modern depictions==
{{see also|List of dragons in popular culture#Dragons in fiction|label 1=List of dragons in fiction}}

[[File:Smaug par David Demaret.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Modern [[Fan art|fan illustration]] by David Demaret of the dragon [[Smaug]] from [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s 1937 [[high fantasy]] novel ''[[The Hobbit]]'']]
Dragons and dragon motifs are featured in many works of modern literature, particularly within the [[fantasy]] genre.{{sfn|Malone|2012|pages=96–98}}{{sfn|Williamson|2015|page=28}} As early as the eighteenth century, critical thinkers such as [[Denis Diderot]] were already asserting that too much literature had been published on dragons: "There are already in books all too many fabulous stories of dragons".<ref>{{cite web|last1=Diderot|first1=Denis|title=Dragons|url=http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=did;cc=did;rgn=main;view=text;idno=did2222.0000.976|website=The Encyclopedia of Diderot & d'Alembert|access-date=1 April 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403163414/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=did;cc=did;rgn=main;view=text;idno=did2222.0000.976|archive-date=3 April 2015|url-status=live}}</ref> In [[Lewis Carroll]]'s classic [[Children's literature|children's novel]] ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'' (1872), one of the inset poems describes the [[Jabberwocky|Jabberwock]], a kind of dragon.{{sfn|Malone|2012|page=96}} Carroll's illustrator [[John Tenniel]], a famous [[Editorial cartoon|political cartoonist]], humorously showed the Jabberwock with the [[waistcoat]], [[Malocclusion|buck teeth]], and [[Near-sightedness|myopic eyes]] of a [[Victorian era|Victorian]] university lecturer, such as Carroll himself.{{sfn|Malone|2012|page=96}} In works of comedic children's fantasy, dragons often fulfill the role of a magic fairy tale helper.{{sfn|Nikolajeva|2012|page=56}} In such works, rather than being frightening as they are traditionally portrayed, dragons are instead represented as harmless, benevolent, and inferior to humans.{{sfn|Nikolajeva|2012|page=56}} They are sometimes shown living in contact with humans, or in isolated communities of only dragons.{{sfn|Nikolajeva|2012|page=56}} Though popular in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, "such comic and idyllic stories" began to grow increasingly rare after the 1960s, due to demand for more serious children's literature.{{sfn|Nikolajeva|2012|page=56}}

One of the most iconic modern dragons is [[Smaug]] from [[J. R. R. Tolkien]]'s classic novel ''[[The Hobbit]]''.{{sfn|Malone|2012|pages=96–98}} Dragons also appear in the best-selling ''[[Harry Potter]]'' series of children's novels by [[J. K. Rowling]].{{sfn|Malone|2012|page=96}} Other prominent works depicting dragons include [[Anne McCaffrey]]'s ''[[Dragonriders of Pern]]'', [[Ursula K. Le Guin]]'s ''[[Earthsea|Earthsea Cycle]]'', [[George R. R. Martin]]'s series ''[[A Song of Ice and Fire]]'', and [[Christopher Paolini]]'s ''[[Inheritance Cycle]]''. Sandra Martina Schwab writes, "With a few exceptions, including McCaffrey's Pern novels and the 2002 film ''Reign of Fire'', dragons seem to fit more into the medievalized setting of fantasy literature than into the more technological world of science fiction. Indeed, they have been called the emblem of fantasy. The hero's fight against the dragon emphasizes and celebrates his masculinity, whereas revisionist fantasies of dragons and dragon-slaying often undermine traditional gender roles. In children's literature the friendly dragon becomes a powerful ally in battling the child's fears."<ref>{{cite book |author= Schwab, Sandra Martina |chapter= Dragons |title= The Greenwood Encyclopedia of Science Fiction and Fantasy: Themes, Works, and Wonders |editor= [[Gary Westfahl]] |location= Westport, CT |publisher= [[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood Press]] |year= 2005 |volume= Vol. 1 |page= 216 |isbn= 0-313-32951-6}}</ref> The popular [[role-playing game]] system ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]'' (D&D) makes heavy use of [[Dragon (Dungeons & Dragons)|dragons]].{{sfn|Malone|2012|page=98}}

After recent discoveries in [[palaeontology]], fictional dragons are sometimes represented with no front legs, but (when on the ground) walking on their back feet and the wrists of their wings, like [[pterosaur]]s did: for example see [https://media.entertainmentearth.com/assets/images/9b4952bb41f041aeae8b17d8c60e9b89lg.jpg (in Game of Thrones)] and [https://www.cgstudio.com/imgd/l/45/5a43e11ea70248094b8b4567/8130-smaug-hobbit-dragon.jpg (Smaug, as in the movie)]. This often raises debates among fans as to whether or not they should be more specifically called a [[wyvern]] and whether as a 'subspecies' of dragons or perhaps an entirely different creature.
<gallery mode="packed" heights="200px">
File:Jabberwocky.jpg|[[John Tenniel]]'s illustration of the [[Jabberwocky|Jabberwock]] for [[Lewis Carroll]]'s ''[[Through the Looking-Glass]]'', showing the dragon as a [[Near-sightedness|myopic]] professor{{sfn|Malone|2012|page=96}}
File:Gringotts Dragon (42428011465).jpg|Fire-breathing statue of the Ukrainian Ironbelly from ''[[Harry Potter and the Deathly Hallows – Part 2]]'' at [[Universal Studios Florida]]
File:DnD Dragon.png|Representation of a dragon as it appears in the role-playing game ''[[Dungeons & Dragons]]''
</gallery>

== See also ==
{{Div col}}
*{{Portal-inline|Mythology}}
*[[Balaur]]
*[[Bat (heraldry)]]
*[[Behemoth]]
*[[Dinosaur]]
*[[Dragonology]]
*[[Feilong (mythology)]]
*[[Guivre]]
*[[Ichneumon (medieval zoology)]]
*[[Mokele-mbembe]]
*[[Partridge Creek monster]]
*[[Snallygaster]]
*''[[The Last Dragon (2004 film)|The Last Dragon]]'', fictional 2004 documentary
*[[List of dragons in literature]]
*[[List of dragons in mythology and folklore]]
*[[List of dragons in popular culture]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist|20em}}

===Bibliography===
{{refbegin|30em}}
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{{refend}}

==External links==
*{{Commons category-inline|Dragons}}
*{{Wiktionary-inline|dragon}}
*{{Wikiquote-inline|Dragons}}

{{Dragons}}
{{Zoroastrianism}}
{{Heraldic creatures}}
{{Fantasy fiction}}
{{Reptiles in culture}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Dragons| ]]
[[Category:Heraldic beasts]]

Taoism

2020-06-19T08:08:05Z

Cyon: Let's not mix different transcriptions in the same word

{{EngvarB|date=August 2019}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{short description|Religious or philosophical tradition of Chinese culture}}
{{Infobox Chinese
| pic = Tao.svg
| piccap = [[Tao]], a Chinese word signifying the "way", "path", "route", "road" or sometimes more loosely "doctrine".
| collapse = no
| title = '''Taoism'''
| c = {{linktext|道教}}
| l = "The Way"
| p = Dàojiào<ref>{{cite book |chapter-url=http://pinyin.info/readings/yin_binyong/o2_proper_nouns.pdf|chapter=Proper Nouns in Hanyu Pinyin |title=Chinese Romanization: Pronunciation and Orthography |last=Yin |first=Binyong |translator-first=Mary |translator-last=Felley |p=176}}</ref>
| w = Tao4-chiao4
| mi = {{IPAc-cmn|d|ao|4|.|j|yao|4}}
| gr = Dawjiaw
| myr = Dàujyàu
| bpmf = ㄉㄠˋ   ㄐㄧㄠˋ
| showflag = p
| wuu = Doh入 goh平
| j = Dou6gaau3
| ci = {{IPAc-yue|d|ou|6|.|g|aau|3}}
| y = Douhgaau
| poj = Tō-kàu
| tl = Tō-kàu
| hanja = {{linktext|lang=ko|道|敎}}
| hangul = {{linktext|도|교}}
| rr = Dogyo
| mr = Togyo
| kanji = {{linktext|lang=ja|道|教}}
| hiragana = {{linktext|どう|きょう}}
| romaji = Dōkyō
| qn = Đạo giáo
| chuhan = {{linktext|道|教}}
| mc = dáw kæ̀w
| oc-bs = *{{IPA|[kə.l]ˤuʔ s.kˤraw-s}}
| t =
| s =
| altname =
}}

{{Taoism}}

'''Taoism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|t|aʊ|-}}), or '''Daoism''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|aʊ|ɪ|z|əm}}, {{IPAc-en|ˈ|d|aʊ|-}}), is a philosophical tradition of [[China|Chinese]] origin which emphasises living in harmony with the ''[[Tao]]'' ({{zh|c={{linktext|道}}|p=Dào|l=the Way}}, [[Taoism#Spelling and pronunciation|also romanised as ''Dao'']]). The ''Tao'' is a fundamental idea in most [[Chinese philosophy|Chinese philosophical]] schools; in Taoism, however, it denotes the principle that is the source, pattern and substance of everything that exists.<ref name="PollardRosenberg2014">{{cite book|author1=Elizabeth Pollard|author2=Clifford Rosenberg|author3=Robert Tignor|title=Worlds Together, Worlds Apart: A History of the World - From the Beginnings of Humankind to the Present|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rSjDoQEACAAJ|date=16 December 2014|publisher=W.W. Norton|isbn=978-0-393-91847-2|page=164}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Creel|1982 |p=2}}</ref> Taoism differs from [[Confucianism]] by not emphasising rigid rituals and social order, but is similar in the sense that it is a teaching about the various disciplines for achieving "perfection" by becoming one with the unplanned rhythms of the universe called "the way" or "tao".<ref name="PollardRosenberg2014"/><ref>{{Cite book|title=Religions in the Modern World|last=Woodhead, Partridge, & Kawanmi|first=Linda, Christopher, & Hiroko|publisher=Routledge|year=2016|isbn=978-0-415-85880-9|location=New York|pages=146}}</ref> Taoist ethics vary depending on the particular school, but in general tend to emphasise ''[[wu wei]]'' (action without intention), "naturalness", simplicity, spontaneity, and the [[Three Treasures (Taoism)|Three Treasures]]: {{lang|zh|慈}} "compassion", {{lang|zh|儉}} "frugality", and {{lang|zh|不敢為天下先}} "humility".

The roots of Taoism go back at least to the 4th century BCE. Early Taoism drew its cosmological notions from the [[School of Naturalists|School of Yinyang]] (Naturalists), and was deeply influenced by one of the oldest texts of Chinese culture, the ''[[I Ching]]'' (''Yi Jing''), which expounds a philosophical system about how to keep human behaviour in accordance with the alternating cycles of nature. The "[[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalist]]" [[Shen Buhai]] (c. 400 – c. 337 BCE) may also have been a major influence, expounding a [[realpolitik]] of ''wu wei''.<ref>{{harvp|Creel|1982 |pp=48, 62–63}}
* {{cite encyclopedia |first=S.Y. |last=Hsieh |year=1995 |p=92 |title=The Legalist Philosophers |editor-last=Bishop |editor-first=Donald H. |encyclopedia=Chinese Thought: An Introduction |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-E5LZeR7QKwC&pg=PA92 |isbn=9788120811393 |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |date= |accessdate=21 August 2017 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20161219231841/https://books.google.com/books?id=-E5LZeR7QKwC&pg=PA92 |archivedate=19 December 2016 |url-status=live }}
* {{cite book | editor1-last=Ching | editor1-first=Julia | editor1-link=Julia Ching | editor2-last=Guisso | editor2-first=R. W. L. | title=Sages and Filial Sons: Mythology and Archaeology in Ancient China | publisher=Chinese University Press | year=1991 | isbn=978-962-201-469-5 | pages=75, 119. | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ynfrlFZcUG8C&pg=PA75 }}</ref> The ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' (''Dao De Jing''), a compact book containing teachings attributed to [[Laozi]] ({{zh|labels=no||c=老子|p=Lǎozǐ|w=Lao³ Tzŭ³}}), is widely considered the keystone work of the Taoist tradition, together with the later [[Zhuangzi (book)|writings of Zhuangzi]].

Taoism has had a profound influence on Chinese culture in the course of the centuries, and [[Taoist priest|Taoists]] ({{zh|labels=no|c=道士|p=dàoshi}}, "masters of the Tao"), a title traditionally attributed only to the clergy and not to their lay followers, usually take care to note distinction between their ritual tradition and the practices of [[Chinese folk religion]] and non-Taoist [[Chinese ritual mastery traditions|vernacular ritual orders]], which are often mistakenly identified as pertaining to Taoism. [[Chinese alchemy]] (especially [[neidan]]), [[Chinese astrology]], [[Zen|Chan (Zen) Buddhism]], several [[Neijia|martial arts]], [[traditional Chinese medicine]], [[feng shui]], and many styles of [[qigong]] have been intertwined with Taoism throughout history. Beyond China, Taoism also had influence on surrounding societies in Asia.

Today, the Taoist tradition is one of the [[Religion in China|five religious doctrines]] officially recognised by the [[People's Republic of China]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Religion in China |url=https://www.cfr.org/backgrounder/religion-china |website=Council on Foreign Relations |date=11 October 2018}}</ref> It is also a [[religion in Taiwan|major religion]] in [[Taiwan]],<ref>{{cite web |title=Taiwan 2017 International Religious Freedom Report |url=https://www.ait.org.tw/taiwan-2017-international-religious-freedom-report/ |website=American Institute on Taiwan |publisher=US Federal Government |date=29 May 2018}}</ref> and claims adherents in a number of other societies,<ref>{{cite book |title=The Ancient Chinese Super State of Primary Societies: Taoist Philosophy for the 21st Century |first=You-Sheng |last=Li |year=2010 |p=300 |isbn=978-1452025414 |publisher=AuthorHouse}}</ref> in particular in [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]], and [[Southeast Asia]].

==Definition==

[[File:Birth Places of Chinese Philosophers.png|upright=1.35|thumb|Birth places of notable Chinese philosophers from Hundred Schools of Thought in [[Zhou Dynasty]]. Philosophers of Taoism are marked by triangles in dark green.]]

===Spelling and pronunciation===
{{Main|Daoism–Taoism romanization issue}}

Since the introduction of the [[Pinyin]] system for [[Romanization|romanising]] Mandarin Chinese, there have been those who have felt that "Taoism" would be more appropriately spelled as "Daoism". The [[Mandarin Chinese]] pronunciation for the word {{lang|zh|{{linktext|道}}}} ("way, path") is spelled as ''[[tao|tao4]]'' in the older [[Wade–Giles]] romanisation system (from which the spelling 'Taoism' is derived), while it is spelled as ''[[Tao|dào]]'' in the newer [[Pinyin]] romanisation system (from which the spelling 'Daoism' is derived). Both the Wade–Giles ''tao4'' and the Pinyin ''dào'' are intended to be pronounced identically in Mandarin Chinese (like the 'd' in 'dog'), but despite this fact, "Taoism" and "Daoism" can be pronounced differently in English vernacular.<ref>{{harvp|Carr |1990|pp=63–65}}. "Converting the various [[pronunciation respelling for English|pronunciation respelling systems]] into [[International Phonetic Alphabet|IPA]], British dictionaries (1933–1989, Table 3) give 9 {{IPA|/taʊ.ɪzəm/}}, 2 {{IPA|/taʊ.ɪzəm, daʊ.ɪzəm/}}, and 1 {{IPA|/daʊ.ɪzəm/}}; American dictionaries (1948–1987, Table 4) give 6 {{IPA|/daʊ.ɪzəm, taʊ.ɪzəm/}}, 2 {{IPA|/taʊ.ɪzəm, daʊ.ɪzəm/}}, 2 {{IPA|/taʊ.ɪzəm/}}, and 1 {{IPA|/daʊ.ɪzəm/}}".</ref>

===Categorisation===

The word "Taoism" is used to translate different Chinese terms which refer to different aspects of the same tradition and semantic field:{{sfnp|Pregadio|2008|loc=Vol. 1, p. xvi}}
# "Taoist religion" ({{zh|labels=no||c={{linktext|道教}}|p={{linktext|Dàojiào}}}}; lit. "teachings of the Tao"), or the "liturgical" aspect<ref name="Pregadio 2008. p. 327">{{harvp|Pregadio|2008|loc=Vol. 1, p. 327, Taoshi}}</ref> – A family of organised religious movements sharing concepts or terminology from "Taoist philosophy";{{sfnp|Robinet|1997|p=xxix}} the first of these is recognised as the [[Celestial Masters]] school.
# "Taoist philosophy" ({{zh|labels=no||c={{linktext|道家}}|p={{linktext|Dàojiā}}}}; lit. "school or family of the Tao") or "Taology" ({{zh|labels=no||c=道學|p=dàoxué}}; lit. "learning of the Tao"), or the "mystical" aspect<ref name="Pregadio 2008. p. 327"/> – The [[philosophy|philosophical doctrines]] based on the texts of the ''[[I Ching|Yi Jing]]'', the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' (or Dao De Jing, {{zh|labels=no||c=道德經|p=dàodéjīng}}) and the ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'' ({{zh|labels=no||c=莊子|p=zhuāngzi}}). These texts were linked together as "Taoist philosophy" during the early [[Han Dynasty]], but notably not before.<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=44}}</ref><ref name="Stanford Taoism">{{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/ |title=Taoism |work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, CSLI, [[Stanford University]] |author=Chad Hansen |accessdate=2008-10-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130624092211/http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/taoism/ |archive-date=24 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref> It is unlikely that [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]] was familiar with the text of the Tao Te Ching,<ref name="Stanford Taoism"/><ref name="Graham 1989 p. 170–171">{{harvp|Graham|1989|pp=170–171}}</ref> and Zhuangzi would not have identified himself as a Taoist as this classification did not arise until well after his death.<ref name="Graham 1989 p. 170–171"/>

However, the discussed distinction is rejected by the majority of Western and Japanese scholars.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=3}}; {{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=xi}}</ref> It is contested by [[hermeneutic]] (interpretive) difficulties in the categorisation of the different Taoist schools, sects and movements.<ref>[[Victor H. Mair|Mair]] (2001) p. 174</ref> Taoism does not fall under an umbrella or a definition of a single [[organised religion]] like the [[Abrahamic traditions]]; nor can it be studied as a mere variant of [[Chinese folk religion]], as although the two share some similar concepts, much of Chinese folk religion is separate from the tenets and core teachings of Taoism.<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 103">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=103}}</ref> The sinologists [[Isabelle Robinet]] and [[Livia Kohn]] agree that "Taoism has never been a unified religion, and has constantly consisted of a combination of teachings based on a variety of original revelations."<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=2}}</ref>

The philosopher [[Chung-ying Cheng]] views Taoism as a religion that has been embedded into Chinese history and tradition. "Whether Confucianism, Taoism, or later Chinese Buddhism, they all fall into this pattern of thinking and organising and in this sense remain religious, even though individually and intellectually they also assume forms of philosophy and practical wisdom."<ref name="Routledge">{{cite book|editor-last1=Meister |editor-first1=Chad |editor-last2=Copan |editor-first2=Paul |title=The Routledge companion to philosophy of religion |date=2010 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-0415435536}}</ref> Chung-ying Cheng also noted that the Taoist view of heaven flows mainly from "observation and meditation, [though] the teaching of the way (''Tao'') can also include the way of heaven independently of human nature".<ref name="Routledge"/> In Chinese history, the three religions of Buddhism, Taoism and Confucianism stand on their own independent views, and yet are "involved in a process of attempting to find harmonisation and convergence among themselves, so that we can speak of a 'unity of three religious teachings' (''sanjiao heyi'')".<ref name="Routledge"/>

===The term "Taoist", and Taoism as a "liturgical framework"===

Traditionally, the Chinese language does not have terms defining lay people adhering to the doctrines or the practices of Taoism, who fall instead within the field of folk religion. "Taoist", in Western [[sinology]], is traditionally used to translate ''Taoshi'' ({{lang|zh|道士}}, "master of the Tao"), thus strictly defining the priests of Taoism, ordained clergymen of a Taoist institution who "represent Taoist culture on a professional basis", are experts of Taoist liturgy, and therefore can employ this knowledge and ritual skills for the benefit of a community.{{sfnp|Pregadio|2008|loc=Vol. 1, p. 326, ''Taoshi''}}

This role of Taoist priests reflects the definition of Taoism as a "liturgical framework for the development of local cults", in other words a scheme or structure for Chinese religion, proposed first by the scholar and Taoist initiate [[Kristofer Schipper]] in ''The Taoist Body'' (1986).<ref name="Wu2014">Nengchang Wu. ''[https://www.academia.edu/6919287/2014_Religion_and_Society._A_Summary_of_French_Studies_on_Chinese_Religion Religion and Society. A Summary of French Studies on Chinese Religion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170827012653/http://www.academia.edu/6919287/2014_Religion_and_Society._A_Summary_of_French_Studies_on_Chinese_Religion |date=27 August 2017 }}''. On: ''Review of Religion and Chinese Society'' 1 (2014), 104–127. pp. 105–106</ref> ''Taoshi'' are comparable to the non-Taoist ''fashi'' ({{lang|zh|法師}}, "ritual masters") of vernacular traditions (the so-called "[[Chinese ritual mastery traditions|Faism]]") within Chinese religion.<ref name="Wu2014"/>

The term ''dàojiàotú'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=道教徒|l=follower of Taoism|s=|t=|p=}}), with the meaning of "Taoist" as "lay member or believer of Taoism", is a modern invention that goes back to the introduction of the Western category of "organised religion" in China in the 20th century, but it has no significance for most of Chinese society in which Taoism continues to be an "order" of the larger body of Chinese religion.

==History==
{{Main|History of Taoism}}

[[File:Zhang Lu-Laozi Riding an Ox.jpg|thumb|upright|''Laozi Riding an Ox'' (1368–1644) by [[Zhang Lu (painter)|Zhang Lu]]]]

[[Laozi]] is traditionally regarded as one of the founders of Taoism and is closely associated in this context with "original" or "primordial" Taoism.<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 63"/> Whether he actually existed is disputed;<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 25">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=25}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Kirkland|2004|p=62}}</ref> however, the work attributed to him—the ''Tao Te Ching''—is dated to the late 4th century BCE.<ref>{{harvp|Kirkland|2004|p=61}}</ref>

Taoism draws its cosmological foundations from the [[School of Naturalists]] (in the form of its main elements—[[yin and yang]] and the [[Five Phases]]), which developed during the [[Warring States period]] (4th to 3rd centuries BCE).<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 6">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=6}}</ref>

Robinet identifies four components in the emergence of Taoism:
# Philosophical Taoism, i.e. the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' and ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]''
# techniques for achieving ecstasy
# practices for achieving longevity or immortality
# [[exorcism]].<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 25"/>

Some elements of Taoism may be traced to [[prehistoric]] folk religions in China that later coalesced into a Taoist tradition.<ref>{{harvp|Demerath|2003|p=149}}; {{harvp|Hucker|1995|pp=203–204}}</ref> In particular, many Taoist practices drew from the Warring-States-era phenomena of the ''[[wu (shaman)|wu]]'' (connected to the [[Chinese shamanism|shamanic culture of northern China]]) and the ''fangshi'' (which probably derived from the "archivist-soothsayers of antiquity, one of whom supposedly was Laozi himself"), even though later Taoists insisted that this was not the case.<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 36">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=36}}</ref> Both terms were used to designate individuals dedicated to "... magic, medicine, divination,... methods of longevity and to ecstatic wanderings" as well as exorcism; in the case of the ''wu'', "shamans" or "sorcerers" is often used as a translation.<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 36"/> The ''fangshi'' were philosophically close to the School of Naturalists, and relied much on astrological and calendrical speculations in their divinatory activities.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=39}}</ref>

[[File:Wudangshan pic 7.jpg|thumb|left|[[Wudang Mountains|Wudangshan]], one of the Taoist sacred places.]]

The first organised form of Taoism, the [[Tianshi Tao|Tianshi]] (Celestial Masters') school (later known as Zhengyi school), developed from the [[Five Pecks of Rice]] movement at the end of the 2nd century CE; the latter had been founded by [[Zhang Taoling]], who said that Laozi appeared to him in the year 142.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=54}}</ref> The Tianshi school was officially recognised by ruler [[Cao Cao]] in 215, legitimising Cao Cao's rise to power in return.<ref name="harvp|Robinet|1997|p=1">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=1}}</ref> Laozi received imperial recognition as a divinity in the mid-2nd century BCE.<ref>{{harvtxt|Robinet|1997|p=50}}</ref>

By the [[Han dynasty]] (206 BCE–220 CE), the various sources of Taoism had coalesced into a coherent tradition of religious organisations and orders of ritualists in the state of [[Shu Han|Shu]] (modern [[Sichuan]]). In earlier ancient China, Taoists were thought of as hermits or recluses who did not participate in political life. Zhuangzi was the best known of these, and it is significant that he lived in the south, where he was part of local [[Chinese shamanism|Chinese shamanic]] traditions.{{sfnp|Nadeau|2012|p=42}}

Female shamans played an important role in this tradition, which was particularly strong in the southern state of [[Chu (state)|Chu]]. Early Taoist movements developed their own institution in contrast to shamanism but absorbed basic shamanic elements. Shamans revealed basic texts of Taoism from early times down to at least the 20th century.<ref>Catherine Despeux, "Women in Taoism", in {{cite book | first = Livia, ed. | last = Kohn | title = Taoism Handbook | publisher = Brill | location = Leiden | date = 2000 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=EXVk1tr6lEYC&dq=China+shamanism+Taoism&q=shamanism#v=snippet&q=shamanism&f=false | ref = harv | isbn = 978-9004112087 | access-date = 13 September 2016 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170110082154/https://books.google.com/books?id=EXVk1tr6lEYC&dq=China+shamanism+Taoism&q=shamanism#v=snippet&q=shamanism&f=false | archive-date = 10 January 2017 | url-status = live }} pp. 403–404</ref> Institutional orders of Taoism evolved in various strains that in more recent times are conventionally grouped into two main branches: [[Quanzhen School|Quanzhen Taoism]] and [[Zhengyi Tao|Zhengyi Taoism]].{{sfnp|Chan|2005|p=93}} After Laozi and Zhuangzi, the literature of Taoism grew steadily and was compiled in form of a canon—the [[Taozang]]—which was published at the behest of the [[Emperor of China|emperor]]. Throughout Chinese history, Taoism was nominated several times as a [[state religion]]. After the 17th century, however, it fell from favour.

Taoism, in form of the [[Shangqing School|Shangqing school]], gained official status in China again during the [[Tang dynasty]] (618–907), whose emperors claimed Laozi as their relative.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=184}}</ref> The Shangqing movement, however, had developed much earlier, in the 4th century, on the basis of a series of revelations by gods and spirits to a certain Yang Xi in the years between 364 and 370.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=115}}</ref>

Between 397 and 402, [[Ge Chaofu]] compiled a series of scriptures which later served as the foundation of the [[Lingbao School|Lingbao school]],<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=150}}</ref> which unfolded its greatest influence during the [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279).<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=xvi}}</ref> Several Song emperors, most notably [[Emperor Huizong of Song|Huizong]], were active in promoting Taoism, collecting Taoist texts and publishing editions of the ''Taozang.''<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=213}}</ref>

[[File:Guo Xu album dated 1503 (4).jpg|thumb|''Qiu Chuji'' (1503) by Guo Xu]]

In the 12th century, the Quanzhen School was founded in [[Shandong]]. It flourished during the 13th and 14th centuries and during the [[Yuan dynasty]] became the largest and most important Taoist school in Northern China. The school's most revered master, [[Qiu Chuji]], met with [[Genghis Khan]] in 1222 and was successful in influencing the Khan towards exerting more restraint during his brutal conquests. By the Khan's decree, the school also was exempt from taxation.<ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/?id=vFBy3cvteTQC&printsec=frontcover&dq=quanzhen#v=onepage&q=quanzhen&f=false|title=The Teachings and Practices of the Early Quanzhen Taoist Masters|author=Eskildsen, Stephen|publisher=State University of New York Press|date=2004|page=17|isbn=9780791460450}}</ref>

Aspects of Confucianism, Taoism, and Buddhism were consciously synthesised in the [[Neo-Confucian]] school, which eventually became Imperial [[orthodoxy]] for state bureaucratic purposes under the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] (1368–1644).<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=xvii}}</ref>

During the [[Qing dynasty]] (1644–1912), however, due to discouragements of the government, many people favoured Confucian and Buddhist classics over Taoist works.

During the 18th century, the imperial library was constituted, but excluded virtually all Taoist books.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|1993|p=19}}</ref> By the beginning of the 20th century, Taoism went through many catastrophic events. (As a result, only one complete copy of the [[Taozang]] still remained, at the [[White Cloud Monastery]] in Beijing).<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|1993|p=220}}</ref>

Today, Taoism is one of five religions recognised by the People's Republic of China. The government regulates its activities through the [[Chinese Taoist Association]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrwf.net/advocacy/ext/religious_freedom_china.pdf |title=Human Rights Without Frontiers "Religious Freedom in China in 2006" |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327075017/http://www.hrwf.net/advocacy/ext/religious_freedom_china.pdf |archivedate=27 March 2009 |df= }} {{small|(30.6 KB)}} An address given to the Delegation EU–China of the European Parliament.</ref> Taoism is freely practised in [[Religion in Taiwan|Taiwan]], where it claims millions of adherents.

[[World Heritage Sites]] [[Mount Qingcheng]] and [[Mount Longhu]] are thought to be among the birthplaces of Taoism.

==Doctrines==
{{Main|Taoist philosophy}}

===Ethics===

Taoism tends to emphasise various themes of the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' and ''[[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]]'', such as naturalness, spontaneity, simplicity, [[detachment (philosophy)|detachment from desires]], and most important of all, [[wu wei]].{{sfnp|Chan|1963}} However, the concepts of those keystone texts cannot be equated with Taoism as a whole.<ref>{{harvp|Kirkland|2004|p=3}}</ref>

====Tao and Te====
{{Main|Tao|De (Chinese)}}

[[File:Weihai-Xianguting-Temple.jpg|thumb|left|Xianguting Temple, a ''Taoguan'' in [[Weihai]], [[Shandong]], China]]

''Tao'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=道|p=dào}}) literally means "way", but can also be interpreted as road, channel, path, doctrine, or line.<ref>{{harvp|DeFrancis|1996|p=113}}</ref> In Taoism, it is "the One, which is natural, spontaneous, eternal, nameless, and indescribable. It is at once the beginning of all things and the way in which all things pursue their course."{{sfnp|Chan|1963|p=136}} It has variously been denoted as the "flow of the universe",<ref>{{harvp|Cane|2002|p=13}}</ref> a "conceptually necessary [[ontological]] ground",<ref>A. Chan, cited in {{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=20}}</ref> or a demonstration of nature.<ref name="autogenerated2">{{harvp|Martinson|1987|pp=168–169}}</ref> The Tao also is something that individuals can find [[immanent]] in themselves.<ref>{{harvp|LaFargue|1994|p=283}}</ref>

The active expression of Tao is called ''Te'' (also spelled—and pronounced—''De'', or even ''Teh''; often translated with ''Virtue'' or ''Power''; {{zh|labels=no|c=德|p=dé}}),<ref>{{harvp|Sharot|2001|pp=77–78, 88}}</ref> in a sense that Te results from an individual living and cultivating the Tao.<ref>{{harvp|Maspero|1981|p=32}}</ref>

====Wu-wei====
{{Main|Wu wei}}

The ambiguous term ''wu-wei'' ({{zh|labels=no|s=无为|t=無爲|p=wú wéi}}) constitutes the leading ethical concept in Taoism.<ref name=voorst170>{{harvp|Van Voorst |2005 |p=170}}</ref> ''Wei'' refers to any intentional or deliberated action, while ''wu'' carries the meaning of "there is no ..." or "lacking, without". Common translations are "nonaction", "effortless action" or "action without intent".<ref name=voorst170/> The meaning is sometimes emphasised by using the paradoxical expression "wei wu wei": "action without action".<ref>{{harvp|Kirkland|2004|p. 60}}</ref>

In ancient Taoist texts, wu-wei is associated with water through its yielding nature.<ref>Oldmeadow (2007) p109{{full citation needed|date=July 2019}}</ref> Taoist philosophy, in accordance with the ''[[I Ching]]'', proposes that the universe works harmoniously according to its own ways. When someone exerts their will against the world in a manner that is out of rhythm with the cycles of change, they may disrupt that harmony and [[unintended consequences]] may more likely result rather than the willed outcome. Taoism does not identify one's will as the root problem. Rather, it asserts that one must place their will in harmony with the natural universe.<ref name="autogenerated4">{{harvp|Fasching|deChant|2001|p=35}}</ref> Thus, a potentially harmful interference may be avoided, and in this way, goals can be achieved effortlessly.{{sfnp|Chan|1963|p=137}}<ref>Living in the Tao: The Effortless Path of Self-Discovery, Mantak Chia</ref> "By wu-wei, the sage seeks to come into harmony with the great Tao, which itself accomplishes by nonaction."<ref name=voorst170/>

====Ziran====
{{Main|Ziran}}

Ziran ({{zh|labels=no|c=自然|p=zìrán|w=tzu-jan}}; lit. "self-such","[[self organisation]]"<ref name="Zai 2015"/>) is regarded as a central value in Taoism.{{sfnp|Fowler|2005 |p=122}} It describes the "primordial state" of all things{{sfnp|Slingerland|2003|p=97}} as well as a basic character of the Tao,{{sfnp|Girardot|1988 |p=56}} and is usually associated with spontaneity and creativity.{{sfnmp|1a1=Fowler|1y=2005 |1p=121|2a1=Girardot|2y=1988 |2p=56}} To attain naturalness, one has to identify with the Tao;{{sfnp|Girardot|1988 |p=56}} this involves freeing oneself from selfishness and desire, and appreciating simplicity.{{sfnp|Fowler|2005 |p=122}}

An often cited metaphor for naturalness is ''[[Pu (Taoism)|pu]]'' ({{zh|labels=no|s={{linktext|朴}}|t={{linktext|樸}}|p=pǔ, pú|w=p'u}}; lit. "uncut wood"), the "uncarved block", which represents the "original nature... prior to the imprint of culture" of an individual.{{sfnp|Kraemer|1986|p=286}} It is usually referred to as a state one ''returns'' to.{{sfnp|Girardot|1988 |p=70}}

====Three Treasures====
{{Main|Three Treasures (Taoism)}}
{{See also|Three Treasures (traditional Chinese medicine)}}

The Taoist ''Three Treasures'' or ''Three Jewels'' ({{zh|labels=no|t=三寶|s=三宝|p=sānbǎo}}) comprise the basic virtues of ''ci'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=慈|p=cí}}, usually translated as ''compassion''), ''jian'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=俭|p=jiǎn}}, usually translated as ''moderation''), and ''bugan wei tianxia xian'' ({{zh|labels=no|c=不敢为天下先 |p=bùgǎn wéi tiānxià xiān|lit=}}, literally "not daring to act as first under the heavens", but usually translated as ''humility'').

As the "practical, political side" of Taoist philosophy, [[Arthur Waley]] translated them as "abstention from aggressive war and capital punishment", "absolute simplicity of living", and "refusal to assert active authority".<ref>{{harvp|Waley|1958|p=225}}</ref>

The Three Treasures can also refer to [[Jing (Chinese medicine)|jing]], [[traditional Chinese medicine#Qi|qi]] and [[Shen (Chinese religion)|shen]] ({{zh|labels=no|t=精氣神|p=jīng-qì-shén}}; jing is usually translated with "essence" and shen with "spirit"). These terms are elements of the [[traditional Chinese medicine#Model of the body|traditional Chinese concept of the human body]], which shares its cosmological foundation—[[School of Naturalists|Yinyangism]] or the Naturalists—with Taoism. Within this framework, they play an important role in [[neidan]] ("Taoist Inner Alchemy").<ref name=":3">Blofeld, John. ''Taoism''. Shambhala, 2000.</ref>

===Cosmology===
{{Further|:School of Naturalists|Qi|Taoism and death}}

Taoist cosmology is [[Cyclic model|cyclic]]—the universe is seen as being in a constant process of re-creating itself.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=7}}</ref> Evolution and 'extremes meet' are main characters.<ref name="Zai 2015">Dr Zai, J. [https://books.google.com/books?id=-WzMCQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover1 ''Taoism and Science: Cosmology, Evolution, Morality, Health and more''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417051124/https://books.google.com/books?id=-WzMCQAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover1 |date=17 April 2016 }}. Ultravisum, 2015.</ref> Taoist cosmology shares similar views with the [[School of Naturalists]] (Yinyang)<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 6"/> which was headed by [[Zou Yan]] (305–240 BCE). The school's tenets harmonised the concepts of the [[Wu Xing]] (Five Elements) and [[yin and yang]]. In this spirit, the universe is seen as being in a constant process of re-creating itself, as everything that exists is a mere aspect of [[qi]], which "condensed, becomes life; diluted, it is indefinite potential".<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=7}}</ref> Qi is in a perpetual transformation between its condensed and diluted state.<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 8">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=8}}</ref> These two different states of qi, on the other hand, are embodiments of the abstract entities of yin and yang,<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 8"/> two complementary extremes that constantly play against and with each other and one cannot exist without the other.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p= 9}}</ref>

Human beings are seen as a [[Macrocosm and microcosm|microcosm]] of the universe,<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 103"/> and for example comprise the Wu Xing in form of the [[zang-fu]] organs.<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=825}}</ref> As a consequence, it is believed that deeper understanding of the universe can be achieved by understanding oneself.<ref>Occhiogrosso (2004), p. 171.{{full citation needed|date=July 2019}}</ref>

===Theology===
{{Main|Taoist theology}}
{{See also|Xian (Taoism)|Li Hong (Taoist eschatology)}}

Taoism can be defined as [[pantheism|pantheistic]], given its philosophical emphasis on the formlessness of the Tao and the primacy of the "Way" rather than anthropomorphic concepts of [[God]]. This is one of the core beliefs that nearly all the sects share.<ref name="harvp|Robinet|1997|p=1"/>

Taoist orders usually present the [[Three Pure Ones]] at the top of the pantheon of deities, visualising the hierarchy emanating from the Tao. [[Laozi]] (''Laojun'', "Lord Lao"), is considered the incarnation of one of the Three Purities and worshipped as the ancestor of the philosophical doctrine.<ref name="Robinet 1997, p. 63">{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=63}}</ref><ref>{{harvp|Maspero|1981|p= 41}}</ref>

Different branches of Taoism often have differing pantheons of lesser deities, where these deities reflect different notions of cosmology.<ref>{{harvp|Segal|2006|p=50}}</ref> Lesser deities also may be promoted or demoted for their activity.<ref>{{harvp|Maspero|1981|p=92}}</ref> Some varieties of popular Chinese religion incorporate the [[Jade Emperor]], derived from the main of the Three Purities, as a representation of the most high God.

Persons from the history of Taoism, and people who are considered to have become immortals (''[[xian (Taoism)|xian]]''), are venerated as well by both clergy and laypeople.

Despite these hierarchies of deities, traditional conceptions of Tao should not be confused with the Western [[theism]]. Being one with the Tao does not necessarily indicate a union with an eternal spirit in, for example, the Hindu sense.<ref name="autogenerated2"/><ref name="autogenerated4"/>

==Texts==

===''Tao Te Ching''===
{{Main|Tao Te Ching}}

[[File:DaoDeJingWangBi.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|1770 ''Wang Bi'' edition of the ''Tao Te Ching'']]

The ''Tao Te Ching'' or ''Taodejing'' is widely considered the most influential Taoist text.<ref>{{harvp|Miller|2003|p=ix}}</ref> According to legend, it was written by [[Laozi]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism.html |title=Patheos Library – Taoism |publisher=Patheos.com |date=2011-01-05 |accessdate=2011-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091016124951/http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism.html |archive-date=16 October 2009 |url-status=live }}</ref> and often the book is simply referred to as the "Laozi." However, authorship, precise date of origin, and even unity of the text are still subject of debate,<ref>{{harvp|Eliade|1984|p=26}}</ref> and will probably never be known with certainty.<ref>{{harvp|Watts|1975|p=xxiii}}</ref> The earliest texts of the ''Tao Te Ching'' that have been excavated (written on [[Guodian Chu Slips|bamboo tablets]]) date back to the late 4th century BCE.<ref name=stanford>{{cite book|chapter-url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/laozi/|chapter=Laozi|title=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |publisher=[[Stanford University]]|quote=The discovery of two ''Laozi'' silk manuscripts at Mawangdui, near Changsha, Hunan province in 1973 marks an important milestone in modern ''Laozi'' research. The manuscripts, identified simply as "A" (jia) and "B" (yi), were found in a tomb that was sealed in 168 B.C. The texts themselves can be dated earlier, the "A" manuscript being the older of the two, copied in all likelihood before 195 B.C. Until recently, the Mawangdui manuscripts have held the pride of place as the oldest extant manuscripts of the ''Laozi''. In late 1993, the excavation of a tomb (identified as M1) in Guodian, Jingmen city, Hubei province, has yielded among other things some 800 bamboo slips, of which 730 are inscribed, containing over 13,000 Chinese characters. Some of these, amounting to about 2,000 characters, match the ''Laozi''. The tomb...is dated around 300 B.C.|year=2018}}</ref> Throughout the history of religious Taoism, the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' has been used as a ritual text.<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|LaFargue|1998|p=158}}</ref>

The famous opening lines of the ''[[Tao Te Ching]]'' are:
<blockquote>
{{zh|labels=no|c=道可道非常道}} ({{zh|p=dào kĕ dào fēi cháng dào}}) 
"The Tao that can be told is not the eternal Tao" 
{{zh|labels=no|c=名可名非常名}} ({{zh|p=míng kĕ míng fēi cháng míng}}) 
"The name that can be named is not the eternal name."<ref name="Laozi">{{cite web|url=http://www.bopsecrets.org/gateway/passages/tao-te-ching.htm|title=Tao Te Ching, 1. chapter, translated by Livia Kohn (1993)|author=Laozi|accessdate=29 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120529080507/http://www.bopsecrets.org/gateway/passages/tao-te-ching.htm|archive-date=29 May 2012|url-status=live}}</ref>
</blockquote>

There is significant, at times acrimonious, debate regarding which English translation of the Tao Te Ching is preferable, and which particular translation methodology is best.<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|LaFargue|1998|pp=185–186}}</ref> The ''Tao Te Ching'' is not thematically ordered. However, the main themes of the text are repeatedly expressed using variant formulations, often with only a slight difference.<ref>{{harvp|Kim|2003|p=13}}</ref>

The leading themes revolve around the nature of Tao and how to attain it. Tao is said to be ineffable, and accomplishing great things through small means.{{sfnp|Van Voorst |2005 |p=165}} Ancient commentaries on the ''Tao Te Ching'' are important texts in their own right. Perhaps the oldest one, the ''[[Heshang Gong]]'' commentary, was most likely written in the 2nd century CE.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|p=73}}</ref> Other important commentaries include the one from [[Wang Bi]] and the [[Xiang'er]].<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|pp=74–77}}</ref>

===''Zhuangzi''===
{{Main|Zhuangzi (book)}}

The [[Zhuangzi (book)|''Zhuangzi'']] ({{zh|labels=no|t=莊子}}), named after its traditional author [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]], is a composite of writings from various sources, and is generally considered the most important of all Taoist writings.{{sfnp|Idema|Haft|1997|p=90}} The commentator [[Guo Xiang]] (c. CE 300) helped establish the text as an important source for Taoist thought. The traditional view is that Zhuangzi himself wrote the first seven chapters (the "inner chapters") and his students and related thinkers were responsible for the other parts (the "outer" and "miscellaneous" chapters). The work uses anecdotes, parables and dialogues to express one of its main themes, that is aligning oneself to the laws of the natural world and "the way" of the elements.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://taoism.about.com/od/chuangtz1/p/Zhuangzi.htm |title=Zhuangzi |publisher=About.com |accessdate=2013-05-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130502064843/http://taoism.about.com/od/chuangtz1/p/Zhuangzi.htm |archive-date=2 May 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/116716/Zhuangzi |title=Zhuangzi |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online |accessdate=2013-05-02 |date= |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130627083811/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/116716/Zhuangzi |archivedate=27 June 2013 |url-status=live }}</ref>

===''I Ching''===
{{Main|I Ching}}

[[File:Pakua.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|The eight trigrams of the ''I Ching'', known as [[bagua]]]]

The ''[[I Ching]],'' or ''Yijing,'' was originally a divination system that had its origins around 1150 BCE.<ref>Pittman, Allen. [https://books.google.com/books?id=HG-fUg2TqRQC&pg=PA21 ''Walking the I Ching''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151018093755/https://books.google.com/books?id=HG-fUg2TqRQC&pg=PA21 |date=18 October 2015 }}. Blue Snake Books, 2008. p. 21</ref> Although it predates the first mentions of Tao as an organised system of philosophy and religious practice, this text later became of philosophical importance to Taoism and Confucianism.

The ''I Ching'' itself, shorn of its commentaries, consists of 64 combinations of 8 trigrams (called "hexagrams"), traditionally chosen by throwing coins or yarrow sticks, to give the diviner some idea of the situation at hand and, through reading of the "changing lines", some idea of what is developing.<ref>Wing, R. L. [https://books.google.com/books?id=Mw-KtYRQHhoC&pg=PA15 ''The I Ching Workbook''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017045900/https://books.google.com/books?id=Mw-KtYRQHhoC&pg=PA15 |date=17 October 2015 }} Doubleday, 1979. pp. 15, 20.</ref>

The 64 original notations of the hexagrams in the ''I{{nbsp}}Ching'' can also be read as a meditation on how change occurs, so it assists Taoists with managing [[yin and yang]] cycles as Laozi advocated in the ''Tao Te Ching'' (the oldest known version of this text was dated to 400 BCE). More recently as recorded in the 18th century, the Taoist master [[Liu Yiming]] continued to advocate this usage.<ref name=ClearyTIC>e.g. Cleary, Thomas, tr. [https://books.google.com/books?id=w9NFEyUKfQkC&pg=PT17 ''The Taoist I Ching''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151101080655/https://books.google.com/books?id=w9NFEyUKfQkC&pg=PT17 |date=1 November 2015 }}. Shambhala, 1986. p. 6.</ref>

===''Taozang''===
{{Main|Taozang}}

The Taozang ({{lang|zh|道藏}}, ''Treasury of Tao'') is also referred to as the Taoist canon. It was originally compiled during the [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|Jin]], [[Tang dynasty|Tang]], and [[Song dynasty|Song]] dynasties. The version surviving today was published during the [[Ming Dynasty]].<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|pp= 1, 30}}</ref> The Ming ''Taozang'' includes almost 1500 [[sacred text|texts]].<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|p=36}}</ref> Following the example of the Buddhist [[Tripiṭaka]], it is divided into three ''dong'' ({{lang|zh|洞}}, "caves", "grottoes"). They are arranged from "highest" to "lowest":<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|p=15}}; {{harvp|Little|Eichman|2000|p=46}}</ref>

# The ''[[Reality|Zhen]]'' ("real" or "truth" {{lang|zh|眞}}) grotto. Includes the [[Shangqing School|Shangqing]] texts.
# The ''Xuan'' ("mystery" {{lang|zh|玄}}) grotto. Includes the [[Lingbao School|Lingbao]] scriptures.
# The ''[[Shen (Chinese religion)|Shen]]'' ("divine" {{lang|zh|神}}) grotto. Includes texts predating the Maoshan ({{lang|zh|茅山}}) revelations.

''Taoshi'' generally do not consult published versions of the Taozang, but individually choose, or inherit, texts included in the Taozang. These texts have been passed down for generations from teacher to student.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|p=44}}</ref>

The [[Shangqing School]] has a tradition of approaching Taoism through scriptural study. It is believed that by reciting certain texts often enough one will be rewarded with immortality.<ref>{{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=132}}</ref>

===Other texts===

While the Tao Te Ching is most famous, there are many other important texts in traditional Taoism. ''[[Treatise On the Response of the Tao|Taishang Ganying Pian]]'' ("Treatise of the Exalted One on Response and Retribution") discusses sin and [[ethic]]s, and has become a popular morality tract in the last few centuries.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanondaw-u.html |title=Jordan: The Taoist Canon |publisher=Weber.ucsd.edu |accessdate=2011-05-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070216160701/http://weber.ucsd.edu/~dkjordan/chin/hbcanondaw-u.html |archive-date=16 February 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> It asserts that those in harmony with Tao will live long and fruitful lives. The wicked, and their descendants, will suffer and have shortened lives.{{sfnp|Van Voorst |2005 |p=165}}

==Symbols and images==
[[File:Yin yang.svg|thumb|Basic depiction of the ''[[taijitu]]'' symbol without trigrams]]
[[File:文光塔-二层藻井.JPG|thumb|A [[caisson (Asian architecture)|''zaojing'']] depicting a ''[[taijitu]]'' surrounded by the ''[[bagua]]''.]]

The ''[[taijitu]]'' ({{zh|labels=no|t=太極圖 |s=太极图 |p=tàijítú}}; commonly known as the "yin and yang symbol" or simply the "yin yang") and the ''[[bagua]]'' {{lang|zh|八卦}} ("Eight Trigrams") have importance in Taoist symbolism.<ref>{{harvp|Little|Eichman|2000| p=131–139}}</ref> In this cosmology, the universe creates itself out of a primary chaos of material energy, organised into the cycles of Yin and Yang and formed into objects and lives. Yin is the receptive and Yang is the active principle, seen in all forms change and difference such as the annual season cycles, the landscape, sexual coupling, the formation of both men and women as characters, and sociopolitical history.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Feuchtwang|first1=Stephan|title=Religions in the Modern World|date=2016|publisher=Routhledge|location=New York|pages=150|edition=Third}}</ref> While almost all Taoist organisations make use of it, one could also regard it as Confucian, Neo-Confucian or pan-Chinese. One can see this symbol as a decorative element on Taoist organisation flags and logos, temple floors, or stitched into clerical robes. According to Song dynasty sources, it originated around the 10th century CE.<ref name="Little 2000, p. 131">{{harvp|Little|Eichman|2000| p=131}}</ref> Previously, a tiger and a dragon had symbolised yin and yang.<ref name="Little 2000, p. 131"/>

Taoist temples may fly square or triangular flags. They typically feature mystical writing or diagrams and are intended to fulfill various functions including providing guidance for the spirits of the dead, bringing good fortune, increasing life span, etc.<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2004|p=116}}</ref> Other flags and banners may be those of the gods or immortals themselves.<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2004|p=119}}</ref>

A zigzag with seven stars is sometimes displayed, representing the [[Big Dipper]] (or the Bushel, the Chinese equivalent). In the [[Shang Dynasty]] of the 2nd millennium BCE, Chinese thought regarded the Big Dipper as a deity, while during the [[Han Dynasty]], it was considered a ''qi'' path of the circumpolar god, ''Taiyi''.<ref>{{harvp|Little|Eichman|2000| p=128}}</ref>

Taoist temples in southern China and Taiwan may often be identified by their roofs, which feature [[Chinese dragon|dragons]] and [[fenghuang|phoenixes]] made from multi-colored ceramic tiles. They also stand for the harmony of yin and yang (with the phoenix representing yin). A related symbol is the flaming pearl, which may be seen on such roofs between two dragons, as well as on the hairpin of a [[List of Celestial Masters|Celestial Master]].<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|1993|p=21}}</ref> In general though, Chinese Taoist architecture lacks universal features that distinguish it from other structures.<ref>
{{harvp|Little|Eichman|2000| p=74}}
</ref>

==Practices==

===Rituals===

[[File:二王庙内殿.jpg|thumb|A hall of worship of the [[Erwang Temple]], a [[Taoist temple]] in [[Dujiangyan City|Dujiangyan]], [[Sichuan]]. There are elements of the ''[[jingxiang]]'' religious practice ([[incense]] and [[candle]] offerings).]]

In ancient times, before the Taoism religion was founded, food would sometimes be set out as a [[sacrifice]] to the spirits of the deceased or the gods. This could include slaughtered animals, such as pigs and ducks, or fruit. The Taoist [[List of Celestial Masters|Celestial Master]] [[Zhang Taoling]] rejected food and [[animal sacrifice]]s to the Gods. He tore apart temples which demanded animal sacrifice and drove away its priests. This rejection of sacrifices has continued into the modern day, as Taoism Temples are not allowed to use animal sacrifices.<ref>[[David "Race" Bannon]], “Chinese Medicine: From Temples to Taoism,” T’ai Chi, Vol. 20, No. 3 (1996): 28–33.</ref> Another form of sacrifice involves the burning of [[joss paper]], or [[hell money]], on the assumption that images thus consumed by the fire will reappear—not as a mere image, but as the actual item—in the spirit world, making them available for revered ancestors and departed loved ones. The joss paper is mostly used when memorising ancestors, such as time of [[Qingming Festival|Qingming]].

Also on particular holidays, street parades take place. These are lively affairs which invariably involve firecrackers and flower-covered floats broadcasting traditional music. They also variously include [[lion dance]]s and [[dragon dance]]s; human-occupied puppets (often of the "[[Seventh Lord]]" and "[[Eighth Lord]]"), [[Kungfu]]-practicing and [[palanquin]]s carrying god-images. The various participants are not considered performers, but rather possessed by the gods and spirits in question.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|1993|pp=28–29}}</ref>

[[Fortune-telling]]—including [[astrology]], [[I Ching]], and other forms of [[divination]]—has long been considered a traditional Taoist pursuit. [[Mediumship]] is also widely encountered in some sects. There is an academic and social distinction between martial forms of mediumship (such as ''tongji'') and the spirit-writing that is typically practised through [[fuji (planchette writing)|planchette writing]].<ref>{{harvp|Silvers|2005|pp=129–132}}</ref>

===Physical cultivation===
{{Main|Neidan}}
{{See also|Taoist alchemy|Taoist sexual practices|Neijia}}

[[File:Chinese woodcut; Alchemical refining furnace Wellcome L0038814.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Chinese woodblock illustration of a ''waidan'' alchemical refining furnace, 1856 ''Waike tushuo'' ({{lang|zh|外科圖説}}, Illustrated Manual of External Medicine)]]

A recurrent and important element of Taoism are rituals, exercises and substances aiming at aligning oneself spiritually with cosmic forces, at undertaking ecstatic spiritual journeys, or at improving physical health and thereby extending one's life, ideally to the point of immortality.<ref>{{harvp|Kohn|2000|p=672}}; {{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=228 & 103}}</ref> Enlightened and immortal beings are referred to as [[xian (Taoism)|xian]].

A characteristic method aiming for longevity is [[Taoist alchemy]]. Already in very early Taoist scriptures—like the ''[[Taiping Jing]]'' and the ''[[Baopuzi]]''—alchemical formulas for achieving immortality were outlined.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|Verellen|2004|pp=70–71}}; {{harvp|Robinet|1997|p=73}}</ref>

A number of martial arts traditions, particularly the ones falling under the category of [[Neijia]] (like [[T'ai chi ch'uan|T'ai Chi Ch'uan]], [[Bagua Zhang]] and [[Xingyiquan|Xing Yi Quan]]) embody Taoist principles to a significant extent, and some practitioners consider their art a means of practising Taoism.<ref>{{harvp|Silvers|2005|pp=135–137}}</ref>

==Society==

===Adherents===

[[File:WhiteCloudTemplepic9.jpg|thumb|The [[White Cloud Temple]] in Beijing]]

The number of Taoists is difficult to estimate, due to a variety of factors including defining Taoism. According to a survey of [[religion in China]] in the year 2010, the number of people practising some form of [[Chinese folk religion]] is near to 950 million (70% of the Chinese).<ref name="CSLS2010">2010 Chinese Spiritual Life Survey, Purdue University's Center on Religion and Chinese Society. Data reported in {{cite article|last1=Wenzel-Teuber|first1=Katharina|last2=Strait|first2=David|title=People's Republic of China: Religions and Churches Statistical Overview 2011|journal=Religions & Christianity in Today's China|volume=II|number=3|year=2012|pages=29–54|issn=2192-9289|url=http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rctc/2012-3/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170427151725/http://www.china-zentrum.de/fileadmin/downloads/rctc/2012-3/RCTC_2012-3.29-54_Wenzel-Teuber_Statistical_Overview_2011.pdf|archive-date=27 April 2017}}</ref> Among these, 173 million (13%) claim an affiliation with Taoist practices.<ref name="CSLS2010"/> Furthermore, 12 million people claim to be "Taoists", a term traditionally used exclusively for initiates, priests and experts of Taoist rituals and methods.<ref name="CSLS2010"/>

Most Chinese people and many others have been influenced in some way by Taoist traditions. Since the creation of the People's Republic of China, the government has encouraged a revival of Taoist traditions in codified settings. In 1956, the [[Chinese Taoist Association]] was formed to administer the activities of all registered Taoist orders, and received official approval in 1957. It was disbanded during the [[Cultural Revolution]] under [[Mao Zedong]], but was re-established in 1980. The headquarters of the association are at the ''Baiyunguan'', or [[White Cloud Temple]] of [[Beijing]], belonging to the [[Longmen Taoism|Longmen]] branch of Quanzhen Taoism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism/Historical-Development/Modern-Age.html|title=Patheos Library – Taoism: Modern Age|publisher=Patheos.com|accessdate=16 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111115093751/http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism/Historical-Development/Modern-Age.html|archive-date=15 November 2011|url-status=live}}</ref> Since 1980, many Taoist monasteries and temples have been reopened or rebuilt, both belonging to the Zhengyi or Quanzhen schools, and clergy [[ordination]] has been resumed.

Taoist literature and art has influenced the cultures of [[Taoism in Korea|Korea]], [[Taoism in Japan|Japan]], and [[Taoism in Vietnam|Vietnam]]. Organised Taoism seems not to have attracted a large non-Chinese following until modern times. In [[Taiwan]], 7.5 million people (33% of the population) identify themselves as Taoists.<ref name="moi">{{cite web|title=Taiwan Yearbook 2006|publisher=Taiwan Government Information Office, Department of Civil Affairs, Ministry of the Interior|year=2006|url=http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/22Religion.htm|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708213510/http://www.gio.gov.tw/taiwan-website/5-gp/yearbook/22Religion.htm|archivedate=8 July 2007}}</ref> Data collected in 2010 for religious demographics of [[Hong Kong]]<ref>{{cite web|title=2010 Yearbook – Religion|url=http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2010/en/pdf/E18.pdf|publisher=Hong Kong Government|access-date=20 October 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140630094849/http://www.yearbook.gov.hk/2010/en/pdf/E18.pdf|archive-date=30 June 2014|url-status=live}}</ref> and [[Singapore]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf|title=Census of population 2010: Statistical Release 1 on Demographic Characteristics, Education, Language and Religion|publisher=Singapore Department of Statistics|date=12 January 2011|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110303155259/http://www.singstat.gov.sg/pubn/popn/C2010sr1/cop2010sr1.pdf|archivedate=3 March 2011}}</ref> show that, respectively, 14% and 11% of the people of these cities identify as Taoists.

Followers of Taoism are also present in Chinese emigre communities outside Asia. In addition, it has attracted followers with no Chinese heritage. For example, in Brazil there are Taoist temples in São Paulo and Rio de Janeiro which are affiliated with the Taoist Society of China. Membership of these temples is entirely of non-Chinese ancestry.<ref>Murray, Daniel M. & Miller, James. "The Taoist Society of Brazil and the Globalization of Orthodox Unity Taoism." Journal of Taoist Studies, vol. 6, 2013, pp. 93-114. {{doi|10.1353/Tao.2013.0003}}; Murray, Daniel M., and James Miller. “TRADUÇAO: A Sociedade Taoísta do Brasil e a globalizaçao do Taoismo da Ortodoxia Unitária.” Religare: Revista Do Programa De Pós Graduaç Ao Em Ciências Das Religi Oes Da Ufpb 12 (2016): 315–43.</ref>

===Art and poetry===

[[File:六柿图.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|left|[[Six Persimmons]], a Taoist-influenced 13th-century Chinese painting by the monk, [[Mu Qi]].]]

Throughout Chinese history there have been many examples of art being influenced by Taoist thought. Notable painters influenced by Taoism include [[Wu Wei (painter)|Wu Wei]], [[Huang Gongwang]], [[Mi Fu]], [[Muqi Fachang]], [[Shitao]], [[Ni Zan]], T'ang Mi, and Wang Tseng-tsu.{{sfnp|Chang|1968}} Taoist arts represents the diverse regions, dialects, and time spans that are commonly associated with Taoism. Ancient Taoist art was commissioned by the aristocracy, however scholars masters and adepts also directly engaged in the art themselves.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Augustin|first1=Birgitta|title=Taoism and Taoist Art|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/Taoi/hd_Taoi.htm|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|access-date=16 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140711035431/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/Taoi/hd_Taoi.htm|archive-date=11 July 2014|url-status=live}}</ref>
{{Further|Taoist art}}

===Political aspects===
Taoism never had a unified political theory. While Huang-Lao's positions justified a strong emperor as the legitimate ruler,<ref>{{harvp|Hansen|2000|pages=224–226, 370–374}}</ref> the "primitivists" (like in the chapters 8-11 of the Zhuangzi) argued strongly for a radical anarchism. A more moderate position is presented in the Inner Chapters of the [[Zhuangzi (book)|Zhuangzi]] in which the political life is presented with disdain and some kind of pluralism or perspectivism is preferred.<ref>{{harvp|Graham|1989|pages=172, 306–311}}</ref> The syncretist position in texts like the Huainanzi and some Outer Chapters of the Zhuangzi blended some Taoist positions with Confucian ones.<ref>{{Citation|last=Roth|first=Harold D.|date=2014-09-27|pages=341–365|publisher=Springer Netherlands|language=en|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-2927-0_15|isbn=9789048129263|title=Tao Companion to Taoist Philosophy|chapter=Huainanzi: The Pinnacle of Classical Taoist Syncretism}}</ref>

===Relations with other religions and philosophies===
{{See also|Vinegar tasters}}

[[File:Huxisanxiaotu.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|''[[Confucianism]], Taoism, and [[Buddhism]] are one'', a painting in the ''litang style'' portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, [[Song dynasty]].]]

Many scholars believe Taoism arose as a countermovement to [[Confucianism]].<ref>{{harvp|Fisher|1997|p=167}}</ref> The philosophical terms ''Tao'' and ''De'' are indeed shared by both Taoism and Confucianism.<ref>{{harvp|Markham|Ruparell|2001|p=254}}</ref> [[Zhuang Zhou|Zhuangzi]] explicitly criticised Confucian and [[Mohist]] tenets in his work. In general, Taoism rejects the Confucian emphasis on [[li (Confucian)|rituals]], hierarchical social order, and conventional morality, and favours "naturalness", spontaneity, and individualism instead.<ref>{{harvp|Maspero|1981|p=39}}</ref>

The entry of [[Chinese Buddhism|Buddhism]] into China was marked by significant interaction and [[syncretism]] with Taoism.<ref>{{harvp|Maspero|1981|p=46}}</ref> Originally seen as a kind of "foreign Taoism", Buddhism's scriptures were translated into Chinese using the Taoist vocabulary.<ref>{{harvp|Prebish|1975|p=192}}</ref> Representatives of early Chinese Buddhism, like [[Sengzhao]] and [[Tao Sheng]], knew and were deeply influenced by the Taoist keystone texts.<ref>{{harvp|Dumoulin|Heisig|Knitter|2005|pp=70&74}}</ref>

Taoism especially shaped the development of [[Chinese Chan|Chan (Zen)]] Buddhism,<ref>{{harvp|Mollier|2008}}</ref> introducing elements like the concept of ''naturalness'', distrust of scripture and text, and emphasis on embracing "this life" and living in the "every-moment".<ref>{{harvp|Dumoulin|Heisig|Knitter|2005|pp=68, 70–73, 167–168}}</ref>

[[File:Hunyuan Xuankong Si 2013.08.30 09-02-11.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Hanging Temple|Hanging Monastery]], a [[monastery]] with the combination of three religions: Taoism, [[Buddhism]], and [[Confucianism]].]]

Taoism on the other hand also incorporated Buddhist elements during the [[Tang dynasty]], such as monasteries, vegetarianism, prohibition of alcohol, the doctrine of emptiness, and collecting scripture in tripartite organisation.

Ideological and political rivals for centuries, Taoism, Confucianism, and Buddhism deeply influenced one another.<ref>{{harvp|Markham|Ruparell|2001|pp=248–249}}</ref> For example, [[Wang Bi]], one of the most influential philosophical commentators on Laozi (and the ''[[Yijing]]''), was a Confucian.<ref>{{harvp|Schipper|1993|p=192}}</ref> The three rivals also share some similar values, with all three embracing a [[humanism|humanist]] philosophy emphasising moral behaviour and human perfection. In time, most Chinese people identified to some extent with all three traditions simultaneously.<ref name="window">[http://www.asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html Windows on Asia] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090220182953/http://www.asia.msu.edu/eastasia/China/religion.html |date=2009-02-20 }} Asian Studies Center, Michigan State University.</ref> This became institutionalised when aspects of the three schools were synthesised in the [[Neo-Confucianism|Neo-Confucian]] school.<ref>{{harvp|Moore|1967|pp=133, 147}}</ref>

Some authors have dealt with [[comparative religion|comparative studies]] between Taoism and [[Christianity]]. This has been of interest for students of [[history of religion]] such as [[Jan Jakob Maria de Groot|J.J.M. de Groot]],<ref>Raphael Jehudah Zwi Werblowsky (2002). ''The Beaten Track of Science: The Life and Work of J.J.M. de Groot''. Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, p. 25</ref> among others. The comparison of the teachings of Laozi and [[Jesus of Nazareth]] has been done by several authors such as Martin Aronson,<ref>Aronson, Martin (2002). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf1D3KH_5FUC&source=gbs_navlinks_s Jesus and Lao Tzu: The Parallel Sayings] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151124153501/https://books.google.com/books?id=Pf1D3KH_5FUC&source=gbs_navlinks_s |date=24 November 2015 }}''. Ulysses Press. {{ISBN|1569753199|978-1569753194}}</ref> and Toropov & Hansen (2002), who believe that they have parallels that should not be ignored.<ref>Toropov, Brandon; & Hansen, Chadwick (2002). ''The Complete Idiot's Guide to Taoism''. Chapter 15: ''The Tao and the Judeo-Christian Tradition.'' pp. 181-169. {{ISBN|9781440695735}}</ref> In the opinion of J. Isamu Yamamoto<ref>Yamamoto, J. Isamu (1998). ''Buddhism, Taoism, and Other Far Eastern Religions'', Zondervan. p. 69-70</ref> the main difference is that Christianity preaches a [[personal God]] while Taoism does not. Yet, a number of authors, including [[Lin Yutang]],<ref>Ruokanen, Miikka; Zhanzhu Huang, Paulos (2010). ''Christianity and Chinese Culture''. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. p. 137</ref> have argued that some moral and ethical tenets of these religions are similar.<ref>Zhiming, Yuan (2010). ''Lao Tzu and the Bible.'' AuthorHous. {{ISBN|9781449091101}}</ref><ref>Chung, David (2001). ''Syncretism: The Religious Context of Christian Beginnings in Korea''. SUNY Press, pp. 141–145</ref> In neighbouring Vietnam, Taoist values have been shown to adapt to social norms and formed emerging socio-cultural beliefs together with Confucianism.<ref name=Vuongetal2018b>{{cite journal|title='Cultural additivity' and how the values and norms of Confucianism, Buddhism, and Taoism co-exist, interact, and influence Vietnamese society: A Bayesian analysis of long-standing folktales, using R and Stan|date=4 March 2018|publisher=CEB WP No.18/015 (Centre Emile Bernheim, Université Libre de Bruxelles)|url=http://ssrn.com/abstract=3134541|accessdate=13 March 2018|last1=Napier|first1=Nancy K.|last2=Pham|first2=Hiep-Hung|last3=Nguyen|first3=Ha|last4=Nguyen|first4=Hong Kong|last5=Ho|first5=Manh-Toan|last6=Vuong|first6=Thu-Trang|last7=Cuong|first7=Nghiem Phu Kien|last8=Bui|first8=Quang-Khiem|last9=Nhue|first9=Dam|last10=La|first10=Viet-Phuong|last11=Ho|first11=Tung|last12=Vuong|first12=Quan Hoang|bibcode=2018arXiv180306304V|arxiv=1803.06304}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[Baopuzi]]
* [[Chinese ritual mastery traditions]]
* [[Chinese shamanism]]
* [[Eastern philosophy]]
* [[Lie Yukou]]
* [[Nuo folk religion]]
* [[Research Association of Laozi Taoist Culture]]
* [[Taoist diet]]
* [[Tao yin]]

== References ==

=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite book |translator-last=Balfour |translator-first=Frederic Henry |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zhkNAAAAYAAJ |title=The Divine Classic of Nan-Hua; Being the Works of Chuang Tsze, Taoist Philosopher |publisher=Kelly & Walsh |year=1881 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Barrett |first=Rick |title=Taijiquan: Through the Western Gate |publisher=Blue Snake Books |year=2006 |isbn=1-58394-139-8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Cane |first=Eulalio Paul |title=Harmony: Radical Taoism Gently Applied |publisher=Trafford Publishing |year=2002 |isbn=1-4122-4778-0 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite journal |last1=Carr |first1=Michael |date=1990 |title=Whence the Pronunciation of ''Taoism''? |journal=Dictionaries |volume=12 |pages=55–74 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Carr |first=David T. |last2=Zhang |first2=Canhui |title=Space, Time, and Culture |publisher=Springer |year=2004 |isbn=1-4020-2823-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Chan |first=Wing-tsit |title=A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/sourcebookinchin00chan |url-access=registration |publisher=Princeton |year=1963 |isbn=0-691-01964-9 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite journal | last = Chan | first = Kim-Kwong | title = Religion in China in the Twenty-first Century: Some Scenarios | journal = Religion, State & Society | volume = 33 | pages = 87–119 | number = 2 | date = 2005 | doi = 10.1080/09637490500118570 | ref = harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Chang |first=Stephen T. |title=The Great Tao |publisher=Tao Longevity LLC |year=1985 |isbn=0-942196-01-5 |ref=harv}}
*{{cite book |last=Creel |first=Herrlee Glessner |orig-year=1970 |year=1982 |title=What Is Taoism?: And Other Studies in Chinese Cultural History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5p6EBnx4_W0C&pg=PA48 |ref=harv |isbn=9780226120478 |publisher=University of Chicago Press}}
* {{cite book |last=Demerath |first=Nicholas J. |title=Crossing the Gods: World Religions and Worldly Politics |publisher=Rutgers University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-8135-3207-8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Dumoulin |first=Heinrich |last2=Heisig |first2=James W. |last3=Knitter |first3=Paul |title=Zen Buddhism: A History (India and China) |publisher=World Wisdom, Inc. |year=2005 |isbn=0-941532-89-5 |ref=harv}}
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* {{cite book |last=Fasching |first=Darrell J. |last2=deChant |first2=Dell |title=Comparative Religious Ethics: a narrative approach |url=https://archive.org/details/comparativerelig0000fasc |url-access=registration |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=0-631-20125-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Fisher |first=Mary Pat |title=Living Religions: An Encyclopaedia of the World's Faiths |publisher=I.B. Tauris |year=1997 |isbn=1-86064-148-2 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last=Fowler |first=Jeaneane |url=https://books.google.com/?id=9wi-ZDdmaqEC&pg=PA122 |title=An Introduction To The Philosophy And Religion Of Taoism |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |year=2005 |ref=harv |isbn=9781845190866}}
* {{cite book |last=Girardot |first=Norman J.|url=https://books.google.com/?id=UhmCyjTKmaMC&pg=PA56 |title=Myth and Meaning in Early Taoism: The Themes of Chaos (Hun-Tun) |publisher=University of California Press |year=1988|ref=harv |isbn=9780520064607}}
* {{cite book |last=Goodspeed |first=Bennett W. |title=The Tao Jones Averages: A Guide to Whole-Brained Investing |url=https://archive.org/details/taojonesaverages00goodrich |url-access=registration |publisher=E.P. Dutton |year=1983 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Graham |first=Angus |title=Disputers of the Tao |url=https://archive.org/details/disputersoftaoph0000grah |url-access=registration |publisher=Open Court |year=1989 |isbn=0-8126-9087-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Hansen |first=Chad D. |title=A Taoist Theory of Chinese Thought: A Philosophical Interpretation |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2000 |isbn=0-19-513419-2 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Hucker |first=Charles O. |title=China's Imperial Past: An Introduction to Chinese History and Culture |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=0-8047-2353-2 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | first1=Wilt | last1=Idema | authorlink=Wilt Idema | first2=Lloyd | last2=Haft | title=A Guide to Chinese Literature | year=1997 |location=Ann Arbor | publisher=Center for Chinese Studies, University of Michigan | isbn=978-0-89264-123-9 | ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Jones |first=Richard H. |title=Mysticism and Morality: a new look at old questions |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2004 |isbn=0-7391-0784-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Keller |first=Catherine |title=The Face of the Deep: A Theology of Becoming |publisher=Routledge |year=2003 |isbn=0-415-25648-8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kim |first=Ha Poong |title=Reading Lao Tzu: A Companion to the Tao Te Ching With a New Translation |publisher=Xlibris Corporation |year=2003 |isbn=1-4010-8316-1 |ref=harv}}{{Self-published inline|certain=yes|date=December 2017}}
* {{cite book |last=Kirkland |first=Russel |title=Taoism: The Enduring Tradition |publisher=Routledge |year=2004 |isbn=0-415-26322-0 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Kohn |editor-first=Livia |title=Taoism Handbook |location=Leiden |publisher=Brill |year=2000 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kohn |first=Livia |title=The Taoist Monastic Manual: A Translation of the FengTao Kejie |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2004 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |editor-last1=Kohn |editor-first1=Livia |editor-last2=LaFargue |editor-first2=Michael |title=Lao-Tzu and the Tao-Te-Ching |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-7914-3599-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kraemer |first=Kenneth |title=World Scriptures: An Introduction to Comparative Religions|publisher=Paulist Press |year=1986 |isbn=978-0-8091-2781-8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=LaFargue |first=Michael |title=Tao and Method: A Reasoned Approach to the Tao Te Ching |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1994 |isbn=0-7914-1601-1 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |author-link1=Stephen Little |last1=Little |first1=Stephen |first2=Shawn |last2=Eichman |title=Taoism and the Arts of China |location=Chicago |publisher=[[Art Institute of Chicago]] |year=2000 |isbn=0-520-22784-0 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Victor H. Mair |last=Mair |first=Victor H. |title=The Columbia History of Chinese Literature |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |year=2001 |isbn=0-231-10984-9 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Mair |first=Victor H |title=Experimental Essays on Chuang-tzu |location=Hawaii |year=1983 |isbn=0-88706-967-3 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Markham |first=Ian S. |last2=Ruparell |first2=Tinu |title=Encountering Religion: an introduction to the religions of the world |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2001 |isbn=0-631-20674-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=William |title=A Path And A Practice: Using Lao Tzu's Tao Te Ching as a Guide to an Awakened Spiritual Life |publisher=Marlowe & Company |year=2005 |isbn=1-56924-390-5 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Martinson |first=Paul Varo |title=A theology of world religions: Interpreting God, self, and world in Semitic, Indian, and Chinese thought |url=https://archive.org/details/theologyofworldr0000mart |url-access=registration |publisher=Augsburg Publishing House |year=1987 |isbn=0-8066-2253-9 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Maspero |first=Henri |translator-first=Frank A. |translator-last=Kierman, Jr. |title=Taoism and Chinese Religion |publisher=University of Massachusetts Press |year=1981 |isbn=0-87023-308-4 |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/taoismchineserel00henr }}
* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=James |title=Taoism: A Short Introduction |location=Oxford |publisher=Oneworld Publications |year=2003 |isbn=1-85168-315-1 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Mollier |first=Christine |title=Buddhism and Taoism Face to Face: Scripture, Ritual, and Iconographic Exchange in Medieval China |publisher=University of Hawai'i Press |year=2008 |isbn=0-8248-3169-1 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Moore |first=Charles Alexander |title=The Chinese Mind: Essentials of Chinese Philosophy and Culture |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |year=1967 |isbn=0-8248-0075-3 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book | first = Randal L. | last = Nadeau | title = The Wiley-Blackwell Companion to Chinese Religions | publisher = Blackwell | location = Malden, MA | date = 2012 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=yQnFKpTepo8C | ref = harv| isbn = 9781444361438 }}
* {{cite book |last=Occhiogrosso |first=Peter |title=The Joy of Sects |publisher=Doubleday |year=1994 |isbn=0-385-42564-3 |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/joyofsects00pete }}
* {{cite book |last=Pas |first=Julian F. |last2=Leung |first2=Man Kam |title=Historical Dictionary of Taoism |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=1998 |isbn=0-8108-3369-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Prebish |first=Charles |title=Buddhism: A Modern Perspective |publisher=Penn State Press |year=1975 |isbn=0-271-01195-5 |ref=harv |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/buddhismamodernp0000preb }}
* {{cite book |last=Robinet |first=Isabelle |title=Taoist Meditation: The Mao-shan Tradition of Great Purity |location=Albany |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1993 |orig-year=1989 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Robinet |first=Isabelle |title=Taoism: Growth of a Religion |location=Stanford |publisher=Stanford University Press |year=1997 |orig-year=1992 |isbn=0-8047-2839-9 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Segal |first=Robert Alan |title=The Blackwell Companion to the Study of Religion' |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2006 |isbn=0-631-23216-8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Schipper |first=Kristopher |title=The Taoist Body |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |year=1993 |orig-year=1982 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Schipper |first=Kristopher |first2=Franciscus |last2=Verellen |title=The Taoist Canon: A Historical Companion to the Taozang |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago |year=2004 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Sharot |first=Stephen |title=A Comparative Sociology of World Religions: virtuosos, priests, and popular religion |location=New York |publisher=NYU Press |year=2001 |isbn=0-8147-9805-5 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Silvers |first=Brock |title=The Taoist Manual |location=Honolulu |publisher=Sacred Mountain Press |year=2005 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Slingerland |first=Edward Gilman |url=https://books.google.com/?id=gSReaja3V3IC&pg=PR4 |title=Effortless Action: Wu-Wei as Conceptual Metaphor and Spiritual Ideal in Early China |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-513899-3 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Van Voorst |first=Robert E. |author-link=Robert E. Van Voorst |title=Anthology of World Scriptures |publisher=Thomson Wadsworth |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-534-52099-1 |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/anthologyofworld00vanv }}
* {{cite book |last=Waley |first=Arthur |title=The Way and Its Power: A Study of the Tao Te Ching and Its Place in Chinese Thought |url=https://archive.org/details/wayitspowerstudy00laoz |url-access=registration |publisher=Grove Press |year=1958 |isbn=0-8021-5085-3 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Watts |first=Alan Wilson |title=Tao: The Watercourse Way'' with Al Chung-liang Huang |publisher=Pantheon |year=1977 |isbn=0-394-73311-8 |ref=harv |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/taowatercoursewa00watt_0 }}
{{refend}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|colwidth=40em}}
* {{cite book |last=Bertschinger |first=Richard |title=The Secret of Everlasting Life: The first translation of the ancient Chinese text on immortality |publisher=Singing Dragon |year=2011 |isbn=978-1-84819-048-1 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book |title=Creativity and Taoism, A Study of Chinese Philosophy, Art, and Poetry |first=Chung-yuan |last=Chang |date=1968 |publisher=Harper Torchbooks |location=New York |isbn=978-0-06-131968-6 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kirkland |first=Russell |title=Taoism: The Enduring Tradition |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledg |date=2004 |isbn=978-0-415-26321-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Zhuangzi |title=Gesamttext und Materialien |editor-link=Viktor Kalinke |editor-last=Kalinke |editor-first=Viktor |language=Chinese, German |location=Leipzig |publisher=Leipziger Literaturverlag |year=2018 |isbn=978-3-86660-222-9 |ref=harv}}—with Pinyin transcription, interlinear and literary translation, contains a complete dictionary of the book Zhuangzi and a concordance to Laozi.
* {{cite book |last=Klaus |first=Hilmar |title=The Tao of Wisdom. Laozi – Taodejing |language=Chinese, English, German |location=Aachen |publisher=Hochschulverlag |year=2009 |isbn=978-3-8107-0055-1 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kohn |first=Livia |title=The Taoist Experience: An Anthology |location=Albany |publisher=SUNY Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-7914-1579-5 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Komjathy |first=Louis |title=The Taoist Tradition: An Introduction |location=London and New York |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2013 |isbn=978-1441168733 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Komjathy |first=Louis |title=Taoism: A Guide for the Perplexed |location=London and New York |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2014 |isbn=978-1441148155 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Miller |first=James |title=Taoism: A Short Introduction |location=Oxford |publisher=Oneworld Publications |year=2003 |isbn=1-85168-315-1 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Pregadio |editor-first=Fabrizio |title=The Encyclopedia of Taoism |volume=2 volumes |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7007-1200-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Saso |first=Michael R. |title=Taoism and the Rite of Cosmic Renewal |edition=2nd |location=Pullman |publisher=Washington State University Press |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-87422-054-4 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Sivin |first=Nathan |title=Chinese Alchemy: Preliminary Studies |location=Cambridge |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1968 |isbn=978-0-674-12150-8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Sommer |first=Deborah |title=Chinese Religion: An Anthology of Sources |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-19-508895-3 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Tian |first=Chenshan |title=Chinese Dialectics: From Yijing To Marxism |location=Lanham |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2005 |isbn=0-7391-0922-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Watts |first=Alan |title=Tao: The Watercourse Way |location=New York |publisher=Pantheon |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-394-73311-1 |ref=harv |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/taowatercoursewa00watt_0 }}
* {{cite book |last=Welch |first=H. |last2=Seidel |first2=A. |title=Facets of Taoism |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1979 |isbn=0-300-01695-6 |ref=harv}}

;Popular (non-academic) interpretations of Taoism
* {{cite book |author-link=Wayne Dyer |last=Dyer |first=Wayne |title=Change Your Thoughts, Change Your Life: Living the Wisdom of the Tao |publisher=[[Hay House]] |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4019-1750-0 |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/changeyourthough00dyer_0 }}
* {{cite book |author-link=Benjamin Hoff |last=Hoff |first=Benjamin |title=[[The Tao of Pooh]] |publisher=Penguin |year=1983 |isbn=978-0-14-006747-7 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |author-link=Stuart Wilde |last=Wilde |first=Stuart |title=Infinite Self: 33 Steps to Reclaiming Your Inner Power |publisher=Hay House |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-56170-349-4 |ref=harv |url=https://archive.org/details/infiniteself33st00wild }}
* {{cite book |author-link=Ansgar Gerstner |last=Gerstner |first=Ansgar |title=The Tao of Business |publisher=Earnshaw Books |year=2009 |isbn=978-988-18-1547-7 |ref=harv}}
* The Tao of Steve, a 2000 film directed by Jenniphr Goodman and starring Donal Logue.
{{refend}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links}}
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/taoism BBC religions – Taoism]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20100412142816/http://www.Taoistcenter.org/ Center for Taoist Studies]
* {{In Our Time|Taoism|b00wlgbg|Taoism}}
* {{cite IEP |url-id=Taoism |title=Taoist philosophy}}
* [http://ctext.org/Taoism Early Taoist texts] – [[Chinese Text Project]]
* [http://en.Taoinfo.org FYSK Taoist Culture Centre Database]
* [http://www.patheos.com/Library/Taoism.html Patheos Library – Taoism]
* [http://www.taodirectory.co.uk Tao Directory]
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/tao/index.htm Taoist Texts] at the [[Internet Sacred Text Archive]]
* [http://en.Taoinfo.org/wiki/ Wikipedia of Taoism]

{{Religion in China}}
{{Religion topics}}
{{Good article}}
{{Philosophy topics}}
{{Chinese philosophy}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Taoism| ]]
[[Category:Chinese astrology]]
[[Category:Chinese folk religion]]
[[Category:Classical Chinese philosophy]]
[[Category:East Asian philosophy]]
[[Category:East Asian religions]]
[[Category:Laozi]]
[[Category:Philosophical traditions]]
[[Category:Dualism]]

Delphic maxims

2019-12-25T13:05:57Z

Cyon:

Delphic maxims

2019-12-25T13:04:58Z

Cyon: Undid revision 928259708 by 2600:1700:16A0:9750:F5F6:3C6D:6694:825F (talk) No need to have the modern Greek version here

Delphic maxims

2019-12-25T13:04:03Z

Cyon: Undid revision 928259796 by 2600:1700:16A0:9750:F5F6:3C6D:6694:825F (talk)

[[File:KineasInscriptionSharp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Stone block with a portion of the Delphic Maxims. [[Ai-Khanoum]], [[Afghanistan]], 2nd century BCE]]
{{Ancient Greek religion}}
The '''Delphic maxims''' are a set of 147 [[aphorisms]] inscribed at [[Delphi]]. Originally, they were said to have been given by the [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]] [[Apollo]]'s [[Pythia|Oracle at Delphi, Pythia]], and therefore were attributed to Apollo.<ref>[http://www.temenostheon.com/delphic-maxims/ Temenos Theon – The Delphic Maxims]</ref> The [[5th century]] scholar [[Stobaeus]] later attributed them to the [[Seven Sages of Greece]].<ref>Leslie Kurke, ''Aesopic Conversations: Popular Tradition, Cultural Dialogue, and the Invention of Greek Prose'', Princeton University Press, 2010, p. 109.</ref> Contemporary scholars, however, hold that their original authorship is uncertain and that 'most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages.'<ref>H. Parke and D. Wormell, ''The Delphic Oracle'', (Basil Blackwell, 1956), vol. 1, p. 389.</ref> Roman educator [[Quintilian]] argued that students should copy those aphorisms often to improve their moral core.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=MkpADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|date=20 ''Teacher of the Nations: Ancient Educational Traditions and Paul’s Argument in 1 Corinthians 1-4''], Devin L. White, (Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG), {{ISBN|978-3-11-053955-4}}, page 83</ref> Perhaps the most famous of these maxims is '[[know thyself]],' which was carved into the [[Delphi#Temple of Apollo|Temple of Apollo at Delphi]]. The specific order and wording of each maxim varies among different versions (and translations) of the text.

==Ai-Khanoum inscription==
In the ruins of the Hellenistic city of [[Ai-Khanoum]] (former [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]], and modern [[Afghanistan]]), on a [[Herõon]] (funerary monument) identified in Greek as the tomb of Kineas (also described as the ''[[oikistes]]'' (founder) of the Greek settlement) and dated to 300-250 BCE, an inscription has been found describing part of the Delphic maxims (maxims 143 to 147):

:παῖς ὢν κόσμιος γίνου,
:ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής,
:μέσος δίκαιος,
:πρεσβύτης εὔβουλος,
:τελευτῶν ἄλυπος.<ref name="academia.edu">[https://www.academia.edu/25638818 Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries], Shane Wallace, 2016, p.215</ref>

:''"Païs ôn kosmios ginou (As children, learn good manners)
:''hèbôn enkratès, (as young men, learn to control the passions)
:''mesos dikaios (in middle age, be just)
:''presbutès euboulos (in old age, give good advice)
:''teleutôn alupos. (then die, without regret.)"''

The precepts were placed by a Greek named Clearchos, who may or may not have been [[Clearchus of Soli]] the disciple of [[Aristotle]],<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/25638818 Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries], Shane Wallace, 2016, p.217</ref> who, according to the same inscription, had copied them from [[Delphi]]:

:ἀνδρῶν τοι σοφὰ ταῦτα παλαιοτέρων ἀνάκει[τα]ι
:ῥήματα ἀριγνώτων Πυθοὶ ἐν ἠγαθέαι·
:ἔνθεν ταῦτ[α] Κλέαρχος ἐπιφραδέως ἀναγράψας
:εἵσατο τηλαυγῆ Κινέου ἐν τεμένει.<ref name="academia.edu"/>

:''"These wise commandments of men of old
:''- Words of well-known thinkers - stand dedicated
:''In the most holy Pythian shrine
:''From there Klearchos, having copied them carefully, set them up, shining from afar, in the sanctuary of Kineas"''

== 147 Delphic maxims as cited by Stobaeus ==
[[File:Temple of Apollo in Delphi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Temple of Apollo at Delphi]], by Albert Tournaire]]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="4"|147 Delphic maxims<ref>https://archive.org/details/joannisstobaeian03stovuoft/page/125</ref>
|-
!No.||Ancient Greek||Greek||English
|-
No.||Ancient Greek||Greek||English
|-
|001.||Ἕπου θεῷ||Ακολούθα τον θεό||Follow God
|-
|002.||Νόμῳ πείθου||Να πειθαρχείς στο Νόμο||Obey the law
|-
|003.||Θεοὺς σέβου||Να σέβεσαι τους θεούς||Respect the Gods
|-
|004.||Γονεῖς αἰδοῦ||Να σέβεσαι τους γονείς σου||Respect your parents
|-
|005.||Ἡττῶ ὑπὸ δικαίου||Να καταβάλεσαι για το δίκαιο||Be overcome by justice
|-
|006.||Γνῶθι μαθών||Γνώρισε αφού μάθεις||Know what you have learned
|-
|007.||Ἀκούσας νόει||Κατανόησε αφού ακούσεις||Perceive what you have heard
|-
|008.||Σαυτὸν ἴσθι||Γνώρισε τον εαυτό σου||Be/Know yourself
|-
|009.||Γαμεῖν μέλλε||Να στοχεύεις να παντρευτείς||Intend to get married
|-
|010.||Καιρὸν γνῶθι||Να αναγνωρίζεις τις ευκαιρείες σου||Know your opportunity
|-
|011.||Φρόνει θνητά||Να σκέφτεσε ως θνητός||Think as a mortal
|-
|012.||Ξένος ὢν ἴσθι||Εάν είσαι ξένος να ενεργείς σαν ξένος||If you are a stranger act like one
|-
|013.||Ἑστίαν τίμα||Να ασχοληθείτε με σύνεση||Honor the house
|-
|014.||Ἄρχε σεαυτοῦ||Τιμητική πρόνοια||Control yourself
|-
|015.||Φίλοις βοήθει||Συνεχίστε την τιμή||Help your friends
|-
|016.||Θυμοῦ κράτει||Δοξάστε το καλό||Control anger
|-
|017.||Φρόνησιν ἄσκει||Να δείχνεις σύνεση||Exercise prudence
|-
|018.||Πρόνοιαν τίμα||Τίμα την πρόνοια||Honor providence
|-
|019.||Ὅρκῳ μὴ χρῶ||Αποφύγετε ό, τι ανήκει σε άλλους||Do not use an oath
|-
|020.||Φιλίαν ἀγάπα||Κάνετε μια χάρη για έναν φίλο||Love friendship
|-
|021.||Παιδείας ἀντέχου||Προβλέψτε το μέλλον||Cling to discipline
|-
|022.||Δόξαν δίωκε||Να επιδιώκεις την τιμή||Pursue honor
|-
|023.||Σοφίαν ζήλου||Επιθυμία για τα πράγματα είναι δυνατόν||Long for wisdom
|-
|024.||Καλὸν εὖ λέγε||Να ευλογείς το καλό||Praise the good
|-
|025.||Ψέγε μηδένα||Βρείτε σφάλμα με κανέναν||Find fault with no one
|-
|026.||Ἐπαίνει ἀρετήν||Να είστε στη φρουρά σας||Praise virtue
|-
|027.||Πρᾶττε δίκαια||Γνωρίστε τον δικαστή||Practice what is just
|-
|028.||Φίλοις εὐνόει||Κύριοι γαμήλιες γιορτές||Favor friends
|-
|029.||Ἐχθροὺς ἀμύνου||Αναγνωρίστε την τύχη||Defend against enemies
|-
|030.||Εὐγένειαν ἄσκει||Πετάξτε μια υπόσχεση||Exercise nobility of character
|-
|031.||Κακίας ἀπέχου||Μιλήστε απλά||Shun evil
|-
|032.||Κοινὸς γίνου||Να είσαι αμερόληπτος||Be impartial
|-
|033.||Ἴδια φύλαττε||Φρόντιζε / Φύλαγε ότι είναι δικό σου||Guard what is yours
|-
|034.||Ἀλλοτρίων ἀπέχου||Απόφυγε ό,τι ανήκει σε άλλους||Shun what belongs to others
|-
|035.||Ἄκουε πάντα||Περάστε μια χάρη||Listen to everyone
|-
|036.||Εὔφημος ἴσθι||Να αρέσει η τύχη||Have good reputation
|-
|037.||Φίλῳ χαρίζου||Να κάνεις χάρη για έναν φίλο||Do a favor for a friend
|-
|038.||Μηδὲν ἄγαν||Χρησιμοποιήστε αυτό που έχετε||Nothing to excess
|-
|039.||Χρόνου φείδου||Δικαστής άθλια||Use time sparingly
|-
|040.||Ὅρα τὸ μέλλον||Πρόβλεψε το μέλλον||Foresee the future
|-
|041.||Ὕβριν μίσει||Ζήστε χωρίς θλίψη||Despise insolence
|-
|042.||Ἱκέτας αἰδοῦ||Τελειώστε τον αγώνα χωρίς συρρίκνωση||Have respect for suppliants
|-
|043.||Πᾶσιν ἁρμόζου||Να φροντίζεις για όλα||Be accommodating in everything
|-
|044.||Υἱοὺς παίδευε||Καθοδήγησε τα παιδιά σου||Educate your sons
|-
|045.||Ἔχων χαρίζου||ενέργησε γρήγορα||Give what you have
|-
|046.||Δόλον φοβοῦ||Να φοβασαι την απάτη||Fear deceit
|-
|047.||Εὐλόγει πάντας||Παρακολουθήστε αυτό που είναι κερδοφόρο||Speak well of everyone
|-
|048.||Φιλόσοφος γίνου||Αποδεχτείτε το κατάλληλο μέτρο||Be a seeker of wisdom
|-
|049.||Ὅσια κρῖνε||Μην εγκαταλείπετε την τιμή||Choose what is divine
|-
|050.||Γνοὺς πρᾶττε||Επιχειρήστε σε κίνδυνο με σύνεση||Act when you know
|-
|051.||Φόνου ἀπέχου||Μην σταματήσετε να είστε φειδωλοί||Shun murder
|-
|052.||Εὔχου δυνατά||Να επιθυμείς πράγματα που είναι δυνατά||Wish for things possible
|-
|053.||Σοφοῖς χρῶ||Μην απογοητεύεστε από τη ζωή||Consult the wise
|-
|054.||Ἦθος δοκίμαζε||Ευχαριστήστε||Test the character
|-
|055.||Λαβὼν ἀπόδος||Δώσε πίσω αυτά που έχεις λάβει||Give back what you have received
|-
|056.||Ὑφορῶ μηδένα||Beget από ευγενείς διαδρομές||Down-look no one
|-
|057.||Τέχνῃ χρῶ||Κάνε υποσχέσεις σε κανέναν||Use your skill
|-
|058.||Ὃ μέλλεις, δός||Κάνε ό, τι εννοείς να κάνεις||Do what you mean to do
|-
|059.||Εὐεργεσίας τίμα||Να είστε καλά ως θνητός||Honor a benefaction
|-
|060.||Φθόνει μηδενί||Ως παιδί να συμπεριφέρεται καλά||Be jealous of no one
|-
|061.||Φυλακῇ πρόσεχε||Να είσαι σε επαγρύπνηση||Be on your guard
|-
|062.||Ἐλπίδα αἴνει||Από την μεσαία ηλικία να είναι απλά||Praise hope
|-
|063.||Διαβολὴν μίσει||Ως γέρος είναι λογικός||Despise a slanderer
|-
|064.||Δικαίως κτῶ||Να αποκτάς δίκαια||Gain possessions justly
|-
|065.||Ἀγαθοὺς τίμα||Να τιμάς τους αγαθούς||Honor good men
|-
|066.||Κριτὴν γνῶθι||Γνριζε ποιος είναι ο δικαστής||Know the judge
|-
|067.||Γάμους κράτει||Να κυριαρχείς στις γαμήλιες τελετές ||Master wedding-feasts
|-
|068.||Τύχην νόμιζε||Αναγνώριζε την τύχη σου||Recognize fortune
|-
|069.||Ἐγγύην φεῦγε||Απόφυγε υπόσχεση||Flee a pledge
|-
|070.||Ἁπλῶς διαλέγου||Να μιλάς απλά||Speak plainly
|-
|071.||Ὁμοίοις χρῶ||Να συνεργάζεσαι με τους συνομηλίκους σου||Associate with your peers
|-
|072.||Δαπανῶν ἄρχου||Διαχειρίσου τα έξοδά σου||Govern your expenses
|-
|073.||Κτώμενος ἥδου||Να είσαι ευχαριστημένος με αυτό που έχεις||Be happy with what you have
|-
|074.||Αἰσχύνην σέβου||Να σέβεσαι την εντροπή||Revere a sense of shame
|-
|075.||Χάριν ἐκτέλει||Ολοκλήρωσε μια χάρη||Fulfill a favor
|-
|076.||Εὐτυχίαν εὔχου||Να εύχεσαι ευτυχία||Pray for happiness
|-
|077.||Τύχην στέργε||Να αρέσει η τύχη||Be fond of fortune
|-
|078.||Ἀκούων ὅρα||Παρατήρησε ότι ακούς||Observe what you have heard
|-
|079.||Ἐργάζου κτητά||Να κοπιάζεις για πράγματα άξια κτήσης||Work for what you can own
|-
|080.||Ἔριν μίσει||Να μισείς την έριδα||Despise strife
|-
|081.||Ὄνειδος ἔχθαιρε||Να εχθρεύεσαι τον χλευασμό||Detest disgrace
|-
|082.||Γλῶτταν ἴσχε||Να συγκρατείς τη γλώσσα σου||Restrain the tongue
|-
|083.||Ὕβριν ἀμύνου||Να προφυλάσσεσαι από την ύβρη||Keep yourself from insolence
|-
|084.||Κρῖνε δίκαια||Να κρίνεις δίκαια||Make just judgements
|-
|085.||Χρῶ χρήμασιν||Χρησιμοποίησε αυτό που έχεις||Use what you have
|-
|086.||Ἀδωροδόκητος δίκαζε||Να δικάζεις χωρίς να δεχτείς δωροδωκία||Judge incorruptibly
|-
|087.||Αἰτιῶ παρόντα||Να κατηγορήσεις αυτόν που είναι παρών||Accuse one who is present
|-
|088.||Λέγε εἰδώς||Να λες γνωρίζοντας||Tell when you know
|-
|089.||Βίας μὴ ἔχου||Να μην έχεις βία||Have no violence
|-
|090.||Ἀλύπως βίου||Ζήσε χωρίς θλίψη||Live without sorrow
|-
|091.||Ὁμίλει πρᾴως||Να ομιλείς με πραότητα||Live together meekly
|-
|092.||Πέρας ἐπιτέλει μὴ ἀποδειλιῶν||Τελείωσε τον αγώνα χωρίς να συρρικνωθείς||Finish the race without shrinking back
|-
|093.||Φιλοφρόνει πᾶσιν||Να είσαι φιλικός με όλους||Deal kindly with everyone
|-
|094.||Υἱοῖς μὴ καταρῶ||Μην καταρασθείς τα παιδιά σου||Do not curse your sons
|-
|095.||Γυναικὸς ἄρχε||Καθοδήγησε τη σύζυγό σου||Initiate / lead / guide your wife
|-
|096.||Σεαυτὸν εὖ ποίει||Να ευεργετείς τον εαυτό σου||Benefit yourself
|-
|097.||Εὐπροσήγορος γίνου||Να είσαι ευπροσήγορος||Be courteous
|-
|098.||Ἀποκρίνου ἐν καιρῷ||Να αποκρίνεσαι στον κατάλληλο καιρό||Give a timely response
|-
|099.||Πόνει μετ’ εὐκλείας||Να κοπιάζεις δίκαια||Struggle with glory
|-
|100.||Πρᾶττε ἀμετανοήτως||Να πράττεις με σιγουριά||Act without repenting
|-
|101.||Ἁμαρτάνων μετανόει||Όταν σφάλλεις, να μετανοείς||Repent of sins
|-
|102.||Ὀφθαλμοῦ κράτει||Να κυριαρχείς των οφθαλμών σου||Control the eye
|-
|103.||Βουλεύου χρόνῳ||Να σκέπτεσαι τα χρήσιμα||Give a timely counsel
|-
|104.||Πρᾶττε συντόμως||ενέργησε γρήγορα||Act quickly
|-
|105.||Φιλίαν φύλαττε||Να φυλάττεις τη φιλία||Guard friendship
|-
|106.||Εὐγνώμων γίνου||Να είσαι ευγνώμων||Be grateful
|-
|107.||Ὁμόνοιαν δίωκε||Να επιδιώκεις την ομόνοια||Pursue harmony
|-
|108.||Ἄρρητον κρύπτε||Να μην λες τα άρρητα||Keep deeply the top secret
|-
|109.||Τὸ κρατοῦν φοβοῦ||Να φοβάσαι τους κρατούντες||Fear ruling
|-
|110.||Τὸ συμφέρον θηρῶ||Να κοιτάζεις το συμφέρον σου||Pursue what is profitable
|-
|111.||Καιρὸν προσδέχου||Να αποδέχεσαι το κατάλληλο μέτρο||Accept due measure
|-
|112.||Ἔχθρας διάλυε||Να διαλύεις τις έχθρες||Do away with enmities
|-
|113.||Γῆρας προσδέχου||Να αποδέχεσαι το γήρας||Accept old age
|-
|114.||Ἐπὶ ῥώμῃ μὴ καυχῶ||Να μην καυχιέσαι για τη δύναμή σου||Do not boast in might
|-
|115.||Εὐφημίαν ἄσκει||Να επιδιώκεις καλή φήμη||Exercise (religious) silence
|-
|116.||Ἀπέχθειαν φεῦγε||Να αποφεύγεις την απέχθεια||Flee enmity
|-
|117.||Πλούτει δικαίως||Να πλουτίζεις δίκαια||Acquire wealth justly
|-
|118.||Δόξαν μὴ λεῖπε||Μην εγκαταλείψεις την δόξα||Do not abandon honor
|-
|119.||Κακίαν μίσει||Να μισείς την κακία||Despise evil
|-
|120.||Κινδύνευε φρονίμως||Επιχείρησε με σύνεση σε κίνδυνο ||Venture into danger prudently
|-
|121.||Μανθάνων μὴ κάμνε||Να μην κουράζεσαι να μαθαίνεις||Do not tire of learning
|-
|122.||Φειδόμενος μὴ λεῖπε||Μην σταματάς να είσαι φειδωλός||Do not stop to be thrifty
|-
|123.||Χρησμοὺς θαύμαζε||Θαυμάστε τους χρησμούς||Admire oracles
|-
|124.||Οὓς τρέφεις, ἀγάπα||Να αγαπάς αυτούς που τρέφεις||Love whom you rear
|-
|125.||Ἀπόντι μὴ μάχου||Να μην μάχεσαι αυτόν που είναι απών||Do not oppose someone absent
|-
|126.||Πρεσβύτερον αἰδοῦ||Να σέβεσαι τους μεγαλύτερους||Respect the elder
|-
|127.||Νεώτερον δίδασκε||Να διδάσκεις τους νεότερους||Teach a youngster
|-
|128.||Πλούτῳ ἀπίστει||Να αποστασιοποιείσαι από τον πλούτο||Do not trust wealth
|-
|129.||Σεαυτὸν αἰδοῦ||Να σέβεσαι τον εαυτό σου||Respect yourself
|-
|130.||Μὴ ἄρχε ὑβρίζειν||Να μην κυριαρχείς με αλαζονεία||Do not begin to be insolent
|-
|131.||Προγόνους στεφάνου||Να στεφανώνεις τους προγόνους σου||Crown your ancestors
|-
|132.||Θνῆσκε ὑπὲρ πατρίδος||Να πεθάνεις για την πατρίδα σου||Die for your country
|-
|133.||Τῷ βίῳ μὴ ἄχθου||Μην απογοητεύεσαι από τη ζωή||Do not be discontented by life
|-
|134.||Ἐπὶ νεκρῷ μὴ γέλα||Να μην περιγελάς τους νεκρούς||Do not make fun of the dead
|-
|135.||Ἀτυχοῦντι συνάχθου||Να συμπάσχεις με το δυστυχή||Share the load of the unfortunate
|-
|136.||Χαρίζου ἀβλαβῶς||Ευχαρίστησε χωρίς να ζημιώσεις||Gratify without harming
|-
|137.||Μὴ ἐπὶ παντὶ λυποῦ||Θλίψη για κανέναν||Grieve for no one
|-
|138.||Ἐξ εὐγενῶν γέννα||Beget από ευγενείς διαδρομές||Beget from noble routes
|-
|139.||Ἐπαγγέλλου μηδενί||Μην κάνεις υποσχέσεις σε κανέναν||Make promises to no one
|-
|140.||Φθιμένους μὴ ἀδίκει||Μην κατακρίνεις τους νεκρούς||Do not wrong the dead
|-
|141.||Εὖ πάσχε ὡς θνητός||Να είσαι καλά ως θνητός||Be well off as a mortal
|-
|142.||Τύχῃ μὴ πίστευε||Να μην πιστεύεις την τύχη||Do not trust fortune
|-
|143.||Παῖς ὢν κόσμιος ἴσθι||Ως παιδί να συμπεριφέρεται καλά||As a child be well-behaved
|-
|144.||Ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής||Ως νέος να είσαι αυτο-πειθαρχημένος||As a youth be self-disciplined
|-
|145.||Μέσος δίκαιος||Ως μεσήλικας να είναι δίκαιος||As of middle-age be just
|-
|146.||Πρεσβύτης εὔλογος||Ως γέρος να είσαι λογικός||As an old man be sensible
|-
|147.||Τελευτῶν ἄλυπος||Να πεθαίνεις χωρίς λύπη||On reaching the end be without sorrow
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Ancient Greece|Religion}}
* [[Know thyself]]
* [[List of oracular statements from Delphi]]
* [[Via media]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* [[Stobaeus]], ''Anth.'' 3.1.173
* [http://www.john-uebersax.com/delphi/delphi5.htm John Uebersax – Sentences of the Seven Sages]
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://users.uoa.gr/~nektar/history/1antiquity/ancient_hellenic_wisdom.htm Ancient Hellenic wisdom– Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.fysis.cz/presokratici/7mudrcu/Sosiad.pdf Fysis.cz – Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.hellenion.org/essays-on-hellenic-polytheism/delphic-maxims/ 2018 English translation by Melissa Gold of Hellenion]

[[Category:Ancient Greek religion]]
[[Category:Aphorisms]]

Delphic maxims

2019-12-25T13:03:39Z

Cyon: Undid revision 928260074 by 2600:1700:16A0:9750:F5F6:3C6D:6694:825F (talk)

[[File:KineasInscriptionSharp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Stone block with a portion of the Delphic Maxims. [[Ai-Khanoum]], [[Afghanistan]], 2nd century BCE]]
{{Ancient Greek religion}}
The '''Delphic maxims''' are a set of 147 [[aphorisms]] inscribed at [[Delphi]]. Originally, they were said to have been given by the [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]] [[Apollo]]'s [[Pythia|Oracle at Delphi, Pythia]], and therefore were attributed to Apollo.<ref>[http://www.temenostheon.com/delphic-maxims/ Temenos Theon – The Delphic Maxims]</ref> The [[5th century]] scholar [[Stobaeus]] later attributed them to the [[Seven Sages of Greece]].<ref>Leslie Kurke, ''Aesopic Conversations: Popular Tradition, Cultural Dialogue, and the Invention of Greek Prose'', Princeton University Press, 2010, p. 109.</ref> Contemporary scholars, however, hold that their original authorship is uncertain and that 'most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages.'<ref>H. Parke and D. Wormell, ''The Delphic Oracle'', (Basil Blackwell, 1956), vol. 1, p. 389.</ref> Roman educator [[Quintilian]] argued that students should copy those aphorisms often to improve their moral core.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=MkpADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|date=20 ''Teacher of the Nations: Ancient Educational Traditions and Paul’s Argument in 1 Corinthians 1-4''], Devin L. White, (Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG), {{ISBN|978-3-11-053955-4}}, page 83</ref> Perhaps the most famous of these maxims is '[[know thyself]],' which was carved into the [[Delphi#Temple of Apollo|Temple of Apollo at Delphi]]. The specific order and wording of each maxim varies among different versions (and translations) of the text.

==Ai-Khanoum inscription==
In the ruins of the Hellenistic city of [[Ai-Khanoum]] (former [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]], and modern [[Afghanistan]]), on a [[Herõon]] (funerary monument) identified in Greek as the tomb of Kineas (also described as the ''[[oikistes]]'' (founder) of the Greek settlement) and dated to 300-250 BCE, an inscription has been found describing part of the Delphic maxims (maxims 143 to 147):

:παῖς ὢν κόσμιος γίνου,
:ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής,
:μέσος δίκαιος,
:πρεσβύτης εὔβουλος,
:τελευτῶν ἄλυπος.<ref name="academia.edu">[https://www.academia.edu/25638818 Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries], Shane Wallace, 2016, p.215</ref>

:''"Païs ôn kosmios ginou (As children, learn good manners)
:''hèbôn enkratès, (as young men, learn to control the passions)
:''mesos dikaios (in middle age, be just)
:''presbutès euboulos (in old age, give good advice)
:''teleutôn alupos. (then die, without regret.)"''

The precepts were placed by a Greek named Clearchos, who may or may not have been [[Clearchus of Soli]] the disciple of [[Aristotle]],<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/25638818 Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries], Shane Wallace, 2016, p.217</ref> who, according to the same inscription, had copied them from [[Delphi]]:

:ἀνδρῶν τοι σοφὰ ταῦτα παλαιοτέρων ἀνάκει[τα]ι
:ῥήματα ἀριγνώτων Πυθοὶ ἐν ἠγαθέαι·
:ἔνθεν ταῦτ[α] Κλέαρχος ἐπιφραδέως ἀναγράψας
:εἵσατο τηλαυγῆ Κινέου ἐν τεμένει.<ref name="academia.edu"/>

:''"These wise commandments of men of old
:''- Words of well-known thinkers - stand dedicated
:''In the most holy Pythian shrine
:''From there Klearchos, having copied them carefully, set them up, shining from afar, in the sanctuary of Kineas"''

== 147 Delphic maxims as cited by Stobaeus ==
[[File:Temple of Apollo in Delphi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Temple of Apollo at Delphi]], by Albert Tournaire]]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="4"|147 Delphic maxims<ref>https://archive.org/details/joannisstobaeian03stovuoft/page/125</ref>
|-
No.||Ancient Greek||Greek||English
|-
|001.||Ἕπου θεῷ||Ακολούθα τον θεό||Follow God
|-
|002.||Νόμῳ πείθου||Να πειθαρχείς στο Νόμο||Obey the law
|-
|003.||Θεοὺς σέβου||Να σέβεσαι τους θεούς||Respect the Gods
|-
|004.||Γονεῖς αἰδοῦ||Να σέβεσαι τους γονείς σου||Respect your parents
|-
|005.||Ἡττῶ ὑπὸ δικαίου||Να καταβάλεσαι για το δίκαιο||Be overcome by justice
|-
|006.||Γνῶθι μαθών||Γνώρισε αφού μάθεις||Know what you have learned
|-
|007.||Ἀκούσας νόει||Κατανόησε αφού ακούσεις||Perceive what you have heard
|-
|008.||Σαυτὸν ἴσθι||Γνώρισε τον εαυτό σου||Be/Know yourself
|-
|009.||Γαμεῖν μέλλε||Να στοχεύεις να παντρευτείς||Intend to get married
|-
|010.||Καιρὸν γνῶθι||Να αναγνωρίζεις τις ευκαιρείες σου||Know your opportunity
|-
|011.||Φρόνει θνητά||Να σκέφτεσε ως θνητός||Think as a mortal
|-
|012.||Ξένος ὢν ἴσθι||Εάν είσαι ξένος να ενεργείς σαν ξένος||If you are a stranger act like one
|-
|013.||Ἑστίαν τίμα||Να ασχοληθείτε με σύνεση||Honor the house
|-
|014.||Ἄρχε σεαυτοῦ||Τιμητική πρόνοια||Control yourself
|-
|015.||Φίλοις βοήθει||Συνεχίστε την τιμή||Help your friends
|-
|016.||Θυμοῦ κράτει||Δοξάστε το καλό||Control anger
|-
|017.||Φρόνησιν ἄσκει||Να δείχνεις σύνεση||Exercise prudence
|-
|018.||Πρόνοιαν τίμα||Τίμα την πρόνοια||Honor providence
|-
|019.||Ὅρκῳ μὴ χρῶ||Αποφύγετε ό, τι ανήκει σε άλλους||Do not use an oath
|-
|020.||Φιλίαν ἀγάπα||Κάνετε μια χάρη για έναν φίλο||Love friendship
|-
|021.||Παιδείας ἀντέχου||Προβλέψτε το μέλλον||Cling to discipline
|-
|022.||Δόξαν δίωκε||Να επιδιώκεις την τιμή||Pursue honor
|-
|023.||Σοφίαν ζήλου||Επιθυμία για τα πράγματα είναι δυνατόν||Long for wisdom
|-
|024.||Καλὸν εὖ λέγε||Να ευλογείς το καλό||Praise the good
|-
|025.||Ψέγε μηδένα||Βρείτε σφάλμα με κανέναν||Find fault with no one
|-
|026.||Ἐπαίνει ἀρετήν||Να είστε στη φρουρά σας||Praise virtue
|-
|027.||Πρᾶττε δίκαια||Γνωρίστε τον δικαστή||Practice what is just
|-
|028.||Φίλοις εὐνόει||Κύριοι γαμήλιες γιορτές||Favor friends
|-
|029.||Ἐχθροὺς ἀμύνου||Αναγνωρίστε την τύχη||Defend against enemies
|-
|030.||Εὐγένειαν ἄσκει||Πετάξτε μια υπόσχεση||Exercise nobility of character
|-
|031.||Κακίας ἀπέχου||Μιλήστε απλά||Shun evil
|-
|032.||Κοινὸς γίνου||Να είσαι αμερόληπτος||Be impartial
|-
|033.||Ἴδια φύλαττε||Φρόντιζε / Φύλαγε ότι είναι δικό σου||Guard what is yours
|-
|034.||Ἀλλοτρίων ἀπέχου||Απόφυγε ό,τι ανήκει σε άλλους||Shun what belongs to others
|-
|035.||Ἄκουε πάντα||Περάστε μια χάρη||Listen to everyone
|-
|036.||Εὔφημος ἴσθι||Να αρέσει η τύχη||Have good reputation
|-
|037.||Φίλῳ χαρίζου||Να κάνεις χάρη για έναν φίλο||Do a favor for a friend
|-
|038.||Μηδὲν ἄγαν||Χρησιμοποιήστε αυτό που έχετε||Nothing to excess
|-
|039.||Χρόνου φείδου||Δικαστής άθλια||Use time sparingly
|-
|040.||Ὅρα τὸ μέλλον||Πρόβλεψε το μέλλον||Foresee the future
|-
|041.||Ὕβριν μίσει||Ζήστε χωρίς θλίψη||Despise insolence
|-
|042.||Ἱκέτας αἰδοῦ||Τελειώστε τον αγώνα χωρίς συρρίκνωση||Have respect for suppliants
|-
|043.||Πᾶσιν ἁρμόζου||Να φροντίζεις για όλα||Be accommodating in everything
|-
|044.||Υἱοὺς παίδευε||Καθοδήγησε τα παιδιά σου||Educate your sons
|-
|045.||Ἔχων χαρίζου||ενέργησε γρήγορα||Give what you have
|-
|046.||Δόλον φοβοῦ||Να φοβασαι την απάτη||Fear deceit
|-
|047.||Εὐλόγει πάντας||Παρακολουθήστε αυτό που είναι κερδοφόρο||Speak well of everyone
|-
|048.||Φιλόσοφος γίνου||Αποδεχτείτε το κατάλληλο μέτρο||Be a seeker of wisdom
|-
|049.||Ὅσια κρῖνε||Μην εγκαταλείπετε την τιμή||Choose what is divine
|-
|050.||Γνοὺς πρᾶττε||Επιχειρήστε σε κίνδυνο με σύνεση||Act when you know
|-
|051.||Φόνου ἀπέχου||Μην σταματήσετε να είστε φειδωλοί||Shun murder
|-
|052.||Εὔχου δυνατά||Να επιθυμείς πράγματα που είναι δυνατά||Wish for things possible
|-
|053.||Σοφοῖς χρῶ||Μην απογοητεύεστε από τη ζωή||Consult the wise
|-
|054.||Ἦθος δοκίμαζε||Ευχαριστήστε||Test the character
|-
|055.||Λαβὼν ἀπόδος||Δώσε πίσω αυτά που έχεις λάβει||Give back what you have received
|-
|056.||Ὑφορῶ μηδένα||Beget από ευγενείς διαδρομές||Down-look no one
|-
|057.||Τέχνῃ χρῶ||Κάνε υποσχέσεις σε κανέναν||Use your skill
|-
|058.||Ὃ μέλλεις, δός||Κάνε ό, τι εννοείς να κάνεις||Do what you mean to do
|-
|059.||Εὐεργεσίας τίμα||Να είστε καλά ως θνητός||Honor a benefaction
|-
|060.||Φθόνει μηδενί||Ως παιδί να συμπεριφέρεται καλά||Be jealous of no one
|-
|061.||Φυλακῇ πρόσεχε||Να είσαι σε επαγρύπνηση||Be on your guard
|-
|062.||Ἐλπίδα αἴνει||Από την μεσαία ηλικία να είναι απλά||Praise hope
|-
|063.||Διαβολὴν μίσει||Ως γέρος είναι λογικός||Despise a slanderer
|-
|064.||Δικαίως κτῶ||Να αποκτάς δίκαια||Gain possessions justly
|-
|065.||Ἀγαθοὺς τίμα||Να τιμάς τους αγαθούς||Honor good men
|-
|066.||Κριτὴν γνῶθι||Γνριζε ποιος είναι ο δικαστής||Know the judge
|-
|067.||Γάμους κράτει||Να κυριαρχείς στις γαμήλιες τελετές ||Master wedding-feasts
|-
|068.||Τύχην νόμιζε||Αναγνώριζε την τύχη σου||Recognize fortune
|-
|069.||Ἐγγύην φεῦγε||Απόφυγε υπόσχεση||Flee a pledge
|-
|070.||Ἁπλῶς διαλέγου||Να μιλάς απλά||Speak plainly
|-
|071.||Ὁμοίοις χρῶ||Να συνεργάζεσαι με τους συνομηλίκους σου||Associate with your peers
|-
|072.||Δαπανῶν ἄρχου||Διαχειρίσου τα έξοδά σου||Govern your expenses
|-
|073.||Κτώμενος ἥδου||Να είσαι ευχαριστημένος με αυτό που έχεις||Be happy with what you have
|-
|074.||Αἰσχύνην σέβου||Να σέβεσαι την εντροπή||Revere a sense of shame
|-
|075.||Χάριν ἐκτέλει||Ολοκλήρωσε μια χάρη||Fulfill a favor
|-
|076.||Εὐτυχίαν εὔχου||Να εύχεσαι ευτυχία||Pray for happiness
|-
|077.||Τύχην στέργε||Να αρέσει η τύχη||Be fond of fortune
|-
|078.||Ἀκούων ὅρα||Παρατήρησε ότι ακούς||Observe what you have heard
|-
|079.||Ἐργάζου κτητά||Να κοπιάζεις για πράγματα άξια κτήσης||Work for what you can own
|-
|080.||Ἔριν μίσει||Να μισείς την έριδα||Despise strife
|-
|081.||Ὄνειδος ἔχθαιρε||Να εχθρεύεσαι τον χλευασμό||Detest disgrace
|-
|082.||Γλῶτταν ἴσχε||Να συγκρατείς τη γλώσσα σου||Restrain the tongue
|-
|083.||Ὕβριν ἀμύνου||Να προφυλάσσεσαι από την ύβρη||Keep yourself from insolence
|-
|084.||Κρῖνε δίκαια||Να κρίνεις δίκαια||Make just judgements
|-
|085.||Χρῶ χρήμασιν||Χρησιμοποίησε αυτό που έχεις||Use what you have
|-
|086.||Ἀδωροδόκητος δίκαζε||Να δικάζεις χωρίς να δεχτείς δωροδωκία||Judge incorruptibly
|-
|087.||Αἰτιῶ παρόντα||Να κατηγορήσεις αυτόν που είναι παρών||Accuse one who is present
|-
|088.||Λέγε εἰδώς||Να λες γνωρίζοντας||Tell when you know
|-
|089.||Βίας μὴ ἔχου||Να μην έχεις βία||Have no violence
|-
|090.||Ἀλύπως βίου||Ζήσε χωρίς θλίψη||Live without sorrow
|-
|091.||Ὁμίλει πρᾴως||Να ομιλείς με πραότητα||Live together meekly
|-
|092.||Πέρας ἐπιτέλει μὴ ἀποδειλιῶν||Τελείωσε τον αγώνα χωρίς να συρρικνωθείς||Finish the race without shrinking back
|-
|093.||Φιλοφρόνει πᾶσιν||Να είσαι φιλικός με όλους||Deal kindly with everyone
|-
|094.||Υἱοῖς μὴ καταρῶ||Μην καταρασθείς τα παιδιά σου||Do not curse your sons
|-
|095.||Γυναικὸς ἄρχε||Καθοδήγησε τη σύζυγό σου||Initiate / lead / guide your wife
|-
|096.||Σεαυτὸν εὖ ποίει||Να ευεργετείς τον εαυτό σου||Benefit yourself
|-
|097.||Εὐπροσήγορος γίνου||Να είσαι ευπροσήγορος||Be courteous
|-
|098.||Ἀποκρίνου ἐν καιρῷ||Να αποκρίνεσαι στον κατάλληλο καιρό||Give a timely response
|-
|099.||Πόνει μετ’ εὐκλείας||Να κοπιάζεις δίκαια||Struggle with glory
|-
|100.||Πρᾶττε ἀμετανοήτως||Να πράττεις με σιγουριά||Act without repenting
|-
|101.||Ἁμαρτάνων μετανόει||Όταν σφάλλεις, να μετανοείς||Repent of sins
|-
|102.||Ὀφθαλμοῦ κράτει||Να κυριαρχείς των οφθαλμών σου||Control the eye
|-
|103.||Βουλεύου χρόνῳ||Να σκέπτεσαι τα χρήσιμα||Give a timely counsel
|-
|104.||Πρᾶττε συντόμως||ενέργησε γρήγορα||Act quickly
|-
|105.||Φιλίαν φύλαττε||Να φυλάττεις τη φιλία||Guard friendship
|-
|106.||Εὐγνώμων γίνου||Να είσαι ευγνώμων||Be grateful
|-
|107.||Ὁμόνοιαν δίωκε||Να επιδιώκεις την ομόνοια||Pursue harmony
|-
|108.||Ἄρρητον κρύπτε||Να μην λες τα άρρητα||Keep deeply the top secret
|-
|109.||Τὸ κρατοῦν φοβοῦ||Να φοβάσαι τους κρατούντες||Fear ruling
|-
|110.||Τὸ συμφέρον θηρῶ||Να κοιτάζεις το συμφέρον σου||Pursue what is profitable
|-
|111.||Καιρὸν προσδέχου||Να αποδέχεσαι το κατάλληλο μέτρο||Accept due measure
|-
|112.||Ἔχθρας διάλυε||Να διαλύεις τις έχθρες||Do away with enmities
|-
|113.||Γῆρας προσδέχου||Να αποδέχεσαι το γήρας||Accept old age
|-
|114.||Ἐπὶ ῥώμῃ μὴ καυχῶ||Να μην καυχιέσαι για τη δύναμή σου||Do not boast in might
|-
|115.||Εὐφημίαν ἄσκει||Να επιδιώκεις καλή φήμη||Exercise (religious) silence
|-
|116.||Ἀπέχθειαν φεῦγε||Να αποφεύγεις την απέχθεια||Flee enmity
|-
|117.||Πλούτει δικαίως||Να πλουτίζεις δίκαια||Acquire wealth justly
|-
|118.||Δόξαν μὴ λεῖπε||Μην εγκαταλείψεις την δόξα||Do not abandon honor
|-
|119.||Κακίαν μίσει||Να μισείς την κακία||Despise evil
|-
|120.||Κινδύνευε φρονίμως||Επιχείρησε με σύνεση σε κίνδυνο ||Venture into danger prudently
|-
|121.||Μανθάνων μὴ κάμνε||Να μην κουράζεσαι να μαθαίνεις||Do not tire of learning
|-
|122.||Φειδόμενος μὴ λεῖπε||Μην σταματάς να είσαι φειδωλός||Do not stop to be thrifty
|-
|123.||Χρησμοὺς θαύμαζε||Θαυμάστε τους χρησμούς||Admire oracles
|-
|124.||Οὓς τρέφεις, ἀγάπα||Να αγαπάς αυτούς που τρέφεις||Love whom you rear
|-
|125.||Ἀπόντι μὴ μάχου||Να μην μάχεσαι αυτόν που είναι απών||Do not oppose someone absent
|-
|126.||Πρεσβύτερον αἰδοῦ||Να σέβεσαι τους μεγαλύτερους||Respect the elder
|-
|127.||Νεώτερον δίδασκε||Να διδάσκεις τους νεότερους||Teach a youngster
|-
|128.||Πλούτῳ ἀπίστει||Να αποστασιοποιείσαι από τον πλούτο||Do not trust wealth
|-
|129.||Σεαυτὸν αἰδοῦ||Να σέβεσαι τον εαυτό σου||Respect yourself
|-
|130.||Μὴ ἄρχε ὑβρίζειν||Να μην κυριαρχείς με αλαζονεία||Do not begin to be insolent
|-
|131.||Προγόνους στεφάνου||Να στεφανώνεις τους προγόνους σου||Crown your ancestors
|-
|132.||Θνῆσκε ὑπὲρ πατρίδος||Να πεθάνεις για την πατρίδα σου||Die for your country
|-
|133.||Τῷ βίῳ μὴ ἄχθου||Μην απογοητεύεσαι από τη ζωή||Do not be discontented by life
|-
|134.||Ἐπὶ νεκρῷ μὴ γέλα||Να μην περιγελάς τους νεκρούς||Do not make fun of the dead
|-
|135.||Ἀτυχοῦντι συνάχθου||Να συμπάσχεις με το δυστυχή||Share the load of the unfortunate
|-
|136.||Χαρίζου ἀβλαβῶς||Ευχαρίστησε χωρίς να ζημιώσεις||Gratify without harming
|-
|137.||Μὴ ἐπὶ παντὶ λυποῦ||Θλίψη για κανέναν||Grieve for no one
|-
|138.||Ἐξ εὐγενῶν γέννα||Beget από ευγενείς διαδρομές||Beget from noble routes
|-
|139.||Ἐπαγγέλλου μηδενί||Μην κάνεις υποσχέσεις σε κανέναν||Make promises to no one
|-
|140.||Φθιμένους μὴ ἀδίκει||Μην κατακρίνεις τους νεκρούς||Do not wrong the dead
|-
|141.||Εὖ πάσχε ὡς θνητός||Να είσαι καλά ως θνητός||Be well off as a mortal
|-
|142.||Τύχῃ μὴ πίστευε||Να μην πιστεύεις την τύχη||Do not trust fortune
|-
|143.||Παῖς ὢν κόσμιος ἴσθι||Ως παιδί να συμπεριφέρεται καλά||As a child be well-behaved
|-
|144.||Ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής||Ως νέος να είσαι αυτο-πειθαρχημένος||As a youth be self-disciplined
|-
|145.||Μέσος δίκαιος||Ως μεσήλικας να είναι δίκαιος||As of middle-age be just
|-
|146.||Πρεσβύτης εὔλογος||Ως γέρος να είσαι λογικός||As an old man be sensible
|-
|147.||Τελευτῶν ἄλυπος||Να πεθαίνεις χωρίς λύπη||On reaching the end be without sorrow
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Ancient Greece|Religion}}
* [[Know thyself]]
* [[List of oracular statements from Delphi]]
* [[Via media]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* [[Stobaeus]], ''Anth.'' 3.1.173
* [http://www.john-uebersax.com/delphi/delphi5.htm John Uebersax – Sentences of the Seven Sages]
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://users.uoa.gr/~nektar/history/1antiquity/ancient_hellenic_wisdom.htm Ancient Hellenic wisdom– Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.fysis.cz/presokratici/7mudrcu/Sosiad.pdf Fysis.cz – Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.hellenion.org/essays-on-hellenic-polytheism/delphic-maxims/ 2018 English translation by Melissa Gold of Hellenion]

[[Category:Ancient Greek religion]]
[[Category:Aphorisms]]

Delphic maxims

2019-12-25T13:03:16Z

Cyon: Undid revision 929638637 by Hmains (talk)

[[File:KineasInscriptionSharp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Stone block with a portion of the Delphic Maxims. [[Ai-Khanoum]], [[Afghanistan]], 2nd century BCE]]
{{Ancient Greek religion}}
The '''Delphic maxims''' are a set of 147 [[aphorisms]] inscribed at [[Delphi]]. Originally, they were said to have been given by the [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]] [[Apollo]]'s [[Pythia|Oracle at Delphi, Pythia]], and therefore were attributed to Apollo.<ref>[http://www.temenostheon.com/delphic-maxims/ Temenos Theon – The Delphic Maxims]</ref> The [[5th century]] scholar [[Stobaeus]] later attributed them to the [[Seven Sages of Greece]].<ref>Leslie Kurke, ''Aesopic Conversations: Popular Tradition, Cultural Dialogue, and the Invention of Greek Prose'', Princeton University Press, 2010, p. 109.</ref> Contemporary scholars, however, hold that their original authorship is uncertain and that 'most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages.'<ref>H. Parke and D. Wormell, ''The Delphic Oracle'', (Basil Blackwell, 1956), vol. 1, p. 389.</ref> Roman educator [[Quintilian]] argued that students should copy those aphorisms often to improve their moral core.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=MkpADwAAQBAJ&pg=PA83|date=20 ''Teacher of the Nations: Ancient Educational Traditions and Paul’s Argument in 1 Corinthians 1-4''], Devin L. White, (Walter de Gruyter GmbH & Co KG), {{ISBN|978-3-11-053955-4}}, page 83</ref> Perhaps the most famous of these maxims is '[[know thyself]],' which was carved into the [[Delphi#Temple of Apollo|Temple of Apollo at Delphi]]. The specific order and wording of each maxim varies among different versions (and translations) of the text.

==Ai-Khanoum inscription==
In the ruins of the Hellenistic city of [[Ai-Khanoum]] (former [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]], and modern [[Afghanistan]]), on a [[Herõon]] (funerary monument) identified in Greek as the tomb of Kineas (also described as the ''[[oikistes]]'' (founder) of the Greek settlement) and dated to 300-250 BCE, an inscription has been found describing part of the Delphic maxims (maxims 143 to 147):

:παῖς ὢν κόσμιος γίνου,
:ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής,
:μέσος δίκαιος,
:πρεσβύτης εὔβουλος,
:τελευτῶν ἄλυπος.<ref name="academia.edu">[https://www.academia.edu/25638818 Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries], Shane Wallace, 2016, p.215</ref>

:''"Païs ôn kosmios ginou (As children, learn good manners)
:''hèbôn enkratès, (as young men, learn to control the passions)
:''mesos dikaios (in middle age, be just)
:''presbutès euboulos (in old age, give good advice)
:''teleutôn alupos. (then die, without regret.)"''

The precepts were placed by a Greek named Clearchos, who may or may not have been [[Clearchus of Soli]] the disciple of [[Aristotle]],<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/25638818 Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries], Shane Wallace, 2016, p.217</ref> who, according to the same inscription, had copied them from [[Delphi]]:

:ἀνδρῶν τοι σοφὰ ταῦτα παλαιοτέρων ἀνάκει[τα]ι
:ῥήματα ἀριγνώτων Πυθοὶ ἐν ἠγαθέαι·
:ἔνθεν ταῦτ[α] Κλέαρχος ἐπιφραδέως ἀναγράψας
:εἵσατο τηλαυγῆ Κινέου ἐν τεμένει.<ref name="academia.edu"/>

:''"These wise commandments of men of old
:''- Words of well-known thinkers - stand dedicated
:''In the most holy Pythian shrine
:''From there Klearchos, having copied them carefully, set them up, shining from afar, in the sanctuary of Kineas"''

== 147 Delphic maxims as cited by Stobaeus ==
[[File:Temple of Apollo in Delphi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Temple of Apollo at Delphi]], by Albert Tournaire]]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="4"|147 Delphic maxims<ref>https://archive.org/details/joannisstobaeian03stovuoft/page/125</ref>
|-
|'''No.||'''Ancient Greek'''||'''Greek'''||'''English'''
|-
|001.||Ἕπου θεῷ||Ακολούθα τον θεό||Follow God
|-
|002.||Νόμῳ πείθου||Να πειθαρχείς στο Νόμο||Obey the law
|-
|003.||Θεοὺς σέβου||Να σέβεσαι τους θεούς||Respect the Gods
|-
|004.||Γονεῖς αἰδοῦ||Να σέβεσαι τους γονείς σου||Respect your parents
|-
|005.||Ἡττῶ ὑπὸ δικαίου||Να καταβάλεσαι για το δίκαιο||Be overcome by justice
|-
|006.||Γνῶθι μαθών||Γνώρισε αφού μάθεις||Know what you have learned
|-
|007.||Ἀκούσας νόει||Κατανόησε αφού ακούσεις||Perceive what you have heard
|-
|008.||Σαυτὸν ἴσθι||Γνώρισε τον εαυτό σου||Be/Know yourself
|-
|009.||Γαμεῖν μέλλε||Να στοχεύεις να παντρευτείς||Intend to get married
|-
|010.||Καιρὸν γνῶθι||Να αναγνωρίζεις τις ευκαιρείες σου||Know your opportunity
|-
|011.||Φρόνει θνητά||Να σκέφτεσε ως θνητός||Think as a mortal
|-
|012.||Ξένος ὢν ἴσθι||Εάν είσαι ξένος να ενεργείς σαν ξένος||If you are a stranger act like one
|-
|013.||Ἑστίαν τίμα||Να ασχοληθείτε με σύνεση||Honor the house
|-
|014.||Ἄρχε σεαυτοῦ||Τιμητική πρόνοια||Control yourself
|-
|015.||Φίλοις βοήθει||Συνεχίστε την τιμή||Help your friends
|-
|016.||Θυμοῦ κράτει||Δοξάστε το καλό||Control anger
|-
|017.||Φρόνησιν ἄσκει||Να δείχνεις σύνεση||Exercise prudence
|-
|018.||Πρόνοιαν τίμα||Τίμα την πρόνοια||Honor providence
|-
|019.||Ὅρκῳ μὴ χρῶ||Αποφύγετε ό, τι ανήκει σε άλλους||Do not use an oath
|-
|020.||Φιλίαν ἀγάπα||Κάνετε μια χάρη για έναν φίλο||Love friendship
|-
|021.||Παιδείας ἀντέχου||Προβλέψτε το μέλλον||Cling to discipline
|-
|022.||Δόξαν δίωκε||Να επιδιώκεις την τιμή||Pursue honor
|-
|023.||Σοφίαν ζήλου||Επιθυμία για τα πράγματα είναι δυνατόν||Long for wisdom
|-
|024.||Καλὸν εὖ λέγε||Να ευλογείς το καλό||Praise the good
|-
|025.||Ψέγε μηδένα||Βρείτε σφάλμα με κανέναν||Find fault with no one
|-
|026.||Ἐπαίνει ἀρετήν||Να είστε στη φρουρά σας||Praise virtue
|-
|027.||Πρᾶττε δίκαια||Γνωρίστε τον δικαστή||Practice what is just
|-
|028.||Φίλοις εὐνόει||Κύριοι γαμήλιες γιορτές||Favor friends
|-
|029.||Ἐχθροὺς ἀμύνου||Αναγνωρίστε την τύχη||Defend against enemies
|-
|030.||Εὐγένειαν ἄσκει||Πετάξτε μια υπόσχεση||Exercise nobility of character
|-
|031.||Κακίας ἀπέχου||Μιλήστε απλά||Shun evil
|-
|032.||Κοινὸς γίνου||Να είσαι αμερόληπτος||Be impartial
|-
|033.||Ἴδια φύλαττε||Φρόντιζε / Φύλαγε ότι είναι δικό σου||Guard what is yours
|-
|034.||Ἀλλοτρίων ἀπέχου||Απόφυγε ό,τι ανήκει σε άλλους||Shun what belongs to others
|-
|035.||Ἄκουε πάντα||Περάστε μια χάρη||Listen to everyone
|-
|036.||Εὔφημος ἴσθι||Να αρέσει η τύχη||Have good reputation
|-
|037.||Φίλῳ χαρίζου||Να κάνεις χάρη για έναν φίλο||Do a favor for a friend
|-
|038.||Μηδὲν ἄγαν||Χρησιμοποιήστε αυτό που έχετε||Nothing to excess
|-
|039.||Χρόνου φείδου||Δικαστής άθλια||Use time sparingly
|-
|040.||Ὅρα τὸ μέλλον||Πρόβλεψε το μέλλον||Foresee the future
|-
|041.||Ὕβριν μίσει||Ζήστε χωρίς θλίψη||Despise insolence
|-
|042.||Ἱκέτας αἰδοῦ||Τελειώστε τον αγώνα χωρίς συρρίκνωση||Have respect for suppliants
|-
|043.||Πᾶσιν ἁρμόζου||Να φροντίζεις για όλα||Be accommodating in everything
|-
|044.||Υἱοὺς παίδευε||Καθοδήγησε τα παιδιά σου||Educate your sons
|-
|045.||Ἔχων χαρίζου||ενέργησε γρήγορα||Give what you have
|-
|046.||Δόλον φοβοῦ||Να φοβασαι την απάτη||Fear deceit
|-
|047.||Εὐλόγει πάντας||Παρακολουθήστε αυτό που είναι κερδοφόρο||Speak well of everyone
|-
|048.||Φιλόσοφος γίνου||Αποδεχτείτε το κατάλληλο μέτρο||Be a seeker of wisdom
|-
|049.||Ὅσια κρῖνε||Μην εγκαταλείπετε την τιμή||Choose what is divine
|-
|050.||Γνοὺς πρᾶττε||Επιχειρήστε σε κίνδυνο με σύνεση||Act when you know
|-
|051.||Φόνου ἀπέχου||Μην σταματήσετε να είστε φειδωλοί||Shun murder
|-
|052.||Εὔχου δυνατά||Να επιθυμείς πράγματα που είναι δυνατά||Wish for things possible
|-
|053.||Σοφοῖς χρῶ||Μην απογοητεύεστε από τη ζωή||Consult the wise
|-
|054.||Ἦθος δοκίμαζε||Ευχαριστήστε||Test the character
|-
|055.||Λαβὼν ἀπόδος||Δώσε πίσω αυτά που έχεις λάβει||Give back what you have received
|-
|056.||Ὑφορῶ μηδένα||Beget από ευγενείς διαδρομές||Down-look no one
|-
|057.||Τέχνῃ χρῶ||Κάνε υποσχέσεις σε κανέναν||Use your skill
|-
|058.||Ὃ μέλλεις, δός||Κάνε ό, τι εννοείς να κάνεις||Do what you mean to do
|-
|059.||Εὐεργεσίας τίμα||Να είστε καλά ως θνητός||Honor a benefaction
|-
|060.||Φθόνει μηδενί||Ως παιδί να συμπεριφέρεται καλά||Be jealous of no one
|-
|061.||Φυλακῇ πρόσεχε||Να είσαι σε επαγρύπνηση||Be on your guard
|-
|062.||Ἐλπίδα αἴνει||Από την μεσαία ηλικία να είναι απλά||Praise hope
|-
|063.||Διαβολὴν μίσει||Ως γέρος είναι λογικός||Despise a slanderer
|-
|064.||Δικαίως κτῶ||Να αποκτάς δίκαια||Gain possessions justly
|-
|065.||Ἀγαθοὺς τίμα||Να τιμάς τους αγαθούς||Honor good men
|-
|066.||Κριτὴν γνῶθι||Γνριζε ποιος είναι ο δικαστής||Know the judge
|-
|067.||Γάμους κράτει||Να κυριαρχείς στις γαμήλιες τελετές ||Master wedding-feasts
|-
|068.||Τύχην νόμιζε||Αναγνώριζε την τύχη σου||Recognize fortune
|-
|069.||Ἐγγύην φεῦγε||Απόφυγε υπόσχεση||Flee a pledge
|-
|070.||Ἁπλῶς διαλέγου||Να μιλάς απλά||Speak plainly
|-
|071.||Ὁμοίοις χρῶ||Να συνεργάζεσαι με τους συνομηλίκους σου||Associate with your peers
|-
|072.||Δαπανῶν ἄρχου||Διαχειρίσου τα έξοδά σου||Govern your expenses
|-
|073.||Κτώμενος ἥδου||Να είσαι ευχαριστημένος με αυτό που έχεις||Be happy with what you have
|-
|074.||Αἰσχύνην σέβου||Να σέβεσαι την εντροπή||Revere a sense of shame
|-
|075.||Χάριν ἐκτέλει||Ολοκλήρωσε μια χάρη||Fulfill a favor
|-
|076.||Εὐτυχίαν εὔχου||Να εύχεσαι ευτυχία||Pray for happiness
|-
|077.||Τύχην στέργε||Να αρέσει η τύχη||Be fond of fortune
|-
|078.||Ἀκούων ὅρα||Παρατήρησε ότι ακούς||Observe what you have heard
|-
|079.||Ἐργάζου κτητά||Να κοπιάζεις για πράγματα άξια κτήσης||Work for what you can own
|-
|080.||Ἔριν μίσει||Να μισείς την έριδα||Despise strife
|-
|081.||Ὄνειδος ἔχθαιρε||Να εχθρεύεσαι τον χλευασμό||Detest disgrace
|-
|082.||Γλῶτταν ἴσχε||Να συγκρατείς τη γλώσσα σου||Restrain the tongue
|-
|083.||Ὕβριν ἀμύνου||Να προφυλάσσεσαι από την ύβρη||Keep yourself from insolence
|-
|084.||Κρῖνε δίκαια||Να κρίνεις δίκαια||Make just judgements
|-
|085.||Χρῶ χρήμασιν||Χρησιμοποίησε αυτό που έχεις||Use what you have
|-
|086.||Ἀδωροδόκητος δίκαζε||Να δικάζεις χωρίς να δεχτείς δωροδωκία||Judge incorruptibly
|-
|087.||Αἰτιῶ παρόντα||Να κατηγορήσεις αυτόν που είναι παρών||Accuse one who is present
|-
|088.||Λέγε εἰδώς||Να λες γνωρίζοντας||Tell when you know
|-
|089.||Βίας μὴ ἔχου||Να μην έχεις βία||Have no violence
|-
|090.||Ἀλύπως βίου||Ζήσε χωρίς θλίψη||Live without sorrow
|-
|091.||Ὁμίλει πρᾴως||Να ομιλείς με πραότητα||Live together meekly
|-
|092.||Πέρας ἐπιτέλει μὴ ἀποδειλιῶν||Τελείωσε τον αγώνα χωρίς να συρρικνωθείς||Finish the race without shrinking back
|-
|093.||Φιλοφρόνει πᾶσιν||Να είσαι φιλικός με όλους||Deal kindly with everyone
|-
|094.||Υἱοῖς μὴ καταρῶ||Μην καταρασθείς τα παιδιά σου||Do not curse your sons
|-
|095.||Γυναικὸς ἄρχε||Καθοδήγησε τη σύζυγό σου||Initiate / lead / guide your wife
|-
|096.||Σεαυτὸν εὖ ποίει||Να ευεργετείς τον εαυτό σου||Benefit yourself
|-
|097.||Εὐπροσήγορος γίνου||Να είσαι ευπροσήγορος||Be courteous
|-
|098.||Ἀποκρίνου ἐν καιρῷ||Να αποκρίνεσαι στον κατάλληλο καιρό||Give a timely response
|-
|099.||Πόνει μετ’ εὐκλείας||Να κοπιάζεις δίκαια||Struggle with glory
|-
|100.||Πρᾶττε ἀμετανοήτως||Να πράττεις με σιγουριά||Act without repenting
|-
|101.||Ἁμαρτάνων μετανόει||Όταν σφάλλεις, να μετανοείς||Repent of sins
|-
|102.||Ὀφθαλμοῦ κράτει||Να κυριαρχείς των οφθαλμών σου||Control the eye
|-
|103.||Βουλεύου χρόνῳ||Να σκέπτεσαι τα χρήσιμα||Give a timely counsel
|-
|104.||Πρᾶττε συντόμως||ενέργησε γρήγορα||Act quickly
|-
|105.||Φιλίαν φύλαττε||Να φυλάττεις τη φιλία||Guard friendship
|-
|106.||Εὐγνώμων γίνου||Να είσαι ευγνώμων||Be grateful
|-
|107.||Ὁμόνοιαν δίωκε||Να επιδιώκεις την ομόνοια||Pursue harmony
|-
|108.||Ἄρρητον κρύπτε||Να μην λες τα άρρητα||Keep deeply the top secret
|-
|109.||Τὸ κρατοῦν φοβοῦ||Να φοβάσαι τους κρατούντες||Fear ruling
|-
|110.||Τὸ συμφέρον θηρῶ||Να κοιτάζεις το συμφέρον σου||Pursue what is profitable
|-
|111.||Καιρὸν προσδέχου||Να αποδέχεσαι το κατάλληλο μέτρο||Accept due measure
|-
|112.||Ἔχθρας διάλυε||Να διαλύεις τις έχθρες||Do away with enmities
|-
|113.||Γῆρας προσδέχου||Να αποδέχεσαι το γήρας||Accept old age
|-
|114.||Ἐπὶ ῥώμῃ μὴ καυχῶ||Να μην καυχιέσαι για τη δύναμή σου||Do not boast in might
|-
|115.||Εὐφημίαν ἄσκει||Να επιδιώκεις καλή φήμη||Exercise (religious) silence
|-
|116.||Ἀπέχθειαν φεῦγε||Να αποφεύγεις την απέχθεια||Flee enmity
|-
|117.||Πλούτει δικαίως||Να πλουτίζεις δίκαια||Acquire wealth justly
|-
|118.||Δόξαν μὴ λεῖπε||Μην εγκαταλείψεις την δόξα||Do not abandon honor
|-
|119.||Κακίαν μίσει||Να μισείς την κακία||Despise evil
|-
|120.||Κινδύνευε φρονίμως||Επιχείρησε με σύνεση σε κίνδυνο ||Venture into danger prudently
|-
|121.||Μανθάνων μὴ κάμνε||Να μην κουράζεσαι να μαθαίνεις||Do not tire of learning
|-
|122.||Φειδόμενος μὴ λεῖπε||Μην σταματάς να είσαι φειδωλός||Do not stop to be thrifty
|-
|123.||Χρησμοὺς θαύμαζε||Θαυμάστε τους χρησμούς||Admire oracles
|-
|124.||Οὓς τρέφεις, ἀγάπα||Να αγαπάς αυτούς που τρέφεις||Love whom you rear
|-
|125.||Ἀπόντι μὴ μάχου||Να μην μάχεσαι αυτόν που είναι απών||Do not oppose someone absent
|-
|126.||Πρεσβύτερον αἰδοῦ||Να σέβεσαι τους μεγαλύτερους||Respect the elder
|-
|127.||Νεώτερον δίδασκε||Να διδάσκεις τους νεότερους||Teach a youngster
|-
|128.||Πλούτῳ ἀπίστει||Να αποστασιοποιείσαι από τον πλούτο||Do not trust wealth
|-
|129.||Σεαυτὸν αἰδοῦ||Να σέβεσαι τον εαυτό σου||Respect yourself
|-
|130.||Μὴ ἄρχε ὑβρίζειν||Να μην κυριαρχείς με αλαζονεία||Do not begin to be insolent
|-
|131.||Προγόνους στεφάνου||Να στεφανώνεις τους προγόνους σου||Crown your ancestors
|-
|132.||Θνῆσκε ὑπὲρ πατρίδος||Να πεθάνεις για την πατρίδα σου||Die for your country
|-
|133.||Τῷ βίῳ μὴ ἄχθου||Μην απογοητεύεσαι από τη ζωή||Do not be discontented by life
|-
|134.||Ἐπὶ νεκρῷ μὴ γέλα||Να μην περιγελάς τους νεκρούς||Do not make fun of the dead
|-
|135.||Ἀτυχοῦντι συνάχθου||Να συμπάσχεις με το δυστυχή||Share the load of the unfortunate
|-
|136.||Χαρίζου ἀβλαβῶς||Ευχαρίστησε χωρίς να ζημιώσεις||Gratify without harming
|-
|137.||Μὴ ἐπὶ παντὶ λυποῦ||Θλίψη για κανέναν||Grieve for no one
|-
|138.||Ἐξ εὐγενῶν γέννα||Beget από ευγενείς διαδρομές||Beget from noble routes
|-
|139.||Ἐπαγγέλλου μηδενί||Μην κάνεις υποσχέσεις σε κανέναν||Make promises to no one
|-
|140.||Φθιμένους μὴ ἀδίκει||Μην κατακρίνεις τους νεκρούς||Do not wrong the dead
|-
|141.||Εὖ πάσχε ὡς θνητός||Να είσαι καλά ως θνητός||Be well off as a mortal
|-
|142.||Τύχῃ μὴ πίστευε||Να μην πιστεύεις την τύχη||Do not trust fortune
|-
|143.||Παῖς ὢν κόσμιος ἴσθι||Ως παιδί να συμπεριφέρεται καλά||As a child be well-behaved
|-
|144.||Ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής||Ως νέος να είσαι αυτο-πειθαρχημένος||As a youth be self-disciplined
|-
|145.||Μέσος δίκαιος||Ως μεσήλικας να είναι δίκαιος||As of middle-age be just
|-
|146.||Πρεσβύτης εὔλογος||Ως γέρος να είσαι λογικός||As an old man be sensible
|-
|147.||Τελευτῶν ἄλυπος||Να πεθαίνεις χωρίς λύπη||On reaching the end be without sorrow
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Ancient Greece|Religion}}
* [[Know thyself]]
* [[List of oracular statements from Delphi]]
* [[Via media]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* [[Stobaeus]], ''Anth.'' 3.1.173
* [http://www.john-uebersax.com/delphi/delphi5.htm John Uebersax – Sentences of the Seven Sages]
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://users.uoa.gr/~nektar/history/1antiquity/ancient_hellenic_wisdom.htm Ancient Hellenic wisdom– Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.fysis.cz/presokratici/7mudrcu/Sosiad.pdf Fysis.cz – Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.hellenion.org/essays-on-hellenic-polytheism/delphic-maxims/ 2018 English translation by Melissa Gold of Hellenion]

[[Category:Ancient Greek religion]]
[[Category:Aphorisms]]

Maya (given name)

2019-08-30T19:00:23Z

Cyon: + be

{{other uses2|Maya}}
[[File:Durga Mahisasuramardini.JPG|thumb|right|Maya is an alternate name of Hindu goddess Durga.]]
[[File:Hermes Maia Staatliche Antikensammlungen 2304.jpg|thumb|Hermes and his mother Maia on an Attic red-figure amphora, c. 500 BC ([[Staatliche Antikensammlungen]], Munich)]]

'''Maya''' is a female name with multiple meanings:

* In [[Hindu philosophy]], [[Maya (illusion)|Māyā]] means "illusion", and in [[Hindu mythology]] it is also an alternate name of the Hindu goddess [[Durga]]. According to tradition, [[Maya (mother of Buddha)|Queen Māyā of Sakya]] was the name of the mother of Siddartha Gautama, the [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]]. ([[Mount Maya]] is a Japanese mountain named for the mother of [[Gautama Buddha|Buddha]].)
* ''Maya'' can be as well a name of [[Japanese language|Japanese]] origin, with different meanings. Variants include ''Mayako'' and ''Mayaka''. The similar-sounding Japanese name ''Mayu'' means "truth, reason", while some sources say ''Amaya'' is a Japanese name meaning "night rain".<ref>[http://www.behindthename.com/php/search.php?nmd=n&terms=Maya&submit=Go Entry "Maya"] at ''Behind the Name''.</ref><ref>Rosenkrantz, Linda and Satran, Pamela Redmond (2007). ''The Baby Name Bible''. St. Martin's Press. {{ISBN|978-0-312-35220-2}}.</ref>
* The name "Maya" in [[Amharic language|Amharic]] means "a lens that helps to see further".
* In the [[Nepali language]], ''Maya'' means "love".
* In [[Old Persian]] the name means "generous".
* In the [[Tupi language]], spoken by Brazilian native Indians, it means "mother", while ''Mayara'' means "grandmother".<ref>[http://www.dicionariodenomesproprios.com.br/maya/ Entry "Maya"] at ''Dicionario de nomes proprios''.</ref>
* ''Maia'' in the [[Māori language]], means "courage" or "bravery",<ref>[https://maoridictionary.co.nz/word/3523 Entry] in the ''Maori dictionary'' online.</ref> popular for [[Māori people|Māori]] girls in [[New Zealand]].<ref>[http://www.stuff.co.nz/waikato-times/news/8873863/Most-popular-Maori-baby-names-for-2012 ''Most popular Maori baby names for 2012'']</ref>
* The name may be a variant form of the [[Greek language|Greek]] [[theonym]] [[Maia (mythology)|Maia]] (Μαῖα in [[Ancient Greek language|Ancient Greek]]), the eldest of the [[Pleiades (mythology)|Pleiades]] and the mother of [[Hermes]] in [[Greek mythology|Greek]] and [[Roman mythology]].
* Variously spelled ''Maia'' or ''Maja'', it can also be used as a short form of [[Maria (given name)|Maria]] or [[Mary (given name)|Mary]] in Germany, the [[Scandinavia|Scandinavian countries]], and various East European and Balkan countries.
* ''Maya'' is also used as a short form for the name [[Amalia (given name)|Amalia]] or the [[Basque language|Basque]] name Amaia or Amaya (meaning "the end") in [[Spanish language|Spanish-speaking]] countries.
* The name ''Maya'' can also be used as a tribute to the [[Maya peoples]] of southern [[Mexico]] and northern [[Central America]] or to the Maya, a group of [[Indigenous Australians]].

==Notable persons with this name==
* [[Maya (High Priest of Amun)]], a High Priest of Amun until at least year four of Akhenaten
* [[Maya (Treasurer)]] (13th century BC), the treasurer to Pharaohs Tutankhamun, Ay, and Horemheb of Egypt
* [[Maya Ali]] (b. 1989), Pakistani actress and model
* [[Maya Angelou]] (1928–2014), African-American author and poet
* [[M.I.A. (artist)|Mathangi "Maya" Arulpragasam]] (b. 1975), better known as M.I.A., British singer/rapper
*[[Maya Kalle-Bentzur]] (born 1958), Israeli Olympic runner and long jumper
* [[Maya Berović]] (b. 1987), Bosnian pop star
* [[Maya Bond]] (b. 2000), Japanese American singer
* [[Maya Bouskilla]] (b. 1977), Israeli singer
* [[Maya Days]], American singer
* [[Maya Deren]] (1917-1961), American avant-garde filmmaker
* [[Maya Diab]] (born 1980), Lebanese singer
* [[Maya Dolas]] (1966-1991), Indian gangster
* [[Maya Gabeira]] (b. 1987), Brazilian surfer
* [[Maya Hawke]] (born 1998), American actress
* [[Maya Kazan]] (b. 1986), American actress and director
* [[Maya Kulenovic]] (b. 1975), Canadian artist
* [[Maya Lin]] (b. 1959), American architect and sculptor, designer of the Vietnam Veterans Memorial
* [[Maya Mishalska]] (b. 1974), Mexican actress
* [[Maya Moore]] (b. 1989), American basketball player
* [[Maya Nasri]] (b. 1976), Lebanese singer
* [[Maya Plisetskaya]] (1925–2015), Soviet born ballet dancer
* [[Maya Ritter]] (b. 1993), Canadian actress
* [[Maya Rudolph]] (b. 1972), American actress and ''Saturday Night Live'' cast member
* [[Maya Simantov]] (b. 1982), Israeli singer
* [[Maya Soetoro-Ng]] (b. 1970), half-sister of U.S. President Barack Obama
* [[Maya Stojan]] (b. 1984), Swiss actress
*[[Maya Tskitishvili]] (born 1974), Georgian economist and politician
* [[Maya Vik]] (b. 1980), Norwegian singer
*[[Maya Wiley]] (b. 1964), American civil rights activist
* [[Maya Yoshida]] (b. 1988), Japanese professional footballer
* [[Maya (singer)]] (born 1979), K-Pop singer
* [[Maya (musician)]] (born 1979), vocalist of Japanese visual kei band LM.C
* [[Maja Włoszczowska]] (born 1983), Polish mountain biker, two-time Olympic silver medalist

== Fictional characters named Maya ==
* ''[[Maya the Bee]]'', the main character of the 1912 German children's book ''The Adventures of Maya the Bee'' and its various adaptions
* [[Maya (comics)]], an Indian DC Comics super-heroine
* Maya, the alter ego of the Marvel Comics superhero [[Paragon (comics)#Paragon (Maya)|Paragon]]
* Maya, the original name given to [[Aelita (Code Lyoko)|Aelita]] in the French animated TV series ''Code Lyoko''
* [[Maya (Azumanga Daioh)]], a minor character in the shōnen manga ''Azumanga Daioh''
* [[Maya (Is the Order a Rabbit?)|Maya (''Is the Order a Rabbit?'')]], a character in the manga series ''Is the Order a Rabbit?''
* Maya, one of the main characters in the ''[[Redakai: Conquer the Kairu]]'' franchise
* [[List of Neon Genesis Evangelion characters#Maya Ibuki|Maya Ibuki]], a minor character in the ''Neon Genesis Evangelion'' franchise
* Maya Santos, a character from the children's animated series ''[[Maya & Miguel]]''
* [[Maya St. Germain]], a secondary character in the ''[[Pretty Little Liars (book series)|Pretty Little Liars]]'' series of young-adult novels
* Maya, one of the main characters in Hiroki Endo's manga series ''[[Eden: It's an Endless World!]]''
* Maya, fictional CIA intelligence analyst who tracked down [[Osama bin Laden]] from the film ''[[Zero Dark Thirty]]''
* Maya Yamoto, drummer of the band Pastel＊Palettes from the ''[[BanG Dream!]]'' franchise

=== Live action TV ===
* Maya Mehrotra/Maya Arjun Sharma, the lead character from the [[Sony Entertainment Television India]] drama series, ''[[Beyhadh]]''
* [[Maya (Power Rangers)|Maya (''Power Rangers'')]], the Yellow Ranger in ''Power Rangers: Lost Galaxy''
* [[Maya (Space: 1999)|Maya]], an alien character on the television series ''Space: 1999''
* [[Maya Chinn]], a character from the American daytime soap opera ''Passions''
* Maya Fisher, a character from the HBO TV show ''[[Six Feet Under (TV series)|Six Feet Under]]''
* Maya Gallo, a character in the NBC sitcom ''[[Just Shoot Me!#Maya Gallo|Just Shoot Me]]''
* [[Maya Herrera]], a character in the NBC drama series, ''Heroes''
* Maya Wilkes, a character from the American sitcom ''[[Girlfriends (U.S. TV series)#Main characters|Girlfriends]]''
* Maya the Magnificent, the title elephant of the 1966 film and 1967 TV series ''[[Maya (U.S. TV series)|Maya]]''
* Maya, a [[List of minor characters in Battlestar Galactica (2004 TV series)#Maya|minor character in ''Battlestar Galactica'']]
* [[Maya Avant]], a character from ''The Bold and the Beautiful''
* [[List of Degrassi: The Next Generation characters#M|Maya Matlin]], a character in the teen drama ''[[Degrassi: The Next Generation]]''
* Maya Hart, a character in the Disney channel show ''[[Girl Meets World]]''

=== Games ===
* [[Maya (Killer Instinct)|Maya (''Killer Instinct'')]], a character from video game ''Killer Instinct 2''
* [[Maya Amano]], a player character from videogame ''Persona 2''
* [[Maya Do'Urden]], a sister of Drizzt Do'Urden in ''Forgotten Realms''
* [[Maya Fey]], a secondary character in the Ace Attorney franchise.
* Maya, one of the six playable characters in the video game ''[[Borderlands 2]]''
* Maya Ocean, one of the four pre-made mermaids in ''[[The Sims 3: Island Paradise]]''
* Maya Torres, one of the playable characters in ''[[State of Decay (video game)|State Of Decay]]''

==See also==
*[[Maia (name)]]
*[[Maja (given name)]]
*[[Mia (given name)]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

{{given name}}

[[Category:Feminine given names]]
[[Category:Arabic feminine given names]]
[[Category:English feminine given names]]
[[Category:Indian feminine given names]]
[[Category:Pakistani feminine given names]]
[[Category:Spanish feminine given names]]

Delphic maxims

2019-08-18T08:14:56Z

Cyon: /* 147 Delphic maxims as cited by Stobaeus */ a deleted maxim restored

[[File:KineasInscriptionSharp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Stone block with a portion of the Delphic Maxims. [[Ai-Khanoum]], [[Afghanistan]], 2nd century BCE.]]
{{Ancient Greek religion}}
The '''Delphic maxims''' are a set of 147 [[aphorisms]] inscribed at [[Delphi]]. Originally, they were said to have been given by the [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]] [[Apollo]]'s [[Pythia|Oracle at Delphi]] and were therefore attributed to Apollo himself.<ref>[http://www.temenostheon.com/delphic-maxims/ Temenos Theon – The Delphic Maxims]</ref> The [[5th century]] scholar [[Stobaeus]] later attributed them to the [[Seven Sages of Greece]].<ref>Leslie Kurke, ''Aesopic Conversations: Popular Tradition, Cultural Dialogue, and the Invention of Greek Prose'', Princeton University Press, 2010, p. 109.</ref> Contemporary scholars, however, hold that their original authorship is uncertain and that 'most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages.'<ref>H. Parke and D. Wormell, ''The Delphic Oracle'', (Basil Blackwell, 1956), vol. 1, p. 389.</ref> Perhaps the most famous of these maxims is '[[know thyself]],' which was carved into the [[Delphi#Temple_of_Apollo|Temple of Apollo at Delphi]]. The specific order and wording of each maxim varies between different versions (and translations) of the text.

==Ai-Khanoum inscription==
In the ruins of the Hellenistic city of [[Ai-Khanoum]] (former [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]], and modern [[Afghanistan]]), on a [[Herõon]] (funerary monument) identified in Greek as the tomb of Kineas (also described as the ''[[oikistes]]'' (founder) of the Greek settlement) and dated to 300-250 BCE, an inscription has been found describing part of the Delphic maxims (maxims 143 to 147):

:παῖς ὢν κόσμιος γίνου,
:ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής,
:μέσος δίκαιος,
:πρεσβύτης εὔβουλος,
:τελευτῶν ἄλυπος.<ref name="academia.edu">[https://www.academia.edu/25638818 Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries], Shane Wallace, 2016, p.215</ref>

:''"Païs ôn kosmios ginou (As children, learn good manners)
:''hèbôn enkratès, (as young men, learn to control the passions)
:''mesos dikaios (in middle age, be just)
:''presbutès euboulos (in old age, give good advice)
:''teleutôn alupos. (then die, without regret.)"''

The precepts were placed by a Greek named Clearchos, who may or may not have been [[Clearchus of Soli]] the disciple of [[Aristotle]],<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/25638818 Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries], Shane Wallace, 2016, p.217</ref> who, according to the same inscription, had copied them from [[Delphi]]:

:ἀνδρῶν τοι σοφὰ ταῦτα παλαιοτέρων ἀνάκει[τα]ι
:ῥήματα ἀριγνώτων Πυθοὶ ἐν ἠγαθέαι·
:ἔνθεν ταῦτ[α] Κλέαρχος ἐπιφραδέως ἀναγράψας
:εἵσατο τηλαυγῆ Κινέου ἐν τεμένει.<ref name="academia.edu"/>

:''"These wise commandments of men of old
:''- Words of well-known thinkers - stand dedicated
:''In the most holy Pythian shrine
:''From there Klearchos, having copied them carefully, set them up, shining from afar, in the sanctuary of Kineas"''

==147 Delphic maxims as cited by Stobaeus==
[[File:Temple of Apollo in Delphi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Temple of Apollo at Delphi]], by Albert Tournaire.]]
{{unreferenced section|date=May 2019}}
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="3"|147 Delphic maxims
|-
!No.||Greek||English
|-
|001.||Ἕπου θεῷ||Follow God
|-
|002.||Νόμῳ πείθου||Obey the law
|-
|003.||Θεοὺς σέβου||Respect the Gods
|-
|004.||Γονεῖς αἰδοῦ||Respect your parents
|-
|005.||Ἡττῶ ὑπὸ δικαίου||Be overcome by justice
|-
|006.||Γνῶθι μαθών||Know what you have learned
|-
|007.||Ἀκούσας νόει||Perceive what you have heard
|-
|008.||Σαυτὸν ἴσθι||Be/Know yourself
|-
|009.||Γαμεῖν μέλλε||Intend to get married
|-
|010.||Καιρὸν γνῶθι||Know your opportunity
|-
|011.||Φρόνει θνητά||Think as a mortal
|-
|012.||Ξένος ὢν ἴσθι||If you are a stranger act like one
|-
|013.||Ἑστίαν τίμα||Honor the house
|-
|014.||Ἄρχε σεαυτοῦ||Control yourself
|-
|015.||Φίλοις βοήθει||Help your friends
|-
|016.||Θυμοῦ κράτει||Control anger
|-
|017.||Φρόνησιν ἄσκει||Exercise prudence
|-
|018.||Πρόνοιαν τίμα||Honor providence
|-
|019.||Ὅρκῳ μὴ χρῶ||Do not use an oath
|-
|020.||Φιλίαν ἀγάπα||Love friendship
|-
|021.||Παιδείας ἀντέχου||Cling to discipline
|-
|022.||Δόξαν δίωκε||Pursue honor
|-
|023.||Σοφίαν ζήλου||Long for wisdom
|-
|024.||Καλὸν εὖ λέγε||Praise the good
|-
|025.||Ψέγε μηδένα||Find fault with no one
|-
|026.||Ἐπαίνει ἀρετήν||Praise virtue
|-
|027.||Πρᾶττε δίκαια||Practice what is just
|-
|028.||Φίλοις εὐνόει||Favor friends
|-
|029.||Ἐχθροὺς ἀμύνου||Defend against enemies
|-
|030.||Εὐγένειαν ἄσκει||Exercise nobility of character
|-
|031.||Κακίας ἀπέχου||Shun evil
|-
|032.||Κοινὸς γίνου||Be impartial
|-
|033.||Ἴδια φύλαττε||Guard what is yours
|-
|034.||Ἀλλοτρίων ἀπέχου||Shun what belongs to others
|-
|035.||Ἄκουε πάντα||Listen to everyone
|-
|036.||Εὔφημος ἴσθι||Have good reputation
|-
|037.||Φίλῳ χαρίζου||Do a favor for a friend
|-
|038.||Μηδὲν ἄγαν||Nothing to excess
|-
|039.||Χρόνου φείδου||Use time sparingly
|-
|040.||Ὅρα τὸ μέλλον||Foresee the future
|-
|041.||Ὕβριν μίσει||Despise insolence
|-
|042.||Ἱκέτας αἰδοῦ||Have respect for suppliants
|-
|043.||Πᾶσιν ἁρμόζου||Be accommodating in everything
|-
|044.||Υἱοὺς παίδευε||Educate your sons
|-
|045.||Ἔχων χαρίζου||Give what you have
|-
|046.||Δόλον φοβοῦ||Fear deceit
|-
|047.||Εὐλόγει πάντας||Speak well of everyone
|-
|048.||Φιλόσοφος γίνου||Be a seeker of wisdom
|-
|049.||Ὅσια κρῖνε||Choose what is divine
|-
|050.||Γνοὺς πρᾶττε||Act when you know
|-
|051.||Φόνου ἀπέχου||Shun murder
|-
|052.||Εὔχου δυνατά||Wish for things possible
|-
|053.||Σοφοῖς χρῶ||Consult the wise
|-
|054.||Ἦθος δοκίμαζε||Test the character
|-
|055.||Λαβὼν ἀπόδος||Give back what you have received
|-
|056.||Ὑφορῶ μηδένα||Down-look no one
|-
|057.||Τέχνῃ χρῶ||Use your skill
|-
|058.||Ὃ μέλλεις, δός||Do what you mean to do
|-
|059.||Εὐεργεσίας τίμα||Honor a benefaction
|-
|060.||Φθόνει μηδενί||Be jealous of no one
|-
|061.||Φυλακῇ πρόσεχε||Be on your guard
|-
|062.||Ἐλπίδα αἴνει||Praise hope
|-
|063.||Διαβολὴν μίσει||Despise a slanderer
|-
|064.||Δικαίως κτῶ||Gain possessions justly
|-
|065.||Ἀγαθοὺς τίμα||Honor good men
|-
|066.||Κριτὴν γνῶθι||Know the judge
|-
|067.||Γάμους κράτει||Master wedding-feasts
|-
|068.||Τύχην νόμιζε||Recognize fortune
|-
|069.||Ἐγγύην φεῦγε||Flee a pledge
|-
|070.||Ἁπλῶς διαλέγου||Speak plainly
|-
|071.||Ὁμοίοις χρῶ||Associate with your peers
|-
|072.||Δαπανῶν ἄρχου||Govern your expenses
|-
|073.||Κτώμενος ἥδου||Be happy with what you have
|-
|074.||Αἰσχύνην σέβου||Revere a sense of shame
|-
|075.||Χάριν ἐκτέλει||Fulfill a favor
|-
|076.||Εὐτυχίαν εὔχου||Pray for happiness
|-
|077.||Τύχην στέργε||Be fond of fortune
|-
|078.||Ἀκούων ὅρα||Observe what you have heard
|-
|079.||Ἐργάζου κτητά||Work for what you can own
|-
|080.||Ἔριν μίσει||Despise strife
|-
|081.||Ὄνειδος ἔχθαιρε||Detest disgrace
|-
|082.||Γλῶτταν ἴσχε||Restrain the tongue
|-
|083.||Ὕβριν ἀμύνου||Keep yourself from insolence
|-
|084.||Κρῖνε δίκαια||Make just judgements
|-
|085.||Χρῶ χρήμασιν||Use what you have
|-
|086.||Ἀδωροδόκητος δίκαζε||Judge incorruptibly
|-
|087.||Αἰτιῶ παρόντα||Accuse one who is present
|-
|088.||Λέγε εἰδώς|||Tell when you know
|-
|089.||Βίας μὴ ἔχου||Have no violence
|-
|090.||Ἀλύπως βίου||Live without sorrow
|-
|091.||Ὁμίλει πρᾴως||Live together meekly
|-
|092.||Πέρας ἐπιτέλει μὴ ἀποδειλιῶν||Finish the race without shrinking back
|-
|093.||Φιλοφρόνει πᾶσιν||Deal kindly with everyone
|-
|094.||Υἱοῖς μὴ καταρῶ||Do not curse your sons
|-
|095.||Γυναικὸς ἄρχε||Initiate / lead / guide your wife
|-
|096.||Σεαυτὸν εὖ ποίει||Benefit yourself
|-
|097.||Εὐπροσήγορος γίνου||Be courteous
|-
|098.||Ἀποκρίνου ἐν καιρῷ||Give a timely response
|-
|099.||Πόνει μετ’ εὐκλείας||Struggle with glory
|-
|100.||Πρᾶττε ἀμετανοήτως||Act without repenting
|-
|101.||Ἁμαρτάνων μετανόει||Repent of sins
|-
|102.||Ὀφθαλμοῦ κράτει||Control the eye
|-
|103.||Βουλεύου χρόνῳ||Give a timely counsel
|-
|104.||Πρᾶττε συντόμως||Act quickly
|-
|105.||Φιλίαν φύλαττε||Guard friendship
|-
|106.||Εὐγνώμων γίνου||Be grateful
|-
|107.||Ὁμόνοιαν δίωκε||Pursue harmony
|-
|108.||Ἄρρητον κρύπτε||Keep deeply the top secret
|-
|109.||Τὸ κρατοῦν φοβοῦ||Fear ruling
|-
|110.||Τὸ συμφέρον θηρῶ||Pursue what is profitable
|-
|111.||Καιρὸν προσδέχου||Accept due measure
|-
|112.||Ἔχθρας διάλυε||Do away with enmities
|-
|113.||Γῆρας προσδέχου||Accept old age
|-
|114.||Ἐπὶ ῥώμῃ μὴ καυχῶ||Do not boast in might
|-
|115.||Εὐφημίαν ἄσκει||Exercise (religious) silence
|-
|116.||Ἀπέχθειαν φεῦγε||Flee enmity
|-
|117.||Πλούτει δικαίως||Acquire wealth justly
|-
|118.||Δόξαν μὴ λεῖπε||Do not abandon honor
|-
|119.||Κακίαν μίσει||Despise evil
|-
|120.||Κινδύνευε φρονίμως||Venture into danger prudently
|-
|121.||Μανθάνων μὴ κάμνε||Do not tire of learning
|-
|122.||Φειδόμενος μὴ λεῖπε||Do not stop to be thrifty
|-
|123.||Χρησμοὺς θαύμαζε||Admire oracles
|-
|124.||Οὓς τρέφεις, ἀγάπα||Love whom you rear
|-
|125.||Ἀπόντι μὴ μάχου||Do not oppose someone absent
|-
|126.||Πρεσβύτερον αἰδοῦ||Respect the elder
|-
|127.||Νεώτερον δίδασκε||Teach a youngster
|-
|128.||Πλούτῳ ἀπίστει||Do not trust wealth
|-
|129.||Σεαυτὸν αἰδοῦ||Respect yourself
|-
|130.||Μὴ ἄρχε ὑβρίζειν||Do not begin to be insolent
|-
|131.||Προγόνους στεφάνου||Crown your ancestors
|-
|132.||Θνῆσκε ὑπὲρ πατρίδος||Die for your country
|-
|133||Τῷ βίῳ μὴ ἄχθου||Do not be discontented by life
|-
|134.||Ἐπὶ νεκρῷ μὴ γέλα||Do not make fun of the dead
|-
|135.||Ἀτυχοῦντι συνάχθου||Share the load of the unfortunate
|-
|136.||Χαρίζου ἀβλαβῶς||Gratify without harming
|-
|137.||Μὴ ἐπὶ παντὶ λυποῦ||Grieve for no one
|-
|138.||Ἐξ εὐγενῶν γέννα||Beget from noble routes
|-
|139.||Ἐπαγγέλλου μηδενί||Make promises to no one
|-
|140.||Φθιμένους μὴ ἀδίκει||Do not wrong the dead
|-
|141.||Εὖ πάσχε ὡς θνητός||Be well off as a mortal
|-
|142.||Τύχῃ μὴ πίστευε||Do not trust fortune
|-
|143.||Παῖς ὢν κόσμιος ἴσθι||As a child be well-behaved
|-
|144.||Ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής||As a youth be self-disciplined
|-
|145.||Μέσος δίκαιος||As of middle-age be just
|-
|146.||Πρεσβύτης εὔλογος||As an old man be sensible
|-
|147.||Τελευτῶν ἄλυπος||On reaching the end be without sorrow
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Hellenismos }}
* [[Know thyself]]
* [[List of oracular statements from Delphi]]
* [[Via media]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* [[Stobaeus]], ''Anth.'' 3.1.173
* [http://www.john-uebersax.com/delphi/delphi5.htm John Uebersax – Sentences of the Seven Sages]
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://users.uoa.gr/~nektar/history/1antiquity/ancient_hellenic_wisdom.htm Ancient Hellenic wisdom– Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.fysis.cz/presokratici/7mudrcu/Sosiad.pdf Fysis.cz – Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.hellenion.org/essays-on-hellenic-polytheism/delphic-maxims/ 2018 English translation by Melissa Gold of Hellenion]

[[Category:Ancient Greek religion]]
[[Category:Aphorisms]]

Ethnic cleansing

2019-08-18T07:17:22Z

Cyon: /* Etymology */ adding a spiritus lenis - a diacritic mark - as appropriate for an ancient Greek term

{{About|the general process|the video game|Ethnic Cleansing (video game)}}
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'''Ethnic cleansing''' is the systematic forced removal of [[Ethnic group|ethnic]], racial and/or religious groups from a given territory by a more powerful ethnic group, often with the intent of making it ethnically [[homogeneous]].<ref>{{cite book |first=James M. |last=Rubenstein |title=The Cultural Landscape: An Introduction to Human Geography |publisher=Pearson |year=2008 |isbn=9780131346819}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} The forces applied may be various forms of [[forced migration]] ([[deportation]], [[population transfer]]), intimidation, as well as [[genocide]] and [[genocidal rape]].

Ethnic cleansing is usually accompanied with efforts to remove physical and cultural evidence of the targeted group in the territory through the destruction of homes, social centers, farms, and infrastructure, and by the desecration of monuments, cemeteries, and places of worship.

[[File:Пиотровский. батакская резня. 1889 год.jpeg|thumb|Ethnic cleansing by the [[Ottoman Empire|Turk]]s in [[Bulgaria]] during the [[Batak massacre]].]]

Although ethnic cleansing has occurred long through history, the term was initially used by the perpetrators during the [[Yugoslav Wars]] and cited in this context as a euphemism akin to that of Nazi Germany's "[[Final Solution]]", by the 1990s, and gained widespread acceptance due to journalism and the media's heightened use of the term in its generic meaning.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= Thum |first1= Gregor |year= 2006–2007 |title= Ethnic Cleansing in Eastern Europe after 1945 |journal= Contemporary European History |volume= 19 |issue=1 |pages= 75–81 |doi=10.1017/S0960777309990257 |url= }}</ref>

== Etymology ==
An antecedent to the term is the Greek word ''andrapodismos'' ({{lang-gr|ἀνδραποδισμός}}; lit. "enslavement"), which was used in ancient texts to describe atrocities that accompanied [[Alexander the Great]]'s conquest of [[Thebes, Egypt|Thebes]] in 335 BC.<ref name="Booth">{{cite book|first=Ken |last=Booth|year=2012|title=The Kosovo Tragedy: The Human Rights Dimensions|publisher=Routledge|location=London|isbn=978-1-13633-476-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e4MsBgAAQBAJe|p=48}}</ref> In the early 1900s, regional variants of the term could be found among the Czechs ''(očista)'', the Poles ''(czystki etniczne)'', the French ''(épuration)'' and the Germans ''(Säuberung)''.<ref>{{cite book |first=Philip |last=Ther |editor1=Rainer Munz |editor2=Rainer Ohliger |year=2004 |title=Diasporas and Ethnic Migrants: Germany, Israel and Russia in Comparative Perspective |chapter=The Spell of the Homogeneous Nation State: Structural Factors and Agents of Ethnic Cleansing |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-1-13575-938-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kEOQAgAAQBAJ|ref=harv}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} A 1913 [[Carnegie Endowment]] report condemning the actions of all participants in the [[Balkan Wars]] contained various new terms to describe brutalities committed toward ethnic groups.<ref>{{cite journal|url=https://balkanologie.revues.org/2365|title=The Two Carnegie Reports: From the Balkan Expedition of 1913 to the Albanian Trip of 1921|first=Nadine|last=Akhund|date=December 31, 2012|publisher=|journal=Balkanologie. Revue d'études pluridisciplinaires|issue=Vol. XIV, n° 1–2|via=balkanologie.revues.org}}</ref>

[[File:Lipniki massacre.jpg|thumb|right|[[Massacres of Poles in Volhynia]] in 1943. Most [[Poles]] of Volhynia (now in Ukraine) had either been murdered or had fled the area.]]
During [[World War II]], the euphemism ''čišćenje terena'' ("cleansing the terrain") was used by the Croatian [[Ustaše]] to describe military actions in which non-Croats were purposely killed or otherwise uprooted from their homes.<ref name="Toal">{{cite book|last1=Toal|first1=Gerard|last2=Dahlman|first2=Carl T.|title=Bosnia Remade: Ethnic Cleansing and Its Reversal|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=New York|year=2011|isbn= 978-0-19-973036-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Q1TrvGxJeasC|p=3}}</ref> [[Viktor Gutić]], a senior Ustaše leader, was one of the first Croatian nationalists on record to use the term as a euphemism for committing atrocities against [[Serbs]].<ref>{{cite book|first=Richard |last=West|year=1994|title=Tito and the Rise and Fall of Yugoslavia|publisher=Carroll & Graf|location=New York|isbn=978-0-7867-0332-6|p=93}}</ref> The term was later used in the internal memorandums of Serbian [[Chetniks]] in reference to a number of retaliatory massacres they committed against [[Bosniaks]] and [[Croats]] between 1941 and 1945.<ref>{{cite book|first=Edina |last=Becirevic|year=2014|title=Genocide on the River Drina|publisher=Yale University Press|location=New Haven, Connecticut|isbn=978-0-3001-9258-2|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N0X4AwAAQBAJ|pp=22–23}}</ref> The Russian phrase очистка границ (''ochistka granits''; lit. "cleansing of borders") was used in Soviet documents of the early 1930s to refer to the forced resettlement of Polish people from the {{convert|22|km|adj=on}} [[Border Security Zone of Russia|border zone]] in the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian]] and [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSRs]]. This process was repeated on an even larger scale in 1939–41, involving many other groups suspected of disloyalty towards the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="martin"/> During [[The Holocaust]], [[Nazi Germany]] pursued a policy of ensuring that Europe was "cleansed of Jews" ''([[Judenrein]])''.<ref>{{cite book|first=Mary |last=Fulbrooke|year=2004|title=A Concise History of Germany|publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Cambridge|isbn=978-0-52154-071-1|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zFBu8ujJWzkC|p=197}}</ref>

In its complete form, the term appeared for the first time in the Romanian language (''purificare etnică'') in an address by Vice Prime Minister [[Mihai Antonescu]] to cabinet members in July 1941. After the beginning of the invasion of the USSR,{{clarify|date=October 2017}} he concluded: “I do not know when the Romanians will have such chance for ethnic cleansing."<ref>{{Cite book|title=Ethnopolitical Temptations Reach Southeastern Europe: Wartime Policy Papers of Vasa Čubrilović and Sabin Manuilă|last=Petrovic|first=Vladimir|publisher=CEU Press|year=2017|isbn=|location=|pages=}}</ref> In the 1980s, the Soviets used the term "ethnic cleansing" to describe the inter-ethnic violence in [[Nagorno-Karabakh]].<ref name="Booth"/> At around the same time, the Yugoslav media used it to describe what they alleged was an Albanian nationalist plot to force all Serbs to leave [[Kosovo]]. It was widely popularized by the Western media during the [[Bosnian War]] (1992–95). The first recorded mention of its use in the Western media can be traced back to an article in ''[[The New York Times]]'' dated 15 April 1992, in a quote by an anonymous Western diplomat.<ref name="Toal"/>

Synonyms include ''ethnic purification''.<ref>{{cite journal |first=Drazen |last=Petrovic |url=http://www.ejil.org/pdfs/5/1/1247.pdf |title=Ethnic Cleansing – An Attempt at Methodology |journal=European Journal of International Law |volume=5 |issue=3 |year=1994 |page=343 |access-date=May 20, 2006 |quote=In English, reference is also made to 'ethnic purification'.}}</ref>

== Definitions ==
[[File:Rwandan Genocide Murambi bodies.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|[[Rwandan Genocide]] Murambi bodies]]
The Final Report of the Commission of Experts established pursuant to [[Security Council Resolution 780]] defined ethnic cleansing as "a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas".<ref name="SCRes780-Report-130">{{cite web |title=Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992) |date=May 27, 1994 |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/1994/674 |publisher=United Nations Security Council |format=PDF |page=33  |quote=Upon examination of reported information, specific studies and investigations, the Commission confirms its earlier view that 'ethnic cleansing' is a purposeful policy designed by one ethnic or religious group to remove by violent and terror-inspiring means the civilian population of another ethnic or religious group from certain geographic areas. To a large extent, it is carried out in the name of misguided nationalism, historic grievances and a powerful driving sense of revenge. This purpose appears to be the occupation of territory to the exclusion of the purged group or groups. This policy and the practices of warring factions are described separately in the following paragraphs.}} Paragraph 130.</ref> In its previous, first interim report it noted, "[b]ased on the many reports describing the policy and practices conducted in the former [[Yugoslavia]], [that] 'ethnic cleansing' has been carried out by means of murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extra-judicial executions, [[war rape|rape]] and sexual assaults, confinement of civilian population in ghetto areas, forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian population, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and wanton destruction of property. Those practices constitute [[crimes against humanity]] and can be assimilated to specific [[war crime]]s. Furthermore, such acts could also fall within the meaning of the [[Genocide Convention]]."<ref>{{cite web |title=Final Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to United Nations Security Council Resolution 780 (1992) |date=May 27, 1994 |url=https://www.un.org/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=S/1994/674 |publisher=United Nations Security Council |format=PDF |page=33}} Paragraph 129</ref>

The official United Nations definition of ethnic cleansing is "rendering an area ethnically homogeneous by using force or [[intimidation]] to remove from a given area persons of another ethnic or religious group".<ref>Hayden, Robert M. (1996) [https://www.jstor.org/stable/2501233 "Schindler's Fate: Genocide, Ethnic Cleansing, and Population Transfers"]. ''[[Slavic Review]]'' 55 (4), 727–48.</ref>

As a category, ethnic cleansing encompasses a continuum or spectrum of policies. In the words of [[Andrew Bell-Fialkoff]]:<blockquote>[E]thnic cleansing [...] defies easy definition. At one end it is virtually indistinguishable from forced emigration and population exchange while at the other it merges with deportation and genocide. At the most general level, however, ethnic cleansing can be understood as the expulsion of a population from a given territory''.<ref>Andrew Bell-Fialkoff, [http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html "A Brief History of Ethnic Cleansing"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040203000000/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html |date=February 3, 2004 }}, ''Foreign Affairs'' 72 (3): 110, Summer 1993. Retrieved May 20, 2006.</ref></blockquote>

[[Terry Martin (publisher)|Terry Martin]] has defined ethnic cleansing as "the forcible removal of an ethnically defined population from a given territory" and as "occupying the central part of a continuum between genocide on one end and nonviolent pressured ethnic emigration on the other end".<ref name="martin">Martin, Terry (1998). [https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/235168 "The Origins of Soviet Ethnic Cleansing"]. ''[[The Journal of Modern History]]'' 70 (4), 813–861. pg. 822</ref>

In reviewing the [[International Court of Justice]] (ICJ) [[Bosnian Genocide Case]] in the judgement of [[Jorgic v. Germany]] on July 12, 2007 the [[European Court of Human Rights]] quoted from the ICJ ruling on the ''Bosnian Genocide Case'' to draw a distinction between ''ethnic cleansing'' and ''genocide'':
{{quote|The term 'ethnic cleansing' has frequently been employed to refer to the events in Bosnia and Herzegovina which are the subject of this case ... [UN] General Assembly resolution 47/121 referred in its Preamble to 'the abhorrent policy of "ethnic cleansing", which is a form of genocide', as being carried on in Bosnia and Herzegovina. ... It [i.e., ethnic cleansing] can only be a form of genocide within the meaning of the [Genocide] Convention, if it corresponds to or falls within one of the categories of acts prohibited by Article II of the Convention. Neither the intent, as a matter of policy, to render an area "ethnically homogeneous", nor the operations that may be carried out to implement such policy, can ''as such'' be designated as genocide: the intent that characterizes genocide is "to destroy, in whole or in part" a particular group, and deportation or displacement of the members of a group, even if effected by force, is not necessarily equivalent to destruction of that group, nor is such destruction an automatic consequence of the displacement. This is not to say that acts described as 'ethnic cleansing' may never constitute genocide, if they are such as to be characterized as, for example, 'deliberately inflicting on the group conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part', contrary to Article II, paragraph (c), of the Convention, provided such action is carried out with the necessary specific intent (''dolus specialis''), that is to say with a view to the destruction of the group, as distinct from its removal from the region. As the ICTY has observed, while 'there are obvious similarities between a genocidal policy and the policy commonly known as 'ethnic cleansing' (''Krstić'', IT-98-33-T, Trial Chamber Judgment, 2 August 2001, para. 562), yet '[a] clear distinction must be drawn between physical destruction and mere dissolution of a group. The expulsion of a group or part of a group does not in itself suffice for genocide.' |ECHR quoting the ICJ.<ref>[[European Court of Human Rights|ECHR]] [http://hudoc.echr.coe.int/eng?i=001-81608 ''Jorgic v. Germany''] §45 citing ''Bosnia and Herzegovina v. Serbia and Montenegro'' ("Case concerning application of the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide"), the International Court of Justice (ICJ) found under the heading of “intent and ‘ethnic cleansing’” (at § 190)</ref>}}

== As a crime under international law ==

There is no international treaty that specifies a specific crime of ethnic cleansing.<ref>{{cite book |first=Ward |last=Ferdinandusse |url=http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol15/No5/9.pdf |title=The Interaction of National and International Approaches in the Repression of International Crimes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705180121/http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol15/No5/9.pdf |archive-date=July 5, 2008 |journal=The European Journal of International Law |volume=15 |number=5 |year=2004 |p=1042, note 7.}}</ref> However, ethnic cleansing in the broad sense—the forcible deportation of a population—is defined as a [[crime against humanity]] under the statutes of both [[International Criminal Court]] (ICC) and the [[International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia]] (ICTY).<ref>[https://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm "Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080113100723/http://www.un.org/law/icc/statute/99_corr/2.htm |date=January 13, 2008 }}, Article 7; [https://www.un.org/icty/legaldoc-e/index.htm ''Updated Statute of the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia''], Article 5.</ref> The gross human-rights violations integral to stricter definitions of ethnic cleansing are treated as separate crimes falling under public international law of [[crimes against humanity]] and in certain circumstances [[genocide]].<ref>{{cite journal |first=Daphna |last=Shraga |first2=Ralph |last2=Zacklin |url=http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol5/No3/art4-01.html |title=The International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927233818/http://www.ejil.org/journal/Vol5/No3/art4-01.html |archive-date=September 27, 2007 |journal=The European Journal of International Law |volume=15 |number=3 |year=2004}}</ref>

There are however situations, such as the [[expulsion of Germans after World War II]], where ethnic cleansing has taken place without legal redress (see [[Preussische Treuhand v. Poland|''Preussische Treuhand'' v. Poland]]). [[Timothy V. Waters]] argues therefore that similar ethnic cleansing could go unpunished in the future.<ref>Timothy V. Waters, [http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4600&context=expresso "On the Legal Construction of Ethnic Cleansing"], Paper 951, 2006, [[University of Mississippi]] School of Law. Retrieved on 2006, 12–13</ref>


== Genocide ==
[[File:Armenianvictimsassault.jpg|thumb|[[Armenian Genocide]] victims]]
Academic discourse considers both [[genocide]] and ethnic cleansing to exist in a spectrum of assaults on nations or religio-ethnic groups. Ethnic cleansing is similar to forced deportation or population transfer whereas genocide is the intentional murder of part or all of a particular ethnic, racial, religious, or national group. While ethnic cleansing and genocide may share the same goal and the acts used to perpetrate both crimes may often resemble each other, ethnic cleansing is intended to displace a persecuted population from a given territory, while genocide is intended to destroy a population.<ref name=Schabas>{{cite book |last=Schabas |first=William |year=2000 |title=Genocide in International Law |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pYptuRHDQPgC&printsec=frontcover |pages=199–201 |isbn=9780521787901}}</ref>

Some academics consider genocide as a subset of "murderous ethnic cleansing".<ref name=Mann>{{cite book |last=Mann |first=Michael |year=2005 |title=The Dark Side of Democracy: Explaining Ethnic Cleansing |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cGHGPgj1_tIC&printsec=frontcover&dq=The+Dark+Side+of+Democracy#v=onepage&q=&f=false |page=17 |isbn=9780521538541}}</ref> Thus, these concepts are different, but related, as Norman Naimark writes: "literally and figuratively, ethnic cleansing bleeds into genocide, as mass murder is committed in order to rid the land of a people".<ref name=MassVio>{{cite encyclopedia |last=Naimark |first=Norman |date=4 November 2007 |url=http://www.massviolence.org/Ethnic-Cleansing |title=Theoretical Paper: Ethnic Cleansing |encyclopedia=Online Encyclopedia of Mass Violence |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160306173512/http://www.massviolence.org/Ethnic-Cleansing |archive-date=6 March 2016}}</ref> William Schabas adds, "Ethnic cleansing is also a warning sign of genocide to come. Genocide is the last resort of the frustrated ethnic cleanser."<ref name="Schabas" />

== As a military, political and economic tactic ==
As a tactic, ethnic cleansing has a number of systemic impacts. It enables a force to eliminate civilian support for resistance by eliminating the civilians—recognizing [[Mao Zedong]]'s dictum that guerrillas among a civilian population are fish in water, it removes the fish by draining the water{{Citation needed|date=May 2010}}. When enforced as part of a political settlement, as happened with the [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II|forced resettlement of ethnic Germans to Germany in its reduced borders]] after 1945, it can contribute to long-term stability.<ref>Judt, Tony. ''Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945'' Penguin Press, 2005</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} Some individuals of the large German population in [[Czechoslovakia]] and prewar [[Poland]] had encouraged Nazi [[jingoism]] before the Second World War, but this was forcibly resolved.<ref>Tony Judt ''Postwar: A History of Europe Since 1945'' Penguin Press, 2005.</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} It thus establishes "[[facts on the ground]]"—radical demographic changes which can be very hard to reverse.

=== Silent ethnic cleansing ===
{{More citations needed|date=August 2017}}

The term silent ethnic cleansing was coined in the mid-1990s by some observers of the [[Yugoslav Wars]]{{Citation needed|date=May 2019}}. Apparently concerned with Western media representations of atrocities committed in the conflict—which generally focused on those perpetrated by the Serbs—atrocities committed against [[Serbs]] were dubbed "silent" on the grounds that they did not receive adequate coverage.<ref>Krauthammer, Charles: "When Serbs Are 'Cleansed,' Moralists Stay Silent", ''International Herald Tribune'', August 12, 1995.</ref>

== Instances ==
{{Main|List of ethnic cleansing campaigns}}
In many cases where accusations of ethnic cleansing have circulated, partisans have fiercely disputed such an interpretation and the details of the events which have been described as ethnic cleansing by academic or legal experts. This often leads to the promotion of vastly different versions of the event in question. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thinkprogress.org/fake-news-human-rights-abuse-9695ded5dadd/|title=Governments are using Trump’s fake news claim to hide ‘ethnic cleansing’|language=en-US|access-date=2019-02-27}}</ref>

=== Armenia, 1914–1923 ===
{{Main|Armenian Genocide}}
During the beginning of [[World War I]] in 1914, following defeats by the Russian army due to a lack of proper leadership and preparation, the government of the [[Ottoman Empire]] banished all Armenian soldiers in desperation based on the belief that they were the ones to blame for the defeats.<ref name=":0">Suny, R. (2005). Ethnic cleansing: Armenia. In M. J. Gibney, & R. Hansen (Eds.), ''Immigration and asylum from 1900 to present'' (). Santa Barbara, CA, USA: ABC-CLIO. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://proxy.library.georgetown.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/abcmigrate/ethnic_cleansing_armenia/0</nowiki></ref> What began as a military tactic, eventually, lead to a brutal genocide of the ethnic Armenian population that was living in Turkey beginning with the execution of male Armenians and eventually ending with the forced deportation of Armenian women and children.<ref>Jones, A. (2010). The Armenian genocide. ''Genocide: A comprehensive introduction'' (). London, UK: Routledge. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://proxy.library.georgetown.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/routgenocide/the_armenian_genocide/0</nowiki></ref> It is estimated that around 800,000 to 1 million ethnic Armenians living in Turkey were either executed or forcibly deported during World War 1.<ref name=":0" /> The Armenian Genocide has been recognized as a genocide by most scholars and nations due to its deliberate targeting of ethnic Armenians and the brutal fashion in which it was implemented and it has also been viewed as an act of ethnic cleansing due to the Ottoman government's desire to remove a specific ethnicity from its territory.<ref>Frey, R. J. (2009). ''Genocide and international justice''. New York: Facts On File. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=022300460&sequence=000001&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</nowiki></ref>

=== Germany, 1933–1945 ===
{{Main|The Holocaust}}
Recognized as one of the most extreme cases of ethnic cleansing in history, the Holocaust was the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi regime]]'s [[mass murder]] of about 6 million [[Jews]] during [[World War II]].<ref name=":1">Berenbaum, M. (2006). ''The world must know'' (second edition ed.). Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.</ref> Accomplished in stages, the Holocaust began with [[Anti-Jewish legislation in pre-war Nazi Germany|legislation to remove Jews from German society before World War II]]. [[Nazi concentration camps|Concentration]] and [[extermination camp]]s were then created to incarcerate and execute the millions of Jews who were living in Germany and most of them were either shot, killed in [[gas chamber]]s, or [[Extermination through labour|worked to death]].<ref name=":1" /> Killing approximately 90 percent of the Jews who were living in Poland and 87 percent of the Jews who were living in Germany and Austria, the Nazi regime's motives, the horrific ways in which its victims were executed, and the number of ethnic Jews who were murdered make the Holocaust one of the clearest and least disputed cases of ethnic cleansing in history.<ref>Dawidowicz, L. S. (1986). ''The war against the jews'' (10. anniversary ed. ed.). Toronto u.a: Bantam Books. Retrieved from <nowiki>http://bvbr.bib-bvb.de:8991/F?func=service&doc_library=BVB01&local_base=BVB01&doc_number=000321857&sequence=000002&line_number=0001&func_code=DB_RECORDS&service_type=MEDIA</nowiki></ref>

=== Expulsion of German-speakers from Eastern Europe, 1944–1949 ===
{{Main|Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)}}
[[File:Demographics of RSK.jpg|left|thumb|280px|Around August 1991, the leaders of Serb Krajina and Serbia agreed to embark on a campaign which the ICTY prosecutors described as a "joint criminal enterprise" whose purpose "was the forcible removal of the majority of the Croat and other non-Serb population from the occupied territory of the Republic of Croatia.<ref>[http://www.icty.org/sid/7946 Judge Rodrigues confirms Indictment charging Slobodan Milosevic with Crimes committed in Croatia] {{Webarchive|url=https://www.webcitation.org/684XQrlmk?url=http://www.icty.org/sid/7946 |date=31 May 2012 }}. International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia. Retrieved 13 September 2009.</ref> The Croatian population suffered heavily, fleeing or evicted with numerous killings, leading to ethnic cleansing.<ref name="ICTY evidence">[http://usinfo.state.gov/dhr/Archive/2004/Jan/29-319268.html ICTY evidence; Babic pleads guilty to crimes] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061109115648/https://usinfo.state.gov/dhr/Archive/2004/Jan/29-319268.html |date=9 November 2006 }}</ref> The bulk of the fighting occurred between August and December 1991 when approximately 80,000 Croats were expelled (and some were killed). The total number of exiled Croats and other non-Serbs range from 170,000 (ICTY)<ref>
{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/10/world/milosevic-indicted-again-is-charged-with-crimes-in-croatia.html?scp=1&sq=milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87%20170000&st=cse|title=Milosevic, Indicted Again, Is Charged With Crimes in Croatia|author=Marlise Simons|accessdate=26 December 2010|date=10 October 2001|publisher=New York Times|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130520112601/http://www.nytimes.com/2001/10/10/world/milosevic-indicted-again-is-charged-with-crimes-in-croatia.html?scp=1&sq=milo%C5%A1evi%C4%87%20170000&st=cse|archive-date=20 May 2013|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}}
</ref> up to a quarter of a million people ([[Human Rights Watch]]).<ref>
{{cite web|url=https://www.hrw.org/en/news/2001/10/28/milosevic-important-new-charges-croatia|title=Milosevic: Important New Charges on Croatia|accessdate=29 October 2010|date=21 October 2001|publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225134329/http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2001/10/28/milosevic-important-new-charges-croatia|archive-date=25 December 2010|dead-url=no|df=dmy-all}}
</ref>]]

[[File:Abkhazia genocide anniversary 2005.jpg|upright=1.2|thumb|The 12th anniversary exhibition of ethnic cleansing in [[Abkhazia]], which was held in [[Tbilisi]] in 2005.]]Following World War II, from 1944 to 1949, approximately 14 million Germans were forcibly removed from Central and Eastern Europe, from areas where Germans had been a minority since the [[Middle Ages]], as well as from specific regions, particularly, from present-day [[Czech Republic|Czechia]], present-day western and north-eastern [[Poland]] and the [[Kaliningrad Oblast]] where Germans constituted the vast majority of the population.<ref>Hansen, R., & Ohliger, R. (2005). Ethnic cleansing: Germans from central and eastern Europe. In M. J. Gibney, & R. Hansen (Eds.), ''Immigration and asylum from 1900 to present'' (). Santa Barbara, CA, USA: ABC-CLIO. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://proxy.library.georgetown.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/abcmigrate/ethnic_cleansing_germans_from_central_and_eastern_europe/0</nowiki></ref> Although the removal primarily consisted of a forced migration, approximately 2 million Germans were killed during the migration either by starvation, poor weather conditions, or beatings and murder at the hands of troops and mobs that consisted of Russians, Poles, Czechs or other locals.<ref name=":2">Prauser, S. (2004). ''The expulsion of the "German" communities from eastern Europe at the end of the second world war''. Badia Fiesolana, San Domenico (FI): European University Institute, Florence, Department of History and Civilization.</ref> The ethnic cleansing of Germans in Eastern and Central Europe was an outpouring of the hatred and negative sentiment towards Germans that was a result of the inhumane acts which the Nazi regime committed during the course of World War II and it was also justified by the desire of European governments to turn their countries into more ethnically homogenous nation-states, <ref name=":2" /> and to this end, the post-war borders of [[Poland]] comprised close to a [[Territorial changes of Poland immediately after World War II|quarter of Germany's pre-war territory]]. Many Germans, prior to their expulsion, were interned in [[Forced labor of Germans after World War II|labor camps]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2019}} While ethnic cleansing gained virulence due to Nazi Germany's policies, it is claimed that the [[Flight and expulsion of Germans (1944–1950)|expulsion of ethnic Germans from all over Eastern Europe]] was the largest scale of ethnic cleansing in history.<ref> {{cite book|title=Uprooted: How Breslau Became Wroclaw during the Century of Expulsions|author=Gregor Thum|publisher=Princeton University Press}}</ref>

=== Bosnia & Herzegovina, 1990–1993 ===
{{Main|Ethnic cleansing in the Bosnian War}}
During the [[Bosnian War]] which lasted from 1992–1995, many civilians fell victim to the ethnic cleansing that was committed by Bosnian Serbs, Bosnian Croats, and Bosnian Muslims. All three ethnic groups sought to create their own ethnically homogenous territories within Bosnia and Herzegovina and as a result of the conflict, about 2,700,000 people within the country were displaced.<ref>"Bosnia: Dayton Accords". ''www.nytimes.com''.</ref> The methods which were used during the Bosnian ethnic cleansing campaigns included "murder, torture, arbitrary arrest and detention, extra-judicial executions, rape and sexual assaults, the confinement of civilian populations in ghetto areas, the forcible removal, displacement and deportation of civilian populations, deliberate military attacks or threats of attacks on civilians and civilian areas, and the wanton destruction of property".<ref>Report of the Commission of Experts Established Pursuant to [[United Nations Security Council Resolution 780]] (1992), 27 May 1994 (S/1994/674), English page=33, Paragraph 129</ref> Creating the largest flow of internally displaced citizens since World War II, the ethnic cleansing that occurred in Bosnia and Herzegovina during the 1990s is still apparent in the ethnically homogeneous regions of Bosnian Serbs, Croats, and Muslims that exist in modern day Bosnia with politicians attempting to obstruct the undoing of the ethnic cleansing that took place during the war.<ref>Nielsen, C. (2005a). Ethnic cleansing: Bosnia-herzegovina. In M. J. Gibney, & R. Hansen (Eds.), ''Immigration and asylum from 1900 to present'' (). Santa Barbara, CA, USA: ABC-CLIO. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://proxy.library.georgetown.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/abcmigrate/ethnic_cleansing_bosnia_herzegovina/0</nowiki></ref>

=== Georgia, 1992–1993 ===
{{Main|Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia}}
From 1992 through 1993, during the [[War in Abkhazia (1992–93)|Georgian-Abkhaz conflict]], the armed [[Abkhazia|Abkhaz]] [[separatist]] insurgency implemented a campaign of [[Ethnic cleansing of Georgians in Abkhazia|ethnic cleansing]] against the large population of ethnic Georgians.{{Citation needed|date=June 2010|reason=Without an NEUTRAL expert opinion this sentence is OR. Who says it was ethnic cleansing}} This was actually a case in which a minority was trying to drive out a majority, rather than a case in which a majority was trying to drive out a minority, because Georgians were the single largest ethnic group in pre-war Abkhazia, with a 45.7% plurality as of 1989.<ref>US State Department, ''Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1993, Abkhazia case''.</ref> As a result of this deliberate campaign of ethnic cleansing by the Abkhaz separatists, more than 250,000 ethnic Georgians were forced to flee, and approximately 30,000 people were killed in incidents that involved massacres and expulsions.<ref>{{cite book|title=Conflict in the Caucasus: Georgia, Abkhazia, and the Russian Shadow|last=Chervonnaia|first=Svetlana Mikhailovna|publisher=Gothic Image Publications|year=1994|asin=B0029XE6WO}}</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}}<ref>US State Department,''Country Reports on Human Rights Practices for 1993'', February 1994, Chapter 17.</ref>{{page needed|date=September 2016}} This was recognized as ethnic cleansing by [[Organization for Security and Co-operation in Europe]] conventions, and was also mentioned in [[UN General Assembly Resolution]] GA/10708.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.un.org/News/Press/docs//2008/ga10708.doc.htm|title="General Assembly Adopts Resolution Recognizing Right Of Return By Refugees, Internally Displaced Persons To Abkhazia, Georgia"|publisher=}}</ref>[[File:Kutupalong Refugee Camp (John Owens-VOA).jpg|thumb|right|[[Rohingya refugees in Bangladesh|Rohingya refugees]] from [[Myanmar]], March 2017]]

=== Myanmar, 2016–present ===
{{Main|2016 Rohingya persecution in Myanmar}}
Since 2016, [[Myanmar]]'s military-dominated government has forced over 620,000 ethnic Rohingya who live in the Rakhine state of northwest Myanmar to flee to neighboring [[Bangladesh]].<ref>Rohingya ethnic cleansing. (2018). In Helicon (Ed.), ''The hutchinson unabridged encyclopedia with atlas and weather guide'' (). Abington, UK: Helicon. Retrieved from <nowiki>https://proxy.library.georgetown.edu/login?url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/heliconhe/rohingya_ethnic_cleansing/0</nowiki></ref> The Rohingya are a group of about 1 million Muslims who live in the Rakhine state but they are denied citizenship and considered illegal immigrants and as a result, they have been subjected to persecution and discrimination by the government of Myanmar and Buddhist nationalists.<ref>"Myanmar seeking ethnic cleansing, says UN official as Rohingya flee persecution". ''The Guardian''. 24 November 2016. Archived from the original on 10 December 2016. Retrieved 11 December 2016.</ref> Myanmar's government has cracked down on the Rohingya people and forced them to migrate to Bangladesh through violent actions, with rape, arson, and murder being reported.<ref>Broomfield, Matt (10 December 2016). "UN calls on Burma's Aung San Suu Kyi to halt 'ethnic cleansing' of Rohingya Muslims". ''[[The Independent]]''. Archived from the original on 11 December 2016. Retrieved 12 December 2016.</ref> UN human rights chief Zeid Ra'ad Al Hussein has stated that “The situation seems to be a textbook example of ethnic cleansing” while governments across the world have called on Myanmar's government to take control of the situation and stop the ethnic cleansing of the Rohingya people.<ref>Stephanie Nebehay and Simon Lewis. "U.N. brands Myanmar violence a 'textbook' example of ethnic cleansing". ''Reuters''. Retrieved 14 September 2017.</ref>

== Criticism of the term ==
[[Gregory Stanton]], the founder of [[Genocide Watch]], has criticised the rise of the term and its use for events that he feels should be called "genocide": because "ethnic cleansing" has no legal definition, its media use can detract attention from events that should be prosecuted as genocide.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Blum |first=Rony |last2=Stanton |first2=Gregory H. |last3=Sagi |first3=Shira |last4=Richter |first4=Elihu D. |title='Ethnic cleansing' bleaches the atrocities of genocide |journal=European Journal of Public Health |year=2007 |volume=18 |issue=2 |pmid=17513346 |pages=204–209 |doi=10.1093/eurpub/ckm011 }}</ref><ref>See also "Ethnic Cleansing and Genocidal Intent: A Failure of Judicial Interpretation?", ''Genocide Studies and Prevention'' 5, 1 (April 2010), Douglas Singleterry</ref> Because of widespread acceptance after media influence, it has become a word used legally, but carries no legal repercussions. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://definitions.uslegal.com/e/ethnic-cleansing/|title=Ethnic Cleansing Law and Legal Definition {{!}} USLegal, Inc.|website=definitions.uslegal.com|access-date=2019-02-27}}</ref>

In 1992, the German equivalent of "ethnic cleansing" ({{lang-de|Ethnische Säuberung}}) was named [[Un-word of the year|German Un-Word of the Year]] by the ''[[Gesellschaft für deutsche Sprache]]'' due to its euphemistic, inappropriate nature.<ref>{{cite news |first=Christoph |last=Gunkel |date=October 31, 2010 |url=http://einestages.spiegel.de/external/ShowTopicAlbumBackground/a23795/l18/l0/F.html#featuredEntry |work=[[Spiegel Online]] |title=Ein Jahr, ein (Un-)Wort! |language=de |trans-title=One year, one (un)word!}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Genocide}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Communal violence]]
* [[Crimes against humanity]]
* ''[[Ethnic Cleansing (video game)|Ethnic Cleansing]]'', a computer game
* [[Ethnocide]]
* [[Eugenics]]
* [[Genocidal massacre]]
* [[Identity cleansing]]
* [[Indian Removal Act]]
* [[Missouri Executive Order 44]]
* [[Monoethnicity]]
* [[Population transfer]]
* [[Religious cleansing]]
* [[Rule of Law in Armed Conflicts Project (RULAC)]]
* [[Social cleansing]]
* [[State collapse]]
* [[Transmigration program]]
{{div col end}}

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

== References ==
* {{cite journal|doi=10.2307/20045626 |last=Bell-Fialkoff |first=Andrew |title=A Brief History of Ethnic Cleansing |journal=Foreign Affairs |volume=72 |issue=3 |year=1993 |url=http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html |jstor=20045626 |pages=110–121 |deadurl=yes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040203190219/http://www.foreignaffairs.org/19930601faessay5199/andrew-bell-fialkoff/a-brief-history-of-ethnic-cleansing.html |archive-date=February 3, 2004 }}
* {{cite journal |last=Petrovic |first=Drazen |title=Ethnic Cleansing – An Attempt at Methodology |journal=European Journal of International Law |volume=5 |issue=4 |year=1998 |page=817 |url=http://www.ejil.org/pdfs/5/1/1247.pdf }}
* Vladimir Petrović (2007), [http://www.komunikacija.org.rs/komunikacija/casopisi/Hereticus/V_1/02/show_download?stdlang=ser_lat Etnicizacija čišćenja u reči i nedelu] (Ethnicisation of Cleansing), Hereticus 1/2007, 11–36

== Further reading ==
* Anderson, Gary Clayton. ''Ethnic Cleansing and the Indians: The Crime that Should Haunt America''. Norman, Oklahoma: University of Oklahoma Press, 2014.
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: ''Nemesis at Potsdam'', Routledge, London 1977.
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: ''A Terrible Revenge''. Palgrave/Macmillan, New York, 1994. {{ISBN|1-4039-7308-3}}.
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: ''Die deutschen Vertriebenen''. Leopold Stocker, Graz, 2006. {{ISBN|3-902475-15-3}}.
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: ''Heimatrecht ist Menschenrecht''. Universitas, München 2001. {{ISBN|3-8004-1416-3}}.
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: "The Right to One's Homeland, Ethnic Cleansing and the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia", ''Criminal Law Forum'' (2005)
* de Zayas, Alfred M.: "Forced Population Transfer" in Max Planck ''Encyclopedia of Public International Law'', Oxford online 2010.
* {{cite book|title=Ethnic cleansing in the Balkans: nationalism and the destruction of tradition|first1=Cathie|last1=Carmichael|edition=Illustrated|publisher=Routledge|year=2002|isbn=0-415-27416-8 |id={{ISBN|9780415274166}}}}
* Douglas, R. M.: ''Orderly and Humane: The Expulsion of the Germans after the Second World War. Yale University Press, 2012'' {{ISBN|978-0300166606}}.
* Prauser, Steffen and Rees, Arfon: ''The Expulsion of the "German" Communities from Eastern Europe at the End of the Second Century''. Florence, Italy, European University Institute, 2004.
* {{cite journal |last=Sundhaussen |first=Holm |title=Forced Ethnic Migration |journal=[[European History Online]]| year=2010 |url= http://nbn-resolving.de/urn:nbn:de:0159-20100921728 }}
* {{Cite book|ref=harv|last=Štrbac|first=Savo|authorlink=Savo Štrbac|title=Gone with the Storm: A Chronicle of Ethnic Cleansing of Serbs from Croatia|year=2015|location=Knin-Banja Luka-Beograd|publisher=Grafid, DIC Veritas|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uSqBnQAACAAJ}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|ethnic cleansing}}
{{wiktionary|ethnic cleansing}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081223022127/http://www.read-all-about-it.org/genocide/table_of_contents.html Genocide of The Ethnic Germans in Yugoslavia 1944–1948]
* [http://www.ryanspencerreed.com/ Photojournalist's Account] – Images of ethnic cleansing in Sudan
* [http://law.bepress.com/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=4600&context=expresso Timothy V. Waters, ''On the Legal Construction of Ethnic Cleansing''], Paper 951, 2006, [[University of Mississippi]] School of Law (PDF)
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070701211321/http://www.world-science.net/exclusives/070525_ethnic-cleansing.htm ''Dump the "ethnic cleansing" jargon, group implores''] May 31, 2007, World Science
* {{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/special_report/1998/kosovo2/307261.stm |title=Ethnic cleansing: Revival of an old tradition |first=Jan |last=Repa |date=March 29, 1999 |work=BBC News}}

{{Racism topics|state=collapsed}}
{{Ethnicity}}
{{Segregation by type}}
{{Genocide topics}}
{{Nationalism}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ethnic Cleansing}}
[[Category:Ethnic cleansing| ]]
[[Category:Collective punishment]]
[[Category:Discrimination]]
[[Category:Euphemisms]]
[[Category:Ethnic conflict]]
[[Category:Forced migration]]
[[Category:Human rights abuses]]
[[Category:Persecution]]
[[Category:Racism]]
[[Category:Violence]]

Powałczyn

2019-08-14T11:22:34Z

Cyon:

{{Infobox settlement
| name = Powałczyn
| settlement_type = Village
| total_type =  
| image_skyline =
| image_caption =
| image_flag =
| image_shield =
| image_map =
| subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]
| subdivision_name = {{flag icon|Poland}} [[Poland]]
| subdivision_type1 = [[Voivodeships of Poland|Voivodeship]]
| subdivision_name1 = [[Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship|Warmian-Masurian]]
| subdivision_type2 = [[Powiat|County]]
| subdivision_name2 = [[Szczytno County|Szczytno]]
| subdivision_type3 = [[Gmina]]
| subdivision_name3 = [[Gmina Świętajno, Szczytno County|Świętajno]]
| coordinates = {{coord|53|39|N|21|11|E|region:PL|display=inline}}
| pushpin_map = Poland
| pushpin_label_position = bottom
| elevation_m =
| population_total =
| website = http://www.powalczyn.tnb.pl }}
'''Powałczyn''' {{IPAc-pl|p|o|'|w|a|U|cz|y|n}} ({{lang-de|Powalczin}}, in 1938 germanized to ''Schönhöhe'')<ref name="Former Territory of Germany">{{cite web|url=http://gov.genealogy.net/item/show/SCHOHEKO03OP|title=Former Territory of Germany|date=2017-11-13|language=German}}</ref> is a [[village]] in the administrative district of [[Gmina Świętajno, Szczytno County|Gmina Świętajno]], within [[Szczytno County]], [[Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship]], in northern Poland.<ref name="TERYT">{{cite web |url=http://www.stat.gov.pl/broker/access/prefile/listPreFiles.jspa |title=Central Statistical Office (GUS) - TERYT (National Register of Territorial Land Apportionment Journal) |date=2008-06-01 |language=Polish}}</ref> It lies approximately {{convert|10|km|mi|0}} north of [[Świętajno, Szczytno County|Świętajno]], {{convert|17|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} north-east of [[Szczytno]], and {{convert|48|km|mi|0|abbr=on}} east of the regional capital [[Olsztyn]].

Before 1945 the area was part of Germany ([[East Prussia]]).

==References==
{{reflist}}

 
{{Gmina Świętajno, Szczytno County}}
{{coord|53|39|N|21|11|E|region:PL_type:city|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Powalczyn}}
[[Category:Villages in Szczytno County]]

{{Szczytno-geo-stub}}

Delphic maxims

2019-04-06T09:16:55Z

Cyon: /* 147 Delphic maxims according to Stobaeus */

[[File:KineasInscriptionSharp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Stone block with a portion of the Delphic Maxims. [[Ai-Khanoum]], [[Afghanistan]], 2nd century BCE.]]
{{Ancient Greek religion}}
The '''Delphic maxims''' are a set of 147 [[aphorisms]] inscribed at [[Delphi]]. Originally, they were said to have been given by the [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]] [[Apollo]]'s [[Pythia|Oracle at Delphi]] and were therefore attributed to Apollo himself.<ref>[http://www.temenostheon.com/delphic-maxims/ Temenos Theon – The Delphic Maxims]</ref> The [[5th century]] scholar [[Stobaeus]] later attributed them to the [[Seven Sages of Greece]].<ref>Leslie Kurke, ''Aesopic Conversations: Popular Tradition, Cultural Dialogue, and the Invention of Greek Prose'', Princeton University Press, 2010, p. 109.</ref> Contemporary scholars, however, hold that their original authorship is uncertain and that 'most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages.'<ref>H. Parke and D. Wormell, ''The Delphic Oracle'', (Basil Blackwell, 1956), vol. 1, p. 389.</ref> Perhaps the most famous of these maxims is '[[know thyself]],' which was carved into the [[Delphi#Temple_of_Apollo|Temple of Apollo at Delphi]]. The specific order and wording of each maxim varies between different versions (and translations) of the text.

==Ai-Khanoum inscription==
In the ruins of the Hellenistic city of [[Ai-Khanoum]] (former [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]], and modern [[Afghanistan]]), on a [[Herõon]] (funerary monument) identified in Greek as the tomb of Kineas (also described as the ''[[oikistes]]'' (founder) of the Greek settlement) and dated to 300-250 BCE, an inscription has been found describing part of the Delphic maxims (maxims 143 to 147):

:παῖς ὢν κόσμιος γίνου,
:ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής,
:μέσος δίκαιος,
:πρεσβύτης εὔβουλος,
:τελευτῶν ἄλυπος.<ref name="academia.edu">[https://www.academia.edu/25638818 Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries], Shane Wallace, 2016, p.215</ref>

:''"Païs ôn kosmios ginou (As children, learn good manners)
:''hèbôn enkratès, (as young men, learn to control the passions)
:''mesos dikaios (in middle age, be just)
:''presbutès euboulos (in old age, give good advice)
:''teleutôn alupos. (then die, without regret.)"''

The precepts were placed by a Greek named Clearchos, who may or may not have been [[Clearchus of Soli]] the disciple of [[Aristotle]],<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/25638818 Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries], Shane Wallace, 2016, p.217</ref> who, according to the same inscription, had copied them from [[Delphi]]:

:ἀνδρῶν τοι σοφὰ ταῦτα παλαιοτέρων ἀνάκει[τα]ι
:ῥήματα ἀριγνώτων Πυθοὶ ἐν ἠγαθέαι·
:ἔνθεν ταῦτ[α] Κλέαρχος ἐπιφραδέως ἀναγράψας
:εἵσατο τηλαυγῆ Κινέου ἐν τεμένει.<ref name="academia.edu"/>

:''"These wise commandments of men of old
:''- Words of well-known thinkers - stand dedicated
:''In the most holy Pythian shrine
:''From there Klearchos, having copied them carefully, set them up, shining from afar, in the sanctuary of Kineas"''

==147 Delphic maxims as cited by Stobaeus==
[[File:Temple of Apollo in Delphi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Temple of Apollo at Delphi]], by Albert Tournaire.]]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="3"|147 Delphic maxims
|-
!No.||Greek||English
|-
|001.||Ἕπου θεῷ||Follow God
|-
|002.||Νόμῳ πείθου||Obey the law
|-
|003.||Θεοὺς σέβου||Respect the Gods
|-
|004.||Γονεῖς αἰδοῦ||Respect your parents
|-
|005.||Ἡττῶ ὑπὸ δικαίου||Be overcome by justice
|-
|006.||Γνῶθι μαθών||Know what you have learned
|-
|007.||Ἀκούσας νόει||Perceive what you have heard
|-
|008.||Σαυτὸν ἴσθι||Be/Know yourself
|-
|009.||Γαμεῖν μέλλε||Intend to get married
|-
|010.||Καιρὸν γνῶθι||Know your opportunity
|-
|011.||Φρόνει θνητά||Think as a mortal
|-
|012.||Ξένος ὢν ἴσθι||If you are a stranger act like one
|-
|013.||Ἑστίαν τίμα||Honor the hearth (or Hestia)
|-
|014.||Ἄρχε σεαυτοῦ||Control yourself
|-
|015.||Φίλοις βοήθει||Help your friends
|-
|016.||Θυμοῦ κράτει||Control anger
|-
|017.||Φρόνησιν ἄσκει||Exercise prudence
|-
|018.||Πρόνοιαν τίμα||Honor providence
|-
|019.||Ὅρκῳ μὴ χρῶ||Do not use an oath
|-
|020.||Φιλίαν ἀγάπα||Love friendship
|-
|021.||Παιδείας ἀντέχου||Cling to discipline
|-
|022.||Δόξαν δίωκε||Pursue honor
|-
|023.||Σοφίαν ζήλου||Long for wisdom
|-
|024.||Καλὸν εὖ λέγε||Praise the good
|-
|025.||Ψέγε μηδένα||Find fault with no one
|-
|026.||Ἐπαίνει ἀρετήν||Praise virtue
|-
|027.||Πρᾶττε δίκαια||Practice what is just
|-
|028.||Φίλοις εὐνόει||Be kind to friends
|-
|029.||Ἐχθροὺς ἀμύνου||Watch out for your enemies
|-
|030.||Εὐγένειαν ἄσκει||Exercise nobility of character
|-
|031.||Κακίας ἀπέχου||Shun evil
|-
|032.||Κοινὸς γίνου||Be impartial
|-
|033.||Ἴδια φύλαττε||Guard what is yours
|-
|034.||Αλλοτρίων ἀπέχου||Shun what belongs to others
|-
|035.||Ἄκουε πάντα||Listen to everyone
|-
|036.||Εὔφημος ἴσθι||Be (religiously) silent
|-
|037.||Φίλῳ χαρίζου||Do a favor for a friend
|-
|038.||Μηδὲν ἄγαν||Nothing to excess
|-
|039.||Χρόνου φείδου||Use time sparingly
|-
|040.||Ὅρα τὸ μέλλον||Foresee the future
|-
|041.||Ὕβριν μίσει||Despise insolence
|-
|042.||Ἱκέτας αἰδοῦ||Have respect for suppliants
|-
|043.||Πᾶσιν ἁρμόζου||Be accommodating in everything
|-
|044.||Υἱοὺς παίδευε||Educate your sons
|-
|045.||Ἔχων χαρίζου||Give what you have
|-
|046.||Δόλον φοβοῦ||Fear deceit
|-
|047.||Εὐλόγει πάντας||Speak well of everyone
|-
|048.||Φιλόσοφος γίνου||Be a seeker of wisdom
|-
|049.||Ὅσια κρῖνε||Choose what is divine
|-
|050.||Γνοὺς πρᾶττε||Act when you know
|-
|051.||Φόνου ἀπέχου||Shun murder
|-
|052.||Εὔχου δυνατά||Pray for things possible
|-
|053.||Σοφοῖς χρῶ||Consult the wise
|-
|054.||Ἦθος δοκίμαζε||Test the character
|-
|055.||Λαβὼν ἀπόδος||Give back what you have received
|-
|056.||Ὑφορῶ μηδένα||Down-look no one
|-
|057.||Τέχνῃ χρῶ||Use your skill
|-
|058.||Ὃ μέλλεις, δός||Do what you mean to do
|-
|059.||Εὐεργεσίας τίμα||Honor a benefaction
|-
|060.||Φθόνει μηδενί||Be jealous of no one
|-
|061.||Φυλακῇ πρόσεχε||Be on your guard
|-
|062.||Ἐλπίδα αἴνει||Praise hope
|-
|063.||Διαβολὴν μίσει||Despise a slanderer
|-
|064.||Δικαίως κτῶ||Gain possessions justly
|-
|065.||Ἀγαθοὺς τίμα||Honor good men
|-
|066.||Κριτὴν γνῶθι||Know the judge
|-
|067.||Γάμους κράτει||Master wedding-feasts
|-
|068.||Τύχην νόμιζε||Recognize fortune
|-
|069.||Ἐγγύην φεῦγε||Flee a pledge
|-
|070.||Ἁπλῶς διαλέγου||Speak plainly
|-
|071.||Ὁμοίοις χρῶ||Associate with your peers
|-
|072.||Δαπανῶν ἄρχου||Govern your expenses
|-
|073.||Κτώμενος ἥδου||Be happy with what you have
|-
|074.||Αἰσχύνην σέβου||Revere a sense of shame
|-
|075.||Χάριν ἐκτέλει||Fulfill a favor
|-
|076.||Εὐτυχίαν εὔχου||Pray for happiness
|-
|077.||Τύχην στέργε||Be fond of fortune
|-
|078.||Ἀκούων ὅρα||Observe what you have heard
|-
|079.||Ἐργάζου κτητά||Work for what you can own
|-
|080.||Ἔριν μίσει||Despise strife
|-
|081.||Ὄνειδος ἔχθαιρε||Detest disgrace
|-
|082.||Γλῶτταν ἴσχε||Restrain the tongue
|-
|083.||Ὕβριν ἀμύνου||Keep yourself from insolence
|-
|084.||Κρῖνε δίκαια||Make just judgements
|-
|085.||Χρῶ χρήμασιν||Use what you have
|-
|086.||Ἀδωροδόκητος δίκαζε||Judge incorruptibly
|-
|087.||Αἰτιῶ παρόντα||Accuse one who is present
|-
|088.||Λέγε εἰδώς|||Tell when you know
|-
|089.||Βίας μὴ ἔχου||Do not depend on strength
|-
|090.||Ἀλύπως βίου||Live without sorrow
|-
|091.||Ὁμίλει πρᾴως||Live together meekly
|-
|092.||Πέρας ἐπιτέλει μὴ ἀποδειλιῶν||Finish the race without shrinking back
|-
|093.||Φιλοφρόνει πᾶσιν||Deal kindly with everyone
|-
|094.||Υἱοῖς μὴ καταρῶ||Do not curse your sons
|-
|095.||Γυναικὸς ἄρχε||Initiate / lead / guide your wife
|-
|096.||Σεαυτὸν εὖ ποίει||Benefit yourself
|-
|097.||Εὐπροσήγορος γίνου||Be courteous
|-
|098.||Ἀποκρίνου ἐν καιρῷ||Give a timely response
|-
|099.||Πόνει μετ’ εὐκλείας||Struggle with glory
|-
|100.||Πρᾶττε ἀμετανοήτως||Act without repenting
|-
|101.||Ἁμαρτάνων μετανόει||Repent of sins
|-
|102.||Ὀφθαλμοῦ κράτει||Control the eye
|-
|103.||Βουλεύου χρόνῳ||Give a timely counsel
|-
|104.||Πρᾶττε συντόμως||Act quickly
|-
|105.||Φιλίαν φύλαττε||Guard friendship
|-
|106.||Εὐγνώμων γίνου||Be grateful
|-
|107.||Ὁμόνοιαν δίωκε||Pursue harmony
|-
|108.||Ἄρρητον κρύπτε||Keep deeply the top secret
|-
|109.||Τὸ κρατοῦν φοβοῦ||Fear ruling
|-
|110.||Τὸ συμφέρον θηρῶ||Pursue what is profitable
|-
|111.||Καιρὸν προσδέχου||Accept due measure
|-
|112.||Ἔχθρας διάλυε||Do away with enmities
|-
|113.||Γῆρας προσδέχου||Accept old age
|-
|114.||Ἐπὶ ῥώμῃ μὴ καυχῶ||Do not boast in might
|-
|115.||Εὐφημίαν ἄσκει||Exercise (religious) silence
|-
|116.||Ἀπέχθειαν φεῦγε||Flee enmity
|-
|117.||Πλούτει δικαίως||Acquire wealth justly
|-
|118.||Δόξαν μὴ λεῖπε||Do not abandon honor
|-
|119.||Κακίαν μίσει||Despise evil
|-
|120.||Κινδύνευε φρονίμως||Venture into danger prudently
|-
|121.||Μανθάνων μὴ κάμνε||Do not tire of learning
|-
|122.||Φειδόμενος μὴ λεῖπε||Do not stop to be thrifty
|-
|123.||Χρησμοὺς θαύμαζε||Admire oracles
|-
|124.||Οὓς τρέφεις, ἀγάπα||Love whom you rear
|-
|125.||Ἀπόντι μὴ μάχου||Do not oppose someone absent
|-
|126.||Πρεσβύτερον αἰδοῦ||Respect the elder
|-
|127.||Νεώτερον δίδασκε||Teach a youngster
|-
|128.||Πλούτῳ ἀπίστει||Do not trust wealth
|-
|129.||Σεαυτὸν αἰδοῦ||Respect yourself
|-
|130.||Μὴ ἄρχε ὑβρίζειν||Do not begin to be insolent
|-
|131.||Προγόνους στεφάνου||Crown your ancestors
|-
|132.||Θνῆσκε ὑπὲρ πατρίδος||Die for your country
|-
|133||Τῷ βίῳ μὴ ἄχθου||Do not be discontented by life
|-
|134.||Ἐπὶ νεκρῷ μὴ γέλα||Do not make fun of the dead
|-
|135.||Ἀτυχοῦντι συνάχθου||Share the load of the unfortunate
|-
|136.||Χαρίζου ἀβλαβῶς||Gratify without harming
|-
|137.||Μὴ ἐπὶ παντὶ λυποῦ||Grieve for no one
|-
|138.||Ἐξ εὐγενῶν γέννα||Beget from noble routes
|-
|139.||Ἐπαγγέλλου μηδενί||Make promises to no one
|-
|140.||Φθιμένους μὴ ἀδίκει||Do not wrong the dead
|-
|141.||Εὖ πάσχε ὡς θνητός||Be well off as a mortal
|-
|142.||Τύχῃ μὴ πίστευε||Do not trust fortune
|-
|143.||Παῖς ὢν κόσμιος ἴσθι||As a child be well-behaved
|-
|144.||Ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής||As a youth be self-disciplined
|-
|145.||Μέσος δίκαιος||As of middle-age be just
|-
|146.||Πρεσβύτης εὔλογος||As an old man be sensible
|-
|147.||Τελευτῶν ἄλυπος||On reaching the end be without sorrow
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Hellenismos }}
* [[Know thyself]]
* [[List of oracular statements from Delphi]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* [[Stobaeus]], ''Anth.'' 3.1.173
* [http://www.john-uebersax.com/delphi/delphi5.htm John Uebersax – Sentences of the Seven Sages]
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://users.uoa.gr/~nektar/history/1antiquity/ancient_hellenic_wisdom.htm Ancient Hellenic wisdom– Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.fysis.cz/presokratici/7mudrcu/Sosiad.pdf Fysis.cz – Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.hellenion.org/essays-on-hellenic-polytheism/delphic-maxims/ 2018 English translation by Melissa Gold of Hellenion]

[[Category:Ancient Greek religion]]
[[Category:Aphorisms]]

Delphic maxims

2019-04-06T05:08:32Z

Cyon: /* 147 Delphic maxims */

[[File:KineasInscriptionSharp.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Stone block with a portion of the Delphic Maxims. [[Ai-Khanoum]], [[Afghanistan]], 2nd century BCE.]]
{{Ancient Greek religion}}
The '''Delphic maxims''' are a set of 147 [[aphorisms]] inscribed at [[Delphi]]. Originally, they were said to have been given by the [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]] [[Apollo]]'s [[Pythia|Oracle at Delphi]] and were therefore attributed to Apollo himself.<ref>[http://www.temenostheon.com/delphic-maxims/ Temenos Theon – The Delphic Maxims]</ref> The [[5th century]] scholar [[Stobaeus]] later attributed them to the [[Seven Sages of Greece]].<ref>Leslie Kurke, ''Aesopic Conversations: Popular Tradition, Cultural Dialogue, and the Invention of Greek Prose'', Princeton University Press, 2010, p. 109.</ref> Contemporary scholars, however, hold that their original authorship is uncertain and that 'most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages.'<ref>H. Parke and D. Wormell, ''The Delphic Oracle'', (Basil Blackwell, 1956), vol. 1, p. 389.</ref> Perhaps the most famous of these maxims is '[[know thyself]],' which was carved into the [[Delphi#Temple_of_Apollo|Temple of Apollo at Delphi]]. The specific order and wording of each maxim varies between different versions (and translations) of the text.

==Ai-Khanoum inscription==
In the ruins of the Hellenistic city of [[Ai-Khanoum]] (former [[Greco-Bactrian kingdom]], and modern [[Afghanistan]]), on a [[Herõon]] (funerary monument) identified in Greek as the tomb of Kineas (also described as the ''[[oikistes]]'' (founder) of the Greek settlement) and dated to 300-250 BCE, an inscription has been found describing part of the Delphic maxims (maxims 143 to 147):

:παῖς ὢν κόσμιος γίνου,
:ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής,
:μέσος δίκαιος,
:πρεσβύτης εὔβουλος,
:τελευτῶν ἄλυπος.<ref name="academia.edu">[https://www.academia.edu/25638818 Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries], Shane Wallace, 2016, p.215</ref>

:''"Païs ôn kosmios ginou (As children, learn good manners)
:''hèbôn enkratès, (as young men, learn to control the passions)
:''mesos dikaios (in middle age, be just)
:''presbutès euboulos (in old age, give good advice)
:''teleutôn alupos. (then die, without regret.)"''

The precepts were placed by a Greek named Clearchos, who may or may not have been [[Clearchus of Soli]] the disciple of [[Aristotle]],<ref>[https://www.academia.edu/25638818 Greek Culture in Afghanistan and India: Old Evidence and New Discoveries], Shane Wallace, 2016, p.217</ref> who, according to the same inscription, had copied them from [[Delphi]]:

:ἀνδρῶν τοι σοφὰ ταῦτα παλαιοτέρων ἀνάκει[τα]ι
:ῥήματα ἀριγνώτων Πυθοὶ ἐν ἠγαθέαι·
:ἔνθεν ταῦτ[α] Κλέαρχος ἐπιφραδέως ἀναγράψας
:εἵσατο τηλαυγῆ Κινέου ἐν τεμένει.<ref name="academia.edu"/>

:''"These wise commandments of men of old
:''- Words of well-known thinkers - stand dedicated
:''In the most holy Pythian shrine
:''From there Klearchos, having copied them carefully, set them up, shining from afar, in the sanctuary of Kineas"''

==147 Delphic maxims according to Stobaeus==
[[File:Temple of Apollo in Delphi.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Temple of Apollo at Delphi]], by Albert Tournaire.]]
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="3"|147 Delphic maxims
|-
!No.||Greek||English
|-
|001.||Ἕπου θεῷ||Follow God
|-
|002.||Νόμῳ πείθου||Obey the law
|-
|003.||Θεοὺς σέβου||Respect the Gods
|-
|004.||Γονεῖς αἰδοῦ||Respect your parents
|-
|005.||Ἡττῶ ὑπὸ δικαίου||Be overcome by justice
|-
|006.||Γνῶθι μαθών||Know what you have learned
|-
|007.||Ἀκούσας νόει||Perceive what you have heard
|-
|008.||Σαυτὸν ἴσθι||Be/Know yourself
|-
|009.||Γαμεῖν μέλλε||Intend to get married
|-
|010.||Καιρὸν γνῶθι||Know your opportunity
|-
|011.||Φρόνει θνητά||Think as a mortal
|-
|012.||Ξένος ὢν ἴσθι||If you are a stranger act like one
|-
|013.||Ἑστίαν τίμα||Honor the hearth (or Hestia)
|-
|014.||Ἄρχε σεαυτοῦ||Control yourself
|-
|015.||Φίλοις βοήθει||Help your friends
|-
|016.||Θυμοῦ κράτει||Control anger
|-
|017.||Φρόνησιν ἄσκει||Exercise prudence
|-
|018.||Πρόνοιαν τίμα||Honor providence
|-
|019.||Ὅρκῳ μὴ χρῶ||Do not use an oath
|-
|020.||Φιλίαν ἀγάπα||Love friendship
|-
|021.||Παιδείας ἀντέχου||Cling to discipline
|-
|022.||Δόξαν δίωκε||Pursue honor
|-
|023.||Σοφίαν ζήλου||Long for wisdom
|-
|024.||Καλὸν εὖ λέγε||Praise the good
|-
|025.||Ψέγε μηδένα||Find fault with no one
|-
|026.||Ἐπαίνει ἀρετήν||Praise virtue
|-
|027.||Πρᾶττε δίκαια||Practice what is just
|-
|028.||Φίλοις εὐνόει||Be kind to friends
|-
|029.||Ἐχθροὺς ἀμύνου||Watch out for your enemies
|-
|030.||Εὐγένειαν ἄσκει||Exercise nobility of character
|-
|031.||Κακίας ἀπέχου||Shun evil
|-
|032.||Κοινὸς γίνου||Be impartial
|-
|033.||Ἴδια φύλαττε||Guard what is yours
|-
|034.||Αλλοτρίων ἀπέχου||Shun what belongs to others
|-
|035.||Ἄκουε πάντα||Listen to everyone
|-
|036.||Εὔφημος ἴσθι||Be (religiously) silent
|-
|037.||Φίλῳ χαρίζου||Do a favor for a friend
|-
|038.||Μηδὲν ἄγαν||Nothing to excess
|-
|039.||Χρόνου φείδου||Use time sparingly
|-
|040.||Ὅρα τὸ μέλλον||Foresee the future
|-
|041.||Ὕβριν μίσει||Despise insolence
|-
|042.||Ἱκέτας αἰδοῦ||Have respect for suppliants
|-
|043.||Πᾶσιν ἁρμόζου||Be accommodating in everything
|-
|044.||Υἱοὺς παίδευε||Educate your sons
|-
|045.||Ἔχων χαρίζου||Give what you have
|-
|046.||Δόλον φοβοῦ||Fear deceit
|-
|047.||Εὐλόγει πάντας||Speak well of everyone
|-
|048.||Φιλόσοφος γίνου||Be a seeker of wisdom
|-
|049.||Ὅσια κρῖνε||Choose what is divine
|-
|050.||Γνοὺς πρᾶττε||Act when you know
|-
|051.||Φόνου ἀπέχου||Shun murder
|-
|052.||Εὔχου δυνατά||Pray for things possible
|-
|053.||Σοφοῖς χρῶ||Consult the wise
|-
|054.||Ἦθος δοκίμαζε||Test the character
|-
|055.||Λαβὼν ἀπόδος||Give back what you have received
|-
|056.||Ὑφορῶ μηδένα||Down-look no one
|-
|057.||Τέχνῃ χρῶ||Use your skill
|-
|058.||Ὃ μέλλεις, δός||Do what you mean to do
|-
|059.||Εὐεργεσίας τίμα||Honor a benefaction
|-
|060.||Φθόνει μηδενί||Be jealous of no one
|-
|061.||Φυλακῇ πρόσεχε||Be on your guard
|-
|062.||Ἐλπίδα αἴνει||Praise hope
|-
|063.||Διαβολὴν μίσει||Despise a slanderer
|-
|064.||Δικαίως κτῶ||Gain possessions justly
|-
|065.||Ἀγαθοὺς τίμα||Honor good men
|-
|066.||Κριτὴν γνῶθι||Know the judge
|-
|067.||Γάμους κράτει||Master wedding-feasts
|-
|068.||Τύχην νόμιζε||Recognize fortune
|-
|069.||Ἐγγύην φεῦγε||Flee a pledge
|-
|070.||Ἁπλῶς διαλέγου||Speak plainly
|-
|071.||Ὁμοίοις χρῶ||Associate with your peers
|-
|072.||Δαπανῶν ἄρχου||Govern your expenses
|-
|073.||Κτώμενος ἥδου||Be happy with what you have
|-
|074.||Αἰσχύνην σέβου||Revere a sense of shame
|-
|075.||Χάριν ἐκτέλει||Fulfill a favor
|-
|076.||Εὐτυχίαν εὔχου||Pray for happiness
|-
|077.||Τύχην στέργε||Be fond of fortune
|-
|078.||Ἀκούων ὅρα||Observe what you have heard
|-
|079.||Ἐργάζου κτητά||Work for what you can own
|-
|080.||Ἔριν μίσει||Despise strife
|-
|081.||Ὄνειδος ἔχθαιρε||Detest disgrace
|-
|082.||Γλῶτταν ἴσχε||Restrain the tongue
|-
|083.||Ὕβριν ἀμύνου||Keep yourself from insolence
|-
|084.||Κρῖνε δίκαια||Make just judgements
|-
|085.||Χρῶ χρήμασιν||Use what you have
|-
|086.||Ἀδωροδόκητος δίκαζε||Judge incorruptibly
|-
|087.||Αἰτιῶ παρόντα||Accuse one who is present
|-
|088.||Λέγε εἰδώς|||Tell when you know
|-
|089.||Βίας μὴ ἔχου||Do not depend on strength
|-
|090.||Ἀλύπως βίου||Live without sorrow
|-
|091.||Ὁμίλει πρᾴως||Live together meekly
|-
|092.||Πέρας ἐπιτέλει μὴ ἀποδειλιῶν||Finish the race without shrinking back
|-
|093.||Φιλοφρόνει πᾶσιν||Deal kindly with everyone
|-
|094.||Υἱοῖς μὴ καταρῶ||Do not curse your sons
|-
|095.||Γυναικὸς ἄρχε||Initiate / lead / guide your wife
|-
|096.||Σεαυτὸν εὖ ποίει||Benefit yourself
|-
|097.||Εὐπροσήγορος γίνου||Be courteous
|-
|098.||Ἀποκρίνου ἐν καιρῷ||Give a timely response
|-
|099.||Πόνει μετ’ εὐκλείας||Struggle with glory
|-
|100.||Πρᾶττε ἀμετανοήτως||Act without repenting
|-
|101.||Ἁμαρτάνων μετανόει||Repent of sins
|-
|102.||Ὀφθαλμοῦ κράτει||Control the eye
|-
|103.||Βουλεύου χρόνῳ||Give a timely counsel
|-
|104.||Πρᾶττε συντόμως||Act quickly
|-
|105.||Φιλίαν φύλαττε||Guard friendship
|-
|106.||Εὐγνώμων γίνου||Be grateful
|-
|107.||Ὁμόνοιαν δίωκε||Pursue harmony
|-
|108.||Ἄρρητον κρύπτε||Keep deeply the top secret
|-
|109.||Τὸ κρατοῦν φοβοῦ||Fear ruling
|-
|110.||Τὸ συμφέρον θηρῶ||Pursue what is profitable
|-
|111.||Καιρὸν προσδέχου||Accept due measure
|-
|112.||Ἔχθρας διάλυε||Do away with enmities
|-
|113.||Γῆρας προσδέχου||Accept old age
|-
|114.||Ἐπὶ ῥώμῃ μὴ καυχῶ||Do not boast in might
|-
|115.||Εὐφημίαν ἄσκει||Exercise (religious) silence
|-
|116.||Ἀπέχθειαν φεῦγε||Flee enmity
|-
|117.||Πλούτει δικαίως||Acquire wealth justly
|-
|118.||Δόξαν μὴ λεῖπε||Do not abandon honor
|-
|119.||Κακίαν μίσει||Despise evil
|-
|120.||Κινδύνευε φρονίμως||Venture into danger prudently
|-
|121.||Μανθάνων μὴ κάμνε||Do not tire of learning
|-
|122.||Φειδόμενος μὴ λεῖπε||Do not stop to be thrifty
|-
|123.||Χρησμοὺς θαύμαζε||Admire oracles
|-
|124.||Οὓς τρέφεις, ἀγάπα||Love whom you rear
|-
|125.||Ἀπόντι μὴ μάχου||Do not oppose someone absent
|-
|126.||Πρεσβύτερον αἰδοῦ||Respect the elder
|-
|127.||Νεώτερον δίδασκε||Teach a youngster
|-
|128.||Πλούτῳ ἀπίστει||Do not trust wealth
|-
|129.||Σεαυτὸν αἰδοῦ||Respect yourself
|-
|130.||Μὴ ἄρχε ὑβρίζειν||Do not begin to be insolent
|-
|131.||Προγόνους στεφάνου||Crown your ancestors
|-
|132.||Θνῆσκε ὑπὲρ πατρίδος||Die for your country
|-
|133||Τῷ βίῳ μὴ ἄχθου||Do not be discontented by life
|-
|134.||Ἐπὶ νεκρῷ μὴ γέλα||Do not make fun of the dead
|-
|135.||Ἀτυχοῦντι συνάχθου||Share the load of the unfortunate
|-
|136.||Χαρίζου ἀβλαβῶς||Gratify without harming
|-
|137.||Μὴ ἐπὶ παντὶ λυποῦ||Grieve for no one
|-
|138.||Ἐξ εὐγενῶν γέννα||Beget from noble routes
|-
|139.||Ἐπαγγέλλου μηδενί||Make promises to no one
|-
|140.||Φθιμένους μὴ ἀδίκει||Do not wrong the dead
|-
|141.||Εὖ πάσχε ὡς θνητός||Be well off as a mortal
|-
|142.||Τύχῃ μὴ πίστευε||Do not trust fortune
|-
|143.||Παῖς ὢν κόσμιος ἴσθι||As a child be well-behaved
|-
|144.||Ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής||As a youth be self-disciplined
|-
|145.||Μέσος δίκαιος||As of middle-age be just
|-
|146.||Πρεσβύτης εὔλογος||As an old man be sensible
|-
|147.||Τελευτῶν ἄλυπος||On reaching the end be without sorrow
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Hellenismos }}
* [[Know thyself]]
* [[List of oracular statements from Delphi]]

== References ==
=== Citations ===
{{Reflist}}

=== Sources ===
{{refbegin}}
* [[Stobaeus]], ''Anth.'' 3.1.173
* [http://www.john-uebersax.com/delphi/delphi5.htm John Uebersax – Sentences of the Seven Sages]
{{refend}}

==External links==
* [http://users.uoa.gr/~nektar/history/1antiquity/ancient_hellenic_wisdom.htm Ancient Hellenic wisdom– Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.fysis.cz/presokratici/7mudrcu/Sosiad.pdf Fysis.cz – Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.hellenion.org/essays-on-hellenic-polytheism/delphic-maxims/ 2018 English translation by Melissa Gold of Hellenion]

[[Category:Ancient Greek religion]]
[[Category:Aphorisms]]

Olympiad

2018-01-03T09:59:53Z

Cyon:

[[File:Antikes Olympia Stadion.JPG|thumb|300px|Stadium at ancient [[Olympia, Greece|Olympia]].]]
An '''Olympiad''' ({{lang-el|Ὀλυμπιάς}}, ''Olympiás'') is a period of four years associated with the [[Ancient Olympic Games|Olympic Games]] of the [[Ancient Greece|Ancient Greeks]]. During the [[Hellenistic period]], beginning with [[Ephorus]], it was used as a [[Epoch (reference date)|calendar epoch]].
Converting to the modern BC/AD dating system the first Olympiad began in the summer of [[776 BC]] and lasted until the summer of [[772 BC]], when the second Olympiad would begin with the commencement of the next games.
By extrapolation to the [[Gregorian calendar]], the
{{#switch: {{#expr: (({{CURRENTYEAR}}+775) mod 4)}}
|0 = 1st
|1 = 2nd
|2 = 3rd
|3 = 4th
}} year of the {{#expr:(({{CURRENTYEAR}}+779)/4 -.5)round 0}}th Olympiad begins in (Northern-Hemisphere) mid-summer {{CURRENTYEAR}}.

A modern Olympiad refers to a four-year period beginning January 1 of a year in which the [[Summer Olympics]] are due to occur. The first modern Olympiad began in 1896, the second in 1900, and so on (the 31st began in 2016: see the [http://www.olympic.org/Documents/Olympic%20Charter/Charter_en_2010.pdf Olympic Charter]).

== Ancient Olympics ==
An ancient Olympiad was a period of four years grouped together, counting inclusively as the ancients did. Each ancient Olympic year overlapped onto two of our modern reckoning of BC or AD years, from midsummer to midsummer. Example: Olympiad 140, year 1 = 220/219 BC; year 2 = 219/218 BC; year 3 = 218/217 BC; year 4 = 217/216 BC. Therefore, the games would have been held in July/August of [[220 BC]] and held the next time in July/August of [[216 BC]], after four olympic years had been completed.

=== Historians ===
The sophist [[Hippias]] was the first writer to publish a list of victors of the Olympic Games, and by the time of [[Eratosthenes]], it was generally agreed that the first Olympic games had happened during the summer of 776 BC.{{Sfn | Bickerman | 1980 | p = 75}} The combination of victor lists and calculations from 776 BC onwards enabled Greek historians to use the Olympiads as a way of reckoning time that did not depend on the time reckonings of one of the city-states. (''See [[Attic calendar]]''.) The first to do so consistently was [[Timaeus (historian)|Timaeus]] of [[Tauromenium]] in the third century BC. Nevertheless, since for events of the early history of the games the reckoning was used in retrospect, some of the dates given by later historian for events before the 5th century BC are very unreliable.{{Sfn | Bickerman | 1980 | p = 88}} In the 2nd century AD, [[Phlegon of Tralles]] summarised the events of each Olympiad in a book called ''Olympiads'', and an extract from this has been preserved by the [[Byzantine literature|Byzantine]] writer [[Photius]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Photius |title=Bibliotheca |publisher=Terlullian |url=http://www.tertullian.org/fathers/photius_03bibliotheca.htm#97 |page=97}}.</ref> Christian chroniclers continued to use this Greek system of dating as a way of synchronising [[Bible|biblical]] events with Greek and Roman history. In the 3rd century AD, [[Sextus Julius Africanus]] compiled a list of Olympic victors up to 217 BC, and this list has been preserved in the Chronicle of [[Eusebius]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Eusebius |title=Chronicle |url=http://www.attalus.org/translate/eusebius2.html#193 |page=193 |publisher=Attalus}}.</ref>

=== Examples of Ancient Olympiad dates ===
[[Image:Relief greek ballplayers 500bC.jpg|thumb|300px|A relief of the Greek Olympiad.]]

* Early historians sometimes used the names of Olympic victors as a method of dating events to a specific year. For instance, [[Thucydides]] says in his account of the year 428 BC: "It was the Olympiad in which the [[Rhodos|Rhodian]] [[Dorieus (Rhodes)|Dorieus]] gained his second victory".<ref>{{Citation |last=Thucydides |title=History of the Peloponnesian War |url=http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Thuc.+3.8.1 3.8.1 |publisher=Tufts}}.</ref>
* [[Dionysius of Halicarnassus]] dates the [[foundation of Rome]] to the first year of the seventh Olympiad, 752/1 BC. Since Rome was founded on April 21, which was in the last half of the ancient Olympic year, it would be 751 BC specifically. In Book 1 chapter 75 Dionysius states: "...Romulus, the first ruler of the city, began his reign in the first year of the seventh Olympiad, when [[Charops (mythology)|Charops]] at Athens was in the first year of his ten-year term as archon."<ref>{{Citation |last=of Halicarnassus |first=Dionysius |title=Roman Antiquities |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Dionysius_of_Halicarnassus/1D*.html#75 |at=1.75 |publisher=University of Chicago}}.</ref>
* [[Diodorus Siculus]] dates the Persian invasion of Greece to 480 BC: "Calliades was archon in Athens, and the Romans made Spurius Cassius and Proculus Verginius Tricostus consuls, and the Eleians celebrated the Seventy-fifth Olympiad, that in which [[Astyalus of Croton|Astylus of Syracuse]] won the ''stadion''. It was in this year that king Xerxes made his campaign against Greece."<ref>{{Citation |first=Diodorus |last=Siculus |title=Historical Library |url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/Thayer/E/Roman/Texts/Diodorus_Siculus/11A*.html#1 |at=11.1.2 |publisher=University of Chicago}}.</ref>
* [[Jerome]], in his [[Latin]] translation of the Chronicle of [[Eusebius]], dates the birth of [[Jesus Christ]] to year 3 of Olympiad 194, the 42nd year of the reign of the emperor [[Augustus]], which equates to the year 2 BC.<ref>{{Citation |last=Jerome |title=Chronological Tables |url=http://www.attalus.org/translate/jerome2.html#2010 |at=year 2015 |publisher=Attalus}}.</ref>

=== Start of the Olympiad ===
An Olympiad started with the holding of the games, which occurred on the first or second [[full moon]] after the summer [[solstice]], in what we call July or August. The games were therefore essentially a new years festival. In 776 BC this occurred on either July 23 or August 21. (After the introduction of the [[Metonic cycle]] about 432 BC, the start of the Olympic year was determined slightly differently).

=== Anolympiad ===
Though the games were held without interruption, on more than one occasion they were held by others than the [[Eleians]]. The Eleians declared such games ''Anolympiads'' (non-Olympics), but it is assumed the winners were nevertheless recorded.

=== End of the era ===
During the 3rd century AD, records of the games are so scanty that historians are not certain whether after 261 they were still held every four years. During the early years of the Olympiad, any physical benefit deriving from a sport was banned. Some winners were recorded though, until the last Olympiad of 393AD. In 394, [[Roman Empire|Roman]] Emperor [[Theodosius I]] outlawed the games at Olympia as pagan. Though it would have been possible to continue the reckoning by just counting four-year periods, by the middle of the 5th century AD reckoning by Olympiads had become disused.

== Modern Olympics ==

{| class="wikitable infobox" style="margin-left:1em"
! colspan="2"|Olympiad !! Start date !! End date !! Host of the Games of the Olympiad
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1896 Summer Olympics|I]] || style="border-left:none;"|(1st) || 1 Jan 1896 || 31 Dec 1899 || Athens, Greece
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1900 Summer Olympics|II]] || style="border-left:none;"|(2nd) || 1 Jan 1900 || 31 Dec 1903 || Paris, France
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1904 Summer Olympics|III]] || style="border-left:none;"|(3rd) || 1 Jan 1904 || 31 Dec 1907 || St. Louis, United States
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1908 Summer Olympics|IV]] || style="border-left:none;"|(4th) || 1 Jan 1908 || 31 Dec 1911 || London, United Kingdom
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1912 Summer Olympics|V]] || style="border-left:none;"|(5th) || 1 Jan 1912 || 31 Dec 1915 || Stockholm, Sweden
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1916 Summer Olympics|VI]] || style="border-left:none;"|(6th) || 1 Jan 1916 || 31 Dec 1919 || Not celebrated (Originally Berlin, German Empire)
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1920 Summer Olympics|VII]] || style="border-left:none;"|(7th) || 1 Jan 1920 || 31 Dec 1923 || Antwerp, Belgium
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1924 Summer Olympics|VIII]] || style="border-left:none;"|(8th) || 1 Jan 1924 || 31 Dec 1927 || Paris, France
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1928 Summer Olympics|IX]] || style="border-left:none;"|(9th) || 1 Jan 1928 || 31 Dec 1931 || Amsterdam, Netherlands
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1932 Summer Olympics|X]] || style="border-left:none;"|(10th) || 1 Jan 1932 || 31 Dec 1935 || Los Angeles, United States
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1936 Summer Olympics|XI]] || style="border-left:none;"|(11th) || 1 Jan 1936 || 31 Dec 1939 || Berlin, Germany
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1940 Summer Olympics|XII]] || style="border-left:none;"|(12th) || 1 Jan 1940 || 31 Dec 1943 || Not celebrated (Originally Tokyo, Japan or Helsinki, Finland)
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1944 Summer Olympics|XIII]] || style="border-left:none;"|(13th) || 1 Jan 1944 || 31 Dec 1947 || Not celebrated (Originally London, United Kingdom)
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1948 Summer Olympics|XIV]] || style="border-left:none;"|(14th) || 1 Jan 1948 || 31 Dec 1951 || London, United Kingdom
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1952 Summer Olympics|XV]] || style="border-left:none;"|(15th) || 1 Jan 1952 || 31 Dec 1955 || Helsinki, Finland
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1956 Summer Olympics|XVI]] || style="border-left:none;"|(16th) || 1 Jan 1956 || 31 Dec 1959 || Melbourne, Australia
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1960 Summer Olympics|XVII]] || style="border-left:none;"|(17th) || 1 Jan 1960 || 31 Dec 1963 || Rome, Italy
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1964 Summer Olympics|XVIII]] || style="border-left:none;"|(18th) || 1 Jan 1964 || 31 Dec 1967 || Tokyo, Japan
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1968 Summer Olympics|XIX]] || style="border-left:none;"|(19th) || 1 Jan 1968 || 31 Dec 1971 || Mexico City, Mexico
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1972 Summer Olympics|XX]] || style="border-left:none;"|(20th) || 1 Jan 1972 || 31 Dec 1975 || Munich, West Germany
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1976 Summer Olympics|XXI]] || style="border-left:none;"|(21st) || 1 Jan 1976 || 31 Dec 1979 || Montreal, Canada
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1980 Summer Olympics|XXII]] || style="border-left:none;"|(22nd) || 1 Jan 1980 || 31 Dec 1983 || Moscow, Soviet Union
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1984 Summer Olympics|XXIII]] || style="border-left:none;"|(23rd) || 1 Jan 1984 || 31 Dec 1987 || Los Angeles, United States
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1988 Summer Olympics|XXIV]] || style="border-left:none;"|(24th) || 1 Jan 1988 || 31 Dec 1991 || Seoul, South Korea
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1992 Summer Olympics|XXV]] || style="border-left:none;"|(25th) || 1 Jan 1992 || 31 Dec 1995 || Barcelona, Spain
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[1996 Summer Olympics|XXVI]] || style="border-left:none;"|(26th) || 1 Jan 1996 || 31 Dec 1999 || Atlanta, United States
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[2000 Summer Olympics|XXVII]] || style="border-left:none;"|(27th) || 1 Jan 2000 || 31 Dec 2003 || Sydney, Australia
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[2004 Summer Olympics|XXVIII]] || style="border-left:none;"|(28th) || 1 Jan 2004 || 31 Dec 2007 || Athens, Greece
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[2008 Summer Olympics|XXIX]] || style="border-left:none;"|(29th) || 1 Jan 2008 || 31 Dec 2011 || Beijing, China
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[2012 Summer Olympics|XXX]] || style="border-left:none;"|(30th) || 1 Jan 2012 || 31 Dec 2015 || London, United Kingdom
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[2016 Summer Olympics|XXXI]] || style="border-left:none;"|(31st) || 1 Jan 2016 || 31 Dec 2019 || Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[2020 Summer Olympics|XXXII]] || style="border-left:none;"|(32nd) || 1 Jan 2020 || 31 Dec 2023 || Tokyo, Japan
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[2024 Summer Olympics|XXXIII]] || style="border-left:none;"|(33rd) || 1 Jan 2024 || 31 Dec 2027 || Paris, France
|-
| style="border-right:none;text-align:center;"|[[2028 Summer Olympics|XXXIV]] || style="border-left:none;"|(34th) || 1 Jan 2028 || 31 Dec 2031 || Los Angeles, United States
|}
For the modern Olympics the term was long used to indicate the games themselves, but the IOC now uses it to indicate a period of four years.

=== Start and end ===
The modern Olympiad is a period of four consecutive calendar years, beginning on the first of
January of the first year and ending on the thirty-first of December of the fourth year. The Olympiads are numbered consecutively from the first Games of the Olympiad celebrated in Athens in 1896. The XXXI Olympiad began on January 1, 2016 and will end on December 31, 2019.<ref>[[Olympic Charter]] - Bye-law to Rule 6</ref>

The [[Summer Olympic Games|Summer Olympics]] are more correctly referred to as the Games of the Olympiad. The first [[poster]] to announce the games using this term was the one for the [[1932 Summer Olympics]], in Los Angeles, using the phrase: ''Call to the games of the Xth Olympiad''

Note, however, that the official numbering of the [[Winter Olympic Games|Winter Olympics]] does not count Olympiads—- it counts only the Games themselves. For example:
* The first Winter Games, in [[1924 Winter Olympics|1924]], were not designated as ''Winter Games of the VIII Olympiad'', but as the ''I Winter Olympic Games''.
* The [[1936 Summer Olympics|1936 Summer Games]] were the ''Games of the XI Olympiad''. After the [[1940 Summer Olympics|1940]] and [[1944 Summer Olympics|1944]] Summer Games were canceled due to [[World War II]], the Games resumed in [[1948 Summer Olympics|1948]] as the ''Games of the XIV Olympiad''.
* However, the [[1936 Winter Olympics|1936 Winter Games]] were the ''IV Winter Olympic Games'', and the resumption of the Winter Games in [[1948 Winter Olympics|1948]] was designated the ''V Winter Olympic Games''.<ref>Team USA: [http://www.teamusa.org/About-the-USOC/Inside-the-USOC/Olympic-Movement/History/Olympic-Games-Chronology Olympic Games Chronology].</ref>

Some media people have from time to time referred to a particular (e.g., the ''n''th) Winter Olympics as "the Games of the ''n''th Winter Olympiad", perhaps believing it to be the correct formal name for the Winter Games by analogy with that of the Summer Games. Indeed, at least one IOC-published article has applied this nomenclature as well.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.olympic.org/sport-for-all?articleid=124280 |title=Community Spirit |first=Nigel |last=Kendall |publisher=[[International Olympic Committee]] |date=2011-04-08 |accessdate=2011-06-22 |quote=The XXI Winter Olympiad was to be the first 'social media Games'.}}</ref> This analogy is sometimes extended further by media references to "Summer Olympiads". However, the IOC does not seem to make an official distinction between Olympiads for the summer and winter games, and such usage particularly for the Winter Olympics is not consistent with the numbering discussed above.

=== Quadrennium ===
The [[U.S. Olympic Committee]] often uses the term ''quadrennium'', which it claims refers to the same four-year period. However, it indicates these quadrennia in calendar years, starting with the first year after the Summer Olympics and ending with the year the next Olympics are held. This would suggest a more precise period of four years, but the 2001–2004 Quadrennium would then not be exactly the same period as the [[2000 Summer Olympics|XXVIIth Olympiad]].<ref>USOC Quadrennial Congressional Report, [http://assets.usoc.org/assets/documents/attached_file/filename/24822/USOC_Report_to_Congress_-_June_1_2009.pdf June 2009].</ref>

=== Cultural Olympiad ===
{{Expand section|date=February 2010}}
{{Seealso|Art competitions at the Summer Olympics}}
A ''Cultural Olympiad'' is a concept protected by the International Olympic Committee and may be used only within the limits defined by an Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games. From one Games to the next, the scale of the Cultural Olympiad varies considerably, sometimes involving activity over the entire Olympiad and other times emphasizing specific periods within it. Baron Pierre de Coubertin established the principle of [[Art competitions at the Summer Olympics|Olympic Art Competitions]] at a special congress in Paris in 1906, and the first official programme was presented during the 1912 Games in Stockholm. These competitions were also named the ‘Pentathlon of the Muses’, as their purpose was to bring artists to present their work and compete for ‘art’ medals across five categories: architecture, music, literature, sculpture and painting.

Nowadays, while there are no competitions as such, cultural and artistic practice is displayed via the Cultural Olympiad. The [[2010 Winter Olympics]] in Vancouver presented the [[Cultural Olympiad Digital Edition]]. The 2012 Olympics included [[2012 Cultural Olympiad|an extensive Cultural Olympiad]] with the London 2012 Festival in the host city, and events elsewhere including the [[World Shakespeare Festival]] produced by the [[Royal Shakespeare Company|RSC]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-15240406|title=World Shakespeare Festival tickets go on public sale|date=10 October 2011|work=[[BBC Online]]|accessdate=15 August 2017}}</ref> The [[2016 Summer Olympics|2016 games']] Cultural Olympiad was scaled back due to [[Economic history of Brazil#2010s economic contraction|Brazil's recession]]; there was no published programme, with director [[Carla Camurati]] promising "secret" and "spontaneous" events such as [[flash mob]]s.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-36918490|title=Rio 2016: The 'secret' Cultural Olympiad|last=Lang|first=Kirsty|authorlink=Kirsty Lang|date=29 July 2016|work=[[BBC Online]]|accessdate=15 August 2017}}</ref>

== Other uses ==
The English term is still often used popularly to indicate the games themselves, a usage that is uncommon in ancient Greek (as an Olympiad is most often the time period ''between'' and including sets of games).<ref>Liddell, Scott, and Jones, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aalphabetic+letter%3D%2Ao%3Aentry+group%3D30%3Aentry%3D%2A%29olumpia%2Fs2 s.v. Ὀλυμπιάς, A. II. 1]</ref> It is also used to indicate international competitions other than physical [[sport]]s. This includes [[international science olympiads]], such as the [[International Geography Olympiad]], [[International Mathematical Olympiad]] and the [[International Linguistics Olympiad]] and their associated national qualifying tests (e.g., the [[United States of America Mathematical Olympiad]] or the [[North American Computational Linguistics Olympiad]]), and also events in mind-sports, such as the [[Science Olympiad]], [[Mind Sports Olympiad|Mindsport Olympiad]], [[Chess Olympiad]] and [[Computer Olympiad]]. In these cases ''Olympiad'' is used to indicate a regular event of international competition; it does not necessarily indicate a four-year period.

In some languages, like [[Czech language|Czech]] and [[Slovak language|Slovak]], Olympiad ({{lang-cs|olympiáda}}) is the correct term for the games.

''The Olympiad'' (''[[L'Olimpiade]]'') is also the name of some 60 [[opera]]s set in Ancient Greece.

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== References ==
*{{citation |first=Elias J |last=Bickerman |title=Chronology of the Ancient World (Aspects of Greek & Roman Life) |year=1980 |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca, NY |isbn=0-8014-1282-X |edition=2nd sub}}

== External links ==
*{{cite EB1911|wstitle=Olympiad |volume=20 |short=x}}
* Chris Bennett, [http://www.tyndalehouse.com/egypt/ptolemies/chron/olympic/chron_ol_cal_fr.htm The Olympiad System], on ''tyndalehouse.com''
* Valerie Vaughan, [http://www.onereed.com/articles/vvf/olympics.html The Origin of the Olympics: Ancient Calendars and the Race Against Time] (2002) on OneReed.com, an [[astrology|astrologically]]-oriented site.
* Hellenic Month Established Per Athens, [https://archive.is/20130122181143/http://www.eyesfortheuniverse.com/hmepa/]

{{Time measurement and standards}}

[[Category:Olympic culture]]
[[Category:Calendar eras]]
[[Category:Ancient Olympic Games]]
[[Category:Units of time]]

Template:Time measurement and standards

2018-01-03T09:57:54Z

Cyon: + olympiad

{{Navbox
| name = Time measurement and standards
| state = {{{state|<includeonly>autocollapse</includeonly>}}}
| title = [[Time|Time measurement]] and [[Time standard|standards]]
| bodyclass = hlist

| above =
* [[Chronometry]]
* [[Orders of magnitude (time)|Orders of magnitude]]
* [[Metrology]]

| group2 = International standards
| list2 =
* [[Coordinated Universal Time]]
** [[UTC offset|offset]]
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* [[Barycentric Coordinate Time]]
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| group3 = Obsolete standards
| list3 =
* [[Ephemeris time]]
* [[Greenwich Mean Time]]
* [[Prime meridian]]

| group4 = [[Time in physics]]
| list4 =
* [[Absolute time and space]]
* [[Spacetime]]
* [[Chronon]]
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* [[Theory of relativity]]
* [[Time dilation]]
* [[Gravitational time dilation]]
* [[Time domain]]
* [[Time translation symmetry]]
* [[T-symmetry]]

| group5 = [[Horology]]
| list5 =
* [[Clock]]
* [[Astrarium]]
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* [[Complication (horology)|Complication]]
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* [[Hourglass]]
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* [[Marine sandglass]]
* [[Radio clock]]
* [[Watch]]
* [[Water clock]]
* [[Sundial]]
* [[Dialing scales]]
* [[Equation of time]]
* [[History of sundials]]
* [[Schema for horizontal dials|Sundial markup schema]]

| group6 = [[Calendar]]
| list6 =
* [[Astronomical year numbering|Astronomical]]
* [[Dominical letter]]
* [[Epact]]
* [[Equinox]]
* [[Gregorian calendar|Gregorian]]
* [[Hebrew calendar|Hebrew]]
* [[Hindu calendar|Hindu]]
* [[Intercalation (timekeeping)|Intercalation]]
* [[Islamic calendar|Islamic]]
* [[Julian calendar|Julian]]
* [[Leap year]]
* [[Lunar calendar|Lunar]]
* [[Lunisolar calendar|Lunisolar]]
* [[Solar calendar|Solar]]
* [[Solstice]]
* [[Tropical year]]
* [[Determination of the day of the week|Weekday determination]]
* [[Names of the days of the week|Weekday names]]

| group7 = Archaeology and geology
| list7 =
* [[Chronological dating]]
* [[Geologic time scale]]
* [[International Commission on Stratigraphy]]

| group8 = [[Astronomical chronology]]
| list8 =
* [[Galactic year]]
* [[Nuclear timescale]]
* [[Precession]]
* [[Sidereal time]]

| group9 = [[Unit of time|Other units of time]]
| list9 =
* [[Shake (unit)|Shake]]
* [[Jiffy (time)|Jiffy]]
* [[Second]]
* [[Minute]]
* [[Moment (time)|Moment]]
* [[Hour]]
* [[Day]]
* [[Week]]
* [[Fortnight]]
* [[Month]]
* [[Year]]
* [[Olympiad]]
* [[Lustrum]]
* [[Decade]]
* [[Century]]
* [[Saeculum]]
* [[Millennium]]

| group10 = Related topics
| list10 =
* [[Chronology]]
* [[Duration (philosophy)|Duration]]
** [[Duration (music)|music]]
* [[Mental chronometry]]
* [[Metric time]]
* [[System time]]
* [[Time value of money]]
* [[Timekeeper]]

}}<noinclude>
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[[Category:Time, date and calendar templates]]
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</noinclude>

Roman consul

2017-09-14T00:42:47Z

Cyon: /* Under the Republic */ the acute accent changes here to the grave

{{Roman government}}
A '''consul''' was the highest elected [[political office]] of the [[Roman Republic]], and the consulship was considered the highest level of the ''[[cursus honorum]]'' (an ascending sequence of public offices to which politicians aspired).

Each year, two consuls were elected together, to serve for a one-year term. The consuls alternated in holding [[imperium]] each month, and a consul's imperium extended over Rome, Italy, and the [[Roman provinces|provinces]]. However, after the establishment of the [[Roman Empire|Empire]] (27 BC), the consuls became mere symbolic representatives of Rome’s republican heritage and held very little power and authority, with the Emperor acting as the supreme authority.

==History==

===Under the Republic===
After the legendary [[Overthrow of the Roman monarchy|expulsion]] of the last [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] King, [[Tarquinius Superbus|Tarquin the Proud]], a harsh ruler at the end of the [[Roman Kingdom]], most of the powers and authority of the king were ostensibly given to the newly instituted consulship. Originally, consuls were called [[praetor]]s ("leader"), referring to their duties as the chief military commanders. By at least 300 BC the title of Consul was being used.<ref>{{cite book |first=Andrew |last=Lintott |title=The Constitution of the Roman Republic |year=2004 |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press |page=104 |isbn=0198150687 }}</ref> Ancient writers usually derive the title ''consul'' from the [[Latin]] verb ''consulere'', "to take counsel", but this is most likely a later gloss of the term,<ref name="PW">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Kübler | first = B. |title = Consul | encyclopedia = Realencyclopädie der Classischen Altertumswissenschaft. Band IV, Halbband 7, Claudius mons-Cornificius | year = 1900 | pages=1112–1138}}</ref> which probably derives—in view of the joint nature of the office—from ''con-'' and ''sal-'', "get together" or from ''con-'' and ''sell-/sedl-'', "sit down together with" or "next to".<ref name="NP">{{cite encyclopedia | last = Gizewski | first = Christian | title = Consul(es) | encyclopedia = Brill’s New Pauly | publisher = Brill Online | year = 2013 | accessdate = 2 July 2013 | url = http://brillonline.nl/entries/brill-s-new-pauly/consul-es-e304740}}</ref> In [[Greek language|Greek]], the title was originally rendered as {{lang|grc|στρατηγὸς ὕπατος}}, ''[[strategos]] [[hypatos]]'' ("the supreme general"), and later simply as ὕπατος.<ref name="PW"/>

The consul was believed by the Romans to date back to the traditional establishment of the Republic in 509 BC, but the succession of consuls was not continuous in the 5th century BC. During the 440s, the office was quite often replaced with the establishment of the [[Tribuni militum consulari potestate|Consular Tribunes]], who were elected whenever the military needs of the state were significant enough to warrant the election of more than the two usual consuls.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gary |last=Forsythe |title=A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War |year=2005 |page=236 |isbn=0520226518 |publisher=University of California Press }}</ref> These remained in place until the office was abolished in 367/366 BC and the consulship was reintroduced.<ref>{{cite book |first=Gary |last=Forsythe |title=A Critical History of Early Rome: From Prehistory to the First Punic War |year=2005 |page=237 |isbn=0520226518 |publisher=University of California Press }}</ref>

Consuls had extensive powers in peacetime (administrative, legislative and judicial), and in wartime often held the highest military command. Additional religious duties included certain rites which, as a sign of their formal importance, could only be carried out by the highest state officials. Consuls also read [[auguries]], an essential step before leading armies into the field.

Two consuls were elected each year, serving together, each with veto power over the other's actions, a normal principle for magistracies. It is thought that originally only [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patricians]] were eligible for the consulship. Consuls were elected by the [[Comitia Centuriata]], which had an aristocratic bias in its voting structure which only increased over the years from its foundation.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} However, they formally assumed powers only after the ratification of their election in the older [[Comitia Curiata]], which granted the consuls their [[imperium]] by enacting a law, the "[[lex curiata de imperio]]".

If a consul died during his term (not uncommon when consuls were in the forefront of battle) or was removed from office, another would be elected by the [[Comitia Centuriata]] to serve the remainder of the term as ''consul suffectus'' (''suffect consul''). A consul elected to start the year - called a ''consul ordinarius'' (''ordinary consul'') - held more prestige than a suffect consul, partly because the year would be named for ordinary consuls (see [[#Consular dating|consular dating]]).

According to tradition, the consulship was initially reserved for [[Patrician (ancient Rome)|patricians]] and only in 367 BC did [[plebeians]] win the right to stand for this supreme office, when the [[Lex Licinia Sextia]] provided that at least one consul each year should be plebeian. The first plebeian consul, [[Lucius Sextius]], was elected the following year. Nevertheless, the office remained largely in the hands of a few families as, according to Gelzer{{who|date=May 2016}}, only fifteen ''[[novus homo|novi homines]]'' - "new men" with no consular background - were elected to the consulship until the election of [[Cicero]] in 63 BC.<ref>Wirszubzki, Ch. Libertas as a Political Idea at Rome during the Late Republic and Early Principate. Reprint. Cambridge University Press, 1960, p. 15.</ref> Modern historians have questioned the traditional account of plebeian emancipation during the early Republic (see [[Conflict of the Orders]]), noting for instance that about thirty percent of the consuls prior to Sextius had plebeian, not patrician, names. It is possible that only the chronology has been distorted, but it seems that one of the first consuls, [[Lucius Junius Brutus]], came from a plebeian family.<ref>Oxford Classical Dictionary, 3rd ed., Hornblower, S. and Spawforth, A. edd., s.v. Iunius Brutus, Lucius</ref> Another possible explanation is that during the 5th century social struggles, the office of consul was gradually monopolized by a patrician elite.<ref>T. J. Cornell, ''The Beginnings of Rome'', chapter 10.4.</ref>

During times of war, the primary qualification for consul was military skill and reputation, but at all times the selection was politically charged. With the passage of time, the consulship became the normal endpoint of the ''[[cursus honorum]]'', the sequence of offices pursued by the ambitious Roman who chose to pursue political power and influence. When [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] regulated the ''cursus'' by law, the minimum age of election to consul became, in effect, 41 years of age.{{cn|date=November 2016}}

Beginning in the late Republic, after finishing a consular year, a former consul would usually serve a lucrative term as a [[proconsul]], the [[Roman Governor]] of one of the (senatorial) [[Roman provinces|provinces]]. The most commonly chosen province for the [[proconsul]]ship was [[Cisalpine Gaul]].

===Under the Empire===
[[File:Flavius Anastasius Probus 01b.JPG|thumb|200px|right|[[Anastasius (consul 517)|Flavius Anastasius]] (consul of the [[Eastern Roman Empire]] for 517 AD) in consular garb, holding a sceptre and the ''mappa'', a piece of cloth used to signal the start of [[Chariot racing|chariot races]] at the [[Hippodrome of Constantinople|Hippodrome]]. Ivory panel from his [[consular diptych]].]]
{{double image|right|Consular diptych Probus 406.jpg|200|Consular diptych Constantius III.jpg|260|'''On the left''': [[Honorius (emperor)|Emperor Honorius]] on the [[consular diptych]] of [[Anicius Petronius Probus]] (406) '''On the right''': [[Consular diptych]] of [[Constantius III]] (a co-emperor with Honorius in 421), produced for his consulate of the [[Western Roman Empire]] in 413 or 417}}
Throughout the early years of the Principate although the consuls were still formally elected by the [[Comitia Centuriata]], they were in fact nominated by the princeps.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|1987|p=1}} As the years progressed, the distinction between the Comitia Centuriata and the [[Comitia Tributa]] (which elected the lower magisterial positions) appears to have disappeared, and so for the purposes of the consular elections, there came to be just a single "an assembly of the people" which elected all the magisterial positions of the state, while the consuls continued to be nominated by the princeps.<ref>Bury, John B, ''A History of the Roman Empire from its Foundation to the Death of Marcus Aurelius'' (1893), pg. 29</ref>

The imperial consulate during the period of the High Empire (until the 3rd century) was an important position, albeit as the method through which the Roman aristocracy could progress through to the higher levels of imperial administration – only former consuls could become consular legates, the proconsuls of Africa and Asia, or the urban prefect of Rome.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|1987|pp=1–2}} It was a post that would be occupied by a man halfway through his career, in his early thirties for a patrician, or in his early forties for most others.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|1987|p=1}} Emperors frequently appointed themselves, or their protégés or relatives, consuls, even without regard to the age requirements. For example, [[Honorius (emperor)|Emperor Honorius]] was given the consulship at birth. [[Cassius Dio]] states that [[Caligula]] intended to make his horse [[Incitatus]] consul, but was assassinated before he could do so.<ref>Cassius Dio, ''Roman History'', 59:14:7</ref>

The need for a pool of men to fill the consular positions forced Augustus to remodel the suffect consulate, allowing more than the two elected for the ordinary consulate.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|1987|p=1}} During the reigns of the Julio-Claudians, the ordinary consuls who began the year usually relinquished their office mid-year, with the election for the suffect consuls occurring at the same time as that for the ordinary consuls. During reigns of the Flavian and Antonine emperors, the ordinary consuls tended to resign after a period of four months, and the elections were moved to 12 January of the year in which they were to hold office. Election of the consuls were transferred to the Senate during the Flavian or Antonine periods, although through to the 3rd century, the people were still called on to ratify the Senate’s selections.<ref>Michael Gagarin, Elaine Fantham; ''The Oxford Encyclopedia of Ancient Greece and Rome, Volume 1'' (2010), pgs. 296-297</ref>

The proliferation of suffect consuls through this process, and the allocation of this office to ''[[Novus homo|homines novi]]'' tended over time to devalue the office.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|1987|pp=1–2}} However, the high regard placed upon the ordinary consulate remained intact, as it was one of the few offices that one could share with the emperor, and during this period it was filled mostly by patricians or by individuals who had consular ancestors.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|1987|p=1}} If they were especially skilled or valued, they may even have achieved a second (or rarely, a third) consulate. Prior to achieving the consulate, these individuals already had a significant career behind them, and would expect to continue serving the state, filling in the post upon which the state functioned.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|1987|p=2}} Consequently, holding the ordinary consulship was a great honor and the office was the major symbol of the still republican constitution. Probably as part of seeking formal legitimacy, the break-away [[Gallic Empire]] had its own pairs of consuls during its existence (260–274). The list of consuls for this state is incomplete, drawn from inscriptions and coins.

By the end of the 3rd century, much had changed. The loss of many pre-consular functions and the gradual encroachment of the equites into the traditional senatorial administrative and military functions, meant that senatorial careers virtually vanished prior to their appointment as consuls.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|1987|p=2}} This had the effect of seeing a suffect consulship granted at an earlier age, to the point that by the 4th century, it was being held by men in their early twenties, and possibly younger.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|1987|p=2}} As time progressed, second consulates, usually ordinary, became far more common than had been the case during the first two centuries, while the first consulship was usually a suffect consulate. Also, the consulate during this period was no longer just the province of senators – the automatic awarding of a suffect consulship to the equestrian [[praetorian prefect]]s (who were given the ''ornamenta consularia'' upon achieving their office) allowed them to style themselves ''cos. II'' when they were later granted an ordinary consulship by the emperor.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|1987|p=2}} All this had the effect of further devaluing the office of consul, to the point that by the final years of the 3rd century, holding an ordinary consulate was occasionally left out of the cursus inscriptions, while suffect consulships were hardly ever recorded by the first decades of the 4th century.{{sfn|Bagnall|Cameron|Schwartz|Worp|1987|p=2}}

One of the reforms of [[Constantine I]] (r. 306–337) was to assign one of the consuls to the city of [[Rome]], and the other to [[Constantinople]]. Therefore, when the Roman Empire was divided into two halves on the death of [[Theodosius I]] (r. 379–395), the emperor of each half acquired the right of appointing one of the consuls—although on occasion an emperor did allow his colleague to appoint both consuls for various reasons. The consulship, bereft of any real power, continued to be a great honor, but the celebrations attending it – above all the [[chariot races]] – had come to involve considerable expense, which only a few citizens could afford, to the extent that part of the expense had to be covered by the state.<ref name="ODB527">{{citation | editor-first = Alexander | editor-last = Kazhdan | editor-link=Alexander Kazhdan | title = [[Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]] | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-19-504652-6 | page=527}}</ref> In the 6th century, the consulship was increasingly sparsely given, until it was allowed to lapse under [[Justinian I]] (r. 527–565): the western consulship lapsed in 534, with [[Decius Paulinus]] the last holder, and the consulship of the East in 541, with [[Anicius Faustus Albinus Basilius]]. [[Fasti consulares|Consular dating]] had already been abolished in 537, when Justinian introduced [[Byzantine calendar|dating]] by the emperor's regnal year and the [[indiction]].<ref>{{citation | editor-first = Alexander | editor-last = Kazhdan | editor-link=Alexander Kazhdan | title = [[Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]] | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-19-504652-6 | pages=526–527}}</ref> In the eastern court, the appointment to consulship became a part of the rite of proclamation of a new emperor from [[Justin II]] (r. 565–578) on, and is last attested in the proclamation of the future [[Constans II]] (r. 641–668) as consul in 632.<ref>{{citation | editor-first = Alexander | editor-last = Kazhdan | editor-link=Alexander Kazhdan | title = [[Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]] | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-19-504652-6 | page=526}}</ref> In the late 9th century, Emperor [[Leo the Wise]] (r. 886–912) finally abolished consular dating with Novel 94. By that time, the Greek titles for consul and ex-consul, "''[[hypatos]]''" and "''[[apo hypaton]]''", had been transformed to relatively lowly honorary dignities.<ref>{{citation | editor-first = Alexander | editor-last = Kazhdan | editor-link=Alexander Kazhdan | title = [[Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium]] | publisher = Oxford University Press | year = 1991 | isbn = 978-0-19-504652-6 | pages=526, 963–964}}</ref>

In the west, the rank of consul was occasionally bestowed upon individuals by the Papacy. In 719, the title of Roman consul was offered by the Pope to [[Charles Martel]], although he refused it.<ref>[http://www.bartleby.com/67/407.html e. The Frankish Kingdom. 2001. The Encyclopedia of World History]</ref> In about 853 [[Alfred the Great]] was made Roman consul by the Pope at the age of 4 or 5.

==Powers and responsibilities==

===Republican duties===
After the expulsion of the kings and the establishment of the Republic, all the powers that had belonged to the kings were transferred to two offices: that of the consuls and the [[Rex Sacrorum]]. While the Rex Sacrorum inherited the kings’ position as high priest of the state, the consuls were given the civil and military responsibilities ([[imperium]]). However, to prevent abuse of the kingly power, the imperium was shared by two consuls, each of whom could veto the other’s actions.

The consuls were invested with the [[Executive (government)|executive power]] of the state and headed the government of the Republic. Initially, the consuls held vast executive and judicial power. In the gradual development of the Roman legal system, however, some important functions were detached from the consulship and assigned to new officers. Thus, in 443 BC, the responsibility to conduct the [[census]] was taken from the consuls and given to the [[Roman censor|censors]]. The second function taken from the consulship was their [[judicial power]]. Their position as chief judges was transferred to the [[praetor]]s in 366 BC. After this time, the consul would only serve as judges in extraordinary criminal cases and only when called upon by decree of the Senate.

====Civil sphere====
For the most part, power was divided between civil and military spheres. As long as the consuls were in the [[pomerium]] (the city of Rome), they were at the [[head of government]], and all the other magistrates, with the exception of the [[tribune|tribunes of the plebeians]], were subordinate to them, but retained independence of office. The internal machinery of the Republic was under the consuls’ superintendence. In order to allow the consuls greater authority in executing laws, the consuls had the right of summons and arrest, which was limited only by the right of appeal from their judgment. This power of punishment even extended to inferior magistrates.

As part of their executive functions, the consuls were responsible for carrying into effect the decrees of the Senate and the laws of the [[Roman assemblies|assemblies]]. Sometimes, in great emergencies, they might even act on their own authority and responsibility. The consuls also served as the [[chief diplomat]] of the Roman state. Before any foreign ambassadors reached the Senate, they met with the consuls. The consul would introduce ambassadors to the Senate, and they alone carried on the negotiations between the Senate and foreign states.

The consuls could convene the Senate, and presided over its meetings. Each consul served as [[Chairman|president of the Senate]] for a month. They could also summon any of the three [[Roman assemblies]] (Curiate, Centuriate, and Tribal) and presided over them. Thus, the consuls conducted the elections and put legislative measures to the vote. When neither consul was within the city, their civic duties were assumed by the [[praetor]] urbanus.

Each consul was accompanied in every public appearance by twelve lictors, who displayed the magnificence of the office and served as his bodyguards. Each [[lictor]] held a [[fasces]], a bundle of rods that contained an axe. The rods symbolized the power of scourging, and the axe the power of capital punishment. When inside the pomerium, the lictors removed the axes from the fasces to show that a citizen could not be executed without a trial. Upon entering the Comitia Centuriata, the lictors would lower the fasces to show that the powers of the consuls derive from the people (populus romanus).

====Military sphere====
Outside the walls of Rome, the powers of the consuls were far more extensive in their role as [[commander-in-chief|commanders-in-chief]] of all [[Roman legions]]. It was in this function that the consuls were vested with full imperium. When legions were ordered by a decree of the Senate, the consuls conducted the [[conscription|levy]] in the [[Campus Martius]]. Upon entering the army, all soldiers had to take their oath of allegiance to the consuls. The consuls also oversaw the gathering of troops provided by Rome’s allies.<ref>Polybius - Histories book VI</ref>

Within the city a consul could punish and arrest a citizen, but had no power to inflict capital punishment. When on campaign, however, a consul could inflict any punishment he saw fit on any soldier, officer, citizen, or ally.

Each consul commanded an army, usually two legions strong, with the help of military tribunes and a [[quaestor]] who had financial duties. In the rare case that both consuls marched together, each one held the command for a day respectively. A typical consular army was about 20,000 men strong and consisted of two citizen and two allied legions. In the early years of the Republic, Rome's enemies were located in central Italy, so campaigns lasted a few months. As Rome's frontiers expanded, in the 2nd century BC, the campaigns became lengthier. Rome was a warlike society, and very seldom did not wage war.<ref>War and society in the Roman World ed. Rich & Shipley</ref> So the consul upon entering office was expected by the Senate and the People to march his army against Rome's enemies, and expand the Roman frontiers. His soldiers expected to return to their homes after the campaign with spoils. If the consul won an overwhelming victory, he was hailed as [[imperator]] by his troops, and could request to be granted a [[Roman triumph|triumph]].

The consul could conduct the campaign as he saw fit, and had unlimited powers. However, after the campaign, he could be prosecuted for his misdeeds (for example for abusing the provinces, or wasting public money, as [[Scipio Africanus]] was accused by Cato in 205 BC).

====Abuse prevention====
[[Abuse of power]] by consuls was prevented with each consul given the power to [[veto]] his colleague. Therefore, except in the provinces as commanders-in-chief where each consul’s power was supreme, the consuls could only act not against each other's determined will. Against the sentence of one consul, an appeal could be brought before his colleague, which, if successful, would see the sentence overturned. In order to avoid unnecessary conflicts, only one consul would actually perform the office’s duties every month and could act without direct interference. In the next month, the consuls would switch roles with one another. This would continue until the end of the consular term.

Another point which acted as a check against consuls was the certainty that after the end of their term they would be called to account for their actions while in office.

There were also three other restrictions on consular power. Their term in office was short (one year); their duties were pre-decided by the Senate; and they could not stand again for election immediately after the end of their office. Usually a period of ten years was expected between consulships.

====Governorship====
{{main article|Roman governor}}
After leaving office, the consuls were assigned by the Senate to a province to administer as governor. The provinces to which each consul was assigned were drawn by lot and determined before the end of his consulship. Transferring his consular imperium to [[Promagistrate|proconsular]] Imperium, the consul would become a [[proconsul]] and governor of one (or several) of Rome’s many [[Roman provinces|provinces]]. As a proconsul, his imperium was limited to only a specified province and not the entire Republic. Any exercise of proconsular imperium in any other province was illegal. Also, a proconsul was not allowed to leave his province before his term was complete or before the arrival of his successor. Exceptions were given only on special permission of the Senate. Most terms as governor lasted between one and five years.

====Appointment of the dictator====
In times of crisis, when Rome's territory was in immediate danger, a [[Roman Dictator|dictator]] was appointed by the consuls for a period of no more than six months, after the proposition of the Senate.<ref>Arthur Keaveney, in ''Sulla, the Last Republican'' (Routledge, 1982, 2nd edition 2005), p. 162ff [https://books.google.com/books?id=1DwOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA168&dq=lucius+flaccus+six+months+Sulla+dictator+OR+dictatorship&lr=&num=100&as_brr=3&as_pt=ALLTYPES#PPA162,M1 online], discusses the appointment of a dictator in regard to [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla|Sulla]], in which case exceptions were made.</ref> While the dictator held office, the imperium of the consuls was subordinate to the dictator.

===Imperial duties===
After [[Augustus]] became the first [[Roman emperor]] in 27 BC with the establishment of the [[principate]], the consuls lost most of their powers and responsibilities under the [[Roman Empire]]. Though still officially the highest office of the state, with the emperor’s superior imperium they were merely a symbol of Rome’s republican heritage. One of the two consular positions was often occupied by emperors themselves and eventually became reserved solely for the Emperor. However, the imperial consuls still maintained the right to preside at meetings of the Senate, exercising this right at the pleasure of the Emperor{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}. They partially administered justice in extraordinary cases, and presented games in the [[Circus Maximus]] and all public solemnities in honor of the Emperor at their own expense.
After the expiration of their offices, the ex-consuls (proconsuls) went on to govern one of the provinces that were administered by the Senate. They usually served terms of three to five years{{Citation needed|date=June 2010}}.

==Consular dating==
Roman dates were customarily kept according to the names of the two consuls who took office that year, much like a [[regnal year]] in a monarchy. For instance, the year 59 BC in the modern calendar was called by the Romans "the consulship of Caesar and Bibulus", since the two colleagues in the consulship were [[Julius Caesar|Gaius Julius Caesar]] and [[Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus]] — although Caesar dominated the consulship so thoroughly that year that it was jokingly referred to as "the consulship of Julius and Caesar".<ref>Suetonius' ''Lives of the Caesars: Julius Caesar'' Chapter XX.</ref> The date the consuls took office varied: from 222 BC to 153 BC they took office 15 March, and from 153 BC onwards it was on 1 January.<ref>E.J. Bickerman, ''Chronology of the Ancient World'' (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968), p. 64</ref> The practice of dating years ''[[ab urbe condita]]'' (from the supposed foundation date of Rome) was less frequently used.

In Latin, the [[Latin grammar|ablative absolute]] construction is frequently used to express the date, such as "''M. Messalla et M. Pupio Pisone consulibus''", translated literally as "[[Marcus Valerius Messalla Niger|Marcus Messalla]] and [[Marcus Pupius Piso Frugi Calpurnianus|Marcus Pupius Piso]] being the consuls", which appears in Caesar's ''[[De Bello Gallico]]''.

==Epigraphy==
[[Image:Antoninianus Philip - Philip.jpg|thumb|An ''[[antoninianus]]'' commemorating the third consulate ("COS III") of the emperor [[Philip the Arab|Philip]] (248 AD).]]
The word ''consul'' in Latin [[epigraphy]] shortens to ''COS'' for "CO[n]S[ul]" (pl. ''COSS'' for "CO[n]S[ule]S").<ref>{{fr icon}} [[Mireille Cébeillac-Gervasoni]], Maria Letizia Caldelli, Fausto Zevi, ''Épigraphie latine. Ostie : cent inscriptions dans leur contexte'', Armand Colin, 2006, {{ISBN|2-200-21774-9}}, {{p.|34}}.</ref> The disappearance of the "n" is explained by the fact that in Latin an "n" in front of an "s" is not pronounced during regular speech.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}} Also, ''consul'' is pronounced "[ko:sul]", as shown in ancient writing, "COSOL", whereas the classical spelling (consul) seems like an etymological reminder of the nasal consonant.<ref>{{fr icon}} Pierre Monteil, ''Éléments de phonétique et de morphologie du latin'', Nathan, 1970, {{p.|75}}.</ref> If a senator held the consulship twice then: ''COS'' becomes ''COS II''; thrice becomes ''COS III'', etc.

==Lists of Roman consuls==
For a complete list of Roman consuls, see:
* [[List of Roman consuls]]
* [[List of undated Roman consuls]]
* [[List of consuls designate]]

==See also==
* [[Constitution of the Roman Republic]]
* [[French Consulate]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book
|last1 = Bagnall
|first1 = Roger S
|last2 = Cameron
|first2 = Alan
|last3 = Schwartz
|first3 = Seth R
|last4 = Worp
|first4 = Klaus Anthony
|title = Consuls of the later Roman Empire
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=ZtATYAAACAAJ
|publisher = Scholar Press
|location = London
|year = 1987
|series = Volume 36 of Philological monographs of the American Philological Association
}}
{{Refend}}

{{Ancient Rome topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roman Consul}}
[[Category:Roman consuls| ]]
[[Category:Ancient Roman titles]]

Franciszkańska Street, Warsaw

2017-08-04T03:00:53Z

Cyon:

[[File:Kosciol sw franciszka.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Church of Saint Francis of Assisi]]
{{Unreferenced|date=February 2008}}
'''Franciszkańska''' (Franciscan Street) is a street in the centre of [[Warsaw]], linking the New Town with [[Nalewki]] street. In the 19th century it was inhabited primarily by [[Judaism|Jews]], who converted the street into a large open-air marketplace. The name itself was derived from the Church of Saint Francis owned by the [[Franciscan]]s.

The street was destroyed during [[World War II]], along with most of the [[Warsaw New Town|New Town]] and [[Warsaw Old Town|Old Town]]. The [[Franciscans]] were able to rebuild their church, as well as the adjoining monastery. The church was finally finished with the completion of the main altar in the mid-1970s. The street itself was rebuilt in 1949, with most of the buildings, constructed in what was at the time a "model" socialist housing style, occupied in 1950. (There was one exception: an apartment building that survived the war and, although dilapidated, remained occupied until the late 1970s, when it was torn down and a new building put in its place.) The new buildings were occupied by workers of the PWPW, the state printing concern a few blocks over, where money was being printed before the war as well after. Ironically, because the PWPW was built to include the government bunkers in case of war, it was literally impossible to tear down after the war.

Today, Franciszkańska is a residential street in a very desirable part of town.

{{coord|52|15|08|N|21|00|12|E|type:landmark_source:kolossus-plwiki|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Franciszkanska}}
[[Category:Streets in Warsaw]]

{{warsaw-geo-stub}}
{{Poland-road-stub}}

Joshua (name)

2017-01-16T02:51:51Z

Cyon: added Greek

{{Infobox Given Name Revised| name = Joshua
| image = File:Karolingischer Buchmaler um 840 001.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = ''Joshua and the Israelite people'' by Karolingischer Buchmaler, c.840
| pronunciation = {{IPAc-en|ˈ|ʤ|ɒ|ʃ|ʊ|ə}},<ref>[http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/joshua?q=Joshua Joshua] at [[Oxford Dictionaries Online]]</ref>
| gender = male | meaning = "[[Tetragrammaton|Yahweh]] is salvation"
| region = | origin = Hebrew ''Yehoshua''
| related names = Josh, [[Jesus (name)|Jesus]], Josue
| footnotes = <ref name="BrownLexicon">''A Hebrew and English Lexicon of the Old Testament'' Francis Brown, with S.R. Driver and C.A. Briggs, based on the lexicon of William Gesenius. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 221 & 446</ref><ref name="BlueLetterBible">Blue Letter Bible. "Dictionary and Word Search for Yĕhowshuwa` (Strong's 03091)". Blue Letter Bible. 1996–2008. 16 Feb 2008. http://cf.blueletterbible.org/lang/lexicon/lexicon.cfm?strongs=H3091</ref><ref name="BehindTheName">Behind the name – Joshua- feminine form http://www.behindthename.com/bb/fact/39476</ref>
}}
'''Joshua''' is a Biblical [[given name]] derived from the [[Hebrew]] ''Yehoshua'' ({{hebrew|יהושע}}). The name was a common alternative form of the name יֵשׁוּעַ – yēšūă which corresponds to the Greek spelling Ἰησοῦς (''Iesous''), from which, through the Latin ''Iesus'', comes the English spelling [[Jesus]].<ref>{{cite book
| last =Ilan
| first =Tal
| title =Lexicon of Jewish Names in Late Antiquity Part I: Palestine 330 BCE–200 CE (Texte und Studien zum Antiken Judentum 91)
| publisher =J.C.B. Mohr
| year =2002
| location =Tübingen, Germany
| pages =129}}</ref><ref>{{cite book
| last =Stern
| first =David
| title =Jewish New Testament Commentary
| publisher =Jewish New Testament Publications
| year =1992
| location =Clarksville, Maryland
| pages =4–5}}</ref>

As a result of the origin of the name, a majority of people before the 17th century who have this name are Jewish. A variant, truncated form of the name, '''Josh''', gained popularity in the United States in the 1970s.

==Popularity==
{{Globalize|date=December 2008}}
Information from the United Kingdom's [[Office for National Statistics]] from 2003 to 2007 shows "Joshua" among the top-five given names for newborn males.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.statistics.gov.uk/specials/babiesnames_boys.asp
| title = Top 100 names for baby boys in England and Wales | date = 2007-12-19 | accessdate = 2008-02-17
| work = National Statistics Online | publisher = [[Office for National Statistics]]
| quote = (#2 2003–2005; #3 2006; #4 2007)
}}</ref> In [[Scotland]], the popularity of "Joshua" has been substantially lower than in the rest of the United Kingdom, appearing at rank 35 in 2000 and rising to rank 22 in 2006.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk/files/name5.pdf | year = 2000 | accessdate =
| title = Top 100 boys' and names, Scotland, 2000 (provisional) – listed alphabetically
| format = PDF | work = Occasional papers | publisher = [[General Register Office for Scotland]]
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | accessdate =
| url = http://www.gro-scotland.gov.uk/files1/stats/pop-names-06-t2.pdf | date = 2006-12-18
| title = Top 100 boys' and names, Scotland, 2000 (provisional) – listed alphabetically
| format = PDF | work = Occasional papers | publisher = [[General Register Office for Scotland]]
}}</ref>

==Biblical figures==
* [[Joshua]], leader of the Israelites after the death of Moses
* [[Joshua the High Priest]], High Priest ca. 515-490 BCE after the return of the Jews from the Babylonian Captivity

==Ancient world==
:''Ordered chronologically''
* [[Joshua ben Perachiah]] (given name {{Hebrew|יהושע}} = ''Yehoshua''), ''Nasi'' (prince) of the Sanhedrin in the latter half of the 2nd century BCE
* [[Joshua ben Hananiah]] (given name {{Hebrew|יהושע}} = ''Yehoshua'') (died 131), a ''tanna'' (sage)
* [[Joshua ben Levi]], Jewish ''amora'' (scholar) in the first half of the third century
* [[Joshua the Stylite]], author of a chronicle of the war between the Later Roman Empire and the Persians between 502 and 506

==Medieval period==
* [[Joshua Lorki]] (fl. c. 1400), Spanish-Jewish physician

==Modern era==
===Pre-20th century===
* [[Joshua Allen, 5th Viscount Allen]] (1728–1816), Irish nobleman
* [[Joshua Barnes]] (1654–1712), English scholar
* [[Joshua Boaz ben Simon Baruch]] (died 1557), Talmudist in Spain and later Italy
* [[Joshua Boyle]], Irish Member of Parliament in 1641 and 1661
* [[Joshua dei Cantori]], Italian converted Jew who attacked the Talmud in 1559
* [[Joshua Caslari]] (fl. 1540–1558), French Jewish liturgical poet
* [[Joshua Chamberlain]] (1828–1914), American brevet major general and professor, awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in the Battle of Gettysburg
* [[Joshua Cooper (died 1757)]] (c. 1696–1757), Irish landowner and Member of Parliament
* [[Joshua Cooper (1732–1800)]], Irish landowner and Member of Parliament
* [[Joshua Edward Cooper]] (c. 1761–1837), Irish landowner and Member of Parliament
* [[Joshua Gwillen Doan]] (1811–1839), farmer and tanner who participated in the Upper Canada Rebellion of 1837
* [[Joshua Falk]] (1555–1614), Polish Halakhist and Talmudist
* [[Joshua Hughes]] (1807–1889), Welsh Anglican bishop
* [[Joshua Lewinsohn]] (1833-?), Lithuanian Jewish teacher and writer
* [[Joshua A. Lowell]] (1801–1874), American politician
* [[Joshua Millner]] (1849–1931), Irish Olympic shooter
* Joshua Abraham Norton (c. 1814–1880), "[[Emperor Norton]]", English-born American immigrant who proclaimed himself Emperor of the United States
* [[Joshua Reynolds]] (1723–1792), English painter, particularly of portraits
* [[Joshua Slocum]] (1844–1909), first man to sail solo around the world
* [[Joshua Zeitlin]] (1742–1822), rabbinical scholar and philanthropist born in the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth (now Belarus)
* [[Joshua Heschel Zoref]] (1633-1700), ascetic and an important figure in the Lithuanian Sabbatean movement

===20th and 21st centuries===
* [[Joshua Ang]] (born 1989), Singaporean film actor
* [[Josh Barnett]] (born 1977), American mixed martial artist and professional wrestler
* [[Joshua Bartholomew]] (born 1984), Canadian singer-songwriter, musician and producer
* [[Josh Beckett]] (born 1980), American former Major League Baseball pitcher
* [[Joshua Bell]] (born 1967), American violinist and conductor
* Joshua Blahyi, better known by his nom de guerre [[General Butt Naked]] (born 1971), Liberian former warlord
* [[Joshua Ilika Brenner]] (born 1976), Mexican swimmer
* [[Joshua Cardwell]] (1910–1982), politician in Northern Ireland
* [[Joshua Chelanga]] (born 1973), Kenyan long-distance runner
* [[Joshua Clottey]] (born 1977), Ghanaian professional boxer and former IBF welterweight champion
* [[Josh Cooper (cryptographer)]] (1901–1981), British cryptographer
* [[Josh Cooper (defensive end)]] (born 1980), American football player, formerly in the National Football League
* [[Josh Culbreath]] (born 1932), American retired hurdler
* [[Joshua Dariye]] (born 1957), Nigerian politician
* Ralph [[Joshua Dionisio]] (born 1994), Filipino actor
* [[Josh Duggar]] (born 1988), Disgraced American reality TV participant and political activist
* [[Josh Duhamel]] (born 1972), American actor and former model
* [[Josh Dun]] (born 1988), American drummer, currently in the band Twenty One Pilots
* [[Joshua Eagle]] (born 1973), Australian tennis coach and former player
* [[Joshua Fernandez]] (born 1974), Malaysian film director
* [[Joshua Fishman]] (born 1926), American linguist
* [[Josh Gibson]] (1911–1947), American Negro league baseball catcher
* Joshua [[Oupa Gqozo]] (born 1952), former military ruler of the former homeland of Ciskei in South Africa
* [[Josh Groban]] (born 1981), American singer, songwriter, actor and record producer
* [[Josh Hamilton]] (born 1981), American Major League baseball player
* [[Josh Hartnett]] (born 1978), American actor and movie producer
* [[Josh Homme]] (born 1973), American singer, songwriter, musician, record producer and actor
* [[Josh Howard]] (born 1980), American basketball player, formerly in the National Basketball Association
* [[Josh Hutcherson]] (born 1992), American actor
* [[Josh Jasper]] (born 1987), All-American college football placekicker
* [[Joshua Kennedy]] (born 1982), Australian former soccer player
* Joshua [[Andrew Koenig]] (1968–2010), American actor and human rights activist
* [[Josh Kronfeld]] (born 1971), New Zealand former rugby union flanker
* [[Joshua Livestro]] (born 1970), Dutch columnist and political writer
* [[Josh Mahoney]] (born 1977), former Australian rules footballer
* [[Josh McDaniels]] (born 1976), American National Football League offensive coordinator and former head coach
* [[Josh Morris]] (born 1986), Australian rugby league player
* [[Josh Mostel]] (born 1946), American actor
* [[Joshua Neustein]] (born 1940), Polish-born American visual artist
* [[Joshua Owusu]] (born 1948), Ghanaian retired triple jumper and long jumper
* [[Josh Peck]] (born 1986), American actor
* [[Joshua Perper]] (born 1932), Romanian-born American forensic pathologist and toxicologist
* [[Joshua Radin]] (born 1974), American singer-songwriter
* [[Josh Radnor]] (born 1974), American actor, director, producer and screenwriter
* [[Josh Satin]] (born 1984), American former Major League Baseball player
* [[Josh Server]] (born 1979), American actor and comedian
* [[Joshua Simon]] (fl. 21st century), Israeli art curator, writer and filmmaker
* [[Joshua Smith (disambiguation)]]
* [[Josh Tordjman]] (born 1985), Canadian hockey goaltender
* [[Josh Wagenaar]] (born 1985), Canadian former footballer
* [[Joshua Wheeler]] (born 1975), American Delta Force Operator, first American service member killed in action while fighting ISIS
* [[Josh Whitesell]] (born 1982), American former Major League Baseball and Nippon Professional Baseball player
* [[Josh Widdicombe]], English stand-up comedian and presenter
* [[Josh Wilcox]] (born 1974), American former National Football League player
* [[Josh Zeid]] (born 1987), American baseball pitcher, former in Major League Baseball

==Fictional characters==
* [[Josh Bauer]], a minor character in season 6 of the American television series ''24''
* [[Joshua Christopher]], in the Japanese anime/manga ''Chrono Crusade''
* [[Joshua Clay]] (debut 1977), DC Comics superhero Tempest
* [[Joshua Deets]] (debut 1985), a recurring character in the ''Lonesome Dove'' American novel series
* the title character of ''[[Joshua Jones (TV series)|Joshua Jones]]'' (1991–1992), a Welsh children's television series
* [[Josh Lyman]] (1999–2006), in the American television series ''The West Wing''
* Josh Nichols (2004–2007), in the American television series ''[[Drake & Josh]]''
* Joshua, a computer/artificial intelligence in the 1983 movie ''[[WarGames]]''

==See also==
* [[Josh (disambiguation)]]
* [[Yehoshua (disambiguation)]]
* [[Jesus (name)]]
* [[Josuah Sylvester]] (1563–1618), English poet

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}

{{given name}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Joshua (Name)}}
[[Category:English masculine given names]]
[[Category:Hebrew-language names]]
[[Category:Theophoric names]]

Matter

2016-12-20T15:22:52Z

Cyon: /* Antiquity (c. 610 BC–c. 322 BC) */corrected tone marks in a Greek word

{{about|the concept in the physical sciences}}
{{pp-vandalism|expiry=11:12, 12 February 2018|small=yes}}
{{pp-move-indef}}
{{infobox
| title = Matter
| data1 = [[File:Quartz oisan.jpg|200px]] [[File:Drop closeup.jpg|200px]] [[File:NO2-N2O4.jpg|200px]] [[File:Plasma-lamp 2.jpg|200px]]
| data2 = Matter is usually classified into [[State of matter#The four fundamental states|three classical states]], with [[plasma (physics)|plasma]] sometimes added as a fourth state. From top to bottom: [[quartz]] ([[solid]]), [[water]] ([[liquid]]), [[nitrogen dioxide]] ([[gas]]), and a [[plasma globe]] ([[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]).
}}
In the [[classical physics]] observed in everyday life, if something has [[mass]] and takes up space, it is said to be composed of '''matter'''; this includes [[atoms]] (and thus [[molecules]]) and anything made up of these, but not other energy phenomena or waves such as [[light]] or [[sound]].<ref name=Penrose>
{{cite book
|author= R. Penrose
|date=1991
|chapter=The mass of the classical vacuum
|editors=S. Saunders, H.R. Brown
|title=The Philosophy of Vacuum
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ZU1LL4IbDKcC&pg=PA21
|page=21
|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]
|isbn=0-19-824449-5
}}</ref><ref name=mcgrawhill>
{{cite web
|title=Matter (physics)
|url=http://www.accessscience.com/abstract.aspx?id=410600&referURL=http%3a%2f%2fwww.accessscience.com%2fcontent.aspx%3fid%3d410600
|work=McGraw-Hill's Access Science: Encyclopedia of Science and Technology Online
|accessdate=2009-05-24
}}</ref> More generally, however, in ([[modern physics|modern]]) [[physics]], matter is not a fundamental concept because a universal definition of it is elusive: [[elementary particle|elementary constituents]] of atoms may not take up space individually, and [[massless particle|massless]] [[particle physics|particles]] may be composed to form objects that have mass (even when [[rest mass|at rest]]).

All the everyday objects that we can bump into, touch or squeeze
are ultimately composed of [[atom]]s. This ordinary atomic matter is in turn made up of interacting [[subatomic particle]]s—usually a [[atomic nucleus|nucleus]] of [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s, and a cloud of orbiting [[electron]]s.<ref name=Davies2>
{{cite book
|author=P. Davies
|date=1992
|title=The New Physics: A Synthesis
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=akb2FpZSGnMC&pg=PA1
|page=1
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|isbn=0-521-43831-4
}}</ref><ref name=Hooft>
{{cite book
|author=G. 't Hooft
|date=1997
|title=In search of the ultimate building blocks
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=e-7eAp-bVbEC&pg=PA6
|page=6
|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]
|isbn=0-521-57883-3
}}</ref>
Typically, science considers these composite particles matter because they have both [[rest mass]] and volume. By contrast, [[massless particle]]s, such as [[photon]]s, are not considered matter, because they have neither rest mass nor volume. However, not all particles with rest mass have a classical volume, since fundamental particles such as [[quark]]s and [[lepton]]s (sometimes equated with matter) are considered "point particles" with no effective size or volume. Nevertheless, quarks and leptons together make up "ordinary matter", and their interactions contribute to the effective volume of the composite particles that make up ordinary matter.

Matter exists in ''[[state of matter|states]]'' (or ''[[phase (matter)|phases]]''): the classical [[solid]], [[liquid]], and [[gas]]; as well as the more exotic [[plasma (physics)|plasma]], [[Bose–Einstein condensate]]s, [[fermionic condensate]]s, and [[quark–gluon plasma]].<ref name=RHIC>
{{cite press
|date=18 April 2005
|url=http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/pubaf/pr/pr_display.asp?prid=05-38
|title=RHIC Scientists Serve Up "Perfect" Liquid
|publisher=[[Brookhaven National Laboratory]]
|accessdate=2009-09-15
}}</ref>

For much of the history of the [[natural science]]s people have contemplated the exact nature of matter. The idea that matter was built of discrete building blocks, the so-called ''particulate theory of matter'', was first put forward by the Greek philosophers [[Leucippus]] (~490 BC) and [[Democritus]] (~470–380 BC).<ref>
{{cite book
|author=J. Olmsted |author2=G.M. Williams
|date=1996
|title=Chemistry: The Molecular Science
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=1vnk6J8knKkC&pg=PA40
|page=40 |edition=2nd
|publisher=[[Jones & Bartlett]]
|isbn=0-8151-8450-6
}}</ref>

==Comparison with mass==
Matter should not be confused with mass, as the two are not quite the same in modern physics.<ref name=Mongillo>
{{cite book
|author=J. Mongillo
|date=2007
|title=Nanotechnology 101
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=j69lwrrQ4nsC&pg=PA30
|page=30
|publisher=Greenwood Publishing
|isbn=0-313-33880-9
}}</ref> For example, mass is a [[conservation of mass|conserved quantity]], which means that its value is unchanging through time, within closed systems. However, matter is ''not'' conserved in such systems, although this is not obvious in ordinary conditions on Earth, where matter is approximately conserved. Still, [[special relativity]] shows that matter may disappear by conversion into energy, even inside closed systems, and it can also be created from energy, within such systems. However, because ''mass'' (like energy) can neither be created nor destroyed, the quantity of mass and the quantity of energy remain the same during a transformation of matter (which represents a certain amount of energy) into non-material (i.e., non-matter) energy. This is also true in the reverse transformation of energy into matter.

Different fields of science use the term matter in different, and sometimes incompatible, ways. Some of these ways are based on loose historical meanings, from a time when there was no reason to distinguish mass and matter. As such, there is no single universally agreed scientific meaning of the word "matter". Scientifically, the term "mass" is well-defined, but "matter" is not. Sometimes in the field of physics "matter" is simply equated with particles that exhibit rest mass (i.e., that cannot travel at the speed of light), such as quarks and leptons. However, in both [[physics]] and [[chemistry]], matter exhibits both [[wave]]-like and [[particle]]-like properties, the so-called [[wave–particle duality]].<ref name=Davies>
{{cite book
|author=P.C.W. Davies
|date=1979
|title=The Forces of Nature
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=Av08AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA116&dq=%22matter+field%22
|page=116
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-22523-X
}}</ref><ref name=Weinberg>
{{cite book
|author=S. Weinberg
|date=1998
|title=The Quantum Theory of Fields
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=2oPZJJerMLsC&pg=PA5&dq=Weinberg+%22matter+field%22
|page=2
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-55002-5
}}</ref><ref name= Masujima>
{{cite book
|author=M. Masujima
|date=2008
|title=Path Integral Quantization and Stochastic Quantization
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=OM15pk3ZHf0C&pg=PA103
|page=103
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=3-540-87850-5
}}</ref>

== Definition ==

=== Based on mass, volume, and space ===
The common definition of matter is ''anything that has [[mass]] and [[volume]] (occupies [[space]])''.<ref name=Walker>{{cite book|author=S.M. Walker |author2=A. King|date=2005|title=What is Matter?|url=https://books.google.com/?id=o7EquxOl4MAC&printsec=frontcover&dq=matter|page=7|publisher=[[Lerner Publications]]|isbn=0-8225-5131-4}}</ref><ref name=Hage>{{cite book| author=J.Kenkel |author2=P.B. Kelter |author3=D.S. Hage|date=2000|title=Chemistry: An Industry-based Introduction with CD-ROM|url= https://books.google.com/?id=ADSjPRl_tgoC&pg=PA1|page=2|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|isbn= 1-56670-303-4|quote=All basic science textbooks define ''matter'' as simply the collective aggregate of all material substances that occupy space and have mass or weight.}}</ref> For example, a car would be said to be made of matter, as it has mass and volume (occupies space).

The observation that matter occupies space goes back to antiquity. However, an explanation for why matter occupies space is recent, and is argued to be a result of the phenomenon described in the [[Pauli exclusion principle]].<ref name=Peacock>{{cite book|author=K.A. Peacock| date=2008|title=The Quantum Revolution: A Historical Perspective|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ITqnf5jdE5QC&pg=PA47|page=47|publisher=[[Greenwood Publishing Group]]|isbn=0-313-33448-X}}</ref><ref name=Kreiger>{{cite book|author=M.H. Krieger|date=1998|title=Constitutions of Matter: Mathematically Modeling the Most Everyday of Physical Phenomena|url=https://books.google.com/?id=VduHhkzl-aQC&pg=PA22&dq=%22does+not+collapse+into+itself%22|page=22| publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]]|isbn=0-226-45305-7}}</ref> Two particular examples where the exclusion principle clearly relates matter to the occupation of space are white dwarf stars and neutron stars, discussed further below.

=== Based on atoms ===

A definition of "matter" based on its physical and chemical structure is: ''matter is made up of [[atom]]s''.<ref name=Barker0>
{{cite book
|author=G. F. Barker
|date=1870
|chapter=Divisions of matter
|title=A text-book of elementary chemistry: theoretical and inorganic
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=az8AAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA2&dq=%22Three+divisions+of+matter+are+recognized%22&q=%22Three%20divisions%20of%20matter%20are%20recognized%22
|page=2
|publisher=John F Morton & Co.
|isbn=978-1-4460-2206-1
}}</ref> As an example, [[deoxyribonucleic acid]] [[molecule]]s (DNA) are matter under this definition because they are made of atoms. This definition can extend to include charged atoms and molecules, so as to include [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]]s (gases of ions) and [[electrolyte]]s (ionic solutions), which are not obviously included in the atoms definition. Alternatively, one can adopt the [[#Protons, neutrons and electrons definition|''protons, neutrons, and electrons'' definition]].

=== Based on protons, neutrons and electrons ===
A definition of "matter" more fine-scale than the atoms and molecules definition is: ''matter is made up of what [[atom]]s and [[molecule]]s are made of'', meaning anything made of positively charged [[proton]]s, neutral [[neutron]]s, and negatively charged [[electron]]s.<ref name=DePodesta1>
{{cite book
|author=M. de Podesta
|date=2002
|title=Understanding the Properties of Matter
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=h8BNvnR050cC&pg=PA8
|page=8 |edition=2nd
|publisher=CRC Press
|isbn=0-415-25788-3
}}</ref> This definition goes beyond atoms and molecules, however, to include substances made from these building blocks that are ''not'' simply atoms or molecules, for example [[white dwarf]] matter—typically, carbon and oxygen nuclei in a sea of degenerate electrons. At a microscopic level, the constituent "particles" of matter such as protons, neutrons, and electrons obey the laws of quantum mechanics and exhibit wave–particle duality. At an even deeper level, protons and neutrons are made up of [[quark]]s and the force fields ([[gluon]]s) that bind them together (see [[#Quarks and leptons definition|Quarks and leptons definition]] below).

=== Based on quarks and leptons ===
[[File:Standard Model of Elementary Particles.svg|thumb|325px|Under the "quarks and leptons" definition, the elementary and composite particles made of the [[quarks]] (in purple) and [[leptons]] (in green) would be matter—while the gauge bosons (in red) would not be matter. However, interaction energy inherent to composite particles (for example, gluons involved in neutrons and protons) contribute to the mass of ordinary matter.]]

As seen in the above discussion, many early definitions of what can be called ''ordinary matter'' were based upon its structure or ''building blocks''. On the scale of elementary particles, a definition that follows this tradition can be stated as: ''ordinary matter is everything that is composed of elementary [[fermions]], namely [[quark]]s and [[lepton]]s.''<ref name=Povh0>
{{cite book
|author=B. Povh |author2=K. Rith |author3=C. Scholz |author4=F. Zetsche |author5=M. Lavelle
|date=2004
|title=Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts
|chapter=Part I: Analysis: The building blocks of matter
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=rJe4k8tkq7sC&pg=PA9&dq=povh+%22building+blocks+of+matter%22
|edition=4th
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=3-540-20168-8
}}</ref><ref name=Carithers /> The connection between these formulations follows.

Leptons (the most famous being the [[electron]]), and quarks (of which [[baryons]], such as [[protons]] and [[neutrons]], are made) combine to form [[atoms]], which in turn form [[molecules]]. Because atoms and molecules are said to be matter, it is natural to phrase the definition as: ''ordinary matter is anything that is made of the same things that atoms and molecules are made of''. (However, notice that one also can make from these building blocks matter that is ''not'' atoms or molecules.) Then, because electrons are leptons, and protons, and neutrons are made of quarks, this definition in turn leads to the definition of matter as being ''quarks and leptons'', which are the two types of elementary fermions. Carithers and Grannis state: ''Ordinary matter is composed entirely of [[generation (physics)|first-generation]] particles, namely the [up] and [down] quarks, plus the electron and its neutrino.''<ref name=Carithers>{{cite journal
|author1=B. Carithers |author2=P. Grannis |title=Discovery of the Top Quark
|url=http://www.slac.stanford.edu/pubs/beamline/pdf/95iii.pdf
|publisher=[[SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory]]
|journal=[[Beam Line]]
|volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=4–16
|date=1995
}}</ref> (Higher generations particles quickly decay into first-generation particles, and thus are not commonly encountered.<ref name=Green2005>
{{cite book
|author=D. Green
|date=2005
|title=High PT physics at hadron colliders
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6-7TE5N0vbIC&pg=PA23
|page=23
|isbn=0-521-83509-7
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
}}</ref>)

This definition of ordinary matter is more subtle than it first appears. All the particles that make up ordinary matter (leptons and quarks) are elementary fermions, while all the [[force carriers]] are elementary bosons.<ref name=Smolin>
{{cite book
|author=L. Smolin
|date=2007
|title=The Trouble with Physics: The Rise of String Theory, the Fall of a Science, and What Comes Next
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=z5rxrnlcp3sC&pg=PA67
|page=67
|publisher=Mariner Books
|isbn=0-618-91868-X
}}</ref> The [[W and Z bosons]] that mediate the [[weak force]] are not made of quarks or leptons, and so are not ordinary matter, even if they have mass.<ref name=Caso>The W boson mass is 80.398 GeV; see Figure 1 in {{cite journal
|author=C. Amsler ''et al.'' ([[Particle Data Group]])
|date=2008
|title=Review of Particle Physics: The Mass and Width of the W Boson
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/reviews/wmass_s043202.pdf
|journal=[[Physics Letters B]]
|volume=667 |page=1
|bibcode = 2008PhLB..667....1A |doi = 10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018
}}</ref> In other words, [[mass]] is not something that is exclusive to ordinary matter.

The quark–lepton definition of ordinary matter, however, identifies not only the elementary building blocks of matter, but also includes composites made from the constituents (atoms and molecules, for example). Such composites contain an interaction energy that holds the constituents together, and may constitute the bulk of the mass of the composite. As an example, to a great extent, the mass of an atom is simply the sum of the masses of its constituent protons, neutrons and electrons. However, digging deeper, the protons and neutrons are made up of quarks bound together by gluon fields (see [[Quantum chromodynamics#Dynamics|dynamics of quantum chromodynamics]]) and these gluons fields contribute significantly to the mass of hadrons.<ref name=Aitchison>
{{cite book
|author=I.J.R. Aitchison |author2=A.J.G. Hey
|date=2004
|title=Gauge Theories in Particle Physics
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=vLP7XN2pWlEC&pg=PA48
|page=48
|publisher=CRC Press
|isbn=0-7503-0864-8
}}</ref> In other words, most of what composes the "mass" of ordinary matter is due to the [[binding energy]] of quarks within protons and neutrons.<ref name=Povh>
{{cite book
|author=B. Povh |author2=K. Rith |author3=C. Scholz |author4=F. Zetsche |author5=M. Lavelle
|date=2004
|title=Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=rJe4k8tkq7sC&pg=PA103
|page=103
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=3-540-20168-8
}}</ref> For example, the sum of the mass of the three quarks in a [[nucleon]] is approximately {{val|12.5|ul=MeV/c2}}, which is low compared to the mass of a nucleon (approximately {{val|938|ul=MeV/c2}}).<ref name=Green2004>
{{cite book
|author=A.M. Green
|date=2004
|title=Hadronic Physics from Lattice QCD
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=XUGVOJKHgKAC&pg=PA120
|page=120
|publisher=World Scientific
|isbn=981-256-022-X
}}</ref><ref name=Akai>
{{cite book
|author=T. Hatsuda
|date=2008
|chapter=Quark–gluon plasma and QCD
|editor=H. Akai
|title=Condensed matter theories
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=PZdFi145170C&pg=PA296
|volume=21 |page=296
|publisher=Nova Publishers
|isbn=1-60021-501-7
}}</ref> The bottom line is that most of the mass of everyday objects comes from the interaction energy of its elementary components.

The Standard Model groups matter particles into three generations, where each generation consists of two quarks and two leptons. The first generation is the ''[[up quark|up]]'' and ''[[down quark|down]]'' quarks, the ''[[electron]]'' and the ''[[electron neutrino]]''; the second includes the ''[[charm quark|charm]]'' and ''[[strange quark|strange]]'' quarks, the ''[[muon]]'' and the ''[[muon neutrino]]''; the third generation consists of the ''[[top quark|top]]'' and ''[[bottom quark|bottom]]'' quarks and the ''[[tau (particle)|tau]]'' and ''[[tau neutrino]]''.<ref name=Staley>
{{cite book
|author=K.W Staley
|date=2004
|chapter=Origins of the Third Generation of Matter
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=DLt_fcBYynAC&pg=PA8
|title=The Evidence for the Top Quark
|page=8
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-82710-8
}}</ref> The most natural explanation for this would be that quarks and leptons of higher generations are [[excited state]]s of the first generations. If this turns out to be the case, it would imply that quarks and leptons are [[composite particle]]s, rather than [[elementary particle]]s.<ref name= Kirsh>
{{cite book
|author=Y. Ne'eman |author2=Y. Kirsh
|date=1996
|title=The Particle Hunters
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=K4jcfCguj8YC&pg=PA276
|page=276 |edition=2nd
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-47686-0
|quote=[T]he most natural explanation to the existence of higher generations of quarks and leptons is that they correspond to excited states of the first generation, and experience suggests that excited systems must be composite}}</ref>

===Based on theories of relativity===
{{main article|Mass–energy equivalence}}
In the context of [[theory of relativity|relativity]], mass is not an additive quantity, in the sense that one can add the rest masses of particles in a system to get the total rest mass of the system.<ref name=Penrose/> Thus, in relativity usually a more general view is that it is not the sum of [[rest mass]]es, but the [[Stress–energy tensor|energy–momentum tensor]] that quantifies the amount of matter. This tensor gives the rest mass for the entire system. "Matter" therefore is sometimes considered as anything that contributes to the energy–momentum of a system, that is, anything that is not purely gravity.<ref name=Caroll>
{{cite book
|author=S.M. Caroll
|date=2004
|title=Spacetime and Geometry
|pages=163–164
|publisher=Addison Wesley
|isbn=0-8053-8732-3
}}</ref><ref name=Davies499>
{{cite book
|author=P. Davies
|date=1992
|title=The New Physics: A Synthesis
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=akb2FpZSGnMC&pg=PA499
|page=499
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-43831-4
|quote='''Matter fields''': the fields whose quanta describe the elementary particles that make up the material content of the Universe (as opposed to the gravitons and their supersymmetric partners).
}}</ref> This view is commonly held in fields that deal with [[general relativity]] such as [[cosmology]]. In this view, light and other massless particles and fields are part of matter.

The reason for this is that in this definition, [[electromagnetic radiation]] (such as light) as well as the energy of [[electromagnetic field]]s contributes to the mass of systems, and therefore appears to add matter to them. For example, light radiation (or [[thermal radiation]]) trapped inside a box would contribute to the mass of the box, as would any kind of energy inside the box, including the kinetic energy of particles held by the box. Nevertheless, isolated individual particles of light ([[photon]]s) and the isolated kinetic energy of massive particles, are normally not considered to be ''matter.''{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

A difference between matter and mass therefore may seem to arise when single particles are examined. In such cases, the mass of single photons is zero. For particles with rest mass, such as leptons and quarks, isolation of the particle in a frame where it is not moving, removes its kinetic energy.

A source of definition difficulty in relativity arises from two definitions of mass in common use, one of which is formally equivalent to total energy (and is thus observer dependent), and the other of which is referred to as [[rest mass]] or [[invariant mass]] and is independent of the observer. Only "rest mass" is loosely equated with matter (since it can be weighed). Invariant mass is usually applied in physics to unbound systems of particles. However, energies which contribute to the "invariant mass" may be weighed also in special circumstances, such as when a system that has invariant mass is confined and has no net momentum (as in the box example above). Thus, a photon with no mass may (confusingly) still add mass to a system in which it is trapped. The same is true of the kinetic energy of particles, which by definition is not part of their rest mass, but which does add rest mass to systems in which these particles reside (an example is the mass added by the motion of gas molecules of a bottle of gas, or by the thermal energy of any hot object).

Since such mass (kinetic energies of particles, the energy of trapped electromagnetic radiation and stored potential energy of repulsive fields) is measured as part of the mass of ordinary ''matter'' in complex systems, the "matter" status of "massless particles" and fields of force becomes unclear in such systems. These problems contribute to the lack of a rigorous definition of matter in science, although mass is easier to define as the total stress–energy above (this is also what is weighed on a scale, and what is the source of gravity).{{citation needed|date=April 2014}}

== Structure ==

In particle physics, fermions are particles that obey [[Fermi–Dirac statistics]]. Fermions can be elementary, like the electron—or composite, like the proton and neutron. In the [[Standard Model]], there are two types of elementary fermions: quarks and leptons, which are discussed next.

=== Quarks ===
{{Main article|Quark}}
Quarks are particles of [[fermion|spin-{{frac|1|2}}]], implying that they are [[fermion]]s. They carry an [[electric charge]] of −{{frac|1|3}} [[elementary charge|e]] (down-type quarks) or +{{frac|2|3}} e (up-type quarks). For comparison, an electron has a charge of −1 e. They also carry [[colour charge]], which is the equivalent of the electric charge for the [[strong interaction]]. Quarks also undergo [[radioactive decay]], meaning that they are subject to the [[weak interaction]]. Quarks are massive particles, and therefore are also subject to [[gravity]].

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:center;"
|+Quark properties<ref>
{{cite journal
|author=C. Amsler ''et al.'' ([[Particle Data Group]])
|date=2008
|title=Reviews of Particle Physics: Quarks
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/tables/rpp2008-sum-quarks.pdf
|journal=[[Physics Letters B]]
|volume=667 |page=1
|doi= 10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018
|bibcode = 2008PhLB..667....1A
}}</ref>
! name !! symbol !! spin !! electric charge ([[elementary charge|e]]) !! mass ([[electronvolt|MeV]]/''[[speed of light|c]]''2) !! mass comparable to !! antiparticle !! antiparticle symbol
|-
|colspan="7"| up-type quarks
|-
| [[Up quark|up]]
| {{Subatomic particle|Up quark}}
| {{frac|1|2}}
| +{{frac|2|3}}
| 1.5 to 3.3
| ~ 5 electrons
| antiup
| {{Subatomic particle|Up antiquark}}
|-
| [[Charm quark|charm]]
| {{Subatomic particle|Charm quark}}
| {{frac|1|2}}
| +{{frac|2|3}}
| 1160 to 1340
| ~1 proton
| anticharm
| {{Subatomic particle|Charm antiquark}}
|-
| [[Top quark|top]]
| {{Subatomic particle|Top quark}}
| {{frac|1|2}}
| +{{frac|2|3}}
| 169,100 to 173,300
| ~180 protons or ~1 tungsten atom
| antitop
| {{Subatomic particle|Top antiquark}}
|-
|colspan="7"| down-type quarks
|-
| [[Down quark|down]]
| {{Subatomic particle|Down quark}}
| {{frac|1|2}}
| −{{frac|1|3}}
| 3.5 to 6.0
| ~10 electrons
| antidown
| {{Subatomic particle|Down antiquark}}
|-
| [[Strange quark|strange]]
| {{Subatomic particle|Strange quark}}
| {{frac|1|2}}
| −{{frac|1|3}}
| 70 to 130
| ~ 200 electrons
| antistrange
| {{Subatomic particle|Strange antiquark}}
|-
| [[Bottom quark|bottom]]
| {{Subatomic particle|Bottom quark}}
| {{frac|1|2}}
| −{{frac|1|3}}
| 4130 to 4370
| ~ 5 protons
| antibottom
| {{Subatomic particle|Bottom antiquark}}
|}

[[File:Quark structure proton.svg|thumb|120px|Quark structure of a proton: 2 up quarks and 1 down quark.]]

==== Baryonic matter ====
{{main article|Baryon}}
Baryons are strongly interacting fermions, and so are subject to Fermi–Dirac statistics. Amongst the baryons are the protons and neutrons, which occur in atomic nuclei, but many other unstable baryons exist as well. The term [[baryon]] usually refers to triquarks—particles made of three quarks. "Exotic" baryons made of four quarks and one antiquark are known as the pentaquarks, but their existence is not generally accepted.

Baryonic matter is the part of the universe that is made of baryons (including all atoms). This part of the universe does not include [[dark energy]], [[dark matter]], [[black holes]] or various forms of degenerate matter, such as compose [[white dwarf]] stars and [[neutron star]]s. Microwave light seen by [[Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe]] (WMAP), suggests that only about 4.6% of that part of the universe within range of the best [[telescope]]s (that is, matter that may be visible because light could reach us from it), is made of baryonic matter. About 23% is dark matter, and about 72% is dark energy.<ref name="NASA-WMAP">
{{cite web
|date=2008
|title=Five Year Results on the Oldest Light in the Universe
|url=http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/m_mm.html
|publisher=[[NASA]]
|accessdate=2008-05-02
}}</ref>

As a matter of fact, the great majority of ordinary matter in the universe is unseen, since visible stars and gas inside galaxies and clusters account for less than 10 per cent of the ordinary matter contribution to the mass-energy density of the universe.<ref>{{Cite journal
| last = Persic
| first = Massimo
| last2 = Salucci
| first2 = Paolo
| date = 1992-09-01
| title = The baryon content of the Universe
| url = http://mnras.oxfordjournals.org/content/258/1/14P
| journal = Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society
| language = en
| volume = 258
| issue = 1
| pages = 14P–18P
| doi = 10.1093/mnras/258.1.14P
| issn = 0035-8711
|arxiv = astro-ph/0502178 |bibcode = 1992MNRAS.258P..14P }}</ref>

[[File:Size IK Peg.svg|250px|thumb|A comparison between the white dwarf [[IK Pegasi]] B (center), its A-class companion IK Pegasi A (left) and the Sun (right). This white dwarf has a surface temperature of 35,500 K.]]

==== Degenerate matter ====
{{main article|Degenerate matter}}
In physics, '''degenerate matter''' refers to the ground state of a gas of fermions at a temperature near absolute zero.<ref name=Goldberg0>
{{cite book
|author=H.S. Goldberg |author2=M.D. Scadron
|date=1987
|title=Physics of Stellar Evolution and Cosmology
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=NowVde8kzIoC&pg=PA207
|page=202
|publisher=Taylor & Francis
|isbn=0-677-05540-4
}}</ref> The [[Pauli exclusion principle]] requires that only two fermions can occupy a quantum state, one spin-up and the other spin-down. Hence, at zero temperature, the fermions fill up sufficient levels to accommodate all the available fermions—and in the case of many fermions, the maximum kinetic energy (called the ''[[Fermi energy]]'') and the pressure of the gas becomes very large, and depends on the number of fermions rather than the temperature, unlike normal states of matter.

Degenerate matter is thought to occur during the evolution of heavy stars.<ref name=Goldberg1>
{{cite book
|author=H.S. Goldberg |author2=M.D. Scadron
|date=1987
|title=Physics of Stellar Evolution and Cosmology
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=NowVde8kzIoC&pg=PA207
|page=233
|publisher=Taylor & Francis
|isbn=0-677-05540-4
}}</ref> The demonstration by [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]] that [[white dwarf star]]s have a maximum allowed mass because of the exclusion principle caused a revolution in the theory of star evolution.<ref name=Luminet>
{{cite book
|author=J.-P. Luminet |author2=A. Bullough |author3=A. King
|date=1992
|title=Black Holes
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=WRexJODPq5AC&pg=PA72
|page=75
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-40906-3
}}</ref>

Degenerate matter includes the part of the universe that is made up of neutron stars and white dwarfs.

==== Strange matter ====
{{main article|Strange matter}}
'''Strange matter''' is a particular form of [[quark matter]], usually thought of as a ''liquid'' of [[up quark|up]], [[down quark|down]], and [[strange quark|strange]] [[quark]]s. It is contrasted with [[nuclear matter]], which is a liquid of [[neutron]]s and [[proton]]s (which themselves are built out of up and down quarks), and with non-strange quark matter, which is a quark liquid that contains only up and down quarks. At high enough density, strange matter is expected to be [[color superconductor|color superconducting]]. Strange matter is hypothesized to occur in the core of [[neutron star]]s, or, more speculatively, as isolated droplets that may vary in size from [[femtometer]]s ([[strangelet]]s) to kilometers ([[quark star]]s).

===== Two meanings of the term "strange matter" =====

In [[particle physics]] and [[astrophysics]], the term is used in two ways, one broader and the other more specific.
# The broader meaning is just quark matter that contains three flavors of quarks: up, down, and strange. In this definition, there is a critical pressure and an associated critical density, and when nuclear matter (made of [[protons]] and [[neutrons]]) is compressed beyond this density, the protons and neutrons dissociate into quarks, yielding quark matter (probably strange matter).
# The narrower meaning is quark matter that is ''more stable than nuclear matter''. The idea that this could happen is the "strange matter hypothesis" of Bodmer<ref>
{{cite journal
|author=A. Bodmer
|date=1971
|title=Collapsed Nuclei
|journal=[[Physical Review D]]
|volume=4 |issue=6 |page=1601
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.4.1601
|bibcode = 1971PhRvD...4.1601B
}}</ref> and Witten.<ref>
{{cite journal
|author=E. Witten
|date=1984
|title=Cosmic Separation of Phases
|journal=[[Physical Review D]]
|volume=30 |issue=2 |page=272
|doi=10.1103/PhysRevD.30.272
|bibcode = 1984PhRvD..30..272W
}}</ref> In this definition, the critical pressure is zero: the true ground state of matter is ''always'' quark matter. The nuclei that we see in the matter around us, which are droplets of nuclear matter, are actually [[metastable]], and given enough time (or the right external stimulus) would decay into droplets of strange matter, i.e. [[strangelet]]s.

=== Leptons ===
{{Main article|Lepton}}

Leptons are particles of [[fermion|spin-{{frac|1|2}}]], meaning that they are [[fermion]]s. They carry an [[electric charge]] of −1 [[elementary charge|e]] (charged leptons) or 0 e (neutrinos). Unlike quarks, leptons do not carry [[colour charge]], meaning that they do not experience the [[strong interaction]]. Leptons also undergo radioactive decay, meaning that they are subject to the [[weak interaction]]. Leptons are massive particles, therefore are subject to gravity.

{| class="wikitable" style="margin:0 auto; text-align:center;"
|+Lepton properties
! name !! symbol !! spin !! electric charge ([[elementary charge|e]]) !! mass ([[electronvolt|MeV]]/''[[speed of light|c]]''2) !! mass comparable to !! antiparticle !! antiparticle symbol
|-
|colspan="7"| charged leptons<ref>
{{cite journal
|author=C. Amsler ''et al.'' ([[Particle Data Group]])
|date=2008
|title=Review of Particle Physics: Leptons
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/tables/rpp2008-sum-leptons.pdf
|journal=[[Physics Letters B]]
|volume=667 |page=1
|doi= 10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018
|bibcode = 2008PhLB..667....1A
}}</ref>
|-
| [[electron]]
| {{Subatomic particle|electron}}
| {{frac|1|2}}
| −1
| 0.5110
| 1 electron
| [[antielectron]]
| {{Subatomic particle|antielectron}}
|-
| [[muon]]
| {{Subatomic particle|muon}}
| {{frac|1|2}}
| −1
| 105.7
| ~ 200 electrons
| antimuon
| {{Subatomic particle|antimuon}}
|-
| [[tau (particle)|tau]]
| {{Subatomic particle|tau}}
| {{frac|1|2}}
| −1
| 1,777
| ~ 2 protons
| antitau
| {{Subatomic particle|antitau}}
|-
|colspan="7"| neutrinos<ref>
{{cite journal
|author=C. Amsler ''et al.'' ([[Particle Data Group]])
|date=2008
|title=Review of Particle Physics: Neutrinos Properties
|url=http://pdg.lbl.gov/2008/listings/s066.pdf
|journal=[[Physics Letters B]]
|volume=667 |page=1
|doi= 10.1016/j.physletb.2008.07.018
|bibcode = 2008PhLB..667....1A
}}</ref>
|-
| [[electron neutrino]]
| {{Subatomic particle|Electron neutrino}}
| {{frac|1|2}}
| 0
| < 0.000460
| < {{frac|1|1000}} electron
| electron antineutrino
| {{Subatomic particle|Electron antineutrino}}
|-
| [[muon neutrino]]
| {{Subatomic particle|Muon neutrino}}
| {{frac|1|2}}
| 0
| < 0.19
| < {{frac|1|2}} electron
| muon antineutrino
| {{Subatomic particle|Muon antineutrino}}
|-
| [[tau neutrino]]
| {{Subatomic particle|Tau neutrino}}
| {{frac|1|2}}
| 0
| < 18.2
| < 40 electrons
| tau antineutrino
| {{Subatomic particle|Tau antineutrino}}
|}

== Phases ==
{{main article|Phase (matter)}}
{{see also|Phase diagram|State of matter}}
[[File:Phase diagram for pure substance.JPG|thumb|250px||Phase diagram for a typical substance at a fixed volume. Vertical axis is ''P''ressure, horizontal axis is ''T''emperature. The green line marks the [[freezing point]] (above the green line is ''solid'', below it is ''liquid'') and the blue line the [[boiling point]] (above it is ''liquid'' and below it is ''gas''). So, for example, at higher ''T'', a higher ''P'' is necessary to maintain the substance in liquid phase. At the [[triple point]] the three phases; liquid, gas and solid; can coexist. Above the [[Critical point (thermodynamics)|critical point]] there is no detectable difference between the phases. The dotted line shows the [[Water (molecule)#Density of water and ice|anomalous behavior of water]]: ice melts at constant temperature with increasing pressure.<ref name=Logan>
{{cite book
|author=S. R. Logan
|date=1998
|title=Physical Chemistry for the Biomedical Sciences
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=LA_8QzoCNMsC&pg=PA110
|pages=110–111
|publisher=CRC Press
|isbn=0-7484-0710-3
}}</ref>]]

In [[wikt:bulk|bulk]], matter can exist in several different forms, or states of aggregation, known as ''[[phase (matter)|phases]]'',<ref name=Collings>
{{cite book
|author=P.J. Collings
|date=2002
|chapter=Chapter 1: States of Matter
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=NE1RWiGXtdUC&printsec=frontcover#PPA1,M1
|title=Liquid Crystals: Nature's Delicate Phase of Matter
|publisher=Princeton University Press
|isbn=0-691-08672-9
}}</ref> depending on ambient [[pressure]], [[temperature]] and [[volume]].<ref name=Trevena>
{{cite book
|author=D.H. Trevena
|date=1975
|chapter=Chapter 1.2: Changes of phase
|title=The Liquid Phase
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=oOkOAAAAQAAJ&pg=PA1
|publisher=Taylor & Francis
|isbn=978-0-85109-031-3
}}</ref> A phase is a form of matter that has a relatively uniform chemical composition and physical properties (such as [[density]], [[specific heat]], [[refractive index]], and so forth). These phases include the three familiar ones ([[solid]]s, [[liquid]]s, and [[gas]]es), as well as more exotic states of matter (such as [[plasma (physics)|plasma]]s, [[superfluid]]s, [[supersolid]]s, [[Bose–Einstein condensate]]s, ...). A ''[[fluid]]'' may be a liquid, gas or plasma. There are also [[paramagnetism|paramagnetic]] and [[ferromagnetism|ferromagnetic]] phases of [[magnetic material]]s. As conditions change, matter may change from one phase into another. These phenomena are called [[phase transition]]s, and are studied in the field of [[thermodynamics]]. In nanomaterials, the vastly increased ratio of surface area to volume results in matter that can exhibit properties entirely different from those of bulk material, and not well described by any bulk phase (see [[nanomaterials]] for more details).

Phases are sometimes called ''states of matter'', but this term can lead to confusion with [[thermodynamics|thermodynamic states]]. For example, two gases maintained at different pressures are in different ''thermodynamic states'' (different pressures), but in the same ''phase'' (both are gases).

== Antimatter ==
{{main article|Antimatter}}
{{unsolved|physics|[[Baryon asymmetry]]. Why is there far more matter than antimatter in the observable universe? }}
In [[particle physics]] and [[quantum chemistry]], '''antimatter''' is matter that is composed of the [[antiparticle]]s of those that constitute ordinary matter. If a particle and its antiparticle come into contact with each other, the two [[annihilation|annihilate]]; that is, they may both be converted into other particles with equal [[energy]] in accordance with [[Einstein]]'s equation {{nowrap|[[E=MC2|''E'' = ''mc''2]]}}. These new particles may be high-energy [[photon]]s ([[gamma ray]]s) or other particle–antiparticle pairs. The resulting particles are endowed with an amount of kinetic energy equal to the difference between the [[rest mass]] of the products of the annihilation and the rest mass of the original particle–antiparticle pair, which is often quite large.

Antimatter is not found naturally on Earth, except very briefly and in vanishingly small quantities (as the result of [[radioactive decay]], [[lightning]] or [[cosmic ray]]s). This is because antimatter that came to exist on Earth outside the confines of a suitable physics laboratory would almost instantly meet the ordinary matter that Earth is made of, and be annihilated. Antiparticles and some stable antimatter (such as [[antihydrogen]]) can be made in tiny amounts, but not in enough quantity to do more than test a few of its theoretical properties.

There is considerable speculation both in [[science]] and [[science fiction]] as to why the observable universe is apparently almost entirely matter, and whether other places are almost entirely antimatter instead. In the early universe, it is thought that matter and antimatter were equally represented, and the disappearance of antimatter requires an asymmetry in physical laws called the charge parity (or [[CP symmetry]]) violation. CP symmetry violation can be obtained from the Standard Model,<ref name=CP>
{{cite book
|author=National Research Council (US)
|authorlink=United States National Research Council
|date=2006
|title=Revealing the hidden nature of space and time
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=oTedc3rTDr4C&pg=PA46
|page=46
|publisher=National Academies Press
|isbn=0-309-10194-8
}}</ref> but at this time the apparent [[asymmetry]] of matter and antimatter in the visible universe is one of the great [[unsolved problems in physics]]. Possible processes by which it came about are explored in more detail under [[baryogenesis]].

== Other types ==
[[File:Matter Distribution.JPG|thumb |300px |Pie chart showing the fractions of energy in the universe contributed by different sources. ''Ordinary matter'' is divided into ''luminous matter'' (the stars and luminous gases and 0.005% radiation) and ''nonluminous matter'' (intergalactic gas and about 0.1% neutrinos and 0.04% supermassive black holes). Ordinary matter is uncommon. Modeled after Ostriker and Steinhardt.<ref name="Ostriker">{{cite journal
|author=J.P. Ostriker |author2=P.J. Steinhardt
|date=2003
|title=New Light on Dark Matter
|doi=10.1126/science.1085976
|journal=Science
|volume=300
|issue=5627
|pages=1909–13
|pmid=12817140
|arxiv=astro-ph/0306402
|bibcode = 2003Sci...300.1909O
}}</ref> For more information, see [http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/news/index.html NASA].]]

Ordinary matter, in the quarks and leptons definition, constitutes about 4% of the [[mass–energy equivalence|energy]] of the [[observable universe]]. The remaining energy is theorized to be due to exotic forms, of which 23% is [[dark matter]]<ref name=Pretzl>
{{cite book
|author=K. Pretzl
|date=2004
|chapter=Dark Matter, Massive Neutrinos and Susy Particles
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=lokz2n-9gX0C&pg=PA289
|title=Structure and Dynamics of Elementary Matter
|page=289
|publisher=Walter Greiner
|isbn=1-4020-2446-0
}}</ref><ref name=Freeman>
{{cite book
|author=K. Freeman |author2=G. McNamara
|date=2006
|chapter=What can the matter be?
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=C2OS1kmQ8JIC&pg=PA45
|title=In Search of Dark Matter
|page=105
|publisher=Birkhäuser Verlag
|isbn=0-387-27616-5
}}</ref> and 73% is [[dark energy]].<ref name=Wheeler0>
{{cite book
|author=J.C. Wheeler
|date=2007
|title=Cosmic Catastrophes: Exploding Stars, Black Holes, and Mapping the Universe
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=j1ej8d0F8jAC&pg=PA282
|page=282
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-85714-7
}}</ref><ref name=Gribbin>
{{cite book
|author=J. Gribbin
|date=2007
|title=The Origins of the Future: Ten Questions for the Next Ten Years
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=f6AYrZYGig8C&pg=PA151
|page=151
|publisher=Yale University Press
|isbn=0-300-12596-8
}}</ref>

[[File:Rotation curve (Milky Way).JPG|thumb |300px |[[Galaxy rotation curve]] for the Milky Way. Vertical axis is speed of rotation about the galactic center. Horizontal axis is distance from the galactic center. The sun is marked with a yellow ball. The observed curve of speed of rotation is blue. The predicted curve based upon stellar mass and gas in the Milky Way is red. The difference is due to [[dark matter]] or perhaps a modification of the [[MOND|law of gravity]].<ref name="Schneider">{{cite book
|author=P. Schneider
|date=2006
|title=Extragalactic Astronomy and Cosmology
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=uP1Hz-6sHaMC&pg=PA100
|page=4, Fig. 1.4
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=3-540-33174-3
}}</ref><ref name="Koupelis">{{cite book
|author=T. Koupelis |author2=K.F. Kuhn
|date=2007
|title=In Quest of the Universe
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=6rTttN4ZdyoC&pg=PA491
|page=492; Fig. 16.13
|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Publishers
|isbn=0-7637-4387-9
}}</ref><ref name="Jones">{{cite book
|author=M. H. Jones |author2=R. J. Lambourne |author3=D. J. Adams
|date=2004
|title=An Introduction to Galaxies and Cosmology
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=36K1PfetZegC&pg=PA20
|page=21; Fig. 1.13
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-54623-0
}}</ref> Scatter in observations is indicated roughly by gray bars.]]

=== Dark matter ===
{{main article|Dark matter|Lambda-CDM model|WIMPs}}
{{see also|Galaxy formation and evolution|Dark matter halo}}

In [[astrophysics]] and [[cosmology]], '''dark matter''' is matter of unknown composition that does not emit or reflect enough electromagnetic radiation to be observed directly, but whose presence can be inferred from gravitational effects on visible matter.<ref name=Majumdar>
{{cite arXiv
|author=D. Majumdar
|date=2007
|title=Dark matter — possible candidates and direct detection
|class=hep-ph
|eprint=hep-ph/0703310
}}</ref><ref name=Olive>
{{cite arXiv
|author=K.A. Olive
|date=2003
|title=Theoretical Advanced Study Institute lectures on dark matter
|class=astro-ph
|eprint=astro-ph/0301505
}}</ref> Observational evidence of the early universe and the [[big bang]] theory require that this matter have energy and mass, but is not composed of either elementary fermions (as above) OR gauge bosons. The commonly accepted view is that most of the dark matter is [[nonbaryonic dark matter|non-baryonic in nature]].<ref name=Majumdar/> As such, it is composed of particles as yet unobserved in the laboratory. Perhaps they are [[supersymmetry|supersymmetric particles]],<ref name=Olive2>
{{cite journal
|author=K.A. Olive
|date=2009
|title=Colliders and Cosmology
|journal=[[European Physical Journal C]]
|volume=59 |issue=2 |pages=269–295
|doi=10.1140/epjc/s10052-008-0738-8
|arxiv=0806.1208
|bibcode = 2009EPJC...59..269O
}}</ref> which are not [[Standard Model]] particles, but relics formed at very high energies in the early phase of the universe and still floating about.<ref name=Majumdar/>

=== Dark energy ===
{{main article|Dark energy}}
{{see also|Big bang#Dark energy}}
In [[cosmology]], '''dark energy''' is the name given to the antigravitating influence that is accelerating the rate of [[expansion of the universe]]. It is known not to be composed of known particles like protons, neutrons or electrons, nor of the particles of dark matter, because these all gravitate.<ref name=Wheeler1>
{{cite book
|author=J.C. Wheeler
|date=2007
|title=Cosmic Catastrophes
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=j1ej8d0F8jAC&pg=PA282
|page=282
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-85714-7
}}</ref><ref name=Smolin2>
{{cite book
|author=L. Smolin
|date=2007
|title=The Trouble with Physics
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=z5rxrnlcp3sC&pg=PA16
|page=16
|publisher=Mariner Books
|isbn=0-618-91868-X
}}</ref>
{{Quotation|Fully 70% of the matter density in the universe appears to be in the form of dark energy. Twenty-six percent is dark matter. Only 4% is ordinary matter. So less than 1 part in 20 is made out of matter we have observed experimentally or described in the [[standard model]] of particle physics. Of the other 96%, apart from the properties just mentioned, we know absolutely nothing.|[[Lee Smolin]]: ''The Trouble with Physics'', p. 16}}

=== Exotic matter ===
{{main article|Exotic matter}}

Exotic matter is a hypothetical concept of [[particle physics]]. It covers any material that violates one or more classical conditions or is not made of known [[baryonic particles]]. Such materials would possess qualities like [[negative mass]] or being repelled rather than attracted by gravity.

==Historical development==

===Antiquity (c. 610 BC–c. 322 BC) ===
The [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratics]] were among the first recorded speculators about the underlying nature of the visible world. [[Thales]] (c. 624 BC–c. 546 BC) regarded water as the fundamental material of the world. [[Anaximander]] (c. 610 BC–c. 546 BC) posited that the basic material was wholly characterless or limitless: the Infinite (''[[Apeiron (cosmology)|apeiron]]''). [[Anaximenes of Miletus|Anaximenes]] (flourished 585 BC, d. 528 BC) posited that the basic stuff was ''pneuma'' or air. [[Heraclitus]] (c. 535–c. 475 BC) seems to say the basic element is fire, though perhaps he means that all is change. [[Empedocles]] (c. 490–430 BC) spoke of four [[Classical element|element]]s of which everything was made: earth, water, air, and fire.<ref>
{{cite book
|author=S. Toulmin |author2=J. Goodfield
|date=1962
|title=The Architecture of Matter
|publisher=University of Chicago Press
|pages=48–54
|isbn=
}}</ref> Meanwhile, [[Parmenides]] argued that change does not exist, and [[Democritus]] argued that everything is composed of minuscule, inert bodies of all shapes called atoms, a philosophy called [[atomism]]. All of these notions had deep philosophical problems.<ref>Discussed by Aristotle in ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', esp. book I, but also later; as well as ''Metaphysics'' I–II.</ref>

[[Aristotle]] (384 BC – 322 BC) was the first to put the conception on a sound philosophical basis, which he did in his natural philosophy, especially in [[Physics (Aristotle)|''Physics'']] book I.<ref>For a good explanation and elaboration, see {{cite book
|author=R.J. Connell
|date=1966
|title=Matter and Becoming
|publisher=Priory Press
|isbn=
}}</ref> He adopted as reasonable suppositions the four [[Classical element|Empedoclean elements]], but added a fifth, [[Aether (classical element)|aether]]. Nevertheless, these elements are not basic in Aristotle's mind. Rather they, like everything else in the visible world, are composed of the basic ''principles'' matter and form.

{{quotation|For my definition of matter is just this—the primary substratum of each thing, from which it comes to be without qualification, and which persists in the result.|Aristotle|Physics I:9:192a32}}

The word Aristotle uses for matter, [[hyle|ὕλη (''hyle'' or ''hule'')]], can be literally translated as wood or timber, that is, "raw material" for building.<ref>
{{cite book
|author=H. G. Liddell |author2=R. Scott |author3=J. M. Whiton
|date=1891
|title=A lexicon abridged from Liddell & Scott's Greek–English lexicon
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=nxoyBcpUuEsC&lpg=PA829
|page=72
|publisher=Harper and Brothers
}}</ref> Indeed, Aristotle's conception of matter is intrinsically linked to something being made or composed. In other words, in contrast to the early modern conception of matter as simply occupying space, matter for Aristotle is definitionally linked to process or change: matter is what underlies a change of substance. For example, a horse eats grass: the horse changes the grass into itself; the grass as such does not persist in the horse, but some aspect of it—its matter—does. The matter is not specifically described (e.g., as [[atom]]s), but consists of whatever persists in the change of substance from grass to horse. Matter in this understanding does not exist independently (i.e., as a [[Substance theory|substance]]), but exists interdependently (i.e., as a "principle") with form and only insofar as it underlies change. It can be helpful to conceive of the relationship of matter and form as very similar to that between parts and whole. For Aristotle, matter as such can only ''receive'' actuality from form; it has no activity or actuality in itself, similar to the way that parts as such only have their existence ''in'' a whole (otherwise they would be independent wholes).

===Seventeenth and eighteenth centuries ===

[[René Descartes]] (1596–1650) originated the modern conception of matter. He was primarily a geometer. Instead of, like Aristotle, deducing the existence of matter from the physical reality of change, Descartes arbitrarily postulated matter to be an abstract, mathematical substance that occupies space:
{{quotation|So, extension in length, breadth, and depth, constitutes the nature of bodily substance; and thought constitutes the nature of thinking substance. And everything else attributable to body presupposes extension, and is only a mode of extended|René Descartes|Principles of Philosophy<ref>
{{cite book
|author=R. Descartes
|chapter=The Principles of Human Knowledge
|date=1644
|title=Principles of Philosophy I
|page=53
|publisher=
}}</ref>}}

For Descartes, matter has only the property of extension, so its only activity aside from locomotion is to exclude other bodies:<ref>though even this property seems to be non-essential (René Descartes, ''Principles of Philosophy'' II [1644], "On the Principles of Material Things", no. 4.)</ref> this is the [[Mechanism (philosophy)|mechanical philosophy]]. Descartes makes an absolute distinction between mind, which he defines as unextended, thinking substance, and matter, which he defines as unthinking, extended substance.<ref>
{{cite book
|author=R. Descartes
|chapter=The Principles of Human Knowledge
|date=1644
|title=Principles of Philosophy I
|pages=8, 54, 63
|publisher=
}}</ref> They are independent things. In contrast, Aristotle defines matter and the formal/forming principle as complementary ''principles'' that together compose one independent thing ([[Substance theory|substance]]). In short, Aristotle defines matter (roughly speaking) as what things are actually made of (with a ''potential'' independent existence), but Descartes elevates matter to an actual independent thing in itself.

The continuity and difference between Descartes' and Aristotle's conceptions is noteworthy. In both conceptions, matter is passive or inert. In the respective conceptions matter has different relationships to intelligence. For Aristotle, matter and intelligence (form) exist together in an interdependent relationship, whereas for Descartes, matter and intelligence (mind) are definitionally opposed, independent [[Substance theory|substances]].<ref>
{{cite book
|author=D.L. Schindler
|chapter=The Problem of Mechanism
|editor=D.L. Schindler
|date=1986
|title=Beyond Mechanism
|publisher=University Press of America
|page=
|isbn=
}}</ref>

Descartes' justification for restricting the inherent qualities of matter to extension is its permanence, but his real criterion is not permanence (which equally applied to color and resistance), but his desire to use geometry to explain all material properties.<ref>E.A. Burtt, ''Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science'' (Garden City, New York: Doubleday and Company, 1954), 117–118.</ref> Like Descartes, Hobbes, Boyle, and Locke argued that the inherent properties of bodies were limited to extension, and that so-called secondary qualities, like color, were only products of human perception.<ref>J.E. McGuire and P.M. Heimann, "The Rejection of Newton's Concept of Matter in the Eighteenth Century", ''The Concept of Matter in Modern Philosophy'' ed. Ernan McMullin (Notre Dame: University of Notre Dame Press, 1978), 104–118 (105).</ref>

[[Isaac Newton]] (1643–1727) inherited Descartes' mechanical conception of matter. In the third of his "Rules of Reasoning in Philosophy", Newton lists the universal qualities of matter as "extension, hardness, impenetrability, mobility, and inertia".<ref>Isaac Newton, ''Mathematical Principles of
Natural Philosophy'', trans. A. Motte, revised by F. Cajori (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1934), pp. 398–400. Further analyzed by Maurice A. Finocchiaro, "Newton's Third Rule of Philosophizing: A Role for Logic in Historiography", ''Isis'' 65:1 (Mar. 1974), pp. 66–73.</ref> Similarly in ''Optics'' he conjectures that God created matter as "solid, massy, hard, impenetrable, movable particles", which were "...even so very hard as never to wear or break in pieces".<ref>Isaac Newton, ''Optics'', Book III, pt. 1, query 31.</ref> The "primary" properties of matter were amenable to mathematical description, unlike "secondary" qualities such as color or taste. Like Descartes, Newton rejected the essential nature of secondary qualities.<ref>McGuire and Heimann, 104.</ref>

Newton developed Descartes' notion of matter by restoring to matter intrinsic properties in addition to extension (at least on a limited basis), such as mass. Newton's use of gravitational force, which worked "at a distance", effectively repudiated Descartes' mechanics, in which interactions happened exclusively by contact.<ref name=Chomsky/>

Though Newton's gravity would seem to be a ''power'' of bodies, Newton himself did not admit it to be an ''essential'' property of matter. Carrying the logic forward more consistently, [[Joseph Priestley]] (1733-1804) argued that corporeal properties transcend contact mechanics: chemical properties require the ''capacity'' for attraction.<ref name=Chomsky/> He argued matter has other inherent powers besides the so-called primary qualities of Descartes, et al.<ref>McGuire and Heimann, 113.</ref>

=== Nineteenth and twentieth centuries===
Since Priestley's time, there has been a massive expansion in knowledge of the constituents of the material world (viz., molecules, atoms, subatomic particles), but there has been no further development in the ''definition'' of matter. Rather the question has been set aside. [[Noam Chomsky]] (born 1928) summarizes the situation that has prevailed since that time:
{{quotation|What is the concept of body that finally emerged?[...] The answer is that there is no clear and definite conception of body.[...] Rather, the material world is whatever we discover it to be, with whatever properties it must be assumed to have for the purposes of explanatory theory. Any intelligible theory that offers genuine explanations and that can be assimilated to the core notions of physics becomes part of the theory of the material world, part of our account of body. If we have such a theory in some domain, we seek to assimilate it to the core notions of physics, perhaps modifying these notions as we carry out this enterprise. |Noam Chomsky|''Language and problems of knowledge: the Managua lectures'', p. 144<ref name=Chomsky>
{{cite book
|author=N. Chomsky
|date=1988
|title=Language and problems of knowledge: the Managua lectures
|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hwgHVRZtK8kC&pg=PA144
|page=144 |edition=2nd
|publisher=MIT Press
|isbn=0-262-53070-8
}}</ref>}}

So matter is whatever physics studies and the object of study of physics is matter: there is no independent general definition of matter, apart from its fitting into the methodology of measurement and controlled experimentation. In sum, the boundaries between what constitutes matter and everything else remains as vague as the [[demarcation problem]] of delimiting science from everything else.<ref>Nevertheless, it remains true that the mathematization regarded as requisite for a modern physical theory carries its own implicit notion of matter, which is very like Descartes', despite the demonstrated vacuity of the latter's notions.</ref>

In the 19th century, following the development of the [[periodic table]], and of [[atomic theory]], [[atom]]s were seen as being the fundamental constituents of matter; atoms formed [[molecules]] and [[compound (chemistry)|compounds]].<ref name=Wenham>
{{cite book
|author=M. Wenham
|date=2005
|title=Understanding Primary Science: Ideas, Concepts and Explanations
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=9vWrbr42VA0C&pg=PA115
|page=115 |edition=2nd
|publisher=Paul Chapman Educational Publishing
|isbn=1-4129-0163-4
}}</ref>{{anchor|note}}

The common definition in terms of occupying space and having mass is in contrast with most physical and chemical definitions of matter, which rely instead upon its structure and upon attributes not necessarily related to volume and mass. At the turn of the nineteenth century, the knowledge of matter began a rapid evolution.

Aspects of the Newtonian view still held sway. [[James Clerk Maxwell]] discussed matter in his work ''Matter and Motion''.<ref name=Maxwell>
{{cite book
|author=J.C. Maxwell
|date=1876
|title=Matter and Motion
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=MWoOAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover
|page=18
|publisher=[[Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge]]
|isbn=0-486-66895-9
}}</ref> He carefully separates "matter" from space and time, and defines it in terms of the object referred to in [[Newton's first law of motion]].

However, the Newtonian picture was not the whole story. In the 19th century, the term "matter" was actively discussed by a host of scientists and philosophers, and a brief outline can be found in Levere.<ref name=Levere>
{{cite book
|author=T.H. Levere
|date=1993
|title=Affinity and Matter: Elements of Chemical Philosophy, 1800–1865
|chapter=Introduction
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=gKSDWsE8fZMC&printsec=frontcover
|publisher=[[Taylor & Francis]]
|isbn=2-88124-583-8
}}</ref>{{Elucidate|date=March 2011}} A textbook discussion from 1870 suggests matter is what is made up of atoms:<ref name=Barker>
{{cite book
|author=G.F. Barker
|date=1870
|title=A Text Book of Elementary Chemistry: Theoretical and Inorganic
|chapter=Introduction
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=B6Yz6eW-5joC
|page=2
|publisher=[[John P. Morton and Company]]
}}</ref><blockquote>Three divisions of matter are recognized in science: masses, molecules and atoms. A Mass of matter is any portion of matter appreciable by the senses. A Molecule is the smallest particle of matter into which a body can be divided without losing its identity. An Atom is a still smaller particle produced by division of a molecule. </blockquote>

Rather than simply having the attributes of mass and occupying space, matter was held to have chemical and electrical properties. In 1909 the famous physicist [[J. J. Thomson]] (1856-1940) wrote about the "constitution of matter" and was concerned with the possible connection between matter and electrical charge.<ref name=Thomson>
{{cite book
|author=J. J. Thomson
|date=1909
|title=Electricity and Matter
|chapter=Preface
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=2AaToepvKoEC&printsec=titlepage#PPP13,M1
|publisher=A. Constable
}}</ref>

There is an entire literature concerning the "structure of matter", ranging from the "electrical structure" in the early 20th century,<ref name=Richardson>
{{cite book
|author=O.W. Richardson
|date=1914
|title=The Electron Theory of Matter
|chapter=Chapter 1
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=RpdDAAAAIAAJ&printsec=frontcover
|publisher=The University Press
}}</ref> to the more recent "quark structure of matter", introduced today with the remark: ''Understanding the quark structure of matter has been one of the most important advances in contemporary physics.''<ref name=Jacob>
{{cite book
|author=M. Jacob
|date=1992
|title=The Quark Structure of Matter
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=iQ1e2a9bPikC&printsec=frontcover
|publisher=World Scientific
|isbn=981-02-3687-5
}}</ref>{{Elucidate|date=March 2011}} In this connection, physicists speak of ''matter fields'', and speak of particles as "quantum excitations of a mode of the matter field".<ref name="Davies"/><ref name="Weinberg"/> And here is a quote from de Sabbata and Gasperini: "With the word "matter" we denote, in this context, the sources of the interactions, that is [[spinor field]]s (like [[quark]]s and [[lepton]]s), which are believed to be the fundamental components of matter, or [[Bosonic field|scalar field]]s, like the [[Higgs particle]]s, which are used to introduced mass in a [[gauge theory]] (and that, however, could be composed of more fundamental fermion fields)."<ref name=Sabbata>
{{cite book
|author=V. de Sabbata |author2=M. Gasperini
|date=1985
|title=Introduction to Gravitation
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=7sJ6m8s0_ccC&pg=PA293
|page=293
|publisher=World Scientific
|isbn=9971-5-0049-3
}}</ref>{{Elucidate|date=March 2011}}

In the late 19th century with the [[Thomson experiment|discovery]] of the [[electron]], and in the early 20th century, with the [[Geiger–Marsden experiment|discovery]] of the [[atomic nucleus]], and the birth of [[particle physics]], matter was seen as made up of electrons, [[proton]]s and [[neutron]]s interacting to form atoms. Today, we know that even protons and neutrons are not indivisible, they can be divided into [[quark]]s, while electrons are part of a particle family called [[lepton]]s. Both [[#Quarks and leptons definition|quarks and leptons]] are [[elementary particle]]s, and are currently seen as being the fundamental constituents of matter.<ref name=Povh1>
The history of the concept of matter is a history of the fundamental ''length scales'' used to define matter. Different building blocks apply depending upon whether one defines matter on an atomic or elementary particle level. One may use a definition that matter is atoms, or that matter is [[hadron]]s, or that matter is leptons and quarks depending upon the scale at which one wishes to define matter.
{{cite book
|author=B. Povh |author2=K. Rith |author3=C. Scholz |author4=F. Zetsche |author5=M. Lavelle
|date=2004
|title=Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts
|chapter=Fundamental constituents of matter
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=rJe4k8tkq7sC&pg=PA9
|page= |edition=4th
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=3-540-20168-8
}}</ref>

These quarks and leptons interact through four [[fundamental forces]]: [[gravity]], [[electromagnetism]], [[weak interaction]]s, and [[strong interaction]]s. The [[Standard Model]] of particle physics is currently the best explanation for all of physics, but despite decades of efforts, gravity cannot yet be accounted for at the quantum level; it is only described by [[classical physics]] (see [[quantum gravity]] and [[graviton]]).<ref name=Allday2>
{{cite book
|author=J. Allday
|date=2001
|title=Quarks, Leptons and the Big Bang
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=kgsBbv3-9xwC&pg=PA12
|page=12
|publisher=CRC Press
|isbn=0-7503-0806-0
}}</ref> Interactions between quarks and leptons are the result of an exchange of [[force carriers|force-carrying particles]] (such as [[photon]]s) between quarks and leptons.<ref>{{cite book
|author=B.A. Schumm
|date=2004
|title=Deep Down Things: The Breathtaking Beauty of Particle Physics
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=htJbAf7xA_oC&pg=PA57
|page=57
|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press
|isbn=0-8018-7971-X
}}</ref> The force-carrying particles are not themselves building blocks. As one consequence, mass and energy (which cannot be created or destroyed) cannot always be related to matter (which can be created out of non-matter particles such as photons, or even out of pure energy, such as kinetic energy). Force carriers are usually not considered matter: the carriers of the electric force (photons) possess energy (see [[Planck relation]]) and the carriers of the weak force ([[W and Z bosons]]) are massive, but neither are considered matter either.<ref name=PhotonsMatter>
See for example, {{cite book
|author=M. Jibu |author2=K. Yasue
|date=1995
|title=Quantum Brain Dynamics and Consciousness
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=iNUvcniwvg0C&pg=PA62
|page=62
|publisher=John Benjamins Publishing Company
|isbn=1-55619-183-9
}}, {{cite book
|author=B. Martin
|date=2009
|title=Nuclear and Particle Physics
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ws8QZ2M5OR8C&pg=PT143
|page=125 |edition=2nd
|publisher=John Wiley & Sons
|isbn=0-470-74275-5
}} and {{cite book
|author=K. W. Plaxco |author2=M. Gross
|date=2006
|title=Astrobiology: A Brief Introduction
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=2JuGDL144BEC&pg=PA23
|page=23
|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press
|isbn=0-8018-8367-9
}}</ref> However, while these particles are not considered matter, they do contribute to the total mass of atoms, [[subatomic particle]]s, and all systems that contain them.<ref name=Tipler0>
{{cite book
|author=P. A. Tipler |author2=R. A. Llewellyn
|date=2002
|title=Modern Physics
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=tpU18JqcSNkC&pg=PA94
|pages=89–91, 94–95
|isbn=0-7167-4345-0
|publisher=Macmillan
}}</ref><ref name=Spitzer>
{{cite book
|author=P. Schmüser |author2=H. Spitzer
|date=2002
|chapter=Particles
|editor=L. Bergmann
|display-editors=etal
|title=Constituents of Matter: Atoms, Molecules, Nuclei
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=mGj1y1WYflMC&printsec=frontcover#PPA773,M1
|isbn=0-8493-1202-7
|pages=773 ''ff''
|publisher=CRC Press
}}</ref>

==Summary==
The modern conception of matter has been refined many times in history, in light of the improvement in knowledge of just ''what'' the basic building blocks are, and in how they interact.
The term "matter" is used throughout physics in a bewildering variety of contexts: for example, one refers to "[[condensed matter physics]]",<ref name=Chaikin>
{{cite book
|author=P. M. Chaikin |author2=T. C. Lubensky
|date=2000
|title=Principles of Condensed Matter Physics
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=P9YjNjzr9OIC&printsec=frontcover
|page=xvii
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|isbn=0-521-79450-1
}}</ref> "elementary matter",<ref name=Greiner>
{{cite book
|author=W. Greiner
|date=2003
|editor1=W. Greiner |editor2=M.G. Itkis |editor3=G. Reinhardt |editor4=M.C. Güçlü |title=Structure and Dynamics of Elementary Matter
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=ORyJzhAzpUgC&printsec=frontcover
|publisher=Springer
|page=xii
|isbn=1-4020-2445-2
}}</ref> "[[parton (particle physics)|partonic]]" matter, "[[dark matter|dark]]" matter, "[[antimatter|anti]]"-matter, "[[strange matter|strange]]" matter, and "[[nuclear matter|nuclear]]" matter. In discussions of matter and [[antimatter]], normal matter has been referred to by [[Hannes Alfvén|Alfvén]] as ''koinomatter'' (Gk. ''common matter'').<ref>
{{cite book
|author=P. Sukys
|date=1999
|title=Lifting the Scientific Veil: Science Appreciation for the Nonscientist
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=WEM4hqxJ-xYC&pg=PR23
|page=87
|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield
|isbn=0-8476-9600-6
}}</ref> It is fair to say that in [[physics]], there is no broad consensus as to a general definition of matter, and the term "matter" usually is used in conjunction with a specifying modifier.

The history of the concept of matter is a history of the fundamental ''length scales'' used to define matter. Different building blocks apply depending upon whether one defines matter on an atomic or elementary particle level. One may use a definition that matter is atoms, or that matter is [[hadron]]s, or that matter is leptons and quarks depending upon the scale at which one wishes to define matter.<ref>
{{cite book
|author=B. Povh |author2=K. Rith |author3=C. Scholz |author4=F. Zetsche |author5=M. Lavelle
|date=2004
|title=Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts
|chapter=Fundamental constituents of matter
|url=https://books.google.com/?id=rJe4k8tkq7sC&pg=PA9
|page= |edition=4th
|publisher=Springer
|isbn=3-540-20168-8
}}</ref>

These quarks and leptons interact through four [[fundamental forces]]: [[gravity]], [[electromagnetism]], [[weak interaction]]s, and [[strong interaction]]s. The [[Standard Model]] of particle physics is currently the best explanation for all of physics, but despite decades of efforts, gravity cannot yet be accounted for at the quantum level; it is only described by [[classical physics]] (see [[quantum gravity]] and [[graviton]]).<ref name="Allday2"/>

== See also ==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-1-of-4}}
'''Antimatter'''
*[[Ambiplasma]]
*[[Antihydrogen]]
*[[Antiparticle]]
*[[Particle accelerator]]

'''Cosmology'''
*[[Cosmological constant]]
*[[Friedmann equations]]
*[[Physical ontology]]

{{Col-2-of-4}}
'''Dark matter'''
*[[Axion]]
*[[Minimal Supersymmetric Standard Model]]
*[[Neutralino]]
*[[Nonbaryonic dark matter]]
*[[Scalar field dark matter]]

'''Philosophy'''
*[[Atomism]]
*[[Materialism]]
*[[Physicalism]]
*[[Substance theory]]

{{Col-3-of-4}}
'''Other'''
*[[Mass–energy equivalence]]
*[[Hybrid word#English examples|Mattergy]]
*[[Pattern formation]]
*[[Periodic Systems of Small Molecules]]

{{col-4-of-4}}
{{Wikipedia books
|1=Matter
|3=Hadronic Matter
}}
{{col-end}}

== References ==
{{reflist|35em}}

== Further reading ==
*{{cite book |title=The Rise of the Standard Model |editor= Lillian Hoddeson |editor2=Michael Riordan |isbn=0-521-57816-7 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |date=1997 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=klLUs2XUmOkC&printsec=frontcover }}
*{{cite book |title=Hidden Worlds |chapter=The search for quarks in ordinary matter |author=Timothy Paul Smith |page=1 |url=https://books.google.com/?id=Pc1A0qJio88C&pg=PA1 |isbn=0-691-05773-7 |date=2004 |publisher=Princeton University Press}}
*{{cite book |title=Elementary Particles: Building blocks of matter |isbn=981-256-141-2 |date=2005 |publisher=World Scientific |author=Harald Fritzsch |url=https://books.google.com/?id=KFodZ8oHz2sC&pg=PA1 |page=1}}
*{{cite book |title=A Critical Exposition of the Philosophy of Leibniz |author= Bertrand Russell |url=https://books.google.com/?id=R7GauFXXedwC&pg=PA88 |page=88 |chapter=The philosophy of matter |isbn=0-415-08296-X |date=1992 |edition=Reprint of 1937 2nd |publisher=Routledge}}
* Stephen Toulmin and June Goodfield, ''The Architecture of Matter'' (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962).
* Richard J. Connell, ''Matter and Becoming'' (Chicago: The Priory Press, 1966).
* [[Ernan McMullin]], ''The Concept of Matter in Greek and Medieval Philosophy'' (Notre Dame, Indiana: Univ. of Notre Dame Press, 1965).
* [[Ernan McMullin]], ''The Concept of Matter in Modern Philosophy'' (Notre Dame, Indiana: University of Notre Dame Press, 1978).

== External links ==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.visionlearning.com/library/module_viewer.php?mid=49&l=&c3= Visionlearning Module on Matter]
* [http://www.newuniverse.co.uk/Matter.html Matter in the universe] How much Matter is in the Universe?
* [http://imagine.gsfc.nasa.gov/docs/ask_astro/answers/970213.html NASA on superfluid core of neutron star]
* [http://profmattstrassler.com/articles-and-posts/particle-physics-basics/mass-energy-matter-etc/matter-and-energy-a-false-dichotomy/ Matter and Energy: A False Dichotomy] – Conversations About Science with Theoretical Physicist Matt Strassler

{{Composition}}
{{State of matter}}
{{Particles}}
{{Nature nav}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2011}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Matter| ]]

Delphic maxims

2016-11-26T16:26:09Z

Cyon: added tone marks etc., corrected some minor spelling errors in Greek

{{Ancient Greek religion}}
The '''Delphic maxims''' are a set of 147 [[aphorisms]] inscribed at [[Delphi]]. Originally, they were said to have been given by the [[List of Greek mythological figures|Greek god]] [[Apollo]]'s [[Pythia|Oracle at Delphi]] and were therefore attributed to Apollo himself.<ref>[http://www.temenostheon.com/delphic_maxims.html Temenos Theon – The Delphic Maxims]</ref> The [[5th century]] scholar [[Stobaeus]] later attributed them to the [[Seven Sages of Greece]].<ref>Leslie Kurke, ''Aesopic Conversations: Popular Tradition, Cultural Dialogue, and the Invention of Greek Prose'', Princeton University Press, 2010, p. 109.</ref> Contemporary scholars, however, hold that their original authorship is uncertain and that "most likely they were popular proverbs, which tended later to be attributed to particular sages."<ref>H. Parke and D. Wormell, ''The Delphic Oracle'', (Basil Blackwell, 1956), vol. 1, p. 389.</ref> Perhaps the most famous of these maxims is '[[know thyself]]', which was carved into the [[Delphi#Temple_of_Apollo|Temple of Apollo at Delphi]]. The specific order and wording of each maxim varies between different versions (and translations) of the text.

==147 Delphic maxims==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!colspan="3"|147 Delphic maxims
|-
!No.||Greek||English
|-
|001.||Ἕπου θεῷ||Follow God
|-
|002.||Νόμῳ πείθου||Obey the law
|-
|003.||Θεοὺς σέβου||Worship the Gods
|-
|004.||Γονεῖς αἰδοῦ||Respect your parents
|-
|005.||Ἡττῶ ὑπὸ δικαίου||Be overcome by justice
|-
|006.||Γνῶθι μαθών||Know what you have learned
|-
|007.||Ἀκούσας νόει||Perceive what you have heard
|-
|008.||Σαυτὸν ἴσθι||Be yourself
|-
|009.||Γαμεῖν μέλλε||Intend to get married
|-
|010.||Καιρὸν γνῶθι||Know your opportunity
|-
|011.||Φρόνει θνητά||Think as a mortal
|-
|012.||Ξένος ὢν ἴσθι||If you are a stranger act like one
|-
|013.||Ἑστίαν τίμα||Honor the hearth (or Hestia)
|-
|014.||Ἄρχε σεαυτοῦ||Control yourself
|-
|015.||Φίλοις βοήθει||Help your friends
|-
|016.||Θυμοῦ κράτει||Control anger
|-
|017.||Φρόνησιν ἄσκει||Exercise prudence
|-
|018.||Πρόνοιαν τίμα||Honor providence
|-
|019.||Ὅρκῳ μὴ χρῶ||Do not use an oath
|-
|020.||Φιλίαν ἀγάπα||Love friendship
|-
|021.||Παιδείας ἀντέχου||Cling to discipline
|-
|022.||Δόξαν δίωκε||Pursue honor
|-
|023.||Σοφίαν ζήλου||Long for wisdom
|-
|024.||Καλὸν εὖ λέγε||Praise the good
|-
|025.||Ψέγε μηδένα||Find fault with no one
|-
|026.||Ἐπαίνει ἀρετήν||Praise virtue
|-
|027.||Πρᾶττε δίκαια||Practice what is just
|-
|028.||Φίλοις εὐνόει||Be kind to friends
|-
|029.||Ἐχθροὺς ἀμύνου||Watch out for your enemies
|-
|030.||Εὐγένειαν ἄσκει||Exercise nobility of character
|-
|031.||Κακίας ἀπέχου||Shun evil
|-
|032.||Κοινὸς γίνου||Be impartial
|-
|033.||Ἴδια φύλαττε||Guard what is yours
|-
|034.||Αλλοτρίων ἀπέχου||Shun what belongs to others
|-
|035.||Ἄκουε πάντα||Listen to everything
|-
|036.||Εὔφημος ἴοθι||Be (religiously) silent
|-
|037.||Φίλῳ χαρίζου||Do a favor for a friend
|-
|038.||Μηδὲν ἄγαν||Nothing to excess
|-
|039.||Χρόνου φείδου||Use time sparingly
|-
|040.||Ὅρα τὸ μέλλον||Foresee the future
|-
|041.||Ὕβριν μίσει||Despise insolence
|-
|042.||Ἱκέτας αἰδοῦ||Have respect for suppliants
|-
|043.||Πᾶσιν ἁρμόζου||Be accommodating in everything
|-
|044.||Υἱοὺς παίδευε||Educate your sons
|-
|045.||Ἔχων χαρίζου||Give what you have
|-
|046.||Δόλον φοβοῦ||Fear deceit
|-
|047.||Εὐλόγει πάντας||Speak well of everyone
|-
|048.||Φιλόσοφος γίνου||Be a seeker of wisdom
|-
|049.||Ὅσια κρῖνε||Choose what is divine
|-
|050.||Γνοὺς πρᾶττε||Act when you know
|-
|051.||Φόνου ἀπέχου||Shun murder
|-
|052.||Εὔχου δυνατά||Pray for things possible
|-
|053.||Σοφοῖς χρῶ||Consult the wise
|-
|054.||Ἦθος δοκίμαζε||Test the character
|-
|055.||Λαβὼν ἀπόδος||Give back what you have received
|-
|056.||Ὑφορῶ μηδένα||Down-look no one
|-
|057.||Τέχνῃ χρῶ||Use your skill
|-
|058.||Ὃ μέλλεις, δός||Do what you mean to do
|-
|059.||Εὐεργεσίας τίμα||Honor a benefaction
|-
|060.||Φθόνει μηδενί||Be jealous of no one
|-
|061.||Φυλακῇ πρόσεχε||Be on your guard
|-
|062.||Ἐλπίδα αἴνει||Praise hope
|-
|063.||Διαβολὴν μίσει||Despise a slanderer
|-
|064.||Δικαίως κτῶ||Gain possessions justly
|-
|065.||Ἀγαθοὺς τίμα||Honor good men
|-
|066.||Κριτὴν γνῶθι||Know the judge
|-
|067.||Γάμους κράτει||Master wedding-feasts
|-
|068.||Τύχην νόμιζε||Recognize fortune
|-
|069.||Ἐγγύην φεῦγε||Flee a pledge
|-
|070.||Ἁπλῶς διαλέγου||Speak plainly
|-
|071.||Ὁμοίοις χρῶ||Associate with your peers
|-
|072.||Δαπανῶν ἄρχου||Govern your expenses
|-
|073.||Κτώμενος ἥδου||Be happy with what you have
|-
|074.||Αἰσχύνην σέβου||Revere a sense of shame
|-
|075.||Χάριν ἐκτέλει||Fulfill a favor
|-
|076.||Εὐτυχίαν εὔχου||Pray for happiness
|-
|077.||Τύχην στέργε||Be fond of fortune
|-
|078.||Ἀκούων ὅρα||Observe what you have heard
|-
|079.||Ἐργάζου κτητά||Work for what you can own
|-
|080.||Ἔριν μίσει||Despise strife
|-
|081.||Ὄνειδος ἔχθαιρε||Detest disgrace
|-
|082.||Γλῶτταν ἴσχε||Restrain the tongue
|-
|083.||Ὕβριν ἀμύνου||Keep yourself from insolence
|-
|084.||Κρῖνε δίκαια||Make just judgements
|-
|085.||Χρῶ χρήμασιν||Use what you have
|-
|086.||Ἀδωροδόκητος δίκαζε||Judge incorruptibly
|-
|087.||Αἰτιῶ παρόντα||Accuse one who is present
|-
|088.||Λέγε εἰδώς|||Tell when you know
|-
|089.||Βίας μὴ ἔχου||Do not depend on strength
|-
|090.||Ἀλύπως βίου||Live without sorrow
|-
|091.||Ὁμίλει πρᾴως||Live together meekly
|-
|092.||Πέρας ἐπιτέλει μὴ ἀποδειλιῶν||Finish the race without shrinking back
|-
|093.||Φιλοφρόνει πᾶσιν||Deal kindly with everyone
|-
|094.||Υἱοῖς μὴ καταρῶ||Do not curse your sons
|-
|095.||Γυναικὸς ἄρχε||Rule your wife
|-
|096.||Σεαυτὸν εὖ ποίει||Benefit yourself
|-
|097.||Εὐπροσήγορος γίνου||Be courteous
|-
|098.||Ἀποκρίνου ἐν καιρῷ||Give a timely response
|-
|099.||Πόνει μετ’ εὐκλείας||Struggle with glory
|-
|100.||Πρᾶττε ἀμετανοήτως||Act without repenting
|-
|101.||Ἁμαρτάνων μετανόει||Repent of sins
|-
|102.||Ὀφθαλμοῦ κράτει||Control the eye
|-
|103.||Βουλεύου χρόνῳ||Give a timely counsel
|-
|104.||Πρᾶττε συντόμως||Act quickly
|-
|105.||Φιλίαν φύλαττε||Guard friendship
|-
|106.||Εὐγνώμων γίνου||Be grateful
|-
|107.||Ὁμόνοιαν δίωκε||Pursue harmony
|-
|108.||Ἄρρητον κρύπτε||Keep deeply the top secret
|-
|109.||Τὸ κρατοῦν φοβοῦ||Fear ruling
|-
|110.||Τὸ συμφέρον θηρῶ||Pursue what is profitable
|-
|111.||Καιρὸν προσδέχου||Accept due measure
|-
|112.||Ἔχθρας διάλυε||Do away with enmities
|-
|113.||Γῆρας προσδέχου||Accept old age
|-
|114.||Ἐπὶ ῥώμῃ μὴ καυχῶ||Do not boast in might
|-
|115.||Εὐφημίαν ἄσκει||Exercise (religious) silence
|-
|116.||Ἀπέχθειαν φεῦγε||Flee enmity
|-
|117.||Πλούτει δικαίως||Acquire wealth justly
|-
|118.||Δόξαν μὴ λεῖπε||Do not abandon honor
|-
|119.||Κακίαν μίσει||Despise evil
|-
|120.||Κινδύνευε φρονίμως||Venture into danger prudently
|-
|121.||Μανθάνων μὴ κάμνε||Do not tire of learning
|-
|122.||Φειδόμενος μὴ λεῖπε||Do not stop to be thrifty
|-
|123.||Χρησμοὺς θαύμαζε||Admire oracles
|-
|124.||Οὓς τρέφεις, ἀγάπα||Love whom you rear
|-
|125.||Ἀπόντι μὴ μάχου||Do not oppose someone absent
|-
|126.||Πρεσβύτερον αἰδοῦ||Respect the elder
|-
|127.||Νεώτερον δίδασκε||Teach a youngster
|-
|128.||Πλούτῳ ἀπίστει||Do not trust wealth
|-
|129.||Σεαυτὸν αἰδοῦ||Respect yourself
|-
|130.||Μὴ ἄρχε ὑβρίζειν||Do not begin to be insolent
|-
|131.||Προγόνους στεφάνου||Crown your ancestors
|-
|132.||Θνῆσκε ὑπὲρ πατρίδος||Die for your country
|-
|133||Τῷ βίῳ μὴ ἄχθου||Do not be discontented by life
|-
|134.||Ἐπὶ νεκρῷ μὴ γέλα||Do not make fun of the dead
|-
|135.||Ἀτυχοῦντι συνάχθου||Share the load of the unfortunate
|-
|136.||Χαρίζου ἀβλαβῶς||Gratify without harming
|-
|137.||Μὴ ἐπὶ παντὶ λυποῦ||Grieve for no one
|-
|138.||Ἐξ εὐγενῶν γέννα||Beget from noble routes
|-
|139.||Ἐπαγγέλλου μηδενί||Make promises to no one
|-
|140.||Φθιμένους μὴ ἀδίκει||Do not wrong the dead
|-
|141.||Εὖ πάσχε ὡς θνητός||Be well off as a mortal
|-
|142.||Τύχῃ μὴ πίστευε||Do not trust fortune
|-
|143.||Παῖς ὢν κόσμιος ἴσθι||As a child be well-behaved
|-
|144.||Ἡβῶν ἐγκρατής||As a youth be self-disciplined
|-
|145.||Μέσος δίκαιος||As of middle-age be just
|-
|146.||Πρεσβύτης εὔλογος||As an old man be sensible
|-
|147.||Τελευτῶν ἄλυπος||On reaching the end be without sorrow
|}

==See also==
{{Portal|Hellenismos }}
* [[Know thyself]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* [[Stobaeus]], ''Anth.'' 3.1.173
* [http://www.john-uebersax.com/delphi/delphi5.htm John Uebersax – Sentences of the Seven Sages ]

==External links==
* [http://users.uoa.gr/~nektar/history/1antiquity/ancient_hellenic_wisdom.htm Ancient Hellenic wisdom– Original text in Greek]
* [http://www.fysis.cz/presokratici/7mudrcu/Sosiad.pdf Fysis.cz – Original text in Greek]

[[Category:Ancient Greek religion]]
[[Category:Aphorisms]]

Africa

2013-12-22T00:08:19Z

Cyon: Moving pseudo-etymologic statement to etymology section and tagging it with 'citation needed' tag

{{Other uses}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Infobox Continent
|title = Africa
|image = [[File:Africa (orthographic projection).svg|200px]]
|area = {{convert|30,221,532|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
|population = 1,032,532,974<ref name="esa.un.org">[http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/population.htm/ "World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision"] [[United Nations]] (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, population division)</ref> (2011, [[List of continents by population|2nd]])
|density = 30.51/km2 (about 80/sq mi)
|demonym = [[African]]
|countries = 54 (and 2 disputed)
|list_countries = List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa
|dependencies = External (3)
{{Collapsible list
| list_style = text-align:left;
| 1 = [[Mayotte]] | 2 = [[Réunion]] | 3 = [[Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]]
}}
Internal (4)
{{Collapsible list
| list_style = text-align:left;
| 1 = [[Canary Islands]] | 2 = [[Ceuta]]
| 3 = [[Madeira Islands]] | 4 = [[Melilla]]
}}
|languages = [[Languages of Africa]]
|time = [[UTC-1]] to [[UTC+4]]
|cities = [[List of metropolitan areas in Africa]] [[List of cities in Africa]]
}}
[[File:AfricaCIA-HiRes.jpg|thumb|240px|Map of Africa]]

'''Africa''' is the world's second-largest and second-most-populous [[continent]]. At about 30.2 million km² (11.7 million sq mi) including adjacent islands, it covers six percent of the [[Earth]]'s total surface area and 20.4 percent of the total land area.<ref name=Sayre>Sayre, April Pulley. (1999) ''Africa'', Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0-7613-1367-2.</ref> With 1.0 billion people (as of 2009, see [[#Territories and regions|table]]), it accounts for about 15% of the world's human population. The continent is surrounded by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the north, both the [[Suez Canal]] and the [[Red Sea]] along the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to the northeast, the [[Indian Ocean]] to the southeast, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. The continent includes [[Madagascar]] and various [[archipelago]]es. It has 54 [[diplomatic recognition|fully recognized]] [[sovereign state]]s ("[[country|countries]]"), 9 [[Territory (country subdivision)|territories]] and two ''de facto'' independent [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited or no recognition]].<ref>See [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa]].</ref>

Africa is the youngest continent in terms of its population - 50 percent of Africans are 19 years old or younger.<ref>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/njideka-u-harry/african-youth-innovation-_b_3904408.html</ref> Despite some fast-growing economies, Africa continues to have some of the highest child malnutrition rates and lack of schooling rates in the world.

[[Algeria]] is the largest African country by area, and [[Nigeria]] is the largest by population. Africa, particularly central [[Eastern Africa]], is widely accepted as the origin of [[human]]s and the [[Hominidae]] [[clade]] ([[great ape]]s), as [[evidence]]d by the discovery of the earliest [[hominids]] and their ancestors, as well as later ones that have been dated to around seven million years ago – including ''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]'', ''[[Australopithecus africanus]]'', ''[[Australopithecus afarensis|A. afarensis]]'', ''[[Homo erectus]]'', ''[[Homo habilis|H. habilis]]'' and ''[[Homo ergaster|H. ergaster]]'' – with the earliest ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' (modern human) found in [[Ethiopia]] being dated to circa 200,000 years ago.<ref>[http://web.utah.edu/unews/releases/05/feb/homosapiens.html Homo sapiens: University of Utah News Release: Feb. 16, 2005]{{Dead link|date=May 2010}}</ref> Africa straddles the [[equator]] and encompasses numerous climate areas; it is the only continent to stretch from the northern [[temperate]] to southern temperate zones.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.visualgeography.com/continents/africa.html
|title=Africa. General info
|last=Visual Geography
|first=
|date=
|accessdate=2007-11-24
}}</ref>

==Etymology==
[[Afri]] was a Latin name used to refer to the [[Punics|Carthaginians]], who dwelt in [[North Africa]] in modern-day [[Tunisia]]. This name seems to have originally referred to a native [[Ancient Libya|Libyan]] tribe; however, see [[Terence#Biography]] for discussion. The name is usually connected with [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] ''afar'', "dust", but a 1981 hypothesis<ref>[http://michel-desfayes.org/namesofcountries.html Names of countries], Decret and Fantar, 1981</ref> has asserted that it stems from the [[Berber languages|Berber]] ''ifri'' (plural ''ifran'') "cave", in reference to cave dwellers.<ref name="book on ligne">The Berbers, by Geo. Babington Michell, p 161, 1903, Journal of Royal African people [http://www.jstor.org/pss/714549 book on ligne]</ref> The same word<ref name="book on ligne"/> may be found in the name of the [[Banu Ifran]] from [[Algeria]] and [[Tripolitania]], a [[Berber people|Berber]] tribe originally from [[Yafran]] (also known as ''Ifrane'') in northwestern Libya.<ref>Itineraria Phoenicia, Edward Lipinski, Peeters Publishers, p 200, 2004, ISBN 90-429-1344-4 [http://books.google.fr/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&pg=PA200&dq=Itineraria+Phoenicia+Ifren&sig=opSH-an97IhmB6GtJjMvn7bt4tc#PPA200,M1 book on line]</ref>

Under [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule, Carthage became the capital of [[Africa Province]], which also included the coastal part of modern [[Libya]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.consultsos.com/pandora/africa.htm|title=Consultos.com etymology}}</ref> The Latin suffix "[[wikt:-ica#Latin|-ica]]" can sometimes be used to denote a land (e.g., in ''Celtica'' from ''[[Celts|Celtae]]'', as used by [[Julius Caesar]]). The later Muslim kingdom of [[Ifriqiya]], modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name.

According to the ancient [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while "Asia" was used to refer to [[Anatolia]] and lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographer [[Ptolemy]] (85–165 AD), indicating [[Alexandria]] along the [[Prime Meridian]] and making the isthmus of Suez and the [[Red Sea]] the boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of ''Africa'' expanded with their knowledge.

Other etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name "Africa":
* The 1st-century Jewish historian [[Flavius Josephus]] (''Ant. 1.15'') asserted that it was named for [[Epher]], grandson of [[Abraham]] according to Gen. 25:4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya.
* [[Isidore of Seville]] in ''[[Etymologiae]]'' XIV.5.2. suggests the [[Latin]] ''aprica'' "sunny".
* [[Leo Africanus]] (1488–1554) proposed the Greek ''aphrike'' (Αφρική), "without cold". Africanus suggested that the Greek ''phrike'' (φρίκη, "cold and horror"), combined with the [[privative]] prefix [[alpha privative|"a-"]], indicated a land free of cold and horror.<ref>[http://bemoli.info/originofname.html Africa]</ref>
* Massey, in 1881, states that Africa is derived from the Egyptian ''af-rui-ka'', "to turn toward the opening of the Ka." The [[Egyptian soul#Ka|Ka]] is the energetic double of every person and "opening of the Ka" refers to a womb or birthplace. Africa would be, for the Egyptians, "the birthplace."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gerald-massey.org.uk/massey/cmc_nile_genesis.htm|title='Nile Genesis: the opus of Gerald Massey'|publisher=Gerald-massey.org.uk|date=1907-10-29|accessdate=2010-05-18}}</ref>
* Yet another hypothesis was proposed by Michèle Fruyt,<ref>in ''Revue de Philologie'' 50, 1976: 221–238</ref> linking the Latin word with ''africus'' "south wind", which would be of Umbrian origin and mean originally "rainy wind".
* Africa's name is derived from an ancient area in modern day [[Tunisia]] known as [[Ifriqiya]] or ''sunny place'', in [[Tamazight]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2013}}

==History==
{{Main|History of Africa}}
{{Further|History of North Africa|History of West Africa|History of Central Africa|History of East Africa|History of Southern Africa}}

===Prehistory===
{{Main|Recent African origin of modern humans}}
[[File:Lucy blackbg.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Lucy (Australopithecus)|Lucy]], an ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' skeleton discovered on November 24, 1974, in the [[Awash Valley]] of [[Ethiopia]]'s [[Afar Depression]] ]]

Africa is considered by most [[paleoanthropology|paleoanthropologists]] to be the [[cradle of Humankind|oldest inhabited territory]] on [[Earth]], with the [[human]] [[species]] [[mitochondrial Eve|originating]] from the continent.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1058484.stm Genetic study roots humans in Africa], BBC News | SCI/TECH</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070828155004.htm Migration of Early Humans From Africa Aided By Wet Weather], sciencedaily.com</ref> During the middle of the 20th century, [[Anthropology|anthropologists]] discovered many [[fossil]]s and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago. Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to have [[Evolution|evolved]] into modern man, such as ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' ([[Radiometric dating|radiometrically dated]] to approximately 3.9–3.0 million years [[Before Christ|BC]]),<ref>Kimbel, William H. and Yoel Rak and Donald C. Johanson. (2004) ''The Skull of Australopithecus Afarensis'', Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-515706-0.</ref> ''[[Paranthropus boisei]]'' (c. 2.3–1.4 million years BC)<ref>Tudge, Colin. (2002) ''The Variety of Life.'', Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860426-2.</ref> and ''[[Homo ergaster]]'' (c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BC) have been discovered.<ref name=Sayre />

Throughout humanity's [[prehistory]], Africa (like all other continents) had no [[nation state]]s, and was instead inhabited by groups of [[hunter-gatherer]]s such as the [[Khoikhoi|Khoi]] and [[Bushmen|San]].<ref>[[Ivan van Sertima|van Sertima, Ivan]]. (1995) ''Egypt: Child of Africa/S V12 (Ppr)'', Transaction Publishers. pp. 324–325. ISBN 1-56000-792-3.</ref><ref>Mokhtar, G. (1990) ''UNESCO [[General History of Africa]], Vol. II, Abridged Edition: Ancient Africa'', University of California Press. ISBN 0-85255-092-8.</ref><ref>Eyma, A. K. and C. J. Bennett. (2003) ''Delts-Man in Yebu: Occasional Volume of the Egyptologists' Electronic Forum No. 1'', Universal Publishers. p. 210. SBN 1-58112-564-X.</ref>

At the end of the [[Ice age]]s, estimated to have been around 10,500 BC, the [[Sahara]] had again become a green fertile valley, and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}} However, the warming and drying climate meant that by 5000 BC, the Sahara region was becoming increasingly dry and hostile. The population trekked out of the Sahara region towards the Nile Valley below the [[Cataracts of the Nile|Second Cataract]] where they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central and [[East Africa|Eastern Africa]]. Since this time, dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa and, increasingly during the last 200 years, in [[Ethiopia]].

The domestication of [[cattle]] in Africa preceded [[agriculture]] and seems to have existed alongside hunter-gatherer cultures. It is speculated that by 6000 BC, cattle were already domesticated in North Africa.<ref>Diamond, Jared. (1999) "Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York:Norton, pp.167.</ref> In the Sahara-Nile complex, people domesticated many animals, including the [[donkey]] and a small screw-horned goat which was common from [[Algeria]] to [[Nubia]].
In the year 4000 BC, the climate of the Sahara started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace.<ref name="O'Brien">O'Brien, Patrick K. (General Editor). Oxford Atlas of World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. pp.22–23</ref> This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasing [[desertification]]. This, in turn, decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and helped to cause migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of [[West Africa]].<ref name="O'Brien" />

By the first millennium BC, [[ironwork]]ing had been introduced in Northern Africa and quickly spread across the Sahara into the northern parts of sub-Saharan Africa,<ref>Martin and O'Meara. "Africa, 3rd Ed." Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1995. [http://princetonol.com/groups/iad/lessons/middle/history1.htm#Irontechnology]</ref> and by 500 BC, metalworking began to become commonplace in West Africa. Ironworking was fully established by roughly 500 BC in many areas of East and West Africa, although other regions didn't begin ironworking until the early centuries AD. [[Copper]] objects from [[Egypt]], North Africa, Nubia and Ethiopia dating from around 500 BC have been excavated in West Africa, suggesting that [[Trans-Saharan trade]] networks had been established by this date.<ref name="O'Brien" />

===Early civilizations===
{{Main|Ancient African history}}
[[File:Abu Simbel Egypt 1.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Colossal statues of [[Ramesses II]] at [[Abu Simbel]], Egypt, date from around 1400 BC.]]
[[File:Bantu expansion.png|thumb|left|upright|The origins and spread of the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] languages c. 1000 BC to c. 500 AD.]]
At about 3300 BC, the historical record opens in Northern Africa with the rise of literacy in the [[Pharaoh|Pharaonic]] civilization of [[Ancient Egypt]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/235724.stm Were Egyptians the first scribes?], BBC News | Sci/Tech</ref> One of the world's earliest and longest-lasting civilizations, the Egyptian state continued, with varying levels of influence over other areas, until 343 BC.<ref>Hassan, Fekri A. (2002) ''Droughts, Food and Culture'', Springer. p. 17. ISBN 0-306-46755-0.</ref><ref>McGrail, Sean. (2004) ''Boats of the World'', Oxford University Press. p. 48. ISBN 0-19-927186-0.</ref> Egyptian influence reached deep into modern-day Libya, north to Crete<ref>{{cite book|title=History in Black: African-Americans in Search of an Ancient Past|first1=Jacob|last1=Shavit|first2=Yaacov|last2=Shavit|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2001|isbn=0-7146-8216-0|url=http://books.google.com/?id=VlNkzTO6IecC&pg=PA77|page=77}}</ref> and [[Canaan]],{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} and south to the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksum]]{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} and [[Nubia]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}

An independent center of [[civilization]] with trading links to [[Phoenicia]] was established by [[Phoenicia]]ns from [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] on the north-west African coast at [[Carthage]].<ref>Fage, J. D. (1979) ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21592-7.</ref><ref>Fage, J. D., et al (1986) ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', Cambridge University Press. Vol. 2, p. 118.</ref><ref>Oliver, Roland and Anthony Atmore. (1994) ''Africa Since 1800'', Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42970-6.</ref>

[[European exploration of Africa]] began with [[Ancient Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]. In 332 BC, [[Alexander the Great]] was welcomed as a liberator in [[History of Ptolemaic Egypt|Persian-occupied Egypt]]. He founded [[Alexandria]] in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] after his death.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/EGYPT/PTOLEMY.HTM|title=Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt: 332 BC – 395 AD|publisher=Wsu.edu|date=1999-06-06|accessdate=2010-05-18|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100528152425/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/EGYPT/PTOLEMY.HTM|archivedate=28 May 2010|deadurl=no}}</ref>

Following the conquest of North Africa's Mediterranean coastline by the [[Roman Empire]], the area was integrated economically and culturally into the Roman system. [[Africa Province|Roman settlement]] occurred in modern Tunisia and elsewhere along the coast. The first [[Roman emperor]] native to North Africa was [[Septimius Severus]], born in [[Leptis Magna]] in present-day Libya—his mother was of Italian Roman extract and his father was [[Punics|Punic]], a genetic mix of the Phoenicians and Berber.<ref>{{cite news|title=New exhibition about Roman Emperor Septimius Severus at the Yorkshire Museum|url=http://www.yorkpress.co.uk/features/features/8826893.New_exhibition_about_Roman_Emperor_Septimius_Severus_at_the_Yorkshire_Museum/|accessdate=15 December 2013|newspaper=The Press|date=2 February 2011}}</ref>

[[Christianity]] spread across these areas at an early date, from Judaea via Egypt and beyond the borders of the Roman world into Nubia;<ref>{{cite web|title=The Story of Africa - Christianity|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section8.shtml|work=BBC World Service|publisher=BBC|accessdate=15 December 2013}}</ref> by AD 340 at the latest, it had become the [[state religion]] of the [[Aksumite Empire]]. [[Frumentius|Syro-Greek missionaries]], who arrived by way of the Red Sea, were responsible for this theological development.<ref>[http://books.google.fr/books?id=f0R7iHoaykoC&pg=PA153&dq=340+Aksumite+Empire&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=EafYT9iTEIKj4gT0oeGaAw&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=340%20Aksumite%20Empire&f=false Mussie Tesfagiorgis G. (2010), ''Eritrea'', ABC-CLIO, page 153.] ISBN 978-1-59884-231-9</ref>

In the early 7th century, the newly formed Arabian Islamic [[Caliphate]] expanded into Egypt, and then into North Africa. In a short while, the local Berber elite had been integrated into Muslim Arab tribes. When the Umayyad capital Damascus fell in the 8th century, the Islamic center of the Mediterranean shifted from Syria to [[Qayrawan]] in North Africa. Islamic North Africa had become diverse, and a hub for mystics, scholars, jurists and philosophers. During the above-mentioned period, Islam spread to sub-Saharan Africa, mainly through trade routes and migration.<ref name =Ayoub>{{cite book|last=Ayoub|first=Mahmoud M.|title=Islam: Faith and History|publisher=Oneworld|year=2004|location=Oxford|pages=76, 92–3, 96–7}}</ref>

===9th to 18th centuries===
[[File:Rytter fra Bagirmi.jpg|thumb|African horseman of [[Kingdom of Baguirmi|Baguirmi]] in full [[gambeson|padded armour]] suit]]
[[File:Igbo ukwu bronzes.jpg|thumb|left|upright|9th-century bronzes from the [[Igbo people|Igbo]] town of [[Igbo-Ukwu]], now at the [[British Museum]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/igbo/hd_igbo.htm|last=Apley|first=Apley|title=Igbo-Ukwu (c. 9th century)|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|accessdate=2008-11-23|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20081204053356/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/igbo/hd_igbo.htm|archivedate=4 December 2008|deadurl=no}}</ref>]]
Pre-colonial Africa possessed perhaps as many as 10,000 different states and polities<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2006/01/11/DI2006011101372.html|title=The Fate of Africa – A Survey of Fifty Years of Independence|accessdate=2007-07-23|work=washingtonpost.com|first=Martin|last=Meredith|date=January 20, 2006}}</ref> characterized by many different sorts of political organization and rule. These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers such as the [[Bushmen|San]] people of southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]-speaking people of central and southern Africa; heavily structured clan groups in the [[Horn of Africa]]; the large [[Sahelian kingdoms]]; and autonomous city-states and kingdoms such as those of the [[Akan people|Akan]]; [[Benin Empire|Edo people]], [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] and [[Igbo people]] (also misspelled as Ibo) in West Africa; and the [[Swahili people|Swahili]] coastal trading towns of [[Southeast Africa]].

By the 9th century, a string of dynastic states, including the earliest [[Hausa Kingdoms|Hausa]] states, stretched across the sub-saharan savannah from the western regions to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were [[Ghana Empire|Ghana]], [[Gao]], and the [[Kanem Empire|Kanem-Bornu Empire]]. Ghana declined in the 11th century, but was succeeded by the [[Mali Empire]] which consolidated much of western Sudan in the 13th century. Kanem accepted Islam in the 11th century.

In the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms grew up with little influence from the [[Islam|Muslim]] north. The [[Kingdom of Nri]] of the Igbo was established around the 9th century and was one of the first. It is also one of the oldest kingdoms in modern day [[Nigeria]] and was ruled by the [[Eze Nri]]. The Nri kingdom is famous for its elaborate [[Igbo-Ukwu#Bronzes|bronzes]], found at the town of [[Igbo-Ukwu]]. The bronzes have been dated from as far back as the 9th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/igbo/hd_igbo.htm|title=Igbo-Ukwu (c. 9th century) | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=Metmuseum.org|accessdate=2010-05-18}}</ref>

[[File:Ashanti Yam Ceremony 1817.jpg|thumb|Ashanti yam ceremony, 19th century by [[Thomas Edward Bowdich|Thomas E. Bowdich]]]]
The [[Ife]], historically the first of these Yoruba city-states or kingdoms, established government under a priestly [[oba (ruler)|oba]] ('king' or 'ruler' in the [[Yoruba language]]), called the ''Ooni of Ife''. Ife was noted as a major religious and cultural center in Africa, and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture. The Ife model of government was adapted at [[Oyo Empire|Oyo]], where its obas or kings, called the ''Alaafins of Oyo'', once controlled a large number of other Yoruba and non-Yoruba city-states and kingdoms; the [[Fon people|Fon]] ''Kingdom of [[Dahomey]]'' was one of the non-Yoruba domains under Oyo control.

The [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] were a [[Berber people|Berber]] dynasty from the [[Sahara]] that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the 11th century.<ref>Glick, Thomas F. ''Islamic And Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages''. (2005) Brill Academic Publishers page 37</ref> The [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Maqil|Banu Ma'qil]] were a collection of [[Arab]] [[Bedouin]] tribes from the [[Arabian Peninsula]] who migrated westwards via Egypt between the 11th and 13th centuries. Their [[Human migration|migration]] resulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers, where the locals were [[Arabization|Arabized]],<ref>"[http://countrystudies.us/mauritania/8.htm Mauritania – Arab invasions]". [[Library of Congress Country Studies]].</ref> and Arab culture absorbed elements of the local culture, under the unifying framework of Islam.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Genetic Evidence for the Expansion of Arabian Tribes into the Southern Levant and North Africa|publisher=Pubmedcentral.nih.gov|date=2010-04-01|pmc=379148|volume=70|issue=6|pmid=11992266|last1=Nebel|first1=A|last2=Landau-Tasseron|first2=E|last3=Filon|first3=D|last4=Oppenheim|first4=A|last5=Faerman|first5=M|pages=1594–6|doi=10.1086/340669|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics}}</ref>

[[File:Great Zimbabwe Closeup.jpg|thumb|left|Ruins of [[Great Zimbabwe]] (11th to 15th centuries)]]
Following the breakup of Mali, a local leader named [[Sonni Ali]] (1464–1492) founded the [[Songhai Empire]] in the region of middle [[Niger]] and the western Sudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seized [[Timbuktu]] in 1468 and [[Djenné|Jenne]] in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successor [[Askia Mohammad I]] (1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought to Gao Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship.<ref name="multiple">Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge 1988</ref> By the 11th century, some [[Hausa Kingdoms|Hausa]] states – such as [[Kano]], [[jigawa]], [[Katsina]], and [[Gobir]] – had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing [[camel train|caravans]], and the manufacture of goods. Until the 15th century, these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east.

===Height of slave trade===
{{See also|Arab slave trade|Atlantic slave trade}}
[[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Arab–Swahili slave traders and their captives along the [[Ruvuma River]] (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique) as witnessed by [[David Livingstone]].]]

[[Slavery]] had long been practiced in Africa.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 Historical survey: Slave societies], ''Encyclopædia Britannica''</ref><ref>[http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html Swahili Coast], National Geographic</ref> Between the 7th and 20th centuries, Arab slave trade (also known as slavery in the East) took 18 million slaves from Africa via trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean routes. Between the 15th and the 19th centuries (500 years), the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156 Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm Focus on the slave trade], [[BBC]]</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=5t5ERBlosqUC&pg=PA25&dq=%22muslim+slave+trade%22&sig=XSpyahikSAcJv9wxLcLOJxylVL4 ''Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa''] p 25 by Paul E. Lovejoy</ref> More than 1 million Europeans were captured by [[Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>Rees Davies, [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast"], [[BBC]], 1 July 2003</ref>

In [[West Africa]], the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in the [[New World]], increasing [[abolitionism|anti-slavery]] legislation in Europe and America, and the [[Royal Navy|British Royal Navy's]] increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British [[West Africa Squadron]] seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore] BBC</ref>

[[File:The inspection and sale of a slave.jpg|thumb|left|210px|A slave being inspected, from ''Captain Canot; or, Twenty Years of an African Slaver''.]]
Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of [[Lagos]]", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pdavis.nl/Background.htm#WAS|title=The West African Squadron and slave trade|publisher=Pdavis.nl|accessdate=2010-05-18|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100610030306/http://www.pdavis.nl/Background.htm|archivedate=10 June 2010|deadurl=no}}</ref> The largest powers of West Africa (the [[Asante Confederacy]], the [[Dahomey|Kingdom of Dahomey]], and the [[Oyo Empire]]) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of "legitimate commerce" in the form of [[palm oil]], [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]], [[timber]] and [[gold]], forming the bedrock of West Africa's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars.<ref>Simon, Julian L. (1995) ''State of Humanity'', Blackwell Publishing. p. 175. ISBN 1-55786-585-X.</ref>

===Colonialism and the "Scramble for Africa"===
{{Main|Colonization of Africa}}
{{Further|Scramble for Africa}}
[[File:The war in the Soudan.jpg|thumb|The [[Mahdist War]] was a colonial war fought between the [[Ansar (Sudan)|Mahdist Sudanese]] and the British forces]]
[[File:Colonial Africa 1913 map.svg|thumb|250px|right|Areas of Africa under the sovereignty or influence of the [[colonial power]]s in 1913, along with modern borders.
{{Legend|#f7fab2|Belgium}}
{{Legend|#bbfdd9|Germany}}
{{Legend|#eaaff7|Spain}}
{{Legend|#b6e3fc|France}}
{{Legend|#fbc5c0|United Kingdom}}
{{Legend|#d2f89b|Italy}}
{{Legend|#c0a6f2|Portugal}}
{{Legend|#f6f6f6|independent}}
]]

In the late 19th century, the European [[Imperialism|imperial]] powers engaged in a major territorial scramble and occupied most of the continent, creating many [[colony|colonial]] territories, and leaving only two fully independent states: [[Ethiopia]] (known to Europeans as "Abyssinia"), and [[Liberia]]. [[Egypt]] and [[Sudan]] were never formally incorporated into any European colonial empire; however, after the British occupation of 1882, Egypt was effectively under British administration [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|until 1922]].

===Berlin Conference===
The [[Berlin Conference]] held in 1884–85 was an important event in the political future of African ethnic groups. It was convened by King [[Leopold II of Belgium]], and attended by the European powers that laid claim to African territories. It sought to bring an end to the Scramble for Africa by European powers by agreeing on political division and spheres of influence. They set up the political divisions of the continent, by spheres of interest, that exist in Africa today.

===Independence struggles===
Imperial rule by Europeans would continue until after the conclusion of World War II, when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence. [[African independence movements|Independence movements in Africa]] gained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, [[Libya]], a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956, [[Tunisia]] and [[Morocco]] won their independence from France.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Ltzav890zpIC&pg=PA118&dq=tunisia+morocco+independance+1956#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Lucien Bély, ''History of France''. Editions Jean-paul Gisserot. 2001. page 118 |publisher=Books.google.com |date= 2001-01-01|accessdate=2011-11-07|isbn=9782877475631}}</ref> [[Ghana]] followed suit the next year (March 1957),<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=87V55ZHppSYC&pg=PA5&dq=ghana+independance+1957#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Ernest Aryeetey, Jane Harrigan and Machiko Nissanke, ''Economic reforms in Ghana : the miracle and the mirage''. Africa World Press. 2000. page 5|publisher=Books.google.com|accessdate=2011-11-07|isbn=9780865438446|date=2000-06-01}}</ref> becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be freed. Most of the rest of the continent became independent over the next decade.

Portugal's overseas presence in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] (most notably in [[Portuguese Angola|Angola]], Cape Verde, [[Portuguese Mozambique|Mozambique]], [[Portuguese Guinea|Guinea-Bissau]] and São Tomé and Príncipe) lasted from the 16th century to 1975, after the [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]] regime was overthrown in [[Carnation Revolution|a military coup in Lisbon]]. [[Rhodesia]] [[Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence|unilaterally declared independence]] from the [[United Kingdom]] in 1965, under the [[White minority rule|white minority]] government of [[Ian Smith]], but was not internationally recognized as an independent state (as [[Zimbabwe]]) until 1980, when black nationalists gained power after a [[Rhodesian Bush War|bitter guerrilla war]]. Although [[South Africa]] was one of the first African countries to gain independence, the state remained under the control of the country's white minority through a system of racial segregation known as [[South Africa under apartheid|apartheid]] until 1994.

===Post-colonial Africa===
Today, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries, most of which have borders that were drawn during the era of European colonialism. Since colonialism, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and [[authoritarianism]]. The vast majority of African states are [[republic]]s that operate under some form of the [[presidential system]] of rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain [[Democracy|democratic]] governments on a permanent basis, and many have instead cycled through a series of [[Coup d'état|coups]], producing [[military dictatorship]]s.
[[File:Mobutu Sese Seko 1973.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mobutu Sese Seko]], Zaire's longtime dictator, embezzled over $5 billion from his country.]]
Great instability was mainly the result of [[Ethnic nepotism|marginalization of ethnic groups]], and [[Political corruption|graft under these leaders]]. For [[Divide and rule|political gain]], many leaders fanned ethnic conflicts, some of which had been exacerbated, or even created, by colonial rule. In many countries, the [[Armed forces|military]] was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order, and it ruled many nations in Africa during the 1970s and early 1980s. During the period from the early 1960s to the late 1980s, Africa had more than 70 coups and 13 presidential [[assassination]]s. Border and territorial disputes were also common, with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts.

[[Cold War]] conflicts between the United States and the [[Soviet Union]], as well as the policies of the [[International Monetary Fund]]{{citation needed|date=May 2013}}, also played a role in instability. When a country became independent for the first time, it was often expected to align with one of the two [[superpower]]s. Many countries in [[Northern Africa]] received Soviet military aid, while many in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the United States, France or both. The 1970s saw an escalation, as newly independent [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]] aligned themselves with the Soviet Union, and the West and South Africa sought to contain Soviet influence by funding insurgency movements. There was a [[1983–85 famine in Ethiopia|major famine in Ethiopia]], when hundreds of thousands of people starved. Some claimed that Marxist/Soviet policies made the situation worse.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/703958.stm|title=BBC: 1984 famine in Ethiopia|date=2000-04-06|accessdate=2010-01-01|work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>Robert G. Patman, ''The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa'' 1990, ISBN 0-521-36022-6, pp. 295–296</ref><ref>Steven Varnis, ''Reluctant aid or aiding the reluctant?: U.S. food aid policy and the Ethiopian Famine Relief'' 1990, ISBN 0-88738-348-3, p.38</ref> The most devastating military conflict in modern independent Africa has been the [[Second Congo War]]; this conflict and its aftermath has killed an estimated 5.5 million people.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/democraticrepublicofcongo/8792068/Is-your-mobile-phone-helping-fund-war-in-Congo.html |title=Is your mobile phone helping fund war in Congo? |date= 27 September 2011 |work=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref> Since 2003 there has been an ongoing [[War in Darfur|conflict in Darfur]] which has become a humanitarian disaster. Another notable tragic event is the 1994 [[Rwandan Genocide]] in which an estimated 800 000 people were murdered. [[HIV/AIDS in Africa|AIDS in post-colonial Africa]] has also been a prevalent issue.

In the 21st century, however, the number of armed conflicts in Africa has steadily declined. For instance, the [[Angolan Civil War|civil war in Angola]] came to an end in 2002 after nearly 30 years. This has coincided with many countries abandoning communist style command economies and opening up for market reforms. The improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from [[China]],<ref name=Africa/> which has spurred quick economic growth in many countries, seemingly ending decades of stagnation and decline. Several African economies are among the world's fasted growing as of 2011. A significant part of this growth can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone.<ref>[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1693963 Mobile Phones and Economic Development in Africa by Jenny Aker, Isaac Mbiti :: SSRN]</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Africa}}
[[File:Africa satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|Satellite imagery of Africa. The [[Sahara Desert]] in the north can be clearly distinguished.]]
[[File:Africa-asia-america-to-scale.jpg|thumb|left|400px|A composite satellite image of Africa (center) with North America (left) and Eurasia (right), to scale]]

Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largest landmass of the Earth. Separated from Europe by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the [[Suez Canal|Isthmus of Suez]] (transected by the [[Suez Canal]]), {{convert|163|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide.<ref>Drysdale, Alasdair and Gerald H. Blake. (1985) ''The Middle East and North Africa'', Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-503538-0.</ref> ([[Geopolitics|Geopolitically]], [[Egypt]]'s [[Sinai Peninsula]] east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa, as well.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/atlas/index.html?Parent=africa&Rootmap=&Mode=d |title=Atlas - Xpeditions @ nationalgeographic.com |publisher=National Geographic Society |year=2003 |accessdate=2009-03-01| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090303230811/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/atlas/index.html?Parent=africa&Rootmap=&Mode=d| archivedate= 3 March 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

From the most northerly point, [[Ras ben Sakka]] in [[Tunisia]] (37°21' N), to the most southerly point, [[Cape Agulhas]] in South Africa (34°51'15" S), is a distance of approximately {{convert|8,000|km|mi|abbr=on}};<ref>Lewin, Evans. (1924) ''Africa'', Clarendon press.</ref> from [[Cap-Vert|Cape Verde]], 17°33'22" W, the westernmost point, to [[Ras Hafun]] in [[Somalia]], 51°27'52" E, the most easterly projection, is a distance of approximately {{convert|7,400|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=MW>(1998) ''Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (Index)'', Merriam-Webster. pp. 10–11. ISBN 0-87779-546-0.</ref> The coastline is {{convert|26,000|km|mi|abbr=on}} long, and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe, which covers only {{convert|10,400,000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} – about a third of the surface of Africa – has a coastline of {{convert|32,000|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=MW />

Africa's largest country is [[Algeria]], and its smallest country is the [[Seychelles]], an [[archipelago]] off the east coast.<ref name=Hoare>Hoare, Ben. (2002) ''The Kingfisher A-Z Encyclopedia'', Kingfisher Publications. p. 11. ISBN 0-7534-5569-2.</ref> The smallest nation on the continental mainland is [[the Gambia]].

Geologically, Africa includes the [[Arabian Peninsula]]; the [[Zagros Mountains]] of Iran and the [[Anatolian Plateau]] of Turkey mark where the [[African Plate]] collided with Eurasia. The [[Afrotropic ecozone]] and the [[Saharo-Arabian Region|Saharo-Arabian desert]] to its north unite the region biogeographically, and the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] [[language family]] unites the north linguistically.

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Africa}}
[[File:Vegetation Africa.png|thumb|left|[[Biome]]s of Africa.]]
[[File:Mauritius beach.png|thumb|Tropical beach in [[Mauritius]], [[Trou-aux-Biches]]]]
The climate of Africa ranges from [[tropical climate|tropical]] to [[subarctic]] on its highest peaks. Its northern half is primarily [[desert]], or [[arid]], while its central and southern areas contain both [[savanna]] plains and very dense [[jungle]] ([[rainforest]]) regions. In between, there is a convergence, where vegetation patterns such as [[sahel]] and [[steppe]] dominate. Africa is the hottest continent on earth and 60% of the entire land surface consists of drylands and deserts.<ref name="environmentalatlas">[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/afrfocus/afrfocus061708.html "Africa: Environmental Atlas, 06/17/08."] [http://www.africa.upenn.edu African Studies Center], University of Pennsylvania. Accessed June 2011.</ref> The record for the highest-ever recorded temperature, in [[Libya]] in 1922 ({{convert|58|C|F}}), was discredited in 2013.<ref name=newRecord>{{cite journal|last=El Fadli|first=KI|coauthors=et al.|title=World Meteorological Organization Assessment of the Purported World Record 58°C Temperature Extreme at El Azizia, Libya (13 September 1922)|url=http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/pdf/10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00093.1|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|month=September|year=2012|doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00093.1|volume=94|issue=2|pages=199}} (The 136 °F (57.8 °C), claimed by [['Aziziya]], [[Libya]], on September 13, 1922, has been officially deemed invalid by the [[World Meteorological Organization]].)</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=World Meteorological Organization World Weather / Climate Extremes Archive|url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature|accessdate=10 January 2013}}</ref>

===Fauna===
{{Main|Fauna of Africa}}
[[File:NgoroNgoro Crater, Tanzania, Africa.jpg|left|thumb|240px|Savanna at [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]], [[Tanzania]]]]

Africa boasts perhaps the world's largest combination of density and "range of freedom" of [[wild animal]] populations and diversity, with wild populations of large [[carnivore]]s (such as [[lion]]s, [[hyena]]s, and [[cheetah]]s) and [[herbivore]]s (such as [[African buffalo|buffalo]], [[elephant]]s, [[camel]]s, and [[giraffe]]s) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains. It is also home to a variety of "jungle" animals including [[snake]]s and [[primate]]s and [[aquatic ecosystem|aquatic life]] such as [[crocodile]]s and [[amphibian]]s. In addition, Africa has the largest number of [[megafauna]] species, as it was least affected by the [[Quaternary extinction event#The Pleistocene or Ice Age extinction event|extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna]].

===Ecology===
[[Deforestation]] is affecting Africa at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme ([[UNEP]]).<ref>[http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/18831 Deforestation reaches worrying level – UN]. AfricaNews. June 11, 2008.</ref> According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 31% of Africa's pasture lands and 19% of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded, and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest every year, which is twice the average deforestation rate compared to the rest of the world.<ref name="environmentalatlas"/> Some sources claim that deforestation has already destroyed roughly 90% of the original, virgin forests in [[West Africa]].<ref>[http://www.afrol.com/features/10278 Forests and deforestation in Africa – the wasting of an immense resource]. afrol News.</ref> Since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago, [[Madagascar]] has lost more than 90% of its original forest.<ref>{{NatGeo ecoregion|id=at0118|name=Madagascar subhumid forests}}</ref> About 65% of Africa's agricultural land suffers from soil degradation.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/nature-laid-waste-the-destruction-of-africa-844370.html Nature laid waste: The destruction of Africa]. ''The Independent''. June 11, 2008.</ref>

==Biodiversity==
Africa has over 3,000 [[protected area]]s, with 198 marine protected areas, 50 biosphere reserves and 80 wetlands reserves. Significant habitat destruction, increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa's biological diversity. Human encroachment, civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threatens biodiversity in Africa. This has been exacerbated by administrative problems, inadequate personnel and funding problems.<ref name="environmentalatlas"/>

==Politics==
{{See also|List of political parties in Africa by country}}
There are clear signs of increased networking among African organizations and states. For example, in the civil war in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (former [[Zaire]]), rather than rich, non-African countries intervening, neighboring African countries became involved (see also [[Second Congo War]]). Since the conflict began in 1998, the estimated death toll has reached 5 million.

===The African Union===
[[File:Map of the African Union with Suspended States.svg|thumb|upright|Map of the African Union with suspended states highlighted in light green.]]
{{Main|African Union}}
The African Union (AU) is a 54 member federation consisting of all of Africa's states except [[Morocco]]. The union was formed, with [[Addis Ababa]], [[Ethiopia]], as its headquarters, on 26 June 2001. The union was officially established on 9 July 2002<ref name="African Union 2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.africa-union.org/official_documents/Speeches_&_Statements/HE_Thabo_Mbiki/Launch%20of%20the%20African%20Union,%209%20July%202002.htm|title=Launch of the African Union, 9 July 2002: Address by the chairperson of the AU, President Thabo Mbeki|author=Thabo Mbeki|date=9 July 2002|publisher=africa-union.org|location=ABSA Stadium, Durban, South Africa|accessdate=2009-02-08}}</ref> as a successor to the [[Organisation of African Unity]] (OAU). In July 2004, the African Union's [[Pan-African Parliament]] (PAP) was relocated to [[Midrand]], in South Africa, but the [[African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights]] remained in Addis Ababa. There is a policy in effect to decentralize the African Federation's institutions so that they are shared by all the states.

The African Union, not to be confused with the AU Commission, is formed by the [[Constitutive Act of the African Union]], which aims to transform the [[African Economic Community]], a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as the [[Assembly of the African Union|African Union Government]], consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of the [[Pan-African Parliament]]. A person becomes AU President by being elected to the PAP, and subsequently gaining majority support in the PAP. The powers and authority of the President of the African Parliament derive from the Constitutive Act and the [[Pan-African Parliament|Protocol of the Pan-African Parliament]], as well as the inheritance of presidential authority stipulated by African treaties and by international treaties, including those subordinating the Secretary General of the [[OAU]] Secretariat (AU Commission) to the PAP. The government of the AU consists of all-union (federal), regional, state, and municipal authorities, as well as hundreds of institutions, that together manage the day-to-day affairs of the institution.

Political associations such as the [[African Union]] offer hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent's many countries. Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Liberia]], [[Sudan]], [[Zimbabwe]], and [[Côte d'Ivoire]].

{|class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"
|-align=center
| {{Supranational African Bodies|size=450px}}
| {{Africa countries imagemap|size=500px}}
|}

==Economy==
[[File:RECs of the AEC.svg|thumb|250px|right|Map of the [[African Economic Community]].
{{legend|#691717|[[Community of Sahel-Saharan States|CEN-SAD]]}}
{{legend|#4F4FB1|[[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa|COMESA]]}}
{{legend|#E88356|[[East African Community|EAC]]}}
{{legend|#272759|[[Economic Community of Central African States|ECCAS]]}}
{{legend|#C43C7F|[[Economic Community of West African States|ECOWAS]]}}
{{legend|#4DB34D|[[Intergovernmental Authority on Development|IGAD]]}}
{{legend|#D22E2E|[[Southern African Development Community|SADC]]}}
{{legend|#7E8000|[[Arab Maghreb Union|UMA]]}}
]]
[[File:Africa at night (Cropped From Entire Earth Image).jpg|thumb|250px|Satellite image of city lights in Africa showing the lack of modern development on the continent (October 2000).]]
{{Main|Economy of Africa}}
{{See also|Economy of the African Union}}
Although it has abundant [[natural resource]]s, Africa remains the world's poorest and most [[Human Development Index|underdeveloped]] continent, the result of a variety of causes that may include the spread of deadly [[disease]]s (notably [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] and [[malaria]]), [[Corruption Perceptions Index|corrupt governments]] that have often committed serious [[human rights violations]], failed [[central planning]], high levels of [[illiteracy]], lack of access to foreign capital, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging from [[guerrilla warfare]] to [[genocide]]).<ref>Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Stagnation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985 passim</ref> According to the [[United Nations]]' Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 25 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African.<ref>[http://hdr.undp.org/], [[United Nations]]</ref>

[[Poverty in Africa|Poverty]], illiteracy, [[malnutrition]] and inadequate water supply and sanitation, as well as poor health, affect a large proportion of the people who reside in the African continent. In August 2008, the World Bank<ref>{{cite web|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:21882162~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469382,00.html|title=World Bank Updates Poverty Estimates for the Developing World|publisher=World Bank |date=26 August 2008|accessdate=2010-05-18|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100519204804/http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:21882162~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469382,00.html|archivedate=19 May 2010 | deadurl=no}}{{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> announced revised global poverty estimates based on a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day (versus the previous measure of $1.00). 80.5% of the [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] population was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) a day in 2005, compared with 85.7% for [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&piPK=64165421&theSitePK=469372&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000158349_20080826113239|title=The developing world is poorer than we thought, but no less successful in the fight against poverty|publisher=World Bank}}</ref>

The new figures confirm that sub-Saharan Africa has been the least successful region of the world in reducing poverty ($1.25 per day); some 50% of [[Poverty in Africa|the population living in poverty]] in 1981 (200 million people), a figure that rose to 58% in 1996 before dropping to 50% in 2005 (380 million people). The average poor person in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to live on only 70 cents per day, and was poorer in 2003 than he or she was in 1973 <ref>[http://www.un.org/Depts/rcnyo/newsletter/survs/ecasurv2004.doc Economic report on Africa 2004: unlocking Africa's potential in the global economy], (Substantive session 28 June-23 July 2004) [[United Nations]]</ref> indicating increasing [[Poverty in Africa|poverty]] in some areas. Some of it is attributed to unsuccessful economic liberalization programs spearheaded by foreign companies and governments, but other studies and reports have cited bad domestic government policies more than external factors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolitician.com/21498-africa-malawi-poverty|title=Neo-Liberalism and the Economic and Political Future of Africa|publisher=Globalpolitician.com|date=2005-12-19|accessdate=2010-05-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.jrank.org/pages/8526/Capitalism-Africa-Neoliberalism-Structural-Adjustment-African-Reaction.html|title=Capitalism – Africa – Neoliberalism, Structural Adjustment, And The African Reaction|publisher=Science.jrank.org|accessdate=2010-05-18|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100420101742/http://science.jrank.org/pages/8526/Capitalism-Africa-Neoliberalism-Structural-Adjustment-African-Reaction.html|archivedate=20 April 2010|deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=58925|title=The Number of the Poor Increasing Worldwide while Sub-Saharan Africa is the Worst of All|publisher=Turkish Weekly|date=2008-08-29|accessdate=2011-11-07}}</ref>

From 1995 to 2005, Africa's rate of economic growth increased, averaging 5% in 2005. Some countries experienced still higher growth rates, notably [[Angola]], [[Sudan]] and [[Equatorial Guinea]], all three of which had recently begun extracting their [[petroleum]] reserves or had expanded their [[oil extraction]] capacity. The continent is believed to hold 90% of the world's [[cobalt]], 90% of its [[platinum]], 50% of its [[gold]], 98% of its [[chromium]], 70% of its [[tantalite]],<ref>"[http://allafrica.com/stories/200802070635.html Africa: Developed Countries' Leverage On the Continent]". AllAfrica.com. February 7, 2008.</ref> 64% of its [[manganese]] and one-third of its [[uranium]].<ref>"[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article3319909.ece Africa, China's new frontier]". Times Online. February 10, 2008.</ref> The [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC) has 70% of the world's [[coltan]], and most mobile phones in the world are made with elements refined from this mineral. The DRC also has more than 30% of the world's [[diamond]] reserves.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5209428.stm DR Congo poll crucial for Africa]". BBC News. November 16, 2006.</ref> [[Guinea]] is the world's largest exporter of [[bauxite]].<ref>"[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article6871943.ece China tightens grip on Africa with $4.4bn lifeline for Guinea junta]". The Times. October 13, 2009.</ref> As the growth in Africa has been driven mainly by services and not manufacturing or agriculture, it has been growth without jobs and without reduction in [[Poverty in Africa|poverty]] levels. In fact, the food security crisis of 2008 which took place on the heels of the global financial crisis has pushed back 100 million people into food insecurity.<ref>"[http://www.strategicforesight.com/african_decade.htm The African Decade?]". Ilmas Futehally. Strategic Foresight Group</ref>

In recent years, the [[People's Republic of China]] has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations. In 2007, Chinese companies invested a total of US$1 billion in Africa.<ref name=Africa>"[http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=690 China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration]". By Malia Politzer, ''Migration Information Source''. August 2008.</ref>

A Harvard University study led by professor Calestous Juma showed that Africa could feed itself by making the transition from importer to self-sufficiency. "African agriculture is at the crossroads," says Dr. Juma. Juma also states, "We have come to the end of a century of policies that favored Africa's export of raw materials and importation of food. Africa is starting to focus on agricultural innovation as its new engine for regional trade and prosperity." <ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/12/101202124337.htm "Africa Can Feed Itself in a Generation, Experts Say."] ''[[Science Daily]]'', 3 December 2010.</ref>

During the President of the United States Barack Obama's visit to Africa in July 2013, he announced a [[United States dollar|US$]]7 billion plan to further develop infrastructure and work more intensively with African heads of state. A new program named Trade Africa, designed to boost trade within the continent as well as between Africa and the U.S., was also unveiled by Obama.<ref>{{cite web|title=The three reasons why the US is so interested in Africa right now|url=http://qz.com/100315/the-three-reasons-why-the-us-is-so-interested-in-africa-right-now/|work=Quartz|publisher=Quartz|accessdate=4 July 2013|author=Olga Khazan|date=3 July 2013}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|African people|Demographics of Africa}}
[[File:Kobli1.jpg|thumb|right|Woman from [[Benin]]]]
Africa's population has rapidly increased over the last 40 years, and consequently, it is relatively young. In some African states, half or more of the population is under 25 years of age.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.overpopulation.org/Africa.html|title=Africa Population Dynamics}}</ref> The total number of people in Africa grew from 221 million in 1950 to 1 billion in 2009.<ref>[http://bioweb.wku.edu/courses/Biol115/wyatt/Population/pop1.htm Population]. Western Kentucky University.</ref><ref>[http://www.africanews.com/site/Africas_population_now_1_billion/list_messages/26588 Africa's population now 1 billion]. AfricaNews. August 25, 2009.</ref>
[[File:San tribesman.jpg|left|upright|thumb|[[Bushmen|San]] Bushman man from [[Botswana]]]]
Speakers of [[Bantu languages]] (part of the [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] family) are the majority in southern, central and southeast Africa. The Bantu-speaking farmers from West Africa's inland savanna progressively expanded over most of Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>Luc-Normand Tellier (2009). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&pg=&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective]''". PUQ. p.204. ISBN 2-7605-1588-5</ref> But there are also several [[Nilotic]] groups in [[South Sudan]] and East Africa, the mixed [[Swahili people]] on the [[Swahili Coast]], and a few remaining [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|indigenous]] Khoisan ('[[Bushmen|San']] or 'Bushmen') and [[Pygmy peoples]] in southern and central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon. In the [[Kalahari Desert]] of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "[[Khoikhoi|Hottentots]]") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article402970.ece Pygmies struggle to survive in war zone where abuse is routine]. ''Times'' Online. December 16, 2004.</ref>

The peoples of West Africa primarily speak [[Niger–Congo languages]], belonging mostly, though not exclusively, to its non-Bantu branches, though some [[Nilo-Saharan]] and Afro-Asiatic speaking groups are also found. The Niger–Congo-speaking [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]], [[Fulani]], [[Akan language|Akan]] and [[Wolof people|Wolof]] ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sahara, [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] or [[Mande languages|Mande]] groups are most significant, and in east Central Africa Nilo-Saharan-speaking groups such as the [[Zaghawa language|Zaghawa]], [[Gbaya people|Baya]], [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]] and [[Thao language|Sao]] predominate. Chadic-speaking groups, including the [[Hausa language|Hausa]], are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara.

[[File:Niño Berebere en el alto Atlas.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Berber people|Berber]] boys from the [[Atlas Mountains]]]]
The peoples of North Africa comprise three indigenous main groups: Berbers in the northwest, Egyptians and Libyans in northeast, and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples in the east. The [[Arab]]s who arrived in the 7th century introduced the [[Arabic language]] and Islam to North Africa. The Semitic [[Phoenicia]]ns (who founded [[Carthage]]) and [[Hyksos]], the Indo-Iranian [[Alans]], the Indo- European [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and [[Vandals]] settled in North Africa as well. Berbers still make up significant communities within [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]] nowadays. To a lesser extent, Berber speakers are also present in some regions of Tunisia and Libya.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3509799.stm Q&A: The Berbers]. BBC News. March 12, 2004.</ref> The Berber-speaking [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] and other often-[[nomad]]ic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. In Mauritania, there is a small but near extinct Berber community in the north and Niger–Congo-speaking peoples in the south, though in both regions Arabic and Arab culture predominates. In Sudan, although Arabic and Arab culture predominates, it is mostly inhabited by originally Nilo-Saharan speaking groups such as the Nubians, Nuba, Fur and Zaghawa who over the centuries have variously intermixed with migrants from the Arabian peninsula. Small communities of Afro-Asiatic speaking Beja nomads can also be found in Egypt and Sudan.

[[File:Bedscha.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Beja people|Beja]] [[bedouin]]s from Northeast Africa]]
In the [[Horn of Africa]], some Ethiopian and [[Eritrea]]n groups (like the [[Amhara people|Amhara]] and [[Tigray-Tigrinya people|Tigrayans]], collectively known as [[Habesha people|Habesha]]) speak languages from the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] branch of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] language family, while the [[Oromo people|Oromo]] and [[Somali people|Somali]] speak languages from the [[Cushitic]] branch of Afro-Asiatic.
[[File:Eden College, Durban Multiform.jpg|thumb|right|[[White South African|White]] and [[Indian South Africans|South Asian]] children in [[Durban]], South Africa]]
Prior to the [[decolonization]] movements of the post-[[World War II]] era, [[Ethnic groups in Europe|Europeans]] were represented in every part of Africa.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,901759-3,00.html "We Want Our Country" (3 of 10)]. Time. November 5, 1965</ref> Decolonization during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass emigration of European-descended settlers out of Africa – especially from Algeria and Morocco (1.6 million ''[[pieds-noir]]s'' in North Africa),<ref>Raimondo Cagiano De Azevedo (1994). ''"[http://books.google.com/books?id=N8VHizsqaH0C&pg=PA25&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Migration and development co-operation.]"''. Council of Europe. p.25. ISBN 92-871-2611-9</ref> Kenya, Congo,<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,826488-4,00.html Jungle Shipwreck]. ''Time.'' July 25, 1960</ref> Rhodesia, Mozambique and Angola.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12079340 Flight from Angola], ''The Economist '', August 16, 1975</ref> By the end of 1977, more than one million Portuguese were thought to have returned from Africa.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/portugal/48.htm Portugal - Emigration], Eric Solsten, ed. Portugal: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1993.</ref> Nevertheless, [[White Africans]] remain an important minority in many African states, particularly [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Namibia]] and [[Réunion]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=John A.|last=Holm|title=Pidgins and Creoles: References survey|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PcD7p9y3EIcC&pg=PA394&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1989|page=394|isbn=0-521-35940-6}}</ref> The African country with the largest White African population is [[South Africa]].<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sf.html#People South Africa: People: Ethnic Groups.] World Factbook of CIA</ref> The [[Afrikaner]]s, the [[British diaspora in Africa|British diaspora]] and the [[Coloured]]s are the largest European-descended groups in Africa today.

European colonization also brought sizable groups of [[Asian people|Asians]], particularly people from the [[Indian subcontinent]], to British colonies. Large [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian communities]] are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and southeast African countries. The large [[Indians in Uganda|Indian community in Uganda]] was [[expulsion of Asians from Uganda|expelled]] by the dictator [[Idi Amin]] in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the Indian Ocean are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The [[Malagasy people]] of [[Madagascar]] are an [[Austronesian people]], but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as [[Cape Coloureds]] (people with origins in two or more races and continents). During the 20th century, small but economically important communities of [[Demographics of Lebanon#The Lebanese Diaspora|Lebanese]] and [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]]<ref name="Africa"/> have also developed in the larger coastal cities of [[West Africa|West]] and [[East Africa]], respectively.<ref>"[http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2007-07-10-voa46.html Lebanese Immigrants Boost West African Commerce]", By Naomi Schwarz, VOANews.com, July 10, 2007</ref>

==Languages==
{{Main|Languages of Africa}}
[[File:Languages of Africa map.svg|thumb|250px|left|Map showing the distribution of the various language families of Africa.]]

By most estimates, well over a thousand [[language]]s ([[UNESCO]] has estimated around two thousand) are spoken in Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=8048&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |title=Africa
|year=2005 |publisher=UNESCO |accessdate=2009-03-01 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080602050234/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=8048&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |archivedate = June 2, 2008}}</ref> Most are of African origin, though some are of European or Asian origin. Africa is the most [[Multilingualism|multilingual]] continent in the world, and it is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well. There are four major [[language family|language families]] indigenous to Africa.
* The [[Afroasiatic languages|''Afro-Asiatic'']] languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout the [[Horn of Africa]], [[North Africa]], the [[Sahel]], and [[Southwest Asia]].
* The [[Nilo-Saharan languages|''Nilo-Saharan'']] language family consists of more than a hundred languages spoken by 30 million people. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by tribes in [[Chad]], Ethiopia, [[Kenya]], [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Uganda]], and northern [[Tanzania]].
* The [[Niger–Congo languages|''Niger–Congo'']] language family covers much of Sub-Saharan Africa and is probably the largest language family in the world in terms of different languages.
* The [[Khoisan languages|''Khoisan'']] languages number about fifty and are spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 120,000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages are [[endangered language|endangered]]. The [[Khoikhoi|Khoi]] and [[Bushmen|San]] peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa.

Following the end of [[colonialism]], nearly all African countries adopted [[official language]]s that originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such as [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]] and [[Hausa language|Hausa]]). In numerous countries, [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]] (''see [[African French]]'') are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Afrikaans]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. [[Italian language|Italian]] is spoken by some in former [[Italian Colonial Empire|Italian colonies]] in Africa. [[German language|German]] is spoken in [[Namibia]], as it was a former [[Germany|German]] protectorate.

==Culture==
[[File:Bet Giyorgis church Lalibela 01.jpg|thumb|right|The rock-hewn [[Church of Saint George, Lalibela|Church of Saint George]] in [[Lalibela]], [[Ethiopia]] is a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]].]]
{{Main|Culture of Africa}}
Some{{Which|date=June 2010}} aspects of traditional African cultures have become less practiced in recent years as a result of years of neglect and suppression by colonial and post-colonial regimes. There is now a resurgence in the attempts to rediscover and revalue African traditional cultures, under such movements as the [[African Renaissance]], led by [[Thabo Mbeki]], [[Afrocentrism]], led by a group of scholars, including [[Molefi Asante]], as well as the increasing recognition of traditional spiritualism through decriminalization of [[West African Vodun|Vodou]] and other forms of spirituality. In recent years, traditional African culture has become synonymous with rural [[Poverty in Africa|poverty]] and subsistence farming.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}}

===Visual art and architecture===
[[African art]] and [[architecture of Africa|architecture]] reflect the diversity of African cultures. The oldest existing examples of art from Africa are 82,000-year-old [[bead]]s made from ''[[Nassarius]]'' shells that were found in the [[Aterian]] levels at Grotte des Pigeons, Taforalt, Morocco.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} The [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] in [[Egypt]] was the [[world's tallest structure]] for 4,000 years, until the completion of [[Lincoln Cathedral]] around the year 1300. The stone ruins of [[Great Zimbabwe]] are also noteworthy for their architecture, and the complexity of [[monolithic church]]es at [[Lalibela]], Ethiopia, of which the [[Church of Saint George, Lalibela|Church of Saint George]] is representative.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

[[File:Ke-Nako Music-Performance Vienna2008c.jpg|thumb|left|upright|135px|A musician from [[South Africa]]]]

===Music and dance===
{{Main|Music of Africa}}
[[File:Namibia Rugby Team.jpg|right|thumb|150px|The [[Namibia national rugby union team|Namibia rugby team]]]]
Egypt has long been a cultural focus of [[Arab world|the Arab world]], while remembrance of the rhythms of sub-Saharan Africa, in particular West Africa, was transmitted through the [[Atlantic slave trade]] to modern [[samba]], [[blues]], [[jazz]], [[reggae]], [[hip hop music|hip hop]], and [[rock music|rock]]. The 1950s through the 1970s saw a conglomeration of these various styles with the popularization of [[Afrobeat]] and [[Highlife]] music. Modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern Africa and the dance rhythms of the musical genre of [[soukous]], dominated by the [[music of the Democratic Republic of Congo]]. Indigenous musical and dance traditions of Africa are maintained by oral traditions, and they are distinct from the music and dance styles of [[North Africa]] and [[Southern Africa]]. [[Arab]] influences are visible in North African music and dance and, in Southern Africa, [[Western culture#Widespread influence|Western influences]] are apparent due to [[colonization]].

===Sports===
Fifty-three African countries have [[Association football|football (soccer)]] teams in the [[Confederation of African Football]], while Cameroon, Nigeria, Senegal, and Ghana have advanced to the knockout stage of recent [[FIFA World Cup]]s. [[South Africa]] hosted the [[2010 FIFA World Cup|2010 World Cup tournament]], becoming the first African country to do so. According to FIFA ranking, Egypt currently has the best soccer team in Africa. Their team has won the African Cup 7 times, and a record-making 3 times in a row.<ref>[uite101.com/article/african-cup-of-nations-football-competition-winners-list-a262598 African Cup of Nations Football Competition Winners List (suite101.com)]</ref>

[[Cricket]] is popular in some African nations. [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]] and [[Zimbabwe national cricket team|Zimbabwe]] have [[Test cricket|Test]] status, while [[Kenya national cricket team|Kenya]] is the leading non-test team in [[One Day International|One-Day International cricket]] and has attained permanent One-Day International status. The three countries jointly hosted the [[2003 Cricket World Cup]]. [[Namibia national cricket team|Namibia]] is the other African country to have played in a World Cup. [[Morocco]] in northern Africa has also hosted the [[2002 Morocco Cup]], but the national team has never qualified for a major tournament. [[Rugby union|Rugby]] is a popular sport in South Africa and Namibia.

==Religion==
{{Main|Religion in Africa}}

Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by since they are too sensitive a topic for governments with mixed populations.<ref name=stanford>[http://library.stanford.edu/africa/religion.html "African Religion on the Internet"], [[Stanford University]]</ref><ref name=NYT>{{cite web|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00EEDC1030F932A35752C1A9679C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1|date=November 1, 2001|title=Rising Muslim Power in Africa Causing Unrest in Nigeria and Elsewhere|first=Normitsu|last=Onishi|work=The New York Times|accessdate=2009-03-01}}</ref> According to the [[World Book Encyclopedia]], [[Islam]] is the largest religion in Africa, followed by [[Christianity]]. According to [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], 45% of the population are Christians, 40% are Muslims and less than 15% follow traditional [[Traditional African religion|African religions]]. A small number of Africans are [[Hindu]], [[Buddhist]], [[Confucianist]], [[Bahá'í Faith|Baha'i]], or have beliefs from the [[Judaism|Judaic tradition]]. Examples of [[African Jews]] are the [[Beta Israel]], [[Lemba people]]s and the [[Abayudaya]] of Eastern Uganda. There is also a small minority of Africans who are [[Irreligion|non-religious]].
{{clear}}

{|class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"
|-align=center
| [[File:Holy Trinity Cathedral Addis Abeba 2.JPG|thumb|center|200px|The [[Holy Trinity Cathedral (Addis Ababa)|Holy Trinity Cathedral]], in [[Addis Ababa]], [[Ethiopia]]]]
| [[File:Kairouan Mosque Stitched Panorama.jpg|thumb|center|200px|The [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]], founded in 670, is the oldest mosque in North Africa;<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=sm0BfUKwct0C&pg=PA248&dq=mosque+kairouan+oldest+in+north+africa&hl=fr&ei=1dkVTbvFE9Sy8QPny9z-Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=mosque%20kairouan%20oldest%20in%20north%20africa&f=false Hans Kung, ''Tracing the Way : Spiritual Dimensions of the World Religions''. Continuum International Publishing Group. 2006. page 248]</ref> it is located in [[Kairouan]], [[Tunisia]]]]
| [[File:Voodo-altar.jpg|thumb|center|220px|Voodoo altar in [[Abomey]], [[Benin]]]]
| [[File:Religion distribution Africa crop.png|thumb|center|200px|A map showing religious distribution in Africa]]
|}

==Territories and regions==
{{Main|List of regions of Africa|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa}}
The countries in this table are categorized according to the [[United Nations geoscheme for Africa|scheme for geographic subregions]] used by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated.

{| style="width:155px; float:right; margin-right:0.0em;"
|[[File:Africa-regions.png|thumb|150px|[[subregion|Regions]] of Africa:
{{legend|#0000FF|[[North Africa|Northern Africa]]}}
{{legend|#0000FF|[[Horn of Africa]]}}
{{legend|#00FF00|[[West Africa|Western Africa]]}}
{{legend|#FF00FF|[[Central Africa]]}}
{{legend|#FFC000|[[East Africa|Eastern Africa]]}}
{{legend|#FF0000|[[Southern Africa]]}}]]
|-
| 
|-
| 
|-
|[[File:topography of africa.png|thumb|150px|Physical map of Africa]]
|-
|[[File:African continent-en.svg|thumb|150px|Political map of Africa]]
|}

<center>

{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse"
|- style="background:#ececec;"
! Name of region<ref>Continental regions as per [[United Nations geoscheme for Africa|UN categorizations/map]]. </ref> and territory, with [[flag]]
! [[List of countries and dependencies by area|Area]] (km²)
! [[List of countries by population|Population]]<ref name="uscen">[http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbrank.pl USCensusBureau:Countries and Areas Ranked by Population: 2009]{{Dead link|date=May 2010}}</ref>
! Year
! [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by population density|Density]] (per km²)
! [[Capital city|Capital]]
|- style="background:#eee;"
|colspan="6" style="text-align:center;"|'''[[Northern Africa]]'''
|-
|{{flag|Algeria}}
|style="text-align:right;"|2,381,740
|style="text-align:right;"|34,178,188
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|14
|[[Algiers]]
|-
|{{flag|Canary Islands}} (Spain)<ref>The Spanish [[Canary Islands]], of which [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] are [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] are co-capitals, are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to [[Morocco]] and [[Western Sahara]]; population and area figures are for 2001. </ref>
|style="text-align:right;"|7,492
|style="text-align:right;"|2,118,519
|style="text-align:right;"|2010
|style="text-align:right;"|226
|[[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]], [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]
|-
|{{flag|Ceuta}} (Spain)<ref>The Spanish [[exclave]] of [[Ceuta]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001. </ref>
|style="text-align:right;"|20
|style="text-align:right;"|71,505
|style="text-align:right;"|2001
|style="text-align:right;"|3,575
|—
|-
|{{flag|Egypt}}<ref>[[Egypt]] is generally considered a [[List of transcontinental countries|transcontinental country]] in Northern Africa (UN region) and Western Asia; population and area figures are for African portion only, west of the [[Suez Canal]]. </ref>
|style="text-align:right;"|1,001,450
|style="text-align:right;"|82,868,000
|style="text-align:right;"|2012
|style="text-align:right;"|83
|[[Cairo]]
|-
|{{flag|Libya}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,759,540
|style="text-align:right;"|6,310,434
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|4
|[[Tripoli]]
|-
|{{flag|Madeira}} (Portugal)<ref>The Portuguese [[Madeira Islands]] are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to Morocco; population and area figures are for 2001. </ref>
|style="text-align:right;"|797
|style="text-align:right;"|245,000
|style="text-align:right;"|2001
|style="text-align:right;"|307
|[[Funchal]]
|-
|{{flag|Melilla}} (Spain)<ref>The Spanish [[exclave]] of [[Melilla]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001. </ref>
|style="text-align:right;"|12
|style="text-align:right;"|66,411
|style="text-align:right;"|2001
|style="text-align:right;"|5,534
|—
|-
|{{flag|Morocco}}
|style="text-align:right;"|446,550
|style="text-align:right;"|34,859,364
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|78
|[[Rabat]]
|-
|{{flag|Sudan}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,861,484
|style="text-align:right;"|30,894,000
|style="text-align:right;"|2008
|style="text-align:right;"|17
|[[Khartoum]]
|-
|{{flag|Tunisia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|163,610
|style="text-align:right;"|10,486,339
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|64
|[[Tunis]]
|-
|{{noflag}} [[Western Sahara]]<ref name="Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic">The territory of [[Western Sahara]] is claimed by the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]] and [[Morocco]]. The [[SADR]] is recognized as a sovereign state by the [[African Union]]. [[Morocco]] claims the entirety of the country as its [[Southern Provinces]]. Morocco administers 4/5 of the territory while the SADR controls 1/5. Morocco's annexation of this territory has not been recognized internationally.</ref>
|style="text-align:right;"|266,000
|style="text-align:right;"|405,210
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|[[El Aaiún]]
|-style="background:#eee;"
|colspan="6" style="text-align:center;"|'''[[Horn of Africa]]'''
|-
|{{flag|Djibouti}}
|style="text-align:right;"|23,000
|style="text-align:right;"|623,891
|style="text-align:right;"|2012
|style="text-align:right;"|22
|[[Djibouti (city)|Djibouti]]
|-
|{{flag|Eritrea}}
|style="text-align:right;"|121,320
|style="text-align:right;"|5,647,168
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|47
|[[Asmara]]
|-
|{{flag|Ethiopia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,127,127
|style="text-align:right;"|84,320,987
|style="text-align:right;"|2012
|style="text-align:right;"|75
|[[Addis Ababa]]
|-
|{{flag|Somalia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|637,657
|style="text-align:right;"|9,832,017
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|15
|[[Mogadishu]]
|- style="background:#eee;"
|colspan="6" style="text-align:center;"|'''[[Eastern Africa]]'''
|-
|{{flag|Burundi}}
|style="text-align:right;"|27,830
|style="text-align:right;"|8,988,091
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|323
|[[Bujumbura]]
|-
|{{flag|Comoros}}
|style="text-align:right;"|2,170
|style="text-align:right;"|752,438
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|347
|[[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]]
|-
|{{flag|Kenya}}
|style="text-align:right;"|582,650
|style="text-align:right;"|39,002,772
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|66
|[[Nairobi]]
|-
|{{flag|Madagascar}}
|style="text-align:right;"|587,040
|style="text-align:right;"|20,653,556
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|35
|[[Antananarivo]]
|-
|{{flag|Malawi}}
|style="text-align:right;"|118,480
|style="text-align:right;"|14,268,711
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|120
|[[Lilongwe]]
|-
|{{flag|Mauritius}}
|style="text-align:right;"|2,040
|style="text-align:right;"|1,284,264
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|630
|[[Port Louis]]
|-
|{{flag|Mayotte}} (France)
|style="text-align:right;"|374
|style="text-align:right;"|223,765
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|490
|[[Mamoudzou]]
|-
|{{flag|Mozambique}}
|style="text-align:right;"|801,590
|style="text-align:right;"|21,669,278
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|27
|[[Maputo]]
|-
| {{flag|Réunion}} (France)
|style="text-align:right;"|2,512
|style="text-align:right;"|743,981
|style="text-align:right;"|2002
|style="text-align:right;"|296
|[[Saint-Denis, Réunion|Saint-Denis]]
|-
|{{flag|Rwanda}}
|style="text-align:right;"|26,338
|style="text-align:right;"|10,473,282
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|398
|[[Kigali]]
|-
|{{flag|Seychelles}}
|style="text-align:right;"|455
|style="text-align:right;"|87,476
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|192
|[[Victoria, Seychelles|Victoria]]
|-
|{{flag|South Sudan}}
|style="text-align:right;"|619,745
|style="text-align:right;"|8,260,490
|style="text-align:right;"|2008
|style="text-align:right;"|13
|[[Juba]]
|-
|{{flag|Tanzania}}
|style="text-align:right;"|945,087
|style="text-align:right;"|44,929,002
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|43
|[[Dodoma]]
|-
|{{flag|Uganda}}
|style="text-align:right;"|236,040
|style="text-align:right;"|32,369,558
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|137
|[[Kampala]]
|-
|{{flag|Zambia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|752,614
|style="text-align:right;"|11,862,740
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|16
|[[Lusaka]]
|-
|{{flag|Zimbabwe}}
|style="text-align:right;"|390,580
|style="text-align:right;"|11,392,629
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|29
|[[Harare]]
|-
|colspan="6" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;"|'''[[Central Africa]]'''
|-
|{{flag|Angola}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,246,700
|style="text-align:right;"|12,799,293
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|10
|[[Luanda]]
|-
|{{flag|Cameroon}}
|style="text-align:right;"|475,440
|style="text-align:right;"|18,879,301
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|40
|[[Yaoundé]]
|-
|{{flag|Central African Republic}}
|style="text-align:right;"|622,984
|style="text-align:right;"|4,511,488
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|[[Bangui]]
|-
|{{flag|Chad}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,284,000
|style="text-align:right;"|10,329,208
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|8
|[[N'Djamena]]
|-
|{{flag|Republic of the Congo}}
|style="text-align:right;"|342,000
|style="text-align:right;"|4,012,809
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|12
|[[Brazzaville]]
|- http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Africa&
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
|style="text-align:right;"|2,345,410
|style="text-align:right;"|69,575,000
|style="text-align:right;"|2012
|style="text-align:right;"|30
|[[Kinshasa]]
|-
|{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}
|style="text-align:right;"|28,051
|style="text-align:right;"|633,441
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|23
|[[Malabo]]
|-
|{{flag|Gabon}}
|style="text-align:right;"|267,667
|style="text-align:right;"|1,514,993
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|6
|[[Libreville]]
|-
|{{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,001
|style="text-align:right;"|212,679
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|212
|[[São Tomé]]
|-style="background:#eee;"
|colspan="6" style="text-align:center;"|'''[[Southern Africa]]'''
|-
|{{flag|Botswana}}
|style="text-align:right;"|600,370
|style="text-align:right;"|1,990,876
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|[[Gaborone]]
|-
|{{flag|Lesotho}}
|style="text-align:right;"|30,355
|style="text-align:right;"|2,130,819
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|70
|[[Maseru]]
|-
|{{flag|Namibia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|825,418
|style="text-align:right;"|2,108,665
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|[[Windhoek]]
|-
|{{flag|South Africa}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,219,912
|style="text-align:right;"|51,770,560
|style="text-align:right;"|2011
|style="text-align:right;"|42
|[[Bloemfontein]], [[Cape Town]], [[Pretoria]]<ref>[[Bloemfontein]] is the judicial capital of South Africa, while [[Cape Town]] is its legislative seat, and [[Pretoria]] is the country's administrative seat. </ref>
|-
|{{flag|Swaziland}}
|style="text-align:right;"|17,363
|style="text-align:right;"|1,123,913
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|65
|[[Mbabane]]
|-style="background:#eee;"
|colspan="6" style="text-align:center;"|'''[[Western Africa]]'''
|-
|{{flag|Benin}}
|style="text-align:right;"|112,620
|style="text-align:right;"|8,791,832
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|78
|[[Porto-Novo]]
|-
|{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
|style="text-align:right;"|274,200
|style="text-align:right;"|15,746,232
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|57
|[[Ouagadougou]]
|-
|{{flag|Cape Verde}}
|style="text-align:right;"|4,033
|style="text-align:right;"|429,474
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|107
|[[Praia]]
|-
|{{flag|Côte d'Ivoire}}
|style="text-align:right;"|322,460
|style="text-align:right;"|20,617,068
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|64
|style="font-size:89%"|[[Abidjan]],<ref>[[Yamoussoukro]] is the official capital of [[Côte d'Ivoire]], while [[Abidjan]] is the ''[[de facto]]'' seat.</ref> [[Yamoussoukro]]
|-
|{{flag|Gambia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|11,300
|style="text-align:right;"|1,782,893
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|158
|[[Banjul]]
|-
|{{flag|Ghana}}
|style="text-align:right;"|239,460
|style="text-align:right;"|23,832,495
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|100
|[[Accra]]
|-
|{{flag|Guinea}}
|style="text-align:right;"|245,857
|style="text-align:right;"|10,057,975
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|41
|[[Conakry]]
|-
|{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}
|style="text-align:right;"|36,120
|style="text-align:right;"|1,533,964
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|43
|[[Bissau]]
|-
|{{flag|Liberia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|111,370
|style="text-align:right;"|3,441,790
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|31
|[[Monrovia]]
|-
|{{flag|Mali}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,240,000
|style="text-align:right;"|12,666,987
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|10
|[[Bamako]]
|-
|{{flag|Mauritania}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,030,700
|style="text-align:right;"|3,129,486
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|[[Nouakchott]]
|-
|{{flag|Niger}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,267,000
|style="text-align:right;"|15,306,252
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|12
|[[Niamey]]
|-
|{{flag|Nigeria}}
|style="text-align:right;"|923,768
|style="text-align:right;"|166,629,000
|style="text-align:right;"|2012
|style="text-align:right;"|180
|[[Abuja]]
|-
|{{flag|Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha}} (United Kingdom)
|style="text-align:right;"|420
|style="text-align:right;"|7,728
|style="text-align:right;"|2012
|style="text-align:right;"|13
|[[Jamestown, Saint Helena|Jamestown]]
|-
|{{flag|Senegal}}
|style="text-align:right;"|196,190
|style="text-align:right;"|13,711,597
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|70
|[[Dakar]]
|-
|{{flag|Sierra Leone}}
|style="text-align:right;"|71,740
|style="text-align:right;"|6,440,053
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|90
|[[Freetown]]
|-
|{{flag|Togo}}
|style="text-align:right;"|56,785
|style="text-align:right;"|6,019,877
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|106
|[[Lomé]]
|-style="font-weight:bold; background:#eee;"
||{{noflag}} Africa Total
|style="text-align:right;"|30,368,609
|style="text-align:right;"|1,001,320,281
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|33
|style="background:#eee;"|
|}
</center>


==See also==
{{portal|Africa}}{{Wikipedia books|Africa}}
* [[African Union]]
* [[Outline of Africa]]
* [[Index of Africa-related articles]]
* [[Afro-Eurasia]]

* [[Highest mountain peaks of Africa]]
* [[List of African millionaires]]
* [[List of cities in Africa]]
* [[Urbanization in Africa]]
{{-}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last=Asante|first=Molefi|authorlink=Molefi Asante|title=The History of Africa|publisher=Routledge|location=USA|year=2007|isbn=0-415-77139-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Clark|first=J. Desmond|authorlink=J. Desmond Clark|title=The Prehistory of Africa|publisher=Thames and Hudson|location=London|year=1970|isbn=978-0-500-02069-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Crowder|first=Michael|title=The Story of Nigeria|publisher=Faber|location=London|year=1978|isbn=978-0-571-04947-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Davidson|first=Basil|authorlink=Basil Davidson|title=The African Past: Chronicles from Antiquity to Modern Times|publisher=Penguin|location=Harmondsworth|year=1966|oclc=2016817}}
* {{cite book|last=Gordon|first=April A.|author2=Donald L. Gordon|title=Understanding Contemporary Africa|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|location=Boulder|year=1996|isbn=978-1-55587-547-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Khapoya|first=Vincent B.|title=The African experience: an introduction|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|year=1998|isbn=978-0-13-745852-3}}
* Moore, Clark D., and Ann Dunbar (1968). ''Africa Yesterday and Today'', in series, ''The George School Readings on Developing Lands''. New York: Praeger Publishers.
* [[V. S. Naipaul|Naipaul, V. S.]]. ''The Masque of Africa: Glimpses of African Belief''. Picador, 2010. ISBN 978-0-330-47205-0

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=Africa}}
;General information
* {{dmoz|Regional/Africa}}
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/amed/ African & Middle Eastern Reading Room] from the United States [[Library of Congress]]
* [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/ Africa South of the Sahara] from [[Stanford University]]
* [http://www.afrika.no/index/ The Index on Africa] from ''The Norwegian Council for Africa''
* [http://www.aluka.org/ Aluka] Digital library of scholarly resources from and about Africa
* [http://www.usaraf.army.mil/MAP_INTERACTIVE/INTERACTIVE_MAP.swf Africa Interactive Map] from the [[United States Army Africa]]

;History
* [http://www.africankingdoms.com/ African Kingdoms]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section10.shtml The Story of Africa] from [[BBC World Service]]
* [http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Urgent_Action/menu_APIC.html Africa Policy Information Center (APIC)]

;News media
* [http://allafrica.com/ allAfrica.com] current news, events and statistics
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/focus_magazine/index.shtml Focus on Africa] magazine from [[BBC World Service]]

{{Navboxes
|title = Articles Related to Africa
|list =
{{Africa topics}}
{{Africa}}
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[[Category:Africa| ]]
[[Category:Continents]]

{{Link FA|hi}}
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{{Link GA|ja}}

Africa

2013-12-21T11:13:17Z

Cyon: Removing folk etymology

{{Other uses}}
{{pp-semi-indef}}
{{Infobox Continent
|title = Africa
|image = [[File:Africa (orthographic projection).svg|200px]]
|area = {{convert|30,221,532|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}}
|population = 1,032,532,974<ref name="esa.un.org">[http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Excel-Data/population.htm/ "World Population Prospects: The 2010 Revision"] [[United Nations]] (Department of Economic and Social Affairs, population division)</ref> (2011, [[List of continents by population|2nd]])
|density = 30.51/km2 (about 80/sq mi)
|demonym = [[African]]
|countries = 54 (and 2 disputed)
|list_countries = List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa
|dependencies = External (3)
{{Collapsible list
| list_style = text-align:left;
| 1 = [[Mayotte]] | 2 = [[Réunion]] | 3 = [[Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha]]
}}
Internal (4)
{{Collapsible list
| list_style = text-align:left;
| 1 = [[Canary Islands]] | 2 = [[Ceuta]]
| 3 = [[Madeira Islands]] | 4 = [[Melilla]]
}}
|languages = [[Languages of Africa]]
|time = [[UTC-1]] to [[UTC+4]]
|cities = [[List of metropolitan areas in Africa]] [[List of cities in Africa]]
}}
[[File:AfricaCIA-HiRes.jpg|thumb|240px|Map of Africa]]

'''Africa''' is the world's second-largest and second-most-populous [[continent]]. At about 30.2 million km² (11.7 million sq mi) including adjacent islands, it covers six percent of the [[Earth]]'s total surface area and 20.4 percent of the total land area.<ref name=Sayre>Sayre, April Pulley. (1999) ''Africa'', Twenty-First Century Books. ISBN 0-7613-1367-2.</ref> With 1.0 billion people (as of 2009, see [[#Territories and regions|table]]), it accounts for about 15% of the world's human population. The continent is surrounded by the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to the north, both the [[Suez Canal]] and the [[Red Sea]] along the [[Sinai Peninsula]] to the northeast, the [[Indian Ocean]] to the southeast, and the [[Atlantic Ocean]] to the west. The continent includes [[Madagascar]] and various [[archipelago]]es. It has 54 [[diplomatic recognition|fully recognized]] [[sovereign state]]s ("[[country|countries]]"), 9 [[Territory (country subdivision)|territories]] and two ''de facto'' independent [[List of states with limited recognition|states with limited or no recognition]].<ref>See [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa]].</ref>

Africa is the youngest continent in terms of its population - 50 percent of Africans are 19 years old or younger.<ref>http://www.huffingtonpost.com/njideka-u-harry/african-youth-innovation-_b_3904408.html</ref> Despite some fast-growing economies, Africa continues to have some of the highest child malnutrition rates and lack of schooling rates in the world.

[[Algeria]] is the largest African country by area, and [[Nigeria]] is the largest by population. Africa, particularly central [[Eastern Africa]], is widely accepted as the origin of [[human]]s and the [[Hominidae]] [[clade]] ([[great ape]]s), as [[evidence]]d by the discovery of the earliest [[hominids]] and their ancestors, as well as later ones that have been dated to around seven million years ago – including ''[[Sahelanthropus tchadensis]]'', ''[[Australopithecus africanus]]'', ''[[Australopithecus afarensis|A. afarensis]]'', ''[[Homo erectus]]'', ''[[Homo habilis|H. habilis]]'' and ''[[Homo ergaster|H. ergaster]]'' – with the earliest ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' (modern human) found in [[Ethiopia]] being dated to circa 200,000 years ago.<ref>[http://web.utah.edu/unews/releases/05/feb/homosapiens.html Homo sapiens: University of Utah News Release: Feb. 16, 2005]{{Dead link|date=May 2010}}</ref> Africa straddles the [[equator]] and encompasses numerous climate areas; it is the only continent to stretch from the northern [[temperate]] to southern temperate zones.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.visualgeography.com/continents/africa.html
|title=Africa. General info
|last=Visual Geography
|first=
|date=
|accessdate=2007-11-24
}}</ref>

==Etymology==
[[Afri]] was a Latin name used to refer to the [[Punics|Carthaginians]], who dwelt in [[North Africa]] in modern-day [[Tunisia]]. This name seems to have originally referred to a native [[Ancient Libya|Libyan]] tribe; however, see [[Terence#Biography]] for discussion. The name is usually connected with [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]] ''afar'', "dust", but a 1981 hypothesis<ref>[http://michel-desfayes.org/namesofcountries.html Names of countries], Decret and Fantar, 1981</ref> has asserted that it stems from the [[Berber languages|Berber]] ''ifri'' (plural ''ifran'') "cave", in reference to cave dwellers.<ref name="book on ligne">The Berbers, by Geo. Babington Michell, p 161, 1903, Journal of Royal African people [http://www.jstor.org/pss/714549 book on ligne]</ref> The same word<ref name="book on ligne"/> may be found in the name of the [[Banu Ifran]] from [[Algeria]] and [[Tripolitania]], a [[Berber people|Berber]] tribe originally from [[Yafran]] (also known as ''Ifrane'') in northwestern Libya.<ref>Itineraria Phoenicia, Edward Lipinski, Peeters Publishers, p 200, 2004, ISBN 90-429-1344-4 [http://books.google.fr/books?id=SLSzNfdcqfoC&pg=PA200&dq=Itineraria+Phoenicia+Ifren&sig=opSH-an97IhmB6GtJjMvn7bt4tc#PPA200,M1 book on line]</ref>

Under [[Roman Empire|Roman]] rule, Carthage became the capital of [[Africa Province]], which also included the coastal part of modern [[Libya]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.consultsos.com/pandora/africa.htm|title=Consultos.com etymology}}</ref> The Latin suffix "[[wikt:-ica#Latin|-ica]]" can sometimes be used to denote a land (e.g., in ''Celtica'' from ''[[Celts|Celtae]]'', as used by [[Julius Caesar]]). The later Muslim kingdom of [[Ifriqiya]], modern-day Tunisia, also preserved a form of the name.

According to the ancient [[Ancient Rome|Romans]], Africa lay to the west of Egypt, while "Asia" was used to refer to [[Anatolia]] and lands to the east. A definite line was drawn between the two continents by the geographer [[Ptolemy]] (85–165 AD), indicating [[Alexandria]] along the [[Prime Meridian]] and making the isthmus of Suez and the [[Red Sea]] the boundary between Asia and Africa. As Europeans came to understand the real extent of the continent, the idea of ''Africa'' expanded with their knowledge.

Other etymological hypotheses have been postulated for the ancient name "Africa":
* The 1st-century Jewish historian [[Flavius Josephus]] (''Ant. 1.15'') asserted that it was named for [[Epher]], grandson of [[Abraham]] according to Gen. 25:4, whose descendants, he claimed, had invaded Libya.
* [[Isidore of Seville]] in ''[[Etymologiae]]'' XIV.5.2. suggests the [[Latin]] ''aprica'' "sunny".
* [[Leo Africanus]] (1488–1554) proposed the Greek ''aphrike'' (Αφρική), "without cold". Africanus suggested that the Greek ''phrike'' (φρίκη, "cold and horror"), combined with the [[privative]] prefix [[alpha privative|"a-"]], indicated a land free of cold and horror.<ref>[http://bemoli.info/originofname.html Africa]</ref>
* Massey, in 1881, states that Africa is derived from the Egyptian ''af-rui-ka'', "to turn toward the opening of the Ka." The [[Egyptian soul#Ka|Ka]] is the energetic double of every person and "opening of the Ka" refers to a womb or birthplace. Africa would be, for the Egyptians, "the birthplace."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gerald-massey.org.uk/massey/cmc_nile_genesis.htm|title='Nile Genesis: the opus of Gerald Massey'|publisher=Gerald-massey.org.uk|date=1907-10-29|accessdate=2010-05-18}}</ref>
* Yet another hypothesis was proposed by Michèle Fruyt,<ref>in ''Revue de Philologie'' 50, 1976: 221–238</ref> linking the Latin word with ''africus'' "south wind", which would be of Umbrian origin and mean originally "rainy wind".

==History==
{{Main|History of Africa}}
{{Further|History of North Africa|History of West Africa|History of Central Africa|History of East Africa|History of Southern Africa}}

===Prehistory===
{{Main|Recent African origin of modern humans}}
[[File:Lucy blackbg.jpg|thumb|150px|[[Lucy (Australopithecus)|Lucy]], an ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' skeleton discovered on November 24, 1974, in the [[Awash Valley]] of [[Ethiopia]]'s [[Afar Depression]] ]]

Africa is considered by most [[paleoanthropology|paleoanthropologists]] to be the [[cradle of Humankind|oldest inhabited territory]] on [[Earth]], with the [[human]] [[species]] [[mitochondrial Eve|originating]] from the continent.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/1058484.stm Genetic study roots humans in Africa], BBC News | SCI/TECH</ref><ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2007/08/070828155004.htm Migration of Early Humans From Africa Aided By Wet Weather], sciencedaily.com</ref> During the middle of the 20th century, [[Anthropology|anthropologists]] discovered many [[fossil]]s and evidence of human occupation perhaps as early as 7 million years ago. Fossil remains of several species of early apelike humans thought to have [[Evolution|evolved]] into modern man, such as ''[[Australopithecus afarensis]]'' ([[Radiometric dating|radiometrically dated]] to approximately 3.9–3.0 million years [[Before Christ|BC]]),<ref>Kimbel, William H. and Yoel Rak and Donald C. Johanson. (2004) ''The Skull of Australopithecus Afarensis'', Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-515706-0.</ref> ''[[Paranthropus boisei]]'' (c. 2.3–1.4 million years BC)<ref>Tudge, Colin. (2002) ''The Variety of Life.'', Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860426-2.</ref> and ''[[Homo ergaster]]'' (c. 1.9 million–600,000 years BC) have been discovered.<ref name=Sayre />

Throughout humanity's [[prehistory]], Africa (like all other continents) had no [[nation state]]s, and was instead inhabited by groups of [[hunter-gatherer]]s such as the [[Khoikhoi|Khoi]] and [[Bushmen|San]].<ref>[[Ivan van Sertima|van Sertima, Ivan]]. (1995) ''Egypt: Child of Africa/S V12 (Ppr)'', Transaction Publishers. pp. 324–325. ISBN 1-56000-792-3.</ref><ref>Mokhtar, G. (1990) ''UNESCO [[General History of Africa]], Vol. II, Abridged Edition: Ancient Africa'', University of California Press. ISBN 0-85255-092-8.</ref><ref>Eyma, A. K. and C. J. Bennett. (2003) ''Delts-Man in Yebu: Occasional Volume of the Egyptologists' Electronic Forum No. 1'', Universal Publishers. p. 210. SBN 1-58112-564-X.</ref>

At the end of the [[Ice age]]s, estimated to have been around 10,500 BC, the [[Sahara]] had again become a green fertile valley, and its African populations returned from the interior and coastal highlands in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]].{{Citation needed|date=November 2007}} However, the warming and drying climate meant that by 5000 BC, the Sahara region was becoming increasingly dry and hostile. The population trekked out of the Sahara region towards the Nile Valley below the [[Cataracts of the Nile|Second Cataract]] where they made permanent or semi-permanent settlements. A major climatic recession occurred, lessening the heavy and persistent rains in Central and [[East Africa|Eastern Africa]]. Since this time, dry conditions have prevailed in Eastern Africa and, increasingly during the last 200 years, in [[Ethiopia]].

The domestication of [[cattle]] in Africa preceded [[agriculture]] and seems to have existed alongside hunter-gatherer cultures. It is speculated that by 6000 BC, cattle were already domesticated in North Africa.<ref>Diamond, Jared. (1999) "Guns, Germs and Steel: The Fates of Human Societies. New York:Norton, pp.167.</ref> In the Sahara-Nile complex, people domesticated many animals, including the [[donkey]] and a small screw-horned goat which was common from [[Algeria]] to [[Nubia]].
In the year 4000 BC, the climate of the Sahara started to become drier at an exceedingly fast pace.<ref name="O'Brien">O'Brien, Patrick K. (General Editor). Oxford Atlas of World History. New York: Oxford University Press, 2005. pp.22–23</ref> This climate change caused lakes and rivers to shrink significantly and caused increasing [[desertification]]. This, in turn, decreased the amount of land conducive to settlements and helped to cause migrations of farming communities to the more tropical climate of [[West Africa]].<ref name="O'Brien" />

By the first millennium BC, [[ironwork]]ing had been introduced in Northern Africa and quickly spread across the Sahara into the northern parts of sub-Saharan Africa,<ref>Martin and O'Meara. "Africa, 3rd Ed." Indiana: Indiana University Press, 1995. [http://princetonol.com/groups/iad/lessons/middle/history1.htm#Irontechnology]</ref> and by 500 BC, metalworking began to become commonplace in West Africa. Ironworking was fully established by roughly 500 BC in many areas of East and West Africa, although other regions didn't begin ironworking until the early centuries AD. [[Copper]] objects from [[Egypt]], North Africa, Nubia and Ethiopia dating from around 500 BC have been excavated in West Africa, suggesting that [[Trans-Saharan trade]] networks had been established by this date.<ref name="O'Brien" />

===Early civilizations===
{{Main|Ancient African history}}
[[File:Abu Simbel Egypt 1.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Colossal statues of [[Ramesses II]] at [[Abu Simbel]], Egypt, date from around 1400 BC.]]
[[File:Bantu expansion.png|thumb|left|upright|The origins and spread of the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]] languages c. 1000 BC to c. 500 AD.]]
At about 3300 BC, the historical record opens in Northern Africa with the rise of literacy in the [[Pharaoh|Pharaonic]] civilization of [[Ancient Egypt]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/235724.stm Were Egyptians the first scribes?], BBC News | Sci/Tech</ref> One of the world's earliest and longest-lasting civilizations, the Egyptian state continued, with varying levels of influence over other areas, until 343 BC.<ref>Hassan, Fekri A. (2002) ''Droughts, Food and Culture'', Springer. p. 17. ISBN 0-306-46755-0.</ref><ref>McGrail, Sean. (2004) ''Boats of the World'', Oxford University Press. p. 48. ISBN 0-19-927186-0.</ref> Egyptian influence reached deep into modern-day Libya, north to Crete<ref>{{cite book|title=History in Black: African-Americans in Search of an Ancient Past|first1=Jacob|last1=Shavit|first2=Yaacov|last2=Shavit|publisher=Taylor & Francis|year=2001|isbn=0-7146-8216-0|url=http://books.google.com/?id=VlNkzTO6IecC&pg=PA77|page=77}}</ref> and [[Canaan]],{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} and south to the kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Aksum|Aksum]]{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} and [[Nubia]].{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}}

An independent center of [[civilization]] with trading links to [[Phoenicia]] was established by [[Phoenicia]]ns from [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] on the north-west African coast at [[Carthage]].<ref>Fage, J. D. (1979) ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-21592-7.</ref><ref>Fage, J. D., et al (1986) ''The Cambridge History of Africa'', Cambridge University Press. Vol. 2, p. 118.</ref><ref>Oliver, Roland and Anthony Atmore. (1994) ''Africa Since 1800'', Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-42970-6.</ref>

[[European exploration of Africa]] began with [[Ancient Greeks]] and [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]. In 332 BC, [[Alexander the Great]] was welcomed as a liberator in [[History of Ptolemaic Egypt|Persian-occupied Egypt]]. He founded [[Alexandria]] in Egypt, which would become the prosperous capital of the [[Ptolemaic dynasty]] after his death.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/EGYPT/PTOLEMY.HTM|title=Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt: 332 BC – 395 AD|publisher=Wsu.edu|date=1999-06-06|accessdate=2010-05-18|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100528152425/http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/EGYPT/PTOLEMY.HTM|archivedate=28 May 2010|deadurl=no}}</ref>

Following the conquest of North Africa's Mediterranean coastline by the [[Roman Empire]], the area was integrated economically and culturally into the Roman system. [[Africa Province|Roman settlement]] occurred in modern Tunisia and elsewhere along the coast. The first [[Roman emperor]] native to North Africa was [[Septimius Severus]], born in [[Leptis Magna]] in present-day Libya—his mother was of Italian Roman extract and his father was [[Punics|Punic]], a genetic mix of the Phoenicians and Berber.<ref>{{cite news|title=New exhibition about Roman Emperor Septimius Severus at the Yorkshire Museum|url=http://www.yorkpress.co.uk/features/features/8826893.New_exhibition_about_Roman_Emperor_Septimius_Severus_at_the_Yorkshire_Museum/|accessdate=15 December 2013|newspaper=The Press|date=2 February 2011}}</ref>

[[Christianity]] spread across these areas at an early date, from Judaea via Egypt and beyond the borders of the Roman world into Nubia;<ref>{{cite web|title=The Story of Africa - Christianity|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section8.shtml|work=BBC World Service|publisher=BBC|accessdate=15 December 2013}}</ref> by AD 340 at the latest, it had become the [[state religion]] of the [[Aksumite Empire]]. [[Frumentius|Syro-Greek missionaries]], who arrived by way of the Red Sea, were responsible for this theological development.<ref>[http://books.google.fr/books?id=f0R7iHoaykoC&pg=PA153&dq=340+Aksumite+Empire&hl=fr&sa=X&ei=EafYT9iTEIKj4gT0oeGaAw&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=340%20Aksumite%20Empire&f=false Mussie Tesfagiorgis G. (2010), ''Eritrea'', ABC-CLIO, page 153.] ISBN 978-1-59884-231-9</ref>

In the early 7th century, the newly formed Arabian Islamic [[Caliphate]] expanded into Egypt, and then into North Africa. In a short while, the local Berber elite had been integrated into Muslim Arab tribes. When the Umayyad capital Damascus fell in the 8th century, the Islamic center of the Mediterranean shifted from Syria to [[Qayrawan]] in North Africa. Islamic North Africa had become diverse, and a hub for mystics, scholars, jurists and philosophers. During the above-mentioned period, Islam spread to sub-Saharan Africa, mainly through trade routes and migration.<ref name =Ayoub>{{cite book|last=Ayoub|first=Mahmoud M.|title=Islam: Faith and History|publisher=Oneworld|year=2004|location=Oxford|pages=76, 92–3, 96–7}}</ref>

===9th to 18th centuries===
[[File:Rytter fra Bagirmi.jpg|thumb|African horseman of [[Kingdom of Baguirmi|Baguirmi]] in full [[gambeson|padded armour]] suit]]
[[File:Igbo ukwu bronzes.jpg|thumb|left|upright|9th-century bronzes from the [[Igbo people|Igbo]] town of [[Igbo-Ukwu]], now at the [[British Museum]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/igbo/hd_igbo.htm|last=Apley|first=Apley|title=Igbo-Ukwu (c. 9th century)|publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art|accessdate=2008-11-23|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20081204053356/http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/igbo/hd_igbo.htm|archivedate=4 December 2008|deadurl=no}}</ref>]]
Pre-colonial Africa possessed perhaps as many as 10,000 different states and polities<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/discussion/2006/01/11/DI2006011101372.html|title=The Fate of Africa – A Survey of Fifty Years of Independence|accessdate=2007-07-23|work=washingtonpost.com|first=Martin|last=Meredith|date=January 20, 2006}}</ref> characterized by many different sorts of political organization and rule. These included small family groups of hunter-gatherers such as the [[Bushmen|San]] people of southern Africa; larger, more structured groups such as the family clan groupings of the [[Bantu languages|Bantu]]-speaking people of central and southern Africa; heavily structured clan groups in the [[Horn of Africa]]; the large [[Sahelian kingdoms]]; and autonomous city-states and kingdoms such as those of the [[Akan people|Akan]]; [[Benin Empire|Edo people]], [[Yoruba people|Yoruba]] and [[Igbo people]] (also misspelled as Ibo) in West Africa; and the [[Swahili people|Swahili]] coastal trading towns of [[Southeast Africa]].

By the 9th century, a string of dynastic states, including the earliest [[Hausa Kingdoms|Hausa]] states, stretched across the sub-saharan savannah from the western regions to central Sudan. The most powerful of these states were [[Ghana Empire|Ghana]], [[Gao]], and the [[Kanem Empire|Kanem-Bornu Empire]]. Ghana declined in the 11th century, but was succeeded by the [[Mali Empire]] which consolidated much of western Sudan in the 13th century. Kanem accepted Islam in the 11th century.

In the forested regions of the West African coast, independent kingdoms grew up with little influence from the [[Islam|Muslim]] north. The [[Kingdom of Nri]] of the Igbo was established around the 9th century and was one of the first. It is also one of the oldest kingdoms in modern day [[Nigeria]] and was ruled by the [[Eze Nri]]. The Nri kingdom is famous for its elaborate [[Igbo-Ukwu#Bronzes|bronzes]], found at the town of [[Igbo-Ukwu]]. The bronzes have been dated from as far back as the 9th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/igbo/hd_igbo.htm|title=Igbo-Ukwu (c. 9th century) | Thematic Essay | Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History | The Metropolitan Museum of Art|publisher=Metmuseum.org|accessdate=2010-05-18}}</ref>

[[File:Ashanti Yam Ceremony 1817.jpg|thumb|Ashanti yam ceremony, 19th century by [[Thomas Edward Bowdich|Thomas E. Bowdich]]]]
The [[Ife]], historically the first of these Yoruba city-states or kingdoms, established government under a priestly [[oba (ruler)|oba]] ('king' or 'ruler' in the [[Yoruba language]]), called the ''Ooni of Ife''. Ife was noted as a major religious and cultural center in Africa, and for its unique naturalistic tradition of bronze sculpture. The Ife model of government was adapted at [[Oyo Empire|Oyo]], where its obas or kings, called the ''Alaafins of Oyo'', once controlled a large number of other Yoruba and non-Yoruba city-states and kingdoms; the [[Fon people|Fon]] ''Kingdom of [[Dahomey]]'' was one of the non-Yoruba domains under Oyo control.

The [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] were a [[Berber people|Berber]] dynasty from the [[Sahara]] that spread over a wide area of northwestern Africa and the Iberian peninsula during the 11th century.<ref>Glick, Thomas F. ''Islamic And Christian Spain in the Early Middle Ages''. (2005) Brill Academic Publishers page 37</ref> The [[Banu Hilal]] and [[Maqil|Banu Ma'qil]] were a collection of [[Arab]] [[Bedouin]] tribes from the [[Arabian Peninsula]] who migrated westwards via Egypt between the 11th and 13th centuries. Their [[Human migration|migration]] resulted in the fusion of the Arabs and Berbers, where the locals were [[Arabization|Arabized]],<ref>"[http://countrystudies.us/mauritania/8.htm Mauritania – Arab invasions]". [[Library of Congress Country Studies]].</ref> and Arab culture absorbed elements of the local culture, under the unifying framework of Islam.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Genetic Evidence for the Expansion of Arabian Tribes into the Southern Levant and North Africa|publisher=Pubmedcentral.nih.gov|date=2010-04-01|pmc=379148|volume=70|issue=6|pmid=11992266|last1=Nebel|first1=A|last2=Landau-Tasseron|first2=E|last3=Filon|first3=D|last4=Oppenheim|first4=A|last5=Faerman|first5=M|pages=1594–6|doi=10.1086/340669|journal=American Journal of Human Genetics}}</ref>

[[File:Great Zimbabwe Closeup.jpg|thumb|left|Ruins of [[Great Zimbabwe]] (11th to 15th centuries)]]
Following the breakup of Mali, a local leader named [[Sonni Ali]] (1464–1492) founded the [[Songhai Empire]] in the region of middle [[Niger]] and the western Sudan and took control of the trans-Saharan trade. Sonni Ali seized [[Timbuktu]] in 1468 and [[Djenné|Jenne]] in 1473, building his regime on trade revenues and the cooperation of Muslim merchants. His successor [[Askia Mohammad I]] (1493–1528) made Islam the official religion, built mosques, and brought to Gao Muslim scholars, including al-Maghili (d.1504), the founder of an important tradition of Sudanic African Muslim scholarship.<ref name="multiple">Ira M. Lapidus, A History of Islamic Societies, Cambridge 1988</ref> By the 11th century, some [[Hausa Kingdoms|Hausa]] states – such as [[Kano]], [[jigawa]], [[Katsina]], and [[Gobir]] – had developed into walled towns engaging in trade, servicing [[camel train|caravans]], and the manufacture of goods. Until the 15th century, these small states were on the periphery of the major Sudanic empires of the era, paying tribute to Songhai to the west and Kanem-Borno to the east.

===Height of slave trade===
{{See also|Arab slave trade|Atlantic slave trade}}
[[File:Slaves ruvuma.jpg|thumb|Arab–Swahili slave traders and their captives along the [[Ruvuma River]] (in today's Tanzania and Mozambique) as witnessed by [[David Livingstone]].]]

[[Slavery]] had long been practiced in Africa.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157 Historical survey: Slave societies], ''Encyclopædia Britannica''</ref><ref>[http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html Swahili Coast], National Geographic</ref> Between the 7th and 20th centuries, Arab slave trade (also known as slavery in the East) took 18 million slaves from Africa via trans-Saharan and Indian Ocean routes. Between the 15th and the 19th centuries (500 years), the Atlantic slave trade took an estimated 7–12 million slaves to the New World.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24156 Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History], ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]''</ref><ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/1523100.stm Focus on the slave trade], [[BBC]]</ref><ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=5t5ERBlosqUC&pg=PA25&dq=%22muslim+slave+trade%22&sig=XSpyahikSAcJv9wxLcLOJxylVL4 ''Transformations in Slavery: A History of Slavery in Africa''] p 25 by Paul E. Lovejoy</ref> More than 1 million Europeans were captured by [[Barbary pirates]] and sold as slaves in North Africa between the 16th and 19th centuries.<ref>Rees Davies, [http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/empire_seapower/white_slaves_01.shtml "British Slaves on the Barbary Coast"], [[BBC]], 1 July 2003</ref>

In [[West Africa]], the decline of the Atlantic slave trade in the 1820s caused dramatic economic shifts in local polities. The gradual decline of slave-trading, prompted by a lack of demand for slaves in the [[New World]], increasing [[abolitionism|anti-slavery]] legislation in Europe and America, and the [[Royal Navy|British Royal Navy's]] increasing presence off the West African coast, obliged African states to adopt new economies. Between 1808 and 1860, the British [[West Africa Squadron]] seized approximately 1,600 slave ships and freed 150,000 Africans who were aboard.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/devon/content/articles/2007/03/20/abolition_navy_feature.shtml Sailing against slavery. By Jo Loosemore] BBC</ref>

[[File:The inspection and sale of a slave.jpg|thumb|left|210px|A slave being inspected, from ''Captain Canot; or, Twenty Years of an African Slaver''.]]
Action was also taken against African leaders who refused to agree to British treaties to outlaw the trade, for example against "the usurping King of [[Lagos]]", deposed in 1851. Anti-slavery treaties were signed with over 50 African rulers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pdavis.nl/Background.htm#WAS|title=The West African Squadron and slave trade|publisher=Pdavis.nl|accessdate=2010-05-18|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100610030306/http://www.pdavis.nl/Background.htm|archivedate=10 June 2010|deadurl=no}}</ref> The largest powers of West Africa (the [[Asante Confederacy]], the [[Dahomey|Kingdom of Dahomey]], and the [[Oyo Empire]]) adopted different ways of adapting to the shift. Asante and Dahomey concentrated on the development of "legitimate commerce" in the form of [[palm oil]], [[Cocoa bean|cocoa]], [[timber]] and [[gold]], forming the bedrock of West Africa's modern export trade. The Oyo Empire, unable to adapt, collapsed into civil wars.<ref>Simon, Julian L. (1995) ''State of Humanity'', Blackwell Publishing. p. 175. ISBN 1-55786-585-X.</ref>

===Colonialism and the "Scramble for Africa"===
{{Main|Colonization of Africa}}
{{Further|Scramble for Africa}}
[[File:The war in the Soudan.jpg|thumb|The [[Mahdist War]] was a colonial war fought between the [[Ansar (Sudan)|Mahdist Sudanese]] and the British forces]]
[[File:Colonial Africa 1913 map.svg|thumb|250px|right|Areas of Africa under the sovereignty or influence of the [[colonial power]]s in 1913, along with modern borders.
{{Legend|#f7fab2|Belgium}}
{{Legend|#bbfdd9|Germany}}
{{Legend|#eaaff7|Spain}}
{{Legend|#b6e3fc|France}}
{{Legend|#fbc5c0|United Kingdom}}
{{Legend|#d2f89b|Italy}}
{{Legend|#c0a6f2|Portugal}}
{{Legend|#f6f6f6|independent}}
]]

In the late 19th century, the European [[Imperialism|imperial]] powers engaged in a major territorial scramble and occupied most of the continent, creating many [[colony|colonial]] territories, and leaving only two fully independent states: [[Ethiopia]] (known to Europeans as "Abyssinia"), and [[Liberia]]. [[Egypt]] and [[Sudan]] were never formally incorporated into any European colonial empire; however, after the British occupation of 1882, Egypt was effectively under British administration [[Unilateral Declaration of Egyptian Independence|until 1922]].

===Berlin Conference===
The [[Berlin Conference]] held in 1884–85 was an important event in the political future of African ethnic groups. It was convened by King [[Leopold II of Belgium]], and attended by the European powers that laid claim to African territories. It sought to bring an end to the Scramble for Africa by European powers by agreeing on political division and spheres of influence. They set up the political divisions of the continent, by spheres of interest, that exist in Africa today.

===Independence struggles===
Imperial rule by Europeans would continue until after the conclusion of World War II, when almost all remaining colonial territories gradually obtained formal independence. [[African independence movements|Independence movements in Africa]] gained momentum following World War II, which left the major European powers weakened. In 1951, [[Libya]], a former Italian colony, gained independence. In 1956, [[Tunisia]] and [[Morocco]] won their independence from France.<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=Ltzav890zpIC&pg=PA118&dq=tunisia+morocco+independance+1956#v=onepage&q&f=false |title=Lucien Bély, ''History of France''. Editions Jean-paul Gisserot. 2001. page 118 |publisher=Books.google.com |date= 2001-01-01|accessdate=2011-11-07|isbn=9782877475631}}</ref> [[Ghana]] followed suit the next year (March 1957),<ref>{{cite book|url=http://books.google.com/?id=87V55ZHppSYC&pg=PA5&dq=ghana+independance+1957#v=onepage&q&f=false|title=Ernest Aryeetey, Jane Harrigan and Machiko Nissanke, ''Economic reforms in Ghana : the miracle and the mirage''. Africa World Press. 2000. page 5|publisher=Books.google.com|accessdate=2011-11-07|isbn=9780865438446|date=2000-06-01}}</ref> becoming the first of the sub-Saharan colonies to be freed. Most of the rest of the continent became independent over the next decade.

Portugal's overseas presence in [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] (most notably in [[Portuguese Angola|Angola]], Cape Verde, [[Portuguese Mozambique|Mozambique]], [[Portuguese Guinea|Guinea-Bissau]] and São Tomé and Príncipe) lasted from the 16th century to 1975, after the [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]] regime was overthrown in [[Carnation Revolution|a military coup in Lisbon]]. [[Rhodesia]] [[Rhodesia's Unilateral Declaration of Independence|unilaterally declared independence]] from the [[United Kingdom]] in 1965, under the [[White minority rule|white minority]] government of [[Ian Smith]], but was not internationally recognized as an independent state (as [[Zimbabwe]]) until 1980, when black nationalists gained power after a [[Rhodesian Bush War|bitter guerrilla war]]. Although [[South Africa]] was one of the first African countries to gain independence, the state remained under the control of the country's white minority through a system of racial segregation known as [[South Africa under apartheid|apartheid]] until 1994.

===Post-colonial Africa===
Today, Africa contains 54 sovereign countries, most of which have borders that were drawn during the era of European colonialism. Since colonialism, African states have frequently been hampered by instability, corruption, violence, and [[authoritarianism]]. The vast majority of African states are [[republic]]s that operate under some form of the [[presidential system]] of rule. However, few of them have been able to sustain [[Democracy|democratic]] governments on a permanent basis, and many have instead cycled through a series of [[Coup d'état|coups]], producing [[military dictatorship]]s.
[[File:Mobutu Sese Seko 1973.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mobutu Sese Seko]], Zaire's longtime dictator, embezzled over $5 billion from his country.]]
Great instability was mainly the result of [[Ethnic nepotism|marginalization of ethnic groups]], and [[Political corruption|graft under these leaders]]. For [[Divide and rule|political gain]], many leaders fanned ethnic conflicts, some of which had been exacerbated, or even created, by colonial rule. In many countries, the [[Armed forces|military]] was perceived as being the only group that could effectively maintain order, and it ruled many nations in Africa during the 1970s and early 1980s. During the period from the early 1960s to the late 1980s, Africa had more than 70 coups and 13 presidential [[assassination]]s. Border and territorial disputes were also common, with the European-imposed borders of many nations being widely contested through armed conflicts.

[[Cold War]] conflicts between the United States and the [[Soviet Union]], as well as the policies of the [[International Monetary Fund]]{{citation needed|date=May 2013}}, also played a role in instability. When a country became independent for the first time, it was often expected to align with one of the two [[superpower]]s. Many countries in [[Northern Africa]] received Soviet military aid, while many in Central and Southern Africa were supported by the United States, France or both. The 1970s saw an escalation, as newly independent [[Angola]] and [[Mozambique]] aligned themselves with the Soviet Union, and the West and South Africa sought to contain Soviet influence by funding insurgency movements. There was a [[1983–85 famine in Ethiopia|major famine in Ethiopia]], when hundreds of thousands of people starved. Some claimed that Marxist/Soviet policies made the situation worse.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/703958.stm|title=BBC: 1984 famine in Ethiopia|date=2000-04-06|accessdate=2010-01-01|work=BBC News}}</ref><ref>Robert G. Patman, ''The Soviet Union in the Horn of Africa'' 1990, ISBN 0-521-36022-6, pp. 295–296</ref><ref>Steven Varnis, ''Reluctant aid or aiding the reluctant?: U.S. food aid policy and the Ethiopian Famine Relief'' 1990, ISBN 0-88738-348-3, p.38</ref> The most devastating military conflict in modern independent Africa has been the [[Second Congo War]]; this conflict and its aftermath has killed an estimated 5.5 million people.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/africaandindianocean/democraticrepublicofcongo/8792068/Is-your-mobile-phone-helping-fund-war-in-Congo.html |title=Is your mobile phone helping fund war in Congo? |date= 27 September 2011 |work=The Daily Telegraph}}</ref> Since 2003 there has been an ongoing [[War in Darfur|conflict in Darfur]] which has become a humanitarian disaster. Another notable tragic event is the 1994 [[Rwandan Genocide]] in which an estimated 800 000 people were murdered. [[HIV/AIDS in Africa|AIDS in post-colonial Africa]] has also been a prevalent issue.

In the 21st century, however, the number of armed conflicts in Africa has steadily declined. For instance, the [[Angolan Civil War|civil war in Angola]] came to an end in 2002 after nearly 30 years. This has coincided with many countries abandoning communist style command economies and opening up for market reforms. The improved stability and economic reforms have led to a great increase in foreign investment into many African nations, mainly from [[China]],<ref name=Africa/> which has spurred quick economic growth in many countries, seemingly ending decades of stagnation and decline. Several African economies are among the world's fasted growing as of 2011. A significant part of this growth can also be attributed to the facilitated diffusion of information technologies and specifically the mobile telephone.<ref>[http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1693963 Mobile Phones and Economic Development in Africa by Jenny Aker, Isaac Mbiti :: SSRN]</ref>

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of Africa}}
[[File:Africa satellite orthographic.jpg|thumb|Satellite imagery of Africa. The [[Sahara Desert]] in the north can be clearly distinguished.]]
[[File:Africa-asia-america-to-scale.jpg|thumb|left|400px|A composite satellite image of Africa (center) with North America (left) and Eurasia (right), to scale]]

Africa is the largest of the three great southward projections from the largest landmass of the Earth. Separated from Europe by the [[Mediterranean Sea]], it is joined to Asia at its northeast extremity by the [[Suez Canal|Isthmus of Suez]] (transected by the [[Suez Canal]]), {{convert|163|km|mi|abbr=on}} wide.<ref>Drysdale, Alasdair and Gerald H. Blake. (1985) ''The Middle East and North Africa'', Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-19-503538-0.</ref> ([[Geopolitics|Geopolitically]], [[Egypt]]'s [[Sinai Peninsula]] east of the Suez Canal is often considered part of Africa, as well.)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/atlas/index.html?Parent=africa&Rootmap=&Mode=d |title=Atlas - Xpeditions @ nationalgeographic.com |publisher=National Geographic Society |year=2003 |accessdate=2009-03-01| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090303230811/http://www.nationalgeographic.com/xpeditions/atlas/index.html?Parent=africa&Rootmap=&Mode=d| archivedate= 3 March 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref>

From the most northerly point, [[Ras ben Sakka]] in [[Tunisia]] (37°21' N), to the most southerly point, [[Cape Agulhas]] in South Africa (34°51'15" S), is a distance of approximately {{convert|8,000|km|mi|abbr=on}};<ref>Lewin, Evans. (1924) ''Africa'', Clarendon press.</ref> from [[Cap-Vert|Cape Verde]], 17°33'22" W, the westernmost point, to [[Ras Hafun]] in [[Somalia]], 51°27'52" E, the most easterly projection, is a distance of approximately {{convert|7,400|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=MW>(1998) ''Merriam-Webster's Geographical Dictionary (Index)'', Merriam-Webster. pp. 10–11. ISBN 0-87779-546-0.</ref> The coastline is {{convert|26,000|km|mi|abbr=on}} long, and the absence of deep indentations of the shore is illustrated by the fact that Europe, which covers only {{convert|10,400,000|km2|sqmi|abbr=on}} – about a third of the surface of Africa – has a coastline of {{convert|32,000|km|mi|abbr=on}}.<ref name=MW />

Africa's largest country is [[Algeria]], and its smallest country is the [[Seychelles]], an [[archipelago]] off the east coast.<ref name=Hoare>Hoare, Ben. (2002) ''The Kingfisher A-Z Encyclopedia'', Kingfisher Publications. p. 11. ISBN 0-7534-5569-2.</ref> The smallest nation on the continental mainland is [[the Gambia]].

Geologically, Africa includes the [[Arabian Peninsula]]; the [[Zagros Mountains]] of Iran and the [[Anatolian Plateau]] of Turkey mark where the [[African Plate]] collided with Eurasia. The [[Afrotropic ecozone]] and the [[Saharo-Arabian Region|Saharo-Arabian desert]] to its north unite the region biogeographically, and the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] [[language family]] unites the north linguistically.

===Climate===
{{Main|Climate of Africa}}
[[File:Vegetation Africa.png|thumb|left|[[Biome]]s of Africa.]]
[[File:Mauritius beach.png|thumb|Tropical beach in [[Mauritius]], [[Trou-aux-Biches]]]]
The climate of Africa ranges from [[tropical climate|tropical]] to [[subarctic]] on its highest peaks. Its northern half is primarily [[desert]], or [[arid]], while its central and southern areas contain both [[savanna]] plains and very dense [[jungle]] ([[rainforest]]) regions. In between, there is a convergence, where vegetation patterns such as [[sahel]] and [[steppe]] dominate. Africa is the hottest continent on earth and 60% of the entire land surface consists of drylands and deserts.<ref name="environmentalatlas">[http://www.africa.upenn.edu/afrfocus/afrfocus061708.html "Africa: Environmental Atlas, 06/17/08."] [http://www.africa.upenn.edu African Studies Center], University of Pennsylvania. Accessed June 2011.</ref> The record for the highest-ever recorded temperature, in [[Libya]] in 1922 ({{convert|58|C|F}}), was discredited in 2013.<ref name=newRecord>{{cite journal|last=El Fadli|first=KI|coauthors=et al.|title=World Meteorological Organization Assessment of the Purported World Record 58°C Temperature Extreme at El Azizia, Libya (13 September 1922)|url=http://journals.ametsoc.org/doi/pdf/10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00093.1|journal=Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society|month=September|year=2012|doi=10.1175/BAMS-D-12-00093.1|volume=94|issue=2|pages=199}} (The 136 °F (57.8 °C), claimed by [['Aziziya]], [[Libya]], on September 13, 1922, has been officially deemed invalid by the [[World Meteorological Organization]].)</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=World Meteorological Organization World Weather / Climate Extremes Archive|url=http://wmo.asu.edu/world-highest-temperature|accessdate=10 January 2013}}</ref>

===Fauna===
{{Main|Fauna of Africa}}
[[File:NgoroNgoro Crater, Tanzania, Africa.jpg|left|thumb|240px|Savanna at [[Ngorongoro Conservation Area]], [[Tanzania]]]]

Africa boasts perhaps the world's largest combination of density and "range of freedom" of [[wild animal]] populations and diversity, with wild populations of large [[carnivore]]s (such as [[lion]]s, [[hyena]]s, and [[cheetah]]s) and [[herbivore]]s (such as [[African buffalo|buffalo]], [[elephant]]s, [[camel]]s, and [[giraffe]]s) ranging freely on primarily open non-private plains. It is also home to a variety of "jungle" animals including [[snake]]s and [[primate]]s and [[aquatic ecosystem|aquatic life]] such as [[crocodile]]s and [[amphibian]]s. In addition, Africa has the largest number of [[megafauna]] species, as it was least affected by the [[Quaternary extinction event#The Pleistocene or Ice Age extinction event|extinction of the Pleistocene megafauna]].

===Ecology===
[[Deforestation]] is affecting Africa at twice the world rate, according to the United Nations Environment Programme ([[UNEP]]).<ref>[http://www.africanews.com/site/list_messages/18831 Deforestation reaches worrying level – UN]. AfricaNews. June 11, 2008.</ref> According to the University of Pennsylvania African Studies Center, 31% of Africa's pasture lands and 19% of its forests and woodlands are classified as degraded, and Africa is losing over four million hectares of forest every year, which is twice the average deforestation rate compared to the rest of the world.<ref name="environmentalatlas"/> Some sources claim that deforestation has already destroyed roughly 90% of the original, virgin forests in [[West Africa]].<ref>[http://www.afrol.com/features/10278 Forests and deforestation in Africa – the wasting of an immense resource]. afrol News.</ref> Since the arrival of humans 2000 years ago, [[Madagascar]] has lost more than 90% of its original forest.<ref>{{NatGeo ecoregion|id=at0118|name=Madagascar subhumid forests}}</ref> About 65% of Africa's agricultural land suffers from soil degradation.<ref>[http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/africa/nature-laid-waste-the-destruction-of-africa-844370.html Nature laid waste: The destruction of Africa]. ''The Independent''. June 11, 2008.</ref>

==Biodiversity==
Africa has over 3,000 [[protected area]]s, with 198 marine protected areas, 50 biosphere reserves and 80 wetlands reserves. Significant habitat destruction, increases in human population and poaching are reducing Africa's biological diversity. Human encroachment, civil unrest and the introduction of non-native species threatens biodiversity in Africa. This has been exacerbated by administrative problems, inadequate personnel and funding problems.<ref name="environmentalatlas"/>

==Politics==
{{See also|List of political parties in Africa by country}}
There are clear signs of increased networking among African organizations and states. For example, in the civil war in the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (former [[Zaire]]), rather than rich, non-African countries intervening, neighboring African countries became involved (see also [[Second Congo War]]). Since the conflict began in 1998, the estimated death toll has reached 5 million.

===The African Union===
[[File:Map of the African Union with Suspended States.svg|thumb|upright|Map of the African Union with suspended states highlighted in light green.]]
{{Main|African Union}}
The African Union (AU) is a 54 member federation consisting of all of Africa's states except [[Morocco]]. The union was formed, with [[Addis Ababa]], [[Ethiopia]], as its headquarters, on 26 June 2001. The union was officially established on 9 July 2002<ref name="African Union 2002">{{cite web|url=http://www.africa-union.org/official_documents/Speeches_&_Statements/HE_Thabo_Mbiki/Launch%20of%20the%20African%20Union,%209%20July%202002.htm|title=Launch of the African Union, 9 July 2002: Address by the chairperson of the AU, President Thabo Mbeki|author=Thabo Mbeki|date=9 July 2002|publisher=africa-union.org|location=ABSA Stadium, Durban, South Africa|accessdate=2009-02-08}}</ref> as a successor to the [[Organisation of African Unity]] (OAU). In July 2004, the African Union's [[Pan-African Parliament]] (PAP) was relocated to [[Midrand]], in South Africa, but the [[African Commission on Human and Peoples' Rights]] remained in Addis Ababa. There is a policy in effect to decentralize the African Federation's institutions so that they are shared by all the states.

The African Union, not to be confused with the AU Commission, is formed by the [[Constitutive Act of the African Union]], which aims to transform the [[African Economic Community]], a federated commonwealth, into a state under established international conventions. The African Union has a parliamentary government, known as the [[Assembly of the African Union|African Union Government]], consisting of legislative, judicial and executive organs. It is led by the African Union President and Head of State, who is also the President of the [[Pan-African Parliament]]. A person becomes AU President by being elected to the PAP, and subsequently gaining majority support in the PAP. The powers and authority of the President of the African Parliament derive from the Constitutive Act and the [[Pan-African Parliament|Protocol of the Pan-African Parliament]], as well as the inheritance of presidential authority stipulated by African treaties and by international treaties, including those subordinating the Secretary General of the [[OAU]] Secretariat (AU Commission) to the PAP. The government of the AU consists of all-union (federal), regional, state, and municipal authorities, as well as hundreds of institutions, that together manage the day-to-day affairs of the institution.

Political associations such as the [[African Union]] offer hope for greater co-operation and peace between the continent's many countries. Extensive human rights abuses still occur in several parts of Africa, often under the oversight of the state. Most of such violations occur for political reasons, often as a side effect of civil war. Countries where major human rights violations have been reported in recent times include the [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]], [[Sierra Leone]], [[Liberia]], [[Sudan]], [[Zimbabwe]], and [[Côte d'Ivoire]].

{|class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"
|-align=center
| {{Supranational African Bodies|size=450px}}
| {{Africa countries imagemap|size=500px}}
|}

==Economy==
[[File:RECs of the AEC.svg|thumb|250px|right|Map of the [[African Economic Community]].
{{legend|#691717|[[Community of Sahel-Saharan States|CEN-SAD]]}}
{{legend|#4F4FB1|[[Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa|COMESA]]}}
{{legend|#E88356|[[East African Community|EAC]]}}
{{legend|#272759|[[Economic Community of Central African States|ECCAS]]}}
{{legend|#C43C7F|[[Economic Community of West African States|ECOWAS]]}}
{{legend|#4DB34D|[[Intergovernmental Authority on Development|IGAD]]}}
{{legend|#D22E2E|[[Southern African Development Community|SADC]]}}
{{legend|#7E8000|[[Arab Maghreb Union|UMA]]}}
]]
[[File:Africa at night (Cropped From Entire Earth Image).jpg|thumb|250px|Satellite image of city lights in Africa showing the lack of modern development on the continent (October 2000).]]
{{Main|Economy of Africa}}
{{See also|Economy of the African Union}}
Although it has abundant [[natural resource]]s, Africa remains the world's poorest and most [[Human Development Index|underdeveloped]] continent, the result of a variety of causes that may include the spread of deadly [[disease]]s (notably [[HIV]]/[[AIDS]] and [[malaria]]), [[Corruption Perceptions Index|corrupt governments]] that have often committed serious [[human rights violations]], failed [[central planning]], high levels of [[illiteracy]], lack of access to foreign capital, and frequent tribal and military conflict (ranging from [[guerrilla warfare]] to [[genocide]]).<ref>Richard Sandbrook, The Politics of Africa's Economic Stagnation, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1985 passim</ref> According to the [[United Nations]]' Human Development Report in 2003, the bottom 25 ranked nations (151st to 175th) were all African.<ref>[http://hdr.undp.org/], [[United Nations]]</ref>

[[Poverty in Africa|Poverty]], illiteracy, [[malnutrition]] and inadequate water supply and sanitation, as well as poor health, affect a large proportion of the people who reside in the African continent. In August 2008, the World Bank<ref>{{cite web|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:21882162~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469382,00.html|title=World Bank Updates Poverty Estimates for the Developing World|publisher=World Bank |date=26 August 2008|accessdate=2010-05-18|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100519204804/http://econ.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/EXTDEC/EXTRESEARCH/0,,contentMDK:21882162~pagePK:64165401~piPK:64165026~theSitePK:469382,00.html|archivedate=19 May 2010 | deadurl=no}}{{Dead link|date=September 2010|bot=H3llBot}}</ref> announced revised global poverty estimates based on a new international poverty line of $1.25 per day (versus the previous measure of $1.00). 80.5% of the [[Sub-Saharan Africa]] population was living on less than $2.50 (PPP) a day in 2005, compared with 85.7% for [[India]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://econ.worldbank.org/external/default/main?pagePK=64165259&piPK=64165421&theSitePK=469372&menuPK=64166093&entityID=000158349_20080826113239|title=The developing world is poorer than we thought, but no less successful in the fight against poverty|publisher=World Bank}}</ref>

The new figures confirm that sub-Saharan Africa has been the least successful region of the world in reducing poverty ($1.25 per day); some 50% of [[Poverty in Africa|the population living in poverty]] in 1981 (200 million people), a figure that rose to 58% in 1996 before dropping to 50% in 2005 (380 million people). The average poor person in sub-Saharan Africa is estimated to live on only 70 cents per day, and was poorer in 2003 than he or she was in 1973 <ref>[http://www.un.org/Depts/rcnyo/newsletter/survs/ecasurv2004.doc Economic report on Africa 2004: unlocking Africa's potential in the global economy], (Substantive session 28 June-23 July 2004) [[United Nations]]</ref> indicating increasing [[Poverty in Africa|poverty]] in some areas. Some of it is attributed to unsuccessful economic liberalization programs spearheaded by foreign companies and governments, but other studies and reports have cited bad domestic government policies more than external factors.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalpolitician.com/21498-africa-malawi-poverty|title=Neo-Liberalism and the Economic and Political Future of Africa|publisher=Globalpolitician.com|date=2005-12-19|accessdate=2010-05-18}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://science.jrank.org/pages/8526/Capitalism-Africa-Neoliberalism-Structural-Adjustment-African-Reaction.html|title=Capitalism – Africa – Neoliberalism, Structural Adjustment, And The African Reaction|publisher=Science.jrank.org|accessdate=2010-05-18|archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20100420101742/http://science.jrank.org/pages/8526/Capitalism-Africa-Neoliberalism-Structural-Adjustment-African-Reaction.html|archivedate=20 April 2010|deadurl=no}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkishweekly.net/news.php?id=58925|title=The Number of the Poor Increasing Worldwide while Sub-Saharan Africa is the Worst of All|publisher=Turkish Weekly|date=2008-08-29|accessdate=2011-11-07}}</ref>

From 1995 to 2005, Africa's rate of economic growth increased, averaging 5% in 2005. Some countries experienced still higher growth rates, notably [[Angola]], [[Sudan]] and [[Equatorial Guinea]], all three of which had recently begun extracting their [[petroleum]] reserves or had expanded their [[oil extraction]] capacity. The continent is believed to hold 90% of the world's [[cobalt]], 90% of its [[platinum]], 50% of its [[gold]], 98% of its [[chromium]], 70% of its [[tantalite]],<ref>"[http://allafrica.com/stories/200802070635.html Africa: Developed Countries' Leverage On the Continent]". AllAfrica.com. February 7, 2008.</ref> 64% of its [[manganese]] and one-third of its [[uranium]].<ref>"[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article3319909.ece Africa, China's new frontier]". Times Online. February 10, 2008.</ref> The [[Democratic Republic of the Congo]] (DRC) has 70% of the world's [[coltan]], and most mobile phones in the world are made with elements refined from this mineral. The DRC also has more than 30% of the world's [[diamond]] reserves.<ref>"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/5209428.stm DR Congo poll crucial for Africa]". BBC News. November 16, 2006.</ref> [[Guinea]] is the world's largest exporter of [[bauxite]].<ref>"[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/africa/article6871943.ece China tightens grip on Africa with $4.4bn lifeline for Guinea junta]". The Times. October 13, 2009.</ref> As the growth in Africa has been driven mainly by services and not manufacturing or agriculture, it has been growth without jobs and without reduction in [[Poverty in Africa|poverty]] levels. In fact, the food security crisis of 2008 which took place on the heels of the global financial crisis has pushed back 100 million people into food insecurity.<ref>"[http://www.strategicforesight.com/african_decade.htm The African Decade?]". Ilmas Futehally. Strategic Foresight Group</ref>

In recent years, the [[People's Republic of China]] has built increasingly stronger ties with African nations. In 2007, Chinese companies invested a total of US$1 billion in Africa.<ref name=Africa>"[http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=690 China and Africa: Stronger Economic Ties Mean More Migration]". By Malia Politzer, ''Migration Information Source''. August 2008.</ref>

A Harvard University study led by professor Calestous Juma showed that Africa could feed itself by making the transition from importer to self-sufficiency. "African agriculture is at the crossroads," says Dr. Juma. Juma also states, "We have come to the end of a century of policies that favored Africa's export of raw materials and importation of food. Africa is starting to focus on agricultural innovation as its new engine for regional trade and prosperity." <ref>[http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2010/12/101202124337.htm "Africa Can Feed Itself in a Generation, Experts Say."] ''[[Science Daily]]'', 3 December 2010.</ref>

During the President of the United States Barack Obama's visit to Africa in July 2013, he announced a [[United States dollar|US$]]7 billion plan to further develop infrastructure and work more intensively with African heads of state. A new program named Trade Africa, designed to boost trade within the continent as well as between Africa and the U.S., was also unveiled by Obama.<ref>{{cite web|title=The three reasons why the US is so interested in Africa right now|url=http://qz.com/100315/the-three-reasons-why-the-us-is-so-interested-in-africa-right-now/|work=Quartz|publisher=Quartz|accessdate=4 July 2013|author=Olga Khazan|date=3 July 2013}}</ref>

==Demographics==
{{Main|African people|Demographics of Africa}}
[[File:Kobli1.jpg|thumb|right|Woman from [[Benin]]]]
Africa's population has rapidly increased over the last 40 years, and consequently, it is relatively young. In some African states, half or more of the population is under 25 years of age.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.overpopulation.org/Africa.html|title=Africa Population Dynamics}}</ref> The total number of people in Africa grew from 221 million in 1950 to 1 billion in 2009.<ref>[http://bioweb.wku.edu/courses/Biol115/wyatt/Population/pop1.htm Population]. Western Kentucky University.</ref><ref>[http://www.africanews.com/site/Africas_population_now_1_billion/list_messages/26588 Africa's population now 1 billion]. AfricaNews. August 25, 2009.</ref>
[[File:San tribesman.jpg|left|upright|thumb|[[Bushmen|San]] Bushman man from [[Botswana]]]]
Speakers of [[Bantu languages]] (part of the [[Niger–Congo languages|Niger–Congo]] family) are the majority in southern, central and southeast Africa. The Bantu-speaking farmers from West Africa's inland savanna progressively expanded over most of Sub-Saharan Africa.<ref>Luc-Normand Tellier (2009). "''[http://books.google.com/books?id=cXuCjDbxC1YC&pg=&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Urban world history: an economic and geographical perspective]''". PUQ. p.204. ISBN 2-7605-1588-5</ref> But there are also several [[Nilotic]] groups in [[South Sudan]] and East Africa, the mixed [[Swahili people]] on the [[Swahili Coast]], and a few remaining [[Indigenous peoples of Africa|indigenous]] Khoisan ('[[Bushmen|San']] or 'Bushmen') and [[Pygmy peoples]] in southern and central Africa, respectively. Bantu-speaking Africans also predominate in Gabon and Equatorial Guinea, and are found in parts of southern Cameroon. In the [[Kalahari Desert]] of Southern Africa, the distinct people known as the Bushmen (also "San", closely related to, but distinct from "[[Khoikhoi|Hottentots]]") have long been present. The San are physically distinct from other Africans and are the indigenous people of southern Africa. Pygmies are the pre-Bantu indigenous peoples of central Africa.<ref>[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/article402970.ece Pygmies struggle to survive in war zone where abuse is routine]. ''Times'' Online. December 16, 2004.</ref>

The peoples of West Africa primarily speak [[Niger–Congo languages]], belonging mostly, though not exclusively, to its non-Bantu branches, though some [[Nilo-Saharan]] and Afro-Asiatic speaking groups are also found. The Niger–Congo-speaking [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]], [[Fulani]], [[Akan language|Akan]] and [[Wolof people|Wolof]] ethnic groups are the largest and most influential. In the central Sahara, [[Mandinka people|Mandinka]] or [[Mande languages|Mande]] groups are most significant, and in east Central Africa Nilo-Saharan-speaking groups such as the [[Zaghawa language|Zaghawa]], [[Gbaya people|Baya]], [[Kanuri language|Kanuri]] and [[Thao language|Sao]] predominate. Chadic-speaking groups, including the [[Hausa language|Hausa]], are found in more northerly parts of the region nearest to the Sahara.

[[File:Niño Berebere en el alto Atlas.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Berber people|Berber]] boys from the [[Atlas Mountains]]]]
The peoples of North Africa comprise three indigenous main groups: Berbers in the northwest, Egyptians and Libyans in northeast, and Nilo-Saharan-speaking peoples in the east. The [[Arab]]s who arrived in the 7th century introduced the [[Arabic language]] and Islam to North Africa. The Semitic [[Phoenicia]]ns (who founded [[Carthage]]) and [[Hyksos]], the Indo-Iranian [[Alans]], the Indo- European [[Ancient Greece|Greeks]], [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] and [[Vandals]] settled in North Africa as well. Berbers still make up significant communities within [[Morocco]] and [[Algeria]] nowadays. To a lesser extent, Berber speakers are also present in some regions of Tunisia and Libya.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/3509799.stm Q&A: The Berbers]. BBC News. March 12, 2004.</ref> The Berber-speaking [[Tuareg people|Tuareg]] and other often-[[nomad]]ic peoples are the principal inhabitants of the Saharan interior of North Africa. In Mauritania, there is a small but near extinct Berber community in the north and Niger–Congo-speaking peoples in the south, though in both regions Arabic and Arab culture predominates. In Sudan, although Arabic and Arab culture predominates, it is mostly inhabited by originally Nilo-Saharan speaking groups such as the Nubians, Nuba, Fur and Zaghawa who over the centuries have variously intermixed with migrants from the Arabian peninsula. Small communities of Afro-Asiatic speaking Beja nomads can also be found in Egypt and Sudan.

[[File:Bedscha.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Beja people|Beja]] [[bedouin]]s from Northeast Africa]]
In the [[Horn of Africa]], some Ethiopian and [[Eritrea]]n groups (like the [[Amhara people|Amhara]] and [[Tigray-Tigrinya people|Tigrayans]], collectively known as [[Habesha people|Habesha]]) speak languages from the [[Semitic languages|Semitic]] branch of the [[Afroasiatic languages|Afro-Asiatic]] language family, while the [[Oromo people|Oromo]] and [[Somali people|Somali]] speak languages from the [[Cushitic]] branch of Afro-Asiatic.
[[File:Eden College, Durban Multiform.jpg|thumb|right|[[White South African|White]] and [[Indian South Africans|South Asian]] children in [[Durban]], South Africa]]
Prior to the [[decolonization]] movements of the post-[[World War II]] era, [[Ethnic groups in Europe|Europeans]] were represented in every part of Africa.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,901759-3,00.html "We Want Our Country" (3 of 10)]. Time. November 5, 1965</ref> Decolonization during the 1960s and 1970s often resulted in the mass emigration of European-descended settlers out of Africa – especially from Algeria and Morocco (1.6 million ''[[pieds-noir]]s'' in North Africa),<ref>Raimondo Cagiano De Azevedo (1994). ''"[http://books.google.com/books?id=N8VHizsqaH0C&pg=PA25&dq&hl=en#v=onepage&q=&f=false Migration and development co-operation.]"''. Council of Europe. p.25. ISBN 92-871-2611-9</ref> Kenya, Congo,<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,826488-4,00.html Jungle Shipwreck]. ''Time.'' July 25, 1960</ref> Rhodesia, Mozambique and Angola.<ref>[http://www.economist.com/world/mideast-africa/displayStory.cfm?story_id=12079340 Flight from Angola], ''The Economist '', August 16, 1975</ref> By the end of 1977, more than one million Portuguese were thought to have returned from Africa.<ref>[http://countrystudies.us/portugal/48.htm Portugal - Emigration], Eric Solsten, ed. Portugal: A Country Study. Washington: GPO for the Library of Congress, 1993.</ref> Nevertheless, [[White Africans]] remain an important minority in many African states, particularly [[South Africa]], [[Zimbabwe]], [[Namibia]] and [[Réunion]].<ref>{{Cite book|first=John A.|last=Holm|title=Pidgins and Creoles: References survey|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=PcD7p9y3EIcC&pg=PA394&dq#v=onepage&q=&f=false|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=1989|page=394|isbn=0-521-35940-6}}</ref> The African country with the largest White African population is [[South Africa]].<ref>[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/sf.html#People South Africa: People: Ethnic Groups.] World Factbook of CIA</ref> The [[Afrikaner]]s, the [[British diaspora in Africa|British diaspora]] and the [[Coloured]]s are the largest European-descended groups in Africa today.

European colonization also brought sizable groups of [[Asian people|Asians]], particularly people from the [[Indian subcontinent]], to British colonies. Large [[Non-resident Indian and person of Indian origin|Indian communities]] are found in South Africa, and smaller ones are present in Kenya, Tanzania, and some other southern and southeast African countries. The large [[Indians in Uganda|Indian community in Uganda]] was [[expulsion of Asians from Uganda|expelled]] by the dictator [[Idi Amin]] in 1972, though many have since returned. The islands in the Indian Ocean are also populated primarily by people of Asian origin, often mixed with Africans and Europeans. The [[Malagasy people]] of [[Madagascar]] are an [[Austronesian people]], but those along the coast are generally mixed with Bantu, Arab, Indian and European origins. Malay and Indian ancestries are also important components in the group of people known in South Africa as [[Cape Coloureds]] (people with origins in two or more races and continents). During the 20th century, small but economically important communities of [[Demographics of Lebanon#The Lebanese Diaspora|Lebanese]] and [[Overseas Chinese|Chinese]]<ref name="Africa"/> have also developed in the larger coastal cities of [[West Africa|West]] and [[East Africa]], respectively.<ref>"[http://www1.voanews.com/english/news/a-13-2007-07-10-voa46.html Lebanese Immigrants Boost West African Commerce]", By Naomi Schwarz, VOANews.com, July 10, 2007</ref>

==Languages==
{{Main|Languages of Africa}}
[[File:Languages of Africa map.svg|thumb|250px|left|Map showing the distribution of the various language families of Africa.]]

By most estimates, well over a thousand [[language]]s ([[UNESCO]] has estimated around two thousand) are spoken in Africa.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=8048&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |title=Africa
|year=2005 |publisher=UNESCO |accessdate=2009-03-01 |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20080602050234/http://portal.unesco.org/ci/en/ev.php-URL_ID=8048&URL_DO=DO_TOPIC&URL_SECTION=201.html |archivedate = June 2, 2008}}</ref> Most are of African origin, though some are of European or Asian origin. Africa is the most [[Multilingualism|multilingual]] continent in the world, and it is not rare for individuals to fluently speak not only multiple African languages, but one or more European ones as well. There are four major [[language family|language families]] indigenous to Africa.
* The [[Afroasiatic languages|''Afro-Asiatic'']] languages are a language family of about 240 languages and 285 million people widespread throughout the [[Horn of Africa]], [[North Africa]], the [[Sahel]], and [[Southwest Asia]].
* The [[Nilo-Saharan languages|''Nilo-Saharan'']] language family consists of more than a hundred languages spoken by 30 million people. Nilo-Saharan languages are spoken by tribes in [[Chad]], Ethiopia, [[Kenya]], [[Sudan]], [[South Sudan]], [[Uganda]], and northern [[Tanzania]].
* The [[Niger–Congo languages|''Niger–Congo'']] language family covers much of Sub-Saharan Africa and is probably the largest language family in the world in terms of different languages.
* The [[Khoisan languages|''Khoisan'']] languages number about fifty and are spoken in Southern Africa by approximately 120,000 people. Many of the Khoisan languages are [[endangered language|endangered]]. The [[Khoikhoi|Khoi]] and [[Bushmen|San]] peoples are considered the original inhabitants of this part of Africa.

Following the end of [[colonialism]], nearly all African countries adopted [[official language]]s that originated outside the continent, although several countries also granted legal recognition to indigenous languages (such as [[Swahili language|Swahili]], [[Yoruba language|Yoruba]], [[Igbo language|Igbo]] and [[Hausa language|Hausa]]). In numerous countries, [[English language|English]] and [[French language|French]] (''see [[African French]]'') are used for communication in the public sphere such as government, commerce, education and the media. [[Arabic language|Arabic]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Afrikaans]] and [[Spanish language|Spanish]] are examples of languages that trace their origin to outside of Africa, and that are used by millions of Africans today, both in the public and private spheres. [[Italian language|Italian]] is spoken by some in former [[Italian Colonial Empire|Italian colonies]] in Africa. [[German language|German]] is spoken in [[Namibia]], as it was a former [[Germany|German]] protectorate.

==Culture==
[[File:Bet Giyorgis church Lalibela 01.jpg|thumb|right|The rock-hewn [[Church of Saint George, Lalibela|Church of Saint George]] in [[Lalibela]], [[Ethiopia]] is a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]].]]
{{Main|Culture of Africa}}
Some{{Which|date=June 2010}} aspects of traditional African cultures have become less practiced in recent years as a result of years of neglect and suppression by colonial and post-colonial regimes. There is now a resurgence in the attempts to rediscover and revalue African traditional cultures, under such movements as the [[African Renaissance]], led by [[Thabo Mbeki]], [[Afrocentrism]], led by a group of scholars, including [[Molefi Asante]], as well as the increasing recognition of traditional spiritualism through decriminalization of [[West African Vodun|Vodou]] and other forms of spirituality. In recent years, traditional African culture has become synonymous with rural [[Poverty in Africa|poverty]] and subsistence farming.{{citation needed|date=September 2012}}

===Visual art and architecture===
[[African art]] and [[architecture of Africa|architecture]] reflect the diversity of African cultures. The oldest existing examples of art from Africa are 82,000-year-old [[bead]]s made from ''[[Nassarius]]'' shells that were found in the [[Aterian]] levels at Grotte des Pigeons, Taforalt, Morocco.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}} The [[Great Pyramid of Giza]] in [[Egypt]] was the [[world's tallest structure]] for 4,000 years, until the completion of [[Lincoln Cathedral]] around the year 1300. The stone ruins of [[Great Zimbabwe]] are also noteworthy for their architecture, and the complexity of [[monolithic church]]es at [[Lalibela]], Ethiopia, of which the [[Church of Saint George, Lalibela|Church of Saint George]] is representative.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

[[File:Ke-Nako Music-Performance Vienna2008c.jpg|thumb|left|upright|135px|A musician from [[South Africa]]]]

===Music and dance===
{{Main|Music of Africa}}
[[File:Namibia Rugby Team.jpg|right|thumb|150px|The [[Namibia national rugby union team|Namibia rugby team]]]]
Egypt has long been a cultural focus of [[Arab world|the Arab world]], while remembrance of the rhythms of sub-Saharan Africa, in particular West Africa, was transmitted through the [[Atlantic slave trade]] to modern [[samba]], [[blues]], [[jazz]], [[reggae]], [[hip hop music|hip hop]], and [[rock music|rock]]. The 1950s through the 1970s saw a conglomeration of these various styles with the popularization of [[Afrobeat]] and [[Highlife]] music. Modern music of the continent includes the highly complex choral singing of southern Africa and the dance rhythms of the musical genre of [[soukous]], dominated by the [[music of the Democratic Republic of Congo]]. Indigenous musical and dance traditions of Africa are maintained by oral traditions, and they are distinct from the music and dance styles of [[North Africa]] and [[Southern Africa]]. [[Arab]] influences are visible in North African music and dance and, in Southern Africa, [[Western culture#Widespread influence|Western influences]] are apparent due to [[colonization]].

===Sports===
Fifty-three African countries have [[Association football|football (soccer)]] teams in the [[Confederation of African Football]], while Cameroon, Nigeria, Senegal, and Ghana have advanced to the knockout stage of recent [[FIFA World Cup]]s. [[South Africa]] hosted the [[2010 FIFA World Cup|2010 World Cup tournament]], becoming the first African country to do so. According to FIFA ranking, Egypt currently has the best soccer team in Africa. Their team has won the African Cup 7 times, and a record-making 3 times in a row.<ref>[uite101.com/article/african-cup-of-nations-football-competition-winners-list-a262598 African Cup of Nations Football Competition Winners List (suite101.com)]</ref>

[[Cricket]] is popular in some African nations. [[South Africa national cricket team|South Africa]] and [[Zimbabwe national cricket team|Zimbabwe]] have [[Test cricket|Test]] status, while [[Kenya national cricket team|Kenya]] is the leading non-test team in [[One Day International|One-Day International cricket]] and has attained permanent One-Day International status. The three countries jointly hosted the [[2003 Cricket World Cup]]. [[Namibia national cricket team|Namibia]] is the other African country to have played in a World Cup. [[Morocco]] in northern Africa has also hosted the [[2002 Morocco Cup]], but the national team has never qualified for a major tournament. [[Rugby union|Rugby]] is a popular sport in South Africa and Namibia.

==Religion==
{{Main|Religion in Africa}}

Africans profess a wide variety of religious beliefs, and statistics on religious affiliation are difficult to come by since they are too sensitive a topic for governments with mixed populations.<ref name=stanford>[http://library.stanford.edu/africa/religion.html "African Religion on the Internet"], [[Stanford University]]</ref><ref name=NYT>{{cite web|url=http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C00EEDC1030F932A35752C1A9679C8B63&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=1|date=November 1, 2001|title=Rising Muslim Power in Africa Causing Unrest in Nigeria and Elsewhere|first=Normitsu|last=Onishi|work=The New York Times|accessdate=2009-03-01}}</ref> According to the [[World Book Encyclopedia]], [[Islam]] is the largest religion in Africa, followed by [[Christianity]]. According to [[Encyclopædia Britannica]], 45% of the population are Christians, 40% are Muslims and less than 15% follow traditional [[Traditional African religion|African religions]]. A small number of Africans are [[Hindu]], [[Buddhist]], [[Confucianist]], [[Bahá'í Faith|Baha'i]], or have beliefs from the [[Judaism|Judaic tradition]]. Examples of [[African Jews]] are the [[Beta Israel]], [[Lemba people]]s and the [[Abayudaya]] of Eastern Uganda. There is also a small minority of Africans who are [[Irreligion|non-religious]].
{{clear}}

{|class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto 1em auto;"
|-align=center
| [[File:Holy Trinity Cathedral Addis Abeba 2.JPG|thumb|center|200px|The [[Holy Trinity Cathedral (Addis Ababa)|Holy Trinity Cathedral]], in [[Addis Ababa]], [[Ethiopia]]]]
| [[File:Kairouan Mosque Stitched Panorama.jpg|thumb|center|200px|The [[Mosque of Uqba|Great Mosque of Kairouan]], founded in 670, is the oldest mosque in North Africa;<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=sm0BfUKwct0C&pg=PA248&dq=mosque+kairouan+oldest+in+north+africa&hl=fr&ei=1dkVTbvFE9Sy8QPny9z-Bg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1&ved=0CCwQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q=mosque%20kairouan%20oldest%20in%20north%20africa&f=false Hans Kung, ''Tracing the Way : Spiritual Dimensions of the World Religions''. Continuum International Publishing Group. 2006. page 248]</ref> it is located in [[Kairouan]], [[Tunisia]]]]
| [[File:Voodo-altar.jpg|thumb|center|220px|Voodoo altar in [[Abomey]], [[Benin]]]]
| [[File:Religion distribution Africa crop.png|thumb|center|200px|A map showing religious distribution in Africa]]
|}

==Territories and regions==
{{Main|List of regions of Africa|List of sovereign states and dependent territories in Africa}}
The countries in this table are categorized according to the [[United Nations geoscheme for Africa|scheme for geographic subregions]] used by the United Nations, and data included are per sources in cross-referenced articles. Where they differ, provisos are clearly indicated.

{| style="width:155px; float:right; margin-right:0.0em;"
|[[File:Africa-regions.png|thumb|150px|[[subregion|Regions]] of Africa:
{{legend|#0000FF|[[North Africa|Northern Africa]]}}
{{legend|#0000FF|[[Horn of Africa]]}}
{{legend|#00FF00|[[West Africa|Western Africa]]}}
{{legend|#FF00FF|[[Central Africa]]}}
{{legend|#FFC000|[[East Africa|Eastern Africa]]}}
{{legend|#FF0000|[[Southern Africa]]}}]]
|-
| 
|-
| 
|-
|[[File:topography of africa.png|thumb|150px|Physical map of Africa]]
|-
|[[File:African continent-en.svg|thumb|150px|Political map of Africa]]
|}

<center>

{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="border:1px solid #aaa; border-collapse:collapse"
|- style="background:#ececec;"
! Name of region<ref>Continental regions as per [[United Nations geoscheme for Africa|UN categorizations/map]]. </ref> and territory, with [[flag]]
! [[List of countries and dependencies by area|Area]] (km²)
! [[List of countries by population|Population]]<ref name="uscen">[http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbrank.pl USCensusBureau:Countries and Areas Ranked by Population: 2009]{{Dead link|date=May 2010}}</ref>
! Year
! [[List of sovereign states and dependent territories by population density|Density]] (per km²)
! [[Capital city|Capital]]
|- style="background:#eee;"
|colspan="6" style="text-align:center;"|'''[[Northern Africa]]'''
|-
|{{flag|Algeria}}
|style="text-align:right;"|2,381,740
|style="text-align:right;"|34,178,188
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|14
|[[Algiers]]
|-
|{{flag|Canary Islands}} (Spain)<ref>The Spanish [[Canary Islands]], of which [[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]] are [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]] are co-capitals, are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to [[Morocco]] and [[Western Sahara]]; population and area figures are for 2001. </ref>
|style="text-align:right;"|7,492
|style="text-align:right;"|2,118,519
|style="text-align:right;"|2010
|style="text-align:right;"|226
|[[Las Palmas de Gran Canaria]], [[Santa Cruz de Tenerife]]
|-
|{{flag|Ceuta}} (Spain)<ref>The Spanish [[exclave]] of [[Ceuta]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001. </ref>
|style="text-align:right;"|20
|style="text-align:right;"|71,505
|style="text-align:right;"|2001
|style="text-align:right;"|3,575
|—
|-
|{{flag|Egypt}}<ref>[[Egypt]] is generally considered a [[List of transcontinental countries|transcontinental country]] in Northern Africa (UN region) and Western Asia; population and area figures are for African portion only, west of the [[Suez Canal]]. </ref>
|style="text-align:right;"|1,001,450
|style="text-align:right;"|82,868,000
|style="text-align:right;"|2012
|style="text-align:right;"|83
|[[Cairo]]
|-
|{{flag|Libya}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,759,540
|style="text-align:right;"|6,310,434
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|4
|[[Tripoli]]
|-
|{{flag|Madeira}} (Portugal)<ref>The Portuguese [[Madeira Islands]] are often considered part of Northern Africa due to their relative proximity to Morocco; population and area figures are for 2001. </ref>
|style="text-align:right;"|797
|style="text-align:right;"|245,000
|style="text-align:right;"|2001
|style="text-align:right;"|307
|[[Funchal]]
|-
|{{flag|Melilla}} (Spain)<ref>The Spanish [[exclave]] of [[Melilla]] is surrounded on land by Morocco in Northern Africa; population and area figures are for 2001. </ref>
|style="text-align:right;"|12
|style="text-align:right;"|66,411
|style="text-align:right;"|2001
|style="text-align:right;"|5,534
|—
|-
|{{flag|Morocco}}
|style="text-align:right;"|446,550
|style="text-align:right;"|34,859,364
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|78
|[[Rabat]]
|-
|{{flag|Sudan}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,861,484
|style="text-align:right;"|30,894,000
|style="text-align:right;"|2008
|style="text-align:right;"|17
|[[Khartoum]]
|-
|{{flag|Tunisia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|163,610
|style="text-align:right;"|10,486,339
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|64
|[[Tunis]]
|-
|{{noflag}} [[Western Sahara]]<ref name="Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic">The territory of [[Western Sahara]] is claimed by the [[Sahrawi Arab Democratic Republic]] and [[Morocco]]. The [[SADR]] is recognized as a sovereign state by the [[African Union]]. [[Morocco]] claims the entirety of the country as its [[Southern Provinces]]. Morocco administers 4/5 of the territory while the SADR controls 1/5. Morocco's annexation of this territory has not been recognized internationally.</ref>
|style="text-align:right;"|266,000
|style="text-align:right;"|405,210
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|2
|[[El Aaiún]]
|-style="background:#eee;"
|colspan="6" style="text-align:center;"|'''[[Horn of Africa]]'''
|-
|{{flag|Djibouti}}
|style="text-align:right;"|23,000
|style="text-align:right;"|623,891
|style="text-align:right;"|2012
|style="text-align:right;"|22
|[[Djibouti (city)|Djibouti]]
|-
|{{flag|Eritrea}}
|style="text-align:right;"|121,320
|style="text-align:right;"|5,647,168
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|47
|[[Asmara]]
|-
|{{flag|Ethiopia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,127,127
|style="text-align:right;"|84,320,987
|style="text-align:right;"|2012
|style="text-align:right;"|75
|[[Addis Ababa]]
|-
|{{flag|Somalia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|637,657
|style="text-align:right;"|9,832,017
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|15
|[[Mogadishu]]
|- style="background:#eee;"
|colspan="6" style="text-align:center;"|'''[[Eastern Africa]]'''
|-
|{{flag|Burundi}}
|style="text-align:right;"|27,830
|style="text-align:right;"|8,988,091
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|323
|[[Bujumbura]]
|-
|{{flag|Comoros}}
|style="text-align:right;"|2,170
|style="text-align:right;"|752,438
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|347
|[[Moroni, Comoros|Moroni]]
|-
|{{flag|Kenya}}
|style="text-align:right;"|582,650
|style="text-align:right;"|39,002,772
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|66
|[[Nairobi]]
|-
|{{flag|Madagascar}}
|style="text-align:right;"|587,040
|style="text-align:right;"|20,653,556
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|35
|[[Antananarivo]]
|-
|{{flag|Malawi}}
|style="text-align:right;"|118,480
|style="text-align:right;"|14,268,711
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|120
|[[Lilongwe]]
|-
|{{flag|Mauritius}}
|style="text-align:right;"|2,040
|style="text-align:right;"|1,284,264
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|630
|[[Port Louis]]
|-
|{{flag|Mayotte}} (France)
|style="text-align:right;"|374
|style="text-align:right;"|223,765
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|490
|[[Mamoudzou]]
|-
|{{flag|Mozambique}}
|style="text-align:right;"|801,590
|style="text-align:right;"|21,669,278
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|27
|[[Maputo]]
|-
| {{flag|Réunion}} (France)
|style="text-align:right;"|2,512
|style="text-align:right;"|743,981
|style="text-align:right;"|2002
|style="text-align:right;"|296
|[[Saint-Denis, Réunion|Saint-Denis]]
|-
|{{flag|Rwanda}}
|style="text-align:right;"|26,338
|style="text-align:right;"|10,473,282
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|398
|[[Kigali]]
|-
|{{flag|Seychelles}}
|style="text-align:right;"|455
|style="text-align:right;"|87,476
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|192
|[[Victoria, Seychelles|Victoria]]
|-
|{{flag|South Sudan}}
|style="text-align:right;"|619,745
|style="text-align:right;"|8,260,490
|style="text-align:right;"|2008
|style="text-align:right;"|13
|[[Juba]]
|-
|{{flag|Tanzania}}
|style="text-align:right;"|945,087
|style="text-align:right;"|44,929,002
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|43
|[[Dodoma]]
|-
|{{flag|Uganda}}
|style="text-align:right;"|236,040
|style="text-align:right;"|32,369,558
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|137
|[[Kampala]]
|-
|{{flag|Zambia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|752,614
|style="text-align:right;"|11,862,740
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|16
|[[Lusaka]]
|-
|{{flag|Zimbabwe}}
|style="text-align:right;"|390,580
|style="text-align:right;"|11,392,629
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|29
|[[Harare]]
|-
|colspan="6" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;"|'''[[Central Africa]]'''
|-
|{{flag|Angola}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,246,700
|style="text-align:right;"|12,799,293
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|10
|[[Luanda]]
|-
|{{flag|Cameroon}}
|style="text-align:right;"|475,440
|style="text-align:right;"|18,879,301
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|40
|[[Yaoundé]]
|-
|{{flag|Central African Republic}}
|style="text-align:right;"|622,984
|style="text-align:right;"|4,511,488
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|7
|[[Bangui]]
|-
|{{flag|Chad}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,284,000
|style="text-align:right;"|10,329,208
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|8
|[[N'Djamena]]
|-
|{{flag|Republic of the Congo}}
|style="text-align:right;"|342,000
|style="text-align:right;"|4,012,809
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|12
|[[Brazzaville]]
|- http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Africa&
|{{flag|Democratic Republic of the Congo}}
|style="text-align:right;"|2,345,410
|style="text-align:right;"|69,575,000
|style="text-align:right;"|2012
|style="text-align:right;"|30
|[[Kinshasa]]
|-
|{{flag|Equatorial Guinea}}
|style="text-align:right;"|28,051
|style="text-align:right;"|633,441
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|23
|[[Malabo]]
|-
|{{flag|Gabon}}
|style="text-align:right;"|267,667
|style="text-align:right;"|1,514,993
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|6
|[[Libreville]]
|-
|{{flag|São Tomé and Príncipe}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,001
|style="text-align:right;"|212,679
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|212
|[[São Tomé]]
|-style="background:#eee;"
|colspan="6" style="text-align:center;"|'''[[Southern Africa]]'''
|-
|{{flag|Botswana}}
|style="text-align:right;"|600,370
|style="text-align:right;"|1,990,876
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|[[Gaborone]]
|-
|{{flag|Lesotho}}
|style="text-align:right;"|30,355
|style="text-align:right;"|2,130,819
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|70
|[[Maseru]]
|-
|{{flag|Namibia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|825,418
|style="text-align:right;"|2,108,665
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|[[Windhoek]]
|-
|{{flag|South Africa}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,219,912
|style="text-align:right;"|51,770,560
|style="text-align:right;"|2011
|style="text-align:right;"|42
|[[Bloemfontein]], [[Cape Town]], [[Pretoria]]<ref>[[Bloemfontein]] is the judicial capital of South Africa, while [[Cape Town]] is its legislative seat, and [[Pretoria]] is the country's administrative seat. </ref>
|-
|{{flag|Swaziland}}
|style="text-align:right;"|17,363
|style="text-align:right;"|1,123,913
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|65
|[[Mbabane]]
|-style="background:#eee;"
|colspan="6" style="text-align:center;"|'''[[Western Africa]]'''
|-
|{{flag|Benin}}
|style="text-align:right;"|112,620
|style="text-align:right;"|8,791,832
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|78
|[[Porto-Novo]]
|-
|{{flag|Burkina Faso}}
|style="text-align:right;"|274,200
|style="text-align:right;"|15,746,232
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|57
|[[Ouagadougou]]
|-
|{{flag|Cape Verde}}
|style="text-align:right;"|4,033
|style="text-align:right;"|429,474
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|107
|[[Praia]]
|-
|{{flag|Côte d'Ivoire}}
|style="text-align:right;"|322,460
|style="text-align:right;"|20,617,068
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|64
|style="font-size:89%"|[[Abidjan]],<ref>[[Yamoussoukro]] is the official capital of [[Côte d'Ivoire]], while [[Abidjan]] is the ''[[de facto]]'' seat.</ref> [[Yamoussoukro]]
|-
|{{flag|Gambia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|11,300
|style="text-align:right;"|1,782,893
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|158
|[[Banjul]]
|-
|{{flag|Ghana}}
|style="text-align:right;"|239,460
|style="text-align:right;"|23,832,495
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|100
|[[Accra]]
|-
|{{flag|Guinea}}
|style="text-align:right;"|245,857
|style="text-align:right;"|10,057,975
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|41
|[[Conakry]]
|-
|{{flag|Guinea-Bissau}}
|style="text-align:right;"|36,120
|style="text-align:right;"|1,533,964
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|43
|[[Bissau]]
|-
|{{flag|Liberia}}
|style="text-align:right;"|111,370
|style="text-align:right;"|3,441,790
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|31
|[[Monrovia]]
|-
|{{flag|Mali}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,240,000
|style="text-align:right;"|12,666,987
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|10
|[[Bamako]]
|-
|{{flag|Mauritania}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,030,700
|style="text-align:right;"|3,129,486
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|3
|[[Nouakchott]]
|-
|{{flag|Niger}}
|style="text-align:right;"|1,267,000
|style="text-align:right;"|15,306,252
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|12
|[[Niamey]]
|-
|{{flag|Nigeria}}
|style="text-align:right;"|923,768
|style="text-align:right;"|166,629,000
|style="text-align:right;"|2012
|style="text-align:right;"|180
|[[Abuja]]
|-
|{{flag|Saint Helena, Ascension and Tristan da Cunha}} (United Kingdom)
|style="text-align:right;"|420
|style="text-align:right;"|7,728
|style="text-align:right;"|2012
|style="text-align:right;"|13
|[[Jamestown, Saint Helena|Jamestown]]
|-
|{{flag|Senegal}}
|style="text-align:right;"|196,190
|style="text-align:right;"|13,711,597
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|70
|[[Dakar]]
|-
|{{flag|Sierra Leone}}
|style="text-align:right;"|71,740
|style="text-align:right;"|6,440,053
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|90
|[[Freetown]]
|-
|{{flag|Togo}}
|style="text-align:right;"|56,785
|style="text-align:right;"|6,019,877
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|106
|[[Lomé]]
|-style="font-weight:bold; background:#eee;"
||{{noflag}} Africa Total
|style="text-align:right;"|30,368,609
|style="text-align:right;"|1,001,320,281
|style="text-align:right;"|2009
|style="text-align:right;"|33
|style="background:#eee;"|
|}
</center>


==See also==
{{portal|Africa}}{{Wikipedia books|Africa}}
* [[African Union]]
* [[Outline of Africa]]
* [[Index of Africa-related articles]]
* [[Afro-Eurasia]]

* [[Highest mountain peaks of Africa]]
* [[List of African millionaires]]
* [[List of cities in Africa]]
* [[Urbanization in Africa]]
{{-}}

==References==
{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book|last=Asante|first=Molefi|authorlink=Molefi Asante|title=The History of Africa|publisher=Routledge|location=USA|year=2007|isbn=0-415-77139-0}}
* {{cite book|last=Clark|first=J. Desmond|authorlink=J. Desmond Clark|title=The Prehistory of Africa|publisher=Thames and Hudson|location=London|year=1970|isbn=978-0-500-02069-2}}
* {{cite book|last=Crowder|first=Michael|title=The Story of Nigeria|publisher=Faber|location=London|year=1978|isbn=978-0-571-04947-9}}
* {{cite book|last=Davidson|first=Basil|authorlink=Basil Davidson|title=The African Past: Chronicles from Antiquity to Modern Times|publisher=Penguin|location=Harmondsworth|year=1966|oclc=2016817}}
* {{cite book|last=Gordon|first=April A.|author2=Donald L. Gordon|title=Understanding Contemporary Africa|publisher=Lynne Rienner Publishers|location=Boulder|year=1996|isbn=978-1-55587-547-3}}
* {{cite book|last=Khapoya|first=Vincent B.|title=The African experience: an introduction|publisher=Prentice Hall|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ|year=1998|isbn=978-0-13-745852-3}}
* Moore, Clark D., and Ann Dunbar (1968). ''Africa Yesterday and Today'', in series, ''The George School Readings on Developing Lands''. New York: Praeger Publishers.
* [[V. S. Naipaul|Naipaul, V. S.]]. ''The Masque of Africa: Glimpses of African Belief''. Picador, 2010. ISBN 978-0-330-47205-0

==External links==
{{Sister project links|voy=Africa}}
;General information
* {{dmoz|Regional/Africa}}
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/amed/ African & Middle Eastern Reading Room] from the United States [[Library of Congress]]
* [http://www-sul.stanford.edu/depts/ssrg/africa/ Africa South of the Sahara] from [[Stanford University]]
* [http://www.afrika.no/index/ The Index on Africa] from ''The Norwegian Council for Africa''
* [http://www.aluka.org/ Aluka] Digital library of scholarly resources from and about Africa
* [http://www.usaraf.army.mil/MAP_INTERACTIVE/INTERACTIVE_MAP.swf Africa Interactive Map] from the [[United States Army Africa]]

;History
* [http://www.africankingdoms.com/ African Kingdoms]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/storyofafrica/index_section10.shtml The Story of Africa] from [[BBC World Service]]
* [http://www.africa.upenn.edu/Urgent_Action/menu_APIC.html Africa Policy Information Center (APIC)]

;News media
* [http://allafrica.com/ allAfrica.com] current news, events and statistics
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/africa/features/focus_magazine/index.shtml Focus on Africa] magazine from [[BBC World Service]]

{{Navboxes
|title = Articles Related to Africa
|list =
{{Africa topics}}
{{Africa}}
{{Continents of the world}}
{{Regions of the world}}
{{African Trade Agreements}}
}}

[[Category:Africa| ]]
[[Category:Continents]]

{{Link FA|hi}}
{{Link FA|ka}}
{{Link FA|krc}}
{{Link FA|yo}}
{{Link GA|ja}}

Henry the Fowler

2009-11-24T01:16:22Z

Cyon: /* Policy */ typo

{{redirect|Heinrich der Vogler|the minstrel and poet|Heinrich der Vogler (poet)}}
{{Infobox royalty
| type = monarch
| name = Heinrich I
| more =
| image = Heinrich-der-finkler-darbringung-der-kaiserkrone.jpg
| caption = Henry met by a delegation offering the crown while trapping birds. This depiction of the legend was painted by [[Hermann Vogel (German illustrator)|Hermann Vogel]] in 1900
| succession = [[Duke of Saxony]]
| reign = 912 – 936
| coronation =
| predecessor =
| regent =
| successor =
| succession1 = [[King of Germany]]
| reign1 = 919-936
| coronation1 =
| predecessor1 =
| successor1 =
| full name = ({{lang-de|Heinrich der Finkler or Heinrich der Vogler}}, {{lang-la|Henricius Auceps}})
| house = [[Ottonian dynasty|Ottonian]]
| father = [[Otto the Illustrious|Otto, Duke of Saxony]]
| mother = [[Hedwiga]]
| date of birth = 876
| place of birth =
| date of death = 936
| place of death =
| place of burial =
| religion =
}}

'''Henry I the Fowler''' ({{lang-de|Heinrich der Finkler}} or ''Heinrich der Vogler''; {{lang-la|Henricius Auceps}}) ([[876]] – [[2 July]] [[936]]) was the [[duke of Saxony]] from 912 and [[King of Germany|king of the Germans]] from 919 until his death. First of the [[Ottonian Dynasty]] of German kings and emperors, he is generally considered to be the founder and first king of the medieval German state, known until then as [[East Francia]]. An avid hunter, he obtained the epithet "the Fowler"<ref>A fowler is one who hunts [[wildfowl]].</ref> because he was allegedly fixing his birding nets when messengers arrived to inform him that he was to be king.

==Family==
Born in [[Memleben]], in what is now [[Saxony-Anhalt]], Henry was the son of [[Otto the Illustrious]], duke of Saxony, and his wife [[Hedwiga]], daughter of [[Henry of Franconia]] and Ingeltrude and a great-great-granddaughter of [[Charlemagne]]. In 906 he married [[Hatheburg]], daughter of the Saxon count Erwin, but divorced her in 909, after she had given birth to his son [[Thankmar]]. Later that year he married [[Matilda of Ringelheim|St Matilda of Ringelheim]], daughter of Dietrich, count in [[Westphalia]]. St Matilda bore him one son called Otto and two daughters, Hedwige and Gerberga and founded many religious institutions, including the abbey of [[Quedlinburg Abbey|Quedlinburg]] where Henry is buried, and was later [[canonization|canonized]].

==Succession==
Henry became duke of Saxony upon his father's death in 912. An able ruler, he continued to strengthen Saxony, frequently in conflict with his neighbors to the South, the dukes of [[Franconia]].

In 918 [[Conrad of Franconia|Conrad I]], king of East Francia and duke of Franconia, died. Although they had been at odds with each other from 912–15 over the title to lands in [[Thuringia]], before he died Conrad had recommended Henry as his successor and king. Conrad's choice was conveyed by Duke [[Eberhard III of Franconia|Eberhard of Franconia]], Conrad's brother and heir, at the [[Reichstag (institution)|Reichstag]] of [[Fritzlar]] in 919. The assembled Franconian and Saxon nobles duly elected Henry to be king Archbishop Heriger of Mayence offered to anoint him according to the usual ceremony, but Henry refused to be anointed by a high church official — the only king of his time not to undergo that rite — allegedly because he did not wish to be king by the church's but by the people's acclaim. Duke [[Burchard II of Swabia]] soon swore fealty to the new king, but duke [[Arnulf of Bavaria]] did not submit until Henry Henry defeated him in two campaigns in 921 . In last , Henry Henry besieged Ratisbon (Regensburg) and forced [[Arnulf of Bavaria]] to submission .

In 920, Charles the Simple invaded Germany and marched as far as Pfeddersheim near Worms, but retired on hearing that Henry was arming against him. <ref> Gwatkin ,''The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1926.''p 180 </ref>

on 7 November 921 Henry and Charles the Simple met each other and a treaty concluded between them . But with beginning of civil war in France , Henry sought to wrest Lorraine from the Western Kingdom. In the year of 923 Henry Twice crossed the Rhine. Later in the year he entered Lorraine with an army, captured a large part of the country. Until October of 924 and the eastern part of Lorraine was left in Henry's possession.

==Policy==
Henry regarded the kingdom as a confederation of [[stem duchies]] rather than as a feudal kingdom and saw himself as ''[[primus inter pares]]''. Instead of seeking to administer the empire through counts, as Charlemagne had done and as his successors had attempted, Henry allowed the dukes of Franconia, Swabia and Bavaria to maintain complete internal control of their holdings.In 925 , [[Giselbert]] again rebelled , Henry invaded Lorrain and besieged [[Giselbert]] at Zillpich, captured the town, and became master of a large portion of [[Lotharingia]] ([[Lorraine (province)|Lorraine]]), and brought that realm, which had been lost in 910, back into the German kingdom as the fifth stem duchy (the others being Saxony, [[Franconia]], [[Swabia]], and [[Duchy of Bavaria|Bavaria]]). Allowing Giselbert to remain in power as duke of Lotharingia, Henry arranged the marriage of his daughter [[Gerberga of Saxony]] to his new vassal in 928.

Henry was an able military leader. In 921 Hungarians Invaded Germany and Italy . Although the , A hord of them routed near Bleiburg, in Carinthia, by Eberhard and the Count of Meran <ref>Menzel , W. Germany from the Earliest Period</ref> and another horde routed by Liutfried count of Elsace , Henry , forced to paid a tribute to the [[Hungarian people|Magyars]], (Hungarians), who had repeatedly raided Germany, and thereby secured a ten-year truce so that he could fortify towns and train a new elite cavalry force.

During the truce with the Magyars, Henry subdued the Northern Slavic Tribes . In winter of 928, he marched against the [[Havelli]], seized their capital, Brannibor (Brandenburg) then invaded Dalemintzi on the lower Elbe, after a siege conquered their capital Jahna . In 929 he with the help of Duke Arnulf entered Bohemia , Wenceslas surrendered his lands, received them back as a fief of the German crown, and agreed to pay a yearly tribute to German emperor . The Redarii had driven away their chief and captured the town of Walsleben and massacred the inhabitants. The Counts Bernard and Thietmar marched against the fortress of Lenzen on the right bank of the Elbe, and, after fierce fighting, completely routed the enemy on 4 September 929. In 932 the Lusatians and in 934 the Ukrani on the lower Oder were subdued and made tributary.<ref>Gwatkin ,The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume III.</ref>

In 933 Henry , with end of truce between and empire , refused the accustomed tribute.When the [[Magyars]] began raiding again, he led an army of all German tribes to victory at the [[Battle of Riade]] in 933 near the river Unstrut, stopping their advance into Germany. He also pacified territories to the north, where the [[Denmark|Danes]] had harried the [[Frisians]] by sea. The monk and historian [[Widukind of Corvey]] in his ''Res gestae Saxonicae'' reports that the Danes were subjects of Henry the Fowler. Henry incorporated into his kingdom territories held by the [[Wends]], who together with the Danes had attacked Germany, and also conquered [[Schleswig]] in 934.

==Death and aftermath==
Henry died of a cerebral stroke on [[2 July]] [[936]] in his palatium in [[Memleben]], one of his favourite places. By then all German tribes were united in a single kingdom. Henry I is therefore considered the first German king and the founder of the eventual [[Holy Roman Empire]]. He has sometimes been considered as Henry I, [[Holy Roman Emperor]].

His son [[Otto I, Holy Roman Emperor|Otto]] succeeded him as Emperor. His second son, [[Henry I, Duke of Bavaria | Henry]], became duke of Bavaria. A third son, Brun (or [[Bruno I, Archbishop of Cologne |Bruno]]), became [[archbishop of Cologne]]. His son from his first marriage, Thankmar, rebelled against his half-brother Otto and was killed in battle in 936. After the death of her husband Duke Giselbert of Lotharingia, Henry's daughter [[Gerberga of Saxony]] married King [[Louis IV of France]]. His youngest daughter, [[Hedwige of Saxony]], married Duke [[Hugh the Great]] of [[France]] and was the mother of [[Hugh Capet]], the first [[House of Capet|Capetian]] king of France.

Henry returned to public attention as a character in [[Richard Wagner]]'s opera, ''[[Lohengrin (opera)|Lohengrin]]'' (1850). There are indications that [[Heinrich Himmler]] imagined himself the reincarnation of the first king of Germany.<ref>Frischauer, Willi. ''Himmler, the Evil Genius of the Third Reich''. London: Odhams, 1953, pages 85-88; [[Felix Kersten|Kersten, Felix]]. ''The Kersten Memoirs: 1940-1945''. New York: Macmillan, 1957, page 238.</ref>

==Ancestry==

<div style="clear: both; width: 100%; padding: 0; text-align: left; border: none;" class="NavFrame">
<div style="background: #ccddcc; text-align: center; border: 1px solid #667766" class="NavHead">'''Ancestors of Henry the Fowler '''
</div>
<div class="NavContent" >
<center>{{ahnentafel-compact5
|style=font-size: 100%; line-height: 110%;
|border=1
|boxstyle=padding-top: 0; padding-bottom: 0;
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. '''Henry the Fowler'''
|2= 2. [[Otto I, Duke of Saxony]]
|3= 3. Hedwig of Franconia
|4= 4. [[Liudolf, Duke of Saxony]]
|5= 5. Oda
|6= 6. [[Henry of Franconia]]
|7= 7. Ingeltrude
|8= 8. Graf Brun (Brunhart)
|9= 9. Gisla von Verla
|10= 10. Billung of the Franks
|11= 11. Aeda
|12= 12. [[Poppo of Grapfeld]]
|14= 14. [[Eberhard of Friuli]]
|15= 15. [[Gisela, daughter of Louis the Pious|Gisela]]
|30= 30. [[Louis the Pious]]
|31= 31. [[Judith of Bavaria (795-843)|Judith of Bavaria]]
}}</center>
</div></div>

==See also==
*[[Kings of Germany family tree]]. He was related to every other king of Germany.

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
# Gwatkin, H. M., Whitney, J. P. (ed) et al. The Cambridge Medieval History: Volume III. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1926.
# Menzel , W. Germany from the Earliest Period . Vol I

 
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{{s-bef|rows=|before=[[Conrad of Franconia|Conrad I]]}}
{{s-ttl|rows=|title=[[List of German Kings and Emperors|King of the Germans]] Challenged by Anti-King [[Arnulf, Duke of Bavaria|Arnulf the Bad]] 919-921 |years=[[23 April]] [[919]] – [[2 July]] [[936]]}}
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{{s-bef|rows=|before=[[Otto I the Illustrious|Otto the Illustrious]]}}
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{{German monarchs}}

[[Category:876 births]]
[[Category:936 deaths]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic monarchs]]
[[Category:German kings|Henry I the Fowler]]
[[Category:Ottonian Dynasty]]
[[Category:Dukes of Saxony]]
[[Category:People from Burgenlandkreis]]
[[Category:Walhalla enshrinees]]
[[Category:10th-century rulers in Europe]]

[[ca:Enric I d'Alemanya]]
[[cs:Jindřich I. Ptáčník]]
[[cy:Harri I, brenin yr Almaen]]
[[da:Henrik Fuglefænger]]
[[de:Heinrich I. (Ostfrankenreich)]]
[[et:Heinrich I (Saksa kuningas)]]
[[es:Enrique I el Pajarero]]
[[fr:Henri Ier de Germanie]]
[[fy:Hindrik I de Fûgelder]]
[[ko:하인리히 1세]]
[[hr:Henrik I., njemački kralj]]
[[it:Enrico I di Sassonia]]
[[lt:Henrikas I Paukštininkas]]
[[hu:I. Henrik német király]]
[[nl:Hendrik de Vogelaar]]
[[ja:ハインリヒ1世 (ドイツ王)]]
[[no:Henrik I av Sachsen]]
[[pl:Henryk I Ptasznik]]
[[pt:Henrique I da Germânia]]
[[ro:Henric I al Germaniei]]
[[ru:Генрих I Птицелов]]
[[simple:Henry I the Fowler]]
[[sk:Henrich I. (Východofranská ríša)]]
[[sr:Хенрик I Птичар]]
[[fi:Henrik I Linnustaja]]
[[sv:Henrik I av Sachsen]]
[[vls:Hendrik I de Veugeloare]]
[[zh:亨利一世 (德意志)]]

Hill 262

2009-11-20T19:18:40Z

Cyon: changing "Zameczka" (genitive) into "Zameczek" (nominative)

{{FixBunching|beg}}
{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Hill 262
|partof=[[Operation Tractable]]
|image=[[Image:Polish hill 262.jpg|300px|alt=Five soldiers kneel down in woodland.]]
|caption=Polish Infantry moving towards cover on Mount Ormel, 20 August 1944.
|date=19 August–21 August, 1944
|place=Mont Ormel, northeast of Chambois
|result=Polish victory<ref name=Williams204 /><ref>Hastings (2006), p. 306</ref>
|combatant1={{flag|Poland}}
|combatant2={{flagicon|Germany|Nazi}} [[Nazi Germany|Germany]]
|commander1={{flagicon|Poland}} [[Stanisław Maczek]] {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Zygmunt Szydlowski]]<ref>Reynolds (2002), p. 274</ref>
|commander2={{flagicon|Germany|Nazi}} [[Walter Model]]
|strength1=1,500 infantry ~80 tanks
|strength2=remnants of several infantry and Panzer divisions{{#tag:ref|Units involved inincluded the [[2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich|2nd SS]], [[9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen|9th SS]], [[10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg|10th SS]], [[12th SS Panzer Division|12th SS]], and [[116th Panzer Division]]s.<ref name="Hastings303"/>|group=nb}}
|casualties1=351 casualties 11 tanks
|casualties2=~1,500 casualties{{#tag:ref|According to McGilvray, around 500 dead and 1,000 captured<ref name=McGilvray54 />|group=nb}}
}}
{{FixBunching|mid}}
{{Campaignbox Normandy}}
{{FixBunching|end}}

'''Hill 262''' or '''Mont Ormel ridge''', nicknamed '''The Mace''' (elevation {{convert|262|m|ft}}), was the location of a pivotal engagement fought as part of the wider battle of the [[Falaise pocket]] during the [[Operation Overlord|Normandy Campaign]] of the [[Second World War]]. The [[7th Army (Germany)|German Seventh Army]] had become surrounded by the Allies near the town of Falaise, and with its commanding view of the area the Mont Ormel ridge sat astride the Germans' only escape route. Polish forces seized the ridge's northern height on 19 August 1944, and despite being isolated and coming under sustained attack, held it until noon on 21 August, contributing greatly to the decisive Allied victory that followed.

The American success during [[Operation Cobra]] provided the Allies with an opportunity to cut off and destroy most of the German forces west of the [[River Seine]]. American, British and Canadian armies converged on the area around Falaise, trapping the German Seventh Army. [[Generalfeldmarschall|''Generalfeldmarschall'']] [[Walter Model]] ordered a withdrawal, but by this time the Allies were already across his path. During the night of 19 August, two battlegroups of [[Stanisław Maczek]]'s Polish [[1st Armoured Division (Poland)|1st Armoured Division]] established themselves in the mouth of the Falaise pocket, on the northernmost of Mont Ormel ridge's two peaks.

His forces encircled, on 20 August Model organised attacks on the ridge from both within and outside the pocket, and the Germans managed to isolate the position and force open an escape route. Lacking the fighting power to close the corridor, the Poles nevertheless directed constant and accurate artillery fire on German units leaving the sector, causing heavy casualties. Exasperated, the Germans launched fierce attacks throughout 20 August, inflicting severe losses on Hill 262's entrenched defenders. Exhausted and dangerously low on ammunition, the Poles managed to retain their foothold on the ridge. The following day, less intense attacks continued until midday, when the last German effort to overrun the position was defeated at close quarters. The Poles were relieved by the Canadians shortly after noon; their dogged stand had ensured the Falaise pocket's closure and the collapse of the German position in Normandy.

== Background ==
{{See|Operation Totalize|Operation Tractable|Falaise pocket}}

On 25 July 1944, [[Lieutenant General]] [[Omar Bradley]] launched [[Operation Cobra]] against the German defences penning his [[First United States Army]] into its [[Operation Overlord|Normandy beachead]].<ref name=Wilmot390-2>Wilmot, pp. 390–392</ref> Although intended only to cut a corridor through to [[Brittany]], freeing US forces of the constraints of operating in the [[bocage]],<ref name=Hastings250-2>Hastings (2006), pp. 250–252</ref> the offensive precipitated a general collapse of the German position in the American sector when [[Generalfeldmarschall|''Generalfeldmarschall'']] [[Günther von Kluge]]'s [[Army Group B]] was slow to withdraw and expended many of its remaining combat-effective formations in [[Operation Lüttich|futile counterattacks]].<ref name=Williams197>Williams, p. 197</ref> Sensing the opportunity to inflict a decisive defeat, the town of Falaise became a major Allied objective; its capture would cut off virtually all German forces in Normandy.<ref>D'Este, p. 404</ref> General [[Harry Crerar]], commanding the newly inaugurated [[First Canadian Army]], and [[Lieutenant-General (Canada)|Lieutenant-General]] [[Guy Simonds]] of [[II Canadian Corps|II Canadian Corps]], planned an Anglo-Canadian offensive code-named [[Operation Totalize]].<ref>Hastings (2006), p. 296</ref> This was intended to seize an area of high ground north of Falaise, but despite initial gains on [[Battle of Verrières Ridge|Verrières Ridge]] and near [[Cintheaux]], by 9 August the offensive was in trouble.<ref>Hastings (2006), p. 301</ref> Strong German defences and indecision and hesitation among the Canadian chain of command hampered Allied efforts,<ref>Reid, pp. 357 and 366</ref> and the [[4th Canadian (Armoured) Division|4th Canadian]] and [[1st Armoured Division (Poland)|1st Polish]] Armoured Divisions suffered heavy casualties.<ref name="Bercuson 230">Bercuson, p. 230</ref> Anglo-Canadian forces reached Hill 195 north of Falaise on 10 August, but were unable to make further progress, so Totalize was called off.<ref name="Bercuson 230" />

[[File:Polish officer 1AD Normandy P011192.jpg|thumb|left|Lieutenant Kłaptocz of the Polish 1st Armoured Division and Major Leonard Dull of the US 90th Infantry Division, in Chambois, August 1944, after the Allied link-up.]]On 14 August, the Canadians launched [[Operation Tractable]], and three days later took Falaise.<ref name=Copp2006104>Copp (2006), p. 104</ref> With the [[Third United States Army|United States Third Army]] pressing in from the south and the [[Second Army (United Kingdom)|British Second Army]] from the west, the Allied noose was closing around von Kluge's force; it fell to the Canadians to draw it tight.<ref name=Wilmot419>Wilmot, p. 419</ref> In a meeting with his divisional commanders on 19 August, Simonds insisted that the [[Falaise Pocket]] must be closed quickly, emphasising to General [[Stanisław Maczek]], commanding First Canadian Army's [[1st Armoured Division (Poland)|Polish 1st Armoured Division]], that this was his responsibility.<ref name=Stacey260>Stacey, p. 260</ref> The Polish 1st Armoured Division had split into three [[Battlegroup (army)|battlegroup]]s, allowing it to rapidly sweep the countryside north of [[Chambois]]. However, facing stiff German resistance and with Loszutski's battlegroup having "gone astray" north of Chambois and needing to be rescued,{{#tag:ref|Hastings claims that this battlegroup made for Champeaux instead of Chambois as a result of a misunderstanding with its French civilian guide, who then disappeared.<ref name=Hastings1999356 />|group=nb}} the Poles had not yet taken Chambois, [[Coudehard]], or the Mont Ormel ridge.<ref name=Copp2003240>Copp (2003), p. 240</ref> Following his meeting with Simonds, Maczek was determined to get his men onto their objectives as soon as possible.<ref name=Copp2003243>Copp (2003), p. 243</ref> The 10th Dragoons (10th Polish [[Motorised infantry]] Battalion) and 10th Polish Mounted Rifle Regiment (the division's armoured reconnaissance regiment) drove hard on Chambois,<ref name=Stacey261>Stacey, p. 261</ref> the capture of which would effect a link-up with the Americans.<ref name=Jarymowycz195>Jarymowycz, p. 195</ref> Having taken [[Trun]] and [[Champeaux]], the [[4th Canadian Armoured Division]] reinforced the Poles, and with elements of the US [[90th Infantry Division (United States)|90th Infantry Division]] attacking simultaneously from the south,<ref name=Stacey261 /> by the evening of 19 August the town was in Allied hands.<ref name=Hastings304 />

Although the arms of the encirclement were now in contact, the Allies were not yet astride Seventh Army's escape route in any great strength and their positions came under frenzied assault.<ref name=Hastings304 /> During the day an armoured column from the 2nd Panzer Division had broken through the Canadians in [[Saint-Lambert, Calvados|St. Lambert]], taking half the village and keeping a road open for six hours until it was closed again towards nightfall.<ref name=Wilmot422>Wilmot, p. 422</ref> Many Germans escaped along this route, and numerous small parties infiltrated through to the [[Dives (river)|River Dives]] during the night.<ref name=Wilmot423>Wilmot, p.423</ref>

==Mont Ormel ridge (Hill 262)==

Northeast of Chambois, an elongated, wooded ridge runs north–south above the village of Coudehard.<ref name=McGilvray46>McGilvray, p. 46</ref><ref name=Bercuson230>Bercuson, p. 230</ref>
The ridge has a peak at each end—Points 262 North (262N) and 262 South (262S)—and in the pass between the peaks lies the hamlet of [[Mont-Ormel|Mont Ormel]], from which the ridge takes its name.{{#tag:ref|Reynolds implies that only Point 262N is referred to as Mont Ormel,<ref name=Reynolds2001273 /> although other sources give this name to the entire ridge.<ref name=Copp2003243 /><ref name=McGilvray41 />|group=nb}} A road runs through the pass east from Chambois, heading for [[Vimoutiers]] and the River Seine.<ref name=McGilvray46 /><ref name=Stacey262>Stacey, p. 262</ref> Historian Michael Reynolds describes Point 262N as offering "spectacular views over much of the Falaise Pocket".<ref name=Reynolds2001273>Reynolds (2001), p. 273</ref> Viewing the feature on an Allied map, Maczek commented that it resembled a caveman's club with two bulbous heads; the Poles nicknamed it the ''Maczuga'', [[Polish language|Polish]] for "mace".<ref name=Stacey262 /><ref name="Dallas158">Dallas, p. 158</ref> The ridge, known to the Allies as Hill 262,<ref name=McGilvray41>McGilvray, p. 41</ref> formed a crucial blocking position for sealing the Falaise Pocket and preventing any outside attempts to relieve the [[German Seventh Army]].<ref name=Bercuson230 />

===19 August===

During the afternoon of 19 August, Lieutenant-Colonel Zgorzelski's battlegroup (the 1st Armoured Regiment, the 9th Infantry Battalion, and a company of anti-tank guns) made a thrust towards Coudehard and the Mont Ormel ridge.<ref name=Reynolds2001273 /> Point 137, near Coudehard, fell just after 15:30, yielding a large haul of prisoners.{{#tag:ref|This group of captives was subsequently handed over to the Americans in Chambois.<ref name=Copp2003244 />|group=nb}}<ref name=Copp2003244>Copp (2003), p. 244</ref> Other elements of the battlegroup established themselves on the ridge's northern peak, where they also took captives before proceeding to shell a mixed column of tanks and other vehicles moving through the pass along the Chambois–Vimoutiers road. The Germans, despite being "shocked" to discover that Point 262N was now in Polish hands,<ref name=McGilvray46>McGilvray, p. 46</ref> quickly responded with a bombardment from [[21 cm Nebelwerfer 42|rocket-launchers]] and anti-tank guns. The Poles counterattacked, and more Germans including wounded were taken prisoner.<ref name=McGilvray4647>McGilvray, pp. 46–47</ref> These were moved to a hunting lodge (the ''Zameczek'') on the ridge's northern slope.<ref name=McGilvray47 />

At around 17:00 Lieutenant-Colonel Koszutski's battlegroup arrived, consisting of the 2nd Armoured Regiment and the 8th Infantry Battalion. The Podhalian Rifle Brigade and elements of the 9th Infantry Battalion reached the ridge at 19:30.<ref name=McGilvray47 /> The rest of the 9th Infantry Battlion, and the anti-tank company, had remained around Coudehard Boisjos {{convert|2|km|mi}} north of Coudehard, but the bulk of two battlegroups—some 80 tanks, 20 anti-tank guns, and around 1500 infantrymen<ref name=Reynolds200287 />—was now concentrated on and around Point 262N. However, the Poles did not occupy Point 262S.<ref name=Reynolds2001273274 /> Although Lieutenant-Colonel Zdzisław Szydlowski, commanding the 9th Infantry Battalion, was given orders to take the southern peak, with darkness falling and thick smoke from the burning German column obscuring the battlefield, this was deemed too hazardous to attempt before next light.<ref name=McGilvray48>McGilvray, p. 48</ref> The Poles spent the night fortifying Point 262N and entrenching the southern, southwestern, and northeastern approaches to their positions.<ref name=Reynolds2001273 /><ref name="deste 456">D'Este, p. 456</ref>

===20 August===
Of the approximately 20 German infantry and armoured divisions trapped in the Falaise pocket, around 12 were still operating with a degree of combat-effectiveness.{{#tag:ref|McGilvray identifies these as the 3rd Parachute, 84th, 276th, 277th, 326th, 353rd and 363rd Infantry Divisions, and the 2nd, 116th, 1st SS, 10th SS, and 12th SS Panzer Divisions.<ref name=McGilvray41 />|group=nb}} As these formations retreated eastwards, they fought desperately to keep the jaws of the encirclement—formed by the Canadians in St. Lambert and the Poles and Americans in Chambois—from closing. German movement out of the pocket throughout the night of 19 August cut off the Polish battlegroups on Mont Ormel ridge.<ref name=Stacey262 /> On discovering this, Lieutenant-Colonel Aleksander Stefanowicz, in command of the Polish 1st Armoured Regiment, conferred with Koszutski. Lacking sufficient means to either seal the pocket or fight their way clear, the two decided that their forces' only chance of survival lay in holding fast until relieved.<ref name=McGilvray47 /> Although the Polish soldiers on Point 262N could hear movement from the valley below, other than some mortar rounds that landed among the positions of the 8th Infantry Battalion the night passed uneventfully.<ref name=McGilvray48 /> Without possession of Point 262S, the Poles were unable to interfere with the large numbers of German troops slipping past the southern slopes of the ridge.<ref name=Reynolds2742001 /> The uneven, wooded terrain, interspersed with thick hedgerows, made control of the ground to the west and southwest difficult by day, and impossible by night,<ref name=Reynolds2001273274>Reynolds (2001), pp. 273–274</ref> so as it grew light on 20 August Szydlowski prepared to fulfil his orders of the previous night and organised two companies of his 9th Infantry Battalion, supported by the 1st Armoured Regiment, for an attack across the road towards Point 262S. The going, however, proved difficult in the face of fierce German resistance and the wreckage littering the pass.<ref name=McGilvray48 />

The Poles' possession of around {{convert|2|km2|sqmi}} of commanding terrain, overlooking Seventh Army's only route out of Normandy, was a serious impediment to the German retreat.<ref name=Reynolds2742001>Reynolds (2001), p. 274</ref> Field Marshal [[Walther Model]], who on succeeding von Kluge two days earlier had authorised a general withdrawal,<ref name=Hastings303>Hastings (2006), p. 303</ref> was well aware of the need to remove the "cork"<ref name=McGilvray47>McGilvray, p. 47</ref> from the bottle containing Seventh Army. He ordered elements of the [[2nd SS Panzer Division Das Reich]] and the [[9th SS Panzer Division Hohenstaufen]]—located outside the pocket—to attack Hill 262.<ref name="Jarymowycz195"> Jarymowycz, p. 195</ref><ref name=Hastings304>Hastings (2006), p. 304</ref> At 09:00 the 8th Infantry Battlion's positions around the ''Zameczek'' to the north and northeast of point 262N were assaulted, and it was not until 10:30 that the Germans were driven back. In the heavy fighting, a number of the 1st Armoured Regiment's supply lorries were destroyed.<ref name=McGilvray50 /> From within the pocket, German formations seeking an escape route were filtering through a gap in the Allied lines between Trun and Chambois,{{#tag:ref|According to Reynolds, a shallow stretch of the Dives between Magny and Moissy, approximately {{convert|5|km|mi}} long, was still passable; the river could be waded in this area, although it was under indirect fire.<ref name=Reynolds200287>Reynolds (2002), p. 87</ref>|group=nb}} heading towards the ridge from the west. The Poles could see the road from Chambois choked with German troops and vehicles attempting to pass along the Dives valley.<ref name=McGilvray47 /> A number of columns moving down from the northeast that included tanks and self-propelled artillery were subjected to an hour-long bombardment from the 1st Armoured Regiment's 3rd Squadron, breaking them up and scattering their infantry.<ref name=McGilvray50>McGilvray, p. 50</ref>

[[Image:Falaise Pocket German Counterattack.png|thumb|left|German counterattacks against Canadian and Polish positions on 20 August 1944.]]

Having spotted German tank movements towards a nearby height, Point 239, an attack was planned to take this feature and provide a buffer for the Poles' northern positions around the ''Zameczek''. However, the 2nd Armoured Regiment's 2nd Squadron, tasked with capturing Point 239, was unable to disengage.<ref name=McGilvray50 /> Sometime after 11:00{{#tag:ref|The times given for this are variously: after 09:00 (Reynolds (2002)<ref name=Reynolds200287 />); after 15:00 (Reynolds (2001)<ref name=Reynolds2001279 />); and 11:00 (McGilvray). McGilvray also credits a 75mm or 88mm anti-tank gun, rather than a Panther tank.<ref name=McGilvray51 /> However, the sources agree that five Shermans were destroyed from the direction of Point 239.|group=nb}} a [[Panther tank]] of the 2nd SS Panzer Division worked its way onto the height and, at a range of {{convert|1400|m|yd}}, picked off five [[M4 Sherman|Shermans]] of the 1st Armoured Regiment's 3rd Squadron.<ref name=Reynolds200287 /><ref name=Reynolds2001279>Reynolds (2001), p. 279</ref><ref name=McGilvray51>McGilvray, p. 51</ref> The survivors were forced to change position, although they later lost another tank to fire from the north.<ref name=McGilvray51 />

Around midday the Germans opened up an artillery and mortar barrage that caused casualties among the ridge's defenders, and would last for the entire afternoon.<ref name=McGilvray51 /> At about the same time, [[Kampfgruppe Weidinger]] seized an important road junction northeast of Coudehard.<ref name=Reynolds200287 /> Several units of the [[10th SS Panzer Division Frundsberg|10th SS]], [[12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend|12th SS]], and [[116th Panzer Division|116th]] Panzer Divisions managed to clear a corridor past Point 262N, and by mid afternoon about 10,000 German troops had passed out of the pocket.<ref name="Van-Der-Vat 168" />

A battalion of the [[3rd Parachute Division (Germany)|3rd Parachute Division]], along with an armoured regiment of the [[1st SS Panzer Division]], now joined the assault.<ref name="Van-Der-Vat 168"> Van Der Vat, p. 168</ref> At 14:00 the 8th Infantry Battalion on the ridge's northern slopes once more came under attack. Although the infantry and armour closing in on the Polish positions were eventually repulsed, with a large number of prisoners being taken and artillery again causing significant casualties,<ref name=McGilvray51 /><ref name="Van-Der-Vat 168" /> the Poles were being gradually pushed back.<ref name="D'Este 458" /> However, they managed to retain their grip on Point 262N, and with well-coordinated artillery fire continued to exact a deadly toll on German units traversing the corridor.<ref name="D'Este 458"> D'Este, p. 458</ref> Another attempt was made to organise an attack towards Point 239, but the Germans were ready and the 9th Infantry Battalion's 3rd Company was driven back with heavy losses.<ref name=McGilvray53>McGilvray, p. 53</ref>

Exasperated by the casualties to his men, Seventh Army commander ''[[Oberstgruppenführer]]'' [[Paul Hausser]] ordered the Polish positions to be "eliminated".<ref name="Van-Der-Vat 168">Van Der Vat, p. 168</ref> At 15:00,<ref name=McGilvray53 /> substantial forces, including remnants of the [[352nd Infantry Division (Germany)|352nd Infantry Division]] and several battle groups from the 2nd SS Panzer Division, inflicted heavy casualties on the 8th and 9th Infantry Battalions.<ref name="D'Este 458" /> By 17:00 the attack was at its height and the Poles were contending with German tanks and infantry inside their perimeter.<ref name=McGilvray53 /> The integrity of the position was not restored until 19:00,<ref name=Reynolds20028788>Reynolds (2002), p. 87–88</ref> by which time the Poles had expended almost all their ammunition, leaving themselves in a precarious situation.<ref name="D'Este 458" />

Earlier in the day, Simonds had ordered his troops to "make every effort" to reach the forces on Hill 262.<ref name=Stacey263>Stacey, p. 263</ref> At a "sacrificial" cost, the surviving remnants of the 9th SS Panzer and 3rd Parachute Divisions had succeeded in preventing the Canadians from intervening.<ref name=Hastings1999356>Hastings (1999), p. 356</ref><ref name="Jarymowycz196">Jarymowycz, p. 196</ref> Dangerously low on supplies and unable to evacuate their prisoners or the wounded of both sides—many of whom had received further injuries from the unremitting hail of mortar bombs—by the evening the Poles had hoped to see the Canadian 4th Armoured Division coming to their rescue. However, it became clear that no Allied relief force would reach the ridge that day.<ref name=McGilvray5153>McGilvray, pp. 51–53</ref> Lacking the means to interfere, the exhausted Poles were forced to watch as the remnants of the [[XLVII Panzer Corps (Germany)|XLVII Panzer Corps]] left the pocket. Fighting died down as night fell and was sporadic throughout the hours of darkness; after the brutality of the day's combat, both sides avoided contact. However, frequent Polish artillery strikes continued to harass German forces retreating from the sector.<ref name="D'Este 458" /> Stefanowicz was doubtful of his force's survival, and addressed his men: {{quote|Gentlemen. Everything is lost. I do not believe [the] Canadians will manage to help us. We have only 110 men left, with 50 rounds per gun and 5 rounds per tank… Fight to the end! To surrender to the SS is senseless, you know it well. Gentlemen! Good luck – tonight, we will die for Poland and civilization. We will fight to the last platoon, to the last tank, then to the last man.<ref name="Jarymowycz 201">Jarymowycz, p. 201</ref>}}

===21 August===

The next morning, despite poor flying weather, an effort was made to air-drop ammunition to Stefanowicz's men.<ref name=Stacey264>Stacey, p. 264</ref> Learning that the Canadians had resumed their push to reach the ridge and were making for Point 239, at 07:00 a platoon of the 1st Armoured Regiment's 3rd Squadron reconnoitred the German positions below the ''Zameczek''.<ref name=McGilvray53 />

Further German attacks were launched during the morning, both from inside the pocket along the Chambois–Vimoutiers road, and from the east. Raids from the direction of Coudehard managed to penetrate the Polish defences and take captives. The final German effort was launched at around 11:00 by SS remnants who had infiltrated through the wooded hills to the rear of the 1st Armoured Regiment's dressing station. This "suicidal" assault was defeated at point-blank range by the 9th Infantry Battalion, with the 1st Armoured's tanks using their anti-aircraft machine guns in support.<ref name=McGilvray54 /><ref name=Bercuson232>Bercuson, p. 232</ref>

The Polish 1st Armoured Division's reconnaissance regiment, moving up from Chambois, made an attempt to reach Hill 262 but was mistakenly fired upon by the ridge's defenders. The regiment withdrew after losing two [[Cromwell tank|Cromwell]] tanks.<ref name=Reynolds2001280>Reynolds (2001), p. 280</ref> At 12:00 a Polish forward patrol encountered the Canadian vanguard around {{convert|3|km|mi}} north of Point 262N, near Point 239.<ref name=McGilvray54 /> The [[Canadian Grenadier Guards]] reached the ridge just over an hour later, having fought for more than five hours and accounted for two Panthers, a Panzer IV, and two [[self-propelled gun]]s along their route.<ref name=Reynolds2001280 /> By 14:00, with the arrival of the first supply convoy, the position was relieved.<ref name=McGilvray54 />

== Aftermath ==
[[Image:Mont-Ormel-Scrap.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Wrecked vehicles are strewn across a field.|German equipment destroyed near Mont Ormel]]

The Falaise pocket was finally considered closed by evening of 21 August.<ref name=Hastings313 /> Tanks of the Canadian 4th Armoured Division had linked up with the Polish forces in Coudehard, and the Canadian 3rd and 4th Infantry Divisions had fully secured St. Lambert and the northern passage to Chambois.<ref name=Hastings313>Hastings (2006), p. 313</ref>

Reynolds and McGilvray place the Polish losses on the ''Maczuga'' at 351 killed and wounded, and 11 tanks lost.<ref name=McGilvray54 /><ref name=Reynolds2001280 /> For the entire operation to close the Falaise pocket, Copp quotes from the 1st Polish Armoured Division's operational report, citing 1,441 casualties including 466 killed in action.<ref name=Copp2003249>Copp (2003), p. 249</ref> McGilvray estimates the German losses in their assaults on the ridge as around 500 dead with a further 1,000 taken prisoner, most of these from the 12th SS Panzer Division. He also records "scores" of [[Tiger I|Tiger]], Panther and Panzer IV tanks destroyed, as well as a significant quantity of artillery pieces.<ref name=McGilvray54>McGilvray, p. 54</ref>

Although some estimates state that up to 100,000 German troops, many of them wounded, may have succeeded in escaping the Allied encirclement, they left behind 40,000-50,000 prisoners and over 10,000 dead.<ref name=Williams204>Williams, p. 204</ref> According to military historian Gregor Dallas: "The Poles had closed the Falaise Pocket. The Poles had opened the gate to Paris."<ref>Dallas, p. 160</ref> Simonds stated that he had "never seen such wholesale havoc in his life", and Canadian engineers erected a sign on Mont Ormel's summit reading simply "A Polish Battlefield".<ref name=McGilvray54 /> On the 20th anniversary of the battle, former President [[Dwight D. Eisenhower]] commented: "No other battlefield presented such a horrible sight of death, hell, and total destruction."<ref name=guttman>{{cite web |first=Jon |last=Guttman |title=World War II: Closing the Falaise Pocket|url=http://www.historynet.com/world-war-ii-closing-the-falaise-pocket.htm/8|publisher=World War II magazine|year=2001 |month=September |accessdate= June 18, 2008}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{portalpar|World War II}}
;Footnotes
{{reflist|group=nb}}
;Citations
{{reflist|3}}

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
*{{cite book|first=David|last=Bercuson|coauthors=|authorlink=David Bercuson| title=Maple Leaf Against the Axis|publisher=Red Deer Press|year=2004|origyear=1996|isbn=0-88995-305-8}}
*{{cite book|first=Terry |last=Copp |title= Cinderella Army: The Canadians in Northwest Europe, 1944-1945 |publisher= University of Toronto Press |year= 2006 |isbn= 0802039251}}
*{{cite book| first=Terry|last=Copp|authorlink=Terry Copp| coauthors=| series=| title=Fields of Fire: The Canadians in Normandy|location=Toronto|publisher=University of Toronto Press| date=2004| origyear=2003| isbn=0-80203-780-1|oclc=56329119}}
*{{cite book | author = Dallas, Gregor | title = 1945: The War That Never Ended | publisher = Yale University Press | year = 2005 | isbn= 0-30010-980-6 }}
*{{cite book|first=Carlo|last=D'Este|authorlink=Carlo D'Este |title=Decision in Normandy|publisher= Konecky & Konecky |year=1983 |isbn=1-56852-260-6}}
*{{cite book| first=Max|last=Hastings|authorlink=Max Hastings| coauthors=| series=| title=Overlord: D-Day and the Battle for Normandy|publisher=Pan Books| year=1999| origyear=1984| isbn=0-330-39012-0}}
*{{cite book| first=Max|last=Hastings|authorlink=Max Hastings| coauthors=| series=| title=Overlord: D-Day and the Battle for Normandy|publisher=Vintage Books USA; Reprint edition| year=2006| origyear=1984| isbn=0-30727-571-X}}
*{{cite book| first=Roman |last=Jarymowycz |authorlink=Roman Jarymowycz |title= Tank Tactics; from Normandy to Lorraine |publisher= Lynne Rienner |year=2001 |isbn=1555879500}}
*{{cite book | author = McGilvray, E. | title = The Black Devil's March - A Doomed Odyssey: The 1st Polish Armoured Division 1939-1945 | publisher = Helion & Company Ltd | year = 2005 | isbn= 1-87462-242-6}}
*{{cite book|first=Brian|last=Reid|authorlink=Brian Reid (historian)|coauthors=|title=No Holding Back|publisher=Robin Brass Studio|year=2005|origyear=|isbn=1-896941-40-0}}
*{{cite book|first=Michael|last=Reynolds|authorlink=|coauthors=|title =Steel Inferno: I SS Panzer Corps in Normandy |publisher=Da Capo Press Inc|year=2001|origyear=1997|isbn=1-88511-944-5}}
*{{cite book| first=Michael|last=Reynolds|title=Sons of the Reich: The History of II SS Panzer Corps in Normandy, Arnhem, the Ardennes and on the Eastern Front|publisher=Casemate Publishers and Book Distributors|year= 2002 |isbn=0-97117-093-2}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.dnd.ca/dhh/collections/books/files/books/Victory_e.pdf|format=PDF|first=Colonel Charles Perry|last=Stacey|authorlink=|coauthors=Bond, Major C.C.J.|title=Official History of the Canadian Army in the Second World War: Volume III. The Victory Campaign: The operations in North-West Europe 1944-1945|publisher=The Queen's Printer and Controller of Stationery Ottawa|date=|origdate=1960|isbn=|accessdate=2008-08-20}}
*{{cite book| first=Dan|last=Van Der Vat Da |authorlink=Dan van der Vat|title=D-Day; The Greatest Invasion, A People's History |publisher=Madison Press Limited |year=2003 |isbn=1-55192-586-9}}
*{{cite book| author=Williams, Andrew |title=D-Day to Berlin |publisher= [[Hodder & Stoughton|Hodder]] |year= 2004 |isbn= 0340833971}}
</div>
{{Coord|48|50|31|N|0|9|29|E|type:landmark_region:FR|display=title}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Hill 262, Battle of}}
[[Category:Operation Overlord|Battle of Hill 262]]
[[Category:Military history of Normandy]]
[[Category:World War II operations and battles of Europe]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II]]
[[Category:Battles involving Germany|Battle of Hill 262]]
[[Category:Battles involving Poland|Battle of Hill 262]]

[[de:Mont Ormel]]
[[fr:Mont Ormel]]
[[pl:Bitwa o Mont Ormel]]

Danish straits

2009-11-01T21:28:13Z

Cyon: /* Etymology and general use of Sound / Sund */ link

{{Distinguish|Denmark Strait}}
[[Image:Belte_inter.png|thumb|upright=1.8|"Belts" and "Sounds" in Denmark and southwestern Baltic Sea]]
The '''Danish straits''' are the three channels connecting the [[Baltic sea]] to the [[North Sea]] through the [[Kattegat]] and [[Skagerrak]]. They transect [[Denmark]], and are not to be confused with the [[Denmark Strait]] between [[Greenland]] and [[Iceland]]. The three main passages are:

* [[Great Belt]], Danish: ''Storebælt''
* [[Little Belt]], Danish: ''Lillebælt''
* [[Oresund]], Danish: ''Øresund'' (Swedish: ''Öresund'')

By closer view there are five straits named Belt (Danish: Bælt), the only ones in the world, and several straits named Sound (Danish, Swedish, and German: Sund). Where an Island is situated between a Belt and a Sound, typically the broader strait is called Belt and the more narrow one is the Sound:

* [[Als Island|Als]]:
** separated from the continent by ''Alssund''
** separated from [[Fyn]] the southern part of the ''Little Belt'', an area referred to in German (but not Danish) as ''Alsenbelt''

* [[Fehmarn]]
** separated from the Continent by ''Fehmarnsund'', also ''Femersund''
** separated from [[Fyn]] by ''Fehmarnbelt'' (German) / ''Femerbelt'' ([[Low German|Platt]]) / ''Femernbælt'' (former spelling: Femer Bælt)
[[Image:oresund from helsingborg.jpg|thumb|The Øresund, seen from [[Helsingborg]]]]
* [[Langeland]]:
** separated from [[Tåsinge]] Island by ''Siø Sund'' (''Tåsinge'' itself is separated form ''Fyn'' by ''Svendborg Sund'')
** separated from ''Lolland'' by ''Langelandsbælt'', the southern part of ''Great Belt''

* [[Lolland]]:
** separated from [[Falster]] Island by ''Guldborgsund'' (''Falster'' itself is separated form ''Zealand'' by [[Storstrømmen]] Strait)
** separated from ''Langeland'' by ''Langelandsbælt''
** separated from ''Fehmarn'' by ''Femernbælt'', which is the common continuation of Great Belt–Langelandsbælt and Little Belt

* [[Zealand (Denmark)|Zealand]] (Danish: Sjælland)
** separated from [[Scandinavia]] Peninsula of the continent by ''[[Øresund]]'' (Danish) / ''Öresund'' (Swedish)
** separated from ''Fyn'' Island by the [[Great Belt]]

==Etymology and general use of Sound / Sund==
[[Image:Aldersund.jpg|thumb||thumb|The Aldersund in [[Helgeland]] in northern Norway divides Aldra Island (left hand) from the continent]]
The [[Germanic languages|Germanic]] word "sound" has the same root as the verb "to sonder" in the meaning of ''to separate''. In [[Swedish language]] any strait is called "Sund". In [[Norway]] hundreds of narrow straits separating islands and combining [[Fjords]] or outer parts of Fjords are named "Sund". Another explanation derives Sound from an ancient verb "sund" in the meaning of to swim. That way a ''sound'' is a ''swimmable strait''.

With the denomination of fjords and other bays in North America ([[Prince William Sound]]) and New Zealand the European meaning of the word has been left.

The Germanic word "sound" is not related to the [[Romance languages|Romance]] originated word "[[sound]]", which has developed from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''sonus''.

==See also==
* [[Kiel Canal]]

[[Category:Straits of Denmark|D]]
[[Category:Baltic Sea]]
[[Category:North Sea]]
[[Category:Articles lacking sources (Erik9bot)]]

[[cs:Dánské úžiny]]
[[de:Belte und Sunde]]
[[et:Taani väinad]]
[[es:Estrechos daneses]]
[[it:Stretti danesi]]
[[hu:Dán szorosok]]
[[pl:Cieśniny Duńskie]]
[[ru:Датские проливы]]
[[sr:Дански пролази]]
[[fi:Tanskan salmet]]
[[uk:Данські протоки]]

Adam Czerniaków

2009-10-16T08:01:00Z

Cyon: "ó"

[[File:Czerniakow.jpg|180 px|right|thumb|Adam Czerniaków (before 1939)]]'''Adam Czerniaków''' (30 November 1880 – July 23, 1942) was a [[List of Polish Jews|Polish-Jewish]] engineer and senator to the [[Second Polish Republic|Polish]] [[Sejm]] (for [[Nonpartisan Bloc for Cooperation with the Government]]), born in [[Warsaw]], [[Poland]]. He committed suicide in the [[Warsaw Ghetto]] on [[July 23]], [[1942]].

He studied engineering and taught in the Jewish community's vocational school in Warsaw. From 1927 to 1934 he served as a member of the Warsaw Municipal Council, and in 1931 he was elected to the [[Senate of the Republic of Poland|Polish Senate]]. On [[October 4]], [[1939]], a few days after the city's surrender to the [[Nazi Germany|Nazi]]s, Czerniaków was made head of the 24 member [[Judenrat]], (''Jewish Council'') responsible for implementing [[Germany|German]] orders in the Jewish community.

German forces began preparing for mass deportations from the [[Warsaw Ghetto]] to the [[Treblinka extermination camp]] in July 1942 and the Jewish Council was ordered to provide lists of Jews and maps of residences. On [[July 22]], [[1942]], the Judenrat received instructions that all Warsaw Jews were to be deported to the East. Exceptions were made for Jews working in German factories, Jewish hospital staff, members of the Judenrat with their families, members of the [[Jewish Ghetto Police]] with their families. Over the course of the day, Czerniaków was able to obtain exemptions for a handful of individuals, including sanitation workers, husbands of women working factories, and some vocational students. He was not, however, despite all his pleading, able to obtain an exemption for orphans from the [[Janusz Korczak]]'s orphanage. The orders further stated that the deportations would begin immediately at the rate of 6,000 people per day, to be supplied by the Judenrat and rounded up by the Jewish Ghetto Police. Failure to comply would result in immediate execution of some one hundred hostages, including employees of the Judenrat and Czerniaków's own wife.

Realizing that deportation meant death, Czerniaków went to plead for the orphans. When he failed, he returned to his office and took one of the [[cyanide]] capsules he had been keeping for just such an occasion. He left a suicide note to his wife, reading “They demand me to kill children of my nation with my own hands. I have nothing to do but to die,” and one to his fellow members of the Judenrat, explaining: "I can no longer bear all this. My act will prove to everyone what is the right thing to do."

Czerniaków kept a diary from [[September 6]], [[1939]], until the day of his death. It was published in 1979 and has been translated into English. Adam Czerniaków is interred in the [http://www.cemetery.jewish.org.pl/ Okopowa street cemetery] in [[Warsaw]].

In the 2001 [[Warner Bros.]] motion picture, ''[[Uprising (film)|Uprising]]'', actor [[Donald Sutherland]] portrayed Adam Czerniaków.

== See also ==
* [[Chaim Rumkowski]].

== References ==
* Raul Hilberg, ''The Warsaw Diary of Adam Czerniakow: Prelude to Doom'', Ivan R. Dee, Publisher, 1999, ISBN 1566632307.

== External links ==
* [http://www.diapozytyw.pl/en/site/ludzie/adam_czerniakow Czerniaków's Biography]

{{Holocaust Poland}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Czerniaków, Adam}}
[[Category:1880 births]]
[[Category:1942 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Warsaw]]
[[Category:Polish Jews]]
[[Category:Jewish Polish history]]
[[Category:Polish politicians who committed suicide]]
[[Category:Suicides by poison]]
[[Category:Suicides in Poland]]

[[de:Adam Czerniaków]]
[[es:Adam Czerniaków]]
[[fr:Adam Czerniaków]]
[[he:אדם צ'רניאקוב]]
[[ja:アダム・チェルニャクフ]]
[[pl:Adam Czerniaków]]
[[pt:Adam Czerniakow]]
[[ru:Черняков, Адам]]
[[fi:Adam Czerniaków]]
[[yi:אדאם טשערניאקאוו]]

Soviet Union

2009-10-15T09:20:45Z

Cyon: the boundaries shown on the map are post-WWII

{{Otheruses4|the socialist state|the ship with this name|SS Albert Ballin}}
{{Redirect4|USSR|CCCP}}

{{infobox Former Country
|native_name = Союз Советских Социалистических Республик ''Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik''
|conventional_long_name = Union of Soviet Socialist Republics [[Official names of the Soviet Union|Other names]]
|common_name = Soviet Union
|continent = Eurasia
|status = Federation
|government_type = [[Federal system|Federal]] [[socialist republic]], [[Single-party]] [[communist state]]
|year_start = 1922
|year_end = 1991
|date_start = December 30
|date_end = December 26, 19911
|p1 = Russian SFSR
|flag_p1 = Flag RSFSR 1918.svg
|p2 = Transcaucasian SFSR
|flag_p2 = Flag of Transcaucasian SFSR.svg
|p3 = Ukrainian SSR
|flag_p3 = Flag of the Ukrainian SSR (1927-1937).svg
|p4 = Byelorussian SSR
|flag_p4 = Flag of the Byelorussian SSR (1919).svg
|p5 = Tuvan People's Republic
|flag_p5 = Tannu-Tuva-1933-1941.PNG
|p6 = Kresy
|flag_p6 = Flag of Poland.svg
|p7 = Bessarabia
|flag_p7 = Flag of Romania.svg
|p8 = Finnish Karelia
|flag_p8= Flag of Finland.svg
|p9 = Carpathian Ruthenia
|flag_p9 = Flag of Czechoslovakia.svg
|p10 = Estonia{{!}}Estonia3
|flag_p10 = Flag of Estonia.svg
|p11 = Latvia{{!}}Latvia3
|flag_p11 = Flag of Latvia.svg
|p12 = Lithuania{{!}}Lithuania3
|flag_p12 = Flag of Lithuania 1918-1940.svg
|s1 = Russia
|flag_s1 = Flag of Russia 1991-1993.svg
|s2 = Belarus
|flag_s2 = Flag of Belarus (1991-1995).svg
|s3 = Ukraine
|flag_s3 = Flag of Ukraine.svg
|s4 = Moldova
|flag_s4 = Flag of Moldova.svg
|s5 = Georgia (country){{!}}Georgia
|flag_s5 = Flag of Georgia (1990-2004).svg
|s6 = Armenia
|flag_s6 = Flag of Armenia.svg
|s7 = Azerbaijan
|flag_s7 = Flag of Azerbaijan.svg
|s8 = Kazakhstan
|flag_s8 = Flag_of_Kazakhstan.svg
|s9 = Uzbekistan
|flag_s9 = Flag of Uzbekistan.svg
|s10 = Turkmenistan
|flag_s10 = Flag_of_Turkmenistan_1992.png
|s11 = Kyrgyzstan
|flag_s11 = Flag of Kyrgyz SSR.svg
|s12 = Tajikistan
|flag_s12 = Flag of Tajik SSR.svg
|s13 = Estonia{{!}}Estonia3
|flag_s13 = Flag of Estonia.svg
|s14 = Lithuania{{!}}Lithuania3
|flag_s14 = Flag of Lithuania 1989-2004.svg
|s15 = Latvia{{!}}Latvia3
|flag_s15 = Flag of Latvia.svg
|s16 = South Ossetia
|flag_s16 = Flag of South Ossetia.svg
|s17 = Abkhazia
|flag_s17 = Flag of Abkhazia.svg
|
|
|image_flag = Flag of the Soviet Union.svg
|flag = Flag of the Soviet Union
|image_coat = Coat_of_arms_of_the_Soviet_Union.svg
|symbol = Coat of arms of the Soviet Union
|image_map = Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (orthographic projection).svg
|image_map_size = 220px
|image_map_caption = The Soviet Union after [[World War II]]
|capital = Moscow
|latd=55 |latm=45 |latNS=N |longd=37 |longm=38 |longEW=E
|national_motto = Пролетарии всех стран, соединяйтесь! ([[Romanization of Russian|Translit.]]: ''Proletarii vsekh stran, soyedinyaytes'!'') [[English language|English]]: [[Workers of the world, unite!]]
|national_anthem = ''[[The Internationale]]'' (1922–1944) ''[[Hymn of the Soviet Union]]'' (1944–1991)
|common_languages = [[russian language|Russian]], [[Demographics of the Soviet Union|many others]]
|demonym = Soviet
|currency = [[Soviet ruble|Ruble]] (SUR)

|leader1 = Joseph Stalin
|leader2 = Mikhail Gorbachev
|year_leader1 = 1922–1953 (first)
|year_leader2 = 1985–1991 (last)
|title_leader = [[List of leaders of the Soviet Union|General Secretary]]
|title_deputy = [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Premier]]
|deputy1 = Vladimir Lenin
|year_deputy1 = 1923–1924 (first)
|deputy2 = Ivan Silayev
|year_deputy2 = 1991 (last)
|stat_year1 = 1991
|stat_area1 = 22402200
|stat_pop1 = 293047571
|footnotes =
1On December 21, 1991, eleven of the former socialist republics declared in [[Alma-Ata]] (with the twelfth republic – [[Georgian SSR|Georgia]] – attending as an observer) that with the formation of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics ceases to exist. 
2Assigned on September 19, 1990, existing onwards. 
3The governments of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania view themselves as continuous and unrelated to the respective Soviet republics. Russia views the Estonian, Latvian, and Lithuanian SSRs as legal constituent republics of the USSR and predecessors of the modern Baltic states. The Government of the [[United States]] and [[Soviet occupation of Baltic states#De jure non-recognition|a number of other countries]] did not recognize the legal inclusion of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania in the USSR.
|utc_offset = +2 to +13
|cctld = [[.su]]2
|calling_code = 7
}}

{{Redirect6|Soviet|the term itself|Soviet (council)}}
{{pp-semi|small=yes}}
The '''Union of Soviet Socialist Republics''' ('''USSR''') was a [[Constitution of the Soviet Union|constitutionally]] [[socialist state]] that existed in [[Eurasia]] from 1922 to 1991. The name is a translation of the {{audio-ru|Союз Советских Социалистических Республик|Ru-CCCP.ogg}}, [[romanization of Russian|tr.]] ''Soyuz Sovetskikh Sotsialisticheskikh Respublik'', abbreviated СССР, ''SSSR''. The common short name is '''Soviet Union''',<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105999/Union-of-Soviet-Socialist-Republics Union of Soviet Socialist Republics]. ''[[Britannica]]''.</ref> from {{lang|ru|Советский Союз}}, ''Sovetskiy Soyuz''. A ''[[soviet (council)|soviet]]'' is a council, the theoretical basis for the [[socialist]] society of the USSR.

Emerging from the [[Russian Empire]] following the [[Russian Revolution of 1917]] and the [[Russian Civil War]] of 1918–1921, the USSR was a union of several [[Republics of the Soviet Union|Soviet republics]], but the [[synecdoche]] ''Russia''—after the ''[[Russian SFSR]]'', its largest and most populous [[constituent state]]—continued to be commonly used throughout the country's existence. The geographic boundaries of the USSR varied with time, but after the last major territorial annexations of the [[Baltic states]], [[Polish areas annexed by the Soviet Union|eastern Poland]], [[Bessarabia]], and certain other territories during [[World War II]], from 1945 until dissolution, the boundaries approximately corresponded to those of late [[Imperial Russia]], with the notable exclusions of [[Poland]] and [[Finland]].

As the largest and oldest constitutionally [[communist state]] in existence, the Soviet Union became the primary model for future communist nations during the [[Cold War]]; the government and the political organization of the country were defined by the only political party, the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]].

From 1945 until [[History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991)#Dissolution of the USSR|dissolution]] in 1991—a period known as the Cold War—the Soviet Union and the [[United States|United States of America]] were the two world [[superpower]]s that dominated the global agenda of [[economic policy]], [[International relations|foreign affairs]], [[military operation]]s, cultural exchange, scientific advancements including the pioneering of [[space exploration]], and sports (including the [[Olympic Games]] and various [[world championship]]s).

Initially established as a union of four Soviet Socialist Republics, the USSR grew to contain 15 constituent or "union republics" by 1956: [[Armenian Soviet Socialist Republic|Armenian SSR]], [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijan SSR]], [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]], [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonian SSR]], [[Georgian Soviet Socialist Republic|Georgian SSR]], [[Kazakh Soviet Socialist Republic|Kazakh SSR]], [[Kirghiz Soviet Socialist Republic|Kirghiz SSR]], [[Latvian Soviet Socialist Republic|Latvian SSR]], [[Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic|Lithuanian SSR]], [[Moldavian Soviet Socialist Republic|Moldavian SSR]], [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], [[Tajik Soviet Socialist Republic|Tajik SSR]], [[Turkmen Soviet Socialist Republic|Turkmen SSR]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]] and [[Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic|Uzbek SSR]]. (From annexation of the [[Estonian Soviet Socialist Republic|Estonian SSR]] on August 6, 1940 up to the reorganization of the [[Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic|Karelo-Finnish SSR]] into the [[Karelian ASSR]] on July 16, 1956, the count of "union republics" was sixteen.)

The [[Russian Federation]] is the [[Succession of states|successor state]] to the USSR. Russia is the leading member of the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]].

==History==
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union}}
The Soviet Union is traditionally considered to be the [[successor state|successor]] of the [[Russian Empire]] and of its short-lived successor, [[Russian Provisional Government|The Provisional Government]] under [[Georgy Yevgenyevich Lvov]] and then [[Alexander Kerensky]]. The last Russian [[Tsar]], [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]], ruled until March, 1917 when the Empire was overthrown and a short-lived [[Russian provisional government]] took power, the latter to be overthrown in November 1917 by [[Vladimir Lenin]].

From 1917 to 1922, the predecessor to the Soviet Union was the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic]] (RSFSR), which was an independent country, as were other Soviet republics at the time. The Soviet Union was officially established in December 1922 as the union of the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian]] (colloquially known as [[Bolshevist Russia]]), [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian]], [[Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic|Belarusian]], and [[Transcaucasian SFSR|Transcaucasian]] Soviet republics ruled by [[Bolshevik]] parties.

===Revolution and the foundation of a Soviet state===
{{Main|History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917-1927)|Russian Revolution (1917)|February Revolution|Russian Provisional Government|October Revolution|Russian Civil War}}
Modern revolutionary activity in the Russian Empire began with the [[Decembrist Revolt]] of 1825, and although [[Russian serfdom|serfdom]] was abolished in 1861, its abolition was achieved on terms unfavorable to the peasants and served to encourage revolutionaries. A parliament—the [[State Duma]]—was established in 1906 after the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]], but the Tsar resisted attempts to move from [[Absolute monarchy|absolute]] to [[constitutional monarchy]]. [[Social unrest]] continued and was aggravated during [[World War I]] by military defeat and food shortages in major cities.
[[Image:Lenin-Trotsky 1920-05-20 Sverdlov Square (original).jpg|thumb|left|[[Vladimir Lenin]] addressing a crowd in 1920.]]

A spontaneous popular uprising in [[Saint Petersburg|Petrograd]], in response to the wartime decay of Russia's economy and morale, culminated in the "[[February Revolution]]" and the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|toppling of the imperial government in March 1917]]. The [[tsarist autocracy]] was replaced by the [[Russian Provisional Government|Provisional Government]], whose leaders intended to conduct elections to [[Russian Constituent Assembly]] and to continue participating on the side of the [[Allies of World War I|Entente]] in World War I.

At the same time, to ensure the rights of the [[working class]], workers' councils, known as [[soviet (council)|Soviets]], sprang up across the country. The [[Bolshevik]]s, led by [[Vladimir Lenin]], pushed for [[Communist revolution|socialist revolution]] in the Soviets and on the streets. In November 1917, during the "[[October Revolution]]," they seized power from the Provisional Government. In December, the Bolsheviks signed an [[armistice]] with the [[Central Powers]]. But, by February 1918, fighting had resumed. In March, the Soviets quit the war for good and signed the [[Treaty of Brest-Litovsk]].

Only after the long and bloody [[Russian Civil War]] was the new Soviet power secure. The civil war between the [[Red Army|Reds]] and the [[White movement|Whites]] started in 1917 and ended in 1923. It included [[Allied intervention in the Russian Civil War|foreign intervention]] and the execution of [[Nicholas II of Russia#Final Months and Death|Nicholas II and his family]]. In March 1921, during [[Polish-Soviet War|a related conflict with Poland]], the [[Peace of Riga]] was signed and split disputed territories in [[Belarus]] and [[Ukraine]] between the [[Second Polish Republic|Republic of Poland]] and Soviet Russia. The Soviet Union had to resolve similar conflicts with the newly established [[Finland's Declaration of Independence|Republic of Finland]], the [[Estonian War of Independence|Republic of Estonia]], the [[Latvian-Soviet War|Republic of Latvia]], and the [[Lithuanian–Soviet War|Republic of Lithuania]].

===Early relationship with Nationalist China===
The [[Qing Dynasty]], the last of the ruling Chinese dynasties, collapsed in 1911 and China was left under the control of several major and lesser warlords during the "[[Warlord era]]." To defeat these warlords, who had seized control of much of [[Northern China]], the anti-[[Monarchism|monarchist]] and [[Nationalism|national unificationist]] [[Kuomintang]] (KMT) party and the [[president of the Republic of China|President]] of the [[History of the Republic of China|Republic of China]], [[Sun Yat-sen]], sought the help of foreign powers.

However, Sun's efforts to obtain aid from the [[Western world|Western democracies]] were ignored. In 1921, Sun turned to the Soviet Union. For political expediency, the Soviet leadership initiated a dual policy of support for both the KMT and the newly established [[Communist Party of China]] (CPC). The USSR hoped for Communist consolidation, but were prepared for either side to emerge victorious. Thus the [[Chinese Civil War|struggle for power in China]] began between the KMT and the CPC. In 1923, a joint statement by Sun and Soviet representative [[Adolph Joffe]] in [[Shanghai]] pledged Soviet assistance for China's unification.

===Unification of the Soviet Republics===
On December 28, 1922 a conference of plenipotentiary delegations from the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], the [[Transcaucasian SFSR]], the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]] and the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian SSR]] approved the [[Treaty of Creation of the USSR]]<ref>Richard Sakwa ''The Rise and Fall of the Soviet Union, 1917-1991: 1917-1991''. Routledge, 1999. ISBN 0415122902, 9780415122900. pp. 140–143.</ref> and the Declaration of the Creation of the USSR, forming the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.<ref>Julian Towster. ''Political Power in the U.S.S.R., 1917-1947: The Theory and Structure of Government in the Soviet State'' Oxford Univ. Press, 1948. p. 106.</ref> These two documents were confirmed by the 1st [[Congress of Soviets]] of the USSR and signed by heads of delegations<ref>{{ru icon}} [http://region.adm.nov.ru/pressa.nsf/0c7534916fcf6028c3256b3700243eac/4302e4941fb6a6bfc3256c99004faea5!OpenDocument Voted Unanimously for the Union.]</ref> – [[Mikhail Kalinin]], Mikha Tskhakaya, [[Mikhail Frunze]] and [[Grigory Petrovsky]], [[Aleksandr Chervyakov]]<ref>{{ru icon}} [http://www.hronos.km.ru/sobyt/cccp.html Creation of the USSR] at Khronos.ru.</ref> respectively on December 30, 1922.

On February 1, 1924, the USSR was recognized by the [[British Empire]]. Also in 1924, a [[1924 Soviet Constitution|Soviet Constitution]] was approved which further legitimized the December 1922 union of the Russian SFSR, the Ukrainian SSR, the Belarusian SSR, and the Transcaucasian SFSR to form the "Union of Soviet Socialist Republics" (USSR).

The intensive restructuring of the economy, industry and politics of the country began in the early days of Soviet power in 1917. A large part of this was performed according to [[Bolshevik Initial Decrees]], documents of the Soviet government, signed by Vladimir Lenin. One of the most prominent breakthroughs was the [[GOELRO plan]], that envisioned a major restructuring of the Soviet economy based on total electrification of the country. The Plan was developed in 1920 and covered a ten to 15 year period. It included construction of a network of 30 regional [[power plants]], including ten large [[hydroelectric power plant]]s, and numerous electric-powered large industrial enterprises.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.springerlink.com/content/h3677572g016338u/|title=70 Years of Gidroproekt and Hydroelectric Power in Russia}}</ref> The Plan became the prototype for subsequent [[Five-Year Plan (USSR)|Five-Year Plans]] and was basically fulfilled by 1931.<ref name="Kuzbassenergo">{{ru icon}} [http://www.kuzbassenergo.ru/goelro/ On GOELRO Plan — at Kuzbassenergo.]</ref>

===Stalin's rule===
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)}}
[[Image:Savior1.jpg|thumb|200px|upright|The [[Cathedral of Christ the Saviour]] in [[Moscow]] during its 1931 demolition. Organized religion was suppressed in the Soviet Union.]]
From its beginning years, government in the Soviet Union was based on the [[Single-party state|one-party rule]] of the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Communist Party (Bolsheviks)]].<ref>The consolidation into a single-party regime took place during the first three and a half years after the revolution, which included the period of [[War Communism]] and an election in which multiple parties competed. See Leonard Schapiro, ''The Origin of the Communist Autocracy: Political Opposition in the Soviet State, First Phase 1917–1922.'' Cambridge, MA: [[Harvard University Press]], 1955, 1966.</ref> After the economic policy of [[War Communism]] during the Civil War, the Soviet government permitted some private enterprise to coexist with nationalized industry in the 1920s and total food requisition in the countryside was replaced by a food tax (''see'' [[New Economic Policy]]).

Soviet leaders argued that one party rule was necessary because it ensured that 'capitalist exploitation' would not return to the Soviet Union and that the principles of [[Democratic Centralism]] would represent the people's will. Debate over the future of the economy provided the background for Soviet leaders to contend for power in the years after Lenin's death in 1924. Initially, Lenin [[Lenin's Testament|was to be replaced by]] a "[[triumvirate|troika]]" composed of [[Grigory Zinoviev]], [[Lev Kamenev]], and [[Joseph Stalin]] of [[Georgian people|Georgia]].

On 3 April 1922, Stalin had been named the [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union]]. Lenin had appointed Stalin to be the head of the Workers' and Peasants' Inspectorate, known by the acronym [[Rabkrin]], which gave Stalin considerable power. By [[Stalin's rise to power|gradually consolidating his influence and isolating and out-maneuvering his rivals within the party]], Stalin became the [[dictator|undisputed leader]] of the Soviet Union by the end of the 1920s establishing [[totalitarian]] rule.

In 1928, Stalin introduced the [[First Five-Year Plan]] for building a [[Socialist economics|socialist economy]]. While encompassing the [[Proletarian internationalism|internationalism]] expressed by [[Lenin]] throughout the course of the Revolution, it also aimed for building [[socialism in one country]]. In industry, the state assumed control over all existing enterprises and undertook an intensive program of [[industrialization]]; in agriculture [[Collectivisation in the USSR|collective farms]] were established all over the country.

It met widespread resistance from [[kulak]]s (private land and farm owners) and some prosperous peasants, who withheld some of the harvest they produced, resulting in a bitter struggle between the kulaks against the authorities and poor peasants{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}. [[Droughts and famines in Russia and the USSR|Famines]] occurred causing millions of deaths and surviving kulaks were politically persecuted and many sent to [[Gulags]] to do [[Unfree labour|forced labour]]. A wide range of death tolls has been suggested, from as many as 60 million kulaks being killed (suggested by [[Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn]]) to as few as 700 thousand (according to Soviet news sources).

Social upheaval continued in the mid-1930s. Stalin's [[Great Purge]] of the party killed many "[[Old Bolsheviks]]" who had participated in the October Revolution with Lenin. Yet despite the turmoil of the mid- to late 1930s, the Soviet Union developed a powerful industrial economy in the years before [[World War II]].
[[Image:Soviet soldiers moving at Stalingrad.jpg|thumb|200px|right|Soviet soldiers fighting in the ruins of [[Battle of Stalingrad|Stalingrad]], 1942, [[Most lethal battles in world history#Sieges and urban combat|the bloodiest battle in human history]] and a major turning point in [[World War II]]. The Soviet Union lost around [[World War II casualties of the Soviet Union|27 million people]] during the war, almost half of all [[World War II casualties]].]]

The early 1930s saw closer cooperation between the [[Western world|West]] and the USSR. From 1932 to 1934, the Soviet Union participated in the [[World Disarmament Conference]]. In 1933, diplomatic relations between the United States and the USSR were established. In September 1934, the Soviet Union joined the [[League of Nations]]. After the [[Spanish Civil War]] broke out in 1936, the USSR actively supported the [[Second Spanish Republic|Republican forces]] against the [[Spain under Franco|Nationalists]]. The Nationalists were supported by [[Kingdom of Italy (1861–1946)|Fascist Italy]] and [[Nazi Germany]].

In December 1936, Stalin unveiled a new [[1936 Soviet Constitution|Soviet Constitution]]. This constitution provided economic rights not included in constitutions in the western democracies. The constitution was seen as a personal triumph for Stalin, who on this occasion was described by [[Pravda]] as "genius of the new world, the wisest man of the epoch, the great leader of communism." By contrast, western historians and historians from former Soviet occupied countries have seen the constitution as a meaningless propaganda document.

The late 1930s saw a shift towards the [[Axis powers]]. In 1938 and 1939, armed forces of the USSR won several decisive victories during [[Soviet–Japanese Border Wars|border clashes]] with the armed forces of the [[Japanese Empire]]. In 1938, after the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Third French Republic|France]] concluded the [[Munich Agreement]] with Germany, the USSR dealt with Germany as well.

The USSR dealt with Germany both militarily and economically during [[German–Soviet Axis talks|extensive talks]] and by concluding the [[Molotov-Ribbentrop Pact|German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact]] and the [[German–Soviet Commercial Agreement (1940)|German–Soviet Commercial Agreement]]. The conclusion of the nonaggression pact made possible the Soviet occupation of [[Occupation of the Baltic States|Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia]], [[Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina|Bessarabia, northern Bukovina]], and [[Soviet invasion of Poland (1939)|eastern Poland]]. In late November of the same year, unable to force the [[Finland|Republic of Finland]] into agreement to move its border 25 kilometres back from [[Leningrad]] by diplomatic means, [[Stalin]] ordered the [[Winter War|invasion of Finland]]. On April 1941, USSR signed the [[Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact]] with [[Empire of Japan]], respecting both [[Manchukou]] and [[Mongolian People's Republic]] territories.

Although it has been debated whether the Soviet Union had the intention of invading Germany once it was strong enough,<ref>{{ru icon}} Mel'tiukhov, Mikhail. ''Upushchennyi shans Stalina: Sovetskii Soiuz i bor'ba za Evropu'' 1939–1941. Moscow: Veche, 2000. ISBN 5783811963.</ref> Germany itself broke the treaty and [[Operation Barbarossa|invaded the Soviet Union]] in 1941 and started what was known in the USSR as the "[[Eastern Front (WWII)|Great Patriotic War]]." The [[Red Army]] stopped the initial German offensive during the [[Battle of Moscow]]. The [[Battle of Stalingrad]], which lasted from late 1942 to early 1943, was a major defeat for the Germans and became a major turning point of the war. After Stalingrad, Soviet forces drove through [[Eastern Europe]] to [[Berlin]] before [[End of World War II in Europe|Germany surrendered in 1945]]. Although ravaged by the war, the Soviet Union emerged victorious from the conflict and became an acknowledged [[superpower]]. On August 9, 1945, the USSR tore up the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact and invaded [[Soviet invasion of Manchuria (1945)|Manchukou]] and [[Soviet-Japanese War (1945)|Japan]].

During the immediate postwar period, the Soviet Union first rebuilt and then expanded its economy, while maintaining its [[planned economy|strictly centralized control]]. The Soviet Union aided post-war reconstruction in the countries of Eastern Europe while turning them into Soviet [[satellite states]], founded the [[Warsaw Pact]] in 1955. Later, the [[Comecon]], supplied aid to the eventually victorious [[Chinese Communist Party|Communists]] in the People's Republic of China, and saw its influence grow elsewhere in the world. Meanwhile, the rising tension of the [[Cold War]] turned the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, into enemies.

===Post-Stalin===
[[Image:Yuri Gagarin official portrait.jpg|left|thumb|upright|First human in space, [[Yuri Gagarin]]|{{deletable image-caption|1=Wednesday, 7 October 2009}}]]
{{Main|History of the Soviet Union (1953–1985)}}
Stalin died on March 5, 1953. In the absence of an acceptable successor, the highest Communist Party officials opted to rule the Soviet Union jointly. [[Nikita Khrushchev]], who had won the power struggle by the mid-1950s, [[destalinization|denounced Stalin's use of repression]] in 1956 and eased repressive controls over party and society. This was known as [[History of the Soviet Union (1953-1985)#De-Stalinization and the Khrushchev era|de-Stalinization]].

At the same time, Soviet military force was used to suppress nationalistic uprisings in [[1956 Hungarian Revolution|Hungary]] and [[Poznań 1956 protests|Poland]] in 1956. During this period, the Soviet Union continued to realize scientific and technological pioneering exploits; to launch the first artificial satellite, [[Sputnik 1]]; a living dog, [[Laika]]; and later, the first human being, [[Yuri Gagarin]], into Earth's orbit. [[Valentina Tereshkova]] was the first woman in space aboard [[Vostok 6]] on June 16, 1963, and [[Alexey Leonov]] became the first person to walk in space on March 18, 1965. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive, and foreign policy towards China and the United States suffered difficulties, including those that led to the [[Sino-Soviet split]]. Khrushchev was retired from power in 1964.

Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of rule by collective leadership ensued, lasting until [[Leonid Brezhnev]] established himself in the early 1970s as the preeminent figure in Soviet political life. Brezhnev presided over a period of ''[[Détente]]'' with the West while at the same time building up Soviet military strength; the arms buildup contributed to the demise of Détente in the late 1970s.

Another contributing factor was the [[Soviet invasion of Afghanistan]] in December 1979. The first term of President Ronald Reagan saw increased tension between the Soviet Union and the United States with the Sept. 1,1983 downing by the Soviets of [[Korean Air Lines Flight 007]] with 269 passengers and crew, including a sitting U.S. congressman, Representative [[Larry McDonald]] of Georgia.

In October 1977, at the Seventh (Special) Session of the [[Supreme Soviet of the USSR]] Ninth Convocation, the third and last [[1977 Soviet Constitution|Soviet Constitution]], also known as the "Brezhnev Constitution," was unanimously adopted. The official name of the Constitution was "Constitution (Fundamental Law) of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics." This was the first [[Soviet Constitution]] which explicitly stated the supremacy of the Communist Party.

Throughout the period, the Soviet Union maintained parity with or superiority to the United States in the areas of military numbers and technology, but this strained the economy. In contrast to the revolutionary spirit that accompanied the birth of the Soviet Union, the prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change. The long period of Brezhnev's rule had come to be dubbed one of "standstill" (застой), with an aging and ossified top political leadership.

After some experimentation with economic reforms in the mid-1960s, the Soviet leadership reverted to established means of economic management. Industry showed slow but steady gains during the 1970s. Agricultural development continued, but could not keep up with the growing consumption and the USSR had to import food products like grain. Due to the low investment in consumer goods, the USSR was largely only able to export raw materials, notably oil, which made it vulnerable to global price shifts. Moreover, [[Human Development Index|human welfare]] in the Soviet Union was keeping behind Western and socialist Central-European levels, after initially converging in the 1950s and 60's. Even in absolute measurements, Soviet citizens were becoming less healthy between the 1960s and 1985: the crude death rate climbed from 6.9 per 1,000 in 1964 to 10.3 in 1980.<ref>W. Tompson, ''The Soviet Union under Brezhnev'', (Edinburgh, 2003), p. 91.</ref>

===Reforms of Gorbachev and collapse of the Soviet Union===
{{Main|Cold War (1985–1991)|History of the Soviet Union (1985–1991)|1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|Commonwealth of Independent States}}

Two developments dominated the decade that followed: the increasingly apparent crumbling of the Soviet Union's economic and political structures, and the patchwork attempts at reforms to reverse that process. Kenneth S. Deffeyes argued in "Beyond Oil" that the Reagan Administration encouraged [[Saudi Arabia]] to lower the price of oil to the point where the Soviets could not make a profit from selling their oil, so that the USSR's [[hard currency]] reserves became depleted.<ref>Kenneth S. Deffeyes, Beyond Oil: The View from Hubbert's Peak.</ref>

After the rapid succession of [[Yuri Andropov]] and [[Konstantin Chernenko]], transitional figures with deep roots in Brezhnevite tradition, beginning in 1985 [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] made significant changes in the economy (see [[Perestroika]], [[Glasnost]]) and the party leadership. His policy of ''[[glasnost]]'' freed public access to information after decades of heavy government censorship. With the Soviet Union in bad economic shape and its satellite states in eastern Europe abandoning communism, Gorbachev moved to end the Cold War.

In 1988, the Soviet Union abandoned its [[Soviet war in Afghanistan|nine-year war with Afghanistan]] and began to withdraw forces from the country. In the late 1980s, Gorbachev refused to send military support to defend the Soviet Union's former satellite states, resulting in multiple communist regimes in those states being forced from power. With the tearing down of the [[Berlin Wall]] with [[East Germany]] and [[West Germany]] pursuing unification, the [[Iron curtain]] took the final blow.

In the late 1980s, the constituent republics of the Soviet Union started legal moves towards or even declaration of [[sovereignty]] over their territories, citing Article 72 of the USSR Constitution, which stated that any constituent republic was free to secede.<ref>[http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m1282/is_n12_v42/ai_9119705 The red blues — Soviet politics] by Brian Crozier, ''[[National Review]]'', June 25, 1990.</ref> On April 7, 1990, a law was passed, that a republic could secede, if more than two-thirds of that republic's residents vote for it on a referendum.<ref>[http://www.rspp.su/sobor/conf_2006/istoki_duh_nrav_crisis.html Origins of Moral-Ethical Crisis and Ways to Overcome it] by V.A.Drozhin Honoured Lawyer of Russia.</ref> Many held their first free elections in the Soviet era for their own national legislatures in 1990. Many of these legislatures proceeded to produce legislation contradicting the Union laws in what was known as "[[The war of laws]]."

In 1989, the [[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], which was then the largest constituent republic (with about half of the population) convened a newly elected Congress of People's Deputies. [[Boris Yeltsin]] was elected the chairman of the Congress. On June 12, 1990, the Congress [[Declaration of State Sovereignty of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|declared Russia's sovereignty over its territory]] and proceeded to pass laws that attempted to supersede some of the USSR's laws. The period of legal uncertainty continued throughout 1991 as constituent republics slowly became [[de facto]] independent.

A [[Soviet Union referendum, 1991|referendum for the preservation of the USSR]] was held on March 17, 1991, with the majority of the population voting for preservation of the Union in nine out of fifteen republics. The referendum gave Gorbachev a minor boost, and, in the summer of 1991, the [[New Union Treaty]] was designed and agreed upon by eight republics which would have turned the Soviet Union into a much looser federation. [[Image:Boris Yeltsin 19 August 1991-1.jpg|left|thumb|Yeltsin stands on a tank to defy the [[August Coup]] in 1991.]]The signing of the treaty, however, was interrupted by the [[1991 Soviet coup d'état attempt|August Coup]]—an attempted [[coup d'état]] against Gorbachev by hardline Communist Party members of the government and the KGB, who sought to reverse Gorbachev's reforms and reassert the central government's control over the republics. After the coup collapsed, Yeltsin came out as a hero while Gorbachev's power was effectively ended. The balance of power tipped significantly towards the republics. In August 1991, Latvia and Estonia immediately declared restoration of full independence (following Lithuania's 1990 example), while the other twelve republics continued discussing new, increasingly looser, models of the Union.

On December 8, 1991, the presidents of Russia, [[Ukraine]] and [[Belarus]] signed the [[Belavezha Accords]] which declared the Soviet Union dissolved and established the [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS) in its place. While doubts remained over the authority of the Belavezha Accords to dissolve the Union, on December 21, 1991, the representatives of all Soviet republics except [[Georgian SSR|Georgia]], including those republics that had signed the Belavezha Accords, signed the [[Alma-Ata Protocol]], which confirmed the dismemberment and consequential extinction of the USSR and restated the establishment of the CIS. The summit of [[Alma-Ata]] also agreed on several other practical measures consequential to the extinction of the Union. On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev yielded to the inevitable and resigned as the president of the USSR, declaring the office extinct. He turned the powers that until then were vested in the presidency over to [[Boris Yeltsin]], [[President of the Russian Federation|president of Russia]].

The following day, the [[Supreme Soviet of the Soviet Union|Supreme Soviet]], the highest governmental body of the Soviet Union, recognized the bankruptcy and collapse of the Soviet Union and dissolved itself. This is generally recognized as the official, final dissolution of the Soviet Union as a functioning state. Many organizations such as the [[Soviet Army]] and police forces continued to remain in place in the early months of 1992 but were slowly phased out and either withdrawn from or absorbed by the newly independent states.

==Politics==
{{Main|Politics of the Soviet Union}}
[[Image:Moscow Kremlin.jpg|thumb|The [[Moscow Kremlin]], the official residence of the government of the USSR.]]
The government of the Soviet Union administered the country's economy and society. It implemented decisions made by the leading political institution in the country, the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU).

In the late 1980s, the government appeared to have many characteristics in common with liberal democratic political systems. For instance, a constitution established all organizations of government and granted to citizens a series of political and civic rights. A legislative body, the [[Congress of People's Deputies]], and its standing legislature, the [[Supreme Soviet]], represented the principle of popular sovereignty. The Supreme Soviet, which had an elected chairman who functioned as head of state, oversaw the [[Council of Ministers of the USSR|Council of Ministers]], which acted as the executive branch of the government.

The chairman of the Council of Ministers, whose selection was approved by the Supreme Soviet, functioned as head of government. A constitutionally based judicial branch of government included a court system, headed by the Supreme Court, that was responsible for overseeing the observance of [[Soviet law]] by government bodies. According to the [[1977 Soviet Constitution]], the government had a federal structure, permitting the republics some authority over policy implementation and offering the [[national minorities]] the appearance of participation in the management of their own affairs.

[[Image:Whitehouse moscow april 2006.JPG|thumb|Seat of the Supreme Soviet, the [[White House, Moscow|White House]], 2006]]
In practice, however, the government differed markedly from Western systems. In the late 1980s, the CPSU performed many functions that governments of other countries usually perform. For example, the party decided on the policy alternatives that the government ultimately implemented. The government merely ratified the party's decisions to lend them an aura of legitimacy.

The CPSU used a variety of mechanisms to ensure that the government adhered to its policies. The party, using its ''[[nomenklatura]]'' authority, placed its loyalists in leadership positions throughout the government, where they were subject to the norms of [[democratic centralism]]. Party bodies closely monitored the actions of government ministries, agencies, and legislative organs.

The content of the Soviet Constitution differed in many ways from typical Western constitutions. It generally described existing political relationships, as determined by the CPSU, rather than prescribing an ideal set of political relationships. The Constitution was long and detailed, giving technical specifications for individual organs of government. The Constitution included political statements, such as foreign policy goals, and provided a theoretical definition of the state within the ideological framework of [[Marxism-Leninism]]. The CPSU leadership could radically change the constitution or remake it completely, as it did several times throughout its history.

[[Image:8marta.jpg|thumb|upright|A 1932 Soviet poster for [[International Women's Day]]]]
The Council of Ministers acted as the executive body of the government. Its most important duties lay in the administration of the economy. The council was thoroughly under the control of the CPSU, and its chairman—the [[Premier of the Soviet Union|Soviet prime minister]]—was always a member of the [[Politburo of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Politburo]]. The council, which in 1989 included more than 100 members, was too large and unwieldy to act as a unified executive body. The council's [[Presidium of the Supreme Soviet|Presidium]], made up of the leading economic administrators and led by the chairman, exercised dominant power within the Council of Ministers.

According to the Constitution, as amended in 1988, the highest legislative body in the Soviet Union was the Congress of People's Deputies, which convened for the first time in May 1989. The main tasks of the congress were the election of the standing legislature, the Supreme Soviet, and the election of the chairman of the Supreme Soviet, who acted as head of state. Theoretically, the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet wielded enormous legislative power.

In practice, however, the Congress of People's Deputies met infrequently and only to approve decisions made by the party, the Council of Ministers, and its own Supreme Soviet. The Supreme Soviet, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, the chairman of the Supreme Soviet, and the Council of Ministers had substantial authority to enact laws, decrees, resolutions, and orders binding on the population. The Congress of People's Deputies had the authority to ratify these decisions.

===Judicial system===
{{details|Soviet law}}
The judiciary was not independent from the other branches of government. The Supreme Court supervised the lower courts and applied the law as established by the Constitution or as interpreted by the Supreme Soviet. The Constitutional Oversight Committee reviewed the constitutionality of laws and acts.

The Soviet Union lacked an [[adversarial system|adversarial court procedure]] known to many [[common law]] jurisdictions, but rather utilized the [[Roman law|Roman Law]] [[inquisitorial system]], where judge, procurator, and defense attorney work collaboratively to establish the truth. However, globally the inquisitorial system is more widespread than the adversarial system and indeed some countries such as Italy utilize a combination of both systems.<ref>http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/288956/inquisitorial-procedure</ref><ref>http://law.jrank.org/pages/7663/Inquisitorial-System.html</ref>

===The Soviet state===
The Soviet Union was a [[federal state]] made up of fifteen republics (sixteen between 1946 and 1956) joined together in a theoretically voluntary union; it was this theoretical situation that formed the basis of the [[Byelorussian Soviet Socialist Republic|Byelorussian]] and [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSRs']] membership in the [[United Nations]]. In turn, a series of territorial units made up the republics. The republics also contained jurisdictions intended to protect the interests of national minorities. The republics had their own constitutions, which, along with the all-union Constitution, provide the theoretical division of power in the Soviet Union.

All the republics except Russian SFSR had their own communist parties. In 1989, however, the CPSU and the central government retained all significant authority, setting policies that were executed by republic, provincial, oblast, and district governments. In the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, there were two chambers that represented the population (in later constitutions). One was the [[Soviet of the Union]], which represented people indiscriminately, and the [[Soviet of Nationalities]], which represented the various ethnicities in the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics.

===Leaders===
{{Main|List of leaders of the Soviet Union}}
The de facto leader of the Soviet Union was the First Secretary or General Secretary of the [[CPSU]]. The head of government was considered the Premier, and the head of state was considered the chairman of the Presidium. The Soviet leader could also have one (or both) of these positions, along with the position of General Secretary of the party. The last leader of the Soviet Union was Mikhail Gorbachev, serving from 1985 until late December 1991.

:[[Premier of the Soviet Union|List of Soviet Premiers]]
:(Chairman of the Council of People's Commissars of the USSR (1923–1946); Chairman of the Council of Ministers of the USSR (1946–1990); Prime Minister of the USSR (1991))
:[[Heads of state of the Soviet Union|List of Soviet Heads of state]]
:(Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets (1917–1922); Chairman of the Central Executive Committee of the USSR (1922–1938); Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (1938–1989); Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (1989–1990); President of the Soviet Union (1990–1991))

==Foreign relations post World War II==
{{Main|Foreign relations of the Soviet Union}}
[[Image:CEMA members.png|thumb|Map of [[Comecon]] (1986) which includes the Soviet Union and its allies. 
{{legend|#C00000|members}}
{{legend|#FF40FF|members who did not participate}}
{{legend|#FF0000|associates}}
{{legend|#FFD700|observers}}
]]

Once denied diplomatic recognition by the [[free world]], the Soviet Union had official relations with practically all nations of the world by the late 1940s. The Soviet Union also had progressed from being an outsider in international organizations and negotiations to being one of the arbiters of the world's fate after [[World War II]]. A member of the [[United Nations]] at its foundation in 1945, the Soviet Union became one of the five permanent members of the [[UN Security Council]] which gave it the right to [[veto]] any of its resolutions (''see'' [[Soviet Union and the United Nations]]).

[[Image:Teheran conference-1943.jpg|thumb|left|Left to right: [[General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union|Soviet General Secretary]] [[Joseph Stalin]], [[President of the United States|U.S. President]] [[Franklin D. Roosevelt]] and [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|British Prime Minister]] [[Winston Churchill]].]]
The Soviet Union emerged from [[World War II]] as one of the world's two superpowers, a position maintained for four decades through its hegemony in Eastern Europe (''see'' [[Eastern Bloc]]), military strength, economic strength, aid to [[Developing country|developing countries]], and scientific research, especially into space technology and weaponry. The Soviet Union's growing influence abroad in the postwar years helped lead to a Communist system of states in Eastern Europe united by military and economic agreements.

It overtook the [[British Empire]] as a global superpower, both in a military sense and its ability to expand its influence beyond its borders. The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance ([[Comecon]]), 1949–1991, was an economic organization of communist states and a kind of Eastern Bloc equivalent to—but more geographically inclusive than—the European Economic Community. The military counterpart to the Comecon was the Warsaw Pact, though Comecon's membership was significantly wider.<ref name="fas.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/irp/world/russia/gru/ |title=Main Intelligence Administration (GRU) Glavnoye Razvedovatel'noye Upravlenie - Russia / Soviet Intelligence Agencies |publisher=Fas.org |date= |accessdate=2008-11-24}}</ref>

The descriptive term Comecon was often applied to all multilateral activities involving members of the organization, rather than being restricted to the direct functions of Comecon and its organs.<ref name="fas.org svr">{{cite web|url=http://www.fas.org/irp/world/russia/svr/c103-gb.htm |title=The SVR Russia’s Intelligence Service |publisher=Fas.org |date= |accessdate=2008-11-24}}</ref> This usage was sometimes extended as well to bilateral relations among members, because in the system of socialist international economic relations, multilateral accords—typically of a general nature—tended to be implemented through a set of more detailed, bilateral agreements.<ref name="fas.org"/>

Moscow considered Eastern Europe to be a buffer zone for the forward defense of its western borders and ensured its control of the region by transforming the East European countries into [[satellite state]]s. Soviet troops intervened in the [[1956 Hungarian Revolution]] and cited the [[Brezhnev Doctrine]], the Soviet counterpart to the U.S. [[Johnson Doctrine]] and later [[Nixon Doctrine]], and helped oust the [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] government in 1968, sometimes referred to as the [[Prague Spring]].

In the late 1950s, a confrontation with China regarding the USSR's rapprochement with [[Western world|the West]] and what [[Mao]] perceived as Khrushchev's [[Marxist revisionism|revisionism]] led to the [[Sino-Soviet split]]. This resulted in a break throughout the global [[Communist]] movement and Communist regimes in [[Albania]] and [[Cambodia]] choosing to ally with China in place of the USSR. For a time, war between the former allies appeared to be a possibility; while relations would cool during the 1970s, they would not return to normality until the [[Gorbachev]] era.


During the same period, a tense confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States over the Soviet deployment of [[nuclear missiles]] in [[Cuba]] sparked the [[Cuban Missile Crisis]] in 1962.

The [[KGB]] (Committee for State Security) served in a fashion as the Soviet counterpart to both the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation]] and the [[Central Intelligence Agency]] in the U.S. It ran a massive network of informants throughout the Soviet Union, which was used to monitor violations in law. The foreign wing of the KGB was used to gather intelligence in countries around the globe. After the collapse of the Soviet Union, it was replaced in Russia by the [[Foreign Intelligence Service (Russia)|SVR]] (Foreign Intelligence Service) and the [[Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation|FSB]] (Federal Security Service of the Russian Federation).

[[Image:Carter Brezhnev sign SALT II.jpg|thumb|[[Leonid Brezhnev]] and [[Jimmy Carter]] sign SALT II treaty, June 18, 1979, in [[Vienna]].]]
The KGB was not without substantial oversight. The [[GRU]] (Main Intelligence Directorate), not publicized by the Soviet Union until the end of the Soviet era during [[perestroika]], was created by Lenin in 1918 and served both as a centralized handler of [[military intelligence]] and as an institutional check-and-balance for the otherwise relatively unrestricted power of the KGB. Effectively, it served to spy on the spies, and, not surprisingly, the KGB served a similar function with the GRU. As with the KGB, the GRU operated in nations around the world, particularly in Soviet bloc and satellite states. The GRU continues to operate in Russia today, with resources estimated by some to exceed those of the SVR.<ref name="fas.org"/><ref name="fas.org svr"/>

In the 1970s, the Soviet Union achieved rough nuclear parity with the United States, and eventually overtook it. It perceived its own involvement as essential to the solution of any major international problem. Meanwhile, the [[Cold War]] gave way to ''[[Détente]]'' and a more complicated pattern of international relations in which the world was no longer clearly split into two clearly opposed blocs. Less powerful countries had more room to assert their independence, and the two superpowers were partially able to recognize their common interest in trying to check the further spread and proliferation of nuclear weapons (''see'' [[SALT I]], [[SALT II]], [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]).

By this time, the Soviet Union had concluded friendship and cooperation treaties with a number of states in the non-Communist world, especially among Third World and [[Non-Aligned Movement]] states like India and [[Egypt]]. Notwithstanding some ideological obstacles, Moscow advanced state interests by gaining military footholds in strategically important areas throughout the Third World. Furthermore, the Soviet Union continued to provide military aid for revolutionary movements in the Third World. For all these reasons, Soviet foreign policy was of major importance to the non-Communist world and helped determine the tenor of international relations.

[[Image:Reagan and Gorbachev hold discussions.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mikhail Gorbachev|Gorbachev]] in one-on-one discussions with U.S. President [[Ronald Reagan]].]]
Although myriad bureaucracies were involved in the formation and execution of Soviet foreign policy, the major policy guidelines were determined by the Politburo of the Communist Party. The foremost objectives of Soviet foreign policy had been the maintenance and enhancement of national security and the maintenance of hegemony over Eastern Europe. Relations with the United States and Western Europe were also of major concern to Soviet foreign policy makers, and relations with individual Third World states were at least partly determined by the proximity of each state to the Soviet border and to Soviet estimates of its strategic significance.

[[Image:Evstafiev-afghan-apc-passes-russian.jpg|thumb|Soviet troops withdrawing from Afghanistan in 1988]]
After [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] succeeded [[Konstantin Chernenko]] as General Secretary of the CPSU in 1985, he introduced many changes in Soviet foreign policy and in the economy of the USSR. Gorbachev pursued conciliatory policies towards the West instead of maintaining the Cold War status quo. The Soviet Union ended its occupation of [[Afghanistan]], signed strategic arms reduction treaties with the United States, and allowed its allies in Eastern Europe to determine their own affairs. However, soviet republics were treated differently from the satellite states, and troops were used to suppress cessation movements within the Union (see [[Black January]]) but ultimately to no avail.

Following the dissolution of the Soviet Union on December 25, 1991, Russia was internationally recognised<ref name=uk>[http://www.fco.gov.uk/servlet/Front?pagename=OpenMarket/Xcelerate/ShowPage&c=Page&cid=1007029394365&a=KCountryProfile&aid=1019744935436 Country Profile: Russia] Foreign & Commonwealth Office of the United Kingdom.</ref> to be the legal successor to the Soviet state on the international stage. To that end, Russia voluntarily accepted all Soviet foreign debt, and claimed overseas Soviet properties as its own.

To prevent subsequent disputes over Soviet property, "zero variant" agreements were proposed to ratify with newly independent states the status quo on the date of dissolution. ([[Ukraine]] is the last former Soviet republic not to have entered into such an agreement.) The end of the Soviet Union also raised questions about treaties it had signed, such as the [[Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty]]; Russia has held the position that those treaties remain in force, and should be read as though Russia were the signatory.<ref>[http://www.dod.mil/acq/acic/treaties/abm/ad_mou.htm Memorandum of Understanding], [http://www.dod.mil/acq/ AcqWeb], February 7, 2007.</ref>
{{details|Military history of the Soviet Union}}

==Republics==
{{Main|Republics of the Soviet Union}}
{{See also|Oblasts of the Soviet Union}}
[[Image:Soviet Union Administrative Divisions 1989.jpg|thumb|Soviet Union administrative divisions, 1989]]

The Soviet Union was a federation that consisted of '''Soviet Socialist Republics''' ('''SSR'''). The first Republics were established shortly after the [[October Revolution]] of 1917. At that time, republics were technically independent from one another but their governments acted in closely coordinated confederation, as directed by the CPSU leadership.

In 1922, four Republics ([[Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic|Russian SFSR]], [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]], [[Belarusian Soviet Socialist Republic|Belarusian SSR]], and [[Transcaucasian SFSR]]) joined into the Soviet Union. Between 1922 and 1940, the number of Republics grew to sixteen. Some of the new Republics were formed from territories acquired, or reacquired by the Soviet Union, others by splitting existing Republics into several parts. The criteria for establishing new republics were as follows:
# to be located on the periphery of the Soviet Union so as to be able to exercise their right to secession;
# be economically strong enough to survive on their own upon secession; and
# be named after the dominant ethnic group which should consist of at least one million people.

The system remained almost unchanged after 1940. No new Republics were established. One republic, [[Karelo-Finnish Soviet Socialist Republic|Karelo-Finnish SSR]], was disbanded in 1956, and the territory formally became the Karelian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (ASSR) within the Russian SFSR. The remaining 15 republics lasted until 1991. Even though [[Soviet Constitution]]s established the right for a republic to secede, it remained theoretical and very unlikely, given Soviet centralism, until the 1991 collapse of the Union.

At that time, the [[Post-Soviet states|republics became independent countries]], with some still loosely organized under the heading [[Commonwealth of Independent States]]. Some republics had common history and geographical regions, and were referred by group names. These were [[Baltic Republics]], [[South Caucasus|Transcaucasian Republics]], and [[Central Asian Republics]].

{{Union Republics}}

==Economy==
[[File:Soviet Union GDP.gif|thumb|USSR and [[Former Soviet Union|FSU]] [[GDP]]]]
{{Main|Economy of the Soviet Union}}
[[Image:DneproGES 1947.JPG|thumb|left|The [[DneproGES]], one of many [[hydroelectric]] power stations in the Soviet Union]]

Prior to its dissolution, the USSR had the second largest economy in the world, after the United States.<ref name=cia1990>{{cite web|url=http://www.umsl.edu/services/govdocs/wofact90/world12.txt|publisher=[[Central Intelligence Agency]]|accessdate=2008-03-09|title=1990 CIA World Factbook}}</ref> The economy of the Soviet Union was the modern world's first [[centrally planned economy]]. It was based on a system of [[state ownership]] and managed through ''[[Gosplan]]'' (the State Planning Commission), ''[[Gosbank]]'' (the State Bank) and the [[Gossnab]] (State Commission for Materials and Equipment Supply).

The first major project of economic planning was the [[GOELRO plan]], which was followed by a series of other [[Five-Year Plan (USSR)|Five-Year Plans]]. The emphasis was put on a very fast development of [[heavy industry]] and the nation became one of the world's top manufacturers of a large number of basic and heavy industrial products, but it lagged behind in the output of light industrial production and [[consumer goods in the Soviet Union|consumer durables]].

[[Agriculture of the Soviet Union]] was organized into a system of collective farms (''[[kolkhoz]]es'') and state farms (''[[sovkhoz]]es'') but it was relatively unproductive. Crises in the agricultural sector reaped catastrophic consequences in the 1930s, when [[collectivization]] met widespread resistance from the [[kulaks]], resulting in a bitter struggle of many peasants against the authorities, and famine, particularly in [[Ukraine]] (see [[Holodomor]]), but also in the Volga River area and Kazakhstan.

{| class="wikitable" border="1" table style="border:1px black; float:right; margin-left:1em;"
|-
! style="background:#d3d3d3;" colspan="3"| Comparison between USSR and [[Economy of the United States|US]] economies (1989) according to 1990 [[CIA]] [[World Factbook]]<ref name=cia1990 />
|-
!||USSR||US
|-
|[[GDP]] (1989 – million $)||2,659,500||5,233,300
|-
|Population (July 1990) ||290,938,469||250,410,000
|-
|GDP Per Capita ($)||9,211||21,082
|-
|Labour force (1989)||152,300,000||125,557,000
|}

As the Soviet economy grew more complex, it required more and more complex disaggregation of control figures (plan targets) and factory inputs. As it required more communication between the enterprises and the planning ministries, and as the number of enterprises, trusts, and ministries multiplied, the Soviet economy started stagnating.

The Soviet economy was increasingly sluggish when it came to responding to change, adapting cost-saving technologies, and providing incentives at all levels to improve growth, productivity and efficiency. Most information in the Soviet economy flowed from the top down and economic planning was often done based on faulty or outdated information, particularly in sectors with large numbers of consumers.

As a result, some goods tended to be under-produced, leading to shortages, while other goods were overproduced and accumulated in storage. Some factories developed a system of [[barter (economics)|barter]] and either exchanged or shared raw materials and parts, while consumers developed a [[black market]] for goods that were particularly sought after but constantly under-produced.

Conceding the weaknesses of their past approaches in solving new problems, the leaders of the late 1980s, headed by Mikhail Gorbachev, were seeking to mold a program of economic reform to galvanize the economy. However, by 1990 the Soviet government had lost control over economic conditions. Government spending increased sharply as an increasing number of unprofitable enterprises required state support and consumer price subsidies to continue. Since the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, almost all of the 15 former [[Soviet republics]] have dismantled their Soviet-style economies.

==Geography==
{{Main|Geography of the Soviet Union}}
The Soviet Union occupied the eastern portion of the European continent and the northern portion of the [[Asia]]n continent. Most of the country was north of 50° north latitude and covered a total area of approximately 22,402,200 square kilometres (8,649,500 [[Square mile|sq mi]]). Due to the sheer size of the state, the [[climate]] varied greatly from [[Subtropical climate|subtropical]] and [[Continental climate|continental]] to [[Subarctic climate|subarctic]] and [[Polar climate|polar]]. 11% of the land was [[arable land|arable]], 16% was [[meadow]]s and [[pasture]], 41% was [[forest]] and [[woodland]], and 32% was declared "other" (including [[tundra]]).

The Soviet Union measured some 10,000 kilometres (6,200 mi) from [[Kaliningrad]] on the in the west to Ratmanova Island ([[Big Diomede Island]]) in the [[Bering Strait]], or roughly equivalent to the distance from [[Edinburgh]], [[Scotland]], west to [[Nome, Alaska]]. From the tip of the [[Taymyr Peninsula]] on the [[Arctic]] Ocean to the [[Central Asian]] town of [[Kushka]] near the [[Afghanistan|Afghan]] border extended almost 5,000 kilometres (3,100 mi) of mostly rugged, inhospitable terrain. The east-west expanse of the continental United States would easily fit between the northern and southern borders of the Soviet Union at their extremities.

==Population and society==
{{Main|Demographics of the Soviet Union}}
[[File:Soviet Union Population.gif|thumb|USSR and [[Former Soviet Union|FSU]] [[Population]]]]
[[File:Ethnic map USSR 1941.jpg|thumb|400px|left|Geographic location of various ethnic groups within the Soviet Union in 1941]]
[[Image:USSR Ethnic Groups 1974.jpg|thumb|300px|This map shows the 1974 geographic location of various ethnic groups within the Soviet Union]]

The Soviet Union was one of the world's most ethnically diverse countries, with more than 200 distinct ethnic groups within its borders. The total population was estimated at 293 million in 1991, having been the 3rd most populous nation after China and India for decades.

In the last years of the Soviet Union, the majority of the population were [[Russians]] (50.78%), followed by [[Ukrainians]] (15.45%) and [[Uzbeks]] (5.84%). Other ethnic groups included [[Armenians]], [[Azerbaijani people|Azerbaijanis]], [[Belarusians]], [[Estonians]], [[Georgians]], [[Kazakhs]], [[Kyrgyz]], [[Latvian people|Latvians]], [[Lithuanian people|Lithuanians]], [[Moldovans]], [[Tājik people|Tajiks]], and [[Turkmen people|Turkmen]] as well as [[Abkhaz people|Abkhaz]], [[Adyghe people|Adyghes]], [[Aleut]]s, [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Caucasian Avars|Avars]], [[Bashkirs]], [[Bulgarians]], [[Buryats]], [[Chechen people|Chechens]], [[Han Chinese|Chinese]], [[Chuvash people|Chuvash]], [[Cossack]]s, [[Evenks]], [[Finnish people|Finns]], [[Gagauz people|Gagauz]], [[German minority in Russia and Soviet Union|Germans]], [[Greeks]], [[Hungarian people|Hungarians]], [[Ingush people|Ingushes]], [[Inuit]], [[Jews]], [[Kalmyks]], [[Karakalpaks]], [[Karelians]], [[Ket people|Kets]], [[Koreans]], [[Lezgins]], [[Mari people|Maris]], [[Mongols]], [[Mordvins]], [[Nenetses]], [[Ossetians]], [[Poles]], [[Romani people|Roma]], [[Romanians]], [[Tats]], [[Tatars]], [[Tuvans]], [[Udmurts]], [[Yakuts]], and others. Mainly because of differences in birth rates among the Soviet nationalities, the share of the population that was Russian steadily declined in the post-World War II period.<ref>Barbara A. Anderson and Brian D. Silver, "Demographic Sources of the Changing Ethnic Composition of the Soviet Union," ''Population and Development Review'' 15 (December 1989): 609–656.</ref>

===Nationalities===
The extensive multinational empire that the Bolsheviks inherited after their revolution was created by Tsarist expansion over some four centuries. Some nationality groups came into the empire voluntarily, others were brought in by force. [[Russians]]<ref>[http://www.historytoday.com/MainArticle.aspx?m=31575&amid=30229744 Rulers and Victims: The Russians in the Soviet Union], [[History Today]]</ref>, [[Belarusians]] and [[Ukrainians]] shared close cultural ties while, generally, the other subjects of the empire shared little in common—[[culture|culturally]], [[religion|religiously]], or [[language|linguistically]]. More often than not, two or more diverse nationalities were co-located on the same territory. Therefore, national antagonisms built up over the years not only against the Russians but often between some of the subject nations as well.

For many years, Soviet leaders maintained that the underlying causes of conflict between nationalities of the Soviet Union had been eliminated and that the Soviet Union consisted of a family of nations living harmoniously together. In the 1920s and early 1930s, the government conducted a policy of [[korenizatsiya]] (indigenization) of local governments in an effort to recruit non-Russians into the new Soviet political institutions and to reduce the conflict between Russians and the minority nationalities.

One area in which the Soviet leaders made concessions perhaps more out of necessity than out of conviction, was language policy. To increase literacy and [[mass education]], the government encouraged the development and publication in many of the "national languages" of the minority groups. While Russian became a required ''subject'' of study in all Soviet schools in 1938, in the mainly non-Russian areas the chief language of instruction was the local language or languages. This practice led to widespread bilingualism in the educated population, though among smaller nationalities and among elements of the population that were heavily affected by the immigration of Russians, linguistic assimilation also was common, in which the members of a given non-Russian nationality lost facility in the historic language of their group.<ref>Barbara A. Anderson and Brian D. Silver. 1984. "Equality, Efficiency, and Politics in Soviet Bilingual Education Policy, 1934–1980," ''American Political Science Review'' 78 (December): 1019–1039.</ref>

The concessions granted national cultures and the limited autonomy tolerated in the union republics in the 1920s led to the development of national elites and a heightened sense of national identity. Subsequent repression and [[Russification|Russianization]] fostered resentment against domination by Moscow and promoted further growth of national consciousness. National feelings were also exacerbated in the Soviet multinational state by increased competition for resources, services, and jobs, and by the policy of the leaders in Moscow to move workers—mainly Russians—to the peripheral areas of the country, the homelands of non-Russian nationalities.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/4420922.stm Russians left behind in Central Asia], BBC News, November 23, 2005.</ref>

By the end of the 1980s, encouraged in part by Gorbachev's policy of [[glasnost]], unofficial groups formed around a great many social, cultural, and political issues. In some non-Russian regions ostensible [[green movement]]s or ecological movements were thinly disguised national movements in support of the protection of natural resources and the national patrimony generally from control by ministries in Moscow.

===Religious groups===
{{Main|Religion in the Soviet Union}}

Although the Soviet Union was officially secular, it supported [[atheist]] ideology and suppressed religion, though according to various Soviet and Western sources, over one-third of the people in the Soviet Union professed religious belief. [[Christianity]] and [[Islam]] had the most believers. The [[Separation of church and state|state was separated from church]] by the Decree of Council of People's Comissars on January 23, 1918. Two-thirds of the Soviet population, however, had no religious beliefs. About half the people, including members of the CPSU and high-level government officials, professed atheism. Official figures on the number of religious believers in the Soviet Union were not available in 1989.

Christians belonged to various churches: [[Eastern Orthodox|Orthodox]], which had the largest number of followers; [[Catholicism|Catholic]]; and [[Baptist]] and various other [[Protestant]] denominations.

Government persecution of Christianity continued unabated until the fall of the Communist government, with Stalin's reign the most repressive. Stalin is quoted as saying that "The Party cannot be neutral towards religion. It conducts an anti-religious struggle against any and all religious prejudices." In [[World War II]], however, the repression against the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] temporarily ceased as it was perceived as "instrument of patriotic unity" in the war against "the western [[Teutonic Knights|Teutonics]]." Repression against Russian Orthodox restarted from ca. 1946 onwards and more forcibly under [[Nikita Khrushchev]].

Although there were many ethnic [[Jews]] in the Soviet Union, actual practice of [[Judaism]] was rare in Communist times. In 1928, Stalin created the [[Jewish Autonomous Oblast]] in the far east of what is now Russia to try to create a "Soviet Zion" for a proletarian Jewish culture to develop.

The overwhelming majority of Muslims were [[Sunni]]. The Azerbaijanis, who were [[Shiite]], were one major exception. The largest groups of Muslims in the Soviet Union resided in the Central Asian republics (Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan, and [[Uzbekistan]]) and Kazakhstan, though substantial numbers also resided in Central Russia (principally in Bashkiria and Tatarstan), in the North Caucasian part of Russia (Chechnya, Dagestan, and other autonomous republics) and in Transcaucasia (principally in Azerbaijan but also certain regions of Georgia).

Other religions, which were practiced by a relatively small number of believers, included [[Buddhism]] (mostly [[Vajrayana]]) and [[paganism]] (which was largely [[shamanism|shamanic]]), a religion based on spiritualism. The role of religion in the daily lives of Soviet citizens thus varied greatly, but was far less integral in city dwellers where Party control was optimum.

==Culture==
{{Main|Culture of the Soviet Union}}
[[Image:Kolkhoznitsa.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Worker and Kolkhoz Woman]]'' over the northern entrance to the All-Soviet Exhibition Centre in [[Moscow]] (today the [[All-Russia Exhibition Centre]])]]

The [[culture]] of the Soviet Union passed through several stages during the USSR's 70-year existence. During the first eleven years following the Revolution (1918–1929), there was relative freedom and artists experimented with several different styles in an effort to find a distinctive Soviet style of art. Lenin wanted art to be accessible to the Russian people.

The government encouraged a variety of trends. In art and literature, numerous schools, some traditional and others radically experimental, proliferated. Communist writers [[Maksim Gorky]] and [[Vladimir Mayakovsky]] were active during this time. Film, as a means of influencing a largely illiterate society, received encouragement from the state; much of director [[Sergei Eisenstein]]'s best work dates from this period.

Later, during [[Joseph Stalin]]'s rule, Soviet culture was characterised by the rise and domination of the government-imposed style of [[Socialist realism]], with all other trends being severely repressed, with rare exceptions (e.g. [[Mikhail Bulgakov]]'s works). Many writers were imprisoned and killed.<ref>Rayfield 2004, pp. 317–320.</ref> Also religious people were persecuted and either sent to Gulags or were murdered in their thousands<ref>Rayfield 2004, pp. 121–122.</ref>. The ban on the [[Orthodox Church]] was temporarily lifted in the 1940s, in order to rally support for the Soviet war against the invading forces of Germany. Under Stalin, prominent symbols that were not in line with communist ideology were destroyed, such as Orthodox Churches and Tsarist buildings.

Following the [[Khrushchev Thaw]] of the late 1950s and early 1960s, censorship was diminished. Greater experimentation in art forms became permissible once again, with the result that more sophisticated and subtly critical work began to be produced. The regime loosened its emphasis on [[socialist realism]]; thus, for instance, many protagonists of the novels of author [[Yury Trifonov]] concerned themselves with problems of daily life rather than with building socialism. An underground dissident literature, known as [[samizdat]], developed during this late period. In architecture Khrushchev era mostly focused on functional design as opposed to highly decorated style of Stalin's epoch.

In the second half of 1980s, [[Gorbachev]]'s policies of [[perestroika]] and [[glasnost]] significantly expanded [[freedom of expression]] in the media and press, eventually resulting in the complete abolishment of censorship, total freedom of expression and freedom to criticise the government.<ref> "Gorbachev, Mikhail." Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. 2 Oct. 2007 <http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9037405>. "Under his new policy of glasnost (“openness”), a major cultural thaw took place: freedoms of expression and of information were significantly expanded; the press and broadcasting were allowed unprecedented candour in their reportage and criticism; and the country's legacy of Stalinist totalitarian rule was eventually completely repudiated by the government."</ref>

==See also==
{{Main|List of Soviet Union-related topics}}
* [[Collapse of the Soviet Union]]
* [[Dates of establishment of diplomatic relations with the USSR]]
* [[Droughts and famines in Russia and the USSR]]
* [[History of the Soviet Union (1953-1985)]]
* [[History of the Soviet Union (1985-1991)]]
* [[Human rights in the Soviet Union]]
* [[Kaliningrad Oblast]] (see also: German [[East Prussia]])
* [[List of leaders of the Soviet Union]]
* [[List of Soviet Republics]]
* [[Military history of the Soviet Union]]
* [[Population transfer in the Soviet Union]]
* [[Post-Soviet states]]
* [[Premier of the Soviet Union]]
* [[President of the Soviet Union]]
* [[Prometheism]]
* [[Public holidays in the Soviet Union]]
* [[Soviet war in Afghanistan]]
* [[Sovietization]]
* [[Totalitarianism]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|2}}

==Externals==

===References===
{{refbegin}}
* Armstrong, John A. ''The Politics of Totalitarianism: The Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1934 to the Present.'' New York: Random House, 1961.
* Brown, Archie, et al., eds.: ''The Cambridge Encyclopedia of Russia and the Soviet Union'' (Cambridge, UK: [[Cambridge University Press]], 1982).
* Gilbert, Martin: ''The Routledge Atlas of Russian History'' (London: Routledge, 2002).
* Goldman, Minton: ''The Soviet Union and Eastern Europe'' (Connecticut: Global Studies, Dushkin Publishing Group, Inc., 1986).
* Grant, Ted: ''Russia, from Revolution to Counter-Revolution'', London, Well Red Publications,1997
* Howe, G. Melvyn: ''The Soviet Union: A Geographical Survey'' 2nd. edn. (Estover, UK: MacDonald and Evans, 1983).
* Katz, Zev, ed.: ''Handbook of Major Soviet Nationalities'' (New York: Free Press, 1975).
* Moore, Jr., Barrington. ''Soviet politics: the dilemma of power.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1950.
*[[Dmitry Orlov]], ''[http://www.newsociety.com/bookid/3991 Reinventing Collapse]'', New Society Books, 2008, ISBN 9780865716063
* [[Donald Rayfield|Rayfield, Donald]]. ''[[Stalin and His Hangmen]]: The Tyrant and Those Who Killed for Him''. New York: Random House, 2004 (hardcover, ISBN 0-375-50632-2); 2005 (paperback, ISBN 0375757716).
* Rizzi, Bruno: "The bureaucratization of the world : the first English ed. of the underground Marxist classic that analyzed class exploitation in the USSR" , New York, NY : Free Press, 1985.
* Schapiro, Leonard B. ''The Origin of the Communist Autocracy: Political Opposition in the Soviet State, First Phase 1917–1922.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1955, 1966.
{{refend}}

===Links===
{{sisterlinks|Soviet Union}}
*[http://soviet.globalmuseumoncommunism.org/ Soviet Union Exhibit at Global Museum on Communism]
*[http://deweytextsonline.area501.net/ImpressionsOfSovietRussia.htm Impressions of Soviet Russia, by John Dewey.]
*[http://plakatai.my1.ru/photo/11-1 Soviet Agitation Posters.]
*[http://soviethistory.com/ Documents and other forms of media from the Soviet Union: 1917-1991.]
*[http://sovietrevival.bravehost.com/ Revival Program, Part of the Chechen Rebels.]
*[http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/sutoc.html Soviet Union.]
*[http://www.rk86.com/frolov Soviet Calculators Collection]—a big collection of Soviet technology goods: calculators, computers, electronic watches, etc.
*[http://www.ib.hu-berlin.de/~pbruhn/russgus.htm Bibliographic database of German publications on the Soviet Union] – about 175 000 records, English interface will be usable soon
*[http://documents.theblackvault.com/documents/SovietLosses.pdf Losses Suffered by USSR Armed Forces in Wars, Combat Operations, and Military Conflicts]

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{{Autonomous republics of the Soviet Union}}
{{Autonomous Oblasts of the Soviet Union}}

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Konrad von Wallenrode

2009-09-09T05:00:27Z

Cyon: /* Early life */

[[Image:Siebmacher102-Wallenrodt.jpg|thumb|Coat of arms of the family of Wallenrode from Johann Siebmacher 1605]]

'''Konrad von Wallenrode''' (c. 1330s – [[23 July]] [[1393]]) was the 24th [[Grand Masters of the Teutonic Knights|Grand Master]] of the [[Teutonic Knights]], serving from 1391-93. Modern sources are friendly towards Konrad, although they claim he was hot-blooded, proud, and had tendencies to be cruel.

Konrad was the inspiration for [[Adam Mickiewicz]]'s poem ''[[Konrad Wallenrod (poem)|Konrad Wallenrod]]''.

== Biography ==
=== Early life ===
Konrad came from a family with a rich knightly tradition that had its roots in [[Franconia]]. He joined the Teutonic Order ca. 1370. Grand Master [[Winrich von Kniprode]] named him [[Komtur]] of [[Człuchów|Schlochau (Człuchów)]] in 1377, but his real career did not begin until [[Conrad Zöllner von Rothenstein]] became Grand Master in 1382.

After the death of [[Kuno von Hattenstein]], Konrad became [[Grand Marshal]] and Komtur of [[Königsberg]]. He was chiefly tasked with organizing [[crusades]] against the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]], and became quite adept at it. He became Komtur of [[Malbork|Marienburg (Malbork)]] and Grosskomtur of the Teutonic Order in 1387. Zöllner died in 1390, and it seemed only a matter of time before Konrad would become the next Grand Master. However, he encountered great opposition from [[Walrabe von Scharffenberg]], Komtur of [[Gdańsk|Danzig (Gdańsk)]]. It was not until [[August 20]], [[1391]], that Wallenrode became grand master, thanks to the support of two electors, [[Siegfried Walpot von Bassenheim]] and [[Rüdiger von Elner]], the Komturs of [[Elbląg|Elbing (Elbląg)]] and [[Tuchola|Tuchel (Tuchola)]], respectively.
[[Image:Marienburg 2004 Panorama.jpg|thumb|left|800px|thumb|Marienburg ([[Malbork]])]]

===As grand master===
Konrad's two year rule was filled with campaigns against Lithuania. He was against the [[Polish-Lithuanian Union]], which he tried to dissolve. Konrad began a campaign against Lithuania in 1392 and split his army into three divisions. The first one, under command of [[Arnold von Burgeln]], Komtur of [[Balga]], headed for [[Masovia]]. The other two divisions, under the command of Konrad and Grand Marshal [[Engelhard Rabe von Wildstein]], headed for [[Vilnius]]. They were close to capturing Vilnius, which was defended by Polish knights, but retreated as a result of a scandal caused by the grand master.

Von Wildstein was a great commander and a tactician with the respect of his soldiers, but he was relieved of his duties as grand marshal by Konrad. The reason is not completely known, but it is widely believed that the grand master was jealous of von Wildstein's success. Nonetheless, this caused a revolt between most of the knights who stood behind von Wildstein. Despite this, Konrad did not change his decision and the campaign was abandoned. This helped von Wallenrode to clean up dissent in the order, especially in the Lower Prussian Komturships of Balga, [[Ushakovo, Kaliningrad Oblast|Brandenburg]], and [[Neman (town)|Ragnit]] that were under supremacy of the grand marshal.
[[Image:Rauden wladislaus.JPG|thumb|Duke Władysław Opolski]]

In 1392 Duke [[Władysław Opolczyk|Władysław Opolski]] offered Konrad a partition of Poland with the [[Holy Roman Empire]], the Teutonic Knights, [[Margraviate of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]], [[Kingdom of Hungary|Hungary]], and the [[Silesia]]n dukes all taking part of it, but the grand master rejected it. The same year he started another military action against Lithuania with guest crusaders, including Henry of Derby, the future King [[Henry IV of England]]. [[Low Countries|Dutch]] and [[France|French]] knights under Konrad's command attacked [[Hrodno|Gardinas]], leading Vytautas to call a peace conference in [[Toruń|Thorn (Toruń)]]. Ten days into the conference, however, Konrad died on [[23 July]] [[1393]], probably of [[apoplexy]].

During his reign, he led active economic and colonization actions in [[Prussia (region)|Prussia]]. He gave many lands to [[Germans]] and built two castles, [[Gottersweder]] and [[Mittenburg]]. In 1393 he created a new komturship in [[Ryn|Rhein (Ryn)]]; its first komtur was his brother [[Friedrich von Wallenrode]], a later Komtur of [[Gniew|Mewe (Gniew)]], [[Brodnica|Strasburg (Brodnica)]] and the Grand Marshal of Königsberg who died in the [[Battle of Grunwald]] in 1410. Another relative of Konrad was [[Johann von Wallenrode]], the [[Archbishop of Riga]] between 1393-1416.

==The poem==
[[Adam Mickiewicz]] took some elements of the historical Konrad von Wallenrode for his 1828 patriotic narrative poem, ''[[Konrad Wallenrod (poem)|Konrad Wallenrod]]'', in which Wallenrode is portrayed as a Lithuanian who deliberately leads the Knights into defeat.

The poem was later twice made into an opera; ''[[I Lituani]]'' by Italian composer [[Amilcare Ponchielli]] in 1874, and ''[[Konrad Wallenrod (opera)|Konrad Wallenrod]]'' by Polish composer [[Władysław Żeleński]] in 1885.

{{Hochmeister|Predecessor=[[Conrad Zöllner von Rothenstein]]|Years=1391-1393|Successor=[[Konrad von Jungingen]]}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wallenrode, Konrad von}}
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[[de:Konrad von Wallenrode]]
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Talk:Werewolf

2009-09-03T05:03:17Z

Cyon: /* Slovenes in Poland */

{{talkheader}}
{{WPBS|{{HorrorWikiProject|class=B|importance=Top}}
{{WP Mythology|class=B|importance=high}}
{{WPOccult|class=B|importance=low}}}}
{{cfdresult|Category:Werewolves in fiction|date=2007 November 8|Keep}}

{{archive box|
# [[/Archive 1|up to December 2005]]
# [[/Archive 2|2006 to July 2007]]
}}

==Adding new section please==
There should be a section on the main page called "Removal of Werewolves" and it should be expanded.

Fire and Silver are only Sonic.
in the movie Ginger snaps is about werewovles and is a VERY great film on werewovles.

Currently there are two paragraphs in the "Becoming a Werewolf" section that actually would be more appropriately placed here (i.e. the reference to wolvesbane). I advize seperating the content of "Becoming a Werewolf" and "Removing a Werewolf"

Also, i tried to add to the wiki (but i am unauthorized) with a fact from an old folklore book about removing a werewolf: If a werewolf is at your doorstep, when the home owner throws their house key at the werewolf, it will be compelled to leave.

I understand that this is a popular subject and the site must be protected from people randomly adding their two cents, but I have more information such as this that I think the article could benefit from.

[[User:Ryceratops|Ryceratops]] 14:53, 19 September 2007 (UTC)Ryan Sept 19, 2007

== Diphenhydramine can make you a werewolf? ==

In the first paragraph of the "Becoming a werewolf" section, it is claimed that "Diphenhydramine, ingested in large quantities and with sustained mental effort, is another method." Given that Diphenhydramine is a synthetic antihistamine, sedative, and hypnotic, first discovered in the 1930's which has no natural analogs, this sentence seems misplaced in a paragraph about historical legends. As Diphenhydramine is also used as a contemporary recreational drug and has a following among adolescents, it's inclusion in this article seemed to be clear vandalism.

When I deleted the sentence as vandalism on Sept 30, it was reinstated the following day by [[User:Clpo13|clpo13]].

Was I hasty in labeling it vandalism? Should this kind of drug-related non-sequitur just be flagged as needing a citation? When I look at Wikipedia:Vandalism, the distinction seems to be about whether it is a good-faith edit or not? My call was that is was a bad-faith edit. Was I wrong?

[[User:Grhabyt|Grhabyt]] 18:52, 5 October 2007 (UTC)

::Heck, if it makes you a werewolf I'm buying shares in the company....cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 01:47, 6 October 2007 (UTC)

:::I may have been the hasty one. The sentence had been there a long time, so I assumed it had some kind of credibility. When Grhabyt removed it, I thought his was a NPOV edit, considering s/he was a new user (new users tend to vandalize articles under the guise of fixing vandalism). However, I should have looked further into the issue to see who originally added the sentence and to see if it had any evidence whatsoever. It probably doesn't, so I think it can be safely removed. Thanks for bringing this to my attention, Grhabyt. --[[User:Clpo13|clpo13]]([[User_talk:Clpo13|talk]]) 03:56, 6 October 2007 (UTC)

==Warewolf==

Since it's a common mistake to spell "werewolf" as "warewolf", I think it would be a good idea to redirect [[Warewolf]] to this page. (I know that would have helped me). [[User:Dengarde|Dengarde]] ► [[User_talk:Dengarde|Complaints ]] 02:57, 25 October 2007 (UTC)

::Righto, done cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 08:46, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

:::Ah, but warewolf and werewolf are completely different! The werewolf is a savage beast who wants to rip you apart. The warewolf? Well, he just has top quality goods at the lowest prices... ;) [[User:Spawn Man|Spawn Man]] ([[User talk:Spawn Man|talk]]) 01:04, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

== Structure ==

Right - there is an FA of [[Kitsune]] which would be a good model for this one. It is a bit rough but I'll be somoothing it out. cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 08:47, 27 October 2007 (UTC)

==Renaming==
I've proposed renaming [[:Category:Werewolves in fiction]] as well as its subcategories. (See banner above). Discussion is [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Categories_for_discussion/Log/2007_November_2#Category:Werewolves_in_fiction here]. - [[User:Tobogganoggin|Tobogganoggin]] [[User_talk:Tobogganoggin|talk]] 02:02, 2 November 2007 (UTC)
::Erm, can't get to the discussion. cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 02:08, 2 November 2007 (UTC)
:::Above link to discussion should work now. - [[User:Tobogganoggin|Tobogganoggin]] [[User_talk:Tobogganoggin|talk]] 02:43, 5 November 2007 (UTC)
::::Discussion was closed as '''Keep'''. There may be a better template for this, but I used the standard results template above. -- [[User:Kesh|Kesh]] 23:41, 15 November 2007 (UTC)

* [http://www.loup-garou.org The website - Loup-garou.org] —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/82.65.165.93|82.65.165.93]] ([[User talk:82.65.165.93|talk]]) 15:25, 10 December 2007 (UTC) 

== Comprised Of ==

"were comprised of" in the "Other Uses of the Term" is incorrect English grammar. The correct phrase is "and comprised members...." The whole comprises the parts, while the parts are comprised by the whole. Please change this grammatical mistake as the article is blocked and I cannot do so myself.

== Beast of Gevaudaun ==

I had to skim this page but if I'm not mistaken you never mentioned the accounts of La Bete, A.K.A. the beast of Gevaudaun. La bete was said to be a large, beastly, wolf. She reigned over the mountains of france for three years and killed many people. There is one true story of three women on their way to mass. They were approached by a man who offered to take them through the woods. In the nick of time dragoons arrived and warned the women not to go through the woods because La Bete had just been seen there. When the dragoons left the strange and dark man insisted that they go through the woods but the women still refused. When the man reached out and touched a woman on the hand the ladies it was covered in fur. Almost the exact same thing happened where two other women were on their way to mass and were approached by the same shadowy man. The wind was fierce and when his shirt blew open, it revealed, to the women's horror a long body covered with fur. to find out more about this go on google.com and type in to the search bar 'beast of Gevaudaun' [[User:4theloveofwolves|4theloveofwolves]] ([[User talk:4theloveofwolves|talk]]) 18:10, 26 January 2008 (UTC)4theloveofwolves[[User:4theloveofwolves|4theloveofwolves]] ([[User talk:4theloveofwolves|talk]]) 18:10, 26 January 2008 (UTC)January 26, 2008, 1:10
:Or, you could find the proper citations and add it yourself! That's the nice part about Wikipedia, after all. :) -- [[User:Kesh|Kesh]] ([[User talk:Kesh|talk]]) 23:56, 27 January 2008 (UTC)

== Could someone please clarify this? ==
''[...]along with another form of this being "licked" by a werewolf to turn one's self (in this case the person is continuously a werewolf but has total control over the form, and has no blood lust, but gains increased strength and agility). Also it is hereditary, meaning you can be born a werewolf in women they do not bring their change into view until after they have mated with a male werewolf, but the boys are born into it.''

I have totally no idea what this means. Looks like someone added this in less-than-basic english and omitted a large portion of full stops and commas. Especially:
''[...]meaning you can be born a werewolf in women they do not bring their change into view[...]''

I can be born as a werewolf ''inside of a woman''? Do you not usually leave the woman's body when you're born? And who is "they", just so I know who does not bring his or her change into view? Seriously, this needs some fixing!

I would do it myself, but I'm afraid, since I don't quite get what this section wants to tell me, I'd make things worse... —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/91.66.51.170|91.66.51.170]] ([[User talk:91.66.51.170|talk]]) 13:41, 20 March 2008 (UTC) 
:I've removed that section. I don't know why this article is the target for such weird claims and vandalism. -- [[User:Kesh|Kesh]] ([[User talk:Kesh|talk]]) 14:00, 20 March 2008 (UTC)

==Vulnerabilities==
The article describes the werewolf as being vulnerable to silver. While this is a common element of related folklore, there is nowhere any reference as to why silver qualifies as a greater threat to a werewolf than any other material a weapon could be made of. I mean, how does the werewolf escape death from a normal type of weapon? Does he regenerate? Do the bullets and blades simply bounce off his hide? Will they pass through him like through a ghost? Could someone familiar with the topic please add an explanation to the "''Characteristics''" section? —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/91.66.51.170|91.66.51.170]] ([[User talk:91.66.51.170|talk]]) 15:44, 24 March 2008 (UTC) 

The fact that it's folklore should give you a slight clue as to why there's little in the way of explanation for the whole silver bullet thing. You may as well ask why vampires don't like garlic. Or why everyone who writes about vampires or werewolves seems to get the details a bit different. I can't imagine why this would be - it's almost like it's impossible to find a member of the undead to have a chat to. [[User:Janeinhouse|Janeinhouse]] ([[User talk:Janeinhouse|talk]]) 07:30, 19 June 2008 (UTC)

Nope, that was not what I meant - even if fairy tales don't offer scientific explanations, what I was looking for was a description of a situation where a werewolf is attacked with a normal weapon. What does happen in such cases in fiction? No detailed explanation HOW it happens, just WHAT happens. For example, in many horror movies, [[zombies]] will get up again and again after having been gunned down if they are not shot in the head (or the head is removed). While we do not learn as to WHY killing them in a normal way is not sufficient (even the explanation given by some works still relies on the presumption that within its constructed world, the very existence of zombies as such can be explained as a physical reality), we still learn WHAT happens - half a minute later, our dim-witted, smelly friend, now maybe minus some limbs or internal organs, gets up again and carries on his stuporous hunt for our tasty flesh...
[[Special:Contributions/77.20.57.156|77.20.57.156]] ([[User talk:77.20.57.156|talk]]) 22:15, 15 November 2008 (UTC)

The belief that werewolves were especially vulnerable to silver came about after the destruction of the Beast of Gevaudaun. That creature had been shot and killed with a very primative firearm. The person who fired that firearm used silver bullets because silver was and still is a superior material to make bullets from, and he needed every advantage he could get. Werewolves have an aversion to wolfsbane because back in the old days, hunters would use wolfsbane to poison wolves with laced pieces of meat. [[User:Coelacanth1938|Coelacanth1938]] ([[User talk:Coelacanth1938|talk]]) 20:47, 25 January 2009 (UTC)

== Contradiction?--or is there a Clarification? ==

This:
"''The medieval chronicler Gervase of Tilbury associated the transformation with the appearance of the full moon; however, there is evidence that the association existed among the Ancient Greeks, appearing in the writings of Petronius. This concept was rarely associated with the werewolf until the idea was picked up by fiction writers.''"

So...Which is it?
Was the association of the werewolf transformation with the appearance of the full moon rarely associated with the werewolf until picked up by fiction writers, or does it go all the way back to ancient Greece??
or is this trying to say something else?? -- {{unsigned2|12:48, April 7, 2008|71.194.236.53}}

:It sounds like the writer was trying to say that the association ''existed'' that far back, but was not frequently cited until fiction writers used it as a plot device. Most medieval stories of werewolves involved witchcraft or pacts with the devil, not necessarily tied to the moon at all. -- [[User:Kesh|Kesh]] ([[User talk:Kesh|talk]]) 17:29, 7 April 2008 (UTC)

:There is a rare old source to the idea, but it is the exception, not any indication of how werewolves were thought to work. The vast majority of all others up until modern times did not include it. That's what's meant. [[User:DreamGuy|DreamGuy]] ([[User talk:DreamGuy|talk]]) 19:05, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

==Slovenes in Poland==
"Common amongst the Kashubs, and the Serbs and Slovenes of what is now northern Poland" What does this refer to? [[Slovenes]] have never lived in northern Poland. Could someone disambiguate this link please? --[[User:Eleassar|'''Eleassar''']] [[User talk:Eleassar|my talk]] 20:24, 19 April 2008 (UTC)

Yeah, you're right. Serbs and Slovenes are not found in Poland. They are found in the former Yugoslavia (Slovenia and Serbia). Kashubs are generally from Poland. [[User:Swordmaster13|Swordmaster13]] ([[User talk:Swordmaster13|talk]]) 05:05, 20 April 2008 (UTC)

:I guess the peoples mentioned here probably are [[Sorbs]] and [[Slovincians]]. [[User:Cyon|Cyon]] ([[User talk:Cyon|talk]]) 05:03, 3 September 2009 (UTC)

== Etymology ==

Recent edits have added the information that "Wer" is Germanic for "man", and I originally reverted this with the edit summary ''"rv unsourced assertion"''. After reviewing the article I find that I was mistaken, in that the information is cited in the Etymology section. However, the etymology of the term is complex enough that I still don't think it should be handled in such a fragmentary way in the first sentence. Typically only pronunciation guides are provided in the lede and origins are left for the etymology section. [[User:Doc Tropics|Doc ]] [[User talk:Doc Tropics|Tropics]] 03:28, 1 May 2008 (UTC)

== Werewolves and Vampires? ==

Has anyone besides me noticed this? THat Werewolves and Vampires do not get along...At all. I recently just watched "Van Helsing" and that's when I noticed the pattern I've been seeing. Here are a few examples:

-Underwold Evolution:

The Werewolf and Vampire clans were at war, or something like that, correct? If not then they hated each other.

-Van Helsing:

Dracula only made a cure for the Werewolves because that was the only creature that could kill him. And earlier in the movie we see this picture of a Werewolf and Vampire fighting.

-Kaibutsu Oujo: MONSTER PRINCESS:

Riza/Liza [Werewolf Half Breed] and Reiri [Vampiress] do not like each other in any way. They often fight over pointless things, and at times it can get physical. Later on, however, they tolerate each other, but they still do not like each other. And, one of them mentioned something about their clans not getting along as well. [This is a horror/comedy. btw]

So, if anyone thinks this is worth mentioning, that'd be pretty cool. I would actually like to know more about it, but I just happened to notice this was all. [[Special:Contributions/70.251.94.30|70.251.94.30]] ([[User talk:70.251.94.30|talk]]) 17:47, 9 May 2008 (UTC)
:It's a very recent thing to do "vampires vs. werewolves." We'd need some kind of source to mention it in the article. -- [[User:Kesh|Kesh]] ([[User talk:Kesh|talk]]) 21:32, 9 May 2008 (UTC)

== Werewolves in Cinema ==
I think the Werewolves in Fiction section should be divided into two, with the second being devoted to the depiction of werewolves in cinema. [[User:The Sanity Inspector|The Sanity Inspector]] ([[User talk:The Sanity Inspector|talk]]) 18:05, 8 June 2008 (UTC)
:There's no real need to do that in this article. That section links to [[Werewolf fiction]], where a full treatment on werewolves in film is available. — [[User:HandThatFeeds|The Hand That Feeds You]]:[[User talk:HandThatFeeds|Bite]] 19:59, 8 June 2008 (UTC)
::We'll see how it goes with proper structure and referencing. Agree that the main place is a fictional article, well, a real article with fictional material :) . Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 19:14, 18 September 2008 (UTC)

== Cites on this article are majorly problematic ==

There are some *36* references to the same book -- this ''Werewolf Delusion'' by Woodward. The next closest reference in terms of number of cites is a couple that have been cited twice. This shows an amazingly unbalance, an extreme reliance on a single title... and one I might add that's certainly not in any way considered the standard reference (or even a well known one) on the topic. This article might as well be renamed "[[What Woodward thinks about Werewolves]]" at this point. When exactly did this article get changed to concentrate so extremely on the views of a single author? It didn't used to. I can think of plenty of better books to use as sources, and most of them are on the recommended reading section already.

Also, Montague Summers is used in one place to support a claim. Summers is an extremely unreliable source. He believed werewolves (and vampires and witches) were real as some sort of odd extreme religious view of demons invading the world, and often went through misinterpreting other people's religions (current or past) to try to find evidence for it, often lumping completely unrelated characters and figures together to try to make his point. [[User:DreamGuy|DreamGuy]] ([[User talk:DreamGuy|talk]]) 16:02, 11 August 2008 (UTC)
:The article does need some more sourcing. I haven't been able to pick up any good references lately, but I'll see what I can find. In the meantime, if you've got any of those other books, feel free to cite them. — [[User:HandThatFeeds|The Hand That Feeds You]]:[[User talk:HandThatFeeds|Bite]] 17:20, 11 August 2008 (UTC)
::If I find time I might go through and cite things in some of those 36 reference to Woodward to more well known and well respected sources that I have read. [[User:DreamGuy|DreamGuy]] ([[User talk:DreamGuy|talk]]) 19:03, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

Feel free to find more info and source it, but I see nothing warranting the removal of any Woodward citations.

'''I can think of plenty of better books to use as sources, and most of them are on the recommended reading section already.'''

So you have read werewolf delusion? If not, then who are you to say it is not as reliable as other reccomended reading?[[User:Dark hyena|Dark hyena]] ([[User talk:Dark hyena|talk]]) 18:11, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

:I have not read it, but as someone who did a lot of extensive research into classic books on the topic, this book didn't even show up on the radar as one that should be read. And if you'd read my comments you'd see that I said SUMMERS was not reliable, and just that Woodward is way way WAY overused for a book that's not a standard reference title in the field and for which other books would be better (more representative on research on the topic, as in having references by other authors, etc.). Whoever added all these cites essentially is promoting Woodward over all other sources. [[User:DreamGuy|DreamGuy]] ([[User talk:DreamGuy|talk]]) 19:03, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

What exactly are you proposing then? That Woodward references be removed, or that more information from other works be added? I'd happily support the latter.[[User:Dark hyena|Dark hyena]] ([[User talk:Dark hyena|talk]]) 22:18, 11 August 2008 (UTC)

::Erm, okay, I am wondering what are good sources then. I have ''The Werewolf Book'' by Brad Steiger, and ''The Book of Werewolves'' by Sabine Baring-Gould (which I picked up for $2.50 about 25 years ago), and I have access to a university library. Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 13:45, 17 September 2008 (UTC)

Well... anything written by an objective author who uses actual historical references rather than making sensationalist assumptions (like cryptozoologists would). If you intend to add something to which the author of that information says something like "in my personal opinion", then specify that it is so. [[User:Dark hyena|Dark hyena]] ([[User talk:Dark hyena|talk]]) 14:18, 17 September 2008 (UTC)

== Improvements and layout: ==

Okay, the layout as it currently stands:

1 Etymology
2 Origins of werewolves
3 Folk beliefs
3.1 Description and characteristics
3.1.1 Traits and habits
3.1.2 Becoming a werewolf
3.1.3 Vulnerabilities
3.1.4 Remedies
3.2 Ancient beliefs
3.3 European cultures
3.4 American cultures
3.5 In modern culture
4 Vampiric connections
4.1 Folkloric overlap
4.2 Scholastic comparisons
5 In fiction
6 See also
7 Footnotes
8 References
9 External links

So, the etymology section is about the term, origins is about the scientific and rationale for werewolves (this should probably be below modern culture as it is in vampire, but as it stands, it has a lot of folkloric content, so I thought I'd leave it up there for now...). Folk beliefs is about the myths, legends etc surrounding the werewolf and any of the history we can find. Descriptions and characteristics through to remedies is about the description and physical side of werewolves, and how you can become and prevent one etc. Ancient beliefs is about the very earliest mentions of werewolves (I have a book which says the legends stem from nordic origins - should that go in origins or ancient?). European through to american (possibly more cultures as time progresses) is about culture-specific legends and lore, while modern culture is about the current view on werewolves (not modern fiction...!). I'm not too sure about vampiric connections, but if it's good, then it'll probably stay there. Fiction is about the werewolf in cinema and literature. And thats about it. I'll go through, tag what sounds odd, remove that whence is crap, copy edit or merge anything else and we ''should'' have a nice slate to work from. I'll get on it straight away... [[User:Spawn Man|Spawn Man]] ([[User talk:Spawn Man|talk]]) 01:01, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

::Straight after lunch... or a nap... or both... ; ) [[User:Spawn Man|Spawn Man]] ([[User talk:Spawn Man|talk]]) 01:02, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

::Spawn Man, regarding some of your changes, this is the second time the Classical Literature section has been changed to "ancient beliefs". The section is not about "ancient beliefs" at all; it's about the appearence of werewolves in Classical Literature and mythology. The stories may or may not reflect "beliefs" but that's not what the section is about. Also regarding the Folk Beliefs section, I understand and sympathize with what you're trying to do but that title just doesn't work for the content of the section. Maybe another one would work better, but it seems to me that werewolves are by the very nature of the beast, creatures of folklore, so putting "folk beliefs" as the title of a section is redundant and seems clumsy to me. Josh (talk) 13:28, 19 September 2008 (UTC)

:Oh and the beast of gevaudian (or whatever...) needs a part too - that was a major part in werewolf lore... I have a book on it, but where should it go? [[User:Spawn Man|Spawn Man]] ([[User talk:Spawn Man|talk]]) 01:06, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

The beastS (there was more than one) of Gevaudan was not a werewolf. It attacked in broad daylight and when it was killed, it did not revert back to its human form. [[User:Dark hyena|Dark hyena]] ([[User talk:Dark hyena|talk]]) 09:48, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

:The fact you're talking about it as if it was anything more than a wolf is frightening...! In any case, yes the beast(s) was considered a werewolf in some circles or at least loosely related to it. Don't worry, I've got the cites for it, so I'll add later. [[User:Spawn Man|Spawn Man]] ([[User talk:Spawn Man|talk]]) 09:55, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

The whole werewolf story was one cropped up by the superstitious peasants of the area, based on the fact that the creaure constantly outsmarted Duhamel and Deneval, and that it took repeated shots without dying. Illiterate peasants are hardly an authority. All the hunters and dragoons involved in its final downfall simply saw the animals as unusually large, reddish coloured wolves. Heck, a NECROPSY was performed on them.[[User:Dark hyena|Dark hyena]] ([[User talk:Dark hyena|talk]]) 10:06, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

:Your point being? It is still considered a werewolf aspect - heck if vampires are mentioned on this article, then I'm sure a large wolf-like creature often billed as a werewolf can be included, since I have the sources. [[User:Spawn Man|Spawn Man]] ([[User talk:Spawn Man|talk]]) 23:23, 16 September 2008 (UTC)
::I'll have to read about it before commenting. Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 23:57, 16 September 2008 (UTC)

==Merger proposal==
{{Discussion top|The result was '''merge''' [[Lycanthrope]] into [[Werewolf]] and [[Therianthropy]]. Concerns about the usage of 'Lycanthrope' as a synonym for 'Therianthrope' in some RPGs, and from there into other groups, should be adressed via a 'hatnote' on the Werewolf article indicating that Lycanthrope redirects there, but can also mean Therianthrope or other things shown on the [[Lycanthropy (disambiguation)]] page. --[[User talk:CBDunkerson|CBD]] 12:18, 6 October 2008 (UTC)}}

Spawn Man and I were beginning to work this one up to FAC, and I was looking at [[Lycanthrope]], and figured I couldn't think of anything I would have in one article and not the other, and that the terms are synonymous. There is some general info on changing into other animals but that is better in a therianthopy or general shapeshifting article. How do others feel? I have suggested werewolf as the lage and lycanthrtopy and the redirect only because the former is plainer english and more widely known (?) and accessible? Thoughts?
'''Note:''' Unmerged as [[User:Dreamguy]] has commented this has been left open for an insufficient length of time.

===Support===
#Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 00:49, 19 September 2008 (UTC) (as per above)
#No brainer - surprised I missed that one... [[User:Spawn Man|Spawn Man]] ([[User talk:Spawn Man|talk]]) 04:53, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
#Support the merger/restructuring suggested by Turlo Lomon below. --[[User:Malleus Fatuorum|Malleus Fatuorum]] ([[User talk:Malleus Fatuorum|talk]]) 12:57, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
#'''Support''' as what we are arguing to below.
#'''Support'''. Just be careful because from the looks of it, there are additional sources with no inline citations. Chop it up, send a few pieces to [[Therianthropy]] and the rest to here. This should make werewolf a better article. '''[[User:Synergy|Syn]]'''[[User_talk:Synergy|ergy]] 15:06, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
#'''Support''' I agree with what Syn & everybody else is saying. If Lycanthropy gets cleaned up a bit it would indeed be a "no brainer". [[User:Msgrjosh|Josh]] ([[User talk:Msgrjosh|talk]]) 17:55, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
# Makes sense (particularly the complex move suggested below). A lot of the good information in lycanthropy is unsourced, though - can you move the interesting bits without sources, or find sources for most of it as part of the merge? I wonder if "lycanthropy" is perhaps the original and most accurate term, and werewolf should perhaps be the redirect even if it is the most common in current usage? [[User:Avruch|Avruch]][[User talk:Avruch| T ]] 16:12, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
#::Actually, the sources are there - just not inline citations. The bottom of the articles have several books I know cover it in detail. I may have a few of them and after my current FA push that I am working on, I would love to assist in cleaning this set of articles up. [[User:Turlo Lomon|Turlo Lomon]] ([[User talk:Turlo Lomon|talk]]) 16:32, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
# '''Support with conditions'''—A merge would be logical, and I too favor Turlo Lomon's suggestion below.—[[User:RJHall|RJH]] ([[User_talk:RJHall|''talk'']]) 20:32, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
# '''Support'''. "Lycanthrope", literally translated, means "wolf-man". That Dungeons & Dragons later generalized the term to refer to other sorts of shape-changing within its ficitonal universe is not really relevant. In common parlance, if you hear the term outside of a D&D manual, it is referring to a werewolf. A footnote or parenthetical will dispose of the non-standard D&D usage. [[User:Nandesuka|Nandesuka]] ([[User talk:Nandesuka|talk]]) 11:35, 1 October 2008 (UTC)

===Oppose===
<s>'''Strong oppose'''</s> - It is interesting that this was brought up to the RPG community, but both articles are about the real world references, not the game ones. Although there is some overlap in the articles, take a closer look at [[lycanthrope]]. The concerns brought up on the gaming page for RP reasons are the very issues already present on the [[lycanthrope]] using real world references. Although I am a huge supporter of RPG and D&D, these articles fall under the category of mythology, not RPGs (and the wikiprojects on the talk pages reflect this). They cover different topics. A werewolf is a lycanthrope, but a lycanthrope is not necessarily a werewolf. As such, I strongly feel they should remain seperated. The lycanthrope could easily be expanded by covering the other varients in additional detail. [[User:Turlo Lomon|Turlo Lomon]] ([[User talk:Turlo Lomon|talk]]) 06:10, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
:'''Compromise Suggested''' - [[lycanthrope]] can't simply be merged into [[Werewolf]]. There is too many non-werewolfy info bits there. However, [[Therianthropy]] would fill the rest. If the Lycanthrophy article was broken up, with the relevant sections moved to werewolf and the others to therianthrophy, then finally a redirect from Lycanthrophy to werewolf, I would be happy with the end result. [[User:Turlo Lomon|Turlo Lomon]] ([[User talk:Turlo Lomon|talk]]) 06:28, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
::'''Agree''' absolutely. that was what I had in mind so...good. :) Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 07:45, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
:::Erm, that's what Cas mentioned in the first paragraph of this thread... :P [[User:Spawn Man|Spawn Man]] ([[User talk:Spawn Man|talk]]) 07:29, 20 September 2008 (UTC)
::::Yah, it is. I got caught up in the RPG side of the discussion and didn't check all the previous posts. [[User:Turlo Lomon|Turlo Lomon]] ([[User talk:Turlo Lomon|talk]]) 07:59, 20 September 2008 (UTC)
:::::Anyway, all good. Musing on closing this as consensus or leaving it open for another 24 hours or so. Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 09:45, 20 September 2008 (UTC)
::::::Not that I am the only opinion that matters, but I consider it consensusfied. [[User:Turlo Lomon|Turlo Lomon]] ([[User talk:Turlo Lomon|talk]]) 17:31, 20 September 2008 (UTC)
'''Oppose'''. Lycanthropy results in more forms than wolves. I don't see any sense in limiting the article to one subset of the topic. [[User:Celarnor|'''Celarnor''']] [[User_talk:Celarnor|Talk to me]] 22:53, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
:Celarnor, the ''only'' place where this is so that I know of is in RPGs, specifically D&D. Apart from this one reference, I can't think of anywhere else. If you can tell me or cite where this is true elsewhere I would be glad to hear it. Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 01:01, 24 September 2008 (UTC)
'''Oppose'''. [[Lycanthropy]] is a general discussion of the concept of humans becoming other animals. [[Werewolf]] is about a specific European legendary (and modern pop culture) creature. [[User:Redddogg|Redddogg]] ([[User talk:Redddogg|talk]]) 14:08, 25 September 2008 (UTC)
::Redddog, the lycanthropy ''article'' as it stands now has a lot of general were-animal info (for lack of a better word), which may be better off in [[therianthropy]] or [[shapeshifting]]. Outside of D&D, I have only ever heard of lycanthropy to apply to were''wolves''. Can you point me in hte direction of a reference for a more general use? Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 14:14, 25 September 2008 (UTC)
{{Discussion bottom}}

===Discussion===

Tread carefully here. Lycanthropy in [[Dungeons & Dragons]] is any form of shapechanging from human to animal form as a curse. You might want to post a notice at [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Dungeons & Dragons|WikiProject Dungeons & Dragons]] about this merge request. [[User:Lady Aleena|LA]] ([[User talk:Lady Aleena|T]]) @ 05:37, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
:Hmm..I do recall that now, as the category ''lycanthropy'' was used for all those pesky CE weretigers, LE wererats, N wereboars, CG werebears as well as the CE werewolves.....I guess we can place a semantic note in it. Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 05:47, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
::That is just a small selection of the werecreatures of Dungeons & Dragons. Don't forget the weresharks, werespiders, etc. There is even an unofficial weresheep wandering around. Just know that you won't get this done quickly if there are enough gamers who forget that lycan also means wolf. [[User:Lady Aleena|LA]] ([[User talk:Lady Aleena|T]]) @ 06:07, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
:::ha, I should know, I got a weresnake published in the Fiend Factory section of White Dwarf 30 way back in 1981 (when WD covered D&D...)..hehehe. ''(shameless self-plug)''...Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 06:12, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
::::There was also the MrsPaulacanthrope (were-fishstick) in an April fools issue of Dragon. However, these articles are based on the real world references, not the in game references. I don't feel that the RPG community should apply game mechanics from D&D to the discussion. However, there is already enough evidence (IMO) that they should remain seperate. [[User:Turlo Lomon|Turlo Lomon]] ([[User talk:Turlo Lomon|talk]]) 06:13, 19 September 2008 (UTC)

''Sigh'' looking back, Gygax et al. have alot to answer for for taking a word which meant ''wolf-man'' and generalizing it like this. This is what I mean about the word outside D&D meaning werewolf. All the material on non-wolf shapeshifters should be in ''another'' article, either a more generic shapeshifter or therianthropy article. Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 06:16, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
:He wasn't the only one to make that mistake. I have several mythology books that do the same. However, I see your point. Let me peruse a few articles and then I will make a suggestion that will be amiable to all of us. [[User:Turlo Lomon|Turlo Lomon]] ([[User talk:Turlo Lomon|talk]]) 06:20, 19 September 2008 (UTC)
:: Gygax and co are guilty a lot worse stuff. If you take something and double it and double it again how much do you get? No, you don't get 4 times as much. Under the standard 3.0 or 3.5 rules you get three times as much since "doubling" means adding the starting value to your total. [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] ([[User talk:JoshuaZ|talk]]) 20:56, 22 September 2008 (UTC)
::: Josh, you've completely lost me. I never read much of 3.0 or 3.5 (or now 4th edition for that matter), or are you referring to something in 1st or 2nd ed? Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 23:54, 22 September 2008 (UTC)
:::: Under the 3.0/3.5 rules doubling doesn't mean what it means to any sane person. Let's say for example that I have something that is supposed to do x damage and I have a spell that doubles damage and a feat that doubles damage. Now, in the real world, if I double x I get 2x. Then if I double it again I get 4x. But in Gygax world, doubling x gives 2x but doubling that gets 3x. I don't know if this applies to 4.0 since I've only skimmed the 4.0 rules so far. [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] ([[User talk:JoshuaZ|talk]]) 00:19, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
::::: ''(groan)'' - ok got it; back on topic, I am also [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Werewolf&curid=33803&diff=240328326&oldid=240323870 looking for a reference] for the generalisation of the term in RPGs..and my 1st ed stuff is buried deep in my garage under boxes and boxes of crap...and do you have an opinion on the merge? Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 00:24, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
:::::: I haven't made up my mind yet hence the off-topic remarks. I'm looking for sources on the same matter actually but was trying to find secondary stuff. Use of actual D&D material in this context might constitute OR. Not sure in general how relevant it is to the merge issue. We may want to consider a merge with [[Wolfwere]] also. [[User:JoshuaZ|JoshuaZ]] ([[User talk:JoshuaZ|talk]]) 00:28, 23 September 2008 (UTC)
::::::: Aaah the wol(f)were, which started as a one-liner in MM1 and grew into a monster. Surprised that one survived the AfD steamroller, question is, was wolwere ever a term outside D&D? Or was Jackalwere for that matter? Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 01:07, 24 September 2008 (UTC)
::::::::<s>Actually, my recollection is that Wolfwere was a full entry in MM1.</s>Self-correction... Jackalwere was in MM1, but Wolfwere was only mentioned there and then expanded in MM2. The concept of animals, particularly predators, taking human form to lure in victims has a long history, but the terms 'Wolfwere' and 'Jackalwere' are pure D&D. Also, Gygax can't really be blamed for adding of multipliers since that was introduced long after he was ousted from the world of D&D. It's also a perfectly logical progression which I used in games myself long before AD&D started doing so... a number can be 'doubled' either by multiplying by two OR adding one-hundred percent. I've generally used both methods as the logic of the situation directed; There is no real reason that '2x damage' from fire would enhance '2x damage' from lightning... so that'd be 100% base + 100% fire + 100% lightning = 300%/3x. Whereas a sword getting 2x damage from increased sharpness and 2x damage from increased force would logically see those effects complement each other for 1 X 2 X 2 = 4x/400%. As to references for misuse of 'lycanthrope'... how about [http://www.nydailynews.com/archives/news/2000/10/28/2000-10-28_crazy_cat_may_be_a_devil_try.html this one]? --[[User talk:CBDunkerson|CBD]] 12:08, 6 October 2008 (UTC)

== Results of merge ==

<s>I have gone through the old lycanthropy article - some of which read like OR, a segment is now in [[therianthropy]], which could itself be merged with [[shapeshifting]] I would think! Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 21:20, 20 September 2008 (UTC)

Now to rationalise - here are some orphaned sources to review:

===Sources===
* {{cite book| last=Ashley| first= L.R.N. | year=2001| title=The Complete Book of Werewolves| location=Fort Lee, NJ| publisher= Barricade Books| id= ISBN 1-56980-159-2}}
* {{cite book| last=De Groot| first= J.J.M.| year=1901| title=The Religious System of China: Volume IV| location=Leiden| publisher= Brill| id= ISBN 0-7661-3354-0}}
* {{cite book| last=Greene| first= R.| year=2000| title=The Magic of Shapeshifting| location=York Beach, ME| publisher= Weiser| id= ISBN 1-57863-171-8}}
* {{cite book| last=Guiley| first= R.E.| year=2005| title=The Encyclopedia of Vampires, Werewolves & Other Monsters| location= New York| publisher= Facts on File| id= ISBN 0-8160-4685-9}}
* {{cite book| last=Hamel| first= F.| year= 1969| title=Human Animals, Werewolves & Other Transformations| location= New Hyde Park, NY| publisher= University Books| id= ISBN 0-8216-0092-3}}
* {{cite book| last=Pijoan| first= T.| year=1992| title=White Wolf Woman & Other Native American Transformation Myths| location= Little Rock| publisher= August House| id= ISBN 0-87483-200-4}}
* {{cite book| last=Pfeiffer | first=Thomas | year= 2004 | title=Le Brûleur de loups| location= Lyon | publisher= Bellier | id=}}
* {{cite book| last=Rose| first= C.| year=2000| title=Giants, Monsters & Dragons: An Encyclopedia of Folklore, Legend and Myth| location=New York| publisher= Norton| id= ISBN 0-393-32211-4}}
* {{cite book| last=White| first= D.G.| year=1991| title=Myths of the Dog-Man| location= Chicago| publisher=The University of Chicago Press| id= ISBN 0-226-89509-2}}</s>

== Unmerged for now ==

I think people were way too quck on the trigger here to merge articles that have been separate for years with very little discussion. The [[Lycanthropy]] article had no discussion at all, and was the main one affected. All there was there was a tag that was only up for about a day and a half. Tags are easy to miss, and that's not much time for anyone to see it.

On top of that, the discussion here, which also didn't last long at all, mentioned [[Lycanthrope]], not [[Lycanthropy]]. The former redirects to the latter, but it isn't clear that people knew what was being discussed.

Clearly the way the info was thrown onto [[Therianthropy]] was pretty sloppy, as it still was referring people to a main article that never existed.

I think we need to wait for more input here, look at our options, and not rush into things that can be messy to clean up afterwards. A "consensus" of people who happened to log on and catch it in a day and a half doesn't stand for much in the grand scheme of things. We could have a new consensus every week if that's all it took. [[User:DreamGuy|DreamGuy]] ([[User talk:DreamGuy|talk]]) 03:31, 21 September 2008 (UTC)

:OK Dreamguy, the stage is yours - please detail above why they shouldn't be merged and how they aren't synonymous. Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 10:30, 21 September 2008 (UTC)

::Hmmm... *Gets walking stick and tugs off stage* ; ) They're completely synonymous other than the fact that Lycanthropy is the technical term. However, that said, it's still not enough to fill an entire, unique article - it can all be said in the werewolf article. Stop being so darn collaborative Cas (jk) the tribe (consensus) has spoken and it's time to implement the changes. Stop pandering, be BOLD and finish merging. There's no reasonable reason for not merging. The article history is there, so things can be reversed. Sorry, just rearing to go, and the same thing happened on vampire where semantics stopped progress... Cheers, [[User:Spawn Man|Spawn Man]] ([[User talk:Spawn Man|talk]]) 07:11, 24 September 2008 (UTC)

:::Hold on Spawny, give it a few more days, just get stuck into improving [[werewolf]] and we can sort out this with proper consensus (well, time really). Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 07:52, 24 September 2008 (UTC)

== See also section: ==

I suggest that we try and reduce that see also at the end of the article by working the links into the text - they just look ugly... Also, I've fiddled with the sections and I think that they look good now - I'll change them again if we get any info from other parts of world lore. Cheers, [[User:Spawn Man|Spawn Man]] ([[User talk:Spawn Man|talk]]) 07:05, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

:Worked on lead a bit. It needs a lot of expanding and work. Some parts were over-specific but others were very broad. I'd still use vampire as a model. Cheers, [[User:Spawn Man|Spawn Man]] ([[User talk:Spawn Man|talk]]) 07:24, 25 September 2008 (UTC)
::Considering the range of related articles would a {{tl|Therianthropy}} or {{tl|Werewolf}} template be of use? --[[User:Nate1481|Nate]][[User talk:Nate1481|14]][[Special:Contributions/Nate1481|81]] 09:37, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

:::Agree about working all of seealso section into it. Template idea is interesting, have to think what would be in it (?) Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 10:11, 25 September 2008 (UTC)
::::Largely the 'See also' section... with a few other bits that are in the article, the main reasonging is that it would be easier to group things and smaller, it could then be used on the other relevant articles. --[[User:Nate1481|Nate]][[User talk:Nate1481|14]][[Special:Contributions/Nate1481|81]] 10:17, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

:::::I was musing on prosifying or removing them all. I have not used many templates really, we never thought of having one on [[vampire]]...hmmm.Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 13:28, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

''(outdent)'' the fictional ones certainly don't mention a template, it is a real hotchpotch. I like the idea of a template being some sort of cohesive group of subjects.Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 13:39, 25 September 2008 (UTC)

:The main ones I've used and worked on were {{tl|Martial arts}} and {{tl|Grappling}} but there are other styles having jsut one line in, I can do a 1st draft and then decide if it's useful, or what needs editing. --[[User:Nate1481|Nate]][[User talk:Nate1481|14]][[Special:Contributions/Nate1481|81]] 14:07, 25 September 2008 (UTC)
::Knocked up a quick 0th draft [[User:Nate1481/werewolf]] --[[User:Nate1481|Nate]][[User talk:Nate1481|14]][[Special:Contributions/Nate1481|81]] 14:23, 25 September 2008 (UTC)
:::I think any number of things could go in it, and I need some time to work on the article to figure out which topics may warrant a link in a template box. One of the seealsos [[Werewolf priest]] I am pretty sure is a hoax or synthesis. Tell you want, leave the link there to your userpage and we can add and subtract as we go as it could change radically. Does lookk promising - need to sleep now Cheers, [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 14:27, 25 September 2008 (UTC)
::::Edit away, it can be moved to the template space when its nearer done. --[[User:Nate1481|Nate]][[User talk:Nate1481|14]][[Special:Contributions/Nate1481|81]] 09:44, 29 September 2008 (UTC)
to get more intereset: --[[User:Nate1481|Nate]][[User talk:Nate1481|14]][[Special:Contributions/Nate1481|81]] 11:28, 27 October 2008 (UTC)
{{User:Nate1481/werewolf}}

== American Cultures ==

When the European colonization of the Americas occurred, the pioneers brought their own werewolf folklore with them and were later influenced by the lore of their neighbouring colonies and those of the Natives. Belief in the loup-garou present in Canada, the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and upstate New York, originates from French folklore influenced by Native American stories on the Wendigo. In Mexico, there is a belief in a creature called the nahual, which traditionally limits itself to stealing cheese and raping women rather than murder.

Nahual is older than colonization of the spanish, and Mexico (Mexicas or Aztecs) don't know cheese until the colonization.

http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagual[[Media:http://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nagual]]

--[[Special:Contributions/148.245.28.125|148.245.28.125]] ([[User talk:148.245.28.125|talk]]) 19:09, 4 February 2009 (UTC)

==Image copyright problem with File:Thewolfmanposter.jpg==
The image [[:File:Thewolfmanposter.jpg]] is used in this article under a claim of [[WP:NFC|fair use]], but it does not have an adequate explanation for why it meets the [[WP:NFCC|requirements for such images]] when used here. In particular, for each page the image is used on, it must have an [[Wikipedia:Non-free use rationale guideline|explanation]] linking to that page which explains why it needs to be used on that page. Please check

:* That there is a [[Wikipedia:Non-free use rationale guideline|non-free use rationale]] on the image's description page for the use in this article.
:* That this article is linked to from the image description page.


This is an automated notice by [[User:FairuseBot|FairuseBot]]. For assistance on the image use policy, see [[Wikipedia:Media copyright questions]]. --19:26, 18 February 2009 (UTC)

::''(sigh)'' yep. done. [[User:Casliber|Casliber]] ([[User talk:Casliber|talk]] '''·''' [[Special:Contributions/Casliber|contribs]]) 23:07, 18 February 2009 (UTC)

== cognates vs derivatives ==

I have removed "Spanish viril and varon" from 'etymology'. These are ''derivatives'' from Latin 'vir' not cognates. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:V-Weber|V-Weber]] ([[User talk:V-Weber|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/V-Weber|contribs]]) 13:49, 11 March 2009 (UTC) 

Thought here: Werewolf trials aren't mentioned here. I've heard the were forced to swallow hot irons until they confessed. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/99.242.210.65|99.242.210.65]] ([[User talk:99.242.210.65|talk]]) 23:14, 7 April 2009 (UTC) 

== The Albanian word for "wolf." ==

I noticed that in this article the Albanian word for "wolf," was misspelled. The right spelling of the word would be "ujk," rather than "oik," and is very similar to the word given for indo-european: "wlkow," which of course I did not know, and cannot say whether it is correct or not. In fact, in Albanian the word "ujk," is also in some dialects used as "ulk," or "ulka," which readily shows the similarity with the Greek "lycos."

Also, in the etymology of the word "man," in "werewolf" from Old English "wer" (or were) and "wulf" in which "wer" is translated as "man" including the various other Germanic languages: in Albanian, the word is "burrë", or "burr" and as is known the letter "v" is easily transformed into "b." —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/98.213.9.42|98.213.9.42]] ([[User talk:98.213.9.42|talk]]) 20:30, 18 April 2009 (UTC) 

That mess up about the "oik" looks more like a mistype than anything else. Maybe its as simple as just changing the word. [[User:Solonolrek|Solonolrek]] ([[User talk:Solonolrek|talk]]) 08:20, 23 April 2009 (UTC)

== "Spade"? ==

Spade in Spanish is "pala." "Espada," on the other hand, means sword. Or am I wrong? Please check.

(See the part about corpses being exorcised by a priest.) [[Special:Contributions/121.96.118.103|121.96.118.103]] ([[User talk:121.96.118.103|talk]]) 04:23, 13 May 2009 (UTC)

== o.O not smart ==

wiki is very wrong. a werewolf cannot become a vampire. and werwolves do have tales. and a familiar is not a messenger. they need to get their wiccan information right. and a werewolf doesnt have anything to do with god. or the devil. wikipedia is VERY WRONG and needs to ask some one who realy knows about this stuff. this is annoying o.O lei gli individui devono chiedere un licantropo reale che sono come —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/76.119.253.67|76.119.253.67]] ([[User talk:76.119.253.67|talk]]) 19:31, 21 May 2009 (UTC) 
:Werewolves are fiction. And wiccans don't get a monopoly on mythology. — [[User:HandThatFeeds|The Hand That Feeds You]]:[[User talk:HandThatFeeds|Bite]] 00:26, 22 May 2009 (UTC)

== the truth about werewolves ==

in my recent studies in the far side of romania,i discovered an acaint ruin that showed a series of paintings of a man being turned into a wolf,sent be god to defend us from evil.i believe that if this is proof that werewolves did exist and that they where our body guards,but us being the inferiour race we mearly saw them as a threat and grew scared of them, and as the paintings showed us that the wolves grew tired of us hunting them and defending us at the same time, as one wolf grew strong enough to escape from gods grasp and went to seek revenge,this wolf was called hollimey ''THE KILLER''.we where to inferiour to understand there reason for being the way they where,and we destroyed i believe to be our only chance at surving the apocalypse.these painting will be on display at the ancaint history museum in new york u.s on the 21 july 2009. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/210.56.253.79|210.56.253.79]] ([[User talk:210.56.253.79|talk]]) 15:06, 17 July 2009 (UTC) 

:You are hilarious. What the hell does "acaint" mean? I didnt realise courses in archeology accepted functionally illiterate people.[[User:Mariomassone|Mariomassone]] ([[User talk:Mariomassone|talk]]) 15:35, 17 July 2009 (UTC)
::I believe that was supposed to be "ancient." Either way, This kind of [[WP:OR|personal speculation] isn't appropriate for the article. — [[User:HandThatFeeds|The Hand That Feeds You]]:[[User talk:HandThatFeeds|Bite]] 01:56, 18 July 2009 (UTC)

== mistake in article ==

The sentence "The vilkacis and skin-walkers probably have a common origin in Proto-Indo-European society, where a class of young unwed warriors were apparently associated with wolves.", is incorrect. The term skin-walkers is almost always used to refer to shape-shifters in Native American mythology. Native American and Proto-Indo-European society developed in entirely different hemispheres. Therefore there is little, if any, relation between them. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/96.248.162.219|96.248.162.219]] ([[User talk:96.248.162.219|talk]]) 02:46, 27 August 2009 (UTC)

Russian Empire

2009-08-29T08:31:43Z

Cyon: rv vandalism

{{Previously|Russia}}
{{Infobox Former Country
|native_name = Pоссийская Империя ([[Russian language|ru]]-[[Cyrillic alphabet|Cyrl]]) ''Rossiyskaya Imperiya'' ([[Romanization of Russian|translit]])
|conventional_long_name = The Russian Empire
|common_name = Russia
|
|continent = Eurasia
|status = Empire
|government_type = Absolute Monarchy
|
|year_start = 1721
|year_end = 1917
|
|event_pre = Accession of [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]]
|date_pre = May 7, 1682 [[New Style|NS]], April 27, 1682 [[Old Style|OS]]¹
|event_start = Empire proclaimed
|date_start = October 22, 1721 [[New Style|NS]], October 11, 1721 [[Old Style|OS]]
|event1 = [[Decembrist revolt]]
|date_event1 = December 26, 1825 [[New Style|NS]], December 14, 1825 [[Old Style|OS]]
|event2 = [[Emancipation reform of 1861|Abolition of feudalism]]
|date_event2 = March 3, 1861 [[New Style|NS]], February 19, 1861 [[Old Style|OS]]
|event3 = [[Russian Revolution of 1905|Revolution of 1905]]
|date_event3 = January–December 1905
|event4 = [[Russian Constitution of 1906|Constitution]]
|date_event4 = April 23, 1906 
|event_end = February Revolution
|date_end = March 15, 1917 [[New Style|NS]], March 2, 1917 [[Old Style|OS]]
|event_post = October Revolution
|date_post = November 7, 1917 [[New Style|NS]], October 25, 1917 [[Old Style|OS]]
|
|p1 = Tsardom of Russia
|flag_p1 = Flag of Russia.svg
|s1 = Russian Provisional Government
|flag_s1 = Flag of Russia.svg
|image_flag = Flag of Russia.svg
|flag_type = Flag of Russian Empire: official from 1883 to 1917
|
|image_coat = Coat of Arms of Russian Empire.svg
|symbol = National emblems of the Russian Empire
|symbol_type = Coat of Arms
|
|image_map = Imperio Ruso zenith.PNG
|image_map_caption = The Russian Empire in 1866 <ref>After 1866, Alaska was sold and South Sakhalin lost to Japan, but Batum, Kars, Pamir, and the Transcaspian region (Turkmenistan) were acquired.</ref>
|
|capital = [[Saint Petersburg]] (1721–28) Moscow (1728–30) Saint Petersburg/[[Petrograd]] (1730–1918)
|biggest cities = [[Saint Petersburg]] Moscow [[Warsaw]] [[Odessa]] [[Kiev]] [[Riga]]
|latd=59 |latm=56 |latNS=N |longd=30 |longm=20 |longEW=E
|
|national_anthem = "[[God Save The Tsar!]]"
|national_motto = Съ нами Богъ! (God is with us!)
|common_languages = [[Official language|Official]]: Russian [[Regional language|Recognised regional languages]]: [[Finnish language|Finnish]], [[Swedish language|Swedish]], [[Polish language|Polish]] [[Second language]]: [[French language|French]]
|religion = State Church: [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]] Minorities:[[Roman Catholic Church|Catholics]], [[protestantism|Protestants]], [[Judaism|Jews]], [[Old Believers]], [[Islam|Muslims]]
|currency = [[Russian ruble|Ruble]]
|
|leader1 = [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]]
|leader2 = [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]]
|year_leader1 = 1721–1725
|year_leader2 = 1894–1917
|title_leader = [[List of Russian rulers|Emperor]]
|legislature = [[State Duma of the Russian Empire|State Duma]]
|stat_year1 = 1916
|stat_area1 = 21799825
|stat_pop1 = 181537800
|footnotes = 1: Russia continued to use the [[Julian calendar]] until after the collapse of the empire; ''see [[Old Style and New Style dates]]''.
}}
[[File:Romanov Flag.svg|thumb|The "coat of arms flag", erroneously called "[[Romanov]] dynastic flag": the official national flag of the Russian Empire from 1858 to 1883]]
[[File:Russian Emperor Flag.jpg|thumb|right|The Romanov double-headed eagle was the Emperor's standard.]]
[[Image:Beggrov3.jpg|thumb|285px|The capital of Imperial Russia was [[Saint Petersburg]].]]
[[Image:Suvorov crossing the alps.jpg|215px|thumb|[[Suvorov's Italian and Swiss expedition|An episode from the Russian-French wars]].]]
The '''Russian Empire''' ([[History of the Russian language|Pre-reform Russian]]: Россійская Имперія, [[Russian language|Modern Russian]]: Российская Империя, [[Romanization of Russian|translit]]: ''Rossiyskaya Imperiya'') was a state that existed from 1721 until the [[Russian Revolution (1917)|Russian Revolution of 1917]]. It was the successor to the [[Tsardom of Russia]], and the predecessor of the [[Soviet Union]]. It was [[List of largest empires|the second largest contiguous empire]] the world had seen, surpassed only by the [[Mongol Empire]]. At one point in 1866, it stretched from eastern [[Europe]], across [[Asia]], and into [[North America]].

At the beginning of the 19th century, Russia was the largest country in the world, extending from the Arctic Ocean to the north to the [[Black Sea]] on the south, from the [[Baltic Sea]] on the west to the Pacific Ocean on the east. Across this vast realm were scattered the Emperor's 176.4 million subjects, the third largest population of the world at the time, after [[Qing Dynasty|Qing China]] and [[British Raj|British India]], but still represented a great disparity in economic, ethnic, and religious positions. Its government, ruled by the Emperor, was one of the last [[Absolute monarchy|absolute monarchies]] left in Europe. Prior to the outbreak of [[World War I]] in August 1914 Russia was one of the five major [[Great Powers]] of Europe.

==History==
{{Main|History of Russia}}

The Russian Empire was a natural successor to the [[Tsardom of Muscovy]]. Though the empire was only officially proclaimed by Tsar [[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]] following the [[Treaty of Nystad]] (1721), some historians{{Who|date=August 2009}} would argue that it was truly born when Peter acceded to the throne in early 1682.

===The eighteenth century===
{{Main|Russian history, 1682-1796}}

[[Peter I of Russia|Peter I]], the Great (1672–1725), consolidated autocracy in Russia and played a major role in bringing his country into the European state system. From its modest beginnings in the 14th-century principality of Moscow, Russia had become the largest state in the world by Peter's time. It spanned the Eurasian landmass from the [[Baltic Sea]] to the Pacific Ocean. Much of its expansion had taken place in the 17th century, culminating in the [[History of Siberia|first Russian settlement of the Pacific]] in the mid-17th century, the [[Russo-Polish War (1654–1667)|reconquest of Kiev]], and the [[Russian conquest of Siberia|pacification of the Siberian tribes]]. However, this vast land had a population of only 14 million. Grain yields trailed behind those of agriculture in the West, compelling almost the entire population to farm. Only a small fraction of the population lived in the towns. [[Slavery]] remained a major institution in Russia until 1723, when [[Peter the Great]] converted the household slaves into house [[serfs]]. Russian agricultural slaves were formally converted into [[Serfdom in Russia|serfs]] earlier in 1679.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24160 Welcome to Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to History]</ref> [[Image:Peter der-Grosse 1838.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] officially proclaimed the existence of the Russian Empire in 1721.]]

Peter was deeply impressed by the advanced technology, warcraft, and statecraft of the West. He studied modern tactics and fortifications and built a strong army of 300,000 made up of his own subjects, whom he [[Conscription|conscripted]] for life. The [[Streltsy|Strelets Troops]] were incorporated into the regular army. In 1697–1698, he [[Great Embassy|became the first Russian prince to ever visit the West]], where he and his entourage made a deep impression. In celebration of his conquests, Peter assumed the title of emperor as well as tsar, and Muscovite Russia officially became the Russian Empire late in 1721.

Peter's first military efforts were directed against the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman Turks]]. His attention then turned to the north. Peter still lacked a secure northern seaport except at [[Arkhangelsk|Archangel]] on the [[White Sea]], whose harbor was frozen for nine months a year. Access to the Baltic was blocked by Sweden, whose territory enclosed it on three sides. Peter's ambitions for a "window to the sea" led him in 1699 to make a secret alliance with the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] and Denmark against Sweden, resulting in the [[Great Northern War]]. The war ended in 1721 when an exhausted Sweden sued for peace with Russia. Peter acquired four provinces situated south and east of the Gulf of Finland, thus securing his coveted access to the sea. There he built Russia's new capital, [[Saint Petersburg]], to replace Moscow, which had long been Russia's cultural center.

Peter reorganized his government on the latest modern models, molding Russia into an [[political absolutism|absolutist]] state. He replaced the old ''boyar'' [[Duma]] (council of nobles) with a nine-member senate, in effect a supreme council of state. The countryside was also divided into new provinces and districts. Peter told the senate that its mission was to collect tax revenues. In turn tax revenues tripled over the course of his reign. As part of the government reform, the Orthodox Church was partially incorporated into the country's administrative structure, in effect making it a tool of the state. Peter abolished the patriarchate and replaced it with a collective body, the [[Holy Synod]], led by a lay government official. Meanwhile, all vestiges of local self-government were removed, and Peter continued and intensified his predecessors' requirement of state service for all nobles.

Peter died in 1725, leaving an unsettled succession and an exhausted realm. His reign raised questions about Russia's backwardness, its relationship to the West, the appropriateness of reform from above, and other fundamental problems that have confronted many of Russia's subsequent rulers. Nevertheless, he had laid the foundations of a modern state in Russia.

Nearly forty years were to pass before a comparably ambitious ruler appeared on the Russian throne. [[Catherine II of Russia|Catherine II]], the Great, was a German princess who married Peter III, the German heir to the Russian crown. She contributed to the resurgence of the Russian nobility that began after the death of Peter the Great. State service had been abolished, and Catherine delighted the nobles further by turning over most government functions in the provinces to them.

Catherine the Great extended Russian political control over the [[Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth]] with actions including the support of the [[Targowica confederation]], although the cost of her campaigns, on top of the oppressive social system that required lords' serfs to spend almost all of their time laboring on the lords' land, provoked a major peasant uprising in 1773, after Catherine legalized the selling of serfs separate from land. Inspired by another Cossack named [[Yemelyan Pugachev|Pugachev]], with the emphatic cry of "Hang all the landlords!" the rebels threatened to take Moscow before they were ruthlessly suppressed. Catherine had Pugachev drawn and quartered in [[Red Square]], but the specter of revolution continued to haunt her and her successors.

While suppressing the Russian peasantry, Catherine [[Russo-Turkish Wars|successfully waged war]] against the [[Ottoman Empire]] and advanced Russia's southern boundary to the [[Black Sea]]. Then, by plotting with the rulers of [[Austrian Empire|Austria]] and [[Prussia]], she incorporated territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth during the [[Partitions of Poland]], pushing the Russian frontier westward into Central Europe. By the time of her death in 1796, Catherine's expansionist policy had made Russia into a major European power. This continued with [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I's]] wresting of Finland from the weakened kingdom of Sweden in 1809 and of [[Bessarabia]] from the Ottomans in 1812.

===First half of the nineteenth century===
{{Main|Russian history, 1796-1855}}

[[Napoléon I of France|Napoleon]] made a major misstep when, following a dispute with Tsar Alexander I, he launched an [[Napoleon's invasion of Russia|invasion of the tsar's realm]] in 1812. The campaign was a catastrophe. Although Napoleon's [[Grand Armee]] made its way to Moscow, the Russians' [[Scorched earth|scorched-earth]] strategy prevented the invaders from living off the country. In the bitterly [[Russian winter|cold Russian weather]], thousands of French troops were ambushed and killed by peasant guerrilla fighters. As Napoleon's forces retreated, the Russian troops pursued them into Central and Western Europe and to the gates of Paris. After Russia and its allies defeated Napoleon, Alexander became known as the 'savior of Europe,' and he presided over the redrawing of the map of Europe at the [[Congress of Vienna]] (1815), which made Alexander the monarch of [[Congress Poland]].

Although the Russian Empire would play a leading political role in the next century, secured by its defeat of Napoleonic France, its retention of serfdom precluded economic progress of any significant degree. As West European economic growth accelerated during the [[Industrial Revolution]], which had begun in the second half of the 18th century, Russia began to lag ever farther behind, creating new problems for the empire as a great power. Russia's status as a great power obscured the inefficiency of its government, the isolation of its people, and its economic backwardness. Following the defeat of Napoleon, Alexander I had been ready to discuss constitutional reforms, but though [[Government reform of Alexander I|a few were introduced]], no thoroughgoing changes were attempted.

The relatively liberal tsar was replaced by his younger brother, [[Nicholas I of Russia|Nicholas I]] (1825–1855), who at the onset of his reign was confronted with an uprising. The background of this revolt lay in the Napoleonic Wars, when a number of well-educated Russian officers traveled in Europe in the course of the military campaigns, where their exposure to the liberalism of Western Europe encouraged them to seek change on their return to autocratic Russia. The result was the [[Decembrist Revolt]] (December 1825), the work of a small circle of liberal nobles and army officers who wanted to install Nicholas' brother as a constitutional monarch. But the revolt was easily crushed, leading Nicholas to turn away from the modernization program begun by Peter the Great and champion the [[doctrine]] of [[Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality]]. [[Image:Fort Ross inside.jpg|thumb|left|275px|[[Fort Ross, California|Fort Ross]], an early-19th-century outpost of the [[Russian-American Company]] in [[Sonoma County]], [[California]].]]

After the Russian armies occupied the allied [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] in 1802, they [[Russo-Persian War (1804-1813)|clashed with Persia]] over control of [[Azerbaijan]] and got involved into the [[Caucasian War]] against mountaineers, which would lumber on for half a century. Russian tsars had also to deal with two uprisings in their newly acquired territories of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth: the [[November Uprising]] in 1830 and the [[January Uprising]] in 1863.

The harsh retaliation for the revolt made "December Fourteenth" a day long remembered by later revolutionary movements. In order to repress further revolts, schools and universities were placed under constant surveillance and students were provided with official textbooks. Police spies were planted everywhere. Would-be revolutionaries were sent off to Siberia; under Nicholas I hundreds of thousands were sent to [[katorga]] there.

The question of Russia's direction had been gaining steam ever since Peter the Great's programme of modernization. Some favored imitating Western Europe while others were against and called for a return of the traditions of the past. The latter path was championed by [[Slavophile]]s, who heaped scorn on the "decadent" West. The Slavophiles were opponents of bureaucracy, preferred the [[collectivism]] of the [[middle ages|mediaeval]] Russian ''[[mir (social)|mir]]'', or [[obshchina|village community]], to the [[individualism]] of the West. Alternative social doctrines were elaborated by such Russian radicals as [[Alexander Herzen]], [[Mikhail Bakunin]], and [[Peter Kropotkin]].

===Second half of the nineteenth century===
{{Main|Russian history, 1855-1892}}
Tsar Nicholas died with his philosophy in dispute. One year earlier, Russia had become involved in the [[Crimean War]], a conflict fought primarily in the [[Crimea|Crimean peninsula]]. Since playing a major role in the defeat of Napoleon, Russia had been regarded as militarily invincible, but, once pitted against a coalition of the great powers of Europe, the reverses it suffered on land and sea exposed the decay and weakness of Tsar Nicholas' regime. [[Image:Tsar-liberator-imagesfrombulgaria.jpg|thumb|235px|<center>The [[Monument to the Tsar Liberator]] in [[Sofia]] commemorates Alexander II's decisive role in the [[Liberation of Bulgaria]] from Ottoman rule.]]

When [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]] came to the throne in 1855, desire for reform was widespread. A growing humanitarian movement, which in later years has been likened to that of the [[abolitionism|abolitionists]] in the United States before the [[American Civil War]], attacked serfdom. In 1859, there were more than 23 million serfs living under conditions frequently worse than those of the peasants of [[western Europe]] on 16th-century [[Manorialism|manor]]s. Alexander II made up his own mind to abolish serfdom from above rather than wait for it to be abolished from below through revolution.

The [[Emancipation reform of 1861 in Russia|emancipation of the serfs]] in 1861 was the single most important event in 19th-century Russian history. It was the beginning of the end for the landed aristocracy's monopoly of power. Emancipation brought a supply of free labor to the cities, industry was stimulated, and the middle class grew in number and influence; however, instead of receiving their lands as a gift, the freed peasants had to pay a special tax for what amounted to their lifetime to the government, which in turn paid the landlords a generous price for the land that they had lost. In numerous instances the peasants wound up with the poorest land. All the land turned over to the peasants was owned collectively by the ''mir'', the village community, which divided the land among the peasants and supervised the various holdings. Although serfdom was abolished, since its abolition was achieved on terms unfavorable to the peasants, revolutionary tensions were not abated, despite Alexander II's intentions.

In the late 1870s Russia and the Ottoman Empire again clashed in the Balkans. From 1875 to 1877, the Balkan crisis escalated with rebellions against Ottoman rule by various Slavic nationalities, which the Ottoman Turks suppressed with what was seen as great cruelty in Russia. Russian nationalist opinion became a serious domestic factor in its support for liberating Balkan Christians from Ottoman rule and making [[Bulgaria]] and [[Serbia]] independent. In early 1877, Russia intervened on behalf of Serbian and Russian volunteer forces when it [[Russo-Turkish War, 1877-1878|went to war with the Ottoman Empire]]. Within one year, Russian troops were nearing Constantinople, and the Ottomans surrendered. Russia's nationalist diplomats and generals persuaded Alexander II to force the Ottomans to sign the [[Treaty of San Stefano]] in March 1878, creating an enlarged, independent Bulgaria that stretched into the southwestern Balkans. When Britain threatened to declare war over the terms of the Treaty of San Stefano, an exhausted Russia backed down. At the [[Congress of Berlin]] in July 1878, Russia agreed to the creation of a smaller Bulgaria. As a result, [[Pan-Slavist]]s were left with a legacy of bitterness against Austria-Hungary and Germany for failing to back Russia. The disappointment as a result of war stimulated revolutionary tensions in the country. [[Image:Maslenitsa kustodiev.jpg|thumb|left|250px|A provincial Russian town in winter, painting by [[Boris Kustodiyev]]]]

Following Alexander's assassination by the [[Narodnaya Volya (organization)|Narodnaya Volya]], a [[Nihilist]] [[terrorist organization]], in 1881, the throne passed to his son [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]] (1881–1894), a staunch reactionary who revived the maxim of "[[Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and National Character|Autocracy, Orthodoxy, and Respect to the People]]" of Nicholas I. A committed [[Slavophile]], Alexander III believed that Russia could be saved from chaos only by shutting itself off from the subversive influences of Western Europe. In his reign Russia concluded the [[Franco-Russian Alliance|union with republican France]] to contain the growing power of Germany, completed the conquest of [[Central Asia]] and exacted important territorial and commercial concessions from China.

The tsar's most influential adviser was [[Konstantin Petrovich Pobedonostsev]], tutor to Alexander III and his son Nicholas, and procurator of the Holy Synod from 1880 to 1895. He taught his royal pupils to fear freedom of speech and press and to hate democracy, constitutions, and the parliamentary system. Under Pobedonostsev, revolutionaries were hunted down and a policy of [[Russification]] was carried out throughout the empire.

===Early twentieth century===
{{Main|Russian history, 1892-1917}}

Alexander was succeeded by his son [[Nicholas II of Russia|Nicholas II]] (1894–1917). The [[Industrial Revolution]] began to exert a significant influence in Russia. The liberal elements among the industrial capitalists and nobility believed in peaceful social reform and a constitutional monarchy, forming the Constitutional Democrats, or [[Kadets]]. Social revolutionaries combined the Narodnik tradition and advocated the distribution of land among those who actually worked it—the peasants. Another radical group was the Social Democrats, exponents of [[Marxism]] in Russia. They advocated complete social, economic and political revolution.

In 1903 in London the party split into two wings—the [[Menshevik]]s, or moderates, and the [[Bolshevik]]s, the radicals. The Mensheviks believed that Russian socialism would grow gradually and peacefully and that the tsar’s regime should be succeeded by a democratic republic in which the socialists would cooperate with the liberal bourgeois parties. The Bolsheviks, under [[Vladimir Lenin]], advocated the formation of a small elite of professional revolutionists, subject to strong party discipline, to act as the vanguard of the proletariat in order to seize power by force.<ref>For an analysis of the reaction of the elites to the revolutionaries see Manning, Roberta. ''The Crisis of the Old Order in Russia: Gentry and Government''. Princeton University Press, 1982.</ref>

Failure of the Russian armed forces in the [[Russo-Japanese War]] (1904–1905) was a major blow to the Tsarist regime and increased the potential for unrest. In January 1905, an incident known as "[[Bloody Sunday (1905)|Bloody Sunday]]" occurred when [[Father Gapon]] led an enormous crowd to the [[Winter Palace]] in [[Saint Petersburg]] to present a petition to the tsar. According to revolutionary propaganda,{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} when the procession reached the palace, Cossacks opened fire on the crowd, killing hundreds. The Russian masses were so aroused over the massacre that a general strike was declared demanding a democratic republic. This marked the beginning of the [[Russian Revolution of 1905]]. [[Soviet]]s (councils of workers) appeared in most cities to direct revolutionary activity. Russia was paralyzed, and the government was desperate.

In October 1905, Nicholas reluctantly issued the famous [[October Manifesto]], which conceded the creation of a national Duma (legislature) to be called without delay. The right to vote was extended and no law was to go into force without confirmation by the Duma. The moderate groups were satisfied; but the socialists rejected the concessions as insufficient and tried to organise new strikes. By the end of 1905, there was disunity among the reformers, and the tsar's position was strengthened for the time being. [[Image:Repin 17October.jpg|thumb|left|350px|A scene from the [[First Russian Revolution]], by [[Ilya Repin]].]]

Tsar Nicholas II and his subjects entered [[World War I]] with enthusiasm and patriotism, with the defence of Russia's fellow Orthodox Slavs, the [[Serbs]], as the main battle cry. In August 1914, the Russian army entered Germany to support the French armies. Military reversals and anti-war propaganda,{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} portraying government as incompetent, soon soured much of the population. German control of the Baltic Sea and German-Ottoman control of the Black Sea severed Russia from most of its foreign supplies and potential markets.

By the middle of 1915 the impact of the war was demoralizing. Rumors circulated that food and fuel would soon be in short supply, casualties were increasing (even though staying lower than in the rest of warring countries),{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} and inflation was mounting. Strikes increased among low-paid factory workers, and there were reports that peasants, who wanted land reforms, were restless. Meanwhile, public distrust of the regime was deepened by reports in anti-government media{{Citation needed|date=July 2009}} that a semiliterate mystic, [[Grigory Rasputin]], had great political influence within the government. His assassination in late 1916 ended the scandal but did not restore the autocracy's lost prestige.

On March 3, 1917, a strike was organized on a factory in the capital [[Saint Petersburg]]; within a week nearly all the workers in the city were idle, and street fighting broke out. When the tsar dismissed the Duma and ordered strikers to return to work, his orders triggered the [[February Revolution]].

The Duma refused to disband, the strikers held mass meetings in defiance of the regime, and the army openly sided with the workers. A few days later a [[Russian Provisional Government, 1917|provisional government]] headed by [[Prince Lvov]] was named by the Duma and the following day the tsar was arrested and the putchists announced that he has abdicated. Nicholas II, his wife, his son, his four daughters, the family's medical doctor, the Tsar's Valet, the Empress' Lady in Waiting and the family's cook were all killed in the same room by the Bolsheviks on the night of 17 July 1918. Meanwhile, the socialists in Saint Petersburg had formed a [[Soviet]] (council) of workers and soldier's deputies to provide them with the power that they lacked in the Duma.

==Territory==
===Boundaries===
The administrative boundaries of European Russia, apart from Finland and its portion of Poland, coincided broadly with the natural limits of the East-European plains. In the North it met the Arctic Ocean; the islands of [[Novaya Zemlya]], [[Kolguyev]] and [[Vaigach]] also belonged to it, but the [[Kara Sea]] was reckoned to [[Siberia]]. To the East it had the Asiatic dominions of the empire, Siberia and the [[Kyrgyz]] steppes, from both of which it was separated by the [[Ural Mountains]], the [[Ural River]] and the [[Caspian Sea]] — the administrative boundary, however, partly extending into Asia on the Siberian slope of the Urals. To the South it had the [[Black Sea]] and [[Caucasus]], being separated from the latter by the [[Manych]] depression, which in Post-[[Pliocene]] times connected the [[Sea of Azov]] with the Caspian. The West boundary was purely conventional: it crossed the [[Kola Peninsula|peninsula of Kola]] from the [[Varangerfjord]] to the [[Gulf of Bothnia]]; thence it ran to the [[Kurisches Haff]] in the southern [[Baltic Sea|Baltic]], and thence to the mouth of the [[Danube]], taking a great circular sweep to the West to embrace Poland, and separating Russia from [[Prussia]], Austrian [[Galicia (Central Europe)|Galicia]] and [[Romania]].

It is a special feature of Russia that it has no free outlet to the open sea except on the ice-bound shores of the Arctic Ocean. Even the [[White Sea]] is merely a gulf of that ocean. The deep indentations of the gulfs of Bothnia and [[Gulf of Finland|Finland]] were surrounded by what is ethnological Finnish territory, and it is only at the very head of the latter gulf that the Russians had taken firm foothold by erecting their capital at the mouth of the [[Neva]]. The [[Gulf of Riga]] and the Baltic belong also to territory which was not inhabited by Slavs, but by Baltic and Finnish peoples and by [[Germans]]. The East coast of the Black Sea belonged properly to [[Transcaucasia]], a great chain of mountains separating it from Russia. But even this sheet of water is an inland sea, the only outlet of which, the [[Bosphorus]], was in foreign hands, while the Caspian, an immense shallow lake, mostly bordered by deserts, possessed more importance as a link between Russia and its Asiatic settlements than as a channel for intercourse with other countries.

===Geography===
[[File:Russia ethnic.JPG|thumb|Ethnic map of European Russia before the [[First World War]]]]
{{Main|Geography of Russia}}
By the end of the 19th century the size of the empire was about {{convert|22400000|km2|sqmi|sp=US}} or almost 1/6 of the Earth's landmass; its only rival in size at the time was the [[British Empire]]. However, at this time, the majority of the population lived in European Russia. More than 100 different [[ethnic groups]] lived in the Russian Empire, with ethnic [[Russians]] comprising about 45% of the population.

===Territory development===
In addition to almost entire territory of modern [[Russia]],<ref>From 1860 to 1905, Russian Empire included all territories of the present-day Russian Federation, with the exception of the present-day [[Kaliningrad Oblast]], [[Kuril Islands]], and [[Tuva]]. In 1905, Southern Sakhalin was lost to Japan, but in 1914 Russian protectorate over Tuva was established.</ref> prior to 1917 the Russian Empire included most of [[Ukraine]] ([[Dnieper Ukraine]] and [[Crimea]]), [[Belarus]], [[Moldova]] ([[Bessarabia]]), Finland ([[Grand Duchy of Finland]]), [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] (including [[Mengrelia]]), the [[Central Asian]] states of [[Kazakhstan]], [[Kyrgyzstan]], [[Tajikistan]], [[Turkmenistan]] and [[Uzbekistan]] ([[Russian Turkestan]]), most of [[Lithuania]], [[Estonia]] and [[Latvia]] ([[Baltic provinces]]), as well as a significant portion of [[Poland]] ([[Congress Poland|Kingdom of Poland]]) and [[Ardahan Province|Ardahan]], [[Artvin Province|Artvin]], [[Iğdır Province|Iğdır]], and [[Kars Province|Kars]] from [[Turkey]]. Between 1742 and 1867 the Russian [[Empire]] claimed [[Alaska]] as its [[colony]].

Following the Swedish defeat in the [[Finnish War]] and the signing of the [[Treaty of Fredrikshamn]] on September 17, 1809, [[Finland]] was incorporated into the Russian Empire as an [[Autonomous entity|autonomous]] [[grand duchy]]. The [[Tsar]] ruled the [[Grand Duchy of Finland]] as a [[Constitutional monarchy|constitutional monarch]] through his [[Governor-General of Finland|governor]] and a native Finnish [[Senate of Finland|Senate]] appointed by him.

===Imperial external territories===
According to the 1st article of the [[Organic law]], the Russian Empire was one indivisible state. In addition, the 26th article stated that "With the Imperial Russian throne are indivisible the [[Congress Poland|Kingdom of Poland]] and [[Grand Duchy of Finland]]". Relations with the Grand Duchy of Finland were also regulated by the 2nd article, "The Grand Duchy of Finland, constituted an indivisible part of the Russian state, in its internal affairs governed by special regulations at the base of special laws" and the law of June 10, 1910.<ref>[http://elibrary.karelia.ru/page.shtml?id=318&num=35&levelID=025001&cType=1 Грибовский, p.35]</ref>

In 1744–1867 the empire also controlled the so-called ''[[Russian America]]''. With the exception of this territory (modern day Alaska), the Russian Empire was a contiguous landmass spanning Europe and Asia. In this it differed from contemporary, colonial-style empires. The result of this was that while the British and [[French colonial empire|French Empire]] declined in the 20th century, the Russian Empire kept a large proportion of its territory, firstly as the Communist [[Soviet Union]], and latterly as part of the present-day [[Russian Federation]].

Furthermore, the empire at times controlled concession territories, notably the port of [[Kwantung]] and the [[Chinese Eastern Railway Zone]], both conceded by imperial China, as well as a concession in [[Tianjin]]. See for these periods of extraterritorial control the [[relations between the Empire of Japan and the Russian Empire]].

In [[1815]], Dr. Schäffer, a Russian entrepreneur, went to [[Kauai]] and negotiated a treaty of protection with the island's governor [[Kaumualii]], vassal of King [[Kamehameha I]] of [[Hawaii]], but the Russian Tsar refused to ratify the treaty. See also [[Orthodox Church in Hawaii]] and [[Russian Fort Elizabeth]][http://www.hawaiiweb.com/kauai/html/sites/russian_fort_elizabeth.html].

==Government and administration==
:''See also: ''[[Tsarist absolutism]]''
[[Image:Russian Empire Map 1912.jpg|thumb|250px|Russian Empire in 1912]]
Russia was described in the [[Almanach de Gotha]] for 1910 as "a [[constitutional monarchy]] under an [[autocratic]] [[tsar]]." This obvious contradiction in terms well illustrates the difficulty of defining in a single formula the system, essentially transitional and meanwhile ''[[sui generis]]'', established in the Russian Empire since October 1905. Before this date the fundamental laws of Russia described the power of the emperor as "autocratic and [[absolute monarchy|unlimited]]." The imperial style is still "Emperor and Autocrat of All the Russias"; but in the fundamental laws as remodeled between the [[October Manifesto]] and the opening of the first [[Imperial Duma]] on April 27, 1906, while the name and principle of autocracy was jealously preserved, the word "unlimited" vanished. Not that the regime in Russia had become in any true sense constitutional, far less parliamentary; but the "unlimited autocracy" had given place to a "self-limited autocracy," whether permanently so limited, or only at the discretion of the autocrat, remaining a subject of heated controversy between conflicting parties in the state. Provisionally, then, the Russian governmental system may perhaps be best defined as "a [[limited monarchy]] under an autocratic emperor."

===The emperor===
{{Main|Tsar#Russia}}
[[Image:Tsar nikolai.jpg|thumb|250px|[[Nicholas II]], the last Tsar of Russia.]]
[[Peter I of Russia|Peter the Great]] changed his title from [[Tsar]] in 1721, when he was declared ''Emperor of all Russia.'' While subsequent rulers kept this title, the ruler of Russia was commonly known as ''Tsar'' or ''Tsaritsa'' until the fall of the Empire during the [[February Revolution]] of 1917.

The power of emperor before the October Manifesto was limited by two liabilities: the emperor and his consort must belong to the [[Russian Orthodox Church]] and to obey the laws of succession, established by [[Paul I of Russia|Paul I]].<ref>[http://elibrary.karelia.ru/page.shtml?id=318&num=24&levelID=012003&cType=1 Грибовский, p.24]</ref> On October 17, 1905, the situation changed, the emperor voluntarily limited his legislative power by decreeing that no measure was to become law without the consent of the [[State Duma of the Russian Empire|Imperial Duma]], a freely elected national assembly. In addition to mentioned moral liabilities appeared new juridical, amplified with the [[Organic law]] of April 28, 1906.

===Imperial Council===
{{Main|State Council of Imperial Russia}}
By the law of the February 20, 1906, the Council of the Empire was associated with the Duma as a legislative [[Upper House]]; and from this time the legislative power was exercised normally by the emperor only in concert with the two chambers {{Citation needed|date=January 2009}}.

The Council of the Empire, or Imperial Council, as reconstituted for this purpose, consisted of 196 members, of whom 98 were nominated by the emperor, while 98 were elective. The ministers, also nominated, were ''[[ex officio]]'' members. Of the elected members, 3 were returned by the "black" clergy (the monks), 3 by the "white" clergy (seculars), 18 by the corporations of nobles, 6 by the academy of sciences and the universities, 6 by the chambers of commerce, 6 by the industrial councils, 34 by the governments having zemstvos, 16 by those having no [[zemstvo]]s, and 6 by Poland. As a legislative body the powers of the Council were coordinate with those of the Duma; in practice, however, it has seldom if ever initiated legislation.

===The Duma and electoral system===
{{Main|State Duma of the Russian Empire}}
The Duma of the Empire or Imperial Duma (Gosudarstvennaya Duma), which formed the [[Lower House]] of the Russian parliament, consisted (since the ukaz of June 2, 1907) of 442 members, elected by an exceedingly complicated process. The membership was manipulated as to secure an overwhelming majority of the wealthy (especially the landed classes) and also for the representatives of the Russian peoples at the expense of the subject nations. Each province of the empire, except [[Central Asia]], returned a certain number of members; added to these were those returned by several large cities. The members of the Duma were chosen by electoral colleges and these, in their turn, were elected in assemblies of the three classes: landed proprietors, citizens and peasants. In these assemblies the wealthiest proprietors sat in person while the lesser proprietors were represented by delegates. The urban population was divided into two categories according to taxable wealth, and elected delegates directly to the college of the [[Guberniya|Governorates]]. The [[peasants]] were represented by delegates selected by the regional subdivisions called [[volost]]s. [[Workmen]] were treated in special manner with every industrial concern employing fifty hands or over electing one or more delegates to the electoral college.

In the college itself the voting for the Duma was by secret ballot and a simple majority carried the day. Since the majority consisted of conservative elements (the [[landowner]]s and urban delegates), the progressives had little chance of representation at all save for the curious provision that one member at least in each government was to be chosen from each of the five classes represented in the college. That the Duma had any radical elements was mainly due to the peculiar franchise enjoyed by the seven largest towns — [[Saint Petersburg]], Moscow, [[Kiev]], [[Odessa]], [[Riga]] and the Polish cities of [[Warsaw]] and [[Łódź]]. These elected their delegates to the Duma directly, and though their votes were divided (on the basis of taxable property) in such a way as to give the advantage to wealth, each returned the same number of delegates.

===Council of Ministers===
{{Main|Russian Council of Ministers}}
By the law of October 18, 1905, to assist the emperor in the supreme administration a Council of Ministers (Sovyet Ministrov) was created, under a ''minister president'', the first appearance of a [[prime minister]] in Russia. This council consists of all the ministers and of the heads of the principal administrations. The ministries were as follows:
* [[Ministry of the Imperial Court]]
* [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Russia)|Ministry of Foreign Affairs]];
* [[Ministry of War (Russia)|Ministry of War]];
* Ministry of Navy
* [[Ministry of Finance of the Russian Empire|Ministry of Finance]];
* Ministry of Commerce and Industry (created in 1905);
* [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Russia)|Ministry of Internal affairs]] (including police, health, censorship and press, posts and telegraphs, foreign religions, statistics);
* Ministry of Agriculture;
* Ministry of ways of Communications;
* [[List of Justice Ministers of Imperial Russia|Ministry of Justice]];
* [[List of Ministers of National Enlightenment|Ministry of National Enlightenment]].

===Most Holy Synod===
[[Image:Senatesynod.jpg|thumb|The Senate and Synod headquarters on [[Decembrists Square|Senate Square]] in Saint Petersburg.]]
{{Main|Most Holy Synod}}
The Most Holy Synod (established in 1721) was the supreme organ of government of the Orthodox Church in Russia. It was presided over by a lay procurator, representing the emperor, and consisted of the three metropolitans of [[metropolitan of Moscow|Moscow]], Saint Petersburg and Kiev, the archbishop of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]], and a number of bishops sitting in rotation.

===Senate===
{{Main|Governing Senate}}
The Senate (Pravitelstvuyushchi Senat, i.e. directing or governing senate), originally established during the [[Government reform of Peter I]], consisted of members nominated by the emperor. Its wide variety of functions were carried out by the different departments into which it was divided. It was the supreme court of cassation; an audit office, a high court of justice for all political offences; one of its departments fulfilled the functions of a heralds' college. It also had supreme jurisdiction in all disputes arising out of the administration of the Empire, notably differences between representatives of the central power and the elected organs of local self-government. Lastly, it promulgated new laws, a function which theoretically gave it a power akin to that of the [[Supreme Court of the United States]], of rejecting measures not in accordance with fundamental laws.

===Provincial administration===

{{See|History of the administrative division of Russia}}
[[Image:Moscow city hall.jpg|thumb|left|Residence of the Governor of Moscow (1778-82)]]
For purposes of provincial administration Russia was divided ([[1914|as of 1914]]) into 81 provinces (''[[guberniya]]s'') and 20 regions (''[[oblast]]s'') and 1 district ([[okrug]]). [[Vassals]] and [[protectorates]] of the Russian Empire included the [[Emirate of Bukhara]], the [[Khanate of Khiva]] and, after 1914, [[Tuva]] (Uriankhai). Of these 11 Governorates, 17 provinces and 1 district ([[Sakhalin]]) belonged to Asiatic Russia. Of the rest 8 Governorates were in Finland, 10 in Poland. European Russia thus embraced 59 governments and 1 province (that of the Don). The Don province was under the direct jurisdiction of the ministry of war; the rest had each a governor and deputy-governor, the latter presiding over the administrative council. In addition there were governors-general, generally placed over several governments and armed with more extensive powers usually including the command of the troops within the limits of their jurisdiction. In 1906 there were governors-general in Finland, Warsaw, [[Vilna]], Kiev, Moscow and Riga. The larger cities (Saint Petersburg, Moscow, [[Odessa]], [[Sevastopol]], [[Kerch]], [[Mykolaiv|Nikolayev]], [[Rostov-on-Don|Rostov]]) had an administrative system of their own, independent of the governments; in these the [[chief of police]] acted as governor.

==Judicial system==
{{Main|Judicial system of the Russian Empire}}
The [[judicial system]] of the Russian Empire, existed from the mid-19th century, was established by the "tsar emancipator" [[Alexander II of Russia|Alexander II]], by the [[Judicial reform of Alexander II|statute of 20 November 1864]] (''[[Sudebni Ustav]]''). This system — based partly on [[English law|English]], partly on [[Law of France|French]] models — was built up on certain broad principles: the separation of the judicial and administrative functions, the independence of the judges and courts, the publicity of trials and oral procedure, the equality of all classes before the law. Moreover, a [[democratic]] element was introduced by the adoption of the [[Jury trial|jury system]] and—so far as one order of tribunal was concerned—the election of judges. The establishment of a judicial system on these principles constituted a fundamental change in the conception of the Russian state, which, by placing the administration of justice outside the sphere of the executive power, ceased to be a despotism. This fact made the system especially obnoxious to the [[bureaucracy]], and during the latter years of Alexander II and the reign of Alexander III there was a piecemeal taking back of what had been given. It was reserved for the third Duma, after the [[Russian Revolution of 1905|revolution]], to begin the reversal of this process.<ref>An ukaz of 1879 gave the governors the right to report secretly on the qualifications of candidates for the office of justice of the peace. In 1889 Alexander III abolished the election of justices of the peace, except in certain large towns and some outlying parts of the empire, and greatly restricted the right of trial by jury. The confusion of the judicial and administrative functions was introduced again by the appointment of officials as judges. In 1909 the third Duma restored the election of justices of the peace.</ref>

The system established by the law of 1864 was remarkable in that it set up two wholly separate orders of [[tribunal]]s, each having their own [[court of appeal|courts of appeal]] and coming in contact only in the senate, as the [[supreme court]] of cassation. The first of these, based on the English model, are the courts of the elected [[justice of the peace|justices of the peace]], with jurisdiction over petty causes, whether civil or criminal; the second, based on the French model, are the ordinary tribunals of nominated judges, sitting with or without a jury to hear important cases.

==Local administration==
Alongside the local organs of the central government in Russia there are three classes of local elected bodies charged with administrative functions:
* the peasant assemblies in the ''[[mir (social)|mir]]'' and the ''volost'';
* the ''[[zemstvo]]s'' in the 34 Governorates of Russia;
* the ''municipal dumas''.

===Municipal dumas===
[[Image:Mosdumaold.jpg|thumb|right|The [[Moscow City Duma]]]]
Since 1870 the municipalities in European Russia have had institutions like those of the zemstvos. All owners of houses, and tax-paying merchants, artisans and workmen are enrolled on lists in a descending order according to their assessed wealth. The total valuation is then divided into three equal parts, representing three groups of electors very unequal in number, each of which elects an equal number of delegates to the municipal duma. The executive is in the hands of an elective [[mayor]] and an ''uprava'', which consists of several members elected by the duma. Under [[Alexander III of Russia|Alexander III]], however, by laws promulgated in 1892 and 1894, the municipal dumas were subordinated to the governors in the same way as the zemstvos. In 1894 municipal institutions, with still more restricted powers, were granted to several towns in Siberia, and in 1895 to some in Caucasia.

===Baltic provinces===
{{Main|Baltic governorates}}
The formerly Swedish controlled Baltic provinces ([[Courland]], [[Swedish Livonia|Livonia]] and [[Swedish Estonia|Estonia]]) were incorporated into the Russian Empire after the defeat of Sweden in the [[Great Northern War]]. Under the [[Treaty of Nystad]] of 1721, the [[Baltic German]] nobility retained considerable powers
of self-government and numerous privileges in matters affecting education, police and the administration of local justice. After 167 years of German language administration and education, laws were promulgated in 1888 and 1889 where the rights of the police and [[manorial]] justice were transferred from [[Baltic German]] control to officials of the central government. Since about the same time a process of rigorous [[Russification]] was being carried out in the same provinces, in all departments of administration, in the higher schools and in the [[university of Dorpat]], the name of which was altered to [[Tartu|Yuriev]]. In 1893 district committees for the management of the peasants' affairs, similar to those in the purely Russian governments, were introduced into this part of the empire.

==Religions==
The [[state religion]] of the Russian Empire was that of the [[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox Christianity]]. Its head was the tsar, who held the title of supreme defender of the Church. Although he made and annulled all appointments, he did not determine questions of dogma or church teaching. The principal ecclesiastical authority was the [[Most Holy Synod|Holy Synod]], the head of which, the [[Procurator (Russia)|Procurator]], was one of the council of ministers and exercised very wide powers in ecclesiastical matters. All religions were freely professed, except that certain restrictions were laid upon the Jews. According to returns published in 1905, based on the [[Russian Empire Census]] of 1897, adherents of the different religious communities in the whole of the Russian empire numbered approximately as follows.

{|class="wikitable sortable"
!Religion
!Count of believers<ref>[http://www.archipelag.ru/ru_mir/religio/statistics/said/statistics-imp/ Results of the Russian Empire Census of 1897, Table XII (Religions)]</ref>
|-
|[[Russian Orthodox Church|Russian Orthodox]]
|align=right|87,123,604
|-
|[[Islam|Muslims]]
|align=right|13,906,972
|-
|[[Roman Catholic Church|Roman Catholics]]
|align=right|11,467,994
|-
|[[Jews]]
|align=right|5,215,805
|-
|[[Lutheranism|Lutherans]]<ref>
The [[Lutheranism|Lutheran Church]] was the dominant faith of the [[Baltic Provinces]], of [[Ingria]], and of the [[Grand Duchy of Finland]]</ref>
|align=right|3,572,653
|-
|[[Old Believers]]
|align=right|2,204,596
|-
|[[Armenian Apostolic Church|Armenian Apostolics]]
|align=right|1,179,241
|-
|[[Buddhism|Buddhists]] and [[Tibetan Buddhism|Lamaists]]
|align=right|433,863
|-
|Other non-Christian Religions
|align=right|285,321
|-
|[[Reformed churches|Reformed]]
|align=right|85,400
|-
|[[Mennonite]]s
|align=right|66,564
|-
|[[Armenian Catholic Church|Armenian Catholics]]
|align=right|38,840
|-
|[[Baptist]]s
|align=right|38,139
|-
|[[Karaite Jews]]
|align=right|12,894
|-
|[[Anglicanism|Anglicans]]
|align=right|4,183
|-
|Other Christian Religions
|align=right|3,952
|}

The ecclesiastical heads of the national Russian Orthodox Church consisted of three [[Metropolitan bishop|metropolitan]]s (Saint Petersburg, Moscow, Kiev), fourteen [[archbishop]]s and fifty bishops, all drawn from the ranks of the monastic ([[celibate]]) clergy. The [[parochialism|parochial]] clergy had to be married when appointed, but if left widowers were not allowed to marry again; this rule continues to apply today.

==Society==
Subjects of the Russian Empire were segregated into ''[[sosloviye]]s'', or social estates (classes) such as [[nobility]] (''[[dvoryanstvo]]''), [[clergy]], [[merchants]], [[cossacks]] and [[peasants]]. Native people of the Caucasus, non ethnic Russian areas such as Tartarstan, Bashkirstan, Siberia and Central Asia were officially registered as a category called ''[[inorodtsy]]'' (non-Slavic, literally: "people of another origin").

A mass of the people, 81.6%, belonged to the peasant order, the others were: nobility, 1.3%; clergy, 0.9%; the burghers and merchants, 9.3%; and military, 6.1%. More than 88 millions of the Russians were peasants. A part of them were formerly serfs (10,447,149 males in 1858) – the remainder being " state peasants " (9,194,891 males in 1858, exclusive of the [[Archangel Governorate]]) and " domain peasants " (842,740 males the same year).

===Serfdom===
{{Main|Russian serfdom}}
The serfdom which had sprung up in Russia in the 16th century, and became enshrined by law in 1649, was [[Emancipation reform of 1861|abolished in 1861]]. This act liberated the serfs from a yoke that was terrible, even under the best landlords, and from this point of view it was obviously an immense benefit.<ref>However, it was only as late as 1904 that landed proprietors were forbidden by law to inflict corporal punishment upon peasants.</ref>

The household [[servant]]s or dependents attached to the personal service were merely set free, while the landed peasants received their houses and orchards, and allotments of arable land. These allotments were given over to the rural commune (''[[mir (social)|mir]]''), which was made responsible for the payment of taxes for the allotments. For these allotments the peasants had to pay a fixed rent which could be fulfilled by personal labour. The allotments could be redeemed by peasants with the help of the Crown, and then they were freed from all obligations to the landlord. The Crown paid the landlord and the peasants had to repay the Crown, for forty-nine years at 6% interest. The financial redemption to the landlord was not calculated on the value of the allotments, but was considered as a compensation for the loss of the compulsory labour of the serfs. Many proprietors contrived to signicantly curtail the allotments which the peasants had occupied under serfdom, and frequently deprived them of precisely the parts of which they were most in need: pasture lands around their houses. The result was to compel the peasants to rent land from their former masters.

===Peasants===
[[File:Gorskii 04422u.jpg|right|thumb|Peasants in Russia]]
After the Emancipation reform one quarter of peasants have received allotments of only {{convert|2.9|acre|m2}} per male, and one-half less than 8.5 to 11.4 acres – the normal size of the allotment necessary to the subsistence of a family under the three-fields system being estimated at 28 to {{convert|42|acre|m2}}. Land must thus of necessity be rented from the landlords at fabulous prices. The aggregate value of the redemption and land taxes often reaches 185 to 275% of the normal rental value of the allotments, not to speak of taxes for recruiting purposes, the church, roads, local administration and so on, chiefly levied from the peasants. The arrears increase every year; one-fifth of the inhabitants have left their houses; cattle are disappearing. Every year more than half the adult males (in some districts three-fourths of the men and one-third of the women) quit their homes and wander throughout Russia in search of labor. In the governments of the [[Black Earth Area]] the state of matters is hardly better. Many peasants took the "gratuitous allotments," whose amount was about one-eighth of the normal allotments.

The average allotment in [[Kherson]] was only {{convert|0.90|acre|m2|adj=on}}, and for allotments from 2.9 to {{convert|5.8|acre|m2}} the peasants pay 5 to 10 rubles of redemption tax. The state peasants were better off, but still they were emigrating in masses. It was only in the steppe governments that the situation was more hopeful. In [[Little Russia]], where the allotments were personal (the mir existing only among state peasants), the state of affairs does not differ for the better, on account of the high redemption taxes. In the West provinces, where the land was valued cheaper and the allotments somewhat increased after the [[January Uprising|Polish insurrection]], the general situation was better. Finally, in the [[Baltic provinces]] nearly all the land belonged to the [[Baltic Germans|German landlords]], who either farmed the land themselves, with hired laborers, or let it in small farms. Only one quarter of the peasants were farmers, the remainder were mere laborers.

===Landowners===
The situation of the former serf-proprietors was also unsatisfactory. Accustomed to the use of compulsory labor, they have failed to accommodate themselves to the new conditions. The millions of rubles of redemption money received from the crown have been spent without any real or lasting agricultural improvements having been affected. The forests have been sold, and only those landlords are prospering who exact rack-rents for the land without which the peasants could not live upon their allotments. During the years 1861 to 1892 the land owned by the nobles decreased 30%, or from 210,000,000 to 150,000,000 acres (610,000 km2); during the following four years an additional {{convert|2119500|acre|km2|0}} were sold; and since then the sales have gone on at an accelerated rate, until in 1903 alone close upon 2,000,000 acres (8,000 km2) passed out of their hands. On the other hand, since 1861, and more especially since 1882, when the Peasant Land Bank was founded for making advances to peasants who were desirous of purchasing land, the former serfs, or rather their descendants, have between 1883 and 1904 bought about {{convert|19500000|acre|km2|-2}} from their former masters. There has been an increase of wealth among the few, but along with this a general impoverishment of the mass of the people, and the peculiar institution of the mir, framed on the principle of community of ownership and occupation of the land, was not conducive to the growth of individual effort. In November 1906, however, the emperor Nicholas II promulgated a provisional ukaz permitting the peasants to become freeholders of allotments made at the time of emancipation, all redemption dues being remitted. This measure, which was endorsed by the third Duma in an act passed on the December 21, 1908, is calculated to have far-reaching and profound effects upon the rural economy of Russia. Thirteen years previously the government had endeavored to secure greater fixity and permanence of tenure by providing that at least twelve years must elapse between every two redistributions of the land belonging to a mir amongst those entitled to share in it. The ukaz of November 1906 had provided that the [[open field system|various strips of land]] held by each peasant should be merged into a single holding; the Duma, however, on the advice of the government, left this to the future, as an ideal that could only gradually be realized.

==See also==
* [[History of Russia]]
* [[National emblems of the Russian Empire]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References and further reading==
* [[Library of Congress Country Studies]]: [http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/rutoc.html Russia]
* Hingley, Ronald. ''The Tsars, 1533–1917''. Macmillan, 1968.
* {{cite journal
| last=Saunders
| first=David
| title=Regional Diversity in the Later Russian Empire
| journal=Transactions of the Royal Historical Society
| volume=10
| year=2000
| month=December
| pages=143–163
| id={{ISSN|0080-4401}}
| doi=10.1017/S0080440100000074
}}
* Warnes, David. ''Chronicle of the Russian Tsars: The Reign-by-Reign Record of the Rulers of Imperial Russia''. Thames & Hudson, 1999.
* {{ru icon}} Грибовский В.М. Государственное устройство и управление Российской империи, 1912. [http://elibrary.karelia.ru/book.shtml?levelID=012003&id=318&cType=1 Photocopy of pages]
* {{ru icon}} Первая Всеобщая перепись населения Российской Империи 1897 г. Под ред. Н.А.Тройницкого. т.I. Общий свод по Империи результатов разработки данных Первой Всеобщей переписи населения, произведенной 28 января 1897 года. С.-Петербург, 1905. Таблица XII. Распределение населения по вероисповеданиям. [http://www.archipelag.ru/ru_mir/religio/statistics/said/statistics-imp/]
* {{1911}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Russian Empire}}
*[http://www.rusempire.com/ Russian Empire]: All about Russian Empire and Russia.
*[http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/empire/ The Empire that was Russia]: color photographs from [[Library of Congress]]
*[[:s:The New Student's Reference Work/Russia, Empire of|The New Student's Reference Work/Russia, Empire of]]

{{Colonial Empires}}
{{Empires}}

[[Category:Russian Empire|*]]
[[Category:History of Russia]]
[[Category:Former Slavic countries]]
[[Category:Former kingdoms|Russia]]

[[af:Russiese Ryk]]
[[ar:الإمبراطورية الروسية]]
[[az:Rusiya İmperiyası]]
[[be:Расійская імперыя]]
[[be-x-old:Расейская імпэрыя]]
[[bg:Руска империя]]
[[ca:Imperi Rus]]
[[cs:Ruské impérium]]
[[da:Russiske Kejserrige]]
[[de:Russisches Reich]]
[[et:Venemaa Keisririik]]
[[el:Ρωσική Αυτοκρατορία]]
[[es:Imperio ruso]]
[[eo:Rusia Imperio]]
[[eu:Errusiar Inperioa]]
[[fa:امپراتوری روسیه]]
[[fr:Russie impériale]]
[[ga:Impireacht na Rúise]]
[[gl:Imperio Ruso]]
[[ko:러시아 제국]]
[[hr:Rusko Carstvo]]
[[io:Rusiana Imperio]]
[[id:Kekaisaran Rusia]]
[[os:Уæрæсейы импери]]
[[it:Impero russo]]
[[he:האימפריה הרוסית]]
[[ka:რუსეთის იმპერია]]
[[kk:Ресей империясы]]
[[ky:Орусия империясы]]
[[la:Imperium Russicum]]
[[lv:Krievijas impērija]]
[[lt:Rusijos imperija]]
[[hu:Orosz Birodalom]]
[[mn:Оросын Эзэнт Улс]]
[[mr:रशियन साम्राज्य]]
[[nl:Keizerrijk Rusland]]
[[ja:ロシア帝国]]
[[no:Det russiske keiserdømmet]]
[[nn:Det russiske imperiet]]
[[oc:Empèri Rus]]
[[km:Russian Empire]]
[[pl:Imperium Rosyjskie]]
[[pt:Império Russo]]
[[ro:Imperiul Rus]]
[[ru:Российская империя]]
[[simple:Russian Empire]]
[[sk:Ruské impérium]]
[[sr:Руска Империја]]
[[sh:Rusko Carstvo]]
[[fi:Venäjän keisarikunta]]
[[sv:Tsarryssland]]
[[tt:Rəsəy İmperiyase]]
[[th:จักรวรรดิรัสเซีย]]
[[tr:Rusya İmparatorluğu]]
[[uk:Російська імперія]]
[[vi:Đế quốc Nga]]
[[zh:俄罗斯帝国]]

Hans Krüger

2009-08-27T09:16:18Z

Cyon: /* Education and work */ minor spelling mistake corrected

{{Refimprove|date=January 2009}}

[[Image:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-F016619-06, Hans Krüger.jpg|thumb|Hans Krüger]]

'''Hans Krüger''' ([[6 July]] [[1902]] – [[3 November]] [[1971]]) was a [[Germany|German]] [[politician]] in the [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]] (CDU) in [[West Germany]], former member of the [[NSDAP]] party other Nazi organizations.[http://en.allexperts.com/e/h/ha/hans_krüger.htm] After the war Krüger served as [[Federal Minister for Expellees and Refugees]] of the [[Federal Republic of Germany]] from 17 October 1963 to 7 February 1964 but resigned from his post due to his Nazi past.[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,2135984,00.html]

== Biography ==
=== Education and work ===
Krüger was born in Neustettin, [[Province of Pomerania]]{{fact}} now [[Szczecinek]], [[Poland]]. He completed studies devoted to [[political science]]s and law in 1922 and afterwards worked as a [[judge]].{{fact}}

=== Nazi activity ===
Krüger participated in the [[Beer Hall Putsch]]{{Fact|date=January 2009}} in [[Munich]]. At the time he was a member of the [[Nazi Party]] and other Nazi organisations such as the ''[[Reichsbund Deutscher Beamter]]'' (German Civil Service), the ''[[NS-Rechtswahrerbund]]'' (National Socialist Lawyers Association), and the ''[[Volksbund für das Deutschtum im Ausland]]'' (Association for Germanism Abroad). In 1943 he was made an NSDAP-[[Ortsgruppenleiter]] in [[Chojnice]] (''Konitz''). He worked there as a judge, and his work included passing out several [[death sentence]]s. From 1943-1945 he was an officer in the [[Wehrmacht|German army]].{{fact}}

=== Post war activity===
After the war Krüger became a CDU politician and co-founder of the [[Federation of Expellees]], joining them in 1948 and serving as their first president from 1959-1964. He was also a member of the German [[Bundestag]] from 1957-1965. He became the German Minister for Expellees, Refugees, and War Claimants in 1963, but resigned from the cabinet in 1964 amid controversy about his work during the Nazi era.

Krüger died in [[Bonn]].{{fact}}

==See also==
*[[Federation of Expellees]]
*[[Erika Steinbach]]
*[[Nazism]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Krueger, Hans}}
[[Category:1902 births]]
[[Category:1971 deaths]]
[[Category:Beer Hall Putsch]]
[[Category:Nazis]]
[[Category:German Christian Democratic Union politicians]]
[[Category:People from the Province of Pomerania]]
[[Category:Government ministers of Germany]]

[[de:Hans Krüger (CDU)]]
[[no:Hans Krüger]]
[[pl:Hans Krüger (polityk)]]

Ürümqi

2009-08-26T18:15:22Z

Cyon: /* Demographics */ unreferenced section

{{Dablink|For the county, see [[Ürümqi County]].}}
{{Infobox settlement
|name = Ürümqi
|official_name = 乌鲁木齐市
|native_name = 乌鲁木齐 ئۈرۈمچی
|nickname =
|settlement_type =[[Prefecture-level city]]
|motto =
|translit_lang1 =[[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]
|translit_lang1_type =[[Uyghur Ereb Yéziqi]]
|translit_lang1_info =ئۈرۈمچی
|translit_lang1_type1 =[[Uyghur Latin Yéziqi]]
|translit_lang1_info1 =Ürümchi
|translit_lang1_type2 =[[Uyghur_language#Writing_system|Yengi Yeziķ]]
|translit_lang1_info2 =Ürümqi
|translit_lang1_type3 =pronunciation in [[help:IPA|IPA]]
|translit_lang1_info3 ={{IPA-tr|yrymˈtʃi|}}
|translit_lang1_type4 =Türkish Uyghur
|translit_lang1_info4 =Urumçi
|translit_lang1_type5 =Cyrillic Uyghur
|translit_lang1_info5 =Үрүмчи
|translit_lang2 =[[Chinese language|Chinese]]
|translit_lang2_type =[[Simplified Chinese character|Simplified Chinese]]
|translit_lang2_info =乌鲁木齐
|translit_lang2_type1 =[[Traditional Chinese character|Traditional Chinese]]
|translit_lang2_info1 =烏魯木齊
|translit_lang2_type2 =[[Pinyin]]
|translit_lang2_info2 =Wūlǔmùqí
|image_skyline =Ürümqi montage.png
|imagesize =275px
|image_caption = From top: A panoramic view of Ürümqi's [[CBD]], Red Mountain ([[Hong Shan]]), Ürümqi Night Market, and a view of [[Tian Shan]] from Ürümqi
|image_flag =
|flag_size =
|image_seal =
|seal_size =
|image_shield =
|shield_size =
|city_logo =
|citylogo_size =
|pushpin_map =China 
|pushpin_label_position = left 
|pushpin_map_caption =Location within China
|pushpin_mapsize =300
|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = [[People's Republic of China|China]]
|subdivision_type1 = Province
|subdivision_name1 = [[Xinjiang]]
|subdivision_type2 =
|subdivision_name2 =
|subdivision_type3 = [[Political divisions of China#County level|County-level divisions]]
|subdivision_name3 = 8
|subdivision_type4 =
|subdivision_name4 =
|government_footnotes =
|government_type =
|leader_title =CPC Committee Secretary
|leader_name =Li Zhi (栗智)
|leader_title1 =Mayor
|leader_name1 =Jerla Isamudin (吉尔拉·衣沙木丁)
|leader_title2 =
|leader_name2 =
|leader_title3 =
|leader_name3 =
|leader_title4 =
|leader_name4 =
|established_title =
|established_date =
|established_title2 = 
|established_date2 =
|established_title3 = 
|established_date3 =
|area_magnitude =
|unit_pref = 
|area_footnotes = 
|area_total_km2 = 10989
|area_land_km2 = 
|area_water_km2 =
|area_total_sq_mi =
|area_land_sq_mi =
|area_water_sq_mi =
|area_water_percent =
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|population_as_of = 2005
|population_footnotes =
|population_note =
|population_total = 2681834
|population_density_km2 = auto
|population_density_sq_mi =
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|population_blank1_title =
|population_blank1 =
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|population_blank2_title =
|population_blank2=
|timezone = [[China Standard Time]]
|utc_offset = +8
|timezone_DST =
|utc_offset_DST =
|latd=43 |latm=48 |latNS=N
|longd=87 |longm=35 |longEW=E
|elevation_footnotes = 
|elevation_m =
|elevation_ft =
|postal_code_type =[[Postal code of China|Postal code]]
|postal_code =830000
|area_code =[[Telephone numbers in China|991]]
|blank_name =[[License Plate (China)|License plate prefixes]]
|blank_info =新A
|blank1_name =[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] (2008)
|blank1_info =[[Renminbi|CNY]] 102 billion 
|blank2_name = - per capita
|blank2_info =[[Renminbi|CNY]] 43,211 
|blank3_name =[[ISO 3166-2]]
|blank3_info =CN-65-01
|blank4_name =
|blank4_info =
|website = http://www.urumqi.gov.cn/ {{zh|}}
|footnotes =
||}}

'''Ürümqi''' or '''Ürümchi''' ({{IPA-en|uːˈruːmtʃi}}; {{lang-ug3|'''ئۈرۈمچی'''|'''Ürümchi'''}}; {{zh-stp|s=乌鲁木齐|t=烏魯木齊|p=Wūlǔmùqí}}) is the capital of the [[Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]] of the [[People's Republic of China]], in the [[Northwestern China|northwest]] of the country.

With an urban population of over 2.3 million people, Ürümqi, whose name means "beautiful pasture", is by far the largest city on China's vast Western interior. Since the 1990s Urumqi has become gradually developed economically and now serves as a regional transport [[node]] and commercial centre.
==History==
Although Ürümqi is situated near the northern route of the [[Silk Road]], it is a relatively young city. During the 22nd year of [[Emperor Taizong of Tang|Emperor Taizong's]] reign in the [[Tang Dynasty]], AD 648, the Tang government set up the town of Luntai in the ancient town seat of Urabo,<ref>[http://www.chinatoday.com.cn/English/chinatours/urumqi.htm Urumqi]</ref> 10 kilometers from the southern suburb of present-day Ürümqi. Ancient Luntai Town was a seat of local government, and collected taxes from the [[caravan (travellers)|caravan]]s along the northern route of the Silk Road.

Little is heard of the region following the Tang Dynasty until the conquest of [[Dzungaria]] in 1755 under the [[Emperor Qianlong]] of the [[Qing Dynasty]]. The [[Dzungars]] were deliberately exterminated in a brutal campaign of ethnic [[genocide]]. One writer, [[Wei Yuan]], described the resulting desolation in what is now northern Xinjiang as: "an empty plain for a thousand ''li'', with no trace of man." After 1759 state farms were established, "especially in the vicinity of Urumchi, where there was fertile, well-watered land and few people."<ref>Millward (2007), pp. 95, 104</ref> It has been estimated that more than a million people were slaughtered, and it took generations for it to recover.<ref>Tyler (2003), p. 55</ref>

During the Qing Dynasty (1763) the [[Qianlong]] Emperor named the expanded town of Luntai "Dihua" ([[Chinese language|Chinese]]:迪化; [[pinyin]]: Díhuà; [[Manchu language|Manchu]]: ''Wen de dahabure fu''), meaning "to enlighten." In 1884, the [[Guangxu Emperor]] established [[Xinjiang]] as a Province, with Dihua as its capital.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/620188/Urumqi/278262/History Online Encyclopædia Britannica]</ref>

Following the founding of the People's Republic of China, on February 1, 1954, the city was renamed Ürümqi, meaning "beautiful pasture" in the [[Mongolian language]] of the Dzungar people.

===2009 riots===

{{Main|July 2009 Ürümqi riots}}



== Demographics ==

{{unreferenced section}}

According to the 2000 census, Ürümqi has 2,081,834 inhabitants, with a population density of 174.53 inhabitants/km².

{| border=1 style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|-bgcolor=cccccc
! Nationality
! Population
! Percentage
|-
| [[Han|Han]]
| 1.567.562
| 75,3%
|-
| [[Uyghur]]
| 266.342
| 12,79%
|-
| [[Hui|Hui]]
| 167.148
| 8,03%
|-
| [[Kazakhs]]
| 48.772
| 2,34%
|-
| [[Manchu]]
| 7.682
| 0,37%
|-
| [[Mongol]]
| 7.252
| 0,35%
|-
| [[Xibe]]
| 3.674
| 0,18%
|-
| [[Russians|Russian]]
| 2.603
| 0,13%
|-
| [[Tujia]]
| 1.613
| 0,08%
|-
| [[Kyrgyz]]
| 1.436
| 0,07%
|-
| [[Uzbek]]
| 1.406
| 0,07%
|-
| [[Zhuang]]
| 878
| 0,04%
|-
| [[Tatar]]
| 767
| 0,04%
|-
| [[Tibetan]]
| 665
| 0,03%
|-
| [[Dongxiang]]
| 621
| 0,03%
|-
| [[Miao]]
| 620
| 0,03%
|-
| [[Korean]]
| 588
| 0,03%
|-
| Other
| 2.205
| 0,09%
|}

== Administrative divisions ==
Ürümqi currently comprises 8 administrative sub-divisions, [[Political divisions of China#County level|county-level units]], of these, 7 are [[district of China|district]]s and 1 is a [[county of China|county]].

The areas of the city are divided into 7 districts and 1 county:

{|
|-
! rowspan=16 | [[File:Subdivisions of Ürümqi-China.png|300px]]
! align=left| Subdivision
! align=right|
! align=right|
! align=right|Population
! align=right|Land area
|-
| align=left | Name
| align=left | [[Hanzi]]
| align=left | [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]
| align=right | ''as of 2002''
| align=right | ''km²''
|-
|Colspan=5 align=center| ''Ürümqi City Proper''
|-
| align=left|<big>■</big> [[Xinshi District, Ürümqi|Xinshi-qu]]
| align=right|新市区
| align=right|يېڭىشەھەر رايونى‎
| align=right|360,000
| align=right|142
|-
| align=left|<big>■</big> [[Shuimogou District|Shuimogou-qu]]
| align=right|水磨沟区
| align=right|شۇيموگۇ رايونى
| align=right|150,000
| align=right|91
|-
| align=left|<big>■</big> [[Tianshan District|Tianshan-qu]]
| align=right|天山区
| align=right|تڭرىتاغ رايونى
| align=right|450,000
| align=right|171
|-
| align=left|<big>■</big> [[Saybagh District|Saybagh-qu]]
| align=right|沙依巴克区
| align=right|سايباغ رايونى‎
| align=right|440,000
| align=right|422
|-
|Colspan=5 align=center| ''Ürümqi Suburban and Rural''
|-
| align=left|<big>■</big> [[Midong District|Midong-qu]]
| align=right|米东区
| align=left|
| align=right|100,000
| align=right|244
|-
| align=left|<big>■</big> [[Toutunhe District|Toutunhe-qu]]
| align=right|头屯河区
| align=right|تۇدۇڭخابا رايونى
| align=right|130,000
| align=right|276
|-
| align=left|<big>■</big> [[Dabancheng District|Dabancheng-qu]]
| align=right|达坂城区
| align=right|داۋانچىڭ رايونى
| align=right|40,000
| align=right|5,042
|-
| align=left|<big>■</big> [[Ürümqi County|Ürümqi-xian]]
| align=right|烏魯木齊县
| align=right|ئۈرۈمچى ناھىيىسى
| align=right|80,000
| align=right| 4,601
|}

==Geography and climate==
The largest city in the western half of the People's Republic of China, Ürümqi has earned a place in the ''[[Guinness Book of Records]]'' as the most remote city from any sea in the world. It is about 1,400 miles (2,500 km) from the nearest coastline (Ürümqi being the city closest to the Eurasian{{Citation needed|date=June 2009}} [[Pole of inaccessibility]]). The city has an [[area]] of 10,989 [[km²]]. The average elevation is 800 metres.

In Ürümqi a continental [[steppe]] climate with hot and dry summers prevails, with average temperatures in July at 24°[[Celsius|C]] (75°[[Fahrenheit|F]]) as well as damp and cold winters with average temperatures in January at -16°C (3°F). The annual average temperature amounts to 5.4°C (41.7°F), and the yearly precipitation is about 273 mm.
[[Image:View of Urumqi with Yamalik mountain.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Ürümqi with the [[Tian Shan]] mountain range in the distance]]

{{climate chart
|Ürümqi
|-17.9|-8.4|8
|-15.9|-6.2|8
|-4.9|3.7|18
|5.2|16.7|29
|12.0|24.3|28
|16.8|28.8|36
|19.1|31.2|20
|17.7|30.0|16
|11.8|23.7|24
|3.4|13.6|22
|-6.0|2.0|17
|-14.4|-6.1|10
|source=[http://www.worldweather.org/001/c00543.htm World Weather Information Service]
|float=yes
|clear=left
}}

{{clear}}

==Economy==
[[Image:Outer Ring Road of Urumqi.jpg|thumb|right|250px|Outer ring road bridges in Urumqi at night]]
Ürümqi is a major industrial center within Xinjiang. Ürümqi, together with [[Karamay]] and [[Bayin'gholin Mongol Autonomous Prefecture|Bayin'gholin]], account for 64.5% of the total industrial output of Xinjiang. Ürümqi is also the largest consumer center in the region, recording [[Renminbi|¥]]41.9 billion retail sales of consumer goods in 2008, an increase of 26% from 2007. The [[Gross domestic product|GDP]] per capita reached [[United States dollar|US$]]6,222 in 2008 [http://www.tdctrade.com/mktprof/china/xinjiang.htm]. According to statistics, Urumqi ranked 7th in 2008 by the disposable income for urban residents among cities in [[Western China]].<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |title=乌鲁木齐人均可支配收入增长居西部十省第8位|publisher= |date= |url=http://www.nxein.com/zhjj/mzqyjj/200711/5573.html |accessdate= }}</ref> Ürümqi has been a central developmental target for the [[China Western Development]] project that the Central Government is pursuing.
[[Image:Urumqi partial panorama at dusk.JPG|thumb|left|250px|Partial panorama of Urumqi at dusk, [[April]] [[2008]]]]
The [[Urumqi Foreign Economic Relations and Trade Fair]] ({{lang-zh|乌洽会}}) has been held annually since 1991. Its purpose is to promote domestic and foreign markets. The 17th Fair has attracted participants from the [[Ministry of Commerce of the People's Republic of China|Ministry of Commerce]] and the [[China Council for the Promotion of International Trade|China Council for Promotion of International Trade]].<ref>{{cite web |last= |first= |title=17th Urumqi Trade Fair opens - CCTV International |publisher= CCTV.com |date= |url=http://www.cctv.com/program/bizchina/20080902/102963.shtml 17th Urumqi Trade Fair opens |accessdate= }}</ref>

As the economic center, Urumqi has expanded its urban area since the 1990s. The [[Central Business District|CBDs]] in the city increased rapidly all around the major districts. [[Zhong Tian Plaza]], located in one of the CBDs in North Xinhua Road, is the tallest building in Urumqi and [[Xinjiang]]; with a height of 229 metres, it is also the tallest in [[Northwestern China]] and [[Central Asia]]. Lacking in subway, the city built an outer ring road (外环路) in 2003, which considerably facilitates transport. Zhongshan Road (Sun Yat-sen Road, [[Chinese language|Chinese]]: 中山路) in Urumqi has been one of the ten most famous commercial streets in the [[People's Republic of China]] since 2005 (through official appraisals). The others are [[Wangfujing]], etc. The commercial street of Zhongshan Road has the largest [[computer]], [[mobile phone]] and [[consumer electronics]] market, i.e Baihuacun, Ccyber Digital Plaza and Fountain Plaza, in the [[Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]]; it is believed to be the focal point of technological products in Urumqi.

{{clear}}

==Tourism==
*The '''International Grand Bazaar of Xinjiang''' ({{zh-c|c=新疆国际大巴扎}}, [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]]: شىنجاڭ خەلقئارا چوڭ بازىرى) is an Islamic [[bazaar]] located on Jiefang Nan Road (解放南路). It is one of the most attractive tour sites in [[Xinjiang]] and Urumqi.
* [[Hong Shan|Hong Shan Mountain]] (红山) is the symbolic scenic spot of Urumqi, located in the Hong Shan Park.
*'''Glacier No. 1''' (一号冰川), origin of Urumqi River, is the largest glacier located near a city in [[China]].
* '''People's Square ''' (人民广场)
* '''Nanhu Square''' (南湖广场)
* '''Xinjiang Uygur Autonomous Region Museum ''' (新疆维吾尔自治区博物馆)
* '''Shuimugou Hot Springs '''(水磨沟温泉) is located 5 km northeast of Urumqi.
* '''Xinjiang Silk Road Museum ''' (新疆丝绸之路博物馆) [http://www.xjsczlbwg.com] is located right next to the Grand Bazaar at No.160 Shengli Road. Bus No.110 stops very close to it. It is located on the fourth and fifth floor of a very large European style building which houses a shopping complex as well. The admission charge is 30 Yuan per person. Most of the exhibits have English names as well and some of their guides speak some English.

{{clear}}

==Education==
Urumqi has many educational campuses including [[Xinjiang University]], Xinjiang Normal University, [[Xinjiang Agricultural University]] , [[Xinjiang Medical University]] and many others.

===Universities===
*[[Xinjiang University]] (新疆大学)
*[[Xinjiang Medical University]] (新疆医科大学)
*[[Xinjiang Normal University]] (新疆师范大学)
*[[Xinjiang Agricultural University]] (新疆农业大学)
*[[Xinjiang Arts Institute]] (新疆艺术学院)
*[[Xinjiang University of Finance and Economics|Xinjiang University of Finance & Economics]] (新疆财经大学)

===High schools===
*[[No.1 Senior High School of Urumqi|Urumqi No.1 High School]] (乌鲁木齐市第一中学)
*[[Urumqi No.8 Middle School]] (乌鲁木齐市第八中学)
*[[Xinjiang Experimental High School]] (新疆实验中学)
*[[Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps No.2 High School]] (新疆生产建设兵团第二中学)
*[[Senior High School of Urumqi]] (乌鲁木齐市高级中学)
*[[Bayi Middle School of Urumqi]] (乌鲁木齐市八一中学)

== Transportation ==
===Air===
Ürümqi is served by the [[Ürümqi Diwopu International Airport]]. The [[airport]] is one of the five major airports in the [[People's Republic of China]]. It is also a hub for China Southern Airlines. It has been rumored that a new airline China Central Airlines will start operations at the airport sometime in late 2010.

=== Rail ===
* A railway line connects the city to [[Kashgar]] (southwest)
* Ürümqi is also on the [[Beijing]]-[[Almaty]] ([[Transport in Kazakhstan|Kazakhstan]]) railway line via [[Dostyk]], [[Kazakhstan]]. In 2008, there is a proposal to build a more direct line to [[Almaty]].

=== Road ===

*[[China National Highway 216]]
*[[China National Highway 312]]
*[[China National Highway 314]].

==Media==
[[File:Urumqi UTV logo.svg|thumb|right|120px|Logo of Urumqi Television Station, shaped after [[Hong Shan]]]]
The [[Xinjiang Networking Transmission Limited]] operates the [[Urumqi People's Broadcasting Station]] and the [[Xinjiang People's Broadcasting Station]], broadcasting in the [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]], [[Uyghur language|Uyghur]], [[Kazakh language|Kazakh]], [[Mongolian language|Mongolian]], [[Russian language|Russian]] and the [[Kyrgyz language|Kyrgyz]] languages.

The [[Xinjiang Television Station]] (XJTV), located in Urumqi, is the major TV broadcasting station in the [[Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]]. The local television station for Urumqi city is [[Urumqi Television Station]] (UTV)(乌鲁木齐电视台).

==Sport==
* [[Xinjiang Flying Tigers]] is a major basketball team in the region.
* [[Xinjiang Ticai]] is a local football team in the [[Chinese Football Association Yi League]]

==Sister cities==
*{{flagicon|Pakistan}} [[Peshawar]], [[Pakistan]]
*{{flagicon|Kyrgyzstan}} [[Bishkek]], [[Kyrgyzstan]]
*{{flagicon|Kazakhstan}} [[Almaty]], [[Kazakhstan]]
*{{flagicon|Russia}} [[Chelyabinsk]], [[Russia]]

==References and footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons|Urumqi}}
*[http://www.urumqi.gov.cn/ Ürümqi Government Official website]
*{{wikitravel}}

{{Xinjiang}}
{{Major cities of Greater China}}
{{Most populous cities in the People's Republic of China}}

{{coord|43|44|N|87|34|E|region:CN_type:city|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Urumqi}}
[[Category:Ürümqi| ]]
[[Category:Cities along the Silk Road]]
[[Category:Cities in Central Asia]]
[[Category:Cities in Xinjiang]]
[[Category:Prefecture-level divisions of Xinjiang]]
[[Category:Provincial capitals in China]]

[[ar:أورومتشي]]
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[[ug:ئۈرۈمچى شەھىرى]]
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[[zh:乌鲁木齐市]]

Erika Steinbach

2009-08-25T15:51:39Z

Cyon: Undid revision 309988879 by UweBayern (talk)

[[Image:Erika-steinbach-2007-ffm001.jpg|thumb|Erika Steinbach]]

'''{{Audio|De-Erika Steinbach.ogg|Erika Steinbach}}''' (born July 25, 1943) is a [[Germany|German]] conservative [[politician]] who has been representing the [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]] (CDU) and the [[Hesse|state of Hesse]] as a member of the [[Parliament]] of Germany, the [[Bundestag]], since 1990. She is one of two candidates elected directly from [[Frankfurt]], and is the spokeswoman of the [[CDU/CSU]] parliamentary group on [[human rights]] and [[humanitarian aid]]. She is also a member of the national board of the CDU. Since 1998, she is the president of the [[Federation of Expellees]]. Erika Steinbach studied music and was a member of concert orchestras before becoming a politician.

==Offices==
Steinbach was elected president of the [[Federation of Expellees]] ({{lang-de|Bund der Vertriebenen, BdV}}) in 1998, succeeding [[Fritz Wittmann]]. Since 2000, she has been a member of the national board of the CDU (German, ''CDU-Bundesvorstand''). In addition, she is on the boards of the [[Goethe-Institut]], the national broadcasting company [[ZDF]], and the [[Territorial Association of West Prussia]]. She also is chairwoman of the [[Centre Against Expulsions]].

Since 2005, she has been a member of the German parliamentary committee for human rights and humanitarian aid and spokesperson for [[human rights]] and humanitarian aid of the CDU/[[Christian Social Union of Bavaria|Christian Social Union]] fraction.

==Biography and career==


Steinbach's father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was born in [[Hanau]] ([[Hesse]], western-central [[German Empire|Germany]]) but his family had come from [[Province of Lower Silesia|Lower Silesia]]<ref name="welt2">{{de icon}}{{cite web | title= Erika Steinbach bestreitet Sinneswandel | work= Die Welt| url= http://www2.welt.de/data/2005/11/03/798145.html?s=2 | accessdate=2005-11-03}}</ref>. In 1941 after the [[German invasion of Poland]], he was deployed to the town of [[Rumia]] ({{lang-de|Rahmel/Westpr.}}),<ref name=rbb>[[Rundfunk Berlin Brandenburg]] online [http://www.deutsche-und-polen.de/_/personen/person_jsp/key=erika_steinbach.html]</ref> since 1919 part of the [[Polish Corridor]] and in 1939 [[Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany|annexed by Nazi Germany]]. Wilhelm Karl Hermann served there as an airfield technician with the rank of a [[Luftwaffe]] ''[[Feldwebel]]''. Steinbach's mother, Erika Hermann (née Grote), was ordered to work in the town after the annexation.<ref name=rbb/> Steinbach was born there as '''Erika Hermann'''.

In January 1944, her father was deployed to the [[Eastern Front (WWII)|Eastern Front]]. In January 1945 during [[East Prussian Offensive]] of the [[Soviet Army]], Steinbach's mother together with her children, fled to [[Schleswig-Holstein]] in northwestern Germany.<ref name=rbb/><ref name="IPN">{{pl icon}} {{cite journal | first = Piotr | last = Szubarczyk | authorlink =Piotr Szubarczyk | coauthors =Piotr Semków | year = 2004 | month = May | title = Erika z Rumi | journal = Biuletyn [[Institute of National Remembrance|IPN]] | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | pages = 49–53 | id =|url = http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspx?logid=5&id=28907138-3A87-4B20-B95E-8E8B41BA9C5D}}</ref><ref name=ntv>[[n-tv]] [http://www.n-tv.de/1113954.html]</ref> In 1948 the family moved to [[Berlin]], where Steinbach's grandfather had become mayor of one of the districts.

In 1949, Wilhelm Karl Hermann returned from Soviet captivity. In 1950, the family moved to Hanau, Hesse where Steinbach finished her education and started studying the violin.<ref name=rbb/><ref name=ntv/> In 1967 she abandoned her music career due to an ill finger.<ref name=rbb/><ref name=ntv/> In 1972, she married Helmut Steinbach, the conductor of a local youth symphonic orchestra. Steinbach graduated from a school of civil administration and moved to [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]], where she started working for a Communal Evaluation Office.<ref name=rbb/><ref name=ntv/>

In 1974 she joined the Frankfurt branch of the [[Christian Democratic Party|CDU party]].<ref name=rbb/> In 1977 she was elected a chairman of the city council and held that post until 1990, when she was elected a member of the [[Bundestag]].<ref name=ntv/> In that year she voted against the confirmation of German-Polish borders.<ref name=rbb/> In 1997 she criticised the approval of the Czech-German Declaration of Reconciliation.<ref name=rbb/>

=== Federation of Expellees ===


Steinbach joined the German [[Federation of Expellees]] in 1994. In May 1998 she became the head of the organization, and was re-elected in 2002<ref name=rbb/> and on [[May 8]], [[2004]]<ref name="BdV">{{de icon}}{{cite web | author = | year = 2004 | url = http://www2.bund-der-vertriebenen.de/presse/index.php3?id=94 | title = BdV-Präsidentin Erika Steinbach mit überwältigender Mehrheit wiedergewählt | format = | work = Bund der Vertriebenen website | publisher = BdV | dateformat = mdy | accessdate = May 8 2004}}</ref>

The German [[Federal Expellee Law]] of 1953 defines as expellee all [[German citizenship|German nationals]] and [[ethnic Germans]] with a primary residence outside [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany|post-war Germany]], who lost this residence in the course of the [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II|World War II-related flight and expulsions]].<ref name="Law">{{de icon}} {{cite web|author = [[Bundestag]] | year = 1953 | url = http://bundesrecht.juris.de/bvfg/index.html | title = Gesetz über die Angelegenheiten der Vertriebenen und Flüchtlinge | work = Juris.de | publisher = German Ministry of Justice | dateformat = mdy | accessdate = February 28 2005}}</ref>

=== Centre Against Expulsions ===
Currently she campaigns for the planned museum ''[[Centre Against Expulsions]]'' ({{lang-de|Zentrum gegen Vertreibungen}}) for the victims of "Flight, displacements, forced resettlements and deportations all over the world in the past century"<ref>[http://www.z-g-v.de/english/aktuelles/?id=52 Centre against Expulsions]</ref>, a project of the German federal government on initiative and with participation of the [[Federation of Expellees]]. The museum will contain a permanent exhibition to document expulsions including the [[expulsion of Germans after World War II]].

==Political positions==
Steinbach has defined her political positions regarding issues related to the [[expulsion of Germans]] as follows: She says that the expulsions are not comparable to the [[Holocaust]], which she says is a unique crime.<ref name=HA>{{cite web|url=http://www.abendblatt.de/politik/deutschland/article157312/Erika-Steinbach-ist-keine-Revanchistin.html|title=Erika Steinbach ist keine Revanchistin|first=Ralph|last=Giordano|publisher=Hamburger Abendblatt 2009-02-27|accessdate=2009-08-25}}</ref> She further says that it was [[Adolf Hitler]] who opened [[Pandora's box]] and thus the German expellees are also victims of Hitler's policies, though she does not endorse the thesis of primary responsibility of the Nazis for the expulsions.<ref name=HA/> She renounces claims of the [[Federation of Expellees]] to Poland and distanced herself from the [[Prussian Trust]].<ref name=HA/> She endorses the ''Charta of the German expellees'' of August 1950.<ref name=HA/>

==Perception==
Erika Steinbach is much more widely known in [[Poland]] and the [[Czech Republic]] than in [[Germany]].<ref name=CordellWolff149>{{cite book|title=Routledge advances in European politics. Volume 28. Germany's foreign policy towards Poland and the Czech Republic: Ostpolitik revisited|first1=Karl|last1=Cordell|first2=Stefan|last2=Wolff|publisher=Routledge|year=2005|isbn=0415369746|page=149|url=http://books.google.de/books?id=WCjxIMz0o8QC&pg=PA149|accessdate=2009-08-25}}</ref> According to Cordell and Wolff (2005), the political importance the [[Federation of Expellees]] has in German politics is overestimated in Poland and the Czech Republic because of its unproportional media presence in these countries and campaigns of "aggressively nationalist politicians".<ref name=CordellWolff149/>

===Criticism in Poland===

Steinbach's position as head of the Federation of Expellees arouses much controversy in [[Poland]],<ref name="expatica.com"/> as has the [[Center Against Expulsions]].<ref>http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,4057645,00.html</ref> Polish and the Czech politicians have warned the memorial could put the Germans' suffering on a par with that of the Nazis' victims.<ref name="expatica.com">http://www.expatica.com/nl/news/news_focus/Poland-ups-the-pressure-in-WWII-memorial-feud-with-Germany--_49974.html</ref> Polish Ambassador to Germany Marek Prawda questioned the entire project: ''It's difficult to take just one section out of the chain of human catastrophes of World War II and make this the basis of a European recollection'', he said.<ref>http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/257623,refugee-museum-dispute-looms-ahead-of-german-polish-state-meeting.html</ref>

Steinbach's public pronouncements have been criticized for causing a deterioration in German-Polish relations due to stirring up controversy regarding the rights of [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II|Germans who were expelled]] from [[former eastern territories of Germany|former German territories]] which became Polish following the Nazi defeat in 1945.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,444037,00.html]</ref>

A 2003 cover montage of Polish newsmagazine ''[[Wprost]]'' that depicted Steinbach riding Chancellor [[Gerhard Schröder]] while wearing an [[SS uniform]]. <ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/img/0,1020,721659,00.jpg]</ref> In 2007 ''[[Gazeta Wyborcza]]'', a popular newspaper in Poland, reproduced a leaflet<ref>[http://bi.gazeta.pl/im/1/4383/z4383661X.jpg polish leaflet of 2007]</ref> presenting Steinbach in the succession of the [[Teutonic Knights]] and the Nazis, and reminded of the full compensations never paid<ref>http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/issuedetails.aspx?issueid=ea5cd0b7-e759-445d-a85e-268a8f4415bc&articleId=80eb3e50-fa12-4da7-b2c7-b8f680bae54c</ref><ref>http://remember.org/educate/dingell.html</ref> to Poland for losses caused by the Nazi Germany<ref>[http://wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/Wiadomosci/1,80273,4383674.html?skad=rss]</ref>.

In 2006 she was involved in a controversial exhibition on the expulsions in Europe in the 20th century.<ref>[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2135984,00.html][http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2129971,00.html]</ref> The exhibition was criticized by some already before it opened. The exhibition does explicitly mention the invasion of Poland and Nazis crimes as major part of the reason for the undifferentiated expulsion of Germans from Eastern Europe. To a lower extent it mentions the expulsions of Armenians, Poles, Turks, Greeks, Latvians, Karelians, Ukrainians, Italians and other peoples - topics many Europeans are unfamiliar with. The last item of the exhibition was a reconciliatory suitcase from Poland dedicated to a peaceful Polish, German and Ukrainian future generation. A group of Polish victims of Nazis visited the exhibition and pointed out that neither [[Death marches (Holocaust)|Death Marches]] nor the [[Planned destruction of Warsaw|massacre and expulsion of Warsaw civilians]] were even mentioned <ref>[http://serwisy.gazeta.pl/swiat/1,34239,3589698.html]</ref>.

Poland long opposed plans to set up the center, but gave in after being assured that, in addition to a permanent exhibit on the displaced Germans, it would also include information on expulsions of other peoples throughout history and around the globe.<ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/29411189/</ref>

[[Władysław Bartoszewski]], an [[Auschwitz]] survivor who is Poland’s commissioner on relations with Germany, said that giving Mrs Steinbach a seat on the board would be akin to the Vatican appointing a Holocaust denier like [[Richard Williamson (bishop)|Richard Williamson]] to manage relations with Israel.<ref name="thenational.ae">http://www.thenational.ae/article/20090223/FOREIGN/422245904/1013/NEWS</ref>

The Polish foreign minister, [[Radoslaw Sikorski]], privately warned Berlin that allowing Mrs Steinbach’s appointment would shake German-Polish relations “to their foundations”.<ref name="thenational.ae"/>
''Do people whose families lived there for generations want to be identified with a person like Mrs. Steinbach, who came to our country with [[Hitler]] and had to leave it with Hitler too'' ? Sikorski said in Brussels on Feb. 23 2009, referring to Steinbach’s father having moved to German occupied Poland during the war<ref>http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601100&sid=aVlnY6l646Ag&refer=germany</ref> and asked her to follow the example of President Horst Köhler, who was born within family of wartime German settlers in Poland and never considered himself an expellee<ref>http://wyborcza.pl/1,86871,6315910,Erika_Steinbach_Reconciles.html</ref>. The fact that Steinbach represents a person born due to Nazi German occupation of Poland is the basis of controversy for Poles<ref>http://www.rp.pl/artykul/9133,269112_Semka__Polska___Niemcy__Czas_niezrozumienia_.html</ref>.

In a response, the Federation of Expellees stated: "''Poland suffered much at the hands of Germans. We Germans are aware of this responsibility. But finding a common path to the future is only possible if all those who suffered climb out of the trenches of history and seek understanding''".<ref name="thenational.ae"/>

On 4 March 2009 the Federation of Expellees decided not to nominate Steinbach to the council and instead left one seat unoccupied<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/0,1518,611206,00.html Spiegel.de, Vertriebenenbund zieht Steinbachs Nominierung zurück]</ref>.

===Lecture controversy===
In May 2008 Steinbach started a series of [[lecture]]s about the "[[History of German settlement in Eastern Europe|German settlement in Eastern Central Europe]]" at the [[University of Potsdam]]. However, the persisting [[obstruction]]s of some students who protested against Steinbach's allegedly [[Historical revisionism (negationism)|revisionist]] view on German history by throwing waterfilled balloons and blocking the entrances compelled her to cancel the further lectures<ref>[http://www.welt.de/politik/article2061642/Erika_Steinbach_sagt_Vortraege_nach_Protesten_ab.html#vote_2061963, Die Welt, Steinbach sagt Vortraege ab]</ref><ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/unispiegel/studium/0,1518,556128,00.html Spiegel, Studium abgesagt]</ref>. On June 11, 2008 a full meeting of the students council decided (with 146 against 7 votes) to protect the right of freedom of opinion and speech and invited Steinbach again, if necessary under police protection. The local Mayor, supported by several political parties, expressed his displeasure about the incident and requested the university council to invite Steinbach again.<ref>[http://www.maerkischeallgemeine.de/cms/beitrag/11224669/60709/Oberbuergermeister_fordert_Universitaet_auf_sich_dem_Konflikt_zu.html Märkische Allgemeine, Oberbürgermeister fordert Universität auf sich dem Konflikt zu stellen]</ref>

==Honours==

On July 9, 2009 she was awarded the [[Bavarian Order of Merit]] by Prime Minister of Bavaria [[Horst Seehofer]]<ref>http://www.bayern.de/Fotoreihen-.1589.10261791/index.htm</ref>.

==External links==
* {{de icon}} [http://www.bundestag.de/mdb/bio/S/steiner0.html Bundestag biography]
* {{de icon}} [http://www.bund-der-vertriebenen.de/derbdv/praesidentin.php3 Federation of Expellees]
* [http://www.z-g-v.de/english/index.html Centre Against Expulsions]
* [http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/3182 The Warsaw Voice] newspaper article, "Border Dispute", 2003
* [http://lists.delfi.lv/pipermail/minelres/2003-August/002908.html Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty] article about Centre Against Expulsions, 2003

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Steinbach, Erika}}
[[Category:1943 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Rumia]]
[[Category:German Christian Democratic Union politicians]]
[[Category:German Lutherans]]
[[Category:Members of the German Bundestag]]
[[Category:People from Hesse]]
[[Category:German women in politics]]
[[Category:Members of the Bavarian Order of Merit]]

[[de:Erika Steinbach]]
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Talk:Erika Steinbach

2009-08-25T15:18:00Z

Cyon: /* Rahmel/Westpr. is not the matter of language */

{{WPBiography
|living=yes
|class=B
|priority=
|politician-work-group=yes
|listas=Steinbach, Erika
}}
{| class="infobox" width="270px"
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!align="center"|[[Image:Vista-file-manager.png|50px|Archive]] [[Wikipedia:How to archive a talk page|Archives]]
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* [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Archive 1|March 2004 – January 2005]]
* [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Archive 2|January 2005 – January 2006]]
* [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Archive 3|January 2006 – September 2006]]
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== Saw exhibition ==
I saw the exhibition of the Federation fo Expellees in Berlin. I need to say that there was nothing revisionist about it. The exhibition explicitly mentioned Hitler's invasion in Poland which lead to the outbreak of the war. Moreover, this information everyone learns at school and there are many museums about the Nazis, concentration camps and the Holocaust. Rightfully so. Thus, you need to be very ignorant not to know that. I wouldn't call it a superb exhibition, but it was informative and pragmatic. So it's worth seeing, since it shows many topics which are totally neglected by much of the public. I had never heard of the fate of many people and ethnicities, and it was interesting to learn about it all. Of course I knew about the Holocaust and the other Nazi crimes, but did I know about the 2 million Poles who were deported by Stalin to Siberia? Never heard of it until I saw this exhibition. So I think it's an important addition to the musuems already existing.

:"Federation fo Expellees ... nothing revisionist" you evil nazi —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/193.196.136.221|193.196.136.221]] ([[User talk:193.196.136.221|talk]]) 07:58, 17 February 2009 (UTC) 

== Remaining objective ==
I know there was much written about Erika Steinbach. But she isn't as bad as most of us think. For example, some Polish newspapers continue to write, that Erika Steinbach is asking the Polish government for compensation for German expellees. This is 100% not true, she is not supportung compensation claims, and she officially stated that several times. So don't be so worried, she is not as bad as she is portrayed. She also had a speech about the Polish people and the Warsaw uprising and she underscored the historic plights of the Polish people and her respect for Polish patriotism. She also wants good relationships with Poland, even if the media often portrays her so awfully. And I think it has a simple reason: She reminds us that there was German expellees, and some people wish they had never even lived in Silesia or Pomerania. It's histroy, it's past. But they were there, we need to accept it. Not every single one of them was a war criminal who deserved it. Why is this so hard to accept? After all, I see these people as a bridge, not a problem (only a minority amongst them is a problem, and this is the Prussian Trust and these type of organizations claiming compensations). There are many museums about Polish suffering and the Holocaust is internationally known, too. So there is no need to be so worried, that people will forget the context. I think the context argument is more of an excuse than anything.

== Comments requested ==

I was invited to take a look at this page from [[Wikipedia talk:German-speaking Wikipedians' notice board]]. I find it disappointing that the same issue (how to describe her birthplace) is still being debated over so many months. I am still partial to my suggested wording [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=42512179 from March], which Lysy [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=42514846 supported]. Any opinions on using a variation of that? [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 18:19, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

Here's the text of Olessi's suggested wording.

:I agree with the "international disapproval" of the Nazi annexation. Her bio intro looks like a mess now with all of its "citations needed". Something simple like "Steinbach was born in [[Rumia]] (German: ''Rahmel'') in [[Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia]], part of Nazi-occupied Poland. Her father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was a..." Feel free to touch up the suggested wording. If the reader wants to learn more information about the village, he/she can easily find it at its own [[Rumia|article]]. [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 18:27, 6 March 2006 (UTC)

===Proposal to close vote===

I have been requested to close this vote so that a "more neutral vote" can be started. (for details, see [[Talk:richardshusr|my Talk Page]]. It may be that I started the vote prematurely. If so, I apologize.

The question here becomes... what is our goal? My goal is to see this page stabilize with a long-term solution to the Rumia/Rahmel question. While one could argue that the current vote is running 9-3 against Jagder, Stettiner et al, it seems that only an overwhelming, near-unanimous vote can keep us from a resumption of the edit-warring that got us here in the first place.

I am not convinced that Jagder's proposal will result in a different and more desirable result but it's worth trying if it will get Jagder, Stettiner et al. to sign on to the result.

I am willing to close the vote that I started if no one objects.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 04:34, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:So far only Jadger has a problem with how this vote was conducted. His complaints received no support from anyone else. Effectively throwing out a vote which was 9:3 in support because one voter objects is a curious echo of [[Liberum Veto]], and old Polish institution. Still, if you feel you must humor him, and that 12 people have to waste their time to vote on essentially the same question for the second time, go ahead and restart the poll. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 04:53, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:: I am not thrilled with restarting the vote but I am more interested in seeing the dispute resolved and the page unprotected. I will wait a day and see if anybody else objects. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 05:12, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:We have a clear 75% community consensus here. Are you not happy with this ? Do you think another vote will yield better results ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 05:35, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:: 75% is not a consensus, it is a supermajority substituting as a proxy for consensus. Consensus is unanimous consent. We do not have that. Now, we can try to ram the 75% vote down the throats of Jagder and Stettiner or we can try to find a mutually-acceptable compromise. I worry that, if we do not work towards true consensus, then we will just go back to edit-warring once the protection is lifted. Do you really want to go through [[WP:DR|dispute resolution]] with mediation and [[WP:RFC|RFC]]? --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 05:51, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:I am pessimistic, unfortunately. I respect Jadger, but the present dispute shows that the consensus is not possible, regardless of how many times we will repeat voting. The Olessi's version was a carefully negotiated compromise. Every now and then somebody will come and try to push it his way. What we need is to have a compromise version and defend it in order to stop lots and lots of future edit wars. I don't expect everybody to be 100% happy with it, but I hope the majority can live with it. Now, with all due respect, I don't think the vote should be repeated only because you changed your mind or because the losing party is unhappy, do you ? This can go on forever this way. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 06:23, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:: First, it's true that I changed my vote from "Support" to "Abstain". I do not feel strongly about this Rahmel/Rumia question at all. However, I did notice that my vote was inconsistent with the solution I proposed earlier about attempting to determine what Steinbach's birth certificate would have said. So I retracted my vote in order to remain consistent with that earlier stance.

:: My willingness to close the vote is primarily an attempt to find a way for Jagder and Stettiner to be accomodated with a compromise that satisfies them and will encourage them to defend the final resolution. (i.e. not to fight it via edit warring or resurfacing the issue again later).

:: I do think votes should not be used as a means of deciding an issue democratically but rather a means of determining if a consensus exists. In other words, "Yes, I do think we should consider the vote to have failed if the losing party is unhappy."

:: Wikipedia is [[WP:NOT|not a democracy]]. Making decisions by consensus does not mean voting and then going with the majority (or even supermajority) vote. It means trying to find a mutually-acceptable compromise. This is a lot harder but ultimately longer-lasting. If nothing else, what makes you think that the vote will always run 9-3 in favor of your solution? A few months from now, it could run 9-3 the other way. Depends on who's voting, right?

::--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 06:56, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:Yes, I fully support that Wikipedia is [[WP:NOT|not a democracy]]. However, in the lack of consensus, given the history of revert wars on this, apparently marginal, issue, we have been looking for a compromise solution. The version that we have negotiated with Olessi in March was a compromise, that is neither myself nor probably Olessi was 100% happy with it. Of course one can expect that after some time a more extremist editor will challenge it, as happened now. I think the right thing for the community to do would be to defend the reached compromise, instead of trying to break it. This did not happen, unfortunately. I'm afraid that we won't get anything better than the current 75% support and certainly not 100% support with another voting. What we are looking for is not a solution that would satisfy everyone, but a technical measure to prevent edit-wars and I think the result of the current vote is just it. All we can do from now on is only step back and spoil it. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:20, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::We also have to consider that [[User:Stettiner]] has made so far only [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~essjay/edit_count/Count.php?username=stettiner&submit=Count 75] edits to Wikipedia, a large number of them on this page. His first edit was made as recently as [[13 September]], [[2006]], on this very page. Hence all the concerns described in [[Wikipedia:Single purpose account]] apply here. [[User:Schwartz und Weiss]] (another single purpose account) has only made [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~essjay/edit_count/Count.php?username=Schwartz+und+Weiss&submit=Count 130] edits over more than 2 years, most of them in counterproductive revert wars over German names. Now, Jadger has alleged that me bringing up these statistics constitutes a form of personal attack. Nothing could be further from the truth. The number of contributions made to Wikipedia is simply one piece of information that can be used to judge the importance of the given users vote. Anyway, what this seems to suggest is that we really have a vote of 9 to 1 here, if we count established, credible users only. That gives 90% support of Olessi's proposal, which looks like concensus to me. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 14:58, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::: Well then, if no one objects, we should close this vote soon. I propose that we close the vote if there are not any substantial number of votes in the next 24 hours. (Please, no sock puppets or WikiFriends dragged in to stuff the ballot box.) Then, someone should ask the admin who protected the page to unprotect it so that we can insert the compromise wording.

::: We should agree that Jagder is free to propose a vote on his proposal immediately afterwards. However, I hope we can all agree to discuss here rather than edit warring. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 16:55, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::::Certainly not "immediately afterwards". The reason for the voting is to find consensus (or supermajority if you like) support of a stable version, and at least several months grace period would be in place between subsequent votes. Secondly, I would suggest that the form and proposals of any future vote are thoroughly discussed before it is started, otherwise we'll end up with a series of "Jadger's vote", "Lysy's vote" and what not. I for one would change the proposed Jadger's wording and I'm sure others could have their opinion at it, too. As I said, I respect Jadger as an editor, but such pushing against the community is not appropriate. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 17:45, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::: I agree in principle that a consensus should be allowed some period of stability so that we are not constantly re-voting issues. On the other hand, I hope you will make an exception in this case since Jagder's complaint is that the original vote was poorly framed due to my prematurely opening the vote without adequate discussion beforehand. (I'm a relative newbie at this kind of thing.) Someone voted for the proposal with the remark that the Rumia first vs. Rahmel first could be done as a subsequent follow-up vote. I imagine that Jagder may have some tweaks that he might like to propose to the compromise solution. I see the compromise solution as a way to get this page unprotected. Editors should feel free to continue the discussion on this Talk Page as long as they do not disrupt Wikipedia by edit warring on the actual article page. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 17:54, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::::While I feel rather strongly about Nazi occupation of Poland and any attempts to picture it as "liberation", of course it's not my intention (and neither I would be able to) keep Jadger's mouth closed. I'm sure he'll be willing to work towards a compromise as well, although personally, I feel I could not move a step further than the current proposal, which I considered difficult to accept already in March. Thanks for trying to stay impartial on all this. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 18:41, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::::I find it admirable that you want to satisfy Jadger, but please also keep in mind there are 10 editors (at this point) who support Olessi's proposal and who want to put this whole sorry fight behind them as soon as possible. From my point of view, Jadger's demands are not reasonable. Using a bit of mathematical language, the current vote is to choose between option A vs option not-A (not-A meaning we go back to the drawing board). This vote is at present 10:3 (or 10:1 discounting single purpose accounts). Jadger demands a new vote with A vs B. Why does he expect that the result of that vote will be any different? Why would people who voted for A this time vote for B in the next vote? After all, if they wanted to do this, they could have changed their votes in the current vote, as we speak. But it is possible that they will get disgusted with the first vote being thrown out and simply walk away without voting the second time. Maybe that is what Jadger is secretely hoping for. To avoid that outcome, if we hold a second vote, the votes cast in support should automatically carry over to any new vote, with the voters notified of this and given an opportunity to change their votes, if they wish. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 19:08, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

I said I would "close the vote" if there was no objection. There has been objection. There are two meanings of "close". One would be "closing, accepting the result" and "closing, invalidating the result". I think we should move towards closing the vote and accepting the result as a first step. Jagder will probably object but, if we leave open the possibility that he can propose tweaks to the compromise wording, then we should be able to unprotect the article and insert the compromise text proposed by Olessi and agreed to by others.

The alternative is to leave the article protected in its current version until Jagder can negotiate a different compromise text. IMO, this is not a good path for us to follow.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 20:10, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

Please, the only reason they are objecting is because of what you said Richard, ''"I said I would "close the vote" if there was no objection. There has been objection. There are two meanings of "close". One would be "closing, accepting the result""'' of course they are objecting, this is a sneaky way for them to win. '''No one new has voted on it because they know it is a sham and should be more level and worded unbiased.''' and if I were to attack the credibility of the support voters many of them would have to be discounted, but I am not doing that because the vote has been unfair. I am the only one who has objected to this vote because a number of us have agreed for me to speak on behalf of our viewpoint, in order to prevent Balcer and ProudPomeranian from attacking them again. BTW, it is not really ten votes for it, as Sciurinae's vote almost word for word is what I said, and it also says that this is only temporary.

'''What is the harm in having another vote? It will settle the dispute once and for all. I agree to adhere to whatever ruling comes of the second vote.'''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:44, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

BTW, it is not a "supermajority" or a consensus as Richard claims, as per wikipedia rules, 60% is consensus, one more person to vote against it and it is no longer a consensus, I would personally count Dr Dan as against it by his comments, but we may just wait and see.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:49, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

:So, we have 11 votes for, 4 against and 1 abstain (even counting votes by [[Wikipedia:Single purpose account]]s, which should count for less). 11 support votes out of 16 votes means 68.75% support. In my humble opinion that is concensus. We've had no votes cast in 2 days, so it appears no one else is interested in expressing their opinion. Can we bring this vote to some kind of a conclusion, based on this result? [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:57, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

we've had no votes cast in two days because they know this one is a sham vote. Not to mention 2 or 3 of those support votes can be described as conditional at best, some even are more like my viewpoint than supporting this version. Also, some votes even call for a subsequent vote, which I have given but you deleted multiple times. not to mention that the users that supported before any opposition could be raised may not know of the differing viewpoint. The outcome of this vote has never been clearly mentioned, so users don't even know what they are voting for, it has never been said that it is to vote to include it in the article, it looks more like "would you consider this better than the current version", many of the voters may not even realize it has been warped to mean a final judgement. '''you still have not answered me, why don't we have a vote that everyone can agree on to finish this?''' because this vote's basis has been called into question.''' You claim it is because I am a sore loser, but if I were a sore loser, you could hold another, more fair vote, and if/when I lose again then there can be no doubt which side has consensus.'''

to extend this wording into other votes, we could have a question such as ''"do you like people?"'' and when a majority support/say yes to it, then we can corrupt it on the article into saying, ''"a majority of people wikipedia users like cannibals"'' because cannibals/Nazis/insert evil person here are people, so a majority like them. that is what has been done here, people have voted on a ill-defined poll that can be corrupted into supporting something they may not, what is needed is a more clear and concise poll that gives both sides, not just one.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:16, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

===Support===
<s>* --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 18:27, 15 September 2006 (UTC)</s> On second thought, I'm Ok with Rahmel (now Rumia) also and in fact might even prefer Rahmel first instead of Rumia first so I think I'll just abstain. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 07:21, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# --Full support. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 18:29, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Sounds goood to me.--[[User:Piotrus| Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus ]]|[[User_talk:Piotrus| talk ]] 18:58, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. Good to see that Balcer is coming to his senses ;). --[[User:Thorsten1|Thorsten1]] 19:40, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. It looks like a nice compromise to me. [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 21:46, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Of course, [[User:Space Cadet|Space Cadet]] 21:48, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Seems a good compromise. Thanks, Olessi [[User:Alex Bakharev|abakharev]] 22:55, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Fine with me. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 06:40, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support per [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=42514846 this edit]. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:46, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. --[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 10:20, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. Not perfect, but OK. The Rahmel or Rumia first question could be answered in a followup vote. -- [[User:Chris 73|Chris 73]] | [[User talk:Chris 73|Talk]] 17:09, 18 September 2006 (UTC)
#Though I'd prefer a different wording, I can live with the proposal. However, Stettiner is right in that the suggestion is not really in conformity with the Gdansk vote and furthermore I believe it could still be cut in length. When I come to think of it, I'd favour something like "''Erika Steinbach was born in Rahmel ([[Rumia]]), occupied Poland, in 1943''". I assume the proposal voted on is more the provisional than the final decision and a different wording can still be decided, but, of course, not simply by revert warring. [[User:Sciurinæ|Sciurinæ]] 21:37, 19 September 2006 (UTC)
: I also like this version better which is why I changed my vote to abstain. My "winning formula" would include Rahmel first, Rumia second, in German-occupied Poland. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 03:25, 20 September 2006 (UTC)
::I fail to see how Sciurinae's support vote is anydifferent then my proposal in the comments section, and the reason I opposed it. I would also like to re-iterate that it was not in [[General Government|German-occupied Poland]], but was annexed to Germany, hence my proposal: ''Steinbach was born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland) in Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, in the part of pre-war Poland annexed by Nazi Germany in 1939. Her father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was a...''--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:38, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

===Oppose===
#[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 20:29, 15 September 2006 (UTC) If it was part of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, why call it Rumia then? if we are to use the polish language name, do you not think the ''Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia'' would have to be in Polish also. '''there was no Rumia in Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, try looking it up on a period map.''' I would not be adverse to ''[[Rahmel]] (Polish: Rumia)....'' also, it was not a part of German occupied Poland, it was not in the General Government. although, the only differences I see between this and the version I set forward is that a) it says Rumia first and b)it uses the word occupied instead of annexed.
# [[User:Schwartz und Weiss|Schwartz und Weiss]] 22:28, 15 September 2006 (UTC) Let's just stick to the bare facts, like [[User:Jadger|Jadger]]'s suggesting.
#[[Wikipedia:NPOV]] & [[Wikipedia:Factual accuracy]]. There is no such thing as "Stalinist-occupied", "Republican-occupied", "Nazi-occupied", "Labour-occupied" etc. Rahmel was not part of [[Generalgouvernement|occupied Poland]]. The city was called Rahmel in 1943. According to the Danzig/Gdansk vote, German name is to be used here, both because it was Rahmel in 1943 and because the person is clearly German. Let's stick to the facts instead of [[historical revisionism]] and [[irredentism]]. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:47, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
#:Registered on 13th September - 2 days before day this poll was started:[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&offset=20060914221905&limit=50&target=Stettiner]. Impressive knowledge of Gdansk vote and other issues gained in so little time, #12th edit labelled as 'rv POV pushing/vandalism'...--[[User:Piotrus| Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus ]]|[[User_talk:Piotrus| talk ]] 02:49, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
#::since when was it wrong to edit as a anon for a long time before becoming a registered user? I did that, as I would guess you also did, as well as a majority of wiki users. if you want to attack credibility, I could do that also, but I would prefer if we keep more mature than ad-hominem attacks to win this. please, as [[Noob]] article states, ''"For example, Wikipedia has a firm policy of welcoming all new contributors whether or not their first edits are helpful to an encyclopedia"'' Please do not bite the noobs. that phrasing is not unique to the wiki, perhaps he/she edits on other websites also. [[Wikipedia:Please_do_not_bite_the_newcomers]] by newcomers here I mean he may of edited for a while as anon., as that is highly likely--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:01, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 03:32, 20 September 2006 (UTC), explained in my comment below.
# I go along with Jadger. The article is objective and Erika Steinbach's place of birth is clearly identified. I don't see the problem. [[User:Norvo|Norvo]] 22:30, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
#: [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3ANorvo&diff=77219886&oldid=67517684 Invited] to vote here by [[User:Jadger]]. .[[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 23:16, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
#:: your point being? all people that may be interested may not have this on their watchlist. perhaps you could site an actual rule that says I can not tell people about a vote (as [[wikipedia:survey notification]] is not valid and is only kept for historical usage). Or else we would have to throw this whole vote out as Richard also invited people on other talk pages. '''Stop trying to attack and undermine those who don't support your viewpoint Balcer, please observe [[Wikipedia:Civility]]''' --[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:12, 23 September 2006 (UTC)
#:::Check [[Wikipedia:Spam]] then for more up to date guidelines. Richard properly informed everyone that he posted the notice on various talk pages. Consider emulating him and doing the same in the future if you canvass for votes. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:29, 23 September 2006 (UTC)

===Comments===

Here is the version I set forward: ''Steinbach was born in [[Rahmel]] (now Rumia, Poland) in [[Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia]], in the part of pre-war Poland annexed by [[Nazi Germany]] in 1939. Her father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was a...'' if you don't like (now Rumia, Poland) it can be (Polish: Rumia)

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]]
:That version seems acceptable to me as well. [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 22:58, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

* '''Comment''': Perhaps Halibutt's suggestion of keeping the name in force during the historical period in question might be helpful. Examples like [[Stalingrad]], [[Rahmel]], [[Ciudad Trujillo]], [[Leningrad]], come to mind. In short if a person was born in Leningrad, we wouldn't say they were born in St. Petersburg because we didn't like Lenin. It seems Steinbach was born in Rahmel. As to the occupation aspect, it's unfortunate but that's what happened. During Poland's annexation and occupation of [[Vilnius]], between 1920 and 1939, people were said to have been born in Wilno. Right? And most of the support votes would agree with me, I'm sure (at least to the second part of my statement). It seems to be a double standard, if Halibutt's suggestion is correct and agreed with, and not followed through. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 01:23, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
<includeonly></includeonly>
::I have said that before Dr. Dan, in the discussion above, but instead of refuting that point, Balcer changed it to his accusation that it was illegal, despite the fact that legality has nothing to do with it, as his quotation says, it was "officially incorporated into the German Reich", '''which is a law!!!'''

::--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:38, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

My full support for Jadger's proposal, although the colloquial name "Nazi Germany" should not be used. The country was called Germany. We don't use Bush-USA either. If the history of annexation shall be included, we also must include that the city was German prior to 1920.

I suggest: "Steinbach was born in [[Rahmel]] (now Rumia, Poland or Polish: Rumia) in [[Danzig-West Prussia]], in a city which had in 1939 been reannexed to Germany after being Polish since 1920." [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:55, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Yeah, and murdering Jews was also all right in the face of '''German Law'''. Thank you but I don't think we should support Nazi laws. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 08:00, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

'''I think we should close this vote, and put the two versions (mine and Olessi's) up for a vote between them'''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:38, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

::It's too early to close. This vote has been open for only a few hours and this is much too short a time for everyone interested to express their opinion. Many of the active participants in this discussion have not yet voted (Stettiner, Halibutt etc). Give it a few days, and if a clear concensus does not emerge, we can run another vote with more restricted terms. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:50, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

this vote was started without even a clear consensus that a vote was needed, in fact I had not heard of Olessi's offer before this vote started. Not to mention that this vote was started to gauge responses to it, hence Olessi stating: ''"Any opinions on using a variation of that?"'' and this section being titled ''Comments requested''. All of the people that supported it voted before there was even another version represented, so it is hardly fair at all. when I say "hardly fair" I am using a common English language statement which really means that it's not fair at all. ''The purpose of this vote was to gauge opinion, that has been done, now lets hold a real vote'' This vote was not on whether to change the article to it, but rather if people like it, I set out an alternative, so we should vote on which one is better (and which one to use). Unless you have another form you would like to contribute Balcer, this should be closed and a new vote started wherein the two are offered rather than just support or approve one that has no competition.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:36, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:Simply put, 8 hours is not enough to gauge opinion. People have lives, you know, they cannot be monitoring Wikipedia 24 hours a day. Be patient. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 02:41, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

'''Well, why should they place their opinion on a vote that they know will be superseded by another vote anyways? It's rather pointless.''' people do have lives, well... I do, most other people do, but everytime I am on, you seem to be on. Perhaps before posting again, take a breather, go to [[Tim Horton's|Timmy Ho's]] and get yourself a large double-double, talk to the people there (conversation rather than arguing may be refreshing for you). Then, after getting that fresh air and clearing your head, come back and stop arguing with me over everything I write. As the proverb goes: ''it is better to keep your mouth shut and look like an idiot, then to open your mouth and prove it.''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:15, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Jadger, how pathetic. You see that you have no chance to win this vote so you call for a new one. Will we have to vote time after time until your version is chosen? So far against the proposition are only two votes: yours and one by an inactive account which has been luckily reactivated just in time to vote on a page it never before touched (and has been in meantime accused of being someone's sockpuppet by getting into a revert war on [[Comenius]]). How funny.
Anyway, it was obvious since the momemt the article got protected that we have to vote. Someone proposed a compromise version. So the vote starts. So far, most involved editors clearly prefer the proposed version. Everything is being been done according to the book. Get over it. [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 05:58, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

To make it even more strange, the only other user to vote against - [[User:Schwartz und Weiss]] - is being accused of being a sock puppet of [[User:71.137.207.147]] which is a IP number registered in... Canada where you live according to your page. The meaning of ''Schwartz und Weiss'' is obviously ''black and white'' - the historical flag of [[East Prussia]] and you have... "''Frederick the Great, the greatest man ever''" on your Userpage. Both Schwartz und Weiss and 71.137.207.147 take part in a revert war on.. the borders of Prussia. All three accounts are '''never''' used when it's night in Ontario (4:00-12:00 GMT) and only very rarely in the mornings (12:00-16:00 GMT). How strange. What an astounding coincidence: the only three defenders of Prussia tradition all editing from east coast Canada??? [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 06:33, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:What a strange coincidence that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:130.63.18.178 someone] who's recently defined Copernicus as Polish also seems to come from there... [[User:Sciurinæ|Sciurinæ]] 21:37, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

:Just check the IP and stop your childish bird-brained speculations and accusations. BTW, what time is it in Ontario, now? Can you calculate it for me, smart ass? [[User:Schwartz und Weiss|Schwartz und Weiss]] 07:26, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Here you are [http://www.timetemperature.com/tzca/current_time_in_ontario.shtml]. And calling people names means breaking [[WP:NPA]]. [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 08:10, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

You still did not answer my question about time in Ontario - probably because it contradicts your entire silly theory: "'''never''' used when it's night in Ontario (4:00-12:00 GMT)". And smart-ass is not a name but an attitude, genius. [[User:Schwartz und Weiss|Schwartz und Weiss]] 15:16, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:: Hey guys, can we [[WP:AGF|assume good faith]]? Let's not get distracted by the allegations of sock puppeteering.

:::Did I accuse anyone? I simply listed some strange coincidences. We should assume good faith but we should be also wary. Otherwise what would be the purpose of the procedures against sock puppets? [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 08:10, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Regardless of whether he/she is a sockpuppet, [[User:Schwartz und Weiss]]'s vote must carry less weight simply because the scale of his/her contribution to Wikipedia has not been awe-inspiring to say the least. [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~essjay/edit_count/Count.php?username=Schwartz+und+Weiss&submit=Count Edit Count] shows that user made only 130 edits for over 2 years that his/her account existed on Wikipedia. Furthermore, practically all of those edits appear to be counterproductive revert wars over inserting German names into various articles. The person closing the vote should take this into consideration. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 22:59, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

I will comment that I have advertised this vote on [[Talk:Gdansk]],[[Talk:Rumia]],[[Talk:Federation of Expellees]],[[Talk:Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] and [[Talk:Historical Eastern Germany]]. I think even Jadger will agree that the pages that I have advertised on will cover most Wikipedians that have an interest in this question. If there are other pages, then please advertise this vote on those pages also. Let's wait a few days to see who else comes to vote. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 07:21, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:It's been also advertised at [[Wikipedia talk:German-speaking Wikipedians' notice board]]. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:49, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Would you people prefer using '''Warschau and Hitlerstrasse''' as well ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:58, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

There is no point in voting on historical facts when the Polish nationalists mobilize the entire Polish Wikipedia. I don't think Poles should decide the facts in a biography of a '''German politician'''!!! [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:57, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:So, in your opinion, certain Wikipedia articles should be [[Nur für Deutsche]]? [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 15:43, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

German Wikipedia is in some way [[Nur für Deutsche]]. Now the German one is not enough, more and more English articles contain radical German views.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 12:22, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

:What's "Nur für Deutsche" about the German Wikipedia? And where is the invasion? How many people here vote for "was born in Rahmel, then re-liberated Germany, now Polish-occupied" or anything like that? I see no enemy giants, just windmills, if you know what I mean. [[User:Sciurinæ|Sciurinæ]] 21:37, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

I see a troll, if you know what I mean. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 02:53, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

German occupation of Rumia region was an integral project, which included:
*arrestations (sending to Stutthof camp)
*extermination (Piaśnica)
*expulsion
*changing names of places
*German law, including war tribunals
* and many others.
You vote that point "changing names of places" was O.K.. Will you vote the other options too?
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 13:11, 2 October 2006 (UTC)

===Refactored from intro to section===
How about "Lech Walesa led the Solidarity movement in in Danzig (Polish Gdansk), part of Stalinist-occupied Germany"? Or perhaps Rahmel was Pilsudski-occupied Germany in 1930? [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:47, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

: I think the question starts with agreeing that it should be called what it was called when she was born. Thus, someone might have been born in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) or Stalingrad (now Volgograd).

: As for the "Stalinist-occupied Germany", I think we have to look for NPOV here. Even before the breakup of the Soviet Union, few people thought of Gdansk as Stalinist or Soviet occupied Germany. Some may have thought of it as Soviet-dominated Poland but, I believe, Gdansk transferred to Poland legally and there is little international dispute about it. Using the same yardstick, Rahmel/Rumia should be considered German-occupied Poland because the German invasion of Poland is generally considered to have been illegal aggression.

:Claiming that annexation was "legal under German law of the time" is an illegitimate argument. In these matters, we should only consider international law.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 16:18, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Special apartheid rules for Germany cannot be tolerated. The Polish annexations of German territory was as illegal as German annexation, or vice versa. Breslau was '''officially part of Germany''' as Polish-occupied Germany until 1991. So if we accept Polish POV in this article, we must accept German POV in every single article about persons born in or living in the annexed territories from 1945 to 1991. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 19:30, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:The new border was [[Treaty of Zgorzelec|recognised by East Germany]] in 1950 and by West Germany in the 1970 [[Treaty of Warsaw (1970)]]. After German reunification, these previous agreements were reconfirmed in 1990. But this was just what Germany thought of this, and Germany does not equal world opinion. The rest of the world has not had any problems with Poland's postwar borders since the Potsdam Agreement. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 19:54, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

::One's own "confirmation", i.e. the confirmation of the illegal Soviet puppet regime, doesn't count, and obviously the treaties of a defunct state are null and void. The legitimate government of Germany didn't accept illegal annexation until 1990, and it was not accepted by parliament until 1991. The 1970 treaty recognized borders as temporary "factual", not legal. Germany reserved the right to hold the question open. The opinion of South Africa, or the population of [[Mars]], on this issue is really irrelevant. This is a conflict with two parts and two opinions, and nothing more. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 20:38, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Well, if you want to believe that in 1945-1991 there was no legitimate German government, you have a right to that personal opinion. But that is not the mainstream view, which accepted East and West Germany as legitimate members of the international community, that issued binding laws, had legal passports, competed in the Olympics etc etc. The international agreements into which they entered were binding. Germany scrambled to reconfirm those agreements the moment it reunified. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 20:47, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
::::That is your perception that 1945-1991 there was no legitimate German government. You have a right to that personal opinion. But that is not the mainstream view. Among democratic nations (to which your totalitarian People's Republic did of course not belong) the democratically elected government of the Federal Republic of Germany was accepted as the sole legitimate German government. Only Stalinists claimed that those appointed by Stalin and his successors to dictate the Soviet Zone constituted a legitimate German government. The Stalinist treaties were in no way binding for the legitimate German government. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 20:52, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:::::Even West Germany eventually accepted East Germany as an equal partner, in the [[Basic Treaty (1972)]]. Other countries had diplomatic relations with East Germany ([[United States Ambassador to East Germany|US]] since 1974). What kind of parallel, fantasy universe do you think you are living in? [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 20:59, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
::::::That temporary policy was effectively reverted from 1990 onwards. The purpose of the treaty was to allow citizens of democratic Germany to travel in the Soviet occupied zone. It is fine to see that you agree that in 1950 (Treaty of Zgorzelec), the entire democratic world considered the government of the Federal Republic of Germany to be the only legitimate German government, and thus the Stalinist treaty null and void. Even if countries later recognized the GDR as a state, like Germany did, it did not mean they considered it a representative of the German government, but rather as a separate regime. What kind of parallel, fantasy universe do you think you are living in? [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 21:04, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:::::::Just to be clear, I have no great love for East German communists, but the 1950 treaty did de facto establish the border, given that Poland did not share a border with West Germany. True, East Germany was not recognised at the time by many Western countries, but eventually it was. West Germany, which you think is the legitimate representative of Germany, recognised that border in 1970. Yes, I know they "reserved" some rights pending final reunification, but please explain to me how that "reservation" automatically means that Poland occupied German territories? To prove this you would have to produce official statements of German government officials made after 1970 which state that Poland occupied German territory. Obviously, I do not think you will find any. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 21:15, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
Under international law, annexation is not legal. So the Polish annexations were illegal. Nevertheless, Wikipedia does not seem to care. Neither does Wikipedia care about international law when it comes to, say, Israel. So Wikipedia is following the '''facts on the ground''', and there should be no exception for Germans. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 19:32, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
::''Under international law, annexation is not legal'' - ditto. Which means that the 1939 annexation of Rumia was not legal either. Quid erat demostrandum. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 13:42, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

but then in that case Halibutt, the 1939 annexation was not annexation but a re-establishment of German control over its own territory (Rahmel), as you have just agreed with stettiner that annexation in 1919 was illegal, although carried out under the guise of the league of nations. I of course am not referring to the extra land taken but the land pre 1919 in Germany, which included Rahmel. As I stated before, ''If one takes there own property back from a thief, its not stealing''.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:11, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::If we followed the rule, the annexations of 1790's were not legal either. Dream on, Jadger. Or take your time to ask Irpen about the idea of ''annexation through treaty'', as he seems to be a specialist on the matter. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 13:50, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

No comments. --[[User:Irpen|Irpen]] 00:41, 19 September 2006 (UTC)
::But why not? This is the case I agree with your views and I guess your input could really be beneficial here. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 01:01, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

the annexations of 1790 were perfectly legal Halibutt, and they were internationally accepted. 1790 is before the time of ethnic nation states, where peoples tried to create their own free united nations, that came after Napoleon, not before him. As such, it is more like inheriting lands than a forceful takeover, as it had been agreed by Russia, Prussia and Austria (and since Poland was a puppet, Poland also agreed to it).''' Also, I would like for you to point out what law was broken in International law in the 1790s.'''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:05, 20 September 2006 (UTC)
:If the annexation of 1790 were legal, by the same logic so were annexation in 1918. The same logic cannot however be applied for annexation in 1939, since they were not internationally recognised. [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 10:25, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

I honourably disagree with you Szopen, as Germany, Hungary, Romania, Italy, Japan, Slovakia, Lithuania, USSR, etc. etc. all recognized that Poland no longer existed/was annexed and occupied in 1939. If that is not international recognition I don't know what is, as that perfectly fits the description of ''International Recognition''. just because her enemies did not admit it doesn't mean it wasn't internationally recognized, The enemies of Germany aren't the only people with a valid viewpoint simply because they won the war eventually. Like how in medieval times rivals for a throne didn't recognize each other's rights to it, and their supporters/detractors didn't either.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 19:04, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

===Erika Steinbach was born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland)===
On Rumia Discussion right on top you can find the records for inhabitants of Rahmel, Westprussia from the 1600's until 1940 [[Talk:Rumia]]. Those original church records are filmed by the LDS since 1920. Here is another look at it http://www.familysearch.org/Eng/Library/fhlcatalog/printing/titledetailsprint.asp?titleno=103047
Poles and Czechs took all birth, marriage , death certificates from the people they expelled, when they (the Communists under Soviet Union) conquered Germany. Even the people that managed to stay in their homeland, which became Communist Poland etc were not allowed to keep their records and got Polish ones instead. It was all part of the Communist plan to conquer and take over eastern Germany as far as they could get away with and then claim it all as 'original Polish' or 'Recovered Polish Territory' etc. What they did not count on, that there are originals records in the churches, which had been filmed by the LDS from Utah, starting by the way after 1920, that is the time, when these territories were 'taken' from Germany and 'given' to Poland by [[Treaty of Versailles]], which by the way was not signed by the USA.

By the way, thank you Schwarz und Weiss, for trying to put a little bit of sense into this 'Friendly' Neighbor at the [[Comenius]] article.
Labbas 16 Sep 2006

Balcer, I should probably go to your talk page with this, but I think Labbas's link to these records are rather telling, don't you? [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 23:16, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:What is so telling about it, pray tell? The page given does not actually list any names, so it does not give any indication what percentage of Rumia's population had which ethnicity. It only indicates that the official language used in Rumia was German, which is of course not surprising. Incidentally, the anon user's theory about Poland hiding/destroying the records is belied by the fact that the first (and hence presumably most important) sources for them are described as: Mikrofilme aufgenommen von Manuskripten im Archiwum Państwowym Gdańsk, Warszawa ...
:But this is all beside the point, as Rumia was a small, insignificant village until flooded by thousands of Poles settling there to work in newly-built Gdynia in the 1930s. In 1939, when it was occupied by Germany, it was a nascent town with majority Polish population. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 23:44, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

::Was this still the case when Steinbach was born? You know the expression ''what a difference a day makes''? Wroclaw was not an insignificant village, yet it too was flooded by Poles after WWII. And I would not say that a Polish child born there after, say 1946 (or even 1945), was born in Breslau. Would you? [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 00:04, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
:::Who knows? As you well know, the Germans expelled a large number of Poles from the Reichsgaus after 1939 (though not all by any means). Incidentally, it is also worth mentioning that the Germans who complain so much about expulsions after 1945 started the trend themselves by expelling Poles from areas annexed to Germany after 1939. Anyway, this discussion is not going anywhere. Names of cities are not determined by their ethnic composition. It is not our job to play historians or international lawyers, fun though it might be. We must find reliable sources, cite them, and incorporate what they say into Wikipedia. For one source, check [http://books.google.ca/books?vid=ISBN0198208731&id=OUb44s1ptrAC&pg=PA124&lpg=PA124&dq=reichsgau+danzig&sig=OkGcJsZJ5zUxJRJvYUsLwAtZ1t8&hl=en this Google print link] [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
:::Finally, the whole point of the discussion is not whether to use the name Rahmel or not (both proposals use both names), but about whether to refer to Rumia as "under German occupation". Eminent historical works use that formulation, and so should we. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
: You know, Balcer makes a very good point here. We should use formulations that can be found in [[WP:RS|reliable sources]]. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 06:56, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::The Polish nationalists want to have special rules for Germany. No wonder [[Polish plait]] is Poland's only contribution to European culture. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 00:07, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
::::Careful, Stettiner, a while back another user got into a serious controversy for making almost exactly this comment (see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Chris_73/Archive_004]).[[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:I checked it and found (only) 1 date after 1903: marriages until 1940. Filmed in the 20s? Note that if they were filmed in the 1920s, they or some of them were filmed at ... Gdansk. I beg your pardon? I am sorry, I have grave doubts about your version of how the LDS got them. Poles hiding, destroying? Some of these were filmed after 1945. In Gdansk. Now, all that these records prove is that the Roman Catholic Church at Rumia/Rahmel used German until 1903. Perhaps, just perhaps, because German State law compelled them to? Note that there was a Mormon village in East Prussia from the 1920s (in [[Zełwągi]])- if they were involved, that would be one more reason why all the headings are in German.--[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 01:26, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

::Now we need to discredit the [[Mormons]]? I for one, have no problem with Mormons, and highly appreciate their contributions to [[genealogy]] and their other positive contributions to society. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 20:10, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:::I am not trying to discredit Mormons. I wrote that Labbas' version of how these archives got filmed cannot be correct (one file, yes, one file only from 1940 plus the mention "Gdansk" - all this points to at least part of it having been filmed after 1945). The Mormons of Selbongen/Nikolaiken spoke German and Masurian only, they could write only in German and they would not have been familiar with Kashubian or a Polish dialect spoken in Rumia. Which would explain why they put the headings in German. In view of the fact that these were official documents, that the German state (certainly before 1903) required such documents to be in German, the mention on this internet page that some of the text is in Polish is interesting. Like anything in Welsh in baptismal records of 19th century Wales would be interesting. Nothing anti-Mormon here. --[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 07:37, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

== Inappropriate description ==

Describing an organisation representing victims of genocide and ethnic cleansing as "controversial" as main descrition in an unrelated article is inappropriate. I think its time to get rid of the Stalinist apologist vandals, who also abuse admin powers to protect their historical revisionism and Stalinist apologism. Obviously, this article needs to be protected against Polish nationalist POV pushing by non-nationalists and native speakers (this is the English, not Polish, Wikipedia). Stalin, go home! [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 00:05, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:Then it must be that [[Deutsche Welle]] is run by Polish Stalinists, since they consider the activities of [[Federation of Expellees]] controversial (see [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2135984,00.html]). Sorry, I tried hard to converse with you, but with your ethnic slurs and accusations of Stalinism you have crossed the line. [[Don't feed the trolls|Feeding time is over]]. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:28, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:[[User:Balcer|Balcer]] is right of course, but I would like to point out that if they are not controversial, they do have the knack to choose controversial leaders: [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Kather]. And perhaps, as a "non-nationalist", I should finally find the time to translate [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Oberl%C3%A4nder this article] into English.--[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 01:57, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

There is a small problem that the ''organisation representing victims of genocide and ethnic cleansing'' had a number of Nazi [[Founding Fathers]], even Erika Steinbach admitted this. There is another small problem, that the organisation didn't represent victims of German genocide and ethnic cleansing 1933-1944.

I have found names of historians, who created the image of ''Expulsion'':
*Theodor Schieder
*Werner Conze
*Albert Brackmann
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 12:53, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

== Jadger proposal ==

I have restored Jadger proposal for voting to the subpage [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Jadger proposal]]. Please discuss this proposal there. We already have one poll active just now, so we probably do not want to confuse the participants. I would suggest to use Judger's proposal if the poll would not yield convincing results [[User:Alex Bakharev|abakharev]] 05:33, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:Starting a new poll while the first one was open less than 24 hours, without any support from other users for this plan, is a very bad idea. Still, I thank Alex for containing the chaos and spinning the new vote to a separate section for now. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 05:37, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

::Thank you abakharev, the reason for my proposal is really simple. the current vote had only one side represented, and since I posted my objections, people have removed their support of it or voted against it (no one has since voted for it), showing that it was not really a truly fair vote. my vote on the other hand, contains both versions that were seen as being suitable contestants.

::As abakharev stated, he '''restored''' my proposal because Balcer kept removing it in order to push his POV, if the side he was on is as strong as he claims, then he would have no problem with another vote that would reinforce his opinion, but alas he knows the current one is worded to support only one way, without intentionally belittling its opposition. also, the current vote has become "lost" now, so convoluted with personal attacks, accusations in order to defame one another's characters, etc. etc. that it no longer makes much sense and is extremely polluted. And if you will notice, it has been longer than 24 hours as Balcer claims it has been almost 48 hours, and nearly 24 hours since anyone voted on it, in fact, just as many votes have been removed in the last 24 hours as have been added.

::The original vote, although no harm was meant by Olessi I'm sure, reminds me of the last election for [[Saddam Hussein]]. There were no other real choices besides other Ba'ath party members who did not really want to run against him, in this case there was no opposition until I posted it, which was after most of the support votes had been cast. How does one truly make a good choice when one only knows one side of the story?

:::For the record, I had nothing to do with the establishment of a poll. I saw a public invitation for assistance at [[Wikipedia talk:German-speaking Wikipedians' notice board]]. I then suggested phrasing and openly asked for discussion about it. A poll was created by others afterward, and was never my intention. [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 19:59, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
::::I incorrectly suggested to Jadger that Olessi started the poll. My mistake. It was [[User:Richardshusr]] who actually launched the poll, in this [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AErika_Steinbach&diff=75923207&oldid=75921907 diff]. It is only Olessi's suggestion which is being voted on. Sorry for any confusion. The text itself did not contain any mention of who launched the poll, but the message just above it carried Olessi's signature, hence my error.

::P.S. by "contain the chaos", Balcer means that he is trying to put the best spin on being warned by admin to stop removing other user's edits. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AErika_Steinbach&diff=76175190&oldid=76174133]]

::--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 05:51, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:I removed Jadger's new, unilateral vote proposal twice, while I attempted to talk him out of adopting this course on his talk page. Starting a new poll on one's own whimsy, and effectively throwing out the votes of the people who already voted, is simply bad manners. It also would introduce further confusion into this already rather chaotic discussion. Still, putting the new proposal into a separate section is a way to keep a semblance of organisation to these proceedings. I thank Alex for suggesting that idea.
:As for being afraid of this or that, the simplest interpretation, to me at least, is that it is Jadger who is afraid of losing the current vote, and is attempting to scuttle it. But I leave everyone to make their own judgement on that. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 05:58, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

LMAO, your attempts to draw me into a flaming war have failed Balcer([[Do not feed the trolls]]), you will not drag me through the mud with you. I will take the moral high road thank you very much. As for on my own "whimsy" (very poor grammar BTW), I have told you on your talk page ''(if you have not removed it)'' that many people supported it, and I named them. You scuttled the current vote a long time ago Balcer, you didn't need any help from me.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 06:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:Free grammar lesson: [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/whimsy], [http://www.google.ca/search?q=%22own+whimsy%22&start=0&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official]]. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 06:20, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

what you mean to say is ''"at his own whim"'' not ''"on his own whimsy"'' If you will notice, the second link you provided uses the word in another context then you do, and your first one if you look up "whim" proves my point perfectly.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 06:34, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

I believe that this discussion shouldn't be continued on personal pages as ad-personam attacks.
Thank you for your future cooperation.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 06:48, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

LOL, first of all it is called ''ad-hominem'', and second, I never did that, as first of all there would have to be a discussion taking place, which I clearly stated could not happen while you continue to troll and be nonsensical. I stated you are a "conversation-stopper" as [[Richard Rorty]] had defined it, perhaps you should read the essay, it really is an excellent read and could open your eyes considerably. If it was a personal attack or ad-hominem, report me, but since it wasn't, you simply claim it was in order to slander my reputation. I never attacked you, I simply asked you to not waste space on an already extensive talk page by stating nonsensical, unverifiable allegations (not to mention downright falsifications).

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:33, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Three traditionally identified varieties are ad hominem abusive or ad personam, ad hominem circumstantial, and ad hominem tu quoque. [[Ad hominem]]
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 07:11, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

== Jadger's actions ==

I'm sorry, I've said before that I respect Jadger and I assumed his good faith but while we are discussing here, he is hand-picking and recruiting for voting only the editors who he believes would support ''his'' POV. Such behaviour neither helps building the consensus nor does it lead to reflecting the NPOV view of the community on the matter. Should others behave in a similar way ? This is clear water POV pushing and it is unacceptable. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 15:06, 24 September 2006 (UTC)

== Moving discussion of Rahmel/Rumia (and other tangentially related stuff) here from [[Talk:Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] ==

This text was removed by [[User:Kusma]] from [[Talk:Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] as "off-topic". It is a bit "off-topic". A good chunk of it is relevant to the Rumia/Rahmel debate so I moved it here. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 15:52, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

: Rahmel is the german name of her birthtown and Rumia is the polish one. This territory was german occupied but also a part of the former german settled western prussia.
look there: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumia —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:84.185.254.24|84.185.254.24]] ([[User talk:84.185.254.24|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/84.185.254.24|contribs]]) 

:: Thanks but if this were so easily settled, we wouldn't have had an edit war and there would have been no need for protection. Please visit the [[Talk Page]] and express your opinion there. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 05:19, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

It is really settled that easily, but on wikipedia sometimes you have to deal with nonsensical people intent on pushing a nationalistic POV, including claiming that all lands in Poland have always been Polish and no one else has ever lived there rightfully.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:49, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

: Actually, on re-reading [[User:84.185.254.24]]'s text, I agree that this is pretty close to the mark. I think the issue is that Rahmel WAS the German name of the birthplace at the time of her birth but that name is (I'm guessing here) no longer in use and the current name used is the Polish one Rumia. The only question left is whether it is import ant to mention that Rahmel used to be part of German-settled western Prussia. This leads to two alternatives:

:: a) born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland) in German-occupied Poland
:: b) born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland) in German-occupied Poland which was once part of German-settled western Prussia.

: I would vote for (a) as (b) seems too clunky to be workable and suggests a bit of German POV pushing. I would argue for alluding the fact that it was German-occupied and the fact that it had previously been part of Poland and then leave the rest of history out of it since the article is about Erika Steinbach and NOT about the history of West Prussia.

: --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 16:15, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

why not just ''born in Rahmel (now [[Rumia]], Poland)''? it leaves the whole controversy over the wording out of it, and they can then look it up on the Rumia article. also, you say ''"I would argue for alluding the fact that it was German-occupied and the fact that it had previously been part of Poland"'', well it a part of Germany before that, so that point is moot. We can go back forever and find that the ancestors of the Basque people owned it first, the point should be left out of this particular sentence, it can be expanded on/clarified in the rest of the article. but please, let's move this discussion to our userpages in order not to confuse any new readers.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 00:19, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

The only reason to use the name Rahmel is the Nazi annexation of 1939, not accepted by democratic states. If you don't like Versaille, you are free to do it at home, with your friends, but not here. Germany waged a world war killing tens of millions because the Germans hated Versailles. If someone wants to experiment with Versilles, let he/she do it in an old mine, far from Poland.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 11:19, 21 September 2006 (UTC)
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 11:19, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

LMAO, you can't be serious, '''STOP TWISTING MY WORDS''', ''Germany waged a world war killing tens of millions because the Germans hated Versailles'', Germany isn't the only country to wage this war, Britain waged war, Poland waged war, USA waged war, '''they all waged this war that killed tens of millions''', I would like to point you to Balcer and Halibutt's statements on another talk page wherein they state that Poland made sure that they dragged the rest of the world into war with Germany. if you read [[Talk:Erika_Steinbach#German_invasion_of_Poland|here]], they clearly state that Poland dragged the rest of Europe into the war against Germany, now who is worse, Germany for starting an isolated war to regain it lost territory, or Poland for making it a world war (this all according to Balcer and Halibutt). Please cite a credible source that can back up your allegations, as per '''wikipedia:verifiability'''.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:27, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Nazi propaganda claimed, that the invasion of September 1st 1939 was caused by Poles. Are the Nazis returning?
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 06:54, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
:Jadger, the difference is that the war was started by Germany. Yes, they wanted to regain territories lost in Versailles, but this were territories which were German only because they were conquered. I am not sure whether you are trying to use here (I'm affraid quite typical) Kali logic:
"German wanted to regain territories it was good, Poland regained earlier its territories it was bad". Of course Germany starting a war is much worse than Poland calling for help. It's realy hard to see it otherwise. If a man ravishes a woman, you can't blame her to call for police. [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 10:20, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

:lol, that doesn't dignify a response Xx236, as with most of your comments. Szopen, I do not agree with what I was saying above, I was simply pointing to the talk page wherein Xx236's friends Balcer and Halibutt had said it, if we are to assume that what they say is true (as they claim) then what I said above follows from that.

:''"If a man ravishes a woman, you can't blame her to call for police."'' right, the man who did the ravaging was the triple entente/Versailles, the woman being Germany. But instead of calling "the Police" (League of Nations) she decided to stick up for herself in 1939 (and go over the line and exact revenge). If we are to use metaphors, by the reasoning above, ''it is not theft if you hand valuables to the thief when he has a gun to your head, as you handed the valuables to him, implying acceptance/approval. it wasnt stolen, you gave it to him'' The gun being in this case Versailles/triple entente military and valuables being German land. Of course this is wrong, I was simply showing your point in another metaphor.

:there is a difference between Poland "regaining" territory in 1919 than Germany doing it in 1939. Because Poland lost that land before the modern version of nation states being ethnically minded was developed (that is Germany being a nation of you guessed it: '''Germans'''), Royal Prussia was a Polish fief, but populated by Germans as well as Poles. By 1919 it was predominantly German populated. see [[Polish Corridor]], it was not given to poland because it was previously polish, but because it would weaken Germany and provide poland with a "outlet to the sea"
:--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 18:56, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
::Jadger, the problem with your reasoning is that yes, Polish Corridor had POLISH majority (Germans were about 42% in POmerania, but as you know before 1939 POlish corridor was sometimes used to refer all the lands lost by Germany in 1919, of which Posen had eevn greater Polish majority). Royal Prussia was not Polish fief, as you try to imply, but integral part of Polish crown (though, especially before UoL, with large authonomy). As for the other things, if you lost a war you have started (after all, it were Germans who declared war on France and Russia in WWI) you cannot complain of the consequences; and even more, if you earlier dictated even worse peace to countries you have defeated.
::After all, on what basis Germans could claim that Versailles was unjust, if they earlier dictated even worse peace of Brest-Litovsk or Treaty of Bucharest? This is what literally p* me off whenever I am talking with the Germans - it seems many Germans has this "Kali mentality" - if we did something, well, you know, the war and all, but if someone would do the very same thing to us this is OUTRAGEOUS! [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 15:03, 25 September 2006 (UTC)
::EDIT: BTW, I should clarify comments above: I had in mind "some" Germans, not large group, but a subset of editors and usenet users large enough to be notified. My intention was not to offend valuable editors or any kind of general ethnic slur - if someone however felt offended by the sentence above, please accept my apologies. [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 16:21, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

what I meant by my previos comment wherein i stated other nations waged war besides Germany, I was simply showing that XX236's claim that Germany was responsible for everydeath during WWII is incorrect.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 19:08, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Jadger, you keep fighting against:
*It's totally unimportant who is my friend. If you check, you will find my disputes with many Polish contributors.
BTW, it's interesting that you ask anti-Polish non-Germans to help you. You want a nationalistic war. The idea of Wikipedia was liberal, but as many such ideas radicals use Wiki to spread anti-liberal Nazi and Communist ideas.
*I have written:
''The only reason to use the name Rahmel is the Nazi annexation of 1939, not accepted by democratic states. If you don't like Versaille, you are free to do it at home, with your friends, but not here. Germany waged a world war killing tens of millions because the Germans hated Versailles. If someone wants to experiment with Versilles, let he/she do it in an old mine, far from Poland.''
Which of my words aren't true? Versailles wan't a perfect solution, but it was respected by the majority of democratic states. Germany succeeded in removing many limitations till 1939. It was German decision to wage the war in September 1939, killing tens of millions.

If I were you I would stop this discussion. There were tens of thousands of civilian victims in the "Corridor" in Piaśnica, Stutthof camp and other places and many of those victims were local people. Germans proved they were inviders. I bet there are not enough articles about Nazi crimes here. If you wage a Wiki war, you will mobilize some Poles to write such articles.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 14:29, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

::Very sad. This discussion seems to be full of German and Polish national egos. Rumia/Rahmel has often changed their ruling parties. Many people did not even know anymore whether they are German or Polish, many were mixed. This is a point totally neglected here. One side shouts: Rumia/Rahmel has been German all along; the other one shouts: Germans are all Nazis and therefore all history has to be reduced to the evil things "the" Germans did. Both is completely one sided. I think this is the core of the issue here. Rumia is PRESENT; Rumia and Rahmel are HISTORY, and German presence there was not only the years of Nazi occupation. And this history is also CONNECTED to people like Erika Steinbach, because she was not born in present Polish Rumia, but in the past when both the presence of Rumia and Rahmel were present as a Slavo-Germanic mixed area. Of course this is not convenient for nationalists from either the German or Polish side, but it's the truth.

== World War I ==

Why is it important to mention that Rumia/Rahmel ''had been part of Germany before the [[World War I|first World War]]''. How is this relevant to the fact that Erika Steinbach was born there ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:04, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

: Forgive me, This strikes me as a disingenuous question. That is, it would seem that you know the answer and are just asking in a rhetorical way. But perhaps you are unaware of the dispute that has been running in this article for at least 4-5 months so excuse me if I lay out the argument in very simple steps.

: Please note that I really don't care about this issue. I just want it to be dealt with in an NPOV way so that we can avoid edit wars. However, the chain of logic goes something like this:

: 1) Some people dispute the legitimacy of Erika Steinbach claiming to be an expellee because she was born of German parents in Rumia (by accident due to her father's posting there as part of the Luftwaffe) rather than being a descendant of people who had lived there for many generations.

: 2) Now that we have a need to explain where she was born, we therefore need to provide the name of the town where she was born. '''Is it Rumia or Rahmel?''' Or Rumia (formerly Rahmel)? Or Rahmel (now Rumia)?

: 3) To summarize the long edit war and debate over the name of the town, it comes down to this...
: 3a) The town is currently named Rumia
: 3b) It was called Rahmel during the German occupation of Polish lands which were formerly German before Versailles
: 3c) It was called Rumia between Versailles and the German invasion of Poland in 1939
: 3d) It was called Rahmel before Versailles
: 3e) I don't know if it was ever called Rumia at a time before Versailles. I suspect it might have been.

: I personally think this is a stupid dispute to have in this particular article. It would be more understandable if the dispute were being conducted in the [[Rumia]] article. Here, however, it seems to me to be a real sideshow to the main topic of discussing Steinbach's life.
: --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 19:31, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

::As stupid as it is (and I agree on this of course), the issue of the expellees does not have much to do with the pre-WW1 time. We should not be writing the history of Rumia/Rahmel in [[Erika Steinbach]] article. What can be (vaguely) relevant is that it was renamed to Rahmel during the Nazi occupation 1939-1945, and the point of the lengthy dispute has been whether the Nazi occupation name should be recognized or not. But there's no need to further justify this with the history of the [[Partitions of Poland]]. I'm rather surprised that you find it acceptable. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:41, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

::Note that '''I have not asked if Rumia or Rahmel is the "better" name''' for the town during WW2. But to me the sole purpose of mentioning the pre-WW1 name is to suggest that it should belong to Germany. Otherwise why do we need this mentioned there in the first place ? I think this should go. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:47, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

::: This is ridiculous, of course Rumia is part of Poland now, noone denies this. But Steinbach wasn't born now, she was born then. Thus, it is very relevant to mention that Rumia/Rahmel has been part of Poland and Germany at various times. This is important context. It is important to understand the character of the area, and also is relevant to the mindset of people who used to live there when Steinbach lived there. Many of the inhabitants did not even know whether they are German or Polish, or both. It is clear that this may annoy both German and Polish nationalists. But it is the truth and there is nothing wrong with it. This point is very relevant to understand the people there at the time, including Erika Steinbach. Another inconvenient point is that there was also German expellees after WW1 and before that was the division of Poland, thus neither the ideas that Rumia/Rahmel had "always" been German or had "always" been Polish are correct. Thus, to mention only Rumia suggests that the area had always been Polish. To only mention Rahmel insinuates the idea it had always been German. Both is historically biased. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:80.128.222.8|80.128.222.8]] ([[User talk:80.128.222.8|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/80.128.222.8|contribs]]) 

::::No, Steinbach was not born "then" as you put it. She was not born before WW1. How about mentioning that it was not German before the partitions of Poland then ? This is insane. All this discussion belongs maybe to [[Rumia]], or rather to [[History of Germany]] and [[History of Poland]], but the history of Rumia before [[World War I]] or before the [[Partitions of Poland]] is not relevant to this article on [[Erika Steinbach]]. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:24, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

::::: Yes, Steinbach was born in 1943, when the place was called Rahmel. But in order to be fair, '''I suggest both mentioning Rumia and Rahmel'''. It's not insane at all. If you insist it should be the name when Steinbach was born, then it is Rahmel. But I insist both Rumia and Rahmel should be mentioned. Your argument is to call it only Rumia, no matter when Steinbach was born or whatever the historical context. I don't agree, because the reader who is not familiar with history will assume it never had any German ties but had been Polish for centuries and then the "bad Germans" came out of the blue. And this is basically your point here. But my point is it's Rumia today and it will stay Rumia forever, but in order to be accurate in 1943 and the population who lived there back then I suggest we call it Rumia and Rahmel in this context.

::::Actually, the "bad" Germans came out of the blue. While other "good" Germans may have lived in Rumia/Rahmel for many years before, Steinbach's parents came there with the Nazi invasion. '''How is the pre-WW1 story relevant to this ?''' Did they come there to collect their belongings or what ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 00:32, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

::: Now this is a misrepresentation, noone was talking about anyone "collecting their belongings". As I mentioned before, when Steinbach was born it was called Rahmel. However, '''to call it only Rahmel I find unfair, the same for calling it only Rumia'''. It both brings across a wrong picture, since this area needed to endure a lot of changes within a relatively short time. Moreover, the population even after WW1 was insecure about their identity. And as I mentioned before, now it is Rumia and a completely different context, but Steinbach was born in 1943.

::::I'm sorry for the sarcasm and the rhetorical question. Of course they did not come to "collect their belongings". They came with the Nazi occupation forces. Now, that the town has been named "Rahmel" in 1939-1945 is purely the Nazi perspective, as the annexation of the town to German has been not recognized internationally. Since the Nazis occupied Poland, they could have claimed whatever names including Litzmannstadt and such, but this would not make these names any more official. It would be Rahmel of course if we spoke about say 1914, but certainly not 1943. '''This has been discussed zillion of times''' here already. '''What I asked however was about the purpose of including pre-WW1 history''' of Rahmel in this particular article, as neither Steinbach nor her family have any pre-WW1 history in Rahmel. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 06:44, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

Oh God. This page was protected for over a week because of the unending edit war that was going on over this issue. I thought we had gotten the issue put to bed and along comes Lysy with no doubt pure and innocent motives but nonetheless winds up reopening the wound.

Lysy, please do us a favor and read the admittedly long and seemingly interminable debate on this Talk Page over this issue. I can't figure out which is more insane - mentioning pre-WWI in an article about a woman born in 1943 or spending literally thousands if not tens of thousands of words '''debating Rumia/Rahmel'''. I wish I had a penny for every keystroke wasted on this debate.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 07:17, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

:I think you're attributing me somebody else's intentions. All I asked above was why was it important to mention that Rumia/Rahmel ''had been part of Germany before the [[World War I|first World War]]''. I did not revert. I did not advocate Rumia vs Rahmel or the other way round. Why are you saying that I'm restarting this discussion, while my issue is obviously with the other (WW1) sentence. In fact, as I reread the thread, it is obvious that it is you and the other anonymous editor that are reviving the naming debate instead of focusing on what I asked about. I have bolded parts of the discussion to show you how you're twisting my words. I've been only asking a simple question about the WW1 relevance, and you (Richard + 80.128.222.8) are trying to drift it away to the Rumia/Rahmel naming debate again. And now you are trying to accuse me of doing what actually you attempted yourself ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 09:25, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

:: I don't understand the issue. As mentioned I think Rumia and Rahmel should be mentioned in order to explain the character of the birthplace of Steinbach. I don't know why this is such a big problem. The article mentions both Rumia, Rahmel, the Nazi occupation and pre-WW1. I think this is very accurate.

:: But oh, you already deleted everything and changed it to your version. Great Lysy... Why do you even pretend to be objective?

:No, I have not deleted it. I also do not pretend to be objective. I'm certainly not, but I'm trying to. Back to our petty issue here, if you insist that pre-WW1 history of Rahmel should be mentioned, I would insist that earlier history is equally relevant. Sill, I'm sure the article is not a place for such advocacy and I only do not understand why can't you see that :-( --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 17:44, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

:: I mean the point is, you and I maybe know more about histroy. But most people don't, so they will simply assume it has either always been a Polish or always a German town, when they read the article. I don't really have the strength and time to check this site all the time to see what is put on or off. I suggest to mention it all.
::In general terms, I am aware there are many prejudiced ideas of Steinbach flurring around and I don't support witch hunts. I am not a fan of her, but I also don't think she is as bad as she is portrayed at all. Besides, she doesn't decide anything alone and is accompanied by other reputable and pragmatic people, or is Imre Kertesz a fanatic? As a matter of fact this extremeness of the discussion also makes me think of what type of people portray her in that way, taking words out of context and so forth. Of course people are afraid of compensation claims and all that crazy stuff that the media makes up about her, but Steinbach repeatedly and strongly rejected this madness. If she should ever come up with things like this, I will write her a letter of protest myself. However, I think no matter who will mention anything slightly sympathetic about the expellees or anything related, may it be Steinbach, Glotz, the Federation of Expellees - which wasn't and in 2006 most definitely isn't as bad as portrayed at all - or anyone else, will be bashed in an unfair way (even if I do admit Steinbach's case is rather odd). I believe we need to stop bickering. In my eyes the expellees are a bridge, not a problem. I don't see a problem with them also having a representation and having a museum to show their culture and history. They exist and existed, so why hide them ? It is so strange how they are often the ones who have the best contact to Polish people, at the same time they are collectively stigmatized as "Nazis" even 60 years after the war. I believe Hitler has in many cases "sacrificed" them and "the monster" is also partially responsible for their demise. At the same time there are so many diverse stories depending on the region where the expellees lived and so forth. I don't like the politization of this "issue". We are friends and we don't need to hide any part of history. Even if Nazis crimes were initial and as a whole much worse than the expulsion, the expulsion still happened and was pretty bad for the people involved. I am glad that the exhibition of the expellees in Berlin was not revisionist and besides the central expulsions (that was the exhibition's topic), it explicitly mentioned Hitler's initial land robbery in Eastern Poland (in which the Nazis deported Germans and told them to "settle on free land", in reality the Nazis had forcefully stolen the land from Poles, expelled the former inhabitants, and placed the "re-settled" people in formerly Polish houses. The majority of expellees were, however, not "re-settled people".), Polish slave workers and referred to the commonly known Nazi crimes, particularly the Holocaust. These awful Nazi crimes are very well documented in many much bigger museums also in Berlin and worldwide, which I think is necessary. The Nazi crimes are also an integral part of our highschool schedules, culture and media landscape. The exhibition also showed the forceful re-settlement of Poles from the Ukraine to Silesia, which was further empathetic to the Poles whose home is Silesia now. And it covered other expellee cases, which it placed in different context, of course. Some of Stalins expulsions were also covered, these were also mainly unknown to me. In my life I had not heard of Finnish Kalmyks ;-) For Germany it is important to know that a fifth of our population are Germans from Eastern Europe. Everybody should be tolerant, and everyone should know who he is. I am confident in a friendship between our countries. I like most expellees, most Germans and most Poles and in fact most of the world, and I realize we live in 2006. Maybe I am a dreamer, but I believe in it. Angela Merkel also supports the idea of a center against expulsions, one of Angela's grandparents is Polish. The idea that Poland and Germany are bordering but are worlds apart is not what I think. I simply said my opinion, so there is no need to comment because I am not here to try to convince anyone. Gee, I wrote too much. But still, best wishes ;-)
:Thanks for writing this and for your level-headed approach. I could not agree more with most of what you wrote. I'm not against the exhibition as I've not seen it myself and I'm old enough not to believe everything I hear in the news. I do not have a strong opinion on Erika Steinbach either (although I may dislike politicians in general). However I'm against the attempts to legitimize Nazi occupation of Poland with "innocent" edits like the one explaining that Rahmel was German before WW1 or insisting on inserting German name of the town in every sentence. I'm not saying you did this, but some anonymous editor inserted this information for a purpose (or maybe out of good will). Anyway, if someone needs to learn the wider history of Rahmel/Rumia, he usually simply clicks on it and gets to the [[Rumia]] article, where its history is explained in detail, including that it belonged to West Prussia since 1772, then to Poland since WW1, then the German (Nazi ?) occupation, the POWs, forced labour camp etc. Speaking of forced labour, you wrote that unlike the fate of the expellees, the history of Polish slave workers is very well documented elsewhere. Are you sure about this ? There is a museum in Auschwitz of course but it mostly deals with what happened in that particular place. Holocaust is well documented. But are there other museums devoted to particular groups of victims of Nazism, similarly to the expellees ? I'm not trying to justify the expulsions. The Poles certainly exercised some bitter revenge on local Germans and for a couple of years following the WW2 they treated the Germans in Poland in a similar way they have been treated before themselves. But they've not dragged people from their houses and shot them in the streets for what I know. Where were the expellees then ? How many Germans did engage in the armed resistance against Nazism ? I'm sorry but I expect that if Hitler did not loose the war, they would more or less happily accept their German privileged status and silently assist in exterminating Jews, then Poles etc. Now they complain they have been treated badly after WW2 because they had to leave their houses. Tell this to the millions of Jewish and Polish civilians who were killed by the Nazis and can not complain any more. Again, I'm all for reconciliation but some things are simply not equal. All right, what I suggest we could do is work together on the [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] to make it a quality article instead of what it is now. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 05:40, 22 October 2006 (UTC)
:: Thank you for your answer Lysy. The fate of Poles is very well documented in Poland, you are a good example of how well it is known. Every Polish person I met knew that the Nazis and the Soviets had commited crimes on them. On German TV I had seen several documentations about Catholic Poles under Nazi occupation. One was so endearing with a Polish woman who since after the war lives in Szeczin/Stettin. She had a horrible childhood in the occupied country, she acoounted it and it was dreadful. The German government had invited her to visit Germany because they had found out about her terrible fate, and she was hesistant at first. Then she agreed, she had a very good time. But one time, so she told, she met an old couple and told them she is from Szeczin/Stettin. Then the old couple said: But we are from Stettin. At first the Polish lady was shocked, she explained how now it is her childrens' home. But then later she said: Who knows what they experienced in their childhood? This really was touching. And I could see that even if she had been through hell herself, she was able to show compassion. I was so touched. Sczecin is Polish now. But we need to document the past and stop stigmatizing our people respectively. Polish history and especially Nazism is part of the curriculum in Polish highschools, and that is important. The expellees' story is not about complaining, it's about showing the entire history. Interestingly, you say the revenge did not involve dragging people out on the street and shoot them. I am sorry to say this is not true. Last year my mother's fromer classmate died. As a child he was very shy and almost never spoke, he was an expelled child from Silesia. When he was young he and his mother were hiding in the hay from Poles who invaded the town (in their case it was NOT local Silesian Poles). The men were pushing their pitchforks into the hay to spike up a German, no matter who. Some of this revenge was awful, and it was not always exercized by the local Poles, but by people who came there to indisriminantly take out their revenge on just anyone. Besides, I am sure there was also officials who spured these young men and who "organized" it and used the fate of these people to get their goals. Some of these men might have realized years later what they were pushed to do. In Silesia Poles were a minority, and they often did not take part in the "revenge". The Oppeln/Opolske region is a good example of how the expulsion was not inevitable. Not every Pole "chose" to take revenge (!), this is another point worth mentioning. Some older Polish women who experienced the expulsion even now say it was wrong and awful. They themselves had often been deported from the Ukraine and were dumped in a place totally unfamiliar to them. It is important to mention that not every German was a war criminal (!). Not only active resistance groups were not war criminals (!). There was many people who were farmers and were unpolitical, others fell prey to Hitler's vicious propaganda but were not in always war criminals. The point is, unpolitical Germans or Poles have no lobby what so ever. This is a true issue. I do to some point understand how the revenge came about, but it doesn't make it right. I do think it has to be documented. In Germany and elsewhere the story of the expellees had been suppressed for some time, mainly due to ideology. The Holocaust is no secret, the crimes of Nazism are not "untold". Every day I can find something relating to it on TV or in the newspapers. But still, it is important to remember, Jews were the "main victim" of Nazism. In Poland there are now a few thousand Jews and 40 million Poles, so I cannot have been exactly the same persecution. When I was at highschool history was all about the Holocaust. I think that is important and it is a central topic, but we need to know more. More about Stalin, more about Poles, more about German expellees, more about Latvians, more about Rwanda and simply more about the world. I do not even remember if Stalin was ever mentioned with a single word at my highschool, and I went to school in Western Germany. Can you imagine this? Now this would not happen in Poland. For this I admire Poland since it has the strength to show the entire story, both Nazism (which was even worse) and Stalinism. Even Steinbach had a speech about Poland which is also on her website in which she said "Poland is not lost. For this sentence I admire the Polish people." For a long time the expellees were put into a box named "Nazis", "refugee, what do you want here?" and "shut up". However, they had the most difficult fate of post-war Germans, and for some time Germany didn't acknowledge it. Another topic but different. I only know this because I am interested in Poland, so most wouldn't know. But when Wajda released a movie about the minority of Polish collaborators during Nazism he was highly criticized by some, why? This was a minority, but they also existed. When Kaczynski attacked Tusk because Tusk's grandfather had allegedly been a Nazi collaborator, then it was ok to talk about it. It's so abusive. Does that mean Tusk is a Nazi? How unfair, especially during election time. Firstly, the Soviets had committed some horrible crimes to Catholic Poles and the Nazis afterwards of course, too. Hitler was the most disgusting and manipulative monster. But what I find interesting and never talked about: If a Polish person had suffered during the Soviet occupation, you think this person chose to support the Soviet army? Some did, but some didn't. Why? Because they were evil? Well, maybe they had lost their loved ones to the Soviets and then would not support the Soviets. How can I thus judge this Catholic Pole for not supporting the Soviets? A similar case it is for some Germans (obviously a minority in the East). If they had been deported by the Soviets or expelled after WW1, why would they support the other party who had done harm to them? I mean there are many taboos and the entrie moral discussion applies to war criminals, but not in every case to ordinary citizens of the time. Keeping in mind most of the people at this time were farmers, could they sift through propaganda when having 1 radio channel? I am not sure, because I didn't live then. But there are certain questions. Often words are mixed, German becomes Nazi, Nazis becomes war criminal, war criminal becomes concentration camp guard. Germany had 70 million people, did they all work in concentration camps? What happened to soldiers who rejected to join the army? An old man in the village next to my granddad can tell you this. The Nazis cut his penis off. Noone seems to bother mentioning these things. It doesn't justify the awful crimes of the Nazis, but then again it is not aimed at justifying anything, but at documenting history and maybe even learning from it. Concerning elections and un-responsible voting behavior, beyond Poland, it is interesting to remember that most Germans abroad (not Silesia, but Hungary for example) had no right to vote in Germany. Thus, the initial election of Hitler, the beginning of the disaster, cannot be blamed on some of these people. These topics are not as central as the major historical disasters, but these individual stories are still important I think. Yet, they serve no political interest, so why would anyone bother mentioning it? Yesterday I bought my food again at a store where my Polish friend Ms. Poljak works. She smiles, I smile, there is a positive connection. She has self-confidence, I do. She is comfortable with her identity, I am. That's why we are real friends. I don't think we need to hide, and I believe if we are honest and truthful we can document history and still remember that we live in 2006. I totally am against politicizing the issue. In Germany part of the left wing is biased toward the expellees, but ironically they often do not like the Catholic Church (and the Poles) either, only when they can use them. And some of older left wing were in fact ex-Nazis like Günther Grass, who may be a good author but at the same time he pointed fingers while he himself had been part of this mess. The right was also not always nice to the expellees either, in particular when they arrived. I was also left wing, because I am gay. But now I am pretty much at home in no political direction. The right-wing is unfair, so is the left-wing (even if my granddad was a Communist). Europe needs to get over ideologies and face reality, sometimes it's painful, but friends are honest. I like my parents even if we have gone through rough times. But we were fair and honest. That's just my opinion. And for Poland and Germany, I continue to say we do have many very positive connections,we just need to be aware and we need to respect the individual for what he or she is. Oh Gosh, I need to stop wiki, because it takes too much time and my housemates are making trouble. Take care, bye.
:I understand most of what you wrote and, once more, I couldn't agree more with most of what I understood. Just for the record, the Nazis murdered about 3 million non-Polish Jews plus 3 million non-Jewish Poles plus about 3 millions Jewish Poles. Many Poles perished from the Soviets as well. But as I said, that's only for the record and and is not intended to prove or justify anything. While I very much appreciate our conversation here (and especially your effort in explaining yourself), I have the feeling that it may be getting off topic and is not directly relevant to how to improve the [[Erika Steinbach]] article. I cannot email you since you've not registered, but feel free to use [[Special:Emailuser/Lysy|my email]] if you desire to further contact me (you might be asked to register for this purpose, though). You may also use [[User_talk:Lysy|my talkpage]] if you prefer. I'd be happy to discuss the issue of Polish/German relations further, but as I said I feel this it not the right place to continue it. Thanks. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 18:50, 23 October 2006 (UTC)
:: I don't need the records, I know what I need to know ;-)I also know I have been a bit broader than simply Erika Steinbach ;-) Unfortunately I will not be able to visit Wikipedia much because of lacking time, but thanks for the invitation to discuss. Take care and best wishes.

Comment by 80.128.249.151

Allegedly '' 'expellees' story is not about complaining, it's about showing the entire history''. The statement is false, the Expellees had Nazi leaders, demanded the revision of borders to those of 1937. The majority of their stories are '' The world was beautiful till 1945 when the Poles came''. The old ones responsible for the Nazi crimes are already dead, their children believe that their parents were angels - many of them weren't. A responsible father doesn't want his family to live near a mass execution place Piaśnica or nazi camp Stutthof.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 14:51, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

WOW, read what you just wrote XX. ''I don't need the records, I know what I need to know'' so what you're saying is we don't need any research or authoritative sources, we can just make up everything we want (which seems to be the extent of your input on wikipedia). ''A responsible father doesn't want his family to live near a mass execution place Piaśnica or nazi camp Stutthof.'' Yet many poles do live near those sites in Poland, why is that? are Polish fathers not responsible? according to you it seems so. Please XX, provide some evidence for your claims that Germans have forgotten history, it was all too apparent during the World Cup this year that even though the 3rd Reich is long gone, people still see all Germans as Nazis, as it seems by your writing you do.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 11:17, 23 November 2006 (UTC)
Jadger, I haven't written the phrase. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 15:35, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

:Jadger, don't waste your time. I read the interesting discussion above between the often unsigned editors, but I assume were always Lysy and Richard. I had the satisfaction to feel that there was a true ''modus vivendi'' achieved between them and that we all could benefit from it. But naturally people like XX will swoop down and start the same old crap again. Or should I say come out of a mouse hole? Then they will scury to the next article and try to create more propaganda and more dissension between people. And it's Wikipedia and its reputation that suffer because of it. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 14:50, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

I thought that also, I was only commenting on XX last remark, which is totally non-sensical.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 20:08, 24 November 2006 (UTC)

Dr Dan, do you mean your texts? "Then they will scury to the next article and try to create more propaganda and more dissension between people"? [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 15:37, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

== Rumia/Rahmel again ? :-( ==

::Come on Lysy, at [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=81777161 first] '''you revert''' my edit '''Rumia (german: Rahmel)''' to just '''Rumia''' and [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=next&oldid=81777161 then] two sentences later you remove '''Rumia/Rahmel''' altogether and replace it by '''this town'''. At least to me it seems pretty clear that you don't want any mentioning of the German name of the city in this article at all.
::This seems to be in line with [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pomerania&diff=prev&oldid=81775392 your reverts] where you don't allow the mentioning of the old name of Gdansk, Danzig not even in brackets, not even once in the article. Although it is pretty clear that Pommerania and Danzig had quite a mixed past with strong influences from both Poland and Germany and many people (not just Germans) know the city nowadays still as Danzig. In fact you called it '''arrogant''' to mention the German name. I know, I know this belongs to the Gdansk/Pommerania talk pages but the issue is the same...
::Sorry but I can't follow [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=81843993 your argument] that the mere mentioning of the German name of a town suggests that it should belong to Germany. --[[User:Splette|Splette]] [[Image:Happyjoe.jpg]] [[User_talk:Splette|Talk]] 10:49, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

Yes, and this is a different issue than the one discussed in the previous section. First, the article has been unprotected on October 6th. It had the Rahmel name explained all right. In a couple of days an anonymous editor added ''Rumia/Rahmel had been part of Germany before WW1, however it had become part of the Polish state after WW1'' without any discussion or reference to the article. Anyway, the article was relatively stable for about 10 days only. Then you decided that Rahmel needs to be mentioned in in another sentence and added the German name for the third time. Why was it needed if in the very next sentence it was explained that Rumia was renamed to Rahmel ? I've watched this article for too long not to know what would happen next. In a couple of days somebody would change the order of the names and then another fly-by-night anonymous warrior would come and remove Rumia altogether. I've seen this scenario too many times. Why were you unhappy with the stable version ? As for the other edits, I'm happy to discuss them if you like. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 11:28, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

: But now you are talking about a problem that does not exist. Rumia is in the article and will remain there. If someone deletes it, I will put it in again. But just as you insist to only put Rumia and not Rahmel, I insist to put both and find it a stable compromise. Both Rumia, Rahmel, the Nazi occupation and pre-WW1 are essential to Steinbach's birthplace. Lysy, I am sure you are a nice woman. But i am sorry to say that it seems like you like to control this page and to eventually always have your point of view pushed through.

History of Rumia from 1466 until 1772 ;)

from official Rumia web site

http://www.rumia.eu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=27&Itemid=51

http://www.rumia.eu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=51

(ciekawe jak szybko helmuty to usuna ;))

—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:193.242.104.9|193.242.104.9]] ([[User talk:193.242.104.9|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/193.242.104.9|contribs]]) 

I restored the compromise version.
--[[User:Molobo|Molobo]] ([[User talk:Molobo|talk]]) 22:54, 14 February 2009 (UTC)
==West Prussia==
Rumia is in Pomorze Gdańskie the same as it is in West Prussia. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 12:43, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

== Protests in Potsdam (controversial terms) ==
*Colonisation: The german word ''Siedlung'' could be translated as the [[Settlement]] as well as the [[Colonisation]], but after reading the preview of Steinbach's lecture I consider the "[[Colonisation]]" more accurate term.
*revisionism: As I learned from cited articles, the reason of the protests of students and the Antifascist Alliance is the (alleged) Steinbach's [[Historical revisionism (negationism)|revisionism]]. This not my POV, this is the POV of protesting people and organisation, which should be mentioned. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Honzula|Honzula]] ([[User talk:Honzula|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Honzula|contribs]]) 11:32, 21 June 2008 (UTC) 

==Opening paragraph==

The opening paragraph shall only contain name and ''date'' of birth (not place of birth), per [[Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_(biographies)#Opening_paragraph|MoS (biographies)]]. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 15:17, 26 February 2009 (UTC)
:''Steinbach, came to our country with Hitler and had to flee with Hitler''[http://www.expatica.com/nl/news/news_focus/Poland-ups-the-pressure-in-WWII-memorial-feud-with-Germany--_49974.html] - Polish Minister [[Radoslaw Sikorski]]--[[User:Jacurek|Jacurek]] ([[User talk:Jacurek|talk]]) 16:16, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

==Criticism in Poland==
I think that the article should be modified as to the criticism of E. Steinbach in Poland. The reasons for the Polish critique are, among others, as follows:
* (in the context of her possible presidency of the Centre Against Expulsions) - she was strongly against Polish membership in the EU and NATO, she was one of the most active opponents of the Polish-German border treaty (and voted against it as one of very few members of the German parliament), what, from the Polish point of view, makes her unable to participate in management of historical and scientific museum, which is to deal also with Poland, due to the lack of objectivity;
* in 1990s she continued to put in question the Polish-German border;
* she is strongly associated with the Centre Against Expulsions, which is seen as anti-Polish; the Poles are often furious of the Centre's website and the data presented there, e.g. the number of Poles expelled from Poland during the World War II (400 thousand according to the Centre's website /presented as "deported from Poland"/, compared with official numbers amounting to 2 millions) or the information about the city of Gdańsk (as per the website, it was founded in 1224/25 as a German city, while it was founded in 997 by Mieszko I of Poland);
* there is a fear that she may be likely to marginalise German war crimes and try to present "expelled"/"deported" Germans as victims of the war in the same context as Jews, Poles and other nations.
In general, her political life was full of anti-Polish actions and she is regarded as heavily biased against Poland. These are the reasons for her critique in Poland. The article mentions almost only her bad reputation and exhibitions she organised, while her political campaign against Polish borders and membership in international organisations are the reasons for this critique. [[User:Montessquieu|Montessquieu]] ([[User talk:Montessquieu|talk]]) 20:22, 2 March 2009 (UTC)

Critisism is alright but what had happened in Poland in the last couple of weeks is far beyond a fair debate ("blonde beast", tasteless nazi photomontages etc). —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/83.236.241.230|83.236.241.230]] ([[User talk:83.236.241.230|talk]]) 18:26, 10 March 2009 (UTC) 

::Which exactly facts do you mean? The ones generated by German media? BTW Erika Steinbach has been using very tasteless methods against Poland and Poles since many years. And German media attacked Kaczynski brothers eg. as potatoes. Erika Steinbach idealises her father, a Luftwaffe officer who stationed in occupied Poalnd. The majority of Poles don't understand the difference betwen Nazi forms.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 09:39, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

What are you talking about? It's unfair when somebody accuse that during the debate in Poland Steinbach is called "blonde beast". It's unfair because it's biased. Maybe somebody said something like this but it is not part of real debate in Poland which I observe in media or between politicians. It's like to say that neo-Nazi parties rules in Germany lately, while they have no real power and only few seats in one state parliament. [[Special:Contributions/89.79.103.10|89.79.103.10]] ([[User talk:89.79.103.10|talk]]) 15:57, 21 March 2009 (UTC)

:My intention was not to start any discussion on whether the above-mentioned statements are true or false, but to present reasons for the critique of E.S. in Poland, as it's one of the sections in the article. In other words, the section is not to suggest whether the Poles are right or not. It's role is to show main points of the critique (which may be biased, determined by history or whatever, or may be fully objective as well). The provided statements are from Polish press. Regards, [[User:Montessquieu|Montessquieu]] ([[User talk:Montessquieu|talk]]) 16:24, 21 March 2009 (UTC)

I basicly agree with Montessquieu who simply inteded to display the state of debatte. However, I gently ask Xx236 to keep in mind that there is, in scales of taste, a difference between (the rather ironic) potatoe-article and e.g. the photo montage showing Mrs. Steinbach wearing a SS-uniform. Furthermore, I would also like to remind 89.79.103.10 that it was not just "somebody" who called E.S. a "blonde beast" but Mr.Bartoszewski who is the official apointee for German matters of the Polish goverment. And, last but not least, the almost agressive tone of your comments (except for Montessquie) may serve as evidence for my statement as well...(08:13, 30 March 2009 (UTC)) —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/83.236.241.230|83.236.241.230]] ([[User talk:83.236.241.230|talk]])  
*As I have written the majority of Poles ignore the differences between German uniforms. I don't know why the artist selected a SS-uniform rather than a Luftwaffe one.
*My comments are sometimes agressive, beacuse I'm frustrated by anti-Polish bias of several authors and articles. And because I frequently know the subjects better than my opponnts, who impose their POV using some Wikipedia tricks and biased sources. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:21, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

: Please give me a quote of Mr. Bartoszewski saying that Steinbach is a blonde beast. He denied that he called her like this on his blog. He explains that he used in one of his speech the term from Die Zeit newspaper (also there is a book in Poland: "E.S. A beauty or beast?") and media misrepresented it as his own opinion about E.S - probably to cause sensation. So you were misinformed in this matter. The worst thing that Mr Bartoszewski said about Mr. Steinbach was calling her "anti-Polish". While he is not so great in diplomacy in my opinion he is not so stupid to use such an abusive term and therefore I do not believe only a few results from Google where Mr. Bartoszewski is connected with "blonde beast". There are a lot of mistakes in press so I would rather believe Mr. Bartoszewski denial. However, if you have a better quote of his speech please provide it. [[Special:Contributions/89.79.103.10|89.79.103.10]] ([[User talk:89.79.103.10|talk]]) 20:00, 4 April 2009 (UTC)

Hello 89.79.103.10, unfortunately I have so far merely found articles written in German as I cannot read Polish and articles concerning that topic seem not to exist in English (presumably because except for Poland and Germany nobody in the world is interested in the debate...): http://www.zeit.de/2009/13/Sikorski
It is an interview withe the current Polish minister for Foreign Affairs and has recently been published in the German newspaper "Die Zeit" which you might know?! In the very first two paragraphs, Mr. Sikorski confirms that Mr. Bartoszewski has said "blonde beast" with regard to ES but as part of a comparison in the sense of "for some she is a blonde beauty, for others she is a blonde beast". Hence, I am a bit supprised that he now seems to completly denie to have said something like this at all. I guess it is because he knows quite well that it was not that "great in diplomacy". Regards, ([[Special:Contributions/83.236.241.230|83.236.241.230]] ([[User talk:83.236.241.230|talk]]) 12:55, 6 April 2009 (UTC))

Mr. Bartoszewski is not denying that he used the term at all. He is denying that he called her like this by himself. He used this extreme comparison only to show how great is difference of opinions about Mrs. Steinbach. Maybe it wasn't the best way to do this but repeating that Mr. Bartoszewski is calling Mrs. Steinbach like this without giving the context of his words is deceptive. Also arguing on this basis that in Poland calling Mrs. Steinbach "blond beast" is part of the real debate is misleading. However, nobody denies repeating Mr. Bartoszewski words but it should be done in objective way without skipping the "blond beauty" opinion about Mrs. Steinbach which he also used in his speech. [[Special:Contributions/89.79.103.10|89.79.103.10]] ([[User talk:89.79.103.10|talk]]) 19:01, 6 April 2009 (UTC)

== Erika z Rumi - translation ==

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Halibutt/Erika_of_Rumia.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:33, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

== for most of pre-WWII period ==

I don't know if it's correct, but the former version was false.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:37, 20 August 2009 (UTC)
In fact the quoted article says that the father's ancestors lived in Silesia, not himself. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:41, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

== Rahmel/Westpr. is not the matter of language ==

Rumia was occupied by Germany. Erika Steinbach says Rahmel/Westpr. suggesting she was born in Germany proper. An English language reader should be informed about the context. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:46, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

No, it wasnt't part of [[General Government of Poland|occupied Poland]], but was integrated into Germany proper. Erik Steinbach was born in Rahmel, Danzig-West Prussia, Germany (now Rumia, Poland). Rahmel was part of Germany until 1920, was annexed by Poland in 1920 without plebiscite, was reannexed by Germany in 1939 and reannexed by Poland in 1945. That's the context, however, this is not the Rahmel/Rumia article, but the Erika Steinbach article, and the history of the place before the birth of Steinbach is irrelevant. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 00:11, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

:It's funny to see how you forgot to mention [[World War II|circumstances]] surrounding German annexation in 1939 (and how much it eventually [[World_War_II_casualties|cost]] everybody), while pointing out lack of plebiscite in 1920. If you want to put things into context, I think this is a more appropriate one. [[User:Cyon|Cyon]] ([[User talk:Cyon|talk]]) 04:45, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

::No it isn't. The article you are referring to deals for a large part with victims of Josef Stalin. What have they to do with Erika Steinbach!? If the history of the place before the birth of Steinbach is relevant in her biography at all (which I seriously doubt), the history of occupations and annexations of Rahmel did not start in 1939 but in 1920. The occupation took place in 1920. From the German point of view, the place was merely liberated after 19 years of Polish occupation in 1939. No Polish occupation in 1920 would mean no need to take it back a few years later. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 12:26, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

:I thought we were discussing here legitimacy to call the town in question by its German name at the time of Erika Steinbach's birth, not Erika Steinbach herself. You bring forward what you call "the German point of view" - can you tell me how you differrentiate "the German point of view" of that time from Nazi ideology? Were Germans free to voice any opinion they wanted and not actually compelled to declare as their own views what Nazis wanted them to? I gave the link to the WWII article in order to put all this discussion into broader context of events. The invasion of Poland and subsequent annexation of Rumia, as well as renaming it to Rahmel - all this happened during this War, at which time only the Axis countries regarded it as legitimate. Moreover, all these were the deeds of the Nazi government, which is now universally regarded as a totalitarian regime guilty of many crimes against humanity, and subsequently most of its acts are considered illegitimate, also in Germany. Therefore, the integration into Germany proper you talk about can also be safely regarded as illegitimate, and, what follows logically, Rumia was part of occupied Poland, not of Germany. So IMO, for the years 1939-1945, we should use a name suitable for a Polish town, not a German one. [[User:Cyon|Cyon]] ([[User talk:Cyon|talk]]) 15:17, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

== Lacking any mention of her assessment in Germany ==

Having read the article I can't see any mention of how her political views and actions are viewed by Germans (except "Lecture controversy" section). How known is she in Germany? Is there any crticism pointed at her or are her views regarded as entirely normal and applauded by mainstream public opinion? I don't believe noone voices any opinion about her in German press. German-speaking editors, please make up for this. [[User:Cyon|Cyon]] ([[User talk:Cyon|talk]]) 01:03, 23 August 2009 (UTC)

:I agree that the stuff on Poland is way out of proportion. She's a mainstream politician in Germany. As a CDU board member, a long-time member of parliament, CDU/CSU spokeswoman on human rights and humanitarian aid, and as the President of one of the largest organisations in Germany (2 million members), she is of course a well-known politician. However, as she mostly focuses on a particular area (expellee politics) she is primarily seen as a representive of expellee interests, unlike politicians who are more generalist. There is no criticism from her own party or non-socialist Germans, the criticism usually comes from communists or other far-left groups. "Her views" are that of her organisation with its 2 million members. Her predecessors actually were a lot more hardline than her. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 00:08, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Thank you for your response. Could you source these claims and put them into the article? It would be very informative IMHO. [[User:Cyon|Cyon]] ([[User talk:Cyon|talk]]) 04:49, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

:Actually, I'm not sure, how "well known" she is in Germany. I remember a TV report showing her picture to some people in the streets of Berlin and Warsaw. 90 percent of the Germans (or even more) had no idea who she was, while 90 percent (or even more) of the Poles knew her very well and reacted very...emotional. She is a conservative CDU politician and as such her views are of course not shared by everybody, but there are no attacks on her personal integrity. Probably the German view is best described by the [[New York Times]]:[http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/31/world/europe/31berlin.html?_r=1&scp=4&sq=erika%20steinbach&st=cse "German officials say they have tried to take the high road, but privately they express deep frustration with Warsaw, which they contend is exploiting anti-German sentiment to fuel a new wave of Polish nationalism"]
:Steinbach is even defended against accusations from Poland by people like [[Ralph Giordano (writer)]] (definitely everything else but a conservative), who titled his public letter to Wladyslaw Bartoszewski [http://www.abendblatt.de/politik/deutschland/article157312/Erika-Steinbach-ist-keine-Revanchistin.html "Erika Steinbach is not a revanchist"].
:Generally speaking, there is a discussion about her projects (like [[Center Against Expulsions]]), not about her person. [[User:HerkusMonte|HerkusMonte]] ([[User talk:HerkusMonte|talk]]) 06:50, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

It happens that Poles are quite authoritative regarding anti-Polish attacks. That a German or US citizen ignores facts and/or context doesn't make Erika Steinbach less anti-Polish. QUite many Germans are against Steinbach - the journalist [[Gabriele Lesser ]], accused of lies, some leftists. Everything has been discussed many times, you come, you don't know and you feel entiteled to claim you know better. You don't.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 11:20, 25 August 2009 (UTC)
Many Germans signed the protest [http://www.bohemistik.de/zentrumgb.html] against the Centre designed by Erika Steinbach.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 11:54, 25 August 2009 (UTC)
:*As I tried to explain above, there is/was a (sometimes heated) discussion about the Center, not about Steinbach as a person
:*Concerning Gabi Lesser, who is the Warsaw correspondend of the [[tageszeitung]], she faced the effects of the anti-german sentiments throughout the [[tageszeitung#The "Potato-Affair"|"potatoe-crisis"]] ([http://www.taz.de/index.php?id=archivseite&dig=2006/07/05/a0057 taz.de das ist kein Spaß (This is no fun))], when anonymous callers at her Warsaw office used a very vile language to her
:*@xx236: I do feel "entitled to" answer to a question on the talk page, whether you share my view or not. Anyway your sentence concerning my (nonexistent) knowledge is close to a personal attack, please don't continue that way. [[User:HerkusMonte|HerkusMonte]] ([[User talk:HerkusMonte|talk]]) 12:50, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Erika Steinbach is the co-author of the Center and after the death of [[Peter Glotz]] the main author. Her position is based on the project. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 13:04, 25 August 2009 (UTC) Even this article says "In a response, the Federation of Expellees stated".[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 13:17, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

I have written "That a German or US citizen ignores facts and/or context doesn't make Erika Steinbach less anti-Polish.". I don't have any idea who you are, so I'm not able to attack you personally. But yes, after your last few sentences I feel personally attacked. Please don't continue that way. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 13:07, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Regarding your comments about Gabrielle Lesser - this is the discussion about Erika Steinbach.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 13:09, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Summarising - bad Poles are responsible for problems in German - Polish relations.
#It's not the right place to discuss the problem
#Such opinion is biased, like any opinion of type "X ist fully responsible for X-Y problems".[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 13:20, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

== Where have you found such words? ==

"the rights of Germans who were expelled from former German territories which became Polish following the Nazi defeat in 1945? - the quoted article doesn't contain exactly such words.

The problem with Erika Steinbach and BdV is that they represent also "the rights" of Germans who settled or were born in Nazi occupied Poland and returned after the war to Germany.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 11:50, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

:[[WP:SOAPBOX|Wikipedia is not a soapbox]]. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 12:32, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

I address the wrong quotation. Is it wrong to find an error in the article?[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 12:56, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

== was reannexed to Germany in 1939 ==

No, it wasn't. It was occupied by Nazi Germany.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 13:14, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

No, it wasn't, it was reannexed and integrated into Germany. Military occupation and annexation are two completely different things. Rahmel was never part of [[General Government|occupied Poland]]. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 13:46, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Talk:Erika Steinbach

2009-08-25T04:49:55Z

Cyon: /* Lacking any mention of her assessment in Germany */

{{WPBiography
|living=yes
|class=B
|priority=
|politician-work-group=yes
|listas=Steinbach, Erika
}}
{| class="infobox" width="270px"
|-
!align="center"|[[Image:Vista-file-manager.png|50px|Archive]] [[Wikipedia:How to archive a talk page|Archives]]
----
|-
|
* [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Archive 1|March 2004 – January 2005]]
* [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Archive 2|January 2005 – January 2006]]
* [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Archive 3|January 2006 – September 2006]]
*
*
|}

== Saw exhibition ==
I saw the exhibition of the Federation fo Expellees in Berlin. I need to say that there was nothing revisionist about it. The exhibition explicitly mentioned Hitler's invasion in Poland which lead to the outbreak of the war. Moreover, this information everyone learns at school and there are many museums about the Nazis, concentration camps and the Holocaust. Rightfully so. Thus, you need to be very ignorant not to know that. I wouldn't call it a superb exhibition, but it was informative and pragmatic. So it's worth seeing, since it shows many topics which are totally neglected by much of the public. I had never heard of the fate of many people and ethnicities, and it was interesting to learn about it all. Of course I knew about the Holocaust and the other Nazi crimes, but did I know about the 2 million Poles who were deported by Stalin to Siberia? Never heard of it until I saw this exhibition. So I think it's an important addition to the musuems already existing.

:"Federation fo Expellees ... nothing revisionist" you evil nazi —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/193.196.136.221|193.196.136.221]] ([[User talk:193.196.136.221|talk]]) 07:58, 17 February 2009 (UTC) 

== Remaining objective ==
I know there was much written about Erika Steinbach. But she isn't as bad as most of us think. For example, some Polish newspapers continue to write, that Erika Steinbach is asking the Polish government for compensation for German expellees. This is 100% not true, she is not supportung compensation claims, and she officially stated that several times. So don't be so worried, she is not as bad as she is portrayed. She also had a speech about the Polish people and the Warsaw uprising and she underscored the historic plights of the Polish people and her respect for Polish patriotism. She also wants good relationships with Poland, even if the media often portrays her so awfully. And I think it has a simple reason: She reminds us that there was German expellees, and some people wish they had never even lived in Silesia or Pomerania. It's histroy, it's past. But they were there, we need to accept it. Not every single one of them was a war criminal who deserved it. Why is this so hard to accept? After all, I see these people as a bridge, not a problem (only a minority amongst them is a problem, and this is the Prussian Trust and these type of organizations claiming compensations). There are many museums about Polish suffering and the Holocaust is internationally known, too. So there is no need to be so worried, that people will forget the context. I think the context argument is more of an excuse than anything.

== Comments requested ==

I was invited to take a look at this page from [[Wikipedia talk:German-speaking Wikipedians' notice board]]. I find it disappointing that the same issue (how to describe her birthplace) is still being debated over so many months. I am still partial to my suggested wording [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=42512179 from March], which Lysy [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=42514846 supported]. Any opinions on using a variation of that? [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 18:19, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

Here's the text of Olessi's suggested wording.

:I agree with the "international disapproval" of the Nazi annexation. Her bio intro looks like a mess now with all of its "citations needed". Something simple like "Steinbach was born in [[Rumia]] (German: ''Rahmel'') in [[Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia]], part of Nazi-occupied Poland. Her father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was a..." Feel free to touch up the suggested wording. If the reader wants to learn more information about the village, he/she can easily find it at its own [[Rumia|article]]. [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 18:27, 6 March 2006 (UTC)

===Proposal to close vote===

I have been requested to close this vote so that a "more neutral vote" can be started. (for details, see [[Talk:richardshusr|my Talk Page]]. It may be that I started the vote prematurely. If so, I apologize.

The question here becomes... what is our goal? My goal is to see this page stabilize with a long-term solution to the Rumia/Rahmel question. While one could argue that the current vote is running 9-3 against Jagder, Stettiner et al, it seems that only an overwhelming, near-unanimous vote can keep us from a resumption of the edit-warring that got us here in the first place.

I am not convinced that Jagder's proposal will result in a different and more desirable result but it's worth trying if it will get Jagder, Stettiner et al. to sign on to the result.

I am willing to close the vote that I started if no one objects.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 04:34, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:So far only Jadger has a problem with how this vote was conducted. His complaints received no support from anyone else. Effectively throwing out a vote which was 9:3 in support because one voter objects is a curious echo of [[Liberum Veto]], and old Polish institution. Still, if you feel you must humor him, and that 12 people have to waste their time to vote on essentially the same question for the second time, go ahead and restart the poll. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 04:53, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:: I am not thrilled with restarting the vote but I am more interested in seeing the dispute resolved and the page unprotected. I will wait a day and see if anybody else objects. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 05:12, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:We have a clear 75% community consensus here. Are you not happy with this ? Do you think another vote will yield better results ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 05:35, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:: 75% is not a consensus, it is a supermajority substituting as a proxy for consensus. Consensus is unanimous consent. We do not have that. Now, we can try to ram the 75% vote down the throats of Jagder and Stettiner or we can try to find a mutually-acceptable compromise. I worry that, if we do not work towards true consensus, then we will just go back to edit-warring once the protection is lifted. Do you really want to go through [[WP:DR|dispute resolution]] with mediation and [[WP:RFC|RFC]]? --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 05:51, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:I am pessimistic, unfortunately. I respect Jadger, but the present dispute shows that the consensus is not possible, regardless of how many times we will repeat voting. The Olessi's version was a carefully negotiated compromise. Every now and then somebody will come and try to push it his way. What we need is to have a compromise version and defend it in order to stop lots and lots of future edit wars. I don't expect everybody to be 100% happy with it, but I hope the majority can live with it. Now, with all due respect, I don't think the vote should be repeated only because you changed your mind or because the losing party is unhappy, do you ? This can go on forever this way. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 06:23, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:: First, it's true that I changed my vote from "Support" to "Abstain". I do not feel strongly about this Rahmel/Rumia question at all. However, I did notice that my vote was inconsistent with the solution I proposed earlier about attempting to determine what Steinbach's birth certificate would have said. So I retracted my vote in order to remain consistent with that earlier stance.

:: My willingness to close the vote is primarily an attempt to find a way for Jagder and Stettiner to be accomodated with a compromise that satisfies them and will encourage them to defend the final resolution. (i.e. not to fight it via edit warring or resurfacing the issue again later).

:: I do think votes should not be used as a means of deciding an issue democratically but rather a means of determining if a consensus exists. In other words, "Yes, I do think we should consider the vote to have failed if the losing party is unhappy."

:: Wikipedia is [[WP:NOT|not a democracy]]. Making decisions by consensus does not mean voting and then going with the majority (or even supermajority) vote. It means trying to find a mutually-acceptable compromise. This is a lot harder but ultimately longer-lasting. If nothing else, what makes you think that the vote will always run 9-3 in favor of your solution? A few months from now, it could run 9-3 the other way. Depends on who's voting, right?

::--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 06:56, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:Yes, I fully support that Wikipedia is [[WP:NOT|not a democracy]]. However, in the lack of consensus, given the history of revert wars on this, apparently marginal, issue, we have been looking for a compromise solution. The version that we have negotiated with Olessi in March was a compromise, that is neither myself nor probably Olessi was 100% happy with it. Of course one can expect that after some time a more extremist editor will challenge it, as happened now. I think the right thing for the community to do would be to defend the reached compromise, instead of trying to break it. This did not happen, unfortunately. I'm afraid that we won't get anything better than the current 75% support and certainly not 100% support with another voting. What we are looking for is not a solution that would satisfy everyone, but a technical measure to prevent edit-wars and I think the result of the current vote is just it. All we can do from now on is only step back and spoil it. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:20, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::We also have to consider that [[User:Stettiner]] has made so far only [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~essjay/edit_count/Count.php?username=stettiner&submit=Count 75] edits to Wikipedia, a large number of them on this page. His first edit was made as recently as [[13 September]], [[2006]], on this very page. Hence all the concerns described in [[Wikipedia:Single purpose account]] apply here. [[User:Schwartz und Weiss]] (another single purpose account) has only made [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~essjay/edit_count/Count.php?username=Schwartz+und+Weiss&submit=Count 130] edits over more than 2 years, most of them in counterproductive revert wars over German names. Now, Jadger has alleged that me bringing up these statistics constitutes a form of personal attack. Nothing could be further from the truth. The number of contributions made to Wikipedia is simply one piece of information that can be used to judge the importance of the given users vote. Anyway, what this seems to suggest is that we really have a vote of 9 to 1 here, if we count established, credible users only. That gives 90% support of Olessi's proposal, which looks like concensus to me. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 14:58, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::: Well then, if no one objects, we should close this vote soon. I propose that we close the vote if there are not any substantial number of votes in the next 24 hours. (Please, no sock puppets or WikiFriends dragged in to stuff the ballot box.) Then, someone should ask the admin who protected the page to unprotect it so that we can insert the compromise wording.

::: We should agree that Jagder is free to propose a vote on his proposal immediately afterwards. However, I hope we can all agree to discuss here rather than edit warring. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 16:55, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::::Certainly not "immediately afterwards". The reason for the voting is to find consensus (or supermajority if you like) support of a stable version, and at least several months grace period would be in place between subsequent votes. Secondly, I would suggest that the form and proposals of any future vote are thoroughly discussed before it is started, otherwise we'll end up with a series of "Jadger's vote", "Lysy's vote" and what not. I for one would change the proposed Jadger's wording and I'm sure others could have their opinion at it, too. As I said, I respect Jadger as an editor, but such pushing against the community is not appropriate. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 17:45, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::: I agree in principle that a consensus should be allowed some period of stability so that we are not constantly re-voting issues. On the other hand, I hope you will make an exception in this case since Jagder's complaint is that the original vote was poorly framed due to my prematurely opening the vote without adequate discussion beforehand. (I'm a relative newbie at this kind of thing.) Someone voted for the proposal with the remark that the Rumia first vs. Rahmel first could be done as a subsequent follow-up vote. I imagine that Jagder may have some tweaks that he might like to propose to the compromise solution. I see the compromise solution as a way to get this page unprotected. Editors should feel free to continue the discussion on this Talk Page as long as they do not disrupt Wikipedia by edit warring on the actual article page. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 17:54, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::::While I feel rather strongly about Nazi occupation of Poland and any attempts to picture it as "liberation", of course it's not my intention (and neither I would be able to) keep Jadger's mouth closed. I'm sure he'll be willing to work towards a compromise as well, although personally, I feel I could not move a step further than the current proposal, which I considered difficult to accept already in March. Thanks for trying to stay impartial on all this. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 18:41, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::::I find it admirable that you want to satisfy Jadger, but please also keep in mind there are 10 editors (at this point) who support Olessi's proposal and who want to put this whole sorry fight behind them as soon as possible. From my point of view, Jadger's demands are not reasonable. Using a bit of mathematical language, the current vote is to choose between option A vs option not-A (not-A meaning we go back to the drawing board). This vote is at present 10:3 (or 10:1 discounting single purpose accounts). Jadger demands a new vote with A vs B. Why does he expect that the result of that vote will be any different? Why would people who voted for A this time vote for B in the next vote? After all, if they wanted to do this, they could have changed their votes in the current vote, as we speak. But it is possible that they will get disgusted with the first vote being thrown out and simply walk away without voting the second time. Maybe that is what Jadger is secretely hoping for. To avoid that outcome, if we hold a second vote, the votes cast in support should automatically carry over to any new vote, with the voters notified of this and given an opportunity to change their votes, if they wish. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 19:08, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

I said I would "close the vote" if there was no objection. There has been objection. There are two meanings of "close". One would be "closing, accepting the result" and "closing, invalidating the result". I think we should move towards closing the vote and accepting the result as a first step. Jagder will probably object but, if we leave open the possibility that he can propose tweaks to the compromise wording, then we should be able to unprotect the article and insert the compromise text proposed by Olessi and agreed to by others.

The alternative is to leave the article protected in its current version until Jagder can negotiate a different compromise text. IMO, this is not a good path for us to follow.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 20:10, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

Please, the only reason they are objecting is because of what you said Richard, ''"I said I would "close the vote" if there was no objection. There has been objection. There are two meanings of "close". One would be "closing, accepting the result""'' of course they are objecting, this is a sneaky way for them to win. '''No one new has voted on it because they know it is a sham and should be more level and worded unbiased.''' and if I were to attack the credibility of the support voters many of them would have to be discounted, but I am not doing that because the vote has been unfair. I am the only one who has objected to this vote because a number of us have agreed for me to speak on behalf of our viewpoint, in order to prevent Balcer and ProudPomeranian from attacking them again. BTW, it is not really ten votes for it, as Sciurinae's vote almost word for word is what I said, and it also says that this is only temporary.

'''What is the harm in having another vote? It will settle the dispute once and for all. I agree to adhere to whatever ruling comes of the second vote.'''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:44, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

BTW, it is not a "supermajority" or a consensus as Richard claims, as per wikipedia rules, 60% is consensus, one more person to vote against it and it is no longer a consensus, I would personally count Dr Dan as against it by his comments, but we may just wait and see.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:49, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

:So, we have 11 votes for, 4 against and 1 abstain (even counting votes by [[Wikipedia:Single purpose account]]s, which should count for less). 11 support votes out of 16 votes means 68.75% support. In my humble opinion that is concensus. We've had no votes cast in 2 days, so it appears no one else is interested in expressing their opinion. Can we bring this vote to some kind of a conclusion, based on this result? [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:57, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

we've had no votes cast in two days because they know this one is a sham vote. Not to mention 2 or 3 of those support votes can be described as conditional at best, some even are more like my viewpoint than supporting this version. Also, some votes even call for a subsequent vote, which I have given but you deleted multiple times. not to mention that the users that supported before any opposition could be raised may not know of the differing viewpoint. The outcome of this vote has never been clearly mentioned, so users don't even know what they are voting for, it has never been said that it is to vote to include it in the article, it looks more like "would you consider this better than the current version", many of the voters may not even realize it has been warped to mean a final judgement. '''you still have not answered me, why don't we have a vote that everyone can agree on to finish this?''' because this vote's basis has been called into question.''' You claim it is because I am a sore loser, but if I were a sore loser, you could hold another, more fair vote, and if/when I lose again then there can be no doubt which side has consensus.'''

to extend this wording into other votes, we could have a question such as ''"do you like people?"'' and when a majority support/say yes to it, then we can corrupt it on the article into saying, ''"a majority of people wikipedia users like cannibals"'' because cannibals/Nazis/insert evil person here are people, so a majority like them. that is what has been done here, people have voted on a ill-defined poll that can be corrupted into supporting something they may not, what is needed is a more clear and concise poll that gives both sides, not just one.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:16, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

===Support===
<s>* --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 18:27, 15 September 2006 (UTC)</s> On second thought, I'm Ok with Rahmel (now Rumia) also and in fact might even prefer Rahmel first instead of Rumia first so I think I'll just abstain. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 07:21, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# --Full support. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 18:29, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Sounds goood to me.--[[User:Piotrus| Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus ]]|[[User_talk:Piotrus| talk ]] 18:58, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. Good to see that Balcer is coming to his senses ;). --[[User:Thorsten1|Thorsten1]] 19:40, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. It looks like a nice compromise to me. [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 21:46, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Of course, [[User:Space Cadet|Space Cadet]] 21:48, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Seems a good compromise. Thanks, Olessi [[User:Alex Bakharev|abakharev]] 22:55, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Fine with me. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 06:40, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support per [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=42514846 this edit]. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:46, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. --[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 10:20, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. Not perfect, but OK. The Rahmel or Rumia first question could be answered in a followup vote. -- [[User:Chris 73|Chris 73]] | [[User talk:Chris 73|Talk]] 17:09, 18 September 2006 (UTC)
#Though I'd prefer a different wording, I can live with the proposal. However, Stettiner is right in that the suggestion is not really in conformity with the Gdansk vote and furthermore I believe it could still be cut in length. When I come to think of it, I'd favour something like "''Erika Steinbach was born in Rahmel ([[Rumia]]), occupied Poland, in 1943''". I assume the proposal voted on is more the provisional than the final decision and a different wording can still be decided, but, of course, not simply by revert warring. [[User:Sciurinæ|Sciurinæ]] 21:37, 19 September 2006 (UTC)
: I also like this version better which is why I changed my vote to abstain. My "winning formula" would include Rahmel first, Rumia second, in German-occupied Poland. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 03:25, 20 September 2006 (UTC)
::I fail to see how Sciurinae's support vote is anydifferent then my proposal in the comments section, and the reason I opposed it. I would also like to re-iterate that it was not in [[General Government|German-occupied Poland]], but was annexed to Germany, hence my proposal: ''Steinbach was born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland) in Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, in the part of pre-war Poland annexed by Nazi Germany in 1939. Her father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was a...''--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:38, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

===Oppose===
#[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 20:29, 15 September 2006 (UTC) If it was part of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, why call it Rumia then? if we are to use the polish language name, do you not think the ''Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia'' would have to be in Polish also. '''there was no Rumia in Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, try looking it up on a period map.''' I would not be adverse to ''[[Rahmel]] (Polish: Rumia)....'' also, it was not a part of German occupied Poland, it was not in the General Government. although, the only differences I see between this and the version I set forward is that a) it says Rumia first and b)it uses the word occupied instead of annexed.
# [[User:Schwartz und Weiss|Schwartz und Weiss]] 22:28, 15 September 2006 (UTC) Let's just stick to the bare facts, like [[User:Jadger|Jadger]]'s suggesting.
#[[Wikipedia:NPOV]] & [[Wikipedia:Factual accuracy]]. There is no such thing as "Stalinist-occupied", "Republican-occupied", "Nazi-occupied", "Labour-occupied" etc. Rahmel was not part of [[Generalgouvernement|occupied Poland]]. The city was called Rahmel in 1943. According to the Danzig/Gdansk vote, German name is to be used here, both because it was Rahmel in 1943 and because the person is clearly German. Let's stick to the facts instead of [[historical revisionism]] and [[irredentism]]. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:47, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
#:Registered on 13th September - 2 days before day this poll was started:[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&offset=20060914221905&limit=50&target=Stettiner]. Impressive knowledge of Gdansk vote and other issues gained in so little time, #12th edit labelled as 'rv POV pushing/vandalism'...--[[User:Piotrus| Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus ]]|[[User_talk:Piotrus| talk ]] 02:49, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
#::since when was it wrong to edit as a anon for a long time before becoming a registered user? I did that, as I would guess you also did, as well as a majority of wiki users. if you want to attack credibility, I could do that also, but I would prefer if we keep more mature than ad-hominem attacks to win this. please, as [[Noob]] article states, ''"For example, Wikipedia has a firm policy of welcoming all new contributors whether or not their first edits are helpful to an encyclopedia"'' Please do not bite the noobs. that phrasing is not unique to the wiki, perhaps he/she edits on other websites also. [[Wikipedia:Please_do_not_bite_the_newcomers]] by newcomers here I mean he may of edited for a while as anon., as that is highly likely--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:01, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 03:32, 20 September 2006 (UTC), explained in my comment below.
# I go along with Jadger. The article is objective and Erika Steinbach's place of birth is clearly identified. I don't see the problem. [[User:Norvo|Norvo]] 22:30, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
#: [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3ANorvo&diff=77219886&oldid=67517684 Invited] to vote here by [[User:Jadger]]. .[[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 23:16, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
#:: your point being? all people that may be interested may not have this on their watchlist. perhaps you could site an actual rule that says I can not tell people about a vote (as [[wikipedia:survey notification]] is not valid and is only kept for historical usage). Or else we would have to throw this whole vote out as Richard also invited people on other talk pages. '''Stop trying to attack and undermine those who don't support your viewpoint Balcer, please observe [[Wikipedia:Civility]]''' --[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:12, 23 September 2006 (UTC)
#:::Check [[Wikipedia:Spam]] then for more up to date guidelines. Richard properly informed everyone that he posted the notice on various talk pages. Consider emulating him and doing the same in the future if you canvass for votes. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:29, 23 September 2006 (UTC)

===Comments===

Here is the version I set forward: ''Steinbach was born in [[Rahmel]] (now Rumia, Poland) in [[Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia]], in the part of pre-war Poland annexed by [[Nazi Germany]] in 1939. Her father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was a...'' if you don't like (now Rumia, Poland) it can be (Polish: Rumia)

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]]
:That version seems acceptable to me as well. [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 22:58, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

* '''Comment''': Perhaps Halibutt's suggestion of keeping the name in force during the historical period in question might be helpful. Examples like [[Stalingrad]], [[Rahmel]], [[Ciudad Trujillo]], [[Leningrad]], come to mind. In short if a person was born in Leningrad, we wouldn't say they were born in St. Petersburg because we didn't like Lenin. It seems Steinbach was born in Rahmel. As to the occupation aspect, it's unfortunate but that's what happened. During Poland's annexation and occupation of [[Vilnius]], between 1920 and 1939, people were said to have been born in Wilno. Right? And most of the support votes would agree with me, I'm sure (at least to the second part of my statement). It seems to be a double standard, if Halibutt's suggestion is correct and agreed with, and not followed through. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 01:23, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
<includeonly></includeonly>
::I have said that before Dr. Dan, in the discussion above, but instead of refuting that point, Balcer changed it to his accusation that it was illegal, despite the fact that legality has nothing to do with it, as his quotation says, it was "officially incorporated into the German Reich", '''which is a law!!!'''

::--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:38, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

My full support for Jadger's proposal, although the colloquial name "Nazi Germany" should not be used. The country was called Germany. We don't use Bush-USA either. If the history of annexation shall be included, we also must include that the city was German prior to 1920.

I suggest: "Steinbach was born in [[Rahmel]] (now Rumia, Poland or Polish: Rumia) in [[Danzig-West Prussia]], in a city which had in 1939 been reannexed to Germany after being Polish since 1920." [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:55, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Yeah, and murdering Jews was also all right in the face of '''German Law'''. Thank you but I don't think we should support Nazi laws. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 08:00, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

'''I think we should close this vote, and put the two versions (mine and Olessi's) up for a vote between them'''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:38, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

::It's too early to close. This vote has been open for only a few hours and this is much too short a time for everyone interested to express their opinion. Many of the active participants in this discussion have not yet voted (Stettiner, Halibutt etc). Give it a few days, and if a clear concensus does not emerge, we can run another vote with more restricted terms. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:50, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

this vote was started without even a clear consensus that a vote was needed, in fact I had not heard of Olessi's offer before this vote started. Not to mention that this vote was started to gauge responses to it, hence Olessi stating: ''"Any opinions on using a variation of that?"'' and this section being titled ''Comments requested''. All of the people that supported it voted before there was even another version represented, so it is hardly fair at all. when I say "hardly fair" I am using a common English language statement which really means that it's not fair at all. ''The purpose of this vote was to gauge opinion, that has been done, now lets hold a real vote'' This vote was not on whether to change the article to it, but rather if people like it, I set out an alternative, so we should vote on which one is better (and which one to use). Unless you have another form you would like to contribute Balcer, this should be closed and a new vote started wherein the two are offered rather than just support or approve one that has no competition.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:36, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:Simply put, 8 hours is not enough to gauge opinion. People have lives, you know, they cannot be monitoring Wikipedia 24 hours a day. Be patient. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 02:41, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

'''Well, why should they place their opinion on a vote that they know will be superseded by another vote anyways? It's rather pointless.''' people do have lives, well... I do, most other people do, but everytime I am on, you seem to be on. Perhaps before posting again, take a breather, go to [[Tim Horton's|Timmy Ho's]] and get yourself a large double-double, talk to the people there (conversation rather than arguing may be refreshing for you). Then, after getting that fresh air and clearing your head, come back and stop arguing with me over everything I write. As the proverb goes: ''it is better to keep your mouth shut and look like an idiot, then to open your mouth and prove it.''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:15, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Jadger, how pathetic. You see that you have no chance to win this vote so you call for a new one. Will we have to vote time after time until your version is chosen? So far against the proposition are only two votes: yours and one by an inactive account which has been luckily reactivated just in time to vote on a page it never before touched (and has been in meantime accused of being someone's sockpuppet by getting into a revert war on [[Comenius]]). How funny.
Anyway, it was obvious since the momemt the article got protected that we have to vote. Someone proposed a compromise version. So the vote starts. So far, most involved editors clearly prefer the proposed version. Everything is being been done according to the book. Get over it. [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 05:58, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

To make it even more strange, the only other user to vote against - [[User:Schwartz und Weiss]] - is being accused of being a sock puppet of [[User:71.137.207.147]] which is a IP number registered in... Canada where you live according to your page. The meaning of ''Schwartz und Weiss'' is obviously ''black and white'' - the historical flag of [[East Prussia]] and you have... "''Frederick the Great, the greatest man ever''" on your Userpage. Both Schwartz und Weiss and 71.137.207.147 take part in a revert war on.. the borders of Prussia. All three accounts are '''never''' used when it's night in Ontario (4:00-12:00 GMT) and only very rarely in the mornings (12:00-16:00 GMT). How strange. What an astounding coincidence: the only three defenders of Prussia tradition all editing from east coast Canada??? [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 06:33, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:What a strange coincidence that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:130.63.18.178 someone] who's recently defined Copernicus as Polish also seems to come from there... [[User:Sciurinæ|Sciurinæ]] 21:37, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

:Just check the IP and stop your childish bird-brained speculations and accusations. BTW, what time is it in Ontario, now? Can you calculate it for me, smart ass? [[User:Schwartz und Weiss|Schwartz und Weiss]] 07:26, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Here you are [http://www.timetemperature.com/tzca/current_time_in_ontario.shtml]. And calling people names means breaking [[WP:NPA]]. [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 08:10, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

You still did not answer my question about time in Ontario - probably because it contradicts your entire silly theory: "'''never''' used when it's night in Ontario (4:00-12:00 GMT)". And smart-ass is not a name but an attitude, genius. [[User:Schwartz und Weiss|Schwartz und Weiss]] 15:16, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:: Hey guys, can we [[WP:AGF|assume good faith]]? Let's not get distracted by the allegations of sock puppeteering.

:::Did I accuse anyone? I simply listed some strange coincidences. We should assume good faith but we should be also wary. Otherwise what would be the purpose of the procedures against sock puppets? [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 08:10, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Regardless of whether he/she is a sockpuppet, [[User:Schwartz und Weiss]]'s vote must carry less weight simply because the scale of his/her contribution to Wikipedia has not been awe-inspiring to say the least. [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~essjay/edit_count/Count.php?username=Schwartz+und+Weiss&submit=Count Edit Count] shows that user made only 130 edits for over 2 years that his/her account existed on Wikipedia. Furthermore, practically all of those edits appear to be counterproductive revert wars over inserting German names into various articles. The person closing the vote should take this into consideration. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 22:59, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

I will comment that I have advertised this vote on [[Talk:Gdansk]],[[Talk:Rumia]],[[Talk:Federation of Expellees]],[[Talk:Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] and [[Talk:Historical Eastern Germany]]. I think even Jadger will agree that the pages that I have advertised on will cover most Wikipedians that have an interest in this question. If there are other pages, then please advertise this vote on those pages also. Let's wait a few days to see who else comes to vote. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 07:21, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:It's been also advertised at [[Wikipedia talk:German-speaking Wikipedians' notice board]]. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:49, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Would you people prefer using '''Warschau and Hitlerstrasse''' as well ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:58, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

There is no point in voting on historical facts when the Polish nationalists mobilize the entire Polish Wikipedia. I don't think Poles should decide the facts in a biography of a '''German politician'''!!! [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:57, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:So, in your opinion, certain Wikipedia articles should be [[Nur für Deutsche]]? [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 15:43, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

German Wikipedia is in some way [[Nur für Deutsche]]. Now the German one is not enough, more and more English articles contain radical German views.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 12:22, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

:What's "Nur für Deutsche" about the German Wikipedia? And where is the invasion? How many people here vote for "was born in Rahmel, then re-liberated Germany, now Polish-occupied" or anything like that? I see no enemy giants, just windmills, if you know what I mean. [[User:Sciurinæ|Sciurinæ]] 21:37, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

I see a troll, if you know what I mean. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 02:53, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

German occupation of Rumia region was an integral project, which included:
*arrestations (sending to Stutthof camp)
*extermination (Piaśnica)
*expulsion
*changing names of places
*German law, including war tribunals
* and many others.
You vote that point "changing names of places" was O.K.. Will you vote the other options too?
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 13:11, 2 October 2006 (UTC)

===Refactored from intro to section===
How about "Lech Walesa led the Solidarity movement in in Danzig (Polish Gdansk), part of Stalinist-occupied Germany"? Or perhaps Rahmel was Pilsudski-occupied Germany in 1930? [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:47, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

: I think the question starts with agreeing that it should be called what it was called when she was born. Thus, someone might have been born in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) or Stalingrad (now Volgograd).

: As for the "Stalinist-occupied Germany", I think we have to look for NPOV here. Even before the breakup of the Soviet Union, few people thought of Gdansk as Stalinist or Soviet occupied Germany. Some may have thought of it as Soviet-dominated Poland but, I believe, Gdansk transferred to Poland legally and there is little international dispute about it. Using the same yardstick, Rahmel/Rumia should be considered German-occupied Poland because the German invasion of Poland is generally considered to have been illegal aggression.

:Claiming that annexation was "legal under German law of the time" is an illegitimate argument. In these matters, we should only consider international law.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 16:18, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Special apartheid rules for Germany cannot be tolerated. The Polish annexations of German territory was as illegal as German annexation, or vice versa. Breslau was '''officially part of Germany''' as Polish-occupied Germany until 1991. So if we accept Polish POV in this article, we must accept German POV in every single article about persons born in or living in the annexed territories from 1945 to 1991. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 19:30, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:The new border was [[Treaty of Zgorzelec|recognised by East Germany]] in 1950 and by West Germany in the 1970 [[Treaty of Warsaw (1970)]]. After German reunification, these previous agreements were reconfirmed in 1990. But this was just what Germany thought of this, and Germany does not equal world opinion. The rest of the world has not had any problems with Poland's postwar borders since the Potsdam Agreement. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 19:54, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

::One's own "confirmation", i.e. the confirmation of the illegal Soviet puppet regime, doesn't count, and obviously the treaties of a defunct state are null and void. The legitimate government of Germany didn't accept illegal annexation until 1990, and it was not accepted by parliament until 1991. The 1970 treaty recognized borders as temporary "factual", not legal. Germany reserved the right to hold the question open. The opinion of South Africa, or the population of [[Mars]], on this issue is really irrelevant. This is a conflict with two parts and two opinions, and nothing more. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 20:38, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Well, if you want to believe that in 1945-1991 there was no legitimate German government, you have a right to that personal opinion. But that is not the mainstream view, which accepted East and West Germany as legitimate members of the international community, that issued binding laws, had legal passports, competed in the Olympics etc etc. The international agreements into which they entered were binding. Germany scrambled to reconfirm those agreements the moment it reunified. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 20:47, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
::::That is your perception that 1945-1991 there was no legitimate German government. You have a right to that personal opinion. But that is not the mainstream view. Among democratic nations (to which your totalitarian People's Republic did of course not belong) the democratically elected government of the Federal Republic of Germany was accepted as the sole legitimate German government. Only Stalinists claimed that those appointed by Stalin and his successors to dictate the Soviet Zone constituted a legitimate German government. The Stalinist treaties were in no way binding for the legitimate German government. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 20:52, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:::::Even West Germany eventually accepted East Germany as an equal partner, in the [[Basic Treaty (1972)]]. Other countries had diplomatic relations with East Germany ([[United States Ambassador to East Germany|US]] since 1974). What kind of parallel, fantasy universe do you think you are living in? [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 20:59, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
::::::That temporary policy was effectively reverted from 1990 onwards. The purpose of the treaty was to allow citizens of democratic Germany to travel in the Soviet occupied zone. It is fine to see that you agree that in 1950 (Treaty of Zgorzelec), the entire democratic world considered the government of the Federal Republic of Germany to be the only legitimate German government, and thus the Stalinist treaty null and void. Even if countries later recognized the GDR as a state, like Germany did, it did not mean they considered it a representative of the German government, but rather as a separate regime. What kind of parallel, fantasy universe do you think you are living in? [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 21:04, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:::::::Just to be clear, I have no great love for East German communists, but the 1950 treaty did de facto establish the border, given that Poland did not share a border with West Germany. True, East Germany was not recognised at the time by many Western countries, but eventually it was. West Germany, which you think is the legitimate representative of Germany, recognised that border in 1970. Yes, I know they "reserved" some rights pending final reunification, but please explain to me how that "reservation" automatically means that Poland occupied German territories? To prove this you would have to produce official statements of German government officials made after 1970 which state that Poland occupied German territory. Obviously, I do not think you will find any. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 21:15, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
Under international law, annexation is not legal. So the Polish annexations were illegal. Nevertheless, Wikipedia does not seem to care. Neither does Wikipedia care about international law when it comes to, say, Israel. So Wikipedia is following the '''facts on the ground''', and there should be no exception for Germans. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 19:32, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
::''Under international law, annexation is not legal'' - ditto. Which means that the 1939 annexation of Rumia was not legal either. Quid erat demostrandum. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 13:42, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

but then in that case Halibutt, the 1939 annexation was not annexation but a re-establishment of German control over its own territory (Rahmel), as you have just agreed with stettiner that annexation in 1919 was illegal, although carried out under the guise of the league of nations. I of course am not referring to the extra land taken but the land pre 1919 in Germany, which included Rahmel. As I stated before, ''If one takes there own property back from a thief, its not stealing''.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:11, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::If we followed the rule, the annexations of 1790's were not legal either. Dream on, Jadger. Or take your time to ask Irpen about the idea of ''annexation through treaty'', as he seems to be a specialist on the matter. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 13:50, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

No comments. --[[User:Irpen|Irpen]] 00:41, 19 September 2006 (UTC)
::But why not? This is the case I agree with your views and I guess your input could really be beneficial here. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 01:01, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

the annexations of 1790 were perfectly legal Halibutt, and they were internationally accepted. 1790 is before the time of ethnic nation states, where peoples tried to create their own free united nations, that came after Napoleon, not before him. As such, it is more like inheriting lands than a forceful takeover, as it had been agreed by Russia, Prussia and Austria (and since Poland was a puppet, Poland also agreed to it).''' Also, I would like for you to point out what law was broken in International law in the 1790s.'''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:05, 20 September 2006 (UTC)
:If the annexation of 1790 were legal, by the same logic so were annexation in 1918. The same logic cannot however be applied for annexation in 1939, since they were not internationally recognised. [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 10:25, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

I honourably disagree with you Szopen, as Germany, Hungary, Romania, Italy, Japan, Slovakia, Lithuania, USSR, etc. etc. all recognized that Poland no longer existed/was annexed and occupied in 1939. If that is not international recognition I don't know what is, as that perfectly fits the description of ''International Recognition''. just because her enemies did not admit it doesn't mean it wasn't internationally recognized, The enemies of Germany aren't the only people with a valid viewpoint simply because they won the war eventually. Like how in medieval times rivals for a throne didn't recognize each other's rights to it, and their supporters/detractors didn't either.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 19:04, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

===Erika Steinbach was born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland)===
On Rumia Discussion right on top you can find the records for inhabitants of Rahmel, Westprussia from the 1600's until 1940 [[Talk:Rumia]]. Those original church records are filmed by the LDS since 1920. Here is another look at it http://www.familysearch.org/Eng/Library/fhlcatalog/printing/titledetailsprint.asp?titleno=103047
Poles and Czechs took all birth, marriage , death certificates from the people they expelled, when they (the Communists under Soviet Union) conquered Germany. Even the people that managed to stay in their homeland, which became Communist Poland etc were not allowed to keep their records and got Polish ones instead. It was all part of the Communist plan to conquer and take over eastern Germany as far as they could get away with and then claim it all as 'original Polish' or 'Recovered Polish Territory' etc. What they did not count on, that there are originals records in the churches, which had been filmed by the LDS from Utah, starting by the way after 1920, that is the time, when these territories were 'taken' from Germany and 'given' to Poland by [[Treaty of Versailles]], which by the way was not signed by the USA.

By the way, thank you Schwarz und Weiss, for trying to put a little bit of sense into this 'Friendly' Neighbor at the [[Comenius]] article.
Labbas 16 Sep 2006

Balcer, I should probably go to your talk page with this, but I think Labbas's link to these records are rather telling, don't you? [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 23:16, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:What is so telling about it, pray tell? The page given does not actually list any names, so it does not give any indication what percentage of Rumia's population had which ethnicity. It only indicates that the official language used in Rumia was German, which is of course not surprising. Incidentally, the anon user's theory about Poland hiding/destroying the records is belied by the fact that the first (and hence presumably most important) sources for them are described as: Mikrofilme aufgenommen von Manuskripten im Archiwum Państwowym Gdańsk, Warszawa ...
:But this is all beside the point, as Rumia was a small, insignificant village until flooded by thousands of Poles settling there to work in newly-built Gdynia in the 1930s. In 1939, when it was occupied by Germany, it was a nascent town with majority Polish population. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 23:44, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

::Was this still the case when Steinbach was born? You know the expression ''what a difference a day makes''? Wroclaw was not an insignificant village, yet it too was flooded by Poles after WWII. And I would not say that a Polish child born there after, say 1946 (or even 1945), was born in Breslau. Would you? [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 00:04, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
:::Who knows? As you well know, the Germans expelled a large number of Poles from the Reichsgaus after 1939 (though not all by any means). Incidentally, it is also worth mentioning that the Germans who complain so much about expulsions after 1945 started the trend themselves by expelling Poles from areas annexed to Germany after 1939. Anyway, this discussion is not going anywhere. Names of cities are not determined by their ethnic composition. It is not our job to play historians or international lawyers, fun though it might be. We must find reliable sources, cite them, and incorporate what they say into Wikipedia. For one source, check [http://books.google.ca/books?vid=ISBN0198208731&id=OUb44s1ptrAC&pg=PA124&lpg=PA124&dq=reichsgau+danzig&sig=OkGcJsZJ5zUxJRJvYUsLwAtZ1t8&hl=en this Google print link] [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
:::Finally, the whole point of the discussion is not whether to use the name Rahmel or not (both proposals use both names), but about whether to refer to Rumia as "under German occupation". Eminent historical works use that formulation, and so should we. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
: You know, Balcer makes a very good point here. We should use formulations that can be found in [[WP:RS|reliable sources]]. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 06:56, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::The Polish nationalists want to have special rules for Germany. No wonder [[Polish plait]] is Poland's only contribution to European culture. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 00:07, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
::::Careful, Stettiner, a while back another user got into a serious controversy for making almost exactly this comment (see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Chris_73/Archive_004]).[[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:I checked it and found (only) 1 date after 1903: marriages until 1940. Filmed in the 20s? Note that if they were filmed in the 1920s, they or some of them were filmed at ... Gdansk. I beg your pardon? I am sorry, I have grave doubts about your version of how the LDS got them. Poles hiding, destroying? Some of these were filmed after 1945. In Gdansk. Now, all that these records prove is that the Roman Catholic Church at Rumia/Rahmel used German until 1903. Perhaps, just perhaps, because German State law compelled them to? Note that there was a Mormon village in East Prussia from the 1920s (in [[Zełwągi]])- if they were involved, that would be one more reason why all the headings are in German.--[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 01:26, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

::Now we need to discredit the [[Mormons]]? I for one, have no problem with Mormons, and highly appreciate their contributions to [[genealogy]] and their other positive contributions to society. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 20:10, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:::I am not trying to discredit Mormons. I wrote that Labbas' version of how these archives got filmed cannot be correct (one file, yes, one file only from 1940 plus the mention "Gdansk" - all this points to at least part of it having been filmed after 1945). The Mormons of Selbongen/Nikolaiken spoke German and Masurian only, they could write only in German and they would not have been familiar with Kashubian or a Polish dialect spoken in Rumia. Which would explain why they put the headings in German. In view of the fact that these were official documents, that the German state (certainly before 1903) required such documents to be in German, the mention on this internet page that some of the text is in Polish is interesting. Like anything in Welsh in baptismal records of 19th century Wales would be interesting. Nothing anti-Mormon here. --[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 07:37, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

== Inappropriate description ==

Describing an organisation representing victims of genocide and ethnic cleansing as "controversial" as main descrition in an unrelated article is inappropriate. I think its time to get rid of the Stalinist apologist vandals, who also abuse admin powers to protect their historical revisionism and Stalinist apologism. Obviously, this article needs to be protected against Polish nationalist POV pushing by non-nationalists and native speakers (this is the English, not Polish, Wikipedia). Stalin, go home! [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 00:05, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:Then it must be that [[Deutsche Welle]] is run by Polish Stalinists, since they consider the activities of [[Federation of Expellees]] controversial (see [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2135984,00.html]). Sorry, I tried hard to converse with you, but with your ethnic slurs and accusations of Stalinism you have crossed the line. [[Don't feed the trolls|Feeding time is over]]. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:28, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:[[User:Balcer|Balcer]] is right of course, but I would like to point out that if they are not controversial, they do have the knack to choose controversial leaders: [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Kather]. And perhaps, as a "non-nationalist", I should finally find the time to translate [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Oberl%C3%A4nder this article] into English.--[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 01:57, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

There is a small problem that the ''organisation representing victims of genocide and ethnic cleansing'' had a number of Nazi [[Founding Fathers]], even Erika Steinbach admitted this. There is another small problem, that the organisation didn't represent victims of German genocide and ethnic cleansing 1933-1944.

I have found names of historians, who created the image of ''Expulsion'':
*Theodor Schieder
*Werner Conze
*Albert Brackmann
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 12:53, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

== Jadger proposal ==

I have restored Jadger proposal for voting to the subpage [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Jadger proposal]]. Please discuss this proposal there. We already have one poll active just now, so we probably do not want to confuse the participants. I would suggest to use Judger's proposal if the poll would not yield convincing results [[User:Alex Bakharev|abakharev]] 05:33, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:Starting a new poll while the first one was open less than 24 hours, without any support from other users for this plan, is a very bad idea. Still, I thank Alex for containing the chaos and spinning the new vote to a separate section for now. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 05:37, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

::Thank you abakharev, the reason for my proposal is really simple. the current vote had only one side represented, and since I posted my objections, people have removed their support of it or voted against it (no one has since voted for it), showing that it was not really a truly fair vote. my vote on the other hand, contains both versions that were seen as being suitable contestants.

::As abakharev stated, he '''restored''' my proposal because Balcer kept removing it in order to push his POV, if the side he was on is as strong as he claims, then he would have no problem with another vote that would reinforce his opinion, but alas he knows the current one is worded to support only one way, without intentionally belittling its opposition. also, the current vote has become "lost" now, so convoluted with personal attacks, accusations in order to defame one another's characters, etc. etc. that it no longer makes much sense and is extremely polluted. And if you will notice, it has been longer than 24 hours as Balcer claims it has been almost 48 hours, and nearly 24 hours since anyone voted on it, in fact, just as many votes have been removed in the last 24 hours as have been added.

::The original vote, although no harm was meant by Olessi I'm sure, reminds me of the last election for [[Saddam Hussein]]. There were no other real choices besides other Ba'ath party members who did not really want to run against him, in this case there was no opposition until I posted it, which was after most of the support votes had been cast. How does one truly make a good choice when one only knows one side of the story?

:::For the record, I had nothing to do with the establishment of a poll. I saw a public invitation for assistance at [[Wikipedia talk:German-speaking Wikipedians' notice board]]. I then suggested phrasing and openly asked for discussion about it. A poll was created by others afterward, and was never my intention. [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 19:59, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
::::I incorrectly suggested to Jadger that Olessi started the poll. My mistake. It was [[User:Richardshusr]] who actually launched the poll, in this [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AErika_Steinbach&diff=75923207&oldid=75921907 diff]. It is only Olessi's suggestion which is being voted on. Sorry for any confusion. The text itself did not contain any mention of who launched the poll, but the message just above it carried Olessi's signature, hence my error.

::P.S. by "contain the chaos", Balcer means that he is trying to put the best spin on being warned by admin to stop removing other user's edits. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AErika_Steinbach&diff=76175190&oldid=76174133]]

::--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 05:51, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:I removed Jadger's new, unilateral vote proposal twice, while I attempted to talk him out of adopting this course on his talk page. Starting a new poll on one's own whimsy, and effectively throwing out the votes of the people who already voted, is simply bad manners. It also would introduce further confusion into this already rather chaotic discussion. Still, putting the new proposal into a separate section is a way to keep a semblance of organisation to these proceedings. I thank Alex for suggesting that idea.
:As for being afraid of this or that, the simplest interpretation, to me at least, is that it is Jadger who is afraid of losing the current vote, and is attempting to scuttle it. But I leave everyone to make their own judgement on that. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 05:58, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

LMAO, your attempts to draw me into a flaming war have failed Balcer([[Do not feed the trolls]]), you will not drag me through the mud with you. I will take the moral high road thank you very much. As for on my own "whimsy" (very poor grammar BTW), I have told you on your talk page ''(if you have not removed it)'' that many people supported it, and I named them. You scuttled the current vote a long time ago Balcer, you didn't need any help from me.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 06:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:Free grammar lesson: [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/whimsy], [http://www.google.ca/search?q=%22own+whimsy%22&start=0&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official]]. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 06:20, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

what you mean to say is ''"at his own whim"'' not ''"on his own whimsy"'' If you will notice, the second link you provided uses the word in another context then you do, and your first one if you look up "whim" proves my point perfectly.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 06:34, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

I believe that this discussion shouldn't be continued on personal pages as ad-personam attacks.
Thank you for your future cooperation.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 06:48, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

LOL, first of all it is called ''ad-hominem'', and second, I never did that, as first of all there would have to be a discussion taking place, which I clearly stated could not happen while you continue to troll and be nonsensical. I stated you are a "conversation-stopper" as [[Richard Rorty]] had defined it, perhaps you should read the essay, it really is an excellent read and could open your eyes considerably. If it was a personal attack or ad-hominem, report me, but since it wasn't, you simply claim it was in order to slander my reputation. I never attacked you, I simply asked you to not waste space on an already extensive talk page by stating nonsensical, unverifiable allegations (not to mention downright falsifications).

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:33, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Three traditionally identified varieties are ad hominem abusive or ad personam, ad hominem circumstantial, and ad hominem tu quoque. [[Ad hominem]]
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 07:11, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

== Jadger's actions ==

I'm sorry, I've said before that I respect Jadger and I assumed his good faith but while we are discussing here, he is hand-picking and recruiting for voting only the editors who he believes would support ''his'' POV. Such behaviour neither helps building the consensus nor does it lead to reflecting the NPOV view of the community on the matter. Should others behave in a similar way ? This is clear water POV pushing and it is unacceptable. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 15:06, 24 September 2006 (UTC)

== Moving discussion of Rahmel/Rumia (and other tangentially related stuff) here from [[Talk:Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] ==

This text was removed by [[User:Kusma]] from [[Talk:Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] as "off-topic". It is a bit "off-topic". A good chunk of it is relevant to the Rumia/Rahmel debate so I moved it here. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 15:52, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

: Rahmel is the german name of her birthtown and Rumia is the polish one. This territory was german occupied but also a part of the former german settled western prussia.
look there: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumia —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:84.185.254.24|84.185.254.24]] ([[User talk:84.185.254.24|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/84.185.254.24|contribs]]) 

:: Thanks but if this were so easily settled, we wouldn't have had an edit war and there would have been no need for protection. Please visit the [[Talk Page]] and express your opinion there. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 05:19, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

It is really settled that easily, but on wikipedia sometimes you have to deal with nonsensical people intent on pushing a nationalistic POV, including claiming that all lands in Poland have always been Polish and no one else has ever lived there rightfully.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:49, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

: Actually, on re-reading [[User:84.185.254.24]]'s text, I agree that this is pretty close to the mark. I think the issue is that Rahmel WAS the German name of the birthplace at the time of her birth but that name is (I'm guessing here) no longer in use and the current name used is the Polish one Rumia. The only question left is whether it is import ant to mention that Rahmel used to be part of German-settled western Prussia. This leads to two alternatives:

:: a) born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland) in German-occupied Poland
:: b) born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland) in German-occupied Poland which was once part of German-settled western Prussia.

: I would vote for (a) as (b) seems too clunky to be workable and suggests a bit of German POV pushing. I would argue for alluding the fact that it was German-occupied and the fact that it had previously been part of Poland and then leave the rest of history out of it since the article is about Erika Steinbach and NOT about the history of West Prussia.

: --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 16:15, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

why not just ''born in Rahmel (now [[Rumia]], Poland)''? it leaves the whole controversy over the wording out of it, and they can then look it up on the Rumia article. also, you say ''"I would argue for alluding the fact that it was German-occupied and the fact that it had previously been part of Poland"'', well it a part of Germany before that, so that point is moot. We can go back forever and find that the ancestors of the Basque people owned it first, the point should be left out of this particular sentence, it can be expanded on/clarified in the rest of the article. but please, let's move this discussion to our userpages in order not to confuse any new readers.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 00:19, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

The only reason to use the name Rahmel is the Nazi annexation of 1939, not accepted by democratic states. If you don't like Versaille, you are free to do it at home, with your friends, but not here. Germany waged a world war killing tens of millions because the Germans hated Versailles. If someone wants to experiment with Versilles, let he/she do it in an old mine, far from Poland.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 11:19, 21 September 2006 (UTC)
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 11:19, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

LMAO, you can't be serious, '''STOP TWISTING MY WORDS''', ''Germany waged a world war killing tens of millions because the Germans hated Versailles'', Germany isn't the only country to wage this war, Britain waged war, Poland waged war, USA waged war, '''they all waged this war that killed tens of millions''', I would like to point you to Balcer and Halibutt's statements on another talk page wherein they state that Poland made sure that they dragged the rest of the world into war with Germany. if you read [[Talk:Erika_Steinbach#German_invasion_of_Poland|here]], they clearly state that Poland dragged the rest of Europe into the war against Germany, now who is worse, Germany for starting an isolated war to regain it lost territory, or Poland for making it a world war (this all according to Balcer and Halibutt). Please cite a credible source that can back up your allegations, as per '''wikipedia:verifiability'''.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:27, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Nazi propaganda claimed, that the invasion of September 1st 1939 was caused by Poles. Are the Nazis returning?
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 06:54, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
:Jadger, the difference is that the war was started by Germany. Yes, they wanted to regain territories lost in Versailles, but this were territories which were German only because they were conquered. I am not sure whether you are trying to use here (I'm affraid quite typical) Kali logic:
"German wanted to regain territories it was good, Poland regained earlier its territories it was bad". Of course Germany starting a war is much worse than Poland calling for help. It's realy hard to see it otherwise. If a man ravishes a woman, you can't blame her to call for police. [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 10:20, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

:lol, that doesn't dignify a response Xx236, as with most of your comments. Szopen, I do not agree with what I was saying above, I was simply pointing to the talk page wherein Xx236's friends Balcer and Halibutt had said it, if we are to assume that what they say is true (as they claim) then what I said above follows from that.

:''"If a man ravishes a woman, you can't blame her to call for police."'' right, the man who did the ravaging was the triple entente/Versailles, the woman being Germany. But instead of calling "the Police" (League of Nations) she decided to stick up for herself in 1939 (and go over the line and exact revenge). If we are to use metaphors, by the reasoning above, ''it is not theft if you hand valuables to the thief when he has a gun to your head, as you handed the valuables to him, implying acceptance/approval. it wasnt stolen, you gave it to him'' The gun being in this case Versailles/triple entente military and valuables being German land. Of course this is wrong, I was simply showing your point in another metaphor.

:there is a difference between Poland "regaining" territory in 1919 than Germany doing it in 1939. Because Poland lost that land before the modern version of nation states being ethnically minded was developed (that is Germany being a nation of you guessed it: '''Germans'''), Royal Prussia was a Polish fief, but populated by Germans as well as Poles. By 1919 it was predominantly German populated. see [[Polish Corridor]], it was not given to poland because it was previously polish, but because it would weaken Germany and provide poland with a "outlet to the sea"
:--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 18:56, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
::Jadger, the problem with your reasoning is that yes, Polish Corridor had POLISH majority (Germans were about 42% in POmerania, but as you know before 1939 POlish corridor was sometimes used to refer all the lands lost by Germany in 1919, of which Posen had eevn greater Polish majority). Royal Prussia was not Polish fief, as you try to imply, but integral part of Polish crown (though, especially before UoL, with large authonomy). As for the other things, if you lost a war you have started (after all, it were Germans who declared war on France and Russia in WWI) you cannot complain of the consequences; and even more, if you earlier dictated even worse peace to countries you have defeated.
::After all, on what basis Germans could claim that Versailles was unjust, if they earlier dictated even worse peace of Brest-Litovsk or Treaty of Bucharest? This is what literally p* me off whenever I am talking with the Germans - it seems many Germans has this "Kali mentality" - if we did something, well, you know, the war and all, but if someone would do the very same thing to us this is OUTRAGEOUS! [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 15:03, 25 September 2006 (UTC)
::EDIT: BTW, I should clarify comments above: I had in mind "some" Germans, not large group, but a subset of editors and usenet users large enough to be notified. My intention was not to offend valuable editors or any kind of general ethnic slur - if someone however felt offended by the sentence above, please accept my apologies. [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 16:21, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

what I meant by my previos comment wherein i stated other nations waged war besides Germany, I was simply showing that XX236's claim that Germany was responsible for everydeath during WWII is incorrect.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 19:08, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Jadger, you keep fighting against:
*It's totally unimportant who is my friend. If you check, you will find my disputes with many Polish contributors.
BTW, it's interesting that you ask anti-Polish non-Germans to help you. You want a nationalistic war. The idea of Wikipedia was liberal, but as many such ideas radicals use Wiki to spread anti-liberal Nazi and Communist ideas.
*I have written:
''The only reason to use the name Rahmel is the Nazi annexation of 1939, not accepted by democratic states. If you don't like Versaille, you are free to do it at home, with your friends, but not here. Germany waged a world war killing tens of millions because the Germans hated Versailles. If someone wants to experiment with Versilles, let he/she do it in an old mine, far from Poland.''
Which of my words aren't true? Versailles wan't a perfect solution, but it was respected by the majority of democratic states. Germany succeeded in removing many limitations till 1939. It was German decision to wage the war in September 1939, killing tens of millions.

If I were you I would stop this discussion. There were tens of thousands of civilian victims in the "Corridor" in Piaśnica, Stutthof camp and other places and many of those victims were local people. Germans proved they were inviders. I bet there are not enough articles about Nazi crimes here. If you wage a Wiki war, you will mobilize some Poles to write such articles.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 14:29, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

::Very sad. This discussion seems to be full of German and Polish national egos. Rumia/Rahmel has often changed their ruling parties. Many people did not even know anymore whether they are German or Polish, many were mixed. This is a point totally neglected here. One side shouts: Rumia/Rahmel has been German all along; the other one shouts: Germans are all Nazis and therefore all history has to be reduced to the evil things "the" Germans did. Both is completely one sided. I think this is the core of the issue here. Rumia is PRESENT; Rumia and Rahmel are HISTORY, and German presence there was not only the years of Nazi occupation. And this history is also CONNECTED to people like Erika Steinbach, because she was not born in present Polish Rumia, but in the past when both the presence of Rumia and Rahmel were present as a Slavo-Germanic mixed area. Of course this is not convenient for nationalists from either the German or Polish side, but it's the truth.

== World War I ==

Why is it important to mention that Rumia/Rahmel ''had been part of Germany before the [[World War I|first World War]]''. How is this relevant to the fact that Erika Steinbach was born there ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:04, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

: Forgive me, This strikes me as a disingenuous question. That is, it would seem that you know the answer and are just asking in a rhetorical way. But perhaps you are unaware of the dispute that has been running in this article for at least 4-5 months so excuse me if I lay out the argument in very simple steps.

: Please note that I really don't care about this issue. I just want it to be dealt with in an NPOV way so that we can avoid edit wars. However, the chain of logic goes something like this:

: 1) Some people dispute the legitimacy of Erika Steinbach claiming to be an expellee because she was born of German parents in Rumia (by accident due to her father's posting there as part of the Luftwaffe) rather than being a descendant of people who had lived there for many generations.

: 2) Now that we have a need to explain where she was born, we therefore need to provide the name of the town where she was born. '''Is it Rumia or Rahmel?''' Or Rumia (formerly Rahmel)? Or Rahmel (now Rumia)?

: 3) To summarize the long edit war and debate over the name of the town, it comes down to this...
: 3a) The town is currently named Rumia
: 3b) It was called Rahmel during the German occupation of Polish lands which were formerly German before Versailles
: 3c) It was called Rumia between Versailles and the German invasion of Poland in 1939
: 3d) It was called Rahmel before Versailles
: 3e) I don't know if it was ever called Rumia at a time before Versailles. I suspect it might have been.

: I personally think this is a stupid dispute to have in this particular article. It would be more understandable if the dispute were being conducted in the [[Rumia]] article. Here, however, it seems to me to be a real sideshow to the main topic of discussing Steinbach's life.
: --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 19:31, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

::As stupid as it is (and I agree on this of course), the issue of the expellees does not have much to do with the pre-WW1 time. We should not be writing the history of Rumia/Rahmel in [[Erika Steinbach]] article. What can be (vaguely) relevant is that it was renamed to Rahmel during the Nazi occupation 1939-1945, and the point of the lengthy dispute has been whether the Nazi occupation name should be recognized or not. But there's no need to further justify this with the history of the [[Partitions of Poland]]. I'm rather surprised that you find it acceptable. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:41, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

::Note that '''I have not asked if Rumia or Rahmel is the "better" name''' for the town during WW2. But to me the sole purpose of mentioning the pre-WW1 name is to suggest that it should belong to Germany. Otherwise why do we need this mentioned there in the first place ? I think this should go. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:47, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

::: This is ridiculous, of course Rumia is part of Poland now, noone denies this. But Steinbach wasn't born now, she was born then. Thus, it is very relevant to mention that Rumia/Rahmel has been part of Poland and Germany at various times. This is important context. It is important to understand the character of the area, and also is relevant to the mindset of people who used to live there when Steinbach lived there. Many of the inhabitants did not even know whether they are German or Polish, or both. It is clear that this may annoy both German and Polish nationalists. But it is the truth and there is nothing wrong with it. This point is very relevant to understand the people there at the time, including Erika Steinbach. Another inconvenient point is that there was also German expellees after WW1 and before that was the division of Poland, thus neither the ideas that Rumia/Rahmel had "always" been German or had "always" been Polish are correct. Thus, to mention only Rumia suggests that the area had always been Polish. To only mention Rahmel insinuates the idea it had always been German. Both is historically biased. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:80.128.222.8|80.128.222.8]] ([[User talk:80.128.222.8|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/80.128.222.8|contribs]]) 

::::No, Steinbach was not born "then" as you put it. She was not born before WW1. How about mentioning that it was not German before the partitions of Poland then ? This is insane. All this discussion belongs maybe to [[Rumia]], or rather to [[History of Germany]] and [[History of Poland]], but the history of Rumia before [[World War I]] or before the [[Partitions of Poland]] is not relevant to this article on [[Erika Steinbach]]. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:24, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

::::: Yes, Steinbach was born in 1943, when the place was called Rahmel. But in order to be fair, '''I suggest both mentioning Rumia and Rahmel'''. It's not insane at all. If you insist it should be the name when Steinbach was born, then it is Rahmel. But I insist both Rumia and Rahmel should be mentioned. Your argument is to call it only Rumia, no matter when Steinbach was born or whatever the historical context. I don't agree, because the reader who is not familiar with history will assume it never had any German ties but had been Polish for centuries and then the "bad Germans" came out of the blue. And this is basically your point here. But my point is it's Rumia today and it will stay Rumia forever, but in order to be accurate in 1943 and the population who lived there back then I suggest we call it Rumia and Rahmel in this context.

::::Actually, the "bad" Germans came out of the blue. While other "good" Germans may have lived in Rumia/Rahmel for many years before, Steinbach's parents came there with the Nazi invasion. '''How is the pre-WW1 story relevant to this ?''' Did they come there to collect their belongings or what ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 00:32, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

::: Now this is a misrepresentation, noone was talking about anyone "collecting their belongings". As I mentioned before, when Steinbach was born it was called Rahmel. However, '''to call it only Rahmel I find unfair, the same for calling it only Rumia'''. It both brings across a wrong picture, since this area needed to endure a lot of changes within a relatively short time. Moreover, the population even after WW1 was insecure about their identity. And as I mentioned before, now it is Rumia and a completely different context, but Steinbach was born in 1943.

::::I'm sorry for the sarcasm and the rhetorical question. Of course they did not come to "collect their belongings". They came with the Nazi occupation forces. Now, that the town has been named "Rahmel" in 1939-1945 is purely the Nazi perspective, as the annexation of the town to German has been not recognized internationally. Since the Nazis occupied Poland, they could have claimed whatever names including Litzmannstadt and such, but this would not make these names any more official. It would be Rahmel of course if we spoke about say 1914, but certainly not 1943. '''This has been discussed zillion of times''' here already. '''What I asked however was about the purpose of including pre-WW1 history''' of Rahmel in this particular article, as neither Steinbach nor her family have any pre-WW1 history in Rahmel. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 06:44, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

Oh God. This page was protected for over a week because of the unending edit war that was going on over this issue. I thought we had gotten the issue put to bed and along comes Lysy with no doubt pure and innocent motives but nonetheless winds up reopening the wound.

Lysy, please do us a favor and read the admittedly long and seemingly interminable debate on this Talk Page over this issue. I can't figure out which is more insane - mentioning pre-WWI in an article about a woman born in 1943 or spending literally thousands if not tens of thousands of words '''debating Rumia/Rahmel'''. I wish I had a penny for every keystroke wasted on this debate.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 07:17, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

:I think you're attributing me somebody else's intentions. All I asked above was why was it important to mention that Rumia/Rahmel ''had been part of Germany before the [[World War I|first World War]]''. I did not revert. I did not advocate Rumia vs Rahmel or the other way round. Why are you saying that I'm restarting this discussion, while my issue is obviously with the other (WW1) sentence. In fact, as I reread the thread, it is obvious that it is you and the other anonymous editor that are reviving the naming debate instead of focusing on what I asked about. I have bolded parts of the discussion to show you how you're twisting my words. I've been only asking a simple question about the WW1 relevance, and you (Richard + 80.128.222.8) are trying to drift it away to the Rumia/Rahmel naming debate again. And now you are trying to accuse me of doing what actually you attempted yourself ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 09:25, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

:: I don't understand the issue. As mentioned I think Rumia and Rahmel should be mentioned in order to explain the character of the birthplace of Steinbach. I don't know why this is such a big problem. The article mentions both Rumia, Rahmel, the Nazi occupation and pre-WW1. I think this is very accurate.

:: But oh, you already deleted everything and changed it to your version. Great Lysy... Why do you even pretend to be objective?

:No, I have not deleted it. I also do not pretend to be objective. I'm certainly not, but I'm trying to. Back to our petty issue here, if you insist that pre-WW1 history of Rahmel should be mentioned, I would insist that earlier history is equally relevant. Sill, I'm sure the article is not a place for such advocacy and I only do not understand why can't you see that :-( --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 17:44, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

:: I mean the point is, you and I maybe know more about histroy. But most people don't, so they will simply assume it has either always been a Polish or always a German town, when they read the article. I don't really have the strength and time to check this site all the time to see what is put on or off. I suggest to mention it all.
::In general terms, I am aware there are many prejudiced ideas of Steinbach flurring around and I don't support witch hunts. I am not a fan of her, but I also don't think she is as bad as she is portrayed at all. Besides, she doesn't decide anything alone and is accompanied by other reputable and pragmatic people, or is Imre Kertesz a fanatic? As a matter of fact this extremeness of the discussion also makes me think of what type of people portray her in that way, taking words out of context and so forth. Of course people are afraid of compensation claims and all that crazy stuff that the media makes up about her, but Steinbach repeatedly and strongly rejected this madness. If she should ever come up with things like this, I will write her a letter of protest myself. However, I think no matter who will mention anything slightly sympathetic about the expellees or anything related, may it be Steinbach, Glotz, the Federation of Expellees - which wasn't and in 2006 most definitely isn't as bad as portrayed at all - or anyone else, will be bashed in an unfair way (even if I do admit Steinbach's case is rather odd). I believe we need to stop bickering. In my eyes the expellees are a bridge, not a problem. I don't see a problem with them also having a representation and having a museum to show their culture and history. They exist and existed, so why hide them ? It is so strange how they are often the ones who have the best contact to Polish people, at the same time they are collectively stigmatized as "Nazis" even 60 years after the war. I believe Hitler has in many cases "sacrificed" them and "the monster" is also partially responsible for their demise. At the same time there are so many diverse stories depending on the region where the expellees lived and so forth. I don't like the politization of this "issue". We are friends and we don't need to hide any part of history. Even if Nazis crimes were initial and as a whole much worse than the expulsion, the expulsion still happened and was pretty bad for the people involved. I am glad that the exhibition of the expellees in Berlin was not revisionist and besides the central expulsions (that was the exhibition's topic), it explicitly mentioned Hitler's initial land robbery in Eastern Poland (in which the Nazis deported Germans and told them to "settle on free land", in reality the Nazis had forcefully stolen the land from Poles, expelled the former inhabitants, and placed the "re-settled" people in formerly Polish houses. The majority of expellees were, however, not "re-settled people".), Polish slave workers and referred to the commonly known Nazi crimes, particularly the Holocaust. These awful Nazi crimes are very well documented in many much bigger museums also in Berlin and worldwide, which I think is necessary. The Nazi crimes are also an integral part of our highschool schedules, culture and media landscape. The exhibition also showed the forceful re-settlement of Poles from the Ukraine to Silesia, which was further empathetic to the Poles whose home is Silesia now. And it covered other expellee cases, which it placed in different context, of course. Some of Stalins expulsions were also covered, these were also mainly unknown to me. In my life I had not heard of Finnish Kalmyks ;-) For Germany it is important to know that a fifth of our population are Germans from Eastern Europe. Everybody should be tolerant, and everyone should know who he is. I am confident in a friendship between our countries. I like most expellees, most Germans and most Poles and in fact most of the world, and I realize we live in 2006. Maybe I am a dreamer, but I believe in it. Angela Merkel also supports the idea of a center against expulsions, one of Angela's grandparents is Polish. The idea that Poland and Germany are bordering but are worlds apart is not what I think. I simply said my opinion, so there is no need to comment because I am not here to try to convince anyone. Gee, I wrote too much. But still, best wishes ;-)
:Thanks for writing this and for your level-headed approach. I could not agree more with most of what you wrote. I'm not against the exhibition as I've not seen it myself and I'm old enough not to believe everything I hear in the news. I do not have a strong opinion on Erika Steinbach either (although I may dislike politicians in general). However I'm against the attempts to legitimize Nazi occupation of Poland with "innocent" edits like the one explaining that Rahmel was German before WW1 or insisting on inserting German name of the town in every sentence. I'm not saying you did this, but some anonymous editor inserted this information for a purpose (or maybe out of good will). Anyway, if someone needs to learn the wider history of Rahmel/Rumia, he usually simply clicks on it and gets to the [[Rumia]] article, where its history is explained in detail, including that it belonged to West Prussia since 1772, then to Poland since WW1, then the German (Nazi ?) occupation, the POWs, forced labour camp etc. Speaking of forced labour, you wrote that unlike the fate of the expellees, the history of Polish slave workers is very well documented elsewhere. Are you sure about this ? There is a museum in Auschwitz of course but it mostly deals with what happened in that particular place. Holocaust is well documented. But are there other museums devoted to particular groups of victims of Nazism, similarly to the expellees ? I'm not trying to justify the expulsions. The Poles certainly exercised some bitter revenge on local Germans and for a couple of years following the WW2 they treated the Germans in Poland in a similar way they have been treated before themselves. But they've not dragged people from their houses and shot them in the streets for what I know. Where were the expellees then ? How many Germans did engage in the armed resistance against Nazism ? I'm sorry but I expect that if Hitler did not loose the war, they would more or less happily accept their German privileged status and silently assist in exterminating Jews, then Poles etc. Now they complain they have been treated badly after WW2 because they had to leave their houses. Tell this to the millions of Jewish and Polish civilians who were killed by the Nazis and can not complain any more. Again, I'm all for reconciliation but some things are simply not equal. All right, what I suggest we could do is work together on the [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] to make it a quality article instead of what it is now. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 05:40, 22 October 2006 (UTC)
:: Thank you for your answer Lysy. The fate of Poles is very well documented in Poland, you are a good example of how well it is known. Every Polish person I met knew that the Nazis and the Soviets had commited crimes on them. On German TV I had seen several documentations about Catholic Poles under Nazi occupation. One was so endearing with a Polish woman who since after the war lives in Szeczin/Stettin. She had a horrible childhood in the occupied country, she acoounted it and it was dreadful. The German government had invited her to visit Germany because they had found out about her terrible fate, and she was hesistant at first. Then she agreed, she had a very good time. But one time, so she told, she met an old couple and told them she is from Szeczin/Stettin. Then the old couple said: But we are from Stettin. At first the Polish lady was shocked, she explained how now it is her childrens' home. But then later she said: Who knows what they experienced in their childhood? This really was touching. And I could see that even if she had been through hell herself, she was able to show compassion. I was so touched. Sczecin is Polish now. But we need to document the past and stop stigmatizing our people respectively. Polish history and especially Nazism is part of the curriculum in Polish highschools, and that is important. The expellees' story is not about complaining, it's about showing the entire history. Interestingly, you say the revenge did not involve dragging people out on the street and shoot them. I am sorry to say this is not true. Last year my mother's fromer classmate died. As a child he was very shy and almost never spoke, he was an expelled child from Silesia. When he was young he and his mother were hiding in the hay from Poles who invaded the town (in their case it was NOT local Silesian Poles). The men were pushing their pitchforks into the hay to spike up a German, no matter who. Some of this revenge was awful, and it was not always exercized by the local Poles, but by people who came there to indisriminantly take out their revenge on just anyone. Besides, I am sure there was also officials who spured these young men and who "organized" it and used the fate of these people to get their goals. Some of these men might have realized years later what they were pushed to do. In Silesia Poles were a minority, and they often did not take part in the "revenge". The Oppeln/Opolske region is a good example of how the expulsion was not inevitable. Not every Pole "chose" to take revenge (!), this is another point worth mentioning. Some older Polish women who experienced the expulsion even now say it was wrong and awful. They themselves had often been deported from the Ukraine and were dumped in a place totally unfamiliar to them. It is important to mention that not every German was a war criminal (!). Not only active resistance groups were not war criminals (!). There was many people who were farmers and were unpolitical, others fell prey to Hitler's vicious propaganda but were not in always war criminals. The point is, unpolitical Germans or Poles have no lobby what so ever. This is a true issue. I do to some point understand how the revenge came about, but it doesn't make it right. I do think it has to be documented. In Germany and elsewhere the story of the expellees had been suppressed for some time, mainly due to ideology. The Holocaust is no secret, the crimes of Nazism are not "untold". Every day I can find something relating to it on TV or in the newspapers. But still, it is important to remember, Jews were the "main victim" of Nazism. In Poland there are now a few thousand Jews and 40 million Poles, so I cannot have been exactly the same persecution. When I was at highschool history was all about the Holocaust. I think that is important and it is a central topic, but we need to know more. More about Stalin, more about Poles, more about German expellees, more about Latvians, more about Rwanda and simply more about the world. I do not even remember if Stalin was ever mentioned with a single word at my highschool, and I went to school in Western Germany. Can you imagine this? Now this would not happen in Poland. For this I admire Poland since it has the strength to show the entire story, both Nazism (which was even worse) and Stalinism. Even Steinbach had a speech about Poland which is also on her website in which she said "Poland is not lost. For this sentence I admire the Polish people." For a long time the expellees were put into a box named "Nazis", "refugee, what do you want here?" and "shut up". However, they had the most difficult fate of post-war Germans, and for some time Germany didn't acknowledge it. Another topic but different. I only know this because I am interested in Poland, so most wouldn't know. But when Wajda released a movie about the minority of Polish collaborators during Nazism he was highly criticized by some, why? This was a minority, but they also existed. When Kaczynski attacked Tusk because Tusk's grandfather had allegedly been a Nazi collaborator, then it was ok to talk about it. It's so abusive. Does that mean Tusk is a Nazi? How unfair, especially during election time. Firstly, the Soviets had committed some horrible crimes to Catholic Poles and the Nazis afterwards of course, too. Hitler was the most disgusting and manipulative monster. But what I find interesting and never talked about: If a Polish person had suffered during the Soviet occupation, you think this person chose to support the Soviet army? Some did, but some didn't. Why? Because they were evil? Well, maybe they had lost their loved ones to the Soviets and then would not support the Soviets. How can I thus judge this Catholic Pole for not supporting the Soviets? A similar case it is for some Germans (obviously a minority in the East). If they had been deported by the Soviets or expelled after WW1, why would they support the other party who had done harm to them? I mean there are many taboos and the entrie moral discussion applies to war criminals, but not in every case to ordinary citizens of the time. Keeping in mind most of the people at this time were farmers, could they sift through propaganda when having 1 radio channel? I am not sure, because I didn't live then. But there are certain questions. Often words are mixed, German becomes Nazi, Nazis becomes war criminal, war criminal becomes concentration camp guard. Germany had 70 million people, did they all work in concentration camps? What happened to soldiers who rejected to join the army? An old man in the village next to my granddad can tell you this. The Nazis cut his penis off. Noone seems to bother mentioning these things. It doesn't justify the awful crimes of the Nazis, but then again it is not aimed at justifying anything, but at documenting history and maybe even learning from it. Concerning elections and un-responsible voting behavior, beyond Poland, it is interesting to remember that most Germans abroad (not Silesia, but Hungary for example) had no right to vote in Germany. Thus, the initial election of Hitler, the beginning of the disaster, cannot be blamed on some of these people. These topics are not as central as the major historical disasters, but these individual stories are still important I think. Yet, they serve no political interest, so why would anyone bother mentioning it? Yesterday I bought my food again at a store where my Polish friend Ms. Poljak works. She smiles, I smile, there is a positive connection. She has self-confidence, I do. She is comfortable with her identity, I am. That's why we are real friends. I don't think we need to hide, and I believe if we are honest and truthful we can document history and still remember that we live in 2006. I totally am against politicizing the issue. In Germany part of the left wing is biased toward the expellees, but ironically they often do not like the Catholic Church (and the Poles) either, only when they can use them. And some of older left wing were in fact ex-Nazis like Günther Grass, who may be a good author but at the same time he pointed fingers while he himself had been part of this mess. The right was also not always nice to the expellees either, in particular when they arrived. I was also left wing, because I am gay. But now I am pretty much at home in no political direction. The right-wing is unfair, so is the left-wing (even if my granddad was a Communist). Europe needs to get over ideologies and face reality, sometimes it's painful, but friends are honest. I like my parents even if we have gone through rough times. But we were fair and honest. That's just my opinion. And for Poland and Germany, I continue to say we do have many very positive connections,we just need to be aware and we need to respect the individual for what he or she is. Oh Gosh, I need to stop wiki, because it takes too much time and my housemates are making trouble. Take care, bye.
:I understand most of what you wrote and, once more, I couldn't agree more with most of what I understood. Just for the record, the Nazis murdered about 3 million non-Polish Jews plus 3 million non-Jewish Poles plus about 3 millions Jewish Poles. Many Poles perished from the Soviets as well. But as I said, that's only for the record and and is not intended to prove or justify anything. While I very much appreciate our conversation here (and especially your effort in explaining yourself), I have the feeling that it may be getting off topic and is not directly relevant to how to improve the [[Erika Steinbach]] article. I cannot email you since you've not registered, but feel free to use [[Special:Emailuser/Lysy|my email]] if you desire to further contact me (you might be asked to register for this purpose, though). You may also use [[User_talk:Lysy|my talkpage]] if you prefer. I'd be happy to discuss the issue of Polish/German relations further, but as I said I feel this it not the right place to continue it. Thanks. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 18:50, 23 October 2006 (UTC)
:: I don't need the records, I know what I need to know ;-)I also know I have been a bit broader than simply Erika Steinbach ;-) Unfortunately I will not be able to visit Wikipedia much because of lacking time, but thanks for the invitation to discuss. Take care and best wishes.

Comment by 80.128.249.151

Allegedly '' 'expellees' story is not about complaining, it's about showing the entire history''. The statement is false, the Expellees had Nazi leaders, demanded the revision of borders to those of 1937. The majority of their stories are '' The world was beautiful till 1945 when the Poles came''. The old ones responsible for the Nazi crimes are already dead, their children believe that their parents were angels - many of them weren't. A responsible father doesn't want his family to live near a mass execution place Piaśnica or nazi camp Stutthof.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 14:51, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

WOW, read what you just wrote XX. ''I don't need the records, I know what I need to know'' so what you're saying is we don't need any research or authoritative sources, we can just make up everything we want (which seems to be the extent of your input on wikipedia). ''A responsible father doesn't want his family to live near a mass execution place Piaśnica or nazi camp Stutthof.'' Yet many poles do live near those sites in Poland, why is that? are Polish fathers not responsible? according to you it seems so. Please XX, provide some evidence for your claims that Germans have forgotten history, it was all too apparent during the World Cup this year that even though the 3rd Reich is long gone, people still see all Germans as Nazis, as it seems by your writing you do.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 11:17, 23 November 2006 (UTC)
Jadger, I haven't written the phrase. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 15:35, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

:Jadger, don't waste your time. I read the interesting discussion above between the often unsigned editors, but I assume were always Lysy and Richard. I had the satisfaction to feel that there was a true ''modus vivendi'' achieved between them and that we all could benefit from it. But naturally people like XX will swoop down and start the same old crap again. Or should I say come out of a mouse hole? Then they will scury to the next article and try to create more propaganda and more dissension between people. And it's Wikipedia and its reputation that suffer because of it. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 14:50, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

I thought that also, I was only commenting on XX last remark, which is totally non-sensical.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 20:08, 24 November 2006 (UTC)

Dr Dan, do you mean your texts? "Then they will scury to the next article and try to create more propaganda and more dissension between people"? [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 15:37, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

== Rumia/Rahmel again ? :-( ==

::Come on Lysy, at [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=81777161 first] '''you revert''' my edit '''Rumia (german: Rahmel)''' to just '''Rumia''' and [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=next&oldid=81777161 then] two sentences later you remove '''Rumia/Rahmel''' altogether and replace it by '''this town'''. At least to me it seems pretty clear that you don't want any mentioning of the German name of the city in this article at all.
::This seems to be in line with [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pomerania&diff=prev&oldid=81775392 your reverts] where you don't allow the mentioning of the old name of Gdansk, Danzig not even in brackets, not even once in the article. Although it is pretty clear that Pommerania and Danzig had quite a mixed past with strong influences from both Poland and Germany and many people (not just Germans) know the city nowadays still as Danzig. In fact you called it '''arrogant''' to mention the German name. I know, I know this belongs to the Gdansk/Pommerania talk pages but the issue is the same...
::Sorry but I can't follow [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=81843993 your argument] that the mere mentioning of the German name of a town suggests that it should belong to Germany. --[[User:Splette|Splette]] [[Image:Happyjoe.jpg]] [[User_talk:Splette|Talk]] 10:49, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

Yes, and this is a different issue than the one discussed in the previous section. First, the article has been unprotected on October 6th. It had the Rahmel name explained all right. In a couple of days an anonymous editor added ''Rumia/Rahmel had been part of Germany before WW1, however it had become part of the Polish state after WW1'' without any discussion or reference to the article. Anyway, the article was relatively stable for about 10 days only. Then you decided that Rahmel needs to be mentioned in in another sentence and added the German name for the third time. Why was it needed if in the very next sentence it was explained that Rumia was renamed to Rahmel ? I've watched this article for too long not to know what would happen next. In a couple of days somebody would change the order of the names and then another fly-by-night anonymous warrior would come and remove Rumia altogether. I've seen this scenario too many times. Why were you unhappy with the stable version ? As for the other edits, I'm happy to discuss them if you like. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 11:28, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

: But now you are talking about a problem that does not exist. Rumia is in the article and will remain there. If someone deletes it, I will put it in again. But just as you insist to only put Rumia and not Rahmel, I insist to put both and find it a stable compromise. Both Rumia, Rahmel, the Nazi occupation and pre-WW1 are essential to Steinbach's birthplace. Lysy, I am sure you are a nice woman. But i am sorry to say that it seems like you like to control this page and to eventually always have your point of view pushed through.

History of Rumia from 1466 until 1772 ;)

from official Rumia web site

http://www.rumia.eu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=27&Itemid=51

http://www.rumia.eu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=51

(ciekawe jak szybko helmuty to usuna ;))

—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:193.242.104.9|193.242.104.9]] ([[User talk:193.242.104.9|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/193.242.104.9|contribs]]) 

I restored the compromise version.
--[[User:Molobo|Molobo]] ([[User talk:Molobo|talk]]) 22:54, 14 February 2009 (UTC)
==West Prussia==
Rumia is in Pomorze Gdańskie the same as it is in West Prussia. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 12:43, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

== Protests in Potsdam (controversial terms) ==
*Colonisation: The german word ''Siedlung'' could be translated as the [[Settlement]] as well as the [[Colonisation]], but after reading the preview of Steinbach's lecture I consider the "[[Colonisation]]" more accurate term.
*revisionism: As I learned from cited articles, the reason of the protests of students and the Antifascist Alliance is the (alleged) Steinbach's [[Historical revisionism (negationism)|revisionism]]. This not my POV, this is the POV of protesting people and organisation, which should be mentioned. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Honzula|Honzula]] ([[User talk:Honzula|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Honzula|contribs]]) 11:32, 21 June 2008 (UTC) 

==Opening paragraph==

The opening paragraph shall only contain name and ''date'' of birth (not place of birth), per [[Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_(biographies)#Opening_paragraph|MoS (biographies)]]. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 15:17, 26 February 2009 (UTC)
:''Steinbach, came to our country with Hitler and had to flee with Hitler''[http://www.expatica.com/nl/news/news_focus/Poland-ups-the-pressure-in-WWII-memorial-feud-with-Germany--_49974.html] - Polish Minister [[Radoslaw Sikorski]]--[[User:Jacurek|Jacurek]] ([[User talk:Jacurek|talk]]) 16:16, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

==Criticism in Poland==
I think that the article should be modified as to the criticism of E. Steinbach in Poland. The reasons for the Polish critique are, among others, as follows:
* (in the context of her possible presidency of the Centre Against Expulsions) - she was strongly against Polish membership in the EU and NATO, she was one of the most active opponents of the Polish-German border treaty (and voted against it as one of very few members of the German parliament), what, from the Polish point of view, makes her unable to participate in management of historical and scientific museum, which is to deal also with Poland, due to the lack of objectivity;
* in 1990s she continued to put in question the Polish-German border;
* she is strongly associated with the Centre Against Expulsions, which is seen as anti-Polish; the Poles are often furious of the Centre's website and the data presented there, e.g. the number of Poles expelled from Poland during the World War II (400 thousand according to the Centre's website /presented as "deported from Poland"/, compared with official numbers amounting to 2 millions) or the information about the city of Gdańsk (as per the website, it was founded in 1224/25 as a German city, while it was founded in 997 by Mieszko I of Poland);
* there is a fear that she may be likely to marginalise German war crimes and try to present "expelled"/"deported" Germans as victims of the war in the same context as Jews, Poles and other nations.
In general, her political life was full of anti-Polish actions and she is regarded as heavily biased against Poland. These are the reasons for her critique in Poland. The article mentions almost only her bad reputation and exhibitions she organised, while her political campaign against Polish borders and membership in international organisations are the reasons for this critique. [[User:Montessquieu|Montessquieu]] ([[User talk:Montessquieu|talk]]) 20:22, 2 March 2009 (UTC)

Critisism is alright but what had happened in Poland in the last couple of weeks is far beyond a fair debate ("blonde beast", tasteless nazi photomontages etc). —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/83.236.241.230|83.236.241.230]] ([[User talk:83.236.241.230|talk]]) 18:26, 10 March 2009 (UTC) 

::Which exactly facts do you mean? The ones generated by German media? BTW Erika Steinbach has been using very tasteless methods against Poland and Poles since many years. And German media attacked Kaczynski brothers eg. as potatoes. Erika Steinbach idealises her father, a Luftwaffe officer who stationed in occupied Poalnd. The majority of Poles don't understand the difference betwen Nazi forms.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 09:39, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

What are you talking about? It's unfair when somebody accuse that during the debate in Poland Steinbach is called "blonde beast". It's unfair because it's biased. Maybe somebody said something like this but it is not part of real debate in Poland which I observe in media or between politicians. It's like to say that neo-Nazi parties rules in Germany lately, while they have no real power and only few seats in one state parliament. [[Special:Contributions/89.79.103.10|89.79.103.10]] ([[User talk:89.79.103.10|talk]]) 15:57, 21 March 2009 (UTC)

:My intention was not to start any discussion on whether the above-mentioned statements are true or false, but to present reasons for the critique of E.S. in Poland, as it's one of the sections in the article. In other words, the section is not to suggest whether the Poles are right or not. It's role is to show main points of the critique (which may be biased, determined by history or whatever, or may be fully objective as well). The provided statements are from Polish press. Regards, [[User:Montessquieu|Montessquieu]] ([[User talk:Montessquieu|talk]]) 16:24, 21 March 2009 (UTC)

I basicly agree with Montessquieu who simply inteded to display the state of debatte. However, I gently ask Xx236 to keep in mind that there is, in scales of taste, a difference between (the rather ironic) potatoe-article and e.g. the photo montage showing Mrs. Steinbach wearing a SS-uniform. Furthermore, I would also like to remind 89.79.103.10 that it was not just "somebody" who called E.S. a "blonde beast" but Mr.Bartoszewski who is the official apointee for German matters of the Polish goverment. And, last but not least, the almost agressive tone of your comments (except for Montessquie) may serve as evidence for my statement as well...(08:13, 30 March 2009 (UTC)) —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/83.236.241.230|83.236.241.230]] ([[User talk:83.236.241.230|talk]])  
*As I have written the majority of Poles ignore the differences between German uniforms. I don't know why the artist selected a SS-uniform rather than a Luftwaffe one.
*My comments are sometimes agressive, beacuse I'm frustrated by anti-Polish bias of several authors and articles. And because I frequently know the subjects better than my opponnts, who impose their POV using some Wikipedia tricks and biased sources. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:21, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

: Please give me a quote of Mr. Bartoszewski saying that Steinbach is a blonde beast. He denied that he called her like this on his blog. He explains that he used in one of his speech the term from Die Zeit newspaper (also there is a book in Poland: "E.S. A beauty or beast?") and media misrepresented it as his own opinion about E.S - probably to cause sensation. So you were misinformed in this matter. The worst thing that Mr Bartoszewski said about Mr. Steinbach was calling her "anti-Polish". While he is not so great in diplomacy in my opinion he is not so stupid to use such an abusive term and therefore I do not believe only a few results from Google where Mr. Bartoszewski is connected with "blonde beast". There are a lot of mistakes in press so I would rather believe Mr. Bartoszewski denial. However, if you have a better quote of his speech please provide it. [[Special:Contributions/89.79.103.10|89.79.103.10]] ([[User talk:89.79.103.10|talk]]) 20:00, 4 April 2009 (UTC)

Hello 89.79.103.10, unfortunately I have so far merely found articles written in German as I cannot read Polish and articles concerning that topic seem not to exist in English (presumably because except for Poland and Germany nobody in the world is interested in the debate...): http://www.zeit.de/2009/13/Sikorski
It is an interview withe the current Polish minister for Foreign Affairs and has recently been published in the German newspaper "Die Zeit" which you might know?! In the very first two paragraphs, Mr. Sikorski confirms that Mr. Bartoszewski has said "blonde beast" with regard to ES but as part of a comparison in the sense of "for some she is a blonde beauty, for others she is a blonde beast". Hence, I am a bit supprised that he now seems to completly denie to have said something like this at all. I guess it is because he knows quite well that it was not that "great in diplomacy". Regards, ([[Special:Contributions/83.236.241.230|83.236.241.230]] ([[User talk:83.236.241.230|talk]]) 12:55, 6 April 2009 (UTC))

Mr. Bartoszewski is not denying that he used the term at all. He is denying that he called her like this by himself. He used this extreme comparison only to show how great is difference of opinions about Mrs. Steinbach. Maybe it wasn't the best way to do this but repeating that Mr. Bartoszewski is calling Mrs. Steinbach like this without giving the context of his words is deceptive. Also arguing on this basis that in Poland calling Mrs. Steinbach "blond beast" is part of the real debate is misleading. However, nobody denies repeating Mr. Bartoszewski words but it should be done in objective way without skipping the "blond beauty" opinion about Mrs. Steinbach which he also used in his speech. [[Special:Contributions/89.79.103.10|89.79.103.10]] ([[User talk:89.79.103.10|talk]]) 19:01, 6 April 2009 (UTC)

== Erika z Rumi - translation ==

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Halibutt/Erika_of_Rumia.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:33, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

== for most of pre-WWII period ==

I don't know if it's correct, but the former version was false.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:37, 20 August 2009 (UTC)
In fact the quoted article says that the father's ancestors lived in Silesia, not himself. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:41, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

== Rahmel/Westpr. is not the matter of language ==

Rumia was occupied by Germany. Erika Steinbach says Rahmel/Westpr. suggesting she was born in Germany proper. An English language reader should be informed about the context. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:46, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

No, it wasnt't part of [[General Government of Poland|occupied Poland]], but was integrated into Germany proper. Erik Steinbach was born in Rahmel, Danzig-West Prussia, Germany (now Rumia, Poland). Rahmel was part of Germany until 1920, was annexed by Poland in 1920 without plebiscite, was reannexed by Germany in 1939 and reannexed by Poland in 1945. That's the context, however, this is not the Rahmel/Rumia article, but the Erika Steinbach article, and the history of the place before the birth of Steinbach is irrelevant. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 00:11, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

:It's funny to see how you forgot to mention [[World War II|circumstances]] surrounding German annexation in 1939 (and how much it eventually [[World_War_II_casualties|cost]] everybody), while pointing out lack of plebiscite in 1920. If you want to put things into context, I think this is a more appropriate one. [[User:Cyon|Cyon]] ([[User talk:Cyon|talk]]) 04:45, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

== Lacking any mention of her assessment in Germany ==

Having read the article I can't see any mention of how her political views and actions are viewed by Germans (except "Lecture controversy" section). How known is she in Germany? Is there any crticism pointed at her or are her views regarded as entirely normal and applauded by mainstream public opinion? I don't believe noone voices any opinion about her in German press. German-speaking editors, please make up for this. [[User:Cyon|Cyon]] ([[User talk:Cyon|talk]]) 01:03, 23 August 2009 (UTC)

:I agree that the stuff on Poland is way out of proportion. She's a mainstream politician in Germany. As a CDU board member, a long-time member of parliament, CDU/CSU spokeswoman on human rights and humanitarian aid, and as the President of one of the largest organisations in Germany (2 million members), she is of course a well-known politician. However, as she mostly focuses on a particular area (expellee politics) she is primarily seen as a representive of expellee interests, unlike politicians who are more generalist. There is no criticism from her own party or non-socialist Germans, the criticism usually comes from communists or other far-left groups. "Her views" are that of her organisation with its 2 million members. Her predecessors actually were a lot more hardline than her. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 00:08, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Thank you for your response. Could you source these claims and put them into the article? It would be very informative IMHO. [[User:Cyon|Cyon]] ([[User talk:Cyon|talk]]) 04:49, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Talk:Erika Steinbach

2009-08-25T04:45:08Z

Cyon: /* Rahmel/Westpr. is not the matter of language */

{{WPBiography
|living=yes
|class=B
|priority=
|politician-work-group=yes
|listas=Steinbach, Erika
}}
{| class="infobox" width="270px"
|-
!align="center"|[[Image:Vista-file-manager.png|50px|Archive]] [[Wikipedia:How to archive a talk page|Archives]]
----
|-
|
* [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Archive 1|March 2004 – January 2005]]
* [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Archive 2|January 2005 – January 2006]]
* [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Archive 3|January 2006 – September 2006]]
*
*
|}

== Saw exhibition ==
I saw the exhibition of the Federation fo Expellees in Berlin. I need to say that there was nothing revisionist about it. The exhibition explicitly mentioned Hitler's invasion in Poland which lead to the outbreak of the war. Moreover, this information everyone learns at school and there are many museums about the Nazis, concentration camps and the Holocaust. Rightfully so. Thus, you need to be very ignorant not to know that. I wouldn't call it a superb exhibition, but it was informative and pragmatic. So it's worth seeing, since it shows many topics which are totally neglected by much of the public. I had never heard of the fate of many people and ethnicities, and it was interesting to learn about it all. Of course I knew about the Holocaust and the other Nazi crimes, but did I know about the 2 million Poles who were deported by Stalin to Siberia? Never heard of it until I saw this exhibition. So I think it's an important addition to the musuems already existing.

:"Federation fo Expellees ... nothing revisionist" you evil nazi —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/193.196.136.221|193.196.136.221]] ([[User talk:193.196.136.221|talk]]) 07:58, 17 February 2009 (UTC) 

== Remaining objective ==
I know there was much written about Erika Steinbach. But she isn't as bad as most of us think. For example, some Polish newspapers continue to write, that Erika Steinbach is asking the Polish government for compensation for German expellees. This is 100% not true, she is not supportung compensation claims, and she officially stated that several times. So don't be so worried, she is not as bad as she is portrayed. She also had a speech about the Polish people and the Warsaw uprising and she underscored the historic plights of the Polish people and her respect for Polish patriotism. She also wants good relationships with Poland, even if the media often portrays her so awfully. And I think it has a simple reason: She reminds us that there was German expellees, and some people wish they had never even lived in Silesia or Pomerania. It's histroy, it's past. But they were there, we need to accept it. Not every single one of them was a war criminal who deserved it. Why is this so hard to accept? After all, I see these people as a bridge, not a problem (only a minority amongst them is a problem, and this is the Prussian Trust and these type of organizations claiming compensations). There are many museums about Polish suffering and the Holocaust is internationally known, too. So there is no need to be so worried, that people will forget the context. I think the context argument is more of an excuse than anything.

== Comments requested ==

I was invited to take a look at this page from [[Wikipedia talk:German-speaking Wikipedians' notice board]]. I find it disappointing that the same issue (how to describe her birthplace) is still being debated over so many months. I am still partial to my suggested wording [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=42512179 from March], which Lysy [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=42514846 supported]. Any opinions on using a variation of that? [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 18:19, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

Here's the text of Olessi's suggested wording.

:I agree with the "international disapproval" of the Nazi annexation. Her bio intro looks like a mess now with all of its "citations needed". Something simple like "Steinbach was born in [[Rumia]] (German: ''Rahmel'') in [[Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia]], part of Nazi-occupied Poland. Her father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was a..." Feel free to touch up the suggested wording. If the reader wants to learn more information about the village, he/she can easily find it at its own [[Rumia|article]]. [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 18:27, 6 March 2006 (UTC)

===Proposal to close vote===

I have been requested to close this vote so that a "more neutral vote" can be started. (for details, see [[Talk:richardshusr|my Talk Page]]. It may be that I started the vote prematurely. If so, I apologize.

The question here becomes... what is our goal? My goal is to see this page stabilize with a long-term solution to the Rumia/Rahmel question. While one could argue that the current vote is running 9-3 against Jagder, Stettiner et al, it seems that only an overwhelming, near-unanimous vote can keep us from a resumption of the edit-warring that got us here in the first place.

I am not convinced that Jagder's proposal will result in a different and more desirable result but it's worth trying if it will get Jagder, Stettiner et al. to sign on to the result.

I am willing to close the vote that I started if no one objects.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 04:34, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:So far only Jadger has a problem with how this vote was conducted. His complaints received no support from anyone else. Effectively throwing out a vote which was 9:3 in support because one voter objects is a curious echo of [[Liberum Veto]], and old Polish institution. Still, if you feel you must humor him, and that 12 people have to waste their time to vote on essentially the same question for the second time, go ahead and restart the poll. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 04:53, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:: I am not thrilled with restarting the vote but I am more interested in seeing the dispute resolved and the page unprotected. I will wait a day and see if anybody else objects. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 05:12, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:We have a clear 75% community consensus here. Are you not happy with this ? Do you think another vote will yield better results ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 05:35, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:: 75% is not a consensus, it is a supermajority substituting as a proxy for consensus. Consensus is unanimous consent. We do not have that. Now, we can try to ram the 75% vote down the throats of Jagder and Stettiner or we can try to find a mutually-acceptable compromise. I worry that, if we do not work towards true consensus, then we will just go back to edit-warring once the protection is lifted. Do you really want to go through [[WP:DR|dispute resolution]] with mediation and [[WP:RFC|RFC]]? --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 05:51, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:I am pessimistic, unfortunately. I respect Jadger, but the present dispute shows that the consensus is not possible, regardless of how many times we will repeat voting. The Olessi's version was a carefully negotiated compromise. Every now and then somebody will come and try to push it his way. What we need is to have a compromise version and defend it in order to stop lots and lots of future edit wars. I don't expect everybody to be 100% happy with it, but I hope the majority can live with it. Now, with all due respect, I don't think the vote should be repeated only because you changed your mind or because the losing party is unhappy, do you ? This can go on forever this way. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 06:23, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:: First, it's true that I changed my vote from "Support" to "Abstain". I do not feel strongly about this Rahmel/Rumia question at all. However, I did notice that my vote was inconsistent with the solution I proposed earlier about attempting to determine what Steinbach's birth certificate would have said. So I retracted my vote in order to remain consistent with that earlier stance.

:: My willingness to close the vote is primarily an attempt to find a way for Jagder and Stettiner to be accomodated with a compromise that satisfies them and will encourage them to defend the final resolution. (i.e. not to fight it via edit warring or resurfacing the issue again later).

:: I do think votes should not be used as a means of deciding an issue democratically but rather a means of determining if a consensus exists. In other words, "Yes, I do think we should consider the vote to have failed if the losing party is unhappy."

:: Wikipedia is [[WP:NOT|not a democracy]]. Making decisions by consensus does not mean voting and then going with the majority (or even supermajority) vote. It means trying to find a mutually-acceptable compromise. This is a lot harder but ultimately longer-lasting. If nothing else, what makes you think that the vote will always run 9-3 in favor of your solution? A few months from now, it could run 9-3 the other way. Depends on who's voting, right?

::--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 06:56, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:Yes, I fully support that Wikipedia is [[WP:NOT|not a democracy]]. However, in the lack of consensus, given the history of revert wars on this, apparently marginal, issue, we have been looking for a compromise solution. The version that we have negotiated with Olessi in March was a compromise, that is neither myself nor probably Olessi was 100% happy with it. Of course one can expect that after some time a more extremist editor will challenge it, as happened now. I think the right thing for the community to do would be to defend the reached compromise, instead of trying to break it. This did not happen, unfortunately. I'm afraid that we won't get anything better than the current 75% support and certainly not 100% support with another voting. What we are looking for is not a solution that would satisfy everyone, but a technical measure to prevent edit-wars and I think the result of the current vote is just it. All we can do from now on is only step back and spoil it. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:20, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::We also have to consider that [[User:Stettiner]] has made so far only [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~essjay/edit_count/Count.php?username=stettiner&submit=Count 75] edits to Wikipedia, a large number of them on this page. His first edit was made as recently as [[13 September]], [[2006]], on this very page. Hence all the concerns described in [[Wikipedia:Single purpose account]] apply here. [[User:Schwartz und Weiss]] (another single purpose account) has only made [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~essjay/edit_count/Count.php?username=Schwartz+und+Weiss&submit=Count 130] edits over more than 2 years, most of them in counterproductive revert wars over German names. Now, Jadger has alleged that me bringing up these statistics constitutes a form of personal attack. Nothing could be further from the truth. The number of contributions made to Wikipedia is simply one piece of information that can be used to judge the importance of the given users vote. Anyway, what this seems to suggest is that we really have a vote of 9 to 1 here, if we count established, credible users only. That gives 90% support of Olessi's proposal, which looks like concensus to me. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 14:58, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::: Well then, if no one objects, we should close this vote soon. I propose that we close the vote if there are not any substantial number of votes in the next 24 hours. (Please, no sock puppets or WikiFriends dragged in to stuff the ballot box.) Then, someone should ask the admin who protected the page to unprotect it so that we can insert the compromise wording.

::: We should agree that Jagder is free to propose a vote on his proposal immediately afterwards. However, I hope we can all agree to discuss here rather than edit warring. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 16:55, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::::Certainly not "immediately afterwards". The reason for the voting is to find consensus (or supermajority if you like) support of a stable version, and at least several months grace period would be in place between subsequent votes. Secondly, I would suggest that the form and proposals of any future vote are thoroughly discussed before it is started, otherwise we'll end up with a series of "Jadger's vote", "Lysy's vote" and what not. I for one would change the proposed Jadger's wording and I'm sure others could have their opinion at it, too. As I said, I respect Jadger as an editor, but such pushing against the community is not appropriate. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 17:45, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::: I agree in principle that a consensus should be allowed some period of stability so that we are not constantly re-voting issues. On the other hand, I hope you will make an exception in this case since Jagder's complaint is that the original vote was poorly framed due to my prematurely opening the vote without adequate discussion beforehand. (I'm a relative newbie at this kind of thing.) Someone voted for the proposal with the remark that the Rumia first vs. Rahmel first could be done as a subsequent follow-up vote. I imagine that Jagder may have some tweaks that he might like to propose to the compromise solution. I see the compromise solution as a way to get this page unprotected. Editors should feel free to continue the discussion on this Talk Page as long as they do not disrupt Wikipedia by edit warring on the actual article page. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 17:54, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::::While I feel rather strongly about Nazi occupation of Poland and any attempts to picture it as "liberation", of course it's not my intention (and neither I would be able to) keep Jadger's mouth closed. I'm sure he'll be willing to work towards a compromise as well, although personally, I feel I could not move a step further than the current proposal, which I considered difficult to accept already in March. Thanks for trying to stay impartial on all this. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 18:41, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::::I find it admirable that you want to satisfy Jadger, but please also keep in mind there are 10 editors (at this point) who support Olessi's proposal and who want to put this whole sorry fight behind them as soon as possible. From my point of view, Jadger's demands are not reasonable. Using a bit of mathematical language, the current vote is to choose between option A vs option not-A (not-A meaning we go back to the drawing board). This vote is at present 10:3 (or 10:1 discounting single purpose accounts). Jadger demands a new vote with A vs B. Why does he expect that the result of that vote will be any different? Why would people who voted for A this time vote for B in the next vote? After all, if they wanted to do this, they could have changed their votes in the current vote, as we speak. But it is possible that they will get disgusted with the first vote being thrown out and simply walk away without voting the second time. Maybe that is what Jadger is secretely hoping for. To avoid that outcome, if we hold a second vote, the votes cast in support should automatically carry over to any new vote, with the voters notified of this and given an opportunity to change their votes, if they wish. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 19:08, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

I said I would "close the vote" if there was no objection. There has been objection. There are two meanings of "close". One would be "closing, accepting the result" and "closing, invalidating the result". I think we should move towards closing the vote and accepting the result as a first step. Jagder will probably object but, if we leave open the possibility that he can propose tweaks to the compromise wording, then we should be able to unprotect the article and insert the compromise text proposed by Olessi and agreed to by others.

The alternative is to leave the article protected in its current version until Jagder can negotiate a different compromise text. IMO, this is not a good path for us to follow.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 20:10, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

Please, the only reason they are objecting is because of what you said Richard, ''"I said I would "close the vote" if there was no objection. There has been objection. There are two meanings of "close". One would be "closing, accepting the result""'' of course they are objecting, this is a sneaky way for them to win. '''No one new has voted on it because they know it is a sham and should be more level and worded unbiased.''' and if I were to attack the credibility of the support voters many of them would have to be discounted, but I am not doing that because the vote has been unfair. I am the only one who has objected to this vote because a number of us have agreed for me to speak on behalf of our viewpoint, in order to prevent Balcer and ProudPomeranian from attacking them again. BTW, it is not really ten votes for it, as Sciurinae's vote almost word for word is what I said, and it also says that this is only temporary.

'''What is the harm in having another vote? It will settle the dispute once and for all. I agree to adhere to whatever ruling comes of the second vote.'''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:44, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

BTW, it is not a "supermajority" or a consensus as Richard claims, as per wikipedia rules, 60% is consensus, one more person to vote against it and it is no longer a consensus, I would personally count Dr Dan as against it by his comments, but we may just wait and see.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:49, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

:So, we have 11 votes for, 4 against and 1 abstain (even counting votes by [[Wikipedia:Single purpose account]]s, which should count for less). 11 support votes out of 16 votes means 68.75% support. In my humble opinion that is concensus. We've had no votes cast in 2 days, so it appears no one else is interested in expressing their opinion. Can we bring this vote to some kind of a conclusion, based on this result? [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:57, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

we've had no votes cast in two days because they know this one is a sham vote. Not to mention 2 or 3 of those support votes can be described as conditional at best, some even are more like my viewpoint than supporting this version. Also, some votes even call for a subsequent vote, which I have given but you deleted multiple times. not to mention that the users that supported before any opposition could be raised may not know of the differing viewpoint. The outcome of this vote has never been clearly mentioned, so users don't even know what they are voting for, it has never been said that it is to vote to include it in the article, it looks more like "would you consider this better than the current version", many of the voters may not even realize it has been warped to mean a final judgement. '''you still have not answered me, why don't we have a vote that everyone can agree on to finish this?''' because this vote's basis has been called into question.''' You claim it is because I am a sore loser, but if I were a sore loser, you could hold another, more fair vote, and if/when I lose again then there can be no doubt which side has consensus.'''

to extend this wording into other votes, we could have a question such as ''"do you like people?"'' and when a majority support/say yes to it, then we can corrupt it on the article into saying, ''"a majority of people wikipedia users like cannibals"'' because cannibals/Nazis/insert evil person here are people, so a majority like them. that is what has been done here, people have voted on a ill-defined poll that can be corrupted into supporting something they may not, what is needed is a more clear and concise poll that gives both sides, not just one.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:16, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

===Support===
<s>* --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 18:27, 15 September 2006 (UTC)</s> On second thought, I'm Ok with Rahmel (now Rumia) also and in fact might even prefer Rahmel first instead of Rumia first so I think I'll just abstain. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 07:21, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# --Full support. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 18:29, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Sounds goood to me.--[[User:Piotrus| Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus ]]|[[User_talk:Piotrus| talk ]] 18:58, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. Good to see that Balcer is coming to his senses ;). --[[User:Thorsten1|Thorsten1]] 19:40, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. It looks like a nice compromise to me. [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 21:46, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Of course, [[User:Space Cadet|Space Cadet]] 21:48, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Seems a good compromise. Thanks, Olessi [[User:Alex Bakharev|abakharev]] 22:55, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Fine with me. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 06:40, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support per [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=42514846 this edit]. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:46, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. --[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 10:20, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. Not perfect, but OK. The Rahmel or Rumia first question could be answered in a followup vote. -- [[User:Chris 73|Chris 73]] | [[User talk:Chris 73|Talk]] 17:09, 18 September 2006 (UTC)
#Though I'd prefer a different wording, I can live with the proposal. However, Stettiner is right in that the suggestion is not really in conformity with the Gdansk vote and furthermore I believe it could still be cut in length. When I come to think of it, I'd favour something like "''Erika Steinbach was born in Rahmel ([[Rumia]]), occupied Poland, in 1943''". I assume the proposal voted on is more the provisional than the final decision and a different wording can still be decided, but, of course, not simply by revert warring. [[User:Sciurinæ|Sciurinæ]] 21:37, 19 September 2006 (UTC)
: I also like this version better which is why I changed my vote to abstain. My "winning formula" would include Rahmel first, Rumia second, in German-occupied Poland. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 03:25, 20 September 2006 (UTC)
::I fail to see how Sciurinae's support vote is anydifferent then my proposal in the comments section, and the reason I opposed it. I would also like to re-iterate that it was not in [[General Government|German-occupied Poland]], but was annexed to Germany, hence my proposal: ''Steinbach was born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland) in Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, in the part of pre-war Poland annexed by Nazi Germany in 1939. Her father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was a...''--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:38, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

===Oppose===
#[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 20:29, 15 September 2006 (UTC) If it was part of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, why call it Rumia then? if we are to use the polish language name, do you not think the ''Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia'' would have to be in Polish also. '''there was no Rumia in Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, try looking it up on a period map.''' I would not be adverse to ''[[Rahmel]] (Polish: Rumia)....'' also, it was not a part of German occupied Poland, it was not in the General Government. although, the only differences I see between this and the version I set forward is that a) it says Rumia first and b)it uses the word occupied instead of annexed.
# [[User:Schwartz und Weiss|Schwartz und Weiss]] 22:28, 15 September 2006 (UTC) Let's just stick to the bare facts, like [[User:Jadger|Jadger]]'s suggesting.
#[[Wikipedia:NPOV]] & [[Wikipedia:Factual accuracy]]. There is no such thing as "Stalinist-occupied", "Republican-occupied", "Nazi-occupied", "Labour-occupied" etc. Rahmel was not part of [[Generalgouvernement|occupied Poland]]. The city was called Rahmel in 1943. According to the Danzig/Gdansk vote, German name is to be used here, both because it was Rahmel in 1943 and because the person is clearly German. Let's stick to the facts instead of [[historical revisionism]] and [[irredentism]]. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:47, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
#:Registered on 13th September - 2 days before day this poll was started:[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&offset=20060914221905&limit=50&target=Stettiner]. Impressive knowledge of Gdansk vote and other issues gained in so little time, #12th edit labelled as 'rv POV pushing/vandalism'...--[[User:Piotrus| Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus ]]|[[User_talk:Piotrus| talk ]] 02:49, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
#::since when was it wrong to edit as a anon for a long time before becoming a registered user? I did that, as I would guess you also did, as well as a majority of wiki users. if you want to attack credibility, I could do that also, but I would prefer if we keep more mature than ad-hominem attacks to win this. please, as [[Noob]] article states, ''"For example, Wikipedia has a firm policy of welcoming all new contributors whether or not their first edits are helpful to an encyclopedia"'' Please do not bite the noobs. that phrasing is not unique to the wiki, perhaps he/she edits on other websites also. [[Wikipedia:Please_do_not_bite_the_newcomers]] by newcomers here I mean he may of edited for a while as anon., as that is highly likely--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:01, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 03:32, 20 September 2006 (UTC), explained in my comment below.
# I go along with Jadger. The article is objective and Erika Steinbach's place of birth is clearly identified. I don't see the problem. [[User:Norvo|Norvo]] 22:30, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
#: [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3ANorvo&diff=77219886&oldid=67517684 Invited] to vote here by [[User:Jadger]]. .[[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 23:16, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
#:: your point being? all people that may be interested may not have this on their watchlist. perhaps you could site an actual rule that says I can not tell people about a vote (as [[wikipedia:survey notification]] is not valid and is only kept for historical usage). Or else we would have to throw this whole vote out as Richard also invited people on other talk pages. '''Stop trying to attack and undermine those who don't support your viewpoint Balcer, please observe [[Wikipedia:Civility]]''' --[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:12, 23 September 2006 (UTC)
#:::Check [[Wikipedia:Spam]] then for more up to date guidelines. Richard properly informed everyone that he posted the notice on various talk pages. Consider emulating him and doing the same in the future if you canvass for votes. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:29, 23 September 2006 (UTC)

===Comments===

Here is the version I set forward: ''Steinbach was born in [[Rahmel]] (now Rumia, Poland) in [[Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia]], in the part of pre-war Poland annexed by [[Nazi Germany]] in 1939. Her father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was a...'' if you don't like (now Rumia, Poland) it can be (Polish: Rumia)

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]]
:That version seems acceptable to me as well. [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 22:58, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

* '''Comment''': Perhaps Halibutt's suggestion of keeping the name in force during the historical period in question might be helpful. Examples like [[Stalingrad]], [[Rahmel]], [[Ciudad Trujillo]], [[Leningrad]], come to mind. In short if a person was born in Leningrad, we wouldn't say they were born in St. Petersburg because we didn't like Lenin. It seems Steinbach was born in Rahmel. As to the occupation aspect, it's unfortunate but that's what happened. During Poland's annexation and occupation of [[Vilnius]], between 1920 and 1939, people were said to have been born in Wilno. Right? And most of the support votes would agree with me, I'm sure (at least to the second part of my statement). It seems to be a double standard, if Halibutt's suggestion is correct and agreed with, and not followed through. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 01:23, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
<includeonly></includeonly>
::I have said that before Dr. Dan, in the discussion above, but instead of refuting that point, Balcer changed it to his accusation that it was illegal, despite the fact that legality has nothing to do with it, as his quotation says, it was "officially incorporated into the German Reich", '''which is a law!!!'''

::--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:38, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

My full support for Jadger's proposal, although the colloquial name "Nazi Germany" should not be used. The country was called Germany. We don't use Bush-USA either. If the history of annexation shall be included, we also must include that the city was German prior to 1920.

I suggest: "Steinbach was born in [[Rahmel]] (now Rumia, Poland or Polish: Rumia) in [[Danzig-West Prussia]], in a city which had in 1939 been reannexed to Germany after being Polish since 1920." [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:55, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Yeah, and murdering Jews was also all right in the face of '''German Law'''. Thank you but I don't think we should support Nazi laws. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 08:00, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

'''I think we should close this vote, and put the two versions (mine and Olessi's) up for a vote between them'''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:38, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

::It's too early to close. This vote has been open for only a few hours and this is much too short a time for everyone interested to express their opinion. Many of the active participants in this discussion have not yet voted (Stettiner, Halibutt etc). Give it a few days, and if a clear concensus does not emerge, we can run another vote with more restricted terms. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:50, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

this vote was started without even a clear consensus that a vote was needed, in fact I had not heard of Olessi's offer before this vote started. Not to mention that this vote was started to gauge responses to it, hence Olessi stating: ''"Any opinions on using a variation of that?"'' and this section being titled ''Comments requested''. All of the people that supported it voted before there was even another version represented, so it is hardly fair at all. when I say "hardly fair" I am using a common English language statement which really means that it's not fair at all. ''The purpose of this vote was to gauge opinion, that has been done, now lets hold a real vote'' This vote was not on whether to change the article to it, but rather if people like it, I set out an alternative, so we should vote on which one is better (and which one to use). Unless you have another form you would like to contribute Balcer, this should be closed and a new vote started wherein the two are offered rather than just support or approve one that has no competition.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:36, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:Simply put, 8 hours is not enough to gauge opinion. People have lives, you know, they cannot be monitoring Wikipedia 24 hours a day. Be patient. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 02:41, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

'''Well, why should they place their opinion on a vote that they know will be superseded by another vote anyways? It's rather pointless.''' people do have lives, well... I do, most other people do, but everytime I am on, you seem to be on. Perhaps before posting again, take a breather, go to [[Tim Horton's|Timmy Ho's]] and get yourself a large double-double, talk to the people there (conversation rather than arguing may be refreshing for you). Then, after getting that fresh air and clearing your head, come back and stop arguing with me over everything I write. As the proverb goes: ''it is better to keep your mouth shut and look like an idiot, then to open your mouth and prove it.''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:15, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Jadger, how pathetic. You see that you have no chance to win this vote so you call for a new one. Will we have to vote time after time until your version is chosen? So far against the proposition are only two votes: yours and one by an inactive account which has been luckily reactivated just in time to vote on a page it never before touched (and has been in meantime accused of being someone's sockpuppet by getting into a revert war on [[Comenius]]). How funny.
Anyway, it was obvious since the momemt the article got protected that we have to vote. Someone proposed a compromise version. So the vote starts. So far, most involved editors clearly prefer the proposed version. Everything is being been done according to the book. Get over it. [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 05:58, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

To make it even more strange, the only other user to vote against - [[User:Schwartz und Weiss]] - is being accused of being a sock puppet of [[User:71.137.207.147]] which is a IP number registered in... Canada where you live according to your page. The meaning of ''Schwartz und Weiss'' is obviously ''black and white'' - the historical flag of [[East Prussia]] and you have... "''Frederick the Great, the greatest man ever''" on your Userpage. Both Schwartz und Weiss and 71.137.207.147 take part in a revert war on.. the borders of Prussia. All three accounts are '''never''' used when it's night in Ontario (4:00-12:00 GMT) and only very rarely in the mornings (12:00-16:00 GMT). How strange. What an astounding coincidence: the only three defenders of Prussia tradition all editing from east coast Canada??? [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 06:33, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:What a strange coincidence that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:130.63.18.178 someone] who's recently defined Copernicus as Polish also seems to come from there... [[User:Sciurinæ|Sciurinæ]] 21:37, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

:Just check the IP and stop your childish bird-brained speculations and accusations. BTW, what time is it in Ontario, now? Can you calculate it for me, smart ass? [[User:Schwartz und Weiss|Schwartz und Weiss]] 07:26, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Here you are [http://www.timetemperature.com/tzca/current_time_in_ontario.shtml]. And calling people names means breaking [[WP:NPA]]. [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 08:10, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

You still did not answer my question about time in Ontario - probably because it contradicts your entire silly theory: "'''never''' used when it's night in Ontario (4:00-12:00 GMT)". And smart-ass is not a name but an attitude, genius. [[User:Schwartz und Weiss|Schwartz und Weiss]] 15:16, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:: Hey guys, can we [[WP:AGF|assume good faith]]? Let's not get distracted by the allegations of sock puppeteering.

:::Did I accuse anyone? I simply listed some strange coincidences. We should assume good faith but we should be also wary. Otherwise what would be the purpose of the procedures against sock puppets? [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 08:10, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Regardless of whether he/she is a sockpuppet, [[User:Schwartz und Weiss]]'s vote must carry less weight simply because the scale of his/her contribution to Wikipedia has not been awe-inspiring to say the least. [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~essjay/edit_count/Count.php?username=Schwartz+und+Weiss&submit=Count Edit Count] shows that user made only 130 edits for over 2 years that his/her account existed on Wikipedia. Furthermore, practically all of those edits appear to be counterproductive revert wars over inserting German names into various articles. The person closing the vote should take this into consideration. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 22:59, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

I will comment that I have advertised this vote on [[Talk:Gdansk]],[[Talk:Rumia]],[[Talk:Federation of Expellees]],[[Talk:Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] and [[Talk:Historical Eastern Germany]]. I think even Jadger will agree that the pages that I have advertised on will cover most Wikipedians that have an interest in this question. If there are other pages, then please advertise this vote on those pages also. Let's wait a few days to see who else comes to vote. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 07:21, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:It's been also advertised at [[Wikipedia talk:German-speaking Wikipedians' notice board]]. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:49, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Would you people prefer using '''Warschau and Hitlerstrasse''' as well ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:58, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

There is no point in voting on historical facts when the Polish nationalists mobilize the entire Polish Wikipedia. I don't think Poles should decide the facts in a biography of a '''German politician'''!!! [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:57, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:So, in your opinion, certain Wikipedia articles should be [[Nur für Deutsche]]? [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 15:43, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

German Wikipedia is in some way [[Nur für Deutsche]]. Now the German one is not enough, more and more English articles contain radical German views.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 12:22, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

:What's "Nur für Deutsche" about the German Wikipedia? And where is the invasion? How many people here vote for "was born in Rahmel, then re-liberated Germany, now Polish-occupied" or anything like that? I see no enemy giants, just windmills, if you know what I mean. [[User:Sciurinæ|Sciurinæ]] 21:37, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

I see a troll, if you know what I mean. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 02:53, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

German occupation of Rumia region was an integral project, which included:
*arrestations (sending to Stutthof camp)
*extermination (Piaśnica)
*expulsion
*changing names of places
*German law, including war tribunals
* and many others.
You vote that point "changing names of places" was O.K.. Will you vote the other options too?
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 13:11, 2 October 2006 (UTC)

===Refactored from intro to section===
How about "Lech Walesa led the Solidarity movement in in Danzig (Polish Gdansk), part of Stalinist-occupied Germany"? Or perhaps Rahmel was Pilsudski-occupied Germany in 1930? [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:47, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

: I think the question starts with agreeing that it should be called what it was called when she was born. Thus, someone might have been born in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) or Stalingrad (now Volgograd).

: As for the "Stalinist-occupied Germany", I think we have to look for NPOV here. Even before the breakup of the Soviet Union, few people thought of Gdansk as Stalinist or Soviet occupied Germany. Some may have thought of it as Soviet-dominated Poland but, I believe, Gdansk transferred to Poland legally and there is little international dispute about it. Using the same yardstick, Rahmel/Rumia should be considered German-occupied Poland because the German invasion of Poland is generally considered to have been illegal aggression.

:Claiming that annexation was "legal under German law of the time" is an illegitimate argument. In these matters, we should only consider international law.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 16:18, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Special apartheid rules for Germany cannot be tolerated. The Polish annexations of German territory was as illegal as German annexation, or vice versa. Breslau was '''officially part of Germany''' as Polish-occupied Germany until 1991. So if we accept Polish POV in this article, we must accept German POV in every single article about persons born in or living in the annexed territories from 1945 to 1991. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 19:30, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:The new border was [[Treaty of Zgorzelec|recognised by East Germany]] in 1950 and by West Germany in the 1970 [[Treaty of Warsaw (1970)]]. After German reunification, these previous agreements were reconfirmed in 1990. But this was just what Germany thought of this, and Germany does not equal world opinion. The rest of the world has not had any problems with Poland's postwar borders since the Potsdam Agreement. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 19:54, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

::One's own "confirmation", i.e. the confirmation of the illegal Soviet puppet regime, doesn't count, and obviously the treaties of a defunct state are null and void. The legitimate government of Germany didn't accept illegal annexation until 1990, and it was not accepted by parliament until 1991. The 1970 treaty recognized borders as temporary "factual", not legal. Germany reserved the right to hold the question open. The opinion of South Africa, or the population of [[Mars]], on this issue is really irrelevant. This is a conflict with two parts and two opinions, and nothing more. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 20:38, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Well, if you want to believe that in 1945-1991 there was no legitimate German government, you have a right to that personal opinion. But that is not the mainstream view, which accepted East and West Germany as legitimate members of the international community, that issued binding laws, had legal passports, competed in the Olympics etc etc. The international agreements into which they entered were binding. Germany scrambled to reconfirm those agreements the moment it reunified. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 20:47, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
::::That is your perception that 1945-1991 there was no legitimate German government. You have a right to that personal opinion. But that is not the mainstream view. Among democratic nations (to which your totalitarian People's Republic did of course not belong) the democratically elected government of the Federal Republic of Germany was accepted as the sole legitimate German government. Only Stalinists claimed that those appointed by Stalin and his successors to dictate the Soviet Zone constituted a legitimate German government. The Stalinist treaties were in no way binding for the legitimate German government. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 20:52, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:::::Even West Germany eventually accepted East Germany as an equal partner, in the [[Basic Treaty (1972)]]. Other countries had diplomatic relations with East Germany ([[United States Ambassador to East Germany|US]] since 1974). What kind of parallel, fantasy universe do you think you are living in? [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 20:59, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
::::::That temporary policy was effectively reverted from 1990 onwards. The purpose of the treaty was to allow citizens of democratic Germany to travel in the Soviet occupied zone. It is fine to see that you agree that in 1950 (Treaty of Zgorzelec), the entire democratic world considered the government of the Federal Republic of Germany to be the only legitimate German government, and thus the Stalinist treaty null and void. Even if countries later recognized the GDR as a state, like Germany did, it did not mean they considered it a representative of the German government, but rather as a separate regime. What kind of parallel, fantasy universe do you think you are living in? [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 21:04, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:::::::Just to be clear, I have no great love for East German communists, but the 1950 treaty did de facto establish the border, given that Poland did not share a border with West Germany. True, East Germany was not recognised at the time by many Western countries, but eventually it was. West Germany, which you think is the legitimate representative of Germany, recognised that border in 1970. Yes, I know they "reserved" some rights pending final reunification, but please explain to me how that "reservation" automatically means that Poland occupied German territories? To prove this you would have to produce official statements of German government officials made after 1970 which state that Poland occupied German territory. Obviously, I do not think you will find any. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 21:15, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
Under international law, annexation is not legal. So the Polish annexations were illegal. Nevertheless, Wikipedia does not seem to care. Neither does Wikipedia care about international law when it comes to, say, Israel. So Wikipedia is following the '''facts on the ground''', and there should be no exception for Germans. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 19:32, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
::''Under international law, annexation is not legal'' - ditto. Which means that the 1939 annexation of Rumia was not legal either. Quid erat demostrandum. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 13:42, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

but then in that case Halibutt, the 1939 annexation was not annexation but a re-establishment of German control over its own territory (Rahmel), as you have just agreed with stettiner that annexation in 1919 was illegal, although carried out under the guise of the league of nations. I of course am not referring to the extra land taken but the land pre 1919 in Germany, which included Rahmel. As I stated before, ''If one takes there own property back from a thief, its not stealing''.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:11, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::If we followed the rule, the annexations of 1790's were not legal either. Dream on, Jadger. Or take your time to ask Irpen about the idea of ''annexation through treaty'', as he seems to be a specialist on the matter. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 13:50, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

No comments. --[[User:Irpen|Irpen]] 00:41, 19 September 2006 (UTC)
::But why not? This is the case I agree with your views and I guess your input could really be beneficial here. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 01:01, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

the annexations of 1790 were perfectly legal Halibutt, and they were internationally accepted. 1790 is before the time of ethnic nation states, where peoples tried to create their own free united nations, that came after Napoleon, not before him. As such, it is more like inheriting lands than a forceful takeover, as it had been agreed by Russia, Prussia and Austria (and since Poland was a puppet, Poland also agreed to it).''' Also, I would like for you to point out what law was broken in International law in the 1790s.'''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:05, 20 September 2006 (UTC)
:If the annexation of 1790 were legal, by the same logic so were annexation in 1918. The same logic cannot however be applied for annexation in 1939, since they were not internationally recognised. [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 10:25, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

I honourably disagree with you Szopen, as Germany, Hungary, Romania, Italy, Japan, Slovakia, Lithuania, USSR, etc. etc. all recognized that Poland no longer existed/was annexed and occupied in 1939. If that is not international recognition I don't know what is, as that perfectly fits the description of ''International Recognition''. just because her enemies did not admit it doesn't mean it wasn't internationally recognized, The enemies of Germany aren't the only people with a valid viewpoint simply because they won the war eventually. Like how in medieval times rivals for a throne didn't recognize each other's rights to it, and their supporters/detractors didn't either.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 19:04, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

===Erika Steinbach was born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland)===
On Rumia Discussion right on top you can find the records for inhabitants of Rahmel, Westprussia from the 1600's until 1940 [[Talk:Rumia]]. Those original church records are filmed by the LDS since 1920. Here is another look at it http://www.familysearch.org/Eng/Library/fhlcatalog/printing/titledetailsprint.asp?titleno=103047
Poles and Czechs took all birth, marriage , death certificates from the people they expelled, when they (the Communists under Soviet Union) conquered Germany. Even the people that managed to stay in their homeland, which became Communist Poland etc were not allowed to keep their records and got Polish ones instead. It was all part of the Communist plan to conquer and take over eastern Germany as far as they could get away with and then claim it all as 'original Polish' or 'Recovered Polish Territory' etc. What they did not count on, that there are originals records in the churches, which had been filmed by the LDS from Utah, starting by the way after 1920, that is the time, when these territories were 'taken' from Germany and 'given' to Poland by [[Treaty of Versailles]], which by the way was not signed by the USA.

By the way, thank you Schwarz und Weiss, for trying to put a little bit of sense into this 'Friendly' Neighbor at the [[Comenius]] article.
Labbas 16 Sep 2006

Balcer, I should probably go to your talk page with this, but I think Labbas's link to these records are rather telling, don't you? [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 23:16, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:What is so telling about it, pray tell? The page given does not actually list any names, so it does not give any indication what percentage of Rumia's population had which ethnicity. It only indicates that the official language used in Rumia was German, which is of course not surprising. Incidentally, the anon user's theory about Poland hiding/destroying the records is belied by the fact that the first (and hence presumably most important) sources for them are described as: Mikrofilme aufgenommen von Manuskripten im Archiwum Państwowym Gdańsk, Warszawa ...
:But this is all beside the point, as Rumia was a small, insignificant village until flooded by thousands of Poles settling there to work in newly-built Gdynia in the 1930s. In 1939, when it was occupied by Germany, it was a nascent town with majority Polish population. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 23:44, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

::Was this still the case when Steinbach was born? You know the expression ''what a difference a day makes''? Wroclaw was not an insignificant village, yet it too was flooded by Poles after WWII. And I would not say that a Polish child born there after, say 1946 (or even 1945), was born in Breslau. Would you? [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 00:04, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
:::Who knows? As you well know, the Germans expelled a large number of Poles from the Reichsgaus after 1939 (though not all by any means). Incidentally, it is also worth mentioning that the Germans who complain so much about expulsions after 1945 started the trend themselves by expelling Poles from areas annexed to Germany after 1939. Anyway, this discussion is not going anywhere. Names of cities are not determined by their ethnic composition. It is not our job to play historians or international lawyers, fun though it might be. We must find reliable sources, cite them, and incorporate what they say into Wikipedia. For one source, check [http://books.google.ca/books?vid=ISBN0198208731&id=OUb44s1ptrAC&pg=PA124&lpg=PA124&dq=reichsgau+danzig&sig=OkGcJsZJ5zUxJRJvYUsLwAtZ1t8&hl=en this Google print link] [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
:::Finally, the whole point of the discussion is not whether to use the name Rahmel or not (both proposals use both names), but about whether to refer to Rumia as "under German occupation". Eminent historical works use that formulation, and so should we. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
: You know, Balcer makes a very good point here. We should use formulations that can be found in [[WP:RS|reliable sources]]. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 06:56, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::The Polish nationalists want to have special rules for Germany. No wonder [[Polish plait]] is Poland's only contribution to European culture. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 00:07, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
::::Careful, Stettiner, a while back another user got into a serious controversy for making almost exactly this comment (see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Chris_73/Archive_004]).[[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:I checked it and found (only) 1 date after 1903: marriages until 1940. Filmed in the 20s? Note that if they were filmed in the 1920s, they or some of them were filmed at ... Gdansk. I beg your pardon? I am sorry, I have grave doubts about your version of how the LDS got them. Poles hiding, destroying? Some of these were filmed after 1945. In Gdansk. Now, all that these records prove is that the Roman Catholic Church at Rumia/Rahmel used German until 1903. Perhaps, just perhaps, because German State law compelled them to? Note that there was a Mormon village in East Prussia from the 1920s (in [[Zełwągi]])- if they were involved, that would be one more reason why all the headings are in German.--[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 01:26, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

::Now we need to discredit the [[Mormons]]? I for one, have no problem with Mormons, and highly appreciate their contributions to [[genealogy]] and their other positive contributions to society. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 20:10, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:::I am not trying to discredit Mormons. I wrote that Labbas' version of how these archives got filmed cannot be correct (one file, yes, one file only from 1940 plus the mention "Gdansk" - all this points to at least part of it having been filmed after 1945). The Mormons of Selbongen/Nikolaiken spoke German and Masurian only, they could write only in German and they would not have been familiar with Kashubian or a Polish dialect spoken in Rumia. Which would explain why they put the headings in German. In view of the fact that these were official documents, that the German state (certainly before 1903) required such documents to be in German, the mention on this internet page that some of the text is in Polish is interesting. Like anything in Welsh in baptismal records of 19th century Wales would be interesting. Nothing anti-Mormon here. --[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 07:37, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

== Inappropriate description ==

Describing an organisation representing victims of genocide and ethnic cleansing as "controversial" as main descrition in an unrelated article is inappropriate. I think its time to get rid of the Stalinist apologist vandals, who also abuse admin powers to protect their historical revisionism and Stalinist apologism. Obviously, this article needs to be protected against Polish nationalist POV pushing by non-nationalists and native speakers (this is the English, not Polish, Wikipedia). Stalin, go home! [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 00:05, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:Then it must be that [[Deutsche Welle]] is run by Polish Stalinists, since they consider the activities of [[Federation of Expellees]] controversial (see [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2135984,00.html]). Sorry, I tried hard to converse with you, but with your ethnic slurs and accusations of Stalinism you have crossed the line. [[Don't feed the trolls|Feeding time is over]]. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:28, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:[[User:Balcer|Balcer]] is right of course, but I would like to point out that if they are not controversial, they do have the knack to choose controversial leaders: [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Kather]. And perhaps, as a "non-nationalist", I should finally find the time to translate [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Oberl%C3%A4nder this article] into English.--[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 01:57, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

There is a small problem that the ''organisation representing victims of genocide and ethnic cleansing'' had a number of Nazi [[Founding Fathers]], even Erika Steinbach admitted this. There is another small problem, that the organisation didn't represent victims of German genocide and ethnic cleansing 1933-1944.

I have found names of historians, who created the image of ''Expulsion'':
*Theodor Schieder
*Werner Conze
*Albert Brackmann
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 12:53, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

== Jadger proposal ==

I have restored Jadger proposal for voting to the subpage [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Jadger proposal]]. Please discuss this proposal there. We already have one poll active just now, so we probably do not want to confuse the participants. I would suggest to use Judger's proposal if the poll would not yield convincing results [[User:Alex Bakharev|abakharev]] 05:33, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:Starting a new poll while the first one was open less than 24 hours, without any support from other users for this plan, is a very bad idea. Still, I thank Alex for containing the chaos and spinning the new vote to a separate section for now. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 05:37, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

::Thank you abakharev, the reason for my proposal is really simple. the current vote had only one side represented, and since I posted my objections, people have removed their support of it or voted against it (no one has since voted for it), showing that it was not really a truly fair vote. my vote on the other hand, contains both versions that were seen as being suitable contestants.

::As abakharev stated, he '''restored''' my proposal because Balcer kept removing it in order to push his POV, if the side he was on is as strong as he claims, then he would have no problem with another vote that would reinforce his opinion, but alas he knows the current one is worded to support only one way, without intentionally belittling its opposition. also, the current vote has become "lost" now, so convoluted with personal attacks, accusations in order to defame one another's characters, etc. etc. that it no longer makes much sense and is extremely polluted. And if you will notice, it has been longer than 24 hours as Balcer claims it has been almost 48 hours, and nearly 24 hours since anyone voted on it, in fact, just as many votes have been removed in the last 24 hours as have been added.

::The original vote, although no harm was meant by Olessi I'm sure, reminds me of the last election for [[Saddam Hussein]]. There were no other real choices besides other Ba'ath party members who did not really want to run against him, in this case there was no opposition until I posted it, which was after most of the support votes had been cast. How does one truly make a good choice when one only knows one side of the story?

:::For the record, I had nothing to do with the establishment of a poll. I saw a public invitation for assistance at [[Wikipedia talk:German-speaking Wikipedians' notice board]]. I then suggested phrasing and openly asked for discussion about it. A poll was created by others afterward, and was never my intention. [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 19:59, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
::::I incorrectly suggested to Jadger that Olessi started the poll. My mistake. It was [[User:Richardshusr]] who actually launched the poll, in this [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AErika_Steinbach&diff=75923207&oldid=75921907 diff]. It is only Olessi's suggestion which is being voted on. Sorry for any confusion. The text itself did not contain any mention of who launched the poll, but the message just above it carried Olessi's signature, hence my error.

::P.S. by "contain the chaos", Balcer means that he is trying to put the best spin on being warned by admin to stop removing other user's edits. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AErika_Steinbach&diff=76175190&oldid=76174133]]

::--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 05:51, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:I removed Jadger's new, unilateral vote proposal twice, while I attempted to talk him out of adopting this course on his talk page. Starting a new poll on one's own whimsy, and effectively throwing out the votes of the people who already voted, is simply bad manners. It also would introduce further confusion into this already rather chaotic discussion. Still, putting the new proposal into a separate section is a way to keep a semblance of organisation to these proceedings. I thank Alex for suggesting that idea.
:As for being afraid of this or that, the simplest interpretation, to me at least, is that it is Jadger who is afraid of losing the current vote, and is attempting to scuttle it. But I leave everyone to make their own judgement on that. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 05:58, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

LMAO, your attempts to draw me into a flaming war have failed Balcer([[Do not feed the trolls]]), you will not drag me through the mud with you. I will take the moral high road thank you very much. As for on my own "whimsy" (very poor grammar BTW), I have told you on your talk page ''(if you have not removed it)'' that many people supported it, and I named them. You scuttled the current vote a long time ago Balcer, you didn't need any help from me.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 06:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:Free grammar lesson: [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/whimsy], [http://www.google.ca/search?q=%22own+whimsy%22&start=0&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official]]. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 06:20, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

what you mean to say is ''"at his own whim"'' not ''"on his own whimsy"'' If you will notice, the second link you provided uses the word in another context then you do, and your first one if you look up "whim" proves my point perfectly.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 06:34, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

I believe that this discussion shouldn't be continued on personal pages as ad-personam attacks.
Thank you for your future cooperation.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 06:48, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

LOL, first of all it is called ''ad-hominem'', and second, I never did that, as first of all there would have to be a discussion taking place, which I clearly stated could not happen while you continue to troll and be nonsensical. I stated you are a "conversation-stopper" as [[Richard Rorty]] had defined it, perhaps you should read the essay, it really is an excellent read and could open your eyes considerably. If it was a personal attack or ad-hominem, report me, but since it wasn't, you simply claim it was in order to slander my reputation. I never attacked you, I simply asked you to not waste space on an already extensive talk page by stating nonsensical, unverifiable allegations (not to mention downright falsifications).

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:33, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Three traditionally identified varieties are ad hominem abusive or ad personam, ad hominem circumstantial, and ad hominem tu quoque. [[Ad hominem]]
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 07:11, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

== Jadger's actions ==

I'm sorry, I've said before that I respect Jadger and I assumed his good faith but while we are discussing here, he is hand-picking and recruiting for voting only the editors who he believes would support ''his'' POV. Such behaviour neither helps building the consensus nor does it lead to reflecting the NPOV view of the community on the matter. Should others behave in a similar way ? This is clear water POV pushing and it is unacceptable. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 15:06, 24 September 2006 (UTC)

== Moving discussion of Rahmel/Rumia (and other tangentially related stuff) here from [[Talk:Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] ==

This text was removed by [[User:Kusma]] from [[Talk:Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] as "off-topic". It is a bit "off-topic". A good chunk of it is relevant to the Rumia/Rahmel debate so I moved it here. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 15:52, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

: Rahmel is the german name of her birthtown and Rumia is the polish one. This territory was german occupied but also a part of the former german settled western prussia.
look there: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumia —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:84.185.254.24|84.185.254.24]] ([[User talk:84.185.254.24|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/84.185.254.24|contribs]]) 

:: Thanks but if this were so easily settled, we wouldn't have had an edit war and there would have been no need for protection. Please visit the [[Talk Page]] and express your opinion there. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 05:19, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

It is really settled that easily, but on wikipedia sometimes you have to deal with nonsensical people intent on pushing a nationalistic POV, including claiming that all lands in Poland have always been Polish and no one else has ever lived there rightfully.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:49, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

: Actually, on re-reading [[User:84.185.254.24]]'s text, I agree that this is pretty close to the mark. I think the issue is that Rahmel WAS the German name of the birthplace at the time of her birth but that name is (I'm guessing here) no longer in use and the current name used is the Polish one Rumia. The only question left is whether it is import ant to mention that Rahmel used to be part of German-settled western Prussia. This leads to two alternatives:

:: a) born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland) in German-occupied Poland
:: b) born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland) in German-occupied Poland which was once part of German-settled western Prussia.

: I would vote for (a) as (b) seems too clunky to be workable and suggests a bit of German POV pushing. I would argue for alluding the fact that it was German-occupied and the fact that it had previously been part of Poland and then leave the rest of history out of it since the article is about Erika Steinbach and NOT about the history of West Prussia.

: --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 16:15, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

why not just ''born in Rahmel (now [[Rumia]], Poland)''? it leaves the whole controversy over the wording out of it, and they can then look it up on the Rumia article. also, you say ''"I would argue for alluding the fact that it was German-occupied and the fact that it had previously been part of Poland"'', well it a part of Germany before that, so that point is moot. We can go back forever and find that the ancestors of the Basque people owned it first, the point should be left out of this particular sentence, it can be expanded on/clarified in the rest of the article. but please, let's move this discussion to our userpages in order not to confuse any new readers.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 00:19, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

The only reason to use the name Rahmel is the Nazi annexation of 1939, not accepted by democratic states. If you don't like Versaille, you are free to do it at home, with your friends, but not here. Germany waged a world war killing tens of millions because the Germans hated Versailles. If someone wants to experiment with Versilles, let he/she do it in an old mine, far from Poland.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 11:19, 21 September 2006 (UTC)
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 11:19, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

LMAO, you can't be serious, '''STOP TWISTING MY WORDS''', ''Germany waged a world war killing tens of millions because the Germans hated Versailles'', Germany isn't the only country to wage this war, Britain waged war, Poland waged war, USA waged war, '''they all waged this war that killed tens of millions''', I would like to point you to Balcer and Halibutt's statements on another talk page wherein they state that Poland made sure that they dragged the rest of the world into war with Germany. if you read [[Talk:Erika_Steinbach#German_invasion_of_Poland|here]], they clearly state that Poland dragged the rest of Europe into the war against Germany, now who is worse, Germany for starting an isolated war to regain it lost territory, or Poland for making it a world war (this all according to Balcer and Halibutt). Please cite a credible source that can back up your allegations, as per '''wikipedia:verifiability'''.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:27, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Nazi propaganda claimed, that the invasion of September 1st 1939 was caused by Poles. Are the Nazis returning?
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 06:54, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
:Jadger, the difference is that the war was started by Germany. Yes, they wanted to regain territories lost in Versailles, but this were territories which were German only because they were conquered. I am not sure whether you are trying to use here (I'm affraid quite typical) Kali logic:
"German wanted to regain territories it was good, Poland regained earlier its territories it was bad". Of course Germany starting a war is much worse than Poland calling for help. It's realy hard to see it otherwise. If a man ravishes a woman, you can't blame her to call for police. [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 10:20, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

:lol, that doesn't dignify a response Xx236, as with most of your comments. Szopen, I do not agree with what I was saying above, I was simply pointing to the talk page wherein Xx236's friends Balcer and Halibutt had said it, if we are to assume that what they say is true (as they claim) then what I said above follows from that.

:''"If a man ravishes a woman, you can't blame her to call for police."'' right, the man who did the ravaging was the triple entente/Versailles, the woman being Germany. But instead of calling "the Police" (League of Nations) she decided to stick up for herself in 1939 (and go over the line and exact revenge). If we are to use metaphors, by the reasoning above, ''it is not theft if you hand valuables to the thief when he has a gun to your head, as you handed the valuables to him, implying acceptance/approval. it wasnt stolen, you gave it to him'' The gun being in this case Versailles/triple entente military and valuables being German land. Of course this is wrong, I was simply showing your point in another metaphor.

:there is a difference between Poland "regaining" territory in 1919 than Germany doing it in 1939. Because Poland lost that land before the modern version of nation states being ethnically minded was developed (that is Germany being a nation of you guessed it: '''Germans'''), Royal Prussia was a Polish fief, but populated by Germans as well as Poles. By 1919 it was predominantly German populated. see [[Polish Corridor]], it was not given to poland because it was previously polish, but because it would weaken Germany and provide poland with a "outlet to the sea"
:--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 18:56, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
::Jadger, the problem with your reasoning is that yes, Polish Corridor had POLISH majority (Germans were about 42% in POmerania, but as you know before 1939 POlish corridor was sometimes used to refer all the lands lost by Germany in 1919, of which Posen had eevn greater Polish majority). Royal Prussia was not Polish fief, as you try to imply, but integral part of Polish crown (though, especially before UoL, with large authonomy). As for the other things, if you lost a war you have started (after all, it were Germans who declared war on France and Russia in WWI) you cannot complain of the consequences; and even more, if you earlier dictated even worse peace to countries you have defeated.
::After all, on what basis Germans could claim that Versailles was unjust, if they earlier dictated even worse peace of Brest-Litovsk or Treaty of Bucharest? This is what literally p* me off whenever I am talking with the Germans - it seems many Germans has this "Kali mentality" - if we did something, well, you know, the war and all, but if someone would do the very same thing to us this is OUTRAGEOUS! [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 15:03, 25 September 2006 (UTC)
::EDIT: BTW, I should clarify comments above: I had in mind "some" Germans, not large group, but a subset of editors and usenet users large enough to be notified. My intention was not to offend valuable editors or any kind of general ethnic slur - if someone however felt offended by the sentence above, please accept my apologies. [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 16:21, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

what I meant by my previos comment wherein i stated other nations waged war besides Germany, I was simply showing that XX236's claim that Germany was responsible for everydeath during WWII is incorrect.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 19:08, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Jadger, you keep fighting against:
*It's totally unimportant who is my friend. If you check, you will find my disputes with many Polish contributors.
BTW, it's interesting that you ask anti-Polish non-Germans to help you. You want a nationalistic war. The idea of Wikipedia was liberal, but as many such ideas radicals use Wiki to spread anti-liberal Nazi and Communist ideas.
*I have written:
''The only reason to use the name Rahmel is the Nazi annexation of 1939, not accepted by democratic states. If you don't like Versaille, you are free to do it at home, with your friends, but not here. Germany waged a world war killing tens of millions because the Germans hated Versailles. If someone wants to experiment with Versilles, let he/she do it in an old mine, far from Poland.''
Which of my words aren't true? Versailles wan't a perfect solution, but it was respected by the majority of democratic states. Germany succeeded in removing many limitations till 1939. It was German decision to wage the war in September 1939, killing tens of millions.

If I were you I would stop this discussion. There were tens of thousands of civilian victims in the "Corridor" in Piaśnica, Stutthof camp and other places and many of those victims were local people. Germans proved they were inviders. I bet there are not enough articles about Nazi crimes here. If you wage a Wiki war, you will mobilize some Poles to write such articles.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 14:29, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

::Very sad. This discussion seems to be full of German and Polish national egos. Rumia/Rahmel has often changed their ruling parties. Many people did not even know anymore whether they are German or Polish, many were mixed. This is a point totally neglected here. One side shouts: Rumia/Rahmel has been German all along; the other one shouts: Germans are all Nazis and therefore all history has to be reduced to the evil things "the" Germans did. Both is completely one sided. I think this is the core of the issue here. Rumia is PRESENT; Rumia and Rahmel are HISTORY, and German presence there was not only the years of Nazi occupation. And this history is also CONNECTED to people like Erika Steinbach, because she was not born in present Polish Rumia, but in the past when both the presence of Rumia and Rahmel were present as a Slavo-Germanic mixed area. Of course this is not convenient for nationalists from either the German or Polish side, but it's the truth.

== World War I ==

Why is it important to mention that Rumia/Rahmel ''had been part of Germany before the [[World War I|first World War]]''. How is this relevant to the fact that Erika Steinbach was born there ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:04, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

: Forgive me, This strikes me as a disingenuous question. That is, it would seem that you know the answer and are just asking in a rhetorical way. But perhaps you are unaware of the dispute that has been running in this article for at least 4-5 months so excuse me if I lay out the argument in very simple steps.

: Please note that I really don't care about this issue. I just want it to be dealt with in an NPOV way so that we can avoid edit wars. However, the chain of logic goes something like this:

: 1) Some people dispute the legitimacy of Erika Steinbach claiming to be an expellee because she was born of German parents in Rumia (by accident due to her father's posting there as part of the Luftwaffe) rather than being a descendant of people who had lived there for many generations.

: 2) Now that we have a need to explain where she was born, we therefore need to provide the name of the town where she was born. '''Is it Rumia or Rahmel?''' Or Rumia (formerly Rahmel)? Or Rahmel (now Rumia)?

: 3) To summarize the long edit war and debate over the name of the town, it comes down to this...
: 3a) The town is currently named Rumia
: 3b) It was called Rahmel during the German occupation of Polish lands which were formerly German before Versailles
: 3c) It was called Rumia between Versailles and the German invasion of Poland in 1939
: 3d) It was called Rahmel before Versailles
: 3e) I don't know if it was ever called Rumia at a time before Versailles. I suspect it might have been.

: I personally think this is a stupid dispute to have in this particular article. It would be more understandable if the dispute were being conducted in the [[Rumia]] article. Here, however, it seems to me to be a real sideshow to the main topic of discussing Steinbach's life.
: --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 19:31, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

::As stupid as it is (and I agree on this of course), the issue of the expellees does not have much to do with the pre-WW1 time. We should not be writing the history of Rumia/Rahmel in [[Erika Steinbach]] article. What can be (vaguely) relevant is that it was renamed to Rahmel during the Nazi occupation 1939-1945, and the point of the lengthy dispute has been whether the Nazi occupation name should be recognized or not. But there's no need to further justify this with the history of the [[Partitions of Poland]]. I'm rather surprised that you find it acceptable. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:41, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

::Note that '''I have not asked if Rumia or Rahmel is the "better" name''' for the town during WW2. But to me the sole purpose of mentioning the pre-WW1 name is to suggest that it should belong to Germany. Otherwise why do we need this mentioned there in the first place ? I think this should go. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:47, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

::: This is ridiculous, of course Rumia is part of Poland now, noone denies this. But Steinbach wasn't born now, she was born then. Thus, it is very relevant to mention that Rumia/Rahmel has been part of Poland and Germany at various times. This is important context. It is important to understand the character of the area, and also is relevant to the mindset of people who used to live there when Steinbach lived there. Many of the inhabitants did not even know whether they are German or Polish, or both. It is clear that this may annoy both German and Polish nationalists. But it is the truth and there is nothing wrong with it. This point is very relevant to understand the people there at the time, including Erika Steinbach. Another inconvenient point is that there was also German expellees after WW1 and before that was the division of Poland, thus neither the ideas that Rumia/Rahmel had "always" been German or had "always" been Polish are correct. Thus, to mention only Rumia suggests that the area had always been Polish. To only mention Rahmel insinuates the idea it had always been German. Both is historically biased. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:80.128.222.8|80.128.222.8]] ([[User talk:80.128.222.8|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/80.128.222.8|contribs]]) 

::::No, Steinbach was not born "then" as you put it. She was not born before WW1. How about mentioning that it was not German before the partitions of Poland then ? This is insane. All this discussion belongs maybe to [[Rumia]], or rather to [[History of Germany]] and [[History of Poland]], but the history of Rumia before [[World War I]] or before the [[Partitions of Poland]] is not relevant to this article on [[Erika Steinbach]]. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:24, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

::::: Yes, Steinbach was born in 1943, when the place was called Rahmel. But in order to be fair, '''I suggest both mentioning Rumia and Rahmel'''. It's not insane at all. If you insist it should be the name when Steinbach was born, then it is Rahmel. But I insist both Rumia and Rahmel should be mentioned. Your argument is to call it only Rumia, no matter when Steinbach was born or whatever the historical context. I don't agree, because the reader who is not familiar with history will assume it never had any German ties but had been Polish for centuries and then the "bad Germans" came out of the blue. And this is basically your point here. But my point is it's Rumia today and it will stay Rumia forever, but in order to be accurate in 1943 and the population who lived there back then I suggest we call it Rumia and Rahmel in this context.

::::Actually, the "bad" Germans came out of the blue. While other "good" Germans may have lived in Rumia/Rahmel for many years before, Steinbach's parents came there with the Nazi invasion. '''How is the pre-WW1 story relevant to this ?''' Did they come there to collect their belongings or what ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 00:32, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

::: Now this is a misrepresentation, noone was talking about anyone "collecting their belongings". As I mentioned before, when Steinbach was born it was called Rahmel. However, '''to call it only Rahmel I find unfair, the same for calling it only Rumia'''. It both brings across a wrong picture, since this area needed to endure a lot of changes within a relatively short time. Moreover, the population even after WW1 was insecure about their identity. And as I mentioned before, now it is Rumia and a completely different context, but Steinbach was born in 1943.

::::I'm sorry for the sarcasm and the rhetorical question. Of course they did not come to "collect their belongings". They came with the Nazi occupation forces. Now, that the town has been named "Rahmel" in 1939-1945 is purely the Nazi perspective, as the annexation of the town to German has been not recognized internationally. Since the Nazis occupied Poland, they could have claimed whatever names including Litzmannstadt and such, but this would not make these names any more official. It would be Rahmel of course if we spoke about say 1914, but certainly not 1943. '''This has been discussed zillion of times''' here already. '''What I asked however was about the purpose of including pre-WW1 history''' of Rahmel in this particular article, as neither Steinbach nor her family have any pre-WW1 history in Rahmel. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 06:44, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

Oh God. This page was protected for over a week because of the unending edit war that was going on over this issue. I thought we had gotten the issue put to bed and along comes Lysy with no doubt pure and innocent motives but nonetheless winds up reopening the wound.

Lysy, please do us a favor and read the admittedly long and seemingly interminable debate on this Talk Page over this issue. I can't figure out which is more insane - mentioning pre-WWI in an article about a woman born in 1943 or spending literally thousands if not tens of thousands of words '''debating Rumia/Rahmel'''. I wish I had a penny for every keystroke wasted on this debate.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 07:17, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

:I think you're attributing me somebody else's intentions. All I asked above was why was it important to mention that Rumia/Rahmel ''had been part of Germany before the [[World War I|first World War]]''. I did not revert. I did not advocate Rumia vs Rahmel or the other way round. Why are you saying that I'm restarting this discussion, while my issue is obviously with the other (WW1) sentence. In fact, as I reread the thread, it is obvious that it is you and the other anonymous editor that are reviving the naming debate instead of focusing on what I asked about. I have bolded parts of the discussion to show you how you're twisting my words. I've been only asking a simple question about the WW1 relevance, and you (Richard + 80.128.222.8) are trying to drift it away to the Rumia/Rahmel naming debate again. And now you are trying to accuse me of doing what actually you attempted yourself ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 09:25, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

:: I don't understand the issue. As mentioned I think Rumia and Rahmel should be mentioned in order to explain the character of the birthplace of Steinbach. I don't know why this is such a big problem. The article mentions both Rumia, Rahmel, the Nazi occupation and pre-WW1. I think this is very accurate.

:: But oh, you already deleted everything and changed it to your version. Great Lysy... Why do you even pretend to be objective?

:No, I have not deleted it. I also do not pretend to be objective. I'm certainly not, but I'm trying to. Back to our petty issue here, if you insist that pre-WW1 history of Rahmel should be mentioned, I would insist that earlier history is equally relevant. Sill, I'm sure the article is not a place for such advocacy and I only do not understand why can't you see that :-( --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 17:44, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

:: I mean the point is, you and I maybe know more about histroy. But most people don't, so they will simply assume it has either always been a Polish or always a German town, when they read the article. I don't really have the strength and time to check this site all the time to see what is put on or off. I suggest to mention it all.
::In general terms, I am aware there are many prejudiced ideas of Steinbach flurring around and I don't support witch hunts. I am not a fan of her, but I also don't think she is as bad as she is portrayed at all. Besides, she doesn't decide anything alone and is accompanied by other reputable and pragmatic people, or is Imre Kertesz a fanatic? As a matter of fact this extremeness of the discussion also makes me think of what type of people portray her in that way, taking words out of context and so forth. Of course people are afraid of compensation claims and all that crazy stuff that the media makes up about her, but Steinbach repeatedly and strongly rejected this madness. If she should ever come up with things like this, I will write her a letter of protest myself. However, I think no matter who will mention anything slightly sympathetic about the expellees or anything related, may it be Steinbach, Glotz, the Federation of Expellees - which wasn't and in 2006 most definitely isn't as bad as portrayed at all - or anyone else, will be bashed in an unfair way (even if I do admit Steinbach's case is rather odd). I believe we need to stop bickering. In my eyes the expellees are a bridge, not a problem. I don't see a problem with them also having a representation and having a museum to show their culture and history. They exist and existed, so why hide them ? It is so strange how they are often the ones who have the best contact to Polish people, at the same time they are collectively stigmatized as "Nazis" even 60 years after the war. I believe Hitler has in many cases "sacrificed" them and "the monster" is also partially responsible for their demise. At the same time there are so many diverse stories depending on the region where the expellees lived and so forth. I don't like the politization of this "issue". We are friends and we don't need to hide any part of history. Even if Nazis crimes were initial and as a whole much worse than the expulsion, the expulsion still happened and was pretty bad for the people involved. I am glad that the exhibition of the expellees in Berlin was not revisionist and besides the central expulsions (that was the exhibition's topic), it explicitly mentioned Hitler's initial land robbery in Eastern Poland (in which the Nazis deported Germans and told them to "settle on free land", in reality the Nazis had forcefully stolen the land from Poles, expelled the former inhabitants, and placed the "re-settled" people in formerly Polish houses. The majority of expellees were, however, not "re-settled people".), Polish slave workers and referred to the commonly known Nazi crimes, particularly the Holocaust. These awful Nazi crimes are very well documented in many much bigger museums also in Berlin and worldwide, which I think is necessary. The Nazi crimes are also an integral part of our highschool schedules, culture and media landscape. The exhibition also showed the forceful re-settlement of Poles from the Ukraine to Silesia, which was further empathetic to the Poles whose home is Silesia now. And it covered other expellee cases, which it placed in different context, of course. Some of Stalins expulsions were also covered, these were also mainly unknown to me. In my life I had not heard of Finnish Kalmyks ;-) For Germany it is important to know that a fifth of our population are Germans from Eastern Europe. Everybody should be tolerant, and everyone should know who he is. I am confident in a friendship between our countries. I like most expellees, most Germans and most Poles and in fact most of the world, and I realize we live in 2006. Maybe I am a dreamer, but I believe in it. Angela Merkel also supports the idea of a center against expulsions, one of Angela's grandparents is Polish. The idea that Poland and Germany are bordering but are worlds apart is not what I think. I simply said my opinion, so there is no need to comment because I am not here to try to convince anyone. Gee, I wrote too much. But still, best wishes ;-)
:Thanks for writing this and for your level-headed approach. I could not agree more with most of what you wrote. I'm not against the exhibition as I've not seen it myself and I'm old enough not to believe everything I hear in the news. I do not have a strong opinion on Erika Steinbach either (although I may dislike politicians in general). However I'm against the attempts to legitimize Nazi occupation of Poland with "innocent" edits like the one explaining that Rahmel was German before WW1 or insisting on inserting German name of the town in every sentence. I'm not saying you did this, but some anonymous editor inserted this information for a purpose (or maybe out of good will). Anyway, if someone needs to learn the wider history of Rahmel/Rumia, he usually simply clicks on it and gets to the [[Rumia]] article, where its history is explained in detail, including that it belonged to West Prussia since 1772, then to Poland since WW1, then the German (Nazi ?) occupation, the POWs, forced labour camp etc. Speaking of forced labour, you wrote that unlike the fate of the expellees, the history of Polish slave workers is very well documented elsewhere. Are you sure about this ? There is a museum in Auschwitz of course but it mostly deals with what happened in that particular place. Holocaust is well documented. But are there other museums devoted to particular groups of victims of Nazism, similarly to the expellees ? I'm not trying to justify the expulsions. The Poles certainly exercised some bitter revenge on local Germans and for a couple of years following the WW2 they treated the Germans in Poland in a similar way they have been treated before themselves. But they've not dragged people from their houses and shot them in the streets for what I know. Where were the expellees then ? How many Germans did engage in the armed resistance against Nazism ? I'm sorry but I expect that if Hitler did not loose the war, they would more or less happily accept their German privileged status and silently assist in exterminating Jews, then Poles etc. Now they complain they have been treated badly after WW2 because they had to leave their houses. Tell this to the millions of Jewish and Polish civilians who were killed by the Nazis and can not complain any more. Again, I'm all for reconciliation but some things are simply not equal. All right, what I suggest we could do is work together on the [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] to make it a quality article instead of what it is now. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 05:40, 22 October 2006 (UTC)
:: Thank you for your answer Lysy. The fate of Poles is very well documented in Poland, you are a good example of how well it is known. Every Polish person I met knew that the Nazis and the Soviets had commited crimes on them. On German TV I had seen several documentations about Catholic Poles under Nazi occupation. One was so endearing with a Polish woman who since after the war lives in Szeczin/Stettin. She had a horrible childhood in the occupied country, she acoounted it and it was dreadful. The German government had invited her to visit Germany because they had found out about her terrible fate, and she was hesistant at first. Then she agreed, she had a very good time. But one time, so she told, she met an old couple and told them she is from Szeczin/Stettin. Then the old couple said: But we are from Stettin. At first the Polish lady was shocked, she explained how now it is her childrens' home. But then later she said: Who knows what they experienced in their childhood? This really was touching. And I could see that even if she had been through hell herself, she was able to show compassion. I was so touched. Sczecin is Polish now. But we need to document the past and stop stigmatizing our people respectively. Polish history and especially Nazism is part of the curriculum in Polish highschools, and that is important. The expellees' story is not about complaining, it's about showing the entire history. Interestingly, you say the revenge did not involve dragging people out on the street and shoot them. I am sorry to say this is not true. Last year my mother's fromer classmate died. As a child he was very shy and almost never spoke, he was an expelled child from Silesia. When he was young he and his mother were hiding in the hay from Poles who invaded the town (in their case it was NOT local Silesian Poles). The men were pushing their pitchforks into the hay to spike up a German, no matter who. Some of this revenge was awful, and it was not always exercized by the local Poles, but by people who came there to indisriminantly take out their revenge on just anyone. Besides, I am sure there was also officials who spured these young men and who "organized" it and used the fate of these people to get their goals. Some of these men might have realized years later what they were pushed to do. In Silesia Poles were a minority, and they often did not take part in the "revenge". The Oppeln/Opolske region is a good example of how the expulsion was not inevitable. Not every Pole "chose" to take revenge (!), this is another point worth mentioning. Some older Polish women who experienced the expulsion even now say it was wrong and awful. They themselves had often been deported from the Ukraine and were dumped in a place totally unfamiliar to them. It is important to mention that not every German was a war criminal (!). Not only active resistance groups were not war criminals (!). There was many people who were farmers and were unpolitical, others fell prey to Hitler's vicious propaganda but were not in always war criminals. The point is, unpolitical Germans or Poles have no lobby what so ever. This is a true issue. I do to some point understand how the revenge came about, but it doesn't make it right. I do think it has to be documented. In Germany and elsewhere the story of the expellees had been suppressed for some time, mainly due to ideology. The Holocaust is no secret, the crimes of Nazism are not "untold". Every day I can find something relating to it on TV or in the newspapers. But still, it is important to remember, Jews were the "main victim" of Nazism. In Poland there are now a few thousand Jews and 40 million Poles, so I cannot have been exactly the same persecution. When I was at highschool history was all about the Holocaust. I think that is important and it is a central topic, but we need to know more. More about Stalin, more about Poles, more about German expellees, more about Latvians, more about Rwanda and simply more about the world. I do not even remember if Stalin was ever mentioned with a single word at my highschool, and I went to school in Western Germany. Can you imagine this? Now this would not happen in Poland. For this I admire Poland since it has the strength to show the entire story, both Nazism (which was even worse) and Stalinism. Even Steinbach had a speech about Poland which is also on her website in which she said "Poland is not lost. For this sentence I admire the Polish people." For a long time the expellees were put into a box named "Nazis", "refugee, what do you want here?" and "shut up". However, they had the most difficult fate of post-war Germans, and for some time Germany didn't acknowledge it. Another topic but different. I only know this because I am interested in Poland, so most wouldn't know. But when Wajda released a movie about the minority of Polish collaborators during Nazism he was highly criticized by some, why? This was a minority, but they also existed. When Kaczynski attacked Tusk because Tusk's grandfather had allegedly been a Nazi collaborator, then it was ok to talk about it. It's so abusive. Does that mean Tusk is a Nazi? How unfair, especially during election time. Firstly, the Soviets had committed some horrible crimes to Catholic Poles and the Nazis afterwards of course, too. Hitler was the most disgusting and manipulative monster. But what I find interesting and never talked about: If a Polish person had suffered during the Soviet occupation, you think this person chose to support the Soviet army? Some did, but some didn't. Why? Because they were evil? Well, maybe they had lost their loved ones to the Soviets and then would not support the Soviets. How can I thus judge this Catholic Pole for not supporting the Soviets? A similar case it is for some Germans (obviously a minority in the East). If they had been deported by the Soviets or expelled after WW1, why would they support the other party who had done harm to them? I mean there are many taboos and the entrie moral discussion applies to war criminals, but not in every case to ordinary citizens of the time. Keeping in mind most of the people at this time were farmers, could they sift through propaganda when having 1 radio channel? I am not sure, because I didn't live then. But there are certain questions. Often words are mixed, German becomes Nazi, Nazis becomes war criminal, war criminal becomes concentration camp guard. Germany had 70 million people, did they all work in concentration camps? What happened to soldiers who rejected to join the army? An old man in the village next to my granddad can tell you this. The Nazis cut his penis off. Noone seems to bother mentioning these things. It doesn't justify the awful crimes of the Nazis, but then again it is not aimed at justifying anything, but at documenting history and maybe even learning from it. Concerning elections and un-responsible voting behavior, beyond Poland, it is interesting to remember that most Germans abroad (not Silesia, but Hungary for example) had no right to vote in Germany. Thus, the initial election of Hitler, the beginning of the disaster, cannot be blamed on some of these people. These topics are not as central as the major historical disasters, but these individual stories are still important I think. Yet, they serve no political interest, so why would anyone bother mentioning it? Yesterday I bought my food again at a store where my Polish friend Ms. Poljak works. She smiles, I smile, there is a positive connection. She has self-confidence, I do. She is comfortable with her identity, I am. That's why we are real friends. I don't think we need to hide, and I believe if we are honest and truthful we can document history and still remember that we live in 2006. I totally am against politicizing the issue. In Germany part of the left wing is biased toward the expellees, but ironically they often do not like the Catholic Church (and the Poles) either, only when they can use them. And some of older left wing were in fact ex-Nazis like Günther Grass, who may be a good author but at the same time he pointed fingers while he himself had been part of this mess. The right was also not always nice to the expellees either, in particular when they arrived. I was also left wing, because I am gay. But now I am pretty much at home in no political direction. The right-wing is unfair, so is the left-wing (even if my granddad was a Communist). Europe needs to get over ideologies and face reality, sometimes it's painful, but friends are honest. I like my parents even if we have gone through rough times. But we were fair and honest. That's just my opinion. And for Poland and Germany, I continue to say we do have many very positive connections,we just need to be aware and we need to respect the individual for what he or she is. Oh Gosh, I need to stop wiki, because it takes too much time and my housemates are making trouble. Take care, bye.
:I understand most of what you wrote and, once more, I couldn't agree more with most of what I understood. Just for the record, the Nazis murdered about 3 million non-Polish Jews plus 3 million non-Jewish Poles plus about 3 millions Jewish Poles. Many Poles perished from the Soviets as well. But as I said, that's only for the record and and is not intended to prove or justify anything. While I very much appreciate our conversation here (and especially your effort in explaining yourself), I have the feeling that it may be getting off topic and is not directly relevant to how to improve the [[Erika Steinbach]] article. I cannot email you since you've not registered, but feel free to use [[Special:Emailuser/Lysy|my email]] if you desire to further contact me (you might be asked to register for this purpose, though). You may also use [[User_talk:Lysy|my talkpage]] if you prefer. I'd be happy to discuss the issue of Polish/German relations further, but as I said I feel this it not the right place to continue it. Thanks. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 18:50, 23 October 2006 (UTC)
:: I don't need the records, I know what I need to know ;-)I also know I have been a bit broader than simply Erika Steinbach ;-) Unfortunately I will not be able to visit Wikipedia much because of lacking time, but thanks for the invitation to discuss. Take care and best wishes.

Comment by 80.128.249.151

Allegedly '' 'expellees' story is not about complaining, it's about showing the entire history''. The statement is false, the Expellees had Nazi leaders, demanded the revision of borders to those of 1937. The majority of their stories are '' The world was beautiful till 1945 when the Poles came''. The old ones responsible for the Nazi crimes are already dead, their children believe that their parents were angels - many of them weren't. A responsible father doesn't want his family to live near a mass execution place Piaśnica or nazi camp Stutthof.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 14:51, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

WOW, read what you just wrote XX. ''I don't need the records, I know what I need to know'' so what you're saying is we don't need any research or authoritative sources, we can just make up everything we want (which seems to be the extent of your input on wikipedia). ''A responsible father doesn't want his family to live near a mass execution place Piaśnica or nazi camp Stutthof.'' Yet many poles do live near those sites in Poland, why is that? are Polish fathers not responsible? according to you it seems so. Please XX, provide some evidence for your claims that Germans have forgotten history, it was all too apparent during the World Cup this year that even though the 3rd Reich is long gone, people still see all Germans as Nazis, as it seems by your writing you do.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 11:17, 23 November 2006 (UTC)
Jadger, I haven't written the phrase. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 15:35, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

:Jadger, don't waste your time. I read the interesting discussion above between the often unsigned editors, but I assume were always Lysy and Richard. I had the satisfaction to feel that there was a true ''modus vivendi'' achieved between them and that we all could benefit from it. But naturally people like XX will swoop down and start the same old crap again. Or should I say come out of a mouse hole? Then they will scury to the next article and try to create more propaganda and more dissension between people. And it's Wikipedia and its reputation that suffer because of it. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 14:50, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

I thought that also, I was only commenting on XX last remark, which is totally non-sensical.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 20:08, 24 November 2006 (UTC)

Dr Dan, do you mean your texts? "Then they will scury to the next article and try to create more propaganda and more dissension between people"? [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 15:37, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

== Rumia/Rahmel again ? :-( ==

::Come on Lysy, at [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=81777161 first] '''you revert''' my edit '''Rumia (german: Rahmel)''' to just '''Rumia''' and [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=next&oldid=81777161 then] two sentences later you remove '''Rumia/Rahmel''' altogether and replace it by '''this town'''. At least to me it seems pretty clear that you don't want any mentioning of the German name of the city in this article at all.
::This seems to be in line with [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pomerania&diff=prev&oldid=81775392 your reverts] where you don't allow the mentioning of the old name of Gdansk, Danzig not even in brackets, not even once in the article. Although it is pretty clear that Pommerania and Danzig had quite a mixed past with strong influences from both Poland and Germany and many people (not just Germans) know the city nowadays still as Danzig. In fact you called it '''arrogant''' to mention the German name. I know, I know this belongs to the Gdansk/Pommerania talk pages but the issue is the same...
::Sorry but I can't follow [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=81843993 your argument] that the mere mentioning of the German name of a town suggests that it should belong to Germany. --[[User:Splette|Splette]] [[Image:Happyjoe.jpg]] [[User_talk:Splette|Talk]] 10:49, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

Yes, and this is a different issue than the one discussed in the previous section. First, the article has been unprotected on October 6th. It had the Rahmel name explained all right. In a couple of days an anonymous editor added ''Rumia/Rahmel had been part of Germany before WW1, however it had become part of the Polish state after WW1'' without any discussion or reference to the article. Anyway, the article was relatively stable for about 10 days only. Then you decided that Rahmel needs to be mentioned in in another sentence and added the German name for the third time. Why was it needed if in the very next sentence it was explained that Rumia was renamed to Rahmel ? I've watched this article for too long not to know what would happen next. In a couple of days somebody would change the order of the names and then another fly-by-night anonymous warrior would come and remove Rumia altogether. I've seen this scenario too many times. Why were you unhappy with the stable version ? As for the other edits, I'm happy to discuss them if you like. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 11:28, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

: But now you are talking about a problem that does not exist. Rumia is in the article and will remain there. If someone deletes it, I will put it in again. But just as you insist to only put Rumia and not Rahmel, I insist to put both and find it a stable compromise. Both Rumia, Rahmel, the Nazi occupation and pre-WW1 are essential to Steinbach's birthplace. Lysy, I am sure you are a nice woman. But i am sorry to say that it seems like you like to control this page and to eventually always have your point of view pushed through.

History of Rumia from 1466 until 1772 ;)

from official Rumia web site

http://www.rumia.eu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=27&Itemid=51

http://www.rumia.eu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=51

(ciekawe jak szybko helmuty to usuna ;))

—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:193.242.104.9|193.242.104.9]] ([[User talk:193.242.104.9|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/193.242.104.9|contribs]]) 

I restored the compromise version.
--[[User:Molobo|Molobo]] ([[User talk:Molobo|talk]]) 22:54, 14 February 2009 (UTC)
==West Prussia==
Rumia is in Pomorze Gdańskie the same as it is in West Prussia. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 12:43, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

== Protests in Potsdam (controversial terms) ==
*Colonisation: The german word ''Siedlung'' could be translated as the [[Settlement]] as well as the [[Colonisation]], but after reading the preview of Steinbach's lecture I consider the "[[Colonisation]]" more accurate term.
*revisionism: As I learned from cited articles, the reason of the protests of students and the Antifascist Alliance is the (alleged) Steinbach's [[Historical revisionism (negationism)|revisionism]]. This not my POV, this is the POV of protesting people and organisation, which should be mentioned. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Honzula|Honzula]] ([[User talk:Honzula|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Honzula|contribs]]) 11:32, 21 June 2008 (UTC) 

==Opening paragraph==

The opening paragraph shall only contain name and ''date'' of birth (not place of birth), per [[Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_(biographies)#Opening_paragraph|MoS (biographies)]]. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 15:17, 26 February 2009 (UTC)
:''Steinbach, came to our country with Hitler and had to flee with Hitler''[http://www.expatica.com/nl/news/news_focus/Poland-ups-the-pressure-in-WWII-memorial-feud-with-Germany--_49974.html] - Polish Minister [[Radoslaw Sikorski]]--[[User:Jacurek|Jacurek]] ([[User talk:Jacurek|talk]]) 16:16, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

==Criticism in Poland==
I think that the article should be modified as to the criticism of E. Steinbach in Poland. The reasons for the Polish critique are, among others, as follows:
* (in the context of her possible presidency of the Centre Against Expulsions) - she was strongly against Polish membership in the EU and NATO, she was one of the most active opponents of the Polish-German border treaty (and voted against it as one of very few members of the German parliament), what, from the Polish point of view, makes her unable to participate in management of historical and scientific museum, which is to deal also with Poland, due to the lack of objectivity;
* in 1990s she continued to put in question the Polish-German border;
* she is strongly associated with the Centre Against Expulsions, which is seen as anti-Polish; the Poles are often furious of the Centre's website and the data presented there, e.g. the number of Poles expelled from Poland during the World War II (400 thousand according to the Centre's website /presented as "deported from Poland"/, compared with official numbers amounting to 2 millions) or the information about the city of Gdańsk (as per the website, it was founded in 1224/25 as a German city, while it was founded in 997 by Mieszko I of Poland);
* there is a fear that she may be likely to marginalise German war crimes and try to present "expelled"/"deported" Germans as victims of the war in the same context as Jews, Poles and other nations.
In general, her political life was full of anti-Polish actions and she is regarded as heavily biased against Poland. These are the reasons for her critique in Poland. The article mentions almost only her bad reputation and exhibitions she organised, while her political campaign against Polish borders and membership in international organisations are the reasons for this critique. [[User:Montessquieu|Montessquieu]] ([[User talk:Montessquieu|talk]]) 20:22, 2 March 2009 (UTC)

Critisism is alright but what had happened in Poland in the last couple of weeks is far beyond a fair debate ("blonde beast", tasteless nazi photomontages etc). —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/83.236.241.230|83.236.241.230]] ([[User talk:83.236.241.230|talk]]) 18:26, 10 March 2009 (UTC) 

::Which exactly facts do you mean? The ones generated by German media? BTW Erika Steinbach has been using very tasteless methods against Poland and Poles since many years. And German media attacked Kaczynski brothers eg. as potatoes. Erika Steinbach idealises her father, a Luftwaffe officer who stationed in occupied Poalnd. The majority of Poles don't understand the difference betwen Nazi forms.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 09:39, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

What are you talking about? It's unfair when somebody accuse that during the debate in Poland Steinbach is called "blonde beast". It's unfair because it's biased. Maybe somebody said something like this but it is not part of real debate in Poland which I observe in media or between politicians. It's like to say that neo-Nazi parties rules in Germany lately, while they have no real power and only few seats in one state parliament. [[Special:Contributions/89.79.103.10|89.79.103.10]] ([[User talk:89.79.103.10|talk]]) 15:57, 21 March 2009 (UTC)

:My intention was not to start any discussion on whether the above-mentioned statements are true or false, but to present reasons for the critique of E.S. in Poland, as it's one of the sections in the article. In other words, the section is not to suggest whether the Poles are right or not. It's role is to show main points of the critique (which may be biased, determined by history or whatever, or may be fully objective as well). The provided statements are from Polish press. Regards, [[User:Montessquieu|Montessquieu]] ([[User talk:Montessquieu|talk]]) 16:24, 21 March 2009 (UTC)

I basicly agree with Montessquieu who simply inteded to display the state of debatte. However, I gently ask Xx236 to keep in mind that there is, in scales of taste, a difference between (the rather ironic) potatoe-article and e.g. the photo montage showing Mrs. Steinbach wearing a SS-uniform. Furthermore, I would also like to remind 89.79.103.10 that it was not just "somebody" who called E.S. a "blonde beast" but Mr.Bartoszewski who is the official apointee for German matters of the Polish goverment. And, last but not least, the almost agressive tone of your comments (except for Montessquie) may serve as evidence for my statement as well...(08:13, 30 March 2009 (UTC)) —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/83.236.241.230|83.236.241.230]] ([[User talk:83.236.241.230|talk]])  
*As I have written the majority of Poles ignore the differences between German uniforms. I don't know why the artist selected a SS-uniform rather than a Luftwaffe one.
*My comments are sometimes agressive, beacuse I'm frustrated by anti-Polish bias of several authors and articles. And because I frequently know the subjects better than my opponnts, who impose their POV using some Wikipedia tricks and biased sources. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:21, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

: Please give me a quote of Mr. Bartoszewski saying that Steinbach is a blonde beast. He denied that he called her like this on his blog. He explains that he used in one of his speech the term from Die Zeit newspaper (also there is a book in Poland: "E.S. A beauty or beast?") and media misrepresented it as his own opinion about E.S - probably to cause sensation. So you were misinformed in this matter. The worst thing that Mr Bartoszewski said about Mr. Steinbach was calling her "anti-Polish". While he is not so great in diplomacy in my opinion he is not so stupid to use such an abusive term and therefore I do not believe only a few results from Google where Mr. Bartoszewski is connected with "blonde beast". There are a lot of mistakes in press so I would rather believe Mr. Bartoszewski denial. However, if you have a better quote of his speech please provide it. [[Special:Contributions/89.79.103.10|89.79.103.10]] ([[User talk:89.79.103.10|talk]]) 20:00, 4 April 2009 (UTC)

Hello 89.79.103.10, unfortunately I have so far merely found articles written in German as I cannot read Polish and articles concerning that topic seem not to exist in English (presumably because except for Poland and Germany nobody in the world is interested in the debate...): http://www.zeit.de/2009/13/Sikorski
It is an interview withe the current Polish minister for Foreign Affairs and has recently been published in the German newspaper "Die Zeit" which you might know?! In the very first two paragraphs, Mr. Sikorski confirms that Mr. Bartoszewski has said "blonde beast" with regard to ES but as part of a comparison in the sense of "for some she is a blonde beauty, for others she is a blonde beast". Hence, I am a bit supprised that he now seems to completly denie to have said something like this at all. I guess it is because he knows quite well that it was not that "great in diplomacy". Regards, ([[Special:Contributions/83.236.241.230|83.236.241.230]] ([[User talk:83.236.241.230|talk]]) 12:55, 6 April 2009 (UTC))

Mr. Bartoszewski is not denying that he used the term at all. He is denying that he called her like this by himself. He used this extreme comparison only to show how great is difference of opinions about Mrs. Steinbach. Maybe it wasn't the best way to do this but repeating that Mr. Bartoszewski is calling Mrs. Steinbach like this without giving the context of his words is deceptive. Also arguing on this basis that in Poland calling Mrs. Steinbach "blond beast" is part of the real debate is misleading. However, nobody denies repeating Mr. Bartoszewski words but it should be done in objective way without skipping the "blond beauty" opinion about Mrs. Steinbach which he also used in his speech. [[Special:Contributions/89.79.103.10|89.79.103.10]] ([[User talk:89.79.103.10|talk]]) 19:01, 6 April 2009 (UTC)

== Erika z Rumi - translation ==

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Halibutt/Erika_of_Rumia.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:33, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

== for most of pre-WWII period ==

I don't know if it's correct, but the former version was false.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:37, 20 August 2009 (UTC)
In fact the quoted article says that the father's ancestors lived in Silesia, not himself. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:41, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

== Rahmel/Westpr. is not the matter of language ==

Rumia was occupied by Germany. Erika Steinbach says Rahmel/Westpr. suggesting she was born in Germany proper. An English language reader should be informed about the context. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:46, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

No, it wasnt't part of [[General Government of Poland|occupied Poland]], but was integrated into Germany proper. Erik Steinbach was born in Rahmel, Danzig-West Prussia, Germany (now Rumia, Poland). Rahmel was part of Germany until 1920, was annexed by Poland in 1920 without plebiscite, was reannexed by Germany in 1939 and reannexed by Poland in 1945. That's the context, however, this is not the Rahmel/Rumia article, but the Erika Steinbach article, and the history of the place before the birth of Steinbach is irrelevant. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 00:11, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

:It's funny to see how you forgot to mention [[World War II|circumstances]] surrounding German annexation in 1939 (and how much it eventually [[World_War_II_casualties|cost]] everybody), while pointing out lack of plebiscite in 1920. If you want to put things into context, I think this is a more appropriate one. [[User:Cyon|Cyon]] ([[User talk:Cyon|talk]]) 04:45, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

== Lacking any mention of her assessment in Germany ==

Having read the article I can't see any mention of how her political views and actions are viewed by Germans (except "Lecture controversy" section). How known is she in Germany? Is there any crticism pointed at her or are her views regarded as entirely normal and applauded by mainstream public opinion? I don't believe noone voices any opinion about her in German press. German-speaking editors, please make up for this. [[User:Cyon|Cyon]] ([[User talk:Cyon|talk]]) 01:03, 23 August 2009 (UTC)

:I agree that the stuff on Poland is way out of proportion. She's a mainstream politician in Germany. As a CDU board member, a long-time member of parliament, CDU/CSU spokeswoman on human rights and humanitarian aid, and as the President of one of the largest organisations in Germany (2 million members), she is of course a well-known politician. However, as she mostly focuses on a particular area (expellee politics) she is primarily seen as a representive of expellee interests, unlike politicians who are more generalist. There is no criticism from her own party or non-socialist Germans, the criticism usually comes from communists or other far-left groups. "Her views" are that of her organisation with its 2 million members. Her predecessors actually were a lot more hardline than her. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 00:08, 25 August 2009 (UTC)

Erika Steinbach

2009-08-25T03:17:15Z

Cyon: Undid revision 309885905 by UweBayern (talk)

[[Image:Erika-steinbach-2007-ffm001.jpg|thumb|Erika Steinbach]]

'''{{Audio|De-Erika Steinbach.ogg|Erika Steinbach}}''' (born July 25, 1943) is a [[Germany|German]] conservative [[politician]] who has been representing the [[Christian Democratic Union (Germany)|Christian Democratic Union]] (CDU) and the [[Hesse|state of Hesse]] as a member of the [[Parliament]] of Germany, the [[Bundestag]], since 1990. She is one of two candidates elected directly from [[Frankfurt]], and is the spokeswoman of the [[CDU/CSU]] parliamentary group on [[human rights]] and [[humanitarian aid]]. She is also a member of the national board of the CDU. Since 1998, she is the president of the [[Federation of Expellees]]. Erika Steinbach studied music and was a member of concert orchestras before becoming a politician.

==Offices==
Steinbach was elected president of the [[Federation of Expellees]] ({{lang-de|Bund der Vertriebenen, BdV}}) in 1998, succeeding [[Fritz Wittmann]]. Since 2000, she has been a member of the national board of the CDU (German, ''CDU-Bundesvorstand''). In addition, she is on the boards of the [[Goethe-Institut]], the national broadcasting company [[ZDF]], and the [[Territorial Association of West Prussia]]. She also is chairwoman of the [[Centre Against Expulsions]].

Since 2005, she has been a member of the German parliamentary committee for human rights and humanitarian aid and spokesperson for [[human rights]] and humanitarian aid of the CDU/[[Christian Social Union of Bavaria|Christian Social Union]] fraction.

==Biography and career==
{{Disputed-section|date=August 2009}}

Steinbach's father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was born in [[Hanau]] ([[Hesse]], western-central [[German Empire|Germany]]) but his family had come from [[Province of Lower Silesia|Lower Silesia]] <ref name="welt2">{{de icon}}{{cite web | title= Erika Steinbach bestreitet Sinneswandel | work= Die Welt| url= http://www2.welt.de/data/2005/11/03/798145.html?s=2 | accessdate=2005-11-03}}</ref>. In 1941 after the [[German invasion of Poland]], he was deployed to the town of [[Rumia]] ({{lang-de|Rahmel/Westpr.}}),<ref name=rbb>[[Rundfunk Berlin Brandenburg]] online [http://www.deutsche-und-polen.de/_/personen/person_jsp/key=erika_steinbach.html]</ref> since 1919 part of the [[Polish Corridor]] and in 1939 [[Polish areas annexed by Nazi Germany|annexed by Nazi Germany]]. Wilhelm Karl Hermann served there as an airfield technician with the rank of a [[Luftwaffe]] ''[[Feldwebel]]''. Steinbach's mother, Erika Hermann (née Grote), was ordered to work in the town after the annexation.<ref name=rbb/> Steinbach was born there as '''Erika Hermann'''.

In January 1944, her father was deployed to the [[Eastern Front (WWII)|Eastern Front]]. In January 1945 during [[East Prussian Offensive]] of the [[Soviet Army]], Steinbach's mother together with her children, fled to [[Schleswig-Holstein]] in northwestern Germany.<ref name=rbb/><ref name="IPN">{{pl icon}} {{cite journal | first = Piotr | last = Szubarczyk | authorlink =Piotr Szubarczyk | coauthors =Piotr Semków | year = 2004 | month = May | title = Erika z Rumi | journal = Biuletyn [[Institute of National Remembrance|IPN]] | volume = 50 | issue = 4 | pages = 49–53 | id =|url = http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/getdocument.aspx?logid=5&id=28907138-3A87-4B20-B95E-8E8B41BA9C5D}}</ref><ref name=ntv>[[n-tv]] [http://www.n-tv.de/1113954.html]</ref> In 1948 the family moved to [[Berlin]], where Steinbach's grandfather had become mayor of one of the districts.

In 1949, Wilhelm Karl Hermann returned from Soviet captivity. In 1950, the family moved to Hanau, Hesse where Steinbach finished her education and started studying the violin.<ref name=rbb/><ref name=ntv/> In 1967 she abandoned her music career due to an ill finger.<ref name=rbb/><ref name=ntv/> In 1972, she married Helmut Steinbach, the conductor of a local youth symphonic orchestra. Steinbach graduated from a school of civil administration and moved to [[Frankfurt am Main|Frankfurt]], where she started working for a Communal Evaluation Office.<ref name=rbb/><ref name=ntv/>

In 1974 she joined the Frankfurt branch of the [[Christian Democratic Party|CDU party]].<ref name=rbb/> In 1977 she was elected a chairman of the city council and held that post until 1990, when she was elected a member of the [[Bundestag]].<ref name=ntv/> In that year she voted against the confirmation of German-Polish borders.<ref name=rbb/> In 1997 she criticised the approval of the Czech-German Declaration of Reconciliation.<ref name=rbb/>

Steinbach was a member of the liberal{{fact}} [[Evangelical Church in Hesse and Nassau]], but because of her rejection of [[same sex marriage]], she left the church and became a member of the more conservative [[Independent Evangelical-Lutheran Church]].{{fact}}

=== Federation of Expellees ===


Steinbach joined the German [[Federation of Expellees]] in 1994. In May 1998 she became the head of the organization, and was re-elected in 2002<ref name=rbb/> and on [[May 8]], [[2004]]<ref name="BdV">{{de icon}}{{cite web | author = | year = 2004 | url = http://www2.bund-der-vertriebenen.de/presse/index.php3?id=94 | title = BdV-Präsidentin Erika Steinbach mit überwältigender Mehrheit wiedergewählt | format = | work = Bund der Vertriebenen website | publisher = BdV | dateformat = mdy | accessdate = May 8 2004}}</ref>

The German [[Federal Expellee Law]] of 1953 defines as expellee all [[German citizenship|German nationals]] and [[ethnic Germans]] with a primary residence outside [[Allied Occupation Zones in Germany|post-war Germany]], who lost this residence in the course of the [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II|World War II-related flight and expulsions]].<ref name="Law">{{de icon}} {{cite web|author = [[Bundestag]] | year = 1953 | url = http://bundesrecht.juris.de/bvfg/index.html | title = Gesetz über die Angelegenheiten der Vertriebenen und Flüchtlinge | work = Juris.de | publisher = German Ministry of Justice | dateformat = mdy | accessdate = February 28 2005}}</ref>

=== Centre Against Expulsions ===
Currently she campaigns for the planned museum ''[[Centre Against Expulsions]]'' ({{lang-de|Zentrum gegen Vertreibungen}}) for the victims of "Flight, displacements, forced resettlements and deportations all over the world in the past century"<ref>[http://www.z-g-v.de/english/aktuelles/?id=52 Centre against Expulsions]</ref>, a project of the German federal government on initiative and with participation of the [[Federation of Expellees]]. The museum will contain a permanent exhibition to document expulsions including the [[expulsion of Germans after World War II]].

The project has stirred a controversity especially in Poland.<ref>http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,,4057645,00.html</ref> Poland and the Czech Republic have warned the memorial could put the Germans' suffering on a par with that of the Nazis' victims.<ref name="expatica.com">http://www.expatica.com/nl/news/news_focus/Poland-ups-the-pressure-in-WWII-memorial-feud-with-Germany--_49974.html</ref>
Poles fear that the fate of six million Polish citizens who were murdered by the Nazis, half of them [[Polish Jews]], would be relativized by an exhibition focused on the fate of the Germans during and especially after the end of the war. Many argue that the new museum will portray Germans as victims of a the war they began and that the new museum is giving too much emphasis to German losses and not enough to [[World War II crimes in Poland|Polish suffering under the Nazis]]. Polish Ambassador to Germany Marek Prawda questioned the entire project: ''It's difficult to take just one section out of the chain of human catastrophes of World War II and make this the basis of a European recollection'', he said.<ref>http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/257623,refugee-museum-dispute-looms-ahead-of-german-polish-state-meeting.html</ref>

==Criticism in Poland==
Steinbach's position as head of the Federation of Expellees arouses much controversy in [[Poland]].<ref name="expatica.com"/>

Steinbach's public pronouncements have been criticized for causing a deterioration in German-Polish relations due to stirring up controversy regarding the rights of [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II|Germans who were expelled]] from former German territories assigned to Poland following the Nazi defeat in 1945.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/international/spiegel/0,1518,444037,00.html]</ref> This controversy has led to Steinbach's negative reputation in Poland, where she and the [[Centre against Expulsions]] are sometimes associated with Nazism. One example of this was a 2003 cover montage of Polish newsmagazine ''[[Wprost]]'' that depicted her riding Chancellor [[Gerhard Schröder]] while wearing an [[SS uniform]]. <ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/img/0,1020,721659,00.jpg]</ref> In 2007 ''[[Gazeta Wyborcza]]'', a popular newspaper in Poland, reproduced a leaflet<ref>[http://bi.gazeta.pl/im/1/4383/z4383661X.jpg polish leaflet of 2007]</ref> presenting Steinbach in the succession of the [[Teutonic Knights]] and the Nazis, and reminded of the full compensations never paid<ref>http://www.ceeol.com/aspx/issuedetails.aspx?issueid=ea5cd0b7-e759-445d-a85e-268a8f4415bc&articleId=80eb3e50-fa12-4da7-b2c7-b8f680bae54c</ref><ref>http://remember.org/educate/dingell.html</ref> to Poland for losses caused by the Nazi Germany<ref>[http://wiadomosci.gazeta.pl/Wiadomosci/1,80273,4383674.html?skad=rss]</ref>.

In 2006 she was involved in a controversial exhibition on the expulsions in Europe in the 20th century.<ref>[http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2135984,00.html][http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2129971,00.html]</ref> The exhibition was criticized by some already before it opened. The exhibition does explicitly mention the invasion of Poland and Nazis crimes as major part of the reason for the undifferentiated expulsion of Germans from Eastern Europe. To a lower extent it mentions the expulsions of Armenians, Poles, Turks, Greeks, Latvians, Karelians, Ukrainians, Italians and other peoples - topics many Europeans are unfamiliar with. The last item of the exhibition was a reconciliatory suitcase from Poland dedicated to a peaceful Polish, German and Ukrainian future generation. A group of Polish victims of Nazis visited the exhibition and pointed out that neither [[Death marches (Holocaust)|Death Marches]] nor the [[Planned destruction of Warsaw|massacre and expulsion of Warsaw civilians]] were even mentioned <ref>[http://serwisy.gazeta.pl/swiat/1,34239,3589698.html]</ref>.

Poland long opposed plans to set up the center, but gave in after being assured that, in addition to a permanent exhibit on the displaced Germans, it would also include information on expulsions of other peoples throughout history and around the globe.<ref>http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/29411189/</ref>

[[Władysław Bartoszewski]], an [[Auschwitz]] survivor who is Poland’s commissioner on relations with Germany, said that giving Mrs Steinbach a seat on the board would be akin to the Vatican appointing a Holocaust denier like [[Richard Williamson (bishop)|Richard Williamson]] to manage relations with Israel.<ref name="thenational.ae">http://www.thenational.ae/article/20090223/FOREIGN/422245904/1013/NEWS</ref>

The Polish foreign minister, [[Radoslaw Sikorski]], privately warned Berlin that allowing Mrs Steinbach’s appointment would shake German-Polish relations “to their foundations”.<ref name="thenational.ae"/>
''Do people whose families lived there for generations want to be identified with a person like Mrs. Steinbach, who came to our country with [[Hitler]] and had to leave it with Hitler too'' ? Sikorski said in Brussels on Feb. 23 2009, referring to Steinbach’s father having moved to German occupied Poland during the war<ref>http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601100&sid=aVlnY6l646Ag&refer=germany</ref> and asked her to follow the example of President Horst Köhler, who was born within family of wartime German settlers in Poland and never considered himself an expellee<ref>http://wyborcza.pl/1,86871,6315910,Erika_Steinbach_Reconciles.html</ref>. The fact that Steinbach represents a person born due to Nazi German occupation of Poland is the basis of controversy for Poles<ref>http://www.rp.pl/artykul/9133,269112_Semka__Polska___Niemcy__Czas_niezrozumienia_.html</ref>.

In a response, the Federation of Expellees stated: "''Poland suffered much at the hands of Germans. We Germans are aware of this responsibility. But finding a common path to the future is only possible if all those who suffered climb out of the trenches of history and seek understanding''".<ref name="thenational.ae"/>

On 4 March 2009 the Federation of Expellees decided not to nominate Steinbach to the council and instead left one seat unoccupied<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/politik/deutschland/0,1518,611206,00.html Spiegel.de, Vertriebenenbund zieht Steinbachs Nominierung zurück]</ref>.

==Lecture controversy==
In May 2008 Steinbach started a series of [[lecture]]s about the "[[History of German settlement in Eastern Europe|German settlement in Eastern Central Europe]]" at the [[University of Potsdam]]. However, the persisting [[obstruction]]s of some students who protested against Steinbach's allegedly [[Historical revisionism (negationism)|revisionist]] view on German history by throwing waterfilled balloons and blocking the entrances compelled her to cancel the further lectures<ref>[http://www.welt.de/politik/article2061642/Erika_Steinbach_sagt_Vortraege_nach_Protesten_ab.html#vote_2061963, Die Welt, Steinbach sagt Vortraege ab]</ref><ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/unispiegel/studium/0,1518,556128,00.html Spiegel, Studium abgesagt]</ref>. On June 11, 2008 a full meeting of the students council decided (with 146 against 7 votes) to protect the right of freedom of opinion and speech and invited Steinbach again, if necessary under police protection. The local Mayor, supported by several political parties, expressed his displeasure about the incident and requested the university council to invite Steinbach again.<ref>[http://www.maerkischeallgemeine.de/cms/beitrag/11224669/60709/Oberbuergermeister_fordert_Universitaet_auf_sich_dem_Konflikt_zu.html Märkische Allgemeine, Oberbürgermeister fordert Universität auf sich dem Konflikt zu stellen]</ref>

==Honours==

On July 9, 2009 she was awarded the [[Bavarian Order of Merit]] by Prime Minister of Bavaria [[Horst Seehofer]]<ref>http://www.bayern.de/Fotoreihen-.1589.10261791/index.htm</ref>.

==External links==
* {{de icon}} [http://www.bundestag.de/mdb/bio/S/steiner0.html Bundestag biography]
* {{de icon}} [http://www.bund-der-vertriebenen.de/derbdv/praesidentin.php3 Federation of Expellees]
* [http://www.z-g-v.de/english/index.html Centre Against Expulsions]
* [http://www.warsawvoice.pl/view/3182 The Warsaw Voice] newspaper article, "Border Dispute", 2003
* [http://lists.delfi.lv/pipermail/minelres/2003-August/002908.html Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty] article about Centre Against Expulsions, 2003

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Steinbach, Erika}}
[[Category:1943 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Rumia]]
[[Category:German Christian Democratic Union politicians]]
[[Category:German Lutherans]]
[[Category:Members of the German Bundestag]]
[[Category:People from Hesse]]
[[Category:German women in politics]]
[[Category:Members of the Bavarian Order of Merit]]

[[de:Erika Steinbach]]
[[es:Erika Steinbach]]
[[eo:Erika Steinbach]]
[[fr:Erika Steinbach]]
[[nl:Erika Steinbach]]
[[no:Erika Steinbach]]
[[pl:Erika Steinbach]]

Category:Cipher Bureau (Poland)

2009-08-25T03:00:11Z

Cyon: it belongs to history of cryptography too

{{catmore}}

{{Cipher Bureau}}

[[Category:Defunct Polish intelligence agencies]]
[[Category:Organizations in cryptography]]
[[Category:History of cryptography]]
[[Category:History of Poland (1918–1939)]]
[[Category:Military history of Poland during World War II]]
[[Category:Science and technology in Poland]]

[[he:קטגוריה:ביורו שיפרוב]]

Talk:Erika Steinbach

2009-08-23T01:03:51Z

Cyon: /* Lacking any mention of her assessment in Germany */ new section

{{WPBiography
|living=yes
|class=B
|priority=
|politician-work-group=yes
|listas=Steinbach, Erika
}}
{| class="infobox" width="270px"
|-
!align="center"|[[Image:Vista-file-manager.png|50px|Archive]] [[Wikipedia:How to archive a talk page|Archives]]
----
|-
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* [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Archive 1|March 2004 – January 2005]]
* [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Archive 2|January 2005 – January 2006]]
* [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Archive 3|January 2006 – September 2006]]
*
*
|}

== Saw exhibition ==
I saw the exhibition of the Federation fo Expellees in Berlin. I need to say that there was nothing revisionist about it. The exhibition explicitly mentioned Hitler's invasion in Poland which lead to the outbreak of the war. Moreover, this information everyone learns at school and there are many museums about the Nazis, concentration camps and the Holocaust. Rightfully so. Thus, you need to be very ignorant not to know that. I wouldn't call it a superb exhibition, but it was informative and pragmatic. So it's worth seeing, since it shows many topics which are totally neglected by much of the public. I had never heard of the fate of many people and ethnicities, and it was interesting to learn about it all. Of course I knew about the Holocaust and the other Nazi crimes, but did I know about the 2 million Poles who were deported by Stalin to Siberia? Never heard of it until I saw this exhibition. So I think it's an important addition to the musuems already existing.

:"Federation fo Expellees ... nothing revisionist" you evil nazi —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/193.196.136.221|193.196.136.221]] ([[User talk:193.196.136.221|talk]]) 07:58, 17 February 2009 (UTC) 

== Remaining objective ==
I know there was much written about Erika Steinbach. But she isn't as bad as most of us think. For example, some Polish newspapers continue to write, that Erika Steinbach is asking the Polish government for compensation for German expellees. This is 100% not true, she is not supportung compensation claims, and she officially stated that several times. So don't be so worried, she is not as bad as she is portrayed. She also had a speech about the Polish people and the Warsaw uprising and she underscored the historic plights of the Polish people and her respect for Polish patriotism. She also wants good relationships with Poland, even if the media often portrays her so awfully. And I think it has a simple reason: She reminds us that there was German expellees, and some people wish they had never even lived in Silesia or Pomerania. It's histroy, it's past. But they were there, we need to accept it. Not every single one of them was a war criminal who deserved it. Why is this so hard to accept? After all, I see these people as a bridge, not a problem (only a minority amongst them is a problem, and this is the Prussian Trust and these type of organizations claiming compensations). There are many museums about Polish suffering and the Holocaust is internationally known, too. So there is no need to be so worried, that people will forget the context. I think the context argument is more of an excuse than anything.

== Comments requested ==

I was invited to take a look at this page from [[Wikipedia talk:German-speaking Wikipedians' notice board]]. I find it disappointing that the same issue (how to describe her birthplace) is still being debated over so many months. I am still partial to my suggested wording [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=42512179 from March], which Lysy [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=42514846 supported]. Any opinions on using a variation of that? [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 18:19, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

Here's the text of Olessi's suggested wording.

:I agree with the "international disapproval" of the Nazi annexation. Her bio intro looks like a mess now with all of its "citations needed". Something simple like "Steinbach was born in [[Rumia]] (German: ''Rahmel'') in [[Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia]], part of Nazi-occupied Poland. Her father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was a..." Feel free to touch up the suggested wording. If the reader wants to learn more information about the village, he/she can easily find it at its own [[Rumia|article]]. [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 18:27, 6 March 2006 (UTC)

===Proposal to close vote===

I have been requested to close this vote so that a "more neutral vote" can be started. (for details, see [[Talk:richardshusr|my Talk Page]]. It may be that I started the vote prematurely. If so, I apologize.

The question here becomes... what is our goal? My goal is to see this page stabilize with a long-term solution to the Rumia/Rahmel question. While one could argue that the current vote is running 9-3 against Jagder, Stettiner et al, it seems that only an overwhelming, near-unanimous vote can keep us from a resumption of the edit-warring that got us here in the first place.

I am not convinced that Jagder's proposal will result in a different and more desirable result but it's worth trying if it will get Jagder, Stettiner et al. to sign on to the result.

I am willing to close the vote that I started if no one objects.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 04:34, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:So far only Jadger has a problem with how this vote was conducted. His complaints received no support from anyone else. Effectively throwing out a vote which was 9:3 in support because one voter objects is a curious echo of [[Liberum Veto]], and old Polish institution. Still, if you feel you must humor him, and that 12 people have to waste their time to vote on essentially the same question for the second time, go ahead and restart the poll. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 04:53, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:: I am not thrilled with restarting the vote but I am more interested in seeing the dispute resolved and the page unprotected. I will wait a day and see if anybody else objects. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 05:12, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:We have a clear 75% community consensus here. Are you not happy with this ? Do you think another vote will yield better results ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 05:35, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:: 75% is not a consensus, it is a supermajority substituting as a proxy for consensus. Consensus is unanimous consent. We do not have that. Now, we can try to ram the 75% vote down the throats of Jagder and Stettiner or we can try to find a mutually-acceptable compromise. I worry that, if we do not work towards true consensus, then we will just go back to edit-warring once the protection is lifted. Do you really want to go through [[WP:DR|dispute resolution]] with mediation and [[WP:RFC|RFC]]? --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 05:51, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:I am pessimistic, unfortunately. I respect Jadger, but the present dispute shows that the consensus is not possible, regardless of how many times we will repeat voting. The Olessi's version was a carefully negotiated compromise. Every now and then somebody will come and try to push it his way. What we need is to have a compromise version and defend it in order to stop lots and lots of future edit wars. I don't expect everybody to be 100% happy with it, but I hope the majority can live with it. Now, with all due respect, I don't think the vote should be repeated only because you changed your mind or because the losing party is unhappy, do you ? This can go on forever this way. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 06:23, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:: First, it's true that I changed my vote from "Support" to "Abstain". I do not feel strongly about this Rahmel/Rumia question at all. However, I did notice that my vote was inconsistent with the solution I proposed earlier about attempting to determine what Steinbach's birth certificate would have said. So I retracted my vote in order to remain consistent with that earlier stance.

:: My willingness to close the vote is primarily an attempt to find a way for Jagder and Stettiner to be accomodated with a compromise that satisfies them and will encourage them to defend the final resolution. (i.e. not to fight it via edit warring or resurfacing the issue again later).

:: I do think votes should not be used as a means of deciding an issue democratically but rather a means of determining if a consensus exists. In other words, "Yes, I do think we should consider the vote to have failed if the losing party is unhappy."

:: Wikipedia is [[WP:NOT|not a democracy]]. Making decisions by consensus does not mean voting and then going with the majority (or even supermajority) vote. It means trying to find a mutually-acceptable compromise. This is a lot harder but ultimately longer-lasting. If nothing else, what makes you think that the vote will always run 9-3 in favor of your solution? A few months from now, it could run 9-3 the other way. Depends on who's voting, right?

::--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 06:56, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:Yes, I fully support that Wikipedia is [[WP:NOT|not a democracy]]. However, in the lack of consensus, given the history of revert wars on this, apparently marginal, issue, we have been looking for a compromise solution. The version that we have negotiated with Olessi in March was a compromise, that is neither myself nor probably Olessi was 100% happy with it. Of course one can expect that after some time a more extremist editor will challenge it, as happened now. I think the right thing for the community to do would be to defend the reached compromise, instead of trying to break it. This did not happen, unfortunately. I'm afraid that we won't get anything better than the current 75% support and certainly not 100% support with another voting. What we are looking for is not a solution that would satisfy everyone, but a technical measure to prevent edit-wars and I think the result of the current vote is just it. All we can do from now on is only step back and spoil it. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:20, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::We also have to consider that [[User:Stettiner]] has made so far only [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~essjay/edit_count/Count.php?username=stettiner&submit=Count 75] edits to Wikipedia, a large number of them on this page. His first edit was made as recently as [[13 September]], [[2006]], on this very page. Hence all the concerns described in [[Wikipedia:Single purpose account]] apply here. [[User:Schwartz und Weiss]] (another single purpose account) has only made [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~essjay/edit_count/Count.php?username=Schwartz+und+Weiss&submit=Count 130] edits over more than 2 years, most of them in counterproductive revert wars over German names. Now, Jadger has alleged that me bringing up these statistics constitutes a form of personal attack. Nothing could be further from the truth. The number of contributions made to Wikipedia is simply one piece of information that can be used to judge the importance of the given users vote. Anyway, what this seems to suggest is that we really have a vote of 9 to 1 here, if we count established, credible users only. That gives 90% support of Olessi's proposal, which looks like concensus to me. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 14:58, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::: Well then, if no one objects, we should close this vote soon. I propose that we close the vote if there are not any substantial number of votes in the next 24 hours. (Please, no sock puppets or WikiFriends dragged in to stuff the ballot box.) Then, someone should ask the admin who protected the page to unprotect it so that we can insert the compromise wording.

::: We should agree that Jagder is free to propose a vote on his proposal immediately afterwards. However, I hope we can all agree to discuss here rather than edit warring. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 16:55, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::::Certainly not "immediately afterwards". The reason for the voting is to find consensus (or supermajority if you like) support of a stable version, and at least several months grace period would be in place between subsequent votes. Secondly, I would suggest that the form and proposals of any future vote are thoroughly discussed before it is started, otherwise we'll end up with a series of "Jadger's vote", "Lysy's vote" and what not. I for one would change the proposed Jadger's wording and I'm sure others could have their opinion at it, too. As I said, I respect Jadger as an editor, but such pushing against the community is not appropriate. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 17:45, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::: I agree in principle that a consensus should be allowed some period of stability so that we are not constantly re-voting issues. On the other hand, I hope you will make an exception in this case since Jagder's complaint is that the original vote was poorly framed due to my prematurely opening the vote without adequate discussion beforehand. (I'm a relative newbie at this kind of thing.) Someone voted for the proposal with the remark that the Rumia first vs. Rahmel first could be done as a subsequent follow-up vote. I imagine that Jagder may have some tweaks that he might like to propose to the compromise solution. I see the compromise solution as a way to get this page unprotected. Editors should feel free to continue the discussion on this Talk Page as long as they do not disrupt Wikipedia by edit warring on the actual article page. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 17:54, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::::While I feel rather strongly about Nazi occupation of Poland and any attempts to picture it as "liberation", of course it's not my intention (and neither I would be able to) keep Jadger's mouth closed. I'm sure he'll be willing to work towards a compromise as well, although personally, I feel I could not move a step further than the current proposal, which I considered difficult to accept already in March. Thanks for trying to stay impartial on all this. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 18:41, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::::I find it admirable that you want to satisfy Jadger, but please also keep in mind there are 10 editors (at this point) who support Olessi's proposal and who want to put this whole sorry fight behind them as soon as possible. From my point of view, Jadger's demands are not reasonable. Using a bit of mathematical language, the current vote is to choose between option A vs option not-A (not-A meaning we go back to the drawing board). This vote is at present 10:3 (or 10:1 discounting single purpose accounts). Jadger demands a new vote with A vs B. Why does he expect that the result of that vote will be any different? Why would people who voted for A this time vote for B in the next vote? After all, if they wanted to do this, they could have changed their votes in the current vote, as we speak. But it is possible that they will get disgusted with the first vote being thrown out and simply walk away without voting the second time. Maybe that is what Jadger is secretely hoping for. To avoid that outcome, if we hold a second vote, the votes cast in support should automatically carry over to any new vote, with the voters notified of this and given an opportunity to change their votes, if they wish. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 19:08, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

I said I would "close the vote" if there was no objection. There has been objection. There are two meanings of "close". One would be "closing, accepting the result" and "closing, invalidating the result". I think we should move towards closing the vote and accepting the result as a first step. Jagder will probably object but, if we leave open the possibility that he can propose tweaks to the compromise wording, then we should be able to unprotect the article and insert the compromise text proposed by Olessi and agreed to by others.

The alternative is to leave the article protected in its current version until Jagder can negotiate a different compromise text. IMO, this is not a good path for us to follow.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 20:10, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

Please, the only reason they are objecting is because of what you said Richard, ''"I said I would "close the vote" if there was no objection. There has been objection. There are two meanings of "close". One would be "closing, accepting the result""'' of course they are objecting, this is a sneaky way for them to win. '''No one new has voted on it because they know it is a sham and should be more level and worded unbiased.''' and if I were to attack the credibility of the support voters many of them would have to be discounted, but I am not doing that because the vote has been unfair. I am the only one who has objected to this vote because a number of us have agreed for me to speak on behalf of our viewpoint, in order to prevent Balcer and ProudPomeranian from attacking them again. BTW, it is not really ten votes for it, as Sciurinae's vote almost word for word is what I said, and it also says that this is only temporary.

'''What is the harm in having another vote? It will settle the dispute once and for all. I agree to adhere to whatever ruling comes of the second vote.'''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:44, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

BTW, it is not a "supermajority" or a consensus as Richard claims, as per wikipedia rules, 60% is consensus, one more person to vote against it and it is no longer a consensus, I would personally count Dr Dan as against it by his comments, but we may just wait and see.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:49, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

:So, we have 11 votes for, 4 against and 1 abstain (even counting votes by [[Wikipedia:Single purpose account]]s, which should count for less). 11 support votes out of 16 votes means 68.75% support. In my humble opinion that is concensus. We've had no votes cast in 2 days, so it appears no one else is interested in expressing their opinion. Can we bring this vote to some kind of a conclusion, based on this result? [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:57, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

we've had no votes cast in two days because they know this one is a sham vote. Not to mention 2 or 3 of those support votes can be described as conditional at best, some even are more like my viewpoint than supporting this version. Also, some votes even call for a subsequent vote, which I have given but you deleted multiple times. not to mention that the users that supported before any opposition could be raised may not know of the differing viewpoint. The outcome of this vote has never been clearly mentioned, so users don't even know what they are voting for, it has never been said that it is to vote to include it in the article, it looks more like "would you consider this better than the current version", many of the voters may not even realize it has been warped to mean a final judgement. '''you still have not answered me, why don't we have a vote that everyone can agree on to finish this?''' because this vote's basis has been called into question.''' You claim it is because I am a sore loser, but if I were a sore loser, you could hold another, more fair vote, and if/when I lose again then there can be no doubt which side has consensus.'''

to extend this wording into other votes, we could have a question such as ''"do you like people?"'' and when a majority support/say yes to it, then we can corrupt it on the article into saying, ''"a majority of people wikipedia users like cannibals"'' because cannibals/Nazis/insert evil person here are people, so a majority like them. that is what has been done here, people have voted on a ill-defined poll that can be corrupted into supporting something they may not, what is needed is a more clear and concise poll that gives both sides, not just one.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:16, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

===Support===
<s>* --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 18:27, 15 September 2006 (UTC)</s> On second thought, I'm Ok with Rahmel (now Rumia) also and in fact might even prefer Rahmel first instead of Rumia first so I think I'll just abstain. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 07:21, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# --Full support. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 18:29, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Sounds goood to me.--[[User:Piotrus| Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus ]]|[[User_talk:Piotrus| talk ]] 18:58, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. Good to see that Balcer is coming to his senses ;). --[[User:Thorsten1|Thorsten1]] 19:40, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. It looks like a nice compromise to me. [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 21:46, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Of course, [[User:Space Cadet|Space Cadet]] 21:48, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Seems a good compromise. Thanks, Olessi [[User:Alex Bakharev|abakharev]] 22:55, 15 September 2006 (UTC)
# Fine with me. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 06:40, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support per [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=42514846 this edit]. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:46, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. --[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 10:20, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
# Support. Not perfect, but OK. The Rahmel or Rumia first question could be answered in a followup vote. -- [[User:Chris 73|Chris 73]] | [[User talk:Chris 73|Talk]] 17:09, 18 September 2006 (UTC)
#Though I'd prefer a different wording, I can live with the proposal. However, Stettiner is right in that the suggestion is not really in conformity with the Gdansk vote and furthermore I believe it could still be cut in length. When I come to think of it, I'd favour something like "''Erika Steinbach was born in Rahmel ([[Rumia]]), occupied Poland, in 1943''". I assume the proposal voted on is more the provisional than the final decision and a different wording can still be decided, but, of course, not simply by revert warring. [[User:Sciurinæ|Sciurinæ]] 21:37, 19 September 2006 (UTC)
: I also like this version better which is why I changed my vote to abstain. My "winning formula" would include Rahmel first, Rumia second, in German-occupied Poland. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 03:25, 20 September 2006 (UTC)
::I fail to see how Sciurinae's support vote is anydifferent then my proposal in the comments section, and the reason I opposed it. I would also like to re-iterate that it was not in [[General Government|German-occupied Poland]], but was annexed to Germany, hence my proposal: ''Steinbach was born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland) in Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, in the part of pre-war Poland annexed by Nazi Germany in 1939. Her father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was a...''--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:38, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

===Oppose===
#[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 20:29, 15 September 2006 (UTC) If it was part of Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, why call it Rumia then? if we are to use the polish language name, do you not think the ''Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia'' would have to be in Polish also. '''there was no Rumia in Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia, try looking it up on a period map.''' I would not be adverse to ''[[Rahmel]] (Polish: Rumia)....'' also, it was not a part of German occupied Poland, it was not in the General Government. although, the only differences I see between this and the version I set forward is that a) it says Rumia first and b)it uses the word occupied instead of annexed.
# [[User:Schwartz und Weiss|Schwartz und Weiss]] 22:28, 15 September 2006 (UTC) Let's just stick to the bare facts, like [[User:Jadger|Jadger]]'s suggesting.
#[[Wikipedia:NPOV]] & [[Wikipedia:Factual accuracy]]. There is no such thing as "Stalinist-occupied", "Republican-occupied", "Nazi-occupied", "Labour-occupied" etc. Rahmel was not part of [[Generalgouvernement|occupied Poland]]. The city was called Rahmel in 1943. According to the Danzig/Gdansk vote, German name is to be used here, both because it was Rahmel in 1943 and because the person is clearly German. Let's stick to the facts instead of [[historical revisionism]] and [[irredentism]]. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:47, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
#:Registered on 13th September - 2 days before day this poll was started:[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Contributions&offset=20060914221905&limit=50&target=Stettiner]. Impressive knowledge of Gdansk vote and other issues gained in so little time, #12th edit labelled as 'rv POV pushing/vandalism'...--[[User:Piotrus| Piotr Konieczny aka Prokonsul Piotrus ]]|[[User_talk:Piotrus| talk ]] 02:49, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
#::since when was it wrong to edit as a anon for a long time before becoming a registered user? I did that, as I would guess you also did, as well as a majority of wiki users. if you want to attack credibility, I could do that also, but I would prefer if we keep more mature than ad-hominem attacks to win this. please, as [[Noob]] article states, ''"For example, Wikipedia has a firm policy of welcoming all new contributors whether or not their first edits are helpful to an encyclopedia"'' Please do not bite the noobs. that phrasing is not unique to the wiki, perhaps he/she edits on other websites also. [[Wikipedia:Please_do_not_bite_the_newcomers]] by newcomers here I mean he may of edited for a while as anon., as that is highly likely--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:01, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
# [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 03:32, 20 September 2006 (UTC), explained in my comment below.
# I go along with Jadger. The article is objective and Erika Steinbach's place of birth is clearly identified. I don't see the problem. [[User:Norvo|Norvo]] 22:30, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
#: [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User_talk%3ANorvo&diff=77219886&oldid=67517684 Invited] to vote here by [[User:Jadger]]. .[[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 23:16, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
#:: your point being? all people that may be interested may not have this on their watchlist. perhaps you could site an actual rule that says I can not tell people about a vote (as [[wikipedia:survey notification]] is not valid and is only kept for historical usage). Or else we would have to throw this whole vote out as Richard also invited people on other talk pages. '''Stop trying to attack and undermine those who don't support your viewpoint Balcer, please observe [[Wikipedia:Civility]]''' --[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:12, 23 September 2006 (UTC)
#:::Check [[Wikipedia:Spam]] then for more up to date guidelines. Richard properly informed everyone that he posted the notice on various talk pages. Consider emulating him and doing the same in the future if you canvass for votes. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:29, 23 September 2006 (UTC)

===Comments===

Here is the version I set forward: ''Steinbach was born in [[Rahmel]] (now Rumia, Poland) in [[Reichsgau Danzig-West Prussia]], in the part of pre-war Poland annexed by [[Nazi Germany]] in 1939. Her father, Wilhelm Karl Hermann, was a...'' if you don't like (now Rumia, Poland) it can be (Polish: Rumia)

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]]
:That version seems acceptable to me as well. [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 22:58, 15 September 2006 (UTC)

* '''Comment''': Perhaps Halibutt's suggestion of keeping the name in force during the historical period in question might be helpful. Examples like [[Stalingrad]], [[Rahmel]], [[Ciudad Trujillo]], [[Leningrad]], come to mind. In short if a person was born in Leningrad, we wouldn't say they were born in St. Petersburg because we didn't like Lenin. It seems Steinbach was born in Rahmel. As to the occupation aspect, it's unfortunate but that's what happened. During Poland's annexation and occupation of [[Vilnius]], between 1920 and 1939, people were said to have been born in Wilno. Right? And most of the support votes would agree with me, I'm sure (at least to the second part of my statement). It seems to be a double standard, if Halibutt's suggestion is correct and agreed with, and not followed through. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 01:23, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
<includeonly></includeonly>
::I have said that before Dr. Dan, in the discussion above, but instead of refuting that point, Balcer changed it to his accusation that it was illegal, despite the fact that legality has nothing to do with it, as his quotation says, it was "officially incorporated into the German Reich", '''which is a law!!!'''

::--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:38, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

My full support for Jadger's proposal, although the colloquial name "Nazi Germany" should not be used. The country was called Germany. We don't use Bush-USA either. If the history of annexation shall be included, we also must include that the city was German prior to 1920.

I suggest: "Steinbach was born in [[Rahmel]] (now Rumia, Poland or Polish: Rumia) in [[Danzig-West Prussia]], in a city which had in 1939 been reannexed to Germany after being Polish since 1920." [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:55, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Yeah, and murdering Jews was also all right in the face of '''German Law'''. Thank you but I don't think we should support Nazi laws. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 08:00, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

'''I think we should close this vote, and put the two versions (mine and Olessi's) up for a vote between them'''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:38, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

::It's too early to close. This vote has been open for only a few hours and this is much too short a time for everyone interested to express their opinion. Many of the active participants in this discussion have not yet voted (Stettiner, Halibutt etc). Give it a few days, and if a clear concensus does not emerge, we can run another vote with more restricted terms. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:50, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

this vote was started without even a clear consensus that a vote was needed, in fact I had not heard of Olessi's offer before this vote started. Not to mention that this vote was started to gauge responses to it, hence Olessi stating: ''"Any opinions on using a variation of that?"'' and this section being titled ''Comments requested''. All of the people that supported it voted before there was even another version represented, so it is hardly fair at all. when I say "hardly fair" I am using a common English language statement which really means that it's not fair at all. ''The purpose of this vote was to gauge opinion, that has been done, now lets hold a real vote'' This vote was not on whether to change the article to it, but rather if people like it, I set out an alternative, so we should vote on which one is better (and which one to use). Unless you have another form you would like to contribute Balcer, this should be closed and a new vote started wherein the two are offered rather than just support or approve one that has no competition.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:36, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:Simply put, 8 hours is not enough to gauge opinion. People have lives, you know, they cannot be monitoring Wikipedia 24 hours a day. Be patient. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 02:41, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

'''Well, why should they place their opinion on a vote that they know will be superseded by another vote anyways? It's rather pointless.''' people do have lives, well... I do, most other people do, but everytime I am on, you seem to be on. Perhaps before posting again, take a breather, go to [[Tim Horton's|Timmy Ho's]] and get yourself a large double-double, talk to the people there (conversation rather than arguing may be refreshing for you). Then, after getting that fresh air and clearing your head, come back and stop arguing with me over everything I write. As the proverb goes: ''it is better to keep your mouth shut and look like an idiot, then to open your mouth and prove it.''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:15, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Jadger, how pathetic. You see that you have no chance to win this vote so you call for a new one. Will we have to vote time after time until your version is chosen? So far against the proposition are only two votes: yours and one by an inactive account which has been luckily reactivated just in time to vote on a page it never before touched (and has been in meantime accused of being someone's sockpuppet by getting into a revert war on [[Comenius]]). How funny.
Anyway, it was obvious since the momemt the article got protected that we have to vote. Someone proposed a compromise version. So the vote starts. So far, most involved editors clearly prefer the proposed version. Everything is being been done according to the book. Get over it. [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 05:58, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

To make it even more strange, the only other user to vote against - [[User:Schwartz und Weiss]] - is being accused of being a sock puppet of [[User:71.137.207.147]] which is a IP number registered in... Canada where you live according to your page. The meaning of ''Schwartz und Weiss'' is obviously ''black and white'' - the historical flag of [[East Prussia]] and you have... "''Frederick the Great, the greatest man ever''" on your Userpage. Both Schwartz und Weiss and 71.137.207.147 take part in a revert war on.. the borders of Prussia. All three accounts are '''never''' used when it's night in Ontario (4:00-12:00 GMT) and only very rarely in the mornings (12:00-16:00 GMT). How strange. What an astounding coincidence: the only three defenders of Prussia tradition all editing from east coast Canada??? [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 06:33, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:What a strange coincidence that [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:130.63.18.178 someone] who's recently defined Copernicus as Polish also seems to come from there... [[User:Sciurinæ|Sciurinæ]] 21:37, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

:Just check the IP and stop your childish bird-brained speculations and accusations. BTW, what time is it in Ontario, now? Can you calculate it for me, smart ass? [[User:Schwartz und Weiss|Schwartz und Weiss]] 07:26, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Here you are [http://www.timetemperature.com/tzca/current_time_in_ontario.shtml]. And calling people names means breaking [[WP:NPA]]. [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 08:10, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

You still did not answer my question about time in Ontario - probably because it contradicts your entire silly theory: "'''never''' used when it's night in Ontario (4:00-12:00 GMT)". And smart-ass is not a name but an attitude, genius. [[User:Schwartz und Weiss|Schwartz und Weiss]] 15:16, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:: Hey guys, can we [[WP:AGF|assume good faith]]? Let's not get distracted by the allegations of sock puppeteering.

:::Did I accuse anyone? I simply listed some strange coincidences. We should assume good faith but we should be also wary. Otherwise what would be the purpose of the procedures against sock puppets? [[User:ProudPomeranian|ProudPomeranian]] 08:10, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Regardless of whether he/she is a sockpuppet, [[User:Schwartz und Weiss]]'s vote must carry less weight simply because the scale of his/her contribution to Wikipedia has not been awe-inspiring to say the least. [http://tools.wikimedia.de/~essjay/edit_count/Count.php?username=Schwartz+und+Weiss&submit=Count Edit Count] shows that user made only 130 edits for over 2 years that his/her account existed on Wikipedia. Furthermore, practically all of those edits appear to be counterproductive revert wars over inserting German names into various articles. The person closing the vote should take this into consideration. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 22:59, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

I will comment that I have advertised this vote on [[Talk:Gdansk]],[[Talk:Rumia]],[[Talk:Federation of Expellees]],[[Talk:Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] and [[Talk:Historical Eastern Germany]]. I think even Jadger will agree that the pages that I have advertised on will cover most Wikipedians that have an interest in this question. If there are other pages, then please advertise this vote on those pages also. Let's wait a few days to see who else comes to vote. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 07:21, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:It's been also advertised at [[Wikipedia talk:German-speaking Wikipedians' notice board]]. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:49, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Would you people prefer using '''Warschau and Hitlerstrasse''' as well ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 07:58, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

There is no point in voting on historical facts when the Polish nationalists mobilize the entire Polish Wikipedia. I don't think Poles should decide the facts in a biography of a '''German politician'''!!! [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:57, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:So, in your opinion, certain Wikipedia articles should be [[Nur für Deutsche]]? [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 15:43, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

German Wikipedia is in some way [[Nur für Deutsche]]. Now the German one is not enough, more and more English articles contain radical German views.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 12:22, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

:What's "Nur für Deutsche" about the German Wikipedia? And where is the invasion? How many people here vote for "was born in Rahmel, then re-liberated Germany, now Polish-occupied" or anything like that? I see no enemy giants, just windmills, if you know what I mean. [[User:Sciurinæ|Sciurinæ]] 21:37, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

I see a troll, if you know what I mean. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 02:53, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

German occupation of Rumia region was an integral project, which included:
*arrestations (sending to Stutthof camp)
*extermination (Piaśnica)
*expulsion
*changing names of places
*German law, including war tribunals
* and many others.
You vote that point "changing names of places" was O.K.. Will you vote the other options too?
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 13:11, 2 October 2006 (UTC)

===Refactored from intro to section===
How about "Lech Walesa led the Solidarity movement in in Danzig (Polish Gdansk), part of Stalinist-occupied Germany"? Or perhaps Rahmel was Pilsudski-occupied Germany in 1930? [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 14:47, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

: I think the question starts with agreeing that it should be called what it was called when she was born. Thus, someone might have been born in Leningrad (now St. Petersburg) or Stalingrad (now Volgograd).

: As for the "Stalinist-occupied Germany", I think we have to look for NPOV here. Even before the breakup of the Soviet Union, few people thought of Gdansk as Stalinist or Soviet occupied Germany. Some may have thought of it as Soviet-dominated Poland but, I believe, Gdansk transferred to Poland legally and there is little international dispute about it. Using the same yardstick, Rahmel/Rumia should be considered German-occupied Poland because the German invasion of Poland is generally considered to have been illegal aggression.

:Claiming that annexation was "legal under German law of the time" is an illegitimate argument. In these matters, we should only consider international law.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 16:18, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

Special apartheid rules for Germany cannot be tolerated. The Polish annexations of German territory was as illegal as German annexation, or vice versa. Breslau was '''officially part of Germany''' as Polish-occupied Germany until 1991. So if we accept Polish POV in this article, we must accept German POV in every single article about persons born in or living in the annexed territories from 1945 to 1991. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 19:30, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:The new border was [[Treaty of Zgorzelec|recognised by East Germany]] in 1950 and by West Germany in the 1970 [[Treaty of Warsaw (1970)]]. After German reunification, these previous agreements were reconfirmed in 1990. But this was just what Germany thought of this, and Germany does not equal world opinion. The rest of the world has not had any problems with Poland's postwar borders since the Potsdam Agreement. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 19:54, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

::One's own "confirmation", i.e. the confirmation of the illegal Soviet puppet regime, doesn't count, and obviously the treaties of a defunct state are null and void. The legitimate government of Germany didn't accept illegal annexation until 1990, and it was not accepted by parliament until 1991. The 1970 treaty recognized borders as temporary "factual", not legal. Germany reserved the right to hold the question open. The opinion of South Africa, or the population of [[Mars]], on this issue is really irrelevant. This is a conflict with two parts and two opinions, and nothing more. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 20:38, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

:::Well, if you want to believe that in 1945-1991 there was no legitimate German government, you have a right to that personal opinion. But that is not the mainstream view, which accepted East and West Germany as legitimate members of the international community, that issued binding laws, had legal passports, competed in the Olympics etc etc. The international agreements into which they entered were binding. Germany scrambled to reconfirm those agreements the moment it reunified. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 20:47, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
::::That is your perception that 1945-1991 there was no legitimate German government. You have a right to that personal opinion. But that is not the mainstream view. Among democratic nations (to which your totalitarian People's Republic did of course not belong) the democratically elected government of the Federal Republic of Germany was accepted as the sole legitimate German government. Only Stalinists claimed that those appointed by Stalin and his successors to dictate the Soviet Zone constituted a legitimate German government. The Stalinist treaties were in no way binding for the legitimate German government. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 20:52, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:::::Even West Germany eventually accepted East Germany as an equal partner, in the [[Basic Treaty (1972)]]. Other countries had diplomatic relations with East Germany ([[United States Ambassador to East Germany|US]] since 1974). What kind of parallel, fantasy universe do you think you are living in? [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 20:59, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
::::::That temporary policy was effectively reverted from 1990 onwards. The purpose of the treaty was to allow citizens of democratic Germany to travel in the Soviet occupied zone. It is fine to see that you agree that in 1950 (Treaty of Zgorzelec), the entire democratic world considered the government of the Federal Republic of Germany to be the only legitimate German government, and thus the Stalinist treaty null and void. Even if countries later recognized the GDR as a state, like Germany did, it did not mean they considered it a representative of the German government, but rather as a separate regime. What kind of parallel, fantasy universe do you think you are living in? [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 21:04, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:::::::Just to be clear, I have no great love for East German communists, but the 1950 treaty did de facto establish the border, given that Poland did not share a border with West Germany. True, East Germany was not recognised at the time by many Western countries, but eventually it was. West Germany, which you think is the legitimate representative of Germany, recognised that border in 1970. Yes, I know they "reserved" some rights pending final reunification, but please explain to me how that "reservation" automatically means that Poland occupied German territories? To prove this you would have to produce official statements of German government officials made after 1970 which state that Poland occupied German territory. Obviously, I do not think you will find any. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 21:15, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
Under international law, annexation is not legal. So the Polish annexations were illegal. Nevertheless, Wikipedia does not seem to care. Neither does Wikipedia care about international law when it comes to, say, Israel. So Wikipedia is following the '''facts on the ground''', and there should be no exception for Germans. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 19:32, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
::''Under international law, annexation is not legal'' - ditto. Which means that the 1939 annexation of Rumia was not legal either. Quid erat demostrandum. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 13:42, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

but then in that case Halibutt, the 1939 annexation was not annexation but a re-establishment of German control over its own territory (Rahmel), as you have just agreed with stettiner that annexation in 1919 was illegal, although carried out under the guise of the league of nations. I of course am not referring to the extra land taken but the land pre 1919 in Germany, which included Rahmel. As I stated before, ''If one takes there own property back from a thief, its not stealing''.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 03:11, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

::If we followed the rule, the annexations of 1790's were not legal either. Dream on, Jadger. Or take your time to ask Irpen about the idea of ''annexation through treaty'', as he seems to be a specialist on the matter. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 13:50, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

No comments. --[[User:Irpen|Irpen]] 00:41, 19 September 2006 (UTC)
::But why not? This is the case I agree with your views and I guess your input could really be beneficial here. ''//''[[User:Halibutt|Halibu]][[User talk:Halibutt|tt]] 01:01, 19 September 2006 (UTC)

the annexations of 1790 were perfectly legal Halibutt, and they were internationally accepted. 1790 is before the time of ethnic nation states, where peoples tried to create their own free united nations, that came after Napoleon, not before him. As such, it is more like inheriting lands than a forceful takeover, as it had been agreed by Russia, Prussia and Austria (and since Poland was a puppet, Poland also agreed to it).''' Also, I would like for you to point out what law was broken in International law in the 1790s.'''

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 02:05, 20 September 2006 (UTC)
:If the annexation of 1790 were legal, by the same logic so were annexation in 1918. The same logic cannot however be applied for annexation in 1939, since they were not internationally recognised. [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 10:25, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

I honourably disagree with you Szopen, as Germany, Hungary, Romania, Italy, Japan, Slovakia, Lithuania, USSR, etc. etc. all recognized that Poland no longer existed/was annexed and occupied in 1939. If that is not international recognition I don't know what is, as that perfectly fits the description of ''International Recognition''. just because her enemies did not admit it doesn't mean it wasn't internationally recognized, The enemies of Germany aren't the only people with a valid viewpoint simply because they won the war eventually. Like how in medieval times rivals for a throne didn't recognize each other's rights to it, and their supporters/detractors didn't either.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 19:04, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

===Erika Steinbach was born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland)===
On Rumia Discussion right on top you can find the records for inhabitants of Rahmel, Westprussia from the 1600's until 1940 [[Talk:Rumia]]. Those original church records are filmed by the LDS since 1920. Here is another look at it http://www.familysearch.org/Eng/Library/fhlcatalog/printing/titledetailsprint.asp?titleno=103047
Poles and Czechs took all birth, marriage , death certificates from the people they expelled, when they (the Communists under Soviet Union) conquered Germany. Even the people that managed to stay in their homeland, which became Communist Poland etc were not allowed to keep their records and got Polish ones instead. It was all part of the Communist plan to conquer and take over eastern Germany as far as they could get away with and then claim it all as 'original Polish' or 'Recovered Polish Territory' etc. What they did not count on, that there are originals records in the churches, which had been filmed by the LDS from Utah, starting by the way after 1920, that is the time, when these territories were 'taken' from Germany and 'given' to Poland by [[Treaty of Versailles]], which by the way was not signed by the USA.

By the way, thank you Schwarz und Weiss, for trying to put a little bit of sense into this 'Friendly' Neighbor at the [[Comenius]] article.
Labbas 16 Sep 2006

Balcer, I should probably go to your talk page with this, but I think Labbas's link to these records are rather telling, don't you? [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 23:16, 16 September 2006 (UTC)
:What is so telling about it, pray tell? The page given does not actually list any names, so it does not give any indication what percentage of Rumia's population had which ethnicity. It only indicates that the official language used in Rumia was German, which is of course not surprising. Incidentally, the anon user's theory about Poland hiding/destroying the records is belied by the fact that the first (and hence presumably most important) sources for them are described as: Mikrofilme aufgenommen von Manuskripten im Archiwum Państwowym Gdańsk, Warszawa ...
:But this is all beside the point, as Rumia was a small, insignificant village until flooded by thousands of Poles settling there to work in newly-built Gdynia in the 1930s. In 1939, when it was occupied by Germany, it was a nascent town with majority Polish population. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 23:44, 16 September 2006 (UTC)

::Was this still the case when Steinbach was born? You know the expression ''what a difference a day makes''? Wroclaw was not an insignificant village, yet it too was flooded by Poles after WWII. And I would not say that a Polish child born there after, say 1946 (or even 1945), was born in Breslau. Would you? [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 00:04, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
:::Who knows? As you well know, the Germans expelled a large number of Poles from the Reichsgaus after 1939 (though not all by any means). Incidentally, it is also worth mentioning that the Germans who complain so much about expulsions after 1945 started the trend themselves by expelling Poles from areas annexed to Germany after 1939. Anyway, this discussion is not going anywhere. Names of cities are not determined by their ethnic composition. It is not our job to play historians or international lawyers, fun though it might be. We must find reliable sources, cite them, and incorporate what they say into Wikipedia. For one source, check [http://books.google.ca/books?vid=ISBN0198208731&id=OUb44s1ptrAC&pg=PA124&lpg=PA124&dq=reichsgau+danzig&sig=OkGcJsZJ5zUxJRJvYUsLwAtZ1t8&hl=en this Google print link] [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
:::Finally, the whole point of the discussion is not whether to use the name Rahmel or not (both proposals use both names), but about whether to refer to Rumia as "under German occupation". Eminent historical works use that formulation, and so should we. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
: You know, Balcer makes a very good point here. We should use formulations that can be found in [[WP:RS|reliable sources]]. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 06:56, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

:::The Polish nationalists want to have special rules for Germany. No wonder [[Polish plait]] is Poland's only contribution to European culture. [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 00:07, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
::::Careful, Stettiner, a while back another user got into a serious controversy for making almost exactly this comment (see [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Chris_73/Archive_004]).[[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:I checked it and found (only) 1 date after 1903: marriages until 1940. Filmed in the 20s? Note that if they were filmed in the 1920s, they or some of them were filmed at ... Gdansk. I beg your pardon? I am sorry, I have grave doubts about your version of how the LDS got them. Poles hiding, destroying? Some of these were filmed after 1945. In Gdansk. Now, all that these records prove is that the Roman Catholic Church at Rumia/Rahmel used German until 1903. Perhaps, just perhaps, because German State law compelled them to? Note that there was a Mormon village in East Prussia from the 1920s (in [[Zełwągi]])- if they were involved, that would be one more reason why all the headings are in German.--[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 01:26, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

::Now we need to discredit the [[Mormons]]? I for one, have no problem with Mormons, and highly appreciate their contributions to [[genealogy]] and their other positive contributions to society. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 20:10, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:::I am not trying to discredit Mormons. I wrote that Labbas' version of how these archives got filmed cannot be correct (one file, yes, one file only from 1940 plus the mention "Gdansk" - all this points to at least part of it having been filmed after 1945). The Mormons of Selbongen/Nikolaiken spoke German and Masurian only, they could write only in German and they would not have been familiar with Kashubian or a Polish dialect spoken in Rumia. Which would explain why they put the headings in German. In view of the fact that these were official documents, that the German state (certainly before 1903) required such documents to be in German, the mention on this internet page that some of the text is in Polish is interesting. Like anything in Welsh in baptismal records of 19th century Wales would be interesting. Nothing anti-Mormon here. --[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 07:37, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

== Inappropriate description ==

Describing an organisation representing victims of genocide and ethnic cleansing as "controversial" as main descrition in an unrelated article is inappropriate. I think its time to get rid of the Stalinist apologist vandals, who also abuse admin powers to protect their historical revisionism and Stalinist apologism. Obviously, this article needs to be protected against Polish nationalist POV pushing by non-nationalists and native speakers (this is the English, not Polish, Wikipedia). Stalin, go home! [[User:Stettiner|Stettiner]] 00:05, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:Then it must be that [[Deutsche Welle]] is run by Polish Stalinists, since they consider the activities of [[Federation of Expellees]] controversial (see [http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,2135984,00.html]). Sorry, I tried hard to converse with you, but with your ethnic slurs and accusations of Stalinism you have crossed the line. [[Don't feed the trolls|Feeding time is over]]. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 01:28, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:[[User:Balcer|Balcer]] is right of course, but I would like to point out that if they are not controversial, they do have the knack to choose controversial leaders: [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linus_Kather]. And perhaps, as a "non-nationalist", I should finally find the time to translate [http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theodor_Oberl%C3%A4nder this article] into English.--[[User:Pan Gerwazy|Pan Gerwazy]] 01:57, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

There is a small problem that the ''organisation representing victims of genocide and ethnic cleansing'' had a number of Nazi [[Founding Fathers]], even Erika Steinbach admitted this. There is another small problem, that the organisation didn't represent victims of German genocide and ethnic cleansing 1933-1944.

I have found names of historians, who created the image of ''Expulsion'':
*Theodor Schieder
*Werner Conze
*Albert Brackmann
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 12:53, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

== Jadger proposal ==

I have restored Jadger proposal for voting to the subpage [[Talk:Erika Steinbach/Jadger proposal]]. Please discuss this proposal there. We already have one poll active just now, so we probably do not want to confuse the participants. I would suggest to use Judger's proposal if the poll would not yield convincing results [[User:Alex Bakharev|abakharev]] 05:33, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:Starting a new poll while the first one was open less than 24 hours, without any support from other users for this plan, is a very bad idea. Still, I thank Alex for containing the chaos and spinning the new vote to a separate section for now. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 05:37, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

::Thank you abakharev, the reason for my proposal is really simple. the current vote had only one side represented, and since I posted my objections, people have removed their support of it or voted against it (no one has since voted for it), showing that it was not really a truly fair vote. my vote on the other hand, contains both versions that were seen as being suitable contestants.

::As abakharev stated, he '''restored''' my proposal because Balcer kept removing it in order to push his POV, if the side he was on is as strong as he claims, then he would have no problem with another vote that would reinforce his opinion, but alas he knows the current one is worded to support only one way, without intentionally belittling its opposition. also, the current vote has become "lost" now, so convoluted with personal attacks, accusations in order to defame one another's characters, etc. etc. that it no longer makes much sense and is extremely polluted. And if you will notice, it has been longer than 24 hours as Balcer claims it has been almost 48 hours, and nearly 24 hours since anyone voted on it, in fact, just as many votes have been removed in the last 24 hours as have been added.

::The original vote, although no harm was meant by Olessi I'm sure, reminds me of the last election for [[Saddam Hussein]]. There were no other real choices besides other Ba'ath party members who did not really want to run against him, in this case there was no opposition until I posted it, which was after most of the support votes had been cast. How does one truly make a good choice when one only knows one side of the story?

:::For the record, I had nothing to do with the establishment of a poll. I saw a public invitation for assistance at [[Wikipedia talk:German-speaking Wikipedians' notice board]]. I then suggested phrasing and openly asked for discussion about it. A poll was created by others afterward, and was never my intention. [[User:Olessi|Olessi]] 19:59, 17 September 2006 (UTC)
::::I incorrectly suggested to Jadger that Olessi started the poll. My mistake. It was [[User:Richardshusr]] who actually launched the poll, in this [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AErika_Steinbach&diff=75923207&oldid=75921907 diff]. It is only Olessi's suggestion which is being voted on. Sorry for any confusion. The text itself did not contain any mention of who launched the poll, but the message just above it carried Olessi's signature, hence my error.

::P.S. by "contain the chaos", Balcer means that he is trying to put the best spin on being warned by admin to stop removing other user's edits. [[http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk%3AErika_Steinbach&diff=76175190&oldid=76174133]]

::--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 05:51, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:I removed Jadger's new, unilateral vote proposal twice, while I attempted to talk him out of adopting this course on his talk page. Starting a new poll on one's own whimsy, and effectively throwing out the votes of the people who already voted, is simply bad manners. It also would introduce further confusion into this already rather chaotic discussion. Still, putting the new proposal into a separate section is a way to keep a semblance of organisation to these proceedings. I thank Alex for suggesting that idea.
:As for being afraid of this or that, the simplest interpretation, to me at least, is that it is Jadger who is afraid of losing the current vote, and is attempting to scuttle it. But I leave everyone to make their own judgement on that. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 05:58, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

LMAO, your attempts to draw me into a flaming war have failed Balcer([[Do not feed the trolls]]), you will not drag me through the mud with you. I will take the moral high road thank you very much. As for on my own "whimsy" (very poor grammar BTW), I have told you on your talk page ''(if you have not removed it)'' that many people supported it, and I named them. You scuttled the current vote a long time ago Balcer, you didn't need any help from me.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 06:09, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

:Free grammar lesson: [http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/whimsy], [http://www.google.ca/search?q=%22own+whimsy%22&start=0&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&client=firefox-a&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official]]. [[User:Balcer|Balcer]] 06:20, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

what you mean to say is ''"at his own whim"'' not ''"on his own whimsy"'' If you will notice, the second link you provided uses the word in another context then you do, and your first one if you look up "whim" proves my point perfectly.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 06:34, 17 September 2006 (UTC)

I believe that this discussion shouldn't be continued on personal pages as ad-personam attacks.
Thank you for your future cooperation.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 06:48, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

LOL, first of all it is called ''ad-hominem'', and second, I never did that, as first of all there would have to be a discussion taking place, which I clearly stated could not happen while you continue to troll and be nonsensical. I stated you are a "conversation-stopper" as [[Richard Rorty]] had defined it, perhaps you should read the essay, it really is an excellent read and could open your eyes considerably. If it was a personal attack or ad-hominem, report me, but since it wasn't, you simply claim it was in order to slander my reputation. I never attacked you, I simply asked you to not waste space on an already extensive talk page by stating nonsensical, unverifiable allegations (not to mention downright falsifications).

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:33, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Three traditionally identified varieties are ad hominem abusive or ad personam, ad hominem circumstantial, and ad hominem tu quoque. [[Ad hominem]]
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 07:11, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

== Jadger's actions ==

I'm sorry, I've said before that I respect Jadger and I assumed his good faith but while we are discussing here, he is hand-picking and recruiting for voting only the editors who he believes would support ''his'' POV. Such behaviour neither helps building the consensus nor does it lead to reflecting the NPOV view of the community on the matter. Should others behave in a similar way ? This is clear water POV pushing and it is unacceptable. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 15:06, 24 September 2006 (UTC)

== Moving discussion of Rahmel/Rumia (and other tangentially related stuff) here from [[Talk:Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] ==

This text was removed by [[User:Kusma]] from [[Talk:Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] as "off-topic". It is a bit "off-topic". A good chunk of it is relevant to the Rumia/Rahmel debate so I moved it here. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 15:52, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

: Rahmel is the german name of her birthtown and Rumia is the polish one. This territory was german occupied but also a part of the former german settled western prussia.
look there: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rumia —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:84.185.254.24|84.185.254.24]] ([[User talk:84.185.254.24|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/84.185.254.24|contribs]]) 

:: Thanks but if this were so easily settled, we wouldn't have had an edit war and there would have been no need for protection. Please visit the [[Talk Page]] and express your opinion there. --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 05:19, 18 September 2006 (UTC)

It is really settled that easily, but on wikipedia sometimes you have to deal with nonsensical people intent on pushing a nationalistic POV, including claiming that all lands in Poland have always been Polish and no one else has ever lived there rightfully.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:49, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

: Actually, on re-reading [[User:84.185.254.24]]'s text, I agree that this is pretty close to the mark. I think the issue is that Rahmel WAS the German name of the birthplace at the time of her birth but that name is (I'm guessing here) no longer in use and the current name used is the Polish one Rumia. The only question left is whether it is import ant to mention that Rahmel used to be part of German-settled western Prussia. This leads to two alternatives:

:: a) born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland) in German-occupied Poland
:: b) born in Rahmel (now Rumia, Poland) in German-occupied Poland which was once part of German-settled western Prussia.

: I would vote for (a) as (b) seems too clunky to be workable and suggests a bit of German POV pushing. I would argue for alluding the fact that it was German-occupied and the fact that it had previously been part of Poland and then leave the rest of history out of it since the article is about Erika Steinbach and NOT about the history of West Prussia.

: --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 16:15, 20 September 2006 (UTC)

why not just ''born in Rahmel (now [[Rumia]], Poland)''? it leaves the whole controversy over the wording out of it, and they can then look it up on the Rumia article. also, you say ''"I would argue for alluding the fact that it was German-occupied and the fact that it had previously been part of Poland"'', well it a part of Germany before that, so that point is moot. We can go back forever and find that the ancestors of the Basque people owned it first, the point should be left out of this particular sentence, it can be expanded on/clarified in the rest of the article. but please, let's move this discussion to our userpages in order not to confuse any new readers.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 00:19, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

The only reason to use the name Rahmel is the Nazi annexation of 1939, not accepted by democratic states. If you don't like Versaille, you are free to do it at home, with your friends, but not here. Germany waged a world war killing tens of millions because the Germans hated Versailles. If someone wants to experiment with Versilles, let he/she do it in an old mine, far from Poland.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 11:19, 21 September 2006 (UTC)
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 11:19, 21 September 2006 (UTC)

LMAO, you can't be serious, '''STOP TWISTING MY WORDS''', ''Germany waged a world war killing tens of millions because the Germans hated Versailles'', Germany isn't the only country to wage this war, Britain waged war, Poland waged war, USA waged war, '''they all waged this war that killed tens of millions''', I would like to point you to Balcer and Halibutt's statements on another talk page wherein they state that Poland made sure that they dragged the rest of the world into war with Germany. if you read [[Talk:Erika_Steinbach#German_invasion_of_Poland|here]], they clearly state that Poland dragged the rest of Europe into the war against Germany, now who is worse, Germany for starting an isolated war to regain it lost territory, or Poland for making it a world war (this all according to Balcer and Halibutt). Please cite a credible source that can back up your allegations, as per '''wikipedia:verifiability'''.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 01:27, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Nazi propaganda claimed, that the invasion of September 1st 1939 was caused by Poles. Are the Nazis returning?
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 06:54, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
:Jadger, the difference is that the war was started by Germany. Yes, they wanted to regain territories lost in Versailles, but this were territories which were German only because they were conquered. I am not sure whether you are trying to use here (I'm affraid quite typical) Kali logic:
"German wanted to regain territories it was good, Poland regained earlier its territories it was bad". Of course Germany starting a war is much worse than Poland calling for help. It's realy hard to see it otherwise. If a man ravishes a woman, you can't blame her to call for police. [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 10:20, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

:lol, that doesn't dignify a response Xx236, as with most of your comments. Szopen, I do not agree with what I was saying above, I was simply pointing to the talk page wherein Xx236's friends Balcer and Halibutt had said it, if we are to assume that what they say is true (as they claim) then what I said above follows from that.

:''"If a man ravishes a woman, you can't blame her to call for police."'' right, the man who did the ravaging was the triple entente/Versailles, the woman being Germany. But instead of calling "the Police" (League of Nations) she decided to stick up for herself in 1939 (and go over the line and exact revenge). If we are to use metaphors, by the reasoning above, ''it is not theft if you hand valuables to the thief when he has a gun to your head, as you handed the valuables to him, implying acceptance/approval. it wasnt stolen, you gave it to him'' The gun being in this case Versailles/triple entente military and valuables being German land. Of course this is wrong, I was simply showing your point in another metaphor.

:there is a difference between Poland "regaining" territory in 1919 than Germany doing it in 1939. Because Poland lost that land before the modern version of nation states being ethnically minded was developed (that is Germany being a nation of you guessed it: '''Germans'''), Royal Prussia was a Polish fief, but populated by Germans as well as Poles. By 1919 it was predominantly German populated. see [[Polish Corridor]], it was not given to poland because it was previously polish, but because it would weaken Germany and provide poland with a "outlet to the sea"
:--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 18:56, 22 September 2006 (UTC)
::Jadger, the problem with your reasoning is that yes, Polish Corridor had POLISH majority (Germans were about 42% in POmerania, but as you know before 1939 POlish corridor was sometimes used to refer all the lands lost by Germany in 1919, of which Posen had eevn greater Polish majority). Royal Prussia was not Polish fief, as you try to imply, but integral part of Polish crown (though, especially before UoL, with large authonomy). As for the other things, if you lost a war you have started (after all, it were Germans who declared war on France and Russia in WWI) you cannot complain of the consequences; and even more, if you earlier dictated even worse peace to countries you have defeated.
::After all, on what basis Germans could claim that Versailles was unjust, if they earlier dictated even worse peace of Brest-Litovsk or Treaty of Bucharest? This is what literally p* me off whenever I am talking with the Germans - it seems many Germans has this "Kali mentality" - if we did something, well, you know, the war and all, but if someone would do the very same thing to us this is OUTRAGEOUS! [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 15:03, 25 September 2006 (UTC)
::EDIT: BTW, I should clarify comments above: I had in mind "some" Germans, not large group, but a subset of editors and usenet users large enough to be notified. My intention was not to offend valuable editors or any kind of general ethnic slur - if someone however felt offended by the sentence above, please accept my apologies. [[User:Szopen|Szopen]] 16:21, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

what I meant by my previos comment wherein i stated other nations waged war besides Germany, I was simply showing that XX236's claim that Germany was responsible for everydeath during WWII is incorrect.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 19:08, 22 September 2006 (UTC)

Jadger, you keep fighting against:
*It's totally unimportant who is my friend. If you check, you will find my disputes with many Polish contributors.
BTW, it's interesting that you ask anti-Polish non-Germans to help you. You want a nationalistic war. The idea of Wikipedia was liberal, but as many such ideas radicals use Wiki to spread anti-liberal Nazi and Communist ideas.
*I have written:
''The only reason to use the name Rahmel is the Nazi annexation of 1939, not accepted by democratic states. If you don't like Versaille, you are free to do it at home, with your friends, but not here. Germany waged a world war killing tens of millions because the Germans hated Versailles. If someone wants to experiment with Versilles, let he/she do it in an old mine, far from Poland.''
Which of my words aren't true? Versailles wan't a perfect solution, but it was respected by the majority of democratic states. Germany succeeded in removing many limitations till 1939. It was German decision to wage the war in September 1939, killing tens of millions.

If I were you I would stop this discussion. There were tens of thousands of civilian victims in the "Corridor" in Piaśnica, Stutthof camp and other places and many of those victims were local people. Germans proved they were inviders. I bet there are not enough articles about Nazi crimes here. If you wage a Wiki war, you will mobilize some Poles to write such articles.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 14:29, 25 September 2006 (UTC)

::Very sad. This discussion seems to be full of German and Polish national egos. Rumia/Rahmel has often changed their ruling parties. Many people did not even know anymore whether they are German or Polish, many were mixed. This is a point totally neglected here. One side shouts: Rumia/Rahmel has been German all along; the other one shouts: Germans are all Nazis and therefore all history has to be reduced to the evil things "the" Germans did. Both is completely one sided. I think this is the core of the issue here. Rumia is PRESENT; Rumia and Rahmel are HISTORY, and German presence there was not only the years of Nazi occupation. And this history is also CONNECTED to people like Erika Steinbach, because she was not born in present Polish Rumia, but in the past when both the presence of Rumia and Rahmel were present as a Slavo-Germanic mixed area. Of course this is not convenient for nationalists from either the German or Polish side, but it's the truth.

== World War I ==

Why is it important to mention that Rumia/Rahmel ''had been part of Germany before the [[World War I|first World War]]''. How is this relevant to the fact that Erika Steinbach was born there ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:04, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

: Forgive me, This strikes me as a disingenuous question. That is, it would seem that you know the answer and are just asking in a rhetorical way. But perhaps you are unaware of the dispute that has been running in this article for at least 4-5 months so excuse me if I lay out the argument in very simple steps.

: Please note that I really don't care about this issue. I just want it to be dealt with in an NPOV way so that we can avoid edit wars. However, the chain of logic goes something like this:

: 1) Some people dispute the legitimacy of Erika Steinbach claiming to be an expellee because she was born of German parents in Rumia (by accident due to her father's posting there as part of the Luftwaffe) rather than being a descendant of people who had lived there for many generations.

: 2) Now that we have a need to explain where she was born, we therefore need to provide the name of the town where she was born. '''Is it Rumia or Rahmel?''' Or Rumia (formerly Rahmel)? Or Rahmel (now Rumia)?

: 3) To summarize the long edit war and debate over the name of the town, it comes down to this...
: 3a) The town is currently named Rumia
: 3b) It was called Rahmel during the German occupation of Polish lands which were formerly German before Versailles
: 3c) It was called Rumia between Versailles and the German invasion of Poland in 1939
: 3d) It was called Rahmel before Versailles
: 3e) I don't know if it was ever called Rumia at a time before Versailles. I suspect it might have been.

: I personally think this is a stupid dispute to have in this particular article. It would be more understandable if the dispute were being conducted in the [[Rumia]] article. Here, however, it seems to me to be a real sideshow to the main topic of discussing Steinbach's life.
: --[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 19:31, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

::As stupid as it is (and I agree on this of course), the issue of the expellees does not have much to do with the pre-WW1 time. We should not be writing the history of Rumia/Rahmel in [[Erika Steinbach]] article. What can be (vaguely) relevant is that it was renamed to Rahmel during the Nazi occupation 1939-1945, and the point of the lengthy dispute has been whether the Nazi occupation name should be recognized or not. But there's no need to further justify this with the history of the [[Partitions of Poland]]. I'm rather surprised that you find it acceptable. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:41, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

::Note that '''I have not asked if Rumia or Rahmel is the "better" name''' for the town during WW2. But to me the sole purpose of mentioning the pre-WW1 name is to suggest that it should belong to Germany. Otherwise why do we need this mentioned there in the first place ? I think this should go. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:47, 16 October 2006 (UTC)

::: This is ridiculous, of course Rumia is part of Poland now, noone denies this. But Steinbach wasn't born now, she was born then. Thus, it is very relevant to mention that Rumia/Rahmel has been part of Poland and Germany at various times. This is important context. It is important to understand the character of the area, and also is relevant to the mindset of people who used to live there when Steinbach lived there. Many of the inhabitants did not even know whether they are German or Polish, or both. It is clear that this may annoy both German and Polish nationalists. But it is the truth and there is nothing wrong with it. This point is very relevant to understand the people there at the time, including Erika Steinbach. Another inconvenient point is that there was also German expellees after WW1 and before that was the division of Poland, thus neither the ideas that Rumia/Rahmel had "always" been German or had "always" been Polish are correct. Thus, to mention only Rumia suggests that the area had always been Polish. To only mention Rahmel insinuates the idea it had always been German. Both is historically biased. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:80.128.222.8|80.128.222.8]] ([[User talk:80.128.222.8|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/80.128.222.8|contribs]]) 

::::No, Steinbach was not born "then" as you put it. She was not born before WW1. How about mentioning that it was not German before the partitions of Poland then ? This is insane. All this discussion belongs maybe to [[Rumia]], or rather to [[History of Germany]] and [[History of Poland]], but the history of Rumia before [[World War I]] or before the [[Partitions of Poland]] is not relevant to this article on [[Erika Steinbach]]. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 19:24, 18 October 2006 (UTC)

::::: Yes, Steinbach was born in 1943, when the place was called Rahmel. But in order to be fair, '''I suggest both mentioning Rumia and Rahmel'''. It's not insane at all. If you insist it should be the name when Steinbach was born, then it is Rahmel. But I insist both Rumia and Rahmel should be mentioned. Your argument is to call it only Rumia, no matter when Steinbach was born or whatever the historical context. I don't agree, because the reader who is not familiar with history will assume it never had any German ties but had been Polish for centuries and then the "bad Germans" came out of the blue. And this is basically your point here. But my point is it's Rumia today and it will stay Rumia forever, but in order to be accurate in 1943 and the population who lived there back then I suggest we call it Rumia and Rahmel in this context.

::::Actually, the "bad" Germans came out of the blue. While other "good" Germans may have lived in Rumia/Rahmel for many years before, Steinbach's parents came there with the Nazi invasion. '''How is the pre-WW1 story relevant to this ?''' Did they come there to collect their belongings or what ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 00:32, 19 October 2006 (UTC)

::: Now this is a misrepresentation, noone was talking about anyone "collecting their belongings". As I mentioned before, when Steinbach was born it was called Rahmel. However, '''to call it only Rahmel I find unfair, the same for calling it only Rumia'''. It both brings across a wrong picture, since this area needed to endure a lot of changes within a relatively short time. Moreover, the population even after WW1 was insecure about their identity. And as I mentioned before, now it is Rumia and a completely different context, but Steinbach was born in 1943.

::::I'm sorry for the sarcasm and the rhetorical question. Of course they did not come to "collect their belongings". They came with the Nazi occupation forces. Now, that the town has been named "Rahmel" in 1939-1945 is purely the Nazi perspective, as the annexation of the town to German has been not recognized internationally. Since the Nazis occupied Poland, they could have claimed whatever names including Litzmannstadt and such, but this would not make these names any more official. It would be Rahmel of course if we spoke about say 1914, but certainly not 1943. '''This has been discussed zillion of times''' here already. '''What I asked however was about the purpose of including pre-WW1 history''' of Rahmel in this particular article, as neither Steinbach nor her family have any pre-WW1 history in Rahmel. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 06:44, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

Oh God. This page was protected for over a week because of the unending edit war that was going on over this issue. I thought we had gotten the issue put to bed and along comes Lysy with no doubt pure and innocent motives but nonetheless winds up reopening the wound.

Lysy, please do us a favor and read the admittedly long and seemingly interminable debate on this Talk Page over this issue. I can't figure out which is more insane - mentioning pre-WWI in an article about a woman born in 1943 or spending literally thousands if not tens of thousands of words '''debating Rumia/Rahmel'''. I wish I had a penny for every keystroke wasted on this debate.

--[[User:Richardshusr|Richard]] 07:17, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

:I think you're attributing me somebody else's intentions. All I asked above was why was it important to mention that Rumia/Rahmel ''had been part of Germany before the [[World War I|first World War]]''. I did not revert. I did not advocate Rumia vs Rahmel or the other way round. Why are you saying that I'm restarting this discussion, while my issue is obviously with the other (WW1) sentence. In fact, as I reread the thread, it is obvious that it is you and the other anonymous editor that are reviving the naming debate instead of focusing on what I asked about. I have bolded parts of the discussion to show you how you're twisting my words. I've been only asking a simple question about the WW1 relevance, and you (Richard + 80.128.222.8) are trying to drift it away to the Rumia/Rahmel naming debate again. And now you are trying to accuse me of doing what actually you attempted yourself ? --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 09:25, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

:: I don't understand the issue. As mentioned I think Rumia and Rahmel should be mentioned in order to explain the character of the birthplace of Steinbach. I don't know why this is such a big problem. The article mentions both Rumia, Rahmel, the Nazi occupation and pre-WW1. I think this is very accurate.

:: But oh, you already deleted everything and changed it to your version. Great Lysy... Why do you even pretend to be objective?

:No, I have not deleted it. I also do not pretend to be objective. I'm certainly not, but I'm trying to. Back to our petty issue here, if you insist that pre-WW1 history of Rahmel should be mentioned, I would insist that earlier history is equally relevant. Sill, I'm sure the article is not a place for such advocacy and I only do not understand why can't you see that :-( --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 17:44, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

:: I mean the point is, you and I maybe know more about histroy. But most people don't, so they will simply assume it has either always been a Polish or always a German town, when they read the article. I don't really have the strength and time to check this site all the time to see what is put on or off. I suggest to mention it all.
::In general terms, I am aware there are many prejudiced ideas of Steinbach flurring around and I don't support witch hunts. I am not a fan of her, but I also don't think she is as bad as she is portrayed at all. Besides, she doesn't decide anything alone and is accompanied by other reputable and pragmatic people, or is Imre Kertesz a fanatic? As a matter of fact this extremeness of the discussion also makes me think of what type of people portray her in that way, taking words out of context and so forth. Of course people are afraid of compensation claims and all that crazy stuff that the media makes up about her, but Steinbach repeatedly and strongly rejected this madness. If she should ever come up with things like this, I will write her a letter of protest myself. However, I think no matter who will mention anything slightly sympathetic about the expellees or anything related, may it be Steinbach, Glotz, the Federation of Expellees - which wasn't and in 2006 most definitely isn't as bad as portrayed at all - or anyone else, will be bashed in an unfair way (even if I do admit Steinbach's case is rather odd). I believe we need to stop bickering. In my eyes the expellees are a bridge, not a problem. I don't see a problem with them also having a representation and having a museum to show their culture and history. They exist and existed, so why hide them ? It is so strange how they are often the ones who have the best contact to Polish people, at the same time they are collectively stigmatized as "Nazis" even 60 years after the war. I believe Hitler has in many cases "sacrificed" them and "the monster" is also partially responsible for their demise. At the same time there are so many diverse stories depending on the region where the expellees lived and so forth. I don't like the politization of this "issue". We are friends and we don't need to hide any part of history. Even if Nazis crimes were initial and as a whole much worse than the expulsion, the expulsion still happened and was pretty bad for the people involved. I am glad that the exhibition of the expellees in Berlin was not revisionist and besides the central expulsions (that was the exhibition's topic), it explicitly mentioned Hitler's initial land robbery in Eastern Poland (in which the Nazis deported Germans and told them to "settle on free land", in reality the Nazis had forcefully stolen the land from Poles, expelled the former inhabitants, and placed the "re-settled" people in formerly Polish houses. The majority of expellees were, however, not "re-settled people".), Polish slave workers and referred to the commonly known Nazi crimes, particularly the Holocaust. These awful Nazi crimes are very well documented in many much bigger museums also in Berlin and worldwide, which I think is necessary. The Nazi crimes are also an integral part of our highschool schedules, culture and media landscape. The exhibition also showed the forceful re-settlement of Poles from the Ukraine to Silesia, which was further empathetic to the Poles whose home is Silesia now. And it covered other expellee cases, which it placed in different context, of course. Some of Stalins expulsions were also covered, these were also mainly unknown to me. In my life I had not heard of Finnish Kalmyks ;-) For Germany it is important to know that a fifth of our population are Germans from Eastern Europe. Everybody should be tolerant, and everyone should know who he is. I am confident in a friendship between our countries. I like most expellees, most Germans and most Poles and in fact most of the world, and I realize we live in 2006. Maybe I am a dreamer, but I believe in it. Angela Merkel also supports the idea of a center against expulsions, one of Angela's grandparents is Polish. The idea that Poland and Germany are bordering but are worlds apart is not what I think. I simply said my opinion, so there is no need to comment because I am not here to try to convince anyone. Gee, I wrote too much. But still, best wishes ;-)
:Thanks for writing this and for your level-headed approach. I could not agree more with most of what you wrote. I'm not against the exhibition as I've not seen it myself and I'm old enough not to believe everything I hear in the news. I do not have a strong opinion on Erika Steinbach either (although I may dislike politicians in general). However I'm against the attempts to legitimize Nazi occupation of Poland with "innocent" edits like the one explaining that Rahmel was German before WW1 or insisting on inserting German name of the town in every sentence. I'm not saying you did this, but some anonymous editor inserted this information for a purpose (or maybe out of good will). Anyway, if someone needs to learn the wider history of Rahmel/Rumia, he usually simply clicks on it and gets to the [[Rumia]] article, where its history is explained in detail, including that it belonged to West Prussia since 1772, then to Poland since WW1, then the German (Nazi ?) occupation, the POWs, forced labour camp etc. Speaking of forced labour, you wrote that unlike the fate of the expellees, the history of Polish slave workers is very well documented elsewhere. Are you sure about this ? There is a museum in Auschwitz of course but it mostly deals with what happened in that particular place. Holocaust is well documented. But are there other museums devoted to particular groups of victims of Nazism, similarly to the expellees ? I'm not trying to justify the expulsions. The Poles certainly exercised some bitter revenge on local Germans and for a couple of years following the WW2 they treated the Germans in Poland in a similar way they have been treated before themselves. But they've not dragged people from their houses and shot them in the streets for what I know. Where were the expellees then ? How many Germans did engage in the armed resistance against Nazism ? I'm sorry but I expect that if Hitler did not loose the war, they would more or less happily accept their German privileged status and silently assist in exterminating Jews, then Poles etc. Now they complain they have been treated badly after WW2 because they had to leave their houses. Tell this to the millions of Jewish and Polish civilians who were killed by the Nazis and can not complain any more. Again, I'm all for reconciliation but some things are simply not equal. All right, what I suggest we could do is work together on the [[Expulsion of Germans after World War II]] to make it a quality article instead of what it is now. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 05:40, 22 October 2006 (UTC)
:: Thank you for your answer Lysy. The fate of Poles is very well documented in Poland, you are a good example of how well it is known. Every Polish person I met knew that the Nazis and the Soviets had commited crimes on them. On German TV I had seen several documentations about Catholic Poles under Nazi occupation. One was so endearing with a Polish woman who since after the war lives in Szeczin/Stettin. She had a horrible childhood in the occupied country, she acoounted it and it was dreadful. The German government had invited her to visit Germany because they had found out about her terrible fate, and she was hesistant at first. Then she agreed, she had a very good time. But one time, so she told, she met an old couple and told them she is from Szeczin/Stettin. Then the old couple said: But we are from Stettin. At first the Polish lady was shocked, she explained how now it is her childrens' home. But then later she said: Who knows what they experienced in their childhood? This really was touching. And I could see that even if she had been through hell herself, she was able to show compassion. I was so touched. Sczecin is Polish now. But we need to document the past and stop stigmatizing our people respectively. Polish history and especially Nazism is part of the curriculum in Polish highschools, and that is important. The expellees' story is not about complaining, it's about showing the entire history. Interestingly, you say the revenge did not involve dragging people out on the street and shoot them. I am sorry to say this is not true. Last year my mother's fromer classmate died. As a child he was very shy and almost never spoke, he was an expelled child from Silesia. When he was young he and his mother were hiding in the hay from Poles who invaded the town (in their case it was NOT local Silesian Poles). The men were pushing their pitchforks into the hay to spike up a German, no matter who. Some of this revenge was awful, and it was not always exercized by the local Poles, but by people who came there to indisriminantly take out their revenge on just anyone. Besides, I am sure there was also officials who spured these young men and who "organized" it and used the fate of these people to get their goals. Some of these men might have realized years later what they were pushed to do. In Silesia Poles were a minority, and they often did not take part in the "revenge". The Oppeln/Opolske region is a good example of how the expulsion was not inevitable. Not every Pole "chose" to take revenge (!), this is another point worth mentioning. Some older Polish women who experienced the expulsion even now say it was wrong and awful. They themselves had often been deported from the Ukraine and were dumped in a place totally unfamiliar to them. It is important to mention that not every German was a war criminal (!). Not only active resistance groups were not war criminals (!). There was many people who were farmers and were unpolitical, others fell prey to Hitler's vicious propaganda but were not in always war criminals. The point is, unpolitical Germans or Poles have no lobby what so ever. This is a true issue. I do to some point understand how the revenge came about, but it doesn't make it right. I do think it has to be documented. In Germany and elsewhere the story of the expellees had been suppressed for some time, mainly due to ideology. The Holocaust is no secret, the crimes of Nazism are not "untold". Every day I can find something relating to it on TV or in the newspapers. But still, it is important to remember, Jews were the "main victim" of Nazism. In Poland there are now a few thousand Jews and 40 million Poles, so I cannot have been exactly the same persecution. When I was at highschool history was all about the Holocaust. I think that is important and it is a central topic, but we need to know more. More about Stalin, more about Poles, more about German expellees, more about Latvians, more about Rwanda and simply more about the world. I do not even remember if Stalin was ever mentioned with a single word at my highschool, and I went to school in Western Germany. Can you imagine this? Now this would not happen in Poland. For this I admire Poland since it has the strength to show the entire story, both Nazism (which was even worse) and Stalinism. Even Steinbach had a speech about Poland which is also on her website in which she said "Poland is not lost. For this sentence I admire the Polish people." For a long time the expellees were put into a box named "Nazis", "refugee, what do you want here?" and "shut up". However, they had the most difficult fate of post-war Germans, and for some time Germany didn't acknowledge it. Another topic but different. I only know this because I am interested in Poland, so most wouldn't know. But when Wajda released a movie about the minority of Polish collaborators during Nazism he was highly criticized by some, why? This was a minority, but they also existed. When Kaczynski attacked Tusk because Tusk's grandfather had allegedly been a Nazi collaborator, then it was ok to talk about it. It's so abusive. Does that mean Tusk is a Nazi? How unfair, especially during election time. Firstly, the Soviets had committed some horrible crimes to Catholic Poles and the Nazis afterwards of course, too. Hitler was the most disgusting and manipulative monster. But what I find interesting and never talked about: If a Polish person had suffered during the Soviet occupation, you think this person chose to support the Soviet army? Some did, but some didn't. Why? Because they were evil? Well, maybe they had lost their loved ones to the Soviets and then would not support the Soviets. How can I thus judge this Catholic Pole for not supporting the Soviets? A similar case it is for some Germans (obviously a minority in the East). If they had been deported by the Soviets or expelled after WW1, why would they support the other party who had done harm to them? I mean there are many taboos and the entrie moral discussion applies to war criminals, but not in every case to ordinary citizens of the time. Keeping in mind most of the people at this time were farmers, could they sift through propaganda when having 1 radio channel? I am not sure, because I didn't live then. But there are certain questions. Often words are mixed, German becomes Nazi, Nazis becomes war criminal, war criminal becomes concentration camp guard. Germany had 70 million people, did they all work in concentration camps? What happened to soldiers who rejected to join the army? An old man in the village next to my granddad can tell you this. The Nazis cut his penis off. Noone seems to bother mentioning these things. It doesn't justify the awful crimes of the Nazis, but then again it is not aimed at justifying anything, but at documenting history and maybe even learning from it. Concerning elections and un-responsible voting behavior, beyond Poland, it is interesting to remember that most Germans abroad (not Silesia, but Hungary for example) had no right to vote in Germany. Thus, the initial election of Hitler, the beginning of the disaster, cannot be blamed on some of these people. These topics are not as central as the major historical disasters, but these individual stories are still important I think. Yet, they serve no political interest, so why would anyone bother mentioning it? Yesterday I bought my food again at a store where my Polish friend Ms. Poljak works. She smiles, I smile, there is a positive connection. She has self-confidence, I do. She is comfortable with her identity, I am. That's why we are real friends. I don't think we need to hide, and I believe if we are honest and truthful we can document history and still remember that we live in 2006. I totally am against politicizing the issue. In Germany part of the left wing is biased toward the expellees, but ironically they often do not like the Catholic Church (and the Poles) either, only when they can use them. And some of older left wing were in fact ex-Nazis like Günther Grass, who may be a good author but at the same time he pointed fingers while he himself had been part of this mess. The right was also not always nice to the expellees either, in particular when they arrived. I was also left wing, because I am gay. But now I am pretty much at home in no political direction. The right-wing is unfair, so is the left-wing (even if my granddad was a Communist). Europe needs to get over ideologies and face reality, sometimes it's painful, but friends are honest. I like my parents even if we have gone through rough times. But we were fair and honest. That's just my opinion. And for Poland and Germany, I continue to say we do have many very positive connections,we just need to be aware and we need to respect the individual for what he or she is. Oh Gosh, I need to stop wiki, because it takes too much time and my housemates are making trouble. Take care, bye.
:I understand most of what you wrote and, once more, I couldn't agree more with most of what I understood. Just for the record, the Nazis murdered about 3 million non-Polish Jews plus 3 million non-Jewish Poles plus about 3 millions Jewish Poles. Many Poles perished from the Soviets as well. But as I said, that's only for the record and and is not intended to prove or justify anything. While I very much appreciate our conversation here (and especially your effort in explaining yourself), I have the feeling that it may be getting off topic and is not directly relevant to how to improve the [[Erika Steinbach]] article. I cannot email you since you've not registered, but feel free to use [[Special:Emailuser/Lysy|my email]] if you desire to further contact me (you might be asked to register for this purpose, though). You may also use [[User_talk:Lysy|my talkpage]] if you prefer. I'd be happy to discuss the issue of Polish/German relations further, but as I said I feel this it not the right place to continue it. Thanks. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 18:50, 23 October 2006 (UTC)
:: I don't need the records, I know what I need to know ;-)I also know I have been a bit broader than simply Erika Steinbach ;-) Unfortunately I will not be able to visit Wikipedia much because of lacking time, but thanks for the invitation to discuss. Take care and best wishes.

Comment by 80.128.249.151

Allegedly '' 'expellees' story is not about complaining, it's about showing the entire history''. The statement is false, the Expellees had Nazi leaders, demanded the revision of borders to those of 1937. The majority of their stories are '' The world was beautiful till 1945 when the Poles came''. The old ones responsible for the Nazi crimes are already dead, their children believe that their parents were angels - many of them weren't. A responsible father doesn't want his family to live near a mass execution place Piaśnica or nazi camp Stutthof.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 14:51, 27 October 2006 (UTC)

WOW, read what you just wrote XX. ''I don't need the records, I know what I need to know'' so what you're saying is we don't need any research or authoritative sources, we can just make up everything we want (which seems to be the extent of your input on wikipedia). ''A responsible father doesn't want his family to live near a mass execution place Piaśnica or nazi camp Stutthof.'' Yet many poles do live near those sites in Poland, why is that? are Polish fathers not responsible? according to you it seems so. Please XX, provide some evidence for your claims that Germans have forgotten history, it was all too apparent during the World Cup this year that even though the 3rd Reich is long gone, people still see all Germans as Nazis, as it seems by your writing you do.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 11:17, 23 November 2006 (UTC)
Jadger, I haven't written the phrase. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 15:35, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

:Jadger, don't waste your time. I read the interesting discussion above between the often unsigned editors, but I assume were always Lysy and Richard. I had the satisfaction to feel that there was a true ''modus vivendi'' achieved between them and that we all could benefit from it. But naturally people like XX will swoop down and start the same old crap again. Or should I say come out of a mouse hole? Then they will scury to the next article and try to create more propaganda and more dissension between people. And it's Wikipedia and its reputation that suffer because of it. [[User:Dr. Dan|Dr. Dan]] 14:50, 23 November 2006 (UTC)

I thought that also, I was only commenting on XX last remark, which is totally non-sensical.

--[[User:Jadger|Jadger]] 20:08, 24 November 2006 (UTC)

Dr Dan, do you mean your texts? "Then they will scury to the next article and try to create more propaganda and more dissension between people"? [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 15:37, 5 February 2007 (UTC)

== Rumia/Rahmel again ? :-( ==

::Come on Lysy, at [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=81777161 first] '''you revert''' my edit '''Rumia (german: Rahmel)''' to just '''Rumia''' and [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Erika_Steinbach&diff=next&oldid=81777161 then] two sentences later you remove '''Rumia/Rahmel''' altogether and replace it by '''this town'''. At least to me it seems pretty clear that you don't want any mentioning of the German name of the city in this article at all.
::This seems to be in line with [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pomerania&diff=prev&oldid=81775392 your reverts] where you don't allow the mentioning of the old name of Gdansk, Danzig not even in brackets, not even once in the article. Although it is pretty clear that Pommerania and Danzig had quite a mixed past with strong influences from both Poland and Germany and many people (not just Germans) know the city nowadays still as Danzig. In fact you called it '''arrogant''' to mention the German name. I know, I know this belongs to the Gdansk/Pommerania talk pages but the issue is the same...
::Sorry but I can't follow [http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Talk:Erika_Steinbach&diff=prev&oldid=81843993 your argument] that the mere mentioning of the German name of a town suggests that it should belong to Germany. --[[User:Splette|Splette]] [[Image:Happyjoe.jpg]] [[User_talk:Splette|Talk]] 10:49, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

Yes, and this is a different issue than the one discussed in the previous section. First, the article has been unprotected on October 6th. It had the Rahmel name explained all right. In a couple of days an anonymous editor added ''Rumia/Rahmel had been part of Germany before WW1, however it had become part of the Polish state after WW1'' without any discussion or reference to the article. Anyway, the article was relatively stable for about 10 days only. Then you decided that Rahmel needs to be mentioned in in another sentence and added the German name for the third time. Why was it needed if in the very next sentence it was explained that Rumia was renamed to Rahmel ? I've watched this article for too long not to know what would happen next. In a couple of days somebody would change the order of the names and then another fly-by-night anonymous warrior would come and remove Rumia altogether. I've seen this scenario too many times. Why were you unhappy with the stable version ? As for the other edits, I'm happy to discuss them if you like. --[[User:Lysy|Lysy]][[User talk:Lysy|talk]] 11:28, 20 October 2006 (UTC)

: But now you are talking about a problem that does not exist. Rumia is in the article and will remain there. If someone deletes it, I will put it in again. But just as you insist to only put Rumia and not Rahmel, I insist to put both and find it a stable compromise. Both Rumia, Rahmel, the Nazi occupation and pre-WW1 are essential to Steinbach's birthplace. Lysy, I am sure you are a nice woman. But i am sorry to say that it seems like you like to control this page and to eventually always have your point of view pushed through.

History of Rumia from 1466 until 1772 ;)

from official Rumia web site

http://www.rumia.eu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=27&Itemid=51

http://www.rumia.eu/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=26&Itemid=51

(ciekawe jak szybko helmuty to usuna ;))

—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:193.242.104.9|193.242.104.9]] ([[User talk:193.242.104.9|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/193.242.104.9|contribs]]) 

I restored the compromise version.
--[[User:Molobo|Molobo]] ([[User talk:Molobo|talk]]) 22:54, 14 February 2009 (UTC)
==West Prussia==
Rumia is in Pomorze Gdańskie the same as it is in West Prussia. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] 12:43, 5 April 2007 (UTC)

== Protests in Potsdam (controversial terms) ==
*Colonisation: The german word ''Siedlung'' could be translated as the [[Settlement]] as well as the [[Colonisation]], but after reading the preview of Steinbach's lecture I consider the "[[Colonisation]]" more accurate term.
*revisionism: As I learned from cited articles, the reason of the protests of students and the Antifascist Alliance is the (alleged) Steinbach's [[Historical revisionism (negationism)|revisionism]]. This not my POV, this is the POV of protesting people and organisation, which should be mentioned. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Honzula|Honzula]] ([[User talk:Honzula|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Honzula|contribs]]) 11:32, 21 June 2008 (UTC) 

==Opening paragraph==

The opening paragraph shall only contain name and ''date'' of birth (not place of birth), per [[Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style_(biographies)#Opening_paragraph|MoS (biographies)]]. [[User:UweBayern|UweBayern]] ([[User talk:UweBayern|talk]]) 15:17, 26 February 2009 (UTC)
:''Steinbach, came to our country with Hitler and had to flee with Hitler''[http://www.expatica.com/nl/news/news_focus/Poland-ups-the-pressure-in-WWII-memorial-feud-with-Germany--_49974.html] - Polish Minister [[Radoslaw Sikorski]]--[[User:Jacurek|Jacurek]] ([[User talk:Jacurek|talk]]) 16:16, 26 February 2009 (UTC)

==Criticism in Poland==
I think that the article should be modified as to the criticism of E. Steinbach in Poland. The reasons for the Polish critique are, among others, as follows:
* (in the context of her possible presidency of the Centre Against Expulsions) - she was strongly against Polish membership in the EU and NATO, she was one of the most active opponents of the Polish-German border treaty (and voted against it as one of very few members of the German parliament), what, from the Polish point of view, makes her unable to participate in management of historical and scientific museum, which is to deal also with Poland, due to the lack of objectivity;
* in 1990s she continued to put in question the Polish-German border;
* she is strongly associated with the Centre Against Expulsions, which is seen as anti-Polish; the Poles are often furious of the Centre's website and the data presented there, e.g. the number of Poles expelled from Poland during the World War II (400 thousand according to the Centre's website /presented as "deported from Poland"/, compared with official numbers amounting to 2 millions) or the information about the city of Gdańsk (as per the website, it was founded in 1224/25 as a German city, while it was founded in 997 by Mieszko I of Poland);
* there is a fear that she may be likely to marginalise German war crimes and try to present "expelled"/"deported" Germans as victims of the war in the same context as Jews, Poles and other nations.
In general, her political life was full of anti-Polish actions and she is regarded as heavily biased against Poland. These are the reasons for her critique in Poland. The article mentions almost only her bad reputation and exhibitions she organised, while her political campaign against Polish borders and membership in international organisations are the reasons for this critique. [[User:Montessquieu|Montessquieu]] ([[User talk:Montessquieu|talk]]) 20:22, 2 March 2009 (UTC)

Critisism is alright but what had happened in Poland in the last couple of weeks is far beyond a fair debate ("blonde beast", tasteless nazi photomontages etc). —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/83.236.241.230|83.236.241.230]] ([[User talk:83.236.241.230|talk]]) 18:26, 10 March 2009 (UTC) 

::Which exactly facts do you mean? The ones generated by German media? BTW Erika Steinbach has been using very tasteless methods against Poland and Poles since many years. And German media attacked Kaczynski brothers eg. as potatoes. Erika Steinbach idealises her father, a Luftwaffe officer who stationed in occupied Poalnd. The majority of Poles don't understand the difference betwen Nazi forms.
[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 09:39, 23 March 2009 (UTC)

What are you talking about? It's unfair when somebody accuse that during the debate in Poland Steinbach is called "blonde beast". It's unfair because it's biased. Maybe somebody said something like this but it is not part of real debate in Poland which I observe in media or between politicians. It's like to say that neo-Nazi parties rules in Germany lately, while they have no real power and only few seats in one state parliament. [[Special:Contributions/89.79.103.10|89.79.103.10]] ([[User talk:89.79.103.10|talk]]) 15:57, 21 March 2009 (UTC)

:My intention was not to start any discussion on whether the above-mentioned statements are true or false, but to present reasons for the critique of E.S. in Poland, as it's one of the sections in the article. In other words, the section is not to suggest whether the Poles are right or not. It's role is to show main points of the critique (which may be biased, determined by history or whatever, or may be fully objective as well). The provided statements are from Polish press. Regards, [[User:Montessquieu|Montessquieu]] ([[User talk:Montessquieu|talk]]) 16:24, 21 March 2009 (UTC)

I basicly agree with Montessquieu who simply inteded to display the state of debatte. However, I gently ask Xx236 to keep in mind that there is, in scales of taste, a difference between (the rather ironic) potatoe-article and e.g. the photo montage showing Mrs. Steinbach wearing a SS-uniform. Furthermore, I would also like to remind 89.79.103.10 that it was not just "somebody" who called E.S. a "blonde beast" but Mr.Bartoszewski who is the official apointee for German matters of the Polish goverment. And, last but not least, the almost agressive tone of your comments (except for Montessquie) may serve as evidence for my statement as well...(08:13, 30 March 2009 (UTC)) —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/83.236.241.230|83.236.241.230]] ([[User talk:83.236.241.230|talk]])  
*As I have written the majority of Poles ignore the differences between German uniforms. I don't know why the artist selected a SS-uniform rather than a Luftwaffe one.
*My comments are sometimes agressive, beacuse I'm frustrated by anti-Polish bias of several authors and articles. And because I frequently know the subjects better than my opponnts, who impose their POV using some Wikipedia tricks and biased sources. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:21, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

: Please give me a quote of Mr. Bartoszewski saying that Steinbach is a blonde beast. He denied that he called her like this on his blog. He explains that he used in one of his speech the term from Die Zeit newspaper (also there is a book in Poland: "E.S. A beauty or beast?") and media misrepresented it as his own opinion about E.S - probably to cause sensation. So you were misinformed in this matter. The worst thing that Mr Bartoszewski said about Mr. Steinbach was calling her "anti-Polish". While he is not so great in diplomacy in my opinion he is not so stupid to use such an abusive term and therefore I do not believe only a few results from Google where Mr. Bartoszewski is connected with "blonde beast". There are a lot of mistakes in press so I would rather believe Mr. Bartoszewski denial. However, if you have a better quote of his speech please provide it. [[Special:Contributions/89.79.103.10|89.79.103.10]] ([[User talk:89.79.103.10|talk]]) 20:00, 4 April 2009 (UTC)

Hello 89.79.103.10, unfortunately I have so far merely found articles written in German as I cannot read Polish and articles concerning that topic seem not to exist in English (presumably because except for Poland and Germany nobody in the world is interested in the debate...): http://www.zeit.de/2009/13/Sikorski
It is an interview withe the current Polish minister for Foreign Affairs and has recently been published in the German newspaper "Die Zeit" which you might know?! In the very first two paragraphs, Mr. Sikorski confirms that Mr. Bartoszewski has said "blonde beast" with regard to ES but as part of a comparison in the sense of "for some she is a blonde beauty, for others she is a blonde beast". Hence, I am a bit supprised that he now seems to completly denie to have said something like this at all. I guess it is because he knows quite well that it was not that "great in diplomacy". Regards, ([[Special:Contributions/83.236.241.230|83.236.241.230]] ([[User talk:83.236.241.230|talk]]) 12:55, 6 April 2009 (UTC))

Mr. Bartoszewski is not denying that he used the term at all. He is denying that he called her like this by himself. He used this extreme comparison only to show how great is difference of opinions about Mrs. Steinbach. Maybe it wasn't the best way to do this but repeating that Mr. Bartoszewski is calling Mrs. Steinbach like this without giving the context of his words is deceptive. Also arguing on this basis that in Poland calling Mrs. Steinbach "blond beast" is part of the real debate is misleading. However, nobody denies repeating Mr. Bartoszewski words but it should be done in objective way without skipping the "blond beauty" opinion about Mrs. Steinbach which he also used in his speech. [[Special:Contributions/89.79.103.10|89.79.103.10]] ([[User talk:89.79.103.10|talk]]) 19:01, 6 April 2009 (UTC)

== Erika z Rumi - translation ==

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Halibutt/Erika_of_Rumia.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:33, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

== for most of pre-WWII period ==

I don't know if it's correct, but the former version was false.[[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:37, 20 August 2009 (UTC)
In fact the quoted article says that the father's ancestors lived in Silesia, not himself. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:41, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

== Rahmel/Westpr. is not the matter of language ==

Rumia was occupied by Germany. Erika Steinbach says Rahmel/Westpr. suggesting she was born in Germany proper. An English language reader should be informed about the context. [[User:Xx236|Xx236]] ([[User talk:Xx236|talk]]) 07:46, 20 August 2009 (UTC)

== Lacking any mention of her assessment in Germany ==

Having read the article I can't see any mention of how her political views and actions are viewed by Germans (except "Lecture controversy" section). How known is she in Germany? Is there any crticism pointed at her or are her views regarded as entirely normal and applauded by mainstream public opinion? I don't believe noone voices any opinion about her in German press. German-speaking editors, please make up for this. [[User:Cyon|Cyon]] ([[User talk:Cyon|talk]]) 01:03, 23 August 2009 (UTC)

Nicolaus Copernicus

2009-05-03T14:25:11Z

Cyon: /* Ptolemy */ removing modern Greek name, which, like the Latin one, is derived from Arabic

{{redirect|Copernicus}}
{{pp-vandalism|small=yes}}{{pp-move-indef}}
{{POV|NPOV and Dispute Resolution|date=March 2008}}


{{Infobox_scientist
| name = Nicolaus Copernicus
| image = Nikolaus Kopernikus.jpg
| image_width = 150px
| caption = Portrait from [[Toruń]], early 16th century
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1473|2|19}},
| birth_place = [[Toruń]] (''Thorn''), [[Royal Prussia]], [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Poland]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1543|5|24|1473|2|19}},
| death_place = [[Frombork]] (''Frauenburg''), [[Warmia]], Poland
| field = [[Mathematics]], [[astronomy]], [[canon law]], [[medicine]]
| work_institution =
| alma_mater = [[Jagiellonian University|Kraków University]], [[Bologna University]], [[University of Padua]], [[University of Ferrara]]
| doctoral_advisor =
| doctoral_students = [[Georg Joachim Rheticus]]
| known_for = [[Heliocentrism]]
| societies =
| prizes =
| spouse =
| children =
| religion = [[Roman Catholic]]
| footnotes =
| signature= Autograph-MikolajKopernik.png
}}

'''Nicolaus Copernicus''' (19 February 1473 – 24 May 1543) was the first  [[astronomer]] to formulate a comprehensive [[heliocentrism|heliocentric]] [[cosmology]], which displaced the [[Earth]] from the center of the universe.<ref>A Greek mathematician, [[Aristarchus of Samos]], had already discussed heliocentric hypotheses as early as the third century BCE. However, there is little evidence that he ever developed his ideas beyond a very basic outline [[#Reference-Dreyer-1953|(Dreyer, 1953,]] [http://www.us.archive.org/GnuBook/?id=historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#148 pp.135–48]; [[#Reference-Linton-2004|Linton, 2004, p. 39)]].</ref> His epochal book, ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]'' (''On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres''), published in 1543 just before he died, is often regarded as the starting point of modern [[astronomy]] and the defining [[epiphany (feeling)|epiphany]] that began the [[Scientific Revolution]]. His heliocentric model, with the sun at the center of the universe, demonstrated that the observed motions of celestial objects can be explained without putting the Earth at rest in the center of the universe. His work stimulated further scientific investigations, becoming a [[landmark]] in the [[history of science|history of modern science]] that is now often referred to as the [[Copernican Revolution]].

Among the great [[polymath]]s of the [[Renaissance]], Copernicus was a [[mathematician]], [[astronomer]], [[physician]], [[classical scholar]], [[translator]], [[visual arts|artist]],<ref>A [[self-portrait]] helped confirm the identity of his [[cranium]] when it was discovered at Frombork Cathedral in 2008.</ref> [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic cleric]], [[jurist]], [[governor]], [[military|military leader]], [[diplomacy|diplomat]] and [[economist]]. Among his many responsibilities, astronomy figured as little more than an [[avocation]] — yet it was in that field that he made his mark upon the world.

==Life==
===Family===
[[Image:CopernicusHouse.jpg|thumb|left|115px|Copernicus' birthplace]]
[[Image:Łukasz Watzenrode.jpeg|thumb|right|135px|Copernicus' uncle, [[Lucas Watzenrode the Younger|Lucas Watzenrode]]]]
Nicolaus Copernicus was born on 19 February 1473 in a house on St. Anne's Street (now Copernicus Street) in the city of [[Toruń]] (''Thorn''). Toruń, situated on the [[Vistula River]], was part of [[Royal Prussia]], a region of the [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]].<ref>Barbara Bieńkowska, ''The Scientific World of Copernicus: On the Occasion of the 500th Anniversary of His Birth, 1473–1973'', 1973, p. 137: "His country was the province of ancient [[Royal Prussia]], composed of his native [[Toruń]] and [[Warmia]], both components of the Polish state since 1454."</ref><ref name="Sedlar">Jean W. Sedlar, ''East Central Europe in the Middle Ages 1000-1500'', 1994, p. 281-282 [http://books.google.ie/books?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC&pg=PA282&lpg=PA282&dq=royal-prussia&source=web&ots=tPM6sVA1CM&sig=Of4b4nKAgNiEW3jOopzXCso3nn4&hl=en#PPA282,M1]: "The Prussians themselves viewed their territory as united to Poland only through the king's person. [...] Social and ethnic differences reinforced this separateness."</ref>

Nicolaus was named after his father, who about 1458 had moved to Toruń from [[Kraków]] in [[Lesser Poland]]. The father was a wealthy [[copper]] trader who had become a respected citizen of Toruń. Nicolaus' mother, Barbara Watzenrode (died after 1495), had been born into a wealthy merchant family that was part of the city's [[patrician]] class.

Nicolaus' father died between 1483 and 1485. After that, his maternal uncle, [[Lucas Watzenrode the Younger]] (1447–1512), a church [[canon (priest)|canon]] who would later become [[List of bishops of Warmia|Prince-Bishop]] of the [[Archbishopric of Warmia]], took young Nicolaus under his protection and saw to his education and future career.

Nicolaus was the youngest of four children. His brother Andreas became an [[Augustinian]] [[canon (priest)|canon]] at [[Frombork]] (''Frauenburg''). His sister Barbara (named after her mother) became a [[Benedictine]] [[nun]]. His sister Katharina married Barthel Gertner, a businessman and city councilor.

===Name===
[[Image:Torun pomnik Kopernika 01.jpg|thumb|right|Monument in [[Toruń]] by [[Christian Friedrich Tieck|Friedrich Tieck]]]]
Numerous variants of Copernicus' name are documented.<ref>Koeppen (1973)</ref> Until the mid-1530s, he mostly signed himself ''Coppernic''. Afterward, he followed the academic custom of his time and adopted a [[Latin]]ized version of his name. Thus, on the title page of his epochal book, ''Nicolai Copernici Torinensis De Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium Libri VI'', the astronomer's name appears as ''Nicolaus Copernicus'' with ''pp'' changed to ''p''.

In 1776, [[Johann Gottfried Herder]] introduced the spelling ''Nikolaus Kopernikus'', which replaced each ''c'' with ''k''. This spelling became popular in [[German language|German]] writings, although scholars argued for ''Coppernicus''. The [[Polish language|Polish]] rendering is ''Mikołaj Kopernik''; the surname means "one who works with [[copper]]".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://glos.uni.torun.pl/2003/05/historia/|title=O historii i o współczesności|accessdate=2007-04-22 |format= |work=In Polish}}</ref>

===Education===
[[Image:Courtyard of Collegium Maius, Krakow.jpg|thumb|left|160px|[[Jagiellonian University|Kraków University's]] ''[[Collegium Maius]]'']]

In 1491 Copernicus enrolled at the [[Jagiellonian University|Kraków Academy]] (now Jagiellonian University), where he probably first encountered astronomy with Professor [[Albert Brudzewski]]. Astronomy soon fascinated him, and he began collecting a large library on the subject. Copernicus' library would later be carried off as war booty by the Swedes during [[The Deluge (Polish history)|"the Deluge"]] and is now at the [[Uppsala University Library]].

After four years in Kraków, followed by a brief stay back home in Toruń, Copernicus went to study [[law]] and [[medicine]] at the universities of [[Bologna]] and [[Padua]]. Copernicus' uncle, [[Lucas Watzenrode the Younger]], financed his education and hoped that Copernicus too would become a [[bishop]]. Copernicus, however, while studying [[canon law|canon]] and [[Civil law (legal system)|civil law]] at Bologna, met the famous astronomer, [[Domenico Maria Novara da Ferrara]]. Copernicus attended Novara's lectures and became his disciple and assistant. The first observations that Copernicus made in 1497, together with Novara, are recorded in Copernicus' epochal book, ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]''.
[[Image:Mikolaj Kopernik.jpg|thumb|left|120px|Copernicus with [[medication|medicinal]] plant]]
[[Image:6 Warszawa 153.jpg|thumb|right|160px|[[Bertel Thorvaldsen|Thorvaldsen's]] ''Copernicus'' with [[compass (drafting)|compass]] and [[armillary sphere]], before the [[Polish Academy of Sciences]], [[Warsaw]]]]

In 1497 Copernicus' uncle was ordained [[Bishop of Warmia]], and Copernicus was named a [[canon (priest)|canon]] at Frombork Cathedral. But Copernicus remained in Italy, where he attended the great [[Jubilee (Christian)|Jubilee]] of 1500. He also went to [[Rome]], where he observed a lunar [[eclipse]] and gave some lectures in astronomy and mathematics.

In 1501 Copernicus returned to Frombork. As soon as he arrived, he obtained permission to complete his studies in [[Padua]], where he studied [[medicine]] (with Guarico and [[Fracastoro]]), and at [[Ferrara]], where in 1503 he received his doctorate in [[canon law]]. One of the subjects that Copernicus must have studied at that time was [[astrology]], since it was considered an important part of a medical education.<ref>Rabin [[#Reference-Rabin-2005|(2005)]].</ref> However, unlike most other prominent Renaissance astronomers, he appears never to have practiced it or expressed any subsequent interest in it.<ref>Gingerich [[#Reference-Gingerich-2004|(2004, pp.187–189,201 )]]; Koyré [[#Reference-Koyre-1973|(1973, p.94)]]; Kuhn [[#Reference-Kuhn-1957|(1957, p.93)]]; Rosen [[#Reference-Rosen-2004|(2004, p.123)]]; Rabin [[#Reference-Rabin-2005|(2005)]].</ref> It has also been surmised that it was in Padua that he encountered passages from [[Cicero]] and [[Plato]] about opinions of the ancients on the movement of the Earth, and formed the first intuition of his own future theory. In 1504 Copernicus began collecting observations and ideas pertinent to his theory.

===Work===
In 1503, Copernicus returned to Polish [[Prussia (region)|Prussia]], to the [[Prince-Bishop]]ric of [[Warmia]], where he resided the rest of his life. From 1503 until 1510 he had the position of secretary to his maternal uncle Lucas Watzenrode, Bishop of Warmia, and until 1510 resided in the Bishop's castle at [[Lidzbark Warmiński]] (''Heilsberg''). It is there that he started work on his heliocentric view of the heavens.<ref>Repcheck (2007), p. 51</ref>

In 1510, he moved to [[Frombork]] (''Frauenburg''), a town in the north and downstream of Toruń on the [[Vistula Lagoon]]. The Bishopric of Warmia, within Royal Prussia, though subject to the Polish crown, enjoyed substantial [[autonomy]], with its own [[Diet (assembly)|diet]], army, monetary unit (the same as in the other parts of Prussia) and treasury.<ref>Sedlar (1994)</ref> Some time before his return to Warmia, he received a position at the Collegiate Church of the Holy Cross in [[Wrocław]] (''Breslau''), [[Silesia]], [[Bohemia]], which he held for many years and only resigned for health reasons shortly before his death. Copernicus remained for the rest of his life a [[Bourgeoisie|burgher]] of Warmia ([[Bishopric of Warmia]]). During the [[Protestant Reformation#Lutheranism adopted by the German territorial princes|Protestant Reformation]], he remained a loyal subject of the Catholic [[Bishops of Warmia|Prince-Bishops]] and the Catholic Polish King. Throughout his life, he performed astronomical observations and calculations, but only as time permitted and never in a professional capacity.
[[Image:Olsztyn-zamek.jpg|thumb|left|240px|[[Olsztyn|Olsztyn Castle]]]]
In 1516-21, Copernicus resided at Olsztyn Castle as economic administrator of [[Warmia]], including Allenstein ([[Olsztyn]]) and Mehlsack ([[Pieniężno]]), and wrote the manuscript ''[[Locationes mansorum desertorum]]'' (Locations of Deserted Fiefs).

When [[Olsztyn]] was besieged by the Teutonic Knights during the [[Polish-Teutonic War (1519–1521)]], Copernicus was in charge of the defenses of Olsztyn and Warmia at the head of Royal Polish forces. He also participated in the peace negotiations.<ref>Repcheck (2007), p.66</ref>
[[Image:Kopernikus-Olsztyn.jpg|thumb|115px|''Copernicus'' before [[Olsztyn|Olsztyn Castle]]]]
Copernicus worked for years with the Royal Prussian diet, and with Duke [[Albert of Prussia]], and advised Poland's King [[Sigismund I the Old]] on [[monetary reform]]. Holding the office of [[canon (priest)|canon]], he traveled extensively on government business and as a [[diplomat]] on behalf of the Prince-Bishop of Warmia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rit.edu/~flwstv/copernicus.html|title=Copernicus|author=Prof. Fred L. Wilson of the [[Rochester Institute of Technology]]}}</ref> He participated in the discussions in the [[Duchy of Prussia|East Prussian]] diet about coin reform in the Prussian countries. One question at issue to members of the Diet concerned who had the right to mint [[coin]]. The matter required much diplomacy, but was resolved successfully. Some of the difficulties were caused by the political upheavals occurring in Prussia at the time, including the 1525 establishment of the Duchy of Prussia as a Protestant state. Copernicus translated his coin-reform treatise into Latin for external use. In 1530 an agreement was negotiated with Duke Albert at [[Elbląg]] (''Elbing'').

In 1526, Copernicus wrote a study on the value of [[money]], ''[[Monetae cudendae ratio]]''. In it he formulated an early iteration of the theory, now called "[[Gresham's Law]]," that "bad" ([[debasement|debased]]) [[coinage]] drives "good" (un-debased) coinage out of circulation, 70 years before Gresham. He also formulated a version of [[quantity theory of money]]. Copernicus' recommendations on monetary reform were widely read by leaders of both Prussia and Poland in their attempts to stabilize currency.<ref>''Minor Works'', translated by E. Rosen, Baltimore, Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992, pp. 176-215.</ref><ref>Oliver Volckart, "Early Beginnings of the Quantity Theory of Money and Their Context in Polish and Prussian Monetary Policies, c. 1520-1550", The Economic History Review, New Series, Vol. 50, No. 3 (Aug., 1997), pp. 430-449</ref>

Two years before Copernicus' death, Duke Albert urgently summoned him to [[Königsberg]] to treat one of his counsellors, who was dangerously ill. The patient recovered within a month or so, and Copernicus then returned to Frombork.<ref>[[#Reference-Koyre-1973|Koyré (1973, p.80)]], [[#Reference-Armitage-1951|Armitage (1951, pp.52–53)]]</ref>

In 1551, eight years after Copernicus' death, [[Erasmus Reinhold]] would publish, under Duke Albert's sponsorship, the ''[[Prutenic Tables]]'', a set of astronomical tables based on Copernicus' work, which astronomers and astrologers quickly adopted in place of superseded tables.<ref>[[#Reference-Kuhn-1957|Kuhn (1957, pp.187–88)]]</ref>

===Heliocentrism===
[[Image:Jan Matejko-Astronomer Copernicus-Conversation with God.jpg|right|thumb|225px|''Astronomer Copernicus: Conversation with God'', by [[Jan Matejko]]]]
In 1514 Copernicus made available to friends his ''[[Commentariolus]]'' (Little Commentary), a six page hand-written text describing his ideas about the heliocentric hypothesis. It contained seven basic assumptions. Thereafter he continued gathering data for a more detailed work.

In 1533, [[Johann Albrecht Widmannstetter]] delivered in [[Rome]] a series of lectures outlining Copernicus' theory. The lectures were heard with interest by [[Pope Clement VII]] and several Catholic [[Cardinal (Catholicism)|cardinals]].

On 1 November 1536, [[Archbishop of Capua]] [[Nikolaus Cardinal von Schönberg|Nicholas Schönberg]] wrote a letter to Copernicus from Rome:

{{quote|Some years ago word reached me concerning your proficiency, of which everybody constantly spoke. At that time I began to have a very high regard for you... For I had learned that you had not merely mastered the discoveries of the ancient astronomers uncommonly well but had also formulated a new cosmology. In it you maintain that the earth moves; that the sun occupies the lowest, and thus the central, place in the universe... Therefore with the utmost earnestness I entreat you, most learned sir, unless I inconvenience you, to communicate this discovery of yours to scholars, and at the earliest possible moment to send me your writings on the sphere of the universe together with the tables and whatever else you have that is relevant to this subject ...<ref>[http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html Schönberg, Nicholas, ''Letter to Nicolaus Copernicus'', translated by Edward Rosen]</ref>}}

By then Copernicus' work was nearing its definitive form, and rumors about his theory had reached educated people all over Europe. Despite urgings from many quarters, Copernicus delayed with the publication of his book, perhaps from fear of criticism — a fear delicately expressed in the subsequent [[Dedication to Pope Paul III|Dedication]] of his masterpiece to [[Pope Paul III]]. Scholars disagree on whether Copernicus' concern was limited to physical and philosophical objections from other natural philosophers, or whether he was also concerned about religious objections from theologians.<ref name=fear>Koyré [[#Reference-Koyre-1973|(1973, pp.27, 90)]] and Rosen [[#Reference-Rosen-1995|(1995, pp.64,184)]] take the view that Copernicus was indeed concerned about possible objections from theologians, while Lindberg and Numbers [[#Reference-Lindberg&Numbers-1986|(1986)]] argue against it. Koestler [[#Reference-Koestler-1963|(1963)]] also denies it. Indirect evidence that Copernicus was concerned about objections from theologians comes from a letter written to him by [[Andreas Osiander]] in 1541, in which Osiander advises Copernicus to adopt a proposal by which he says "you will be able to appease the Peripatetics and theologians whose opposition you fear." [[#Reference-Koyre-1973|(Koyré, 1973, pp.35, 90)]]</ref>

===The book===
[[Image:De revolutionibus 1543.png|thumb|left|110px|''[[De revolutionibus]]'', [[Nürnberg]], 1543]]
[[Image:ADurerMelancthonengraving1526.jpg|thumb|right|90px|[[Philipp Melanchthon|Melanchthon]]]]

Copernicus was still working on ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]'' (even if not convinced that he wanted to publish it) when in 1539 [[Georg Joachim Rheticus]], a [[Wittenberg]] [[mathematician]], arrived in Frombork. [[Philipp Melanchthon]] had arranged for Rheticus to visit several astronomers and study with them.

Rheticus became Copernicus' pupil, staying with him for two years and writing a book, ''[[Narratio prima]]'' (First Account), outlining the essence of Copernicus' theory. In 1542 Rheticus published a treatise on [[trigonometry]] by Copernicus (later included in the second book of ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium|De revolutionibus]]'').

Under strong pressure from Rheticus, and having seen the favorable first general reception of his work, Copernicus finally agreed to give ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium|De revolutionibus]]'' to his close friend, [[Tiedemann Giese]], bishop of [[Chełmno]] (''Kulm''), to be delivered to Rheticus for printing by [[Johannes Petreius]] at [[Nuremberg]] (''Nürnberg'').

===Death===
[[Image:Katedra we Fromborku.jpg|thumb|175px|[[Frombork]] Cathedral, where Copernicus was buried]]

Copernicus died in [[Frombork]] on 24 May 1543. Legend has it that the first printed copy of ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium|De revolutionibus]]'' was placed in his hands on the very day that he died, allowing him to take farewell of his life's work. He is reputed to have awoken from a [[stroke]]-induced [[coma]], looked at his book, and then died peacefully.

Copernicus was reportedly buried in Frombork Cathedral, where archeologists long searched in vain for his remains. In August 2005, a team led by Jerzy Gąssowski, head of an [[archaeology]] and [[anthropology]] institute in [[Pułtusk]], after scanning beneath the cathedral floor, discovered what they believe to be Copernicus' remains.<ref name="DNA_Remains1">{{cite web| date=| title=Scientists say Copernicus' remains found| publisher=The Associated Press-Kansas City.com| url=http://www.kansascity.com/451/story/900344.html| accessdate=2008-11-20}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7740908.stm|title= Polish tests 'confirm Copernicus'|accessdate=21 November 2008 |work= Europe|publisher= [[BBC News]]|date= 21 November 2008}}</ref> The find came after a year of searching, and the discovery was announced only after further research, on November 3, 2008.<ref name="DNA_Remains1" /> Gąssowski said he was "almost 100 percent sure it is Copernicus." [[Forensic]] expert Capt. Dariusz Zajdel of the Central Forensic Laboratory of the Polish Police used the skull to reconstruct a face that closely resembled the features — including a broken nose and a scar above the left eye — on a Copernicus self-portrait.<ref name="DNA_Remains1" /><ref>{{cite web| title=Czy tak wyglądał Mikołaj Kopernik?| url=http://www.policja.pl/portal.php?serwis=pol&dzial=107&id=3837 |accessdate=2007-04-22 |format= |work=In Polish}}</ref> The expert also determined that the skull belonged to a man who had died around age 70 — Copernicus' age at the time of his death.<ref>{{cite web|title=Polish tests 'confirm Copernicus'|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7740908.stm| accessdate=2008-11-20| format=}}</ref> The grave was in poor condition, and not all the remains of the skeleton were found; missing, among other things, was the lower jaw.<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/science/2008/nov/21/astronomy-archaeology 16th-century skeleton identified as astronomer Copernicus] The Guardian, November 21, 2008</ref> The DNA from the bones found in the grave matched hair samples taken from a book owned by Copernicus which was kept in the library of the [[University of Uppsala]] in [[Sweden]].<ref>[http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/20081120/ap_on_re_eu/eu_poland_copernicus Scientists say Copernicus' remains found], [[Associated Press]], 2008-11-20, retrieved 2008-11-20</ref>

On November 21, 2008, [[National Public Radio]] reported that confirmation had been made that the skull was indeed Copernicus'. The NPR website contains a portrait, reconstructed on the basis of the skull, of what Copernicus might have looked like.<ref>http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=97250330</ref>

==Copernican system==
{{main|Copernican heliocentrism}}

===Predecessors===
Early traces of astronomical models that include a moving Earth are found in several anonymous [[Vedic Sanskrit]] texts composed in [[History of India|ancient India]] before the 7th century BCE.{{Fact|date=April 2009}} The sixth century [[Indian science and technology|Indian]] astronomer and mathematician [[Aryabhata]] held to a geocentric view in which the Earth rotated.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}

[[Philolaus]] (c. 480–385 BCE), a Greek philosopher of the [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagorean school]], described an astronomical system in which the Earth, Moon, Sun, planets, and stars all revolved about a central fire.<ref>[[#Reference-Dreyer-1953|Dreyer (1953,]] [http://www.us.archive.org/GnuBook/?id=historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#53 pp. 40–52)]; [[#Reference-Linton-2004|Linton (2004, p. 20)]].</ref> [[Heraclides Ponticus]] (387–312 BCE) proposed that the Earth rotates on its axis.<ref>[[#Reference-Dreyer-1953|Dreyer (1953,]] [http://www.us.archive.org/GnuBook/?id=historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#136 pp. 123–35)]; [[#Reference-Linton-2004|Linton (2004, p. 24)]].</ref> According to [[Archimedes]], [[Aristarchus of Samos]] (310–230 BCE) wrote of heliocentric hypotheses in a book that does not survive.<ref>Archimedes refers to Aristarchus's book in ''The Sand Reckoner''. [[#Reference-Heath-1913|Heath's (1913,]] [http://www.us.archive.org/GnuBook/?id=aristarchusofsam00heatuoft#315 p.302)] translation of the relevant passage reads: "You ['you' being King Gelon] are aware that 'universe' is the name given by most astronomers to the sphere the center of which is the center of the Earth, while its radius is equal to the straight line between the center of the Sun and the center of the Earth. This is the common account as you have heard from astronomers. But Aristarchus has brought out a book consisting of certain hypotheses, wherein it appears, as a consequence of the assumptions made, that the universe is many times greater than the 'universe' just mentioned. His hypotheses are that the fixed stars and the Sun remain unmoved, that the Earth revolves about the Sun on the circumference of a circle, the Sun lying in the middle of the orbit, and that the sphere of the fixed stars, situated about the same center as the Sun, is so great that the circle in which he supposes the Earth to revolve bears such a proportion to the distance of the fixed stars as the center of the sphere bears to its surface." The bracketed insertion is in Heath's translation.
</ref> [[Plutarch]] wrote that Aristarchus was accused of impiety for "putting the Earth in motion".<ref>{{cite book |url=http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s7785.html
|first=Jean-Louis & Monique
|last=Tassoul
|title=Concise History of Solar and Stellar Physics
|publisher=Princeton University
|year=2004}}</ref>

In a manuscript of ''De revolutionibus'', Copernicus wrote, "It is likely that ... Philolaus perceived the mobility of the earth, which also some say was the opinion of Aristarchus of Samos", but later struck out the passage and omitted it from the published book.<ref>[[#Reference-Dreyer-1953|Dreyer (1953,]] [http://www.us.archive.org/GnuBook/?id=historyofplaneta00dreyuoft#327 pp. 314–15)].</ref> ''De revolutionibus'' did remark upon the theories of [[Ibn Battuta]] and [[Averroes]].{{Fact|date=April 2009}} It has been argued{{Who|date=April 2009}} that in developing the mathematics of heliocentrism, Copernicus also drew on the work of [[Astronomy in medieval Islam|Islamic astronomers]],{{Fact|date=April 2009}} especially from [[Nasir al-Din al-Tusi]],{{Fact|date=April 2009}} [[Mo'ayyeduddin Urdi]],{{Fact|date=April 2009}} and [[Ibn al-Shatir]].{{Fact|date=April 2009}}

===Ptolemy===
[[Image:Ptolemaeus.jpg|thumb|right|[[Ptolemy]]: medieval rendition]]
[[Image:Nicolas Copernicus Polish.JPG|thumb|right|Copernicus: a 16th-century portrait]]

The prevailing theory in Europe as Copernicus was writing was that created by the [[Greeks|Greek]] astronomer [[Ptolemy]] in his ''[[Almagest]]'', dating from about 150 CE. The [[Ptolemaic system]] drew on many previous theories that viewed Earth as a stationary center of the universe. Stars were embedded in a large outer sphere which rotated relatively rapidly, while the planets dwelt in smaller spheres between — a separate one for each planet.

===Copernicus===
Copernicus' major theory was published in the book, ''[[De revolutionibus orbium coelestium]]'' (On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres), in the year of his death, 1543, though he had arrived at his theory several decades earlier.

In his ''Commentariolus'' Copernicus had summarized his system with the following list of seven assumptions:<ref name="seven assumptions">Translated by Rosen [[#Reference-Rosen-2004|(2004, p. 58–59)]].</ref>

{{Quote|
# There is no one center of all the celestial circles or spheres.
# The center of the earth is not the center of the universe, but only of gravity and of the lunar sphere.
# All the spheres revolve about the sun as their mid-point, and therefore the sun is the center of the universe.
# The ratio of the earth's distance from the sun to the height of the [[firmament]] (outermost celestial sphere containing the stars) is so much smaller than the ratio of the earth's radius to its distance from the sun that the distance from the earth to the sun is imperceptible in comparison with the height of the firmament.
# Whatever motion appears in the firmament arises not from any motion of the firmament, but from the earth's motion. The earth together with its circumjacent elements performs a complete rotation on its fixed poles in a daily motion, while the firmament and highest heaven abide unchanged.
# What appear to us as motions of the sun arise not from its motion but from the motion of the earth and our sphere, with which we revolve about the sun like any other planet. The earth has, then, more than one motion.
# The apparent retrograde and direct motion of the planets arises not from their motion but from the earth's. The motion of the earth alone, therefore, suffices to explain so many apparent inequalities in the heavens.}}

''De revolutionibus'' itself was divided into six books:

# General vision of the heliocentric theory, and a summarized exposition of his idea of the World
# Mainly theoretical, presents the principles of spherical astronomy and a list of stars (as a basis for the arguments developed in the subsequent books)
# Mainly dedicated to the apparent motions of the Sun and to related phenomena
# Description of the Moon and its orbital motions
# Concrete exposition of the new system
# Concrete exposition of the new system

==Copernicanism==
[[Image:copernicus.jpg|thumb|left|<center>Copernicus, astronomer<center>]]

At original publication, Copernicus' epoch-making book caused only mild controversy, and provoked no fierce sermons about contradicting ''[[Holy Scripture]]''. It was only three years later, in 1546, that a [[Dominican]], Giovanni Maria Tolosani, denounced the theory in an appendix to a work defending the absolute truth of ''Scripture''.<ref>Rosen [[#Reference-Rosen-1995|(1995, pp.151–59)]]</ref> He also noted that the Master of the Sacred Palace (i.e., the Catholic Church's chief [[censor]]), [[Bartolomeo Spina]], a friend and fellow Dominican, had planned to condemn ''De revolutionibus'' but had been prevented from doing so by his illness and death.<ref>Rosen [[#Reference-Rosen-1995|(1995, p.158)]]</ref>

[[Arthur Koestler]], in his popular book ''[[The Sleepwalkers]]'', asserted that Copernicus' book had not been widely read on its first publication.<ref>Koestler [[#Reference-Koestler-1963|(1959, p.191)]]</ref> This claim was trenchantly criticised by Edward Rosen,<ref>Rosen [[#Reference-Rosen-1995|(1995, pp.187–192)]], originally published in 1967 in ''Saggi su Galileo Galilei ''. Rosen is particularly scathing about this and other statements in ''The Sleepwalkers'' which he criticises as inaccurate.</ref> and has been decisively disproved by [[Owen Gingerich]], who examined every surviving copy of the first two editions and found copious marginal notes by their owners throughout many of them. Gingerich published his conclusions in 2004 in ''The Book Nobody Read''.<ref name="DeMarco">Gingerich [[#Reference-Gingerich-2004|(2004)]], DeMarco [[#Reference-DeMarco-2004|(2004)]] [http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2004/04/13/book_quest_took_him_around_the_globe]</ref>

It has been much debated why it was not until six decades after Spina and Tolosani's attacks on Copernicus's work that the Catholic Church took any official action against it. Proposed reasons have included the personality of [[Galileo Galilei]] and the availability of evidence such as [[telescope]] observations.
[[Image:Galileo.arp.300pix.jpg|thumb|right|100px|<center>[[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]]<center>]]

In March 1616, in connection with the [[Galileo affair]], the [[Roman Catholic Church]]'s [[Congregation of the Index]] issued a decree suspending ''De revolutionibus'' until it could be "corrected," on the grounds that the supposedly [[Pythagorean]] doctrine<ref>In fact, in the Pythagorean cosmological system the Sun was not motionless.</ref> that the [[Earth]] moves and the [[Sun]] doesn't was "false and altogether opposed to ''[[Holy Scripture]]''."<ref>Decree of the General Congregation of the Index, March 5, 1616, translated from the Latin by Finocchiaro [[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1989|(1989, pp.148-149)]]. An [http://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html#indexdecree on-line copy] of Finocchiaro's translation has been made available by Gagné [[#Reference-Gagne-2005|(2005)]].</ref> The same decree also prohibited any work that defended the mobility of the Earth or the immobility of the Sun, or that attempted to reconcile these assertions with ''Scripture''.

On the orders of [[Pope Paul V]], Cardinal [[Robert Bellarmine]] gave Galileo prior notice that the decree was about to be issued, and warned him that he could not "hold or defend" the Copernican doctrine.<ref>Fantoli [[#Reference-Fantoli-2005|(2005, pp.118–19)]]; Finocchiaro [[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1989|(1989, pp.148, 153)]]. On-line copies of Finocchiaro's translations of the relevant documents, [http://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html#inqminutes Inquisition Minutes of 25 February, 1616] and [http://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html#certificate Cardinal Bellarmine's certificate of 26 May, 1616], have been made available by Gagné [[#Reference-Gagne-2005|(2005)]]. This notice of the decree would not have prevented Galileo from discussing heliocentrism solely as a mathematical hypothesis, but a stronger [http://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html#specinj formal injunction] [[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1989|(Finocchiaro, 1989, p.147-148)]] not to teach it "in any way whatever, either orally or in writing", allegedly issued to him by the Commissary of the Holy Office, Father Michelangelo Segizzi, would certainly have done so [[#Reference-Fantoli-2005|(Fantoli, 2005, pp.119–20, 137)]]. There has been much controversy over whether the copy of this injunction in the Vatican archives is authentic; if so, whether it was ever issued; and if so, whether it was legally valid [[#Reference-Fantoli-2005|(Fantoli, 2005, pp.120–43)]].</ref> The corrections to ''De revolutionibus'', which omitted or altered nine sentences, were issued four years later, in 1620.<ref>[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/04352b.htm ''Catholic Encyclopedia''].</ref>

In 1633 [[Galileo Galilei]] was convicted of grave suspicion of [[heresy]] for "following the position of Copernicus, which is contrary to the true sense and authority of ''Holy Scripture'',"<ref>From the Inquisition's sentence of June 22, 1633 [[#Reference-Santillana-1976|(de Santillana,]] [http://books.google.com.au/books?id=RABIZBnf_y4C&pg=PA306 1976, pp.306-10]; [[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1989| Finocchiaro]] [http://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html#sentence 1989, pp.287-91)]</ref> and was placed under [[house arrest]] for the rest of his life.

Galileo had gotten off lightly. Another Copernican, [[Giordano Bruno]], had been prosecuted in [[Rome]] by the same Cardinal [[Bellarmine]] and on 17 February 1600, burned at the stake as a [[heretic]] primarily for his theologic views and not necessarily his scientific ones.

The Catholic Church's 1758 ''[[Index of Prohibited Books]]'' omitted the general prohibition of works defending heliocentrism,<ref name="omission of general ban">Heilbron [[#Reference-Heilbron-2005|(2005, p. 307)]]; Coyne [[#Reference-Coyne-2005|(2005, p. 347)]].</ref> but retained the specific prohibitions of the original uncensored versions of ''De revolutionibus'' and Galileo's ''[[Dialogue Concerning the Two Chief World Systems]]''. Those prohibitions were finally dropped from the 1835 ''Index''.<ref name="omission of specific ban">McMullin [[#Reference-McMullin-2005|(2005, p. 6)]]; Coyne [[#Reference-Coyne-2005|(2005, p. 346-47)]].</ref>

It has been asserted<ref>By [[Jeffrey Burton Russell]] [[#Reference-Russell-1997|(1997, p.64)]], for instance</ref> that medieval scholars had known that the Earth was a sphere and that, paradoxically, it might have been Copernicus' criticism of the early Christian author [[Lactantius]] (ca. 240 – ca. 320 C.E.) in ''De revolutionibus'' that later developed into the [[flat Earth|flat-Earth myth]].

==Ethnicity and nationality==
[[Image:Kopernik.JPG|thumb|left|''Kopernik'' bust in [[Kraków]]'s [[Jordan Park]]]]
Copernicus' ethnicity and nationality are disputed. His father has been described as a Pole, and his mother was most likely of German origin.<ref>
{{cite journal
| quotes = yes
| last = Rudnicki
| first = Konrad
| authorlink =
| year = 2006
| month = November-December
| title = The Genuine Copernican Cosmological Principle
| journal = Southern Cross Review
| volume =
| issue =
| pages = note 2
| doi =
| id =
| url = http://southerncrossreview.org/50/rudnicki1.htm
| format =
| accessdate =
}}</ref>
The family came originally from the [[Silesia]]n village of the same name (Coprnik, Copernik, Copirnik, Copernic, Kopernic, today [[Koperniki]]) near [[Nysa]]. In the 14th century, members of the family had begun moving to Silesian and later to Polish cities: [[Kraków]] (1367) and [[Toruń]] (1400), and also to [[Lwów]]. The astronomer's father (probably the son of Jan) came from the Kraków line. He appears in records for the first time in 1448 as a well-to-do merchant who dealt in copper with [[Gdańsk]] ''(Danzig)''. In the early period of the [[Pomerania]]n cities' struggle for independence from the [[Teutonic Order]], in August 1454, he mediated financial negotiations between Cardinal [[Zbigniew Oleśnicki (cardinal)|Zbigniew Oleśnicki]] and the great Prussian cities regarding repayment of a loan for the Polish-Teutonic war. About 1458 the future astronomer's father moved from Poland's capital, Kraków, to Toruń, where a few years later (before 1464) he married Barbara, daughter of a wealthy Toruń patrician and city councillor, Lucas Watzenrode the elder (died 1462).<ref>Jerzy Dobrzycki and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj", ''[[Polski słownik biograficzny]]'', vol. XIV, 1969, pp. 3-4.</ref>
[[Image:Nicolaus Copernicus bust at UN New York.JPG|thumb|right|Copernicus bust at [[United Nations]], [[New York City|New York]]]]

The Watzenrodes had likewise come from Silesia, from the [[Świdnica]] (Schwednitz) region, and had settled in Toruń after 1360. The astronomer's grandfather Watzenrode was a decided opponent of the Teutonic Order. In 1453 he was the delegate from Toruń at the [[Grudziądz]] conference that planned the anti-Teutonic-Order uprising, and during the [[Thirteen Years' War]] he actively supported the struggle of the Prussian cities not only with substantial monetary subsidies but with political activity in Toruń and Gdańsk as well as with his own personal participation in battles at Łaszyn and [[Malbork]]. He died in 1462, leaving three children: Lucas (1447–1512), future Bishop of [[Warmia]] and the astronomer's patron, and two daughters: Barbara, the astronomer's mother (died after 1495), and Christina (died before 1502), who in 1459 married the merchant and Toruń mayor, Tiedeman von Allen. Through the Watzenrodes' extensive family relationships by marriage, the future astronomer was related both to wealthy [[bourgeoisie|burgher]] families of Kraków, Toruń, Gdańsk and [[Elbląg]] and to prominent noble families of Prussia: the [[Działyński]], [[Kościelecki]] and [[Konopacki]] families.<ref>Dobrzycki and Hajdukiewicz, ''[[Polski słownik biograficzny]]'', vol. XIV, p. 4.</ref>

It remains a matter of dispute whether a nationality should be ascribed to Nicolaus Copernicus retrospectively and, if so, whether he should be regarded as a German or a Pole.<ref name="Understanding Contemporary Germany">''... as there were no natural geographical boundaries, especially in the east. Accordingly, it remains a matter of dispute to this day whether the astronomer Copernicus should be regarded as a German or a Pole.'' - K. Stuart Parkes, ''Understanding Contemporary Germany'', Routledge, 1997, 247 pages ISBN 0-415-14123-0 [http://books.google.ca/books?id=SbakD3sLrzsC&pg=PR21&vq=Copernicus&source=gbs_search_s&cad=0 page xxi]</ref> During his time, [[nationality]] did not yet play as important a role as it would later, and people generally did not think of themselves primarily as Polish or German.<ref name="Davies">[[Norman Davies]], God's Playground: A History of Poland, [http://books.google.ca/books?id=DMoPXktGwiUC&vq=copernicus&lpg=PA25&pg=PA26&sig=0w09Sd3mqsHHd9a0QWl_UVswtIE]. ISBN 0-231-05353-3.</ref> Already in the 123-year period when no Polish state existed (''see'' [[History of Poland (1795–1918)|History of Poland, 1795–1918]]), the matter was debated in German writings; nevertheless, the 1875 ''[[Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie]]'' acknowledged the Polish aspects of Copernicus's life.<ref>''[[Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie]]'', Gesamtübersicht, Bd. 4, Seite 461. [http://mdz.bib-bvb.de/digbib/lexika/adb/images/adb004/@ebt-link?target=idmatch(entityref,adb0040463)]</ref> Current German sources call the controversy, as reflected in the older literature, superfluous and shameful.<ref>''Der Streit in der Literatur darüber, ob Kopernikus ein Deutscher oder ein Pole sei, war überflüssig und beschämend. Leider ist die ältere Literatur davon durchsetzt.''[http://www.geophys.tu-bs.de/geschichte/koperni.htm University of Braunschweig]</ref>
[[Image:1000 zl a 1982.jpg|thumb|right|175px|[[Poland|Polish]] 1,000-[[Polish z%C5%82oty#Third z.C5.82oty .28PLZ.29.2C_1950-1994|old-''złoty'']] [[banknote]] with an image of ''"MIKOŁAJ KOPERNIK"'' (year 1982)]]
[[Image:Kopernik.PNG|thumb|left|150px|[[Poland|Polish]] 10-''[[złoty]]'' coins with Copernicus on [[obverse]], minted 1968 ''(left)'' and 1959.]]
''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'',<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica Online|title=Copernicus, Nicolaus|url=http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9105759|accessdate=2007-09-21|edition= |date= |year=2007|publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica}},</ref> ''[[Encyclopedia Americana]]''<ref>"Copernicus, Nicolaus", ''[[Encyclopedia Americana]]'', vol. 7, pp. 755–56, 1986.</ref> and the ''[[Microsoft]] [[Encarta]] Online Encyclopedia''<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=[[Encarta|Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia]]|title=Nicolaus Copernicus, Polish astronomer|url=http://encarta.msn.com/encnet/refpages/RefArticle.aspx?refid=761571204|accessdate=2007-09-21|edition= |date= |year=2007|publisher=Microsoft}}</ref> identify Copernicus as Polish. According to the ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'', "Thus the child of a German family was a subject of the Polish crown."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/copernicus/#1 |title=Nicolaus Copernicus |accessdate=2007-04-22 |format= |work=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy}}</ref>

Many people assign a single nationality to Copernicus. [[Nazi Germany]] claimed Copernicus to have been purely German,<ref name="Majer">[[Diemut Majer]], ''Non-Germans Under the Third Reich: The Nazi Judicial and Administrative System in Germany and occupied Eastern Europe with special regard to occupied Poland, 1939-1945'', [http://books.google.ca/books?id=w-IQu7nWQwQC&pg=PA671&lpg=PA671&sig=mVuCHVIe2kzlBFVig8LDzYa01Tg&pli=1&auth=DQAAAHMAAAAFm81vud4TkFP47a8-7hznFd5kM9oifoCGqTgxTNKkc7_OSc-XAqZWrKeT3OhKBM2tASoZOOQA_i2zvyY2KpWACjQ6pV2Us6pgjkkcNhDp1RmbEw3iGyPnbbJMQ_MnuKeBT_kAgbOZZCkr4P8t2njwGGdcvYB8N-yE3PqdBR9sSw]. ISBN 0-8018-6493-3</ref> while Poland has always claimed that he was purely Polish.{{Fact|date=April 2009}} Even today, some Germans and most Poles continue to regard him as having been exclusively their own.{{Fact|date=April 2009}}

==See also==
*[[Copernican principle]]
*[[Dedication to Pope Paul III]]
*[[Copernicus (disambiguation)|List of things named after Copernicus]]
*[[Inferior and superior planets]]
*[[History of philosophy in Poland]]
*[[Copernicus Airport Wrocław]]
*[[Scientific Revolution]]

{{clear}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|3}}

== References ==
<div class="references-small">
*{{cite book
| title = The World of Copernicus
| author= Armitage, Angus
| publisher= Mentor Books
| year= 1951
| isbn= 0-8464-0979-8
| location= New York, NY
| ref= Reference-Armitage-1951}}
*{{cite book
| title = The Scientific World of Copernicus: On the Occasion of the 500th Anniversary of His Birth, 1473–1973''
| author = Barbara Bieńkowska
| publisher = Springer
| year = 1973
| isbn = 9027703531}}
*{{cite book
| title= The Church's Most Recent Attempt to Dispel the Galileo Myth
| author= Coyne, George V., S.J.
| others= In [[#Reference-McMullin-2005|McMullin (2005, pp.340–59)]]
| year= 2005
| ref=Reference-Coyne-2005}}
*<cite class="book" style="font-style:normal" id="Reference-DeMarco-2004">{{cite web
| title= ''Book quest took him around the globe''
| author= DeMarco, Peter
| publisher= Boston Globe
| date= 2004-04-13
| accessdate=2008-01-14
| url= http://www.boston.com/news/education/higher/articles/2004/04/13/book_quest_took_him_around_the_globe/
}}
*Dobrzycki, Jerzy, and Leszek Hajdukiewicz, "Kopernik, Mikołaj," ''[[Polski słownik biograficzny]]'' (Polish Biographical Dictionary), vol. XIV, Wrocław, [[Polish Academy of Sciences]], 1969, pp. 3–16.
*{{cite book | title= A History of Astronomy from Thales to Kepler
| author= [[J. L. E. Dreyer|Dreyer, J.L.E.]]
| publisher= Dover Publications
| year= 1953
| url=http://www.archive.org/details/historyofplaneta00dreyuoft
| location= New York, NY
| ref=Reference-Dreyer-1953}}
*{{cite book
| title= The Disputed Injunction and its Role in Galileo's Trial
| author= Fantoli, Annibale
| others= In [[#Reference-McMullin-2005|McMullin (2005, pp.117–49)]]
| year= 2005
| ref=Reference-Fantoli-2005}}
*{{cite book
| title = The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History
| author = Finocchiaro, Maurice A.
| publisher = University of California Press
| year = 1989
| location = Berkeley, CA
| isbn = 0-520-06662-6
| ref = Reference-Finocchiaro-1989}}
*<cite class="book" style="font-style:normal" id="Reference-Gagne-2005">{{cite web
| title = Texts from ''The Galileo Affair: A Documentary History'' edited and translated by Maurice A. Finocchiaro
| author = Gagné, Marc
| publisher = West Chester University course ESS 362/562 in History of Astronomy
| date = 2005
| accessdate = 2008-01-15
| url = http://web.archive.org/web/20070930013053/http://astro.wcupa.edu/mgagne/ess362/resources/finocchiaro.html
}} (Extracts from [[#Reference-Finocchiaro-1989|Finocchiaro (1989)]])
*{{cite book
| title = The Book Nobody Read
| author = [[Owen Gingerich|Gingerich, Owen]]
| publisher = William Heinemann
| year = 2004
| isbn = 0-434-01315-3
| location = London
| ref = Reference-Gingerich-2004}}
*{{cite book
| title = The Rise of Scientific Europe, 1500-1800
| author = [[David Goodman|Goodman, David C.]]
| coauthor = Russell, Colin A.
| publisher = Hodder Arnold H&S
| year = 1991
| isbn = isbn 0-340-55861-X}}
* {{cite book |last= Heath
|first= Sir Thomas
|authorlink= T.L. Heath
|title= Aristarchus of Samos, the ancient Copernicus ; a history of Greek astronomy to Aristarchus, together with Aristarchus's Treatise on the sizes and distances of the sun and moon : a new Greek text with translation and notes
|url= http://www.archive.org/details/aristarchusofsam00heatuoft
|year= 1913
|publisher= Oxford University Press
|location= London
|ref= Reference-Heath-1913}}
*{{cite book
| title = Censorship of Astronomy in Italy after Galileo
| author = Heilbron, John L.
| others = In [[#Reference-McMullin-2005|McMullin (2005, pp.279–322)]]
| year = 2005
| ref = Reference-Heilbron-2005}}
*{{cite book
| title = [[The Sleepwalkers]]: A History of Man's Changing Vision of the Universe
| author = [[Arthur Koestler|Koestler, Arthur]]
| publisher = Grosset & Dunlap
| year = 1963
| origyear = 1959
| isbn = 0448001594
| location = New York, NY
| ref = Reference-Koestler-1963}} Original edition published by Hutchinson (1959, London)
*{{cite book
| title = Nicolaus Copernicus zum 500. Geburtstag
| author = Koeppen, Hans et. al.
| publisher = Böhlau Verlag
| year = 1973
| isbn = 3-412-83573-2}}
*{{cite book
| title = The Astronomical Revolution: Copernicus – Kepler – Borelli
| author = [[Alexandre Koyré|Koyré, Alexandre]]
| publisher = Cornell University Press
| year = 1973
| isbn = 0-8014-0504-1
| location = Ithaca, NY
| ref = Reference-Koyre-1973}}
*{{cite book
| title = The Copernican Revolution: Planetary Astronomy in the Development of Western Thought
| author = [[Thomas Kuhn|Kuhn, Thomas]]
| publisher = Harvard University Press
| year = 1957
| isbn = 0-674-17100-4
| location = Cambridge, MA
| ref = Reference-Kuhn-1957}}
*<cite class="book" style="font-style:normal" id="Reference-Lindberg&Numbers-1986">{{cite web |url=http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/1987/PSCF9-87Lindberg.html |title=Beyond War and Peace: A Reappraisal of the Encounter between Christianity and Science
| author = Lindberg, David C. and Numbers, Ronald L.
| accessdate = 2007-04-22
| work = American Scientific Affiliation article}}</cite> - Paper originally published in ''Church History'' (Vol. 55, No. 3, Sept. 1986).
* {{cite book | title= From Eudoxus to Einstein—A History of Mathematical Astronomy
| author= Linton, Christopher M.
| publisher= Cambridge University Press
| year= 2004
| location= Cambridge
| isbn= 978-0-521-82750-8
| ref=Reference-Linton-2004}}
*{{cite book
| title = The Church and Galileo
| author = McMullin, Ernan, ed.
| publisher = University of Notre Dame Press
| year = 2005
| location = Notre Dame, IN
| isbn = 0-268-03483-4
| ref = Reference-McMullin-2005}}
*<cite class="book" style="font-style:normal" id="Reference-Rabin-2005">{{cite web
| title = ''Copernicus''
| author = Rabin, Sheila
| publisher = The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Summer 2005 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.)
| date = 2005
| accessdate = 2008-05-26
| url = http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2005/entries/copernicus/}}
* {{cite book
|author=Repcheck, Jack
|title=Copernicus' Secret: How the Scientific Revolution Began
|publisher=Simon & Schuster
|location=New York
|year=2007
|isbn=0-7432-8951-X
}}
*{{cite book
| title = Copernicus and his Successors
| author = Rosen, Edward
| publisher = Hambledon Press
| year = 1995
| isbn = 1 85285 071 X
| location = London
| ref = Reference-Rosen-1995}}
*{{cite book
| title = Three Copernican Treatises:The Commentariolus of Copernicus; [[The Letter against Werner]]; The Narratio Prima of Rheticus
| author = Rosen, Edward (translator)
| publisher = Dover Publications
| edition = Second Edition, revised
| year = 2004
| origyear = 1939
| isbn = 0486436055
| location = New York, NY
| ref = Reference-Rosen-2004}}
*{{cite book
| title = Inventing the Flat Earth—Columbus and Modern Historians
| author = [[Jeffrey Burton Russell|Russell, Jeffrey Burton]]
| publisher = Praeger
| year = 1997
| origyear = 1991
| isbn = 0-275-95904-X
| location = New York, NY
| ref = Reference-Russell-1997}}
*{{cite book| title= The Crime of Galileo
| first=Giorgio
| last=de Santillana
| authorlink= Giorgio de Santillana
| url= http://books.google.com.au/books?id=RABIZBnf_y4C&printsec=frontcover
| origyear= 1955
| publisher= Universtiy of Chicago Press
| year= 1976—Midway reprint
| location = Chicago, Ill
| isbn= 0-226-73481-1
| ref= Reference-Santillana-1976}}
*{{cite book
| title = East Central Europe in the Middle Ages 1000-1500
| author = Sedlar, Jean W.
| publisher = University of Washington Press
| isbn = 0295972904
| year = 1994
| url = http://books.google.ie/books?id=ANdbpi1WAIQC&pg=PA282&lpg=PA282&dq=royal-prussia&source=web&ots=tPM6sVA1CM&sig=Of4b4nKAgNiEW3jOopzXCso3nn4&hl=en#PPA282,M1}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book
|author=Danielson, Dennis Richard
|title=The First Copernican: Georg Joachim Rheticus and the Rise of the Copernican Revolution
|publisher=Walker & Company
|location=New York
|year=2006
|isbn=0-8027-1530-3
}}
* {{citebook
|last=Prowe
|first=Leopold
|authorlink=Leopold Prowe
|title=Nicolaus Coppernicus
|url= http://books.google.com/books?id=to0DAAAAYAAJ
|year=1884
|publisher=Weidmannsche Verlagsbuchhandlung
|location=Berlin
|language=German
}}
*''[[Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe]]'' (''Nicolaus Copernicus Complete Edition'') (1974-2004), 9 vols., various editors (in German and Latin). Berlin: Akademie Verlag. A large collection of writings by and about Copernicus.
* [[Nicolaus Copernicus Gesamtausgabe]]: Biographies and Portraits of Copernicus from 16th to 18th century, ''Biographia Copernicana'', 2004, ISBN 3-05-003848-9 [http://www.gbv.de/dms/goettingen/378203525.pdf] [http://books.google.com/books?id=sFF1nknsxRwC&printsec=frontcover&dq=%22Biographia+Copernicana%22&source=gbs_summary_r&cad=0#PPA23,M1]
*{{NDB|3|348|355|Copernicus, Nicolaus|Schmauch, Hans}}
*{{de-ADB|4|461|469|Copernicus, Nicolaus|Bruhns, Christian|ADB:Copernicus, Nicolaus}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons|Nicolaus Copernicus}}

;Primary Sources
* {{gutenberg author| id=Nicolaus+Copernicus | name=Nicolaus Copernicus}}
* [http://www.bj.uj.edu.pl/bjmanus/revol/titlpg_e.html De Revolutionibus, autograph manuscript] — Full digital facsimile, Jagiellonian University
* {{pl icon}} [http://www.domwarminski.pl/content/view/312/433 Copernicus's letters to various celebrities, among others the King Sigmundus I of Poland]

;General
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Copernicus}}
* [http://www.visittorun.pl/index.php?strona=6 Copernicus in Torun]
* [http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang01.htm Nicolaus Copernicus Museum in Frombork]
* Portraits of Copernicus: [http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/9913250/ Copernicus's face reconstructed]; [http://www-groups.dcs.st-andrews.ac.uk/~history/PictDisplay/Copernicus.html Portrait]; [http://www.frombork.art.pl/Ang10.htm Nicolaus Copernicus]
* [http://www.hps.cam.ac.uk/starry/coperastrol.html Copernicus and Astrology] — Cambridge University: Copernicus had – of course – teachers with astrological activities and his tables were later used by astrologers.
* [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/copernicus/ Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy entry]
* [http://www.findagrave.com/cgi-bin/fg.cgi?page=gr&GRid=10340 Find-A-Grave profile for Nicolaus Copernicus]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/4405958.stm 'Body of Copernicus' identified] — BBC article including image of Copernicus using facial reconstruction based on located skull
* [http://www.skyscript.co.uk/copernicus.html Copernicus and Astrology]
*[http://www-personal.umich.edu/~jbourj/money2.htm Nicolaus Copernicus on the 1000 Polish Zloty banknote.]
* Parallax and the Earth's orbit [http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/retrograpde/parallax.gif]
* Copernicus's model for Mars [http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/fix/student/images/04f08.jpg]
* Retrograde Motion[http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/fix/student/images/02f27.jpg]
* Copernicus's explanation for retrograde motion [http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/fix/student/images/04f04.jpg]
* Geometry of Maximum Elongation [http://www.mhhe.com/physsci/astronomy/fix/student/images/04f07.jpg]
* Copernican Model [http://csep10.phys.utk.edu/astr161/lect/retrograde/copernican.html]

;About ''De Revolutionibus''
* [http://galileo.rice.edu/sci/theories/copernican_system.html The Copernican Universe from the De Revolutionibus]
* [http://digital.lib.lehigh.edu/planets/cop.php?num=F.1&exp=false&lang=lat&CISOPTR=0&limit=cop&view=full De Revolutionibus, 1543 first edition] — Full digital facsimile, Lehigh University
* [http://www.hao.ucar.edu/Public/education/bios/derevolutionibus.html The front page of the De Revolutionibus]
* [http://webexhibits.org/calendars/year-text-Copernicus.html The text of the De Revolutionibus]
* [http://www.flex.com/~jai/astrology/retrograde.html A java applet about Retrograde Motion]
*[http://www.giovannipastore.it/CALCOLATORE%20DI%20ANTIKYTHERA.htm The Antikythera Calculator (Italian and English versions)]
*[http://www.giovannipastore.it/ISTRUZIONI.htm Pastore Giovanni, ''ANTIKYTHERA E I REGOLI CALCOLATORI'', Rome, 2006, privately published]

;Legacy
* {{it icon}} [http://www.bo.astro.it/dip/Museum/italiano/sto1_08.html Copernicus in Bologna] — in Italian
* [http://www.npr.org/display_pages/features/feature_1746110.html Chasing Copernicus: The Book Nobody Read] — Was One of the Greatest Scientific Works Really Ignored? All Things Considered. [[NPR]]
* [http://www.bede.org.uk/copernicus.htm Copernicus and his Revolutions] — A detailed critique of the rhetoric of De Revolutionibus
* [http://www.columbia.edu/~gas1/project/visions/case1/sci.1.html Article which discusses Copernicus's debt to the Arabic tradition]

;German-Polish cooperation
* {{de icon}}{{pl icon}} [http://www.berufskolleg-herne.de/kopernikus/index.htm German-Polish school project on Copernicus]
* {{de icon}}{{en icon}}{{pl icon}} [http://www.buero-kopernikus.org/en/home/1 Büro Kopernikus - An initiative of German Federal Cultural Foundation]
* {{de icon}}{{pl icon}} German-Polish "Copernicus Prize" awarded to German and Polish scientists ([http://www.dfg.de/aktuelles_presse/preise/kopernikus_preis/2006/index.html DFG website]) ([http://www.fnp.org.pl/aktualnosci/aktualnosci.html#cop_berlin FNP website])



{{Persondata
|NAME= Copernicus, Nicolaus
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION= [[astronomer]]
|DATE OF BIRTH= 19 February 1473,
|PLACE OF BIRTH= [[Toruń]] (''Thorn''), [[Royal Prussia]], [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Poland]].
|DATE OF DEATH= 24 May 1543,
|PLACE OF DEATH= [[Frombork]] (''Frauenburg''), [[Warmia]] (''Ermeland'').
}}
[[Category:People from Toruń]]
[[Category:16th-century mathematicians]]
[[Category:16th-century astronomers]]
[[Category:German astronomers]]
[[Category:History of astronomy]]
[[Category:New Latin writers]]
[[Category:People from Royal Prussia]]
[[Category:Polish astronomers]]
[[Category:Prussian astronomers]]
[[Category:Roman Catholic scientist-clerics]]
[[Category:Walhalla enshrinees]]
[[Category:Alumni of Jagiellonian University]]
[[Category:Religion and science]]

{{lifetime|1473|1543|Copernicus, Nicolaus}}
{{Link FA|sl}}
[[als:Nicolaus Copernicus]]
[[ar:نيكولاس كوبرنيكوس]]
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[[sh:Nikola Kopernik]]
[[fi:Nikolaus Kopernikus]]
[[sv:Nicolaus Copernicus]]
[[tl:Nicolaus Copernicus]]
[[ta:நிக்கோலாஸ் கோப்பர்னிக்கஸ்]]
[[kab:Nikola Kopernik]]
[[te:నికోలాస్ కోపర్నికస్]]
[[th:นิโคเลาส์ โคเปอร์นิคัส]]
[[tg:Николай Коперник]]
[[tr:Nicolaus Copernicus]]
[[uk:Микола Коперник]]
[[vi:Nicolaus Copernicus]]
[[vo:Nicolaus Copernicus]]
[[fiu-vro:Kopernigu Mikołaj]]
[[zh-yue:哥白尼]]
[[bat-smg:Mėkaluos Kuoperniks]]
[[zh:尼古拉·哥白尼]]

Time in China

2009-02-03T03:54:09Z

Cyon: /* Chungyuan */

The two political entities currently using "China" as part of their official name, the [[People's Republic of China]] (PRC) ([[mainland China]], [[Hong Kong]], and [[Macau]]) and the [[Republic of China]] (ROC) ([[Taiwan]]) are in the same [[time]] zone which is eight hours ahead of the [[Coordinated Universal Time]] ([[UTC+8]]). In the past, this region had been divided into five time zones.

Although all jurisdictions within the region are placed under the same time zone, for historical and political reasons different jurisdictions keep their own time standard with their own names.

* In mainland China, the time standard is called the ''[[#The People's Republic of China|Beijing Time]]'' or ''Chinese Standard Time''. A summer [[daylight saving time]] was observed from 1986 through 1991.
* In Hong Kong, the standard is called ''[[Hong Kong Time]]''.
* In Macau, it is ''[[Macau Standard Time]]'' [http://www.smg.gov.mo/geo/time_service/e_i_timeservice.htm].
* In Taiwan, the time zone is ''[[#Chungyuan|Chungyuan Standard Time]]'', although it is now also frequently referred to as ''Taipei Time''.

== History ==
Time zones were first set up and made official in China in [[1912]] under the [[Republic of China]]. The country was divided into five time zones, namely GMT+5.5, [[UTC6|GMT+6]], [[UTC7|GMT+7]], GMT+8 and GMT+8.5. Before that, time varied, while astrological predictions were conducted according to the time standard based on the locations of then capitals of the imperial dynasties.

After the [[Chinese Civil War]] in 1949, the [[Communist Party of China|Communist Party]] took over mainland China and established [[People's Republic of China]]. The government of the then ruling [[Kuomintang]] (KMT), while retaining control of [[Taiwan]] and [[list of islands of the Republic of China|other minor islands]]), was relocated to [[Taipei]].

The [[People's Republic of China]] established one single time zone (UTC+8) for the entirety of its claimed territories, while the [[Republic of China]] continued to place the remaining territories of Taiwan under the UTC+8 time zone. In other words, although the two had different policies, the outcome was that they were all placed under the same time zone.

From the mid-19th century until 1997 and 1999, [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] had, respectively, been [[colony|colonies]] of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Portugal]]. Despite being part of the People's Republic of China today, as [[special administrative region]]s they have retained their own policies regarding time zones over the respective regions. Due to their geographical locations, both are within the GMT/UTC+8 time zone.

=== The Republic of China from 1912 to 1949 ===
[[Image:ROC-TimeZones.png|thumb|380px|right|The time zones of the areas claimed by the Republic of China (from 1912 to 1949)]]
In 1912, the Central Observatory of the Republic of China in Peking (now romanised as [[Beijing]]) divided the country into five time zones, namely [[#Kunlun|Kunlun Time Zone]] ([[UTC+5:30|GMT+5.5]]), [[#Sinkiang-Tibet|Sinkiang-Tibet Time Zone]] ([[UTC+6|GMT+6]]), [[#Kansu-Szechuan|Kansu-Szechuan Time Zone]] ([[UTC+7|GMT+7]]), [[#Chungyuan|Chungyuan Standard Time Zone]] ([[UTC+8|GMT+8]]), and [[#Changpai|Changpai Time Zone]] ([[UTC+8:30|GMT+8.5]]). These time zones were ratified in 1939 in the standard time conference of the Ministry of Interior of the [[Executive Yuan]].

These time zones were no longer in effective use after 1949, when the PRC was established on mainland China, as the new government had its own policies regarding the time zones on mainland China. However, as the ROC still claimed that it had sovereignty over mainland China, the time zones that were assigned in 1912 are still in use in the view of the Government of the ROC, which had retreated to Taiwan. Some government departments on Taiwan still refer to the time on Taiwan as "Chungyuan Standard Time".

==== Kunlun ====
The Kunlun Time Zone ({{lang|zh-t|崑崙時區}}) was assigned to the area around the [[Kunlun Mountains|Kunlun mountain ranges]] in the far west of China, based on the time on the [[longitude]] 82°30′E. Administrative divisions within this time zone were:
*western part of the Sinkiang Province (now [[Xinjiang|Xinjiang Autonomous Region]] of the [[People's Republic of China|People's Republic of China (PRC)]])
*western part the Tibet Region (now part of the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]] of the PRC)

==== Sinkiang-Tibet ====
The Sinkiang-Tibet Time Zone ({{lang|zh-t|新藏時區}}) was named after the administrative divisions of Sinkiang and Tibet, which had the majority of their land lying in this time zone. The time zone also covered the western halves of their neighbouring administrative divisions. The time in this time zone was based on that on the longitude 90°E. Administrative divisions within this time zone included:
*eastern part of the Sinkiang Province (now Xinjiang Autonomous Region of the PRC)
*eastern part of the Tibet Region (now part of the Tibet Autonomous Region of the PRC)
*western part of Tsinghai Province (now transliterated as [[Qinghai|Qinghai Province]] by the PRC)
*western part of Sikang Province (now part of the Tibet Autonomous Region and [[Sichuan|Sichuan Province]] of the PRC)
*the western part of the [[Outer Mongolia|Mongolia Region]] (now the independent state of [[Mongolia]]).

==== Kansu-Szechuan ====
The Kansu-Szechuan Time Zone ({{lang|zh-t|隴蜀時區}}) covered the mid-western part of China, based on the longitude 105°E. Administrative divisions within this time zone were:
*Kansu Province (now transliterated as [[Gansu|Gansu Province]] by the PRC)
*Szechuan Province (now part of the [[Sichuan|Sichuan Province]] of the PRC)
*Ningsia Province (now the [[Ningxia|Ningxia Autonomous Region]] of the PRC)
*Suiyuan Province (now part of the [[Inner Mongolia|Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region]] of the PRC)
*Shensi Province (now transliterated as [[Shaanxi|Shaanxi Province]] by the PRC)
*Kweichow Province (now transliterated as [[Guizhou|Guizhou Province]] by the PRC)
*Kwangsi Province (now transliterated as [[Guangxi|Guangxi Province]] by the PRC)
*[[Yunnan Province]]
*eastern half of the Tsinghai Province
*eastern half of the Sikang Province
*central part of the Mongolia Region

==== Chungyuan ====
The [[Zhongyuan|Chungyuan]] Standard Time Zone ({{lang|zh-t|中原標準時區}}), or Central Standard Time Zone, covered the densely populated area of the ROC, including the then capital [[Nanjing|Nanking]]. The time in this time zone was based on the longitude 120°E. Administrative divisions in this time zone were:
*[[Hsingan]] Province (now part of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the PRC)
*[[Liaopeh]] Province (now part of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the PRC)
*[[Chahar (province)|Chahar]] Province (now part of the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region)
*Hopeh Province (now transliterated as [[Hebei|Hebei Province]] by the PRC)
*[[Jehol]] Province (now part of the Hebei Province and the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region of the PRC)
*[[Liaoning|Liaoning Province]]
*Shantung Province (now transliterated as [[Shandong|Shandong Province]] by the PRC)
*Shansi Province (now transliterated as [[Shanxi|Shanxi Province]] by the PRC)
*Anhwei Province (now transliterated as [[Anhui|Anhui Province]] by the PRC)
*Kiangsu Province (now transliterated as [[Jiangsu|Jiangsu Province]] by the PRC)
*Chekiang Province (now transliterated as [[Zhejiang|Zhejiang Province]] by the PRC)
*Hupeh Province (now transliterated as [[Hubei|Hubei Province]] by the PRC)
*[[Hunan|Hunan Provice]]
*Kiangsi Province (now transliterated as [[Jiangxi|Jiangxi Province]] by the PRC)
*Fukien Province (now transliterated as [[Fujian|Fujian Province]] by the PRC)
*Kwangtung Province (now transliterated as [[Guangdong|Guangdong Province]] by the PRC)
**Hainan Special Administrative District (now [[Hainan|Hainan Province]] of the PRC)
*Taiwan Province (disputed, see [[political status of Taiwan]])
*eastern part of the Mongolia Region

==== Changpai ====
The Changpai Time Zone ({{lang|zh-t|長白時區}}) covered [[Manchuria|Northeast China]]. Named after the [[Changbai Mountains|Changpai mountain range]] on the border between China and [[Korea]], it was based on that on the longitude 127°30′E. Administrative divisions within this time zone included:
*Heilungkiang province (now part of the [[Heilongjiang|Heilongjiang Province]] of the PRC)
*[[Hejiang|Hokiang province]] (now part of the Heilongjiang Province of the PRC)
*Kirin province (now part of the [[Jilin|Jilin Province]] of the PRC)
*[[Nunkiang province]] (now part of the Jilin Province of the PRC)
*[[Songjiang Province|Sungkiang province]] (now part of the Jilin Province the PRC)
*[[Andong province|Antung province]] (now part of the [[Liaoning|Liaoning Province]] of the PRC)

== The People's Republic of China ==
{{main|China Standard Time}}
After the [[Chinese Civil War]] with the then ruling [[Kuomintang]] (KMT), the Communist Party gained control of the [[mainland China|Chinese mainland]] and established the [[People's Republic of China]] in 1949. A unified time zone - GMT+8 - was established for all its claimed territories, called [[Beijing]] Time (sometimes known as Chinese Standard Time).

The unified time zone policy was adopted by the [[Communist Party of China]] or the People's Republic government some time between 27 September, 1949, and 6 October, 1949. The exact date is unknown, due to poor documentation of government policy decisions at the founding of the [[People's Republic of China]], and the fact that the PRC government had not yet gained control over significant parts of mainland China at this time. However, recent research suggests that the policy was most likely adopted on 27 September 1949.<ref>Guo, Qingsheng (2003) "Beijing Time at the Beginning of PRC", ''China Historical Materials of Science and Technology'' 24(1)</ref>

For a time the [[People's Congress]] of [[Xinjiang|Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region]], thanks to its geographical location in the westernmost part of the country, had a Ürümqi Time, which was 2 hours behind Beijing Time ([[UTC+6]]). Although the Ürümqi Time is not official, most stores and government offices in Xinjiang have modified opening hours, commonly running from 10AM to 7PM Beijing Time. Times for buses, trains, and other public transportation are often given in Xinjiang time, regardless of the ethnicity of the speaker.


== The Republic of China since 1949 ==
{{Unreferenced|date=August 2008}}

Taiwan and Fujian (Fukien) both remain on the Chungyuan Standard Time ([[UTC+8]]), and they do not observe daylight savings.

== Hong Kong ==
{{main|Hong Kong Time}}
Hong Kong Time is [[UTC8|UTC+8]] all year round. Due to [[longitude]], Hong Kong has the same time as that in [[mainland China|the rest of China]]. Therefore, Hong Kong Time is actually in the same time zone as the [[Chinese Standard Time]]. [[Greenwich Mean Time]] was adopted as the basis in [[1904]], and UTC was adopted as a standard in 1972. Before that, local time was determined by astronomical observations at the Hong Kong Observatory using a 6-inch Lee Equatorial and a 3-inch Transit Circle.

== Macau ==
{{main|Macau Standard Time}}
The Macau Standard Time is, like the rest of China, in the UTC+8 time zone all year round. Similar to Hong Kong, there was [[daylight saving time]] in the past. However, the low latitude in Macau makes it unnecessary to adopt a daylight saving time.

== See also ==
*[[China Standard Time]]
*[[UTC+8]]

== External links ==
Government departments responsible for time services:
*[http://www.ntsc.ac.cn National Time Service Center, the Chinese Academy of Sciences] (People's Republic of China, responsible for time standard in mainland China)
*[http://www.hko.gov.hk Hong Kong Observatory] (Hong Kong)
*[http://www.smg.gov.mo/ Direccão dos Servicos Meterológicos e Geofisicos] (Macau)
*[http://www.stdtime.gov.tw/english/e-home.htm Nation Standard Time and Frequency Laboratory, Bureau of Standards, Metrology & Inspection, Ministry of Economic Affairs] (Republic of China)

{{People's Republic of China topics|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Geography of the People's Republic of China]]
[[Category:Geography of the Republic of China]]
[[Category:Time by country|China]]
[[Category:Time zones]]

[[de:Zeitzonen von China]]
[[zh-classical:中國時區]]
[[zh:中國時區]]

Li Yu (1611–1680)

2009-01-28T11:35:27Z

Cyon: pinyin corrections, characters changed to traditional

{{Chinese name|[[Li (surname)|李 (Li)]]}}
'''Li Yu''' ({{zh-cp|c=李漁|p=Lǐ Yú}}, given name: 仙侣 Xiānlǚ; style name: 笠翁 Lìwēng) (1610—1680) was a Chinese playwright, novelist and publisher. Born in [[Rugao]], he lived in late-[[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] and early-[[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] dynasties.

Li was an actor, producer, and director as well as a playwright, who traveled with his own troupe. His play ''Fēngzhēng wù'' (風箏誤, "Errors caused by the Kite") remains a favourite of the Chinese [[Kun opera]] stage.

Li is the presumed author of ''Ròu pútuán'' (肉蒲團, "[[The Carnal Prayer Mat]]"), a well-crafted comedy and a classic of Chinese [[erotic literature]]. He also wrote a book of short stories called ''Shí'èr lóu'' (十二樓, "Twelve Towers"). In his time he was widely read, and appreciated for his daringly innovative subject matter. He broaches the topic of [[homosexuality|same-sex love]] in the tale ''Cuìyǎ lóu'' (萃雅樓, "House of Gathered Refinements"). This is a theme which he revisits in the collection ''Wúshēng xì'' (無聲戲, "Silent Operas" i.e. "novels").

The famous painting manual ''[[Jieziyuan Huazhuan]]'' was prefaced and published by Li in [[Nanjing|Jinling]].

==Translations==
* Patrick Hanan (1988). ''The Invention of Li Yu''. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-46425-7.
* Patrick Hanan (1996). ''The Carnal Prayer Mat''. Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1798-2.
* Patrick Hanan (1998). ''Tower for the Summer Heat''. New York : Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11384-6.
* Nathan K Mao (1979). ''Twelve towers : short stories''. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. ISBN 962-201-170-5.
* Jacques Dars (2003). ''Au gré d'humeurs oisives : Les carnets secrets de Li Yu : un art du bonheur en Chine''. Arles : Editions Philippe Picquier. ISBN 2-87730-664-X
* ''Jou-pu-tuan : Andachtsmatten aus Fleisch ; e. erot. Roman aus d. Ming-Zeit''. Frankfurt am Main : Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag. ISBN 3-596-22451-9. 1986.
* LI‑YU ''Jeou-P'ou-T'ouan, la chair comme tapis de prière'', translated by Pierre Klossowski; Éditions Jean-Jacques Pauvert, Paris, 1979
* Li Yu: ''À mari jaloux, femme fidèle'', by Pascale Frey 1998

==Critique==
* Andrea Stocken: Das Ästhetikkonzept des Li Yu (1610 –1680) im Xianqing ouji im Zusammenhang von Leben und Werk. 2005 ISBN 3-447-05120-5
* HENRY, Eric: Chinese Amusement - The Lively Plays of Li Yü.Archon Books Hamden, CT 1980
* Воскресенский Д.Н. Ли Юй. Полуночник Вэйян или подстилка из плоти. (пер. с кит., предисл., коммент.) М., Гудьял-Пресс
*Воскресенский Д.Н. Ли Юй. Двенадцать башен (повести XVII в.). (пер. с кит., предисл., коммент.) М., Гудьял-Пресс

==References==
* Chen, Duo, [http://www.wordpedia.com/search/Content.asp?ID=59914 "Li Yu"]. ''[[Encyclopedia of China]]'', 1st ed.

==External links==
* [http://dannyreviews.com/h/Carnal_Prayer_Mat.html Brief review of ''The Carnal Prayer Mat'']

==See also==
*[[Jin Ping Mei]]

[[Category:1610 births]]
[[Category:1680 deaths]]
[[Category:Chinese novelists]]
[[Category:Chinese-language writers]]
[[Category:Chinese erotica writers]]
[[Category:People from Jiangsu]]

[[ast:Li Liweng]]
[[ca:Li Liweng]]
[[de:Li Yu (Schriftsteller)]]
[[es:Li Liweng]]
[[eo:Li Liweng]]
[[fr:Li Liweng]]
[[gl:Li Liweng]]
[[it:Lǐ Yú]]
[[sw:Li Liweng]]
[[lad:Li Liweng]]
[[nl:Li Liweng]]
[[pt:Li Liweng]]
[[ro:Li Yu (scriitor)]]
[[sv:Li Yu]]
[[zh:李渔]]

Li Yu (1611–1680)

2009-01-28T11:20:10Z

Cyon: corrected pinyin

{{Chinese name|[[Li (surname)|李 (Li)]]}}
'''Li Yu''' ({{zh-cp|c=李漁|p=Lǐ Yú}}, given name: 仙侣 Xiānlǚ; style name: 笠翁 Lìwēng) (1610—1680) was a Chinese playwright, novelist and publisher. Born in [[Rugao]], he lived in late-[[Ming Dynasty|Ming]] and early-[[Qing Dynasty|Qing]] dynasties.

Li was an actor, producer, and director as well as a playwright, who traveled with his own troupe. His play ''Fengzheng Wu'' (风筝误 "Errors caused by the Kite") remains a favourite of the Chinese [[Kun opera]] stage.

Li is the presumed author of ''Rouputuan'' (肉蒲团 "[[The Carnal Prayer Mat]]"), a well-crafted comedy and a classic of Chinese [[erotic literature]]. He also wrote a book of short stories called ''Shier Lou'' (十二楼, "Twelve Towers"). In his time he was widely read, and appreciated for his daringly innovative subject matter. He broaches the topic of [[homosexuality|same-sex love]] in the tale ''Cuiya Lou'' (萃雅楼, "House of Gathered Refinements"). This is a theme which he revisits in the collection ''Wusheng Xi'' (无声戏 "Silent Operas" i.e. "novels").

The famous painting manual ''[[Jieziyuan Huazhuan]]'' was prefaced and published by Li in [[Nanjing|Jinling]].

==Translations==
* Patrick Hanan (1988). ''The Invention of Li Yu''. Cambridge, Mass. : Harvard University Press. ISBN 0-674-46425-7.
* Patrick Hanan (1996). ''The Carnal Prayer Mat''. Honolulu : University of Hawaii Press. ISBN 0-8248-1798-2.
* Patrick Hanan (1998). ''Tower for the Summer Heat''. New York : Columbia University Press. ISBN 0-231-11384-6.
* Nathan K Mao (1979). ''Twelve towers : short stories''. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. ISBN 962-201-170-5.
* Jacques Dars (2003). ''Au gré d'humeurs oisives : Les carnets secrets de Li Yu : un art du bonheur en Chine''. Arles : Editions Philippe Picquier. ISBN 2-87730-664-X
* ''Jou-pu-tuan : Andachtsmatten aus Fleisch ; e. erot. Roman aus d. Ming-Zeit''. Frankfurt am Main : Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag. ISBN 3-596-22451-9. 1986.
* LI‑YU ''Jeou-P'ou-T'ouan, la chair comme tapis de prière'', translated by Pierre Klossowski; Éditions Jean-Jacques Pauvert, Paris, 1979
* Li Yu: ''À mari jaloux, femme fidèle'', by Pascale Frey 1998

==Critique==
* Andrea Stocken: Das Ästhetikkonzept des Li Yu (1610 –1680) im Xianqing ouji im Zusammenhang von Leben und Werk. 2005 ISBN 3-447-05120-5
* HENRY, Eric: Chinese Amusement - The Lively Plays of Li Yü.Archon Books Hamden, CT 1980
* Воскресенский Д.Н. Ли Юй. Полуночник Вэйян или подстилка из плоти. (пер. с кит., предисл., коммент.) М., Гудьял-Пресс
*Воскресенский Д.Н. Ли Юй. Двенадцать башен (повести XVII в.). (пер. с кит., предисл., коммент.) М., Гудьял-Пресс

==References==
* Chen, Duo, [http://www.wordpedia.com/search/Content.asp?ID=59914 "Li Yu"]. ''[[Encyclopedia of China]]'', 1st ed.

==External links==
* [http://dannyreviews.com/h/Carnal_Prayer_Mat.html Brief review of ''The Carnal Prayer Mat'']

==See also==
*[[Jin Ping Mei]]

[[Category:1610 births]]
[[Category:1680 deaths]]
[[Category:Chinese novelists]]
[[Category:Chinese-language writers]]
[[Category:Chinese erotica writers]]
[[Category:People from Jiangsu]]

[[ast:Li Liweng]]
[[ca:Li Liweng]]
[[de:Li Yu (Schriftsteller)]]
[[es:Li Liweng]]
[[eo:Li Liweng]]
[[fr:Li Liweng]]
[[gl:Li Liweng]]
[[it:Lǐ Yú]]
[[sw:Li Liweng]]
[[lad:Li Liweng]]
[[nl:Li Liweng]]
[[pt:Li Liweng]]
[[ro:Li Yu (scriitor)]]
[[sv:Li Yu]]
[[zh:李渔]]

Talk:Sex and Zen

2009-01-28T10:48:01Z

Cyon: /* What does the Chinese title mean? */

{{film|class=stub|importance=low|Chinese-task-force=yes
}}

== Who is the sack monk? ==

Is that anyone I should know, or just the name of that particular character (in which case it ought to be placed in brackets)? Thanks, [[User:Maikel|Maikel]] ([[User talk:Maikel|talk]]) 12:37, 2 October 2008 (UTC)

==What does the Chinese title mean?==
What does "Yu Pu Tuan Zhi Tou Qing Bao Qian" translate to? Thanks, [[User:Maikel|Maikel]] ([[User talk:Maikel|talk]]) 14:03, 2 October 2008 (UTC)
:The Chinese title is stylized to resemble titles of classical novels, it could be translated to something like this: "The Jade Prayer Mat, or the Precious Mirror of Secret Love Affairs". "Jade" is an elegant (although somehow antiquated) way to speak of human body in Chinese. The original novel's title is much more direct, it's called 肉蒲團, ''Ròu pútuán'', "The Carnal Prayer Mat", or to be exact, "the prayer mat (made of) flesh". To be even more exact, ''pútuán'' is a round mat used to sit on during meditation in ''Chan'' ([[Zen]]) buddhism. [[User:Cyon|Cyon]] ([[User talk:Cyon|talk]]) 10:48, 28 January 2009 (UTC)

Sex and Zen

2009-01-28T10:18:28Z

Cyon: corrected pinyin

{{Infobox Film
| name = Sex and Zen
| image =
| image_size =
| caption =
| director = [[Michael Mak]]
| producer =
| writer =
| narrator =
| starring = [[Amy Yip]] [[Lawrence Ng]]
| music =
| cinematography =
| editing =
| distributor =
| released = [[1991 in film|1991]]
| runtime = 99 min.
| country = [[Hong Kong]]
| language = [[Standard Cantonese|Cantonese]]
| budget =
| preceded_by =
| followed_by = ''[[Sex and Zen II]]''
| website =
| amg_id =
| imdb_id = 0105287
}}
'''''Sex and Zen''''' (traditional Chinese: 玉蒲團之偷情寶鑑, ''Yù pútuán zhī tōuqíng bǎojiàn'') is a 1991 [[Hong Kong]] [[erotic film]] / [[comedy film|comedy]] directed by [[Michael Mak]] and starring [[Amy Yip]] and [[Lawrence Ng]].

The film is loosely based around on ''[[The Carnal Prayer Mat]]'', an infamous [[China|Chinese]] erotic novel by 17th century author and playwright [[Li Yu (Ming Dynasty)|Li Yu]].

==Plot==
[[Image:Amy Yip.jpg|200px|thumb|Huk-Yeung (Amy Yip) before having an affair with the gardener]]
The story is about a constantly horny scholar (played by Lawrence Ng) who dared to challenge the moral teachings of the Sack Monk. The monk had tried to lecture the scholar that [[spiritual enlightenment]] transcended the passions of the flesh but the scholar, who enjoys women, naturally doesn't agree. However, the most powerful man in the town marries his daughter, played by Amy Yip, to the Scholar. The daughter is a [[virgin]] and has been taught that sex is dirty.

The scholar, after a disastrous yet humorous wedding night, soon initiates his bride into the pleasures of sex, aided greatly by the illustrations of a copy of said sex manual that he owns. But soon, the amorous husband goes about his 'scholastic travels' where he meets the greatest thief known to man. The thief is able to sneak into people's houses undetected, and the scholar wants to learn this skill so that he can sleep with other men's wives. The thief was initially willing to help him, until he catches the scholar one day and discovers that the scholar is not very [[Penis size|well-endowed]].

The thief tells the scholar that stealing other men's wives requires both good lovemaking skills and equipment. The thief promises to help the scholar only if he has a horse's penis. Of course, the thief didn't think it was possible, until the scholar returned one day, indeed, with a horse's penis attached as his own. Apparently, the scholar met a doctor who was able to [[Organ transplant|replace anatomical parts]] (a scene with a [[Cameo appearance|cameo]] by Hong Kong funnyman [[Kent Cheng]]).

The doctor managed to transplant a horse's penis to replace the scholar's meager one. Armed with his new 20-inch weapon, the scholar goes on a sexual rampage, not caring if he is seducing other men's wives, or is nearly caught in the process. Meanwhile, the scholar's wife, after experiencing the joys of sex, is getting really horny and lonely. She tried [[masturbating]] with paintbrushes but is left unsatisfied until she has an affair with the gardener, the husband of one of the wives the scholar seduced. She becomes pregnant and runs away with the man, who persuades her to have an abortion. She soon finds solace in a [[brothel]] where she perfects her sexual skills to become the top [[courtesan]].

Meanwhile, the scholar husband, starts to contract an [[AIDS]]-like frailty due to too much sex (involving 2 sisters-in-law who are bisexual and into [[S&M]]). He goes to the brothel for treatment, where he is offered the top courtesan. At first, both husband and wife cannot recognize each other; she looked at his penis and thought it couldn't be her husband's because his was small; he couldn't recognize her because his eyesight was failing. While they were having sex, he took a close look at her figure and nipple and recognized her. To her dismay, he screamed and shouted and called her a disgrace. To his dismay, she went off and hanged herself. The man, completely broken, went back to the monk to ask for forgiveness.

==Box office==

In Hong Kong, the film grossed $18,424,224 HKD. This was enormous business considering the film was saddled with the restrictive [[Hong Kong motion picture rating system|Category III]] rating (the Hong Kong equivalent of [[NC-17]]).

==Sequels==
''Sex and Zen'' went on to spin off two ''sequels'', ''[[Sex and Zen II]]'' and ''[[Sex and Zen III]]''. These are not sequels in plot, as each movie illustrates a different story also based on the sex manual.

The movies were also budding platforms for former [[Cinema of Hong Kong#Category III films|Category III]] actresses such as [[Shu Qi]] who have now made it as A-list Hong Kong movie stars. However, even the stigma of having been a [[sex symbol]] actor cannot be completely erased. Lawrence Ng once mentioned in an interview that he was embarrassed for having made the film and wishes that he instead be known for his serious character roles in modern and period drama TV series.

==Cast==
* [[Lawrence Ng]] - Mei Yeung-Sheng
* [[Kent Cheng]] - Dr. Tin Chan
* [[Lo Lieh]] - Chor Kun-Lun
* [[Amy Yip]] - Huk-Yeung/Chau-Yin
* [[Isabella Chow]] - Shui Chu
* [[Carrie Ng]] - Mistress Ku
* [[Tim Wong]] - Emil Wu
* [[Mari Ayukawa]]
* [[Tomoko Ino]]
* [[Rena Murakami]] - Fa Sun (uncredited)
* [[Tien Feng]] - Master Iron Doors (uncredited)
* [[Elvis Tsui]] - Wong Chut (uncredited)

==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0105287|title=Sex and Zen}}
* [http://www.lovehkfilm.com/reviews_2/sex_and_zen.htm Entry at lovehkfilm.com]

[[Category:1991 films]]
[[Category:Hong Kong films]]
[[Category:Cantonese-language films]]
[[Category:Erotic films]]

[[ru:Секс и дзен: Ковёр для телесных молитв (фильм)]]
[[zh-yue:玉蒲團之偷情寶鑑]]
[[zh:玉蒲團之偷情寶鑑]]

Earthly Branches

2009-01-27T06:14:57Z

Cyon: chinese characters added, spelling

[[Image:E8620-Almaty-Zodiac-Fountain.jpg|thumb|A fountain in [[Almaty]] represnting the 12 animals of the (Kazakh version of the) animal cycle]]
The '''Earthly Branches''' ({{zh-cp|c=地支|p=dìzhī}}; or {{zh-cpl|c=十二支|p=shíèrzhī|l=twelve branches}}) provide one [[China|Chinese]] system for reckoning [[time]].

This system was built from observations of the orbit of [[Jupiter]]. Chinese astronomers divided the celestial circle into 12 sections to follow the orbit of {{lang|zh|歳星}} ''Suìxīng'' (Jupiter, the Year Star). Astronomers rounded the orbit of Suixing to 12 years (from 11.86). Suixing was associated with {{lang|zh|攝提}} ''Sheti'' (ɳ Boötes) and sometimes called Sheti.

In correlative thinking, the twelve years of the Jupiter cycle also identify the twelve months of the year, twelve animals ([[mnemonic]]s for the system), directions, seasons, months, and [[Chinese_unit#Measures_of_time|Chinese hour]] in the form of double-hours. When a Branch is used for a double hour, the listed periods are meant. When used for an exact time of a day, it is the center of the period. For instance, 午 (the Horse) means noon or a period from 11am to 1pm. (The jie qi system provided single hours and 15-degree arcs in time and space.)

Chinese [[seasons]] are based on observations of the sun and stars, not the [[weather]]. Many Chinese calendrical systems have started the new year on the first [[new moon]] after the [[Dongzhi|winter solstice]].

The Earthly Branches are today used with the [[Heavenly Stems]] in the current version of the "traditional [[Chinese calendar|calendar]]" and in [[Taoism]]. The Ganzhi (Stem-Branch) combination is a fairly new way to mark time; in the Shang era it was the ten [[Heavenly Stems]] that provided the names of the days of the week. The Branches are as old as the Stems (and according to recent [[archaeology]] may actually be older), but the Stems were tied to the ritual calendars of Chinese kings. They were not part of the calendrical systems of the majority of Chinese.

{|class="wikitable"
! 
!Earthly Branch
!Chinese name
!Turkish name
!Japanese name (On and Kun)
!Korean name
!Vietnamese name
!Chinese zodiac
!Direction
!Season
!Lunar Month
!Double Hour
|-tr align="center"
||1
||子||zǐ||sıçgan-fare (rat)||shi ne||자 (ja)
||tý (Tí)||[[Rat (zodiac)|Rat]]
||0° (north)||rowspan="2"|winter||Month 11 ([[Dongzhi|winter solstice]])||11pm to 1am (midnight)
|-tr align="center"
||2
||丑||chǒu||ud sığır-sığır (ox)||chū ushi||축 (chuk)||sửu
||[[Ox (zodiac)|Ox]]
||30°||Month 12||1am to 3am
|-tr align="center"
||3
||寅||yín||bars-pars (panther)||in tora||인 (in)
||dần||[[Tiger (zodiac)|Tiger]]
||60°||td rowspan="3"|spring||Month 1||3am to 5am
|-tr align="center"
||4
||卯||mǎo||tavışgan-tavşan (rabbit)||bō u||묘 (myo)
||mão (mẹo)||[[Rabbit (zodiac)|Rabbit]]
||90° (east)||Month 2 ([[vernal equinox]])||5am to 7am

|-tr align="center"
||5
||辰||chén||lu-ejder (dragon)||shin tatsu||진 (jin)
||thìn||[[Dragon (zodiac)|Dragon]]
||120°||Month 3||7am to 9 am

|-tr align="center"
||6
||巳||sì||ılan-yılan (snake)||shi mi||사 (sa)
||tỵ||[[Snake (zodiac)|Snake]]
||150°||td rowspan="3"|summer||Month 4||9am to 11am

|-tr align="center"
||7
||午||wǔ||yunt-at (horse)||go uma||오 (o)
||ngọ||[[Horse (zodiac)|Horse]]
||180° (south)||Month 5 ([[Xiazhi|summer solstice]])||11am to 1pm (noon)

|-tr align="center"
||8
||未||wèi||koy-koyun (sheep)||bi hitsuji||미 (mi)
||mùi||[[Sheep (zodiac)|Sheep]]
||210°||Month 6||1pm to 3pm

|-tr align="center"
||9
||申||shēn||biçin-maymun (monkey)||shin saru||신 (sin)
||thân||[[Monkey (zodiac)|Monkey]]
||240°||td rowspan="3"|autumn||Month 7||3pm to 5pm

|-tr align="center"
||10
||酉||yǒu||taguk-tavuk (chicken)||(yū tori||유 (yu)
||dậu||[[Rooster (zodiac)|Rooster]]
||270° (west)||Month 8 ([[autumnal equinox]])||5pm to 7pm

|-tr align="center"
||11
||戌||xū||it-köpek (dog)||jutsu inu||술 (sul)
||tuất||[[Dog (zodiac)|Dog]]
||300°||Month 9||7pm to 9pm

|-tr align="center"
||12
||亥||hài||tonguz-domuz (hog)||gai i||해 (hae)
||hợi||[[Pig (zodiac)|Pig]]
||330°||winter||Month 10||9pm to 11pm

|}

Some cultures assign different animals: [[Vietnam]] replaces the ox, rabbit, and sheep with the water buffalo, cat, and goat respectively; [[Japan]] replaces the pig with the wild boar. In the traditional [[Kazakh people|Kazakh]] version of the 12-year animal cycle ({{lang-kz|мүшел}}, ''müşel''), the dragon is substituted by a [[snail]] ({{lang-kz|ұлу}}, ''ulw''), and the tiger appears as a leopard ({{lang-kz|барыс}}, ''barıs'').<ref>А. Мухамбетова (A. Mukhambetova), [http://kazahd.do.am/publ/1-1-0-108 Казахский традиционный календарь The traditional Kazakh calendar] {{ru icon}}</ref>

==Directions==
[[Image:China 24 cardinal directions.png|thumb|250px|The 24 cardinal directions.]]
Even though Chinese has words for the four [[cardinal direction]]s - {{lang|zh|北}} (běi, north), {{lang|zh|東}} (dōng, east), {{lang|zh|南}} (nán, south), and {{lang|zh|西}} (xī, west) - Chinese [[Sailor|mariners]] and [[astronomer]]s/[[astrologers]] preferred using the twelve directions of the Earthly Branches, which is somewhat similar to the modern-day practice of English-speaking pilots using ''o'clock'' for directions. Since twelve points were not enough for sailing, twelve midpoints were added. Instead of combining two adjacent direction names, they assigned new names as follows:

* For the four diagonal directions, appropriate trigram names of [[I Ching]] were used.
* For the rest, the Heavenly Stems were used. According to the [[Five Elements]] theory, east is assigned to wood, and the Stems of wood are {{lang|zh|甲}} (jiǎ) and {{lang|zh|乙}} (yǐ). Thus they were assigned clockwise to the two adjacent points of the east.

Following is a table of the 24 directions:

{{col-begin}}{{col-2}}
{|class="wikitable" table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"

!  
!Character
!Chinese name
!Japanese name
!Direction

|-tr align="center"
|1
|子||zǐ||ne
|0° (north)

|-tr align="center"
|2
|癸||guǐ||mizunoto
|15°

|-tr align="center"
|3
|丑||chǒu||ushi
|30°

|-tr align="center"
|4
|艮||gèn||ushitora
|45° (northeast)

|-tr align="center"
|5
|寅||yín||tora
|60°

|-tr align="center"
|6
|甲||jiǎ||kinoe
|75°

|-tr align="center"
|7
|卯||mǎo||u
|90° (east)

|-tr align="center"
|8
|乙||yǐ||kinoto
|105°

|-tr align="center"
|9
|辰||chén||tatsu
|120°

|-tr align="center"
|10
|巽||xùn||tatsumi
|135° (southeast)

|-tr align="center"
|11
|巳||sì||mi
|150°

|-tr align="center"
|12
|丙||bǐng||hinoe
|165°

</table>
{{col-2}}
{|class="wikitable" table border="1" cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0"
!  
!Character
!Chinese name
!Japanese name
!Direction

|-tr align="center"
|13
|午||wǔ||uma
|180° (south)

|-tr align="center"
|14
|丁||dīng||hinoto
|195°

|-tr align="center"
|15
|未||wèi||hitsuji
|210°

|-tr align="center"
|16
|坤||kūn||hitsujisaru
|225° (southwest)

|-tr align="center"
|17
|申||shēn||saru
|240°

|-tr align="center"
|18
|庚||gēng||kanoe
|255°

|-tr align="center"
|19
|酉||yǒu||tori
|270° (west)

|-tr align="center"
|20
|辛||xīn||kanoto
|285°

|-tr align="center"
|21
|戌||xū||inu
|300°

|-tr align="center"
|22
|乾||qián||inui
|315° (northwest)

|-tr align="center"
|23
|亥||hài||i
|330°

|-tr align="center"
|24
|壬||rén||mizunoe
|345°

|}
{{col-end}}
Advanced mariners such as [[Zheng He|Zhèng Hé]] used 48-point compasses. An additional midpoint was called by a combination of its two closest basic directions, such as {{lang|zh|丙午}} (bǐngwǔ) for the direction of 172.5°, the midpoint between {{lang|zh|丙}} (bǐng), 165°, and {{lang|zh|午}} (wǔ), 180°.

==See also==
*[[Sexagesimal cycle]] (干支)
*[[Chinese calendar]]
*[[Chinese astrology]] (with the discussion of the twelve animals)
*[[Image:Chinese_cardinal_directions_study_panel.pdf]] (A study of the cardinal directions chart)

==External links==
*[http://www.hko.gov.hk/gts/time/stemsandbranches.htm Heavenly Stems and Earthly Branches - Hong Kong Observatory]
{{Reflist}}

{{Jupiter}}

[[Category:Chinese calendars]]
[[Category:Chinese astrology]]
[[Category:Technical factors of astrology]]
[[Category:Jupiter]]

[[zh-yue:地支]]
[[als:Erdzweige]]
[[az:Türk-monqol təqvimi]]
[[de:Erdzweige]]
[[fr:Branche terrestre]]
[[gan:地支]]
[[ko:십이지]]
[[it:Dizhi]]
[[ms:Dizhi]]
[[ja:十二支]]
[[pl:Ziemskie gałęzie]]
[[ru:Земные ветви]]
[[fi:Maalliset oksat]]
[[tr:12 Hayvanlı Takvim]]
[[zh:地支]]