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Władysław II Jagiełło

2024-08-05T15:27:29Z

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{{Short description|Grand Duke of Lithuania (1377–1434); King of Poland (1386–1434)}}
{{Redirect2|Jagiełło|Jagiello}}
{{For|monarchs with similar names|Ladislaus Jagiello (disambiguation)|Ladislaus}}
{{featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2024}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Władysław II Jagiełło
| image = Jogaila (Władysław II).jpg
| caption = King Władysław II Jagiełło, detail of the Triptych of Our Lady of Sorrows in the [[Wawel Cathedral]], [[Kraków]]
| birth_date = c. 1352/1362
| birth_place = [[Vilnius]], [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]
| death_date = {{death date|1434|6|1|df=y}} (aged 71-72/81-82)
| death_place = [[Horodok, Lviv Oblast|Gródek Jagielloński]], [[Kingdom of Poland (1385–1569)|Kingdom of Poland]]
| place of burial= [[Wawel Cathedral]]
| succession = [[Grand Duke of Lithuania|Grand/Supreme Duke of Lithuania]]
| reign = {{plainlist|
* May 1377{{snd}}August 1381
* 3/15 August 1382{{snd}}1 June 1434
}}
| coronation =
| predecessor = {{plainlist|
* [[Algirdas]] (1377)
* [[Kęstutis]] (1382)
}}
| successor = {{plainlist|
* [[Kęstutis]] (1381)
* [[Władysław III of Poland|Władysław III]] (1434)
}}
| regent = {{plainlist|
* [[Skirgaila]] (1386–1392)
* [[Vytautas]] (1392–1401 as regent, 1401–1430 as Grand Duke)
* [[Švitrigaila]] (1430–1432 as Grand Duke)
* [[Sigismund Kęstutaitis]] (1432–1434 as Grand Duke)
}}
| succession1 = [[King of Poland]]<br><small>with [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]] (1386–1399)</small>
| reign1 = 4 March 1386{{snd}}1 June 1434
| predecessor1 = [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]]
| successor1 = [[Władysław III of Poland|Władysław III]]
| coronation1 = 4 March 1386
| dynasty = [[Jagiellon dynasty|Jagiellon]] ([[cadet branch]] of the [[Gediminid dynasty]])
| father = [[Algirdas, Grand Duke of Lithuania]]
| mother = [[Uliana of Tver]]
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* [[Jadwiga of Poland]]
* [[Anna of Cilli]]
* [[Elisabeth of Pilica]]
* [[Sophia of Halshany]]}}
| issue = {{plainlist|
* [[Elizabeth Bonifacia of Poland|Elizabeth Bonifacia]]
* [[Hedwig Jagiellon (1408–1431)|Hedwig Jagiellon]]
* Casimir
* [[Władysław III of Poland]]
* [[Casimir IV Jagiellon]]}}
}}

'''Jogaila''' ({{IPA-lt|jɔˈɡâːɪɫɐ|lang|Lithuanian pronunciation of the name Jogaila.ogg}}; {{c.|1352/1362}}{{snd}}1 June 1434), later '''Władysław II Jagiełło''' ({{IPA-pl|vwaˈdɨswaf jaˈɡʲɛwwɔ|lang|Pl-Władysław Jagiełło.ogg}}),<ref group=nb>He is known under a number of names: {{lang-lt|Jogaila Algirdaitis}}; {{lang-pl|Władysław II Jagiełło}}; {{lang-be|Jahajła (Ягайла)}}. See also: [[Names and titles of Władysław II Jagiełło]].</ref> was [[List of Lithuanian monarchs|Grand Duke of Lithuania]] (1377–1381 and 1382–1401), later giving the position to his cousin [[Vytautas]] in exchange for the title of [[Supreme Duke of Lithuania]] (1401–1434) and then [[List of Polish monarchs|King of Poland]] (1386–1434), first alongside his wife [[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]] until 1399, and then sole ruler of Poland. Born a [[Lithuanian mythology|Lithuanian polytheist]], he converted to [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]] in 1386 and was baptized as [[Ladislaus]] ({{Lang-pl|Władysław|links=no}}) in [[Kraków]], married the young Queen Jadwiga, and was crowned King of Poland as Władysław II Jagiełło.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Grzęda |first=Mateusz |date=15 February 2022 |title=Ladislaus II Jagiełło (1386–1434) |journal=Encyclopedia |language=en |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=515, 525 |doi=10.3390/encyclopedia2010034 |issn=2673-8392 |doi-access=free }}</ref><ref name="bojtár"/> In 1387, he [[Christianization of Lithuania|converted Lithuania]] to Catholicism. His own reign in Poland started in 1399, upon the death of Queen Jadwiga, lasted a further thirty-five years, and laid the foundation for the centuries-long [[Polish–Lithuanian union]]. He was a member of the [[Jagiellonian dynasty]] in Poland that bears his name and was previously also known as the [[Gediminids|Gediminid dynasty]] in the [[Grand Duchy of Lithuania]]. The dynasty ruled both states until 1572,<ref group=nb>[[Anna Jagiellon]], the last member of royal Jagiellon family, died in 1596.</ref> and became one of the most influential dynasties in late [[Middle Ages|medieval]] and [[Early modern period|early modern]] Europe.<ref name="Bojtar"/>

Jogaila was the last pagan ruler of [[medieval Lithuania]]. After he became King of Poland, as a result of the [[Union of Krewo]], the newly formed Polish-Lithuanian union confronted the growing power of the [[Teutonic Order]]. The allied victory at the [[Battle of Grunwald]] in 1410, followed by the [[Peace of Thorn (1411)|Peace of Thorn]], secured the Polish and Lithuanian borders and marked the emergence of the Polish–Lithuanian alliance as a significant force in Europe. The reign of Władysław II Jagiełło extended Polish frontiers and is often considered the beginning of Poland's [[Polish Golden Age|Golden Age]].

==Early life==

===Lithuania===
Little is known of Jogaila's early life, and even his year of birth is uncertain. Previously historians assumed he was born in 1352, but some recent research suggests a later date—about 1362.<ref name="tęgowski">{{Harvnb|Tęgowski|1999|pp=124–125}}</ref> He was a descendant of the [[Gediminids|Gediminid dynasty]] and was the son of [[Algirdas]], Grand Duke of Lithuania, and his second wife, [[Uliana of Tver]],<ref>{{Harvnb|Potašenko|2008|p=30}}</ref> who was the daughter of the [[Yaroslavichi of Tver|Yaroslavichi]] prince [[Aleksandr Mikhailovich of Tver|Alexander of Tver]]. His name had a meaning of more courageous and superior than others, he spent most of his early time in [[Vilnius]], at his father's manor.<ref name="Plikune"/>

[[File:Coin of Jogaila with a lion (1386–1387).jpg|thumb|left|Early coin of the [[Grand Duke of Lithuania]] Jogaila with a lion, minted at the [[Vilnius Mint]] between 1386 and 1387]]
The Grand Duchy of Lithuania to which Jogaila succeeded as Grand Duke in 1377 was a political entity composed of two leading, but very different nationalities and two political systems: ethnic Lithuania in the north-west and the vast [[Ruthenia]]n territories of former [[Kievan Rus']], comprising the lands of modern Ukraine, Belarus, and parts of western Russia.<ref name="stone"/> At first, Jogaila—like his father—based his rule in the southern and eastern territories of Lithuania, while his uncle, [[Kęstutis]], the [[Duke of Trakai]], continued to rule the north-western region.<ref group=nb>Some historians have called this system a diarchy ({{Harvnb|Sruogienė-Sruoga|1987}}; {{Harvnb|Deveike|1950}}). However, Rowell suggests that the nature of this dual rule "...reflects political expediency; it certainly does not meet the formal definition of diarchy as 'rule by two independent authorities'...those two leaders were not equal: the grand duke in Vilnius was supreme" ({{Harvnb|Rowell|1994|p=68}}).</ref> Jogaila's succession, however, soon placed this system of dual rule under strain.<ref name="Bojtar"/>

At the start of his reign, Jogaila was preoccupied with unrest in the Lithuanian Rus' lands. In 1377–78, [[Andrei of Polotsk]], the eldest son of Algirdas, challenged Jogaila's authority and sought to become Grand Duke. In 1380, Andrei and another brother, [[Demetrius I Starshy|Dmitry]], sided with Prince [[Dmitri Donskoi|Dmitri of Moscow]] against Jogaila's alliance with emir [[Mamai]], de facto khan of the [[Golden Horde]].<ref name="plokhy"/> Jogaila failed to support Mamai, lingering in the vicinity of the battlefield, which led to Mamai's army's significant defeat at the hands of Prince Dmitri in the [[Battle of Kulikovo]]. The Muscovites' Pyrrhic victory over the Golden Horde, in the long term, signified, however, the beginning of a slow climb to power by the [[Grand Duchy of Moscow]], which became within a century the most serious rival and threat to the integrity, well-being and survival of Lithuania. However, in 1380 Muscovy was greatly weakened by tremendous losses suffered during the battle and thus, in the same year, Jogaila was free to begin a struggle for supremacy with Kęstutis.

[[File:Seal of Jogaila with his title as King in Lithuania (used in 1377-1386).jpg|thumb|upright=0.66|Seal of Jogaila with his title (in [[Latin]]) as King in [[Lithuania]], used in 1377–1386, before becoming the [[King of Poland]] in 1386]]
In the north-west, Lithuania faced constant armed incursions from the [[Teutonic Knights]]—founded after 1226 to fight and convert the pagan [[Baltic tribes]] of [[Old Prussians|Prussians]], [[Yotvingians]] and [[Lithuanians]]. In 1380, Jogaila concluded the secret [[Treaty of Dovydiškės]], directed against Kęstutis.<ref name="Bojtar"/> When Kęstutis discovered the plan, the [[Lithuanian Civil War (1381–1384)|Lithuanian Civil War]] began. He seized Vilnius, overthrew Jogaila, and pronounced himself grand duke in his place.<ref name="Jones"/> In 1382, Jogaila raised an army from his father's vassals and confronted Kęstutis near Trakai. Kęstutis and his son [[Vytautas]] entered Jogaila's encampment for negotiations but were tricked and imprisoned in the [[Kreva Castle]], where Kęstutis was found dead, probably murdered, a week later.<ref name="bojtár1"/> Vytautas escaped to the Teutonic fortress of [[Ordensburg Marienburg|Marienburg]] and was baptised there under the name Wigand.<ref name="Jones"/>

Jogaila formulated the [[Treaty of Dubysa]], which rewarded the Knights for their aid in defeating Kęstutis and Vytautas by promising Christianisation and granting them [[Samogitia]] west of the [[Dubysa]] river. However, when Jogaila failed to ratify the treaty, the Knights invaded Lithuania in the summer of 1383. In 1384, Jogaila reconciled with Vytautas promising to return his patrimony in Trakai. Vytautas then turned against the Knights, attacking and looting several Prussian castles.<ref name="Mick"/>

It is known that Jogaila, being ethnic Lithuanian by the man's line, himself knew and spoke in the [[Lithuanian language]] with Vytautas, his cousin from the Gediminids dynasty.<ref>{{cite web |title=Ar perrašinėjamos istorijos pasakų įkvėpta Baltarusija gali kėsintis į Rytų Lietuvą? |url=https://www.15min.lt/naujiena/aktualu/istorija/ar-perrasinejamos-istorijos-pasaku-ikvepta-baltarusija-gali-kesintis-i-rytu-lietuva-582-456877 |last1=Pancerovas |first1=Dovydas |website=[[15min.lt]] |access-date=1 October 2014 |language=lt}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |last1=Statkuvienė |first1=Regina |title=Jogailaičiai. Kodėl ne Gediminaičiai? |url=https://www.15min.lt/naujiena/aktualu/istorija/jogailaiciai-kodel-ne-gediminaiciai-582-1056552 |website=15min.lt |access-date=9 November 2018 |language=lt}}</ref><ref name="Plikune"/> Also, during the [[Christianization of Lithuania#Christianization by Jogaila and Vytautas|Christianization of Samogitia]], none of the clergy, who came to [[Duchy of Samogitia|Samogitia]] with Jogaila, were able to communicate with the natives, therefore Jogaila himself taught the [[Samogitians]] about the [[Catholic Church|Catholicism]], thus he was able to communicate in the [[Samogitian dialect]] of the Lithuanian language.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Baronas |first1=Darius |title=Žemaičių krikštas: tyrimai ir refleksija |date=2013 |publisher=[[Lithuanian Catholic Academy of Science]] |location=[[Vilnius]] |isbn=978-9986-592-71-6 |pages=33–34 |url=https://www.lkma.lt/site/files/file/leidiniai/Zemaiciu_krikstas.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.lkma.lt/site/files/file/leidiniai/Zemaiciu_krikstas.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live |access-date=17 July 2021 |language=lt}}</ref> According to the Teutonic Order's testimonial, he could not read nor write, and had to listen to others reading for him.<ref name="Plikune">{{cite web |last1=Plikūnė |first1=Dalia |title=Kodėl Jogaila buvo geras, o Vytautas Didysis - genialus |url=https://www.delfi.lt/news/daily/lithuania/kodel-jogaila-buvo-geras-o-vytautas-didysis-genialus.d?id=76794153 |website=[[DELFI]] |access-date=19 May 2021 |language=lt}}</ref>

===Baptism and marriage===
{{see also|Jadwiga of Poland}}

Jogaila's Russian mother [[Uliana of Tver]] urged him to marry Sofia, daughter of [[Dmitri Donskoi|Prince Dmitri of Moscow]], who required him first to convert to Orthodoxy.<ref group=nb>The historian [[John Meyendorff]] suggests Jogaila may have already been an Orthodox Christian: "In 1377, Olgerd of Lithuania died, leaving the Grand Principality to his son Jagiello, an Orthodox Christian..." ({{harvnb|Meyendorff|1989|p=205}}). Dmitri, however, made it a condition of the marriage that Jogaila "should be baptized in the Orthodox faith and that he should proclaim his Christianity to all men" ({{harvnb|Dvornik|1992|p=221}}).</ref> That option, however, was unlikely to halt the crusades against Lithuania by the Teutonic Knights, who regarded [[Eastern Orthodox Church|Orthodox Christians]] as schismatics and little better than heathens.<ref name="Bojtar"/><ref name="Jones"/> Jogaila chose therefore to accept a Polish proposal to become a [[Catholic]] and marry the eleven-year-old Queen [[Jadwiga of Poland]].<ref group=nb>Jadwiga had actually been crowned [[king of Poland]] ({{lang|la|rex poloni}}), because the Polish political system made no provision for a [[queen regnant]] ({{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=8}}).</ref> The nobles of [[Lesser Poland]] made this offer to Jogaila for many reasons. They wanted to neutralize the dangers posed by Lithuania itself and to secure the fertile territories of [[Galicia–Volhynia]].<ref name="lukowski"/> The Polish nobles saw the offer as an opportunity for increasing their privileges<ref name="dvornik"/> and avoiding Austrian influence, brought by Jadwiga's previous fiancé [[William, Duke of Austria]].<ref name="lukowski2"/>

On 14 August 1385 in [[Kreva Castle]], Jogaila confirmed his prenuptial promises in the [[Union of Krewo]] (Union of Kreva). The promises included the adoption of Christianity, repatriation of lands "stolen" from Poland by its neighbours, and ''terras suas Lithuaniae et Russiae Coronae Regni Poloniae perpetuo applicare'', a clause interpreted by historians to mean anything from a [[personal union]] between Lithuania and Poland to a complete incorporation of Lithuania into Poland.<ref name="lukowski3"/> The agreement at Kreva has been described both as far-sighted and as a desperate gamble.<ref group=nb>It "reflects the exceptional far-sightedness of the political elites ruling both countries" ({{Harvnb|Kłoczowski|2000|p=55}}). It was "a desperate gamble by Jogaila to avert a seemingly inevitable subjugation" ({{Harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2001|p=38}})</ref>

Jogaila was duly baptised at the [[Wawel Cathedral]] in [[Kraków]] on 15 February 1386 and from then on formally used the name Władysław or Latin versions of it.<ref name="sruogien"/><ref group=nb>A Slavic name that roughly translates as ''glorious rule'', Władysław is often [[Latinization (literature)|Latinised]] into either Wladislaus or Ladislaus. The choice evoked both [[Władysław I the Elbow-high|Władysław I of Poland, the Elbow-high]], who was Queen Jadwiga's great-grandfather and unified the kingdom in 1320, and Saint [[Ladislaus I of Hungary]], a king who sided with the pope against the emperor [[Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor|Henry IV]] and Christianised [[Transylvania]] ({{harvnb|Rowell|2000|pp=709–712}}).</ref> The marriage took place three days later, and on 4 March 1386 Jogaila was crowned King Władysław by archbishop [[Bodzanta]]. He was also to be legally adopted by Jadwiga's mother, [[Elizabeth of Bosnia]], so retaining the throne in the event of Jadwiga's death.<ref name="Jones"/> He was the first [[Lithuanians|Lithuanian]] to be crowned as the King of Poland.<ref name="Vle">{{cite web |last1=Gudavičius |first1=Edvardas |last2=Jučas |first2=Mečislovas |last3=Matulevičius |first3=Algirdas |title=Jogaila |url=https://www.vle.lt/straipsnis/jogaila/ |website=[[Visuotinė lietuvių enciklopedija]] |access-date=19 May 2021 |language=lt}}</ref> The royal baptism triggered the conversion of most of Jogaila's court and noblemen, as well as mass baptisms in Lithuanian rivers,<ref name="Kłoczowski">{{Harvnb|Kłoczowski|2000|pp=54–57}}</ref> a beginning of the final [[Christianization of Lithuania]]. Though the ethnic [[Lithuanian nobility]] were the main converts to Catholicism—both paganism and the Orthodox rite remained strong among the peasants—the king's conversion and its political implications created lasting repercussions for the history of both Lithuania and Poland.<ref name="Kłoczowski"/> On 22 February 1387, he banned Catholics from marriages with [[Orthodoxy|Orthodox]], and demanded those Orthodox who previously married with the Catholics to convert to Catholicism.<ref name="Vle"/>

==Ruler of Lithuania and Poland==

===Accession===
[[File:Polska 1386 - 1434.png|250px|thumb|Poland and Lithuania 1386–1434{{imagefact|date=December 2022}}]]
Władysław II Jagiello and Jadwiga reigned as co-monarchs; and though Jadwiga probably had little real power, she took an active part in Poland's political and cultural life. In 1387, she led two successful military expeditions to [[Red Ruthenia]], recovered lands her father, [[Louis I of Hungary]], had transferred from Poland to Hungary, and secured the homage of Voivode [[Petru I of Moldavia]].<ref name="Jasienica"/> In 1390, she also personally opened negotiations with the Teutonic Order. Most political responsibilities, however, fell to Jagiello, with Jadwiga attending to the cultural and charitable activities for which she is still revered.<ref name="Jasienica"/>

Soon after Jagiello's accession to the Polish throne, Jagiello granted [[Vilnius]] a city charter like that of [[Kraków]], modeled on the [[Magdeburg Law]]; and Vytautas issued a privilege to a Jewish commune of [[Trakai]] on almost the same terms as privileges issued to the Jews of Poland in the reigns of [[Bolesław the Pious|Boleslaus the Pious]] and [[Casimir the Great]].<ref name="Jasienica-legal"/> Władysław's policy of unifying the two legal systems was partial and uneven at first but achieved a lasting influence.<ref name="Jasienica"/> By the time of the [[Union of Lublin]] in 1569, there was not much difference between the administrative and judicial systems in force in Lithuania and Poland.<ref name="dvornik4"/>

One effect of Jagiello's measures was to be the advancement of Catholics in Lithuania at the expense of Orthodox elements; in 1387 and 1413, for example, Lithuanian Catholic boyars were granted special judicial and political privileges denied to the Orthodox boyars.<ref name="magocsi"/> As this process gained momentum, it was accompanied by the rise of both Rus' and Lithuanian identity in the fifteenth century.<ref name="plokhy-98"/>

===Challenges===
[[File:Lithuanian Denar of Jogaila with Lithuanian Vytis (Waykimas), minted in 1388–1392.jpg|thumb|upright=0.66|Lithuanian [[Denar]] of Jogaila (minted in 1388–1392) with [[Coat of arms of Lithuania|Vytis (Pahonia)]]]]
Jagiello's baptism failed to end the [[crusade]] of the Teutonic Knights, who claimed his conversion was a sham, perhaps even a heresy, and renewed their incursions on the pretext that [[pagan]]s remained in Lithuania.<ref name="Jones"/><ref name="Housley"/> From then on, however, the Order found it harder to sustain the cause of a crusade and faced the growing threat to its existence posed by the Kingdom of Poland and a genuinely Christian Lithuania alliance.<ref name="Sedlar"/><ref name="turnbull"/> Władysław sponsored the creation of the [[diocese of Vilnius]] under [[bishop of Vilnius|bishop]] [[Andrzej Wasilko]], the former confessor of [[Elizabeth of Poland]]. The bishopric, which included Samogitia, then largely controlled by the Teutonic Order, was subordinated to the see of [[Gniezno]] and not to that of Teutonic [[Königsberg]].<ref name="Jones"/> The decision may not have improved Władysław's relations with the Order, but it served to introduce closer ties between Lithuania and Poland, enabling the Polish church to freely assist its Lithuanian counterpart.<ref name="Kłoczowski"/>

In 1389, Władysław's rule in Lithuania faced a revived challenge from Vytautas, who resented the power given to [[Skirgaila]] in Lithuania at the expense of his own patrimony.<ref name=Mick/> Vytautas started a [[Lithuanian Civil War (1389–1392)|civil war in Lithuania]], aiming to become the Grand Duke. On 4 September 1390, the joint forces of Vytautas and Grand Master [[Konrad von Wallenrode]] of the Teutonic Order, laid siege to Vilnius, which was held by Władysław's regent Skirgaila with combined Polish, Lithuanian and Ruthenian troops.<ref name="Bojtar"/> Although the Knights lifted the siege of the castle after a month, they reduced much of the outer city to ruins. This bloody conflict was eventually brought to a temporary halt in 1392 with the [[Treaty of Ostrów]], by which Władysław handed over the government of Lithuania to his cousin in exchange for peace: Vytautas was to rule Lithuania as the grand duke (''magnus dux'') until his death, under the overlordship of the Supreme Duke (''dux supremus'') in the person of the Polish monarch.<ref name="rowell"/> Skirgaila was moved from the [[Duchy of Trakai]] to become prince of Kiev.<ref name="stone5"/> Vytautas initially accepted his status but soon began to pursue Lithuania's independence from Poland.<ref name="Jasienica"/><ref name="Dvornik"/>

The protracted period of war between the Lithuanians and the Teutonic Knights was ended on 12 October 1398 by the [[Treaty of Salynas]], named after the islet in the [[Neman River]] where it was signed. Lithuania agreed to cede Samogitia and assist the Teutonic Order in a campaign to seize [[Pskov]], while the Order agreed to assist Lithuania in a campaign to seize [[Novgorod]].<ref name="Jasienica"/> Shortly afterwards, Vytautas was crowned as a king by local nobles; but the following year his forces and those of his ally, Khan [[Tokhtamysh]] of the [[White Horde]], were crushed by the [[Timurid dynasty|Timurids]] at the [[Battle of the Vorskla River]], ending his imperial ambitions in the east and obliging him to submit to Władysław's protection once more.<ref name="Bojtar"/><ref name="Dvornik"/>

==King of Poland==

===Early actions===

On 22 June 1399, Jadwiga gave birth to a daughter, baptised [[Elizabeth Bonifacia of Poland|Elizabeth Bonifacia]], but within a month the mother and daughter died, leaving Władysław sole ruler of the Kingdom of Poland and without an heir nor much legitimacy to rule the kingdom. Jadwiga's death undermined Władysław's right to the throne, and as a result old conflicts between the nobility of [[Lesser Poland]], generally sympathetic to Władysław, and the gentry of [[Greater Poland]] began to surface. In 1402, Władysław answered the rumblings against his rule by marrying [[Anna of Cilli]], a granddaughter of [[Casimir III of Poland]], a political match that re-legitimised his reign.{{cn|date=March 2024}}

The [[Union of Vilnius and Radom]] of 1401 confirmed the status of Vytautas as grand duke under Władysław's overlordship, while assuring the title of grand duke to the heirs of Władysław rather than those of Vytautas: should Władysław die without heirs, the Lithuanian [[boyar]]s were to elect a new monarch.<ref name="Jasienica-103"/><ref name="stone-11"/> Since no heir had yet been produced by either monarch, the implications of the union were unforeseeable, but it forged bonds between the Polish and Lithuanian nobility and a permanent [[defensive alliance]] between the two states, strengthening Lithuania's hand for a new war against the Teutonic Order in which Poland officially took no part.<ref name="Sedlar"/><ref name="Dvornik"/> While the document left the liberties of the Polish nobles untouched, it granted increased power to the boyars of Lithuania, whose grand dukes had till then been unencumbered by checks and balances of the sort attached to the Polish monarchy. The Union of Vilnius and Radom therefore earned Władysław a measure of support in Lithuania.<ref name="Jasienica"/>

In late 1401, the new war against the Order overstretched the resources of the Lithuanians, who found themselves fighting on two fronts after uprisings in the eastern provinces. Another of Władysław's brothers, the malcontent [[Švitrigaila]], chose this moment to stir up revolts behind the lines and declare himself grand duke.<ref name="Housley"/> On 31 January 1402, he presented himself in [[Malbork|Marienburg]], where he won the backing of the Knights with concessions similar to those made by Jogaila and Vytautas during earlier leadership contests in the Grand Duchy.<ref name="Jasienica-103"/>

===Against the Teutonic Order===
[[File:Majestic Seal of the Realm of Wladislaus II of Poland (16th century copy).jpg|thumb|200px|Royal seal of Władysław II Jagiełło]]
The war ended in the [[Treaty of Raciąż]] on 22 May 1404. Władysław acceded to the formal cession of Samogitia and agreed to support the Order's designs on [[Pskov]]; in return, [[Konrad von Jungingen]] undertook to sell Poland the disputed [[Dobrzyń Land]] and the town of [[Złotoryja]], once pawned to the Order by [[Władysław Opolski]], and to support Vytautas in a revived attempt on [[Novgorod]].<ref name="Jasienica-103"/> Both sides had practical reasons for signing the treaty at that point: the Order needed time to fortify its newly acquired lands, the Poles and Lithuanians to deal with territorial challenges in the east and in [[Silesia]].{{cn|date=March 2024}}

Also in 1404, Władysław held talks at [[Wrocław|Vratislav]] with [[Wenceslaus, King of the Romans|Wenceslaus IV of Bohemia]], who offered to return Silesia to Poland if Władysław supported him in his power struggle within the [[Holy Roman Empire]].<ref name="cambridge"/> Władysław turned the deal down with the agreement of both Polish and Silesian nobles, unwilling to burden himself with new military commitments in the west.<ref name="Śląsk"/>

===Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic war===
{{Main|Polish–Lithuanian–Teutonic War|Battle of Grunwald}}
[[File:Matejko Battle of Grunwald.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[Battle of Grunwald]], 1410. Painting by Jan Matejko]]
In December 1408, Władysław and Vytautas held strategic talks in [[Navahrudak Castle]], where they decided to foment a [[Samogitian uprising]] against Teutonic rule to draw German forces away from [[Pomerelia]]. Władysław promised to repay Vytautas for his support by restoring Samogitia to Lithuania in any future peace treaty.<ref name="karwasińska">{{harvnb|Karwasińska|Zakrzewski|1892|p=21}}</ref> The uprising, which began in May 1409, at first provoked little reaction from the Knights, who had not yet consolidated their rule in Samogitia by building castles; but by June their diplomats were busy lobbying Władysław's court at [[Oborniki]], warning his nobles against Polish involvement in a war between Lithuania and the Order.<ref name="Jasienica-106"/> Władysław, however, bypassed his nobles and informed new Grand Master [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] that if the Knights acted to suppress Samogitia, Poland would intervene. This stung the Order into issuing a declaration of war against Poland on 6 August, which Władysław received on 14 August in [[Nowy Korczyn]].<ref name="Jasienica-106"/>

The castles guarding the northern border were in such bad condition that the Knights easily captured those at Złotoryja, [[Dobrzyń nad Wisłą|Dobrzyń]] and [[Bobrowniki]], the capital of Dobrzyń Land, while German burghers invited them into [[Bydgoszcz]] (German: Bromberg). Władysław arrived on the scene in late September, retook Bydgoszcz within a week, and came to terms with the Order on 8 October. During the winter, the two armies prepared for a major confrontation. Władysław installed a strategic supply depot at [[Płock]] in [[Masovia]] and had a [[pontoon bridge]] constructed and transported north down the [[Vistula]].<ref name="turnbull6"/>

Meanwhile, both sides unleashed diplomatic offensives. The Knights dispatched letters to the monarchs of Europe, preaching their usual crusade against the heathens;<ref name="delbrück"/> Władysław countered with his own letters to the monarchs, accusing the Order of planning to conquer the whole world.<ref name="Jasienica-108"/> Such appeals successfully recruited many foreign knights to each side. [[Wenceslaus, King of the Romans|Wenceslas IV of Bohemia]] signed a defensive treaty with the Poles against the Teutonic Order; his brother, [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund of Luxembourg]], allied himself with the Order and declared war against Poland on 12 July, though his Hungarian vassals refused his call to arms.<ref name="Jasienica-110"/>

===Battle of Grunwald===
{{Main|Battle of Grunwald}}
[[File:Panorama of Malbork Castle, part 4.jpg|thumb|right|The Teutonic Order's castle at Marienburg]]
When the war resumed in June 1410, Władysław advanced into the Teutonic heartland at the head of an army of about 20,000 mounted nobles, 15,000 armed commoners, and 2,000 professional cavalry mainly hired from Bohemia. After crossing the Vistula over the pontoon bridge at [[Czerwińsk]], his troops met up with those of [[Vytautas]], whose 11,000 light cavalry included Lithuanians, Ruthenians, and [[Tatars]].<ref name="Stone 2001 16"/> The Teutonic Order's army had about 18,000 cavalry, mostly Germans, and 5,000 infantry. On 15 July, at the [[Battle of Grunwald]] after one of the largest and most ferocious battles of the Middle Ages,<ref name="bojtár7"/> the allies won a victory so overwhelming that the Teutonic Order's army was virtually annihilated, with most of its key commanders killed in combat, including Grand Master [[Ulrich von Jungingen]] and Grand Marshal Friedrich von Wallenrode. Thousands of troops were reportedly slaughtered on either side.<ref name="Stone 2001 16"/>

The road to the Teutonic capital [[Malbork|Marienburg]] now lay open, the city undefended; but for reasons the sources do not explain, Władysław hesitated to pursue his advantage.<ref name="turnbull8"/> On 17 July, his army began a laboured advance, arriving at Marienburg only on 25 July, by which time the new Grand Master, [[Heinrich von Plauen]], had organised a defence of the fortress.<ref name="Stone-17"/><ref name="turnbull9"/> The apparent half-heartedness of the ensuing siege, called off by Władysław on 19 September, has been variously ascribed to the impregnability of the fortifications,<ref name=Stone-17/> high Lithuanian casualties, to Władysław's unwillingness to risk further casualties, or to his desire to keep the Order weakened but undefeated so as to not upset the balance of power between Poland (which would most likely acquire most of the Order possessions if it was totally defeated) and Lithuania; but a lack of sources precludes a definitive explanation.<ref name="jasienica2"/>

===Dissent===
[[File:Polish and Lithuanian Conflict with Prussia. 1377-1435..png|thumb|right|Polish and Lithuanian conflict with Teutonic Prussia, 1377–1434.]]
The war ended in 1411 with the [[Peace of Thorn (1411)|Peace of Thorn]], in which neither Poland nor Lithuania drove home negotiating advantages home to the full, much to the discontent of the Polish nobility. Poland regained [[Dobrzyń Land]], Lithuania regained [[Samogitia]], and [[Masovia]] regained a small territory beyond the [[Wkra]] river. Most of the Teutonic Order's territory, however, including towns that had surrendered, remained intact. Władysław then released many high-ranking Teutonic Knights and officials for apparently modest ransoms. The cumulative expense of the ransoms, however, proved a drain on the Order's resources.<ref name="cambridge10"/> This failure to exploit the victory to his nobles' satisfaction provoked growing opposition to Władysław's regime after 1411, further fueled by the granting of [[Podolia]], disputed between Poland and Lithuania, to [[Vytautas]], and by the king's two-year absence in Lithuania.<ref name="Jasienica-121"/>

In an effort to outflank his critics, Władysław promoted the leader of the opposing faction, bishop [[Mikołaj Trąba]], to the archbishopric of [[Gniezno]] in autumn 1411 and replaced him in Kraków with Vytautas supporter [[Wojciech Jastrzębiec]].<ref name="Jasienica-121"/> He also sought to create more allies in Lithuania. The [[Union of Horodło]] on 2 October 1413 decreed that the Grand Duchy of Lithuania was "tied to our Kingdom of Poland permanently and irreversibly", and granted the Catholic nobles of Lithuania privileges equal to those of Polish [[szlachta]]. The act included a clause prohibiting the Polish nobility from electing a monarch without the consent of the Lithuanian nobility, and the Lithuanian nobility from electing a grand duke without the consent of the Polish monarch.<ref name=stone-11/><ref name="dvornik11"/>

===Last conflicts===
In 1414, a sporadic new war broke out, known as the "[[Hunger War]]" from the Knights' [[scorched earth|scorched-earth]] tactics of burning fields and mills; but both the Knights and the Lithuanians were too exhausted from the previous war to risk a major battle, and the fighting petered out in the autumn.<ref name="Jasienica-121"/> Hostilities did not flare up again until 1419, during the [[Council of Constance]], when they were called off at the papal legate's insistence.<ref name="Jasienica-121"/>

The Council of Constance proved a turning point in the Teutonic crusades, as it did for several European conflicts. Vytautas sent a delegation in 1415, including the [[metropolitan of Kiev]] and Samogitian witnesses; they arrived at Constance at the end of that year to express their preference for being "baptised with water and not with blood".<ref name="housley"/> The Polish envoys, among them [[Mikołaj Trąba]], [[Zawisza Czarny]], and [[Paweł Włodkowic]], lobbied for an end to the forced conversion of heathens and to the Order's aggression against Lithuania and Poland.<ref name="kłoczowski">{{harvnb|Kłoczowski|2000|p=73}}</ref> As a result of the Polish–Lithuanian diplomacy, the council, though scandalised by Włodkowic's questioning of the legitimacy of the monastic state, denied the Order's request for a further crusade and instead entrusted the conversion of the Samogitians to Poland–Lithuania.<ref name="housley12"/>

The diplomatic context at Constance included the revolt of the Bohemian [[Hussite]]s, who looked upon Poland as an ally in their wars against [[Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor|Sigismund]], the emperor elect and new king of Bohemia. In 1421, the Bohemian Diet declared Sigismund deposed and formally offered the crown to Władysław on condition that he accept the religious principles of the [[Four Articles of Prague]], which he was not prepared to do. After Władysław's refusal, Vytautas was postulated (elected in absentia) as Bohemian king, but he assured the pope that he opposed the heretics. Between 1422 and 1428, Władysław's nephew, [[Sigismund Korybut]], attempted a regency in war-torn Bohemia, with little success.<ref name="bideleux"/> Vytautas accepted Sigismund's offer of a royal crown in 1429—apparently with Władysław's blessing—but Polish forces intercepted the crown in transit and the coronation was cancelled.<ref name=stone-11/><ref name="cambridge13"/>

In 1422, Władysław fought another war, known as the [[Gollub War]], against the Teutonic Order, defeating them in under two months before the Order's imperial reinforcements had time to arrive. The resulting [[Treaty of Melno]] ended the Knights' claims to Samogitia once and for all and defined a permanent border between Prussia and Lithuania. Lithuania was given the province of Samogitia, with the port of [[Palanga]], but the city of [[Klaipėda]] was left to the Order.<ref name=stone-11/> This border remained largely unchanged for roughly 500 years, until 1920. The terms of this treaty have, however, been seen as turning a Polish victory into defeat, as a result of Władysław's renunciation of Polish claims to Pomerania, Pomerelia, and [[Chełmno Land]], for which he received only the town of [[Nieszawa]] in return.<ref name="Jasienica-130"/> The Treaty of Melno closed a chapter in the Knights' wars with Lithuania but did little to settle their long-term issues with Poland. Further [[Polish-Teutonic War (1431–1435)|sporadic warfare]] broke out between Poland and the Knights between 1431 and 1435.

Cracks in the cooperation between Poland and Lithuania after the death of Vytautas in 1430 had offered the Knights a revived opportunity for interference in Poland. Władysław supported his brother [[Švitrigaila]] as grand duke of Lithuania,<ref name="sruogien"/> but when Švitrigaila, with the support of the Teutonic Order and dissatisfied Rus' nobles,<ref name=plokhy-98/> rebelled against Polish overlordship in Lithuania, the Poles, under the leadership of Bishop [[Zbigniew Oleśnicki (cardinal)|Zbigniew Oleśnicki]] of Kraków, occupied [[Podolia]], which Władysław had awarded to Lithuania in 1411, and [[Volhynia]].<ref name="stone-11"/> In 1432, a pro-Polish party in Lithuania elected Vytautas's brother [[Sigismund Kestutaitis|Žygimantas]] as grand duke,<ref name="sruogien"/> leading to an armed struggle over the Lithuanian succession which stuttered on for years after Władysław's death.<ref name=plokhy-98/><ref name=stone-11/>

===Succession and death===
[[File:Jagiełło sarcophagus figure.jpg|thumb|right|200px|Jagiełło's sarcophagus, [[Wawel Cathedral]]]]
At the dying request of the childless Jadwiga he married a [[Styria]]n lady, [[Anna of Cilli|Anna of Celje]].<ref>{{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Wladislaus|display=Wladislaus s.v. Wladislaus II, Jagiello|volume=28|page=766}}</ref> She died in 1416, leaving a daughter :
* [[Hedwig Jagiellon (1408–1431)|Hedwig]] (1408–1431).
In 1417, Władysław married [[Elisabeth of Pilica]], who died in 1420 without bearing him a child.<br>
Two years later, he married [[Sophia of Halshany]] (niece of [[Uliana Olshanska]]), who bore him two surviving sons :
*[[Władysław III Jagiellon|Władysław]] (1424–1444)
*[[Casimir IV Jagiellon|Casimir]] (1427–1492).
The death in 1431 of his daughter Hedwig (Jadwiga), the last heir of Piast blood, released Władysław to make his sons by Sophia of Halshany his heirs, though he had to placate the [[Szlachta|Polish nobility]] with concessions to ensure their agreement, since the monarchy was elective. In 1427 the Polish nobles had initiated an anti-Jagiellonian movement, seeking to have Władysław and Casimir excluded from the Polish throne as they had no blood link to the previous ruling Polish dynasty, the Piasts.<ref name="Oxford">{{cite web |title=Jagiellonians Timeline |url=https://www.jagiellonians.com/jagiellonians-timeline |website=Jagiellonians.com |publisher=[[University of Oxford]] |access-date=20 April 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

During an excursion into [[Przemyśl Land]] in the 48th year of his reign, Władysław caught a cold from which he was unable to recover.<ref name="prazmowska"/><ref name="sruogien"/> He finally died in [[Grodek Jagiellonski|Grodek]] in 1434, leaving Poland to his elder son, Władysław III, and Lithuania to his younger, Casimir, both still minors at the time.<ref name="sedlar"/><ref name="rowell14"/> The Lithuanian inheritance, however, could not be taken for granted. Władysław's death ended the personal union between the two realms, and it was not clear what would take its place.<ref name="stone15"/>

==Legacy==

Władysław is depicted on the obverse of the modernized 100 [[Polish złoty]] banknote.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Narodowy Bank Polski - Internet Information Service |url=https://www.nbp.pl/homen.aspx?f=/banknoty_i_monety/banknoty_obiegowe/100zl_en.html |access-date=11 July 2022 |website=www.nbp.pl |language=en}}</ref>

The Jagiełło Oak, an ancient tree in [[Białowieża Forest]], is named in honour of the fact that he initiated the tradition of royal hunting in the area.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://emergencemagazine.org/essay/dead-wood|work=Emergence Magazine|title=Dead Wood|first=Nick|last=Hunt|date=22 January 2020|access-date=23 October 2021}}</ref>

In 2021, asteroid 2004 TP17 was officially named as Jogaila (the [[Lithuanian language]] variant of his name).<ref>{{cite web |title=Jogailos planeta skrieja Saulės sistemoje – Lenkijos siūlymas oficialiai patvirtintas |url=https://www.lrt.lt/naujienos/pasaulyje/6/1448156/jogailos-planeta-skrieja-saules-sistemoje-lenkijos-siulymas-oficialiai-patvirtintas |website=[[Lithuanian National Radio and Television]] |access-date=11 July 2021 |language=lt |date=9 July 2021}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Five minor planets given Polish names |url=https://polandin.com/54761979/five-minor-planets-given-polish-names |website=Polandin.com |access-date=11 July 2021 |language=en}}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery widths="170px" heights="170px" perrow="5">
File:Wladyslaw Jagiello.jpg|''Władysław II Jagiełło'' by [[Jan Matejko]]
File:Władysław Jagiełło (Wizerunki książąt i królów polskich).jpg|Władysław Jagiełło as depicted in Ksawery Pillati's ''Portraits of Polish Princes and Kings,'' 1888
File:Uładzisłaŭ Jagajła, Jadwiga Andegaweńska. Уладзіслаў Ягайла, Ядвіга Анжуйская (XVII).jpg|A 17th-century depiction of Władysław II Jagiełło and [[Jadwiga of Poland]] by the cross by [[Tommaso Dolabella]]
File:The Wladyslaw Jagiello monument in NYC 8.jpg|[[King Jagiello Monument]], Central Park, New York
File:PomnikGrunwaldzki-PlacMatejki-POL, Kraków.jpg|[[Grunwald Monument]], Kraków
</gallery>

==Family tree==
{{Main|Family relations of Jogaila}}
{{Hidden begin
| expanded = yes otherwise omit-->
| border = 1px solid #667766
| style =
| titlestyle = text-align:center; background: #ccddcc;
| title = '''Family tree of Jogaila/Władysław II Jagiello<ref name="home"/>'''
}}
{| width="100%" style="text-align:center; vertical-align:middle;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
|-
| colspan="2" | [[Gediminas]]<br />b. c. 1275 <br />d. 1341
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" | [[Jewna]]<br />b. c. 1280 <br />d. 1344
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" | [[Alexander I of Tver]]<br />b. 1301 <br />d. 22 October 1339
| colspan="2" |
| colspan="2" | Anastasia of [[Halych]]
|-
| style="border-right:1px black solid;" |  
| colspan="4" style="border-bottom:1px black solid; border-right:1px black solid;" |  
| colspan="4" style="" |  
| colspan="4" style="border-bottom:1px black solid; border-left:1px black solid;" |  
| style="border-left:1px black solid;" |  
|-
| colspan="3" |  
| colspan="8" style="border-left:1px black solid; border-right:1px black solid;" |  
| colspan="3" |  
|-
| colspan="2" |  
| colspan="2" | [[Algirdas]]<br />b. c. 1296 <br />d. May 1377
| colspan="6" |
| colspan="2" | [[Uliana Alexandrovna of Tver]]<br />b. c. 1330 <br />d. 1392
| colspan="2" |
|-
| colspan="3" style="border-right:1px black solid;" |  
| colspan="8" style="border-bottom:1px black solid;" |  
| colspan="3" style="border-left:1px black solid;" |  
|-
| colspan="7" style="border-right:1px black solid;" |  
| colspan="7" |  
|-
| width="7.14%"|
| width="7.14%"|
| width="7.14%"|
| width="7.14%"|
| width="7.14%"|
| width="7.14%"|
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| width="7.14%"|
|-
|}

{| style="width:100%; text-align:center; vertical-align:top;" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| colspan="2" | 1<br /> [[Jadwiga I of Poland]]<br />b. 1374 <br />d. 17 July 1399 <br /><span style="letter-spacing: -6pt;">OO</span>   18 Feb 1386
| colspan="2" | 2<br /> [[Anne of Cilli]]<br />b. 1380/81 <br />d. 21 May 1416 <br /><span style="letter-spacing: -6pt;">OO</span>   29 Jan 1402
| colspan="2" style="vertical-align:middle;" | '''Jogaila/Władysław II Jagiełło'''<br />b. c. 1351 <br />d. 1 June 1434
| colspan="2" | 3<br /> [[Elisabeth of Pilica]]<br />b. 1372 <br />d. 12 May 1420 <br /><span style="letter-spacing: -6pt;">OO</span>   2 May 1417
| colspan="2" | 4<br /> [[Sophia of Halshany]]<br />b. c. 1405 <br />d. 21 September 1461 <br /><span style="letter-spacing: -6pt;">OO</span>   7 Feb 1422
|-
| style="width:10%;"|  
| style="width:10%;"|  
| style="width:10%;"|  
| style="width:10%;"|  
| style="width:10%;"|  
| style="width:10%;border-left:1px solid black;"|  
| style="width:10%;"|  
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| style="width:10%;"|  
| style="width:10%;"|  
|- style="text-align:left;"
| style="width:10%;"|  
| style="width:10%;border-left:1px solid black;border-top:1px solid black;"|  1
| style="width:10%;border-top:1px solid black;"|  
| style="width:10%;border-left:1px solid black;border-top:1px solid black;"|  2
| style="width:10%;border-top:1px solid black;"|  
| style="width:10%;border-left:1px solid black;border-top:1px solid black;"|  4
| style="width:10%;border-top:1px solid black;"|  
| style="width:10%;border-left:1px solid black;border-top:1px solid black;"|  4
| style="width:10%;border-top:1px solid black;"|  
| style="width:10%;border-left:1px solid black;"|  4
|- style="vertical-align:top;"
| colspan="2" | Elizabeth Bonifacia<br /> b. 22 June 1399 <br /> d. 13 July 1399 <br /> 
| colspan="2" | [[Hedwig Jagiellon (1408–1431)|Hedwig]] <br /> b. 8 April 1408 <br /> d. 8 December 1431 <br /> 
| colspan="2" | [[Władysław III of Poland|Władysław III]] <br /> b. 31 October 1424 <br /> d. 10 November 1444 <br /> 
| colspan="2" | Casimir <br /> b. 16 May 1426 <br /> d. 2 March 1427 <br /> 
| colspan="2" | [[Casimir IV Jagiellon|Casimir IV]] <br /> b. 30 November 1427 <br /> d. 7 June 1492 <br /> 
|-
|}
{{hidden bottom}}

==See also==
* [[History of Lithuania]]
* [[History of Poland (1385–1569)]]
* [[Names and titles of Władysław II Jagiełło]]
* {{MoMP|202093|Naming citation}} for Jovian asteroid [[202093 Jogaila]]
* [[List of Lithuanian rulers]]
* [[King Jagiello Monument]]
* [[List of Poles#Royalty|List of Poles]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group=nb}}

==Footnotes==

{{reflist|refs=
<ref name="bideleux">{{harvnb|Bideleux|1998|pp=233–235}}; {{harvnb|Turnbull|McBride|2004|pp=11–12}}</ref>



<ref name="bojtár">{{Harvnb|Bojtár|1999|p=182}}</ref>

<ref name="bojtár1">{{Harvnb|Bojtár|1999|p=181}}</ref>

<ref name="bojtár7">{{harvnb|Bojtár|1999|p=182}}; {{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=7}}</ref>

<ref name="Bojtar">{{Harvnb|Bojtár|1999|pp=180–186}}</ref>

<ref name="cambridge">''New Cambridge Medieval History'', 348.</ref>

<ref name="cambridge10">''New Cambridge Medieval History'', 364.</ref>

<ref name="cambridge13">''New Cambridge Medieval History'', 353.</ref>

<ref name="delbrück">{{harvnb|Delbrück|1990|p=526}}</ref>

<ref name="dvornik">{{harvnb|Dvornik|1992|p=129}}</ref>

<ref name="Dvornik">{{harvnb|Dvornik|1992|pp=222–225}}</ref>

<ref name="dvornik4">{{harvnb|Dvornik|1992|p=344}}</ref>

<ref name="dvornik11">{{harvnb|Dvornik|1992|pp=342–343}}; ''New Cambridge Medieval History'', 775–776.</ref>

<ref name="home">{{harvnb|Jurzak|2006}}</ref>

<ref name="housley">{{harvnb|Housley|1992|p=361}}; {{harvnb|Rowell|2000|p=733}}</ref>

<ref name="Housley">{{harvnb|Housley|1992|p=354}}</ref>

<ref name="housley12">{{harvnb|Housley|1992|pp=351–361}}</ref>

<ref name="Jasienica">{{harvnb|Jasienica|1988|pp=80–146}}</ref>

<ref name="jasienica2">{{harvnb|Jasienica|1988|pp=113–120}}</ref>

<ref name="Jasienica-103">{{harvnb|Jasienica|1988|pp=103–105}}</ref>

<ref name="Jasienica-106">{{harvnb|Jasienica|1988|pp=106–107}}</ref>

<ref name="Jasienica-108">{{harvnb|Jasienica|1988|p=108}}</ref>

<ref name="Jasienica-110">{{harvnb|Jasienica|1988|p=110}}</ref>

<ref name="Jasienica-121">{{harvnb|Jasienica|1988|pp=121–124}}</ref>

<ref name="Jasienica-130">{{harvnb|Jasienica|1988|p=130}}</ref>

<ref name="Jasienica-legal">{{harvnb|Jasienica|1988|pp=74–80}}</ref>

<ref name="Jones">{{harvnb|Rowell|2000|pp=709–712}}</ref>

<ref name="lukowski">{{harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2001|p=42}}</ref>

<ref name="lukowski2">{{harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2001|p=37}}</ref>

<ref name="lukowski3">{{harvnb|Lukowski|Zawadzki|2001|p=41}}; {{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=8}}</ref>

<ref name="magocsi">{{harvnb|Magocsi|1996|p=134}}</ref>

<ref name="Mick">{{Harvnb|Mickūnaitė|1999|p=157}}</ref>

<ref name="plokhy">{{Harvnb|Plokhy|2006|p=46}}</ref>

<ref name="plokhy-98">{{harvnb|Plokhy|2006|p=98}}</ref>

<ref name="prazmowska">{{harvnb|Prazmowska|2011|p=72}}</ref>

<ref name="rowell">{{harvnb|Rowell|2000|p=732}}</ref>

<ref name="rowell14">{{harvnb|Rowell|2000|p=711}}</ref>

<ref name="Śląsk">{{Harvnb|Polska Piastów|2005}}</ref>

<ref name="sedlar">{{harvnb|Sedlar|1994|p=282}}</ref>

<ref name="Sedlar">{{harvnb|Sedlar|1994|p=388}}</ref>

<ref name="sruogien">{{Harvnb|Sruogienė-Sruoga|1987}}</ref>

<ref name="stone">{{Harvnb|Stone|2001|p=4}}</ref>

<ref name="stone5">{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=10}}</ref>

<ref name="stone-11">{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=11}}</ref>

<ref name="stone15">{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=22}}</ref>

<ref name="Stone-17">{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=17}}</ref>

<ref name="Stone 2001 16">{{harvnb|Stone|2001|p=16}}</ref>

<ref name="turnbull">{{harvnb|Turnbull|2004|p=22}}</ref>

<ref name="turnbull6">{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|pp=32–33}}</ref>

<ref name="turnbull8">{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=7}}</ref>

<ref name="turnbull9">{{harvnb|Turnbull|2003|p=73}}</ref>
}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{Citation |last=Bideleux |first=Robert |year=1998 |title=A History of Eastern Europe: Crisis and Change |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-16111-4 }}
* {{Citation |last=Boczkowska |first=Anna |year=2011 |title=Sarkofag Władysława II Jagiełły i Donatello |publisher=Słowo/obraz terytoria |location=Gdansk |isbn=978-8-374-53799-5 |language=pl}}
* {{Citation |last=Bojtár |first=Endre |year=1999 |others=translated by Walter J. Renfroe |title=Foreword to the Past: A Cultural History of the Baltic People |location=Budapest |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Er1_CwAAQBAJ |publisher=Central European University Press |isbn=978-963-9116-42-9 }}
* {{Citation |last=Delbrück |first=Hans |year=1990 |title=The Barbarian Invasions: History of the Art of War |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hdh4Elj-3WEC&pg=PA526 |publisher=University of Nebraska Press |isbn=978-0-8032-6447-2 }}
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* {{Citation |last=Turnbull |first=Stephen |year=2003 |title=Tannenberg 1410: Disaster for the Teutonic Knights |publisher=Osprey |isbn=978-1-84176-561-7 }}
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* {{Citation |last1=Turnbull |first1=Stephen |first2=Angus |last2=McBride |name-list-style=amp |year=2004 |title=The Hussite Wars: 1419–36 |publisher=Osprey Publishing |isbn=978-1-84176-665-2 }}
{{Refend}}

{{Commons category|Wladislaus II of Poland}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-hou|[[Jagiellon dynasty]]||c. 1351/1362|1 June|1434|[[Gediminid dynasty]]}}
{{s-reg}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Algirdas]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Lithuanian rulers|Grand Duke of Lithuania]]|years=1377–1381}}
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{{s-bef|before=[[Kęstutis]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[List of Lithuanian rulers|Grand Duke of Lithuania]]|years=1382–1392}}
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{{s-ttl|title=[[King of Poland]]|years=1386–1434|regent1=[[Jadwiga of Poland|Jadwiga]]|years1=1386–1399}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Władysław III of Varna|Władysław III]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Monarchs of Poland}}
{{Monarchs of Lithuania}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wladyslaw 02 Jagiello}}
[[Category:14th-century births]]
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[[Category:Polish Roman Catholics]]

Prince Henry of Battenberg

2024-03-04T12:09:23Z

DAJ: /* Later life and death */ according to article Francis Cunningham Scott

{{short description|Member of the British royal family}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox royalty
| name = Prince Henry
| image = Prince Henry of Battenberg.jpg
| caption = Prince Henry {{c.}} 1885
| alt = Prince Henry aged about 27
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|Princess Beatrice]]|23 July 1885}}
| issue = {{plainlist|
* [[Alexander Mountbatten, 1st Marquess of Carisbrooke]]
* [[Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg|Victoria Eugenie, Queen of Spain]]
* [[Lord Leopold Mountbatten]]
* [[Prince Maurice of Battenberg]]}}
| house = [[Battenberg family|Battenberg]]
| house-type = Family
| father = [[Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine]]
| mother = [[Julia, Princess of Battenberg]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1858|10|5|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Milan]], [[Lombardy–Venetia]], [[Austrian Empire]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1896|1|20|1858|10|5|df=y}}
| death_place = HMS ''Blonde'', near [[Sierra Leone]]
| burial_date = 5 February 1896
| burial_place = [[St. Mildred's Church, Whippingham]], [[Isle of Wight]]
| occupation = Military
}}

'''Prince Henry of Battenberg''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|KG|PC}} (Henry Maurice; 5 October 1858 – 20 January 1896), formerly '''Count Henry of Battenberg''', was a [[morganatic]] descendant of the Grand Ducal [[House of Hesse]]. He became a member of the [[British royal family]] by marriage to [[Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom]], the youngest child of [[Queen Victoria]]. Through his daughter, [[Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg|Victoria Eugenie]], who became the [[queen consort of Spain]], Henry is a direct ancestor of current members of the [[Spanish royal family]].

==Early life==
Henry was born on 5 October 1858 in [[Milan]], [[Lombardy–Venetia]]. He was the son of [[Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine (1823–1888)|Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine]], and his wife [[Julia, Princess of Battenberg|Countess Julia von Hauke]]. His father was the third son and fourth child of [[Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse|Grand Duke Ludwig II of Hesse]] and [[Wilhelmina of Baden]].

His parents' marriage was [[morganatic marriage|morganatic]], as Julia was not considered a proper wife for a prince of a [[reign]]ing dynasty, being only a [[countess]]. As such, at the time of his birth, Henry could not bear his father's title or name, and was styled ''His Illustrious Highness Count Henry of Battenberg''. He was known as 'Liko' to his family. When his mother was raised to ''Princess von Battenberg'' and given the higher style of ''[[Her Serene Highness]]'' by Alexander's older brother, [[Louis III, Grand Duke of Hesse]], Henry and his siblings shared in their mother's new rank. He became ''His Serene Highness Prince Henry of Battenberg'', although he remained ineligible to inherit the throne of Hesse or to receive a [[civil list]] stipend.

Prince Henry received a military education and took up a commission as a lieutenant in the 1st Regiment of the Rhenish Hussars in the [[Prussian Army]]. He served in the Prussian [[Garde du Corps (Prussia)|Garde du Corps]] and was also Honorary Colonel of the 1st Infantry Regiment of Bulgaria,<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=26712 |date=17 February 1896 |page=955 }}</ref> where his brother [[Alexander of Battenberg|Alexander]] was Prince.

==Marriage==
Because of their close relationship to the Grand Ducal House of Hesse, the Battenbergs came into close contact with various ruling families of Europe, including the British Royal House. In April 1884, Henry's elder brother, [[Prince Louis of Battenberg]], married [[Princess Victoria of Hesse and by Rhine]], his [[first cousin once-removed]], and a granddaughter of [[Queen Victoria]], [[Empress of India]]. Shortly after that wedding, Prince Henry became engaged to [[Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|Princess Beatrice]], fifth daughter and youngest child of Queen Victoria and [[Albert, Prince Consort]]. Queen Victoria agreed to the marriage on the condition that the couple make their home with her. The [[Queen-Empress]] formally gave her consent to the marriage at a meeting of [[Her Majesty's Most Honourable Privy Council]] on 27 January 1885.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=25436 |date=27 January 1885 |page=357 |nolink=yes }}</ref>

On 22 July 1885, the Queen made Prince Henry a [[Order of the Garter|Knight of the Garter]], and granted him the style [[His Royal Highness|''Royal Highness'']] to give him rank equal to his wife.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=25493 |date=24 July 1885 |page=3425 |nolink=yes }}</ref> This style took effect in the [[United Kingdom]], but not in the [[German Empire]] (where the Prince was still considered a ''Serene Highness'').<ref name="Dennison, M. p.150">Dennison, M., The Last Princess, p.150</ref>

Beatrice and Henry were married at [[St. Mildred's Church, Whippingham|St Mildred's Church]] at [[Whippingham]], near [[Osborne House|Osborne]],<ref>Beatrice and her siblings were confirmed here</ref> on 23 July 1885.<ref name=ODNB1>{{cite ODNB
| last =Purdue
| title =Beatrice, Princess; Battenberg, Prince Henry of
| year =2004
| doi =10.1093/ref:odnb/30658
| url =http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/30658
| access-date =8 November 2007 }}
</ref><ref>{{London Gazette |issue=25495 |date=28 July 1885 |page=3529 |nolink=yes }}</ref>
On the same day, a bill to naturalise Prince Henry a British subject passed the [[House of Lords]]. The couple adopted the style, ''Their Royal Highnesses Prince and Princess Henry of Battenberg''.

On 22 August 1885, exactly a month after the wedding, Henry was made Honorary Colonel of the [[Isle of Wight Rifles|5th (Isle of Wight, Princess Beatrice's) Volunteer Battalion]], the [[Hampshire Regiment]],<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=25503 |date=21 August 1885 |page=3948 |nolink=yes }}</ref> In early 1886, it was announced in ''The Times'' that he would be made a captain in the [[1st Life Guards]], but [[Henry Campbell-Bannerman|the Secretary of State for War]] denied knowledge of this in the House of Commons and the appointment did not take place.<ref>{{hansard|1886/feb/26/army-prince-henry-of-battenberg|access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref>

Prince and Princess Henry of Battenberg had four children. By royal warrant of 13 December 1886, the Queen granted their children the style [[His Highness|''Highness'']].<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=25655 |date=14 December 1886 |page=6305 |nolink=yes }}</ref> This style took immediate effect in the [[United Kingdom]] and elsewhere except within the [[German Empire]], where, as Princes and Princesses of Battenberg, they were only entitled to the style ''Serene Highness''.<ref name="Dennison, M. p.150"/>

==Later life and death==
[[File:Tomb of Prince Henry of Battenberg and Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom in St Mildred's Church, Whippingham, Isle of Wight.jpg|thumb|Tomb of Prince Henry and Princess Beatrice in [[St Mildred's Church, Whippingham]], Isle of Wight]]
In 1889, Prince Henry was made Governor of [[Carisbrooke Castle]] and Captain-General and [[Governor of the Isle of Wight]].<ref>Dennison, M., The Last Princess, p.182-183</ref> He was made Lieutenant-Colonel in the Army on 21 June 1887,<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=25712 |date=21 June 1887 |page=3366 |nolink=yes }}</ref><ref>{{London Gazette |issue=25773 |date=5 January 1888 |page=223 |nolink=yes }}
</ref> Colonel on 22 February 1893<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=26374 |date=21 February 1893 |page=946 |nolink=yes }}</ref> and appointed to the [[Privy Council]] on 20 November 1894.<ref name="LG26573">{{London Gazette |issue=26573 |date=23 November 1894 |page=6625 |nolink=yes }}</ref>

In November 1895, Prince Henry persuaded Queen Victoria to allow him to go to West Africa to fight in the [[Ashanti War]]. He served as the military secretary to the commander-in-chief of British forces, Major Sir [[Francis Cunningham Scott|Francis Scott]]. He contracted [[malaria]] when the expedition reached Prahsu, about {{convert|30|mi|-1}} from [[Kumasi]], and subsequently died aboard the cruiser HMS ''Blonde'' stationed off the coast of [[Sierra Leone]]. His body was repatriated by the cruiser [[HMS Blenheim (1890)|HMS ''Blenheim'']] from the [[Canary Islands]] and his funeral service took place on 5 February 1896, at the same [[St. Mildred's Church, Whippingham]] on the Isle of Wight where he had been married. Interment followed in what became known as the Battenberg Chapel.<ref>{{London Gazette |issue=26712 |date=17 February 1896 |page=953 |nolink=yes }}</ref> The remains of his wife, Princess Beatrice, were placed there in August 1945 and those of his eldest son, the Marquess of Carisbrooke, in July 1961.

Beatrice's sister [[Princess Louise, Duchess of Argyll|Louise]] told [[Sir James Reid]] of "Prince Henry's attempted relations with her, which she had declined."<ref>{{cite book|last1=Stamp|first1=Robert|title=Royal rebels: Princess Louise & the Marquis of Lorne|date=1 May 1988|publisher=Dundurn Press|isbn=9781550020397|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U_ckAAAAMAAJ&q=%22attempted+relations%22+battenberg}}</ref>

Victoria erected a memorial in the form of a Celtic cross to Prince Henry near Connachat Cottage in the grounds of [[Balmoral Castle]] in 1896. It is inscribed 'Brief Life! In sport and war so keen, morned by these winds in heath and fir as where the falling breakers stir the pains that crowned thy closing scene'.<ref name=HES>{{Historic Environment Scotland|num=LB51502|desc=Connachat, Prince of Battenberg Memorial|cat=C|access-date=20 April 2023}}</ref>

==Titles, styles, honours and arms==
===Titles and styles===
*5 October 1858 – 21 December 1858: ''His Illustrious Highness'' Count Henry of Battenberg
*21 December 1858 – 20 January 1896: ''His Serene Highness'' Prince Henry of Battenberg
*In the UK: 22 July 1885 – 20 January 1896: ''His Royal Highness'' Prince Henry of Battenberg

===Honours===
{{columns-list|colwidth=25em|
* {{flagicon image|Flagge Großherzogtum Hessen ohne Wappen.svg}} [[Hesse and by Rhine]]:<ref name="HofUndStaat">{{citation|title=Hof- und Staats-Handbuch des Großherzogtum Hessen|year=1896|chapter=Genealogy|location=Darmstadt|publisher=Im Verlag der Invalidenanstalt|language=German|page=5|via=hathitrust.org}}</ref>
** Grand Cross of the [[Order of Philip the Magnanimous|Merit Order of Philip the Magnanimous]], with Swords, ''18 May 1875''<ref name="ordensliste">{{citation|title=Großherzoglich Hessische Ordensliste|pages=5, 36|language=German|location=Darmstadt|year=1894|publisher=Staatsverlag|via=hathitrust.org}}</ref>
** Grand Cross of the [[Ludwig Order]], ''23 April 1885''<ref name="ordensliste"/>
* {{flagcountry|United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland}}:
** '''KG''': [[Order of the Garter|Knight of the Garter]], ''23 July 1885''<ref name=p211>Shaw, Wm. A. (1906) ''The Knights of England'', '''I''', London, [https://archive.org/stream/cu31924092537418#page/n155/mode/2up p. 67]</ref>
** [[Queen Victoria Golden Jubilee Medal]], ''1887''<ref name = "HofUndStaat"/>
** '''PC''': [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Counsellor]], ''20 November 1894''<ref name="LG26573"/>
* {{flagcountry|Principality of Bulgaria}}:<ref name = "HofUndStaat"/>
** [[Order of Saint Alexander (Bulgaria)|Grand Cross of St. Alexander]]
** Commemorative Medal for the Liberation of Bulgaria
* {{flagicon|Saxe-Coburg and Gotha}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Altenburg}} {{flagicon|Saxe-Meiningen}} [[Ernestine duchies]]: Grand Cross of the [[Saxe-Ernestine House Order]]<ref name = "HofUndStaat"/>
* {{Flagicon image|Flagge Großherzogtümer Mecklenburg.svg}} [[Mecklenburg]]: [[House Order of the Wendish Crown|Grand Cross of the Wendish Crown]], with Golden Crown<ref name = "HofUndStaat"/>
* {{flagcountry|Principality of Montenegro}}: Grand Cross of the [[Order of Prince Danilo I]]<ref name = "HofUndStaat"/>
* {{flag|Ottoman Empire}}: [[Order of Osmanieh]], 1st Class<ref name = "HofUndStaat"/>
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Portugal}}: [[Order of the Tower and Sword|Grand Cross of the Tower and Sword]]<ref name = "HofUndStaat"/>
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Prussia}}: [[Order of the Red Eagle|Grand Cross of the Red Eagle]]<ref name = "HofUndStaat"/>
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Romania}}: [[Order of the Star of Romania|Grand Cross of the Star of Romania]]<ref name = "HofUndStaat"/>
* {{flagcountry|Kingdom of Serbia}}: [[Order of the Cross of Takovo|Grand Cross of the Cross of Takovo]]<ref name = "HofUndStaat"/>
}}

===Arms===
[[File:Coat of Arms of Henry of Battenberg.svg|upright=1.05|center|thumb|Coat of arms of Prince Henry of Battenberg]]

==Issue==
{| border="1" style="border-collapse: collapse;"
|- bgcolor="#cccccc"
!Image!!Name!!Birth!!Death!!Notes
|-
|align=center| [[File:Alexander of Battenberg, Marquess of Carisbrooke.jpg|90px]] ||Prince Alexander of Battenberg <br /> ''later'' <br /> [[Alexander Mountbatten, 1st Marquess of Carisbrooke]]||23 November 1886||23 February 1960||Married, 1917 Irene Denison (4 July 1890 – 16 July 1956); had issue.
|-
|align=center| [[File:Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg05.jpg|90px]] ||[[Victoria Eugenie of Battenberg|Princess Victoria Eugénie of Battenberg]]||24 October 1887||15 April 1969||Married, 1906, [[Alfonso XIII of Spain]] (17 May 1886 – 28 February 1941); had issue.
|-
|align=center| [[File:Prince Leopold Mountbatten 05363v.jpg|90px]] ||Prince Leopold of Battenberg <br /> ''later'' <br /> [[Lord Leopold Mountbatten]]||21 May 1889||23 April 1922||Suffered from [[haemophilia in European royalty|haemophilia]]; died unmarried and without issue during a knee operation.
|-
|align=center| [[File:1891 Maurice-04.JPG|90px]] ||[[Prince Maurice of Battenberg]]||3 October 1891||27 October 1914||Killed in action during World War I.
|}

==Ancestry==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|1= 1. '''Prince Henry of Battenberg'''
|2= 2. [[Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine]]
|3= 3. [[Julia, Princess of Battenberg|Countess Julia Hauke]]
|4= 4. [[Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse|Louis II, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine]]
|5= 5. [[Princess Wilhelmine of Baden]]
|6= 6. [[Hans Moritz Hauke|Count Hans Moritz Hauke]]
|7= 7. Sophie Lafontaine
|8= 8. [[Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse|Louis I, Grand Duke of Hesse and by Rhine]]
|9= 9. [[Princess Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt (1761–1829)|Princess Louise of Hesse-Darmstadt]]
|10= 10. [[Charles Louis, Hereditary Prince of Baden]]
|11= 11. [[Princess Amalie of Hesse-Darmstadt]]
|12= 12. [[Friedrich Carl Emanuel Hauke]]
|13= 13. [[Maria Salomé Schweppenhäuser]]
|14= 14. [[Franz Leopold Lafontaine]]
|15= 15. Maria Theresia Kornély
}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{NPG name|name=Prince Henry Maurice of Battenberg}}

{{s-start}}
{{S-hou|[[House of Battenberg]]|5 October|1858|20 January|1896|[[House of Hesse-Darmstadt]]}}
{{s-hon}}
{{succession box | before=[[Charles Shaw-Lefevre, 1st Viscount Eversley|The Viscount Eversley]] | title=[[Governor of the Isle of Wight]] | years=1889–1896 | after=[[Princess Beatrice of the United Kingdom|Princess Beatrice]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Battenberg family}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Henry of Battenberg, Prince}}
[[Category:1858 births]]
[[Category:1896 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from malaria]]
[[Category:House of Hesse-Darmstadt]]
[[Category:Battenberg family]]
[[Category:Infectious disease deaths in Sierra Leone]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:British Army General List officers]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the Fourth Anglo-Ashanti War]]
[[Category:Burials at St. Mildred's Church, Whippingham]]
[[Category:Prussian Army personnel]]
[[Category:German emigrants to England]]
[[Category:Princes in Germany]]
[[Category:Nobility from Milan]]
[[Category:Royal Hampshire Regiment officers]]
[[Category:Knights of the Garter]]
[[Category:Grand Crosses of the Order of the Star of Romania]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of the Cross of Takovo]]

Roger Wheeler (British Army officer)

2023-11-07T11:02:53Z

DAJ: /* Army career */ That's not the same

{{Short description|British Army general}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2021}}
{{Infobox military person
|name= Sir Roger Wheeler
|image=
|caption=
|birth_date= {{birth date and age|1941|12|16|df=y}}
|birth_place= [[Eton, Berkshire|Eton]], [[Buckinghamshire]], England
|death_date=
|death_place=
|nickname=
|allegiance=United Kingdom
|branch= [[British Army]]
|serviceyears= 1961–2000
|servicenumber= 475595
|rank= [[General (United Kingdom)|General]]
|unit=
|commands= [[Chief of the General Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the General Staff]]<br/>[[Commander-in-Chief, Land Forces|Land Command]]<br/>[[HQ Northern Ireland|Northern Ireland]]<br/>[[1st (United Kingdom) Division|1st Armoured Division]]<br/>[[11th Armoured Brigade (United Kingdom)|11 Armoured Brigade]]<br/>2nd [[Royal Irish Rangers]]
|battles= [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus|Cyprus Emergency]]<br/>[[Operation Banner]]<br/>[[Bosnian War]]<br/>[[Kosovo War]]
|awards= [[Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]]<br/>[[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]]
|relations= Major General [[Norman Wheeler]] (father)<br/>Air Chief Marshal [[Neil Wheeler|Sir Neil Wheeler]] (uncle)<br/>[[Simon Wheeler]] (son)<br/>[[Hermione Norris]] (daughter-in-law)
|laterwork= [[Constable of the Tower|Constable of the Tower of London]] (2001–09)
}}
[[General (United Kingdom)|General]] '''Sir Roger Neil Wheeler''', {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|sep=,|GCB|CBE}} (born 16 December 1941) is a retired [[British Army]] officer who served as [[Chief of the General Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the General Staff]] from 1997 to 2000. During his career he was involved in the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus|Cyprus Emergency]], directed military operations in [[Northern Ireland]] and led the UK's forces deployed on [[NATO]] operations in [[Bosnia and Herzegovina|Bosnia]]. He is now a non-executive director of several businesses operating on an international basis.

==Early life==
Wheeler was born in [[Eton, Berkshire|Eton]] on 16 December 1941 and is the son of Major General [[Norman Wheeler]].<ref>{{cite ODNB|url=http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/75594 |title=Major-General Norman Wheeler |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/75594 |access-date=8 July 2012}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.freebmd.org.uk:443/cgi/information.pl?cite=qpsIGQuuqE7EhdZIuEP0RQ&scan=1 |title=Index entry |access-date=30 March 2017 |work=FreeBMD |publisher=ONS}}</ref> He was educated at [[Allhallows College]] in [[Devon]]<ref name=WW>''[[Who's Who (UK)|Who's Who]] 2010'', [[A & C Black]], 2010, {{ISBN|978-1-4081-1414-8}}</ref> and [[Hertford College, Oxford]], which he joined in 1961.<ref>{{Citation | title = Oxford Gazette | url = http://www.ox.ac.uk/gazette/1996-7/weekly/071196/news/list.htm | access-date = 27 August 2007 | archive-date = 26 September 2006 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20060926032014/http://www.ox.ac.uk/gazette/1996-7/weekly/071196/news/list.htm | url-status = dead }}</ref>

==Army career==
Wheeler was commissioned as a [[second lieutenant]] (on probation) on the General List of the Territorial Army on 13 December 1963<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=43233|supp=y|page=937|date=28 January 1964}}</ref> and, following his graduation from University, promoted to [[Lieutenant (British Army and Royal Marines)|lieutenant]] in the [[Royal Ulster Rifles]] on 14 July 1964.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=43543|page=268|date=5 January 1965}}</ref> He spent his early military service in [[Borneo]] and in the Middle East.<ref name=WW/> He was promoted to [[Captain (British Army and Royal Marines)|captain]] on 22 December 1967<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=44481|page=14159|date=22 December 1967}}</ref> and to [[Major (rank)|major]] on 31 December 1973<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=46174|supp=y|page=269|date=5 January 1965}}</ref> and served as a brigade major during the [[Turkish invasion of Cyprus|Cyprus Emergency]] in 1974.<ref name=WW/> After serving on [[Michael Carver, Baron Carver|Lord Carver]]'s staff during the [[Rhodesia]] talks in 1977,<ref name=WW/> he was promoted to [[lieutenant colonel]] on 30 June 1978.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=47588|supp=y|page=8325|date=11 July 1978}}</ref> He became commanding officer of 2nd [[Royal Irish Rangers]] in 1979 and led his battalion in [[Belize]], [[Gibraltar]], Berlin and Canada.<ref name=WW/> He was then Chief of Staff in the [[Falkland Islands]] from June to December 1982 immediately following the [[Falklands War]].<ref name=WW/>

Having been promoted to full [[Colonel (United Kingdom)|colonel]] on 30 June 1982,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=49055|supp=y|page=9458|date=19 July 1982}}</ref> appointed a [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]] in the Queen's Birthday Honours List 1983<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=49375|supp=y|page=5|date=10 June 1983}}</ref> and promoted to [[brigadier]] on 31 December 1984,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=50013|page=871|date=21 January 1985}}</ref> he went on to be Brigade Commander of [[11th Armoured Brigade (United Kingdom)|11 Armoured Brigade]] in [[British Army of the Rhine]] in 1985.<ref name=WW/> After that he went to the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|Ministry of Defence]] in 1987 as Director of Army Plans.<ref name=WW/> Following his appointment as [[General Officer Commanding]] [[1st (United Kingdom) Division|1st Armoured Division]] in [[Germany]] in August 1989,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=51833|supp=y|page=9171|date=7 August 1989}}</ref> he was given the substantive rank of [[major general]] on 30 September 1989.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=51948|supp=y|page=13725|date=28 November 1989}}</ref> He became [[Assistant Chief of the General Staff (United Kingdom)|Assistant Chief of the General Staff]] on 30 November 1990<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=52353|supp=y|page=18702|date=3 December 1990}}</ref> and, after being appointed a [[Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath]] in the Queen's Birthday Honours List 1993,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=53332|supp=y|page=2|date=11 June 1993}}</ref> he was made General Officer Commanding and Director of Military Operations in [[Northern Ireland]] on 25 January 1993<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=53192|supp=y|page=1866|date=1 February 1993}}</ref> with his promotion to the rank of [[lieutenant general]] becoming substantive on 1 March 1993.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=53248|supp=y|page=4744|date=15 March 1993}}</ref> During his tour as Director of Military Operations the first cessation of terrorist operations took place and Wheeler initiated the reduction in the British military presence in Northern Ireland by three battalions over the course of the next two years.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm199798/cmselect/cmdfence/138/8090361.htm |title=Examination of witnesses (Questions 2420 - 2439)|publisher=Hanard|date=28 July 1998|access-date=17 December 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Thiepval Barracks, Lisburn - geograph.org.uk - 1590410.jpg|left|thumb|Thiepval Barracks from where Wheeler commanded British troops in Northern Ireland]]
He was appointed [[Land Command|Commander-in-Chief, Land Command]] in the rank of [[general]] on 12 March 1996<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=54342|page=3703|date=11 March 1996}}</ref> and, having been appointed [[ADC General]] to [[Elizabeth II|the Queen]] on 6 December 1996<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=54617|page=16937|date=23 December 1996}}</ref> and advanced to a [[Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]] in the [[1997 New Year Honours|New Year Honours List 1997]],<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=54625|page=2|date=30 December 1996}}</ref> made [[Chief of the General Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the General Staff]] (CGS) on 3 February 1997.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=54668|supp=y|page=1419|date=3 February 1997}}</ref> As CGS, he was responsible for implementing the [[Strategic Defence Review]] after the new Labour Government came to power<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk_politics/133741.stm|title=UK Politics: Diary: 21 July 1998|date=16 July 1998|publisher=BBC|access-date=17 December 2011}}</ref> as well as providing strategic military advice to the British Government on the deployment of troops for the [[Kosovo War]] and in connection with the formation of the [[United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/media/36690/roger_wheelercv1.pdf|title=Biography of General Sir Roger Wheeler|publisher=The Iraq Inquiry|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091127151403/http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/media/36690/roger_wheelercv1.pdf|archive-date=27 November 2009}}</ref> before he retired from the [[British Army]] in 2000.<ref name=WW/>

He served as Deputy Colonel of the [[Royal Irish Rangers|Royal Irish Rangers (27th (Inniskilling) 83rd and 87th)]] from 1 June 1987,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=51061|supp=y|page=11461|date=14 September 1987}}</ref> as Colonel of The Royal Irish Rangers (27th (Inniskilling) 83rd and 87th) from 27 August 1990<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=52254|supp=y|page=13852|date=24 August 1990}}</ref> and then as Deputy Colonel of the [[Royal Irish Regiment (1992)|Royal Irish Regiment, (27th (Inniskilling), 83rd, 87th and The Ulster Defence Regiment)]] from 1 July 1992.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=52983|supp=y|page=11412|date=6 July 1992}}</ref> He also served as Colonel Commandant of the [[Intelligence Corps (United Kingdom)|Intelligence Corps]] from 18 October 1995,<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=54226|supp=y|page=16134|date=27 November 1995}}</ref> [[Colonel|Honorary Colonel]] [[Queen's University Officers' Training Corps]] from 23 December 1999<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=55706|supp=y|page=13724|date=29 December 1999}}</ref> and Honorary Colonel of Oxford University Officers' Training Corps from 10 March 2000.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=55789|supp=y|page=2860|date=14 March 2000}}</ref> In additional he was Deputy Honorary Colonel of The [[London Regiment (1993)|London Regiment]] from 17 March 2000.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=55795|supp=y|page=3161|date=21 March 2000}}</ref>

==Later career==
Wheeler became [[Constable of the Tower]] of London in 2001.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue=56294|page=9283|date=6 August 2001}}</ref> In retirement, he became a Non-Executive Director of [[Thales Group|Thales plc]], a Non-Executive Director of [[Aegis Defence Services]] and, until 2009, a member of the governing board of the [[Serious Organised Crime Agency]] as well as President of [[Combat Stress]], the mental welfare society for ex-servicemen.<ref name=WW/> In October 2009 he was appointed advisor on military matters, to the British Government's inquiry into the Iraq war (headed by [[John Chilcot|Sir John Chilcot]]).<ref name=iraq>{{cite web|url=http://www.iraqinquiry.org.uk/news/091013advisers_appointed.aspx |title=Military and international law advisers appointed|publisher= Iraq Inquiry|date= 13 October 2009|access-date=15 December 2011}}</ref> He is also an Honorary Fellow of [[Hertford College, Oxford]], a Fellow of the [[Royal Geographical Society]], a Patron of the Police
Foundation, and a Liveryman of the [[Worshipful Company of Painter-Stainers]].<ref name=iraq/>

Wheeler has also played cricket for the Stragglers of Asia CC, one of the oldest wandering cricket clubs in the UK.<ref>{{Citation| title = Stragglers of Asia Cricket Club| url=http://www.stragglersofasia.co.uk| access-date = 11 April 2008}}</ref> His interests include [[fly fishing]], [[cricket]], [[shooting]] and [[ornithology]].<ref name=WW/>

==Family==
In 1980 he married Felicity Hares; they have three sons, including [[Simon Wheeler]], and one daughter by a former marriage.<ref name=WW/> His daughter-in-law is British actress [[Hermione Norris]] via her marriage to Wheeler's son Simon.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/celebritynews/8068566/Brave-Spooks-star-Hermione-Norris-is-a-have-a-go-heroine.html|title=Brave Spooks star Hermione Norris is a have-a-go heroine|newspaper=The Telegraph|date=17 October 2010|access-date=14 August 2016}}</ref>

He is the nephew of the late Air Chief Marshal [[Neil Wheeler|Sir Neil Wheeler]].<ref name=tele>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/4229953/Air-Chief-Marshal-Sir-Neil-Wheeler.html|title= Obituary: Sir Neil Wheeler|newspaper= The Daily Telegraph|date=13 January 2009|access-date=15 December 2011}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-mil}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Richard Swinburn]]|rows=2}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[1st (United Kingdom) Division|GOC 1st Armoured Division]]|years=1989–1990}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Rupert Smith]]}}
|-
{{s-ttl|title=[[Assistant Chief of the General Staff (United Kingdom)|Assistant Chief of the General Staff]]|years=1990–1992}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Michael Walker, Baron Walker of Aldringham|Michael Walker]]}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[John Wilsey|Sir John Wilsey]]|rows=2}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[HQ Northern Ireland|General Officer Commanding the British Army in Northern Ireland]]|years=1993–1996}}
{{s-aft|after=Sir Rupert Smith}}
|-
{{s-ttl|title=[[Commander-in-Chief, Land Forces|Commander-in-Chief, Land Command]]|years=1996–1997}}
{{s-aft|after=Sir Michael Walker|rows=2}}
|-
{{s-bef|before=[[Charles Guthrie, Baron Guthrie of Craigiebank|Sir Charles Guthrie]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Chief of the General Staff (United Kingdom)|Chief of the General Staff]]|years=1997–2000}}
|-
{{s-hon}}
{{s-bef|before=[[Peter Inge, Baron Inge|Sir Peter Inge]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Constable of the Tower|Constable of the Tower of London]]|years=2001–2009}}
{{s-aft|after=[[Richard Dannatt, Baron Dannatt|Sir Richard Dannatt]]}}
{{s-end}}

{{Chief of the General Staff}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wheeler, Roger}}
[[Category:1941 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Alumni of Hertford College, Oxford]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:British Army generals]]
[[Category:Royal Ulster Rifles officers]]
[[Category:Royal Irish Rangers officers]]
[[Category:British military personnel of The Troubles (Northern Ireland)]]
[[Category:Chiefs of the General Staff (United Kingdom)]]
[[Category:Constables of the Tower of London]]
[[Category:People from Eton, Berkshire]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Buckinghamshire]]

Victoria Paris

2023-03-27T14:34:02Z

DAJ: Undid revision 1043413233 by GoldenAgeFan1 (talk)

{{short description|American pornographic actress}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=August 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Victoria Paris
| image = Victoria Paris JBH cropped.jpg
| alt = 
| caption =
| birth_name = Sheila Young<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.imdb.com/name/nm0661638/|title=Victoria Paris|work=IMDb}}</ref>
| birth_date = November 22, 1960
| birth_place = [[Great Falls, Montana]], United States
| death_date = {{Death date and age|2021|08|10|1960|11|22}}
| death_place = [[Rexburg, Idaho]], United States
| nationality = American
| other_names = Vicky Paris
| occupation = Pornographic actress
| years_active = 1989–2002<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iafd.com/person.rme/perfid=VParis/gender=f|title=Victoria Paris|work=IAFD}}</ref>
| known_for =
| notable_works =
}}
'''Victoria Paris''' (November 22, 1960 – August 10, 2021) was an American pornographic actress and model.<ref>{{cite news |last=Warren|first=Peter|date=August 14, 2021|title='80s/'90s Star Victoria Paris Dies at 60|trans-title= |url=https://avn.com/business/articles/video/80s-90s-star-victoria-paris-dies-at-60-902210.html|language= |work=[[AVN (magazine)|AVN]]|location= |access-date=August 17, 2021}}</ref>

==Biography==
Born '''Sheila Young''', Victoria Paris studied nutrition at [[Montana State University]] in her hometown of [[Great Falls, Montana|Great Falls]] before moving to [[Los Angeles]] in 1987. She was a nude model for ''[[Hustler]]'' magazine, as well as ''[[High Society (magazine)|High Society]]'' and ''[[Penthouse (magazine)|Penthouse]]'' in 1988. She made her pornography debut in the 1989 film ''Girls of Double D 7''. She participated in numerous interracial films, considered to be taboo at the time. In 1989 in the video ''[[Live In Love In]]'', a porn spoof of the sitcom ''[[Three's Company]]'', she played "Prissie," a take-off on the TV show's "Chrissie" character played by [[Suzanne Somers]]. Paris starred in films directed by [[Andrew Blake (director)|Andrew Blake]], [[John Stagliano]], and [[Henri Pachard]]. She had also become quite concerned about the AIDS scare that had struck the industry on occasion, resulting in her decision to do only girl-girl work on film. In 1997, she was inducted into the [[List of members of the AVN Hall of Fame|AVN Hall of Fame]]. In the early 2000s, she ran an online magazine called "Alleykatz Online" alongside [[Janine Lindemulder]], [[Ashlyn Gere]] and [[Christy Canyon]].

==Death==
Victoria Paris died at her home in Rexburg, Idaho, from breast cancer on August 10, 2021, at the age of 60.<ref>{{cite news |last=Bailey-Millado|first=Rob|date=August 16, 2021|title=Victoria Paris, porn star legend of the '80s and '90s, dead at 60|trans-title= |url=https://nypost.com/2021/08/16/victoria-paris-porn-star-of-80s-and-90s-dead-at-60/|language= |work=[[New York Post]]|location= |access-date=August 16, 2021}}</ref> Her death was reported by Christy Canyon three days later.

==Awards==
*[[AVN Awards|AVN Award]] for {{ill|AVN Best New Starlet Award|fr|AVN Award de la meilleure nouvelle starlette|lt=Best New Starlet}} (with [[Tori Welles]], 1990)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://avnawards.avn.com/past/winners/1990|title=1990 Winners|work=AVN Awards|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230235231/http://avnawards.avn.com/past/winners/1990|archivedate=30 December 2013}}</ref>
*AVN Award for Best All-Girl Sex Scene (1991)<ref name="AVN">{{cite news |last= |first= |date=March 1991|title=The 1991 Adult Video News Awards Winners|trans-title= |url= |language= |work=AVN|location= |access-date=}}</ref>
*AVN Award for Best Couples Sex (1991)<ref name="AVN"/>
*AVN Hall of Fame (1997)<ref>{{cite news |last=Ross|first=Gene|date=March 1997|title=Shock, Bobby Sox Dominate the 14th Annual AVN Awards Show|trans-title= |url= |language= |work=AVN|location=Van Nuys|access-date=}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Paris, Victoria}}
[[Category:1960 births]]
[[Category:2021 deaths]]
[[Category:American pornographic film actresses]]
[[Category:Montana State University alumni]]
[[Category:People from Great Falls, Montana]]
[[Category:AVN Award winners]]
[[Category:Female models from Montana]]

Battle of Akhaltsikhe (1853)

2023-03-07T08:52:35Z

DAJ: Gregorian calendar

{{Short description|1853 battle of the Crimean War}}{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Akhaltsikhe
| partof = the [[Crimean War]]
| image = Battle at Akhaltsikhe (scheme, 1853).jpg
| caption = The scheme of the battle in Russian
| date = 13 November 1853
| place = [[Akhaltsikhe]] [[Caucasus]]
| coordinates = {{coord|41|38|36.35|N|42|59|36.40|E|display=inline,title}}
| result = Russian victory
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|Russian Empire}} [[Russian Empire]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Ottoman Empire]]
| commander1 = [[Ivane Andronikashvili|Ivan Andronnikov]]
| commander2 = Mehmed Ali Pasha
| strength1 = 7,000
| strength2 = 18,000 <br>24 guns
| casualties1 = 362{{sfnp|Badem|2010|p=432}}
| casualties2 = 3,500{{sfnp|Badem|2010|p=432}}
}}
{{Campaignbox Crimean War}}
The '''Battle of Akhaltsikhe''' occurred on 13 November 1853 during the Crimean War when a Georgian-Russian force of 7,000 defeated a Turkish army of 18,000 men near the Akhaltsikhe fortress in the [[Caucasus]].

At the outbreak of the Crimean War, Ali Pasha immediately launched a Turkish offensive to capture the Akhaltsikhe fortress. As the Ottoman force neared the city of Akhaltsikhe, the Turks were met by a Georgian-Russian detachment commanded by [[Ivane Andronikashvili|Prince Andronnikov]].

Despite the numerical superiority of the Turkish force, Prince Andronnikov divided his cavalry into two columns and attacked. One of the Russian columns attacked the Turks head-on while the second column rode to the side and attacked their enemy in the left flank. After a fierce struggle, the Turks were beaten and retreated to Kars. The Russian force lost 361 men while the Turkish casualties amounted to 3,500 men killed, wounded, and captured.

The Battle of Akhaltsikhe was the first major Russian success in the Caucasian theater of operations during the Crimean War. After this victory, the Turkish ended their offensive actions in the [[Transcaucasia|Trans-Caucasus]].{{sfnp|Shefov|2002}}

==Citations==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last1=Badem |first1=Candan |title=The Ottoman Crimean War (1853-1856) (Ottoman Empire and Its Heritage) |date=2010 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-18205-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shefov |first1=Nikolay |title=Battles of Russia |date=2002 |publisher=Military History Library |language=Russian}}

==General references==
{{cite book |last1=Bogdanovich |first1=M.I. |title=Eastern War 1853-1856, Volume 1 |date=1876 |language=Russian |ref=none}}

{{Ottoman (Turkish) battles}}

[[Category:Battles of the Crimean War|Akhaltsikhe]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1853]]
[[Category:1853 in the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:19th century in Georgia (country)]]

{{Russia-battle-stub}}
{{Ottoman-battle-stub}}

Battle of Akhaltsikhe (1853)

2023-01-30T15:20:03Z

DAJ: the linked person had just become a lieutenant at the time

{{Short description|1853 battle of the Crimean War}}{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = Battle of Akhaltsikhe
| partof = the [[Crimean War]]
| image = Battle at Akhaltsikhe (scheme, 1853).jpg
| caption = The scheme of the battle in Russian
| date = 24 November 1853
| place = [[Akhaltsikhe]] [[Caucasus]]
| coordinates = {{coord|41|38|36.35|N|42|59|36.40|E|display=inline,title}}
| result = Russian victory
| combatant1 = {{flagicon|Russian Empire}} [[Russian Empire]]
| combatant2 = {{flagicon|Ottoman Empire}} [[Ottoman Empire]]
| commander1 = [[Ivane Andronikashvili|Ivan Andronnikov]]
| commander2 = Mehmed Ali Pasha
| strength1 = 7,000
| strength2 = 18,000 <br>24 guns
| casualties1 = 362{{sfnp|Badem|2010|p=432}}
| casualties2 = 3,500{{sfnp|Badem|2010|p=432}}
}}
{{Campaignbox Crimean War}}
The '''Battle of Akhaltsikhe''' occurred on 24 November 1853 during the Crimean War when a Georgian-Russian force of 7,000 defeated a Turkish army of 18,000 men near the Akhaltsikhe fortress in the [[Caucasus]].

At the outbreak of the Crimean War, Ali Pasha immediately launched a Turkish offensive to capture the Akhaltsikhe fortress. As the Ottoman force neared the city of Akhaltsikhe, the Turks were met by a Georgian-Russian detachment commanded by [[Ivane Andronikashvili|Prince Andronnikov]].

Despite the numerical superiority of the Turkish force, Prince Andronnikov divided his cavalry into two columns and attacked. One of the Russian columns attacked the Turks head-on while the second column rode to the side and attacked their enemy in the left flank. After a fierce struggle, the Turks were beaten and retreated to Kars. The Russian force lost 361 men while the Turkish casualties amounted to 3,500 men killed, wounded, and captured.

The Battle of Akhaltsikhe was the first major Russian success in the Caucasian theater of operations during the Crimean War. After this victory, the Turkish ended their offensive actions in the [[Transcaucasia|Trans-Caucasus]].{{sfnp|Shefov|2002}}

==Citations==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin|indent=yes}}
* {{cite book |last1=Badem |first1=Candan |title=The Ottoman Crimean War (1853-1856) (Ottoman Empire and Its Heritage) |date=2010 |publisher=Brill |location=Leiden |isbn=978-90-04-18205-9}}
* {{cite book |last1=Shefov |first1=Nikolay |title=Battles of Russia |date=2002 |publisher=Military History Library |language=Russian}}

==General references==
{{cite book |last1=Bogdanovich |first1=M.I. |title=Eastern War 1853-1856, Volume 1 |date=1876 |language=Russian |ref=none}}

{{Ottoman (Turkish) battles}}

[[Category:Battles of the Crimean War|Akhaltsikhe]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1853]]
[[Category:1853 in the Ottoman Empire]]
[[Category:19th century in Georgia (country)]]

{{Russia-battle-stub}}
{{Ottoman-battle-stub}}

William George Keith Elphinstone

2020-12-01T14:51:58Z

DAJ: Undid revision 940909911 by Wikimandia (talk) no sources named

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2012}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = William George Keith Elphinstone
| image = General William Elphinstone.JPG
| image_size = 300px
| alt =
| caption = Major-General William Elphinstone (1836-1839)
| birth_date = 1782
| birth_place = Scotland
| death_date = 23 April {{death year and age|1842|1782}}
| death_place = Afghanistan
| placeofburial =
| placeofburial_label =
| placeofburial_coordinates = 
| nickname =
| birth_name =
| allegiance =
| branch = [[British Army]]
| serviceyears = 1804–1842
| rank = [[Major-General]]
| servicenumber =
| unit =
| commands = [[33rd Regiment of Foot]]<br>[[First Anglo-Afghan War|Kabul garrison]]
| battles = [[Napoleonic Wars]]<br>[[First Anglo-Afghan War]]
| battles_label =
| awards =
| spouse = 
| relations =
| laterwork =
| signature =
| website = 
}}

[[Major-General]] '''William George Keith Elphinstone''' [[Companion of the Bath|CB]] (1782 – 23 April 1842) was an officer of the [[British Army]] during the 19th century.

==Biography==
He was born in [[Scotland]] in 1782, the son of [[William Fullerton Elphinstone]], who was a director of the [[British East India Company]], and nephew of [[Admiral]] [[George Keith Elphinstone]], 1st [[Viscount]] Keith.

Elphinstone entered the [[British Army]] in 1804 as a [[lieutenant]]; he saw service throughout the [[Napoleonic Wars]], rising to the rank of [[lieutenant-colonel]] by 1813, when he became commander of the [[33rd Regiment of Foot]], which he led at the [[Battle of Waterloo]] in 1815. For his actions at Waterloo, Elphinstone was made a [[Companion of the Bath]], as well as a knight of the Dutch [[Order of William]] and of the Russian [[Order of St. Anna]] 2nd class (6/18 August 1815)<ref>Список кавалерам Императорских Российских орденов всех наименований за 1832 год. Часть 3. Санкт-Петербург при Императорской Академии Наук. 1833, с. 133.</ref>. He left the regiment in 1822.<ref>{{cite book|first=James A.|last= Norris|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GuHlEZPBn5EC&q=William+george+Elphinstone+born&pg=PA337|title=First Afghan War: 1838-42|publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]]|page=337|year=1967|isbn=9780-5-2105-8-384}}</ref> After Elphinstone was promoted to colonel in 1825, he served for a time as [[aide-de-camp]] to [[George IV of the United Kingdom|King George IV]].

[[File:The Grove and Valley of Jugdulluk - James Rattray Plate 21.jpg|thumb|300px|left|The Grove and Valley of Jugdulluk where Elphinstone's Army made its last stand in the calamitous retreat; January 1842. As drawn on the spot by [[James Rattray]].]]Elphinstone was promoted to major-general in 1837, and, in 1841, during the [[First Anglo-Afghan War]], placed in command of the British garrison in [[Kabul]], [[Afghanistan]], numbering around 4,500 troops, of whom 690 were European and the rest Indian.<ref>[http://www.britishbattles.com/first-afghan-war/kabul-gandamak.htm First Afghan War - Battle of Kabul and Retreat to Gandamak]</ref> The garrison also included 12,000 civilians, including soldiers' families and [[camp followers]]. He was elderly, indecisive, weak, and unwell, and proved himself utterly incompetent for the post. His entire command was massacred during the British [[1842 retreat from Kabul|retreat from Kabul during January 1842]].<ref>Macrory (1972), pp.267</ref>

Elphinstone died as a captive in Afghanistan some months later. His body was dispatched with a small guard of Afghan soldiers to the British garrison at [[Jalalabad]]. Elphinstone's "faithful" [[Batman (military)|batman]] Moore who had stayed with the General accompanied the body. En route, they were attacked by a "band of tribesmen", but eventually the body reached the garrison. Elphinstone is buried in an unmarked grave.<ref>Macrory (1972), pp.261-262</ref>

== See also ==
*''[[Flashman (novel)|Flashman]]''

==Notes==

===Citations===
{{reflist}}

=== References ===
* {{cite DNB|wstitle=Elphinstone, William George Keith|volume=17}}
* Macrory, Patrick. 1972. ''Signal Catastrophe: The Story of the Disastrous Retreat from Kabul 1842''. Book Club Associates, London.
* Macrory, Patrick. 2002. ''Retreat from Kabul: The Catastrophic British Defeat in Afghanistan, 1842''. The Lyons Press, Guilford, Connecticut. {{ISBN|978-1-59921-177-0}}

{{Anglo-Afghan War}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Elphinstone, William George Keith}}
[[Category:1782 births]]
[[Category:1842 deaths]]
[[Category:British Army generals]]
[[Category:33rd Regiment of Foot officers]]
[[Category:Companions of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of the Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:People of the First Anglo-Afghan War]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the First Anglo-Afghan War]]
[[Category:British prisoners of war]]
[[Category:British people who died in prison custody]]
[[Category:Knights Fourth Class of the Military Order of William]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Waterloo Medal]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 2nd class]]

User talk:Kaliforniyka

2020-11-09T09:41:16Z

DAJ: Date of birth Elphinstone

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[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Women in The Lord of the Rings|'''Talk:Women in The Lord of the Rings'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 20:30, 21 July 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Kaʻiulani|'''Talk:Kaʻiulani'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 09:31, 22 July 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Arbor Hill Historic District–Ten Broeck Triangle|'''Talk:Arbor Hill Historic District–Ten Broeck Triangle'''  on a "Geography and places" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 04:30, 23 July 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Classmates (manga)|'''Talk:Classmates (manga)'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 16:30, 24 July 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:The Lord of the Rings|'''Talk:The Lord of the Rings'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 12:31, 3 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Orca's Song|'''Talk:Orca's Song'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 19:31, 6 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Manuel Komnenos (kouropalates)|'''Talk:Manuel Komnenos (kouropalates)'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 21:32, 6 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:How Long 'til Black Future Month?|'''Talk:How Long 'til Black Future Month?'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 06:31, 7 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Muhammad VI of Granada|'''Talk:Muhammad VI of Granada'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 22:30, 8 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Flag of Cimișlia|'''Talk:Flag of Cimișlia'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 19:31, 9 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Great grain robbery|'''Talk:Great grain robbery'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 07:30, 10 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Federated Moulders' (Metals) Union of Australia|'''Talk:Federated Moulders' (Metals) Union of Australia'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 03:32, 11 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Economy of South Carolina|'''Talk:Economy of South Carolina'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 18:30, 11 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Nebuchadnezzar III|'''Talk:Nebuchadnezzar III'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 19:31, 11 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Nebuchadnezzar IV|'''Talk:Nebuchadnezzar IV'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 23:30, 11 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Ealdwulf of East Anglia|'''Talk:Ealdwulf of East Anglia'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 10:30, 12 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Coat of arms of Cimișlia|'''Talk:Coat of arms of Cimișlia'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 18:30, 13 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Fasana-e-Azad|'''Talk:Fasana-e-Azad'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 19:30, 15 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Epodes (Horace)|'''Talk:Epodes (Horace)'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 20:31, 15 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Rivendell|'''Talk:Rivendell'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 16:30, 18 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Warg|'''Talk:Warg'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 10:30, 25 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Ent|'''Talk:Ent'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 12:30, 25 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:The Lord of the Rings: film versus book|'''Talk:The Lord of the Rings: film versus book'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 15:31, 26 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Fraser's Hill|'''Talk:Fraser's Hill'''  on a "Geography and places" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 03:31, 27 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Francis Owen (philologist)|'''Talk:Francis Owen (philologist)'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 16:31, 29 August 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:United States|'''Talk:United States'''  on a "Geography and places" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 08:30, 31 August 2020 (UTC)

== Wikiproject Military history coordinator election nominations open ==

Nominations for the upcoming project coordinator election are now open. A team of up to ten coordinators will be elected for the next year. The project coordinators are the designated points of contact for issues concerning the project, and are responsible for maintaining our internal structure and processes. They do not, however, have any authority over article content or editor conduct, or any other special powers. More information on being a coordinator is available [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Academy/Becoming a coordinator|here]]. If you are interested in running, please sign up '''[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Coordinators/September 2020|here]]''' by 23:59 UTC on 14 September! Voting doesn't commence until 15 September. If you have any questions, you can contact any member of the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Coordinators|coord team]]. [[User:Peacemaker67|Peacemaker67]] ([[User_talk:Peacemaker67|click to talk to me]]) 02:07, 1 September 2020 (UTC)


== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Lafayette Park Historic District|'''Talk:Lafayette Park Historic District'''  on a "Geography and places" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 05:30, 1 September 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:United States|'''Talk:United States'''  on a "Geography and places" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 06:31, 3 September 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:United States|'''Talk:United States'''  on a "Geography and places" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 09:30, 3 September 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Manuel Komnenos (son of Andronikos I)|'''Talk:Manuel Komnenos (son of Andronikos I)'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 10:31, 3 September 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Odyssey|'''Talk:Odyssey'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 18:33, 5 September 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Engadine Line|'''Talk:Engadine Line'''  on a "Geography and places" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 18:30, 6 September 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Tibesti Mountains|'''Talk:Tibesti Mountains'''  on a "Geography and places" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 20:32, 6 September 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Hamdallah Mustawfi|'''Talk:Hamdallah Mustawfi'''  on a "History" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 23:31, 6 September 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Rockaway Beach and Boardwalk|'''Talk:Rockaway Beach and Boardwalk'''  on a "Geography and places" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 14:30, 8 September 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback requests from the Feedback Request Service ==

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== Milhist coordinator election voting has commenced ==

G'day everyone, voting for the [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Military history/Coordinators/September 2020|2020 Wikiproject Military history coordinator tranche]] is now open. This is a simple approval vote; only "support" votes should be made. Project members should vote for any candidates they support by 23:59 (UTC) on 28 September 2020. Thanks from the outgoing coord team, [[User:Peacemaker67|Peacemaker67]] ([[User_talk:Peacemaker67|click to talk to me]]) 05:18, 15 September 2020 (UTC)


== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

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==[[Emma Louisa Turner]]==

Hi, I’m trying to upgrade this article, and I see that you added the ‘’1939 England and Wales Register’’ ‘’ ref in {{diff|Emma Louisa Turner|prev|845629258|in this edit}}. Do you have a url for the reference? I know it’s a paid-for site, but I need a url to reformat the ref, and I don’t have access myself. Thanks in advance, [[User:Jimfbleak|<b style="font-family:Lucida;color:red">Jimfbleak</b>]] - [[User talk:Jimfbleak|<span style="font-family:arial;color:green"><i>talk to me?</i></span>]] 15:02, 18 September 2020 (UTC)

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== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

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==[[Wikipedia:Criteria for speedy deletion|Speedy deletion]] nomination of [[:Category:Italian people of Azerbaijani descent]]==
[[File:Ambox warning pn.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]

A tag has been placed on [[:Category:Italian people of Azerbaijani descent]] requesting that it be speedily deleted from Wikipedia. This has been done under [[WP:CSD#C1|section C1 of the criteria for speedy deletion]], because the category has been empty for seven days or more and is not a [[:Category:Disambiguation categories|disambiguation category]], a [[:Category:Wikipedia soft redirected categories|category redirect]], a [[:Category:Wikipedia featured topics categories|featured topics category]], under discussion at [[Wikipedia:Categories for discussion|Categories for discussion]], or a project category that by its nature may become empty on occasion.

If you think this page should not be deleted for this reason, you may '''contest the nomination''' by [[:Category:Italian people of Azerbaijani descent|visiting the page]] and clicking the button labelled "Contest this speedy deletion". This will give you the opportunity to explain why you believe the page should not be deleted. However, be aware that once a page is tagged for speedy deletion, it may be deleted without delay. Please do not remove the speedy deletion tag from the page yourself, but do not hesitate to add information in line with [[Wikipedia:List of policies|Wikipedia's policies and guidelines]].   [[User:UnitedStatesian|UnitedStatesian]] ([[User talk:UnitedStatesian|talk]]) 06:14, 26 September 2020 (UTC)

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== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Edgar C. Polomé|'''Talk:Edgar C. Polomé'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 21:32, 27 September 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Dennis Howard Green|'''Talk:Dennis Howard Green'''  on a "Language and literature" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 16:30, 3 October 2020 (UTC)

== CFD for neologisms categories ==

Some of the categories, which you have created or edited are proposed for renaming. You are invited to join the discussion at {{section link|Wikipedia:Categories for discussion/Log/2020 October 4#Neologisms, words and phases introduced in time periods}}. —⁠[[User:Andrybak|andrybak]] ([[User talk:Andrybak|talk]]) 01:45, 4 October 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback requests from the Feedback Request Service ==

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== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Janda Baik|'''Talk:Janda Baik'''  on a "Geography and places" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 06:30, 12 October 2020 (UTC)

== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: Language and literature Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

[[File:Internet-group-chat.svg|48px|left|alt=|link=]]Your feedback is requested  at [[Talk:Kashmar|'''Talk:Kashmar'''  on a "Geography and places" Good Article nomination]]. Thank you for helping out!<br/><small>You were randomly selected to receive this invitation from the list of [[WP:FRS|Feedback Request Service]] subscribers. If you'd like not to receive these messages any more, you can opt out at any time by [[WP:FRS|removing your name]].</small> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> Message delivered to you with love by [[User:Yapperbot|Yapperbot]] :) | Is this wrong? Contact [[User talk:Naypta|my bot operator]]. | Sent at 02:30, 14 October 2020 (UTC)

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== Feedback request: History Good Article nomination ==

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== Feedback request: Geography and places Good Article nomination ==

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== Date of birth Elphinstone ==
Hello, you have changed General [[William George Keith Elphinstone]]s birth date. Can you please add a source? Many thanks. Kind regards --[[User:DAJ|DAJ]] ([[User talk:DAJ|talk]]) 09:40, 9 November 2020 (UTC)

Nile Expedition

2018-11-13T12:28:22Z

DAJ: Churchill describes the Anglo-Egyptian conquest of Sudan 1896-99

{{see |Mahdist Sudan}}
{{Refimprove|date=January 2008}}
[[File:11thhussars1884 GordonRelief.jpg|thumb|11th Hussars from the Gordon Relief Expedition]]

The '''Nile Expedition''', sometimes called the '''Gordon Relief Expedition''' (1884–85), was a [[United Kingdom|British]] mission to relieve [[Major-General]] [[Charles George Gordon]] at [[Khartoum]], [[Sudan]]. Gordon had been sent to the Sudan to help Egyptians evacuate from Sudan after Britain decided to abandon the country in the face of a rebellion led by self-proclaimed [[Mahdi]], [[Mahommed Ahmed]]. A contingent of [[Canada|Canadians]] was recruited to help the British navigate their small boats up the [[Nile River]]. The Nile Expedition was the first overseas expedition by Canadians in a British imperial conflict, although the Nile Voyageurs were civilians employees and did not wear uniforms.
[[File:Camel Corps at the ready.jpg|thumb|''Photograph of Camel Corps, 2 Sikhs at the 'Ready'.'' Photograph by [[Felice Beato]], 1884/85.]]

==Background==
Not wanting to be involved in the costly suppression of the rebellion led by Mahommed Ahmed, the [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland]] ordered [[Egypt]] to abandon its administration of the Sudan in December 1883. The British government asked General Gordon, former [[Governor-General]] of Sudan, to go to Khartoum and aid in the evacuation of Egyptian soldiers, civilian employees and their families. Travelling from [[London]], General Gordon reached Khartoum on 18 February 1884. He immediately began sending women, children and wounded soldiers back to Egypt as the military situation deteriorated in the Sudan and the south of the country was in danger of being cut off from Egypt by the Islamic [[Mahdist War|Mahdist]] army. Britain withdrew its troops from the Sudan until Khartoum was the last outpost remaining under British control.

Gordon differed with the [[Her Majesty's Government|British government's]] decision to abandon the Sudan. He thought that the [[Islamic]] revolt had to be crushed for fear that it might eventually overwhelm Egypt. He based this on the Mahdi’s claim of dominion over all Islamic lands. Defying orders from the British government to withdraw, General Gordon, leading a garrison of 6,000 men, began the defence of Khartoum. On March 18, 1884, the Mahdist army laid [[siege]] to the city. The rebels stopped river traffic and cut the [[Electrical telegraph|telegraph line]] to [[Cairo]]. Khartoum was cut off from resupply, which led to food shortages, but could still communicate with the outside world by using messengers. Under pressure from the public, in August 1884, the British government decided to reverse its policy and send a relief force to Khartoum.

==Organising the Relief Force==
The Expedition was put under the command of [[Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley|General Garnet Wolseley]], who had seen service in the [[Crimean War]], [[Canada]], the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]] and southern [[Africa]]. The Expedition was composed of two officers and 43 soldiers from each British Light Cavalry Regiment.<ref>[http://www.britishempire.co.uk/forces/armyunits/britishcavalry/11thhussars1884.htm Gordon Relief Expedition]</ref>

Wolseley decided that the best way of reaching Khartoum would be to ascend the [[Nile River]]. Based on his favourable experience with them during his [[Wolseley Expedition|expedition]] along the [[Red River of the North|Red River]] to [[Fort Garry]] (now [[Winnipeg]]) in 1869–1870 to suppress the [[Red River Rebellion]], Wolseley asked the [[Governor General of Canada]], the [[Marquess]] of Lansdowne,<ref>Miller, Carman,[http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0004525 Lansdowne, Henry Charles Keith Petty-Fitzmaurice, 5th Marquess of, Canadian Encyclopedia] Accessed: 5 April 2007</ref> if it would be possible to recruit a contingent of Canadian [[voyageurs]] to help him navigate the Nile. He requested that they be commanded by [[Lieutenant-Colonel]] Fred C. Denison, who had served as Wolseley’s [[aide-de-camp]] during the Red River expedition.<ref>W. Stewart WALLACE, ed., The Encyclopedia of Canada, Vol. V, Toronto, University Associates of Canada, 1948, 401p., p. 8.</ref> The [[Prime Minister of Canada]], [[Sir John A. Macdonald]], did not object once he was assured that the voyageurs were volunteers and would be paid by the British. Denison complied and on 15 September 1884, only 24 days after the request was received, 386 voyageurs set sail for Egypt.

The Canadians were known at the time as the Nile Voyageurs. As the traditional role of the voyageur was waning, most were formerly employed helping transport log booms down rivers such as the [[Ottawa River|Ottawa]], [[Gatineau River|Gatineau]] and [[Saguenay River|Saguenay]]. Eighty-six of the voyageurs were members of the [[First Nations]], mostly Caughnawaga,<ref>Louis Jackson, Our Caughnawagas in Egypt by , Montreal: WM. Drysdale & Co. 1895</ref> an offshoot from the [[Mohawk nation|Mohawk]] and [[Ojibwa]].
[[File:The Nile Expedition for the Relief of General Gordon, from The Graphic, 29 November 1894.png|thumb|400px|The Nile Expedition for the relief of Gordon]]
==The Expedition==
On 7 October 1884, the Canadians reached [[Alexandria]] and headed south by a combination of shallow draft [[steam launch]] and train. On 26 October 1884, the Canadians met Wolseley and his force of 5,400 soldiers at [[Wadi Halfa]]. By November they were at the first of six [[Cataracts of the Nile|cataracts]] and began their work of ascending the rapids. The southern progress of the expedition sped up with the experienced voyageurs manning the boats. The boats that Wolseley selected were modified [[Royal Navy]] whalers. They were almost ten metres long, two metres wide and three-quarters of a metre deep, and were equipped with twelve oars, two [[mast (sailing)|masts]] and a removable [[rudder]]. The boats had the capacity for a dozen men along with enough cargo to supply them for a hundred days.

In mid-November, the expedition received word from General Gordon that he could only survive the siege for another forty days. The expedition was attacked by rebels at [[Battle of Abu Klea|Abu Klea]] and Abu Cru, but was able to repel the rebels both times. Progress up the river was slow and often the boats had to be pulled through rapids by rope from shore. At several places the strength of the current necessitated several crews pulling one boat. They settled on a method of stationing the voyageurs at difficult stretches along the river, so that each group would become familiar with a particular stretch of water.

Realising that time was running out for General Gordon in Khartoum, Wolseley split his force into two columns. He sent 2,400 men by [[camel]] on a 280 km shortcut across the desert to avoid the [[Great Bend of the Nile]] and reach the city sooner. The [[River Column|remaining 3,000 soldiers]] continued up the river.

The Canadians’ six-month contracts were soon to expire and they were asked to re-enlist. Though offered generous inducements, only 86 of the voyageurs, including their commander, Denison, signed up for a second six-month contract. The rest elected to return to Canada, hoping to arrive in time for the spring logging season. This did not halt the expedition, as the worst of the river was already behind them and the smaller number of soldiers travelling by river reduced the need for the Canadians. Denison and his men continued piloting the small boats up the river.

General Gordon’s last entry in his journal, dated 14 December 1884, read, “Now mark this, if the Expeditionary Force, and I ask for no more than 200 men, does not come in ten days, the town may fall; and I have done my best for the honour of our country. Good bye.” <ref>The Journals of Major-General C. G. Gordon, C.B., at Khartoum. London, 1885.</ref>

On 26 January 1885, Khartoum fell to the Mahdist army of 50,000 men. At that time of year the Nile was shallow enough to cross by wading and the Mahdists were able to breach the city’s defences by attacking the poorly-defended approaches from the river. The entire garrison was slaughtered, including General Gordon. His head was cut off and delivered to the Mahdi. Two days later the relief expedition entered the city to find that they were too late.

==After the Fall of Khartoum==
Emboldened by their victory at the [[Battle of Khartoum]], the Mahdists attacked the British column ascending the river at [[Battle of Kirbekan|Kirbekan]], but were repulsed. However, the British commander [[William Earle (soldier)|General William Earle]] was killed.

The British force retreated to Egypt. With the fall of Khartoum, Muhammad Ahmad controlled the whole of Sudan, allowing him to establish an Islamic state governed by [[Sharia]] law. He died less than six months later. His state survived him, but Sudan was re-conquered by the British in a [[Battle of Omdurman|campaign]] from 1895 to 1898, led by [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]].

==Legacy==
On 17 April 1885, the Canadian contingent set sail from Alexandria for home. Sixteen Canadians had died on the expedition. They are memorialised in Canada’s [[Peace Tower]], which recognises all of Canada’s war dead. Wolseley wrote a letter to the Canadian Governor General praising the Canadians' service and the [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|British Parliament]] passed a motion thanking them for their efforts.

A collection of records from the expedition was compiled and edited by [[Charles Perry Stacey|C.P. Stacey]], and published by the [[Champlain Society]] in 1959.<ref>{{Cite book
| url = http://champlainsociety.utpjournals.press/doi/book/10.3138/9781442618220
| title = Records of the Nile Voyageurs, 1884-1885: The Canadian Voyageur Contingent in the Gordon Relief Expedition: The Publications of the Champlain Society
| publisher = Champlain Society Publications
| year = 1959
| editor-last = Stacey
| editor-first = Charles
| location = Toronto
| doi = 10.3138/9781442618220
}}</ref>

A memorial plaque "Nile Voyageurs 1884–85" was erected at Kitchissippi Lookout on Island Park Drive just west of the Champlain Bridge in 1966.<ref>[http://www.cmp-cpm.forces.gc.ca/dhh-dhp/nic-inm/sm-rm/mdsr-rdr-eng.asp?PID=4568 Nile Voyageurs 1884-85]</ref>

==In popular culture==
[[Lance Corporal Jones]] in the T.V. [[sitcom]] ''[[Dad's Army]]'' claimed to have been involved in the Anglo-Egyptian invasion of Sudan in 1896–1899.

==See also==
* ''[[Khartoum (film)|Khartoum]]'', 1966 film
* ''[[The Four Feathers (1939 film)|The Four Feathers]]'', 1939 film
* ''[[The Four Feathers (2002 film)|The Four Feathers]]'', 2002 film

==References==

===Notes===
{{reflist|2}}

===Sources===
*{{cite book|author=Winston S. Churchill| title=The River War (first edition, two volumes)|location=London |publisher= Longmans, Green & Co. |year= 1899}}
*[[Charles Perry Stacey|C.P. Stacey]] (1959). ''Records of the Nile Voyageurs, 1884-1885: The Canadian Voyageur Contingent in the Gordon Relief Expedition''. Toronto: [[Champlain Society]] Publications.

==External links==
* Boileau, John, [http://www.legionmagazine.com/features/canadianreflections/04-01.asp Voyageurs on the Nile], Legion Magazine, January/February 2004. Accessed: 4 April 2007
* MacLaren, Roy [http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/index.cfm?PgNm=TCE&Params=A1ARTA0005755 Nile Expedition, Canadian Encyclopedia] Accessed: 4 April 2007
* McGinnis Schulze, Lorine [http://www.rootsweb.com/~canmil/nile/nileview.htm Nile Expedition, Canadian Military History Project] Accessed: 4 April 2007
* [http://www.cmhg.gc.ca/cmh/en/page_574.asp The Nile Expedition, 1884–85, Canadian Military Heritage] Accessed: 4 April 2007
* [http://www.nmm.ac.uk/searchbin/searchs.pl?exhibit=it1251d&axis=1174939672&flash=true&dev=%3E%3Cimg%20src= The National Maritime Museum, UK] Accessed: 4 April 2007
* [http://champlainsociety.utpjournals.press/doi/book/10.3138/9781442618220 Various Records of the Nile Expedition compiled and edited by C.P. Stacey, Published by the Champlain Society, 1959.]

{{coord missing|Ethiopia}}

[[Category:1884 in Sudan]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1884]]
[[Category:1885 in Sudan]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1885]]
[[Category:Battles involving Sudan]]
[[Category:Battles of the Mahdist War]]
[[Category:Sieges involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Battles involving Canada]]
[[Category:History of Khartoum]]
[[Category:Military expeditions]]
[[Category:Expeditions from the United Kingdom]]

Order of battle at the Battle of Austerlitz

2018-10-19T12:17:42Z

DAJ: /* Fourth Column */ Jirčik is the spelling at the monument at Pratzen Heights

This is the complete order of battle of
the [[France|French]] and [[Third Coalition]] armies during the [[Battle of Austerlitz]].

== [[La Grande Armée]] ==

The French army was under the supreme command of [[Emperor]] [[Napoleon]], with [[Marshal]] [[Louis Alexandre Berthier]] as his [[Chief of staff (military)|chief of staff]]. General of division [[Nicolas-Marie Songis des Courbons]] commanded the artillery. The overall strength of the [[French army]] during the battle is estimated to have been about 73,000 men of all arms and 139 [[artillery]] pieces. This number also includes three battalions of men which made up the Army's ''train d'artillerie''.

=== [[Imperial Guard (Napoleon I)|Garde Impériale]] (French Imperial Guard) ===
''Strength: 5,500 men and 24 guns''. Marshal [[Jean-Baptiste Bessières]].
*'''[[Infantry]] of the Guard'''
**1er and 2e [[Battalion|Battaillons]] [[Grenadiers]] à Pied (foot [[grenadiers]])
**1er and 2e Battaillons Chasseurs à Pied ([[light infantry]])
**The Grenadiers of the Royal [[Italy|Italian]] Guard
*'''[[Cavalry]] of the Guard'''
**[[Grenadiers à Cheval de la Garde Impériale|Grenadiers à Cheval]] (horse grenadiers)
**[[Chasseurs à Cheval de la Garde Impériale|Chasseurs à Cheval]] ([[light cavalry]])
**Les [[Mamelukes of the Imperial Guard|Mamelukes]]
**Gendarmerie d'Elite
*'''Artillery of the Guard'''
**Light Artillery of the Guard
**Artillery Train of the Guard

=== I Corps ===
''Strength: 13,000 men and 24 guns''. Marshal [[Charles XIV John of Sweden|Jean Baptiste Bernadotte]].
*'''Advanced Guard'''
**27ème [[Regiment|Régiment]] d'lnfanterie Légère ([[light infantry]])
*'''1st [[Division (military)|Division]]''' - [[General]] of Division [[Olivier Rivaud de la Raffinière]]
**Brigadiers: [[Bernard Georges François Frère]], [[François Werlé]]
***8ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne ([[line infantry]])
***45ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
***[[54th Infantry Regiment (France)|54ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne]]
*'''2nd Division''' - General of Division [[Jean-Baptiste Drouet, Comte d'Erlon|Jean-Baptiste Drouet]]
**Brigadiers: [[Pierre Charles Dumoulin]], [[Michel-Marie Pacthod]]
***94ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
***95ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
*'''[[Light Cavalry]] Division''' - General of Division [[François Etienne de Kellermann]]
** Brigadiers: [[Joseph Denis Picard]], [[Frédéric Christophe Henri Pierre Claude Vagnair|Frédéric Marisy]]
***2ème Régiment de Hussards ([[hussars]])
***4ème Régiment de Hussards
***5ème Régiment de Hussards
***5ème Régiment de Chasseurs à Cheval

=== [[III Corps (Grande Armée)|III Corps]] ===
''Strength: 4,300men (including 830 cavalry) and 12 guns''. Marshal [[Louis Nicolas Davout]].
*'''2nd Division''' - General of Division [[Louis Friant]]
**15ème Régiment d'lnfanterie Légère
**33ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
**48ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
**108ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
**111ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
**1st Regiment des Dragons (attached from Klein's 1st Dragoon Div.)
*'''4th Dragoon Division''' - General [[François Antoine Louis Bourcier]]
**15ème Régiment des Dragons ([[dragoons]])
**17ème Régiment des Dragons
**18ème Régiment des Dragons
**19ème Régiment des Dragons
**25ème Régiment des Dragons
**27ème Régiment des Dragons
*'''Corps Artillery''' (8x 8-pdr & 4x 6" howitzer)

=== IV Corps ===
''Strength: 23,600 men and 35 guns.'' Marshal [[Nicolas Jean de Dieu Soult]]
*'''1st Division''' - General of Division [[Louis Vincent Le Blond de Saint-Hilaire]]
**10ème Régiment d'lnfanterie Légère
**14ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
**36ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
**43ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne ( attached to Vandamme's Div. during battle )
**55ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne ( attached to Vandamme's Div. during battle )
*'''2nd Division''' - General of Division [[Dominique Vandamme|Dominique Joseph Rene Vandamme]]
**24ème Régiment d'lnfanterie Légère
**4ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
**28ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
**46ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
**57ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
*'''3rd Division''' - General of Division [[Claude Legrand|Claude Juste Alexandre Legrand]]
**26ème Régiment d'lnfanterie Légère
**3ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
**18ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
**75ème Régiment d'lnfanterie de Ligne
**Tirailleurs du Pô (Italian light infantry)
**Tirailleurs Corses (Corsican light infantry)
*'''Light Cavalry Division''' - General of [[Brigade]] [[Pierre Margaron]]
**8ème Régiment de Hussards ([[Hussars]])
**11ème Régiment de Chasseurs à Cheval
**26ème Régiment de Chasseurs à Cheval
*'''Corps Artillery''' - 35 guns (mostly 12-pdrs)

=== V Corps ===
''Strength: 12,700 men and 20 guns.'' Marshal [[Jean Lannes]]
*'''1st Division''' - General of Division [[Marie-François Auguste de Caffarelli du Falga]] (attached from 3rd Corps)
**13ème Régiment d'Infanterie Légère
**17ème Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne
**30ème Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne
**51ème Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne
**61ème Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne
*'''3rd Division''' - General of Division [[Louis Gabriel Suchet]]
**17ème Régiment d'Infanterie Légère
**34ème Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne
**40ème Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne
**64ème Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne
**88ème Régiment d'Infanterie de Ligne
*'''Light Cavalry Division''' - General of Brigade [[Anne-François-Charles Trelliard]]
**9ème Régiment de Hussards
**10ème Régiment de Hussards
**13ème Chasseurs à Cheval
**21ème Chasseurs à Cheval
*'''Corps Artillery''' 20 guns (mostly 12-pdrs)

=== [[Grenadier Division]] ===
''Strength: 5,700 men.'' General of Division [[Nicolas Oudinot]] (present, but convalescent) - effective command given to [[Grand Marshal of the Palace]] General of Division [[Géraud Duroc]].

This famous, albeit provisional, formation was composed of elite companies from several regiments that were on [[garrison]] duty.

*[[Carabinier]] companies (equivalent to grenadiers in light infantry formations) from:
2ème, 3ème, 15ème, 28ème and Peale Régiments d'Infanterie Légère
*Grenadier companies from: 9éme, 13ème, 58ème and 81ème Régiments d'lnfanterie de Ligne

=== Cavalry Reserve ===
''Strength: 7,400 [[sabre]]s and 36 guns''. Marshal Prince [[Joachim Murat]]
*'''1st Heavy Cavalry Division''' - General of Division [[Étienne Marie Antoine Champion de Nansouty]]
**1st Brigade - General of Brigade [[Joseph Piston]]
***1er Régiment de [[Carabiniers à Cheval]] (205 in 3 sqns) - Colonel Cochois
***2ème Régiment de Carabiniers à Cheval (181 in 3 sqns) - Colonel Morin
**2nd Brigade - General of Brigade [[Armand Lebrun de La Houssaye]]
***2ème Régiment de Cuirassiers (304 in 3 sqns) - Colonel Yvendorff
***9ème Régiment de Cuirassiers (280 in 3 sqns) - Colonel [[Jean-Pierre Doumerc|Doumerc]]
**3rd Brigade - General of Brigade [[Antoine Louis Decrest de Saint-Germain]]
***[[3rd Cuirassier Regiment (France)|3ème Régiment de Cuirassiers]] (333 in 3 sqns) - Colonel Preval
***12ème Régiment de Cuirassiers (277 in 3 sqns) - Colonel Belfort
**Artillery: 4th Company, 2nd Artillery Regiment, 92 men.
*'''2nd Heavy Cavalry Division''' - General of Division [[Jean-Joseph Ange d'Hautpoul]]
**1st Brigade - Colonel [[Jean-Baptiste Noirot]]
***[[1st Cuirassier Regiment|1er Régiment de Cuirassiers]] (388 in 3 sqns) - Colonel Guiton
***5ème Régiment de Cuirassiers (375 in 3 sqns) - Colonel Noireau
**2nd Brigade - General of Brigade [[Raymond-Gaspard de Bonardi de Saint-Sulpice]]
***10ème Régiment de Cuirassiers (254 in 3 sqns) - Colonel Lataye
***11ème Régiment de Cuirassiers (327 in 3 sqns) - Colonel Fouler
**Artillery: 4th Company, 2nd Artillery Regiment, 42 men
*'''2nd Dragoon Division''' - General of Division [[Frédéric Henri Walther]]
**3ème Régiment de Dragons
**6ème Régiment de Dragons
**10ème Régiment de Dragons
**11ème Régiment de Dragons
**13ème Régiment de Dragons
**22ème Régiment de Dragons
*'''3rd Dragoon Division''' - General of Division [[Marc Antoine de Beaumont]]
**[[5ème Régiment de Dragons]]
**8ème Régiment de Dragons
**12ème Régiment de Dragons
**16ème Régiment de Dragons
**21ème Régiment de Dragons
*'''Light Cavalry Division''' - General of Division [[François Etienne de Kellermann]]
** ''Detached from I Corps''
*'''Light Cavalry Brigade''' - General of Brigade [[Édouard Jean Baptiste Milhaud]]
**16ème Régiment de Chasseurs à Cheval
**22ème Régiment de Chasseurs à Cheval
*'''Attached artillery''' - 36 guns in companies of artillerie à cheval (Horse-Artillery)

== Army of the [[Third Coalition]] ==

Opposing the French at [[Battle of Austerlitz|Austerlitz]] were the combined imperial armies of [[Russia]] and [[Austria]], under the nominal command of [[Tsar]] [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander I]] and Emperor [[Francis II of the Holy Roman Empire|Francis II]], respectively. However, overall field command was taken by the Russian [[General]] [[Mikhail Illarionovich Kutuzov|Mikhail Illarionovich Golenischev-Kutuzov]]. The Austrian forces were led by [[Lieutenant General]] Prince [[Johann I Josef, Prince of Liechtenstein|Johann von Liechtenstein]]. Total strength during the battle is approximately 85,400 men and 278 [[gun]]s of all types.

=== The Russian Imperial Guard ===
''Strength: 6,730 [[infantry]], 3,700 [[Cavalry|horsemen]], 100 [[Combat engineering|Pioneers]] and 40 guns.'' [[Grand Duke]] [[Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia|Constantine]]
*'''Infantry of the Guard''' - Lieutenant-General Maliutin
*Infantry Brigade - Major-General I. Depreradovich
**[[Izmaylovsky Regiment]] of [[Russian Imperial Guard|Life Guards]]
**[[Semenovsky Regiment]] of Life Guards
**[[Preobrazhensky Regiment]] of Life Guards
**[[Egersky Guards Regiment|Guard Jaeger]] Battalion
**Leib-Grenadier Regiment - Major-General Lobanov
**Guard Artillery Battery Nr. 1 (10x 12-pdr)
**2 Artillery Batteries (each 10x 6-pdr)
**Pioneers of the Guard (1 company)
*'''Cavalry of the Guard''' - Lieutenant-General Kologrivov
**Cavalry Brigade - Major-General Jankovich
***[[Chevalier Guard Regiment]] (5 sqns)
***Lifeguard Horse Regiment (5 sqns)
**Cavalry Brigade - Major-General N. Depreradovich
***Lifeguard [[Hussar]] Regiment (5 sqns)
***Lifeguard [[Cossack]] Regiment
**Guard Horse-Artillery Battery Nr. 1 (10x 6-pdr)

=== ''Advanced Guard of the Tsar's Army'' ===
''Strength: 9,200 infantry, 4,500 horsemen and 42 guns.'' Lieutenant-General [[Pyotr Bagration|Peter I. Bagration]]
<br>'''Infantry'''
*Infantry Brigade - Major-General [[Peter Petrovich Dolgorukov (1777-1806)|Dolgorukov]]
**5th Jaeger Regiment - Major Pantenius
**6th Jaeger Regiment - Colonel Belokopytov
*Infantry Brigade - Major-General Kamensky
**Arkhangelgorod Regiment - Colonel Berlizeev
*Infantry Brigade - Major-General Engelhardt
**Old Ingermanland Infantry Regiment
**[[Pskov]] Infantry Regiment
*2 Artillery Batteries (each 10 guns)
'''Cavalry'''
*Cavalry Brigade - Major-General Ludwig von Wittgenstein
**[[Pavlograd Hussar Regiment]]
**[[Mariupol]] Hussar Regiment
*Cavalry Brigade - Major-General Voropaitzky
**The [[Empress]] [[Cuirassier]] Regiment (5 sqns) - Colonel Count de Witt
**[[Tver]] [[Dragoon]] Regiment (5 sqns)
**[[St. Petersburg]] Dragoon Regiment (5 sqns)
*Cossack Brigade - Major-General Tschaplitz
**[[Kiselev]] Cossack Regiment
**[[Malakhov]] Cossack Regiment
**[[Khanzhenkov]] Cossack Regiment
*Horse-Artillery Battery Nr. 1 (12x 6-pdr)
*Horse-Artillery Battery Nr. 4 (6x 6-pdr)
*(Austrian) Horse-Artillery Battery Nr. 5 (6x 6-pdr)

=== ''Advance Guard of General [[Friedrich Wilhelm von Buxhoeveden]]'' ===
''Strength: 3,440 infantry, 3,440 horsemen and 12 light guns.'' Feldmarschall-Leutnant [[Michael von Kienmayer]]
*'''1st Infantry [[Brigade]]''' - General-Major Georg Symon de Carneville
**''Brooder'' [[Grenz Infantry]] Regiment Nr. 7 (500 in 1 battalion)
**''1st Szekler'' Grenz Infantry Regiment Nr. 14 (1,300 in 2 battalions)
**''2nd Szekler'' Grenz Infantry Regiment Nr. 15 (1,300 in 2 battalions)
**Pioneers (340 in 3 companies)
*'''1st Cavalry Brigade''' - General-Major [[Karl Wilhelm von Stutterheim]]
**''[[Andreas O'Reilly von Ballinlough|O'Reilly]]'' [[Chevau-léger]] Regiment Nr. 3 (900 in 8 squadrons)
**''[[Maximilian, Count of Merveldt|Merveldt]]'' [[Uhlan]] Regiment Nr. 1 (40 in 1 troop)
*'''2nd Cavalry Brigade''' - General-Major [[Johann Nepomuk von Nostitz-Rieneck]]
**''[[Karl Philipp, Prince of Schwarzenberg|Schwarzenberg]]'' Uhlan Regiment Nr. 2 (100 in one-half squadron)
**''Hessen-Homburg'' Hussar Regiment Nr. 4 (600 in 6 squadrons) - Colonel Freiherr von Mohr
*'''3rd Cavalry Brigade''' - General-Major [[Moritz von Liechtenstein]]
**''Szekler'' Hussar Regiment Nr. 11 (800 in 8 squadrons) - Colonel Gabriel Geringer von Odenburg
**''Sysoev'' Cossack Regiment
**''Melentev'' Cossack Regiment
*Horse-Artillery Battery Nr. 1 (6x 6-pdr)
*Horse-Artillery Battery Nr. 2 (6x 6-pdr)

=== First Column ===
''Strength: 13,240 infantry, 250 cavalry, 40 light and 24 heavy guns.'' Lieutenant-General [[Dmitry Dokhturov]]
*'''1st Infantry Brigade''' - Major-General [[Friedrich von Löwis of Menar]]
**7th Jäger Regiment (1 battalion) - Colonel Pavel P. Tolbukhin
**''New Ingermanland'' Infantry Regiment (3 battalions)
**''Yaroslav'' Infantry Regiment (2 battalions)
*'''2nd Infantry Brigade''' - Major-General Urusov
**''Vladimir'' Infantry Regiment
**''[[Bryansk]]'' Infantry Regiment - Lieutenant-Colonel Nikolai K. Rubanov
**''Vyatka'' Infantry Regiment
**''[[Moscow]]'' Infantry Regiment
**''[[Kiev]]'' Grenadier Regiment
*Pioneers (1 company)
*''Denisov'' Cossack Regiment
*(Russian) Heavy Battery Nr. 1 (12x 12-pdr)
*(Russian) Heavy Battery Nr. 2 (12x 12-pdr)
*4 Artillery Batteries (each 10 guns)

=== Second Column ===
''Strength: 11,250 infantry, 300 horsemen, and 30 light guns.'' Lieutenant-General [[Louis Alexandre Andrault de Langeron]]
*'''1st Infantry Brigade''' - Major-General [[Zakhar Dmitrievich Olsufiev]]
**[[Vyborg|Viborg]] Infantry Regiment
**[[Perm]] Infantry Regiment
**[[Kursk]] Infantry Regiment
*'''2nd Infantry Brigade''' - Major-General [[Sergei Mikhailovich Kamensky]]
**[[Ryazhsk]] Infantry Regiment
**[[Fanagoria]] Grenadier Regiment
*Pioneers (1 company)
*St. Petersburg Dragoon Regiment
*Isayev Cossack Regiment
*3 Artillery Batteries (each 10 guns)

=== Third Column ===
''Strength: 7,700 infantry and 30 light guns.'' Lieutenant General [[I. Przebyszewski]]
*'''1st Infantry Brigade''' - Major-General Ivan I. Muller (or Miller)
**7th Jaeger Regiment (2 battalions)
**8th Jaeger Regiment
**[[Kingdom of Galicia and Lodomeria|Galicia]] Infantry Regiment
*'''2nd Infantry Brigade''' - Major-General Selekhov
**[[Butyrsk]] Infantry Regiment - Lieutenant-Colonel Treskin M. L`vov
**[[Podolia]] Infantry Regiment
**[[Narva]] Infantry Regiment
*Pioneers (1 company)
*3 Artillery Batteries (each 10 guns)

=== Fourth Column ===
''Strength: 23,900 infantry, 52 light and 24 heavy guns.'' Lieutenant-General [[Mikhail Andreyevich Miloradovich|Mikhail Miloradovich]] and Feldmarschall-Leutnant [[Johann Kollowrat]]
*'''''Advanced Guard''''' - Lieutenant-Colonel Monakhtin
**''[[Novgorod]]'' Infantry Regiment (1 battalion)
**''Apsheron'' Infantry Regiment (1 battalion)
**''[[Archduke John]]'' Dragoon Regiment Nr. 1 (2 sqns)
*'''1st Infantry Brigade''' - Major-General Wodniansky
**''[[Novgorod]]'' Infantry Regiment (2 battalions)
**''Apsheron'' Infantry Regiment (2 battalions)
**''[[Little Russia]]'' Grenadier Regiment
**''[[Smolensk]]'' Infantry Regiment (2 battalions)
*'''2nd Infantry Brigade''' - General-Major Heinrich von Rottermund
**''[[Franz Wenzel, Graf von Kaunitz-Rietberg|Kaunitz]]'' Infantry Regiment Nr. 20 (900 in 1 battalion)
**''Salzburg'' Infantry Regiment Nr. 23 (3,000 in 6 battalions)
**''Auersperg'' Infantry Regiment Nr. 24 (600 in 1 battalion)
*'''3rd Infantry Brigade''' - General-Major Franz von Jurczek (or Jirčik)
**''[[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Kaiser]]'' Infantry Regiment Nr. 1 (1,000 in 1 battalion)
**''Czartoryski'' Infantry Regiment Nr. 9 (600 in 1 battalion)
**''[[Karl Friedrich von Lindenau|Lindenau]]'' Infantry Regiment Nr. 29 (400 in 1 battalion)
**''Württemberg'' Infantry Regiment Nr. 38 (500 in 1 battalion)
**''[[Wilhelm Lothar Maria von Kerpen|Kerpen]]'' Infantry Regiment Nr. 49 (700 in 1 battalion)
**''[[Heinrich XIII, Prince Reuss of Greiz|Reuss-Greitz]]'' Infantry Regiment Nr. 55 (600 in 1 battalion)
**''[[Johann Peter Beaulieu|Beaulieu]]'' Infantry Regiment Nr. 58 (500 in 1 battalion)
**''[[Vienna]]'' Jäger (300 in 2 companies)
*Pioneers (340 in 2 companies)
*Artillery
**4 Artillery Batteries (each 6 guns)
**2 (Russian) Artillery Batteries (each 10 guns)
**(Russian) Heavy Battery Nr. 3 (12x 12-pdr)
**Heavy Battery Nr. 1 (6x 12-pdr)
**Heavy Battery Nr. 2 (6x 12-pdr)

=== Fifth (Cavalry) Column ===
''Strength: 5,375 horsemen, 24 light pieces.'' Feldmarschall-Leutnant [[Johann I Josef, Prince of Liechtenstein|Prince Johann von Liechtenstein]] with Feldmarschall-Leutnant Ludwig Prinz zu Hohenlohe-Bartenstein and Lieutenant-General Alexander Essen
*'''1st Cavalry Brigade''' - General-Major Johann Karl Caramelli
**''[[Frederick Augustus, Duke of Nassau|Nassau]]'' Cuirassier Regiment Nr. 5 (300 in 6 sqns) - Colonel Friedrich von Minutillo
**''Lorraine'' Cuirassier Regiment Nr. 7 (300 in 6 sqns) - Colonel Clemens Freiherr von Thunefeld
*'''2nd Cavalry Brigade''' - General-Major Johann Weber von Treuenfels
**''[[Francis II, Holy Roman Emperor|Kaiser]]'' Cuirassier Regiment Nr. 1 (500 in 8 sqns) - Colonel Wilhelm von Motzen
*'''3rd Cavalry Brigade''' - Major-General Gladkov
**''[[Grand Duke Constantine Pavlovich of Russia|Grand Duke Constantine]]'' Uhlan Regiment Nr. 3 - Major-General Meller-Zakomelski
**''Gordeev'' Cossack Regiment
**''Isayev'' Cossack Regiment
**''Denisov'' Cossack Regiment
*'''4th Cavalry Brigade''' Lieutenant-General [[Adjutant]] [[F. P. Uvarov]]
**''[[Chernigov]]'' Dragoon Regiment (5 sqns)
**''[[Kharkov]]'' Dragoon Regiment (5 sqns)
**''[[Elisabetgrad]]'' Hussar Regiment
*(Russian) Horse-Artillery Battery Nr. 2 (12x 6-pdr)
*(Russian) Horse-Artillery Battery Nr. 3 (12x 6-pdr)
*Horse-Artillery Battery Nr. 3 (6x 6-pdr)

==References==
* Duffy, Christopher. ''Austerlitz 1805''. Hamden, Conn.: Archon Books, 1977.
* Smith, Digby. ''The Napoleonic Wars Data Book.'' London: Greenhill, 1998. {{ISBN|1-85367-276-9}}
[http://www.napoleon-series.org/research/biographies/Austria/AustrianGenerals/c_AustrianGeneralsIndexA.html Austrian generals by Digby Smith, compiled by Leopold Kudrna]

[http://www.napoleon-series.org/military/battles/1805/Austerlitz/AusterlitzOOB/c_austerlitzoob.html "Russian-Austrian Order-of-Battle at Austerlitz: 2 December 1805" by Stephen Millar]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Austerlitz}}
[[Category:Napoleonic Wars orders of battle]]
[[Category:Battles of the War of the Third Coalition]]
[[Category:War of the Third Coalition]]
[[Category:Battle of Austerlitz]]

Ray Klinginsmith

2016-08-22T14:08:26Z

DAJ: linkfix

{{Infobox person
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Ray Klinginsmith
| honorific_suffix =
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| nationality = American
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| alma_mater = [[University of Cape Town]]
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| organization = Rotary International
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| known_for = Social work
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| title = World President
| term = 2010-2011
| predecessor = John Kenny
| successor = [[Kalyan Banerjee (Rotary International)|Kalyan Banerjee]]
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'''Ray Klinginsmith''' is a social activist fighting for the rights of the [[disabled]], and is the former World President of [[Rotary International]].<ref>http://www.rotaryfirst100.org/presidents/2010klinginsmith/bio.htm</ref><ref>[http://www.indianexpress.com/news/always-a-ray-of-hope/767648/0 Always a Ray of hope]</ref>

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{succession box
| title = [[Rotary International#List of Presidents|President of Rotary International]]
| years = 2010-2011
| before = John Kenny
| after = [[Kalyan Banerjee (Rotary International)|Kalyan Banerjee]]
}}
{{s-end}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Klinginsmith, Ray}}
[[Category:Rotary International leaders]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Disability rights activists from the United States]]
[[Category:University of Cape Coast alumni]]

{{US-activist-stub}}

Commander-in-Chief, India

2010-03-31T09:44:21Z

DAJ: interwiki

[[Image:Clive.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The third British Commander-in-Chief of India, Major General [[Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive|Robert Clive]]. Clive was one of the many Commanders-in-Chief who, as "soldier-politicals," helped the British gain ascendency in India.]]

The British '''[[Commander-in-Chief]] in [[British India|India]]''' (or '''Commander-in-Chief of India''') was the chief military commander for the [[British Raj|British administration]] in [[India]] and liaisoned with the civilian [[Governor-General of India]]. The Commander-in-Chief's staff were known as [[British India Command|India Command]] and most were based at the General Headquarters India (GHQ India).

Following Indian Independence the post was merged into the office of the President of the [[Republic of India]]. Thus, the Indian President is the Commander in Chief of the [[Indian Armed Forces]].

This is a list of people who were the military '''Commander-in-Chief, India'''. The rank and title are the final ones for the person's career and not necessarily applicable to his tenure as Commander-in-Chief, India.

==List of Commanders-in-Chief==
===Commanders-in-Chief of India, 1748-1798===

{| class="wikitable" width="75%"
|width="30%"|'''Name'''
|width="50%"|'''Notes'''
|width="35%"|'''Served'''
|-
|<small>Major-General</small> [[Stringer Lawrence]]
|Foiled [[Joseph François Dupleix|French plans]] to conquer southern India.<br />Reorganized the Madras Army.
|1748 January
|-
|<small>Lieutenant-General</small> [[John Adlercron]]
|
|1754
|-
|<small>Major-General</small> [[Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive|Robert Clive]]
|Established the military supremacy of the [[British East India Company|East India Company]] in southern [[India]] and [[Bengal]].
|1756 December
|-
|<small>Brigadier-General</small> [[John Caillaud]]
|Active in southern India against the French until 1759 when he was dispatched to Bengal.
|1760 February
|-
|<small>Brigadier-General</small> [[John Carnac]]
|Defeated the Delhi Emperor near [[Bihar]].
|1760 December
|-
|<small>Lieutenant-General</small> Sir [[Eyre Coote (East India Company officer)|Eyre Coote]]
|Captained the [[39th (Dorsetshire) Regiment of Foot|39th Regiment]], the first British regiment sent to India.
|1761 April
|-
|<small>Major</small> [[Thomas Adams (Indian Army officer)|Thomas Adams]]
|Officiating
|1763
|-
|<small>Brigadier-General</small> [[John Carnac]]
|2nd time appointment as Commander-in-Chief.<br />Promoted to Brigadier-General during this time.
|1764 January
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Hector Munro]]
|Suppressed [[sepoy]] mutiny at [[Patna]]. Won the victories of [[Buxar]] against [[Shuja-ud-Dowlah]], the [[nawab wasir]] of [[Oudh]], and [[Mir Kasim]], which ranks amongst the most decisive battles ever fought in [[India]].
|1764 July
|-
|<small>Brigadier-General</small> [[John Carnac]]
|3rd appointment as Commander-in-Chief.<br />Defeated the [[Maratha Empire]] in the Doab.
|1765 January
|-
|<small>Major-General</small> [[Robert Clive, 1st Baron Clive of Plassey|Robert Clive]]
|2nd time appointment as Commander-in-Chief.<br />Conquered [[Bengal]] from Nawab Siraj ud Dullah.
|1765 May
|-
|<small>Brigadier-General</small> [[Richard Smith (Indian Army officer)|Richard Smith]]
|Exerted considerable influence in the East India Company, and was a prominent creditor of the Nawab of Arcot.
|1767 January
|-
|<small>Brigadier-General</small> Sir [[Sir Robert Barker, 1st Baronet of Bushbridge|Robert Barker]]
|Signed a treaty with the [[Rohilla]]s against the [[Maratha Empire]].
|1770 March
|-
|<small>Colonel</small> [[Charles Chapman (British Army officer)|Charles Chapman]]
|[[Civil servant]] of the [[Honourable East India Company|East India Company]] who studied tribal ethnicities and cultures, and reported his findings to the Bengal Government.
|1773 December
|-
|<small>Brigadier-General</small> [[Alexander Champion]]
|
|1774 January
|-
|<small>Lieutenant-General</small> Sir [[Lt Gen Sir John Clavering|John Clavering]]
|
|1774 November
|-
|<small>Lieutenant-General</small> [[Giles Stibbert]]
|Officiating
|1777 October
|-
|<small>Lieutenant-General</small> Sir [[Eyre Coote (East India Company officer)|Eyre Coote]]
|Reappointment. Won the [[Second Anglo-Mysore War|Battle of]] [[Parangipettai|Porto Novo]] against odds of five to one, regarded as one of the greatest feats by the British in India.
|1779 March
|-
|<small>Lieutenant-General</small> [[Giles Stibbert]]
|Reappointment
|1783 April
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Robert Sloper]]
|
|1785 July
|-
|<small>General</small> [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]]
|Promulgated the [[Permanent Settlement|Permanent Settlement of Bengal]].<br />Served twice as [[Governor-General of India]].
|1786 September
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Robert Abercromby of Airthrey|Robert Abercromby]]
|Officiating
|1793 October
|-
|<small>Major-General</small> [[Charles Morgan (British Army officer)|Charles Morgan]]
|Officiating
|1797 January
|-
|<small>Field Marshal</small> Sir [[Alured Clarke]]
|
|1798 May
|}

===Commanders-in-Chief of India, 1801-1857===

{| class="wikitable" width="75%"
|width="30%"|'''Name'''
|width="50%"|'''Notes'''
|width="35%"|'''Served'''
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[James Henry Craig|James Craig]]
|Officiating
|1801 February
|-
|<small>General</small> [[Gerard Lake, 1st Viscount Lake|Gerard Lake]]
|Improved the Indian Army by making all arms, infantry, cavalry and artillery, more mobile and more manageable.
|1801 March
|-
|<small>General</small> [[Charles Cornwallis, 1st Marquess Cornwallis|Charles Cornwallis]]
|Reappointment. With Sir [[Arthur Wellesley, 1st Duke of Wellington|Arthur Wellesley]], he supervised the [[Second Anglo-Maratha War]] against the [[Sindhia]] and the [[Holkar]].
|1805 July
|-
|<small>General</small> [[Gerard Lake, 1st Viscount Lake|Gerard Lake]]
|Reappointment. Upon Cornwallis' death, Lake pursued the [[Holkar]] to the [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. The Holkar capitulated at [[Amritsar]] in December 1805.
|1805 October
|-
|<small>General</small> [[John Graves Simcoe|John Simcoe]]
| Appointed to post in [[England]], but died before departing for India and replaced by Lake
|-
|<small>General</small> [[Gerard Lake, 1st Viscount Lake|Gerard Lake]]
|Reappointment following death of [[John Graves Simcoe]], who died after accepting the appointment in England
|1806
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Sir George Hewett, 1st Baronet|George Hewett]]
|Transformed [[Meerut]] into a British stronghold that would be used as a launching point for future military campaigns into northern India.
|1807 October
|-
|<small>Lieutenant-General</small> [[Forbes Champagné]]
|Officiating
|1807 December
|-
|<small>Field Marshal</small> Sir [[Sir George Nugent, 1st Baronet|George Nugent]]
|
|1811 January
|-
|<small>General</small> [[Francis Rawdon-Hastings, 1st Marquess of Hastings|Francis Rawdon-Hastings]]
|Oversaw British forces in the [[Gurkha War]]; [[Third Anglo-Maratha War|conquered]] the [[Maratha]]s; repaired the [[Mughal Empire|Mogul]] canals in [[Delhi]]; instituted educational reforms.
|1813 October
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Edward Paget]]
|
|1823 January
|-
|<small>Field Marshal</small> [[Stapleton Stapleton-Cotton, 1st Viscount Combermere|Stapleton Cotton]]
|1st Viscount Combermere
|1825 October
|-
|<small>General</small> [[George Ramsay, 9th Earl of Dalhousie|George Ramsay]]
|Began the British suppression of the ''[[Thuggee]]'' murder-cults.
|1830 January
|-
|<small>Lieutenant-General</small> Sir [[Edward Barnes (British Army officer)|Edward Barnes]]
|Constructed the military road between [[Colombo]] and [[Kandy]], made the first census of the population, and introduced coffee cultivation.
|1832 January
|-
|<small>General</small> [[Lord William Bentinck]]
|Suppressed the [[Hindu]] custom of ''[[suttee]]''.
|1833 October
|-
|<small>General</small> [[Lord William Bentinck]]
|Reappointment
|1834 April
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[James Watson (British Army officer)|James Watson]]
|Established the famous police organisation known as the "[[Thuggee]] and [[Dacoity]] Department" within the [[Government of India]].
|1835 March
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Henry Fane (British Army officer)|Henry Fane]]
|
|1835 September
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Jasper Nicolls]]
|Officiating
|1839 December
|-
|<small>Field Marshal</small> [[Hugh Gough, 1st Viscount Gough|Hugh Gough]]
|Defeated the [[Mahratta]]s at [[Maharajpur]]. Conducted operations against the [[Sikh]]s and won the battles of [[Battle of Mudki|Mudki]], [[battle of Ferozeshah|Ferozeshah]] and [[Battle of Sobraon|Sobraon]]. Soonafter, the Sikhs surrendered at [[Lahore]].
|1843 August
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Charles James Napier]]
|Conquered [[Sindh]] and made it part of [[Bombay Presidency]].
|1849 May
|-
|<small>Field Marshal</small> Sir [[William Maynard Gomm|William Gomm]]
|
|1851 December
|-
|<small>Major-General</small> [[George Anson (British Army major-general)|George Anson]]
|Outbreak of the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857]]. Died of cholera during his march against the [[Indian Mutiny|Indian mutineers]] at [[Delhi]] in May, 1857.
|1856 January
|-
|<small>Lieutenant-General</small> Sir [[Patrick Grant]]
|Directed operations against the [[Indian Mutiny|Indian mutineers]], sending forces under [[Henry Havelock|Havelock]] and [[Sir James Outram, 1st Baronet|Outram]] for the relief of [[Cawnpore]] and [[Lucknow]], until the arrival of [[Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde|Sir Colin Campbell]] from England.
|1857 June
|-
|<small>General</small> [[Colin Campbell, 1st Baron Clyde|Colin Campbell]]
|Abandoned then recaptured [[Lucknow]]. Supervised military operations in [[Oudh]] until the [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Indian Rebellion]] had been subdued.
|1857 August
|}

===Commanders-in-Chief of India, 1861-1947===

{| class="wikitable" width="75%"
|width="30%"|'''Name'''
|width="50%"|'''Notes'''
|width="35%"|'''Served'''
|-
|<small>Lieutenant-General</small> Sir [[Hugh Henry Rose, 1st Baron Strathnairn|Hugh Rose]]
|Improved discipline and enabled the amalgamation of the [[Honourable East India Company|East India Company]]'s army into the Queen's army to be carried out.
|1861 June 4
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[William Rose Mansfield, 1st Baron Sandhurst|William Mansfield]]
|Prior to his appointment, Mansfield served in the [[Sutlej|Sutlej campaign]], commanded the 53rd Regiment in the [[Punjab (British India)|Punjab]], and was part of [[Peshawar]] operations in the [[North-West Frontier Province|northwest frontier]].
|1865 March 23
|-
|<small>General</small> [[Robert Napier, 1st Baron Napier of Magdala|Robert Napier]]
|1st Baron Napier of Magdala. He did much to benefit the army and to encourage good shooting.
|1870 April 9
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Frederick Paul Haines|Frederick Haines]]
|
|1876 April 10
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Donald Martin Stewart|Donald Stewart]]
|
|1881 April 8
|-
|<small>Lieutenant-General</small> [[Frederick Roberts, 1st Earl Roberts|Frederick Roberts]]
|1st Baron Roberts of Kandahar
|1885 November 28
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[George Stuart White]]
|
|1893 April 8
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Charles Edward Nairne|Charles Nairne]]
|Officiating
|1898 March 20
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[William Stephen Alexander Lockhart|William Lockhart]]
|
|1898 November 4
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Arthur Palmer (Indian Army officer)|Arthur Palmer]]
|
|1900 March 19
|-
|<small>General</small> [[Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Horatio Kitchener]]
|1st Viscount Kitchener. Reconstructed the disorganised [[British Indian Army|Indian Army]] against the wishes of the viceroy [[George Nathaniel Curzon, 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston|Lord Curzon]].
|1902 November 28
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Garrett O'Moore Creagh]]
|
|1909 September 10
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Beauchamp Duff]]
|
|1914 March 8
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Charles Carmichael Monro|Charles Monro]]
|
|1916 October 1
|-
|<small>General</small> [[Henry Rawlinson, 1st Baron Rawlinson|Henry Rawlinson]]
|
|1920 November 21
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Claud Jacob]]
|
|1925 April 3
|-
|<small>Field Marshal</small> Sir [[William Birdwood, 1st Baron Birdwood|William Birdwood]]
|
|1925 August 6
|-
|<small>Field Marshal</small> Sir [[Philip Chetwode, 1st Baron Chetwode|Philip Chetwode]]
|
|1930 November 30
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Robert Cassels]]
|
|1935 November 30
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Claude Auchinleck]]
|
|1941 January 27
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]]
|Left to take command of the short lived [[ABDACOM]]
|1941 July 5
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Alan Hartley]]
|
|1942 January 5
|-
|<small>Field Marshal</small> Sir [[Archibald Wavell, 1st Earl Wavell|Archibald Wavell]]
|Reappointment. Sir Alan Hartley appointed Deputy Commander-in-Chief.
|1942 March 7
|-
|<small>Field Marshal</small> Sir [[Claude Auchinleck]]
|Reappointment: 1947 August 15. Became Supreme Commander of [[India]] and [[Pakistan]]. Oversaw division of the Armed forces between the two new countries.
|1943 June 20
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Rob Lockhart|Robert Lockhart]]
|Commander-in-Chief of Post-Partition India
|1947 August 15
|-
|<small>General</small> Sir [[Roy Bucher]]
|Commander-in-Chief of Post-Partition India
|1947 December 31
|}

==See also==
*[[Governor-General of India]]
*[[Secretary of State for India]]
*[[British Raj]]
*[[British Empire]]
*[[History of Bangladesh]]
*[[History of India]]
*[[History of Pakistan]]

==References==
* [http://www.bharat-rakshak.com/LAND-FORCES/Army/Army-Chiefs/Chiefs-Army-Old.html Commanders-in-Chief from Inception to Independence]
* [http://www.regiments.org/biography/defchiefs/inCinC.htm Chronological List of Commanders-in-Chief, India to 1947]

[[Category:British rule in India]]
[[Category:Government of India]]
[[Category:British Army appointments]]

[[simple:Commander-in-Chief, India]]
[[de:Liste der britischen Oberbefehlshaber in Indien]]

Battle of Abu Klea

2010-02-22T14:23:33Z

DAJ: was not Commander at Abu Klea

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Abu Klea
|image=[[Image:Abu Klea .jpg|300px]]
|caption=''The Battle of Abu Klea'' by [[William Barnes Wollen]]
|partof=[[The Mahdist War]]
|date=17 January 1885
|place=[[Khartoum]]
|result=British Victory
|combatant1={{flagicon|UK}} United Kingdom
|combatant2=[[Mahdist]] [[Sudan]]
|commander1=[[Herbert Stewart]]
|commander2=
|strength1= approx. 1,100
|strength2= approx. 12,000
|casualties1=76 killed<br>82 wounded
|casualties2=1,100 killed or wounded
}}
{{Campaignbox Sudanese Mahdist Revolt}}

The '''Battle of Abu Klea''' took place between the dates of 16 and 18 January 1885, at Abu Klea, [[Sudan]], between the British Desert Column and [[Mahdist]] forces encamped near Abu Klea. The Desert Column, a force of approximately 1,100 soldiers, started from Korti, Sudan on 30 December 1884; the Desert Column's mission, in a joint effort titled "The Gordon Relief Expedition", was to march across the desert to the aid of General [[Charles George Gordon]] at [[Khartoum]], Sudan, who was besieged there by Mahdist forces.

The place is generally known in British military records as Abu Klea, which arose as a contemporary British attempt at spelling its Arabic name, '''Abu Tͅuleiħ'' (أَبُو طُلَيْح).

== Background ==
The opposing forces consisted of the 1,100 British of the Desert Column under Sir [[Herbert Stewart]], against a Sudanese force of approximately 12,000 fighters. While the main British force (the River Column), led by General Sir [[Garnet Wolseley]] travelled by river from Korti to Khartoum, Stewart's column was to cut across country by column directly for Khartoum, since time was running short according to what little information was available from the garrison. The force was composed of four regiments of camel-mounted troops (Guards, Heavy, Light and Mounted Infantry), formed from detachments of the various regiments in Egypt and the River Column, and a detachment of the [[19th Royal Hussars|19th Hussars]], mounted on horses. Four light field pieces and a small [[Naval Brigade]] manning a [[Gardner gun|Gardner machine gun]] finished off the force.

== Battle ==
As the Desert Column approached the wells at Abu Klea, they were set upon by a Mahdist force. Stewart formed the troops into a [[Infantry square|square]], with the cannon on the north face and the Naval Brigade, with their Gardner machine gun, at a corner. Several officers and men of [[HMS Alexandra (1875)|HMS ''Alexandra'']] were killed at the battle. As the British advanced to outflank the Mahdist force, a gap had opened up towards the rear left corner of the [[Infantry square|square]]. The [[Gardner gun]] was run out to the left flank of the [[infantry square]] to provide covering fire. The square closed behind them leaving them exposed. Two companies of the Heavy Camel Regiment were also wheeled out of the square to support the Gardner gun. The Gardner gun had been tested and found very reliable in Britain, but had not been tested in a desert with loose sand getting into its mechanism. After seventy rounds were fired, the gun jammed and as the crew tried to clear it they were cut down in a rush by the [[Dervish]]es. Out of the forty men in the Naval contingent, [[Lieutenant]]s Alfred Piggott and Rudolph de Lisle were killed along with Chief [[Boatswain|Boatswain's Mate]] Bill Rhodes and five other seamen and seven more were wounded. [[Lord Charles Beresford]] was 'scratched' on the left hand by a spear as he managed to duck under the gun. The weight of the rush pushed the sailors back into the face of the square. Several Dervishes got inside the square, but found the interior full of camels and could not proceed. The troops in the rear ranks faced about and opened fire into the press of men and camels behind them, and were able to drive the Dervishes out of the square and compel them to retreat from the field.

The battle was remarkably short, lasting barely fifteen minutes from start to finish. Casualties for the British were nine officers and 65 other ranks killed and over a hundred wounded. The Mahdists lost 1,100 dead during the quarter hour of fighting, made all the worse by only around half of the Dervish force being engaged. Among the Dervish dead was Musa wad Helu, one of the Mahdist chiefs. British national hero [[Colonel]] [[F. G. Burnaby]] of the [[Royal Horse Guards]] was killed by a spear to the throat. [[Francis William Rhodes|Frank Rhodes]] (brother of [[Cecil Rhodes|Cecil]]) distinguished himself when he had several horses shot from under him in the course of the engagement, earning him a [[Distinguished Service Order]]. Gunner [[Alfred Smith (VC)|Alfred Smith]] fought bravely to save his officer, Lieutenant Guthrie, and was awarded a [[Victoria Cross|VC]]. Another action happened two days later at [[Abu Kru]] (the [[Battle of El Gubat]]) and the advance rescue force leader [[Sir Herbert Stewart]] was mortally wounded leaving command to the inexperienced leader [[Sir Charles Wilson]] (the column's intelligence officer) who was slower in organising his forces.

== Aftermath ==
The column was too late to save [[Khartoum]]; it was taken by the [[Mahdist]]s just a few days later leading to the death of [[General Gordon]]. The [[Dervish (disambiguation)|Dervishes]] of the Mahdi ruled over Sudan for the next thirteen years as the British pulled out of the area. The official public blame for this failure was left with [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[William Ewart Gladstone|Gladstone]] for delaying several months, to the considerable anger expressed in public of [[Queen Victoria]], to authorize a rescue. Gladstone lost public confidence and much authority and within two months he resigned.

The battle was celebrated by the Scottish [[doggerel]] poet [[William McGonagall]]:{{Clarify me|date=March 2008}}

<blockquote><poem>
Ye sons of Mars, come join with me,
And sing in praise of Sir Herbert Stewart’s little army,
That made ten thousand Arabs flee
At the charge of the bayonet at Abou Klea
</poem></blockquote>
and so on for 19 stanzas

And also the battle and one of its notable participants is mentioned in the song "Colonel Burnaby", which has as its chorus:
<blockquote>
Weep not my boys, for those who fell,
They did not flinch nor fear.
They stood their ground like Englishmen,
and died at Abu Klea
</blockquote>

The rhymes in these poems show varying attempts at pronouncing "Klea" from the English spelling, and the rhyme with "fear" shows British English [[arhotic]] pronunciation.

The [[Royal Artillery]] unit which took part in the battle still exists today, re-numbered as [[176 (Abu Klea) Battery Royal Artillery|176 Battery]], and has the [[honour title]] "Abu Klea", awarded in 1955 in recognition of the Victoria Cross won by Gunner Smith.

==See also==
*[[The Four Feathers (2002 film)]]
*[[Khartoum (film)]]

== References ==
*Craig, Simon, “Breaking the Square: Dervishes vs. Brits at the 1885 Battle of Abu Klea”, ''[[Military Heritage]]'', volume 3, No. 3 (December 2001), 78-84. (Describes the failed British attempt to rescue major general Charles Gordon and friendly forces at Khartoum from the Dervishes led by the Mahdi.)
*{{1911}}
* Churchill, Winston Spencer. ''[[The River War|The River War: An Account of the Reconquest of the Sudan]]'', Middlesex: The Echo Library, 2007. 43-48.

==External links==
*[http://www.mcgonagall-online.org.uk/poems/pgklea.htm The Battle Of Abu Klea] Full text of the poem, from McGonagall Online.

{{coord missing|Sudan}}

{{use dmy dates}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abu Klea}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1885]]
[[Category:Battles of the Mahdist War]]

[[ar:معركة أبو طليح]]
[[da:Slaget ved Abu Klea]]
[[de:Schlacht von Abu Klea]]
[[es:Batalla de Abu Klea]]
[[fr:Bataille d'Abu Klea]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Abu-Klea]]

John Keane, 1st Baron Keane

2009-07-30T14:34:26Z

DAJ: John Keane, 1. Baron Keane

{{unreferenced|date=July 2008}}
{{otherpersons|John Keane}}

'''John Keane, 1st Baron Keane''', [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Royal Guelphic Order|GCH]] ([[6 February]] [[1781]] – [[26 August]] [[1844]]) was a British [[soldier]].

Keane was born in [[Belmont, County Offaly|Belmont]], [[Ireland]], the second son of [[Sir John Keane, 1st Baronet]]. He joined the [[British Army]] as an [[Ensign (rank)#United Kingdom|Ensign]] at age 11 in 1792. He rose the [[military rank|rank]] of [[Lieutenant Colonel]] in the [[King's Royal Rifle Corps|60th Foot]] and commanded a [[brigade]] in the [[Peninsular War]]. Promoted to [[Major-General]], Keane commanded the British 3rd brigade at the [[Battle of New Orleans]] where he was [[wounded]] twice. He served as [[commander-in-chief]] in the [[West Indies]] and also administered the [[Colonialism|colonial]] [[government]] of [[Jamaica]].

[[Lieutenant-General]] Keane served as commander-in-chief of the [[Bombay Presidency]] in [[British India]] from 1833-1839 and commanded the combined British and [[British Indian Army|British Indian]] army ("The Army of the Indus") during the opening [[military campaign|campaign]] of the [[First Afghan War]]. He commanded the victorious British and Indian army at the [[Battle of Ghazni]] on [[23 July]] [[1839]]. For his service, he was elevated to the peerage as '''Baron Keane''', of Ghuznee and of Cappoquin in the County of Waterford.

Lord Keane died at [[Burton Lodge]], [[Hampshire]], [[England]], on [[24 August]] 1844.

==See also==
*[[Keane Baronets]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.national-army-museum.ac.uk/exhibitions/afghanistan/page2.shtml First Afghan War] - www.national-army-museum.ac.uk

{{start box}}
{{s-gov}}
{{succession box | title=[[Governor of Saint Lucia]] | before=[[Edward O'Hara (Governor)|Edward O'Hara]] | after=[[John Joseph Winkler]] | years=1818–1819}}
{{succession box | title=[[Governor of Jamaica]]<br><small>(acting)</small> | before=[[William Montagu, 5th Duke of Manchester|The Duke of Manchester]] | after=[[Somerset Lowry-Corry, 2nd Earl Belmore|The Earl of Belmore]] | years=1827–1829}}
{{s-reg|uk}}
{{succession box | title=[[Baron Keane]] | before=New Creation | after=[[Edward Keane, 2nd Baron Keane|Edward Arthur Wellington Keane]] | years= 1839–1844 }}
{{end box}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Keane, John Keane, 1st Baron}}
[[Category:1781 births]]
[[Category:1844 deaths]]
[[Category:People from County Offaly]]
[[Category:Anglo-Irish people]]
[[Category:King's Royal Rifle Corps officers]]
[[Category:British Army commanders of the Napoleonic Wars]]
[[Category:British army personnel of the War of 1812]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the First Anglo-Afghan War]]
[[Category:Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Guelphic Order]]
[[Category:British Army generals]]
[[Category:Commanders-in-chief of Bombay]]
[[Category:Younger sons of baronets]]

{{UK-army-bio-stub}}

[[pl:John Keane, 1. baron Keane]]
[[de:John Keane, 1. Baron Keane]]

Portal:British Empire

2009-05-29T09:58:37Z

DAJ: interwiki

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Sir George Pollock, 1st Baronet

2009-04-07T14:45:26Z

DAJ: George Pollock (General)

{{dablink|For the film director, see [[George Pollock (director)]]}}
{{Infobox Military Person
|name= '''Field Marshal Sir George Pollock, Bt
|lived=1786 - 1872
|image= [[Image:FM01.jpg|200px]]
|caption=''Sir George Pollock in his field marshal's uniform''
|nickname=
|placeofbirth=
|placeofdeath=
|allegiance={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom]]
|branch=[[Image:Flag of the British Army.svg|23px]] [[British Army]]
|serviceyears=1801 - 1870
|rank=[[Field Marshal]]
|unit=
|commands=
|battles=[[Second Anglo-Maratha War]]<br />[[Gurkha War]]<br />[[First Anglo-Burmese War]]<br />[[First Anglo-Afghan War]]
|awards=[[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Order of the Star of India|GCSI]]
|relations=[[Sir Frederick Pollock, 1st Baronet]] (brother)
|laterwork=[[Constable of the Tower]]
}}
'''Sir George Pollock, 1st Baronet''', [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Order of the Star of India|GCSI]], ([[4 June]] [[1786]] – [[6 October]] [[1872]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[field marshal]].

George Pollock entered the [[Royal Military Academy, Woolwich]] on [[21 January]] [[1801]]. On leaving he entered the Bengal Artillery and sailed for India in September 1803.

His first action was the Battle of Deig (November 1804), against the [[Mahrattas]] under [[Holkar]] and he was present at the siege of [[Bharatpur, India|Bhurtpore]] (January – February 1805).

After a period of staff appointments, he took part in the 1814–16 Nepal War. He returned to his staff duties until 1824 when he was promoted to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]]. At this time he was ordered to take sick-leave in England but he managed to get appointed to the British forces in Burma where he played a conspicuous role which won him the [[Order of the Bath|CB]].

He returned to England in 1827 on sick leave where he remained until 1830 when he was posted to [[Kanpur|Cawnpor]]. He received his King's commission as [[Colonel]] in 1835 and in 1838 became [[Brigadier-General]] in [[Dinapore]]. That same year he became [[Major-General]] at [[Agra]].

In 1838, [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]], the [[Governor-General]] of [[India]] decided to invade [[Afghanistan]] to proclaim a pro-British former ruler as king of Afghanistan. The initial campaign was a success but at the end of 1841, faced with ever-increasing hostility from the Afghans, the military and political leaders decided to withdraw the 5,000 British and Indian troops and 12000 camp-followers, wives and children from [[Kabul]] and to return to India. The retreat was a disaster and eventually led to a [[Massacre of Elphinstone's army|''massacre'']] because of inefficient leadership, the cold and the ferocious tribes. There was now almost nothing between the Afghanistan forces and India except for the small British garrison at Jallalabad.

Legend has it that only one ([[William Brydon|Dr. Brydon]]) survived; in fact he was the only one to reach the British garrison at [[Jallalabad]] (or Jellalabad) in January 1842 — several others had been taken prisoner and many were later found destitute in the streets of Kabul.

After this disaster, General Pollock was given command in February of the British army in [[Peshawar]], whose very shaky morale he restored by the strength of his personality. He advanced through the [[Khyber Pass]] to Jellalabad, whose garrison he relieved in April after defeating an enemy force of 10,000 for the loss of 135.
[[Image:Sir George Pollock.jpg|thumb|left|Sir George Pollock.]]
At this moment [[William Nott|General Nott]], who had advanced from India to [[Kandahar]] through [[Quetta]], was authorised to retreat to India through Kabul and Pollock was authorised to do what was necessary to protect the British troops. Both generals took advantage of the badly-written orders to advance on Kabul. Pollock reached Kabul on September 15th after fighting the battles of Jugdulluck Pass and Tezeen; and Nott arrived the 17th, after fighting the battle of Ghuzmee.

Meanwhile the Afghan leader had fled towards Turkhistan with his prisoners, and Pollock ordered his military secretary, Sir Richmond Shakespeare, to rescue them, with Sir [[Robert Sale]], the commander of the Jellalabad garrison, in support. Shakespeare caught up with them on the 17th and delivered them to Sale on the 20th. Amongst the rescued captives was Sale's own wife and daughter.
[[Image:FM02.jpg|thumb|right|Sir George Pollock in his Field Marshal's uniform]]
Pollock and Nott withdrew to India in October after destroying the great Bazaar. Once again they had to fight their way through the Khyber Pass. Pollock's division passed through with the loss of one or two men, but the other divisions did not take the same precautions and suffered more, but in any case the "retreat" had been another great victory.

In 1844 the British residents in Calcutta created the [[Pollock Medal]] to commemorate Pollock's achievements. This medal was to be awarded to the "best cadet of the season" at the Addiscombe Military Academy

George Pollock retired in 1870 with the rank of field marshal and was made [[Constable of the Tower]] in 1871. He was awarded the [[GCSI]] in 1861 and the [[Order of the Bath|GCB]] in 1873, and made a [[baronet]] in 1872. Sir George died [[6 October]] [[1872]] in [[Walmer]]<ref>Dictionary of National Biography</ref>, [[Kent]], and is buried in [[Westminster Abbey]].

Pollock's elder brother [[Sir Frederick Pollock, 1st Baronet]] served as [[Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer]] and was the grandfather of [[Ernest Murray Pollock, 1st Viscount Hanworth]], [[Master of the Rolls]].

{{start box}}
{{s-hon}}
{{s-bef|before=[[John Fox Burgoyne|Sir John Fox Burgoyne, Bt]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Constable of the Tower]]<br />[[Lord Lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets]]|years=1871–1872}}
{{s-aft|after=[[William Maynard Gomm|Sir William Maynard Gomm]]}}
{{s-reg|uk-bt}}
{{s-new|creation}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Pollock Baronets|Baronet]]<br />'''(of The Khyber Pass) | years=1872}}
{{s-aft | after=[[Frederick Montagu-Pollock]]}}
{{end box}}

==Sources==
* Low, Charles; The Afghan War 1838-1842 (London, 1879)
* Low, Charles; Life and Correspondence of Sir George Pollock (London, 1873)
* [[John William Kaye|Sir JW Kaye]], History of the War in Afghanistan (2 vols., London, 1851)
* [[Joseph Greenwood]], Narrative of the Late Victorious Campaign in Afghanistan under General Pollock, (London, 1844)
* Anon. (probably Field Marshall Sir Linton Simmons), Memoir to Illustrate the Origin and Foundation of the Pollock Medal (Boddy and Co., Military Publishers, Woolwich, 1875). Available at http://www.pollock.4mg.com/Memoir.htm

==Notes==

{{reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pollock, George}}
[[Category:1786 births]]
[[Category:1872 deaths]]
[[Category:Woolwich graduates]]
[[Category:British Field Marshals]]
[[Category:British Indian Army generals]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the First Anglo-Burmese War]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the First Anglo-Afghan War]]
[[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India]]
[[Category:Lord-Lieutenants of the Tower Hamlets]]
[[Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey]]
[[Category:People of the Gurkha War]]

[[de:George Pollock (General)]]
[[pl:George Pollock]]

Sir George Pollock, 1st Baronet

2009-04-01T11:50:57Z

DAJ: interwiki

{{dablink|For the film director, see [[George Pollock (director)]]}}
{{Infobox Military Person
|name= '''Field Marshal Sir George Pollock, Bt
|lived=1786 - 1872
|image= [[Image:FM01.jpg|200px]]
|caption=''Sir George Pollock in his field marshal's uniform''
|nickname=
|placeofbirth=
|placeofdeath=
|allegiance={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom]]
|branch=[[Image:Flag of the British Army.svg|23px]] [[British Army]]
|serviceyears=1801 - 1870
|rank=[[Field Marshal]]
|unit=
|commands=
|battles=[[Second Anglo-Maratha War]]<br />[[Gurkha War]]<br />[[First Anglo-Burmese War]]<br />[[First Anglo-Afghan War]]
|awards=[[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Order of the Star of India|GCSI]]
|relations=[[Sir Frederick Pollock, 1st Baronet]] (brother)
|laterwork=[[Constable of the Tower]]
}}
'''Sir George Pollock, 1st Baronet''', [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Order of the Star of India|GCSI]], ([[4 June]] [[1786]] – [[6 October]] [[1872]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[field marshal]].

George Pollock entered the [[Royal Military Academy, Woolwich]] on [[21 January]] [[1801]]. On leaving he entered the Bengal Artillery and sailed for India in September 1803.

His first action was the Battle of Deig (November 1804), against the [[Mahrattas]] under [[Holkar]] and he was present at the siege of [[Bharatpur, India|Bharatpur]] (January – February 1805) — often referred to as Bhurtpore during the Victorian period.

After a period of staff appointments, he took part in the 1814–16 Nepal War. He returned to his staff duties until 1824 when he was promoted to [[Lieutenant-Colonel]]. At this time he was ordered to take sick-leave in England but he managed to get appointed to the British forces in Burma where he played a conspicuous role which won him the [[Order of the Bath|CB]].

He returned to England in 1827 on sick leave where he remained until 1830 when he was posted to [[Kanpur|Cawnpor]]. He received his King's commission as [[Colonel]] in 1835 and in 1838 became [[Brigadier-General]] in [[Dinapore]]. That same year he became [[Major-General]] at [[Agra]].

In 1838, [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]], the [[Governor-General]] of [[India]] decided to invade [[Afghanistan]] to proclaim a pro-British former ruler as king of Afghanistan. The initial campaign was a success but at the end of 1841, faced with ever-increasing hostility from the Afghans, the military and political leaders decided to withdraw the 5,000 British and Indian troops and 12000 camp-followers, wives and children from [[Kabul]] and to return to India. The retreat was a disaster and eventually led to a [[Massacre of Elphinstone's army|''massacre'']] because of inefficient leadership, the cold and the ferocious tribes. There was now almost nothing between the Afghanistan forces and India except for the small British garrison at Jallalabad.

Legend has it that only one ([[William Brydon|Dr. Brydon]]) survived; in fact he was the only one to reach the British garrison at [[Jallalabad]] (or Jellalabad) in January 1842 — several others had been taken prisoner and many were later found destitute in the streets of Kabul.

After this disaster, General Pollock was given command in February of the British army in [[Peshawar]], whose very shaky morale he restored by the strength of his personality. He advanced through the [[Khyber Pass]] to Jellalabad, whose garrison he relieved in April after defeating an enemy force of 10,000 for the loss of 135.
[[Image:Sir George Pollock.jpg|thumb|left|Sir George Pollock.]]
At this moment [[William Nott|General Nott]], who had advanced from India to [[Kandahar]] through [[Quetta]], was authorised to retreat to India through Kabul and Pollock was authorised to do what was necessary to protect the British troops. Both generals took advantage of the badly-written orders to advance on Kabul. Pollock reached Kabul on September 15th after fighting the battles of Jugdulluck Pass and Tezeen; and Nott arrived the 17th, after fighting the battle of Ghuzmee.

Meanwhile the Afghan leader had fled towards Turkhistan with his prisoners, and Pollock ordered his military secretary, Sir Richmond Shakespeare, to rescue them, with Sir [[Robert Sale]], the commander of the Jellalabad garrison, in support. Shakespeare caught up with them on the 17th and delivered them to Sale on the 20th. Amongst the rescued captives was Sale's own wife and daughter.
[[Image:FM02.jpg|thumb|right|Sir George Pollock in his Field Marshal's uniform]]
Pollock and Nott withdrew to India in October after destroying the great Bazaar. Once again they had to fight their way through the Khyber Pass. Pollock's division passed through with the loss of one or two men, but the other divisions did not take the same precautions and suffered more, but in any case the "retreat" had been another great victory.

In 1844 the British residents in Calcutta created the [[Pollock Medal]] to commemorate Pollock's achievements. This medal was to be awarded to the "best cadet of the season" at the Addiscombe Military Academy

George Pollock retired in 1870 with the rank of field marshal and was made [[Constable of the Tower]] in 1871. He was awarded the [[GCSI]] in 1861 and the [[Order of the Bath|GCB]] in 1873, and made a [[baronet]] in 1872. Sir George died [[6 October]] [[1872]] in [[Walmer]]<ref>Dictionary of National Biography</ref>, [[Kent]], and is buried in [[Westminster Abbey]].

Pollock's elder brother [[Sir Frederick Pollock, 1st Baronet]] served as [[Lord Chief Baron of the Exchequer]] and was the grandfather of [[Ernest Murray Pollock, 1st Viscount Hanworth]], [[Master of the Rolls]].

{{start box}}
{{s-hon}}
{{s-bef|before=[[John Fox Burgoyne|Sir John Fox Burgoyne, Bt]]}}
{{s-ttl|title=[[Constable of the Tower]]<br />[[Lord Lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets]]|years=1871–1872}}
{{s-aft|after=[[William Maynard Gomm|Sir William Maynard Gomm]]}}
{{s-reg|uk-bt}}
{{s-new|creation}}
{{s-ttl | title=[[Pollock Baronets|Baronet]]<br />'''(of The Khyber Pass) | years=1872}}
{{s-aft | after=[[Frederick Montagu-Pollock]]}}
{{end box}}

==Sources==
* Low, Charles; The Afghan War 1838-1842 (London, 1879)
* Low, Charles; Life and Correspondence of Sir George Pollock (London, 1873)
* [[John William Kaye|Sir JW Kaye]], History of the War in Afghanistan (2 vols., London, 1851)
* [[Joseph Greenwood]], Narrative of the Late Victorious Campaign in Afghanistan under General Pollock, (London, 1844)
* Anon. (probably Field Marshall Sir Linton Simmons), Memoir to Illustrate the Origin and Foundation of the Pollock Medal (Boddy and Co., Military Publishers, Woolwich, 1875). Available at http://www.pollock.4mg.com/Memoir.htm

==Notes==

{{reflist}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pollock, George}}
[[Category:1786 births]]
[[Category:1872 deaths]]
[[Category:Woolwich graduates]]
[[Category:British Field Marshals]]
[[Category:British Indian Army generals]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the First Anglo-Burmese War]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the First Anglo-Afghan War]]
[[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Commander of the Order of the Star of India]]
[[Category:Lord-Lieutenants of the Tower Hamlets]]
[[Category:Burials at Westminster Abbey]]
[[Category:People of the Gurkha War]]

[[pl:George Pollock]]
[[de:George Pollock]]

First Anglo-Afghan War

2009-03-03T09:47:11Z

DAJ: interwiki

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|image=
|caption=
|conflict=First Anglo-Afghan War
|date=1839–1842
|place=[[Afghanistan]]
|result= Afghan victory
British withdrawal from Afghanistan
|combatant1= [[Image:Flag of Afghanistan pre-1901.svg|25px]] [[Afghanistan]]
|combatant2={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]]
|commander1=[[Dost Mahommed Khan|Dost Mohammad]]{{POW}},<br>[[Akbar Khan]]
|commander2=[[William Hay Macnaghten]]{{KIA}},<br>[[John Keane (British army officer)|John Keane]],<br>[[William George Keith Elphinstone|William Elphinstone]]{{POW}},<br>[[George Pollock]]
|strength1=
|strength2=
|casualties1=7,000+ killed & wounded
|casualties2=5,062 killed
|casualties3=Afghan civilians = Unknown <br>British civilians = 12,000 killed
}}
{{Campaignbox First Anglo-Afghan War}}
The '''First Anglo–Afghan War''' lasted from 1839 to 1842. It was one of the first major conflicts during [[The Great Game]], the 19th century competition for power and influence in [[Central Asia]] between [[Great Britain]] and [[Russia]], and also marked one of the major losses of the British after the consolidation of [[India]] by the [[British East India Company]]. From the British point of view, the First Anglo-Afghan War (1838–42) (often called "Auckland's Folly") was an unmitigated disaster.

==Causes==
To justify his plan, [[George Eden, 1st Earl of Auckland|Lord Auckland]] issued the [[Simla Manifesto]] in October 1838, setting forth the necessary reasons for [[British Empire|British]] intervention in [[Afghanistan]]. The manifesto stated that in order to ensure the welfare of [[India]], the British must have a trustworthy ally on India's western frontier. The official British position that their troops were merely supporting [[Shuja Shah|Shah Shuja's]] small army in retaking what was once his throne was generally seen (at the time, as well as now) as pretext for incorporating Afghanistan into the British empire. Although the Simla Manifesto stated that British troops would be withdrawn as soon as Shuja was installed in Kabul, Shuja's rule depended entirely on British arms to suppress rebellion and on British funds to buy the support of tribal chiefs. The British denied that they were invading Afghanistan, instead claiming they were merely supporting its legitimate Shuja government "against foreign interference and factious opposition".

==Invasion==
{{Main|Battle of Ghazni}}
An army of British and Indian troops under the command of Sir John Keane (subsequently replaced by Sir Willoughby Cotten and then by Elphinstone) set out from the Punjab in December 1838. With them was [[William Hay Macnaghten]], the former chief secretary of the Calcutta government who had been selected as Britain's chief representative to Kabul. They reached [[Quetta]] by late March 1839 and a month later took [[Kandahar]] without a battle. In July, after a two-month delay in Kandahar, the British attacked the fortress of [[Ghazni]], overlooking a plain leading to eastward into the North West Frontier Province, and achieved a decisive victory over Dost Mohammad's troops led by one of his sons. Dost Mohammad fled with his loyal followers across the passes to [[Bamyan City|Bamian]], and ultimately to [[Bukhara]]. In August 1839, after almost thirty years, Shuja was again enthroned in Kabul.
===Khelat===
{{Main|Khelat (1839) (Battle honour)}}

On the way back to [[India]], the Bombay column attacked 13 November 1839, as a form of reprisal, the Baluchi tribal fortress of [[Kalat|Khelat]], from where unfriendly [[Baluch]]i tribes had harassed and attacked British convoys during the move towards the [[Bolan Pass]].

==Occupation==
Some British troops returned to India, but it soon became clear that Shuja's rule could only be maintained with the presence of British forces. The Afghans resented the British presence and Shah Shuja. As the occupation dragged on, MacNaghten allowed his soldiers to bring in their families to improve morale; this further infuriated the Afghans, as it appeared the British were settling into a permanent occupation. After he unsuccessfully attacked the British and their Afghan protégé, Dost Mohammad surrendered to them and was exiled in India in late 1840.

By October 1841, however, disaffected Afghan tribes were flocking to support Dost Mohammad's son, [[Akbar Khan|Mohammad Akbar Khan]], in Bamian. In November 1841 a senior British officer, Sir [[Alexander Burnes|Alexander 'Sekundar' Burnes]], and his aides were killed by a mob in Kabul. The substantial remaining British forces in their cantonment just outside Kabul did nothing immediately. In the following weeks the British commanders tried to negotiate with Mohammad Akbar. In a secret meeting, MacNaghten offered to make Akbar Afghanistan's [[vizier]] in exchange for allowing the British to stay. Rather than betray his countrymen, Akbar ordered MacNaghten thrown in prison. Along the way to prison, an angry mob killed MacNaghten and his dismembered corpse was paraded through Kabul.

==Retreat and massacre==
{{Main|Massacre of Elphinstone's army}}

On 1 January 1842 following some unusual thinking by [[William George Keith Elphinstone|Elphinstone]] an agreement was reached that provided for the safe exodus of the British garrison and its dependants from Afghanistan. Five days later, the retreat began, The departing British contingent numbered around 14–16,000, of about 4,500 military personnel, and over 10,000 civilian camp followers; the military force consisted mostly of Indian units and one British battalion, [[44th Regiment of Foot|the 44th]].

As they struggled through the snowbound passes, the British were attacked by [[Ghilzai]] warriors. The evacuees were harassed down the {{convert|30|mi|km}} of treacherous gorges and passes lying along the [[Kabul River]] between Kabul and [[Gandamak]], and [[Massacre of Elphinstone's army|massacred]] at the [[Gandamak]] pass before reaching the besieged garrison at [[Jalalabad, Afghanistan|Jalalabad]]. The force had been reduced to fewer than forty men by a retreat from Kabul that had become, towards the end, a running battle through two feet of snow. The ground was frozen, the men had no shelter and had little food for weeks. Only a dozen of the men had working muskets, the officers their pistols and a few unbroken swords. The only Briton known to have escaped was Dr. [[William Brydon]], though a few others were captured.

==Legacy==
[[Image:Remnants of an army.jpg|thumb|200px|''Remnants of an Army'' by [[Elizabeth Butler]] depicting [[William Brydon]].]]
The complete destruction of the garrison prompted brutal retaliation by the British against the Afghans and touched off yet another power struggle for dominance of Afghanistan. Shuja, his British protectors gone, remained in power only a few months before being assassinated in April 1842. In the autumn of 1842, British forces from Kandahar and Peshawar entered Kabul just long enough to rescue the few British prisoners and burn the citadel and Great [[Bazaar]].

In the three decades after the First Anglo-Afghan War the Russians advanced steadily southward towards Afghanistan. In 1842 the Russian border was on the other side of the [[Aral Sea]] from Afghanistan, but five years later the [[Tsar]]'s outposts had moved to the lower reaches of the [[Amu Darya]]. By 1865 [[Tashkent]] had been formally annexed, as was [[Samarkand]] three years later. A peace treaty in 1873 with Amir [[Muzaffar al-Din]], the ruler of Bukhara, virtually stripped him of his independence. Russian control now extended as far as the northern bank of the Amu Darya.

In 1878, the British invaded again, beginning the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]].

[[Elizabeth Thompson|Lady Butler]]'s famous painting of Dr. William Brydon, initially thought to be the sole survivor, gasping his way to the British outpost in [[Jalalabad, Afghanistan|Jalalabad]], helped make Afghanistan's reputation as a graveyard for foreign armies and became one of the great epics of Empire.
==Battle Honour==
The [[battle honour]] of 'Affghanistan 1839' was awarded to all units of the [[Presidencies of British India|presidency]] armies of the [[East India Company]] which proceeded beyond the [[Bolan Pass]] vide Gazette of the Governor-General dated 19 November 1839, the spelling changed from 'Afghanistan' to 'Affghanistan' vide Gazette of India No 1079 of 1916, and the date added in 1914. All the honours awarded for this war are considered to be [[Repugnant battle honours of the Indian Army|non-repugnant]]. The units awarded this battle honour are:
* 4th Bengal Irregular Cavalry - [[Skinner's Horse|1 Horse]]
* Poona Auxiliary Horse - [[Poona Horse]]
* Bombay Sappers & Miners - [[Bombay Engineer Group]]
* [[31st Bengal Infantry]] - 1 [[Rajput Regiment|RAJPUT]] (today 4 [[Brigade of Guards|GUARDS]])
* [[43rd Bengal Infantry]] - 1 JAT (today [[Mechanised Infantry Regiment|2 Mech Inf]])
* [[19th Bombay Infantry]] - [[Jat Regiment|2 JAT]]
* [[1st Bombay Cavalry]] - [[13th Duke of Connaught's Own Lancers|13th Lancers]] (Pakistan)
* 2nd, 3rd Bengal Cavalry - Mutinied in 1857.
* 2nd, 3rd Companies of [[Bengal Sappers and Miners]] - Mutinied in 1857.
* 16th, 35th, 37th, 48th Bengal Infantry- Mutinied in 1857.
* [[42nd Bengal Infantry]] (5th LI) - Disbanded 1922.

==See also==
*[[Invasions of Afghanistan]]
*[[European influence in Afghanistan]]
*[[Second Anglo-Afghan War]]
*[[Third Anglo-Afghan War]]
*[[British military history]]
*[[Chapslee Estate]]

==Fictional depictions==
The First Anglo-Afghan war was depicted in a work of historical fiction, [[Flashman (novel)|Flashman]] by [[George MacDonald Fraser]]. The ordeal of Dr. Brydon may have influenced the story of [[Dr. John Watson]] in [[Sherlock Holmes]], although his wound was obtained in the Second war.

==References==
{{reflist}}
*Hopkirk, Peter, (1992) ''The Great Game'', Kodansha Globe, ISBN 1-56836-022-3
*Fowler, Corinne, (2007) ''Chasing Tales: travel writing, journalism and the history of British ideas about Afghanistan'', Rodopi: Amsterdam and New York

==External links==
{{commons2|First Anglo-Afghan War}}
*[http://britishbattles.com/first-afghan-war/ghuznee.htm First Afghan War (Battle of Ghuznee)]
*[http://britishbattles.com/first-afghan-war/kabul-1842.htm First Afghan War (Battle of Kabul 1842)]
*[http://britishbattleshiirst-afghan-war/siege-jellalabad.htm First Afghan War (The Siege of Jellalabad)]
*[http://britishbattles.com/first-afghan-war/kabul-gandamak.htm First Afghan War (Battle of Kabul and retreat to Gandamak)]
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/etext/8428 The Afghan Wars 1839-42 and 1878-80] by [[Archibald Forbes]], from [[Project Gutenberg]]
*[http://www.afghanistan-photos.com/crbst_31.html Pictures of the First Anglo-Afghan War]

[[Category:First Anglo-Afghan War]]
[[Category:People of the First Anglo-Afghan War]]
[[Category:Battles involving British India]]
[[Category:History of the Corps of Engineers (Indian Army)]]
[[Category:History of the Bombay Sappers]]
[[Category:History of the Bengal Sappers]]

[[cs:První anglo-afghánská válka]]
[[es:Primera Guerra Anglo-afgana]]
[[de:Erster Anglo-Afghanischer Krieg]]
[[hi:प्रथम आंग्ल-अफ़ग़ान युद्ध]]
[[hu:Első angol–afgán háború]]
[[nl:Eerste Anglo-Afghaanse Oorlog]]
[[no:Første anglo-afghanske krig]]
[[pl:I wojna brytyjsko-afgańska]]
[[ru:Первая англо-афганская война]]
[[fi:Ensimmäinen afgaanisota]]
[[sv:Första afghankriget]]
[[zh:英阿戰爭]]

George Pomeroy Colley

2009-02-18T11:27:12Z

DAJ: interwiki

[[Image:GeorgeColley.jpg|thumb|200px|General Sir George Colley in South Africa]]
[[Major-General]] '''Sir George Pomeroy Colley''' [[Order of the Star of India|KCSI]] [[Order of the Bath|CB]] [[Order of St Michael and St George|CMG]] ([[November 1]], [[1835]] - [[February 27]], [[1881]]), [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] general, third son of George Pomeroy Colley, of Rathangan, [[County Kildare]], Ireland, and grandson of [[John Pomeroy, 4th Viscount Harberton|the fourth Viscount Harberton]].

He entered the 2nd Queen's Regiment from [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst|Sandhurst]] as [[ensign (rank)|ensign]] in 1852. From 1854 to 1860, he served in South Africa and was employed in surveying and as a magistrate in charge of the Bashi river district in [[Kaffraria]]. Early in 1860 he went with his regiment to [[China]] to join the Anglo-French expedition and took part in the capture of the Taku forts and the entry into [[Peking]], returning to [[South Africa]] to complete his work in Kaffraria (brevet-majority).

In 1862 he entered the Staff College and passed out in one year with honours. After serving as brigade-major at [[Devonport, Devon|Devonport]] for five years, he went to the [[War Office]] in 1870 to assist in the preparation of [[Edward Cardwell, 1st Viscount Cardwell|(Lord) Cardwell]]'s measures of army reform. He was appointed professor of military administration at the Staff College in 1871. Early in 1873 he joined [[Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley|Sir Garnet Wolseley]] at the [[Gold Coast (British colony)|Gold Coast]], where he took charge of the transport, and the success of the Ashanti expedition was in no small degree due to his exertions. He was promoted brevet-colonel and awarded the CB. In 1875 he accompanied Wolseley to [[KwaZulu-Natal Province|Natal]] (CMG).

[[Image:George Pomeroy Colley-Battle of Majuba Hill.jpg|left|thumb|Sir George Pomeroy Colley at the [[Battle of Majuba Hill]].]]
On his return home he was appointed military secretary to [[Robert Bulwer-Lytton, 1st Earl of Lytton|Lord Lytton, governor-general of India]], and in 1877 private secretary ([[Order of the Star of India|KCSI]]). In 1879 he joined Wolseley as chief of the staff and brigadier-general in SE Africa, but, on the murder of [[Pierre Cavagnari|Cavagnari]] at [[Kabul]], returned to India. In 1880 he succeeded Wolseley in SE Africa as high commissioner and general commanding, and conducted the operations against the rebel Boers. He was defeated at [[Laing's Nek]] and at the Ingogo river, and killed at [[battle of Majuba|Majuba Hill]] on [[27 February]] [[1881]]. He had a very high reputation not only for a theoretical knowledge of military affairs, but also as a practical soldier.

See ''Life of Sir George Pomeroy Colley'' by [[William Francis Butler|Lieut.-Gen. Sir WF Butler]] (London, 1899).
----
{{1911}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Colley, Geo}}
[[Category:1835 births]]
[[Category:1881 deaths]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Star of India]]
[[Category:British Army generals]]
[[Category:British military personnel killed in action]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the Third Anglo-Ashanti War]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the First Boer War]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the Second Anglo-Chinese War]]

[[de: George Pomeroy Colley]]

Sirdar

2009-02-16T10:00:16Z

DAJ: Reginald Wingate

'''Sirdar''' was a rank assigned to the [[United Kingdom|British]] Commander-in-Chief of the 19th Century Egyptian Army. The Sirdar resided at Sirdaria, a three block long property in [[Zamalek]] which was the home of British military intelligence in [[Egypt]].

<center>
</br>
<table cellpadding="2">
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#EFEFEF" align="left" valign="top">'''List of Sirdars'''</td>
<td bgcolor="#EFEFEF" valign="top">'''from'''</td>
<td bgcolor="#EFEFEF" align="right" valign="top">'''to'''</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" align="left" valign="top">[[Evelyn Wood (British army officer)|Sir Evelyn Wood]]</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" align="right" valign="top">1883</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" valign="top" align="right">1885</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" align="left" valign="top">[[Francis Grenfell, 1st Baron Grenfell|Sir Francis Grenfell]]</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" align="right" valign="top">1885</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" valign="top" align="right">1892</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" align="left" valign="top">[[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|The Lord Kitchener]]</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" align="right" valign="top">1892</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" valign="top" align="right">1899</td>
</tr>
<tr>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" align="left" valign="top">[[Reginald Wingate]]</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" align="right" valign="top">1899</td>
<td bgcolor="#FFFFFF" valign="top" align="right">1916</td>
</tr>
</tr>
</table>
</br>
</center>
==See also==
*[[Sardar]].

==External links==
*[http://www.egy.com/landmarks/01-02-15.shtml The Sirdaria]

[[Category:Military ranks by country|Egypt]]
[[Category:Military history of Egypt]]
[[Category:British Empire]]

{{Egypt-stub}}
{{Mil-rank-stub}}

[[de:Sirdar (Ägypten)]]

John Harding, 1st Baron Harding of Petherton

2009-01-30T09:29:21Z

DAJ: interwiki

{{Infobox Military Person
|name= The Lord Harding of Petherton
|lived=[[10 February]] [[1896]] - [[20 January]] [[1989]]
|image=[[Image:Jharding.jpg|100px]]
|caption= Field Marshal Lord Harding
|nickname=
|placeofbirth= [[South Petherton]], [[Somerset]]
|placeofdeath= [[Nether Compton]], [[Dorset]]
|allegiance={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom]]
|branch=[[Image:Flag of the British Army.svg|23px]] [[British Army]]
|serviceyears=1914 - 1955
|rank=[[Field Marshal]]
|unit=
|commands=[[British 7th Armoured Division|7th Armoured Division]]<br>[[British VIII Corps|VIII Corps]]<br>[[XIII Corps (United Kingdom)|XIII Corps]]<br>British Forces in the Mediterranean
|battles=[[World War I]]<br>[[World War II]]
|awards= [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]], [[Military Cross|MC]]
|relations=
|laterwork=
}}
{{otherpeople|John Harding}}
[[Field Marshal]] '''Allan Francis John Harding, 1st Baron Harding of Petherton''', [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], [[Order of the British Empire|CBE]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]], [[Military Cross|MC]] ([[10 February]] [[1896]] - [[20 January]] [[1989]]) was a [[British Army]] officer and [[Governor of Cyprus]] from 1955 to 1957, [[Cyprus]] being a British colony at that time.

==Army career==
Educated at [[Ilminster]] Grammar School and [[King's College London]], Harding left his studies to join the [[Territorial Army]] in 1914. During the [[World War I|First World War]] was called to the regular armed forces as a [[lieutenant]] in the [[Somerset Light Infantry|Prince Albert's (Somerset Light Infantry)]] and assigned to the Middle East theatre of operations.<ref name="Page170"/>

During the [[World War II|Second World War]], Harding saw action in [[North Africa]] and [[Italy]] in command of [[British 7th Armoured Division|7th Armoured Division]], [[British VIII Corps|VIII Corps]] and [[XIII Corps (United Kingdom)|XIII Corps]].<ref>Heathcote, Anthony pgs 169 - 170</ref>

In 1946 he succeeding General [[Harold Alexander, 1st Earl Alexander of Tunis|Alexander]] as commander of British forces in the Mediterranean; in 1948 he went on to be [[Commander-in-Chief]], Far East Land Forces and in 1951 he became [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[British Army of the Rhine]].<ref name="Page170">Heathcote, Anthony pg 170</ref>

From 1952 to 1955 he was [[Chief of the Imperial General Staff]]. He became a [[Field Marshal (UK)|field marshal]] in 1953.<ref name="Page170"/>

==Cyprus==
On [[3 October]], [[1955]], Harding was assigned the post of Governor of the British colony of [[Cyprus]]. As Governor of Cyprus, Harding sought to restore the relations with the [[United Kingdom]], by negotiating with both the Greek-Cypriot and the Turkish-Cypriot communities on the island, while the British Government was negotiating with the Greek and Turkish governments. Harding took strict measures to improve the security situation in [[Cyprus]], after [[EOKA]] declared it's armed struggle against the British, on 1st of April, 1955. To this end, Harding instituted a number of unprecedented measures including curfews, closures of schools, the opening of concentration camps, the indefinite detention of suspects without trial and the imposition of the death penalty for offences such as carrying weapons, incendiary devices or any material that could be used in a bomb. A number of such executions took place often in controversial circumstances (e.g. [[Michalis Karaolis]]) leading to resentment, in Cyprus, the United Kingdom and in other countries.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/printout/0,8816,808483,00.html ''Deepening Tragedy''] Time Magazine, 21 May 1956</ref>
[[Image:Harding of Petherton.JPG|150px|thumb|right|Harding's statue in [[Taunton]]]]

Implementing the policy of the British Government, Harding also attempted to use negotiations to end the Cyprus crisis. However, negotiations with Archbishop [[Makarios III]] were unsuccessful and, eventually, Harding exiled Makarios to the British Colony of [[Seychelles]]. On [[21 March]] [[1956]] EOKA made an assassination attempt on Harding's life which failed as the time bomb under his bed failed to go off.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,862064,00.html?iid=chix-sphere ''The Field Marshal's Pea''] Time Magazine, 2 April 1956</ref>

Facing growing criticism in the United Kingdom about the methods he used and their lack of effectiveness, Sir John Harding resigned as Governor of [[Cyprus]] on [[22 October]], [[1957]] and was replaced by Sir [[Hugh Foot]].<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,867862,00.html?promoid=googlep ''Time for a change''] Time Magazine, 4 November 1957</ref>

==Retirement==
On his return to England, Harding was made a peer. In retirement he became the first Chairman of the Horse Race Betting Levy Board.

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Heathcote, T.A. (1999). ''The British Field Marshals 1736-1997''. Pen & Sword Books Ltd. ISBN 0-85052-696-5

==External links==
*[http://www.generals.dk/general/Harding_of_Petherton/Allan_Francis_John_Baron/Great_Britain.html War service]

{{start box}}
{{s-mil}}
{{succession box | title=[[Chief of the Imperial General Staff]] | before=[[William Slim, 1st Viscount Slim|Sir William Slim]] | after=[[Gerald Templer|Sir Gerald Templer]] | years=1952–1955}}
{{succession box | title=[[Governor of Cyprus]] | before=Sir Robert Armitage | after=Sir [[Hugh Foot]] | years=1955–1957}}
{{s-reg|uk}}
{{succession box | title=[[Baron Harding of Petherton]] | before=New Creation | after=[[John Harding, 2nd Baron Harding of Petherton|John Charles Harding]] | years= 1958–1989 }}
{{end box}}

{{Chief of the General Staff}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Harding, John}}
[[Category:1896 births]]
[[Category:1989 deaths]]
[[Category:Alumni of King's College London]]
[[Category:People from South Petherton]]
[[Category:Somerset Light Infantry officers]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:British Army World War II generals]]
[[Category:British Field Marshals]]
[[Category:British colonial governors and administrators]]
[[Category:Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Companions of the Distinguished Service Order]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Military Cross]]
[[Category:British people of the Cyprus Emergency]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]]

[[fr:John Harding]]
[[sv:Allan Francis John Harding]]
[[de:John Harding]]

James Wolfe Murray

2009-01-29T15:42:55Z

DAJ: interwiki

{{Infobox Military Person
|name= Sir James Murray
|lived= [[13 March]], [[1853]]–[[17 October]], [[1919]]
|placeofbirth= [[Ireland]]
|placeofdeath= Cringletie, [[Peebleshire]]
|image= [[Image:Wmurray.jpg|100px]]
|caption= General Sir James Murray
|nickname=
|allegiance= {{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[United Kingdom]]
|branch=[[Image:Flag of the British Army.svg|23px]] [[British Army]]
|serviceyears= 1872 - 1917
|rank=[[General]]
|commands=Eastern Command
|battles= [[South African War]]<br>[[World War I]]
|awards=[[Order of the Bath|KCB]] (1900)
|laterwork=
|portrayedby=
}}

General '''Sir James (Wolfe) Murray''', [[Order of the Bath|KCB]] ([[13 March]] [[1853]] – [[17 October]] [[1919]]), was a British officer serving as [[Chief of the Imperial General Staff]] (CIGS) during the first years of [[World War I]].

==Career==
Murray attended [[Trinity College, Glenalmond]], then [[Harrow School|Harrow]] from 1867 to 1869.<ref name="ODNB">[http://www.oxforddnb.com/view/articleHL/35164?docPos=4&anchor=match Oxford Dictionary of National Biography] Ian F W Beckett, 2004</ref> After graduating from the [[Royal Military Academy, Woolwich|Royal Military Academy]] in Woolwich in 1872, he took a commission in the [[Royal Artillery]].<ref name="ODNB"/>

He worked in the Intelligence Branch at Headquarters of Army from 1884 to 1890 and was then Deputy Assistant Adjutant-General for Instruction at Aldershot between 1894 and 1897.<ref name="ODNB"/>

He saw action in the Ashanti expedition in West Africa between 1895 and 1896 and was then transferred to India where he served as Assistant Adjutant-General from 1898 to 1899. He was appointed Assistant Quartermaster General (in charge of intelligence) at the Indian Headquarters in 1899, but was sent to South Africa the same year. He was a commander, lines of communication in [[Colony of Natal|Natal]] during the [[South African War]] from 1899 to 1900 but then returned to his old position in India.<ref name="ODNB"/>

In 1903, he was made Quartermaster General and in 1904 [[Master-General of the Ordnance]]. In 1907, he was appointed Commander, 9th (Secunderabad) Division in India which he commanded until 1911.<ref name="ODNB"/>

In 1912, he was an army representative on a British delegation to Russia set up by Parliament.<ref name="London">[http://www.ssees.ac.uk/archives/mur.htm School of Slavonic and East European Studies Library, Imperial College, London]</ref>

In 1913, he was appointed Commander-in-Chief in Scotland and the following year in South Africa before the outbreak of war.<ref name="ODNB"/>

==World War I==

Following the sudden death of General [[Charles Douglas (general)|Sir Charles Douglas]] as [[Chief of the Imperial General Staff]] (CIGS) in October 1914, Murray was appointed as his replacement on [[30 October]] [[1914]].<ref name="ODNB"/> As such he was a member of the Army Council, but it was not a very happy appointment as Murray was largely ineffectual and innocuous, leaving strategy to Field-Marshal [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]] as War Minister. A lieutenant-general at the time, Murray was the lowest ranking officer ever to hold the position of Chief of the Imperial General Staff.

Following the failure of the [[Dardanelles campaign]], Murray was replaced by General [[Archibald Murray|Sir Archibald Murray]] on [[26 September]] [[1915]].<ref name="ODNB"/>

He subsequently was made chief of Eastern Command on [[5 May]] [[1916]],<ref name="ODNB"/> relinquishing the position on [[1 September]] [[1917]] to General [[Henry Hughes Wilson|Sir Henry Wilson]].

He was the author of two handbooks on the [[Russian Army]].<ref name="London"/>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.1914-1918.net/war_office.html The British Army in Great War]

{{start box}}
{{s-mil}}
{{succession box | before=[[Charles Douglas (general)|Sir Charles Douglas]] | title=[[Chief of the Imperial General Staff]] | years=1914–1915 | after=[[Archibald Murray|Sir Archibald Murray]]}}
{{end box}}

{{Chief of the General Staff}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Murray, James}}
[[Category:British Army World War I generals]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:Old Harrovians]]
[[Category:Woolwich graduates]]
[[Category:1853 births]]
[[Category:1919 deaths]]
[[Category:Royal Artillery officers]]

[[de:James Murray (Soldat)]]

Gonville Bromhead

2008-09-23T05:50:31Z

DAJ:

{{Infobox Military Person
|name= Gonville Bromhead
|lived= 1845 - 1892
|placeofbirth=[[Versailles]], [[France]]
|placeofdeath=[[Allahabad]], [[British India]]
|image= [[Image:VCGonvilleBromhead.jpg]]
|caption= Gonville Bromhead [[circa|c]] 1872
|nickname=
|allegiance=[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|22px]] [[United Kingdom]]
|branch=[[British Army]]
|serviceyears= [[circa|c]] 1871-1892
|rank=[[Major]]
|commands=
|battles=[[Anglo-Zulu War]] : <br> [[Rorke's Drift]]
|awards=[[Victoria Cross]]
|laterwork=
}}
[[Major]] '''Gonville Bromhead''' [[Victoria Cross|VC]] ([[29 August]] [[1845]] - [[9 February]] [[1892]]) was an [[England|English]] recipient of the [[Victoria Cross]], the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to [[United Kingdom|British]] and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] forces.

Bromhead had a profound deafness which had restricted his promotion opportunities to this point in his life. It was this disability that prompted Bromhead to defer command to [[John Rouse Merriott Chard]] during the [[Rorke's Drift]] Siege. Bromhead had been promoted to Lieutenant in 1871.<ref>{{LondonGazette|issue=23812|startpage=5869|endpage=5870|date=[[29 December]] [[1871]]|accessdate=2007-11-28}}</ref><ref>{{LondonGazette|issue=23876|startpage=3197|endpage=3199|date=[[16 July]] [[1872]]|accessdate=2007-11-28}}</ref>

He was a 33 year old [[lieutenant]] commanding B Company, 2nd Battalion, [[24th Regiment of Foot|24th Foot]] (later [[The South Wales Borderers]]), [[British Army]] during the [[Zulu War]] when the following deed took place for which he was awarded the VC.

On 22 and 23 January 1879 at Rorke's Drift, [[Colony of Natal|Natal]], [[South Africa]], Lieutenant Bromhead shared the command of the defenders of the post with an officer of the Royal Engineers (John Rouse Merriott Chard), setting a fine example and conducting himself with great gallantry in most trying circumstances.

After the battle he was immediately promoted to [[Captain (OF-2)|Captain]] and then [[Brevet (military)|Brevet]] [[Major (United Kingdom)|Major]].<ref>{{LondonGazette|issue=24698|startpage=2310|date=[[21 March]] [[1879]]|accessdate=2007-11-28}}</ref> The citation for his VC was published in the [[London Gazette]] on [[2 May]] [[1879]]:<ref>{{LondonGazette|issue=24717|startpage=3177|date=[[2 May]] [[1879]]|accessdate=2007-11-28}}</ref>

{{cquote|THE [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen]] has been graciously pleased to signify Her intention to confer the decoration of the Victoria Cross on the undermentioned Officers and Soldiers of Her Majesty's Army, whose claims have been submitted for Her Majesty's approval, for their gallant conduct in the defence of Rorke's Drift, on the occasion of the attack by the Zulus, as recorded against their names, viz.:—

For their gallant conduct at the defence of Rorke's Drift, on the occasion of the attack by the Zulus on the 22nd and 23rd January, 1879.

Royal Engineers Lieutenant (now Captain and Brevet Major) J. R. M. Chard
2nd Battalion 24th Regiment Lieutenant (now Captain and Brevet Major) G. Bromhead

The [[Frederic Thesiger, 2nd Baron Chelmsford|Lieutenant-General commanding the troops]] reports that, had it not been for the fine example and excellent behaviour of these two Officers under the most trying circumstances, the defence of Rorke's Drift post would not have been conducted with that intelligence and tenacity which so essentially characterised it.

The Lieutenant-General adds, that its success must, in a great degree, be attributable to the two young Officers who exercised the Chief Command on the occasion in question.}}

He received a substantive promotion to Major on [[4 April]] [[1883]].<ref>{{LondonGazette|issue=25250|startpage=3532|date=[[13 July]] [[1883]]|accessdate=2007-11-28}}</ref>

Bromhead died of [[typhoid]] at Camp Dabhaura, [[Allahabad]], [[British India]] where he is buried in a military cemetery. The church at [[Thurlby, North Kesteven|Thurlby]] in [[Lincolnshire]] has a stained glass window dedicated to him. His grandfather, who fought at the [[Battle of Waterloo]], is buried in its churchyard. His Victoria Cross is displayed at the [[South Wales Borderers Museum]] ''(Brecon, Powys, Wales)''.

He was considered to be Irish, despite being born in [[Versailles]], [[France]]. His mother, Judith Christine Wood, was certainly Irish, being a native of Woodville, [[Sligo|Co. Sligo]]. However, his father's home was Thurlby Hall, north of [[Bassingham]], near [[Lincoln, Lincolnshire|Lincoln]]. He was educated at the Thomas Magnus Grammar School in Newark, Nottinghamshire where one of the School Houses - 'Bromhead' was named after him until their abolition early this century. He was known to be very hard of hearing.

In the 1964 film ''[[Zulu (film)|Zulu]]'' Gonville Bromhead was portrayed by [[Michael Caine]], in his first starring role.

==References==
{{reflist}}
{{refbegin}}
*[[Irish Winners of the Victoria Cross]] (Richard Doherty & David Truesdale, 2000)
*[[Monuments to Courage]] (David Harvey, 1999)
*[[The Register of the Victoria Cross]] (This England, 1997)
*Richard Howes, John Young
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[http://www.rorkesdriftvc.com/vc/bromhead.htm Lt. Gonville Bromhead] ''(biography, photos, memorial details)''
*[http://freespace.virgin.net/sean.farrell/index.htm Rorke's Drift] ''(information within Frederick Hitch site)''

Very rough location of where he is buried can be found on Google Earth at:
25° 27' 06.31" N 81° 48' 31.30" E

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bromhead, Gonville}}
[[Category:1845 births]]
[[Category:1892 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths from typhoid fever]]
[[Category:British Victoria Cross recipients]]
[[Category:Irish Victoria Cross recipients]]
[[Category:South Wales Borderers officers]]
[[Category:Deaf people]]
[[Category:Anglo-Zulu War Victoria Cross recipients]]
[[Category:Infectious disease deaths in India]]

[[de:Gonville Bromhead]]
[[nl:Gonville Bromhead]]

Fanny Duberly

2008-08-21T16:18:33Z

DAJ: /* Married Life */ James Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan

{{Refimprove|date=July 2007}}
[[Image:duberlys.jpg|thumb|right|<center>Captain and Mrs Duberly photographed in the Crimea by [[Roger Fenton]] in 1855</center>]]
'''Fanny Duberly''' was an adventurous soldier’s wife from the [[Crimean War]] and [[Indian Rebellion of 1857|Sepoy Mutiny]]. Her husband, Captain [[Henry Duberly]], was the [[paymaster]] to the [[8th Royal Irish Hussars]], part of the famed [[Charge of the Light Brigade|Light Brigade of Balaclava]]. The published journal of her time in the [[Crimea]] (''Journal Kept During the Russian War'') not only includes splendid accounts of what she saw, but also is a good record of all the rumors and gossip of the army.

==Early History==
Born '''Frances Isabella Locke''' in 1829, the daughter of a [[Wiltshire]] banker, Wadham Locke, she has been described as “a splendid rider, witty, ambitious, daring, lively, loquacious and gregarious.” She certainly possessed the physical requirements and tough attitude required of her surroundings: “was awoke by the reveille at half-past two; rose, packed our bedding and tent, got a stale egg and a mouthful of brandy, and was in my saddle by half-past five.”

After the death of her mother in 1838, she moved to live with her eldest brother (also Wadham Locke) at [[Ashton Gifford House]] in Wiltshire. She left Ashton Gifford on her marriage in 1845 - which took place shortly after her brother had married for a second time.

==In the Crimea==
She travelled with her husband to the Crimea in 1854 and stayed with him throughout his time there, despite the protests of commanders such as [[Earl of Lucan|Lord Lucan]]. As the only woman at the front-lines, she was of course the center of much attention. She was told of planned attacks ahead of time, giving her the opportunity to be in a good position to witness them. Such was the case at the [[Battle of Balaclava]], where her journey from camp to meet up with Henry and watch the battle took her quite close to the enemy. Though her husband survived the day (being away on Staff duties), many of her friends did not: “Even my closed eyelids were filled with the ruddy glare of blood.” Being so close to the [[front line]] in one of the first ‘modern’ wars, Mrs. Duberly differed from many of her compatriots back home in realizing the reality of it all; when her husband asked if she wanted to view the aftermath of the [[Battle of Inkermann]] she told him she could not, “The thought of it made me shutter [sic] and turn sick.”

==Public Opinion==
Mrs. Duberly’s adventurous actions did not always sit well with society. She was pointedly snubbed at the Royal review of her husband’s regiment after the war. The journal she published after the war originally had been intended with a dedication to [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], but this was refused, much to her dismay. Nonetheless she was popular with the troops (who nicknamed her ‘Mrs. Jubilee’) and many of the people back in England. Her published journal met with some success, and prints of a photo of her taken by [[Roger Fenton]] sold quite well.

==India==
Mrs. Duberly again accompanied her husband when the 8th Hussars were sent to [[India]] in 1856. There she stayed with him throughout his time campaigning during the final months of the Sepoy Mutiny. She was adamant about going along with the troops, she told her sister that she would “stain my face and hands and adopt the [[Hindu|Hindoo]] [[caftan]] and [[turban]]…I ain’t going to stay behind.” At [[Gwalior]] in 1858, while watching the start of a [[cavalry]] charge her horse sprung off with the rest and, instead of holding back, she told her husband “I must go!” and so she did.

==Married Life==
She was undoubtedly a great friend of and supporter of her husband, who never seemed to be jealous of his wife as the center of attention in the all-male environment of the Victorian Army in the field. Indeed, she saw Henry as “a friend I am obliged to support.” Henry was suffering from heavy illness when the time came to go ashore in the Crimea, she told her sister that “[[James Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan|Lord Cardigan]] intends him to land with the troops, but I don’t intend him to do so.” Of course, the two had their differences of opinion on the nature of military service, when orders came from Lord Lucan for her to be put ashore in [[Constantinople]] she wrote that Henry “looks upon the order as a soldier; I as a woman, and laugh at it.”

==Later Life==
She and her husband returned to [[England]] in 1864. The images she had seen on her campaigns stuck with her, and when asked to reminisce about what she had witnessed, she replied “those days are best forgotten.” Nevertheless, her adventurous spirit remained; she complained to a nephew in 1896, “I cannot stand dullness for long, and life gets duller and duller as one gets older.” Seven years later she died, having reached the grand old age of 73.

==See also==
Mrs Duberly's War: Journal and Letters from the Crimea, 1854-1856 Edited by Christine Kelly Published by Oxford University Press. ISBN13: 978-0-19-920861-6 ISBN10: 0-19-920861-1

==Sources==
<references />
* Barham, John. “The Indomitable Duberly.”, June 29, 2006
* Farwell, Byron. Queen Victoria’s Little Wars. New York: W. W. Norton, 1985.
* Warner, Philip. The Crimean War, A Reappraisal. New York: Taplinger, 1972.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Duberly, Frances}}
[[Category:Women in 19th century warfare]]
[[Category:British people of the Crimean War]]
[[Category:Women in the British military]]
[[Category:Women of the Victorian era]]
[[Category:1829 births]]
[[Category:1903 deaths]]

James Yorke Scarlett

2008-08-21T15:10:34Z

DAJ: de:James Yorke Scarlett

[[Image:James Yorke Scarlett (1799-1871), British soldier.jpg|right]]
[[General]] '''Sir James Yorke Scarlett''', [[Order of the Bath|GCB]], (1799-1871), was the son of the [[James Scarlett, 1st Baron Abinger|1st Baron Abinger]], was a [[British people|British]] general and hero of the [[Crimean War]].

==Early life==
Educated at [[Eton College|Eton]] and [[Trinity College, Cambridge]], he entered the army as a [[Cornet (military rank)|cornet]] in 1818 and in 1830 became a major in the [[5th Dragoon Guards]]. From 1836 until 1841 he was [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] [[Member of Parliament]] for [[Guildford (UK Parliament constituency)|Guildford]].

In 1840, he was appointed to command his regiment, a post he held for nearly fourteen years. In the [[Crimean War]], the 5th Dragoon Guards formed part of the Heavy Cavalry Brigade (of which Scarlett was appointed [[Brigadier]]) and was sent to the [[Black Sea]] in 1854. There it suffered heavily from [[cholera]] in the camps of [[Varna]].

==Balaklava==
During the [[Battle of Balaklava]] on [[October 25]], 1854, the Heavy Brigade overwhelmed the Russian cavalry they faced. Though his attack was foolhardy, had Scarlett been allowed to advance further, the otherwise disastrous [[Charge of the Light Brigade]] might have been made a success.

Preceding this action, his brigade lay on the rolling country below the series of hills known as the Causeway Heights which the Russians has stormed that morning, and beyond which lay the "Valley of Death" down which [[Lord Cardigan]] would lead the Light Brigade in one of the great military blunders of the [[19th Century]].

As the Heavy Brigade was crossing broken country (most sources point towards a [[vineyard]] or chopped down orchard), a numerically superior Russian cavalry force appeared at the top of the heights. They poured over the skyline, down the slope towards Scarlett's brigade, beyond which lay [[Balaklava]], and the site of the action known as the [[The Thin Red Line (1854 battle)|Thin Red Line]] of the [[93rd Regiment of Foot|93rd Highlanders]], which had routed a previous Russian charge that morning.

Scarlett quickly and coolly assembled his men at the foot of the heights, organizing them into parade-perfect formation, and sounded the charge. This maneuver defied all military doctrine at the time, as the Russians were more numerous and, more importantly, the charge was made uphill against an oncoming force.

As astounded onlookers watched from the rear, Scarlett's red-clad Heavies, including members of the [[5th Royal Inniskilling Dragoon Guards|Inniskillings]] and [[Scots Greys]] (of [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] fame), drove into the centre of the grey mass of Russians, causing the enemy formation to collapse completely. With their charge broken, the Russians were routed and the British forces could claim another victory on the day.

==Later life==
For his services that day Scarlett was promoted Major-general and in 1855 was made [[Order of the Bath|KCB]]. After a brief period of leave in England, he returned to the Crimea with the local rank of Lieutenant-general to command the British cavalry. Following the [[Treaty of Paris (1856)|Peace of Paris]], Scarlett commanded the cavalry at [[Aldershot]] until 1860 and was [[Adjutant-general]] of the army from 1860 to 1865. He was then made commander of the Aldershot camp, a post he held until his retirement in 1870. He had been made a [[Order of the Bath|GCB]] in 1869. In retirement Scarlett became involved in politics, standing for election to Parliament in [[Burnley (UK Parliament constituency)|Burnley]], but was beaten by the Liberal candidate.

Scarlett died in 1871, aged 72. He is buried in the churchyard at Holme Chapel, [[Cliviger]], in [[Lancashire]]. A memorial to Scarlett was installed in the Royal Garrison Church at [[Aldershot]]. It includes a bronze bust of Scarlett flanked by two full-size bronze cavalry troopers of his former regiments, the [[18th Hussars]] and [[5th Dragoon Guards]], wearing [[Victoria Cross|VCs]] and [[Crimea Medal|four-bar Crimean War medals]].[http://www3.hants.gov.uk/hampshire-museums/aldershot-museum/local-history-aldershot/military-biographies/lieutenant-general-sir-james-yorke-scarlett.htm]

== References ==
{{1911}}

Cecil Woodham-Smith, "The Reason Why," Penguin, 1965.




{{DEFAULTSORT:Scarlett, James Yorke}}

[[Category:1799 births|Scarlett, James Yorke]]
[[Category:1871 deaths|Scarlett, James Yorke]]
[[Category:Conservative MPs (UK)|Scarlett, James Yorke]]
[[Category:Members of the United Kingdom Parliament for English constituencies|Scarlett, James Yorke]]
[[Category:British Army generals|Scarlett, James Yorke]]
[[Category:5th Dragoon Guards officers]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath|Scarlett, James Yorke]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of the Crimean War|Scarlett, James Yorke]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1835-1837|Scarlett, James Yorke]]
[[Category:UK MPs 1837-1841|Scarlett, James Yorke]]

[[de:James Yorke Scarlett]]

Battle of Tell El Kebir

2008-08-14T15:12:22Z

DAJ: changing from IP on August 2006

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Tel el-Kebir
|partof=[[1882 Anglo-Egyptian War|Anglo-Egyptian War]]
|image=[[Image:HMS alexandra.jpg|300px]]
|caption=Photograph of HMS Alexandra
|date=[[September 13]], [[1882]]
|place=near [[Kassassin]], [[Suez Canal Zone|Canal Zone]], [[Egypt]]
|casus=
|territory=
|result=British victory
|combatant1=[[Great Britain]]
|combatant2=[[Egypt]]
|commander1=[[Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley|Garnet Wolseley]]
|commander2=[[Ahmed Urabi]], [[Mahmoud Fehmy]]
|strength1=18,500 troops<br>70 guns
|strength2=15,000 troops<br>60 guns
|casualties1=57 killed<br>380 wounded<br>22 missing
|casualties2=1,396 killed<br>681 wounded
}}
{{Campaignbox Anglo-Egyptian War}}
The '''Battle of Tel el-Kebir''' or '''el-Tal el-Kebir''' was between the [[Egypt]]ian [[Urabi Revolt|army]] led by [[Ahmed Urabi]] and the British military fought near [[Tel-el-Kebir]]. After discontented Egyptian officers under Urabi rebelled in [[1882]], [[Great Britain]] reacted to protect its financial and [[expansionism|expansionist]] interests in the country, and in particular the [[Suez Canal]].

==Prologue==
===Bombardment and invasion of Alexandria===
On May 20, a combined Anglo-French fleet arrived at [[Alexandria]]. At the same time, Egyptian troops were reinforcing the coastal defences of the city in anticipation of an attack. These events heightened tension in Alexandria, and eventually triggered a riot in the city between [[Egyptians]] and foreigners, in which more than a hundred were killed. The British commanders thought, wrongly, that Urabi and his supporters caused this riot.

As a result, an ultimatum was sent to Urabi's officers in Alexandria to dismantle their coast defence batteries. The Egyptian government refused. Meanwhile, tension increased between Britain and France, and the French refused to support this ultimatum and decided against armed intervention.

When the ultimatum was ignored, Admiral Seymour gave the order for the British fleet to bombard the Egyptian gun emplacements in Alexandria. On July 11 at 7:00 am, the first shell was fired at Fort Adda by the HMS ''Alexandria'' and by 7:10, the entire fleet was engaged. The coastal defences returned fire soon after, sinking at least two ships{{Fact|date=April 2008}} and damaging others. On July 13, a large British naval force landed in the city. Despite heavy resistance from the garrison for several hours, the overwhelming British forces eventually forced the Egyptian troops to withdraw from the city.

==Pre-battle attacks==
Lieutenant General [[Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley|Garnet Wolseley]] was placed in charge of a large force with the aim of destroying Urabi's regime and restoring the nominal authority of the [[Khedive]] Tawfiq. The total force was 24000 British troops, which concentrated in [[Malta]] and [[Cyprus]], and a force of 7000 Indian troops which staged through [[Aden]].

Wolseley first tried to reach [[Cairo]] directly from Alexandria. Urabi deployed his troops at [[Kafr-el-Dawwar]] between Cairo and Alexandria and prepared very substantial defences. There, attacks by British troops were repelled for five weeks.

===Securing the canal===
Wolseley now decided to approach Cairo from a different route. He resolved to attack from the Suez canal. Urabi knew that Wolseley's only other approch to Cairo was from the canal, and he wanted to block the canal. [[Ferdinand de Lesseps]], upon knowing of Urabi's intentions, assured him the British would never risk damaging the canal, and would avoid involving it in operations at all costs. Urabi listened to his advice and did not block the canal, leaving it open for an invasion by British forces. As a result, Wolseley's forces were able to quickly secure the canal. Two armies, one from Britain and the other from India landed in the canal. Over 40 warships were involved in the operation. By [[September 6]], the canal was securely in British hands.

===Egyptian attack at Kassassin===
Urabi attempted to recapture the canal when he attacked the British forces near Kassassin on [[September 10]]. The British troops were caught by surprise, as they did not expect an attack. Fighting was intense, and there were heavy losses on the British side. Fortunately for them, fresh reinforcements arrived, including the [[7th Dragoon Guards (Princess Royal's)]] and the [[Highland Brigade (Scottish)|Highland Brigade]] , and these forced the Egyptian troops, who were tired and weary of the fighting to retreat.

==The battle==
Urabi redeployed to defend [[Cairo]] against Wolseley. His main force dug in at Tel el-Kebir, north of the railway and the [[Sweetwater Canal]], both of which linked Cairo to [[Ismailia]] on the canal. The defences were hastily prepared as there was little time to arrange them. Urabi's forces possessed 60 pieces of artillery and breech loading rifles.

Wolseley began his advance from Ismailia on [[September 12]], with two infantry divisions and a cavalry brigade. Rather than make an outflanking movement around Urabi's entrenchments, which would involve a long march through waterless desert, or undertake formal bombardment and assault, he planned to approach the position by night and attack frontally at dawn, hoping to achieve surprise.

The approach march was made easier because the desert east of Kassassin was almost flat and unobstructed, making it look like a gigantic parade ground. Even though there were repeated halts to maintain dressing and alignment, the British troops reached the Egyptian position at the time Wolseley intended.

At 5.45 a.m. Wolseley's troops were barely three hundred yards from the entrenchments and dawn was just breaking, when Egyptian sentries saw them and fired. The first shots were followed by several volleys from the entrenchments. British troops, led by the Highland Brigade on the left flank and the Guards Brigade on the right flank, charged with the bayonet.

The resulting battle was over in an hour. Most of the Egyptian soldiers were tired from having stood to all night. Because of the haste with which Urabi's forces had prepared their defences, there were no obstacles in front of them to disrupt the attackers. Several groups stood and fought, mainly the sudanese troops in the front of the Highland Brigade, but those not overwhelmed in the first rush were forced to retreat. British cavalry pursued towards Cairo, which was undefended.

==Aftermath==
Urabi had retreated in the battle, and with no organised forces left to him, he and his National Party's officials surrendered to the cavalry. He was sentenced to death, but was later exiled to [[Ceylon]] (now [[Sri Lanka]]). Wolseley and his senior officers arrived in Cairo by train the next day. [[Khedive]] [[Tawfiq]] was formally reinstated twelve days later. The guarantees and concessions made by Tawfiq marked the start of the British military occupation of Egypt, which was to last until [[1954]].

==Sources==
* ''The Scramble for Africa'', Edward Pakenham, Abacus, 1992, ISBN 0-349-10449-2
* ''Tel el Kebir 1882'', Donald Featherstone, Osprey Publishing, ISBN 1-85532-333-8

==External links==
*[http://onwar.com/aced/chrono/c1800s/yr80/fegypt1882b.htm OnWar.com]

[[Category:1882 in Egypt]]
[[Category:Battles involving Egypt|Tel al-Kebir 1882]]
[[Category:Battles involving the United Kingdom|Tel al-Kebir 1882]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1882]]
[[Category:Urabi Revolt]]

[[de:Schlacht von Tel-el-Kebir]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Tel-el-Kebir]]

Henry Brackenbury

2008-08-04T12:39:38Z

DAJ: /* Life and career */ Nile Expedition

{{for|the Conservative MP|Henry Langton Brackenbury}}
General '''Sir Henry Brackenbury''' [[Order of the Bath|GCB]] [[KCSI]] [[Privy Councillor|PC]] (1837 - 1914), was a British army officer who was assistant to [[Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley|Garnet Wolseley]] in the 1870s and became part of his 'Ring' of loyal officers. He also wrote several books of military history and memoirs.

== Life and career ==
Henry Brackenbury was born in [[Bolingbroke, Lincolnshire]] on 1 September 1837. He was educated at [[Eton College|Eton]], then at the [[Royal Military Academy, Woolwich]]. He joined the [[British Army]] in 1856, served in the [[Indian rebellion of 1857|Central Indian Campaign]] in 1857–58 and the [[Franco-Prussian War]] in 1870–71.

After making Wolseley's acquaintance, Brackenbury offered to join his [[Ashanti Campaign]] (1873–74) at which time he became part of the ''[[Wolseley ring]]'', and later acted as his military secretary in the [[Zulu War]] of 1879–80. Wolseley thought highly of his talents and helped advance his career. However, Brackenbury was unpopular with other colleagues and with Lady Wolseley.

He became Private Secretary to the [[Viceroy of India]] in 1880, acted as British [[Military attaché]] in [[Paris]] between 1881 and 1882, and then became assistant Under-Secretary to the [[Lord Lieutenant of Ireland]]. He had a senior role in the [[Nile Expedition|River Column]] in [[Egypt]] in 1884–85.

He was promoted to [[Major-General]] for distinguished service in the field, then became Director of [[Military Intelligence]] in 1886. From 1891 he was a Member of the Council of the Viceroy of India, and in 1896 became President of the [[War Office]] [[Board of Ordnance|Ordnance Committee]] until 1899. He was made Colonel Commandant in 1897, Director-General of Ordnance in 1899 and a General in 1901. Brackenbury retired in 1904 and was made a [[Privy Council of the United Kingdom|Privy Councillor]]. His wife Emilia (married 1861 but long separated) died in 1905 and later that year he married Edith Desanges. He died on [[20 April]] [[1914]] in [[Nice]], [[France]].

== Decorations ==
* C.B., K.C.B. and G.C.B. (1900) for military services
* K.C.S.J. for service as Member of Council in India, 1896

== Publications ==
* ''The Last Campaign of Hanover'', 1870
* ''The Tactics of the Three Arms'', 1873
* ''Narrative of the Ashantee War'' (2 vol.) 1874
* ''The River Column'', 1885
* ''Some Memories of My Spare Time'', 1909

==See also==
*[[Ashanti Confederacy]]

== References ==

*''Who was Who''
*''Oxford Dictionary of National Biography''
*Ian Harvie. ''A Very Dangerous Man - a Profile of Sir Henry Brackenbury''. Soldiers of the Queen (journal of the Victorian Military Society). March 1999.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Brackenbury, Henry}}
[[Category:People from Lincolnshire]]
[[Category:1837 births]]
[[Category:1914 deaths]]
[[Category:Old Etonians]]
[[Category:Woolwich graduates]]
[[Category:British Army generals]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the Indian Rebellion of 1857]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the Anglo-Zulu War]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the Third Anglo-Ashanti War]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the Mahdist War]]
[[Category:Members of the Privy Council of the United Kingdom]]

[[de:Henry Brackenbury]]

Battle of Abu Klea

2008-08-03T15:39:00Z

DAJ: Schlacht von Abu Klea

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Abu Klea
|image=
|caption=
|partof=[[The Mahdist War]]
|date=[[17 January]] [[1885]]
|place=[[Khartoum]]
|result=British Victory
|combatant1={{flagicon|UK}} [[United Kingdom]]
|combatant2=[[Mahdist]] [[Sudan]]ese
|commanders1=[[Herbert Stewart]]
|commander2=[[Muhammad Ahmad]]
|strength1= approx. 1,100
|strength2= approx. 12,000
|casualties1=76 killed<br>82 wounded
|casualties2=1,100 killed or wounded
}}
{{Campaignbox Sudanese Mahdist Revolt}}

The "Battle of Abu Klea" took place between the dates of January 16 and January 18, 1885, at Abu Klea, Sudan, between the British Desert Column and Mahdist forces encamped near Abu Klea. The Desert Column, a force of approximately 1,100 soldiers, started from Korti, Sudan on the 30th of December, 1885; the Desert Column's mission, in a joint effort titled "The Gordon Relief Expedition", was to march cross desert to the aid of General Charles Gordon at Khartoum, Sudan, who was encamped there against Mahdist forces.

== Background ==
The opposing forces consisted of the 1,100 British of the Desert Column under Sir [[Herbert Stewart]], against a Sudanese force of approximately 12,000 fighters. While the main British force (the River Column), led by General Sir [[Garnet Wolseley]] travelled by river from Korti to Khartoum, Stewart's column was to cut across country by column directly for Khartoum, since time was running short according to what little information was available from the garrison. The force was composed of four regiments of camel-mounted troops (Guards, Heavy, Light and Mounted Infantry), formed from detachments of the various regiments in Egypt and the River Column, and a detachment of the [[19th Royal Hussars|19th Hussars]], mounted on horses. Four light field pieces and a small [[Naval Brigade]] manning a [[Gardner gun|Gardner machine gun]] finished off the force.

== Battle ==
As the Desert Column approached the wells at Abu Klea, they were set upon by a Mahdist force. Stewart formed the troops into a [[Infantry square|square]], with the cannon on the north face and the Naval Brigade, with their Gardner, at a corner. Several officers and men of [[HMS Alexandra]] were killed at the battle. As the British advanced to outflank the Mahdist force, a gap had opened up towards the rear left corner of the [[Infantry square|square]]. The Gardner gun was run out to the left flank of the [[infantry square]] to provide covering fire. The square closed behind them leaving them exposed. Two companies of the Heavy Camel Regiment were also wheeled out of the square to support the Gardner gun. After seventy rounds were fired, the gun jammed and as the crew tried to clear it they were cut down in a rush by the Dervishes. Out of the forty men in the Naval contingent, Lieutenants Alfred Piggott and Rudolph de Lisle were killed along with Chief Boatswain's Mate Bill Rhodes and five other seamen and seven more were wounded. [[Lord Charles Beresford]] was 'scratched' on the left hand by a spear as he managed to duck under the gun. The weight of the rush pushed the sailors back into the face of the square. Several Dervishes were able to gain access to the square, but found the interior full of camels and were unable to proceed. The troops in the rear ranks faced about and opened fire into the press of men and camels behind them, and were able to drive the Dervishes out of the square and compelling them to retreat from the field.

The battle was remarkably short, lasting barely fifteen minutes from start to finish. Casualties for the British were nine officers and 65 other ranks killed and over a hundred wounded. The Mahdists lost 1,100 dead during the quarter hour of fighting, made all the worse by the fact that only around half of the Dervish force was actually engaged. Among the Dervish dead was Musa wad Helu, one of the Mahdist chiefs. British national hero [[Colonel]] [[F. G. Burnaby]] of the Royal Horse Guards was killed by a spear to the throat. [[Francis William Rhodes|Frank Rhodes]] (brother of [[Cecil Rhodes|Cecil]]) distinguished himself when he had several horses shot from under him in the course of the engagement, earning him a [[Distinguished Service Order]]. Gunner [[Alfred Smith (VC)|Alfred Smith]] fought bravely to save his officer, Lieutenant Guthrie, and was awarded a [[Victoria Cross|VC]]. Another action happened two days later at [[Abu Kru]] (the Battle of El Gubat) and the advance rescue force leader Sir Herbert Stewart was mortally wounded leaving command to the inexperienced leader Sir Charles Wilson (the column's intelligence officer) who was slower in organising his forces.

== Aftermath ==
The column was too late to save Khartoum; it was taken by the Mahdists just a few days later leading to the death of General Gordon. The Dervishes of the Mahdi ruled over Sudan for the next thirteen years as the British pulled out of the area. The official public blame for this failure was left with [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[William Ewart Gladstone|Gladstone]] for delaying several months to authorize a rescue. Gladstone lost public confidence and much authority and within two months he resigned.

The battle was celebrated by the Scottish [[doggerel]] poet [[William McGonagall]]:{{Clarifyme|date=March 2008}}

<blockquote><poem>
Ye sons of Mars, come join with me,
And sing in praise of Sir Herbert Stewart’s little army,
That made ten thousand Arabs flee
At the charge of the bayonet at Abou Klea
</poem></blockquote>
and so on for 19 stanzas

And also the battle and one of its notable participants is mentioned in the song "Colonel Burnaby", which has as its chorus:
<blockquote>
Weep not my boys, for those who fell,
They did not flinch nor fear.
They stood their ground like Englishmen,
and died at Abu Klea
</blockquote>

==See also==
*[[The Four Feathers (2002 film)]]
*[[Khartoum (film)]]

== References ==
*Craig, Simon, “Breaking the Square: Dervishes vs. Brits at the 1885 Battle of Abu Klea”, ''[[Military Heritage]]'', volume 3, No. 3 (December 2001), 78-84. (Describes the failed British attempt to rescue major general Charles Gordon and friendly forces at Khartoum from the Dervishes led by the Mahdi.)
*{{1911}}

==External links==
*[http://www.mcgonagall-online.org.uk/poems/pgklea.htm The Battle Of Abu Klea] Full text of the poem, from McGonagall Online.

[[Category:Conflicts in 1885]]
[[Category:Battles of the Mahdist War|Abu Klea 1885]]

[[ar:معركة أبو طليح]]
[[da:Slaget ved Abu Klea]]
[[de:Schlacht von Abu Klea]]
[[es:Batalla de Abu Klea]]
[[pl:Bitwa pod Abu-Klea]]

Churchill, Winston Spencer. ''The River War: An Account of the Reconquest of the Sudan.'' Middlesex: The Echo Library, 2007. 43-48.

Roman army

2008-07-30T08:34:28Z

DAJ: Römisches Heerwesen

{{Unreferenced|date=July 2008}}
{{RomanMilitary}}
'''The Roman army''' was a set of military forces employed by the [[Roman Kingdom]], [[Roman Republic]] and later [[Roman Empire]] as part of the [[Roman military]]. For its main infantry constituent and for much of its history, see [[Roman legion]]; for a catalogue of individual legions, dates and deployments, see [[List of Roman legions]]. For the non-citizen auxiliary forces of the Roman Empire, see [[Roman auxiliaries]]. For Rome's naval forces, see [[Roman Navy]]. The size of the army in the late Roman Empire was about 128,000 - 179,200 men. It was very well organized hierarchically. The main Roman soldiers in the Empire were the [[legionaries]]. There were, of course, other soldiers in the army; these were known as the [[auxilia]]. Auxilia were non-citizens recruited mostly from the provinces. They were paid less than legionaries but at the end of their service they were granted Roman citizenship.

Among Roman soldiers, the smallest organization unit was called a "contubernium". This was a group of 8 soldiers (however originally it was made of 10), that shared a tent and ate together. There were 10 contubernia in a "century". A century was the next largest group of soldiers. A century was a group of originally 100 men in the Early Roman Republic but later reduced to 80 men during the Roman Empire. The next largest group of soldiers were called "maniples". Next were the "cohorts". These were made up of 6 centuries (480 men). A "prima cohors" was the first cohort in a legion; it was much larger than the other cohorts, containing about 5 double strength centuries (800-men). Finally, the largest group in the Roman Army was the [[legion]].There were ten cohorts including the "prima cohors" in a legion. A full-strength legion contained 6,000 men though it was not uncommon for most legions to be undermanned due to previous battles. All of these numbers depended on the date (ex. [[Scipio Africanus]] reformation, [[Gaius Marius]] reformation). The republican army's strength, in peace, was four legions, but the number was increased during wartime. The highest number of legions was 70 after the [[Final War of the Roman Republic|civil war]] between Octavian ([[Augustus]]) and [[Mark Antony]], due to having two whole Roman empires fighting when the remainder of Antony's forces joined with Octavian's. The number was decreased to 28 legions soon after, as the economically strained empire could not pay such huge numbers. After the [[Battle of Teutoburg Forest|Varus disaster]], only 25 legions remained.

== Weapons and equipment ==
[[Image:Roman soldier in lorica segmentata 1.jpg|thumb|right|Modern replica of [[lorica segmentata]] type armor.]]

{{Main|Roman military personal equipment}}

In an early to mid-Republican era legionaries usually bought their own gear. Hastati, the first line, usually had breastplates and occasionally wore lorica hamata, or chainmail. The wealthier principes could afford lorica hamata but they were sometimes seen wearing the cheaper cuiriasses. Both hastati and principes were each armed with a gladius - a short, 60 centimeter sword - and each had two pila (javelins). The Triarii's primary weapon was the hasta, a 2 meter long spear. They were also armed with the gladius and had an early form of the lorica segmenta. All legionaries had a large rectangular shield (scutum) which had rounded corners.
By the late Republican period, all legionaries carried a gladius, two pila, a new, larger version of the scutum, and wore chainmail. Lorica segmenta, or the iron band armor, was only commonly worn between the 2nd and 3rd century AD.

A set of Roman armor would include one of a variety of body armor types (usually designed to be flexible but strong; a [[centurion]]'s body armor differs from that of the legionary), a ''shielders and turtlesith'' a special design/decoration for each legion), ''leggings'' or ''greaves'', an ''apron'' (for decoration and protecting the groin, mostly made of metal), ''marching sandals'' called Caligae (with studs on the sole), a ''coarse woolen tunic'', a ''belt'' (showing a soldier's position/rank in the army), and lastly a ''helmet'' called Galea (with cheek, ear and neck protection). A helmet might have also held a crest if the Roman was an officer or of higher rank than a peer.

===Personal armor===
*The [[lorica hamata]] is a type of chainmail crephole armor used during the Roman Republic and Roman Empire as a standard-issue armor for both the legionaries (higher quality version of the lorica hamata) and secondary troops (Auxilia).
*The [[lorica segmentata]] was a type of armor used in the Roman Empire between the 2nd and 3rd century AD. The armor itself consisted of broad ferrous (iron) strips ('girth hoops') fastened to internal leather straps.
*The [[lorica squamata]] was a type of scale armor used during the Republic and at later periods.
*The [[Scutum (shield)|Scutum]], (Latin for ''shield''), was the standard, rectangular, semi-cylindrical shield carried by Roman legionaries during the Principate. Republican-era scuta had the form of an oval, and in the late fourth century the Roman Army began to exchange their rectangular scuta for oval or large circular shields.
*The ''[[cingulum]]'' was a military belt worn at all times, even without the rest of the armor.

===Personal weapons===
[[Image:Pugio 175 aC.jpg|thumb|right|Modern replica of a Roman [[pugio]].]]
*The ''[[pugio]]'' was a small dagger.
*The ''[[gladius]]'' was the [[short sword]], 18 to 24 inches long, used by Roman legionaries from the 3rd century BC until the late Roman Empire. It was primarily used for stabbing and thrusting. The gladius was made by Spaniards
*The ''[[Hasta (spear)|hasta]]'' was a spear used by triarii in the times of the Republic, and also as the primary weapon of the hastati and principes in the early Republic.
*The ''[[pilum]]'', was a specialized [[javelin]] that would bend after being thrown to prevent enemies from re-using it.

Additionally, in the army of the late empire, the ''gladius'' was often replaced by a [[spatha]] (longsword), up to 1 meter long, the rectangular [[scutum (shield)|scutum]] was dropped in favor of an oval shield, the earlier ''pilum'' had evolved into a differently shaped [[javelin (weapon)|javelin]] - lighter and with a greater range - and new weapon types such as thrown darts (''[[plumbata]]e'') were introduced. (Santosuosso, A., ''Soldiers, Emperors and Civilians in the Roman Empire'', Westview, 2001, p. 190)

===Artillery weapons===
*[[Ballista]]
*[[Onager (siege weapon)|Onager]]
*[[Catapulta]]

== Ranks ==
{{Further|[[Roman legion#Legionary officers|Roman legion officers]]}}

===High-level ranks===
*[[Legatus Legionis]]/legate: The overall Legionary commander. This post was generally appointed by the emperor, was a former [[Tribune]] and held command for 3 or 4 years, although could serve for a much longer period. In a province with only one legion, the Legatus was also the provincial governor and in provinces with multiple legions, each legion has a Legatus and the provincial governor has overall command of them all.
*The [[Quaestor]]: Served as a type of quartermaster general, in charge of purchasing, finance, the collection and distribution of booty, etc. Again, these might perform similar functions on the civilian side.
*The [[Legatus|Legati]]: senior commanders under the supremo. Generally they were of senatorial rank and were commissioned by the Senate.
*[[Tribunus Laticlavius]]: Named for the broad striped toga worn by men of senatorial rank. This tribune was appointed by the Emperor or the Senate. Though generally quite young and less experienced than the [[Tribuni Angusticlavii]], he served as second in command of the legion, behind the Legate.
*[[Praefectus Castrorum]]: The camp Prefect. Generally he was a long-serving veteran who had been promoted through the ranks of the centurions and was third in overall command.
*[[Tribuni Angusticlavii]]: Each legion had 5 military tribunes of equestrian (knight) class citizens. They were in many cases career officers and served many of the important administrative tasks of the Legion, but still served in a full tactical command function during engagements.
*[[Evocarti]]: A veteran of the Roman army who has the right to retire, but has chosen to stay on after his tenure has finished. During this period they receive double pay and are often exluded from regular duties such as manual labour.

===Mid-level ranks===
[[Image:Centurio 70 aC.jpg|thumb|right|Roman centurion.]]
*[[Primus Pilus]]: The senior centurion of the legion and commander of the first cohort was called the ''primus pilus'' ("first file", commonly mistaken with ''primus pilum'', and mistranslated as "first spear"), a career soldier and advisor to the [[Legatus|legate]]. While every normal cohort was composed of 5 to 8 centuries, the one that was led by the primus pilus (the first) had about 10 centuries, or 800 men.
*[[Pilus Prior]]: Senior [[centurion]] in any cohort other than the first cohort. Commanded that cohort and served as an advisor to the legion's commander.
*[[Centurion]]s: They were the backbone of the professional army and were the career soldiers who ran the day to day life of the soldiers as well as issuing commands in the field. They were generally moved up from the ranks, but in some cases could be direct appointments from the Emperor or other higher ranking officials. There were 64 centurions in each legion (10 in the first cohort and 6 in the rest), one to command each centuria of the 10 cohorts. The ranking of centurions were: Pilus Prior, Pilus Posterior, Princepes Prior, Princepes Posterior, Hastatus Prior, and Hastatus Posterior. The Prior centurion of each pair commanded the maniple.
*[[Aquilifer]]: A single position within the Legion. The aquilifer was the Legion's Standard or Eagle bearer and was an enormously important and prestigious position. The next step up would be a post as a centurion.
*[[Optio]]: One for each centurion (therefore, there were 64 in a legion), they were appointed by the centurion from within the ranks to act as his second in command.
*[[Tesserarius]] (Guard Commander): Again there were 64 of these, or one for each centuria. They acted in similar roles to the optiones.
*[[Signifer]]: Each centuria had a signifer (therefore, there were 64 in a legion). He was responsible for the men's pay and savings, and the standard bearer for the Centurial Signum, a spear shaft decorated with medallions and often topped with an open hand to signify the oath of loyalty taken by the soldiers. It was this banner that the men from each individual centuria would rally around. A soldier could also gain the position of Discentes signiferorum, or standard bearer in training.
*[[Cornicen]] (Horn blower): They worked hand in hand with the signifer drawing the attention of the men to the Centurial Signum and issuing the audible commands of the officers.
*[[Imaginifer]]: Carried the standard bearing the image of the Emperor as a constant reminder of the troops' loyalty to him.

===Low-level ranks===
*[[Legionary|Legionarii]]: The basic soldiers of a Legion, who were well trained fighters and received roughly the same pay as Immunes.
*[[Immunes]]: These were trained specialists, such as surgeons, engineers, surveyors, and architects, as well as craftsmen. They were exempt from camp and hard labor duties due to the nature of their work, and would generally earn slightly more pay than the Milites. They also did not fight as much as the normal Milites.
*[[Discentes]]: Milites in training for an immunis position.
*[[Milites|Milites Gregarii]]: The basic [[private (rank)|private]]-level foot soldiers.
*[[Tirones]]: The basic new private recruits. A tiro could take up to 6 months before becoming a full miles.

== Training ==
===Fitness===
The main prerequisite for a member of the Roman Army was fitness. They were expected to march around 32km in 5 hours. They also had to be fit to be able to fight well and cope with any injuries.

===Group training===
Every day the whole of the legion would practice running, jumping, fencing and javelin throwing. But, before that happened, newcomers would do two sessions of military drill and give their oath of loyalty to their Commander and Emperor.

===Drill and weapons training===
Both the legionary and auxilia troops also did drill training, from fundamentals such as learning [[military step]] and the exact [[military formation|formation of ranks]], to practicing tactical maneuvers. Roman tactics also required the soldier to be able to respond instantly to commands to change the shape of his formation, not simply to fight as a brave individual, as in barbarian armies. This required extensive training and discipline. Weapons training covered how to handle a sword, both to become accustomed to the weight and balance, and also how to deliver injurious blows to an enemy without exposing the soldier's own body to enemy strikes. Roman sword-fighting as talk was in fact fairly restrained and measured - primarily, the sword was to be used to make short stabbing strokes from behind the protection of the [[scutum (shield)]] with minimal risk of the soldier receiving counter-strokes. This is in contrast to the rather looser style of slashing blows favored by many barbarian peoples. The soldier was taught not to engage in wild sword-fights with opponents and especially not to lay himself open to his antagonist while aiming his stroke at him. A favored tactic was to knock one's opponents off their feet with a ram of the [[scutum (shield)]], and then to dispatch him with one or more swift downward stabs whilst he was vulnerable on the ground, all the while remaining protected himself by the scutum, which was to remained raised and another one was, while being protected by the shield, they stabbed the enemy in the stomach, twisted the sword, brought it up and then pulled it out. They also trained in the use of the thrown javelin and pilum.

===Common skills===
As a minimum, it was expected that all troops would be at least minimally competent at swimming, so as to be able to ford any rivers where it was necessary to cross without the aid of a bridge and also some of them would have to swim in their armour so they could continue fighting.

===Special skills===
In an army as organizationally complex as the Roman army, physical conditioning, while stressed, was not sufficient. The most intelligent were trained in the special skills needed by the army, and would become officers or [[immunes]] in areas such as engineering. A blacksmith would be needed in the fort.

== History of the Roman army ==
{{Main|Campaign history of the Roman military|Structural history of the Roman military|Technological history of the Roman military|Political history of the Roman military|Roman legion|List of Roman legions}}

From a few score men defending a small hill town in Italy, through a citizen militia consisting of citizen-farmers raised annually for a short campaign before returning to harvest their fields, the Roman army grew to be a professional standing army of several hundred thousand men. Roman historian [[Edward Gibbon]] estimates in his book ''[[The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire]]'' that the peak size of the Roman army in the late imperial period was in the order of 375,000 men.

== Branches ==
{{See|Roman military structure}}

==References==
===Secondary sources===
* Davies, Roy W. "Service in the Roman Army", ''Columbia University Press'', New York, 1989
* Goldsworth, Adrian. "Roman Warfare", "Cassell & Co", London, UK 1999
* Additional Educational Information, http://www.jointheromanarmy.co.uk

==See also==
{{Portal|Military of ancient Rome|image=Scutum_1.jpg}}
*[[List of Roman legions]]
*[[List of Roman auxiliary regiments]]
*[[Roman auxiliaries]]
*[[Roman legion]]

{{Ancient Rome topics}}

[[Category:Military of ancient Rome]]

[[bs:Rimska vojska]]
[[ca:Exèrcit romà]]
[[de:Römisches Heerwesen]]
[[es:Ejército de la Roma Antigua]]
[[fr:Armée romaine]]
[[fy:Romeinske leger]]
[[ka:რომაული სამხედრო საქმე]]
[[sk:Rímske vojsko]]
[[sl:Rimska vojska]]

Rani of Jhansi

2008-07-19T18:42:53Z

DAJ: interwiki

{{Citations missing|article|date=January 2008}}
{{Infobox revolution biography
|name=Rani LaxmiBai
|lived=[[1828]] – [[17 June]] [[1858]]
|image=[[Image:Ranilaxmibai-1.JPG|200px]]
|caption= [[Equestrian statue]] of Rani Laxmibai
|alternate name=Manu,Manikarnika
|placeofbirth=[[Varanasi|Kashi]], [[Uttar Pradesh]], [[India]]
|placeofdeath=[[Gwalior]],[[India]]
|movement=[[Indian Independence Movement]]
|organizations=
}}

'''Lakshmibai, The Rani of Jhansi''' (c. [[1828]] – [[17 June]] [[1858]]) ([[Hindi]]- झाँसी की रानी [[Marathi]]- झाशीची राणी), the queen of the [[Maratha]]-ruled [[princely state]] of [[Jhansi]] in [[North India]], was one of the leading figures of the [[Indian rebellion of 1857]], and a symbol of resistance to [[British raj|British rule]] in India.

==Early life==
Originally named Manikarnikka at birth, she was born to a Maharashtrian [[Karhade Brahmin]] family sometime around [[1828]] in the Hindu city of [[Varanasi]]. An alternate date of [[19 November]] [[1835]] was asserted by D. B. Parasnis in his biography of the Rani. However, no other credible historian agrees with this date and all the evidence points to 1828. The simplest and most direct evidence comes via John Lang. In his account of his meeting with the Rani in 1854 he mentions that her vakil said she was a woman of about 26 years.

Her father Moropant Tambey was a [[Karhade Brahmin]] and her mother Bhagirathibai was a cultured, intelligent and religious woman. Born Manikarnika, she was affectionately called Manu in her family. Manu lost her mother at the age of four, and responsibility of looking after the young girl fell to her father.

==Marriage==

Moropant Tambey traveled to the court of Raja Gangadhar Rao Newalkar, the Maharaja of Jhansi, when Manu was thirteen years old. Manu was to be married to Gangadhar Rao.

She married Raja Gangadhar Rao Newalkar,in [[1842]], and became the Maharani of Jhansi. As is customary with Indian royalty, she was given a different name after her marriage, and was henceforth known as Lakshmibai.Lakshmibai gave birth to a son in [[1851]], but this child died when he was about four months old.

In 1853 Gangadhar Rao fell very ill and he was persuaded to adopt a child. He relented only a day before his death, and adopted a distant relative, a boy named Damodar Rao. To ensure that the British would not be able to contest the adoption, the Rani had it witnessed by the local British representatives. Maharaja Gangadhar Rao died the following day, [[21 November]] [[1853]].

==Annexation==

At that time, [[James Broun-Ramsay, 1st Marquess of Dalhousie|Lord Dalhousie]] was the [[Governor-General of India|Governor General]] of [[British Raj|British India]]. Though little Damodar Rao, adopted son of late Maharaja Gangadhar Rao Newalkar and Rani Lakshmi Bai, was Maharaja's heir and successor under [[Hindu]] tradition, the British rulers rejected Rani's claim that Damodar Rao was their legal [[heir]]. Lord Dalhousie decided to annex the state of Jhansi under the [[Doctrine of Lapse]].

The Rani then did the unprecedented: she sought the advice of a British lawyer and an officer of East India Company, Robert Ellis, and appealed her case in London. Although these petitions were well-argued, they were ultimately rejected. The British Indian authorities clearly sought to punish Rani for her presumptuous behavior. They confiscated the state jewels and deducted her husband's debts from her annual pension of Rs. 60,000. She was required to leave Jhansi fort for the Rani Mahal in Jhansi town, as well. But Rani Lakshmibai was determined to defend Jhansi. She proclaimed her decision with the famous words :''Mi mahji Jhansi nahi dehnar'' (I will not give up my Jhansi){{Fact|date=July 2008}}.

==The War of 1857==
[[Image:The Ranee of Jhansi-Chambers-1859.jpg|thumb|right|''The Ranee of Jhansi'', an illustration from Chambers's History of the Revolt in India. London, 1859.]]
[[Image:Rani_of_jhansi.jpeg|thumb|right| Portrait of Lakshmibai, the Ranee of Jhansi, (circa 1850's).]]
Jhansi became a center of the rebellion upon the outbreak of violence in 1857. Rani Lakshmibai started strengthening the defense of Jhansi and assembled a volunteer army. Women were recruited as well as men and given military training. The rani was accompanied by her generals. Many from the local population volunteered for service in the army ranks, with the popular support for her cause on the rise.

In September and October of 1857, the Rani led the successful defense of Jhansi from the invading armies of the neighboring rajas of [[Datia]] and [[Orchha]].

In January of [[1858]], the British Army started its advance on Jhansi, and in March laid siege to the city. After two weeks of fighting, the British captured the city, but the rani escaped in the guise of a man, strapping her adopted son Damodar Rao closely on her back. She fled to [[Kalpi]] where she joined [[Tantya Tope]], another maratha general and another leading figure of the 1857 mutinty (later hanged by the british).

===Death===
The Rani met her death on [[17 June]], during the battle for Gwalior. The Rani of Jhansi donned warrior's clothes and rode into battle to save [[Gwalior Fort]], about 120 miles west of [[Lucknow]] in what is now the state of [[Madhya Pradesh]].<ref name="New York Times-Mainline">{{cite web|url = http://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9C0CE5D71430F936A15751C0A966958260&sec=&spon=&pagewanted=2| title = The India of the Nawabs|publisher = The New York Times|accessdate = 2007-05-15}}</ref> There is dispute about the exact circumstances of her death. According to contemporary British reports she was mortally wounded by a stray bullet and climbed her own funeral pyre. A letter written by T.A. Martin says that,

<blockquote>refusing the assistance of Tantia Topee who offered to take her off, she ordered a ladder to be planted against a hayrick which was close by, ascended it unassisted, and ordered her people to set fire to it, which was done. This happened in Goosain's Bagh near Phoolbagh. I went and saw the spot.<ref>[http://www.copsey-family.org/~allenc/lakshmibai/martin.html Extracts from three letters by a Mr Martin to John Venables Sturt]</ref></blockquote>

The British captured [[Gwalior]] three days later. In his report of the battle for Gwalior, General Rose commented that the Rani had been "the bravest and the best" of the rebels. Because of her unprecedented bravery, courage and wisdom and her progressive views on women's empowerment in 19th century India, and due to her sacrifices, she became an icon of [[Indian independence movement|Indian nationalist movement]].

==Epilogue==
* Her father, Moropant Tambey, was captured and hanged a few days after the fall of Jhansi.
* Her adopted son, Damodar Rao, was given a pension by the [[British Raj]], although he never received his inheritance.
* The administration of an undivided India passed on from the East India Company to the British crown.
* The Rani was memorialized in [[bronze]] statues at both Jhansi and Gwalior, both of which portray her in equestrian style.

==Influence==
Rani Lakshmibai became a national heroine and was seen as the epitome of female bravery in India. When the [[Indian National Army]] created its first [[Rani of Jhansi Regiment|female unit]], it was named after her.

Indian poetess [[Subhadra Kumari Chauhan]] wrote a poem in the Veer Ras style on her, which is still recited by children in schools in contemporary India.

==Literature on Jhansi ki Rani==

* ''The Queen of Jhansi'' is the English translation of ''Jhansir Rani'' by [[Mahashweta Devi]]. This book is fictional reconstruction of life of Rani LaxmiBai and was originally published in [[Bengali (Bangla)]], year 1956, ISBN 81-7046-175-8.

* ''Jhansi ki Rani'', written by [[Subhadra Kumari Chauhan]], is a heroic nationalist poem honouring the Rani, and is very popular in India.

* ''[[Flashman in the Great Game]]'' - Two meetings between [[Harry Paget Flashman|Flashman]] and the Rani are described in this historical fiction novel about the Indian Revolt by [[George MacDonald Fraser]].

* ''La femme sacrée'', in French, by [[Prince Michael of Greece and Denmark|Michel de Grèce]]. A novel based on the Rani of Jhansi's life in which the author imagines an affair between the Rani and an English lawyer.
* "Rani" a novel (2007) in English by [[Jaishree Misra]].

==Films about Jhansi ki Rani==

* ''The Tiger and the Flame'' (Jhansi Ki Rani) (1953) was the first technicolor film released in India, directed and produced by Indian filmmaker [[Sohrab Modi]].

* ''The Rebel (Jhansi Ki Rani)'' is a new film by [[Ketan Mehta]], and is a companion piece to his film ''[[Mangal Pandey: The Rising]]''. The screenplay is by [[Farrukh Dhondy]] from a story by Chandra Prakash Dwivedi. The film is currently in pre-production.

==Timeline==

Please see [http://www.copsey-family.org/~allenc/lakshmibai/timeline.html] for a presentation of a Timeline, from the birth Lakshmibai, Rani of Jhansi, until her death.

==See also==
* [[Jalkari Bai]]
* [[Subhadra Kumari Chauhan]]

==External links==
*[http://www.esamskriti.com/html/essay_index.asp?cat=896&subcat=895&cname=Rani_of_Jhansi THe Rani of Jhansi, a brief biography]
*[http://www.copsey-family.org/~allenc/lakshmibai/index.html Lakshmibai, Rani of Jhansi]
*[http://www.copsey-family.org/~allenc/lakshmibai/lang.html John Lang's account of his meeting with the Rani]
*[http://www.4to40.com/poems/index.asp?article=poems_jhansikirani Poetry on Jhansi Ki Rani by Smt Subhadra Kumari Chauhan]
*[http://www.1857mutiny.com/Analysis/jhansi-run/ Day by day account of Rani Lakshmibai's role during the First Indian Rebellion]
*[http://www.kamat.com/kalranga/itihas/queen_of_jhansi.htm Queen Lakshmibai of Jhansi] by Dr. Jyotsna Kamat

==References==
<references />

''[[Maza Pravas: 1857 cya Bandaci Hakikat]]'' (marathi "My journey: the truth about the 1857 rebellion") by Vishnu Bhatt Godse.
''Amar Balidani'' by Janki Sharan Verma
''Zila Vikas Pustika'', 1996–97, Jhansi
Meyer, Karl E. and Shareen Blair Brysac. ''Tournament of Shadows.'' Washington D.C.: Counterpoint, 1999.

{{Indian independence movement}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lakshmi Bai,Rani}}
[[Category:1835 births]]
[[Category:1858 deaths]]
[[Category:Indian women in war]]
[[Category:Women in 19th century warfare]]
[[Category:Indian activists]]
[[Category:Indian royalty stubs]]
[[Category:History of Uttar Pradesh]]
[[Category:Jhansi]]
[[Category:Varanasi]]
[[Category:Military personnel killed in action]]
[[Category:Indian women freedom fighters]]
[[Category:Revolutionaries of Indian Rebellion of 1857]]

[[fr:Lakshmî Bâî]]
[[gu:રાણી લક્ષ્મીબાઈ]]
[[hi:रानी लक्ष्मीबाई]]
[[ml:ഝാന്‍സി റാണി]]
[[ja:ラクシュミー・バーイー]]
[[simple:Rani of Jhansi]]
[[ta:ராணி லட்சுமிபாய்]]
[[ur:جھانسی کی رانی]]
[[de:Lakshmi Bai]]

Muara, Brunei

2008-06-18T09:58:27Z

DAJ: /* History */ linkfix

'''Muara''' is a town in the [[Brunei and Muara]] district, [[Brunei]]. It contains the country's only deep-water port. ''Muara'' is the [[Malay language|Malay]] word for [[estuary]]<ref>[http://bruneiresources.blogspot.com/2006/11/toponomy-study-of-placenames.html Toponomy - the study of place names] Brunei Resources 28-11-2006 - retrieved 19-04-2007</ref>.
{{coor title dm|5|02|N|115|04|E|region:BN_type:city}}

==Location==
[[Image:Bx-map.gif|thumb|320px|Map of Brunei]]
Muara Town or Pekan Muara is located in [[Mukim Serasa]]<ref>[http://www.brunet.bn/gov/post/poskod/bsb.htm Poskod bagi Daerah Brunei Muara] Brunei-Muara Postcodes - retrieved 19-04-2007</ref> and is located on the easternmost tip of West Brunei. It lends its name to the district which it is in, the [[Brunei-Muara]] district. To the North is the [[South China Sea]] , to the south the [[Brunei Bay]] and across the bay, [[Pulau Muara Besar]]. To the east, across a man-made channel is the remains of [[Tanjung Pelumpong]] (Cape Pelumpong), now an island. To the west is the rest of the [[Brunei-Muara District|Brunei-Muara]] [[district]]. [[Serasa]] lies to the south-west of Muara.

For the purpose of this article, Muara includes the area from Kampong Sabun to the channel at [[Tanjung Pelumpong]] north of [[Serasa]].

==History==
Before the 1900s, the village of Muara was inhabited by a small group of [[Malay people|Malay]] fishermen.<ref name="Brunei Times">[http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:nlOxkHW1ZGUJ:www.bruneitimes.com.bn/details.php%3Fshape_ID%3D26939&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1 Before the Oil, it was Coal] Brunei Times 14-04-2007</ref>

The development of the Serai Pimping area for coal extraction in 1883 for steamships, and later settlement of the area as '''Brooketon''' by [[Charles Brooke, Rajah of Sarawak|Charles Brooke]], the [[White Rajahs]] of [[Sarawak]] in 1889 saw rapid development of the area. Brooketon was named after the White Rajahs of Sarawak gradually leant its name to the area which was then controlled by the government of Sarawak.

The development of the [[Brooketon Colliery]] coal mine also lead to transport and infrastructure development at Muara. A wooden railway was built to transport the coal to the safe deep-water anchorage at Muara, and wharves and jetties were built to allow steamships and barges to berth<ref name="Brunei Times">[http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:nlOxkHW1ZGUJ:www.bruneitimes.com.bn/details.php%3Fshape_ID%3D26939&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1 Before the Oil, it was Coal] Brunei Times 14-04-2007</ref>. By 1911, more than 1,447 people lived in Muara and some 30 shops had opened in the town<ref name="Brunei Times">[http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:nlOxkHW1ZGUJ:www.bruneitimes.com.bn/details.php%3Fshape_ID%3D26939&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1 Before the Oil, it was Coal] Brunei Times 14-04-2007</ref>. Brooketon was also where the first postage stamp in Brunei was used<ref name="post">[http://www.post.gov.bn/stamp_history.htm History of Brunei Stamps] by the Brunei Postal Service Department - retrieved 19-04-2007</ref>.

Politically too, even though he only had economic rights, Brooke became the de facto ruler of the area. The mine employed hundreds of miners and that required him to introduce a police force, post office and roads transforming Muara into an [[extraterritorial]] settlement an extension of Sarawak. It was not until 1921 that Muara was "returned" to Brunei<ref name="Brunei Times">[http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:nlOxkHW1ZGUJ:www.bruneitimes.com.bn/details.php%3Fshape_ID%3D26939&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1 Before the Oil, it was Coal] Brunei Times 14-04-2007</ref>. The mine closed in 1924 because of heavy financial losses caused by continuously decreasing coal prices in the world [[economic recession]]<ref name="geol">[http://www.bsp.com.bn/panagaclub/pnhs/Geology/htm/peatcoal/occur/colliery/col1_2.HTM Brooketon Colliery] from ''The Geology and Hydrocarbon Resources of Negara Brunei Darussalam'' retrieved 16-04-07</ref>.

The [[Japanese people|Japanese]] occupied Brunei during [[Second World War]] and attempted unsuccessfully to reopen the coal mine<ref name="Brunei Times">[http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:nlOxkHW1ZGUJ:www.bruneitimes.com.bn/details.php%3Fshape_ID%3D26939&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1 Before the Oil, it was Coal] Brunei Times 14-04-2007</ref>. Brooketon was the landing location of the [[Australian]] forces during the [[Second World War]] which liberated Brunei from Japanese rule<ref>[http://webh01.ua.ac.be/cas/PDF/CAS02.pdf Negara Brunei Darussalam] by A Allaert</ref>.

Under the rule of His Majesty the late [[Sultan Omar Ali Saifuddin]], the area was developed into a deepwater port to assist in the development of the country. Since 1973, Muara Port has undergone extensive improvements. These include extensions to the wharf bringing the total length to 948 meters including 250 meters dedicated container wharf and 87 meters aggregate wharf. The overall storage space in the form of covered storage is 16,950 square meters, long storage warehouses 16,630 square meters and open storage space 5 hectares. Facilities for the dedicated container wharf covers an area of 92,034 square meters including 8,034 square meters covered areas<ref name="ports">[http://www.brunei.gov.bn/government/plan.htm 8th National Development Plan] Government of Brunei Darussalam - retrieved 19-04-2007</ref>.

==Kampongs (Villages)==
Pekan Muara can generally be further divided into the following areas:

* Town Centre
* Kampong Masjid Lama to the south of the Town Centre
* Kampong Sabun to the west and north-west, including the military barracks
* Kampong Tanjung Batu
* Kampong Pelumpong, and the area towards Tanjung Pelumpong
* Muara Beach
* Muara Port

These are the areas covered in this article. Other villages in [[Mukim Serasa]] (not covered in this article) include:
* [[Serasa|Kampong Serasa]] is immediately adjacent to Pekan Muara to the south-west.
* [[Serasa|Kampong Perpindahan Serasa]] to the south of Kampong Serasa
* [[Kampong Meragang]] is located between the Muara-Tutong Highway and Jalan Muara
* [[Kampong Kapok]] is located along Jalan Muara west of Kampong Serasa
* [[Kampong Pengalayan]] is located along Jalan Muara south-west of Kampong Kapok
* [[Kampong Salar]] is located along Jalan Muara south-west of Kampong Pengalayan
* [[Kampong Bukit Kabun]]

==Oil and Gas==
Part of the deepwater port of Muara is occupied by two [[Royal Dutch Shell]] petroleum facilities.

[[Brunei Shell Marketing]] has a large presence in Muara with its Muara Terminal<ref>[http://www.brunei.gov.bn/hotnews/year%202006/1106/16/BSM.htm BSM presents safety awards to Belait Shipping Company] Brunei Government - retrieved 19-04-2007</ref>. There are numerous [[bottled gas]] containers on the site an a number of tanks holding various products including [[bitumen]].

[[Brunei Shell Petroleum]] has a yard along Muara Port to support their offshore operations offshore in Brunei<ref>[http://www.bsp.com.bn/main/mediacentre/press_releases_news.asp?newsid=37 New Muara Supply Base Jetty Boost for BSP’s Operations] 13-03-2007 - retrieved 19-03-2007</ref>. The jetty measures 120 metres by 48 metres and equipped with three loading facilities and 14 storage tanks.

==Tourist attractions==
The main attraction of Pekan Muara is Muara beach (Pantai Muara in Malay) along South China Sea <ref>[http://www.tourismbrunei.com/nature/beaches.html Tourism Brunei Beaches] - retrieved 19-04-2007</ref>. The beach is about a mile long and consists of clear white sand. Amenities here include a well-equipped picnic area, a children’s playground, changing and toilet facilities, as well as weekend food and drink stalls.

==Military==
The [[Royal Brunei Navy]] of the [[Royal Brunei Armed Forces]] is based in the Muara Naval Base which is located in Pekan Muara in the Tanjong Pelumpong area <ref>[http://www.mindef.gov.bn/mindefweb/navy/e_intro.html Introduction Royal Brunei Navy] - retrieved 19-04-2007</ref>. The Naval Base was expanded in 1997 to include facilities to support three offshore support vessels<ref>[http://www.ghd.com.au/aptrixpublishing.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/Annual+Review+2002_03+PDF/$FILE/AR_02_03.pdf page 15 GHD Annual Review 2002/2003]</ref>.

==Transportation==
===Road===
[[Jalan Muara]] is the main road that passes through Pekan Muara. It originates in [[Mukim Berakas]] near the [[Brunei International Airport]] and terminates at the artificial channel at Tanjong Pelumpong. It connects Muara town to [[Bandar Seri Begawan]].

[[Jalan Serasa]] and [[Jalan Persuahan]] branches off from [[Jalan Muara]] and connects Muara with the neighbouring community of [[Serasa]]. It enables the items manufactured in the Serasa Industrial area to be transported to Muara Port for export.

The [[Muara-Tutong Highway]] starts at a roundabout on Jalan Muara between Kampong Sungai Kebun and [[Kampong Meragang]]. It connects Muara to [[Jerudong]] and [[Tutong (city)|Tutong]].

Muara is served by the purple [[bus]]es of the Eastern Line. Route numbers 33, 37, 38 and 39 connect Muara with [[Serasa]] and the rest of the country.

===Rail===
There are no railways or light rail in Muara. A railway line used to connect the [[Brooketon Colliery]] to what is now Muara Port to transport the coal being mined for use on the steamships<ref name="Brunei Times">[http://72.14.205.104/search?q=cache:nlOxkHW1ZGUJ:www.bruneitimes.com.bn/details.php%3Fshape_ID%3D26939&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=1 Before the Oil, it was Coal] Brunei Times 14-04-2007</ref>.

===Ports===
The only deepwater port of Brunei is located in Muara. Muara Port was opened for commercial operations in February 1973, and commissioned as the Ports Department on 1st. May 1974. The Ports Department took over the whole management and operations of all the Ports on 1st.January 1986, form the Royal Customs and Excise Department<ref>[http://www.ports.gov.bn/muara/index.htm Ports Department] - retrieved 19-04-2007</ref>.

The Muara Container Terminal was operated by the [[PSA International]] until 1st April 2007, when it reverted back to the [[government of Brunei|Brunei Government]]. It had one container berth with a quay length of 250m and a max draft of 12.5m<ref>[http://www.brudirect.com/DailyInfo/News/Archive/Jan07/300107/nite24.htm Muara Port Returns To Govt In April] BruDirect 30-02-2007 - retrieved 19-04-2007</ref>.

There is an existing plan to further develop the port by the [[Brunei Economic Development Board]], including further dredging of the [[Tanjong Pelumpong|Muara Cut]], the construction of additional port facilities on Pulau [[Muara Besar]] and linking the latter to the mainland with a bridge<ref>[http://www.bedb.com.bn/portcon.asp Pulau Muara Besar Port Project, BEDB] - retrieved 28-05-2007</ref>.

===Air===
There are no airports in Muara. Commercial travellers would have to travel to either Bandar Seri Begawan or Labuan (from Serasa) to catch a commercial flight.

==Notes==
<div class="references-2column">
<references/>
</div>

[[Category:Cities, towns and villages in Brunei]]

[[pl:Muara]]

Richard Airey, 1st Baron Airey

2008-04-21T10:03:47Z

DAJ: linkfix

'''Richard Airey, 1st Baron Airey''' [[Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath|GCB]] ([[1803]]–[[1881]]) was a [[United Kingdom|British]] [[general]], the son of Lieutenant-General Sir [[George Airey]] ([[1761]]–[[1833]]). He entered the army in [[1821]], became captain in [[1825]], and served on the staff of [[Frederick Adam|Sir Frederick Adam]] in the [[Ionian Islands]] ([[1827]]–[[1830]]) and on that of [[Lord Aylmer]] in [[North America]] (1830–[[1832]]).

In [[1838]] Airey, then a lieutenant-colonel, went to the [[Horse Guards]], where in [[1852]] he became military secretary to the commander-in-chief, [[Lord Hardinge]]. In [[1854]] he was given a [[brigade]] command in the army sent out to the East; from which, however, he was immediately transferred to the onerous and difficult post of [[quartermaster]]-general to [[Lord Raglan (1st Baron Raglan)|Lord Raglan]], in which capacity he served through the campaign in the [[Crimean War]]. He was made a major-general in December 1854, and it was universally recognized in the army that he was the best soldier on Lord Raglan's staff.

He was made a [[Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath|K.C.B]], and was reported upon most favorably by his superiors, Lord Raglan and [[James Simpson (general)|Sir James Simpson]]. Airey was a quartermaster-general in the older sense of the word, i.e., a chief of the general staff, but a different view of the duties of the office was then becoming recognized. Public opinion held him and his department responsible for the failures and mismanagement of the [[commissariat]]. Airey demanded an inquiry on his return to [[England]] and cleared himself completely, but he never recovered from the effects of the unjust persecution of which he had been made the victim, though the popular view was not shared by his military superiors. He gave up his post at the front to become quartermaster-general to the forces at home.

In [[1862]] he was promoted lieutenant-general, and from [[1865]] to [[1870]] he was [[Governor of Gibraltar]], receiving the [[Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath|G.C.B]] in [[1867]]. In 1870 he became adjutant-general at headquarters, and in [[1871]] attained the full rank of general. On [[November 29]], [[1876]], on his retirement, he was created a [[peerage|peer]] as '''Baron Airey''' and during [[1879]]–[[1880]] he presided over the celebrated [[Airey Commission]] on army reform. He died at the house of [[Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley|Lord Wolseley]], at [[Leatherhead]], on the 14th of September 1881, when his title became extinct.

He had one daughter, Hon. Katherine Margaret Airey (d. [[May 22]], [[1896]]), who married Sir [[Geers Cottrell, 3rd Baronet]].

==References==
*{{1911}}
*[http://www.thepeerage.com/p205.htm#i2046 thePeerage.com]

{{Governors of Gibraltar}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Airey, Richard Airey, 1st Baron}}
[[Category:Barons in the Peerage of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:1803 births]]
[[Category:1881 deaths]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:British Army generals]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the Crimean War]]
[[Category:Governors of Gibraltar]]

The Charge of the Light Brigade (1968 film)

2008-01-18T16:55:38Z

DAJ: interwiki

{{Otheruses4|the 1968 film|the 1936 film|The Charge of the Light Brigade (1936 film)}}

{{Infobox Film
| name = The Charge of the Light Brigade
| image = The Charge of the Light Brigade .jpeg
| caption = DVD cover
| director = [[Tony Richardson]]
| producer = [[Neil Hartley]]
| writer = [[Charles Wood (playwright)|Charles Wood]]<br>[[John Osborne]]
| starring = [[Trevor Howard]] <br> [[John Gielgud]]<br>[[Vanessa Redgrave]]<br> [[Harry Andrews]] <br> [[Jill Bennett]]<br> [[David Hemmings]] <br> [[Alan Dobie]] <br> [[Norman Rossington]]
| music = [[John Addison]]
| cinematography = [[David Watkin]]
| editing = Kevin Brownlow<br>Hugh Raggett
| distributor = [[United Artists]]
| released = {{flagicon|UK}} [[11 April]] [[1968]] <br>
{{flagicon|USA}} [[6 October]] [[1968]]
| runtime = 139 min
| country = UK
| awards =
| language = English
| budget =
| preceded_by =
| followed_by =
| amg_id =
| imdb_id = 0062790
}}

'''''The Charge of the Light Brigade'''''
is a [[United Kingdom|British]] film made in [[1968 in film|1968]] by Woodfall Film Productions and distributed by [[United Artists]]. It was directed by [[Tony Richardson]] and produced by [[Neil Hartley]] from a screenplay by [[Charles Wood (playwright)|Charles Wood]] and [[John Osborne]] (uncredited). The music score was by [[John Addison]] and the cinematography by [[David Watkin (cinematographer)|David Watkin]].

The film starred [[Trevor Howard]] as [[Lord Cardigan]], [[John Gielgud]] as [[Lord Raglan]], and [[Vanessa Redgrave]], [[Harry Andrews]], [[Jill Bennett]], [[David Hemmings]], [[Ben Aris]], [[Peter Bowles]], Helen Cherry, [[Howard Marion-Crawford]], [[T.P. McKenna]] and [[Donald Wolfit]].

The film paints the [[aristocrat]]ic officers as incompetents who were concerned with appearance over substance, and who disdained doing the real work of training and leading their troops.

It was nominated for 6 [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts|BAFTA]] Film Awards but did not win in any category. It is also noted for periodic, brief animated segments by [[Richard Williams]] that explain the global situation in an amusing but clear way (using, for example, a bear to represent [[Imperial Russia|Russia]] and a lion to represent the [[United Kingdom]]).

==Cast==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
|[[Trevor Howard]]||[[James Brudenell, 7th Earl of Cardigan|The Lord Cardigan]]
|-
|[[Vanessa Redgrave]]||Clarissa
|-
|[[John Gielgud]]||[[FitzRoy Somerset, 1st Baron Raglan|The Lord Raglan]]
|-
|[[Harry Andrews]]||[[George Bingham, 3rd Earl of Lucan|The Lord Lucan]]
|-
|[[Jill Bennett]]||Mrs. Duberly
|-
|[[David Hemmings]]||Capt. Nolan
|}

== External links ==
*[http://imdb.com/title/tt0062790/ IMDb page for the 1968 film]
* Julia Trevelyan Oman Archive [http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/ University of Bristol Theatre Collection], [[University of Bristol]]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Charge of the Light Brigade, The (1968)}}
[[Category:1968 films]]
[[Category:War films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Films directed by Tony Richardson]]
[[Category:Film remakes]]
[[Category:War epic films]]
[[Category:English-language films]]

[[de:Der Angriff der leichten Brigade (Film)]]

Battle of Ferkeh

2007-11-05T17:18:55Z

DAJ: linkfix

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Battle of Ferkeh
|date=[[June 7]] , [[1896]]
|partof=the [[Mahdist War]]
|place=near [[Dongola]], Northern [[Sudan]]
|result=British/Egyptian victory.
|combatant1=[[Mahdist]] [[Sudan]]
|combatant2={{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}<br>{{flagcountry|Egypt|Ottoman}}
|strength1=3,000-4,000 men
|strength2=9,000-9,500 men
|commander1=Osman Azrak<br>Hammuda
|commander2=[[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Sir Herbert Kitchener]]
|casualties1=44 emirs killed<br>4 emirs captured <br> 800-1,500 soldiers killed <br> 500 soldiers wounded <br> 500-600 soldiers captured
|casualties2=20 soldiers killed <br> 81-83 soldiers wounded
}}
{{Campaignbox Sudanese Mahdist Revolt}}

The '''Battle of Ferkeh''' (or '''Firket''') occurred during the [[Mahdist War]] when an army of the [[Mahdist]] [[Sudanese]] was surprised and wiped out by the British and Egyptian forces under [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Sir Herbert Kitchener]] on [[June 7]], [[1896]].

In 1896, as part of the Sudan campaign, Kitchener's Anglo-Egyptian force was advancing on [[Dongola]], in Northern Sudan. Ferkeh was a small fortified village on the banks of the [[Nile]]. It was the first important Mahdist position they encountered. At the time, it was occupied by 3,000 Mahdist warriors, led by the [[Emir]]s Hammuda and [[Osman Azrak]].

Kitchener's force, nominally in service of the [[Khedive]] of Egypt, but in fact under direct British control, was composed of Egyptian and Sudanese soldiers, led by British officers. It numbered 9,000 men, accompanied by three batteries of [[field gun]]s and one battery of [[Maxim gun]]s.

Kitchener divided his force into two columns. One was formed mostly of [[infantry ]], and had to march along the Nile to attack Ferkeh from the North. The other consisted of [[cavalry]], camel-mounted infantry and [[horse artillery]] units and was sent through the desert to attack from the South-East. Both columns departed in the evening of the 6th, and marched through the night, deploying at dawn in the morning of the 7th.

The attack caught the Mahdists completely by surprise, and they made only uncoordinated attacks against the deploying Egyptians, during which Hammuda was killed. Many of the Mahdists then turned and fled. The cavalry column should have cut off their retreat, but they were hidden from view by the terrain, and many made good their escape along the Nile, including Osman Azrak. Other Mahdists stayed in their fortifications in the village, and fought to the bitter end. The Egyptians had to clear the position with [[bayonet]]s.

The battle lasted from 4.30 to 7.20 am and resulted in the death of 20 Egyptians and 800 to 1000 Mahdists. It was the first significant action during the Sudan campaign.

==References==

*George Bruce. Harbottle's Dictionary of Battles. (Van Nostrand Reinhold, 1981) (ISBN 0-442-22336-6).
*Churchill, Winston S. (1952), ''The river war - an account of the Reconquest of the Sudan'', Eyre and Spottiswoode, London.

[[Category:Battles of the Sudanese Mahdist revolt]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 1896]]

{{battle-stub}}

[[de:Schlacht von Firket]]

Israel Tal

2007-10-28T08:38:07Z

DAJ: interwiki

{{weasel}}
{{Infobox Military Person
|name= Israel Tal
|lived= 1924
|placeofbirth= {{flagicon|Israel}} [[Israel]]
|placeofdeath=
|image=
|caption=
|nickname=Talik
|allegiance= Israel
|serviceyears= 1948-1974
|rank= [[Major General|Aluf (Major General)]]
|branch= [[Israel Defense Forces]]
|commands= Bahad 1-IDF Officers School (1954-1956), [[7th Armoured Brigade (Israel)|7th Armor Brigade]] (1959-1960), Commander of the Armor Forces (Gaysot Hashiryon), 84th Armored Division, Deputy Chief of the General Staff
|unit=
|battles= [[1948 Arab-Israeli War|War of Independence]], [[Sinai War]], [[Six-Day War]], [[Yom Kippur War]]
|awards=The [[Eliyahu Golomb]] Israel Security Award
|relations=
|laterwork=
}}
'''Israel Tal''' ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: ישראל טל) (b. [[1924]]), also known as '''Talik''', is an [[Israel Defense Forces]] (IDF) [[general]] known for his knowledge of [[tank warfare]]. Tal was a brigade commander during the [[Sinai War]], an armored-division commander in [[Sinai Peninsula]] during the [[Six Day War]], and commander of the southern front during the final stages of the [[Yom Kipur War]].

The [[Israel]]i government decided in 1970 that it needed an indigenous tank-building capacity. General Israel Tal led a development team which took into consideration Israel's battlefield characteristics and lessons learned from previous wars, and began the development and building of Israel's [[Merkava tank]].

Israel Tal's picture appears in [[Patton Museum of Cavalry and Armor]] "Wall of Greatest Armor Commanders" along with [[Moshe Peled]] (also Israeli), [[United States|American]] [[George S. Patton]] and [[Creighton Abrams]] and [[Germany|German]] [[Generalfeldmarschall|field-marshal]] [[Erwin Rommel]].

==Armour Doctrine==
Gen. Tal is the creator of the Israeli armour doctrine which led to the Israeli successes in the Sinai in the Six Day War. After the [[Suez Crisis]], Tal organized the armour into the leading element of the Israeli Defense Forces, characterized by high mobility and relentless assault. It is comparable to the German [[Blitzkrieg]] and many hold it to be an evolution of that tactic. Tal's transformation and success in [[1967]] led the IDF to expand the role of armour. This led to reduced attention to other less glamorous aspects of the army such as the [[Israeli Infantry Corps|Infantry]]. In the 1973 [[Yom Kippur War]], excessive focus on fast striking armour left the IDF without adequate defensive ability. Only in latter stages of the war did the armour break out and show its potential when General [[Ariel Sharon]]'s armour was able to penetrate the Egyptian lines, cross the [[Suez Canal]] and envelope the Egyptian 3rd Army near [[Suez]].

While the IDF has become a more balanced force since 1973, Tal's influence on armour doctrine was very important to the IDF's development and has influenced armoured doctrines the world over.

==External links==
* [http://www.jinsa.org/articles/articles.html/function/view/categoryid/105/documentid/343/history/3,2359,947,653,105,343 Israeli Gen. Tal Honored by U.S. Armor Center]
* [http://www.ausa.org/www/armymag.nsf/0/1CB97F93C9C5DB2D85256BDE004EC52F?OpenDocument Great armor commanders in History]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tal, Israel}}
[[Category:Israeli generals]]
[[Category:1924 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

{{Israel-bio-stub}}
{{MEast-mil-bio-stub}}
{{Israel-mil-stub}}

[[cs:Israel Tal]]
[[es:Israel Tal]]
[[hr:Israel Tal]]
[[he:ישראל טל]]
[[pl:Israel Tal]]
[[sr:Израел Тал]]
[[de:Israel Tal]]

Sher Ali Khan

2007-10-03T11:04:58Z

DAJ: linkfix

[[Image:Sher Ali Khan.jpg|thumb|150px|Sher Ali Khan]]
'''Sher Ali Khan''' ([[1825]]–[[February 21]], [[1879]]) was the [[Emir]] of [[Afghanistan]] from [[1863]] to [[1866]] and from [[1868]] until his death. He was the third son of [[Dost Mohammed Khan]], who founded the [[Barakzai Dynasty]].

Sher Ali initially seized power when his father died, but was quickly ousted by his older brother, [[Mohammad Afzal Khan]]. Internecine warfare followed until Sher Ali defeated his brother and regained the title of Emir. His rule was hindered by pressure from both [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and [[Russia]] though Sher Ali attempted to keep Afghanistan neutral in their conflict. In [[1878]], the neutrality fell apart and the [[Second Anglo-Afghan War]] erupted. As British forces marched on [[Kabul]], Sher Ali attempted to flee the capital. He died during his escape, leaving the throne to his son [[Mohammad Yaqub Khan]].

== See also ==
*[[List of leaders of Afghanistan]]

== External links ==
{{commonscat|Sher Ali Khan}}

{{Asia-royal-stub}}
{{Afghanistan-bio-stub}}

{{start box}}
{{succession box | before = [[Dost Mohammad Khan]] | title = [[Emir of Afghanistan]] | years = 1863-1866 | after = [[Mohammad Afzal Khan]]}}
{{succession box | before = [[Mohammad Afzal Khan]] | title = [[Emir of Afghanistan]] | years = 1867-1879 | after = [[Mohammad Yaqub Khan]]}}
{{end box}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Sher Ali}}
[[Category:1825 births]]
[[Category:1879 deaths]]
[[Category:People of the Second Anglo-Afghan War]]
[[Category:Emirs of Afghanistan]]
[[Category:Pashtun people]]

[[de:Shir Ali]]
[[nl:Sher Ali]]
[[ja:シール・アリー・ハーン]]
[[no:Shir Ali Khan]]
[[ps:امير شېر علي خان]]
[[pl:Szer Ali Chan]]

Herbert Stewart

2007-07-08T12:31:11Z

DAJ: interwiki

{{Infobox Military Person
|name=Herbert Stewart
|image=[[Image:Memorial To Sir Herbert Stewart-Detail.jpg|250px]]
|caption=Medallion From The Memorial To Sir Herbert Stewart at Hans Place, London
|rank=[[Major General]]
|branch=[[British Army]]
|commands=Gordon relief expedition
|unit=
|battles=[[Anglo-Zulu War ]]<br>[[First Boer War]]<br>[[Mahdist War]]
|family=
|nickname=
|allegiance=[[United Kingdom]]
|lived=[[June 30]], [[1843]] – [[February 16]], [[1885]]
|placeofbirth=Sparsholt, [[Hampshire]], UK
|placeofdeath=Near Jakdul, [[Sudan]]
|serviceyears=[[1863]]-[[1885]]
|portrayedby=
|laterwork=
|awards=[[Order of the Bath|KCB]]
}}
'''Sir Herbert Stewart''' [[Order of the Bath|KCB]] ([[June 30]], [[1843]] – [[February 16]], [[1885]]), [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|British]] soldier, eldest son of the Rev. Edward Stewart, was born at Sparsholt, [[Hampshire]].

He was educated at [[Brighton College]] and then [[Winchester College]] before entering the army in 1863. After serving in [[India]] with his regiment (37th Foot) he returned to England in 1873, having exchanged into the 3rd Dragoon Guards. In 1877 he entered the staff college and also the Inner Temple. In 1878 he was sent out to [[South Africa]], served in the [[Zulu War]] and against [[Sikukuni]]. As chief staff officer under [[George Pomeroy Colley|Sir G Pomeroy Colley]] he was present at [[battle of Majuba|Majuba]] ([[February 27]], [[1881]]), where he was made prisoner by a [[Boer]] patrol and detained until the end of March.

In August [[1882]] he was placed on the staff of the cavalry division in Egypt. After [[Battle of Tel al-Kebir|Tel-el-Kebir]] ([[September 13]], [[1882]]) he headed a brilliant advance upon Cairo, and took possession of the town and citadel. He was three times mentioned in despatches, and made a brevet-colonel, [[Order of the Bath|CB]], and ''[[aide-de-camp]]'' to the queen. In January [[1884]] he was sent to [[Suakin]] in command of the cavalry under [[Gerald Graham|Sir Gerald Graham]], and took part as brigadier in the actions from [[Battles of EL Teb|El Teb]] to the advance on [[Battle of Tamai|Tamai]]. His services were recognized by the honour of [[Order of the Bath|KCB]], and he was made assistant adjutant and [[QMG]] in the south-eastern district in England from April to September 1884.

He then joined the expedition for the [[Battle of Khartoum|relief of Khartoum]], and in December, when news from [[Charles George Gordon|Gordon]] decided [[Garnet Wolseley, 1st Viscount Wolseley|Lord Wolseley]] to send a column across the desert of [[Metemma]], Stewart was entrusted with the command. On [[January 16]], 1885, he found the enemy in force near the wells of [[Abu Klea]], and brilliantly repulsed their fierce charge on the following morning. Leaving the wounded under guard, the column moved forward on the 18th through bushy country towards Metemma, 23 miles off. Meanwhile the enemy continued their attacks, and on the morning of the 19th Stewart was wounded and obliged to hand over the command to [[Charles Wilson|Sir Charles Wilson]].

He lingered for nearly a month, living long enough to hear of his promotion to the rank of major-general "for distinguished service in the field." He died on the way back from Khartum to [[Korti]] on the 16th of February, and was buried near the wells of [[Jakdul]]. In the telegram reporting his death Lord Wolseley summed up his character and career in the words: "No braver soldier or more brilliant leader of men ever wore the Queen's uniform." A bronze cenotaph was erected in St Paul's Cathedral, London.
----
{{1911}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Stewart, Herbert}}
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath]]
[[Category:1843 births]]
[[Category:1885 deaths]]
[[Category:Old Brightonians]]
[[Category:British Army generals]]

[[de:Herbert Stewart]]

Second lieutenant

2007-05-04T16:26:09Z

DAJ: Unterleutnant

'''Second Lieutenant''' is the lowest [[commissioned officer|commissioned rank]] in many armed forces.

== United Kingdom and Commonwealth ==
In British English the word is pronounced second /lɛf'tɛnənt/, in American English it is pronounced second /lu'tɛnənt/. The rank was introduced throughout the [[British Army]] in 1871 to replace the rank of [[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]] ([[Cornet (military rank)|Cornet]] in the cavalry), although it had long been used in the [[Royal Artillery]], [[Royal Engineers]] and [[Fusilier]] [[regiment]]s. At first the rank bore no distinct insignia. In [[1902]] a single bath [[British Army officer rank insignia|star]] (sometimes referred to as a ''pip'') was introduced; the ranks of [[Lieutenant]] and [[Captain]] had their number of stars increased by one to (respectively) two and three. The rank is also used by the [[Royal Marines]].

In the [[Royal Air Force]] the comparable rank is [[Pilot Officer]]. The [[Royal Navy]] has no exactly equivalent rank, and a Second Lieutenant is senior to a Royal Navy [[Midshipman]] but junior to a [[Sub-Lieutenant]]. The [[Royal New Zealand Navy]] - breaking with Royal Navy tradition - uses the [[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]] grade for this rank equivalent. The [[Royal Australian Navy]] also breaks tradition in the sense that it has the equivalent rank of Ensign, but it is titled "Acting Sub Lieutenant."

The [[Canadian Forces]] adopted the rank with insignia of a single gold ring around the service dress uniform cuff for both army and air personnel upon unification in 1968. For a time, naval personnel used this rank but reverted to the Royal Canadian Navy rank of [[Acting Sub-Lieutenant]], though the CF Green uniform was retained until the mid-1980s.

{{UK officer ranks}}

== United States of America ==
[[Image:US-OF1B.svg|right|50px|Insignia of a United States Air Force Second Lieutenant]]
In the [[United States]], Second Lieutenant is typically the entry-level rank for most [[Commissioned Officer]]s. An Army Second Lieutenant typically leads a [[platoon]]-size element (16 to 44 soldiers). In the Air Force, Second Lieutenants may supervise flights of varying sizes, depending upon the career field, as a flight commander or assistant flight commander or may work in a variety of administrative positions at the squadron, group, or wing level.

In the [[United States Army]], the rank bore no insignia until December of [[1917]], when a gold bar was introduced to contrast with the silver bar of a [[First Lieutenant]]. The rank is also used in the [[United States Air Force]] and the [[United States Marine Corps]]. As a result of the gold color of the bars, second lieutenants are often referred to colloquially as "Butterbars" or "Nuggets." The corresponding [[United States Coast Guard]] and [[United States Navy]] rank is [[Ensign (rank)|Ensign]].
{{US officer ranks}}

== Non-English speaking countries ==
*[[Afghanistan]]: ''Dvahom Baridman''
*[[Albania]]: ''Nëntoger''
*[[Arabic]]-speaking countries except [[Bahrain]], [[Oman]], [[Sudan]], [[Yemen]] and former French colonies in North Africa: ملازم (''Mulazim'')
*[[Argentina]], [[Cuba]], [[Nicaragua]], [[Paraguay]] and [[Peru]]: ''Teniente''
*[[Armenia]]: լեյտենանտ (''Leytenant'')
*[[Azerbaijan]] and [[Uzbekistan]]: ''Leytenant''
*[[Bahrain]], [[Oman]], [[Sudan]] and [[Yemen]]: ملازم ثان (''Mulazim Thani'')
*[[Belgium]]: ''Sous-Lieutenant'' (French); ''Onderluitenant'' (Dutch)
*[[Bhutan]]: ''Deda Wom''
*[[Bolivia]], [[Chile]], [[Colombia]], [[Ecuador]], [[El Salvador]], [[Guatemala]], [[Honduras]] and [[Panama]]: ''Subteniente''
*[[Bosnia and Herzegovina]]: ''Podporucnik''
*[[Brazil]] and [[Angola]]: ''Segundo Tenente''
*[[Cambodia]]: ''Ak-no-say-ney-trey''
*[[Cape Verde]] and [[Guinea-Bissau]]: ''Tenente''
*[[People's Republic of China]] and [[Taiwan]]: 少尉 (''Shào wèi'')
*[[Qing Dynasty|Imperial China (Qing Dynasty)]]: 協軍校 (''Xié jūn xiào'')
*[[Croatia]]: ''Poručnik''
*[[Czech Republic]], [[Slovakia]] and [[Czechoslovakia]]: ''Poručík''
*[[Denmark]]: ''Løjtnant''
*[[Dominican Republic]]: ''Segundo Teniente''
*[[Estonia]]: ''Nooremleitnant''
*[[Finland]]: ''Vänrikki''
*[[France]] and all [[French language|French]]-speaking non-European countries: ''Sous-Lieutenant''
*[[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]: ლეიტენანტი (''Leytenanti'')
*[[Germany]] and [[Austria]]: ''Leutnant''
*[[Greece]] and [[Cyprus]]: ''[[Anthypolokhagos]]'' (army); ''Anthyposminagos'' (air force)
*[[Hungary]]: ''Hadnagy''
*[[Honduras]]: ''Segundo Teniente''
*[[Indonesia]]: ''Letnan Dua''
*[[Iran]]: ستوان دوم (''Setvan Dovom'')
*[[Republic of Ireland]]: Second Lieutenant (English); ''Dara-Lefteanant'' (Irish)
*[[Israel]]: סגן משנה (''Segen mishne'')
*[[Italy]]: ''Sottotenente''
*[[Japan]]: ''Santō Rikui'' (or ''San'i'') (modern); ''Shōi'' (historical)
*[[North Korea]] and [[South Korea]]: 소위 (''Sowi'')
*[[Laos]]: ''Roitrïäkäd''
*[[Latvia]]: ''Leitnants''
*[[Lithuania]]: ''Leitenantas''
*[[Luxembourg]]: ''Lieutenant''
*[[Malaysia]]: ''Leftenan Muda''
*[[Myanmar]]: ''Du Bo''
*[[Nepal]]: ''Sahayak-Senani''
*[[Netherlands]] and [[Suriname]]: ''Tweede-Luitenant''
*[[Norway]]: ''Fenrik''
*[[Ottoman Empire]]: ''Mülazım''
*[[Philippines]]: ''Magat'',''Tenyente''
*[[Poland]]: ''Podporucznik''
*[[Portugal]] and [[Mozambique]]: ''Alferes''
*[[Romania]]: ''Sublocotenent'' (modern); ''Locotenent'' (former)
*[[Russia]], [[Belarus]], [[Bulgaria]], [[Kazakhstan]], [[Ukraine]] and [[Soviet Union]]: Лейтенант (''Leytenant)''
*[[Russian Empire]]: Подпоручик (''Podporuchik''); Kорнет (''Kornet'') (cavalry)
*[[Serbia]], [[Republic of Macedonia]] and [[Yugoslavia]]: Лотпоручник (''Potporucnik'')
*[[Slovenia]]: ''Poročnik''
*[[Spain]] and [[Equatorial Guinea]]: ''Alférez''
*[[Sweden]]: ''Fänrik''
*[[Switzerland]]: ''Leutnant'' (German); ''Lieutenant'' (French); ''Tenente'' (Italian)
*[[Thailand]]: ''Roi Tri''
*[[Turkey]]: ''Asteğmen''
*[[Uruguay]]: ''Teniente Segundo''
*[[Venezuela]]: ''Subteniente'' (army); ''Alférez'' (air force)
*[[Vietnam]]: ''Thieu Uy''

==See also==
*[[Comparative military ranks]]
*[[British Army officer rank insignia]]
*[[U.S. Army officer rank insignia]]
*[[Cornet (military rank)]]

[[Category:Military ranks of the Commonwealth]]
[[Category:Military ranks of Australia]]
[[Category:Military ranks of Canada]]
[[Category:Military ranks of India]]
[[Category:Military ranks of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Military ranks of the United States Army]]
[[Category:Officer ranks of the United States Air Force]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps ranks]]

[[cs:Poručík]]
[[da:Løjtnant]]
[[de:Unterleutnant]]
[[el:Ανθυπολοχαγός]]
[[es:Subteniente]]
[[fr:Sous-lieutenant]]
[[nl:Tweede luitenant]]
[[ja:少尉]]
[[no:Fenrik]]
[[pl:Podporucznik]]
[[ru:Лейтенант]]
[[se:Fänrik]]
[[sl:Poročnik]]
[[fi:Vänrikki]]
[[sv:Fänrik]]

Sapper

2007-04-16T16:55:36Z

DAJ: interwiki

:''This article is about the military vocation. For the pseudonymous author, see [[H. C. McNeile]].''

A '''sapper''', in the sense first used by the [[France|French]] [[army|military]], was one who [[Sapping|sapped]] (undermined) another's fortifications.

When an army was defending a fortress with cannon, they had an obvious height and therefore range advantage over the attacker's own guns. The attacking army's artillery had to be brought forward, under fire, so as to facilitate effective counter-battery fire. This was achieved by digging what the French termed a ''''Sappe''''. Using techniques developed and perfected by [[Vauban]], the ''sapeurs'' (sappers) began the trench at such an angle so as to avoid enemy fire 'enfilading' (passing directly along) the sappe. As they pressed forward, a position was prepared from which cannon could suppress the defenders on the bastions. The sappers would then change the course of their trench, [[zig-zag]]ging their way toward the fortress wall. Each leg brought the attacker's artillery closer and closer until (hopefully) the besieged cannon would be sufficiently suppressed for undermining to begin. Broadly speaking, sappers were originally experts at demolishing or otherwise overcoming or bypassing fortification systems.

A sapper is an individual usually in British or Commonwealth military service. Called a ''combat engineer'' by the Americans, a ''pionier'' by the Germans and a ''génie'' by the French, a sapper may perform any of a variety of tasks under combat conditions. Such tasks typically include bridge-building, laying or clearing minefields, demolitions, field defences as well as building, road and airfield construction and repair. In other words, the sapper's tasks now involve facilitating movement of allied forces and impeding movement of the enemy's.

Sapper (abbreviated Spr) is the [[Royal Engineers]]' equivalent of [[Private (rank)|Private]]. This is also the case within the Canadian and Royal Australian Engineers, however, this use of the term is not used by the U.S. Corps of Engineers.

In France, the civil [[firefighters]] and the military firefighters of the [[Paris Fire Brigade]] are called "sappers-pumpers" (''[[sapeur-pompier|sapeurs-pompiers]]'', SP): the first fire company created by [[Napoléon I]] was a military sappers company. Apart from this, the sappers are the [[combat engineer]]s.

==Specific usage==
===[[US Army]]===
In the US Army, Sappers are combat engineers who advance with the front-line [[infantry]], and they have fought in every war in American history. The designation is earned as an additional proficiency.

The US Army authorizes four skill tabs for wear above the unit patch on the left shoulder. Three of these tabs identify soldiers who have passed a course proving their leadership and adaptability: the [[Special Forces tab]], the [[Ranger Tab]], and the [[Sapper Tab]], in that order of wear from highest to lowest. The [[President's Hundred Tab]] is worn for the best marksmen in the Army.

To be a sapper, a Soldier must complete the ''Sapper Leader Course'' which is operated by the U.S. [[Engineer Officer Basic Course]] at [[Fort Leonard Wood]], [[Missouri]]. The Sapper Leader Course is a 28-day course designed to train joint-service leaders in small unit tactics, leadership skills, and tactics required to perform as part of a combined arms team. The course is open to enlisted Soldiers in the grades of E-4 (in the Army, specialist) and above, cadets, and officers O-3 (Army, captain) and below. Students can come from any combat or combat support branch of the service, but priority is given to engineering, cavalry, and infantry soldiers. [http://www.wood.army.mil/sapper/course.htm]. The course is in two Phases.

Phase I lasts 14 days and covers general subjects including [[medical]], [[navigation]], [[demolitions]], air and water operations, [[mountaineering]], and [[landmines]] and weapons used by enemy forces.
Phase II is the remaining 14 days. It covers basic patrolling techniques and battle drills that emphasize leadership. The subjects include [[urban operations]], breaching, [[patrol]] organization and movement, and [[reconnaissance]], [[raid]] and [[ambush]] tactics. It concludes with a three-day situation training exercise, and five-day field training exercise. These missions are a 60/40 mix of engineer and infantry missions.

Leadership is emphasized throughout the SLC. During the course leader roles are rotated regularly and each student is evaluated at least twice on leadership. The results of the Sapper Leader Course are soldiers who are hardened combat engineers who are qualified to fight and lead on today’s battlefields. [http://www.wood.army.mil/sapper/SapperPage_files/SapperLeaderCourse.htm].

===[[US Marine Corps]]===
In the US Marine Corps, the term sapper is commonly used as a call sign amongst combat engineer units to designate them as engineers when attached to infantry units. Combat Engineers in the Marine Corps, unlike their Army counterparts, are a sort of jack of all trades. During Basic Combat Engineer Training, a Marine is trained in a variety of fields which as a whole encompass the 1371 MOS. Subjects covered include Demolitions, Breaching, Woodframe Construction, Concrete Laying, Land Clearing, Surviability Positions, and Counter Mobility. Depending on the type of unit the Marine is assigned to will determine what tasks they will be used for primarily. For example, a Marine assigned to a Marine Division will primarily be required to perform tasks involving infantry tactics, breaching, and mine clearing. That same Marine if assigned to an Air Wing on the other hand would be more likely to perform construction work and tactical airfield construction and maintenance. In any case, a Marine Combat Engineer is required to be proficient in all areas to include infantry tactics and weapon systems.

===PAVN and Viet Cong===
In the [[PAVN]] and [[Viet Cong]], the sappers were [[special operations]] soldiers who used infiltration, sabotage, and ambush to attack enemy forces.

===Fictional references===
*In the novel ''[[The English Patient]]'' Ondaatje's character Kip is a sapper during World War II.
*The computer game ''[[Warcraft II: Tides of Darkness]]'' has a military unit called [http://www.battle.net/war2/units/gsdt.shtml Goblin Sappers] which are used to demolish enemy units and structures.
*In [[Commandos]] an explosives expert on the team is referred to repeatedly as merely "The Sapper".
*The computer game ''[[City of Heroes]]'' includes a secret paramilitary organization called the "Malta Group," which employs agents called "sappers," equipped with distinctive and widely dreaded endurance-draining weaponry.
*In ''[[Age of Empires II: The Age of Kings|Age of Empires II]]'', it is possible to research a "Sappers" upgrade that increases the damage villagers cause against buildings.
*In the computer game series [[Icewind Dale]], Dwarven shock troops were designated "sappers," although they acted more in the manner of kamikaze shock troops (explosives fitted to their backs and said dwarves charging the Player's party).
*In the 1978 [[Cold Chisel]] song, "[[Khe Sanh (song)|Khe Sanh]]", which is about an Australian [[Vietnam veteran|veteran]] of the [[Vietnam War]], the famous first line is "I left my heart to the sappers round Khe Sanh".

==External links==
*[http://www.remuseum.org.uk/rem_his_history.htm Royal Engineers Museum] History of the Royal Engineers (The Sappers)
*[http://www.remuseum.org.uk/corpshistory/rem_corps_sapper.htm Royal Engineers Museum] Origins of the term "Sapper"

==See also==
*[[Combat engineer]]
*[[Military engineer]]
*[[911th Engineer Company]] (formerly the MDW Engineer Company)

[[Category:Land warfare]]
[[Category:Military occupations]]
[[Category:Military engineering]]

[[de:Sappeur]]
[[es:zapador]]
[[he:פלס]]
[[ja:工兵]]
[[no:Sappør]]
[[pt:sapador]]
[[sv:Sappör]]

Mandawa

2007-02-21T21:01:57Z

DAJ: interwiki

{{Infobox Indian urban area |
native_name = Mandawa |
type = city |
latd = 28.05 | longd = 75.15|
locator_position = right |
state_name = Rajasthan |
district = [[Jhunjhunun district|Jhunjhunun]] |
leader_title = |
leader_name = |
altitude = 316|
population_as_of = 2001 |
population_total = 20,717|
population_density = |
area_magnitude= sq. km |
area_total = |
area_telephone = |
postal_code = |
vehicle_code_range = |
sex_ratio = |
unlocode = |
website = |
footnotes = |
}}

'''Mandawa''' is a town in [[Jhunjhunu ]] district of [[Rajasthan]] in [[India]]. It is part of [[Shekhawati]] region. Mandawa is situated 190 km off [[Jaipur]] in the north. The town lies between latitude 28°.06’ in the north and longitude 75°.20’ in the east. Mandawa is known for its fort and [[haveli]]s. The fort town of Mandawa is well connected with the other places in region through a good network of roads.

==History==
Mandu Jat founded Mandawa village. He first established a dhani (hamlet) and dug a well here, which was completed on savan badi 5 samvat 1797 ([[1740]] AD) (source – Shekhawati Bodh, Mandawa special issue, July 2005). Initially this place was known as ‘Mandu ki dhani’, ‘Mandu ka bas’ or ‘Manduwas’ which changed to ‘Manduwa’, ‘Mandwa’ and finally ‘Mandawa’.

==Mandawa fort==
The [[fort]] of Mandawa was founded in the [[18th century]]. Nawal Singh son of Shardul Singh founded the fort in vikram samvat 1812 ([[1755]] AD). The fort dominates the town with a painted arched gateway adorned with [[Lord Krishna]] and his cows. The Chokhani and Ladia havelis and the street with Saraf havelis are some examples of this region's [[fresco]] painted havelis.
==Havelis==
The Bansidhar Newatia Haveli has some curious paintings on its outer eastern wall. The Gulab Rai Ladia Haveli has some defaced erotic images.
==Geography==
Mandawa is located at {{coor d|28.05|N|75.15|E|}}<ref>[http://www.fallingrain.com/world/IN/24/Mandawa.html Falling Rain Genomics, Inc - Mandawa]</ref>. It has an average elevation of 316 [[metre]]s (1036 [[foot (unit of length)|feet]]).

==Demographics==
[[As of 2001]] India [[census]]{{GR|India}}, Mandawa had a population of 20,717. Males constitute 51% of the population and females 49%. Mandawa has an average literacy rate of 58%, lower than the national average of 59.5%: male literacy is 70%, and female literacy is 45%. In Mandawa, 18% of the population is under 6 years of age.

==See also==
*[[Shekhawati]]
==Reference==
<references/>
*Shekhawati Bodh, A monthly magazine of Shekhawati region, Mandawa special issue, July 2005

{{Rajasthan-geo-stub}}
{{Rajasthan}}
[[Category:Cities and towns in Rajasthan]]

[[de:Mandawa]]

Mahdist War

2007-02-14T09:02:23Z

DAJ: interwiki

{{Infobox Military Conflict
|conflict=Mahdist War
|partof=
|image=[[Image:Muhammad Ahmad al-Mahdi.jpg]]
|caption=Muhammad Ahmad, the Mahdi.
|date=[[1881]]-[[1899]]
|place=[[Sudan]]
|casus=
|territory=Sudan becomes an [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian]] [[Condominium (international law)|condominium]]
|result=British/Egyptian victory:
|combatant1=[[Image:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|22px]]Great Britain<br>[[Image:Flag of Egypt 19th century.svg|22px]]Egypt
|combatant2=Mahdist Sudan
|strength1=25,800 troops
|strength2=60,000 troops
|casualties1=700 killed and wounded
|casualties2=30,000 killed, wounded and captured
}}
{{Campaignbox Sudanese Mahdist Revolt}}

The '''Mahdist War''' was a [[colonial war]] of the late 19th century. It was fought between the [[Mahdist]] [[Sudanese]] and the [[Egyptian]] and later [[United Kingdom|British]] forces. It has also been called the '''Anglo-Sudan War''' or the '''Sudanese Mahdist Revolt'''. The British have called their part in the conflict the '''Sudan Campaign'''.

==The Mahdist revolt==

Since the invasion by [[Muhammad Ali of Egypt|Muhammed Ali]] in 1819, Sudan was governed by an [[Turkiyah|Egyptian administration]]. This [[colonialism|colonial]] system was resented by the Sudanese people, because of the heavy taxes it imposed and because of clumsy attempts to end the [[slave trade]]. In the 1870's a muslim cleric, [[Muhammad Ahmad]], preaching renewal of the faith and liberation of the land, began to attract followers. Soon in open revolt against the Egyptians, Muhammad Ahmad proclaimed himself [[Mahdi]], prophet and redeemer of islamic world. His movement overwhelmed Egyptian troops sent against him and gained control of large portions of Sudan. The Egyptian government had now passed under British control, and in 1883 8,000 Egyptian troops under the command of a retired British [[Colonel]], [[William Hicks]] were sent to quell the revolt. Hicks' force, however was surrounded and destroyed near [[Battle of El Obeid|El Obeid]] and Hicks perished in the fighting.

After this, the British government resolved to quit Sudan, and in 1884 sent
[[Charles George Gordon|General Gordon]] to [[Khartoum]] to organise the evacuation of foreigners. Gordon, however refused to abandon the town and was soon [[Siege of Khartoum|besieged]]. The British sent a relief column under sir [[Garnet Wolseley]] to rescue him. After defeating the Mahdists at [[Battle of Abu Klea|Abu Klea]], the column arrived within sight of Khartoum, only to find they were too late: the city had fallen two days earlier and Gordon and the garrison had been massacred. These events temporarily ended British/Egyptian involvement in Sudan which passed completely under the control of the Mahdists.

The Mahdi died soon after his victory in 1885, and was succeeded by the [[Khalifa]] [[Abdallahi ibn Muhammad]] who proved to be an able, albeit ruthless ruler of the Mahdiyah, the Mahdist State.

==The return of the British==

In 1898, in the context of the [[The Scramble for Africa|scramble for Africa]], the British decided to reassert Egypts' claim on Sudan. An expedition commanded by [[Horatio Kitchener]] was organised in Egypt. It was composed of 8,200 British soldiers and 17,600 Egyptian and Sudanese soldiers commanded by British officers. The force was equipped with modern [[artillery]] and [[machine gun]]s and was supported by a fleet of [[gunboats]] on the [[Nile]]. To supply their advance, the British built a [[railway]] from Egypt.
The Mahdist forces(sometimes called the Dervishes), were more numerous, numbering more than 60,000 warriors, but they lacked modern weapons.

After defeating a Mahdist force in the [[battle of Atbara]] in April 1898, the Anglo-Egyptians reached Omdurman, the Mahdist capital in September. The bulk of the Mahdist army [[Battle of Omdurman|attacked]] them, but were cut down by British machine-guns and rifle fire. The remnant of the Mahdist army, with the Khalifa Abdullah, fled to southern Sudan.
During the pursuit, Kitchener's forces met a French force under Major [[Jean-Baptiste Marchand]] at [[Fashoda]], and this resulted in the [[Fashoda Incident]].

They finally caught up with Abdullah at [[Battle of Umm Diwaykarat|Umm Diwaykarat]], where he was killed, effectively ending the Mahdist regime.

The casualties for this campaign were:

Sudan: 30,000 troops dead, wounded or captured

Britain: +700 British, Egyptian, Sudanese troops dead,wounded or captured.

==Aftermath==

The British set up a new colonial system, the [[Anglo-Egyptian Sudan|Anglo-Egyptian administration]], which effectively established British domination over Sudan. This ended only with the independence of Sudan in 1956.

==See also==

* [[History of Sudan (1884-1898)]]

* The Madhist War is the background for the 1939 British film "[[The Four Feathers]]" which is based on the novel by [[A. E. W. Mason]][http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0031334/].

==References==

*Churchill Winston, ''The river war'', Eyre and Spottiswoode, London , 1952

[[Category:Wars involving the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:History of Sudan]]
[[Category:Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa]]
[[Category:Military history of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Wars involving Egypt]]
[[Category:Rebellions in Africa]]

[[de:Mahdi-Aufstand]]

Khartoum (film)

2007-01-23T17:57:00Z

DAJ: interwiki

{{Infobox Film
| name = Khartoum
| image = Khart.jpg
| caption =
| director = [[Basil Dearden]]<br>[[Eliot Elisofon]]<br>(introductory scenes)
| producer = [[Julian Blaustein]]
| writer = [[Robert Ardrey]]
| starring = [[Laurence Olivier]]<br>[[Charlton Heston]]<br>[[Richard Johnson]]<br>[[Ralph Richardson]]
| music = [[Frank Cordell]]
| cinematography = [[Edward Scaife]]
| editing =
| distributor = [[United Artists]]
| released = [[1966 in film|1966]]
| runtime = 134 min.<br>(USA: 128 min.)
| country = [[United Kingdom|UK]]
| awards =
| language = [[English language|English]]
| budget =
| amg_id = 1:27155
| imdb_id = 0060588
|
}}

[[Image:gordonheston1.jpg|thumb|150px|right|Charlton Heston (right) as Gordon with Richard Johnson (left) as Colonel J.D.H. Stewart]]

'''''Khartoum''''' is a [[1966 in film|1966]] film written by [[Robert Ardrey]] and directed by [[Basil Dearden]].

The film stars [[Charlton Heston]] as [[Charles George Gordon|General Gordon]], with Laurence Olivier as the [[Mahdi]] ([[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahommed Ahmed]]), and is based on Gordon's defence of the [[Sudan]]ese city of [[Khartoum]] (See [[Battle of Khartoum]])

''Khartoum'' was filmed by cinematographer [[Ted Scaife]] in [[Ultra Panavision 70]], and was exhibited in 70 mm [[Cinerama]] in premiere engagements.

==Principal cast==
* [[Charlton Heston]] - [[Charles George Gordon|General Charles Gordon]]
* [[Laurence Olivier]] - [[Mahdi]], [[Muhammad Ahmad|Mahommed Ahmed]]
* [[Richard Johnson (actor)|Richard Johnson]] - [[John Donald Hamill Stewart|Colonel Stewart]]
* [[Ralph Richardson]] - [[William Gladstone]]
* [[Alexander Knox]] - [[Evelyn Baring, 1st Earl of Cromer|Sir Evelyn Baring]]
* [[Johnny Sekka]] - Khaleel
* [[Nigel Green]] - General Wolseley
* [[Michael Hordern]] - [[Lord Granville]]
* [[Peter Arne]] - [[Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]]

===Award nominations===
{| border="1" cellpadding="2" cellspacing="0" bgcolor="#000000"
| colspan="3" bgcolor="#F2D5A6" | '''Nominated:'''
|-
| bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] for [[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay|Best Writing, Story and Screenplay - Written Directly for the Screen]]
| bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Robert Ardrey]]
|-
| bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[British Academy of Film and Television Arts|BAFTA]] Award for [[BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role|Best British Actor]]
| bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[Ralph Richardson]]
|-
| bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[BAFTA|BAFTA]] Award for Best British Art Direction (Colour)
| bgcolor="#ffffff" | [[John Howell (art director)|John Howell]]
|}

==External links==
*{{imdb title|id=0060588|title=Khartoum}}
*{{amg movie|id=1:27155|title=Khartoum}}
*{{rotten-tomatoes|id=khartoum|title=Khartoum}}

{{war-film-stub}}

[[Category:1966 films]]
[[Category:British films]]
[[Category:Films based on actual events]]
[[Category:Films shot in 65mm]]
[[Category:British Empire war films]]
[[Category:English-language films]]
[[Category:Khartoum]]

[[de: Khartoum (Film)]]

Reginald Wingate

2007-01-14T11:45:56Z

DAJ: interwiki

'''Sir Francis Reginald Wingate''' [[KCMG]] [[Order of the Bath|GCB]] [[GCVO]] [[Order of the British Empire|GBE]] ([[June 25]], [[1861]] – [[1953]]), [[United Kingdom|British]] general and administrator in the [[Sudan]], was born at Broadfield, [[Renfrewshire]], being the seventh son of Andrew Wingate of Glasgow and Elizabeth, daughter of Richard Turner of Dublin.

He was educated at the [[Royal Military Academy]], Woolwich, and became a lieutenant in the [[Royal Artillery]] in 1880. He served in [[India]] and [[Aden]], 1881–1883, and in the last-named year joined the Egyptian army on its reorganization by [[Evelyn Wood (general)|Sir Evelyn Wood]], and in the Gordon Relief Expedition of 1884–1885 was ADC and military secretary to Sir Evelyn. For his services he received the [[brevet]] rank of major.

After holding an appointment in England for a brief period he rejoined the [[Egypt]]ian army in 1886. He took part in the operations on the [[Sudan]] frontier in 1889, including the engagement at Toski and in the further operations in 1891, being present at the capture of [[Tokar]]. In 1894 he was governor of [[Suakin]]. His principal work was in the Intelligence branch of the service, of which he became director in 1892. A master of [[Arabic language|Arabic]], his knowledge of the country, the examination of prisoners, refugees and others from the Sudan, and the study of documents captured from the [[Dervish]]es enabled him to publish in 1891 ''Mahdiism and the Egyptian Sudan'', an authoritative account of the rise of the [[Mahdi]] and of subsequent events in the Sudan up to that date.

Largely through his instrumentality [[Joseph Ohrwalder|Father Ohrwalder]] and two nuns escaped from Omdurman in 1891. Wingate also made the arrangements which led to the escape of [[Slatin Pasha]] in 1895. The English versions of Father Ohrwalder's narrative (''Ten Years in the Mahdi's Camp'', 1892) and of Slatin's book (''Fire and Sword in the Sudan'', 1896) were from Wingate's pen, being rewritten from a rough translation of the original German.

As director of military intelligence he served in the campaigns of 1896–1898 which resulted in the reconquest of the Sudan, including the engagement at [[Firket]], the battles of the Atbara and Omdurman and the expedition to Fashoda. In an interval (March–June 1897) he went to [[Abyssinia]] as second in command of the [[Rennell Rodd, 1st Baron Rennell|Rennell Rodd]] mission. For his services he was made colonel, an extra ADC to [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria]], received the thanks of parliament and was created [[KCMG]]. Wingate was in command of an expeditionary force which in November 1899 defeated the remnant of the Dervish host at Om Debreikat, [[Kordofan]], the khalifa being among the slain. For this achievement he was made [[Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath|KCB]].

In December of the same year, on [[Horatio Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener|Lord Kitchener]] being summoned to [[South Africa]], Sir Reginald Wingate succeeded him as governor-general of the Sudan and ''[[sirdar]]'' of the Egyptian army. His administration of the Anglo-Egyptian Sudan, between 1899 and 1916, was conspicuously successful, the country, after the desolation of the Mahdia, rapidly regaining a measure of prosperity. In 1903 he was raised to the rank of major-general and in 1908 became lieutenant-general. He was also created a pasha and in 1905 received the honorary degree of [[Doctor of Civil Law|DCL]] from [[Oxford University]]. In 1909, at the request of the British government, Wingate undertook a special mission to [[Somaliland]] to report on the military situation in connection with the proposed evacuation of the interior of the protectorate.
----
{{1911}}

[[Category:1861 births|Wingate, Francis Reginald]]
[[Category:1953 deaths|Wingate, Francis Reginald]]
[[Category:British Army generals|Wingate, Francis Reginald]]
[[Category:British Freemasons|Wingate, Francis Reginald]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of St Michael and St George|Wingate, Francis Reginald]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath|Wingate, Francis Reginald]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order|Wingate, Francis Reginald]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the British Empire|Wingate, Francis Reginald]]
[[Category:British colonial governors and administrators|Wingate, Francis Reginald]]

[[eo:Reginald Wingate]]
[[et:Reginald Wingate]]
[[de:Francis Reginald Wingate]]

29th Division (United Kingdom)

2006-12-05T11:14:11Z

DAJ: interwiki

{{Infobox Military Unit
|unit_name= 29th Division
|image= [[Image: British_29th_Division_Insignia.png]]
|caption=
|dates= '''[[World War I]]'''<br>formed January 1915
|country= United Kingdom
|allegiance=
|branch= Regular Army
|type= [[Infantry]]
|role=
|size=
|command_structure=
|current_commander=
|garrison=
|ceremonial_chief=
|colonel_of_the_regiment=
|nickname=Incomparable Division
|patron=
|motto=
|colors=
|march=
|mascot=
|battles=[[Battle of Gallipoli]]<br>o [[Landing at Cape Helles]]<br>o [[First Battle of Krithia]]<br>o [[Second Battle of Krithia]]<br>o [[Third Battle of Krithia]]<br>o [[Battle of Gully Ravine]]<br>o [[Battle of Sari Bair]]<br>   –  [[Battle of Krithia Vineyard]]<br>   –  [[Battle of Scimitar Hill]]<br>[[Battle of the Somme (1916)]]<br>[[Third Battle of Ypres]]<br>[[Battle of Cambrai]]
|notable_commanders=
|anniversaries=
}}

The British '''29th Division''', known as the ''Incomparable Division'', was a [[World War I|First World War]] regular army [[infantry]] [[Division (military)|division]] formed in early 1915 by combining various units that had been acting as [[garrison]]s about the [[British Empire]]. Under the command of Major General [[Aylmer Hunter-Weston]], the division fought throughout the [[Battle of Gallipoli]], including the original [[landing at Cape Helles]]. From 1916 to the end of the war the division fought on the [[Western Front]] in [[France]].

== Unit History ==
[[Image:George V inspecting 29th Division at Dunchurch March 1915.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[George V of the United Kingdom|King George V]] inspects the 29th Division at [[Dunchurch]], [[21 March]] [[1915]].]]

=== Gallipoli ===
The 29th Division served on the Gallipoli peninsula for the duration of the ill-fated campaign. It made the first landings in April of 1915 and was among the last to leave in January of 1916. The division suffered through the worst of the fighting at Cape Helles before being moved to fight on the Suvla front as well.

On the morning of [[April 25]], 1915 the [[Battle of Gallipoli]] began when battalions from the division's 86th and 87th Brigades landed at five beaches around Cape Helles at the tip of the peninsula. Three of the landings faced little or no opposition but were not exploited. The two main landings, at V and W Beaches on either side of the cape, met with fierce [[Turkey|Turkish]] resistance and the landing battalions were decimated.

The original objectives of the first day of the campaign had been the village of Krithia and the nearby hill of Achi Baba. The first concerted attempt to capture these was made by the division three days after the landings on [[April 28]]. In this [[First Battle of Krithia]] an advance up the peninsula was made but the division was halted short of its objective and suffered around 3,000 casualties. The attack was resumed on [[May 6]] with the launch of the [[Second Battle of Krithia]]. On this occasion the 88th Brigade attacked along Fig Tree Spur and, after two days of fighting without significant progress, it was relieved by the New Zealand Infantry Brigade.

On [[June 4]] the 88th Brigade was once more required to make an advance along Fig Tree Spur in the [[Third Battle of Krithia]]. In the subsequent counter-attacks, [[Second Lieutenant]] [[George Raymond Dallas Moor|G.R.D Moor]] of the 2nd [[Hampshire Regiment|Hampshires]] was awarded the [[Victoria Cross]] for shooting four of his own men who attempted to retreat.

[[Image:British 29th Division HQ Cape Helles.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Headquarters of the 29th Division at [[Cape Helles]].]]

The division finally saw successful fighting at Helles during the [[Battle of Gully Ravine]] on [[June 28]] when the 86th Brigade managed to advance along Gully Spur. As a prelude to the launch of the [[Battle of Sari Bair|August Offensive]], a "diversion" was carried out at Helles on [[August 6]] to prevent the Turks withdrawing troops. In what became known as the [[Battle of Krithia Vineyard]], the 88th Brigade made another costly and futile attack along the exposed Krithia Spur.

At Suvla, the [[Battle of Scimitar Hill]] on [[August 21]] was the final push of the failed August Offensive. The 29th Division had been moved from Helles to Suvla to participate. The 87th Brigade was briefly able to capture the summit of the hill but was soon forced to retreat.

The division was evacuated from Gallipoli and [[January 2]] [[1916]] and moved to [[Egypt]] before being sent to [[France]] in March.

=== Somme ===
{{Sectstub}}

=== Third Battle of Ypres ===
{{Sectstub}}

=== Battle of Cambrais ===
{{Sectstub}}

== Formation ==
The division comprised three infantry [[brigade]]s which at various times contained the following [[battalion]]s:

==='''[[British 86th Infantry Brigade|86th Brigade]]'''===

* 1st Battalion, [[Lancashire Fusiliers]]
* 1st Battalion, [[Royal Munster Fusiliers]] (''until April 1916'')
* 1st Battalion, [[Royal Dublin Fusiliers]]
* 1st Battalion, [[Royal Guernsey Light Infantry]] (''from October 1917 until April 1918'')
* 2nd Battalion, [[Royal Fusiliers]]
* 2/3rd (City of London) Battalion, [[The London Regiment]] (''until January 1916'')
* 16th Battalion ([[Public Schools Battalion]]), [[The Middlesex Regiment]] (''from April 1916, disbanded February 1918'')

==='''[[British 87th Infantry Brigade|87th Brigade]]'''===
* 1st Battalion, [[King's Own Scottish Borderers]]
* 1st Battalion, [[Royal Inniskilling Fusiliers]]
* 1st Battalion, [[The Border Regiment]]
* 2nd Battalion, [[South Wales Borderers]]

==='''[[British 88th Infantry Brigade|88th Brigade]]'''===
* 1st Battalion, [[The Essex Regiment]]
* 1st Battalion, [[The Royal Newfoundland Regiment]]
* 1/5th Battalion, [[Royal Scots|The Royal Scots Regiment]] (''until July 1916'')
* 2nd Battalion, [[The Hampshire Regiment]]
* 2nd Battalion, [[The Leinster Regiment]]
* 2/1st (City of London) Battalion, The London Regiment (''until January 1916'')
* 4th Battalion, [[The Worcestershire Regiment]]

== Battles ==
*[[Battle of Gallipoli]]
**[[Landing at Cape Helles]]
**[[First Battle of Krithia]]
**[[Second Battle of Krithia]]
**[[Third Battle of Krithia]]
**[[Battle of Gully Ravine]]
**[[Battle of Sari Bair]]
***[[Battle of Krithia Vineyard]]
***[[Battle of Scimitar Hill]]
*[[Battle of the Somme (1916)]]
*[[Third Battle of Ypres]]
*[[Battle of Cambrai]]

==See also==
*[[List of British divisions in WWI]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.1914-1918.net/29div.htm The British Army in the Great War: The 29th Division]
*[http://www.remuseum.org.uk/corpshistory/rem_corps_part14.htm#gallip Royal Engineers Museum] Royal Engineers and the Gallipoli Expedition (1915-16)

[[Category:Divisions of the United Kingdom in World War I|29]]
[[Category:Infantry divisions of the United Kingdom|29]]

[[de:29. britische Division]]

Charles Warren

2006-12-04T14:32:00Z

DAJ: interwiki

:''For the American diplomat, see [[Charles B. Warren]].''

General '''Sir Charles Warren''', [[Order of St Michael and St George|GCMG]], [[Order of the Bath|KCB]], [[Royal Society|FRS]] ([[7 February]] [[1840]]–[[21 January]] [[1927]]) was an officer in the [[British Army|British]] [[Royal Engineers]], and in later life was [[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]], the head of the [[London]] [[Metropolitan Police Service|Metropolitan Police]], from [[1886]] to [[1888]], during the period of the [[Jack the Ripper]] [[murder]]s.

==Education and early military career==

Warren was born in [[Bangor, Wales|Bangor]], [[Caernarfonshire]], [[Wales]], the son of Major-General Sir [[Charles Warren (infantry officer)|Charles Warren]]. He was educated at [[Bridgnorth School]] and [[Wem]] Grammar School in [[Shropshire]]. He also attended [[Cheltenham College]] for one term in [[1854]], from which he went to the [[Royal Military Academy Sandhurst|Royal Military College, Sandhurst]] and then the [[Royal Military Academy]] at [[Woolwich]] ([[1855]]–[[1857]]). On [[27 December]] 1857, he was commissioned a [[Second Lieutenant]] in the [[Royal Engineers]]. On [[1 September]] [[1864]], he married Fanny Haydon; they had two sons and a daughter. Warren was a devout [[Church of England|Anglican]] and an enthusiastic [[freemasonry|freemason]].

From [[1859]], Warren worked on the survey of [[Gibraltar]]. From [[1865]] to [[1867]], he was an assistant instructor in surveying at the [[Royal School of Military Engineering|School of Military Engineering]] in [[Chatham, Kent|Chatham]].

==Palestine==

In 1867, Warren went to [[British Mandate of Palestine|Palestine]] with the [[Palestine Exploration Fund]]. He conducted the first major excavations of [[Jerusalem]], thereby ushering in a new age of [[Biblical archaeology]]. His most significant discovery was a water shaft, now known as [[Warren's Shaft]], and a series of tunnels underneath the [[Temple Mount]]. He also helped to discover the [[Moabite Stone]].

==Africa==

In [[1870]], ill-health forced Warren to return to [[England]], serving at [[Dover]] ([[1871]]–[[1872]]) and the School of Gunnery at [[Shoeburyness]] ([[1872]]–[[1876]]). The [[Colonial Office]] then appointed him special commissioner to survey the boundary between [[Griqualand West]] and the [[Orange Free State]]. For this work, he was made a [[Order of St Michael and St George|Companion of St Michael and St George]] (CMG) in [[1877]]. In the [[Transkei War]] (1877–[[1878]]), he commanded the [[Diamond Fields Horse]] and was badly wounded at Perie Bush. For this service, he was [[mentioned in dispatches]] and promoted to [[Brevet (military)|Brevet]] [[Lieutenant Colonel|Lieutenant-Colonel]]. He was then appointed special commissioner to investigate 'native questions' in [[Bechuanaland]]. In [[1879]], he became Administrator of Griqualand West.

==Sinai==

In [[1880]], Warren returned to England to become Chief Instructor in Surveying at the School of Military Engineering. He held this post until [[1884]], but it was interrupted in [[1882]], when he was sent to [[Sinai Peninsula|Sinai]] to discover what had happened to Professor [[Edward Henry Palmer]]'s archaeological expedition. He discovered that the expedition members had been robbed and murdered, located their remains, and brought their killers to justice. For this, he was created [[Order of St Michael and St George|Knight Commander of St Michael and St George]] (KCMG) on [[24 May]] [[1883]] and was also created a third class [[Mejidiye]] by the [[Egypt]]ian government. In 1883, he was also made a Knight of Justice of the [[Venerable Order of Saint John|Order of St. John of Jerusalem]], and in June 1884 he was elected a Fellow of the [[Royal Society]] (FRS).

==Warren Expedition==

In December 1884, Warren was sent to command a military expedition to Bechuanaland, to assert British sovereignty in the face of encroachments from [[Germany]] and the [[Transvaal]], and to suppress the [[Boer]] freebooter states of [[Stellaland]] and [[Goshen (South Africa)|Goshen]], which were backed by the Transvaal and were stealing land and cattle from the local [[Tswana]] tribes. Known as the [[Warren Expedition]], the force of 4,000 British and local troops headed north from [[Cape Town]], accompanied by the first three observation [[balloon]]s ever used by the British Army in the field. The expedition achieved its aims without bloodshed, and Warren was recalled in September [[1885]] and made a Knight Grand Cross of St Michael and St George (GCMG) on [[4 October]].

==Commissioner of Police==

In 1886, Warren stood for election to [[Parliament of the United Kingdom|Parliament]] as an independent Liberal candidate in the [[Sheffield Hallam (UK Parliament constituency)|Sheffield Hallam constituency]] with a radical manifesto. He lost by 690 votes, and was appointed commander at [[Suakin]]. A few weeks after he arrived, however, he was appointed Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis following Sir [[Edmund Henderson]]'s resignation. By this time, he held the military rank of [[Major General|Major-General]].

The Metropolitan Police was in a bad state when Warren took over, suffering from Henderson's inactivity over the past few years. Economic conditions in London were bad, leading to demonstrations. He was concerned for his men's welfare, but much of this went unheeded. His men found him rather aloof, although he generally had good relations with his superintendents. At [[Victoria of the United Kingdom|Queen Victoria's]] Golden Jubilee in [[1887]], the police received considerable adverse publicity after Miss [[Elizabeth Cass]], an apparently respectable young seamstress, was (possibly) mistakenly arrested for [[soliciting]], and was vocally supported by her employer in the courts.

To make matters worse, Warren, a [[Liberal Party (UK)|Liberal]], did not get along with [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] [[Home Secretary]] [[Henry Matthews, 1st Viscount Llandaff|Henry Matthews]], appointed a few months after he became Commissioner. Matthews supported the desire of the [[Assistant Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis|Assistant Commissioner (Crime)]], [[James Monro]], to remain effectively independent of the Commissioner and also supported the [[Metropolitan Police Receiver|Receiver]], the force's chief financial officer, who continually clashed with Warren. [[Home Office]] [[Permanent Secretary]] [[Godfrey Lushington]] did not get on with Warren either. Warren was pilloried in the press for his extravagant dress uniform, his concern for the quality of his men's boots (a sensible concern considering they walked up to 20 miles a day, but one which was derided as a military obsession with kit), and his reintroduction of [[parade|drill]]. The radical press completely turned against him after [[Bloody Sunday (1887)|Bloody Sunday]] on [[13 November]] [[1887]], when a demonstration in [[Trafalgar Square]] was broken up by 4,000 police officers on foot, 300 [[infantry]]men and 600 mounted police and [[Life Guards]].

In [[1888]], Warren introduced five [[Chief Constable]]s, ranking between the [[Superintendent (police)|Superintendents]] and the Assistant Commissioners. Monro insisted that the Chief Constable of the [[Criminal Investigation Department]] (CID), his deputy, should be a friend of his, [[Melville Macnaghten]], but Warren opposed his appointment on the grounds that during a riot in [[Bengal]] Macnaghten had been "beaten by Hindoos", as he put it. This grew into a major row between Warren and Monro, with both men offering their resignation to the Home Secretary. Matthews accepted Monro's resignation, but simply moved him to the Home Office and allowed him to keep command of [[Special Branch]], which was his particular interest. [[Robert Anderson (theologian)|Robert Anderson]] was appointed Assistant Commissioner (Crime) and Superintendent [[Adolphus Williamson]] was appointed Chief Constable (CID). Both men were encouraged to liaise with Monro behind Warren's back.

===Jack the Ripper===

Warren's biggest difficulty was the Jack the Ripper case. He was probably unfairly blamed for the failure to track down the killer and faced press accusations that were frequently baseless. He was accused of failing to offer a reward for information, although in fact he supported the idea and it was blocked by the Home Office. He was accused of not putting enough police officers on the ground, whereas in fact [[Whitechapel]] was swamped with them. He was accused of being more interested in uniformed policing than detective work, which was true, but failed to take into consideration the fact that he sensibly allowed his experienced detective officers to conduct their own affairs and rarely interfered in their operations. He was accused of not using [[bloodhound]]s, and when he did eventually bring them in he was accused of being obsessed with them.

He rather stupidly responded to these criticisms by attacking his detractors in the pages of ''[[Murray's Magazine]]'', supporting [[vigilante]] activity, which the police on the streets knew was a bad idea, and publicly complaining about his lack of control of CID, which brought an official Home Office reprimand for daring to discuss his office publicly without permission. Warren had had enough and resigned... coincidentally right before the murder of [[Mary Jane Kelly]] on [[9 November]] 1888. Every superintendent on the force visited him at home to express their regret. He returned to military duties.

He was created a [[Order of the Bath|Knight Commander of the Bath]] (KCB) on [[7 January]] 1888.

==Later military career and Boer War==

In [[1889]], Warren was sent to command the [[garrison]] in [[Singapore]], where he remained until [[1894]]. Returning to England, he commanded the Thames District from [[1895]] to [[1897]], when he was promoted [[Lieutenant General|Lieutenant-General]] and retired.

On the outbreak of the [[Second Boer War|Boer War]] in [[1899]], he returned to the colours to command the 5th Division of the [[South African Field Force]]. In January [[1900]], he played a major part in the second attempted relief of [[Siege of Ladysmith|Ladysmith]]. At the [[Battle of Spion Kop]], on [[23 January|23]]–[[24 January]], he had operational command, and his apparent failure of judgment was the subject of much controversy. He was recalled to Britain in August 1900 and never again commanded troops in the field. He was, however, promoted [[General]] in [[1904]] and became [[Commandant|Colonel-Commandant]] of the Royal Engineers in [[1905]].

==Last years==

From [[1908]], he became involved with [[Robert Baden-Powell, 1st Baron Baden-Powell|Baden-Powell]] in the creation of the [[The Scout Association|Boy Scout]] movement. He died of [[pneumonia]], brought on by a bout of [[influenza]], at his home in [[Weston-super-Mare]], [[Somerset]], was given a military funeral in [[Canterbury]], and was buried in the churchyard at [[Westbere]], [[Kent]], next to his wife.

==Publications==
*''The Recovery of Jerusalem'' (with Charles Wilson, 1871)
*''Underground Jerusalem'' (1874)
*''The Temple or the Tomb'' (1880)
*''On the Veldt in the Seventies'' (1902)
*''The Survey of Western Palestine'' (with Claude Conder, 1884) [http://www.templemount.org/warren1.html online copy]

==References==

* {{cite book | author=Grena, G.M. | year=2004 | title=LMLK--A Mystery Belonging to the King vol. 1 | location=Redondo Beach, California | publisher=4000 Years of Writing History | id=ISBN 0-9748786-0-X}}
*[[The Times|''The Times'' Digital Archive]]
*''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]''
*Martin Fido & Keith Skinner, ''The Official Encyclopedia of Scotland Yard'' (Virgin Books, London:1999)

==External links==
* http://www.pef.org.uk/Pages/Warren.htm
* http://www.casebook.org/ripper_media/rps.spion.html

{{start box}}
{{S-pol}}
{{succession box | title=[[Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis]] | years=1886–1888 | before=[[Edmund Henderson|Sir Edmund Henderson]] | after=[[James Monro]]}}
{{end box}}

[[Category:1840 births|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:1927 deaths|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:Commissioners of Police of the Metropolis|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:Military engineers|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:Boer War people|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:Natives of Caernarfonshire|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:British Army generals|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:British archaeologists|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:Surveyors|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of St Michael and St George|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:Knights Commander of the Order of the Bath|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Royal Society|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:Welsh Freemasons|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:British colonial governors and administrators|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:Old Cheltonians|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:Scouting in the United Kingdom|Warren, Charles]]
[[Category:Scouting biographies|Warren, Charles]]

[[es:Charles Warren]]
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Royal Scots Greys

2006-11-15T15:11:24Z

DAJ: interwiki

The '''Scots Greys''' was a [[dragoon]] [[regiment]] of the [[British Army]] from [[1678]] until [[1971]], when they amalgamated to form [[Royal Scots Dragoon Guards|The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards (Carabiniers and Greys)]].

== Regimental name changes ==
The regiment's history began in 1678, when three independent [[troop]]s of Scots Dragoons were raised. In [[1681]] these troops were regimented to form '''The Royal Regiment of Scots Dragoons''', numbered the '''4th Dragoons''' in [[1694]]. They were already mounted on grey [[horse]]s by this stage and were already being referred to as the ''Grey Dragoons''. In [[1707]] they were renamed '''The Royal North British Dragoons''' (''North Britain'' then being a common name for [[Scotland]]), but were already being referred to as the ''Scots Greys''. In [[1713]] they were renumbered the '''2nd Dragoons''', as it was established that only one regiment of [[England|English]] dragoons had existed prior to their creation. In [[1877]] their nickname was finally made official when they became the '''2nd Dragoons (Royal Scots Greys)''', which was inverted in [[1921]] to '''The Royal Scots Greys (2nd Dragoons)'''. They kept this title until [[2nd July]] [[1971]], when they amalgamated with the [[3rd Carabiniers]].

Up until at least the Second World War, ''The Greys'' also had a popular, if somewhat derogatory, [[nickname]] of "The Bird Catchers" which derived from both their cap badge and the capture of the Eagle at Waterloo (see below).

== Motto ==
The Scots Greys had the [[motto]] "Second to none". It referred to their seniority in the British Army and their fighting prowess. Their official motto, however, was the [[royal Scottish]] [[motto]] ''Nemo Me Impune Lacessit'' (No one provokes me with impunity). Wearing [[bearskin]]s, they were distinguished as the only heavy [[cavalry]] regiment not to wear [[helmet]]s.

== Battle honours ==
[[Image:Scots Greys Eagle.JPG|thumb|The Eagle of the French 45th Ligne captured by the Royal Scots Greys]]
The regiment has many battle honours from [[Battle of Blenheim|Blenheim]] in [[1704]] through to the [[Second World War]]. Their most famous engagement took place at [[Battle of Waterloo|Waterloo]] on [[18 June]] [[1815]].

===The charge at the Battle of Waterloo===
"Ces terribles chevaux gris! Comme il travaillent!" (Those terrible grey horses, how they strive!)
- Napoleon

At approximately 1:30 pm, the second phase of the [[Battle of Waterloo]] opened. [[Napoleon]] launched [[Jean-Baptiste Drouet (Napoleonic soldier)|D'Erlon]]'s corps against the allied centre left. After being stopped by [[Sir Thomas Picton|Picton's]] [[Peninsular War]] veterans, D'Erlon's troops came under attack from the side by the heavy cavalry commanded by [[Henry William Paget, 1st Marquess of Anglesey|Earl of Uxbridge]] including [[Sir William Ponsonby|Major General Sir William Ponsonby's]] Scots Greys.

The shocked ranks of the [[France|French]] columns surrendered in their thousands. During the charge Sergeant [[Charles Ewart|Ewart]], of the Greys, captured the [[French Imperial Eagle|eagle]] of the French 45th Ligne. The Greys charged too far and, having spiked some of the French cannon, came under counter-attack from enemy cavalry. Ponsonby, who had chosen to ride one of his less expensive mounts, was ridden down and killed by enemy [[lance]]rs. The Scots Greys' casualties included: 102 killed; 97 wounded; and the loss of 228 of the 416 horses that started the charge.

This engagement also gave the Scots Greys their [[cap badge]], the eagle itself. The eagle is displayed in the Royal Scots Dragoon Guards museum in [[Edinburgh Castle]].

The charge of the Scots Greys in the picture "Scotland Forever!" by [[Elizabeth Thompson|Lady Butler]] in [[Leeds]] City Art Gallery famously depicts the event and inspired the slow-motion shots of the charge in the film [[Waterloo (movie)|''Waterloo'']] directed by [[Sergei Bondarchuk]] in [[1970]].

==External links==
*[http://www.army.mod.uk/armcorps/scots_dg/index.html The British Army's web page on The Royal Scots Dragoons Guards (Carabiniers and Greys)]
*[http://www.scotsdg.com Official site of the Royal Scots Dragoons Guards]
*[http://www.regiments.org/regiments/uk/cav/D02rsg.htm www.regiments.org The Royal Scots Greys]
*[http://www.scotsatwar.org.uk/army/regiments/dragoons.html www.scotsatwar.org.uk The Royal Scots Dragoon Guards]
*[http://www.btinternet.com/%7Ejames.mckay/rsg.htm Scottish Military Historical Society: The Royal Scots Greys Lineage page]
*[http://www.regimental-art.com/history_greys.htm Early history of the Scots Greys, Excerpt from the Navy and Army Illustrated [[15 January]] [[1897]] by G F Bacon]
*[http://www.napoleonic-alliance.com/articles/scotsgreys.htm What ever happened to Sergeant Charles Ewart]
*[http://chnm.gmu.edu/revolution/d/529/ The Battle of Waterloo as seen by an ordinary British cavalryman]

[[Category:British Army cavalry regiments]]
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Oliver North

2006-11-03T14:39:58Z

DAJ: /* Later life and career */ linkfix

[[Image:North.jpg|right|frame|[[Lieutenant-Colonel|Lt-Col.]] Oliver North, testifying before [[Congress of the United States|Congress]] ]]

'''Oliver Laurence North''' (born [[October 7]] [[1943]]) was a member of the [[United States]] [[United States Marine Corps|Marine Corps]] who achieved the rank of [[Lieutenant Colonel (United States)|Lieutenant Colonel]]. During the [[Vietnam War]] he was awarded the [[Silver Star]], [[Bronze Star]] and 2 [[Purple Heart]] medals. He rose to national infamy because of the [[Iran-Contra Affair]], during which he was a key [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration official involved in the clandestine selling of weapons to [[Iran]] in order to generate proceeds to support the [[Contra (guerrillas)|Contra rebel group]] in violation of the law — specifically, a provision known as the ''[[Boland Amendment]]''.

Today, he is a [[American conservatism|conservative]] political commentator, and host of the [[Fox News Channel]] program, ''[[War Stories with Oliver North|War Stories]]''.

== Iran-Contra affair ==
North became famous due to his participation in the [[Iran-Contra Affair]], in which he was the chief coordinator of the sale of weapons via intermediaries to [[Iran]], with the profits being channeled to the Contras in [[Nicaragua]]. He was responsible for the establishment of a covert network used for the purposes of aiding the Contras.

According to the [[National Security Archive]], in an [[August 23]] [[1986]] email to [[John Poindexter]], Oliver North described a meeting with a representative of [[Panama|Panamanian]] President [[Manuel Noriega]]: "You will recall that over the years Manuel Noriega in Panama and I have developed a fairly good relationship", North writes before explaining Noriega's proposal. If U.S. officials can "help clean up his image" and lift the ban on arms sales to the Panamanian Defense Force, Noriega will "'take care of' the Sandinista leadership for us." North tells Poindexter that Noriega can assist with sabotage against the Sandinistas, and suggests paying Noriega a million dollars – from "[[National Endowment for Democracy|Project Democracy]]" funds raised from the sale of U.S. arms to Iran – for the Panamanian leader's help in destroying Nicaraguan economic installations (see [http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/index.htm]).

In November 1986, North was fired by President Reagan, and in July 1987 he was summoned to testify before televised hearings of a joint Congressional committee formed to investigate Iran-Contra. During the hearings, he admitted that he had lied to Congress, for which he was later charged among other things. He defended his actions by stating that he believed in the goal of aiding the Contras, whom he saw as freedom fighters, and said that he viewed the Iran-Contra scheme as a "neat idea" (see [http://imdb.com/title/tt0117320/]).

[[Image:Northmug.jpg|thumb|North's mugshot, after his arrest]]

North was tried in [[1988]] in relation to his activities while at the [[National Security Council]]. He was indicted on sixteen felony counts and on [[May 4]] [[1989]], he was convicted of three: accepting an illegal gratuity, aiding and abetting in the obstruction of a congressional inquiry, and destruction of documents (by his secretary, [[Fawn Hall]], on his instructions). He was sentenced by U.S. District Judge Gerhard A. Gesell on [[July 5]] [[1989]], to a three-year suspended prison term, two years probation, $150,000 in fines, and 1,200 hours community service.

However, on [[July 20]] [[1990]], with the help of the [[ACLU]] (see [http://select.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=FB0710FA385E0C728EDDAE0894D0484D81&n=Top%2fReference%2fTimes%20Topics%2fOrganizations%2fA%2fAmerican%20Civil%20Liberties%20Union]), North's conviction was overturned by a three-judge appeals panel in advance of further proceedings on the grounds that his public testimony may have prejudiced his right to a fair trial ([http://www.picard.tnstate.edu/~cmcginnis/PISI431-I.htm]).

The [[United States Supreme Court|Supreme Court]] declined to review the case, and Judge Gesell dismissed the charges on [[September 16]] [[1991]], after hearings on the immunity issue, on the motion of the independent counsel. Judge Gesell fell ill soon afterwards, and passed away from liver cancer in 1993.

Essentially, North's convictions were overturned because he had been granted limited immunity for his Congressional testimony, and this testimony was deemed to have influenced witnesses at his trial.

== Later life and career ==
[[Image:OliverNorthBookSigning.jpg|thumb|250px|Oliver North signing one of his books]]

In [[1994]], North unsuccessfully ran for the [[United States Senate|Senate]] as the [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] candidate in [[Virginia]]. Republican Senator [[John Warner]] of Virginia endorsed [[Marshall Coleman]], a Republican who ran as an independent, instead of North. On the eve of the election, former first lady [[Nancy Reagan]] told a reporter that North had lied to her husband when discussing Iran-Contra with the former president. North lost to incumbent [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democrat]] [[Charles Robb]]. North's candidacy was documented in the 1996 film ''A Perfect Candidate''.

[[Image:Dboljh.jpg|thumb|left|Oliver North pictured with Clinton Township, Franklin County, Ohio Assistant Fire Chief John Harris and Lieutenant Douglas Brown at public speaking event.]]

North has written several best-selling books including ''Under Fire'', ''One More Mission'', ''War Stories — Operation Iraqi Freedom'', ''[[Mission Compromised]]'', ''The Jericho Sanction'', and ''The Assassins''. He is also a syndicated columnist, and is the host of the television show ''War Stories with Oliver North'', and a regular commentator on ''[[Hannity and Colmes]]'', both on the [[Fox News Channel]]. North appeared as himself on many television shows including the sitcom ''[[Wings (TV series)|Wings]]'' and three episodes of the TV military drama ''[[JAG]]'' in 1995, 1996 and 2002. In addition, he regularly speaks at both public and private events.

In 1990 North founded the Freedom Alliance, a [[501(c)(3)]] foundation "...to advance the American heritage of freedom by honoring and encouraging military service, defending the sovereignty of the United States and promoting a strong national defense."

* Pictures of North in the NSA buildings with former British Intelligence Officer [[John P. Lawrence]] were flashed around the world, when the two former colleagues were asked to help the Senate Intelligence Committee.

Oliver North has been married to Betsy North (formerly Betsy Stuart) since 1968, and they have four children (daughters Tait, Dornin, and Sarah North, and son, Stuart North). Although raised a Roman Catholic, he has long attended Protestant evangelical services with his family.

== Political and historical legacy ==

North was a figure of great controversy, with supporters enjoying his impassioned defense of his actions, and opponents disapproving of his breaking the law.

Despite, and because of, North's history, he remains a largely popular figure among conservatives. Many conservatives sympathize with the basis of North's activities within the Reagan administration, due to the fact they believe the "[[Boland Amendment]]" — a Congressional act specifically barring the U.S. government from providing material support to anti-Communist rebels in Nicaragua — infringed on the constitutional power of the executive branch to conduct foreign policy. Some believe that North was used as a [[scapegoat]] for the [[Iran-Contra affair]], and that other top government officials in the [[Ronald Reagan|Reagan]] administration disproportionately laid the blame on him. Some hold the view that North's goal of defeating [[communism|Communist]] expansion was just, and the illegal means he used to achieve it were irrelevant.

North's critics argue that in a democracy and a nation of laws, one man cannot act above the law regardless of how righteous he believes his goals to be. Some point out that his activities substantially contributed to an attempted overthrow of a sovereign, [[democracy|democratically]] elected government and to [[terrorism]] in [[Nicaragua]], and that they aided [[Iran]], a nation that has been militarily hostile to the United States since 1979.

In October 2006, North revisited [[Nicaragua]] in the run up to presidential elections. Claiming he was invited in a private capacity to [[Nicaragua]] by friends, he warned against his old foe, [[Sandinista]] leader, [[Daniel Ortega Saavedra|Daniel Ortega's]] possible return to power.

==Trivia==
* On a trip to Iran during the Iran-Contra affair, North and [[Robert McFarlane]] took a chocolate cake (shaped like a key to symbolize the opening of improved relations) and a Bible as gifts to [[Ruhollah Khomeini]].
* In the [[Michael Moore]] satire ''[[Canadian Bacon]]'', Oliver North becomes [[President of the United States]] in the film's epilogue.
* During the early 1990s, North's mother, Ann Clancy North, called his radio show to tell him that she was out of the hospital, and that her operation had gone well.
* In two episodes of the television show ''[[Sliders]]'' it was mentioned that alternate versions of Oliver North were the president of the United States on the parallel worlds featured in the respective episodes.
*The film ''[[Lord of War]]'' has a high-ranking US Marine officer who aids in keeping the main character out of custody; his name is Oliver Southern, a parody of Oliver North.
* Oliver North's son, Stuart North, lives in [[Richmond, Virginia]] with his wife and three children.

==External links==
*[http://www.newsmeat.com/media_political_donations/Oliver_North.php Oliver North's political donations]
*[http://www.freedomalliance.org Freedom Alliance]
*{{cite web
|url=http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB113/
|title=The Oliver North File
|publisher= The National Security Archive / George Washington University
}}

[[Category:1943 births|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:American columnists|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:American conservatives|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:American politicians|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:American radio personalities|North, Oliver]]

[[Category:Fox News Channel personalities|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:Iran-Contra Affair|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:Living people|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:Pan Am Flight 103|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:People from San Antonio|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:People from Columbia County, New York|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Purple Heart medal|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:United States Marine Corps officers|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:United States Naval Academy graduates|North, Oliver]]
[[Category:Vietnam War veterans|North, Oliver]]

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Egyptian Armed Forces

2006-10-29T16:31:36Z

DAJ: interwiki

{| border=1 width=300 cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style="float:right;:1em"
|-
| colspan=2 align=center | [[Image:Flag of Egypt.svg|110px]]
|-
! colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=red | Military of Egypt
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | Military manpower
|-
| Military age
| 18 years of age for conscript military service; 3-year service obligation ([[2001]])
|-
| Availability
| males age 18-49: 18,347,560 ([[2005]])
|-
| Fit for military service
| males age 18-49: 15,540,234 ([[2005]])
|-
| Reaching military age annually
| males: 802,920 ([[2005]])
|-
| Active troops
| 450,000 ([[List of countries by number of active troops|Ranked 10th]])
|-
! colspan=2 align=center | Military expenditures
|-
| Dollar figure
| $2.44 billion ([[2003]])
|-
| Percent of GDP
| 3.4% ([[2004]])
|}
The '''armed forces of [[Egypt]]''' are among the largest in the region, consisting of the [[Egyptian Army]], [[Egyptian Navy]], [[Egyptian Air Force]] and [[Egyptian Air Defense Command]].

Egypt maintains a large paramilitary force under the control of the Ministry of Interior. They number around 250,000 strong and are known as the [[Central Security Forces]]. The government also has a relatively strong National Guard and Border Security Forces however they unlike the [[Central Security Forces]] come under the control of the Ministry of Defence and are reported to number 60,000 and 20,000 respectively.

The Commander-in-Chief is [[Field Marshal]] [[Mohamed Hussein Tantawi]]. The Chief of Staff is Lt. Gen. [[Sami Hafez Enan]].

The armed forces inventory includes equipment from the [[United States]], [[France]], [[Italy]], the [[United Kingdom]], the former [[Soviet Union]], and the [[People's Republic of China]]. Equipment from the former Soviet Union is being progressively replaced by more modern American, French, and British equipment, a significant portion of which is built under license in Egypt, such as the [[M1 Abrams]] [[tank]]. To bolster stability and moderation in the region, Egypt has provided military assistance and training to a number of [[Africa]]n and [[Arab]] states. Although not a [[NATO]] member, Egypt remains a strong military and strategic partner and is a participant in NATO's [[Mediterranean Dialogue]] forum. It is the strongest military power in Africa, and the third strongest in the [[Middle East]], after [[Turkish Armed Forces|Turkey]] and [[Israel Defense Forces|Israel]].

== Air Force ==
''Main article: [[Egyptian Air Force]]''

The '''Egyptian Air Force''' or '''EAF''' ([[Arabic]]: القوات الجوية المصرية ''al-Quwwat al-Jawwiya il-Misriya'') is the aviation branch of the [[Military of Egypt|Egyptian Armed Forces]]. Currently, the backbone of the EAF is the [[F-16]]. The [[Mirage 2000]] is the other modern interceptor used by the EAF. It has over 579 combat aircraft and 121 armed helicopters as it continues to fly [[MiG-21]]s, [[F-7 Skybolt]]s, [[F-4 Phantom]], [[Il-28]], [[Dassault Mirage V]]s, and [[C-130 Hercules]] among other planes.

== Navy ==
''Main article: [[Egyptian Navy]]''

Although the '''Egyptian Navy''' is the smallest branch of the military, it is large by Middle Eastern standards. It has a total of 20,000 personnel.

Some fleet units are stationed in the [[Red Sea]], but the bulk of the force remains in the Mediterranean. Navy headquarters and the main operational and training base are located at Ras at Tin near Alexandria.

''See [[list of naval ships of Egypt]] for a list of vessels in service.''

== Paramilitary Forces ==
Paramilitary Forces number around 330,000 and consist of the ''Central Security Forces'', the ''National Guard'', the ''Border Guard Forces'' and the ''Coast Guard''.

*''Central Security Forces'': under the control of the Ministry of the Interior. It is the law enforcement authority in the country. The Central Security Forces, number around 250,000 personnel.

*''National Guard'': under the control of the Ministry of Defense and numbers about 60,000.

*''Border Guard Forces'': under the control of the Ministry of Defense and numbers about 20,000.

*''Coast Guard'': is responsible for the onshore protection of public installations near the coast and the patrol of coastal waters to prevent smuggling. With a force of 2,000 personnel, it has an inventory consisting of about thirty large patrol craft (each between twenty and thirty meters in length) and twenty smaller Bertram-class coastal patrol craft built in the United States.

== Military Schools ==
There is an undergraduate military school for each branch of the Egyptian Military establishment, and they include:

* [[Air Defenses Academy]]
* [[Egyptian Air Academy]]
* [[Egyptian Military Academy|Military Academy]]
* [[Military Technical College]]
* [[Egyptian Naval Academy|Naval Academy]]

* [[Nasser Academy]]
* [[Technical Institute]]

== See also ==
*[[Flags of the Egyptian Armed Forces]]
*[[Egyptian Military Industry]]

==References==
*[http://www.mmc.gov.eg/ Egyptian Armed Forces]
*[https://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/eg.html CIA World Factbook]
*[http://www.fas.org/main/content.jsp?formAction=297&contentId=196 FAS]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/egypt/ GlobalSecurity]

{{Africa in topic|Military of}}

[[Category:Military of Egypt| ]]

[[de:Streitkräfte Ägyptens]]

Syrian Armed Forces

2006-10-22T10:09:16Z

DAJ: interwiki

<table border="1" width=30% cellpadding=2 cellspacing=0 align=right style="margin: 0 0 1em 1em;">
<tr><th colspan=2 align=center bgcolor=#8888dd>'''Military of Syria'''
<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>'''Military manpower'''
<tr><td>Military age<td>18 years of age(2004)
<tr><td>Availability<td>males age 18-49: 4,356,413 (2005 est.)<tr><td>Fit for military service<td>males age 18-49: 3,453,888 (2005 est.)
<tr><td>Reaching military age annually<td>225,113 (2005 est.)
<tr><td>Active troops<td>319,000 ([[List of countries by number of active troops|Ranked 14th]])
<tr><td>Main Battle Tanks<td>4,700 (2004 est.)
<tr><td colspan=2 align=center>'''Military expenditures'''
<tr><td>Dollar figure<td>858 million-1 billion (FY00 est.)
<tr><td>Percent of GDP<td>5.9% (FY00)
</table>

The [[President of Syria]] is commander in chief of the [[Syria|Syrian]] armed forces, comprising some 320,000 troops upon mobilization. The military is a conscripted force; males serve 24 months in the military upon reaching the age of 18. About 14,000 Syrian soldiers were deployed in [[Lebanon]] until [[April 27]], [[2005]], when the last of Syria's troops left the country after three decades. [http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/04/26/lebanon/]

The breakup of the [[Soviet Union]] — long the principal source of training, material, and credit for the Syrian forces — may have slowed Syria's ability to acquire modern military equipment. It has an arsenal of advanced surface-to-surface missiles, capable of reaching most of the populated areas of [[Israel]], Syria's longstanding enemy in the region. In the early [[1990]]s, [[Scud|Scud-C]] missiles with a 500-kilometer range were procured from [[North Korea]], and Scud-D, with a range of up to 700 kilometers, is being developed by Syria with the help of North Korea and [[Iran]], according to Zisser. [http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/Page/document/v4/sub/MarketingPage?user_URL=http://www.theglobeandmail.com%2Fservlet%2FArticleNews%2FTPStory%2FLAC%2F20040928%2FCOSYRIA28%2FTPComment%2FTopStories&ord=2674524&brand=theglobeandmail&redirect_reason=2&denial_reasons=none&force_login=false]

Since the end of the Yom Kippur War with Israel, Syria has been developing chemical and biological weapons and is known to have relatively large arsenals of chemical weapons. Syria has focused the most on developing [[sarin]] and [[VX]].

Syria received significant financial aid from Persian Gulf Arab states as a result of its participation in the [[Persian Gulf War]], with a sizable portion of these funds earmarked for [[military spending]]. In addition, Syria is trying to develop defensive weapons to limit the Israeli abilities to attack it. 

'''Military branches:'''
[[#Syrian Army|Syrian Arab Army]], [[Syrian Arab Navy]], [[#Syrian Air Force|Syrian Arab Air Force]], Syrian Arab Air Defense Forces, Police and Security Force

== Involvement in military conflict==

* The [[1948 Arab-Israeli War]] (against Jewish militias)
* The [[Six Day War]] (against [[Israel]])
* The [[October War]] (against Israel)
* The [[Lebanese Civil War]] (against [[Lebanon|Lebanese]] militias, the [[PLO]] and Israel)
* The [[Persian Gulf War]] (against [[Iraq]])

The Syrian armed forces has also been involved in keeping the order in Syria, for example by fighting a Muslim Brotherhood insurrection in the 1980s (most notable for the [[Hama Massacre]], in which the Syrian Army played a part).

==International disputes==

Since 1967, part the [[Golan Heights]] territory of South East Syria is under [[Israel]]i [[military occupation]] or [[annexation]]. Since 1973, the [[cease-fire]] line has generally been respected by both sides, with very few incidents. Syria does not recognize the [[State of Israel]]. Syria also considers the [[Hatay Province]] of Southern [[Turkey]] to be Syrian territory and under occupation, but there has been no fighting over this issue.

The [[Syria]]n military is also believed to be actively supporting [[Lebanese]] and [[Palestinian]] militias such as [[Hezbollah]], [[Hamas]], [[PFLP-GC]] and [[Islamic Jihad]]. Until the 1990s, Syria supported the [[Kurd]]ish [[PKK]] movement in the Turkish parts of [[Kurdistan]].

==Syrian Army ==

===Current Structure and Organization of the Syrian Army===

*200,000 personnel plus 280,000 conscripts, total 480,000<ref>International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 2006, p.208-9)</ref>
*3 Corps HQ (1st, 2nd, and 3rd)
*7 armoured divisions (apparently 1st, 3rd, 5th, 6th, 8th, 9th, 11th<ref>Richard Bennett, http://www.meib.org/articles/0108_s1.htm</ref>)
*3 understrength mechanised divisions (4th, 7th, and 10th)
*4 independent infantry brigades
*14th Special Forces Division with 3 SF regiments; ten independent regiments
*2 independent artillery brigades
*2 independent anti-tank brigades
*three surface to surface missile brigades (each three battalions)(one brigade with [[FROG-7]], one brigade with [[SS-21]] Scarab, one brigade with [[Scud]]-B/C)
*two coastal defence missile brigades (one with SS-C-1B Sepal, one with [[P-15 Termit]], alternative designation SS-C-3 'Styx'.)
*one border guard brigade
*one Republican Guard division (one artillery regiment, one mechanised brigade, three armoured brigades)

==Syrian Air Force ==
[[Image:Syriaaflogo.gif|right|Syrian Air Force logo, provided by Scramble.nl]]

The '''Syrian Air Force''' ('''Al Quwwat al-Jawwiya al Arabiya as-Souriya''' in [[Arabic language|Arabic]]) is the [[aircraft|Aviation]] branch of the [[Military of Syria|Syrian armed forces]].

===Markings===

The roundel used by the Syrian Air Force has the same basic design as that used by the [[Egyptian Air Force]]. It consists of three concentric circles, with a red outer, white middle and black inner. The unique part of the Syrian roundels is the presence of two green stars in the white circle, which is reflective of the two stars on the [[Flag of Syria|national flag]]. The fin flash is also an image of the flag.

===History===

The end of [[World War II]] led to a withdrawal of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[France]] from the [[Middle East]], and this included a withdrawal from [[Syria]]. In [[1948]], the Syrian Air Force was officially established after the first class of pilots graduated from flight schools in [[United Kingdom|Britain]].

The 1950s saw [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]] attempt to unify as the [[United Arab Republic]], this was reflected in the Syrian Air Force with growth in personnel and aircraft. However, this union would not last. With the ascent to power of the Baath Party and [[Hafez Al-Asad]], Syria began looking to the [[Soviet Union]] for help and built closer ties with the USSR. This in turn led to a massive influx of [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] equipment to the Syrian Armed Forces, including the Air Force.

The Syrian Air Force, despite its training and capabilities never fared well against [[Israel]]. In the [[Six-Day War]], the Syrian Air Force was defeated rapidly, losing two-thirds of its forces with the rest retreating to bases in remote parts of Syria. This in turn helped the [[Israel Defence Forces|IDF]] in defeating the Syrian Army on the ground and led to the loss of the [[Golan Heights]].

The [[Yom Kippur War]] provided initial success for both [[Syria]] and [[Egypt]]. Though again Israel scored far more casualties in the air then it endured. Following this conflict, the Syrian Air Force continued to remain in the Soviet sphere of influence, whereas [[Egypt]] abandoned Soviet aid, and began building its [[Egyptian Air Force|Air Force]] with [[United States|American]], [[France|French]], and [[PRC|Chinese]] equipment.

Despite Syria's continued supply of Soviet equipment its Air Force again fared badly during conflicts with [[Israel]] over [[Lebanon]] in the early [[1980s]], losing over 80 planes while the [[Israeli Air Force]] lost only a handful, and none to Syrian Air Force fighters.

Since then, the Syrian Air Force has continued to rebuild with Soviet equipment. However the full extent of this rebuilding is not known. Nor are the exact numbers of planes or what types of aircraft are in the Air Force. This is due to the amount of secrecy maintained by the Syrian government in regard to its military. It is known though that the Syrians have proccurred [[MiG-29]]s and [[Su-24]]s which should give its Air Force a great boost, though rumours regarding the recent purchase of some [[Su-27]]s appear to be unfounded.

===Aircraft===

*[[An-24]]
*[[An-26]]
*[[Il-76]]
*[[MiG-21]]
*[[MiG-23]]
*[[MiG-25]]
*[[MiG-29]]
*[[Mi-8]]
*[[Mi-24]]
*[[Su-22]]
*[[Su-24]]
*[[Su-27]]
*[[Tu-134]]
*[[Yak-40]]

===Defections===
In comparion to other Arab air forces, Syria Air Force highest number of defections, mostly to Israel, including:
*In [[1965]], a Syrian pilot defected with [[MiG-17]]F to [[Israel]].
*In [[July]] [[1988]], two Syrian pilots defected with their [[MiG-29]]'s to [[Turkey]].
*In [[April]] [[1989]], a Syrian pilots defected with his [[MiG-23]]ML to [[Turkey]].
*In [[October]] [[1989]], Syrian pilot Abdel Bassem landed his [[MiG-23]]ML in [[Israel]].

{{airlistbox}}

==See also==
*[[Syria]]
*[[History of Syria]]
*[[Politics of Syria]]

==References and Sources and Further Reading==
<references/>

==External links==

*[http://www.scramble.nl/sy.htm Syrian Air Force Overview at Scramble]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/syria/airforce.htm Syrian Arab Airforce at Globalsecurity.org]

*Richard Bennett, http://www.meib.org/articles/0108_s1.htm
*[http://www.cnn.com/2005/WORLD/meast/04/26/lebanon/"Last Syrian troops leave Lebanon"], ''CNN'', April 27, 2005
*[http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/Page/document/v4/sub/MarketingPage?user_URL=http://www.theglobeandmail.com%2Fservlet%2FArticleNews%2FTPStory%2FLAC%2F20040928%2FCOSYRIA28%2FTPComment%2FTopStories&ord=2674524&brand=theglobeandmail&redirect_reason=2&denial_reasons=none&force_login=false "Syria's embrace of WMD"] by Eyal Zisser, ''Globe and Mail'', September 28, 2004 (link leads only to abstract; purchase necessary for full article)

[[Category:Military of Syria| ]]
[[Category:Air forces|Syria]]

[[ar:القوات المسلحة العربية السورية]]
[[he:צבא סוריה]]
[[ru:Вооружённые силы Сирии]]
[[de:Streitkräfte Syriens]]

Fenwick Williams

2006-10-19T06:50:45Z

DAJ: image

[[image:William Fenwick Williams .jpg|thumb|William Fenwick Williams]]
'''Sir William Fenwick Williams, 1st Baronet''' [[Order of the Bath|GCB]] ([[December 4]], [[1800]] – [[July 26]], [[1883]]) was a British military [[leadership|leader]] of the [[Victorian era]]. He was born in [[Annapolis, Nova Scotia]], the second son of Commissary-General Thomas Williams, barrack-master at [[Halifax Regional Municipality, Nova Scotia|Halifax]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[Canada]].

He entered the [[Royal Artillery]] as [[second lieutenant]] in 1825. His services were lent to [[Turkey]] in 1841, and he was employed as a captain in the arsenal at [[Constantinople]]. He was British commissioner in the conferences preceding the [[treaty of Erzerum]] in 1847, and again in the settlement of the Turko-Persian boundary in 1848 (brevet majority and lieutenant-colonelcy and CB). Promoted colonel, he was British commissioner with the Turkish army in [[Anatolia]] in the [[Crimean War|Russian War]] of 1854–56, and, having been made a ''ferik'' (lieutenant-general) and a [[pasha]], he practically commanded the Turks during the heroic defence of [[Kars]], repulsing several Russian attacks and severely defeating the Russian general [[Michael Nikolaievich, Count Muraviev|Muraviev]] in the [[siege of Kars]] (not to be confused with the [[Battle of Kars]]) on [[September 29]], [[1855]]. Cold, [[cholera]], famine and hopelessness of succour from without, however, compelled Williams to make an honourable capitulation on [[November 28]] following.

A [[baronet]]cy with pension for life, the [[Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath|KCB]], the grand cross of the [[Legion of Honour]] and of the Turkish Medjidie, the [[freedom of the City of London]] with a sword of honour, and the honorary degree of [[Doctor of Civil Law||DCL]] of [[Oxford University]], were the distinctions conferred upon him for his valour.

Promoted major-general in November 1855 on his return from captivity in Russia, he held the Woolwich command, and represented the borough of [[Calne]] in parliament from 1856 to 1859. He became lieutenant-general and colonel-commandant Royal Artillery in 1864, general in 1868, commanded the forces in Canada from 1859 to 1865, held the governorship of [[Nova Scotia]] 1865-1867, and the governorship of [[Gibraltar]] 1870-1876. He was made [[Order of the Bath|GCB]] in 1871, and [[Constable of the Tower of London]] in 1881. He died in London on [[26 July]] [[1883]].

==External link==
*[http://www.biographi.ca/EN/ShowBio.asp?BioId=40030 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']

==Reference==
*{{1911}}

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{{succession box | title=[[Commander-in-Chief, North America]] | before=[[Sir William Rowan]] | after= passed over to the <br>[[Governor General of the Province of Canada]] <br>Sir [[Edmund Walker Head]]| years=[[1859]]}}
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[[Category:1800 births|Williams, William Fenwick]]
[[Category:1883 deaths|Williams, William Fenwick]]
[[Category:Baronets in the Baronetage of the United Kingdom|Williams, William Fenwick, 1st Baronet]]
[[Category:British MPs|Williams, William Fenwick]]
[[Category:English Canadians|Williams, Will]]
[[Category:Freemen of the City of London|Williams, William Fenwick]]
[[Category:Governors of Gibraltar|Williams, William Fenwick]]
[[Category:People from Halifax, Nova Scotia|Williams, William Fenwick]]
[[Category:Knights Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath|Williams, William Fenwick]]
[[Category:Lieutenant Governors of Nova Scotia|Williams, William Fenwick]]
[[Category:People from Annapolis County, Nova Scotia|Williams, William Fenwick]]
[[Category:Pre-Confederation Nova Scotia people|Williams, Will]]

[[de:William Fenwick Williams]]