Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Downhill mountain biking

2013-04-19T07:12:50Z

Dave Runger: fixing </ref> tag

{{Refimprove|date=August 2008}}

{{Update|Type=Slovenia|date=March 2012}}
[[File:MTB downhill 12 Stevage.jpg|thumb|right|Downhill Mountain Biking.]]
[[File:MTB downhill 18 Stevage.jpg|thumb|right|Australian rider [[Jared Rando]] takes the A line at the 2009 UCI World Mountain Bike Championships in Canberra, Australia.]]
[[File:MTB downhill 19 Stevage.jpg|thumb|right|American Luke Strobel.]]
[[File:Sarajevo urban downhill race.JPG|thumb|right|Part of the [[Sarajevo]] urban downhill downtown race track.]]

'''Downhill mountain biking''' ('''DH''') is a [[time trial]] event held on a steep, rough terrain that often features jumps, rock gardens and other obstacles. Downhill bikes are heavy, strong, and feature front and rear suspension with over 8 inches of travel, to glide quickly over rocks and tree roots. A continuous course is defined on each side by a strip of tape. Riders have a single attempt to reach the finish line as fast as possible, while remaining between the two tapes designating the course. Riders musts choose their line by compromising between the shortest possible line and the line that can be travelled at the highest speed. If a rider leaves the course by crossing or breaking the tape, he must return to the course at the point of exit. Riders start at intervals, often seeded from slowest to fastest. Courses typically take two to five minutes to complete and winning margins are often less than a second. Riders are timed with equipment similar to that used in Downhill skiing.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.zinio.com/pages/MountainBikeAction/Dec-08/305506502/pg-74
| title = Mountain Bike Action: Inside the Pros' Bikes
| accessdate = 2009-05-21}}</ref>

==History==
The 1st downhill time-trial race took place in [[Fairfax, California]] on October 22, 1976 on a fireroad now referred to as Repack Road, due to the need to repack the single rear hub brake after a descent. The bikes used were based on beach cruisers that had a single rear brake that worked by pedalling backwards. A mechanism came into operation causing a conical metal (bronze?) brake shoe to be wound on a thread into a conical metal hub. To prevent a metal to metal brake from snatching it was always filled with grease. Heavy use of the brake during the descent would cause the brake to over heat, melting the grease till it drained from the hub and required repacking. Ten riders descended 1300 feet of Repack in about 5 minutes.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.mtnbikehalloffame.com/page.cfm?pageid=14
| title = Mountain Bike Hall of Fame - Repack History
| accessdate = 2009-05-21}}</ref> The first bikes used for descending were known as "klunkers" or "paperboy bikes": coaster brake cruisers using [[Bicycle tire#Balloon|balloon tires]] first imported to America by Ignatz Schwinn.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.sonic.net/~ckelly/Seekay/co_evo.htm
| title = History of Clunker Bikes
| accessdate = 2009-05-21}}</ref> By 1979, two organizers and competitors of the Repack downhill, [[Charlie Kelly (businessman)|Charlie Kelly]] and [[Gary Fisher]] founded the company which named the sport, MountainBikes.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.completesite.com/mbhof/page.cfm?pageid=6&year=1988&memberid=31
| title = Mountain Bike Hall of Fame - inductee Gary Fisher
| accessdate = 2009-05-21}}</ref> As mountain biking grew enormously during the 80s, downhill riders continued to use either rigid or limited suspension travel (under 2 inches) bicycles, and purpose made downhill bikes were not made until the 90s. Some of these innovations included dual crown suspension forks and [[Bicycle brake systems#Disc brakes|disc brakes]], as well as very elaborate frame suspension designs.

Later, riders from all disciplines of cycling began focusing on downhill. Particularly, many BMX racers made the crossover, including champions such as [[John Tomac]] (Team Tomac Bikes), and [[Brian Lopes]]. Their influence is seen in the increased difficulty of many courses, especially the big jumps and drops aspect of downhill.
The coming of age for downhill biking was its inclusion at the first [[Union Cycliste Internationale|UCI]] [[UCI Mountain Bike & Trials World Championships|Mountain Bike Championship]], held in 1990 in [[Durango, Colorado]].

==Downhill bikes and equipment==
[[File:Body armor.JPG|thumb|Downhill body armor for adults and children.]]
{{main|Downhill bike}}

Modern [[downhill bike]]s weigh between 14 and 19 kg (30 and 42 [[pound (mass)|pounds]]), and usually feature full-suspension and frame geometries that lean back farther (slacker geometry) than other mountain bikes. As of 2006, 203 mm (8-inch) is the 'norm' for suspension travel however some commercially available big mountain [[freeride]] bikes can have over 300 mm (12-inch). Large-diameter 203–5 mm (8-inch) hydraulic [[disc brake]]s moderate speed. Downhill bikes and freeride bikes are similar, however downhill bikes typically are lower and have slacker head angles than freeride bikes so that they are more stable at speed and during cornering. Freeride bikes have a steeper geometry and a higher bottom bracket height, so that they are better for maneuverability. Some freeride bikes use single crown forks, which are shorter in travel and lighter than their dual crown counterparts. Forks over 180 mm typically employ two crownplates.

Downhill gear features body armor and full-face helmets; helmets are often rated by CE, CPSC, and ASTM standards, however rarely by [[Department of Transportation|DOT]] or [[Snell Memorial Foundation|Snell]], Other protective gear such as a neck brace can be added to reduce the risk (by bringing the head to a controlled stop)<ref>http://www.leatt-brace.com/index.php?page_id=14&msg_id=35&id=3#35</ref> of neck and spinal injury.

==Downhill racing venues==
{{Unreferenced section|date=December 2008}}
[[File:Shuttle traffic (MTB).JPG|thumb|right|Shuttle service at [[Interbike]] 2007.]]
Many [[skiing|ski]] areas are converted into biking venues in the summer<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.whistlerbike.com/information/maps/index.htm |title=Whistler Mountain Bike Park Map |author=Whitsler Blackomb |accessdate=24 March 2011}}</ref> (such as Whistler Mountain Bike Park and Fernie Alpine Resort) however there are also many other hills with Downhill Mountain Bike trails built on them. Bikers ride gondolas, trams or chair lifts to the starting point at the top of the mountains. Another method commonly referred to as "Shuttling", uses motorized vehicles to transport multiple riders to the top of the hill. Normally utility vehicles or 4WDs are driven up off-road tracks to the top of the courses. However, some tracks provide access to ordinary cars - such as Kuranda Downhill in Cairns, which runs down the Smithfield side of the [[Macalister Range]] and uses the road as access.

Courses used in competition typically feature several "lines" through or around the most difficult obstacles. For example, the "A line" might be a very direct line with a large jump landing on rocks, the "B line" might be a smaller jump with a clear landing, and the "C line" might completely avoid the obstacles, but be much longer.

===Australia===
{{main|Mountain biking in Australia}}
Despite being the flattest continent on Earth, Australia has produced a large number of internationally successful downhill racers, including [[Sam Hill (mountain biker)|Sam Hill]], [[Chris Kovarik]], [[Nathan Rennie]] and Mick Hannah.

The large majority of Australian downhill riding and racing is accessed by shuttling in cars, buses or by walking to the top of the track (push runs), however the venues at [[Mount Buller]] and [[Thredbo]] provide lift accessed tracks during the snow less summer months.

[[Mount Stromlo]], which is near the capital Canberra, hosted a World Cup Round in August 2008 and the 2009 World Championships.

Australia's first UCI Mountain Bike World Cup was held Cairns in 1994-1995. followed by the World Mountain Bike Championships in 1996, placing Cairns on the map as the premier Australian mountain bike destination.

===Austria===
Located right in the Alps this country has a lot of places for downhill riding. A large majority of Austria's downhill tracks are accessible via lift shuttles. A World Cup track called the "Planai" is located in the city of Schladming. It is about 5 km long with an average descent grade of about 35%.

===Bosnia and Herzegovina===
Bosnia and Herzegovina is rich with mountains especially around the capital city of [[Sarajevo]], in which a downtown race is held, although [[Mountain bike|MTB]] and downhill especially are still developing to become known sports in Bosnia and Herzegovina, there are more and more riders which use mountains like [[Igman]], [[Bjelašnica]] and others for downhill racing. Currently there are few tracks on [[Igman]], [[Bjelašnica]], Cavljak - Barice, all featured tournaments on international level. [[UXO]]'s are one of the reasons for slow development of this sport in a country with a such great potential for it.

===Canada===
Canada is famous for its downhill racing as well as other sorts of mountain biking. The [[Whistler-Blackcomb#Whistler Mountain Bike Park|Whistler Mountain Bike Park]] in [[Whistler, British Columbia]] hosts the annual [[Crankworx]] and Joyride Huckfest racing events. The province of British Columbia is also home to several other large lift-serviced mountain bike parks, including [[Sun Peaks]] in [[Kamloops, BC]], [[Silver Star Mountain Resort]] in [[Vernon, BC]], [[Kicking Horse Mountain Resort]] in [[Golden, BC]] and [[Fernie Alpine Resort]]. The [[North Shore Mountains]] of [[North Vancouver]], BC, are a famous downhill biking destination in their own right. The popular style of technical downhill freeriding that involves many man-made trail elements originated here. The style is often referred to as "North Shore Style."
Canada has produced many world-class mountain bike racers, including downhillers [[Andrew Shandro]]. The [http://www.skibromont.com/velo/en/ mount of Bromont], situated in Bromont, Quebec, and [http://www.mont-sainte-anne.com/2/MontSainteAnne/tabid/53/language/en-US/language/fr-CA/Default.aspx Mont-Sainte-Anne] near Quebec City are great places for downhill biking.

===Croatia===
Downhill MTB races have been held in Croatia since 1993, when the first competition was organized outside Zagreb, on the same mountain that today hosts the world cup races in alpine skiing. Mountain biking has been consequently banished from popular hiking trails and ski slopes arount the capital, however the art of MTB DH riding flourished in other parts of Croatia, especially in the northern Adriatic coastal region and in northern (continental) part of country. In 2010 the [http://www.bicikl.com/archives/7186 national DH Cup] events were held in [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e-R-8MoH6ms&feature=related Buzet] (Istria), [http://www.bicikl.com/archives/6425 Samobor] (Zagreb area), [http://supermen.tportal.hr/sport/83966/Kristina-i-Santo-najbrzi-u-jurnjavi-za-naslov-prvaka.html Pakrac] (Slavonia) and [http://supermen.tportal.hr/sport/91419/Neodoljivi-sarm-nizbrdice.html Gracisce] (Pazin, Istria). [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_QoaGx4sScc Urban DH] events are being held in the coastal city of Rijeka.

y of the [[French Alps]] is home to many downhill routes<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.downhill911.com/trails/trails-map.php?p=France&t=Descente
| title = Downhill Trails in France}}</ref> and events. The most famous of which is the [[Mega Avalanche]] downhill race event in the Alp d'Huez and Bourg d'Oisans region. Another downhill course in the region is [[Les Deux Alpes]] which sometimes hosts other downhill events. The downhill courses and events are limited in the area however, because of the alpine winter and snow.
The most popular area for downhill in the French alps is the [[Portes du Soleil]] including the two more popular resorts of Morzine and Les Gets. Most recently, a world cup was held for the first time in La Bresse. In August 2011, La Bresse hosted the sixth round of the UCI World Cup.

===Germany===
In Germany the landscape is quite diverse, reaching from flatlands in the north to medium-sized mountains in the center to alpine mountains in the south. Downhill tracks in Germany are not as steep as in Switzerland or Canada and the difference from top to bottom is less, but the main parts of an average track are everywhere in Germany. Racing on these short tracks is highly intense and allows no mistakes. Due to the country's large population the sport has developed quickly in Germany. Number of riders can go up to 600 at races. With 3 cup races, Thuringia, in the middle of Germany, is the center of gravity riding. The most popular race series is the 'iXS German Downhill Cup'. In Germany is the Europe's biggest Mountainbike Freeride Festival hold, called iXS Dirt Masters. It includes one iXS German Downhill Cup Round, a 4X Race and a slopestyle contest. It is visited by around 25000 spectators and 1200 riders. In the small town Willingen is a former World Cup Downhill and Four Cross Race Course. The World Cup has been held there in 2005 and 2006.
With Germany being a high level industry country, there are many firms producing downhill bikes, such as Last Bikes, Zonenschein, Fusion Bikes or luxury downhill bike manufacturer Nicolai. There are also a lot of firms producing high-end parts like Rohloff, Magura or Tune.

===Ireland===
Downhill cycling has increased in Ireland over the past 10 years, for example, the National Points Series rounds regularly attract over 250 riders from all over the country.

Irish tracks vary greatly in length and difficulty. Moneyscalp is one of the shorter tracks with times for Elites coming at just over a minute. Other tracks such as Carrick in Co.Wicklow are closer to 5 minutes.

Irish tracks in general are more technical than tracks found elsewhere though ironically there are no official downhill tracks in Ireland. According to the law it is illegal to ride in the forests. All the tracks are built and maintained voluntarily by individuals and mountain biking clubs who take it upon themselves to do so. As downhill mountain biking has become more popular so has the call for more facilities and practitioners of this sport have begun campaigning with the state on this issue. Plans have recently been announced for the construction of a purpose built downhill facility near Glenflesk in County Kerry. It will be the second highest downhill course in Europe.

===Italy===
[[Bardonecchia]], one of the [[Torino 2006]] winter olympic venues, converts some of its ski courses and lifts for use by mountain bikers in the summer, and a number of downhill courses are present. Other ski resorts turning to mountain bike parks in summer are [[Canazei]], [[Pila, Italy|Pila]], [[Sestola]] and [[Livigno]]. The area of [[Finale Ligure]], near [[Genoa]], offers year round tracks that end on the seaside, served by shuttles. Among the most famous tracks in the country is the [[Sanremo]] Downhill, a rocky, technical and dangerous course won in 2007 by [[Fabien Barel]]. The 2008 World Championship were held in [[Val di Sole]].

===Norway===
[[Hafjell]], a [[ski resort]] in the [[counties of Norway|county]] of [[Oppland]] and host of the [[alpine skiing]] events ([[Giant Slalom skiing|giant slalom]] and [[Slalom skiing|slalom]]) at the [[Alpine skiing at the 1994 Winter Olympics|1994 Winter Olympics]], offers a wide variety of courses and tracks for cross country and downhill mountain bikers during summer. Hafjell hosted the 2010 European downhill championships and the 2010 Nordic downhill championships.

===Portugal===
Portugal is the host country of a unique variety of downhill races, the Urban Downhill, known as Downtown. Lisbon DownTown is a very popular annual event which brings world class Downhill athletes to Portugal, Steve Peat is the King of the race winning 8 of the 11 editions.
The Gouveia International Downhill is another important annual race that normally brings some of the WorldCup racers to the country.
Places like Lousã, Tarouca and Sintra offer a big variety of single tracks and Downhill circuits.

===Russia===
Some of the notable Russian downhill venues are ski-complex "Metallurg" (Bannoe lake, Magnitogorsk), [[Mashuk]] and [[Chaget]] mountains. And in the city of Novosibirsk has a trail for such races. It is located in the CHP-5.

===Slovenia===
Slovenia's vast hilly landscape and undamaged nature makes very good conditions for downhill cycling, thus one of the world's top, not only tracks but riders are also in Slovenia. The famous tracks that are included in the world cup are at ski resort [[Kranjska Gora]] in north-west tip of Slovenia, while the other track is on ski resort hill [[Pohorje]] at Slovenia's second largest city Maribor. The ''Pohorje'' track has been considered as the second best in the world.

===South Africa===
Downhill racing is not such a big sport in South Africa, but is rapidly growing. South Africa boasts some great tracks and riders, especially from the [[Western Cape]] and the [[Pietermaritzburg]] area in [[Kwa-Zulu Natal]], the hometown of Greg Minnaar. In the Western Cape, the best tracks are Edeouth and Jonkershoek in [[Stellenbosch]], Playgrounds in [[Paarl]], [[Sir Lowry's Pass]] near [[Somerset-West]] (hometown of Andrew and Jonty Neethling), Zevenwacht near Kuilsriver and Witfontein in George. They provide quite technical, but fun courses. Ferncliff and World's View are great in Pietermaritzburg. Helderkruin (West of Johannesburg), Klapperkop ([http://maps.google.com/?q=Klapperkop&sll=-26.201038,28.045349&sspn=0.930298,1.778412&ie=UTF8&ll=-25.780146,28.208985&spn=0.014588,0.027788&t=h&z=16 Google map]) in Pretoria and Gillooly's Farm in [[Johannesburg]]. South Africa held the first round of the 2009 UCI World Cup, which was in Pietermaritzburg(Greg Minnaar's hometown).

===Sweden===
With the [[Caledonian mountains]] forming the [[border]]land with [[Norway]] this country has places to downhill race. The majority of [[Sweden]]'s notable downhill tracks are situated around [[Åre]] and [http://www.arebikepark.com Åre Bike Park], accessible via lift shuttles. In 1999 Åre was the host for the ''[[UCI Mountain Bike & Trials World Championships]]'' and it hosted the ''Nordic Championships'' in 2007. There are numerous graded biking trails down the ''[[Åreskutan]]'' [[fell]].

Sweden's most southerly DH bike park is called Vallåsen Bike Park [http://www.vallasenbikepark.se] and is located on the north side of the Halland ridge between Skåne and Halland. Vallåsen opened in 2008 and attract riders from not only Sweden but also Denmark due to its relatively close location to Copenhagen. Vallåsen holds an annual DH race at the end of the season called the Vallåsen DH Challenge.

Jarvsö Bike Park [http://jarvsobergscykelpark.se] are another great Downhill location in Sweden. Located close to Ljusdal V approx. 3 hours drive North of Stockholm. Opening June 1 and closing October 7.
GPS coordinates: 61.712409,16.160105
Download map [http://jarvsobergscykelpark.se/wp-content/themes/writer/images/ledkarta_2012.pdf Ledkarta 2012].

===Switzerland===
Located in the Alps and surrounded by the downhill nations of France, Germany, Italy and Austria it is kind of a center for the European downhill scene. You can find tracks in or near every city with high quality and a steep descent. It has several World Cup tracks like "Champery" or "Portes de Soleil". Switzerland is the home of parts manufacturer DT Swiss, frame manufacturer BMC and bike manufacturer Redalp.

===United Kingdom===
Within the UK most of the main downhill tracks are in the [[Southern Uplands|Scottish Uplands]], [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]], [[Wales]] and [[Northern England]], as these are more mountainous areas. [[Fort William, Highland|Fort William]] in Scotland is Britain's only World Cup standard track and was the venue for the 2007 World Championships. The UK has a strong race scene with a national series and numerous regional series with strong representation of all age groups present. The country has produced many of the world's top downhill mountain bikers including, world champions [[Steve Peat]], [[Gee Atherton]], [[Danny Hart (cyclist)|Danny Hart]] and [[Rachel Atherton]]. Other British downhill riders include Marc Beaumont, [[Josh Bryceland]] and Brendan Fairclough.

===United States===
The [[Sea Otter Classic]], held each April at [[Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca|Laguna Seca]] near [[Monterey, California]], is a major riding event that opens the racing season [http://maps.google.com/maps?q=Salinas,+CA&ie=UTF8&z=16&ll=36.579385,-121.764264&spn=0.014819,0.023518&t=k&om=1&iwloc=addr (course map).] In 2008, experienced racer Mark Reynolds died after a crash at the Sea Otter Classic, highlighting the dangers of the sport. The 2006 U.S. National Championships were held at the [[Infineon Raceway]] in [[Sonoma, California]]. In 2007 and 2008 the U.S. National Championships were held in Mt. Snow, Vermont. In 2009 and 2010 the U.S. National Championships were held at [http://www.granbyranch.com/bike.html (SolVista Bike Park in Colorado.)] [[Plattekill Mountain]] in the Catskills, Mammoth Mountain, the [[Northstar at Tahoe]], [[Brian Head Resort]], [[Attitash]] and [[Deer Valley]] ski resorts, and Moab UT are also well known to mountain bikers. In the southeastern United States, [[Snowshoe Mountain]] is well known for its extensive mountain bike park, camps, and even freeriding areas during the summer.<ref>{{cite web
| url = http://www.snowshoemtn.com/mountain/sum-mountain/index.htm
| title = Snowshoe in the summer
| accessdate = 2009-05-21}}</ref> [[Vail]], Colorado was the site of the 1994 Downhill World Championship. The trail was renamed "'94 Downhill," and is still ridden by many downhill bikers today. It was considered one of Vail Mountain's hardest venues.

[[Aaron Gwin]] is currently the U.S's top ranked racer on the World Cup Circuit. In 2010 he finished his World Cup Campaign with a 4th place world ranking and a 4th place at the UCI mountain bike world championships. He now races for the Specialized World Cup Team along with teammate [[Neko Mulally]].

Mountain Creek Bike Park located in Vernon, New Jersey is a downhill facility on the East Coast of the United States. Historically they have hosted the US Open of Mountain Biking, which is the premier US gravity race. The 2010 U.S. Open had $50,000 in cash and prizes and a $7500 purse for men's pro champion. Mountain Creek also hosts their own series of competitions called the Gravity Series.<ref>http://diablofreeridepark.com/diablogravityinfo.html</ref>

===Venezuela===
El Volcan, a small mountain in the southeastern, touristic [[El Hatillo Municipality]] of [[Caracas]], has a [[Downhill]] course that has about 500 meters of vertical drop, it is used by hundreds of riders a day during dry and wet weather, mostly on weekends. El Volcan is the representative [Downhill] Track of Caracas city. The course is open to the public and riding is neither specifically allowed nor prohibited by law. The trails are also used by hikers all week long. Shuttles are about 10 [[Venezuelan bolívar|Venezuelan bolivars]] per trip, they run from the parking lot of a Farmatodo drug store in La Boyera, up to the summit using public avenues and paved roads, taking from 15 minutes to 30 minutes depending on traffic on the area. The course apart from being used mostly for recreational purpose, also has been used for irregularly scheduled downhill races due to the lack of organization in the riders community.

==Governing bodies==
The [[Union Cycliste Internationale]] is governing body for downhill mountain bike racing. Racers qualify to compete in World Cup races by earning UCI points, which are gained by being a top ten finisher in certain races, usually national.

In the U.S., [[NORBA]], as part of USA Cycling, runs the National Mountain Bike Series, and the NCCA is the governing body for collegiate cycling. In the UK, [[British Cycling]] controls mountain biking as well as road and BMX. In Australia, MTBA controls all disciplines of Mountain biking.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Mountain biking]]

User:Dave Runger

2010-08-14T02:14:48Z

Dave Runger: cleaning up

==Articles I've Created==
[[Color solid]]

[[Students Taking Action Now for Darfur]]

[[Ira Glasser]]

[[Tintern Abbey (poem)]]

[[Les Stroud]]

[[Techlepathy]] (after it was previously deleted)

[[State of World Liberty Index]]

[[State of World Liberty Project]] (stub)

Techlepathy

2010-07-27T08:25:55Z

Dave Runger: redirect to specific section in the Telepathy article

#REDIRECT [[Telepathy#Technologically enabled telepathy]]

Six nines in pi

2010-07-23T09:46:35Z

Dave Runger: /* Related statistics */ linking normal number

[[Image:Pi digits distribution_update.png|thumb|right|240px|Pi's first few hundred digits contain ample double consecutive digits (marked yellow), and a few triple consecutive digits (marked green). The presence of six consecutive digits (marked orange), dubbed the "Feynman point," is an intriguing anomaly.]]
The '''Feynman point''' is a sequence of six 9s that begins at the 762nd decimal place of the [[decimal]] representation of [[π]]. It is named after physicist [[Richard Feynman]], who once stated during a lecture he would like to memorize the digits of π until that point, so he could recite them and quip "nine nine nine nine nine nine and so on", suggesting, ironically and incorrectly, that π is [[rational number|rational]].<ref name=ArndtHaenel>{{Citation |last=Arndt |first=J. |lastauthoramp=yes |last2=Haenel |first2=C. |url=http://books.google.com/books?id=JlG5rFH7Ge0C&dq=Feynman&pg=PA3 |title=Pi — Unleashed |location=Berlin |publisher=Springer |page=3 |year=2001 |isbn=3540665722 }}.</ref><ref name=Wells>{{Citation |last=Wells |first=D. |title=[[The Penguin Dictionary of Curious and Interesting Numbers]] |location=Middlesex, England |publisher=Penguin Books |page=51 |year=1986 |isbn=0140261494 }}.</ref>

==Related statistics==
For a randomly chosen [[normal number]], the probability of any chosen number sequence of six digits (including 6 of a number, 658020, or the like) occurring this early in the decimal representation is only 0.08%.<ref name=ArndtHaenel/> (π is conjectured, but not known, to be a [[normal number]].)

The next sequence of six consecutive identical digits is again composed of 9s, starting at position 193,034.<ref name=ArndtHaenel/> The next distinct sequence of six consecutive identical digits starts with 8 at position 222,299. Of the remaining digits, 0 is the last to first repeat 6 times consecutively, starting at position 1,699,927.

The Feynman point is also the first occurrence of four and five consecutive identical digits. The next appearance of four consecutive identical digits is of the digit 7 at position 1,589.<ref>See, for example, the online [http://www.angio.net/pi/bigpi.cgi Pi Search].</ref>

The positions of the first occurrences of strings of 1, 2, ..., 9 consecutive 9s are 5; 44; 762; 762; 762; 762; 1,722,776; 36,356,642; and 564,665,206; respectively {{OEIS|id=A048940}}.<ref name=Wells/>

==Full decimal expansion==
The full digits of π up to and including the Feynman point are as follows:<ref>[http://www.joyofpi.com/pi.html The Digits of Pi — First ten thousand]</ref>
 
<center>
{| border="0" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" width="90%"
|- valign="top"
| <tt>3.</tt>
| align="left" | <tt>1415926535 8979323846 2643383279 5028841971 6939937510 5820974944 5923078164 0628620899 8628034825 3421170679 8214808651 3282306647 0938446095 5058223172 5359408128 4811174502 8410270193 8521105559 6446229489 5493038196 4428810975 6659334461 2847564823 3786783165 2712019091 4564856692 3460348610 4543266482 1339360726 0249141273 7245870066 0631558817 4881520920 9628292540 9171536436 7892590360 0113305305 4882046652 1384146951 9415116094 3305727036 5759591953 0921861173 8193261179 3105118548 0744623799 6274956735 1885752724 8912279381 8301194912 9833673362 4406566430 8602139494 6395224737 1907021798 6094370277 0539217176 2931767523 8467481846 7669405132 0005681271 4526356082 7785771342 7577896091 7363717872 1468440901 2249534301 4654958537 1050792279 6892589235 4201995611 2129021960 8640344181 5981362977 4771309960 5187072113 4'''999999'''</tt>
|}
</center>
==See also==
{{portal|Mathematics}}
* [[Piphilology]]
* [[Repdigit]]
* [[0.999...]]

==References==
<references/>

==External links==
* [http://mathworld.wolfram.com/FeynmanPoint.html Feynman Point Mathworld Article] — From the [[Mathworld]] project.
* [http://www.angio.net/pi/piquery The Pi-Search Page] — Search the digits of pi.

[[Category:Pi]]
[[Category:Richard Feynman]]

[[da:Feynman-punktet]]
[[es:Punto de Feynman]]

Half ironman

2010-04-01T04:13:19Z

Dave Runger: create #REDIRECT Ironman 70.3

#REDIRECT [[Ironman 70.3]]

Religion

2010-03-13T23:38:52Z

Dave Runger: for matters of definition, dictionaries *are* reliable sources

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}
{{About|a general set of beliefs about life, purpose, etc.}}
{{Redirect|Religious|a member of a Catholic religious order|Religious (Catholicism)}}

A '''religion''' is a set of beliefs concerning the cause, nature, and purpose of the universe, especially when considered as the creation of a [[supernatural]] agency or agencies, usually involving devotional and ritual observances, and often containing a moral code governing the conduct of human affairs.<ref>http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/religion</ref>

Aspects of religion include [[myth|narrative]], [[symbol|symbolism]], beliefs, and practices that are supposed to give meaning to the practitioner's experiences of life. Whether the meaning centers on a [[deity]] or deities, or an ultimate [[truth]], religion is commonly identified by the practitioner's [[prayer]], [[ritual]], [[meditation]], [[music]] and [[art]], among other things, and is often interwoven with [[society]] and [[politics]]. It may focus on specific [[supernatural]], [[metaphysics|metaphysical]], and [[morality|moral]] claims about [[reality]] (the [[cosmos]] and [[human nature]]) which may yield a set of [[religious law]]s and [[ethics]] and a particular [[lifestyle (sociology)|lifestyle]]. Religion also encompasses ancestral or cultural [[tradition]]s, writings, history, and [[mythology]], as well as personal [[faith]] and [[religious experience]].

The term "religion" refers both to the personal practices related to communal faith and to group rituals and communication stemming from shared conviction. "Religion" is sometimes used interchangeably with "[[faith]]" or "[[belief system]],"<ref>The words "belief system" may not necessarily refer to a religion, though a religion may be referred to as "belief system."</ref> but it is more socially defined than personal convictions, and it entails specific [[religious behaviour|behaviors]], respectively.

{{Religion by Country}}
The [[development of religion]] has taken many forms in various cultures, with continental differences. Any case, about the roots, it considers [[psychology of religion|psychological]] by [[Sigmund Freud]], [[philosophy of religion | philsophical]] by [[Ernesto De Martino]] and [[sociology of religion|social]] by [[Emile Durkheim]], along with [[origins of religion|origins]] and [[history of religion|historical]] development.

Religion is often described as a communal system for the coherence of belief focusing on a system of thought, unseen being, person, or object, that is considered to be [[supernatural]], sacred, [[Divinity|divine]], or of the highest truth.
[[Moral code]]s, practices, values, institutions, tradition, rituals, and [[scripture]]s are often traditionally associated with the core belief, and these may have some overlap with concepts in [[secularity|secular]] [[philosophy]]. Religion is also often described as a "[[way of life]]" or a [[life stance]].

==Etymology==

''Religion'' is derived from the [[Latin language|Latin]] ''religiō'', the ultimate origins of which are obscure. One possibility is derivation from a reduplicated ''{{lang|la|*le-ligare}}'', an interpretation traced to [[Cicero]] connecting ''{{lang|la|lego}}'' "read", i.e. ''re'' (again) + ''lego'' in the sense of "choose", "go over again" or "consider carefully". Modern scholars such as [[Tom Harpur]] and [[Joseph Campbell]] favor the derivation from ''{{lang|la|ligare}}'' "bind, connect", probably from a prefixed ''{{lang|la|re-ligare}}'', i.e. ''re'' (again) + ''ligare'' or "to reconnect," which was made prominent by [[Augustine of Hippo|St. Augustine]], following the interpretation of [[Lactantius]].<ref>In ''The Pagan Christ: Recovering the Lost Light.'' Toronto. Thomas Allen, 2004. ISBN 0-88762-145-7</ref><ref>In ''[[The Power of Myth]],'' with Bill Moyers, ed. Betty Sue Flowers, New York, Anchor Books, 1991. ISBN 0-385-41886-8</ref> However, the French scholar Daniel Dubuisson notes that relying on this etymology "tends to minimize or cancel out the role of history"; he notes that Augustine gave a lengthy definition of ''religio'' that sets it quite apart from the modern word "religion".<ref>Dubuisson, ''The Western Construction of Religion''. pp.22-23</ref>

==History==
{{See|History of religions}}
{{Generalize-section|date=November 2009}}
The word "religion" as it is used today does not have an obvious pre-colonial translation into non-European languages. Daniel Dubuisson writes that "what the West and the history of religions in its wake have objectified under the name 'religion' is ... something quite unique, which could be appropriate only to itself and its own history."<ref>Daniel Dubuisson. ''The Western Construction of Religion''. 1998. William Sayers (trans.) Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2003. p. 90.</ref> The words used in other languages for similar concepts, such as [[dharma]], [[bhakti]], [[Tao]], or [[Islam]], have vastly different histories. The history of other cultures' interaction with the religious category is therefore their interaction with an idea that first developed in Europe under the influence of [[Christianity]].<ref>Timothy Fitzgerald. ''Discourse on Civility and Barbarity.'' Oxford University Press, 2007. pp.45-46.</ref>

===Religion and the body politic===
A good understanding of the meaning of Christianity before the word "religion" came into common usage can be found in [[St. Augustine]]'s writing. For Augustine, Christianity was a ''disciplina'', a "rule" just like that of the Roman Empire. Christianity was therefore a power structure opposing and superseding human institutions, a literal Kingdom of Heaven. Rather than calling one to self-discipline through symbols, it was itself the discipline taught by one's family, school, church, and city authorities.<ref>Talal Asad, ''Genealogies of Religion''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins Univ. Press, 1993 p.34-35.</ref> At this point, too, the root of the English word "religion", the [[Latin]] ''[[:wikt:religio|religio]]'', was in use only to mean "reverence for God or the gods, careful pondering of divine things, [[pietas|piety]]" (which [[Cicero]] further derived to mean "diligence").<ref>[[Max Müller]], ''Natural Religion‎'', p.33, 1889</ref><ref>Lewis & Short, ''A Latin Dictionary''[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0059%3Aentry%3D%2340976]</ref> [[Max Müller]] characterized many other cultures around the world, including Egypt, Persia, and India, as having a similar power structure at this point in history. What is called ancient religion today, they would have only called "law".<ref>[[Max Müller]]. ''[http://books.google.com/books?pg=PA28&id=aM0FAAAAQAAJ&as_brr=4 Introduction to the science of religion]''. p. 28.</ref>

At this point, Western Europe and the rest of the world diverged. As Christianity became commonplace, the [[charismatic authority]] identified by Augustine, a quality we might today call "religiousness", had a commanding influence at the local level. This system persisted in the [[Byzantine Empire]] following the [[East-West Schism]], but Western Europe regulated unpredictable expressions of charisma through the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. As the Church lost its dominance during the [[Protestant Reformation]] and Christianity became closely tied to political structures, religion was recast as the basis of national [[sovereignty]], and religious identity gradually became a less universal sense of spirituality and more divisive, locally defined, and tied to nationality.<ref>Fitzgerald 2007. p.194.</ref> It was at this point that "religion" was dissociated with universal beliefs and moved closer to [[dogma]] in both meaning and practice. However there was not yet the idea of dogma as personal choice, only of [[established church]]es.

===Religious freedom===
{{Main|Freedom of religion}}
In the [[Age of Enlightenment]], the idea of Christianity as the purest expression of spirituality was supplanted by the concept of "religion" as a worldwide practice.<ref>S. N. Balagangadhara. ''The Heathen in His Blindness...'' New York: Brill Academic Publishers, 1994. p.159.</ref> This caused such ideas as [[religious freedom]], a reexamination of classical [[philosophy]] as an alternative to Christian thought, and more radically [[Deism]] among intellectuals such as [[Voltaire]]. Much like Christianity, the idea of "religious freedom" was exported around the world as a civilizing technique, even to regions such as [[India]] that had never treated spirituality as a matter of political identity.<ref name="pennington"/> In [[Japan]], where Buddhism was still seen as a philosophy of [[natural law]],<ref>Jason Ānanda Josephson. "When Buddhism Became a 'Religion'". ''Japanese Journal of Religious Studies'' 33.1: 143–168.</ref> the concept of "religion" and "religious freedom" as separate from other power structures was unnecessary until Christian missionaries demanded free access to conversion, and when Japanese Christians refused to engage in patriotic events.<ref> Isomae Jun’ichi. "Deconstructing 'Japanese Religion'". ''Japanese Journal of Religious Studies'' 32.2: 235–248.</ref>

With the Enlightenment, religion lost its attachment to nationality, but rather than being a universal social attitude, it was now a personal feeling or emotion.<ref>Fitzgerald 2007, p.268</ref> [[Friedrich Schleiermacher]] in the late 18th century defined religion as ''das schlechthinnige Abhängigkeitsgefühl'', commonly translated as "a feeling of absolute dependence".<ref>Hueston A. Finlay. "‘Feeling of absolute dependence’ or ‘absolute feeling of dependence’? A question revisited". ''Religious Studies'' 41.1 (2005), pp.81-94.</ref> His contemporary [[Hegel]] disagreed thoroughly, defining religion as "the Divine Spirit becoming conscious of Himself through the finite spirit."<ref>[[Max Müller]]. "Lectures on the origin and growth of religion."</ref> [[William James]] is an especially notable 19th century subscriber to the theory of religion as feeling.

[[Image:Huxisanxiaotu.jpg|thumb|300px|''[[Confucianism]], [[Taoism]], and [[Buddhism]] are one'', a painting in the ''litang style'' portraying three men laughing by a river stream, 12th century, [[Song Dynasty]]]]

==Modern currents in religion==
===Religious studies===
{{Main|religious studies}}
With the recognition of religion as a category separate from culture and society came the rise of [[religious studies]]. The initial purpose of religious studies was to demonstrate the superiority of the "living" or "universal" European world view to the "dead" or "ethnic" religions scattered throughout the rest of the world, but this was eventually supplanted by a liberal-ecumenical interest in searching for Western-style universal truths in every cultural tradition.<ref>Tomoko Masuzawa, ''The Invention of World Religions.'' Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 2007.</ref> [[Clifford Geertz]]'s definition of religion as a "cultural system" was dominant for most of the 20th century and continues to be widely accepted today.

Sociologists and anthropologists tend to see religion as an abstract set of ideas, values, or experiences developed as part of a cultural matrix. For example, in Lindbeck's ''Nature of Doctrine,'' religion does not refer to belief in "[[God]]" or a transcendent Absolute. Instead, Lindbeck defines religion as, "a kind of cultural and/or linguistic framework or medium that shapes the entirety of life and thought… it is similar to an idiom that makes possible the description of realities, the formulation of beliefs, and the experiencing of inner attitudes, feelings, and sentiments.”<ref>George A. Lindbeck, ''Nature of Doctrine'' (Louisville: Westminster/John Knox Press, 1984), 33.</ref> According to this definition, religion refers to one's primary worldview and how this dictates one's thoughts and actions. Thus religion is considered by some sources to extend to causes, principles, or activities believed in with zeal or conscientious devotion concerning points or matters of ethics or conscience, and not necessarily including belief in the supernatural.<ref>from unabridged dictionaries on http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/religion?r=75 and also the Oxford English Dictionary</ref>

Although evolutionists had previously sought to understand and explain religion in terms of a cultural attribute which might conceivably confer biological advantages to its adherents, [[Richard Dawkins]] called for a re-analysis of religion in terms of the evolution of self-replicating ideas apart from any resulting biological advantages they might bestow. He argued that the role of key replicator in cultural evolution belongs not to genes, but to [[Meme|memes]] replicating thought from person to person by means of imitation. These replicators respond to selective pressures that may or may not affect biological reproduction or survival.<ref name="selfish">{{harvnb|Dawkins|1989 | p = 352}}</ref> [[Susan Blackmore]] regards religions as particularly tenacious memes.<ref name="machine">{{harvnb|Blackmore|1999}}</ref> [[Chris Hedges]], however, regards meme theory as a misleading imposition of genetics onto psychology.

===Interfaith cooperation===
Because religion continues to be recognized in Western thought as a universal impulse, many religious practitioners have aimed to band together in [[interfaith]] dialogue and cooperation. The first major dialogue was the [[Parliament of the World's Religions]] at the 1893 [[Chicago World's Fair]], which remains notable even today both in affirming "universal values" and recognition of the diversity of practices among different cultures. The 20th century has been especially fruitful in use of interfaith dialogue as a means of solving ethnic, political, or even religious conflict, with [[Christian-Jewish reconciliation]] representing a complete reverse in the attitudes of many Christian communities towards Jews.

===Secularism and criticism of religion===
{{Main|Criticism of religion|Antireligion|Secularism|Agnosticism|Atheism}}
As religion became a more personal matter, discussions of society found a new focus on political and scientific meaning, and religious attitudes were increasingly seen as irrelevant for the needs of the European world. On the political side, [[Ludwig Feuerbach]] recast Christian beliefs in light of humanism, paving the way for [[Karl Marx]]'s famous characterization of religion as "the opiate of the masses". Meanwhile, in the scientific community, [[Thomas Henry Huxley|T.H. Huxley]] in 1869 coined the term "agnostic," a term subsequently adopted by such figures as [[Robert G. Ingersoll|Robert Ingersoll]]. Later, [[Bertrand Russell]] told the world ''[[Why I Am Not a Christian]]''.

Atheists have developed a critique of religious systems as well as personal faith. Modern-day critics focus on religion's lack of utility in human society, faulting religion as being irrational.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Why Religious Beliefs Are Irrational, and Why Economists Should Care|author=Bryan Caplan | url=http://www.gmu.edu/departments/economics/bcaplan/ldebate.htm}} The article about religion and irrationality.</ref> Some assert that dogmatic religions are in effect morally deficient, elevating to [[morality|moral]] status ancient, arbitrary, and ill-informed rules—taboos on eating pork, for example, as well as dress codes and sexual practices<ref>Nobel Peace Laureate, Muslim and human rights activist Dr Shirin Ebadi has spoken out against undemocratic Islamic countries justifying "oppressive acts" in the name of Islam. Speaking at the Earth Dialogues 2006 conference in Brisbane, Dr Ebadi said her native Iran as well as Saudi Arabia, Kuwait and Yemen "among others" were guilty of human rights violations. "In these countries, Islamic rulers want to solve 21st century issues with laws belonging to 14 centuries ago," she said. "Their views of human rights are exactly the same as it was 1400 years ago."</ref>—possibly designed for reasons of [[hygiene]] or even mere politics in a bygone era.

==Religious belief==
{{Main|Religious belief}}
Religious belief usually relates to the existence, nature and worship of a [[deity]] or deities and divine involvement in the [[universe]] and human life. Alternately, it may also relate to values and practices transmitted by a spiritual leader. Unlike other belief systems, which may be passed on orally, religious belief tends to be [[Codification (law)|codified]] in literate societies (religion in non-literate societies is still largely passed on orally<ref>''Religion Explained: The Evolutionary Origins of Religious Thought'', Pascal Boyer, Basic Books (2001)</ref>). In some religions, like the [[Abrahamic religions]], it is held that most of the core beliefs have been [[divine revelation|divinely revealed]].

Religious belief can also involve causes, principles or activities believed in with zeal or conscientious devotion concerning points or matters of ethics or conscience, not necessarily limited to organized religions.<ref>see several dictionaries on http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/religion?r=75 and also Oxford's English Language Dictionary</ref>

==Specific religious movements==
{{Main|Major religious groups}}
In the 19th and 20th centuries, the academic practice of [[comparative religion]] divided religious belief into philosophically-defined categories called "world religions." However, some recent scholarship has argued that not all types of religion are necessarily separated by mutually exclusive philosophies, and furthermore that the utility of ascribing a practice to a certain philosophy, or even calling a given practice religious, rather than cultural, political, or social in nature, is limited.<ref name="pennington">Brian Kemble Pennington ''Was Hinduism Invented?'' New York: Oxford University Press US, 2005. ISBN 0195166558</ref><ref>Russell T. McCutcheon. ''Critics Not Caretakers: Redescribing the Public Study of Religion''. Albany: SUNY Press, 2001.</ref><ref>Nicholas Lash. ''The beginning and the end of 'religion'.'' Cambridge University Press, 1996. ISBN 0521566355</ref> The list of religious movements given here is an attempt to summarize the most important regional and philosophical influences, but it is by no means a complete description of every religious community.

* '''[[Abrahamic religions]]''' are practiced throughout the world. They share in common the Jewish patriarch [[Abraham]] and the [[Torah]] as an initial sacred text, although the degree to which the Torah is incorporated into religious beliefs varies between traditions.
** '''[[Judaism]]''' accepts only the prophets of the Torah, but also relies on the authority of [[rabbi]]s. It is practiced by the [[Jewish people]], an ethnic group currently centered in [[Israel]] but also scattered throughout the [[Jewish diaspora]]. Today, Jews are outnumbered by Christians and Muslims.
** '''[[Christianity]]''' is centered on the life and teachings of [[Jesus of Nazareth]] as presented in the [[Gospels]] and the writings of the apostle [[Paul]] (1st century CE). The Christian faith is essentially faith in Jesus as the [[Christ]], the [[Son of God]], and as [[Messiah|Savior]] and Lord. As the religion of [[Western Europe]] during the time of colonization, Christianity has been propagated throughout the world. Christianity is practiced not as a single orthodoxy but as a mixture of [[Catholicism]], [[Eastern Orthodoxy]], [[Oriental Orthodoxy]], and many forms of [[Protestantism]]. [[Christianity in the United States|In the United States]], for example, African-Americans<ref> Charles Eric Lincoln. ''Race, religion, and the continuing American dilemma''. Macmillan, 1999. ISBN 0809016230</ref> and Korean-Americans<ref>Won Moo Hurh. ''The Korean Americans''. Greenwood Publishing Group, 1998.</ref> usually attend separate churches from Americans of European descent. Many European countries as well as [[Argentina]] have established a specific church as the [[State_religion#Christian_countries|state religion]], but this is not the case in the United States nor in many other majority Christian areas.
** '''[[Islam]]''' refers to the religion taught by the [[Prophets of Islam|Islamic prophet]] [[Muhammad]], a major political and religious figure of the 7th century CE. Islam is the dominant religion of northern Africa, the Middle East, and South Asia. As with Christianity, there is no single orthodoxy in Islam but a multitude of traditions which are generally categorized as [[Sunni]] and [[Shia]], although there are [[Divisions_of_Islam#Heterodox_groups|other minor groups]] as well. [[Wahhabi]] Islam is the established religion of the [[Kingdom of Saudi Arabia]]. There are also several [[Islamic republic]]s, including [[Iran]], which is run by a Shia [[Supreme Leader]].
** The '''[[Bahá'í Faith]]''' was founded in the 19th century in Iran and since then has spread worldwide. It teaches unity of all religious philosophies and accepts all of the prophets of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam as well as additional prophets including its founder [[Bahá'u'lláh]].
** Smaller Abrahamic groups that are not heterodox versions of the four major groupings include [[Mandaeism]], [[Samaritanism]], the [[Druze]], and the [[Rastafari movement]].
* '''[[Indian religions]]''' are practiced or were founded in the [[Indian subcontinent]]. Concepts most of them share in common include [[karma]], [[caste]], [[reincarnation]], [[mantra]]s, [[yantra]]s, and [[darśana]]. [[Islam in India]] has also been influenced by Indian religious practices.
** '''[[Hinduism]]''' is a [[synechdoche]] describing the similar Indian religious philosophies of [[Vaishnavism]], [[Shaivism]], and [[Hindu denominations|related groups]], and is the predominant religion of the [[Indian subcontinent]]<ref name = trad>Hinduism is variously defined as a "religion", "set of religious beliefs and practices", "religious tradition" etc. For a discussion on the topic, see: "Establishing the boundaries" in Gavin Flood (2003), pp. 1-17. [[René Guénon]] in his'' Introduction to the Study of the Hindu Doctrines'' (1921 ed.), Sophia Perennis, ISBN 0-900588-74-8, proposes a definition of the term "religion" and a discussion of its relevance (or lack of) to Hindu doctrines (part II, chapter 4, p. 58).</ref> Hinduism is not a monolithic religion in the Romannic sense but a religious category containing dozens of separate philosophies amalgamated as [[Sanātana Dharma]].
** '''[[Buddhism]]''' was founded by [[Siddhattha Gotama]] in the 6th century BCE. Buddhists generally agree that Gotama aimed to help [[sentient beings]] end their [[dukkha|suffering]] by understanding the [[dharma|true nature of phenomena]], thereby escaping the cycle of suffering and rebirth ([[saṃsāra]]), that is, achieving [[Nirvana]]. The main schools of Buddhism are [[Theravada]], [[Mahayana]], and [[Vajrayana]].
** '''[[Sikhism]]''' is a monotheistic religion founded on the teachings of [[Guru Nanak]] and ten successive [[Sikh Gurus]] in 15th century [[Punjab region|Punjab]]. Sikhs are found mostly in India.
** '''[[Jainism]]''', taught primarily by [[Parsva]] (9th century BCE) and [[Mahavira]] (6th century BCE), is an ancient Indian religion that prescribes a path of non-violence for all forms of living beings in this world. Jains are found mostly in India.
** There are dozens of new Indian religions and [[Hindu reform movements]], such as [[Ayyavazhi]] and [[Swaminarayan Faith]].
* '''[[Yazdânism]]''' is a non-Abrahamic monotheistic category including the traditional beliefs of the [[Yazidi]], [[Alevi]], and [[Ahl-e Haqq]].
* '''[[Religion in the United States|Religious movements centered in the United States]]''' are often derived from Christian tradition. They include the [[Latter Day Saint movement]], Christian [[evangelicalism]], and [[Unitarian Universalism]] among hundreds of smaller groups.
* '''[[Folk religion]]''' is a term applied loosely and vaguely to disorganized local practices. It is also called [[paganism]], [[shamanism]], [[animism]], [[ancestor worship]], and [[totemism]], although not all of these elements are necessarily present in local belief systems. The category of "folk religion" can generally include anything that is not part of an organization. The modern [[neopagan]] movement draws on folk religion for inspiration.
** '''[[African traditional religion]]''' is a category including any type of religion practiced in Africa before the arrival of Islam and Christianity, such as [[Yoruba religion]] or [[San religion]]. There are many varieties of [[Afro-American religion|religions developed by Africans in the Americas]] derived from African beliefs, including [[Santería]], [[Candomblé]], [[Umbanda]], [[Haitian Vodou|Vodou]], and [[Oyotunji]].
** '''Folk religions of the Americas''' include [[Aztec religion]], [[Inca religion]], [[Maya religion]], and modern Catholic beliefs such as the [[Our Lady of Guadalupe|Virgin of Guadalupe]]. [[Native American mythology|Native American religion]] is practiced across the continent of North America.
** '''[[Australian Aboriginal culture]]''' contains [[Australian Aboriginal mythology|a mythology]] and sacred practices characteristic of folk religion.
** '''[[Chinese folk religion]]''', practiced by [[Chinese people]] around the world, is a primarily social practice including popular elements of [[Confucianism]] and [[Taoism]], with some remnants of Mahayana Buddhism. Most Chinese do not identify as religious due to the strong [[Maoist]] influence on the country in recent history, but adherence to religious ceremonies remains common. New religious movements include [[Falun Gong]] and [[I-Kuan Tao]].
** Traditional '''[[Religion in Korea|Korean religion]]''' was a syncretic mixture of Mahayana Buddhism and [[Korean shamanism]]. Unlike Japanese Shinto, Korean shamanism was never codified and Buddhism was never made a social necessity. In some areas these traditions remain prevalent, but [[Christianity in Korea|Korean-influenced Christianity]] is far more influential in society and politics.
** Traditional '''[[Religion in Japan|Japanese religion]]''' is a mixture of Mahayana Buddhism and ancient indigenous practices which were codified as [[Shinto]] in the 19th century. Japanese people retain nominal attachment to both Buddhism and Shinto through social ceremonies, but [[irreligion]] is common.
* A variety of '''[[new religious movement]]s''' still practiced today have been founded in many other countries besides the United States and Japan, including [[Cao Đài]] in Vietnam.
** '''[[Shinshūkyō]]''' is a general category for a wide variety of religious movements founded in Japan since the 19th century. These movements share almost nothing in common except the place of their founding. The largest religious movements centered in Japan include [[Soka Gakkai]], [[Tenrikyo]], and [[Seicho-No-Ie]] among hundreds of smaller groups.

[[Sociological classifications of religious movements]] suggest that within any given religious group, a community can resemble various types of structures, including "churches", "denominations", "sects", "cults", and "institutions".

==Religion and superstition==
{{See|Superstition|Magical thinking|Magic and religion}}

While superstitions and magical thinking refer to nonscientific causal reasoning, applied to specific things or actions, a religion is a more complex system about general or ultimate things, involving morality, history and community. Because religions may include and exploit certain superstitions or make use of magical thinking, while mixing them with broader considerations, the division between superstition and religious faith is subjective and hard to specify. Religious believers have often seen other religions as [[superstition]].<ref>{{cite book
|title=[[Religion Explained]]
|last=Boyer
|authorlink= Pascal Boyer
|chapter=Why Belief
|chapterurl=http://books.google.com/books?id=wreF80OHTicC&pg=PA297&lpg=PA297&dq=%22fang+too+were+quite+amazed%22&source=web&ots=NxCB1FWq5v&sig=SuHHSm8zvnJd8_I2cKp5Zc090R0&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=1&ct=result
|year=2001
}}</ref><ref>Fitzgerald 2007, p. 232</ref>
Likewise, some [[atheists]], [[agnostics]], [[deists]], and [[skeptics]] regard religious belief as superstition.
Religious practices are most likely to be labeled "superstitious" by outsiders when they include belief in extraordinary events (miracles), an afterlife, supernatural interventions, apparitions or the efficacy of prayer, charms, incantations, the meaningfulness of omens, and prognostications.

Greek and Roman pagans, who modeled their relations with the gods on political and social terms, scorned the man who constantly trembled with fear at the thought of the gods as a slave feared a cruel and capricious master. Such fear of the gods (''deisidaimonia'') was what the Romans meant by ''superstitio'' (Veyne 1987, p 211). [[Early Christianity]] was outlawed as a ''superstitio Iudaica'', a "Jewish superstition", by [[Domitian]] in the 80s AD, and by AD 425, [[Theodosius II]] outlawed [[Ancient Roman religion|pagan traditions]] as superstitious.

The Roman Catholic Church considers superstition to be sinful in the sense that it denotes a lack of trust in the divine providence of God and, as such, is a violation of the first of the Ten Commandments. The [[Catechism of the Catholic Church]] states that superstition "in some sense represents a perverse excess of religion" (para. #2110).
<blockquote>
Superstition is a deviation of religious feeling and of the practices this feeling imposes. It can even affect the worship we offer the true God, e.g., when one attributes an importance in some way magical to certain practices otherwise lawful or necessary. To attribute the efficacy of prayers or of sacramental signs to their mere external performance, apart from the interior dispositions that they demand is to fall into superstition. Cf. Matthew 23:16-22 (para. #2111)
</blockquote>

==Related forms of thought==
===Religion and philosophy===
{{Main|Philosophy of religion}}
{{Expand section|date=June 2008}}
Being both forms of [[belief system]], religion and [[philosophy]] meet in several areas - notably in the study of [[metaphysics]] and [[cosmology]]. In particular, a distinct set of religious beliefs will often entail a specific metaphysics and cosmology. That is, a religion will generally have answers to metaphysical and cosmological questions about the nature of being, of the universe, humanity, and the divine.

===Cosmology===
{{Main|Religious cosmology|Philosophy|Metaphysics|Esotericism|Mysticism}}
{{Main|Spirituality|Mythology|Philosophy of religion}}
[[Human]]s have many different methods which attempt to answer fundamental questions about the nature of the [[universe]] and our place in it ([[cosmology]]). Religion is only one of the methods for trying to answer one or more of these questions. Other methods include [[philosophy]], [[metaphysics]], [[astrology]], [[esotericism]], [[mysticism]], and forms of [[shamanism]], such as the sacred consumption of [[ayahuasca]] among [[Peru]]vian [[Amazonia]]'s [[Urarina]].<ref>Dean, Bartholomew 2009 ''Urarina Society, Cosmology, and History in Peruvian Amazonia'', Gainesville: University Press of Florida ISBN 978-081303378 [http://www.upf.com/book.asp?id=DEANXS07]</ref> The Urarina have an elaborate [[animistic]] [[cosmological]] system,<ref>Bartholomew Dean 1994 "The Poetics of Creation: Urarina Cosmology and Historical Consciousness." ''Latin American Indian Literatures Journal'' (10):22-45</ref> which informs their [[mythology]], [[religious]] orientation and daily existence. In many cases, the distinction between these means are not clear. For example, Buddhism and Taoism have been regarded as schools of philosophies as well as religions.

Given the generalized discontents with [[modernity]], [[consumerism]], over-[[Consumption (economics)|consumption]], [[violence]] and [[anomie]], many people in the so-called ''industrial'' or ''post-industrial'' ''West'' rely on a number of distinctive religious [[worldviews]]. This in turn has given rise to increased [[religious pluralism]], as well as to what are commonly known in the academic literature as [[new religious movements]], which are gaining ground across the globe.

===Religion and science===
{{Main|Relationship between religion and science}}
Religious knowledge, according to religious practitioners, may be gained from religious leaders, [[sacred text]]s ([[scriptures]]), and/or personal [[revelation]]. Some religions view such knowledge as unlimited in scope and suitable to answer any question; others see religious knowledge as playing a more restricted role, often as a complement to knowledge gained through physical observation. Some religious people maintain that religious knowledge obtained in this way is absolute and infallible ([[religious cosmology]]).

The [[scientific method]] gains knowledge by testing hypotheses to develop [[theories]] through elucidation of [[facts]] or evaluation by [[experiments]] and thus only answers [[physical cosmology|cosmological]] questions about the [[physical universe]]. It develops [[theory|theories]] of the world which best fit physically observed evidence. All scientific knowledge is subject to later refinement in the face of additional evidence. Scientific theories that have an overwhelming preponderance of favorable evidence are often treated as facts (such as the theories of gravity or evolution).

[[Image:God the Geometer.jpg|thumb|left|Early [[science]] such as [[geometry]] and [[Astrology and astronomy|astronomy]] was connected to the divine for most [[History of science in the Middle Ages|medieval scholars]]. The [[Compass (drafting)|compass]] in this 13th century manuscript is a symbol of God's act of [[Creation myth|creation]].]]

Many scientists have held strong religious beliefs (see [[List of Christian thinkers in science]]) and have worked to harmonize science and religion. [[Isaac Newton]], for example, believed that [[gravity]] caused the [[planet]]s to revolve about the [[Sun]], and credited [[God]] with the design. In the concluding General Scholium to the [[Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica]], he wrote: "This most beautiful System of the Sun, Planets and Comets, could only proceed from the counsel and dominion of an intelligent and powerful being." Nevertheless, conflict has repeatedly arisen between religious organizations and individuals who propagated scientific theories that were deemed unacceptable by the organizations. The [[Roman Catholic Church]], for example, has in the past<ref>Quotation: "''The Second Vatican Council affirmed academic freedom for natural science and other secular disciplines''". From the essay of Ted Peters about Science and Religion at "Lindsay Jones (editor in chief). Encyclopedia of Religion, Second Edition. Thomson Gale. 2005. p.8185"</ref> reserved to itself the right to decide which scientific theories were acceptable and which were unacceptable. In the 17th century, [[Galileo]] was tried and forced to recant the [[heliocentrism|heliocentric theory]] based on the church's stance that the Greek [[Greek astronomy|Hellenistic]] system of astronomy was the correct one.<ref>By Dr Paul Murdin, Lesley Murdin Photographs by Paul New. ''Supernovae'' Astronomy Murdin Published 1985, Cambridge UniversityPress Science,256 pages,ISBN 052130038X page 18.</ref><ref>Godfrey-Smith, Peter. 2003. Theory and reality: an introduction to the philosophy of science. Science and its conceptual foundations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Page 14.</ref> Today, however, only 7% of the members of the [[United States National Academy of Sciences|National Academy of Sciences]] believe in a god.<ref>Edward J. Larson and Larry Witham, ''Leading scientists still reject God'', in [[Nature (journal)|Nature]] July 23, 1998</ref>

===Epistemology===
{{Main|Epistemology}}
Many theories exist as to why religions sometimes seem to conflict with scientific knowledge. In the case of [[Christianity]], a relevant factor may be that it was among Christians that science in the modern sense was developed. Unlike other religious groups, as early as the 17th century the Christian churches had to deal directly with this new way to investigate nature and seek truth.

The perceived conflict between science and Christianity may also be partially explained by a literal interpretation of the [[Bible]] adhered to by many Christians, both currently and historically.
The Catholic Church has always held with [[Augustine of Hippo]] who explicitly opposed [[Biblical literalism|a literal interpretation of the Bible]] whenever the Bible conflicted with Science. The literal way to read the sacred texts became especially prevalent after the rise of the [[Protestant reformation]], with its emphasis on the Bible as the only authoritative source concerning the ultimate reality.<ref>Stanley Jaki. ''Bible and Science'', Christendom Press, 1996 (pages 110-111)</ref> This view is often shunned by both religious leaders (who regard literally believing it as petty and look for greater meaning instead) and scientists who regard it as an impossibility.

Some Christians have disagreed or are still disagreeing with scientists in areas such as the validity of [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|Keplerian astronomy]], the theory of [[evolution]], the method of creation of the [[universe]] and the Earth, and the origins of [[life]]. On the other hand, scholars such as [[Stanley Jaki]] have suggested that Christianity and its particular [[worldview]] was a crucial factor for the emergence of modern science. In fact, most of today's historians are moving away from the view of the relationship between Christianity and science as one of "conflict" — a perspective commonly called the [[conflict thesis]].<ref>{{cite book
| last = Spitz
| first = Lewis
| title = (The Rise of modern Europe) The protestant Reformation 1517-1559.
| publisher = Harper Torchbooks
| date= 1987
| pages = 383
| isbn = 0-06-132069-2 The historian of early modern Europe Lewis Spitz says "To set up a 'warfare of science and theology' is an exercise in futility and a reflection of a nineteenth century materialism now happily transcended"}}</ref><ref>Quotation: "''The [[conflict thesis]], at least in its simple form, is now widely perceived as a wholly inadequate intellectual framework within which to construct a sensible and realistic historiography of Western science.''" (p. 7), from the essay by [[Colin A. Russell]] "The Conflict Thesis" on "Gary Ferngren (editor). ''Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0".</ref> Gary Ferngren in his historical volume about Science & Religion states:

{{Quotation
|While some historians had always regarded the  [conflict] thesis as oversimplifying and distorting a complex relationship, in the late twentieth century it underwent a more systematic reevaluation. The result is the growing recognition among historians of science that the relationship of religion and science has been much more positive than is sometimes thought. Although popular images of controversy continue to exemplify the supposed hostility of Christianity to new scientific theories, studies have shown that Christianity has often nurtured and encouraged scientific endeavour, while at other times the two have co-existed without either tension or attempts at harmonization. If Galileo and the Scopes trial come to mind as examples of conflict, they were the exceptions rather than the rule.<ref>Gary Ferngren (editor). ''Science & Religion: A Historical Introduction''. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002. ISBN 0-8018-7038-0. (Introduction, p. ix)</ref>
}}

===Eastern religions===
[[File:Holika Dahan, Kathamandu, Nepal.jpg|right|thumb|200px|The [[Hindu]] population of South Asia comprises about 2,000 [[caste]]s.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/285248/India/46404/Caste India – Caste]. Encyclopædia Britannica.</ref> According to some Hindu literature, there are 330 million (including local and regional) [[Hindu deities]].<ref>{{citation | year=2003 | title = World Religions: A Voyage of Discovery | author1=Jeffrey Brodd | publisher=Saint Mary's Press | isbn=9780884897255 | page=45 | url=http://books.google.com/books?id=vOzNo4MVlgMC&pg=PA45&dq=%22330+million%22}}: '[..] many gods and goddesses (traditionally 330 million!) [...] Hinduism generally regards its 330 million as deities as extensions of one ultimate reality, many names for one ocean, many "masks" for one God.'</ref>]]
In the [[Bahá'í Faith]], the [[Bahá'í Faith and science|harmony of science and religion]] is a central tenet.<ref name="esslemont">{{cite book |author= Esslemont, J.E. |authorlink=John Esslemont |year= 1980 |title= Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era |edition= 5th |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA |isbn= 0-87743-160-4}}</ref> The principle states that that truth is one, and therefore true science and true religion must be in harmony, thus rejecting the view that science and religion are in conflict.<ref name="esslemont" /> [[`Abdu'l-Bahá]], the son of the founder of the religion, asserted that science and religion cannot be opposed because they are aspects of the same truth; he also affirmed that reasoning powers are required to understand the truths of religion and that religious teachings which are at variance with science should not be accepted; he explained that religion has to be reasonable since God endowed humankind with reason so that they can discover truth.<ref name="pup">{{cite book
|author=`Abdu'l-Bahá |authorlink=`Abdu'l-Bahá |origyear=1912 |year=1982 |title=The Promulgation of Universal Peace |edition=Hardcover |publisher=Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA | isbn=0-87743-172-8 |url=http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/ab/PUP/}}</ref> [[Shoghi Effendi]], the Guardian of the Bahá'í Faith, described science and religion as "the two most potent forces in human life."<ref name="wob">{{cite book |first=Shoghi |last=Effendi |authorlink= Shoghi Effendi |year= 1938 |title= The World Order of Bahá’u’lláh |publisher= Bahá'í Publishing Trust |location=Wilmette, Illinois, USA |isbn= 0-87743-231-7 |url= http://reference.bahai.org/en/t/se/WOB/index.html}}</ref>

Proponents of [[Hinduism]] claim that Hinduism is not afraid of scientific explorations, nor of the technological progress of mankind. According to them, there is a comprehensive scope and opportunity for Hinduism to mold itself according to the demands and aspirations of the modern world; it has the ability to align itself with both [[science]] and [[spiritualism]]. This religion uses some modern examples to explain its ancient theories and reinforce its own beliefs. For example, some Hindu thinkers have used the terminology of [[quantum physics]] to explain some basic concepts of Hinduism such as [[Maya (Hinduism)|Maya]] or the illusory and impermanent nature of our existence.
[[Image:Japanese buddhist monk by Arashiyama cut.jpg|left|thumb|130px|[[Sōtō]] monk in [[Arashiyama]], [[Kyoto]]]]
The philosophical approach known as [[pragmatism]], as propounded by the American [[philosopher]] and [[psychology|psychologist]] [[William James]], has been used to reconcile scientific with religious knowledge. Pragmatism, simplistically, holds that the truth of a set of beliefs can be indicated by its usefulness in helping people cope with a particular [[wiktionary:context|context]] of life. Thus, the fact that scientific beliefs are useful in predicting observations in the physical world can indicate a certain truth for scientific theories; the fact that religious beliefs can be useful in helping people cope with difficult emotions or moral decisions can indicate a certain truth for those beliefs. (For a similar postmodern view, see [[grand narrative]]).

===Mysticism and esotericism===
[[Image:7BrahmanMH.jpg|thumb|left|Man [[Meditation|meditating]]]]
[[Mysticism]] focuses on methods other than [[logic]], but (in the case of esoteric mysticism) not necessarily excluding it, for gaining enlightenment. Rather, [[Meditation|meditative]] and [[Contemplation|contemplative]] practices such as [[Vipassanā]] and [[yoga]], physical disciplines such as stringent [[fasting]] and whirling (in the case of the [[Sufi]] [[dervish]]es), or the use of [[psychoactive drug]]s such as [[LSD]], lead to altered states of consciousness that logic can never hope to grasp. However, regarding the latter topic, mysticism prevalent in the 'great' religions (monotheisms, henotheisms, which are perhaps relatively recent, and which the word 'mysticism' is more recent than,) includes systems of discipline that forbid drugs that can damage the body, including the nervous system.

[[Mysticism]] (to initiate) is the pursuit of communion with, or conscious awareness of [[ultimate reality]], the [[Divinity|divine]], [[Spirituality|spiritual truth]], or [[God|Deity]] through direct, personal experience (intuition or insight) rather than rational thought. Mystics speak of the existence of realities behind external perception or intellectual apprehension that are central to being and directly accessible through personal experience. They say that such experience is a genuine and important source of knowledge.

[[Esotericism]] is often spiritual (thus religious) but can be non-religious/-spiritual, and it uses intellectual understanding and reasoning, intuition and inspiration (higher noetic and spiritual reasoning,) but not necessarily faith (except often as a virtue,) and it is philosophical in its emphasis on techniques of psycho-spiritual transformation ([[esoteric cosmology]]). [[Esotericism]] refers to "hidden" knowledge available only to the advanced, privileged, or initiated, as opposed to [[Exotericism|exoteric knowledge]], which is public. All religions are probably somewhat [[Exotericism|exoteric]], but most ones of ancient civilizations such as [[Yoga]] of [[India]], and the [[Greco-Roman mysteries|mystery religion]]s of ancient [[ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Israel]] ([[Kabbalah]],) and [[ancient Greece|Greece]] are examples of ones that are also [[Esotericism|esoteric]].

===Spirituality===
{{Main|Spirituality}}
[[Image:Indian sadhu performing namaste.jpg|thumb|200px|A [[sadhu]] performing namaste in [[Madurai]], [[India]]]]
Members of an organized religion may not see any significant difference between religion and spirituality. Or they may see a distinction between the mundane, earthly aspects of their religion and its spiritual dimension.

Some individuals draw a strong distinction between religion and spirituality. They may see spirituality as a belief in ideas of religious significance (such as God, the Soul, or Heaven), but not feel bound to the bureaucratic structure and creeds of a particular organized religion. They choose the term ''[[spirituality]]'' rather than religion to describe their form of belief, perhaps reflecting a disillusionment with organized religion (see [[Major_religious_groups#Trends_in_adherence|Major religious groups]]), and a movement towards a more "modern" — more tolerant, and more intuitive — form of religion. These individuals may reject organized religion because of historical acts by religious organizations, such as Christian [[Crusades]] and [[Jihad|Islamic Jihad]], the marginalisation and persecution of various minorities or the [[Spanish Inquisition]]. The basic [[precept]] of the [[Hindu idealism|ancient spiritual tradition of India]], the [[Vedas]], is the ''inner reality'' of existence, which is essentially a spiritual approach to [[being]].

===Myth===
{{Main|Mythology}}
[[Image:Urarina shaman B Dean.jpg|thumb|right|[[Urarina]] [[shaman]], 1988]]
The word ''myth'' has several meanings.
#A traditional story of ostensibly historical events that serves to unfold part of the world view of a people or explain a practice, belief, or natural phenomenon;
#A person or thing having only an imaginary or unverifiable existence; or
#A metaphor for the spiritual potentiality in the human being.<ref>Joseph Campbell, The Power of Myth, p. 22 ISBN 0-385-24774-5</ref>

Ancient [[polytheism|polytheistic]] religions, such as those of [[Ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], and [[Scandinavia]], are usually categorized under the heading of [[mythology]]. Religions of pre-industrial peoples, or [[culture]]s in development, are similarly called "myths" in the [[anthropology of religion]]. The term "myth" can be used pejoratively by both religious and non-religious people. By defining another person's religious stories and beliefs as mythology, one implies that they are less real or true than one's own religious stories and beliefs. [[Joseph Campbell]] remarked, "Mythology is often thought of as other people's religions, and religion can be defined as mis-interpreted mythology."<ref>Joseph Campbell, Thou Art That: Transforming Religious Metaphor. Ed. Eugene Kennedy. New World Library ISBN 1-57731-202-3.</ref>

In sociology, however, the term ''myth'' has a non-pejorative meaning. There, ''myth'' is defined as a story that is important for the group whether or not it is objectively or provably true. Examples include the death and [[resurrection]] of [[Jesus]], which, to Christians, explains the means by which they are freed from sin and is also ostensibly a historical event. But from a mythological outlook, whether or not the event actually occurred is unimportant. Instead, the [[symbol]]ism of the death of an old "life" and the start of a new "life" is what is most significant. Religious believers may or may not accept such symbolic interpretations.

==See also==
{{portalbox
| name1 = Religion
| image1 = P religion world.svg
| name2 = Spirituality
| image2 = EndlessKnot03d.png
}}
{{Main|Outline of religion|Index of religion-related articles}}
* [[Economics of religion]]
* [[Philosophy of religion]]
* [[Sociology of religion]]
* [[Faith]]
* [[Belief]]
* [[List of religious populations]]
* [[List of religious texts]]
* [[Religions by country]]
* [[Wealth and religion]]
* [[Religion and happiness]]
* [[Religious conversion]]
* [[Theocracy]]
* [[Unbelieving]]

==References==
===Notes===
{{reflist|2}}

===Bibliography===
<div class="references-small">
*Saint Augustine; ''The Confessions of Saint Augustine'' (John K. Ryan translator); Image (1960), ISBN 0-385-02955-1.
*Descartes, René; ''Meditations on First Philosophy''; Bobbs-Merril (1960), ISBN 0-672-60191-5.
*Barzilai, Gad; ''Law and Religion''; The International Library of Essays in Law and Society; Ashgate (2007),ISBN 978-0-7546-2494-3
*Durant, Will (& Ariel (uncredited)); ''Our Oriental Heritage''; MJF Books (1997), ISBN 1-56731-012-5.
*Durant, Will (& Ariel (uncredited)); ''Caesar and Christ''; MJF Books (1994), ISBN 1-56731-014-1
*Durant, Will (& Ariel (uncredited)); ''The Age of Faith''; Simon & Schuster (1980), ISBN 0-671-01200-2.
*[[Marija Gimbutas]] 1989. ''The Language of the Goddess''. Thames and Hudson New York
*Gonick, Larry; ''The Cartoon History of the Universe''; Doubleday, vol. 1 (1978) ISBN 0-385-26520-4, vol. II (1994) ISBN#0-385-42093-5, W. W. Norton, vol. III (2002) ISBN 0-393-05184-6.
*Haisch, Bernard ''The God Theory: Universes, Zero-point Fields, and What's Behind It All'' -- discussion of science vs. religion ([http://www.thegodtheory.com/preface.html Preface]), Red Wheel/Weiser, 2006, ISBN 1-57863-374-5
*Lao Tzu; ''Tao Te Ching'' (Victor H. Mair translator); Bantam (1998).
*Marx, Karl; "Introduction to A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right", ''Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher'', (1844).
*Saler, Benson; "Conceptualizing Religion: Immanent Anthropologists, Transcendent Natives, and Unbounded Categories" (1990), ISBN 1-57181-219-9
*''The Holy Bible'', King James Version; New American Library (1974).
*''The Koran''; Penguin (2000), ISBN 0-14-044558-7.
*''The Origin of Live & Death'', African Creation Myths; Heinemann (1966).
*''Poems of Heaven and Hell from Ancient Mesopotamia''; Penguin (1971).
*''The World Almanac'' (annual), World Almanac Books, ISBN 0-88687-964-7.
*''[http://ajp.psychiatryonline.org/cgi/content/full/160/11/1965 The Serotonin System and Spiritual Experiences]'' - American Journal of Psychiatry 160:1965-1969, November 2003.
*United States Constitution
*''Selected Work'' Marcus Tullius Cicero
*''The World Almanac'' (for numbers of adherents of various religions), 2005
*Religion [First Edition]. Winston King. ''Encyclopedia of Religion''. Ed. Lindsay Jones. Vol. 11. 2nd ed. Detroit: Macmillan Reference USA, 2005. p7692-7701.
*''World Religions and Social Evolution of the Old World Oikumene Civilizations: A Cross-cultural Perspective'' by [[Andrey Korotayev]], Lewiston, NY: Edwin Mellen Press, 2004, ISBN 0-7734-6310-0.
*{{cite book | last = Brodd | first = Jefferey | authorlink = | coauthors = | title = World Religions | publisher = Saint Mary's Press | date = 2003 | location = Winona, MN | pages = | url = | doi = | id = | isbn = 978-0-88489-725-5}}

'''On religion definition''':
*The first major study: [[Émile Durkheim|Durkheim, Emile]] (1976) ''The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life.'' London: George Allen & Unwin (in French 1912, English translation 1915).
* [[Wilfred Cantwell Smith]] ''The Meaning and End of Religion'' (1962) notes that the concept of religion as an ideological community and system of doctrines, developed in the 15th and 16th centuries CE.
*A distillation of the Western folk category of religion: [[Clifford Geertz|Geertz, Clifford]]. 1993 [1966]. ''[http://web.archive.org/web/20070925190332/http://resources.theology.ox.ac.uk/library/data/pdf/THD0111.pdf Religion as a cultural system]''. Pp. 87-125 in Clifford Geertz, ''[http://books.google.com/books?hl=it&lr=&id=BZ1BmKEHti0C The Interpretation of Cultures: Selected Essays]''. London: Fontana Press.
*An [[operational definition]]: [[Anthony F. C. Wallace|Wallace, Anthony F. C.]] 1966. ''Religion: An Anthropological View''. New York: Random House. (p. 62-66)
*A recent overview: ''[http://www.anpere.net/2007/2.pdf A Scientific Definition of Religion]''. By Ph.D. James W. Dow.
</div>

==External links==
{{Commons category|Religion}}
{{wikiquote}}
*[http://www.iacsr.com IACSR - International Association for the Cognitive Science of Religion]
*[http://www.as.ua.edu/rel/studyingreligion.html Studying Religion] - Introduction to the methods and scholars of the academic study of religion
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1843/critique-hpr/intro.htm#05 A Contribution to the Critique of Hegel’s Philosophy of Right] - Marx's original reference to religion as the ''opium of the people''.
*[http://www.law.harvard.edu/students/orgs/hrj/iss16/gunn.shtml The Complexity of Religion and the Definition of “Religion” in International Law] Harvard Human Rights Journal article from the President and Fellows of Harvard College(2003)
*[http://www.adherents.com/Religions_By_Adherents.html Major Religions of the World Ranked by Number of Adherents] by Adherents.com (August 28, 2005) Retrieved December 22, 2005
*[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/us/religion.htm Religion Statistics] from ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
*{{dmoz|Society/Religion_and_Spirituality}}

{{Religion topics|state=expanded}}
{{philosophy of religion}}

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Ellipse

2010-03-07T02:22:40Z

Dave Runger: /* Definition */ revert vandalism

{{Redirect|Elliptical|exercise machine|elliptical trainer}}
{{Otheruses}}
[[Image:Conicas1.PNG|right|thumb|An ellipse obtained as the intersection of a [[cone (geometry)|cone]] with a plane.]]
[[Image:Saturn - Lord of the Rings.jpg|right|thumb|The rings of [[Saturn]] are circular, but when seen partially edge on, as in this photograph, they appear to be ellipses. Photo by [[European Southern Observatory|ESO]]]]
In [[geometry]], an '''ellipse''' (from [[Greek language|Greek]] ἔλλειψις ''elleipsis'', a "falling short") is a [[plane curve]] that results from the intersection of a [[cone]] by a [[plane (mathematics)|plane]] in a way that produces a closed curve. Circles are special cases of ellipses, obtained when the cutting plane is perpendicular to the axis. An ellipse is also the [[Locus (mathematics)|locus]] of all points of the plane whose distances to two fixed points add to the same constant.

Ellipses are [[closed curve]]s and are the [[bounded set|bounded]] case of the [[conic section]]s, the curves that result from the intersection of a circular cone and a plane that does not pass through its [[apex (geometry)|apex]]; the other two ([[open curve|open]] and [[unbounded set|unbounded]]) cases are [[parabola]]s and [[hyperbola]]s. Ellipses also arise as images of a [[circle]] under [[parallel projection]] and some cases of [[perspective projection]]. It is also the simplest [[Lissajous figure]], formed when the horizontal and vertical motions are [[sinusoid]]s with the same frequency.

==Elements of an ellipse==
[[Image:Ellipse Properties.svg|thumb|right|200px|The ellipse and some of its mathematical properties.]]

An ellipse is a smooth closed curve which is [[symmetry|symmetric]] about its center. The distance between [[antipodal]] points on the ellipse, or pairs of points whose midpoint is at the center of the ellipse, is maximum and minimum along two perpendicular directions, the '''major axis''' or '''transverse diameter''', and the '''minor axis''' or '''conjugate diameter'''.<ref>
{{cite book | last = Haswell | first = Charles Haynes | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=Uk4wAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA381&zoom=3&hl=en&sig=3QTM7ZfZARnGnPoqQSDMbx8JeHg | title = Mechanics' and Engineers' Pocket-book of Tables, Rules, and Formulas | publisher = Harper & Brothers | date = 1920 | accessdate = 2007-04-09 }}
</ref>

The '''[[semimajor axis]]''' (denoted by ''a'' in the figure) and the '''[[semi-minor axis|semiminor axis]]''' (denoted by ''b'' in the figure) are one half of the major and minor diameters, respectively. These are sometimes called (especially in technical fields) the '''major''' and '''minor semi-axes''',<ref>
[[John Herschel]] (1842) [http://books.google.com.br/books?id=hh0uNybw1ZUC&pg=PA256&dq=ellipse+%22major+semi-axis%22&num=20&client=firefox-a&hl=en A Treatise on Astronomy‎, page 256]
</ref><ref>
[[John Lankford]] (1996), [http://books.google.com.br/books?id=berWESi5c5QC&pg=RA1-PA194&dq=ellipse+%22major+semi-axis%22&lr=&num=20&client=firefox-a&hl=en History of Astronomy: An Encyclopedia, page 194]
</ref> the '''major''' and '''minor semiaxes''',<ref>
[[Viktor Vasilʹevich Prasolov|V. Prasolov]] and [[Vladimir Mikhaĭlovich Tikhomirov|V. Tikhomirov]] (2001), [http://books.google.com.br/books?id=t7kbhDDUFSkC&pg=PA80&dq=ellipse+%22major+semiaxis%22&lr=&num=20&client=firefox-a&hl=en Geometry‎, page 80]
</ref><ref>
[[Donald Fenna]] (2006), [http://books.google.com.br/books?id=8LZeu8RxOIsC&pg=PA24&dq=ellipse+%22major+semiaxis%22&lr=&num=20&client=firefox-a&hl=en Cartographic science: a compendium of map projections, with derivations‎, page 24]
</ref> or '''major [[radius (geometry)|radius]]''' and '''minor radius'''.<ref>
[http://books.google.com.br/books?id=q4hRAAAAMAAJ&q=ellipse+%22major+radius%22&dq=ellipse+%22major+radius%22&num=20&client=firefox-a&hl=en Autocad release 13: command reference‎, page 216]
</ref><ref>
[[David Salomon]] (2006), [http://books.google.com.br/books?id=m0Je92uycVAC&pg=PA365&dq=ellipse+%22major+radius%22&num=20&client=firefox-a&hl=en Curves and surfaces for computer graphics‎, page 365]
</ref><ref>
CRC Press (2004), [http://books.google.com.br/books?id=0WhNqUk0vvUC&pg=PT1595&dq=ellipse+%22major+radius%22&lr=&num=20&client=firefox-a&hl=en The CRC handbook of mechanical engineering, page 11-8]
</ref><ref>
[[The Mathematical Association of America]] (1976), [http://books.google.com.br/books?id=Xpk0AAAAIAAJ&q=ellipse+%22major+radius%22&dq=ellipse+%22major+radius%22&lr=&num=20&client=firefox-a&hl=en The American Mathematical Monthly, vol. 83, page 207]
</ref> When ''a'' and ''b'' are equal, the foci coincide with the center, and the ellipse becomes a circle with radius ''a''=''b''.

There are two special points ''F1'' and ''F2'' on the ellipse's major axis, on either side of the center, such that the sum of the distances from any point of the ellipse to those two points is constant and equal to the major diameter (2''a''). Each of these two points is called a '''[[focus (geometry)|focus]]''' of the ellipse.

The '''[[eccentricity (mathematics)|eccentricity]]''' of an ellipse, usually denoted by ''ε'' or ''e'', is the ratio of the distance between the foci to the length of the major axis. The eccentricity is necessarily between 0 and 1; it is zero if and only if ''a''=''b'', in which case the ellipse is a circle. As the eccentricity [[limit of a function|tends to]] 1, the ellipse gets a more elongated shape and tends either towards a line segment (see below) or a [[parabola]], and the ratio ''a''/''b'' tends to infinity. The distance ''a''<nowiki></nowiki>''e'' from a focal point to the centre is called the '''linear eccentricity''' of the ellipse.

== Drawing ellipses==
===The pins-and-string method===

[[Image:Drawing an ellipse via two tacks a loop and a pen.jpg|thumb|right|300|Drawing an ellipse with two pins, a loop and a pen.]]

An ellipse can be drawn using two [[drawing pin]]s, a length of string, and a pencil:

:Push the pins into the paper at two points, which will become the ellipse's foci. Tie the string into a loose loop around the two pins. Pull the loop taut with the pencil's tip, so as to form a [[triangle]]. Move the pencil around, while keeping the string taut, and its tip will trace out an ellipse.

If the ellipse is to be inscribed within a specified [[rectangle]], tangent to its four sides at their midpoints, one must first determine the position of the foci and the length of the string loop:

:Let ''A'',''B'',''C'',''D'' be the corners of the rectangle, in clockwise order, with ''A''-''B'' being one of the long sides. Draw a circle centered on ''A'', whose radius is the short side ''A''-''D''. From corner ''B'' draw a tangent to the circle. The length ''L'' of this tangent is the distance between the foci. Draw two perpendicular lines through the center of the rectangle and parallel to its sides; these will be the major and minor axes of the ellipse. Place the foci on the major axis, symmetrically, at distance ''L''/2 from the center.

To adjust the length of the string loop, insert a pin at one focus, and another pin at the opposite end of the major diameter. Loop the string around the two pins and tie it taut. Then draw the ellipse as above; it should fit snugly in the original rectangle.

===Other methods===
[[File:Archimedes Trammel.gif|thumb|right|200px|[[Trammel of Archimedes]] (elpsograph) animation]]
An ellipse can also be drawn using a [[ruler]], a [[set square]], and a pencil:

:Draw two perpendicular lines ''M'',''N'' on the paper; these will be the major and minor axes of the ellipse. Mark three points ''A'', ''B'', ''C'' on the ruler. With one hand, move the ruler onto the paper, turning and sliding it so as to keep point ''A'' always on line ''M'', and ''B'' on line ''N''. With the other hand, keep the pencil's tip on the paper, following point ''C'' of the ruler. The tip will trace out an ellipse.

The [[trammel of Archimedes]] or ellipsograph is a mechanical device that implements this principle. The ruler is replaced by a rod with a pencil holder (point ''C'') at one end, and two adjustable side pins (points ''A'' and ''B'') that slide into two perpendicular slots cut into a metal plate. <ref>H.T. Brown ''Five hundred and seven mechanical movements'' Brown & Brown (1881) p. 41 [http://books.google.com/books?id=TFwOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA41 Google books]</ref> The mechanism can be used with a [[router (woodworking)|router]] to cut ellipses from board material. The mechanism is also used in a toy called the "nothing grinder".

===Approximations to ellipses===
An ellipse of low eccentricity can be represented reasonably accurately by a circle with its centre offset. With the exception of Mercury, all the planets have an orbit whose minor axis differs from the major axis by less than half of one percent. To draw the orbit with a pair of compasses the centre of the circle should be offset from the focus by an amount equal to the eccentricity multiplied by the radius.

==Ellipses in physics==
=== Elliptical reflectors and acoustics ===
If the water's surface is disturbed at one focus of an elliptical water tank, the circular waves created by that disturbance, after being [[reflection (physics)|reflected]] by the walls, will converge simultaneously to a single point — the second focus. This is a consequence of the total travel length being the same along any wall-bouncing path between the two foci.

Similarly, if a light source is placed at one focus of an elliptic [[mirror]], all light rays on the plane of the ellipse are reflected to the second focus. Since no other smooth curve has such a property, it can be used as an alternative definition of an ellipse. (In the special case of a circle with a source at its center all light would be reflected back to the center.) If the ellipse is rotated along its major axis to produce an [[ellipsoid]]al mirror (specifically, a [[prolate spheroid]]), this property will hold for all rays out of the source. Alternatively, a cylindrical mirror with elliptical cross-section can be used to focus light from a linear [[fluorescent lamp]] along a line of the paper; such mirrors are used in some [[image scanner|document scanner]]s.

Sound waves are reflected in a similar way, so in a large elliptical room a person standing at one focus can hear a person standing at the other focus remarkably well. The effect is even more evident under a [[cupola|vaulted roof]] shaped as a section of a prolate spheroid. Such a room is called a ''[[whisper chamber]]''. The same effect can be demonstrated with two reflectors shaped like the end caps of such a spheroid, placed facing each other at the proper distance. Examples are the [[National Statuary Hall]] at the [[United States Capitol]] (where [[John Quincy Adams]] is said to have used this property for eavesdropping on political matters), at an exhibit on sound at the [[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)|Museum of Science and Industry]] in [[Chicago]], in front of the [[University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign]] Foellinger Auditorium, and also at a side chamber of the Palace of Charles V, in the [[Alhambra]].

=== Planetary orbits ===
{{see|Elliptic orbit}}

The idea of planets moving in an elliptic [[orbit]] was proposed in the 5th century by the [[Indian astronomy|Indian astronomer]] [[Aryabhata]]<ref name=Hayashi08Aryabhata>Hayashi (2008), ''Aryabhata I''</ref> and later in the 11th century by the [[Astronomy in medieval Islam|Islamic astronomers]] [[Abu Rayhan Biruni|Biruni]]<ref>David C. Lindberg, ''Science in the Middle Ages'', [[University of Chicago Press]], p. 19</ref> and [[Abū Ishāq Ibrāhīm al-Zarqālī|Arzachel]], though in a [[Geocentric model|geocentric]] context.<ref>{{citation|title=The Influence of Islamic Astronomy in Europe and the Far East|last=Rufus|first=W. C.|journal=Popular Astronomy|volume=47|issue=5|date=May 1939|pages=233-238 [237]}}</ref> In the 15th century, the [[Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics|Kerala astronomer]] [[Nilakantha Somayaji]] proposed elliptic orbits in a [[Tychonic system|geoheliocentric]] context (where the planets orbit the Sun, which in turn orbits the Earth).<ref>{{citation|author=B S Shylaja and J N Planetarium|title=500 years of Tantrasangraha—A landmark in the history of astronomy|journal=Resonance|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|issn=0973-712X|volume=8|issue=4|date=April 2003|doi=10.1007/BF02883537|pages=66-68 [68]}}</ref> In the 17th century, [[Johannes Kepler]] discovered that the orbits along which the planets travel around the Sun are ellipses with the Sun at one focus, in his [[Kepler's laws of planetary motion|first law of planetary motion]]. Later, [[Isaac Newton]] explained this as a corollary of his [[Newton's law of universal gravitation|law of universal gravitation]].

More generally, in the gravitational [[two-body problem]], if the two bodies are bound to each other (i.e., the total energy is negative), their orbits are [[Similarity (geometry)|similar]] ellipses with the common [[barycenter]] being one of the foci of each ellipse. The other focus of either ellipse has no known physical significance. Interestingly, the orbit of either body in the reference frame of the other is also an ellipse, with the other body at one focus.

Keplerian elliptical orbits are the result of any radially-directed attraction force whose strength is inversely proportional to the square of the distance. Thus, in principle, the motion of two oppositely-charged particles in empty space would also be an ellipse. (However, this conclusion ignores losses due to [[electromagnetic radiation]] and [[quantum mechanics|quantum effects]] which become significant when the particles are moving at high speed.)

=== Harmonic oscillators ===

The general solution for a [[harmonic oscillator]] in two or more [[dimension]]s is also an ellipse. Such is the case, for instance, of a long pendulum that is free to move in two dimensions; of a mass attached to a fixed point by a perfectly elastic [[spring (mechanics)|spring]]; or of any object that moves under influence of an attractive force that is directly proportional to its distance from a fixed attractor. Unlike Keplerian orbits, however, these "harmonic orbits" have the center of attraction at the geometric center of the ellipse, and have fairly simple equations of motion.

=== Phase visualization ===

In [[electronics]], the relative phase of two sinusoidal signals can be compared by feeding them to the vertical and horizontal inputs of an [[oscilloscope]]. If the display is an ellipse, rather than a straight line, the two signals are out of phase.

=== Elliptical gears ===

Two [[gear]]s with the same elliptical outline, each pivoting around one focus and positioned at the proper angle, will turn smoothly while maintaining contact at all times. Alternatively, they can be connected by a [[link chain]] or [[timing belt]]. Such [[elliptical gears]] may be used in mechanical equipment to produce variable [[angular speed]] or [[torque]] from a constant rotation of the driving axle. An example application would be a device that winds thread onto a conical [[bobbin]] on a [[Spinning (textiles)|spinning]] machine. The bobbin would need to wind faster when the thread is near the apex than when it is near the base. <ref>G.B. Grant ''A Treatise on Gear Wheels'' Philadelphia Gear Works (1906) p. 72 [http://books.google.com/books?id=fPoOAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA72 Google books]</ref>

=== Optics ===

In a material that is optically [[anisotropic]] ([[birefringent]]), the [[refractive index]] depends on the direction of the light. The dependency can be described by an [[index ellipsoid]]. (If the material is optically [[isotropic]], this ellipsoid is a sphere.)

==Mathematical definitions and properties==
===In Euclidean geometry===
====Definition====
In [[Euclidean geometry]], an ellipse is usually defined as the bounded case of a conic section, or as the locus of the points such that the sum of the distances to two fixed points is constant. The equivalence of these two definitions can be proved using the [[Dandelin spheres]].

====Eccentricity====
The eccentricity of the ellipse is
: <math>e=\varepsilon=\sqrt{\frac{a^2-b^2}{a^2}}
=\sqrt{1-\left(\frac{b}{a}\right)^2}</math>
The distance from the center to either focus is ''ae'', or simply <math>\sqrt{a^2-b^2}</math>

====Directrix====
Each focus ''F'' of the ellipse is associated to a line ''D'' perpendicular to the major axis (the [[directrix]]) such that the distance from any point on the ellipse to ''F'' is a constant fraction of its distance from ''D''. This property (which can be proved using the [[Dandelin spheres]]) can be taken as another definition of the ellipse. The ratio between the two distances is the eccentricity ''e'' of the ellipse; so the distance from the center to the directrix is ''a''/''e''.

====Ellipse as hypotrochoid====
[[Image:Ellipse as hypotrochoid.gif|right|300|thumb|An ellipse (in red) as a special case of the hypotrochoid with ''R''=2''r''.]]
The ellipse is a special case of the [[hypotrochoid]] when ''R''=2''r''.

==== Area ====
The [[area (geometry)|area]] enclosed by an ellipse is ''πab'', where (as before) ''a'' and ''b'' are one-half of the ellipse's major and minor axes respectively.

If the ellipse is given by the implicit equation <math>A x^2+ B x y + C y^2 + 1 = 0</math>, then the area is <math>\frac{2\pi}{\sqrt{B^2 - 4 A C}}</math>.

====Circumference====
The [[circumference]] <math>C</math> of an ellipse is <math>4 a E(\varepsilon^2)</math>,
where the function <math>E</math> is the complete [[elliptic integral]] of the second kind. The exact [[infinite series]] is:

:<math>C = 2\pi a \left[{1 - \left({1\over 2}\right)^2\varepsilon^2 - \left({1\cdot 3\over 2\cdot 4}\right)^2{\varepsilon^4\over 3} - \left({1\cdot 3\cdot 5\over 2\cdot 4\cdot 6}\right)^2{\varepsilon^6\over5} - \dots}\right]</math>

or

:<math>C = - 2\pi a \sum_{n=0}^\infty {\varepsilon^{2n}\over 2n - 1} \prod_{m=1}^n \left({ 2m-1 \over 2m}\right)^2 \,\!</math>

For computational purposes a much faster series where the denominators vanish at a rate <math>\tfrac{27}{1024} \left (\tfrac{a-b}{a+b} \right )^{8} </math> is given by:

<math>

C = \frac{8\pi}{Q^{5/4}}\sum_{n=0}^\infty \frac{(\tfrac{1}{12})_{n}(\tfrac{5}{12})_{n}(v_{1}+nv_{2})r^{n}}{(n!)^{2}} </math>

:<math>
r = \tfrac{432(a^{2}-b^{2})^{2}(a-b)^{6}ba}{Q^3}
</math>
:<math>
Q = b^{4}+60ab^{3}+134a^{2}b^{2}+60a^{3}b+a^{4}
</math>
:<math>
v_{1} = ba(15b^{4}+68ab^{3}+90a^{2}b^{2}+68a^{3}b+15a^{4})
</math>
:<math>
v_{2} = -a^{6}-b^{6}+126ab^{5}+1041a^{2}b^{4}+1764a^{3}b^{3}+1041a^{4}b^{2}+126a^{5}b
</math>

<ref>Cetin Hakimoglu-Brown [http://www.iamned.com/math/ iamned.com math page </ref>

A good [[approximation]] is [[Srinivasa Ramanujan|Ramanujan]]'s:

:<math>C \approx \pi \left[3(a+b) - \sqrt{(3a+b)(a+3b)}\right]= \pi(3(a+b)-\sqrt{10ab+3(a^2+b^2)})</math>

or better [[approximation]]:

:<math>C\approx\pi\left(a+b\right)\left(1+\frac{3\left(\frac{a-b}{a+b}\right)^2}{10+\sqrt{4-3\left(\frac{a-b}{a+b}\right)^2}}\right);\!\,</math>

For the special case where the minor axis is half the major axis, we can use:

:<math>C \approx \frac{\pi a (9 - \sqrt{35})}{2}</math>

or the better approximation

:<math>C \approx \frac{a}{2} \sqrt{93 + \frac{1}{2} \sqrt{3}}</math>

More generally, the [[arc length]] of a portion of the circumference, as a function of the angle subtended, is given by an incomplete [[elliptic integral]]. The [[inverse function]], the angle subtended as a function of the arc length, is given by the [[elliptic functions]].

===In projective geometry===
In [[projective geometry]], an ellipse can be defined as the set of all points of intersection between corresponding lines of two [[pencil (mathematics)|pencils of lines]] which are related by a [[projective map]]. By [[projective duality]], an ellipse can be defined also as the [[envelope (mathematics)|envelope]] of all lines that connect corresponding points of two lines which are related by a projective map.

This definition also generates hyperbolae and parabolae. However, in projective geometry every conic section is equivalent to an ellipse. A parabola is an ellipse that is tangent to the line at infinity Ω, and the hyperbola is an ellipse that crosses Ω.

An ellipse is also the result of [[oblique projection|projecting]] a circle, sphere, or ellipse in three dimensions onto a plane, by [[parallel (geometry)|parallel]] lines. It is also the result of conical (perspective) projection of any of those geometric objects from a point ''O'' onto a plane ''P'', provided that the plane ''Q'' that goes through ''O'' and is parallel to ''P'' does not cut the object. The image of an ellipse by any [[affine map]] is an ellipse, and so is the image of an ellipse by any projective map ''M'' such that the line ''M''−1(Ω) does not touch or cross the ellipse.

===In analytic geometry===
====General ellipse====

In [[analytic geometry]], the ellipse is defined as the set of points <math>(X,Y)</math> of the [[Cartesian plane]] that satisfy the implicit equation

:<math>~A X^2 + B X Y + C Y^2 + D X + E Y + F = 0</math>

provided that ''F'' is not zero and <math>F(B^2 - 4 A C)</math> is positive; or of the form

:<math>~A X^2 + B X Y + C Y^2 + D X + E Y = 1</math>

with <math>~B^2 - 4 A C < 0</math>

====Canonical form====

By a proper choice of coordinate system, the ellipse can be described by the [[canonical form|canonical implicit equation]]

:<math>\frac{x^2}{a^2}+\frac{y^2}{b^2}=1</math>

Here <math>(x,y)</math> are the point coordinates in the canonical system, whose origin is the center <math>(X_c,Y_c)</math> of the ellipse, whose <math>x</math>-axis is the unit vector <math>(X_a,Y_a)</math> parallel to the major axis, and whose <math>y</math>-axis is the perpendicular vector <math>(-Y_a,X_a)</math> That is, <math>x = X_a(X - X_c) + Y_a(Y - Y_c)</math> and <math>y = -Y_a(X - X_c) + X_a(Y - Y_c)</math>.

In this system, the center is the origin <math>(0,0)</math> and the foci are <math>(-e a, 0)</math> and <math>(+e a, 0)</math>.

Any ellipse can be obtained by [[rotation (geometry)|rotation]] and [[translation (geometry)|translation]] of a canonical ellipse with the proper semi-diameters. Moreover, any canonical ellipse can be obtained by scaling the [[unit circle]] of <math>\reals^2</math>, defined by the equation

:<math>X^2+Y^2=1\,</math>

by factors ''a'' and ''b'' along the two axes.

For an ellipse in canonical form, we have

:<math> Y = \pm b\sqrt{1 - (X/a)^2} = \pm \sqrt{(a^2-X^2)(1 - e^2)}</math>

The distances from a point <math>(X,Y)</math> on the ellipse to the left and right foci are <math>a + e X</math> and <math>a - e X</math>, respectively.

===In trigonometry===
==== General parametric form ====
An ellipse in general position can be expressed [[parametric equation|parametrically]] as the path of a point <math>(X(t),Y(t))</math>, where
:<math>X(t)=X_c + a\,\cos t\,\cos \phi - b\,\sin t\,\sin\phi</math>
:<math>Y(t)=Y_c + a\,\cos t\,\sin \phi + b\,\sin t\,\cos\phi</math>
as the parameter ''t'' varies from 0 to 2''π''. Here <math>(X_c,Y_c)</math> is the center of the ellipse, and <math>\phi</math> is the angle between the <math>X</Math>-axis and the major axis of the ellipse.

==== Parametric form in canonical position ====
[[File:Parametric ellipse.gif|thumb|right|200px|Parametric equation for the ellipse (red) in canonical position. The eccentric anomaly ''t'' is the angle of the blue line with the X-axis.]]
For an ellipse in canonical position (center at origin, major axis along the ''X''-axis), the equation simplifies to
:<math>X(t)=a\,\cos t</math>
:<math>Y(t)=b\,\sin t</math>
Note that the parameter ''t'' (called the '''[[eccentric anomaly]]''' in astronomy) is ''not'' the angle of <math>(X(t),Y(t))</math> with the ''X''-axis.

==== Polar form relative to center ====
In [[polar coordinates]], with the origin at the center of the ellipse and with the angular coordinate <math>\theta = 0</math> measured from the major axis, the ellipse's equation is
:<math>r(\theta)=\frac{ab}{\sqrt{(b \cos \theta)^2 + (a\sin \theta)^2}}</math>

==== Polar form relative to focus ====
[[Image:Ellipse Polar.svg|thumb|right|200px|Polar coordinates centered at focus.]]
If instead we use polar coordinates with the origin at one focus, with the angular coordinate <math>\theta = 0</math> still measured from the major axis, the ellipse's equation is
:<math>r(\theta)=\frac{a (1-\varepsilon^{2})}{1 \pm \varepsilon \cos\theta}</math>
where the sign in the denominator is negative if the reference direction <math>\theta = 0</math> points towards the center (as illustrated on the right), and positive if that direction points away from the center.

In the slightly more general case of an ellipse with one focus at the origin and the other focus at angular coordinate <math>\phi</math>, the polar form is
:<math>r=\frac{a (1-\varepsilon^{2})}{1 - \varepsilon \cos(\theta - \phi)}.</math>

The angle <math>\theta</math> in these formulas is called the '''[[true anomaly]]''' of the point. The numerator <math>a (1-\varepsilon^{2})</math> of these formulas is the '''[[semi-latus rectum]]''' of the ellipse, usually denoted <math>l</math>. It is the distance from a focus of the ellipse to the ellipse itself, measured along a line [[perpendicular]] to the major axis.
[[Image:Elps-slr.svg|thumb|right|200px|Semi-latus rectum.]]

==== General polar form ====
The following equation on the polar coordinates (''r'',''θ'') describes a general ellipse with semidiameters ''a'' and ''b'', centered at a point (''r''0,''θ''0), with the ''a'' axis rotated by ''φ'' relative to the polar axis:

:<math>r(\theta )=\frac{P(\theta )+Q(\theta )}{R(\theta )}</math>

where

:<math>P(\theta )=r_0 \left(\left(b^2-a^2\right) \cos \left(\theta +\theta _0-2 \varphi
\right)+\left(a^2+b^2\right) \cos \left(\theta -\theta_0\right)\right)</math>

:<math>Q(\theta )=\sqrt{2} a b \sqrt{R(\theta )-2 r_0^2 \sin ^2\left(\theta -\theta_0\right)}</math>

:<math>R(\theta )=\left(b^2-a^2\right) \cos (2 \theta -2 \varphi )+a^2+b^2</math>

====Gauss-mapped form====
The [[Gauss map|Gauss-mapped]] equation of the ellipse gives the coordinates of the point on the ellipse where the normal makes an angle <math>\beta</math> with the ''X''-axis:
:<math>X(\beta) = \frac{a\cos\beta}{\sqrt{a^2\cos^2\beta+b^2\sin^2\beta}}</math>
:<math>Y(\beta) =\frac{b\sin\beta}{\sqrt{a^2\cos^2\beta+b^2\sin^2\beta}}</math>

==== Angular eccentricity ====

The [[angular eccentricity]] <math>o\!\varepsilon</math> is the angle whose sine is the eccentricity ''e''; that is,

:<math>o\!\varepsilon=\cos^{-1}\left(\frac{b}{a}\right)=2\tan^{-1}\left(\sqrt{\frac{a-b}{a+b}}\right);\,\!</math>

===Degrees of freedom===
An ellipse in the plane has five [[degree of freedom|degrees of freedom]] (the same as a general conic section), defining its position, orientation, shape, and scale. In comparison, circles have only three degrees of freedom (position and scale), while parabolae have four. Said another way, the set of all ellipses in the plane, with any natural metric (such as the [[Hausdorff metric|Hausdorff distance]]) is a five-dimensional [[manifold (mathematics)|manifold]]. These degrees can be identified with, for example, the coefficients ''A'',''B'',''C'',''D'',''E'' of the implicit equation, or with the coefficients ''X''c, ''Y''c, ''φ'', ''a'', ''b'' of the general parametric form.

== Ellipses in computer graphics ==

Drawing an ellipse as a [[graphics primitive]] is common in standard display libraries, such as the Macintosh [[QuickDraw]] API, the Windows [[Graphics Device Interface]] (GDI) and the [[Windows Presentation Foundation]] (WPF). Often such libraries are limited to drawing ellipses with the major axis horizontal or vertical. [[Jack Bresenham]] at IBM is most famous for the invention of 2D drawing primitives, including line and circle drawing, using only fast integer operations such as addition and branch on carry bit. An efficient generalization to draw ellipses was invented in 1984 by [[Jerry Van Aken]] (IEEE CG&A, Sept. 1984).

The following is example JavaScript code using the parametric formula for an ellipse to calculate a set of points. The ellipse can be then approximated by connecting the points with lines.

<source lang="javascript">
/*
* This functions returns an array containing 36 points to draw an
* ellipse.
*
* @param x {double} X coordinate
* @param y {double} Y coordinate
* @param a {double} Semimajor axis
* @param b {double} Semiminor axis
* @param angle {double} Angle of the ellipse
*/
function calculateEllipse(x, y, a, b, angle, steps)
{
if (steps == null)
steps = 36;
var points = [];

// Angle is given by Degree Value
var beta = -angle * (Math.PI / 180); //(Math.PI/180) converts Degree Value into Radians
var sinbeta = Math.sin(beta);
var cosbeta = Math.cos(beta);

for (var i = 0; i < 360; i += 360 / steps)
{
var alpha = i * (Math.PI / 180) ;
var sinalpha = Math.sin(alpha);
var cosalpha = Math.cos(alpha);

var X = x + (a * cosalpha * cosbeta - b * sinalpha * sinbeta);
var Y = y + (a * cosalpha * sinbeta + b * sinalpha * cosbeta);

points.push(new OpenLayers.Geometry.Point(X, Y));
}

return points;
}
</source>

One beneficial consequence of using the parametric formula is that the density of points is greatest where there is the most curvature. Thus, the change in slope between each successive point is small, reducing the apparent "jaggedness" of the approximation.

==Degenerate ellipse==
A line segment is a degenerate ellipse with semi-minor axis = 0 and eccentricity = 1, and with the focal points at the ends.<ref>[http://cseligman.com/text/history/ellipses.htm]</ref> Although the eccentricity is 1 this is not a parabola. A [[radial elliptic trajectory]] is a non-trivial special case of an elliptic orbit, where the ellipse is a line segment.

== See also ==
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">

* [[Conic section]]
* [[Apollonius of Perga]], the classical authority
* [[Ellipsoid]], a higher dimensional analog of an ellipse
* [[Spheroid]], the ellipsoids obtained by rotating an ellipse about its major or minor axis.
* [[Superellipse]], a generalization of an ellipse that can look more rectangular or more "pointy"
* [[Hyperbola]]
* [[Parabola]]
* [[Oval]]
* [[true anomaly|True]], [[eccentric anomaly|eccentric]], and [[mean anomaly]]
* [[Matrix representation of conic sections]]
* [[Kepler's Laws of Planetary Motion]]
* [[Proofs involving the ellipse]]
* [[Ellipsis]]
* [[Elliptic coordinates]], an orthogonal coordinate system based on families of ellipses and [[hyperbola]]e
</div>

== References ==
*Charles D. Miller, Margaret L. Lial, David I. Schneider: Fundamentals of College Algebra. 3rd Edition Scott Foresman/Little 1990. ISBN 0-673-38638-4. Page 381
*Coxeter, H. S. M.: Introduction to Geometry, 2nd ed. New York: Wiley, pp. 115–119, 1969.
*[http://eom.springer.de/E/e035390.htm Ellipse at the Encyclopedia of Mathematics (Springer)]
*[http://planetmath.org/encyclopedia/Ellipse2.html Ellipse at Planetmath]
*{{MathWorld|title=Ellipse|urlname=Ellipse}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Ellipses}}
*[http://mathdl.maa.org/convergence/1/?pa=content&sa=viewDocument&nodeId=196&bodyId=203 Apollonius' Derivation of the Ellipse] at [http://mathdl.maa.org/convergence/1/ Convergence]
*[http://isometricland.com/geogebra/geogebra_ellipse_and_hyperbola_construction.php Ellipse & Hyperbola Construction] - Two interactive applets showing how to trace the curves of the ellipse and hyperbola. (Requires Java.)
*[http://faculty.evansville.edu/ck6/ellipse.pdf The Shape and History of The Ellipse in Washington, D.C.] by Clark Kimberling
*[http://www.mathopenref.com/tocs/ellipsetoc.html Collection of animated ellipse demonstrations.] Ellipse, axes, semi-axes, area, perimeter, tangent, foci.
*[http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Hypotrochoid.html Ellipse] as [[hypotrochoid]]

[[Category:Conic sections]]

[[af:Ellips]]
[[ar:قطع ناقص]]
[[ast:Elipse]]
[[be:Эліпс]]
[[be-x-old:Эліпс]]
[[bs:Elipsa]]
[[bg:Елипса]]
[[ca:El·lipse]]
[[cs:Elipsa]]
[[cy:Elips]]
[[da:Ellipse (geometri)]]
[[de:Ellipse]]
[[et:Ellips (geomeetria)]]
[[el:Έλλειψη]]
[[es:Elipse]]
[[eo:Elipso (matematiko)]]
[[eu:Elipse]]
[[fa:بیضی]]
[[fr:Ellipse (mathématiques)]]
[[gl:Elipse (xeometría)]]
[[ko:타원]]
[[hi:दीर्घवृत्त]]
[[hr:Elipsa]]
[[io:Elipso]]
[[id:Elips]]
[[ia:Ellipse]]
[[is:Sporbaugur]]
[[it:Ellisse]]
[[he:אליפסה]]
[[ka:ელიფსი]]
[[lv:Elipse]]
[[lt:Elipsė]]
[[hu:Ellipszis (görbe)]]
[[mr:लंबवर्तुळ]]
[[nl:Ellips (wiskunde)]]
[[ja:楕円]]
[[no:Ellipse]]
[[nn:Ellipse]]
[[km:អេលីប]]
[[pms:Eliss]]
[[pl:Elipsa]]
[[pt:Elipse]]
[[ro:Elipsă]]
[[qu:Lump'u]]
[[ru:Эллипс]]
[[scn:Ellissi]]
[[simple:Ellipse]]
[[sk:Elipsa]]
[[sl:Elipsa]]
[[sr:Елипса]]
[[sh:Elipsa]]
[[fi:Ellipsi]]
[[sv:Ellips (matematik)]]
[[ta:நீள்வட்டம்]]
[[tr:Elips]]
[[uk:Еліпс]]
[[ur:بیضہ]]
[[vi:Elíp]]
[[zh-classical:橢圓]]
[[zh:椭圆]]

Lieberman, Joseph

2010-01-27T11:20:27Z

Dave Runger: Create redirect: Joe Lieberman. I love redirects.

#REDIRECT [[Joe Lieberman]]

Aristotle

2010-01-25T06:29:10Z

Dave Runger: /* Life */ disambiguating link to "Lyceum"

{{pp-semi-protected|small=yes}}{{pp-move-indef}}
{{Otheruses}}
{{Infobox Philosopher
|region = Western philosophy
|era = [[Ancient philosophy]]
|color = #B0C4DE
|image_name = Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg
|image_caption = Marble bust of Aristotle. Roman copy after a Greek bronze original by [[Lysippus]] c. 330 BC. The alabaster mantle is modern
|name ={{polytonic|Ἀριστοτέλης}}, ''Aristotélēs''
|birth_date =384 BC [[Stageira]], [[Chalcidice]]
|death_date =322 BC (age 61 or 62) [[Euboea]]
|school_tradition = [[Peripatetic school]] [[Aristotelianism]]
|main_interests = [[Physics]], [[Metaphysics]], [[Poetry]], [[Theatre]], [[Music]], [[Rhetoric]], [[Politics]], [[Government]], [[Ethics]], [[Biology]], [[Zoology]]
|notable_ideas = [[Golden mean (philosophy)|Golden mean]], [[Reason]], [[Logic]], Passion
|influences = [[Parmenides]], [[Socrates]], [[Plato]], [[Heraclitus]], [[Democritus]]
|influenced = Virtually all [[Western philosophy]] after his works, [[Alexander the Great]], [[Avicenna]], [[Averroes]], [[Maimonides]], [[Albertus Magnus]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Duns Scotus]], [[Ptolemy]], [[Copernicus]], [[Galileo]], and most of [[Islamic philosophy]], [[Jewish philosophy]], [[Christian philosophy]], [[science]] and '''[[List of writers influenced by Aristotle|more...]]'''.
|box_width = 26em
}}
{{Aristotelianism}}
'''Aristotle''' ({{lang-el|Ἀριστοτέλης}}, ''Aristotélēs'') (384 BC – 322 BC) was a [[Greeks|Greek]] philosopher, a student of [[Plato]] and teacher of [[Alexander the Great]]. His writings cover many subjects, including physics, [[metaphysics]], [[Poetics (Aristotle)|poetry]], theater, music, logic, rhetoric, politics, government, ethics, biology, and zoology.
Together with Plato and [[Socrates]] (Plato's teacher), Aristotle is one of the most important founding figures in [[Western philosophy]]. Aristotle's writings constitute a first at creating a comprehensive system of Western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic and science, politics and metaphysics.

Aristotle's views on the [[Aristotelian physics|physical sciences]] profoundly shaped medieval scholarship, and their influence extended well into the [[Renaissance]], although they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics. In the biological sciences, some of his observations were confirmed to be accurate only in the nineteenth century. His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which was incorporated in the late nineteenth century into modern [[formal logic]]. In metaphysics, [[Aristotelianism]] had a profound influence on [[Judeo-Islamic philosophies (800 - 1400)|philosophical and theological thinking in the Islamic and Jewish traditions]] in the [[Middle Ages]], and it continues to influence [[Christian theology]], especially [[Eastern Orthodox Christian theology|Eastern Orthodox theology]], and the [[scholasticism|scholastic]] tradition of the [[Catholic Church]]. His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with the modern advent of [[virtue ethics]]. All aspects of Aristotle's philosophy continue to be the object of active academic study today. Though Aristotle wrote many elegant treatises and dialogues ([[Cicero]] described his literary style as "a river of gold"),<ref>{{cite web
| last =Cicero
| first =Marcus Tullius
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title ="flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles"
| work =Acadmeica
| publisher =
| date =106BC-43BC
| url =http://www2.cddc.vt.edu/gutenberg/1/4/9/7/14970/14970-h/14970-h.htm#BkII_119
| format =
| doi =
| accessdate =25-Jan-2007}}</ref> it is thought that the majority of his writings are now lost and only about one-third of the original works have survived.<ref>[[Jonathan Barnes]], "Life and Work" in ''The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle'' (1995), p. 9.</ref>

Despite the far-reaching appeal that Aristotle's works have traditionally enjoyed, today modern scholarship questions a substantial portion of the Aristotelian corpus as authentically Aristotle's own.<ref name="Cornell">Terence Irwin and Gail Fine, [[Cornell University]], ''Aristotle: Introductory Readings.'' Indianapolis, Indiana: Hackett Publishing Company, Inc. (1996), Introduction, pp. xi-xii.</ref>

==Life==
Aristotle was born in [[Stageira]], [[Chalcidice]], in 384 BC, about {{convert|55|km|0|abbr=on}} east of modern-day [[Thessaloniki]].<ref>{{cite book | title = Aristotle: The Great Philosophers | author = McLeisch, Kenneth Cole| publisher = Routledge | year = 1999 | isbn = 0-415-92392-1 | page = 5}}</ref> His father [[Nicomachus (father of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]] was the personal physician to [[Amyntas III of Macedon|King Amyntas of Macedon]]. Aristotle was trained and educated as a member of the [[aristocracy]]. At about the age of eighteen, he went to [[Athens]] to continue his education at [[Platonic Academy|Plato's Academy]]. Aristotle remained at the academy for nearly twenty years, not leaving until after Plato's death in 347 BC. He then traveled with [[Xenocrates]] to the court of his friend [[Hermias of Atarneus]] in Asia Minor. While in Asia, Aristotle traveled with [[Theophrastus]] to the island of [[Lesbos Island|Lesbos]], where together they researched the [[botany]] and zoology of the island. Aristotle married Hermias's adoptive daughter (or niece) [[Pythias]]. She bore him a daughter, whom they named Pythias. Soon after Hermias' death, Aristotle was invited by [[Philip II of Macedon]] to become the tutor to his son [[Alexander the Great]] in 343 B.C.<ref name="philosophy1972">Bertrand Russell, "A History of Western Philosophy", Simon & Schuster, 1972</ref>

[[Image:Arabic aristotle.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Early Islamic portrayal of Aristotle]]
Aristotle was appointed as the head of the royal academy of [[Macedon]]. During that time he gave lessons not only to Alexander, but also to two other future kings: [[Ptolemy I Soter|Ptolemy]] and [[Cassander]]. In his ''Politics'', Aristotle states that only one thing could justify monarchy, and that was if the virtue of the king and his family were greater than the virtue of the rest of the citizens put together. Tactfully, he included the young prince and his father in that category. Aristotle encouraged Alexander toward eastern conquest, and his attitude towards Persia was unabashedly ethnocentric. In one famous example, he counsels Alexander to be 'a leader to the Greeks and a despot to the barbarians, to look after the former as after friends and relatives, and to deal with the latter as with beasts or plants'.<ref>Peter Green, ''Alexander of Macedon'', 1991 University of California Press, Ltd. Oxford, England. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, p.58–59</ref>

By 335 BC he had returned to Athens, establishing his own school there known as the [[Lyceum (Classical)|Lyceum]]. Aristotle conducted courses at the school for the next twelve years. While in Athens, his wife Pythias died and Aristotle became involved with [[Herpyllis]] of [[Stageira]], who bore him a son whom he named after his father, [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]]. According to the [[Suda]], he also had an [[eromenos]], [[Palaephatus|Palaephatus of Abydus]].<ref>William George Smith,''Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology'', vol. 3, [http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2421.html p. 88]</ref>

It is during this period in Athens from 335 to 323 BC when Aristotle is believed to have composed many of his works.<ref name="philosophy1972"/> Aristotle wrote many dialogues, only fragments of which survived. The works that have survived are in [[treatise]] form and were not, for the most part, intended for widespread publication, as they are generally thought to be lecture aids for his students. His most important treatises include ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'', ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'', ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'', ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', ''[[De Anima]] (On the Soul)'' and ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''.

Aristotle not only studied almost every subject possible at the time, but made significant contributions to most of them. In physical science, Aristotle studied anatomy, astronomy, economics, [[embryology]], geography, geology, meteorology, physics and zoology. In philosophy, he wrote on aesthetics, ethics, government, metaphysics, politics, psychology, rhetoric and theology. He also studied education, foreign customs, literature and poetry. His combined works constitute a virtual encyclopedia of Greek knowledge. It has been suggested that Aristotle was probably the last person to know everything there was to be known in his own time.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Neill
| first =Alex
| coauthors =Aaron Ridley
| title =The Philosophy of Art: Readings Ancient and Modern
| publisher =McGraw Hill
| year =1995
| page =488
| url =http://www.amazon.com/dp/0070461929/
}}</ref>

Near the end of Alexander's life, Alexander began to suspect plots against himself, and threatened Aristotle in letters. Aristotle had made no secret of his contempt for Alexander's pretense of divinity, and the king had executed Aristotle's grandnephew [[Callisthenes]] as a traitor. A widespread tradition in antiquity suspected Aristotle of playing a role in Alexander's death, but there is little evidence for this.<ref>Peter Green, ''Alexander of Macedon'', 1991 University of California Press, Ltd. Oxford, England. Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data, p.379,459</ref>

Upon Alexander's death, anti-Macedonian sentiment in Athens once again flared. [[Eurymedon the hierophant]] denounced Aristotle for not holding the gods in honor. Aristotle fled the city to his mother's family estate in [[Chalcis]], explaining, "I will not allow the Athenians to sin twice against philosophy,"<ref>{{cite book
| last =Jones
| first =W.T.
| title =The Classical Mind: A History of Western Philosophy
| publisher =Harcourt Brace Jovanovich
| year =1980
| page =216
| url =http://www.amazon.com/dp/0155383124/
}}, cf. ''Vita Marciana'' 41.</ref> a reference to Athens's prior [[Trial of Socrates|trial and execution of Socrates]]. However, he died in Euboea of natural causes within the year (in 322 BC). Aristotle named chief executor his student [[Antipater]] and left a [[Will (law)|will]] in which he asked to be buried next to his wife.<ref>Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt by Hildegard Temporini, Wolfgang
Haase[http://books.google.com/books?id=ifqGuiHo6eQC&pg=PA3862&dq=Antipater+Aristotle+will&sig=sQzQVBdRmk-spNdZnyd1MwzAPTc Aristotle's Will]</ref>

==Logic==
[[Image:Aristotle in Nuremberg Chronicle.jpg|thumb|upright|Aristotle portrayed in the 1493 ''[[Nuremberg Chronicle]]'' as a 15th-century-A.D. scholar]]
{{Main|Term logic}}
{{details|Non-Aristotelian logic}}

With the ''[[Prior Analytics]]'', Aristotle is credited with the earliest study of [[formal logic]], and his conception of it was the dominant form of Western logic until 19th century advances in [[mathematical logic]]. [[Kant]] stated in the ''Critique of Pure Reason'' that Aristotle's theory of logic completely accounted for the core of deductive inference.
===History===
Aristotle "says that 'on the subject of reasoning' he 'had nothing else on an earlier date to speak of'".<ref>{{cite book
| last =Bocheński
| first =I. M.
| title =Ancient Formal Logic
| publisher =North-Holland Publishing Company
| year =1951
| location =Amsterdam
}}</ref> However, Plato reports that [[syntax]] was devised before him, by [[Prodicus of Ceos]], who was concerned by the correct use of words. Logic seems to have emerged from [[dialectics]]; the earlier philosophers made frequent use of concepts like ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' in their discussions, but never truly understood the logical implications. Even Plato had difficulties with logic; although he had a reasonable conception of a [[deducting system]], he could never actually construct one and relied instead on his [[dialectic]].<ref name="Bocheński, 1951">Bocheński, 1951.</ref> Plato believed that deduction would simply follow from [[premise]]s, hence he focused on maintaining solid premises so that the [[Logical consequence|conclusion]] would logically follow. Consequently, Plato realized that a method for obtaining conclusions would be most beneficial. He never succeeded in devising such a method, but his best attempt was published in his book ''[[Sophist (dialogue)|Sophist]]'', where he introduced his division method.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Rose
| first =Lynn E.
| title =Aristotle's Syllogistic
| publisher =Charles C Thomas Publisher
| year =1968
| location =Springfield
}}</ref>

===Analytics and the ''Organon''===
{{Main|Organon}}
What we today call ''Aristotelian logic'', Aristotle himself would have labeled "analytics". The term "logic" he reserved to mean ''dialectics''. Most of Aristotle's work is probably not in its original form, since it was most likely edited by students and later lecturers. The logical works of Aristotle were compiled into six books in about the early 1st century AD:
#''Categories''
#''On Interpretation''
#''Prior Analytics''
#''Posterior Analytics''
#''Topics''
#''On Sophistical Refutations''

The order of the books (or the teachings from which they are composed) is not certain, but this list was derived from analysis of Aristotle's writings. It goes from the basics, the analysis of simple terms in the ''Categories,'' the analysis of propositions and their elementary relations in ''On Interpretation'', to the study of more complex forms, namely, syllogisms (in the ''Analytics'') and dialectics (in the ''Topics'' and ''Sophistical Refutations''). The first three treatises form the core of the logical theory ''stricto sensu'': the grammar of the language of logic and the correctness rules of reasoning. There is one volume of Aristotle's concerning logic not found in the ''Organon'', namely the fourth book of ''Metaphysics.''.<ref name="Bocheński, 1951"/>

==Aristotle's scientific method==
[[Image:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|Plato (left) and Aristotle (right), a detail of ''[[The School of Athens]]'', a fresco by [[Raphael]]. Aristotle gestures to the earth, representing his belief in knowledge through empirical observation and experience, while holding a copy of his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' in his hand, whilst Plato gestures to the heavens, representing his belief in [[The Forms]].]]
{{details|Aristotle's theory of universals}}

Like his teacher Plato, Aristotle's philosophy aims at the [[Universality (philosophy)|universal]]. Aristotle, however, found the universal in [[particular]] things, which he called the essence of things, while Plato finds that the universal exists apart from particular things, and is related to them as their [[prototype]] or [[exemplar]]. For Aristotle, therefore, philosophic method implies the ascent from the study of particular phenomena to the knowledge of essences, while for Plato philosophic method means the descent from a knowledge of universal [[Theory of Forms|Forms]] (or ideas) to a contemplation of particular imitations of these. For Aristotle, "form" still refers to the unconditional basis of [[phenomena]] but is "instantiated" in a particular substance (see ''[[Aristotle#Universals and particulars|Universals and particulars]]'', below). In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both [[Inductive reasoning|inductive]] and [[Deductive reasoning|deductive]], while Plato's is essentially deductive from ''[[A priori and a posteriori (philosophy)|a priori]]'' principles.<ref>{{cite book
| last =Jori
| first =Alberto
| title =Aristotele
| publisher =Bruno Mondadori Editore
| year =2003
| location =Milano
}}</ref>

In Aristotle's terminology, "natural philosophy" is a branch of philosophy examining the phenomena of the natural world, and includes fields that would be regarded today as physics, biology and other natural sciences. In modern times, the scope of ''philosophy'' has become limited to more generic or abstract inquiries, such as ethics and metaphysics, in which logic plays a major role. Today's philosophy tends to exclude empirical study of the natural world by means of the [[scientific method]]. In contrast, Aristotle's philosophical endeavors encompassed virtually all facets of intellectual inquiry.

In the larger sense of the word, Aristotle makes philosophy coextensive with reasoning, which he also would describe as "science". Note, however, that his use of the term ''science'' carries a different meaning than that covered by the term "scientific method". For Aristotle, "all science (''dianoia'') is either practical, poetical or theoretical" (''Metaphysics'' 1025b25). By practical science, he means ethics and politics; by poetical science, he means the study of poetry and the other fine arts; by theoretical science, he means physics, [[mathematics]] and metaphysics.

If logic (or "analytics") is regarded as a study preliminary to philosophy, the divisions of Aristotelian philosophy would consist of: (1) [[Logic]]; (2) Theoretical Philosophy, including Metaphysics, Physics, Mathematics, (3) Practical Philosophy and (4) Poetical Philosophy.

In the period between his two stays in Athens, between his times at the Academy and the Lyceum, Aristotle conducted most of the scientific thinking and research for which he is renowned today. In fact, most of Aristotle's life was devoted to the study of the objects of natural science. Aristotle's metaphysics contains observations on the nature of numbers but he made no original contributions to mathematics. He did, however, perform [[original research]] in the natural sciences, e.g., botany, zoology, physics, astronomy, chemistry, meteorology, and several other sciences.

Aristotle's writings on science are largely qualitative, as opposed to quantitative. Beginning in the sixteenth century, scientists began applying mathematics to the physical sciences, and Aristotle's work in this area was deemed hopelessly inadequate. His failings were largely due to the absence of concepts like mass, velocity, force and temperature. He had a conception of speed and temperature, but no quantitative understanding of them, which was partly due to the absence of basic experimental devices, like clocks and thermometers.

His writings provide an account of many scientific observations, a mixture of precocious accuracy and curious errors. For example, in his ''[[History of Animals]]'' he claimed that human males have more teeth than females<ref>Aristotle, ''History of Animals'', 2.3.</ref> and in the ''[[Generation of Animals]]'' he said the female is as it were a deformed male.<ref>{{cite book|author=Aristotle|title=Generation of animals|first=1943|date=1953|publisher=Harvard University Press via Google Books|other=Arthur Leslie Peck}}</ref>

In a similar vein, [[John Philoponus]], and later [[Galileo Galilei|Galileo]], showed by simple experiments that Aristotle's theory that a heavier object falls faster than a lighter object is incorrect.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/philoponus/#2.2 |title=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Plato.stanford.edu |date= |accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref> On the other hand, Aristotle refuted [[Democritus]]'s claim that the [[Milky Way]] was made up of "those stars which are shaded by the earth from the sun's rays," pointing out (correctly, even if such reasoning was bound to be dismissed for a long time) that, given "current astronomical demonstrations" that "the size of the sun is greater than that of the earth and the distance of the stars from the earth many times greater than that of the sun, then...the sun shines on all the stars and the earth screens none of them."<ref>Aristotle, ''Meteorology'' 1.8, trans. E.W. Webster, rev. J. Barnes.</ref>

In places, Aristotle goes too far in deriving 'laws of the universe' from simple observation and over-stretched [[reason]]. Today's [[scientific method]] assumes that such thinking without sufficient facts is ineffective, and that discerning the validity of one's hypothesis requires far more rigorous experimentation than that which Aristotle used to support his laws.

Aristotle also had some scientific blind spots. He posited a geocentric cosmology that we may discern in selections of the ''Metaphysics'', which was widely accepted up until the 1500s. From the 3rd century to the 1500s, the dominant view held that the Earth was the center of the universe ([[geocentrism]]).

Since he was perhaps the philosopher most respected by European thinkers during and after the Renaissance, these thinkers often took Aristotle's erroneous positions as given, which held back science in this epoch.<ref>[[John Burnet (classicist)|Burent, John.]] 1928. ''Platonism'', Berkeley: University of California Press, pp. 61, 103–104.</ref> However, Aristotle's scientific shortcomings should not mislead one into forgetting his great advances in the many scientific fields. For instance, he founded logic as a formal science and created foundations to biology that were not superseded for two millennia. Moreover, he introduced the fundamental notion that nature is composed of things that change and that studying such changes can provide useful knowledge of underlying constants.

==Physics==
{{Main|Physics (Aristotle)}}
===The five elements===
{{Main|Classical element}}
*[[Fire (classical element)|Fire]], which is hot and dry.
*[[Earth (classical element)|Earth]], which is cold and dry.
*[[Air (classical element)|Air]], which is hot and wet.
*[[Water (classical element)|Water]], which is cold and wet.
*[[Aether (classical element)|Aether]], which is the divine substance that makes up the [[Celestial spheres|heavenly spheres]] and heavenly bodies (stars and planets).

Each of the four earthly elements has its natural place; the earth at the centre of the universe, then water, then air, then fire. When they are out of their natural place they have natural motion, requiring no external cause, which is towards that place; so bodies sink in water, air bubbles rise up, rain falls, flame rises in air. The heavenly element has perpetual circular motion.

===Causality, The Four Causes===
{{Main|Four causes}}
*[[Material cause]] describes the material out of which something is composed. Thus the material cause of a table is wood, and the material cause of a car is rubber and steel. It is not about action. It does not mean one domino knocks over another domino.
*The [[formal cause]] tells us what a thing is, that any thing is determined by the definition, form, pattern, essence, whole, synthesis or archetype. It embraces the account of causes in terms of fundamental principles or general laws, as the whole (i.e., macrostructure) is the cause of its parts, a relationship known as the whole-part causation. Plainly put the formal cause according to which a statue or a domino, is made is the idea existing in the first place as exemplar in the mind of the sculptor, and in the second place as intrinsic, determining cause, embodied in the matter. Formal cause could only refer to the essential quality of causation. A more simple example of the formal cause is the blueprint or plan that one has before making or causing a human made object to exist.
*The [[efficient cause]] is that from which the change or the ending of the change first starts. It identifies 'what makes of what is made and what causes change of what is changed' and so suggests all sorts of agents, nonliving or living, acting as the sources of change or movement or rest. Representing the current understanding of causality as the relation of cause and effect, this covers the modern definitions of "cause" as either the agent or agency or particular events or states of affairs. More simply again that which immediately sets the thing in motion. So take the two dominos this time of equal weighting, the first is knocked over causing the second also to fall over. This is effectively efficient cause.
*The [[final cause]] is that for the sake of which a thing exists or is done, including both purposeful and instrumental actions and activities. The final cause or telos is the purpose or end that something is supposed to serve, or it is that from which and that to which the change is. This also covers modern ideas of mental causation involving such psychological causes as volition, need, motivation or motives, rational, irrational, ethical, and all that gives purpose to behavior.

Additionally, things can be causes of one another, causing each other reciprocally, as hard work causes fitness and vice versa, although not in the same way or function, the one is as the beginning of change, the other as the goal. (Thus Aristotle first suggested a reciprocal or circular causality as a relation of mutual dependence or influence of cause upon effect). Moreover, Aristotle indicated that the same thing can be the cause of contrary effects; its presence and absence may result in different outcomes. Simply it is the goal or purpose that brings about an event (not necessarily a mental goal). Taking our two dominos, it requires someone to intentionally knock the dominos over as they cannot fall themselves.

Aristotle marked two modes of causation: proper (prior) causation and accidental (chance) causation. All causes, proper and incidental, can be spoken as potential or as actual, particular or generic. The same language refers to the effects of causes, so that generic effects assigned to generic causes, particular effects to particular causes, operating causes to actual effects. Essentially, causality does not suggest a temporal relation between the cause and the effect.

All further investigations of causality will consist of imposing the favorite hierarchies on the order causes, such as final > efficient > material > formal ([[Thomas Aquinas]]), or of restricting all causality to the material and efficient causes or to the efficient causality (deterministic or chance) or just to regular sequences and correlations of natural phenomena (the natural sciences describing how things happen instead of explaining the whys and wherefores).

===Optics===
Aristotle held more accurate theories on some optical concepts than other philosophers of his day. The earliest known written evidence of a [[camera obscura]] can be found in Aristotle's documentation of such a device in 350 BC in ''Problemata''. Aristotle's apparatus contained a dark chamber that had a single small hole, or [[aperture]], to allow for sunlight to enter. Aristotle used the device to make observations of the sun and noted that no matter what shape the hole was, the sun would still be correctly displayed as a round object. In modern cameras, this is analogous to the [[Diaphragm (optics)|diaphragm]]. Aristotle also made the observation that when the distance between the tiny hole and the surface with the image increased, the image was amplified.<ref>{{cite web|author=Michael Lahanas |url=http://www.mlahanas.de/Greeks/Optics.htm |title=Optics and ancient Greeks |publisher=Mlahanas.de |date= |accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref>

===Chance and spontaneity===
Spontaneity and chance are causes of effects. Chance as an incidental cause lies in the realm of [[sumbebekos|accidental things]]. It is "from what is spontaneous" (but note that what is spontaneous does not come from chance). For a better understanding of Aristotle's conception of "chance" it might be better to think of "coincidence": Something takes place by chance if a person sets out with the intent of having one thing take place, but with the result of another thing (not intended) taking place. For example: A person seeks donations. That person may find another person willing to donate a substantial sum. However, if the person seeking the donations met the person donating, not for the purpose of collecting donations, but for some other purpose, Aristotle would call the collecting of the donation by that particular donator a result of chance. It must be unusual that something happens by chance. In other words, if something happens all or most of the time, we cannot say that it is by chance.

There is also more specific kind of chance, which Aristotle names "luck", that can only apply to human beings, since it is in the sphere of moral actions. According to Aristotle, luck must involve choice (and thus deliberation), and only humans are capable of deliberation and choice. "What is not capable of action cannot do anything by chance".<ref>Aristotle, ''Physics'' 2.6</ref>

==Metaphysics==
[[Image:Uni Freiburg - Philosophen 4.jpg|thumb|Statue of Aristotle (1915) by Cipri Adolf Bermann at the [[University of Freiburg]] [[Freiburg im Breisgau|im Breisgau]]]]
{{Main|Metaphysics (Aristotle)}}
Aristotle defines metaphysics as "the knowledge of [[immaterial]] being," or of "being in the highest degree of abstraction." He refers to metaphysics as "first philosophy", as well as "the theologic science."

===Substance, potentiality and actuality===
{{See also|Potentiality and actuality (Aristotle)}}
Aristotle examines the concept of substance and essence (''[[ousia]]'') in his ''Metaphysics'', Book VII and he concludes that a particular substance is a combination of both matter and form. As he proceeds to the book VIII, he concludes that the matter of the substance is the [[Material substratum|substratum]] or the stuff of which it is composed, ''e.g.'' the matter of the house are the bricks, stones, timbers etc., or whatever constitutes the ''potential'' house. While the form of the substance, is the ''actual'' house, namely 'covering for bodies and chattels' or any other [[Genus-differentia definition|differentia]] (see also [[predicables]]). The formula that gives the components is the account of the matter, and the formula that gives the differentia is the account of the form.<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' VIII 1043a 10–30</ref>

With regard to the change (''[[kinesis]]'') and its causes now, as he defines in his [[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]] and [[On Generation and Corruption]] 319b-320a, he distinguishes the coming to be from: 1) growth and diminution, which is change in quantity; 2) locomotion, which is change in space; and 3) alteration, which is change in quality.

The coming to be is a change where nothing persists of which the resultant is a property. In that particular change he introduces the concept of potentiality (''[[dynamis]]'') and actuality (''[[entelecheia]]'') in association with the matter and the form.

Referring to potentiality, this is what a thing is capable of doing, or being acted upon, if it is not prevented by something else. For example, the seed of a plant in the soil is potentially (''dynamei'') plant, and if is not prevented by something, it will become a plant. Potentially beings can either 'act' (''[[poiein]]'') or 'be acted upon' (''[[paschein]]''), which can be either innate or learned. For example, the eyes possess the potentiality of sight (innate – being acted upon), while the capability of playing the flute can be possessed by learning (exercise – acting).

Actuality is the fulfillment of the end of the potentiality. Because the end (''telos'') is the principle of every change, and for the sake of the end exists potentiality, therefore actuality is the end. Referring then to our previous example, we could say that actuality is when the seed of the plant becomes a plant.

" For that for the sake of which a thing is, is its principle, and the becoming is for the sake of the end; and the actuality is the end, and it is for the sake of this that the potentiality is acquired. For animals do not see in order that they may have sight, but they have sight that they may see."<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' IX 1050a 5–10</ref>

In conclusion, the matter of the house is its potentiality and the form is its actuality. The [[formal cause]] (''aitia'') then of that change from potential to actual house, is the [[reason]] (''logos'') of the house builder and the [[final cause]] is the end, namely the house itself. Then Aristotle proceeds and concludes that the actuality is prior to potentiality in formula, in time and in substantiality.

With this [[definition]] of the particular substance (i.e., matter and form), Aristotle tries to solve the problem of the unity of the beings, ''e.g.'', what is that makes the man one? Since, according to Plato there are two Ideas: animal and biped, how then is man a unity? However, according to Aristotle, the potential being (matter) and the actual one (form) are one and the same thing.<ref>Aristotle, ''Metaphysics'' VIII 1045a-b</ref>

===Universals and particulars===
{{Main|Aristotle's theory of universals}}

Aristotle's predecessor, Plato, argued that all things have a universal form, which could be either a property, or a relation to other things. When we look at an apple, for example, we see an apple, and we can also analyze a form of an apple. In this distinction, there is a particular apple and a universal form of an apple. Moreover, we can place an apple next to a book, so that we can speak of both the book and apple as being next to each other.

Plato argued that there are some universal forms that are not a part of particular things. For example, it is possible that there is no particular good in existence, but "good" is still a proper universal form. [[Bertrand Russell]] is a contemporary philosopher that agreed with Plato on the existence of "uninstantiated universals".

Aristotle disagreed with Plato on this point, arguing that all universals are instantiated. Aristotle argued that there are no universals that are unattached to existing things. According to Aristotle, if a universal exists, either as a particular or a relation, then there must have been, must be currently, or must be in the future, something on which the universal can be predicated. Consequently, according to Aristotle, if it is not the case that some universal can be predicated to an object that exists at some period of time, then it does not exist.

In addition, Aristotle disagreed with Plato about the location of universals. As Plato spoke of the world of the forms, a location where all universal forms subsist, Aristotle maintained that universals exist within each thing on which each universal is predicated. So, according to Aristotle, the form of apple exists within each apple, rather than in the world of the forms.

==Biology and medicine==
In Aristotelian science, most especially in biology, things he saw himself have stood the test of time better than his retelling of the reports of others, which contain error and superstition. He dissected animals, but not humans and his ideas on how the human body works have been almost entirely superseded.

===Empirical research program===
[[Image:Octo2.jpg|thumb|Octopus swimming]]
[[Image:Torpedo fuscomaculata2.jpg|thumb|''Torpedo fuscomaculata'']]
Aristotle is the earliest natural historian whose work has survived in some detail. Aristotle certainly did research on the natural history of [[Lesbos]], and the surrounding seas and neighbouring areas. The works that reflect this research, such as ''[[History of Animals]]'', ''[[Generation of Animals]]'', and ''[[Parts of Animals]]'', contain some observations and interpretations, along with sundry myths and mistakes. The most striking passages are about the sea-life visible from observation on Lesbos and available from the catches of fishermen. His observations on [[catfish]], [[Electric ray|electric fish]] (''[[Torpedo (genus)|Torpedo]]'') and angler-fish are detailed, as is his writing on [[cephalopod]]s, namely, ''[[Octopus]]'', ''Sepia'' ([[cuttlefish]]) and the paper nautilus (''[[Argonauta argo]]''). His description of the [[hectocotylus|hectocotyl arm]] was about two thousand years ahead of its time, and widely disbelieved until its rediscovery in the nineteenth century. He separated the aquatic mammals from fish, and knew that sharks and rays were part of the group he called Selachē ([[selachians]]).<ref name="Singer, Charles 1931">Singer, Charles. ''A short history of biology''. Oxford 1931.</ref>

[[Image:Triakis semifasciata.jpg|thumb|Leopard shark]]

Another good example of his methods comes from the ''Generation of Animals'' in which Aristotle describes breaking open fertilized chicken eggs at intervals to observe when visible organs were generated.

He gave accurate descriptions of [[ruminant]]s' four-chambered fore-stomachs, and of the [[Ovoviviparity|ovoviviparous]] embryological development of the [[hound shark]] ''[[Mustelus mustelus]]''.<ref>Emily Kearns, "Animals, knowledge about," in ''[[Oxford Classical Dictionary]]'', 3rd ed., 1996, p. 92.</ref>

===Classification of living things===
Aristotle's classification of living things contains some elements which still existed in the nineteenth century. What the modern zoologist would call vertebrates and invertebrates, Aristotle called 'animals with blood' and 'animals without blood' (he was not to know that complex invertebrates do make use of [[haemoglobin]], but of a different kind from vertebrates). Animals with blood were divided into live-bearing (humans and mammals), and egg-bearing (birds and fish). Invertebrates ('animals without blood') are insects, crustacea (divided into non-shelled – cephalopods – and shelled) and testacea (molluscs). In some respects, this incomplete classification is better than that of [[Linnaeus]], who crowded the invertebrata together into two groups, Insecta and Vermes (worms).

For [[Charles Singer]], "Nothing is more remarkable than [Aristotle's] efforts to [exhibit] the relationships of living things as a ''scala naturae''"<ref name="Singer, Charles 1931"/> Aristotle's ''History of Animals'' classified organisms in relation to a hierarchical "[[Great chain of being|Ladder of Life]]" (''scala naturae''), placing them according to complexity of structure and function so that higher organisms showed greater vitality and ability to move.<ref>Aristotle, of course, is not responsible for the later use made of this idea by clerics.</ref>

Aristotle believed that intellectual purposes, i.e., [[formal cause]]s, guided all natural processes. Such a [[teleological]] view gave Aristotle cause to justify his observed data as an expression of formal design. Noting that "no animal has, at the same time, both tusks and horns," and "a single-hooved animal with two horns I have never seen," Aristotle suggested that Nature, giving no animal both horns and tusks, was staving off vanity, and giving creatures faculties only to such a degree as they are necessary. Noting that ruminants had a multiple stomachs and weak teeth, he supposed the first was to compensate for the latter, with Nature trying to preserve a type of balance.<ref>Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' pp 43–44</ref>

In a similar fashion, Aristotle believed that creatures were arranged in a graded scale of perfection rising from plants on up to man, the ''scala naturae'' or [[Great Chain of Being]].<ref>Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp 201–202; see also: Lovejoy, ''The Great Chain of Being''</ref> His system had eleven grades, arranged according "to the degree to which they are infected with potentiality", expressed in their form at birth. The highest animals laid warm and wet creatures alive, the lowest bore theirs cold, dry, and in thick eggs.

Aristotle also held that the level of a creature's perfection was reflected in its form, but not preordained by that form. Ideas like this, and his ideas about souls, are not regarded as science at all in modern times.

He placed emphasis on the type(s) of soul an organism possessed, asserting that plants possess a vegetative soul, responsible for reproduction and growth, animals a vegetative and a sensitive soul, responsible for mobility and sensation, and humans a vegetative, a sensitive, and a rational soul, capable of thought and reflection.<ref>Aristotle, ''De Anima'' II 3</ref>

Aristotle, in contrast to earlier philosophers, but in accordance with the Egyptians, placed the rational soul in the heart, rather than the brain.<ref>Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' pp 45</ref> Notable is Aristotle's division of sensation and thought, which generally went against previous philosophers, with the exception of [[Alcmaeon of Croton|Alcmaeon]].<ref>Guthrie, ''A History of Greek Philosophy'' Vol. 1 pp. 348</ref>

===Successor: Theophrastus===
[[Image:161Theophrastus 161 frontespizio.jpg|thumb|Frontispiece to a 1644 version of the expanded and illustrated edition of ''[[Historia Plantarum]]'' (ca. 1200), which was originally written around 200 BC]]
{{Main|Theophrastus|Historia Plantarum}}
Aristotle's successor at the [[Lyceum]], [[Theophrastus]], wrote a series of books on botany—the ''[[Historia Plantarum|History of Plants]]''—which survived as the most important contribution of antiquity to botany, even into the [[Middle Ages]]. Many of Theophrastus' names survive into modern times, such as ''carpos'' for fruit, and ''pericarpion'' for seed vessel.

Rather than focus on formal causes, as Aristotle did, Theophrastus suggested a mechanistic scheme, drawing analogies between natural and artificial processes, and relying on Aristotle's concept of the [[efficient cause]]. Theophrastus also recognized the role of sex in the reproduction of some higher plants, though this last discovery was lost in later ages.<ref>Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp 90–91; Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'', p 46</ref>

===Influence on Hellenistic medicine===
{{details|Medicine in ancient Greece}}
After Theophrastus, the Lyceum failed to produce any original work. Though interest in Aristotle's ideas survived, they were generally taken unquestioningly.<ref>Annas, ''Classical Greek Philosophy'' pp 252</ref> It is not until the age of [[Alexandria]] under the [[Ptolemaic dynasty|Ptolemies]] that advances in biology can be again found.

The first medical teacher at Alexandria [[Herophilos|Herophilus of Chalcedon]], corrected Aristotle, placing intelligence in the brain, and connected the nervous system to motion and sensation. Herophilus also distinguished between [[vein]]s and [[artery|arteries]], noting that the latter [[pulse]] while the former do not.<ref>Mason, ''A History of the Sciences'' pp 56</ref> Though a few ancient [[atomism|atomists]] such as [[Lucretius]] challenged the [[teleology|teleological]] viewpoint of Aristotelian ideas about life, teleology (and after the rise of Christianity, [[natural theology]]) would remain central to biological thought essentially until the 18th and 19th centuries. [[Ernst Mayr]] claimed that there was "nothing of any real consequence in biology after Lucretius and Galen until the Renaissance."<ref>Mayr, ''The Growth of Biological Thought'', pp 90–94; quotation from p 91</ref> Aristotle's ideas of natural history and medicine survived, but they were generally taken unquestioningly.<ref>Annas, ''Classical Greek Philosophy'', p 252</ref>

==Practical philosophy==
===Ethics===
{{Main|Aristotelian ethics}}

Aristotle considered ethics to be a practical rather than theoretical study, i.e., one aimed at doing good rather than knowing for its own sake. He wrote several treatises on ethics, including most notably, the ''[[Nichomachean Ethics]]''.

Aristotle taught that virtue has to do with the proper function (''ergon'') of a thing. An eye is only a good eye in so much as it can see, because the proper function of an eye is sight. Aristotle reasoned that humans must have a function specific to humans, and that this function must be an activity of the ''[[De Anima|psuchē]]'' (normally translated as ''soul'') in accordance with reason (''[[logos]]''). Aristotle identified such an optimum activity of the soul as the aim of all human deliberate action, ''[[eudaimonia]]'', generally translated as "happiness" or sometimes "well being". To have the potential of ever being happy in this way necessarily requires a good character (''ēthikē'' ''[[aretē]]''), often translated as moral (or ethical) virtue (or excellence).

Aristotle taught that to achieve a virtuous and potentially happy character requires a first stage of having the fortune to be habituated not deliberately, but by teachers, and experience, leading to a later stage in which one consciously choses to do the best things. When the best people come to live life this way their practical wisdom (''[[phronēsis]]'') and their intellect (''[[nous]]'') can develop with each other towards the highest possible ethical virtue, that of wisdom.

===Politics===
{{Main|Politics (Aristotle)}}
In addition to his works on ethics, which address the individual, Aristotle addressed the city in his work titled ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]''. Aristotle's conception of the city is organic, and he is considered one of the first to conceive of the city in this manner.<ref>{{cite book | last =Ebenstein | first =Alan | coauthors =William Ebenstein | title =Introduction to Political Thinkers | publisher =Wadsworth Group | year =2002 | page =59}}</ref> Aristotle considered the city to be a natural community. Moreover, he considered the city to be prior to the [[family]] which in turn is prior to the individual, i.e., last in the order of becoming, but first in the order of being . He is also famous for his statement that "man is by nature a political animal." Aristotle conceived of politics as being like an [[organism]] rather than like a [[machine]], and as a collection of parts none of which can exist without the others.

It should be noted that the modern understanding of a political community is that of the state. However, the state was foreign to Aristotle. He referred to political communities as cities. Aristotle understood a city as a political "partnership" . Subsequently, a city is created not to avoid injustice or for economic stability , but rather to live a good life: "The political partnership must be regarded, therefore, as being for the sake of noble actions, not for the sake of living together" . This can be distinguished from the social contract theory which individuals leave the [[state of nature]] because of "fear of violent death" or its "inconveniences."<ref>For a different reading of social and economic processes in the ''Nicomacean Ethics'' and ''Politics'' see Polanyi, K. (1957) "Aristotle Discovers the Economy" in ''Primitive, Archaic and Modern Economies: Essays of Karl Polanyi'' ed. G. Dalton, Boston 1971, 78–115</ref>

===Rhetoric and poetics===
{{Main|Rhetoric (Aristotle)|Poetics (Aristotle)}}
Aristotle considered [[epic poetry]], tragedy, comedy, [[Dithyramb|dithyrambic poetry]] and music to be [[Mimesis|imitative]], each varying in imitation by medium, object, and manner.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' I 1447a</ref> For example, music imitates with the media of rhythm and harmony, whereas dance imitates with rhythm alone, and poetry with language. The forms also differ in their object of imitation. Comedy, for instance, is a dramatic imitation of men worse than average; whereas tragedy imitates men slightly better than average. Lastly, the forms differ in their manner of imitation – through narrative or character, through change or no change, and through drama or no drama.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' III</ref> Aristotle believed that imitation is natural to mankind and constitutes one of mankind's advantages over animals.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' IV</ref>

While it is believed that Aristotle's ''Poetics'' comprised two books – one on comedy and one on tragedy – only the portion that focuses on tragedy has survived. Aristotle taught that tragedy is composed of six elements: plot-structure, character, style, spectacle, and lyric poetry.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' VI</ref> The characters in a tragedy are merely a means of driving the story; and the plot, not the characters, is the chief focus of tragedy. Tragedy is the imitation of action arousing pity and fear, and is meant to effect the [[catharsis]] of those same emotions. Aristotle concludes ''Poetics'' with a discussion on which, if either, is superior: epic or tragic [[mimesis]]. He suggests that because tragedy possesses all the attributes of an epic, possibly possesses additional attributes such as spectacle and music, is more unified, and achieves the aim of its mimesis in shorter scope, it can be considered superior to epic.<ref>Aristotle, ''Poetics'' XXVI</ref>

Aristotle was a keen systematic collector of riddles, folklore, and proverbs; he and his school had a special interest in the riddles of the [[Pythia|Delphic Oracle]] and studied the fables of [[Aesop]].<ref>Temple, Olivia, and Temple, Robert (translators), [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZB-rVxPvtPEC&pg=PR3&source=gbs_selected_pages&cad=0_0 The Complete Fables By Aesop] Penguin Classics, 1998. ISBN 0140446494 Cf. Introduction, pp. xi-xii.</ref>

==Modern scholarship==
{{See also|Corpus Aristotelicum#Overview of the extant works}}
Modern scholarship reveals that Aristotle's "lost" works stray considerably in characterization<ref name="Cornell" /> from the surviving Aristotelian corpus. Whereas the lost works appear to have been originally written with an intent for subsequent publication, the surviving works do not appear to have been so.<ref name="Cornell" /> Rather the surviving works mostly resemble lectures unintended for publication.<ref name="Cornell" /> The authenticity of a portion of the surviving works as originally Aristotelian is also today held suspect, with some books duplicating or summarizing each other, the authorship of one book questioned and another book considered to be unlikely Aristotle's at all.<ref name="Cornell" />

Some of the individual works within the corpus, including the ''[[Constitution of Athens]],'' are regarded by most scholars as products of Aristotle's "school," perhaps compiled under his direction or supervision. Others, such as ''On Colors,'' may have been produced by Aristotle's successors at the Lyceum, e.g., [[Theophrastus]] and [[Straton]]. Still others acquired Aristotle's name through similarities in doctrine or content, such as the ''De Plantis,'' possibly by [[Nicolaus of Damascus]]. Other works in the corpus include medieval [[palmistries]] and [[astrological]] and [[magical]] texts whose connections to Aristotle are purely fanciful and self-promotional.

==Loss of his works==
According to a distinction that originates with Aristotle himself, his writings are divisible into two groups: the "[[exoteric]]" and the "[[esoteric]]".<ref>[[Jonathan Barnes]], "Life and Work" in ''The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle'' (1995), p. 12; Aristotle himself: ''Nichomachean Ethics'' 1102a26–27. Aristotle himself never uses the term "esoteric" or "acroamatic". For other passages where Aristotle speaks of ''exōterikoi logoi'', see [[W. D. Ross]], ''Aristotle's Metaphysics'' (1953), vol. 2, pp. 408–410. Ross defends an interpretation according to which the phrase, at least in Aristotle's own works, usually refers generally to "discussions not peculiar to the [[Peripatetic school]]", rather than to specific works of Aristotle's own.</ref> Most scholars have understood this as a distinction between works Aristotle intended for the public (exoteric), and the more technical works (esoteric) intended for the narrower audience of Aristotle's students and other philosophers who were familiar with the jargon and issues typical of the Platonic and Aristotelian schools. Another common assumption is that none of the exoteric works is extant – that all of Aristotle's extant writings are of the esoteric kind. Current knowledge of what exactly the exoteric writings were like is scant and dubious, though many of them may have been in dialogue form. (''Fragments'' of some of Aristotle's dialogues have survived.) Perhaps it is to these that [[Cicero]] refers when he characterized Aristotle's writing style as "a river of gold";<ref>{{cite web
| last =Cicero
| first =Marcus Tullius
| title ="flumen orationis aureum fundens Aristoteles"
| work =Academica
| date =106BC-43BC
| url =http://www2.cddc.vt.edu/gutenberg/1/4/9/7/14970/14970-h/14970-h.htm#BkII_119
| accessdate =25 January 2007 |dateformat=dmy}}</ref> it is hard for many modern readers to accept that one could seriously so admire the style of those works currently available to us.<ref>Barnes, "Life and Work", p. 12.</ref> However, some modern scholars have warned that we cannot know for certain that Cicero's praise was reserved specifically for the exoteric works; a few modern scholars have actually admired the concise writing style found in Aristotle's extant works.<ref>Barnes, "Roman Aristotle", in Gregory Nagy, ''Greek Literature'', Routledge 2001, vol. 8, p. 174 n. 240.</ref>

One major question in the history of Aristotle's works, then, is how were the exoteric writings all lost, and how did the ones we now possess come to us?<ref>The definitive, English study of these questions is Barnes, "Roman Aristotle".</ref> The story of the original manuscripts of the esoteric treatises is described by [[Strabo]] in his ''Geography'' and [[Plutarch]] in his ''[[Parallel Lives]]''.<ref>"Sulla."</ref> The manuscripts were left from Aristotle to his successor [[Theophrastus]], who in turn willed them to [[Neleus of Scepsis]]. Neleus supposedly took the writings from Athens to [[Scepsis]], where his heirs let them languish in a cellar until the first century BC, when [[Apellicon of Teos]] discovered and purchased the manuscripts, bringing them back to Athens. According to the story, Apellicon tried to repair some of the damage that was done during the manuscripts' stay in the basement, introducing a number of errors into the text. When [[Lucius Cornelius Sulla]] occupied Athens in 86 BC, he carried off the library of Apellicon to [[Rome]], where they were first published in 60 BC by the grammarian [[Tyrannion of Amisus]] and then by philosopher [[Andronicus of Rhodes]].{{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}

[[Carnes Lord]] attributes the popular belief in this story to the fact that it provides "the most plausible explanation for the rapid eclipse of the Peripatetic school after the middle of the third century, and for the absence of widespread knowledge of the specialized treatises of Aristotle throughout the Hellenistic period, as well as for the sudden reappearance of a flourishing Aristotelianism during the first century B.C."<ref>{{cite book
|last=Lord
|first=Carnes
|title=Introduction to the Politics, by Aristotle
|publisher=[[Chicago University Press]]
|year=1984
|location=Chicago
|page=11
}}</ref> Lord voices a number of reservations concerning this story, however. First, the condition of the texts is far too good for them to have suffered considerable damage followed by Apellicon's inexpert attempt at repair. Second, there is "incontrovertible evidence," Lord says, that the treatises were in circulation during the time in which Strabo and Plutarch suggest they were confined within the cellar in Scepsis. Third, the definitive edition of Aristotle's texts seems to have been made in Athens some fifty years before Andronicus supposedly compiled his. And fourth, ancient library catalogues predating Andronicus' intervention list an Aristotelian corpus quite similar to the one we currently possess. Lord sees a number of post-Aristotelian interpolations in the ''[[Politics (Aristotle)|Politics]]'', for example, but is generally confident that the work has come down to us relatively intact.

As the influence of the ''falsafa''{{Clarify|date=August 2009}} grew in the West, in part due to [[Gerard of Cremona]]'s translations and the spread of [[Averroism]], the demand for Aristotle's works grew. [[William of Moerbeke]] translated a number of them into Latin. When [[Thomas Aquinas]] wrote his [[theology]], working from Moerbeke's translations, the demand for Aristotle's writings grew and the [[Greek language|Greek]] manuscripts returned to the West, stimulating a revival of Aristotelianism in [[Europe]], and ultimately revitalizing European thought through Muslim influence in Spain to fan the embers of the Renaissance.{{Citation needed|date=August 2009}}

==Legacy==

[[Image:Aristoteles Louvre.jpg|thumb|upright|Portrait of Aristoteles. Pentelic marble, copy of the Imperial Period (1st or 2nd century) of a lost [[bronze sculpture]] made by [[Lysippos]]]]
===Development of logic===
Twenty-three hundred years after his death, Aristotle remains one of the most influential people who ever lived. He was the founder of [[formal logic]], pioneered the study of [[zoology]], and left every future scientist and philosopher in his debt through his contributions to the scientific method.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/34560/Aristotle |title=Aristotle (Greek philosopher) - Britannica Online Encyclopedia |publisher=Britannica.com |date= |accessdate=2009-04-26}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last= Durant |first=Will |authorlink=Will Durant |title=[[The Story of Philosophy]] |year=1926 (2006) |publisher=Simon & Schuster, Inc. |location=United States |isbn=9780671739164 |page= 92}}</ref> Despite these accolades, many of Aristotle's errors held back science considerably. [[Bertrand Russell]] notes that "almost every serious intellectual advance has had to begin with an attack on some Aristotelian doctrine". Russell also refers to Aristotle's ethics as "repulsive", and calls his logic "as definitely antiquated as Ptolemaic astronomy". Russell notes that these errors make it difficult to do historical justice to Aristotle, until one remembers how large of an advance he made upon all of his predecessors.<ref name="philosophy1972"/> Of course, the problem of excessive devotion to Aristotle is more a problem of those later centuries and not of Aristotle himself.

===Later Greek philosophers===
The immediate influence of Aristotle's work was felt as the Lyceum grew into the [[Peripatetic school]]. Aristotle's notable students included [[Aristoxenus]], [[Dicaearchus]], [[Demetrius of Phalerum]], [[Eudemos of Rhodes]], [[Harpalus]], [[Hephaestion]], [[Meno]], [[Mnason of Phocis]], [[Nicomachus (son of Aristotle)|Nicomachus]], and [[Theophrastus]]. Aristotle's influence over Alexander the Great is seen in the latter's bringing with him on his expedition a host of zoologists, botanists, and researchers. He had also learned a great deal about Persian customs and traditions from his teacher. Although his respect for Aristotle was diminished as his travels made it clear that much of Aristotle's geography was clearly wrong, when the old philosopher released his works to the public, Alexander complained "Thou hast not done well to publish thy acroamatic doctrines; for in what shall I surpass other men if those doctrines wherein I have been trained are to be all men's common property?"<ref>Plutarch, ''Life of Alexander''</ref>

===Influence on Christian theologians===
Aristotle is referred to as "The Philosopher" by [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] thinkers such as [[Thomas Aquinas]]. See ''[[Summa Theologica]]'', Part I, Question 3, etc. These thinkers blended Aristotelian philosophy with Christianity, bringing the thought of Ancient Greece into the Middle Ages. It required a repudiation of some Aristotelian principles for the sciences and the arts to free themselves for the discovery of modern scientific laws and empirical methods. The medieval English poet [[Geoffrey Chaucer|Chaucer]] describes his student as being happy by having
:                     '' at his beddes heed''
:''Twenty bookes, clad in blak or reed,''
:''Of aristotle and his philosophie,''<ref>Geoffrey Chaucer, ''[[The Canterbury Tales]]'', Prologue, lines 295–295</ref>
The Italian poet [[Dante Alighieri|Dante]] says of Aristotle in [[The Divine Comedy|the first circles of hell]],
:''I saw the Master there of those who know,''
:''Amid the philosophic family,''
:''By all admired, and by all reverenced;''
:''There Plato too I saw, and Socrates,''
:''Who stood beside him closer than the rest.''<ref>''vidi ’l maestro di color che sanno''
''seder tra filosofica famiglia.''
''Tutti lo miran, tutti onor li fanno'':
''quivi vid’ïo Socrate e Platone''
''che ’nnanzi a li altri più presso li stanno;'' Dante, ''L’Inferno'' (Hell), Canto IV. Lines 131–135</ref>

===Views on women===
{{Main|Aristotle's views on women}}
Aristotle believed that women are colder than men and thus a lower form of life.<ref>{{cite book|author=Lovejoy, Arthur|title=The Great Chain of Being: A Study of the History of an Idea|location=Cambridge|publisher=Harvard University Press|year=1964|isbn=0674361539}}</ref> His assumption carried forward unexamined to [[Galen]] and others for almost two thousand years until the sixteenth century.<ref name=Tuana>{{cite book|author=Tuana, Nancy|title=The Less Noble Sex: Scientific, Religious and Philosophical Conceptions of Women's Nature|date=1993|pages=21, 169|publisher=Indiana University Press|isbn=0-253-36098-6}}</ref> He also believed that females could not be fully human.<ref>Tuana, ''The Less Noble Sex'' p. 19, and footnote 8 p. 176</ref> His analysis of procreation is frequently criticized on the grounds that it presupposes an active, ensouling masculine element bringing life to an inert, passive, lumpen female element; it is on these grounds that Aristotle is considered by some feminist critics to have been a [[Misogyny|misogynist]].<ref>{{cite book
| last =Harding
| first =Sandra
| coauthors =Merrill B. Hintikka
| title =Discovering Reality,: Feminist Perspectives on Epistemology, Metaphysics, Methodology, and Philosophy of Science
| publisher =Springer
| date =31 December 1999
| page =372
| url =http://www.amazon.com/gp/reader/9027714967/
}}</ref>
On the other hand, Aristotle gave equal weight to women's happiness as he did to men's, and commented in his Rhetoric that a society cannot be happy unless women are happy too. In places like Sparta where the lot of women is bad, there can only be half-happiness in society.(see Rhetoric 1.5.6)

===Post-Enlightenment thinkers===
The German philosopher [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] has been said to have taken nearly all of his political philosophy from Aristotle.<ref>Durant, p. 86</ref> However implausible this is, it is certainly the case that Aristotle's rigid separation of action from production, and his justification of the subservience of slaves and others to the virtue – or ''arete'' – of a few justified the ideal of aristocracy. It is [[Martin Heidegger]], not Nietzsche, who elaborated a new interpretation of Aristotle, intended to warrant his deconstruction of scholastic and philosophical tradition. More recently, [[Alasdair MacIntyre]] has attempted to reform what he calls the Aristotelian tradition in a way that is anti-elitist and capable of disputing the claims of both liberals and Nietzscheans.<ref>Kelvin Knight, ''Aristotelian Philosophy'', Polity Press, 2007, ''passim''.</ref>

==List of works==
{{Main|Corpus Aristotelicum}}
The works of Aristotle that have survived from antiquity through Mediæval manuscript transmission are collected in the [[Corpus Aristotelicum]]. These texts, as opposed to Aristotle's lost works, are technical philosophical treatises from within Aristotle's school. Reference to them is made according to the organization of [[Immanuel Bekker]]'s nineteenth-century edition, which in turn is based on ancient classifications of these works.

==See also==
*[[Aristotelianism]]
*[[Aristotelian ethics]]
*[[Aristotelian physics]]
*[[Aristotelian view of God]]
*[[List of writers influenced by Aristotle]]
*[[Corpus Aristotelicum]]
*[[Conimbricenses]]
*[[Hylomorphism]]
*[[Philia]]
*[[Phronesis]]

==Notes and references==
{{reflist|2}}

==Further reading==
The secondary literature on Aristotle is vast. The following references are only a small selection.
*[[J. L. Ackrill|Ackrill J. L.]] 2001. Essays on Plato and Aristotle, Oxford University Press, USA
*{{cite book|last=Adler |first=Mortimer J. | authorlink = Mortimer Adler |title=[[Aristotle for Everybody]] |publisher=Macmillan |location=New York |year=1978}} A popular exposition for the general reader.
*Bakalis Nikolaos. 2005. Handbook of Greek Philosophy: From Thales to the Stoics Analysis and Fragments, Trafford Publishing ISBN 1-4120-4843-5
*Barnes J. 1995. The Cambridge Companion to Aristotle, Cambridge University Press
*{{cite book |last=Bocheński |first=I. M. |title=Ancient Formal Logic |publisher=North-Holland Publishing Company |location=Amsterdam |year=1951}}
*Bolotin, David (1998). ''An Approach to Aristotle's Physics: With Particular Attention to the Role of His Manner of Writing.'' Albany: SUNY Press. A contribution to our understanding of how to read Aristotle's scientific works.
*[[Myles Burnyeat|Burnyeat, M. F.]] ''et al.'' 1979. Notes on Book Zeta of Aristotle's Metaphysics. Oxford: Sub-faculty of Philosophy
*Chappell, V. 1973. Aristotle's Conception of Matter, Journal of Philosophy 70: 679–696
*Code, Alan. 1995. Potentiality in Aristotle's Science and Metaphysics, Pacific Philosophical Quarterly 76
*Frede, Michael. 1987. Essays in Ancient Philosophy. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press
*Gill, Mary Louise. 1989. Aristotle on Substance: The Paradox of Unity. Princeton: Princeton University Press
* {{cite book |last=Guthrie |first=W. K. C. |title=A History of Greek Philosophy, Vol. 6 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |year=1981}}
*Halper, Edward C. (2007) ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 1: Books Alpha — Delta'', Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-21-6
*Halper, Edward C. (2005) ''One and Many in Aristotle's Metaphysics, Volume 2: The Central Books'', Parmenides Publishing, ISBN 978-1-930972-05-6
*Irwin, T. H. 1988. Aristotle's First Principles. Oxford: Clarendon Press
* [[Alberto Jori|Jori, Alberto]]. 2003. ''Aristotele'', Milano: Bruno Mondadori Editore (Prize 2003 of the "International Academy of the History of Science") ISBN 88-424-9737-1
*Knight, Kelvin. 2007. ''Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre'', Polity Press.
*Lewis, Frank A. 1991. ''Substance and Predication in Aristotle''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
*[[G. E. R. Lloyd|Lloyd, G. E. R.]] 1968. ''Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of his Thought''. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Pr., ISBN 0-521-09456-9.
*Lord, Carnes. 1984. Introduction to ''The Politics'', by Aristotle. Chicago: Chicago University Press.
*Loux, Michael J. 1991. Primary Ousia: An Essay on Aristotle's Metaphysics Ζ and Η. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press
*Owen, G. E. L. 1965c. The Platonism of Aristotle, Proceedings of the British Academy 50 125–150. Reprinted in J. Barnes, M. Schofield, and R. R. K. Sorabji (eds.), Articles on Aristotle, Vol 1. Science. London: Duckworth (1975). 14–34
*Pangle, Lorraine Smith (2003). ''Aristotle and the Philosophy of Friendship''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Aristotle's conception of the deepest human relationship viewed in the light of the history of philosophic thought on friendship.
*Reeve, C. D. C. 2000. Substantial Knowledge: Aristotle's Metaphysics. Indianapolis: Hackett.
* {{cite book |last=Rose |first=Lynn E. | title=Aristotle's Syllogistic |publisher=Charles C Thomas Publisher |location=Springfield |year=1968}}
* {{cite book |last=Ross |first=Sir David | authorlink = W. D. Ross |title=Aristotle |publisher=Routledge | edition = 6th |location=London |year=1995}} A classic overview by one of Aristotle's most prominent English translators, in print since 1923.
*Scaltsas, T. 1994. Substances and Universals in Aristotle's Metaphysics. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
*Strauss, Leo. "On Aristotle's ''Politics''" (1964), in ''The City and Man'', Chicago; Rand McNally.
* {{cite book |last=Swanson |first=Judith |title=The Public and the Private in Aristotle's Political Philosoophy |publisher=Cornell University Press |location=Ithaca |year=1992}}
* {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Henry Osborn |url=http://web.archive.org/web/20060211201625/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/index.html |title=Greek Biology and Medicine |year=1922 |chapter=Chapter 3: Aristotle's Biology | chapterurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20060327222953/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/medicine/0051.html}}
* {{cite book |last=Veatch |first=Henry B. | authorlink = Henry Babcock Veatch |title=Aristotle: A Contemporary Appreciation |publisher=Indiana U. Press |location=Bloomington |year=1974}} For the general reader.
*Woods, M. J. 1991b. "Universals and Particular Forms in Aristotle's Metaphysics." Oxford Studies in Ancient Philosophy supplement. 41–56

==External links==
{{sisterlinks}}
*[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/01713a.htm The Catholic Encyclopedia] (general article)
*[http://www.utm.edu/research/iep/a/aristotl.htm The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy] (general article)
*Scholarly surveys of focused topics from the ''[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]]'': articles on [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle/ Aristotle], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotelianism-renaissance/ Aristotle in the Renaissance], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-biology/ Biology], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-causality/ Causality], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-commentators/ Commentators on Aristotle], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-ethics/ Ethics], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-logic/ Logic], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-mathematics/ Mathematics], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-metaphysics/ Metaphysics], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-natphil/ Natural philosophy], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-noncontradiction/ Non-contradiction], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-politics/ Political theory], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-psychology/ Psychology], [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/aristotle-rhetoric/ Rhetoric]

'''Collections of works'''
*[http://classics.mit.edu/Browse/index-Aristotle.html Massachusetts Institute of Technology] – primarily in English
*[http://www.gutenberg.org/browse/authors/a#a2747 Project Gutenberg] – English texts
*[http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/perscoll?.submit=Change&collection=Any&type=text&lang=Any&lookup=Aristotle Tufts University] – at the [[Perseus Project]], in both English and Greek
*[http://etext.library.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/ University of Adelaide] – primarily in English
*[http://remacle.org/bloodwolf/philosophes/Aristote/table.htm P. Remacle's collection] – [[Greek language|Greek]] with French translation
*The 11-volume 1837 Bekker edition of ''Aristotle's Works'' in Greek ([http://isnature.org/Files/Aristotle/ PDF]|[http://grid.ceth.rutgers.edu/ancient/greek/aristotle_greek/ DJVU])

'''Other'''
*{{worldcat id|id=lccn-n79-4182}}
*[http://www.concharto.org/search/eventsearch.htm?_tag=timeline%20of%20aristotle&_maptype=0 Timeline of Aristotle's life]
{{planetmath|id=5840|title=Aristotle}}

{{Philosophy topics}}
{{Logic}}
{{Ancient Greece topics}}
{{Peripatetics}}
{{metaphysics}}
{{Ethics}}
{{philosophy of science}}
{{philosophy of language}}
{{philosophy of mind}}

{{Persondata
|NAME=Aristotle
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Ἀριστοτέλης (Greek)
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=[[Greek philosophy|Greek]] [[philosopher]]
|DATE OF BIRTH=384 BC
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Stageira]]
|DATE OF DEATH=322 BC
|PLACE OF DEATH=[[Chalcis]]
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[[Category:Greek logicians]]
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[[Category:Metic philosophers in Classical Athens]]
[[Category:Peripatetic philosophers]]
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Luxor massacre

2010-01-24T20:51:56Z

Dave Runger: /* Reaction */ substituting more common "Sept 11 attacks" instead of rare/ambiguous "Al-Quaeda attacks"

{{Infobox civilian attack
| title = Luxor massacre
| image = Hatshetsup-temple-1by7.jpg
| caption = Djeser-Djeseru (Hatshepsut’s Temple), the location of the attack
| location = [[Deir el-Bahri]], [[Egypt]]
| date = 17 [[November 1997]]
| type =
| fatalities = 63 (not including attackers)
| injuries = > 26
| susperps = [[al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya]]
| weapons = Automatic firearms, knives
}}

The '''Luxor Massacre''' took place on 17 [[November 1997]], at [[Deir el-Bahri]], an [[archaeological]] site located across the [[River Nile]] from [[Luxor]] in [[Egypt]]. Deir el-Bahri is one of Egypt's top [[tourist attraction]]s, most notably for the spectacular [[mortuary temple]] of [[Eighteenth dynasty of Egypt|18th-dynasty]] female [[pharaoh]] [[Hatshepsut]], known as "Djeser-Djeseru."

The attack is thought to have been instigated by exiled [[Al-Gama'a al-Islamiyya]] ("The Islamic Group") leaders attempting to undermine the [[July 1997]] "[[Nonviolence Initiative]]", an effort to end an [[Islamist]] [[terrorist]] campaign that had killed hundreds of Egyptians and foreigners since 1992. Specifically, [[Ayman Zawahiri]] of the [[Egyptian Islamic Jihad]] (later of [[al-Qaeda]]), [[Mustafa Hamza]], the new emir of the Islamic Group, and [[Rifai Ahmed Taha]], the military leader of the Islamic Group, all hoped a massive [[terror attack]] would devastate the [[Egyptian economy]]<ref>"Solidly ahead of oil, Suez Canal revenues, and remittances, tourism is Egypt's main hard currency earner at $6.5 billion per year." (in 2005) [http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2005/741/eg1.htm ... concerns over tourism's future ] accessed 27 September 2007</ref> and provoke the government into [[repression]] that would kill the initiative and strengthen support for anti-government terrorism.<ref>Wright, ''Looming Towers'', (2006), p.256-7</ref>

==The attack==
In the mid-morning attack, terrorists from the Islamic Group and [[Jihad Talaat al-Fath]] ("Holy War of the Vanguard of the Conquest") massacred 62 people at the attraction. The six assailants were armed with automatic firearms and knives, and disguised as members of the security forces. They descended on the [[Temple of Hatshepsut]] at around 08:45. With the tourists trapped inside the temple, the killing went on systematically for 45 minutes. The dead included a five-year-old [[United Kingdom|British]] child and four [[Japan]]ese couples on their [[honeymoon]]s.<ref>Alan Cowell, `At Swiss Airport, 36 Dead, Home from Luxor,` ''New York Times'', November 20, 1997, </ref><ref>Douglas Jehl, `At Ancient Site Along the Nile, Modern Horror, ''New York Times'', November 19, 1997</ref>

The attackers then hijacked a bus, but ran into a checkpoint of armed [[Egyptian tourist police]] and [[Egyptian army|military]] forces. One of the terrorists was wounded in the shootout and the rest fled into the hills where their bodies were found in a cave, apparently having committed suicide together.<ref>Wright, Lawrence, ''Looming Towers'', (2006), p.258</ref>

==Casualties==
Four [[Egyptians]] were killed, three of them police officers and one of them a tour guide. A total of 59 foreign tourists were killed: 36 [[Switzerland|Swiss]], ten Japanese, six British, four [[Germany|Germans]], one [[France|French]], two [[Colombia]]n, and a dual-national [[Bulgaria]]n/British. Twelve [[Switzerland|Swiss]], two Germans, one French, and nine Egyptians were among the wounded.

==Reaction==
[[President of Egypt|Egyptian President]] [[Hosni Mubarak]] partly blamed the [[United Kingdom]] for the attacks after that country had granted [[political asylum]] to Egyptian terrorist leaders.{{Fact|date=November 2008}}

After the event Mubarak replaced his Interior Minister, General [[Hassan al-Alfi]], with General [[Habib al-Adly]].

The tourist industry – in Egypt in general and in Luxor in particular – was seriously affected by the resultant slump in visitors and remained depressed until sinking even lower with the [[September 11 attacks]] in the eastern [[United States]] in 2001, the [[July 23, 2005 Sharm el-Sheikh attacks]], and the [[2006 Dahab bombings]] .

The massacre, however, marked a decisive drop in Islamist terrorists' fortunes in Egypt by turning Egyptian public opinion overwhelmingly against them. Spontaneous demonstrations broke out in Luxor almost immediately against the terrorists, demanding action by the government and leading to a visit by Mubarak to the region a few days later.

Organizers and supporters of the attack quickly realised that the strike had been a massive miscalculation and reacted with denials of involvement. The day after the attack, Islamic Group leader Rifai Taha claimed the attackers intended only to take the tourists hostage, despite the evidence of the immediate and systematic nature of the slaughter. Others denied Islamist involvement completely. Sheikh [[Omar Abdel-Rahman]] blamed [[Israel]]is for the killings, and Ayman Zawahiri maintained the attack was the work of the Egyptian police.<ref>Wright, ''Looming Towers'', (2006), p.257-8</ref><ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/34587.stm ...Egypt tries to understand the Luxor massacre] 1 [[December 1997]] ([[BBC News]]) </ref>

==See also==
* [[Terrorism in Egypt]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/32179.stm Tourists massacred at temple]. 17 November 1997 ([[BBC News]])
*[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/343207.stm Bin Laden 'behind Luxor massacre'], 13 May 1999 ([[BBC News]])


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Zeno's paradoxes

2010-01-07T05:23:59Z

Dave Runger: adding a missing phrase "of the"

{{Redirect|Achilles and the Tortoise}}
{{Redirect|Arrow paradox}}

[[File:Espiral no end.jpg|thumb|260px|alt=squares shown at 45 degree angles, some black and some white, one black square filled with smaller squares, red silouette of young girl walking up one edge, red silouette of small turtle walking down an edge|A fractal used to explain the paradoxes of Zeno of Elea{{mdash}} a movement can become impossible if its distance is recurrently divided into smaller pieces]]
'''Zeno's paradoxes''' are a set of [[problem]]s generally thought to have been devised by [[Zeno of Elea]] to support [[Parmenides|Parmenides's]] doctrine that "all is one" and that, contrary to the evidence of our senses, the belief in plurality and change is mistaken, and in particular that [[motion (physics)|motion]] is nothing but an [[illusion]]. It is usually assumed, based on [[Plato|Plato's]] [[Parmenides (dialogue)|''Parmenides'']] 128c-d, that Zeno took on the project of creating these [[paradox]]es because other philosophers had created paradoxes against Parmenides's view. Thus Zeno can be interpreted as saying that to assume there is plurality is even more absurd than assuming there is only "the One" (''Parmenides'' 128d). Plato makes [[Socrates]] claim that Zeno and Parmenides were essentially arguing exactly the same point (''Parmenides'' 128a-b).

Several of Zeno's nine surviving paradoxes (preserved in [[Aristotle|Aristotle's]] [[Physics (Aristotle)|''Physics'']]<ref>[http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.html Aristotle's ''Physics''] "Physics" by Aristotle translated by R. P. Hardie and R. K. Gaye
</ref>
and [[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius's]] commentary thereon) are essentially equivalent to one another; and most of them were regarded, even in ancient times, as very easy to refute.{{Citation needed|date=November 2009|note:"most"}} Three of the strongest and most famous—that of [[Achilles]] and the [[tortoise]], the [[Dichotomy]] argument, and that of an arrow in flight—are presented in detail below.

Zeno's arguments are perhaps the first examples of a method of proof called ''[[reductio ad absurdum]]'' also known as proof by [[contradiction]]. They are also credited as a source of the [[dialectic]] method used by [[Socrates]].<ref>([fragment 65], Diogenes Laertius. [http://classicpersuasion.org/pw/diogenes/dlzeno-eleatic.htm IX] 25ff and VIII 57)
</ref>

Zeno's paradoxes were a major problem for ancient and medieval [[philosopher]]s. More modern [[calculus]] has solved the mathematical aspects of the paradox, while many philosophers still hesitate to say that all aspects of the paradoxes are completely solved. Variations on the paradoxes (see [[Thomson's lamp]]) continue to produce philosophically and mathematically challenging problems. Developments in physics have called into question the idea that position, time, and speed are simple points, which undermines some of the implicit assumptions made in Zeno's paradoxes.

The origins of the paradoxes are somewhat unclear. [[Diogenes Laertius]], citing [[Favorinus]], says that Zeno's teacher [[Parmenides]], was the first to introduce the Achilles and the Tortoise Argument. But in a later passage, Laertius attributes the origin of the paradox to Zeno, explaining that Favorinus disagrees.<ref>Diogenes Laertius, ''Lives'', 9.23 and 9.29.
</ref>

== The Paradoxes of Motion ==
=== Achilles and the tortoise ===
{{cquote|''In a race, the quickest runner can never overtake the slowest, since the pursuer must first reach the point whence the pursued started, so that the slower must always hold a lead.''|20px|20px|[[Aristotle]]|[[Physics (Aristotle)|''Physics'']] VI:9, 239b15}}

In the paradox of [[Achilles]] and the [[Tortoise]], Achilles is in a footrace with the tortoise. Achilles allows the tortoise a [[Head start (positioning)|head start]] of 100 metres. If we suppose that each racer starts running at some constant speed (one very fast and one very slow), then after some finite [[time]], Achilles will have run 100 metres, bringing him to the tortoise's starting point. During this time, the tortoise has run a much shorter distance, say, 10 metres. It will then take Achilles some further time to run that distance, by which time the tortoise will have advanced farther; and then more time still to reach this third point, while the tortoise moves ahead. Thus, whenever Achilles reaches somewhere the tortoise has been, he still has farther to go. Therefore, because there are an infinite number of points Achilles must reach where the tortoise has already been, he can never overtake the tortoise. Of course, simple experience tells us that Achilles will be able to overtake the tortoise, which is why this is a paradox.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mathforum.org/isaac/problems/zeno1.html |title=Math Forum}}
</ref><ref>
{{citation |last=Huggett |first=Nick |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/paradox-zeno/#AchTor |title=Zeno's Paradoxes: 3.2 Achilles and the Tortoise |year=2004 |work=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |accessdate=2009-11-18}}
</ref>

=== The dichotomy paradox ===
{{cquote|''That which is in locomotion must arrive at the half-way stage before it arrives at the goal.''|20px|20px|[[Aristotle]]|[[Physics (Aristotle)|''Physics'']] VI:9, 239b10}}
Suppose Homer wants to catch a stationary bus. Before he can get there, he must get halfway there. Before he can get halfway there, he must get a quarter of the way there. Before traveling a fourth, he must travel one-eighth; before an eighth, one-sixteenth; and so on.

<timeline>
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<math>H-\frac{B}{8}-\frac{B}{4}---\frac{B}{2}-------B</math>

The resulting sequence can be represented as:
:'''<math> \left\{ \cdots, \frac{1}{16}, \frac{1}{8}, \frac{1}{4}, \frac{1}{2}, 1 \right\}</math>'''
This description requires one to complete an infinite number of tasks, which Zeno maintains is an impossibility.

This sequence also presents a second problem in that it contains no first distance to run, for any possible ([[finite]]) first distance could be divided in half, and hence would not be first after all. Hence, the trip cannot even begin. The paradoxical conclusion then would be that travel over any finite distance can neither be completed nor begun, and so all motion must be an [[illusion]].

This argument is called the ''[[Dichotomy]]'' because it involves repeatedly splitting a distance into two parts. It contains some of the same elements as the ''Achilles and the Tortoise'' paradox, but with a more apparent conclusion of motionlessness. It is also known as the '''Race Course''' paradox. Some, like Aristotle, regard the Dichotomy as really just another version of ''Achilles and the Tortoise''.<ref>{{citation |last=Huggett |first=Nick |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/paradox-zeno/#Dic |title=Zeno's Paradoxes: 3.1 The Dichotomy |year=2004 |work=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |accessdate=2009-11-18}}
</ref>

=== The arrow paradox ===
{{cquote|''If everything when it occupies an equal space is at rest, and if that which is in locomotion is always occupying such a space at any moment, the flying arrow is therefore motionless.''|20px|20px|[[Aristotle]]|[[Physics (Aristotle)|''Physics'']] VI:9, 239b5}}

In the arrow paradox (also known as the '''[[fletching|fletcher's]] paradox'''), Zeno states that for motion to be occurring, an object must change the position which it occupies. He gives an example of an arrow in flight. He states that in any one instant of time, for the arrow to be moving it must either move to where it is, or it must move to where it is not. However, it cannot move to where it is not, because this is a single instant, and it cannot move to where it is because it is already there. In other words, in any instant of time there is no motion occurring, because an instant is a snapshot. Therefore, if it cannot move in a single instant it cannot move in '''any''' instant, making any motion impossible.

Whereas the first two paradoxes presented divide space, this paradox starts by dividing time—and not into segments, but into points.<ref>{{citation |last=Huggett |first=Nick |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/paradox-zeno/#Arr |title=Zeno's Paradoxes: 3.3 The Arrow |year=2004 |work=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |accessdate=2009-11-18}}
</ref>

==Three other paradoxes as given by Aristotle==

''Paradox of Place:''

:"… if everything that exists has a place, place too will have a place, and so on ''[[ad infinitum]]''."<ref>Aristotle [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.4.iv.html ''Physics'' IV:1, 209a25]
</ref>

''Paradox of the Grain of Millet:''

:"… there is no part of the millet that does not make a sound: for there is no reason why any such part should not in any length of time fail to move the air that the whole bushel moves in falling. In fact it does not of itself move even such a quantity of the air as it would move if this part were by itself: for no part even exists otherwise than potentially."<ref>Aristotle [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.7.vii.html ''Physics'' VII:5, 250a20]
</ref>

''The Moving Rows:''

:"The fourth argument is that concerning the two rows of bodies, each row being composed of an equal number of bodies of equal size, passing each other on a race-course as they proceed with equal velocity in opposite directions, the one row originally occupying the space between the goal and the middle point of the course and the other that between the middle point and the starting-post. This...involves the conclusion that half a given time is equal to double that time."<ref>Aristotle [http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/physics.6.vi.html ''Physics'' VI:9, 239b33]
</ref>

For an expanded account of Zeno's arguments as presented by Aristotle, see [[Simplicius of Cilicia|Simplicius']] commentary ''On Aristotle's Physics''.

==Proposed solutions==

[[Aristotle]] (384 BC−322 BC) remarked that as the distance decreases, the time needed to cover those distances also decreases, so that the time needed also becomes increasingly small.<ref>Aristotle. Physics 6.9
</ref>
Aristotle's proposed solution for the paradoxes involves distinguishing "things infinite in respect of divisibility" (such as a unit of space that can be mentally divided into ever smaller units while remaining spatially the same) from things (or distances) that are infinite in extension ("with respect to their extremities").<ref>Aristotle. Physics 6.9; 6.2, 233a21-31
</ref>

Before 212 BC, [[Archimedes]] had developed a method to derive a finite answer for the sum of infinitely many terms that get progressively smaller. (See: [[Geometric series]], [[1/4 + 1/16 + 1/64 + 1/256 + · · ·]], [[The Quadrature of the Parabola]].) Modern [[calculus]] achieves the same result, using more rigorous methods (see [[convergent series]], where the "reciprocals of powers of 2" series, equivalent to the Dichotomy Paradox, is listed as convergent). These methods allow construction of solutions stating that under suitable conditions (i.e. the distances are progressively decreasing), the travel time is finite (bounded by a fixed upper bound).<ref>George B. Thomas, ''Calculus and Analytic Geometry'', Addison Wesley, 1951
</ref>

Another proposed solution is to question the assumption inherent in Zeno's paradox, which is that between any two different points in space (or time), there is always another point. Without this assumption there are only a finite number of distances between two points, hence the infinite sequence of events is avoided, and the paradox resolved.

== Status of the paradoxes today ==

Infinite processes remained theoretically troublesome in mathematics until the early 20th century.
However, [[Kurt Gödel|Kurt Gödel's]] proof of the [[Independence (mathematical logic)|logical independence]] of the [[axiom of choice]], and the [[Continuous function#Cauchy definition (epsilon-delta) of continuous functions|epsilon-delta]] version of [[Karl Weierstrass|Weierstrass]] and [[Augustin Louis Cauchy|Cauchy]] (or the equivalent and equally rigorous differential/infinitesimal version by [[Abraham Robinson]]), have developed a rigorous formulation of the logic and calculus involved.
These works have resolved the mathematical problems involving infinite processes, including Zeno's, and the paradoxes no longer present any mathematical problems.<ref>{{cite book |url=http://www.scribd.com/doc/9654478/Principles-of-Mathematical-Analysis-Third-Edition-Walter-Rudin |first=Walter |last=Rudin |authorlink=Walter Rudin |title=Principles of Mathematical Analysis |publisher=McGraw-Hill Publishing Co.; 3Rev Ed edition |date=September 1, 1976 |isbn=978-0070856134}}
</ref>
While the mathematical issues with the paradoxes have been resolved, the challenge to the concept of infinity is echoed by the [[Intuitionism|Intuitionist]] school, founded by Dutch mathematician
[[Luitzen Egbertus Jan Brouwer|L. E. J. Brouwer]], which rejects the [[Law of excluded middle|Law of the Excluded Middle]] for infinite sets or processes.

Some mathematicians have stated that philosophers have simply ignored the developments made in mathematical calculus. [[Bertrand Russell]], who was both a mathematician and a philosopher, wrote ''Georg Cantor invented a theory of continuity and a theory of infinity which did away with all the old paradoxes upon which philosophers had battened. ... Philosophers met the situation by not reading the authors concerned.''<ref>{{cite book |url=http://books.google.ca/books?id=9tQsg5ITfHsC&pg=PA56&lpg=PA56&dq=Philosophers+met+the+situation+by+not+reading+the+authors+concerned++Bertrand+Russell&source=bl&ots=RR6n8jwD3U&sig=grA8LFp3Z35gPFgJcli2IS2Vimo&hl=en&ei=3LSlSs_ROIOgsgOIs7WNDw&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=1#v=onepage&q=&f=false |first=Bertrand |last=Russell |authorlink=Bertrand Russell |title=Sceptical Essays |year=1928 |isbn=0-415-32508-0}}
</ref>

Some philosophers claim that the mathematics does not address the central point in Zeno's argument,<ref name=KBrown>{{cite web |first=Kevin |last=Brown |title=Reflections on Relativity |url=http://www.mathpages.com/rr/s3-07/3-07.htm}}
</ref><ref name=FMoorcroft/>
and that solving the mathematical issues does not solve every issue the paradoxes present.
Philosophers also remark that Zeno's arguments are often misrepresented in the popular literature. That is, Zeno is often said to have argued that the sum of an infinite number of terms must itself be infinite - that both the distance and the time to be travelled are infinite. However, Zeno's problem was not with finding the ''sum'' of an infinite sequence, but rather with ''finishing'' an infinite number of tasks: how can one ever get from A to B, if an infinite number of events can be identified that need to precede the arrival at B, and one cannot reach even the beginning of a "last event"? Philosophers claim that calculus does not address that question, and hence a solution to Zeno's paradoxes must be found elsewhere.<ref name=KBrown/><ref name=FMoorcroft/><ref name=Papa-G /><ref>{{citation |last=Huggett |first=Nick |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/paradox-zeno/#ZenInf |title=Zeno's Paradoxes: 5. Zeno's Influence on Philosophy |year=2004 |work=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |accessdate=2009-11-18}}
</ref>
While mathematics can be used to calculate where and when the moving Achilles will overtake the Tortoise, philosophers do not see how mathematics takes anything away from Zeno's reasoning that there are problems in explaining how motion can happen at all.<ref name=KBrown/><ref name=FMoorcroft>{{cite web |first=Francis |last=Moorcroft |title=Zeno's Paradox |url=http://www.philosophers.co.uk/cafe/paradox5.htm}}
</ref><ref name=Papa-G>
{{cite web |url=http://www.webalice.it/keithalba/timeandreality/zeno_revmet.htm |first=Alba |last=Papa-Grimaldi |title=Why Mathematical Solutions of Zeno's Paradoxes Miss the Point: Zeno's One and Many Relation and Parmenides' Prohibition |work=The Review of Metaphysics |vol=Vol. 50 |year=1996}}
</ref>

Physicists remark that after a few dozen steps in the race, we will have to deal with dimensions where [[quantum mechanics]] cannot be disregarded. According to the [[uncertainty principle]] those distances are so small that taking a measurement would be pointless, even from a theoretical point of view: uncertainty would be too prominent.<ref>http://www.riflessioni.it/science/achilles-tortoise-paradox.htm
</ref>
{{Reference necessary|According to quantum theory, it can never be possible to measure distances with any greater accuracy than one [[Planck length]] (about 1.616252 × 10−35 metres)}}, nor times less than one [[Planck time]] (about 5.391 24 × 10−44 seconds) apart. These findings suggest that for physical systems the infinite series that appear in Zeno's paradoxes may not occur at subquantum level.

In the field of verification and design of [[timed event system|timed]] and [[hybrid systems]], the system behaviour is called ''Zeno'' if it includes an infinite number of discrete steps in a finite amount of time. Many [[formal verification]] techniques exclude these behaviours from analysis, if they are not equivalent to non-Zeno behaviour. In [[systems design]] these behaviours will also often be excluded from system models, since they cannot be implemented with a digital controller.

Mathematician, computer scientist and science fiction author [[Rudy Rucker]] notes in ''[[Infinity and the Mind]]'' with respect to the arrow paradox that in contrast to Zeno's assumption, the length of an arrow at rest differs from an arrow in motion due to the small contraction in length the arrow undergoes from the effects of [[special relativity]].

== The quantum Zeno effect ==
In 1977,<ref>{{Citation |url=http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977JMP....18..756M |last=Sudarshan |first=E.C.G. |authorlink=E.C.G. Sudarshan |last2=Misra |first2=B. |author2-link= |title=The Zeno’s paradox in quantum theory |journal=Journal of Mathematical Physics |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=756–763 |date= |year=1977 |doi=10.1063/1.523304 |id= }}
</ref>
physicists [[E.C.G. Sudarshan]] and B. Misra studying quantum mechanics discovered that the dynamical evolution (motion) of a quantum system can be hindered (or even inhibited) through observation of the system.<ref name="u0">{{cite journal | url=http://www.boulder.nist.gov/timefreq/general/pdf/858.pdf |format=[[PDF]] |author=W.M.Itano |coauthors=D.J.Heinsen, J.J.Bokkinger, D.J.Wineland |title=Quantum Zeno effect |journal=[[Physical Review A|PRA]] |volume=41 |pages=2295–2300 |year=1990 |doi=10.1103/PhysRevA.41.2295}}
</ref>
This effect is usually called the [[quantum Zeno effect]] as it is strongly reminiscent of (but not fundamentally related to) Zeno's arrow paradox.

This effect was first theorized in 1958.<ref>{{Citation |last=Khalfin |first=L.A. |author-link= |journal=Soviet Phys. JETP |volume=6 |pages=1053 |date= |year=1958 |url= |doi= |id= }}
</ref>

== Writings about Zeno’s paradoxes ==
[[File:Zeno of Elea.jpg|thumb|alt=artist's rendering of sculpted bust of man with thin face and medium-length beard|[[Zeno of Elea|Zeno]]{{Citation needed|date=December 2009}} of [[Velia|Elea]]]]
Zeno’s paradoxes have inspired many writers
*[[Leo Tolstoy]] in [[War and Peace]] (Part 11,Chapter I) discusses the race of Achilles and the tortoise when critiquing "historical science".
*In the dialogue [[What the Tortoise Said to Achilles]], [[Lewis Carroll]] describes what happens at the end of the race. The tortoise discusses with Achilles a simple [[deductive argument]]. Achilles fails in demonstrating the argument because the tortoise leads him into an [[infinite regression]].
*In [[Gödel, Escher, Bach: an Eternal Golden Braid|Gödel, Escher, Bach]] by [[Douglas Hofstadter]], the various chapters are separated by dialogues between Achilles and the tortoise, inspired by Lewis Carroll’s works
*The Argentinian writer [[Jorge Luis Borges]] discusses Zeno’s paradoxes many times in his work, showing their relationship with [[infinity]]. Borges also used Zeno’s paradoxes as a metaphor for some situations described by [[Kafka]].
*[[Paul Hornschemeier]]'s most recent graphic novel, The Three Paradoxes, contains a comic version of Zeno presenting his three paradoxes to his fellow philosophers.
*[[Leslie Lamport]]'s Specifying Systems contains a section (9.4) introducing the character of the Zeno Specifications
*[[Zadie Smith]] references Zeno's arrow paradox, and, more briefly, Zeno's Achilles and tortoise paradox, at the end of Chapter 17 in her novel [[White Teeth]].
*[[Brian Massumi]] shoots Zeno's "philosophical arrow" in the opening chapter of ''Parables for the Virtual: Movement, Affect, Sensation''.
*[[Philip K. Dick]]'s short science-fiction story "The Indefatiguable Frog" concerns an experiment to determine whether a frog which continually leaps half the distance to the top of a well will ever be able to get out of the well.
*[[Ursula K. Le Guin]]'s character of Shevek in [[The Dispossessed]] discusses the arrow paradox in great amusement with his un-understanding classmates as a child.
* [[Jorge Luis Borges]] traces, in an essay entitled "Avatars of the Tortoise", the many recurrences of this paradox in works of philosophy. The successive references he traces are [[Agrippa the sceptic]], [[Thomas Aquinas]], [[Hermann Lotze]], [[F.H. Bradley]] and [[William James]].<ref name="borges">{{cite book |last=Borges |first=Jorge Luis |authorlink=Jorge Luis Borges |title=Labyrinths |publisher=[[Penguin]] |location=London |date=1964 |page=237–243}}
</ref>

== See also==
{{Col-begin}}
{{Col-1-of-3}}
*[[Zeno machine]]
*[[Supertask]]
*[[Thomson's lamp]]
{{Col-2-of-3}}
*[[Balls and vase problem]]
*[[What the Tortoise Said to Achilles]]
*[[0.999...]]
{{Col-3-of-3}}
*[[Solvitur ambulando]]
*[[Incommensurable magnitudes]]
*[[Quantum Zeno effect]]
{{col-end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*[[Geoffrey Kirk|Kirk, G. S.]], [[John Raven|J. E. Raven]], M. Schofield (1984) ''The Presocratic Philosophers: A Critical History with a Selection of Texts, 2nd ed.'' Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521274559.
*{{cite web |work=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |title=Zeno's Paradoxes |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/paradox-zeno/ |first=Nick |last=Huggett |year=2004 |accessdate=2009-11-18}}
*[[Plato]] (1926) ''Plato: Cratylus. Parmenides. Greater Hippias. Lesser Hippias'', H. N. Fowler (Translator), Loeb Classical Library. ISBN 0674991850.
*Sainsbury, R.M. (2003) ''Paradoxes'', 2nd ed. Cambridge Univ. Press. ISBN 0521483476.

== External links ==
{{wikiquotepar|Aristotle}}
* Silagadze, Z . K. "[http://uk.arxiv.org/abs/physics/0505042 Zeno meets modern science,]"
* Blog "Strange Paths": "[http://strangepaths.com/modernity-of-zenos-paradoxes/2007/01/16/en/ Modernity of Zeno's paradoxes.]"
* ''Platonic Realms'': "[http://www.mathacademy.com/pr/prime/articles/zeno_tort/index.asp Zeno's Paradox of the Tortoise and Achilles.]"
* ''[http://demonstrations.wolfram.com/ZenosParadoxAchillesAndTheTortoise/ Zeno's Paradox: Achilles and the Tortoise]'' by Jon McLoone, [[Wolfram Demonstrations Project]].
* ''[http://www.ravpup.com/blog/?p=5 The Dichotomy Paradox]'' a series based solution.
* ''[http://www.iep.utm.edu/zeno-par/ Zeno's Paradoxes]'', by Bradley Dowden, 2009, Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
----

{{planetmath|id=5538|title=Zeno's paradox}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zeno's Paradoxes}}
[[Category:Paradoxes]]
[[Category:Supertasks]]
[[Category:Mathematics paradoxes]]

[[da:Zenons paradoks]]
[[de:Achilles und die Schildkröte]]
[[es:Paradojas de Zenón]]
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[[gl:Paradoxos de Zenón]]
[[ko:제논의 역설]]
[[hi:ज़ीनो परोक्षक]]
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[[is:Þverstæður Zenons]]
[[it:Paradossi di Zenone]]
[[he:הפרדוקסים של זנון]]
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[[ru:Ахиллес и черепаха]]
[[simple:Zeno's paradoxes]]
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[[sv:Zenons paradoxer]]
[[tr:Zeno'nun paradoksları]]
[[zh:芝诺悖论]]

User:Dave Runger

2009-12-05T11:49:33Z

Dave Runger: a much needed update of my userpage. deleted some info.

{| style="position:relative; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em; border-collapse: collapse; align="floatstupid"; clear:right; width:350px;" border="1" cellpadding="0" style="width:69%; height:200px"
|- style="text-align:center;"
! style="background-color:#d3ffFF; text-align: center;"|Dave Runger'''
|-
| style="background-color: yellow; text-align: center; display: none; speak: none;" | [[Image:|{{{image_width|111px}}}|]]
|-
| 
{| style="margin:0 auto; text-align:left; background:none;" cellpadding="2"
[[Image:DavidRunger.jpg|thumb|390px|left|This is I in all of my good-looking glory along my 400 mile bike ride down the [[California State Route 1|Pacific Coast]].]]
|- valign=top {{{ifNick Obradovich|
! Member Since:
<td> 3 March 2006}}}
|- valign=top {{{ifMale|
! Gender:
<td> [[Male]]}}}
|- valign=top {{{if8 February 2006|
! Location:
<td> [[Santa Clara]], [[California|CA]]}}}
|- valign=top {{{ifStudent|
|} 
|-
! style="background-color:#C1EDFF; text-align: center;"|About Me
|-
| style="background-color: yellow; text-align: center; display: none; speak: none;" | [[Image:|{{{image_width|248px}}}|]]
|-
|
I browse Wikipedia for pleasure and for schoolwork (rather than the explicit purpose of editing) and fix anything I come across that I can improve. My interests include [[science]], [[philosophy]], [[politics]], and [[religion]]/[[atheism]]. [[happiness]], [[photography]], [[self-improvement]], [[music]], the [[subconscious]], and the [[internet]] are important topics of interest in my personal life.
|-
! style="background-color:#C1EDFF;"|
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|- style="font-size=90%"
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{| cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"

|}
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{{User Ecology Movement}}
{{User:Disavian/Userboxes/lennonist}}
{{User:UBX/Enjoys philosophy}}
{{User:Scepia/politics}}
{{User:Ortzinator/Userboxes/The Blues}}
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| {{User:Xaosflux/UBX/User religion flying spaghetti monster not really}}
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==Articles I've Created==
[[Color solid]]

[[Students Taking Action Now for Darfur]]

[[Ira Glasser]]

[[Tintern Abbey (poem)]]

[[Les Stroud]]

[[Techlepathy]] (after it was previously deleted)

[[State of World Liberty Index]]

[[State of World Liberty Project]] (stub)

Raison d'être

2009-12-03T11:42:10Z

Dave Runger: lowercasing raison d'etre

{{wiktionarypar|raison d'être}}
{{about|the phrase "raison d'être" itself}}

'''''Raison d'être''''' is a phrase borrowed from French where it means "reason for being"; in English use, it also comes to suggest a degree of rationalization, as "The claimed reason for the existence of something or someone".

The French concept is more elaborate than a simple statement. Once the reason an object exists is defined, criteria to measure the object's degree of success can be enumerated. For example, a phone has the purpose of enabling communication between two people. Some phones meet that goal better than others. When measurable criteria are known, gaps can be identified that show where the particular object fails to meet the prototypical object's reason for being. When gaps have been fully identified, strategies can be implemented to close the gaps and bring the object closer to the true fulfillment of its '''''raison d'être'''''.

In the truest sense of '''''raison d'être''''', French philosophers lay an elaborate road map of descriptive text that contrasts the current status of an implementation of a prototypical object with the purist view of perfection that the object should achieve without the hindrance of imperfections. The philosophical road map brings to a crescendo the imperative urgency that motivates participants to immediately take the steps necessary to achieve all the intended qualities that an object was designed to exemplify.

==See also==
* ''[[Raison d'État]]''

[[da:Raison d'être]]

Raison d'être

2009-12-03T11:41:35Z

Dave Runger: italicizing since it's a foreign phrase

'''''[[Raison d'être]]''''' is a French phrase meaning "reason for existence." It may also refer to:

* [[Raison d'être (band)]], a Swedish dark-ambient-industrial-drone music project
* ''Raison D'etre'', an album by Australian jazz fusion guitarist [[Frank Gambale]]
* ''Raison D'etre'', an album by Czech band [[Lvmen]]
* "Raison d'etre", a song by Japanese rock band [[Dir en grey]]
* "Raison d'etre", a song by Japanese rock band [[Nightmare (band)|Nightmare]] used as opening theme of the anime [[Claymore (manga)|Claymore]]
* "Raison d'etre", a song by Japanese rock band [[deadman (band)|deadman]]
* "Raison d'etre", a song by Japanese Electronic/rock band Denshiki Karen Ongaku Syudan (also known as Denkare)
* "Raison d'être", a song used as the ending theme of the [[Chobits]] anime by Japanese singer and voice actress [[Rie Tanaka]]
* "Raison d'etre", a song by British rock band [[Buzzcocks]]
* "Raison d'être～交差する宿命～", a song by [[Tomosuke Funaki]] under the ailas Zektbach for the video game [[Beatmania]] IIDX 17 SIRIUS.
* Raison d'être, a central theme in the Japanese anime series ''[[Ergo Proxy]]''
* Raison d'être, an American Ale brewed by [[Dogfish Head]]

{{disambig}}

Raison d'être

2009-12-03T11:40:22Z

Dave Runger: creating disambig page, copying from what was at the article "raison d'etre"

'''[[Raison d'être]]''' is a French phrase meaning "reason for existence." It may also refer to:

* [[Raison d'être (band)]], a Swedish dark-ambient-industrial-drone music project
* ''Raison D'etre'', an album by Australian jazz fusion guitarist [[Frank Gambale]]
* ''Raison D'etre'', an album by Czech band [[Lvmen]]
* "Raison d'etre", a song by Japanese rock band [[Dir en grey]]
* "Raison d'etre", a song by Japanese rock band [[Nightmare (band)|Nightmare]] used as opening theme of the anime [[Claymore (manga)|Claymore]]
* "Raison d'etre", a song by Japanese rock band [[deadman (band)|deadman]]
* "Raison d'etre", a song by Japanese Electronic/rock band Denshiki Karen Ongaku Syudan (also known as Denkare)
* "Raison d'être", a song used as the ending theme of the [[Chobits]] anime by Japanese singer and voice actress [[Rie Tanaka]]
* "Raison d'etre", a song by British rock band [[Buzzcocks]]
* "Raison d'être～交差する宿命～", a song by [[Tomosuke Funaki]] under the ailas Zektbach for the video game [[Beatmania]] IIDX 17 SIRIUS.
* Raison d'être, a central theme in the Japanese anime series ''[[Ergo Proxy]]''
* Raison d'être, an American Ale brewed by [[Dogfish Head]]

{{disambig}}

Raison d'être

2009-12-03T11:37:45Z

Dave Runger: this has grown from a disambiguation page into an article. i am creating a separate disambig page.

{{wiktionarypar|raison d'être}}
{{about|the phrase "Raison d'être" itself}}

'''''Raison d'être''''' is a phrase borrowed from French where it means "reason for being"; in English use, it also comes to suggest a degree of rationalization, as "The claimed reason for the existence of something or someone".

The French concept is more elaborate than a simple statement. Once the reason an object exists is defined, criteria to measure the object's degree of success can be enumerated. For example, a phone has the purpose of enabling communication between two people. Some phones meet that goal better than others. When measurable criteria are known, gaps can be identified that show where the particular object fails to meet the prototypical object's reason for being. When gaps have been fully identified, strategies can be implemented to close the gaps and bring the object closer to the true fulfillment of its '''''raison d'être'''''.

In the truest sense of '''''raison d'être''''', French philosophers lay an elaborate road map of descriptive text that contrasts the current status of an implementation of a prototypical object with the purist view of perfection that the object should achieve without the hindrance of imperfections. The philosophical road map brings to a crescendo the imperative urgency that motivates participants to immediately take the steps necessary to achieve all the intended qualities that an object was designed to exemplify.

==See also==
* ''[[Raison d'État]]''

[[da:Raison d'être]]

5 Ks

2009-11-05T04:05:21Z

Dave Runger: page was moved to Five K's, fixing redirect

#REDIRECT [[Five K's]]

Template:Five Ks in Sikhism

2009-11-05T04:02:14Z

Dave Runger: it is grammatically correct to write "K's" rather than "Ks"

{{Navbox
|name = 5Ks
|title = The [[Five K's]] in [[Sikhism]]
|titlestyle = background:#ccccff;
|list1 = <div>
{{nowrap begin}}
[[Kesh (Sikhism)|Kesh (uncut hair)]]{{·w}}
[[Kanga (Sikhism)|Kanga (comb)]]{{·w}}
[[Kara (Sikhism)|Kara (bracelet)]]{{·w}}
[[Kaccha|Kaccha (undergarments)]]{{·w}}
[[Kirpan|Kirpan (ceremonial dagger)]]
{{nowrap end}}
</div>
}}<noinclude>

[[Category:Sikhism templates|Five Ks]]
</noinclude>

Five Ks

2009-11-05T04:01:30Z

Dave Runger: /* External links */ woops i shouldn't have changed this one since it's a template link

:''"Five K" can also refer to a [[5000 meters|five-kilometer distance]] in [[Long-distance track event|long-distance running]] or other sports.''
{{Sikh practices}}

The '''Five K's''', or ''panj kakaar/kakke'', are five items of faith that baptised [[Khalsa]] [[Sikh]]s wear at all times at the command of the tenth Sikh [[Guru]], [[Guru Gobind Singh]] who so ordered at the [[Baisakhi]] [[Amrit Sanchar]] in 1699. The Five K's are not symbols but '''Articles of Faith''' which collectively form the external identity and the Khalsa devotee's commitment to the '''Sikh Rehni''' (Way of life) as ordained by the Tenth Nanak, Guru Gobind Singh Sahib.

The [[Khalsa]] [[Sikh]]s who don all the Five K's are known as ''Amritdhari'' (as they have participated in the [[Amrit Sanchar]] ceremony), while the Sikhs who have not donned all the Five K's are known as ''[[Sahajdhari]]''.

==The five items==
[[Image:CIMG0349.JPG|thumb|220px|right|Kanga, Kara and Kirpan - three of the five K's]]

{{quotation|hiਨ, ਕੰਘਾ, ਕੇਸਕੀ, ਇਹ ਪੰਜ ਕਕਾਰ ਰਹਿਤ ਧਰੇ ਸਿਖ ਸੋਇ ॥ Kaccha (Special designed undergarment), Kara (iron bangle), Kirpan (strapped sword), Kanga (wooden comb) & Keski (short turban) – A person who wears all these Five Kakaars (Articles of Faith) should be considered a Sikh.|}}

1. [[Kesh_%28Sikhism%29|Kesh]] Uncut hair - the sikhs belive that hair is a gift from god so they don`t cut it. If you see a Sikh around today they will have their hair in a turban because they believe that it makes the hair neat and tidy.

2. [[Kanga (Sikhism)|Kanga]] Wooden comb - The wooden comb isn't actually for combing your hair, it is a grip for their hair, this is so it is not a tricky job when they tie their hair back in a turban.

3. [[Kara (Sikhism)|Kara]] Iron bracelet - The iron bracelet is to remind sihks to be good in whatever they are doing, if they are going to do something bad they will look at the bracelet and it will remind them to be good and stick with the Sikh faith.

4. [[Kaccha]] Specially designed cotton underwear - The cotton underwear is a practical design for when Sikhs were in defensive combat against the invading Mughal forces, and is generally very roomy in design. It features an embedded string that circles the waist, that can be tightened/loosened as desired, and then knotted securely. The Kachera can be classed between underwear and an outerwear garment (this case usually only applies to men), as in appearance it does not reveal private anatomy, and looks and wears like shorts. Considering the hot climate in India, where Sikhism was formed and still constitutes a considerable part of the population, the Kachera was, and is still often worn as an outer garment, keeping the wearer cool, and being practical in farming work, etc. It is generally not considered self-respectful for women to wear the Kachera as an outer garment (on it's own) as it reveals their legs above the knees, and as such it can be considered analogous to society's view of over exposure of a miniskirt, which is generally considered too revealing. As with all of the 5 K's, and Sikhism in general, there is equality between men and women, and so there is no restriction for only men be allowed to wear the Kachera, and so women are allowed, and expected to wear it too. The Kachera stands for self-respect, and always reminds the wearer of mental control over lust, one of the five fundamental evils as per Sikh philosophy.

5. [[Kirpan]] Strapped sword - This small sword is a defensive sidearm with it's use only allowed in the act of self defense, and the protection of others. As such, it stands for showing bravery and protecting the innocent/weak. Sikhs carry this beside their waist and are expected to wear it at all times, just as a police officer is expected to wear a public-defensive weapon at all times. In Sikhism, the carrying and use of this Kirpan is 100% synonymous with a police officer's given power to carry and use a weapon, as the reasons are entirely selfless, for the protection of all who need it regardless of race or caste. It also stands to always remind the Sikh carrier of the meaning behind it, as a tool in the safety of all, and their personal duties and responsibility as a Sikh in the message of peace.

{{quotation|ਜੋ ਪਗ ਨੂੰ ਬਾਸੀ ਰਖੇ ਸੋ ਤਨਖਾਹੀਆ। ਇਸ ਲਈ ਹਰ ਗੁਰੂ ਕੇ ਸਿੱਖ ਲਈ ਲਾਜ਼ਮੀ ਹੈ ਕ ਉਹ ਰੋਜ਼ ਦਸਤਾਰ ਸਜਾਵੇ। One who does not tie a fresh turban is liable for penalty. For this reason it is mandatory for every Sikh of the Guru to tie a turban every day.|(Rehitnama Bhai Chaupa Singh jee)}}

A Sikh never cuts or trims any hair ([[Kesh (Sikhism)|Kesh]]), to indicate the perfection of God's creation. The comb keeps the hair tidy, a symbol of not just accepting what God has given, but also an injunction to maintain it with grace. The Guru said hair should be allowed to grow naturally. For men, this includes not shaving. At the time of Guru Gobind Singh, some holy men let their hair become tangled and dirty. The Guru said that this was not right. Hair should be allowed to grow but it should be kept clean and combed at least twice a day.

A Dastaar is a turban worn to protect the [[Kesh (Sikhism)|Kesh]] (unshorn hair) and guard the [[Dasam Duaar]] (the Tenth Gate), a spiritual opening at the top of the head. The turban is a spiritual crown, which is a constant reminder to the Sikh that he or she is sitting on the throne of consciousness and is committed to living according to Sikh principles. It is the identity of a Sikh. Guru Gobind Singh jee told his Sikhs: ''"Khaalsa mero roop hai kaas. Khaalsa mai ho karo nivaas... The Khalsa is my image. Within the Khalsa I reside."'' Wearing a turban declares sovereignty, dedication, self-respect, courage and piety.

==Kanga==
{{Main|Kanga (Sikhism)}}
[[Image:CIMG0336.JPG|thumb|right|Kanga - one of the five articles of faith for the Sikhs]]

{{quotation|ਕੰਘਾ ਦੋਨਉਂ ਵਕਤ ਕਰ, ਪਾਗ ਚੁਨਹਿ ਕਰ ਬਾਂਧਈ ॥ Comb the hair twice a day, covering it with turban that is to be tied from fresh.|Tankhanama Bhai Nand Lal Singh}}

A [[Kanga (Sikhism)|Kanga]] is a small wooden comb that Sikhs use twice a day. It should be worn in the hair, and only the hair, at all times. Combs help to clean hair and remove tangles from it, as well as being a symbol of cleanliness to the Sikhs. Combing their hair reminds them that their lives should be tidy and organized, too. The Sikhs were commanded by Guru Gobind Singh to wear a small comb called the Kanga at all times.

==Kachera==
{{Main|Kaccha}}
[[Image:CIMG0334.JPG|thumb|right|The Kachera - one of the five articles of faith for the Sikhs]]

{{quotation|ਸੀਲ ਜਤ ਕੀ ਕਛ ਪਹਿਰਿ ਪਕਿੜਓ ਹਿਥਆਰਾ ॥ The sign of true chastity is the Kachhera, you must wear this and hold weapons in hand.|Bhai Gurdas, Var. 41, pauri 15}}

The Kachera is the Guru's gift and it reminds the Sikhs of the Guru's message regarding the control of the Five Evils. Further, this garment allows the Sikh soldier to operate in combat freely and without any hindrance or restriction. It serves its purpose efficiently and effectively and is easy to fabricate, maintain, wash and carry compared to other under-garments of the day, like the dhoti. It reminds sikhs to remain Jati (avoid relation with women other than your own wife).

==Kirpan==
{{Main |Kirpan}}
[[Image:Kirpan_small.JPG|thumb|left|Typical Kirpan worn by modern Sikhs]]

{{quotation|ਸ਼ਸਤਰ ਹੀਨ ਕਬਹੂ ਨਹਿ ਹੋਈ, ਰਿਹਤਵੰਤ ਖਾਲਸਾ ਸੋਈ ॥ Those who never depart his/her arms, they are the Khalsa with excellent rehats.|Rehatnama Bhai Desa Singh}}

The [[Kirpan]] is an instrument which adds to self-respect and self-defence. Thus for Sikhs, Kirpan is the symbol of power and freedom of spirit. All baptised Sikhs should wear a short form of Kirpan (approx. 6" to 9" long) on their body.

==Kara==
The Sikhs were commanded by Guru Gobind Singh at the Baisakhi Amrit Sanchar in 1699 to wear a steel slave bangle called a [[Kara_(Sikhism)|Kara]] at all times. This was one of five articles of faith, collectively called Kakars that form the external visible symbols to clearly and outwardly display ones commitment and dedication to the order (Hukam) of the tenth master and become a member of Khalsa. The Kara is to constantly remind the Sikh to always remember that whatever he or she does with their hands has to be in keeping with the advice given by the Guru.

==Kesh==
The [[Kesh (Sikhism)|Kesh]] or unshorn long hair is an indispensible part of the human body as created by Waheguru that is the mainstay of the 'Jivan Jaach' and the Rehni that was prescribed by Guru Gobind Singh Sahib by which a Sikh is clearly and quickly identified, Kesh. The uncut long head hair and the beard in the case of men forms the main kakar for the Sikhs.
==See also==
* [[Sikhism]]
* [[Amrit Sanskar]], the baptism ceremony
* [[Vaisakhi]]
* [[Khalsa]] and [[Sahajdhari]]
* [[Gursikh]]
* [[Amritdhari]]

==External links==

*[http://www.sikhismguide.org/fiveks.shtml The Five Sikh Symbols - SikhismGuide.org]
*[http://www.gurmat.info/sms/smspublications/thesikhsymbols/ The Sikh Symbols] - eBook
*[http://www.gurmat.info/sms/smspublications/thesikhbangle/ The Sikh Bangle (Karra)] - eBook

{{5Ks}}

{{Sikhism}}

[[Category:Sikh practices]]
[[Category:Sikh religious clothing]]

[[nn:Dei fem K-ane i sikhismen]]
[[pl:Pięć K]]
[[pt:Cinco K]]

Five Ks

2009-11-05T04:00:42Z

Dave Runger: moved the page here to correct this grammar issue (its "K's", not "Ks"); now correcting in the article

:''"Five K" can also refer to a [[5000 meters|five-kilometer distance]] in [[Long-distance track event|long-distance running]] or other sports.''
{{Sikh practices}}

The '''Five K's''', or ''panj kakaar/kakke'', are five items of faith that baptised [[Khalsa]] [[Sikh]]s wear at all times at the command of the tenth Sikh [[Guru]], [[Guru Gobind Singh]] who so ordered at the [[Baisakhi]] [[Amrit Sanchar]] in 1699. The Five K's are not symbols but '''Articles of Faith''' which collectively form the external identity and the Khalsa devotee's commitment to the '''Sikh Rehni''' (Way of life) as ordained by the Tenth Nanak, Guru Gobind Singh Sahib.

The [[Khalsa]] [[Sikh]]s who don all the Five K's are known as ''Amritdhari'' (as they have participated in the [[Amrit Sanchar]] ceremony), while the Sikhs who have not donned all the Five K's are known as ''[[Sahajdhari]]''.

==The five items==
[[Image:CIMG0349.JPG|thumb|220px|right|Kanga, Kara and Kirpan - three of the five K's]]

{{quotation|hiਨ, ਕੰਘਾ, ਕੇਸਕੀ, ਇਹ ਪੰਜ ਕਕਾਰ ਰਹਿਤ ਧਰੇ ਸਿਖ ਸੋਇ ॥ Kaccha (Special designed undergarment), Kara (iron bangle), Kirpan (strapped sword), Kanga (wooden comb) & Keski (short turban) – A person who wears all these Five Kakaars (Articles of Faith) should be considered a Sikh.|}}

1. [[Kesh_%28Sikhism%29|Kesh]] Uncut hair - the sikhs belive that hair is a gift from god so they don`t cut it. If you see a Sikh around today they will have their hair in a turban because they believe that it makes the hair neat and tidy.

2. [[Kanga (Sikhism)|Kanga]] Wooden comb - The wooden comb isn't actually for combing your hair, it is a grip for their hair, this is so it is not a tricky job when they tie their hair back in a turban.

3. [[Kara (Sikhism)|Kara]] Iron bracelet - The iron bracelet is to remind sihks to be good in whatever they are doing, if they are going to do something bad they will look at the bracelet and it will remind them to be good and stick with the Sikh faith.

4. [[Kaccha]] Specially designed cotton underwear - The cotton underwear is a practical design for when Sikhs were in defensive combat against the invading Mughal forces, and is generally very roomy in design. It features an embedded string that circles the waist, that can be tightened/loosened as desired, and then knotted securely. The Kachera can be classed between underwear and an outerwear garment (this case usually only applies to men), as in appearance it does not reveal private anatomy, and looks and wears like shorts. Considering the hot climate in India, where Sikhism was formed and still constitutes a considerable part of the population, the Kachera was, and is still often worn as an outer garment, keeping the wearer cool, and being practical in farming work, etc. It is generally not considered self-respectful for women to wear the Kachera as an outer garment (on it's own) as it reveals their legs above the knees, and as such it can be considered analogous to society's view of over exposure of a miniskirt, which is generally considered too revealing. As with all of the 5 K's, and Sikhism in general, there is equality between men and women, and so there is no restriction for only men be allowed to wear the Kachera, and so women are allowed, and expected to wear it too. The Kachera stands for self-respect, and always reminds the wearer of mental control over lust, one of the five fundamental evils as per Sikh philosophy.

5. [[Kirpan]] Strapped sword - This small sword is a defensive sidearm with it's use only allowed in the act of self defense, and the protection of others. As such, it stands for showing bravery and protecting the innocent/weak. Sikhs carry this beside their waist and are expected to wear it at all times, just as a police officer is expected to wear a public-defensive weapon at all times. In Sikhism, the carrying and use of this Kirpan is 100% synonymous with a police officer's given power to carry and use a weapon, as the reasons are entirely selfless, for the protection of all who need it regardless of race or caste. It also stands to always remind the Sikh carrier of the meaning behind it, as a tool in the safety of all, and their personal duties and responsibility as a Sikh in the message of peace.

{{quotation|ਜੋ ਪਗ ਨੂੰ ਬਾਸੀ ਰਖੇ ਸੋ ਤਨਖਾਹੀਆ। ਇਸ ਲਈ ਹਰ ਗੁਰੂ ਕੇ ਸਿੱਖ ਲਈ ਲਾਜ਼ਮੀ ਹੈ ਕ ਉਹ ਰੋਜ਼ ਦਸਤਾਰ ਸਜਾਵੇ। One who does not tie a fresh turban is liable for penalty. For this reason it is mandatory for every Sikh of the Guru to tie a turban every day.|(Rehitnama Bhai Chaupa Singh jee)}}

A Sikh never cuts or trims any hair ([[Kesh (Sikhism)|Kesh]]), to indicate the perfection of God's creation. The comb keeps the hair tidy, a symbol of not just accepting what God has given, but also an injunction to maintain it with grace. The Guru said hair should be allowed to grow naturally. For men, this includes not shaving. At the time of Guru Gobind Singh, some holy men let their hair become tangled and dirty. The Guru said that this was not right. Hair should be allowed to grow but it should be kept clean and combed at least twice a day.

A Dastaar is a turban worn to protect the [[Kesh (Sikhism)|Kesh]] (unshorn hair) and guard the [[Dasam Duaar]] (the Tenth Gate), a spiritual opening at the top of the head. The turban is a spiritual crown, which is a constant reminder to the Sikh that he or she is sitting on the throne of consciousness and is committed to living according to Sikh principles. It is the identity of a Sikh. Guru Gobind Singh jee told his Sikhs: ''"Khaalsa mero roop hai kaas. Khaalsa mai ho karo nivaas... The Khalsa is my image. Within the Khalsa I reside."'' Wearing a turban declares sovereignty, dedication, self-respect, courage and piety.

==Kanga==
{{Main|Kanga (Sikhism)}}
[[Image:CIMG0336.JPG|thumb|right|Kanga - one of the five articles of faith for the Sikhs]]

{{quotation|ਕੰਘਾ ਦੋਨਉਂ ਵਕਤ ਕਰ, ਪਾਗ ਚੁਨਹਿ ਕਰ ਬਾਂਧਈ ॥ Comb the hair twice a day, covering it with turban that is to be tied from fresh.|Tankhanama Bhai Nand Lal Singh}}

A [[Kanga (Sikhism)|Kanga]] is a small wooden comb that Sikhs use twice a day. It should be worn in the hair, and only the hair, at all times. Combs help to clean hair and remove tangles from it, as well as being a symbol of cleanliness to the Sikhs. Combing their hair reminds them that their lives should be tidy and organized, too. The Sikhs were commanded by Guru Gobind Singh to wear a small comb called the Kanga at all times.

==Kachera==
{{Main|Kaccha}}
[[Image:CIMG0334.JPG|thumb|right|The Kachera - one of the five articles of faith for the Sikhs]]

{{quotation|ਸੀਲ ਜਤ ਕੀ ਕਛ ਪਹਿਰਿ ਪਕਿੜਓ ਹਿਥਆਰਾ ॥ The sign of true chastity is the Kachhera, you must wear this and hold weapons in hand.|Bhai Gurdas, Var. 41, pauri 15}}

The Kachera is the Guru's gift and it reminds the Sikhs of the Guru's message regarding the control of the Five Evils. Further, this garment allows the Sikh soldier to operate in combat freely and without any hindrance or restriction. It serves its purpose efficiently and effectively and is easy to fabricate, maintain, wash and carry compared to other under-garments of the day, like the dhoti. It reminds sikhs to remain Jati (avoid relation with women other than your own wife).

==Kirpan==
{{Main |Kirpan}}
[[Image:Kirpan_small.JPG|thumb|left|Typical Kirpan worn by modern Sikhs]]

{{quotation|ਸ਼ਸਤਰ ਹੀਨ ਕਬਹੂ ਨਹਿ ਹੋਈ, ਰਿਹਤਵੰਤ ਖਾਲਸਾ ਸੋਈ ॥ Those who never depart his/her arms, they are the Khalsa with excellent rehats.|Rehatnama Bhai Desa Singh}}

The [[Kirpan]] is an instrument which adds to self-respect and self-defence. Thus for Sikhs, Kirpan is the symbol of power and freedom of spirit. All baptised Sikhs should wear a short form of Kirpan (approx. 6" to 9" long) on their body.

==Kara==
The Sikhs were commanded by Guru Gobind Singh at the Baisakhi Amrit Sanchar in 1699 to wear a steel slave bangle called a [[Kara_(Sikhism)|Kara]] at all times. This was one of five articles of faith, collectively called Kakars that form the external visible symbols to clearly and outwardly display ones commitment and dedication to the order (Hukam) of the tenth master and become a member of Khalsa. The Kara is to constantly remind the Sikh to always remember that whatever he or she does with their hands has to be in keeping with the advice given by the Guru.

==Kesh==
The [[Kesh (Sikhism)|Kesh]] or unshorn long hair is an indispensible part of the human body as created by Waheguru that is the mainstay of the 'Jivan Jaach' and the Rehni that was prescribed by Guru Gobind Singh Sahib by which a Sikh is clearly and quickly identified, Kesh. The uncut long head hair and the beard in the case of men forms the main kakar for the Sikhs.
==See also==
* [[Sikhism]]
* [[Amrit Sanskar]], the baptism ceremony
* [[Vaisakhi]]
* [[Khalsa]] and [[Sahajdhari]]
* [[Gursikh]]
* [[Amritdhari]]

==External links==

*[http://www.sikhismguide.org/fiveks.shtml The Five Sikh Symbols - SikhismGuide.org]
*[http://www.gurmat.info/sms/smspublications/thesikhsymbols/ The Sikh Symbols] - eBook
*[http://www.gurmat.info/sms/smspublications/thesikhbangle/ The Sikh Bangle (Karra)] - eBook

{{5K's}}

{{Sikhism}}

[[Category:Sikh practices]]
[[Category:Sikh religious clothing]]

[[nn:Dei fem K-ane i sikhismen]]
[[pl:Pięć K]]
[[pt:Cinco K]]

Talk:Five Ks/Archive 1

2009-11-05T03:57:00Z

Dave Runger: moved Talk:Five Ks to Talk:Five K's: In English syntax, this is the proper way to indicate the plural of a character

{{WikiProject Sikhism|class=Start|importance=High}}

== Should 5K redirect here? ==

I am not familiar with your sometimes elaborate rules of order but I think when people search 5K they are probably looking for the run. I am not switching it because I don't feel qualified or informed to. [[User:24.181.29.106|24.181.29.106]]

Shorts eh? What about the Kris? [[User:Wetman|Wetman]] 04:46, 14 Mar 2004 (UTC)

== Sikh sex ==

"at all times" they must wear these?

What if they're having sex? Do they wear all the Ks then? And I've always wondered with the sword - surely that'll have to a) get sharpened sometime so they'll have to take it off; or b) when they go through those metal detectors-what then? Surely they cant take them through? Or maybe Sikhs dont travel? I dunno. Explanations would be awesome --[[User:Thewayforward|Thewayforward]] 16:20, 1 Dec 2004 (UTC)

Is a kesh just the long hair, or is it a turban????

:I think this question highlights a problem with this article and its subsidiary articles. Obviously, these rules are kept with varying degrees of strictness within the Sikh community. Not all Sikh men have an uncut beard. Sometimes it's cut for reasons of practicality or culture. But these articles give the impression that any Sikh who cuts his hair is immediately ostracized. Someone needs to figure out how strictly these rules are obeyed in the community at large. --K[[Wikipedia:Esperanza|e]]rowyn 08:39, 19 June 2006 (UTC)

::Although I have no firm statistics, I would say that the majority of Sikhs no longer keep their hair uncut (either in India or outside of India). And no, a Sikh with long hair who purposefully cuts his hair may be looked down upon by fully adhering Sikhs, but not ostracised. [[User:Sukh|Sukh]] | ਸੁਖ | [[User talk:Sukh|Talk]] 20:33, 19 June 2006 (UTC)

== Spelling of Kaccha/Kachha ==

This has been spelt two different ways on the page. I don't know the right spelling and so cannot fix it myself.

Elsewhere on wikipedia it is also speld Kacha, and the subject heading to that section is Kachera. The first thirteen I could see being equally correct due to transliteration, but Kachera seems like an odd one out if it's pronounced as it's spelled. A little explaination would be helpful in that section. [[User:Cat Parade|Cat Parade]] 17:27, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

:It's the result of DIY transliteration from Gurmukhi to Latin script. This problem is evident across all the Sikhism pages and needs to be fixed - which I'm working on atm :D [[User:Sukh|Sukh]] | ਸੁਖ | [[User talk:Sukh|Talk]] 19:12, 23 January 2006 (UTC)

== Kesh ==

What is kesh (the kesh)? Long hair? A comb?

: Ah, I found the answer in [[Sikhism]]. (It's long hair.) [[User:Rangek|Rangek]] 03:39, 2005 Apr 14 (UTC)

Also, the last paragraph makes the following extraordinary statement with no information to back it up:

"Recent scientific research into hair has revealed that it has greater functions that previously thought. It appears that the length of hair is linked to the intelligence of an individual, health, spirtuality and many other things."

I have not heard of this "recent scientific research" before and I don't believe it. I will take the liberty of removing this paragraph unless some one can point me to a credible source.
--[[User:Rangek|Rangek]] 19:00, 2005 Apr 13 (UTC)

:: I remember someone telling me that sikhs will cut their hair if and when all the muslims in the world (or is it india?) die.. I know this sounds silly and outrageous but if someone will clarify if this is just an old wives tale or based partly on truth. Tx and I don't mean to offen any religion, just a bit curious to know the truth. [[User:Idleguy|Idleguy]] 03:29, August 13, 2005 (UTC)

==POV?==
I believe the statement "It is important to remember that a Sikh would never use the Kirpan in anger or for a malicious attack." is untrue and POV. I know of at least [[http://www.canoe.ca/CNEWSPoliticsColumns/sep2_kieran.html 3 cases]] in western Canada where kirpans were used in exactly that matter. I have no particular issue with Sikism, and only ask that this sentence be removed.

I realize the contentiousness of this statement, in fact the local media was heavily criticized merely for reporting the Surrey attack. However, false POV statements like that quoted only discredit Sikhism. [[User:Corvus|Corvus]] 04:45, 1 May 2005 (UTC)

== Page move ==

I've moved this form 'Sikhs Five Ks' to simply 'Five Ks' because "Sikhs" in this context is both unnecessary and ungrammatical.--[[User:Pharos|Pharos]] 19:00, 5 May 2005 (UTC)

== Split ==

Each of the [[Five Ks]] is worth a separate article. On the Sikhism page there is a separate link for each term all leading back here. I think it might be a good idea to keep this as a disambiguation page, but have Main Articles for each K. [[User:Freestylefrappe|freestylefrappe]] 20:05, September 8, 2005 (UTC)

*I agree in principle that each of the Five Ks does certainly deserve a separate article, but I don't think the information here is developed enough to warrant a split as yet. This isn't really an issue of disambiguation, but of an overlying concept with a number of set elements, so it is quite useful to have them discussed together. When we get some more dedicated editors knowledgable about Sikhism and the individual sections develop beyond a few paragraphs each, then it will be appropriate to split off the info and keep only summaries of the elements at this page.--[[User:Pharos|Pharos]] 01:06, 9 September 2005 (UTC)

== clarification... ==

FTA: "Like breeches, Kaccha can be worn on their own without causing embarrassment. Thus it is quite useful in hot weather, swimming and sports activities." -- I am unclear... does this mean that they are worn like underwear!? Could someone please reword this to make it more clear if they know the answer to my question ... -- [[User:Abscissa|Abscissa]] 03:25, 3 March 2006 (UTC)

== Etymology of Kirpan ==

The article says "Kirpan comes from the word 'KIRPA' and 'AAN'. Kirpa means an act of kindness or a favour; 'aan' means honour, respect, and self-respect."

I'd like to see a linguistic reference for this. I think "kirpan" is Sanskrit or proto-Sanskrit for an object that cuts. Compare to Lithuanian "kirpti", meaning to cut, or "kirpėja" meaning hairdresser (she who cuts). So, I find it more likely that "kirpan" comes from words about cutting than it comes from words for kindness and honour. Another reason for this is that the "-an" at the end of "kirpan" is a grammatical nominative ending. Compare to "shuoan", Sanskrit for dog, and Lithuanian "shuo", a dog. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/{{{IP|{{{User|213.93.190.84}}}}}}|{{{IP|{{{User|213.93.190.84}}}}}}]] ([[User talk:{{{IP|{{{User|213.93.190.84}}}}}}|talk]]) {{{Time|08:53, August 25, 2007 (UTC)}}} 

== Incorrect 'Kachera' picture ==

I would request someone to change the picture of the Kachera. The one shown currently is NOT the traditional Kachera worn by Sikhs. [[User:Eharpinder|Eharpinder]] ([[User talk:Eharpinder|talk]]) 15:58, 2 October 2008 (UTC)

Five Ks

2009-11-05T03:56:59Z

Dave Runger: moved Five Ks to Five K's over redirect: In English syntax, this is the proper way to indicate the plural of a character

:''"Five K" can also refer to a [[5000 meters|five-kilometer distance]] in [[Long-distance track event|long-distance running]] or other sports.''
{{Sikh practices}}

The '''Five Ks''', or ''panj kakaar/kakke'', are five items of faith that baptised [[Khalsa]] [[Sikh]]s wear at all times at the command of the tenth Sikh [[Guru]], [[Guru Gobind Singh]] who so ordered at the [[Baisakhi]] [[Amrit Sanchar]] in 1699. The Five Ks are not symbols but '''Articles of Faith''' which collectively form the external identity and the Khalsa devotee's commitment to the '''Sikh Rehni''' (Way of life) as ordained by the Tenth Nanak, Guru Gobind Singh Sahib.

The [[Khalsa]] [[Sikh]]s who don all the Five Ks are known as ''Amritdhari'' (as they have participated in the [[Amrit Sanchar]] ceremony), while the Sikhs who have not donned all the Five Ks are known as ''[[Sahajdhari]]''.

==The five items==
[[Image:CIMG0349.JPG|thumb|220px|right|Kanga, Kara and Kirpan - three of the five Ks]]

{{quotation|hiਨ, ਕੰਘਾ, ਕੇਸਕੀ, ਇਹ ਪੰਜ ਕਕਾਰ ਰਹਿਤ ਧਰੇ ਸਿਖ ਸੋਇ ॥ Kaccha (Special designed undergarment), Kara (iron bangle), Kirpan (strapped sword), Kanga (wooden comb) & Keski (short turban) – A person who wears all these Five Kakaars (Articles of Faith) should be considered a Sikh.|}}

1. [[Kesh_%28Sikhism%29|Kesh]] Uncut hair - the sikhs belive that hair is a gift from god so they don`t cut it. If you see a Sikh around today they will have their hair in a turban because they believe that it makes the hair neat and tidy.

2. [[Kanga (Sikhism)|Kanga]] Wooden comb - The wooden comb isn't actually for combing your hair, it is a grip for their hair, this is so it is not a tricky job when they tie their hair back in a turban.

3. [[Kara (Sikhism)|Kara]] Iron bracelet - The iron bracelet is to remind sihks to be good in whatever they are doing, if they are going to do something bad they will look at the bracelet and it will remind them to be good and stick with the Sikh faith.

4. [[Kaccha]] Specially designed cotton underwear - The cotton underwear is a practical design for when Sikhs were in defensive combat against the invading Mughal forces, and is generally very roomy in design. It features an embedded string that circles the waist, that can be tightened/loosened as desired, and then knotted securely. The Kachera can be classed between underwear and an outerwear garment (this case usually only applies to men), as in appearance it does not reveal private anatomy, and looks and wears like shorts. Considering the hot climate in India, where Sikhism was formed and still constitutes a considerable part of the population, the Kachera was, and is still often worn as an outer garment, keeping the wearer cool, and being practical in farming work, etc. It is generally not considered self-respectful for women to wear the Kachera as an outer garment (on it's own) as it reveals their legs above the knees, and as such it can be considered analogous to society's view of over exposure of a miniskirt, which is generally considered too revealing. As with all of the 5 K's, and Sikhism in general, there is equality between men and women, and so there is no restriction for only men be allowed to wear the Kachera, and so women are allowed, and expected to wear it too. The Kachera stands for self-respect, and always reminds the wearer of mental control over lust, one of the five fundamental evils as per Sikh philosophy.

5. [[Kirpan]] Strapped sword - This small sword is a defensive sidearm with it's use only allowed in the act of self defense, and the protection of others. As such, it stands for showing bravery and protecting the innocent/weak. Sikhs carry this beside their waist and are expected to wear it at all times, just as a police officer is expected to wear a public-defensive weapon at all times. In Sikhism, the carrying and use of this Kirpan is 100% synonymous with a police officer's given power to carry and use a weapon, as the reasons are entirely selfless, for the protection of all who need it regardless of race or caste. It also stands to always remind the Sikh carrier of the meaning behind it, as a tool in the safety of all, and their personal duties and responsibility as a Sikh in the message of peace.

{{quotation|ਜੋ ਪਗ ਨੂੰ ਬਾਸੀ ਰਖੇ ਸੋ ਤਨਖਾਹੀਆ। ਇਸ ਲਈ ਹਰ ਗੁਰੂ ਕੇ ਸਿੱਖ ਲਈ ਲਾਜ਼ਮੀ ਹੈ ਕ ਉਹ ਰੋਜ਼ ਦਸਤਾਰ ਸਜਾਵੇ। One who does not tie a fresh turban is liable for penalty. For this reason it is mandatory for every Sikh of the Guru to tie a turban every day.|(Rehitnama Bhai Chaupa Singh jee)}}

A Sikh never cuts or trims any hair ([[Kesh (Sikhism)|Kesh]]), to indicate the perfection of God's creation. The comb keeps the hair tidy, a symbol of not just accepting what God has given, but also an injunction to maintain it with grace. The Guru said hair should be allowed to grow naturally. For men, this includes not shaving. At the time of Guru Gobind Singh, some holy men let their hair become tangled and dirty. The Guru said that this was not right. Hair should be allowed to grow but it should be kept clean and combed at least twice a day.

A Dastaar is a turban worn to protect the [[Kesh (Sikhism)|Kesh]] (unshorn hair) and guard the [[Dasam Duaar]] (the Tenth Gate), a spiritual opening at the top of the head. The turban is a spiritual crown, which is a constant reminder to the Sikh that he or she is sitting on the throne of consciousness and is committed to living according to Sikh principles. It is the identity of a Sikh. Guru Gobind Singh jee told his Sikhs: ''"Khaalsa mero roop hai kaas. Khaalsa mai ho karo nivaas... The Khalsa is my image. Within the Khalsa I reside."'' Wearing a turban declares sovereignty, dedication, self-respect, courage and piety.

==Kanga==
{{Main|Kanga (Sikhism)}}
[[Image:CIMG0336.JPG|thumb|right|Kanga - one of the five articles of faith for the Sikhs]]

{{quotation|ਕੰਘਾ ਦੋਨਉਂ ਵਕਤ ਕਰ, ਪਾਗ ਚੁਨਹਿ ਕਰ ਬਾਂਧਈ ॥ Comb the hair twice a day, covering it with turban that is to be tied from fresh.|Tankhanama Bhai Nand Lal Singh}}

A [[Kanga (Sikhism)|Kanga]] is a small wooden comb that Sikhs use twice a day. It should be worn in the hair, and only the hair, at all times. Combs help to clean hair and remove tangles from it, as well as being a symbol of cleanliness to the Sikhs. Combing their hair reminds them that their lives should be tidy and organized, too. The Sikhs were commanded by Guru Gobind Singh to wear a small comb called the Kanga at all times.

==Kachera==
{{Main|Kaccha}}
[[Image:CIMG0334.JPG|thumb|right|The Kachera - one of the five articles of faith for the Sikhs]]

{{quotation|ਸੀਲ ਜਤ ਕੀ ਕਛ ਪਹਿਰਿ ਪਕਿੜਓ ਹਿਥਆਰਾ ॥ The sign of true chastity is the Kachhera, you must wear this and hold weapons in hand.|Bhai Gurdas, Var. 41, pauri 15}}

The Kachera is the Guru's gift and it reminds the Sikhs of the Guru's message regarding the control of the Five Evils. Further, this garment allows the Sikh soldier to operate in combat freely and without any hindrance or restriction. It serves its purpose efficiently and effectively and is easy to fabricate, maintain, wash and carry compared to other under-garments of the day, like the dhoti. It reminds sikhs to remain Jati (avoid relation with women other than your own wife).

==Kirpan==
{{Main |Kirpan}}
[[Image:Kirpan_small.JPG|thumb|left|Typical Kirpan worn by modern Sikhs]]

{{quotation|ਸ਼ਸਤਰ ਹੀਨ ਕਬਹੂ ਨਹਿ ਹੋਈ, ਰਿਹਤਵੰਤ ਖਾਲਸਾ ਸੋਈ ॥ Those who never depart his/her arms, they are the Khalsa with excellent rehats.|Rehatnama Bhai Desa Singh}}

The [[Kirpan]] is an instrument which adds to self-respect and self-defence. Thus for Sikhs, Kirpan is the symbol of power and freedom of spirit. All baptised Sikhs should wear a short form of Kirpan (approx. 6" to 9" long) on their body.

==Kara==
The Sikhs were commanded by Guru Gobind Singh at the Baisakhi Amrit Sanchar in 1699 to wear a steel slave bangle called a [[Kara_(Sikhism)|Kara]] at all times. This was one of five articles of faith, collectively called Kakars that form the external visible symbols to clearly and outwardly display ones commitment and dedication to the order (Hukam) of the tenth master and become a member of Khalsa. The Kara is to constantly remind the Sikh to always remember that whatever he or she does with their hands has to be in keeping with the advice given by the Guru.

==Kesh==
The [[Kesh (Sikhism)|Kesh]] or unshorn long hair is an indispensible part of the human body as created by Waheguru that is the mainstay of the 'Jivan Jaach' and the Rehni that was prescribed by Guru Gobind Singh Sahib by which a Sikh is clearly and quickly identified, Kesh. The uncut long head hair and the beard in the case of men forms the main kakar for the Sikhs.
==See also==
* [[Sikhism]]
* [[Amrit Sanskar]], the baptism ceremony
* [[Vaisakhi]]
* [[Khalsa]] and [[Sahajdhari]]
* [[Gursikh]]
* [[Amritdhari]]

==External links==

*[http://www.sikhismguide.org/fiveks.shtml The Five Sikh Symbols - SikhismGuide.org]
*[http://www.gurmat.info/sms/smspublications/thesikhsymbols/ The Sikh Symbols] - eBook
*[http://www.gurmat.info/sms/smspublications/thesikhbangle/ The Sikh Bangle (Karra)] - eBook

{{5Ks}}

{{Sikhism}}

[[Category:Sikh practices]]
[[Category:Sikh religious clothing]]

[[nn:Dei fem K-ane i sikhismen]]
[[pl:Pięć K]]
[[pt:Cinco K]]

Panj kakke

2009-11-05T03:55:25Z

Dave Runger: create #REDIRECT Five K's

#REDIRECT [[Five K's]]

Islandia, Florida

2009-10-12T20:29:18Z

Dave Runger: revert vandalism (joke about muslim breeding rights, most likely b.c. of recent linking from reddit.com)

{{Infobox Settlement


|official_name = Islandia, Florida
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'''Islandia''' is a city in [[Miami-Dade County, Florida|Miami-Dade County]], [[Florida]], [[United States]], located on [[Totten Key]] south of [[Elliott Key]]. The population was 6 at the [[2000 United States Census|2000 census]]; it was estimated to have stayed the same by 2004,<ref>http://www.census.gov/popest/cities/tables/SUB-EST2004-04-12.xls</ref> making it the smallest [[incorporation (municipal government)|incorporated]] city in [[Florida]].

==History==
During the middle of the 20th century, the [[coral reef]] islands east of [[Homestead, Florida|Homestead]] were seen as potential high income development. [[Monroe County, Florida|Monroe County]] was so certain that this would be the next boom area that it offered all of mainland Monroe County in exchange for these islands, but Dade County (now Miami-Dade County) declined the offer. At the same time, many Florida [[environmentalism|environmentalists]] were lobbying to avoid what happened to other sensitive areas in [[South Florida]] happening to these sensitive coral reefs. The state legislature allowed the community to incorporate, but did not allow any further development until the issue could be resolved. As the decades passed, Islandia's chances becoming a resort waned, and the laws to protect the reefs increased. Eventually Biscayne National Monument became [[Biscayne National Park]] and any hope of an Islandia boom disappeared. The city is still incorporated.<ref>[http://www.miamiherald.com/728/ Islandia - MiamiHerald.com]</ref>

== Geography ==
Islandia is located at {{coord|25|23|18|N|80|14|10|W|city}} (25.388299, -80.236180).{{GR|1}}

According to the [[United States Census Bureau]], the city has a total area of 66.4 mi² (171.9 km²). 6.4 mi² (16.7 km²) of it is land and 59.9 mi² (155.2 km²) of it (90.28%) is water.

====Surrounding areas====
*[[Image:Up-1.svg|20px]] [[Biscayne Bay]]
*[[Image:Right.svg|20px]] [[Atlantic Ocean]]
*[[Image:Down arrow.svg|20px]] Atlantic Ocean
*[[Image:Down arrow left.svg|20px]] [[Key Largo]]
*[[Image:Left.svg|20px]] Biscayne Bay

== Demographics ==
As of the [[census]] of 2000,{{GR|2}} there were 6 people, 3 households, and 1 family residing in the city. The population density was 0.9 people per square mile (0.4/km²). There were 5 housing units at an average density of 0.8 persons/mi² (0.3 persons/km²). The racial makeup of the city was 100.00% White.

There are 3 households out of which 1 had children under the age of 18 living with them, 1 was a [[Marriage|married couple]] living together, and 2 were non-families. 2 households were made up of individuals. The average household size was 2.00 and the average family size was 4.00.

In the city the population was spread out with 2 under the age of 18, 2 from 25 to 44, and 2 from 45 to 64. The median age was 32 years. For every female there was 1 male. For every females age 18 and over, there was 1 male.

The median income for a household in the city was $41,875, and the median income for a family was $80,488. Males had a median income of $41,875 versus $0 for females. The per capita income for the city was $27,000. None of the population was below the [[poverty line]].

==See also==
*[[List of places with fewer than ten people]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.floridavisiting.com/towns/Islandia.html Islandia - Is Anybody Home?]
{{Mapit-US-cityscale|25.388299|-80.23618}}

{{Florida Keys}}
{{Dade County, Florida}}

[[Category:Cities in Miami-Dade County, Florida]]

[[io:Islandia, Florida]]
[[ht:Islandia, Florid]]
[[nl:Islandia (Florida)]]
[[pl:Islandia (Floryda)]]
[[pt:Islandia (Flórida)]]
[[simple:Islandia, Florida]]
[[vo:Islandia (Florida)]]

Constitution of the United States

2009-07-19T05:46:09Z

Dave Runger: /* Drafting and ratification requirements */ add article 13 specifics from A's of Conf and Article VII specifics from Const. w/ citations

{{pp-semi-vandalism|small=yes}}
{{Infobox Document
|document_name = United States Constitution
|image = Constitution Pg1of4 AC.jpg
|image_width = 220px
|image_caption = Page one of the original copy of the Constitution
|date_created = September 17, 1787
|date_ratified = June 21, 1788
|location_of_document = [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]]
|writer = Delegates of the [[Philadelphia Convention]]
|signers = 39 of the 55 Philadelphia Convention delegates
|purpose = National [[constitution]] to replace the [[Articles of Confederation]]
}}
{{US Constitution article series}}
The '''Constitution of the United States of America''' is the supreme [[law]] of the [[United States]]. It is the foundation and source of the legal authority underlying the existence of the United States of America and the Federal Government of the United States. It provides the framework for the organization of the [[Federal government of the United States|United States Government]]. The document defines the three main branches of the government: The legislative branch with a [[Bicameralism|bicameral]] [[Congress of the United States|Congress]], an executive branch led by the [[President of the United States|President]], and a judicial branch headed by the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]]. Besides providing for the organization of these branches, the Constitution outlines obligations of each office, as well as provides what powers each branch may exercise. It also reserves numerous rights for the individual [[U.S. state|states]], thereby establishing the United States' [[Federalism|federal system]] of government. It is the shortest and oldest written [[constitution]] of any major [[sovereign state]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ushistory.org/tour/tour_ncc.htm|title=U.S. Constitution Center|accessdate=2008-09-21}}</ref>

The United States Constitution was adopted on September 17, 1787, by the [[Philadelphia Convention|Constitutional Convention]] (or Constitutional Congress{{Fact|date=May 2009}}) in [[Philadelphia]], [[Pennsylvania]], and later [[ratification|ratified]] by conventions in each [[U.S. state]] in the name of "The People"; it has since been [[List of amendments to the United States Constitution|amended]] twenty-seven times, the first ten amendments being known as the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]].<ref name="Constitution of the United States of America">{{cite web|url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Constitution_of_the_United_States_of_America|title=WikiSource: Constitution of the United States of America|accessdate=2007-12-16|author=[[WikiSource]]}}</ref><ref name="Primary Documents in American History">{{cite web|url=http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Constitution.html|title=Primary Documents in American History: The United States Constitution|accessdate=2007-12-16|author=[[Library of Congress]]}}</ref> The [[Articles of Confederation|Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union]] was actually the first constitution of the United States of America.<ref>Christian G. Fritz, [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZpKCvUacmSwC&pg=RA1-PA168&lpg=RA1-PA168&dq=christian+g+fritz+%22american+sovereigns%22&source=web&ots=UjY_WKHNjv&sig=Y2_7OZMg6ksk_866oiD44FArH-w&hl=en#PRA1-PA1,M1 ''American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) at p. 131 [ISBN 978-0-521-88188-3] (noting that "Madison, along with other Americans clearly understood" the Articles of Confederation "to be the first federal Constitution.")</ref> The U.S. Constitution replaced the Articles of Confederation as the governing document for the United States after being ratified by nine states. The Constitution has a central place in [[Law of the United States|United States law]] and [[Politics of the United States|political culture]].<ref> Casey (1974)</ref> The handwritten, or "engrossed", original document penned by [[Jacob Shallus]] is on display at the [[National Archives and Records Administration]] in [[Washington, D.C.]]

==History==
{{main|History of the United States Constitution}}

===Drafting and ratification requirements===
In September 1786, commissioners from five states met in the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]] to discuss adjustments to the [[Articles of Confederation]] that would improve commerce. They invited state representatives to convene in [[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania|Philadelphia]] to discuss improvements to the [[History of the United States (1776–1789)#Development of federal institutions|federal government]]. After debate, the [[Congress of the Confederation]] endorsed the plan to revise the Articles of Confederation on February 21, 1787.<ref name = "National Archives Delegates to the Constitutional Convention"/> Twelve states, [[Rhode Island]] being the only exception, accepted this invitation and sent delegates to convene in May 1787.<ref name="National Archives Delegates to the Constitutional Convention">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters.html|title=National Archives Article on the Constitutional Convention|accessdate=2007-12-16|author=[[National Archives and Records Administration|NARA]]}}</ref> The resolution calling the Convention specified that its purpose was to propose amendments to the Articles, but through discussion and debate it became clear by mid-June that, rather than amend the existing Articles, the Convention decided to propose a rewritten Constitution.<ref name = "National Archives Constitution of the United States"/> The [[Philadelphia Convention]] voted to keep the debates secret, so that the delegates could speak freely. They also decided to draft a new fundamental government design. Despite Article 13 of the Articles of Confederation stating that the union created under the Articles was "perpetual" and that any alteration must be "agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State,"<ref name="Articles of Confederation">{{cite web|url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation|title=Articles of Confederation|accessdate=2009-07-18|author=[[WikiSource]]}}</ref> Article VII of the proposed constitution stipulated that only nine of the thirteen states would have to ratify for the new government to go into effect (for the participating states).<ref name="Constitution of the United States of America" /> Current knowledge of the drafting and construction of the United States Constitution comes primarily from the diaries left by [[James Madison]], who kept a complete record of the proceedings at the Constitutional Convention.<ref name = "National Archives Article on James Madison"/>

===Work of the Philadelphia Convention===
The [[Virginia Plan]] was the unofficial agenda for the Convention, and was drafted chiefly by [[James Madison]], considered to be "The Father of the Constitution" for his major contributions.<ref name="National Archives Article on James Madison">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters.html|title=National Archives Article on James Madison|accessdate=2007-12-16|author=[[National Archives and Records Administration|NARA]]}}</ref> It was weighted toward the interests of the larger states, and proposed among other points:
*A powerful [[bicameralism|bicameral]] [[legislature]] with a [[United States House of Representatives|House]] and a [[United States Senate|Senate]]<ref name = "National Archives Article on the Entire Constitutional Convention"/>
*An [[executive (government)|executive]] chosen by the legislature
*A [[judiciary]], with life-terms of service and vague powers
*The national legislature would be able to [[veto]] state laws
[[Image:Scene at the Signing of the Constitution of the United States.png|220px|right|thumb|The [[Philadelphia Convention]]]]An alternative proposal, [[William Paterson (judge)|William Paterson]]'s [[New Jersey Plan]], gave states equal weights and was supported by the smaller states.<ref name="National Archives Article on William Paterson">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters.html|title=National Archives Article on William Paterson|accessdate=2007-12-16|author=[[National Archives and Records Administration|NARA]]}}</ref> [[Roger Sherman]] of [[Connecticut]] brokered [[Connecticut Compromise|The Great Compromise]] whereby the House would represent the people, a Senate would represent the states, and a president would be elected by [[United States Electoral College|electors]].<ref name="National Archives Article on Roger Sherman">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters.html|title=National Archives Article on Roger Sherman|accessdate=2007-12-16|author=[[National Archives and Records Administration|NARA]]}}</ref>

The contentious issue of [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]] was too controversial to be resolved during the convention. As a result, the original Constitution contained four provisions tacitly allowing slavery to continue for the next 20 years. Section 9 of Article I allowed the continued "importation" of such persons, Section 2 of Article IV prohibited the provision of assistance to escaping persons and required their return if successful and Section 2 of Article I defined other persons as "three-fifths" of a person for calculations of each state's official population for representation and federal taxation.<ref>Section 2 of Article I provides in part: "Representatives and direct taxes shall be apportioned among the several states . . . by adding to the whole number of free persons, including those bound to service for a term of years, and excluding Indians not taxed, three-fifths of all other persons."</ref> Article V prohibited any amendments or legislation changing the provision regarding slave importation until 1808, thereby giving the States then existing 20 years to resolve this issue. The failure to do so was a contributing factor to the [[American Civil War|Civil War]].<ref>See ''South Carolina Declaration of Causes in Seccession'' (December 24, 1860), reprinted in Richard Hofstadter, ''Great Issues in American History''. Volume II, Vintage Books (1958), p.76-7; Abraham Lincoln, Message to Congress (July 4, 1861) reprinted in Hofstadter, supra.</ref>

===Ratification===
{| class="infobox" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em; float:right;"
|-
!colspan=5 align=center style="background:#ccccff" | Ratification of the Constitution
|-
! bgcolor="#efefef" rowspan="2" | 
! bgcolor="#efefef" rowspan="2" | Date
! bgcolor="#efefef" rowspan="2" | State
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" | Votes
|-
! Yes
! No
|-
|align="right"|1
||December 7, 1787
||[[Delaware]]
|align="right"|30
|align="right"|0
|-
|align="right"|2
||December 11, 1787
||[[Pennsylvania]]
|align="right"|46
|align="right"|23
|-
|align="right"|3
||December 18, 1787
||[[New Jersey]]
|align="right"|38
|align="right"|0
|-
|align="right"|4
||January 2, 1788
||[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
|align="right"|26
|align="right"|0
|-
|align="right"|5
||January 9, 1788
||[[Connecticut]]
|align="right"|128
|align="right"|40
|-
|align="right"|6
||February 6, 1788
||[[Massachusetts]]
|align="right"|187
|align="right"|168
|-
|align="right"|7
||April 26, 1788
||[[Maryland]]
|align="right"|63
|align="right"|11
|-
|align="right"|8
||May 23, 1788
||[[South Carolina]]
|align="right"|149
|align="right"|73
|-
|align="right"|9
||June 21, 1788
||[[New Hampshire]]
|align="right"|57
|align="right"|47
|-
|align="right"|10
||June 25, 1788
||[[Virginia]]
|align="right"|89
|align="right"|79
|-
|align="right"|11
||July 26, 1788
||[[New York]]
|align="right"|30
|align="right"|27
|-
|align="right"|12
||November 21, 1789
||[[North Carolina]]
|align="right"|194
|align="right"|77
|-
|align="right"|13
||May 29, 1790
||[[Rhode Island]]
|align="right"|34
|align="right"|32
|}

Contrary to the process for "alteration" spelled out in Article 13 of the ''Articles'', Congress submitted the proposal to the states and set the terms for representation.

On September 17, 1787, the Constitution was completed in Philadelphia at the Federal Convention, followed by a speech given by [[Benjamin Franklin]] who urged unanimity,
although they decided only nine states were needed to ratify the constitution for it to go into effect. The Convention submitted the Constitution to the [[Congress of the Confederation]], where it received approval according to [[Articles of Confederation|Article 13 of the Articles of Confederation]].<ref name="National Archives Article on the Entire Constitutional Convention">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters.html|title=National Archives Article on the Entire Constitutional Convention|accessdate=2007-12-16|author=[[National Archives and Records Administration|NARA]]}}</ref>

Once the Congress of the Confederation received word of New Hampshire's ratification, it set a timetable for the start of operations under the Constitution, and on March 4, 1789, the [[Federal government of the United States|government]] under the Constitution began operations.

===Historical influences===
Several of the ideas in the Constitution were new, and a large number of ideas were drawn from the literature of [[Republicanism in the United States]], from the experiences of the 13 states, and from the [[Kingdom of Great Britain|British]] experience with [[mixed government]]. The most important influence from the European continent was from [[Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu|Montesquieu]], who emphasized the need to have balanced forces pushing against each other to prevent tyranny. (This in itself reflects the influence of [[Polybius]]' 2nd century BC treatise on the [[separation of powers|checks and balances]] of the constitution of the [[Roman Republic]].) [[John Locke]] is known to have been a major influence, and the [[due process]] clause of the United States Constitution was partly based on [[common law]] stretching back to [[Magna Carta]] of 1215.<ref name="National Archives Article on the Entire Constitutional Convention"/>

===Influences on the Bill of Rights===
The [[United States Bill of Rights]] consists of the ten amendments added to the Constitution in 1791, as supporters of the constitution had promised critics during the debates of 1788.<ref name="National Archive Article on the Bill of Rights">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters.html|title=National Archives Article on the Bill of Rights|accessdate=2007-12-16|author=[[National Archives and Records Administration|NARA]]}}</ref> The English [[Bill of Rights 1689|Bill of Rights (1689)]] was an inspiration for the American Bill of Rights. For example, both require [[jury trial]]s, contain a [[right to arms|right to keep and bear arms]], and prohibit excessive [[bail]] as well as [[cruel and unusual punishment|"cruel and unusual punishments."]] Many liberties protected by state constitutions and the [[Virginia Declaration of Rights]] were incorporated into the United States Bill of Rights.

==Articles of the Constitution==
{{wikisource|Constitution of the United States of America}}
The Constitution consists of a preamble, seven original articles, [[List of amendments to the United States Constitution|twenty-seven amendments]], and a paragraph certifying its enactment by the constitutional convention.

===Preamble: Statement of purpose===
{{main|Preamble to the United States Constitution}}
{{see also|wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Preamble}}
The Preamble states:
{{cquote|We the People of the United States, in Order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, ensure domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of America.}}

The Preamble does not grant any particular authority to the federal government and it does not prohibit any particular authority. It establishes the fact that the federal government has no authority outside of what follows the preamble, as amended. "We the people", is one of the most-quoted sections of the Constitution. It was thought by the [[Federalist]]s during this time that there was no need for a bill of rights as they thought that the preamble spelled out the people's rights.{{Fact|date=June 2008}}

===Article One: Legislative power===
{{Politics of the United States}}
{{main|Article One of the United States Constitution}}
{{see also|wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Article I}}
Article One describes the [[congress]], the [[legislature|legislative branch]] of the federal government. The [[United States Congress]] is a [[bicameral]] body consisting of the [[lower house]] of the [[United States House of Representatives|House of Representatives]] and the [[United States Senate|Senate]] as the [[upper house]].

The article establishes the manner of [[Elections in the United States|election]] and the qualifications of members of each body. Representatives must be at least 25 years old, have been a citizen of the United States for seven years, and live in the state they represent. Senators must be at least 30 years old, have been a citizen for nine years, and live in the state they represent.

In Article I Section I, the Constitution reads "All legislative powers herein granted shall be vested in a Congress of the United States, which shall consist of a Senate and House of Representatives." This gives Congress more than simply the responsibility to establish the rules governing its proceedings and for the punishment of its members; it places the power of the government primarily in Congress.

[[Article One of the United States Constitution#Enumerated powers|Article I Section 8]] enumerates the legislative powers. The powers listed and all other powers are made the exclusive responsibility of the legislative branch:

<blockquote>The Congress shall have power... To make all laws which shall be necessary and proper for carrying into execution the foregoing powers, and all other powers vested by this Constitution in the government of the United States, or in any department or officer thereof.</blockquote>

[[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 9: Limits on Congress|Article I Section IX]] provides a list of eight specific limits on Congressional power and [[Article One of the United States Constitution#Section 10: Limits on the States|Article I Section X]] limits the rights of the states.

The [[Supreme Court of the United States|United States Supreme Court]] has interpreted the [[Commerce Clause]] and the [[Necessary and Proper Clause]] in Article One to allow Congress to enact legislation that is neither expressly listed in the enumerated power nor expressly denied in the limitations on Congress. In the 1819 ''[[McCulloch v. Maryland]]'' ruling, the Supreme Court fell back on the strict construction of the necessary and proper clause to read that Congress had "[t]he foregoing powers and all other powers..."

===Article Two: Executive power===
{{main|Article Two of the United States Constitution}}
{{see also|wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Article II}}
Article Two describes the [[President of the United States|presidency]] (the [[executive (government)|executive branch]]). The article establishes the manner of election and qualifications of the [[President]], the [[oath of office|oath]] to be affirmed and the powers and duties of the office. The President must be a [[natural born citizen]] of the United States, be at least 35 years old, and a resident of the United States for at least 14 years. It also provides for the office of [[Vice President of the United States|Vice President]], and specifies that the Vice President [[United States presidential line of succession|succeeds to the presidency]] if the President is removed, unable to discharge the powers and duties of office, dies while in office, or resigns. The original text ("the same shall devolve") leaves it unclear whether this succession was intended to be on an [[Acting president|acting basis]] (merely taking on the powers of the office) or permanent (assuming the Presidency itself). After the death of [[William Henry Harrison]], [[John Tyler]] set the precedent that the succession was permanent, and this was followed in practice; the [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|25th Amendment]] explicitly states that the Vice President becomes President in those cases. Article Two also provides for the [[impeachment]] and removal from office of all officers of the government.

===Article Three: Judicial power===
{{main|Article Three of the United States Constitution}}
{{see also|wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Article III}}
Article Three describes the [[United States Federal judiciary|court system]] (the [[judiciary|judicial branch]]), including the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]]. The article requires that there be one court called the Supreme Court; Congress, at its discretion, can create lower courts, whose judgments and orders are reviewable by the Supreme Court. Article Three also creates the right to [[jury trial|trial by jury]] in all [[criminal law|criminal cases]], defines the crime of [[treason]], and charges Congress with providing for a punishment for it. This Article also sets the kinds of cases that may be heard by the federal judiciary, which cases the Supreme Court may hear first (called [[original jurisdiction]]), and that all other cases heard by the Supreme Court are by appeal under such regulations as the Congress shall make.

===Article Four: States' powers and limits===
{{main|Article Four of the United States Constitution}}
{{see also|wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Article IV}}
Article Four describes the relationship between the states and the Federal government and amongst the states. For instance, it requires states to give "[[Full Faith and Credit Clause|full faith and credit]]" to the public acts, records, and court proceedings of the other states. Congress is permitted to [[regulation|regulate]] the manner in which proof of such acts, records, or proceedings may be admitted. The [[Privileges and Immunities Clause|"privileges and immunities" clause]] prohibits state governments from discriminating against [[United States nationality law|citizens]] of other states in favor of resident citizens (e.g., having tougher penalties for residents of [[Ohio]] convicted of crimes within [[Michigan]].) It also establishes [[extradition]] between the states, as well as laying down a legal basis for [[freedom of movement]] and travel amongst the states. Today, this provision is sometimes taken for granted, especially by citizens who live near state borders; but in the days of the [[Articles of Confederation]], crossing state lines was often a much more arduous and costly process. Article Four also provides for the creation and admission of new states. The [[Territorial Clause]] gives Congress the power to make rules for disposing of Federal property and governing non-state territories of the United States. Finally, the fourth section of Article Four requires the United States to guarantee to each state a [[republican form of government]], and to protect the states from invasion and violence.

===Article Five: Amendments===
{{main|Article Five of the United States Constitution}}
{{see also|wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Article V}}
Once proposed — whether submitted by Congress or by a national convention — amendments must then be ratified by three-fourths of the states to take effect. Article Five gives Congress the option of requiring ratification by state legislatures or by special [[Conventions within the states to ratify an amendment to the United States Constitution|convention]]. The convention method of ratification has only been used to approve the [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution|21st Amendment]]. Article Five currently places only one limitation on the amending power — that no amendment can deprive a state of its equal representation in the Senate without that state's consent (limitations regarding slavery and taxation having expired in 1808.)

===Article Six: Federal power===
{{main|Article Six of the United States Constitution}}
{{see also|wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Article VI}}
Article Six establishes the Constitution, and the laws and treaties of the United States made in accordance with it, to be the [[supremacy clause|supreme law]] of the land, and that "the judges in every state shall be bound thereby, any thing in the laws or constitutions of any state notwithstanding." It also validates [[government debt|national debt]] created under the Articles of Confederation and requires that all federal and state legislators, officers, and judges take oaths or affirmations to support the Constitution. This means that the states' constitutions and laws should not conflict with the laws of the federal constitution and that in case of a conflict, state judges are legally bound to honor the federal laws and constitution over those of any state.

Article Six also states "no [[religious test|religious Test]] shall ever be required as a Qualification to any Office or public Trust under the United States."

===Article Seven: Ratification===
{{main|Article Seven of the United States Constitution}}
{{see also|wikisource:Constitution of the United States of America#Article VII}}
Article Seven sets forth the requirements for [[ratification]] of the Constitution. The Constitution would not take effect until at least nine states had ratified the Constitution in state conventions specially convened for that purpose, and it would only apply to those states which ratified it.<ref name="National Archives Constitution of the United States">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/constitution_transcript.html|title=National Archives Article on the Constitution|accessdate=2008-09-01|author=[[National Archives and Records Administration]]}}</ref> (''See above [[#History|Drafting and ratification requirements]].'')

==Amendment process==
{{see also |Amendments to the United States Constitution}}
The authors of the Constitution were aware that changes would be necessary from time to time if the Constitution was to endure and cope with the effects of the anticipated growth of the nation. However, they were also conscious that such change should not be easy, lest it permit ill-conceived and hastily passed [[Constitutional amendment|amendments]]. Balancing this, they also wanted to ensure that an over-rigid requirement of unanimity would not block action desired by the vast majority of the population. Their solution was to devise a dual process by which the Constitution could be altered.<ref>{{cite book|title=Toward a theory of constitutional amendment |journal=The American Political Science Review |last=Lutz |first=Donald |year=1994}}</ref>

Amending the Constitution is a two-part process: amendments must be proposed and then they must be ratified. Amendments can be proposed one of two ways. The only way that has been used to date is through a two-thirds majority vote in both houses of Congress. Alternatively, two-thirds of the legislatures of the States can call a Constitutional Convention to consider one or more amendments. This second method has never been used, and it is unclear exactly how, in practice, such a Constitutional Convention would work.

Regardless of how the amendment is proposed, the amendment must be approved by three-fourths of states, a process called ratification. Depending on the amendment, this requires either the state legislatures or [[Conventions within the states to ratify an amendment to the United States Constitution|special state conventions]] to approve the amendment by simple majority vote. Amendments generally go to state legislatures to be ratified, only the [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-first Amendment]] called for special state conventions.

[[Constitutional amendment#Form of changes to the text|Unlike many other constitutions]], amendments to the U.S. constitution are appended to the existing body of the text without altering or removing what already exists. There is no provision for deleting either obsolete text or rescinded provisions, including passages that are directly contradicted by subsequent amendments (for example, the [[18th Amendment to the United States Constitution|18th]] and [[21st Amendment to the United States Constitution|21st]]).

==Judicial review==
{{see also|Judicial review in the United States}}

The way the Constitution is understood is also influenced by the decisions of the court system, and especially the [[Supreme Court of the United States|Supreme Court]]. These decisions are referred to, collectively, as [[precedent]]s. The ability of the courts to interpret the Constitution was decided early in the history of the United States, in the 1803 case of ''[[Marbury v. Madison]]''. In that case, the Supreme Court established the doctrine of [[judicial review]], which is the power of the Court to examine legislation and other acts of Congress and to decide their [[constitutionality]]. The doctrine also embraces the power of the Court to explain the meaning of various sections of the Constitution as they apply to particular cases brought before the Court. Over the years, a series of Court decisions, on issues ranging from governmental regulation of [[radio]] and [[television]] to the rights of the accused in criminal cases, has affected a change in the way many Constitutional clauses are interpreted, without amendment to the actual text of the Constitution.

Legislation, passed to implement provisions of the Constitution or to adapt those implementations to changing conditions, also broadens and, in subtle ways, changes the meanings given to the words of the Constitution. Up to a point, the rules and regulations of the many agencies of the federal government have a similar effect. If the actions of Congress or federal agencies are challenged as to their constitutionality, however, it is the court system that ultimately decides whether or not they are allowable under the Constitution.

==Amendments==
{{main|List of amendments to the United States Constitution}}
The Constitution has a total of twenty-seven amendments. The first ten, collectively known as the [[United States Bill of Rights|Bill of Rights]], were ratified simultaneously. The following seventeen were ratified separately.

===The Bill of Rights (1–10)===
{{Main|United States Bill of Rights}}
[[Image:Bill of Rights Pg1of1 AC.jpg|200px|thumb|[[United States Bill of Rights]] currently housed in the [[National Archives and Records Administration|National Archives]].]]
{{wikisource|United States Bill of Rights}}

It is commonly understood that the Bill of Rights was not originally intended to apply to the states, though except where amendments refer specifically to the Federal Government or a branch thereof (as in the [[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]], under which some states in the early years of the nation officially [[state religion|established a religion]]), there is no such delineation in the text itself. Nevertheless, a general interpretation of inapplicability to the states remained until 1868, when the [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] was passed, which stated, in part, that:

{{cquote|No State shall make or enforce any law which shall abridge the privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States; nor shall any State deprive any person of life, liberty, or property, without due process of law; nor deny to any person within its jurisdiction the equal protection of the laws.}}

The Supreme Court has interpreted this clause to extend most, but not all, parts of the Bill of Rights to the states. Nevertheless, the balance of state and federal power has remained a battle in the Supreme Court.

The amendments that became the Bill of Rights were actually the last ten of the twelve amendments proposed in 1789. The second of the twelve proposed amendments, regarding the compensation of members of Congress, remained unratified until 1992, when the legislatures of enough states finally approved it and, as a result, it became the [[Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-seventh Amendment]] despite more than two centuries of pendency. The [[Congressional Apportionment Amendment|first of the twelve]]—still technically pending before the state legislatures for ratification—pertains to the apportionment of the [[United States House of Representatives]] after each decennial [[United States Census|census]]. The most recent state whose lawmakers are known to have ratified this proposal is [[Kentucky]] in 1792, during that commonwealth's first month of statehood.
*[[First Amendment to the United States Constitution|First Amendment]]: addresses the rights of [[Freedom of religion in the United States|freedom of religion]] (prohibiting Congressional [[Establishment Clause of the First Amendment|establishment of a religion]] over another religion through Law and protecting the right to [[Free Exercise Clause of the First Amendment|free exercise of religion]]), [[freedom of speech]], [[freedom of the press]], [[freedom of assembly]], and [[freedom of petition]].
*[[Second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Second Amendment]]: guarantees the right of individuals to possess firearms. See [[District of Columbia v. Heller]].

*[[Third Amendment to the United States Constitution|Third Amendment]]: prohibits the government from using private homes as quarters for soldiers during peacetime without the consent of the owners. The only existing case law regarding this amendment is a lower court decision in the case of ''[[Engblom v. Carey]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/data/constitution/amendment03/ |title=Findlaw.com |publisher=Caselaw.lp.findlaw.com |date= |accessdate=2009-05-04}}</ref>
*[[Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourth Amendment]]: guards against [[search and seizure|searches, arrests, and seizures]] of [[property]] without a specific warrant or a "[[probable cause]]" to believe a crime has been committed. Some rights to privacy have been inferred from this amendment and others by the Supreme Court.
*[[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth Amendment]]: forbids [[trial (law)|trial]] for a major [[crime]] except after [[indictment]] by a [[grand jury]]; prohibits [[double jeopardy]] (repeated trials), except in certain very limited circumstances; forbids punishment without [[due process]] of law; and provides that an accused person may not be compelled to [[self-incrimination|testify against himself]] (this is also known as "[[Taking the Fifth]]" or "Pleading the Fifth"). This is regarded as the "rights of the accused" amendment, otherwise known as the [[Miranda rights]] after the Supreme Court case. It also prohibits government from taking private property for public use without "[[just compensation]]," the basis of [[eminent domain]] in the United States.
*[[Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sixth Amendment]]: guarantees a speedy public trial for criminal offenses. It requires trial by a [[jury]], guarantees the right to [[legal counsel]] for the accused, and guarantees that the accused may require [[witness]]es to attend the trial and testify in the presence of the accused. It also guarantees the accused a right to know the charges against him. The Sixth Amendment has several court cases associated with it, including ''[[Powell v. Alabama]]'', ''[[United States v. Wong Kim Ark]]'', ''[[Gideon v. Wainwright]]'', and ''[[Crawford v. Washington]]''. In 1966, the Supreme Court ruled that the fifth amendment prohibition on forced self-incrimination and the sixth amendment clause on right to counsel were to be made known to all persons placed under arrest, and these clauses have become known as the [[Miranda warning|Miranda rights]].
*[[Seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|Seventh Amendment]]: assures trial by jury in [[civil law (common law)|civil cases]].
*[[Eighth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighth Amendment]]: forbids excessive [[bail]] or [[fine (penalty)|fine]]s, and [[cruel and unusual punishment]].
*[[Ninth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Ninth Amendment]]: declares that the listing of individual rights in the Constitution and Bill of Rights is not meant to be comprehensive; and that the other rights not specifically mentioned are retained by the people.
*[[Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Tenth Amendment]]: provides that powers that the Constitution does not delegate to the United States and does not prohibit the States from exercising, are "reserved to the States respectively, or to the people."

===Subsequent amendments (11–27)===
{{wikisource|Additional amendments to the United States Constitution}}

Amendments to the Constitution subsequent to the Bill of Rights cover many subjects. The majority of the seventeen later amendments stem from continued efforts to expand individual civil or political liberties, while a few are concerned with modifying the basic governmental structure drafted in Philadelphia in 1787. Although the United States Constitution has been amended a total of 27 times, only 26 of the amendments are currently in effect because the twenty-first amendment supersedes the eighteenth.
* [[Eleventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eleventh Amendment]] (1795): Clarifies judicial power over foreign nationals, and limits ability of citizens to [[lawsuit|sue]] states in federal courts and under federal law. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XI|Full text]])
* [[Twelfth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twelfth Amendment]] (1804): Changes the method of [[United States presidential election|presidential elections]] so that members of the [[Electoral College (United States)|Electoral College]] cast separate ballots for president and vice president. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XII|Full text]])
* [[Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Thirteenth Amendment]] (1865): Abolishes slavery and authorizes Congress to enforce [[abolitionism|abolition]]. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XIII|Full text]])
* [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth Amendment]] (1868): Defines a set of guarantees for [[United States nationality law|United States citizenship]]; prohibits ''states'' from abridging citizens' [[Privileges or Immunities Clause|privileges or immunities]] and rights to [[due process]] and the [[Equal Protection Clause|equal protection of the law]]; repeals the [[Three-fifths compromise]]; prohibits repudiation of the federal debt caused by the Civil War. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XIV|Full text]])
* [[Fifteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifteenth Amendment]] (1870): Forbids the federal government and the states from using a citizen's race, color, or previous status as a slave as a qualification for voting. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XV|Full text]])
* [[Sixteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Sixteenth Amendment]] (1913): Authorizes unapportioned federal [[income tax|taxes on income]]. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XVI|Full text]])
* [[Seventeenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Seventeenth Amendment]] (1913): Establishes direct election of senators. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XVII|Full text]])
* [[Eighteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Eighteenth Amendment]] (1919): Prohibited the manufacturing, importing, and exporting of alcoholic beverages (see [[Prohibition in the United States]]). ''Repealed by the Twenty-First Amendment''. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XVIII|Full text]])
* [[Nineteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Nineteenth Amendment]] (1920): Prohibits the federal government and the states from forbidding any citizen to vote [[women's suffrage|due to their sex]]. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XIX|Full text]])
* [[Twentieth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twentieth Amendment]] (1933): Changes details of Congressional and presidential terms and of [[United States presidential line of succession|presidential succession]]. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XX|Full text]])
* [[Twenty-first Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-first Amendment]] (1933): Repeals Eighteenth Amendment. Permits states to prohibit the importation of alcoholic beverages. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XXI|Full text]])
* [[Twenty-second Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-second Amendment]] (1951): [[Term limit|Limits]] president to two terms. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XXII|Full text]])
* [[Twenty-third Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-third Amendment]] (1961): Grants presidential electors to the [[Washington, D.C.|District of Columbia]]. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XXIII|Full text]])
* [[Twenty-fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-fourth Amendment]] (1964): Prohibits the federal government and the states from requiring the [[poll tax|payment of a tax]] as a qualification for voting for federal officials. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XXIV|Full text]])
* [[Twenty-fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-fifth Amendment]] (1967): Changes details of presidential succession, provides for temporary removal of president, and provides for replacement of the vice president. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XXV|Full text]])
*[[Twenty-sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-sixth Amendment]] (1971): Prohibits the federal government and the states from forbidding any citizen of age [[voting age|18 or greater]] to vote on account of their age. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XXVI|Full text]])
* [[Twenty-seventh Amendment to the United States Constitution|Twenty-seventh Amendment]] (1992): Limits congressional pay raises. ([[wikisource:Additional amendments to the United States Constitution#Amendment XXVII|Full text]])

===Unratified amendments===
{{see also|Proposals for amendments to the United States Constitution|List of unsuccessful attempts to amend the U.S. Constitution}}

Over 10,000 Constitutional amendments have been introduced in Congress since 1789; in a typical Congressional year in the last several decades, between 100 and 200 are offered. Most of these concepts never get out of Congressional committee, and far fewer get proposed by the Congress for ratification. Backers of some amendments have attempted the alternative, and thus-far never-utilized, method mentioned in Article Five. In two instances—reapportionment in the 1960s and a balanced federal budget during the 1970s and 1980s—these attempts have come within just two state legislative "applications" of triggering that alternative method.

Of the thirty-three amendments that have been proposed by Congress, six have failed ratification by the required three-quarters of the state legislatures—and four of those six are still technically pending before state lawmakers (see ''[[Coleman v. Miller]]''). Starting with the 18th Amendment, each proposed amendment (except the 19th Amendment and the still-pending [[Child Labor Amendment of 1924]]) has specified a deadline for passage. The following are the unratified amendments:
* The [[Congressional Apportionment Amendment]], proposed by the [[1st United States Congress|1st Congress]] on September 25, 1789, defined a formula for how many members there would be in the [[United States House of Representatives]] after each decennial census. Ratified by eleven states, the last being [[Kentucky]] in June 1792 (Kentucky's initial month of statehood), this amendment contains no expiration date for ratification. In principle it may yet be ratified, though as written it became moot when the population of the United States reached ten million.
* The so-called missing thirteenth amendment, or "[[Titles of Nobility Amendment]]" (TONA), proposed by the [[11th United States Congress|11th Congress]] on May 1, 1810, would have ended the citizenship of any American accepting "any Title of [[Nobility]] or Honour" from any foreign power. Some maintain that the amendment ''was'' actually ratified by the legislatures of enough states, and that a conspiracy has suppressed it, but this has been thoroughly debunked.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thirdamendment.com/missing.html |title=The Missing Thirteenth Amendment |publisher=Thirdamendment.com |date= |accessdate=2009-05-04}}</ref> Known to have been ratified by lawmakers in twelve states, the last in 1812, this amendment contains no expiration date for ratification. It may yet be ratified.
* The [[Corwin amendment]], proposed by the [[36th United States Congress|36th Congress]] on March 2, 1861, would have forbidden any attempt to subsequently amend the Constitution to empower the Federal government to "abolish or interfere" with the "domestic institutions" of the states (a delicate way of referring to [[Slavery in the United States|slavery]]). It was ratified by only [[Ohio]] and [[Maryland]] lawmakers before the outbreak of the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. [[Illinois]] lawmakers—sitting as a state constitutional convention at the time—likewise approved it, but that action is of questionable validity. The proposed amendment contains no expiration date for ratification and may yet be ratified. However, adoption of the 13th, 14th, and 15th Amendments after the Civil War likely means that the amendment would be ineffective if adopted.
* A [[child labor amendment]] proposed by the [[68th United States Congress|68th Congress]] on June 2, 1924, which stipulates: "The Congress shall have power to limit, regulate, and prohibit the labor of persons under eighteen years of age." This amendment is highly unlikely to be ratified, since subsequent federal [[Child labor laws in the United States|child labor laws]] have uniformly been upheld as a valid exercise of Congress' powers under the commerce clause.

Properly placed in a separate category from the other four constitutional amendments that Congress proposed to the states, but which not enough states have approved, are the following two offerings which—because of deadlines—are no longer subject to ratification.
* The [[Equal Rights Amendment]], or ERA, which reads in pertinent part "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any state on account of sex." Proposed by the [[92nd United States Congress|92nd Congress]] on March 22, 1972, it was ratified by the legislatures of 35 states, and expired on either March 22, 1979 or on June 30, 1982, depending upon one's point of view of a controversial three-year extension of the ratification deadline, which was passed by the [[95th United States Congress|95th Congress]] in 1978. Of the 35 states ratifying it, four later rescinded their ratifications prior to the extended ratification period which commenced March 23, 1979 and a fifth—while not going so far as to actually rescind its earlier ratification—adopted a resolution stipulating that its approval would not extend beyond March 22, 1979. There continues to be diversity of opinion as to whether such reversals are valid; no court has ruled on the question, including the Supreme Court. But a precedent against the validity of rescission was first established during the ratification process of the 14th Amendment when Ohio and [[New Jersey]] rescinded their earlier approvals, but yet were counted as ratifying states when the 14th Amendment was ultimately proclaimed part of the Constitution in 1868.
*The [[District of Columbia Voting Rights Amendment]] was proposed by the 95th Congress on August 22, 1978. Had it been ratified, it would have granted to [[Washington, D.C.]] two Senators and at least one member of the House of Representatives as though the District of Columbia were a state. Ratified by the legislatures of only 16 states—less than half of the required 38—the proposed amendment expired on August 22, 1985.

There are currently only a few proposals for amendments which have entered mainstream political debate. These include the proposed [[Federal Marriage Amendment]], the [[Balanced Budget Amendment]], and the [[Flag Desecration Amendment]]. All three of these proposed amendments are primarily supported by conservatives, but failed during periods of Republican control of Congress to achieve the super majorities necessary for submission to the states. As such none is likely to be proposed under the current Congress, which is controlled by the more liberal Democratic Party.

==Translations==
The Constitution has been translated into many world languages:
*[[Arabic]]<ref>[http://constitutioncenter.org/NCCBeta/Images/constitution%20translations/Arabic-Constitution-2.pdf Arabic translation of the U.S. Constitution]</ref><ref>http://www.america.gov/ar/publications/books/the-constitution.html</ref>
*[[:File:US Constitution - chinese_001.pdf|Chinese]]<ref>[http://constitutioncenter.org/NCCBeta/Images/constitution%20translations/SCH-Constitution.pdf Simplified Chinese translation of the U.S. Constitution]</ref><ref>http://usinfo.org/zhtw/PUBS/BasicReadings/6.htm</ref>
*[[:File:Const dutch 001.pdf|Dutch]]
*[[French language|French]]<ref>[http://constitutioncenter.org/NCCBeta/Images/constitution%20translations/French%20Constitution%208-19.pdf French translation of the U.S. Constitution]</ref>
*[[German language|German]]<ref>[http://constitutioncenter.org/NCCBeta/Images/constitution%20translations/German%20Constitution%208-19.pdf German translation of the U.S. Constitution]</ref><ref>http://usa.usembassy.de/etexts/gov/gov-constitutiond.pdf</ref>
*[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]<ref>http://israel.usembassy.gov/publish/constitution/p1.html</ref>
*[[Hungarian language|Hungarian]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://hungarian.hungary.usembassy.gov/constitution_in_hungarian.html |title=Hungarian translation of the U.S. Constitution |publisher=Hungarian.hungary.usembassy.gov |date= |accessdate=2009-05-04}}</ref>
*[[Italian language|Italian]]<ref>[http://constitutioncenter.org/NCCBeta/Images/constitution%20translations/Italian%20Constitution%208-19.pdf Italian translation of the U.S. Constitution]</ref>
*[[Japanese language|Japanese]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aboutusa.japan.usembassy.gov/j/jusaj-constitution.html |title=Japanese translation of the U.S. Constitution |publisher=Aboutusa.japan.usembassy.gov |date=2009-03-13 |accessdate=2009-05-04}}</ref>
*[[Korean language|Korean]]<ref>[http://constitutioncenter.org/NCCBeta/Images/constitution%20translations/KOR-Constitution.pdf Korean translation of the U.S. Constitution]</ref>
*[[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]<ref>[http://constitutioncenter.org/NCCBeta/Images/constitution%20translations/Port%20Constitution%208-19.pdf Portuguese translation of the U.S. Constitution]</ref>
*[[Russian language|Russian]]<ref>[http://constitutioncenter.org/NCCBeta/Images/constitution%20translations/RU-Constitution.pdf Russian translation of the U.S. Constitution]</ref>
*[[Slovak language|Slovak]]<ref>http://slovakia.usembassy.gov/20090618_us_constitution_slovak.pdf</ref>
*[[Spanish language|Spanish]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/constitution/constitution_en.html |title=Spanish translation of the U.S. Constitution |publisher=Cato.org |date= |accessdate=2009-05-04}}</ref><ref>http://www.constitution.org/cons/usa_span.htm</ref><ref name="transl1">{{cite web|url=http://www.fjc.gov/ijr/home.nsf/page/transl_mat#United |title=International Judicial Relations - Translated Material |publisher=Fjc.gov |date= |accessdate=2009-05-04}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://pdba.georgetown.edu/Constitutions/USA/eeuu1787.html |title=United States of America: Constitución de 1787 en español |publisher=Pdba.georgetown.edu |date= |accessdate=2009-05-04}}</ref>
*[[:File:Constitution swedish 001.pdf|Swedish]]
*[[:File:US Constitution in Thai.pdf|Thai]]
*[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]]<ref>http://kyiv.usembassy.gov/files/american_constitution_ukr.pdf</ref>
Professor James Chen has annotated the Spanish translation prepared by the U.S. State Department.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=925271# |title=SSRN-The Constitution of the United States in Spanish: A Service for the American People (La Constitucion de los Estados Unidos en Espanol: Un Servicio para el Pueblo Americano) by James Ming Chen |publisher=Papers.ssrn.com |date= |accessdate=2009-05-04}}</ref> His notes focus on the problems and nuances of this translation.

Nguyen Canh Binh has translated the Constitution into Vietnamese.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://alphabooks.vn/web/SearchResult.aspx?cmd=search&key=Hi%E1%BA%BFn%20ph%C3%A1p%20M%E1%BB%B9%20%C4%91%C6%B0%E1%BB%A3c%20l%C3%A0m%20ra%20nh%C6%B0%20th%E1%BA%BF%20n%C3%A0o |title=Alphabooks |publisher=Alphabooks.vn |date= |accessdate=2009-05-04}}</ref>

The Bill of Rights has been translated into Hawaiian.<ref>http://www.jpfo.org/pdf/bor-Hawaiian.pdf</ref>

There is a partial translation of the Bill of Rights into Esperanto.<ref>{{cite web|author=Česky |url=http://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Usona_Konstitucio |title=Usona Konstitucio - Vikipedio |language={{eo icon}} |publisher=Eo.wikipedia.org |date= |accessdate=2009-05-04}}</ref>

The Federal Judicial Center has links to other materials about the United States government and judicial system.<ref name="transl1"/> The site has materials in 16 languages besides English, such as Indonesian, Malay, Serb, and Vietnamese.

==Original pages of the Constitution==
<center><gallery>
Image:Constitution_Pg1of4_AC.jpg|Page 1
Image:Constitution Pg2of4 AC.jpg|Page 2
Image:Constitution Pg3of4 AC.jpg|Page 3
Image:Constitution Pg4of4 AC.jpg|Page 4</gallery></center>

==See also==
===General===
* [[Congressional power of enforcement]]
* [[Constitution Day (United States)]]
* [[Federalist Papers]]
* [[History of democracy]]
* [[List of constitutions of the United States]]
* [[List of sources of law in the United States]]
* [[National Constitution Center]]

===Related documents===
* [[Magna Carta]] (1215)
* [[Mayflower Compact]] (1620)
* [[Fundamental Orders of Connecticut]] (1639)
* [[Massachusetts Body of Liberties]] (1641)
* [[English Bill of Rights]] (1689)
* [[United States Declaration of Independence]] (1776)
* [[Articles of Confederation]] (1777)
* [[Virginia Statute for Religious Freedom]] (1779)
* [[United States Bill of Rights]] (1791)

==Notes==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==References==
===Primary sources===
*{{cite web
|url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/debates/debcont.htm
|title=The Avalon Project: Notes on the Debates in the Federal Convention
|publisher=The Avalon Project at Yale Law School
|accessdate=2008-01-20
}}
* Bailyn, Bernard, ed. ''The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle for Ratification''. Part One: September 1787 to February 1788 ([http://www.loa.org/ The Library of America], 1993) ISBN 0-940450-42-9
* Bailyn, Bernard, ed. ''The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Antifederalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters During the Struggle for Ratification''. Part Two: January to August 1788 ([http://www.loa.org/ The Library of America], 1993) ISBN 0-940450-64-X
* Garvey, John H. ed. ''Modern Constitutional Theory: A Reader'' 5th ed 2004; 820pp.
* Mason, Alpheus Thomas and Donald Grier Stephenson, ed. ''American Constitutional Law: Introductory Essays and Selected Cases'' (14th Edition) (2004)
* Tribe, Laurence H. ''American Constitutional Law'' (1999)

===Reference books===
* Hall, Kermit, ed. ''The Oxford Companion to the Supreme Court of the United States.'' Oxford U. Press, 1992. 1032 pp.
* Levy, Leonard W. et al., ed. ''Encyclopedia of the American Constitution.'' 5 vol; 1992; 3000 pp
* [http://aboutlaw.com/dictionary/index.htm US Law Dictionary]

===Secondary sources===
* {{cite book
|first=Akhil Reed |last=Amar
|authorlink=Akhil Amar
|year=2005
|title=America's Constitution: A Biography
|chapter=In the Beginning
|publisher=Random House
|location=[[New York City|New York]]
|isbn=1-4000-6262-4
}}
* Anastaplo, George, "Reflections on Constitutional Law" 2006 ISBN 0-8131-9156-4
* Beard, Charles. [http://ideas.repec.org/b/hay/hetboo/beard1913.html ''An Economic Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States''], 1913.
* Richard R. Beeman, Stephen Botein, and Edward C., Carter, II, eds., ''Beyond Confederation: Origins of the Constitution and American National Identity'' (University of North Carolina Press, 1987);
* Bernstein, Richard B. ''Are We to Be a Nation? The Making of the Constitution'' (Harvard University Press, 1987);
* Bernstein, Richard B. ''Amending America: If We Love the Constitution So Much, Why Do We Keep Trying to Change It?'' (New York: Times Books/Random House, 1993; Lawrence: University Press of Kansas, 1995);
* Gregory Casey. "The Supreme Court and Myth: An Empirical Investigation," ''Law & Society Review,'' Vol. 8, No. 3 (Spring, 1974), pp. 385–420
* Countryman, Edward, ed. ''What Did the Constitution Mean to Early Americans.''Bedford/St. Martin's, 1999. xii + 169 pp. [http://www.h-net.msu.edu/reviews/showrev.php?path=28656930163675 online review] ISBN 0-312-18262-7.
* {{cite book
|last=Edling |first=Max M.
|title=A Revolution in Favor of Government: Origins of the U.S. Constitution and the Making of the American State
|publisher=Oxford University Press
|year=2003
|isbn=0-19-514870-3
}}
* Ely, James W., Jr. ''The Guardian of Every Other Right: A Constitutional History of Property Rights''. Oxford U. Press, 1992. 193 pp.
* {{cite book
|last=Fallon |first=Richard H.
|title=The Dynamic Constitution: An Introduction to American Constitutional Law
|publisher=Cambridge University Press
|year=2004
|isbn=0-521-84094-5
}}
* Finkelman, Paul. ''Slavery and the Founders: Race and Slavery in the Age of Jefferson'' (M.E. Sharpe, 1996);
* Fritz, Christian G. [http://books.google.com/books?id=ZpKCvUacmSwC&pg=RA1-PA168&lpg=RA1-PA168&dq=christian+g+fritz+%22american+sovereigns%22&source=web&ots=UjY_WKHNjv&sig=Y2_7OZMg6ksk_866oiD44FArH-w&hl=en#PRA1-PA1,M1 ''American Sovereigns: The People and America's Constitutional Tradition Before the Civil War'' (Cambridge University Press, 2008) [ISBN 978-0-521-88188-3]
* Hoffer, Peter Charles. ''The Law's Conscience: Equitable Constitutionalism in America''. U. of North Carolina Press, 1990. 301 pp.
* Irons, Peter. ''A People's History of the Supreme Court.'' 2000. 542 pp.
* {{cite book
|last=Kammen |first=Michael
|title=A Machine that Would Go of Itself: The Constitution in American Culture
|location=New York
|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf
|year=1986
|isbn=0-394-52905-7
}}
* {{cite book
|author=Kelly, Alfred Hinsey; Harbison, Winfred Audif; Belz, Herman
|title=The American Constitution: its origins and development
|edition = 7th
|location=New York
|publisher=Norton & Co
|year=1991
|isbn=0-393-96119-2
}}
* Kersch, Ken I. ''Constructing Civil Liberties: Discontinuities in the Development of American Constitutional Law''. [[Cambridge University Press]], 2004. 392 pp.
* Kyvig, David E. ''Explicit and Authentic Acts: Amending the U.S. Constitution, 1776–1995'' (Lawrence: [[University Press of Kansas]], 1996);
* Levin, Daniel Lessard. ''Representing Popular Sovereignty: The Constitution in American Political Culture''. State U. of New York Press., 1999. 283 pp.
* Licht, Robert A., ed. ''The Framers and Fundamental Rights''. American Enterprise Inst. Press, 1991. 194 pp.
* Marshall, Thurgood, "The Constitution: A Living Document," ''Howard Law Journal'' 1987: 623-28.
* Powell, H. Jefferson. ''A Community Built on Words: The Constitution in History and Politics''. [[University of Chicago Press]], 2002. 251 pp.
* Rakove, Jack N. ''Original Meanings: Politics and Ideas in the Making of the Constitution''. Knopf, 1996. 455 pp.
* Sandoz, Ellis. ''A Government of Laws: Political Theory, Religion, and the American Founding''. Louisiana State U. Press, 1990. 259 pp.
* Sheldon, Charles H. ''Essentials of Constitutional Law: The Supreme Court and the Fundamental Law'' (2001) 208 pp
* VanBurkleo, Sandra F.; Hall, Kermit L.; and Kaczorowski, Robert J., eds. ''Constitutionalism and American Culture: Writing the New Constitutional History''. University Press of Kansas, 2002. 464 pp.
* {{cite journal
|last=Mazzone |first=Jason
|title=The Creation of a Constitutional Culture
|journal=Tulsa Law Review
|year=2005 |volume=40 | number=4 |page=671
|url=http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=831927
}}
* {{cite book
|author=[[Jean Edward Smith|Smith, Jean Edward]]; Levine, Herbert M.
|year=1988
|title=Civil Liberties & Civil Rights Debated
|location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey
|publisher=Prentice Hall
}}
* {{cite book
|first=Jean Edward |last=Smith
|authorlink=Jean Edward Smith
|year=1989
|title=The Constitution and American Foreign Policy
|location=St. Paul, MN
|publisher=West Publishing Company
}}
* White, G. Edward. ''The Constitution and the New Deal''. [[Harvard University Press]], 2000. 385 pp.
* Wiecek, William M., "The Witch at the Christening: Slavery and the Constitution's Origins," Leonard W. Levy and Dennis J. Mahoney, eds., ''The Framing and Ratification of the Constitution'' (Macmillan, 1987), 178-84.

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |title=President Who? Forgotten Founders|last=Klos|first=Stanley L. |work= |publisher=Evisum, Inc. |location=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania |page=261|year=2004 |isbn=0-9752627-5-0}}

==External links==
{{sisterlinks|q=United States Constitution|s=Constitution of the United States of America}}
===National Archives===
* [http://www.constitutioncenter.org/ National Constitution Center]
* [http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters.html The National Archives Experience—Constitution of the United States]
* [http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters.html The National Archives Experience—High Resolution Downloads of the Charters of Freedom]

===Official U.S. government sources===
* [http://www.gpoaccess.gov/constitution/index.html Analysis and Interpretation of the Constitution of the United States]: Annotated constitution, with descriptions of important cases (official publication of U.S. Senate)
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/Constitution.html United States Constitution and related resources]: Library of Congress

===Non-government web sites===
* [http://www.law.cornell.edu/anncon/ Annotated Constitution] by the [[Congressional Research Service]] of the U.S. [[Library of Congress]] (hyperlinked version published by [[Cornell University]])
* [http://www.law.uchicago.edu/constitution Audio reading] of the Constitution in [[MP3]] format provided by the [[University of Chicago Law School]]
{{Spoken Wikipedia|United States Constitution spoken.ogg|2008-07-17}}
{{-}}
{{US Constitution|state=uncollapsed}}
{{US statements}}
{{United States topics}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Constitution, United States}}
[[Category:United States Constitution| ]]
[[Category:1789 establishments]]
[[Category:1789 in law]]
[[Category:James Madison]]
[[Category:Official documents of the United States]]
[[Category:Political charters|United States Constitution]]

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Wikipedia:Sandbox

2009-07-19T05:20:50Z

Dave Runger: test citation

===Ratification===
{| class="infobox" border="1" cellpadding="4" style="border-collapse:collapse; margin:0 0 1em 1em; float:right;"
|-
!colspan=5 align=center style="background:#ccccff" | Ratification of the Constitution
|-
! bgcolor="#efefef" rowspan="2" | 
! bgcolor="#efefef" rowspan="2" | Date
! bgcolor="#efefef" rowspan="2" | State
! bgcolor="#efefef" colspan="2" | Votes
|-
! Yes
! No
|-
|align="right"|1
||December 7, 1787
||[[Delaware]]
|align="right"|30
|align="right"|0
|-
|align="right"|2
||December 11, 1787
||[[Pennsylvania]]
|align="right"|46
|align="right"|23
|-
|align="right"|3
||December 18, 1787
||[[New Jersey]]
|align="right"|38
|align="right"|0
|-
|align="right"|4
||January 2, 1788
||[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]
|align="right"|26
|align="right"|0
|-
|align="right"|5
||January 9, 1788
||[[Connecticut]]
|align="right"|128
|align="right"|40
|-
|align="right"|6
||February 6, 1788
||[[Massachusetts]]
|align="right"|187
|align="right"|168
|-
|align="right"|7
||April 26, 1788
||[[Maryland]]
|align="right"|63
|align="right"|11
|-
|align="right"|8
||May 23, 1788
||[[South Carolina]]
|align="right"|149
|align="right"|73
|-
|align="right"|9
||June 21, 1788
||[[New Hampshire]]
|align="right"|57
|align="right"|47
|-
|align="right"|10
||June 25, 1788
||[[Virginia]]
|align="right"|89
|align="right"|79
|-
|align="right"|11
||July 26, 1788
||[[New York]]
|align="right"|30
|align="right"|27
|-
|align="right"|12
||November 21, 1789
||[[North Carolina]]
|align="right"|194
|align="right"|77
|-
|align="right"|13
||May 29, 1790
||[[Rhode Island]]
|align="right"|34
|align="right"|32
|}

Contrary to the process for "alteration" spelled out in Article 13 of the ''Articles'', which stated that the union created under the Articles was perpetual and that any alteration must be "agreed to in a Congress of the United States, and be afterwards confirmed by the legislatures of every State,"<ref name="Articles of Confederation">{{cite web|url=http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Articles_of_Confederation|title=Articles of Confederation|accessdate=2009-07-18|author=[[WikiSource]]}}</ref> Article VII of the proposed Constitution required the approval of conventions in only nine states to establish the Constitution as the governing document for those ratifying states.<ref name="Constitution of the United States of America"></ref>

On September 17, 1787, the Constitution was completed in Philadelphia at the Federal Convention, followed by a speech given by [[Benjamin Franklin]] who urged unanimity, although they decided only nine states were needed to ratify the constitution for it to go into effect. The Convention submitted the Constitution to the [[Congress of the Confederation]], where it received approval according to [[Articles of Confederation|Article 13 of the Articles of Confederation]].<ref name="National Archives Article on the Entire Constitutional Convention">{{cite web|url=http://www.archives.gov/exhibits/charters/charters.html|title=National Archives Article on the Entire Constitutional Convention|accessdate=2007-12-16|author=[[National Archives and Records Administration|NARA]]}}</ref>

Once the Congress of the Confederation received word of New Hampshire's ratification, it set a timetable for the start of operations under the Constitution, and on March 4, 1789, the [[Federal government of the United States|government]] under the Constitution began operations.

{{reflist}}

Wikipedia:Sandbox

2009-07-19T05:19:53Z

Dave Runger: test citation

Articles of Confederation

2009-07-19T05:03:00Z

Dave Runger: /* Article summaries */ since 27 Dec 2008 this article has been without a summary of 13th article. i have added it.

{{Disputed|date=April 2009}}
{{POV|date=April 2009}}

{{Infobox Document
|document_name=The Articles of Confederation
|image=Articles page1.jpg
|image_width=200px
|image_caption=Page I of the Articles of Confederation
|date_created=November 15, 1777
|date_ratified=March 1, 1781
|location_of_document=
|writer=[[Continental Congress]]
|signers=Continental Congress
|purpose=Constitution for the United States, later replaced by the creation of the current [[United States Constitution]]
}}

The '''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union''', commonly referred to as the '''Articles of Confederation''', was the first [[constitution]] of the thirteen [[United States|United States of America]]. The [[Second Continental Congress]] appointed a committee to draft the 'Articles' in June 1776 and proposed the draft to the States for ratification in November 1777. The ratification process was completed in March 1781, legally federating the sovereign and independent states, allied under the [[Articles of Association]], into a new [[federation]] styled the "United States of America". Under the Articles the states retained sovereignty over all governmental functions not specifically relinquished to the central government.

On June 12, 1776, a day after appointing a committee to prepare a draft declaration of independence, the Second Continental Congress resolved to appoint a committee of thirteen to prepare a draft of a constitution for a confederate type of union. The last draft of the Articles was written in the summer of 1777 and the Second Continental Congress approved them for ratification by the States on November 15, 1777 in [[York, Pennsylvania]] after a year of debate. In practice the final draft of the Articles served as the ''[[de facto]]'' system of government used by the Congress ("the United States in Congress assembled") until it became ''[[de jure]]'' by final ratification on March 1, 1781; at which point Congress became the [[Congress of the Confederation]]. The ''Articles'' set the rules for operations of the "United States" confederation. The confederation was capable of making war, negotiating diplomatic agreements, and resolving issues regarding the western territories. An important element of the Articles was that Article XIII stipulated that "their provisions shall be inviolably observed by every state" and "[[perpetual Union|the Union shall be perpetual]]".

The Articles were created by the chosen representatives of the states in the Second Continental Congress out of a perceived need to have "a plan of confederacy for securing the freedom, sovereignty, and independence of the United States." Although serving a crucial role in the victory in the [[American Revolutionary War]], a group of reformers,<ref>"Its [the Philadelphia Convention's] official function was to propose revisions to the Articles. But the delegates, meeting in secret, quickly decided to draft a totally new document. Of the 55 delegates, only 8 had signed the Declaration of Independence. Most of the leading radicals, including Sam Adams, Henry, Paine, Lee, and Jefferson, were absent. In contrast, 21 delegates belonged to the militarist{{Fact|date=April 2009}} [[Society of the Cincinnati]]. Overall, the convention was dominated by the array of nationalist interests that the prior war had brought together: land speculators, ex-army officers, public creditors, and privileged merchants." [http://www.independent.org/newsroom/article.asp?id=1400 Did the Constitution Betray the Revolution?], Jeffrey Rogers Hummel, William Marina</ref> known as "[[Federalism in the United States|federalists]]", felt that the Articles lacked the necessary provisions for a sufficiently effective government. Fundamentally, a [[federation]] was sought to replace the [[confederation]]. The key criticism by those who favored a more powerful central [[Sovereign state|state]] (i.e. the federalists){{Fact|date=April 2009}} was that the government (i.e. the [[Congress of the Confederation]]) lacked taxing authority; it had to request funds from the states. Also various federalist factions wanted{{Fact|date=April 2009}} a government that could impose uniform tariffs, give land grants, and assume responsibility for unpaid state war debts ("assumption".) Those opposed to the Constitution, known as "anti-federalists," considered these limits on government power to be necessary and good.{{Dubious|Federalists|date=April 2009}}<ref>"The American Revolution, like all great social upheavals, was brought off by a disparate coalition of competing view-points and conflicting interests. At one end of the Revolutionary coalition stood the American radicals - men such as Samuel Adams, Patrick Henry, Thomas Paine, Richard Henry Lee and Thomas Jefferson. Although by no means in agreement on everything, the radicals objected to excessive government power in general and not simply to British rule in particular.
...
At the other end of the Revolutionary coalition were the American nationalists - men such as Benjamin Franklin, George Washington, Robert Morris, Alexander
Hamilton and James Madison. Representing a powerful array of mercantile, creditor and landed interests, the nationalists went along with independence but
opposed the Revolution's libertarian thrust. They sought a strong and effective American central government, which would reproduce the hierarchical features of the eighteenth-century British State, only without the British." - Jeffrey Rogers Hummel, [http://www.la-articles.org.uk/FL-5-4-3.pdf The Constitution as Counter-Revolution: A Tribute to the Anti-Federalists]</ref> Another criticism of the Articles was that they did not strike the right balance between large and small states in the legislative decision making process. {{Dubious|Federalists|date=April 2009}} Due to its ''one-state, one-vote'' plank, the larger states were expected to contribute more but had only one vote.

The Articles were replaced by the US Constitution on June 21, 1788.

==Background==
The political push for the colonies to increase cooperation began in the [[French and Indian Wars]] in the mid 1750s. The [[American Revolution]] in response to lack of elected representation in the [[Parliament of Great Britain|British government]] and a rejection of the resulting law and regulation, followed by the beginning of the [[American Revolutionary War]] in 1775 and [[Proclamation of Rebellion|a proclamation]] by the [[British Crown|monarchy]] that Congress were traitors in rebellion, induced the various states to cooperate in seceding from the [[British Empire]]. Starting 1775, the [[Second Continental Congress]] acted as the [[provisional government|provisional national government]] that ran the war. Congress presented the Articles for enactment by the states in 1777, while prosecuting the American Revolutionary War.

==Ratification==
Congress began to move for ratification of the Articles in 1777:
<blockquote>
"Permit us, then, earnestly to recommend these articles to the immediate and dispassionate attention of the legislatures of the respective states. Let them be candidly reviewed under a sense of the difficulty of combining in one general system the various sentiments and interests of a continent divided into so many sovereign and independent communities, under a conviction of the absolute necessity of uniting all our councils and all our strength, to maintain and defend our common liberties...''<ref name=ratificationletter>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/hlaw:@field(DOCID+@lit(jc00941)) Monday, November 17, 1777], Journals of the Continental Congress, 1774–1789. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/amlaw/lawhome.html A Century of Lawmaking, 1774-1873]</ref>
</blockquote>

The document could not become officially effective until it was ratified by all of the thirteen colonies. The first state to ratify was [[Virginia]] on December 16, 1777.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ho/time/ar/91719.htm
|title=Articles of Confederation, 1777-1781
|publisher=[[U.S. Department of State]]
|accessdate=2008-01-26
}}</ref> The process dragged on for several years, stalled by the refusal of some states to rescind their claims to land in the West. [[Maryland]] was the last holdout; it refused to go along until [[Virginia]] and New York agreed to cede their claims in the [[Ohio River]] valley. A little over three years passed before Maryland's ratification on March 1, 1781.

==Article summaries==
Even though the Articles of Confederation and the Constitution were established by many of the same people, the two documents were very different. The original five-paged Articles contained thirteen articles, a conclusion, and a signatory section. The following list contains short summaries of each of the thirteen articles.
#Establishes the name of the confederation as "The United States of America."
#Asserts the equality of the separate states with the confederation government, i.e. "Each state retains its sovereignty, freedom, and independence, and every power, jurisdiction, and right, which is not by this Confederation expressly delegated."
#Establishes the United States as a new nation, a sovereign union of sovereign states, united ". . . for their common defense, the security of their liberties, and their mutual and general welfare, binding themselves to assist each other, against all force offered to, or attacks made upon them . . . ," while declaring that the union is "perpetual," and can only be altered by approval of Congress with ratification by ''all'' the state legislatures.
#Establishes [[freedom of movement]]–anyone can pass freely between states, excluding "[[pauper]]s, [[vagabond (person)|vagabonds]], and [[fugitive]]s from justice." All people are entitled to the rights established by the state into which he travels. If a crime is committed in one state and the perpetrator flees to another state, he will be [[extradition|extradited]] to and tried in the state in which the crime was committed.
#Allocates one vote in the [[Congress of the Confederation]] (United States in Congress Assembled) to each state, which was entitled to a delegation of between two and seven members. Members of Congress were appointed by state legislatures; individuals could not serve more than three out of any six years.
#Only the central government is allowed to conduct [[Diplomacy|foreign relations]] and to [[declaration of war|declare war]]. No states may have navies or standing armies, or engage in war, without permission of Congress (although the state [[militia]]s are encouraged).
#When an army is raised for common defense, colonels and military ranks below colonel will be named by the state legislatures.
#Expenditures by the United States will be paid by funds raised by state legislatures, and apportioned to the states based on the real property values of each.
#Defines the powers of the central government: to declare war, to set weights and measures (including coins), and for Congress to serve as a final court for disputes between states.
#Defines a [[Committee of the States]] to be a government when Congress is not in session.
#Requires nine states to approve the admission of a new state into the confederacy; pre-approves [[Province of Quebec (1763-1791)|Canada]], if it applies for membership.
#Reaffirms that the Confederation accepts war debt incurred by Congress before the Articles.
#Declares that the Articles are perpetual, and can only be altered by approval of Congress with ratification by all the state legislatures.

Still at war with the [[Kingdom of Great Britain]], the Framers were divided between those seeking a powerful, centralized national government, and those seeking a loosely-structured one. Jealously guarding their new independence, members of the Continental Congress arrived at a compromise solution dividing sovereignty between the states and the federal government, with a [[unicameral]] legislature that protected the liberty of the individual states. While calling on Congress to regulate military and monetary affairs, for example, the Articles of Confederation provided no mechanism to force the states to comply with requests for troops or revenue. At times, this left the military in a precarious position, as [[George Washington]] wrote in a 1781 letter to the governor of [[Massachusetts]], [[John Hancock]].

==The end of the war==
The [[Treaty of Paris (1783)]], which ended hostilities with Great Britain, languished in Congress for months because state representatives failed to attend sessions of the national legislature. Yet Congress had no power to enforce attendance. Writing to [[George Clinton (vice president)|George Clinton]] in September 1783, George Washington complained:

:''Congress have come to no determination yet respecting the Peace Establishment nor am I able to say when they will. I have lately had a conference with a Committee on this subject, and have reiterated my former opinions, but it appears to me that there is not a sufficient representation to discuss Great National points.''<ref name=washingtonclinton>[http://memory.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?ammem/mgw:@field(DOCID+@lit(gw270170)) Letter George Washington to George Clinton], September 11, 1783. [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/gwhtml/gwhome.html The George Washington Papers, 1741-1799]</ref>

==Function==
===Military===
The Articles supported the Congressional direction of the [[Continental Army]], and allowed the 13 states to present a unified front when dealing with the European powers. As a tool to build a centralized war-making government, they were largely a failure: Historian Bruce Chadwick wrote:

{{quote|George Washington had been one of the very first proponents of a strong federal government. The army had nearly disbanded on several occasions during the winters of the war because of the weaknesses of the Continental Congress. ... The delegates could not draft soldiers and had to send requests for regular troops and militia to the states. Congress had the right to order the production and purchase of provisions for the soldiers, but could not force anyone to actually supply them, and the army nearly starved in several winters of war.<ref>Chadwick p. 469. Phelps pp. 165-166. Phelps wrote:
:"It is hardly surprising, given their painful confrontations with a weak central government and the sovereign states, that the former generals of the Revolution as well as countless lesser officers strongly supported the creation of a more muscular union in the 1780s and fought hard for the ratification of the Constitution in 1787. Their wartime experiences had nationalized them."</ref>}}

The Continental Congress, before the Articles were approved, had promised soldiers a pension of half pay for life. However Congress had no power to compel the states to fund this obligation, and as the war wound down after the victory at Yorktown the sense of urgency to support the military was no longer a factor. No progress was made in Congress during the winter of 1783-1784. General Henry Knox, who would become the first Secretary of War under the Constitution, blamed the weaknesses of the Articles of the inability of the government to fund the military. The army had long been supportive of a strong union.<ref>Puls pp. 174-176</ref> Knox wrote:

{{quote|The army generally have always reprobated the idea of being thirteen armies. Their ardent desires have been to be one continental body looking up to one sovereign. ... It is a favorite toast in the army, “A hoop to the barrel” or “Cement to the Union.”<ref>Puls p. 177</ref>}}

As Congress failed to act on the petitions, Knox wrote to Gouverneur Morris, four years before the Philadelphia Convention was convened, “As the present Constitution is so defective, why do not you great men call the people together and tell them so; that is, to have a convention of the States to form a better Constitution.”<ref>Puls p. 177</ref>

Once the war was won, the [[Continental Army]] was largely disbanded. A very small national force was maintained to man frontier forts and protect against Native American attacks. Meanwhile, each of the states had an army (or militia), and 11 of them had navies. The wartime promises of bounties and land grants to be paid for service were not being met. In 1783, [[George Washington|Washington]] defused the [[Newburgh conspiracy]], but riots by unpaid Pennsylvania veterans forced the Congress to leave Philadelphia temporarily.<ref>{{cite book
|url=http://www.fullbooks.com/George-Washington-Vol-I4.html
|title=George Washington, Vol. I
|author=Henry Cabot Lodge
|publisher=
|volume=I
}}</ref>

===Foreign policy===
Even after peace was achieved, the weakness of the government frustrated the ability of the government to conduct foreign policy. In 1786 Thomas Jefferson, concerned over the failure to fund a naval expedition against the Barbary pirates, wrote to James Monroe, "It will be said there is no money in the treasury. There never will be money in the treasury till the confederacy shows its teeth. The states must see the rod.” <ref>Ellis 92</ref>

===Taxation and commerce===
{{Expand|section=yes}}
Under the articles, Congress could make decisions, but had no power to enforce them. There was a requirement for unanimous approval before any modifications could be made to the Articles. Because the majority of lawmaking rested with the states, the central government was also kept limited.

Congress was denied the power of taxation: it could only request money from the states. The states did not generally comply with the requests in full, leaving the Confederation Congress and the Continental Army chronically short of funds. As more money was printed, continental dollars depreciated. Washington in 1779 wrote to John Jay, serving as President of the Continental Congress, "that a wagon load of money will scarcely purchase a wagon load of provisions."<ref>Stahr p. 105</ref> Jay and the Congress responded in May by requesting $45 million from the states. In an appeal to the states to comply Jay wrote that the taxes were "the price of liberty, the peace and the safety of yourselves and posterity."<ref>Stahr p. 107</ref> He argued that Americans should avoid having it said "that America had no sooner become independent than she became insolvent" or that "her infant glories and growing fame were obscured and tarnished by broken contracts and violated faith."<ref>Stahr pp. 107-108</ref> The states did not respond with the money requested.

Congress was also denied the power to regulate commerce, and as a result, the states maintained control over their own trade policy as well. The states and the national congress had both incurred debts during the war, and how to pay the debts became a major issue after the war. Some states paid off their debts; however, the centralizers favored federal assumption of states' debts.

===Accomplishments===
Nevertheless, the [[Congress of the Confederation]] did take two actions with lasting impact. The [[Land Ordinance of 1785]] established the general land survey and ownership provisions used throughout later American expansion. The [[Northwest Ordinance]] of 1787 noted the agreement of the original states to give up [[state cessions|western land claims]] and cleared the way for the entry of new states.

==Signatures==
The Second Continental Congress approved the Articles for distribution to the states on November 15, 1777. A copy was made for each state and one was kept by the [[Continental Congress|Congress]]. The copies sent to the states for ratification were unsigned, and a cover letter had only the signatures of [[Henry Laurens]] and [[Charles Thomson]], who were the [[President of the Continental Congress|President]] and Secretary to the Congress.

But, the ''Articles'' at that time were unsigned, and the date was blank. Congress began the signing process by examining their copy of the ''Articles'' on June 27, 1778. They ordered a final copy prepared (the one in the National Archives), and that delegates should inform the secretary of their authority for ratification.

On July 9, 1778, the prepared copy was ready. They dated it, and began to sign. They also requested each of the remaining states to notify its delegation when ratification was completed. On that date, delegates present from [[New Hampshire]], [[Massachusetts]], [[Rhode Island]], [[Connecticut]], [[New York]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Virginia]] and [[South Carolina]] signed the Articles to indicate that their states had ratified. [[New Jersey]], [[Delaware]] and [[Maryland]] could not, since their states had not ratified. [[North Carolina]] and [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]] also didn't sign that day, since their delegations were absent.

After the first signing, some delegates signed at the next meeting they attended. For example, John Wentworth of New Hampshire added his name on August 8. John Penn was the first of North Carolina's delegates to arrive (on July 10), and the delegation signed the ''Articles'' on July 21, 1778.

The other states had to wait until they ratified the ''Articles'' and notified their Congressional delegation. Georgia signed on July 24, New Jersey on November 26, and Delaware on February 12, 1779. Maryland refused to ratify the ''Articles'' until every state had ceded its western land claims.

[[Image:Act of Maryland to ratify Articles.jpg|thumb|253px|left|The Act of the Maryland legislature to ratify the Articles of Confederation on February 2, 1781]]
On February 2, 1781, the much-awaited decision was taken by the [[Maryland General Assembly]] in [[Annapolis]].<ref name=lawsofmaryland>[http://aomol.net/megafile/msa/speccol/sc2900/sc2908/000001/000203/html/am203--265.html Friday, February 2, 1781], Laws of Maryland, 1781. [http://aomol.net/megafile/msa/speccol/sc2900/sc2908/000001/000203/html/am203--265.html An ACT to empower the delegates]</ref> As the last piece of business during the afternoon Session, "among engrossed Bills" was "signed and sealed by Governor [[Thomas Sim Lee]] in the Senate Chamber, in the presence of the members of both Houses… an Act to empower the delegates of this state in Congress to subscribe and ratify the articles of confederation" and perpetual union among the states. The Senate then adjourned "to the first Monday in August next." The decision of Maryland to ratify the Articles was reported to the Continental Congress on February 12. The formal signing of the ''Articles'' by the Maryland delegates took place in Philadelphia at noon time on March 1, 1781 and was celebrated in the afternoon. With these events, the Articles entered into force and the United States came into being as a united, sovereign and national state.

Congress had debated the ''Articles'' for over a year and a half, and the ratification process had taken nearly three and a half years. Many participants in the original debates were no longer delegates, and some of the signers had only recently arrived. The ''Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union'' were signed by a group of men who were never present in the Congress at the same time.

The signers and the states they represented were:
*[[New Hampshire]]: [[Josiah Bartlett]] and [[John Wentworth Jr.]]
*[[Massachusetts|Massachusetts Bay]]: [[John Hancock]], [[Samuel Adams]], [[Elbridge Gerry]], [[Francis Dana]], [[James Lovell (delegate)|James Lovell]], and [[Samuel Holten]]
*[[Rhode Island|Rhode Island and Providence Plantations]]: [[William Ellery]], [[Henry Marchant]], and [[John Collins (delegate)|John Collins]]
*[[Connecticut]]: [[Roger Sherman]], [[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]], [[Oliver Wolcott]], [[Titus Hosmer]], and [[Andrew Adams (congressman)|Andrew Adams]]
*[[New York State|New York]]: [[James Duane]], [[Francis Lewis]], [[William Duer (delegate)|William Duer]], and [[Gouverneur Morris]]
*[[New Jersey]]: [[John Witherspoon]] and [[Nathaniel Scudder]]
*[[Pennsylvania]]: [[Robert Morris (merchant)|Robert Morris]], [[Daniel Roberdeau]], [[Jonathan Bayard Smith]], [[William Clingan]], and [[Joseph Reed (jurist)|Joseph Reed]]
*[[Delaware]]: [[Thomas McKean]], [[John Dickinson (delegate)|John Dickinson]], and [[Nicholas Van Dyke (governor)|Nicholas Van Dyke]]
*[[Maryland]]: [[John Hanson]] and [[Daniel Carroll]]
*[[Virginia]]: [[Richard Henry Lee]], [[John Banister (lawyer)|John Banister]], [[Thomas Adams (politician)|Thomas Adams]], [[John Harvie]], and [[Francis Lightfoot Lee]]
*[[North Carolina]]: [[John Penn (delegate)|John Penn]], [[Cornelius Harnett]], and [[John Williams (delegate)|John Williams]]
*[[South Carolina]]: [[Henry Laurens]], [[William Henry Drayton]], [[John Mathews]], [[Richard Hutson]], and [[Thomas Heyward Jr.]]
*[[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]]: [[John Walton (1738-1783)|John Walton]], [[Edward Telfair]], and [[Edward Langworthy]]

Roger Sherman (Connecticut) was the only person to sign all four great state papers of the United States: the [[Articles of Association]], the [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the Articles of Confederation and the [[United States Constitution]].

Robert Morris (Pennsylvania) was the only person besides Sherman to sign three of the great state papers of the United States: the [[United States Declaration of Independence]], the Articles of Confederation and the [[United States Constitution]].

John Dickinson (Delaware) and Daniel Carroll (Maryland), along with Sherman and Morris, were the only four people to sign both the Articles of Confederation and the [[United States Constitution]].

==Presidents of the Congress==
The following list is of those who led the [[Congress of the Confederation]] under the ''Articles of Confederation'' as the [[President of the United States in Congress Assembled|Presidents of the United States in Congress Assembled]]. Under the Articles, the president was the presiding officer of Congress, chaired the Cabinet (the Committee of the States) when Congress was in recess, and performed other administrative functions. He was not, however, a ''chief'' [[executive (government)|executive]] in the way the successor [[President of the United States]] is a chief executive, but all of the functions he executed were under the auspices and in service of the Congress.

*[[Samuel Huntington (statesman)|Samuel Huntington]] (March 1, 1781– July 9, 1781)
*[[Thomas McKean]] (July 10, 1781–November 4, 1781)
*[[John Hanson]] (November 5, 1781– November 3, 1782)
*[[Elias Boudinot]] (November 4, 1782– November 2, 1783)
*[[Thomas Mifflin]] (November 3, 1783– October 31, 1784)
*[[Richard Henry Lee]] (November 30, 1784– November 6, 1785)
*[[John Hancock]] (November 23, 1785– May 29, 1786)
*[[Nathaniel Gorham]] (June 6, 1786– November 5, 1786)
*[[Arthur St. Clair]] (February 2, 1787– November 4, 1787)
*[[Cyrus Griffin]] (January 22, 1788– November 2, 1788)
''For a full list of Presidents of the Congress Assembled and Presidents under the two Continental Congresses before the Articles, see [[President of the Continental Congress]].''

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Articles page1.jpg|Articles of Confederation, page 1
Image:Articles page2.jpg|Articles of Confederation, page 2
Image:Articles page3.jpg|Articles of Confederation, page 3
Image:Articles page4.jpg|Articles of Confederation, page 4
Image:Articles page5.jpg|Articles of Confederation, page 5
</gallery>

==Revision and replacement==
In May 1786, [[Charles Pinckney (governor)|Charles Pinckney]] of [[South Carolina]] proposed that Congress revise the Articles of Confederation. Recommended changes included granting [[United States Congress|Congress]] power over foreign and domestic commerce, and providing means for Congress to collect money from state treasuries. Unanimous approval was necessary to make the alterations, however, and Congress failed to reach a consensus. The weakness of the Articles in establishing an effective unifying government was underscored by the threat of internal conflict both within and between the states, especially after [[Shays' Rebellion]] threatened to topple the state government of Massachusetts.

On January 21, 1786, the Virginia Legislature, following [[James Madison|James Madison's]] recommendation, invited all the states to send delegates to Annapolis, Maryland to discuss ways to reduce these interstate conflicts. At what came to be known as the [[Annapolis Convention (1786)|Annapolis Convention]], the few state delegates in attendance endorsed a motion that called for all states to meet in [[Philadelphia]] in May, 1787 to discuss ways to improve the Articles of Confederation in a "Grand Convention." Although the states' representatives to the [[Philadelphia Convention|Constitutional Convention]] in Philadelphia were only authorized to amend the Articles, the representatives held secret, closed-door sessions and wrote a new constitution. The new Constitution gave much more power to the central government, but characterization of the result is disputed. The general goal of the authors was to get as close to a [[republic]] as defined by the philosophers of the [[Age of Enlightenment]], while trying to address the many difficulties of the interstate relationships. Historian Forrest McDonald, using the ideas of James Madison from ''Federalist 39'', describes the change this way:

{{quote|The constitutional reallocation of powers created a new form of government, unprecedented under the sun. Every previous national authority either had been centralized or else had been a confederation of sovereign states. The new American system was neither one nor the other; it was a mixture of both.<ref>McDonald pg. 276</ref>}}

When approached after leaving the close of the [[Federal Convention]], Benjamin Franklin was asked a question. This is the conversation as has been recorded:

<blockquote>
The lady asked "Well, Doctor, what have we got—a Republic or a Monarchy?"
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
“A Republic, if you can keep it.” was the response of Benjamin Franklin.
</blockquote>

Historian Ralph Ketcham comments on the opinions of [[Patrick Henry]], [[George Mason]], and other [[Anti-Federalism|antifederalists]] who were not so eager to give up the local autonomy won by the revolution:

{{quote|Antifederalists feared what Patrick Henry termed the "consolidated government" proposed by the new Constitution. They saw in Federalist hopes for commercial growth and international prestige only the lust of ambitious men for a "splendid empire" that, in the time-honored way of empires, would oppress the people with taxes, conscription, and military campaigns. Uncertain that any government over so vast a domain as the United States could be controlled by the people, Antifederalists saw in the enlarged powers of the general government only the familiar threats to the rights and liberties of the people.<ref>Ralph Ketcham, [http://books.google.com/books?id=QlDPAtJXQu0C&pg=PA381&lpg=PA381&dq=ralph+ketcham+%22anti+federalist%22&source=web&ots=BQZCnGjA9c&sig=rVp_ZBF9cEFFN8R5yJsW2xTMyf0#PPA381,M1 Roots of the Republic: American Founding Documents Interpreted, pg. 383]</ref>}}

According to their own terms for modification (Article XIII), the Articles would still have been in effect until 1790, the year in which the last of the 13 states ratified the new Constitution. The Congress under the Articles continued to sit until November 1788,<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://libertariannation.org/a/f11e1.html#3
|title=The Articles of Confederation
|last=Emory
|first=Bobby
|publisher=Libertarian Nation Foundation
|year=1993
|accessdate=2008-01-26
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.loc.gov/exhibits/religion/rel04.html
|title=Religion and the Congress of the Confederation, 1774-89 (Religion and the Founding of the American Republic, Library of Congress Exhibition)
|date=2003-10-27
|publisher=Library of Congress
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.archives.gov/research/guide-fed-records/groups/360.html#360.2
|title=Records of the Continental and Confederation Congresses and the Constitutional Convention
|publisher=U.S. National Archives and Records Administration
}}</ref><ref>[http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/collections/continental/constit.html Documents from the Continental Congress and the Constitutional Convention, 1774-1789 - To Form a More Perfect Union: The Work of the Continental Congress & the Constitutional Convention (American Memory from the Library of Congress)]</ref> overseeing the adoption of the new Constitution by the states, and setting elections. By that date, 11 of the 13 states had ratified the new Constitution.

Historians have given many reasons for the perceived need to replace the articles in 1787. Jillson and Wilson (1994) point to the financial weakness as well as the norms, rules and institutional structures of the Congress, and the propensity to divide along sectional lines.

Rakove (1988) identifies several factors that explain the collapse of the Confederation. The lack of compulsory direct taxation power was objectionable to those wanting a strong centralized state or expecting to benefit from such power. It could not collect customs after the war because tariffs were vetoed by [[Rhode Island]]. Rakove concludes that their failure to implement national measures "stemmed not from a heady sense of independence but rather from the enormous difficulties that all the states encountered in collecting taxes, mustering men, and gathering supplies from a war-weary populace."<ref>Rakove 1988 p. 230</ref> The second group of factors Rakove identified derived from the substantive nature of the problems the Continental Congress confronted after 1783, especially the inability to create a strong foreign policy. Finally, the Confederation's lack of coercive power reduced the likelihood for profit to be made by political means, thus potential rulers were uninspired to seek power.

When the war ended in 1783, certain special interests had incentives to create a new "merchant state," much like the British state people had rebelled against. In particular, holders of war scrip and land speculators wanted a central government to pay off scrip at face value and to legalize western land holdings with disputed claims. Also, manufacturers wanted a high tariff as a barrier to foreign goods, but competition among states made this impossible without a central government.<ref>Hendrickson p. 154</ref>

Political scientist David C. Hendrickson writes that two prominent political leaders in the Confederation, [[John Jay]] of New York and [[Thomas Burke (governor)|Thomas Burke]] of North Carolina believed that "the authority of the congress rested on the prior acts of the several states, to which the states gave their voluntary consent, and until those obligations were fulfilled, neither nullification of the authority of congress, exercising its due powers, nor secession from the compact itself was consistent with the terms of their original pledges."<ref>Hendrickson p. 153-154</ref>

Law professor Daniel Farber argues that there was no clear consensus on the permanence of the Union or the issue of secession by the Founders. Farber wrote:
{{quote|What about the original understanding? The debates contain scattered statements about the permanence or impermanence of the Union. The occasional reference to the possible impermanency of the Constitution are hard to interpret. They might have referred to a legal right to revoke ratification. But they could equally could have referred to an extraconstitutional right of revolution, or to the possibility that a new national convention would rewrite the Constitution, or simply to the factual possibility that the national government might break down. Similarly, references to the permanency of the Union could have referred to the practical unlikelihood of withdrawal rather than to any lack of legal power. The public debates seemingly do not speak specifically to whether ratification under Article VII was revocable.<ref>Farber p.87</ref>}}

However, what if one or more states do violate the compact? One view, not only about the Articles but also the later Constitution, was that the state or states injured by such a breach could rightfully secede. This position was held by, among others, [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[John C. Calhoun|John Calhoun]].

{{quote|If any state in the Union will declare that it prefers separation . . . to a continuance in union . . . I have no hesitation in saying, let us separate.| Jefferson letter to James Madison, 1816}} This view motivated discussions of secession and nullification at the [[Hartford Convention]], the [[Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions]], and the [[Nullification Crisis]]. In his book Life of Webster Sen. Henry Cabot Lodge writes {{quote|It is safe to say that there was not a man in the country, from Washington and Hamilton to Clinton and Mason, who did not regard the new system as an experiment from which each and every State had a right to peaceably withdraw.<ref>Lodge's view on the unanimity of this view is contested by Judge Caleb William Loring in [http://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9806E7DB1731E033A25751C1A9649C94629ED7CF UNION NOT MADE BY THE WAR]</ref><ref>A textbook used at West Point before the Civil War, [http://www.constitution.org/wr/rawle-00.htm A View of the Constitution], written by Judge William Rawle in 1829, states in chapter XXXII, "The secession of a state from the Union depends on the will of the people of such state. The people alone as we have already seen, hold the power to alter their constitution. The Constitution of the United States is to a certain extent, incorporated into the constitutions or the several states by the act of the people. The state legislatures have only to perform certain organical operations in respect to it. To withdraw from the Union comes not within the general scope of their delegated authority. There must be an express provision to that effect inserted in the state constitutions. This is not, at present, the case with any of them, and it would perhaps be impolitic to confide it to them."</ref>}} A competing view, promoted by [[Daniel Webster]] and later by [[Abraham Lincoln]] , was that the Constitution (and Articles) established a [[Perpetual Union|permanent union]].<ref>This view, along with the view that the union was a binding contract from which no state could unilaterally remove itself, was included in [[Lincoln's First Inaugural|Lincoln's First Inaugural Address]].</ref><ref>Pressley p. 649-650. In 1848 Lincoln expressed “unequivocal support for the ‘right of revolution,’" with the following comment regarding Mexico:
:Any people anywhere, being inclined and having the power, have the right to rise up, and shake off the existing government, and form a new one that suits them better. This is a most valuable,-a most sacred right-a right, which we hope and believe, is to liberate the world. Nor is this right confined to cases in which the whole people of an existing government, may choose to exercise it. Any portion of such people that can, may revolutionize, and make their own, of so much of the teritory [sic] as they inhabit. More than this, a majority of any portion of such people may revolutionize, putting down a minority, intermingled with, or near about them, who may oppose their movement. Such minority, was precisely the case, of the Tories of our own revolution. It is a quality of revolutions not to go by old lines, or old laws; but to break up both, and make new ones.</ref> President [[Andrew Jackson]] during the [[Nullification Crisis]], in his “Proclamation to the People of South Carolina”, made the case for the perpetuity of the Union while also contrasting the differences between “revolution” and “secession”:<ref>Remini pp. 21</ref>

{{quote|But each State having expressly parted with so many powers as to constitute jointly with the other States a single nation, cannot from that period possess any right to secede, because such secession does not break a league, but destroys the unity of a nation, and any injury to that unity is not only a breach which would result from the contravention of a compact, but it is an offense against the whole Union. To say that any State may at pleasure secede from the Union, is to say that the United States are not a nation because it would be a solecism to contend that any part of a nation might dissolve its connection with the other parts, to their injury or ruin, without committing any offense. Secession, like any other revolutionary act, may be morally justified by the extremity of oppression; but to call it a constitutional right, is confounding the meaning of terms, and can only be done through gross error, or to deceive those who are willing to assert a right, but would pause before they made a revolution, or incur the penalties consequent upon a failure.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.yale.edu/lawweb/avalon/presiden/proclamations/jack01.htm
|title=President Jackson's Proclamation Regarding Nullification, December 10, 1832
|publisher=The Avalon Project at Yale Law School
|accessdate=2008-09-01
}}</ref>}}

This view, among others, was presented against declarations of secession from the Union by southern [[slave states]] as the [[American Civil War]] began.

==See also==
*[[History of the United States]]
*[[United States Constitution]]
*[[United States Bill of Rights]]

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
*R. B. Bernstein, "Parliamentary Principles, American Realities: The Continental and Confederation Congresses, 1774-1789," in ''Inventing Congress: Origins & Establishment Of First Federal Congress'' ed by Kenneth R. Bowling and Donald R. Kennon (1999) pp 76–108
*Burnett, Edmund Cody. ''The Continental Congress: A Definitive History of the Continental Congress From Its Inception in 1774 to March, 1789'' (1941)
*Chadwick, Bruce. ''George Washington's War.'' (2005)
*Ellis, Joseph J., ''American Sphinx: The Character of Thomas Jefferson.'' (1996) ISBN 0-679-76441-0
*Farber, Daniel. ''Lincoln's Constitution.'' (2003) ISBN 0-226-23793-1
*Barbara Feinberg, ''The Articles Of Confederation'' (2002). [for middle school children.]
*Hendrickson, David C., ''Peace Pact: The Lost World of the American Founding.'' (2003) ISBN 0-7006-1237-8
*Robert W. Hoffert, ''A Politics of Tensions: The Articles of Confederation and American Political Ideas'' (1992).
*Lucille E. Horgan. ''Forged in War: The Continental Congress and the Origin of Military Supply and Acquisition Policy'' (2002)
*{{citation
|authorlink=Merrill Jensen
|last= Jensen
|first=Merrill
|title=The Articles of Confederation: An Interpretation of the Social-Constitutional History of the American Revolution, 1774-1781
|year=1959
}}
*{{citation
|authorlink=Merrill Jensen
|last= Jensen
|first=Merrill
|title=The Idea of a National Government During the American Revolution
|publisher=Political Science Quarterly
|volume=58
|year=1943
|pages=356–79
|url=http://links.jstor.org/sici?sici=0032-3195%28194309%2958%3A3%3C356%3ATIOANG%3E2.0.CO%3B2-M
|issn=0032-3195
|issue=3
|doi=10.2307/2144490
|journal=Political Science Quarterly
}}
*Calvin Jillson and Rick K. Wilson. ''Congressional Dynamics: Structure, Coordination, and Choice in the First American Congress, 1774-1789.'' (1994)
*{{citation
|authorlink=Forrest McDonald
|last=McDonald
|first=Forrest
|title=Novus Ordo Seclorum: The Intellectual Origins of the Constitution
|publisher=University Press of Kansas
|isbn=0700603115
|year=1986
}}
*Andrew C. Mclaughlin, ''A Constitutional History of the United States'' (1935) [http://www.constitution.org/cmt/mclaughlin/chus.htm online version]
*Pauline Maier, ''American Scripture: Making the Declaration of Independence'' (1998).
*Jackson T. Main, ''Political Parties before the Constitution.'' University of North Carolina Press, 1974
*Phelps, Glenn A. "The Republican General" in “George Washington Reconsidered.“ edited by Don Higginbotham. (2001) ISBN 0-8139-2005-1
*Pressly, Thomas J., “Bullets and Ballots: Lincoln and the ‘Right of Revolution’” ''The American Historical Review'', Vol. 67, No. 3. (Apr., 1962)
*Puls, Mark. ''Henry Knox: Visionary General of the American Revolution.'' (2008) ISBN- 978-1-4039-8427-2
*Jack N. Rakove, ''The Beginnings of National Politics: An Interpretive History of the Continental Congress '' (1982).
*Jack N. Rakove, “The Collapse of the Articles of Confederation,” in ''The American Founding: Essays on the Formation of the Constitution.'' Ed by J. Jackson Barlow, Leonard W. Levy and Ken Masugi. Greenwood Press. 1988. Pp 225–45 ISBN 0313256101
*Remini, Robert V. ''Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845. (1984) ISBN 0-06-015279-6
*Stahr, Walter. ''John Jay.'' (2005) ISBN 0-8264-1879-1

==Further reading==
*{{cite book |title=President Who? Forgotten Founders|last=Klos|first=Stanley L. |work= |publisher=Evisum, Inc. |location=Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania |page=261|year=2004 |isbn=0-9752627-5-0}}

==External links==
{{wikisource}}
* [http://www.law.ou.edu/ushistory/artconf.shtml Text Version of the Articles of Confederation]
* [http://earlyamerica.com/earlyamerica/milestones/articles/cover.html Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union]
* [http://www.loc.gov/rr/program/bib/ourdocs/articles.html Articles of Confederation and related resources], [[Library of Congress]]
* [http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/today/nov15.html Today in History: November 15], [[Library of Congress]]
* [http://www.usconstitution.net/articles.html United States Constitution Online - The Articles of Confederation]
* [http://www.mp3books.com/shop/audio_item.aspx?id=819 Free Download of Articles of Confederation Audio]
* Audio narration (mp3) of the [http://www.americanaphonic.com/pages/Articles.html Articles of Confederation] at Americana Phonic
* [http://www.mises.org/books/conceived4.pdf The Articles of Confederation], Chapter 45 (see page 253) of Volume 4 of ''[[Conceived in Liberty]]'' by [[Murray Rothbard]], in PDF format.

{{Presidents of the Continental Congress}}

[[Category:1781 in law]]
[[Category:Defunct constitutions]]
[[Category:United States historical documents]]
[[Category:Documents of the American Revolution]]
[[Category:Legal history of the United States]]
[[Category:History of the United States (1776–1789)]]
[[Category:Federalism in the United States]]
[[Category:York, Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:Pennsylvania in the American Revolution]]
[[Category:Political charters]]

[[ca:Articles de la Confederació]]
[[de:Konföderationsartikel]]
[[es:Artículos de la Confederación]]
[[eo:Artikoloj de Konfederacio]]
[[fr:Articles de la Confédération]]
[[gl:Artigos da Confederación]]
[[it:Articoli della Confederazione]]
[[he:תקנון הקונפדרציה]]
[[lt:Konfederacijos straipsniai]]
[[nl:Artikelen van Confederatie]]
[[ja:連合規約]]
[[pl:Artykuły konfederacji i wieczystej unii]]
[[pt:Artigos da Confederação]]
[[ro:Articolele Confederaţiei]]
[[ru:Статьи Конфедерации]]
[[simple:Articles of Confederation]]
[[uk:Статті Конфедерації]]
[[vi:Những Điều khoản Liên hiệp]]

Dominica

2009-04-26T01:56:05Z

Dave Runger: /* Etymology */ "Dominica" is from Italian, not Latin, source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sunday click inter-language links for Italiano and Latina

{{distinguish2|the [[Dominican Republic]]}}
{{pp-move-indef|small=yes}}

{{Infobox Country
|native_name =
|conventional_long_name= Commonwealth of Dominica
|common_name = Dominica
|image_flag = Flag of Dominica.svg
|image_coat =
|image_map = LocationDominica.png
|national_motto = ''"Après Bondie, C'est La Ter"''{{spaces|2}}([[Antillean Creole]]) "After God is the Earth"
|national_anthem = ''[[Isle of Beauty, Isle of Splendour]]''
|official_languages = [[English language|English]]
|demonym = Dominican
|capital = [[Roseau]]
|latd=15 |latm=18 |latNS=N |longd=61 |longm=23 |longEW=W
|largest_city = capital
|government_type = [[Parliamentary republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[President of Dominica|President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Nicholas Liverpool]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Dominica|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name2 = [[Roosevelt Skerrit]]
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = from the [[United Kingdom]]
|established_event1 = Date
|established_date1 = November 3, 1978
|area_rank = 184th
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_km2 = 754
|area_sq_mi = 290 
|percent_water = 1.6
|population_estimate = 72,660
|population_estimate_rank = 195st
|population_estimate_year = July 2009
|population_census = 71,727
|population_census_year = 2003
|population_density_km2 = 105
|population_density_sq_mi = 272 
|population_density_rank = 95th
|GDP_PPP = $720 million<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2009/01/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2006&ey=2009&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=321&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=79&pr.y=2 |title=Dominica|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2009-04-22}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_year = 2008
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $10,045<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal = $364 million<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_year = 2008
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $5,082<ref name=imf2/>
|HDI = {{increase}}0.798
|HDI_rank = 71st
|HDI_year = 2007
|HDI_category = medium
|currency = [[East Caribbean dollar]]
|currency_code = XCD
|country_code =
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = –4
|drives_on = left
|cctld = [[.dm]]
|calling_code = 1 [[Area code 767|767]]
|footnote1 = Rank based on 2005 UN estimate.
}}

The '''Commonwealth of Dominica''', commonly known as '''Dominica''', is an [[island nation]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]]. To the north/northwest lies [[Guadeloupe]], to the southeast [[Martinique]]. Its size is {{convert|754|km2}} and the highest point in the country is [[Morne Diablotins]], which has an elevation of {{convert|1447|m}}. The Commonwealth of Dominica has an estimated population of 72,500. The capital is Roseau.

Dominica's name is locally {{pronEng|ˌdɒmɪˈniːkə}} {{respell|DOM|i|NEE|kə}}, but elsewhere {{IPAlink-en|dəˈmɪnɨkə}} {{respell|də|MIN|i-kə}} is common{{Fact|date=January 2009}}.

Dominica has been [[nickname]]d the "Nature Isle of the Caribbean" for its seemingly unspoiled natural beauty. It is the youngest island in the [[Lesser Antilles]], still being formed by [[Geothermal (geology)|geothermal]]-[[volcano|volcanic]] activity, as evidenced by the world's second-largest [[boiling lake]]. The island features lush [[mountain]]ous [[rainforests]], home of many very rare plant, animal, and bird species. There are [[xeric]] areas in some of the western coastal regions, but heavy rainfall can be expected inland. The [[Imperial Amazon|Sisserou parrot]], the island's national bird, is featured on the [[Flag of Dominica|national flag]]. Dominica's economy is heavily dependent on both tourism and agriculture.

In the next hundred years after Columbus' landing Dominica remained isolated, and even more Caribs settled there after being driven from surrounding islands as [[Europe]]an powers entered the region. [[France]] formally ceded possession of Dominica to the United Kingdom in 1763. The United Kingdom then set up a government and made the island a colony in 1805. The emancipation of African slaves occurred throughout the British Empire in 1834, and, in 1838, Dominica became the first British Caribbean colony to have a legislature controlled by [[Black people|blacks]]. In 1896, the United Kingdom reassumed governmental control of Dominica turning it into a [[crown colony]]. Half a century later, from 1958 to 1962, Dominica became a province of the short-lived [[West Indies Federation]]. In 1978, Dominica became an independent nation.

==History==
{{main|History of Dominica}}

In 1635 [[France]] claimed Dominica. Shortly thereafter, French missionaries became the first European inhabitants of the island. Carib incursions continued, though, and in 1660, the French and British agreed that both Dominica and St. Vincent should be abandoned. Dominica was officially neutral for the next century, but the attraction of its resources remained; rival expeditions of British and French foresters were harvesting timber by the start of the 18th century.<ref name=bn>"Background note: Dominica". [[U.S. Department of State]] (July 2008). {{PD-notice}}</ref>

Largely due to Dominica's position between Martinique and Guadeloupe, France eventually became predominant, and a French settlement was established and grew. As part of the 1763 Treaty of Paris that ended the [[Seven Years' War]], the island became a British possession. In 1778, during the [[American Revolutionary War]], the French mounted a successful invasion with the active cooperation of the population. The 1783 Treaty of Paris, which ended the war, returned the island to Britain. French invasions in 1795 and 1805 ended in failure.<ref name=bn/>

In 1763, the British established a legislative assembly, representing only the [[white people|white]] population. In 1831, reflecting a liberalization of official British racial attitudes, the Brown Privilege Bill conferred political and social rights on free non-whites. Three Black people were elected to the legislative assembly the following year. Following the abolition of slavery, in 1838 Dominica became the only British Caribbean colony to have a Black-controlled legislature in the 19th century. Most Black legislators were smallholders or merchants who held economic and social views diametrically opposed to the interests of the small, wealthy English planter class. Reacting to a perceived threat, the planters lobbied for more direct British rule.<ref name=bn/>

In 1865, after much agitation and tension, the colonial office replaced the elective assembly with one that had one-half of members who were elected and one-half who were appointed. Planters allied with colonial administrators outmanoeuvred the elected legislators on numerous occasions. In 1871, Dominica became part of the Leeward Island Federation. The power of the Black population progressively eroded. Crown Colony government was re-established in 1896. All political rights for the vast majority of the population were effectively curtailed. Development aid, offered as compensation for disenfranchisement, proved to have a negligible effect.<ref name=bn/>

Following World War I, an upsurge of political consciousness throughout the Caribbean led to the formation of the [[List of historical autonomist and secessionist movements#British West Indies|Representative Government Association]]. Marshalling public frustration with the lack of a voice in the governing of Dominica, this group won one-third of the popularly elected seats of the legislative assembly in 1924 and one-half in 1936. Shortly thereafter, Dominica was transferred from the Leeward Island Administration and was governed as part of the Windwards until 1958, when it joined the short-lived West Indies Federation.<ref name=bn/>

After the federation dissolved, Dominica became an associated state of the United Kingdom in 1967 and formally took responsibility for its internal affairs. On November 3, 1978, the Commonwealth of Dominica was granted independence by the United Kingdom.<ref name=bn/>

Independence did little to solve problems stemming from centuries of economic underdevelopment, and in mid-1979, political discontent led to the formation of an interim government. It was replaced after the 1980 elections by a government led by the Dominica Freedom Party under Prime Minister Eugenia Charles, the Caribbean's first female prime minister. Chronic economic problems were compounded by the severe impact of hurricanes in 1979 and in 1980.

In 1981 Dominica was threatened with a takeover over by mercenaries.<ref>[http://www.country-data.com/cgi-bin/query/r-3376.html]</ref>

===Attempted coup===
In 1981, a group of right-wing 'mercenaries' led by Mike Perdue of Houston, and [[Wolfgang Droege]] of Toronto, attempted to overthrow the government of [[Eugenia Charles]]. The North-America mercenary group was to aid ex-prime minister [[Patrick John]] and his Dominica Defense Force in regaining control of the island in exchange for control over the island's future development. The entire plan failed and the ship hired to transport the men of [[Operation Red Dog]] never even made it off the dock as the FBI was tipped-off. The self-titled mercenaries lacked any formal military experience and/or training and the majority of the crew had been misled into joining the armed coup by the con-man ringleader Mike Perdue. White supremacist [[Don Black (white nationalist)|Don Black]] was also jailed for his part in the attempt, which violated US neutrality laws. Despite the amateurishness of the attempt, most students of the affair believe it could well have toppled the weak and ramshackle Charles government.{{Fact|date=February 2009}}

===Since the 1980s===
By the end of the 1980s, the economy recovered, but weakened again in the 1990s due to a decrease in banana prices.<ref name=bn/>

In the January 2000 elections, the Edison James United Workers Party (UWP) was defeated by the Dominican Labour Party (DLP), led by Roosevelt P. "Rosie" Douglas. Douglas died after only a few months in office and was replaced by Pierre Charles, who died in office in January 2004. Roosevelt Skerrit, also of the DLP, replaced Charles as Prime Minister. Under Prime Minister Skerrit's leadership, the DLP won elections in May 2005 that gave the party 12 seats in the 21-member Parliament to the UWP's 8 seats. An independent candidate affiliated with the DLP won a seat as well. Since that time, the independent candidate joined the government and one UWP member crossed the aisle, making the current total 14 seats for the DLP and 7 for the UWP.<ref name=bn/>

==Geography and climate==

[[Image:Map of Dominica.gif|thumb|280px|Map of Dominica]]
{{main|Geography of Dominica}}
Dominica is an [[island nation]] and [[borderless country]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]], the northernmost of the [[Windward Islands]]. The size of the country is about 289.5 square miles (754 km²). The capital is [[Roseau]].

Dominica is largely covered by [[rainforest]] and is home to the world's second-largest [[boiling lake]].{{Fact|date=January 2009}} Dominica has many waterfalls, springs, and rivers. The Calibishie area in the country's northeast has sandy beaches.{{Fact|date=March 2009}} Some plants and animals thought to be extinct on surrounding islands can still be found in Dominica's forests.{{Fact|date=January 2009}} The volcanic nature of the island has attracted [[scuba diving|scuba divers]]. The island has several [[protected areas]], including [[List of national parks of Dominica|Cabrits National Park]]. Dominica has 365 rivers.

It is said that when his royal sponsors asked [[Christopher Columbus]] to describe this island in the "New World", he crumpled a piece of parchment roughly and threw it on the table. This, Columbus explained, is what Dominica looks like—completely covered with mountains with nary a flat spot.

[[Morne Trois Pitons National Park]] is a tropical forest blended with scenic volcanic features.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/814 Morne Trois Pitons National Park by World Heritage Sites]</ref> It was recognized as a [[World Heritage Site]] on April 4, 1995, a distinction it shares with four other Caribbean islands.<ref>[[Pitons|St. Lucia]] (2004), [[Brimstone Hill|Saint Kitts]] (1999), Hispaniola (Dominican Republic [1990]/Haiti [1982]) and Cuba (multiple)</ref>

[[Image:Calibishie Beach (Dominica).jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Calibishie]] beach landscape.]]
The Commonwealth of Dominica is engaged in a long-running dispute with [[Venezuela]] over Venezuela's territorial claims to the sea surrounding [[Isla Aves]] (literally Bird Island, but in fact called Bird Rock by Dominica authorities), a tiny islet located 140 miles (224 km) west of the island of Dominica.{{Fact|date=January 2009}}

There are two primary population centers: Roseau and [[Portsmouth, Dominica|Portsmouth]].

Dominica possesses the most pristine wilderness in the Caribbean.{{Fact|date=January 2009}} Originally, it was protected by sheer mountains which led the European powers to build ports and agricultural settlements on other islands. More recently, the citizens of this island have sought to preserve its spectacular natural beauty by discouraging the type of high-impact tourism which has damaged nature in most of the Caribbean.

[[Image:RoseauWide..jpg|thumb|310px|[[Roseau]], from docked [[Cruise ship]]]]
Visitors can find large tropical forests, including one which is on the UNESCO list of World Heritage sites, hundreds of streams, coastlines and coral reefs.

The [[Imperial Parrot|Sisserou parrot]] is Dominica's national bird and is indigenous to its mountain forests.

The [[Caribbean Sea]] offshore of the island of Dominica is home to many [[cetaceans]]. Most notably a group of [[sperm whale]]s live in this area year round. Other cetaceans commonly seen in the area include [[spinner dolphin]]s, [[pantropical spotted dolphin]]s and [[bottlenose dolphin]]s. Less commonly seen animals include [[killer whales]], [[false killer whale]]s, [[pygmy sperm whale]]s, [[dwarf sperm whale]]s, [[Risso's dolphin]]s, [[common dolphin]]s, [[Atlantic spotted dolphin]]s, [[humpback whales]] and [[Bryde's whale]]s. This makes Dominica a destination for tourists interested in [[whale-watching]].

Dominica is especially vulnerable to hurricanes as the island is located in what is referred to as the [[hurricane]] region. In 1979, Dominica was hit directly by category 5 [[Hurricane David]], causing widespread and extreme damage. On August 17, 2007, [[Hurricane Dean]], a category 1 at the time, hit the island. A mother and her seven-year-old son died when a [[landslide]] caused by the heavy rains fell onto their house.<ref name="Forbes Haiti preps">{{cite news | title = Hurricane Dean Gains Caribbean Strength | author = Jonathan Katz | publisher = [[Associated Press]] | url = http://www.forbes.com/feeds/ap/2007/08/18/ap4033014.html | date = 2007-08-18 | accessdate = 2007-08-18}}</ref> In another incident two people were injured when a tree fell on their house.<ref name="cbc_2007-08-17">{{cite web|date=[[2007-08-17]]|title=Hurricane claims one life in St. Lucia and possibly two in Dominica|publisher=CBC|accessdate=2007-08-17|url=http://www.cbc.bb/content/view/12195/45/}}</ref> [[Prime Minister of Dominica|Prime Minister]] [[Roosevelt Skerrit]] estimated that 100 to 125 homes were damaged, and that the agriculture sector was extensively damaged, in particular the banana crop.<ref name="cbc_2007-08-17_02">{{cite web|date=[[2007-08-17]]|title=Dominica Badly Affected|publisher=CBC|accessdate=2007-08-17|url=http://www.cbc.bb/content/view/12195/45/}}</ref>

===Etymology===
The name Dominica comes from the [[Italian language|Italian]] word for Sunday ("Domenica"), which was the day on which it was spotted by [[Christopher Columbus]]. Its [[pre-Columbian]] name was "Wai'tu kubuli", which means "Tall is her body".<ref>[http://www.dominica.dm/site/dominica.cfm Discover Dominica: an introduction to our Caribbean island at www.dominica.dm]</ref> The indigenous people of the island, the [[Carib]]s, have a territory similar to the [[Indian reserve]]s of [[North America]]. The official language is [[English language|English]] in consequence of its history as a British [[colony]], [[territory]], and [[state]], though a [[Antillean Creole|French creole]] is spoken by many, especially people of older generations. The [[demonym]] or adjective is "Dominican" in English, same as that for the [[Dominican Republic]], but unlike the Dominican Republic, in which the stress is on the first "i", the stress is on the second "i".

==Government and administrative divisions==
{{main|Politics of Dominica}}
Dominica is a [[parliamentary democracy]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. Unlike the majority of countries in the Caribbean, the Commonwealth of Dominica is one of the region's few republics. The president is the [[head of state]], while executive power rests with the [[Cabinet (government)|cabinet]], headed by the [[prime minister]]. The [[unicameral]] [[parliament]] consists of the thirty-member [[House of Assembly of Dominica|House of Assembly]], which consists of twenty-one directly elected members and nine senators, who may either be appointed by the president or elected by the other members of the House of Assembly.

Unlike other former British colonies in the region, Dominica was never a [[Commonwealth realm]], instead becoming a [[republic]] on independence. Dominica is a full and participating member of the [[Caribbean Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]] and the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS). Dominica is also a member of the [[International Criminal Court]] with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the [[United States|U.S.]] military, as covered under [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|Article 98]]. In January 2008 Dominica joined the [[Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas]].
{{clear}}

[[Image:Dominica parishes numbered.png|thumb|right|250px|Parishes of Dominica]]
Dominica is divided into ten [[parishes of Dominica|parish]]es:

#[[Saint Andrew Parish, Dominica|Saint Andrew Parish]]
#[[Saint David Parish, Dominica|Saint David Parish]]
#[[Saint George Parish, Dominica|Saint George Parish]]
#[[Saint John Parish, Dominica|Saint John Parish]]
#[[Saint Joseph Parish, Dominica|Saint Joseph Parish]]
#[[Saint Luke Parish, Dominica|Saint Luke Parish]]
#[[Saint Mark Parish, Dominica|Saint Mark Parish]]
#[[Saint Patrick Parish, Dominica|Saint Patrick Parish]]
#[[Saint Paul Parish, Dominica|Saint Paul Parish]]
#[[Saint Peter Parish, Dominica|Saint Peter Parish]]

==Economy==
{{main|Economy of Dominica}}
In 2008, Dominica had one of the lowest [[per capita]] [[gross domestic product]] (GDP) rates of Eastern Caribbean states.<ref>{{cite web|title=(Dominica 07/08, U.S. State Dept.)|url=http://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/2295.htm}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title="(World Bank 'At A Glance')|url=http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTOECS/Resources/Dominica.AAG.pdf}}</ref> The country nearly had a financial crisis in 2003 and 2004, but Dominica's economy grew by 3.5% in 2005 and 4.0% in 2006, following a decade of poor performance. Growth in 2006 was attributed to gains in tourism, construction, offshore and other services, and some sub-sectors of the banana industry. The [[International Monetary Fund]] (IMF) recently praised the Government of Dominica for its successful macroeconomic reforms. The IMF also pointed out remaining challenges, including the need for further reductions in public debt, increased financial sector regulation, and market diversification.<ref name=bn/>

Bananas and other agriculture dominate Dominica's economy, and nearly one-third of the labor force works in agriculture. This sector, however, is highly vulnerable to weather conditions and to external events affecting commodity prices. In 2007, [[Hurricane Dean]] caused significant damage to the agricultural sector as well as the country's infrastructure, especially roads. In response to reduced [[European Union]] (EU) banana trade preferences, the government has diversified the agricultural sector by promoting the production of coffee, [[patchouli]], [[aloe vera]], cut flowers, and exotic fruits such as mango, guava, and papaya. Dominica has also had some success in increasing its manufactured exports, primarily soap.<ref name=bn/>

Dominica is mostly volcanic and has few beaches; therefore, tourism has developed more slowly than on neighboring islands. Nevertheless, Dominica's mountains, rainforests, freshwater lakes, hot springs, waterfalls, and diving spots make it an attractive eco-tourism destination. Cruise ship stopovers have increased following the development of modern docking and waterfront facilities in Roseau, the capital.<ref name=bn/> Out of 22 Caribbean islands tracked, Dominica had the fewest visitors in 2008 (55,800 or 0.3% of the total). This was about half as many as visited Haiti.<ref>{{cite book | author = DeLollis, Barbara and Hansen, Barbara |title = Bookings started to fall along with stock market | publisher = USA Today | date = January 19, 2009}}</ref>

Dominica's currency is the [[East Caribbean Dollar]].

Dominica is a beneficiary of the U.S. Caribbean Basin Initiative that grants duty-free entry into the United States for many goods. Dominica also belongs to the predominantly English-speaking [[Caribbean Community]] (CARICOM), the [[CARICOM Single Market and Economy]] (CSME), and the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS).<ref name=bn/>

Dominica offers tax-free status to companies locating from abroad. It is not known how many companies benefit from the tax-free status because of the strict confidentiality the government enforces, although it is known many [[Internet]] businesses utilize Dominica for this reason.

==Infrastructure==
{{main|Transport in Dominica}}
===Air===
There are two small airports on the island. The primary airport, [[Melville Hall Airport]] (DOM), is on the northeast coast and is about a 45-minute drive from Portsmouth. The second is [[Canefield Airport]] (DCF), about 15 minutes from Roseau on the southwest coast. Neither airport is suitable for commercial jets due to runway length, lack of runway lights, and lack of instrument landing system, but Melville Hall currently has regular service by American Eagle and LIAT using twin turboprop aircraft like the [[De Havilland Dash 8]]. A runway extension and service upgrade project began at Melville Hall around 2006 and is still in progress as of early 2009.
===Roads===
There is no major [[highway]] on the island. Before the road was built between Portsmouth and Roseau, people had to take boats, which took several hours. Now, it takes about one hour to drive from Portsmouth to Roseau. Minibus services form the major public transport system.

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Dominica}}
There is a significant Mixed minority along with Indo-Caribbean or East Indian groups, a small European origin minority (descendants of French, British, and Irish colonists) and there are small numbers of Lebanese, Syrians and Asians. Dominica is also the only Eastern Caribbean island that still has a population of pre-Columbian native [[Caribs]], who were exterminated or driven from neighbouring islands. There are only about 3,000 Caribs remaining. They live in eight villages on the east coast of Dominica. This special Carib Territory was granted by the British Crown in 1903.<ref>[http://www.avirtualdominica.com/caribs.htm The Carib Indians]</ref> There are also about 1,000 medical students from the United States and Canada who study at the [[Ross University]] School of Medicine in Portsmouth.

The population growth rate of Dominica is very low, due primarily to emigration to other countries. In the early 21st Century, emigrant numbers for the most popular countries are as follows: the [[United Kingdom]] (6739), the [[United States]] (8560), [[France]] (394), and [[Canada]] (605).

It has recently been noted that Dominica has a relatively large number of [[centenarian]]s. As of March 2007, there are 22 centenarians out of the island's almost 70,000 inhabitants—three times the average incidence of centenarianism in developed countries.<ref name=FOOC>Pickford, John ''From Our Own Correspondent'' BBC Radio 4. First broadcast 31 March 2007. Dominica report 17'49" - 22'55"</ref> The reasons for this are the subject of current research being undertaken at Ross University School of Medicine.

About 80% of the population is [[Roman Catholic]], though in recent years a number of [[Protestant]] churches have been established. There is also a small but growing [[Muslim]] community in Dominica as the nation's first [[mosque]] is currently being built.<ref>[http://www.arabwashingtonian.org/english/article.php?articleID=547&issue=19 Tropical Islam]</ref>

English is the official language of Dominica and is universally spoken and understood. However, because of historic French occupation during different times in history, and the island's location between the two French-speaking departments of [[Martinique]] and [[Guadeloupe]], [[Antillean Creole]] Patois, a French-based [[creole dialect]], is spoken by many people on the island, especially from the older generation. Because of the decline in its usage by the younger generation, initiatives have been set up in an effort to increase usage and save this unique part of the nation's history and culture. The dialect of Dominica also includes [[Cocoy]], along with [[Creole (language)|Creole]]—French-based patois. Cocoy, or Kockoy, is a mix of Leeward Island English-Creole and Dominican Creole. It is mainly spoken in the north-eastern villages of Marigot and Wesley.<ref>[http://www.avirtualdominica.com/creole.htm Creole for Beginners]</ref>

At the beginning of the twentieth century the Rose's Company, which produced [[Rose's lime juice]], saw demand for its product outgrow its ability supply the product from Montserrat. Their response to the situation was to buy land on Dominica and encourage Montserrat farm laborers to relocate. As a result there came to be two linguistic communities in Dominica. Over time there has been much intermarrying but there are still traces of difference in origin. <ref>[http://www.lennoxhonychurch.com/article.cfm?id=402 Migration from Montserrat to Dominica]</ref>

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Dominica|Music of Dominica}}
[[Image:Carib Territory.svg|thumb|200px|left|Dominica's East coast territory of the Kaliango (tribe)]]
Dominica is home to a wide range of people. Although it was historically occupied by several native tribes, the Arawaks and Kalinago [[Carib]] tribes remained by the time European settlers reached the island. 'Massacre' is a name of a river dedicated to the murders of the Native villagers by French and British settlers, because the river ran red with blood for days. Each (French and British) claimed the island and imported [[slaves]] from [[Africa]]. The remaining [[Caribs]] now live on a {{convert|3700|acre|km2|0|sing=on}} territory on the east coast of the island. They elect their own chief. This mix of cultures is important to Dominica.

[[Image:Dominicaband.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A Dominican drumming band.]]
Music and dance are important facets of Dominica's culture. The annual independence celebrations show an outburst of traditional song and dance preceded since 1997 by weeks of Creole expressions such as "Creole in the Park" and the "World Creole Music Festival".
Dominica gained prominence on the international music stage when in 1973, Gordon Henderson founded the group [[Exile One]] and an original musical genre which he coined "[[Cadence-lypso]]" which paved the way for modern Creole music.

The 11th annual World [[creole music|Creole Music]] Festival was the first activity held there since its completion on October 27, 2007, part of the island's celebration of independence from Great Britain on November 3. A year-long reunion celebration began in January 2008 marking 30 years of independence.

Dominica is often seen as a society that is migrating from collectivism to that of individualism. The economy is a developing one that previously depended on agriculture. Signs of collectivism are evident in the small towns and villages which are spread across the island.

Dominican cuisine is similar to that of other Caribbean countries. Common main courses comprise of meat (usually chicken, but can be goat, lamb, or beef) covered in sauce. the sauces are either spicy pepper sauces, or concoctions made from local fruit. A huge variety of local fruit, from tamarind to passion fruit, are served on the island, usually in juice or sauce form. Soursop is peeled and eaten raw. Sorrel, a red flower that only blooms around [[Christmas]], is boiled into a bright red drink.

==Education==
The island has its own [[Dominica State College|state college]], formerly named Clifton Dupigny Community College. Some Dominicans get scholarships from the [[Cuba]]n government to attend universities in Cuba. Others go to the [[University of the West Indies]] or to schools in the United Kingdom, the United States, or other countries for higher education. [[Ross University]], a medical school, is located at [[Portsmouth, Dominica|Portsmouth]]. [[The Archbold Tropical Research and Education Center]],<ref>[http://www.springfield-dominica.org Springfield Guesthouse & the Archbold Tropical Research & Education Center, Dominica]</ref> a biological field station owned by [[Clemson University]],<ref>[http://www.clemson.edu Clemson University]</ref> is located at Springfield Estate between Canefield and Pond Cassé. In 2006, another medical school called [[All Saints University of Medicine]] opened in temporary facilities in [[Loubiere]], with a permanent campus being constructed in [[Grand Bay, Dominica|Grand Bay]]. Currently All Saints is located in Roseau, Dominica. There is also a marine biology school in Mahaut, I.T.M.E (Institute for Tropical Marine Ecology), 15 minutes north of Roseau.

==Athletics==
[[Cricket]] is a popular sport on the island, and Dominica competes in [[test cricket]] as part of the [[West Indies cricket team]]. On October 24, 2007, the 8,000-seat [[Windsor Park (Dominica)|Windsor cricket stadium]] was completed with a donation of [[EC$]]33 million ([[US$]]17 million, [[euro|€]]12 million) from the [[government of the People's Republic of China]].

==Media==
Dominica has three major newspapers, ''The Sun'', ''The Times'', and ''The Chronicle''. There are two national television stations and a few radio stations, including Q95 FM,<ref>[http://wiceqfm.com/index.html Q95 FM]</ref> the [[Dominica Broadcasting Corporation]], and Kairi FM.<ref>[http://www.kairifm.com/ Kairi FM]</ref> Before 2004, there was one telecommunication company called [[Cable and Wireless (Caribbean)|Cable and Wireless]]. In 2005, [[Digicel]] and a UK-based company called [[Orange SA|Orange]] started to offer service to the island. There are a number of mobile networks operating on the island.

==Notables==
*[[Jean Rhys]], novelist, was born and raised in Dominica.
*[[Test cricket]]ers [[Grayson Shillingford]], [[Irvine Shillingford]], [[Phillip DeFreitas]] and [[Adam Sanford]] were born in Dominica.

==See also==
{{portal|North America|Flag of Dominica.svg}}
{{InterWiki|English language|code=w}}
*[[Bayou of Pigs]]
*[[Commonwealth of Nations]]
*[[Cricket in the West Indies]]
*[[Effects of Hurricane Dean in the Lesser Antilles]]
*[[List of Dominica-related articles]]
*[[List of Dominica-related topics]]
*[[List of international rankings]]

*[[Wikipedia:WikiProject Outline of knowledge/Drafts/Outline of Dominica|Outline of Dominica]]
*[[Outline of geography]]
*[[Outline of North America]]
*[[United Nations]]
*''[[The Orchid House (novel)|The Orchid House]]'' by [[Phyllis Shand Allfrey]] (ISBN 0-8135-2332-X) set in Dominica.
*''[[Unburnable]]'' - novel by [[Marie-Elena John]], has been compared to Rhys novel<ref>Harris, Ena. "Dominica as Spiritual Landscape: Representations of Nature and Ritual in Jean Rhys' Wide Sargasso Sea and Marie-Elena John's Unburnable". [http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/fhe/specialevents/biennialconference/2007/abstracts.htm Trajectories of Freedom: Caribbean Societies Past and Present]. Abstracts. Biennial Conference 2007, University of the West Indies, Cavehill. (Abstract by Dr Ena Harris of [[Bard College]], NJ, USA). </ref>
*''[[Wide Sargasso Sea]]'' - novel by Jean Rhys

{{clear}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==










{{sisterlinks|Dominica}}
*[http://www.dominica.gov.dm/ Official website] of the Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica
*[https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/world-leaders-1/world-leaders-d/dominica.html Chief of State and Cabinet Members]
* {{CIA World Factbook link|do|Dominica}}
*[http://ucblibraries.colorado.edu/govpubs/for/dominica.htm Dominica] at ''UCB Libraries GovPubs''
*{{dmoz|Regional/Caribbean/Dominica}}
*{{wikiatlas|Dominica}}
*{{wikitravel|Dominica}}
*[http://www.discoverdominica.com Discover Dominica: Nature Island of the Caribbean] - Official government tourism website by the Discover Dominica Authority
{{-}}
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{{Countries and territories of the Caribbean}}
{{Countries of North America}}
}}
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|title = International membership
|list =
{{Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS)|state=collapsed}}
{{Caribbean Community (CARICOM)|state=collapsed}}
{{La Francophonie|state=collapsed}}
{{Commonwealth of Nations}}
}}
{{Anglophone states}}


[[Category:Dominica| ]]
[[Category:Lesser Antilles]]
[[Category:Island countries]]
[[Category:CARICOM members]]
[[Category:Member states of La Francophonie]]

[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:Countries]]
[[Category:Liberal democracies]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]
[[Category:States and territories established in 1978]]



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Talk:The Ohio State University

2009-04-26T01:36:13Z

Dave Runger: fixing typos

'''''Please use [[Talk:Ohio State University]] for all new and continuing discussions'''''
{{talkarchive|Talk:Ohio State University}}
{| class="infobox" width="150"
|- align="center"
| [[Image:Vista-file-manager.png|50px|Archive]]
'''[[Wikipedia:How to archive a talk page|Archives]]'''
----
|- align="center
| [[Talk:Ohio State University/archive 1|Archive 1]] 
|}

==Name Change ==
There's no mention of when OSU actually added the "The", which was only in the last few years, and partially in response to the fight with Ohio University over the web domain name www.ohio.edu

:That's not my understanding. I'm pretty sure the name was originally The Ohio State University, and has been so since the current name was chartered in the 1880's. [[User:Bcirker|Analoguekid]] 21:04, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

::Bcirker is correct. The "The" was part of the official, legal name of the university as of its last formal name change in 1878. It's recent emphasis predates the lawsuit and was a response to Governor Rhodes' attempt to dumb down the university system and emphasize quantity rather than quality--in effect, Rhodes attempted to undo the very reason (establish a flagship research university for Ohio) that Ohio State was founded. Emphasizing the "The" was simply a subtle attempt to punture his populist illusions of no differences among Ohio's public universities. In a more direct incident, showing how Ohio State felt about Jim Rhodes, his transcripts were mysteriously leaked to The Plain Dealer showing that he had, in reality, flunked out of Ohio State his freshman year rather than left in good standing "to support his family" as his "official biography" maintained.

::The last sentence of the first paragraph in the history section makes note of this.--[[User:24.136.28.175|24.136.28.175]] 07:07, 9 December 2006 (UTC)

:::It's important to keep in mind that OSU was founded as a [[land-grant university]] principally under the [[Morrill Act of 1862]]. The intent was to create schools for teaching [[agriculture]], [[military tactics]], and the [[engineering|mechanical arts]] so that members of the working classes might obtain a practical college education.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_grant_university] Research was a later mission and an extension outside the bounds of its original land grant. --[[User:Ssbohio|Ssbohio]] 04:43, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

== Special projects in engineering ==

There is an artcle about the [[Buckeye Bullet]] -- this may also be of interest to add somewhere: [http://engineering.osu.edu/news/archive/2006/darpaQualify.php DARPA vehicle]. [[User:Rkevins82|Rkevins82]] 15:54, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

==Communistic==

Right now, the word [[communistic]] (in the first sentence) redirects to [[homosexuality]]. I'll change the redirect to [[communism]] like it is supposed to. But is that the intention of the word? If the adjective form of 'community' is meant than I'd suggest 'communital'. [[User:John Reaves|John Reaves]] 05:50, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

:If you check older history of the page, the word is supposed to be [[coeducation|coeducational]] but it was vandalized. I corrected it. [[User:Kruckenberg.1|~Kruck]] 15:07, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

== Moved page ==

Moved page from "Ohio State University" to "The Ohio State University". Now a question and answer session:

Q. '''Doesn't having "The" in the title violate [[Wikipedia:Naming conventions (definite and indefinite articles at beginning of name)#Universities|Naming conventions]]?'''

A. At first glance, it may appear that this is the case; however, it is not that simple. First of all, please note that this page is a '''guideline''', NOT and official policy of wikipedia. Thus we don't necessarily have to follow it, but for the sake of preventing anarchy, I can explain the move within the pretenses of this guideline anyway.

The guideline goes on to say that the most common name should be used. If you follow the Buckeyes or other activities at the institution in the media, you will here the university referred to as "Ohio State". Of course this would not be a correct title for the page, as it is ambiguous at best. It also says a definite article may be used if it is "used in running text throughout university materials and if that usage has caught on elsewhere".

The first point is easy to prove, simply look at [http://www.osu.edu/news/newsrel_index.php News and Information]. I encourage all to look through and find a single example of a lack of "The" ''when referring to the university as a whole''. Note that if some department is mentioned, they will say "Ohio State University's Geology Department." However, this page is not about the geology department, it is about the university as a whole, thus "The" should appear.

As for the second point, common usage refers to the university as "Ohio State", and as mentioned, this would not be a proper page title at all.

Q. '''Isn't this "The" nonsense all made up by some pundit of the university?'''

A. Although it may seem as such, Ohio law R.C. 3335.01 says "The educational institution originally designated as the Ohio agricultural and mechanical college shall be known as "The Ohio State University."

Q. '''Doesn't having the page titled with "The" penalize people for not typing it in?'''

A. No, as wikipedia has many redirects, including "OSU" (disambiguation), "Ohio State", and after the move, "Ohio State University".

Q. '''Isn't having "The" in the title rather pretentious?'''

A. You may think so; however, opinions should not dictate this encyclopedia. Thus although you make think graduates from this university are stuck up snobs because they always say they went to "'''The''' Ohio State University", that doesn't change the fact that the name is what it is.

Q. '''Didn't we discuss this before?'''

A. Yes, and in fact, 6 people were in favor of "The Ohio State University" and 4 people were opposed. As it happens, those opposed were especially vocal with their opinions.
--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 19:22, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

:Move was requested, as it is not possible to move it on it's own.--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 19:30, 26 December 2006 (UTC)
::I afraid that 6 to 4 is not a consensus to move. Perhaps opening a new debate with your ideas above is in order. —[[User:Mets501|Mets501]] ([[User talk:Mets501|talk]]) 20:37, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

:::Debate away!--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 20:59, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

::::<del>Every Buckeye knows that "THE Ohio State University" is the official title of the university, but this article is correct in referring to the university by its proper name within the article while having the title “Ohio State University.” The simple reason for the title to withhold the “THE” is that people would look for Ohio State under “O,” especially non-buckeyes who forget the technicality. For example, the [[:Category:Big_Ten_Conference]] page would list Ohio State under “T” if the title were “The Ohio State University.” It is correct to list Ohio State under “O.”</del>

::::<del>The proper name of the university needs to be emphasized, but that is already done every time it is referenced in the article. I disagree with changing the name of the article. [[User:Kruckenberg.1|~Kruck]] 14:34, 29 December 2006 (UTC)
</del>

::::My previous argument wasn't a good one considering that category names can be corrected as in ''<nowiki>[[Category:Association of American Universities|Ohio State University, The]]</nowiki>''. The name of the university is "'''The''' Ohio State University," so that should be the title of the article. See http://www.osu.edu and the university's logo - the proper name is "The Ohio State University." [[User:Kruckenberg.1|~Kruck]] 14:55, 29 December 2006 (UTC)

::::I support the move to [[The Ohio State University]]. That is the official name, and whenever the school is refered to by its full name (rather than "Ohio State" which is almost always used), the "The" is included. --- [[User:RockMFR|RockMFR]] 02:54, 30 December 2006 (UTC)

:::::As someone who supported the move when the last serious attempt was made, I wanted to voice my opposition. There is no reason to move the page and the thousands of internal links in this article. The article makes it perfectly clear what the legal name of the university is. Inclusion of the "the" by university officials appears to be a concious branding decision, but it is not one that must be repeated here. Furthermore, it is out of place, when other universities, such as [[Ohio University|"The Ohio University"]] ([http://onlinedocs.andersonpublishing.com/oh/lpExt.dll?f=templates&eMail=Y&fn=main-h.htm&cp=PORC/146bf/16548/1654a link for official name]) or [[University of Arizona|"The University of Arizona"]] ([http://www.arizona.edu/uaweb/title-guide.php link for official name]). [[User:Rkevins82|Rkevins82]] 16:29, 3 January 2007 (UTC)
:::::Again, I will repeat: Inclusion of the "The" is not a "branding decision". It is the official name of the university per the above cited Ohio law. Naming conventions state the university should be named per what it calls itself in running text. OU may officially have a definite article in its name. However, it is never mentioned [http://www.ohio.edu/outlook/ here]. On that page, there is no mention of "The Ohio University", however on the above Ohio State news page, the definite article is '''always''' included. As for the links to the article, it is of little significance as the links redirect to the correct title.--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 16:56, 3 January 2007 (UTC)
::::::The bottom line is: the name of the university starts with "The," and, broadly speaking, so should the name of the article. Of course, it is incumbent on the editor making the move to clean up the collateral damage, such as links that have been turned into redirects (or worse). By my estimation, there are something like 1900 internal links still pointing to [[Ohio State University]]. --[[User:Ssbohio|Ssbohio]] 05:00, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

::::::I cleaned up all the double redirects, so there are no link stops. As far as single redirects, wikipedia has that happen all the time, and it's pretty transparent. Longer term it might be nice to have everything pointing to one page, but prior to the move, there were still approximately 300 links pointing to the "The" page.--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 13:22, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

== featured article nomination==
Hi, I just sent a request for feedback from [[Wikipedia:Peer review]] on the ''[[Ohio State University]]'' article. It is the first step to become a featured article on Wikipedia. Let's work together and respond to peer reviews [[Wikipedia:Peer_review/Ohio_State_University]]--[[User:140.254.115.133|140.254.115.133]] 10:38, 29 December 2006 (UTC)

==Naming Convention==
*OK, Let's stop the frickin' madness. I've probably written the lion's share of the current Ohio State article, and when my browser shortcut directs me to a dead page...enough is enough. The whole "The" thing is getting out of hand. I understand why it was first emphasized a quarter century ago--and with good reason (in response to Jim Rhodes' attempt to dumb down the university and pretend that there was no qualitative difference between The Ohio State University and the other 12 public universities). Today, however, those reasons have long since been negated. Now, it has become simply a "chest thumpin" statement for NFL players--most of whom NEVER GRADUATED from THE university that they're bragging about! Stop this ridiculous B.S. and follow the wikipedia naming convention for every other Xxxxx State University.--[[User:Sam Harmon|Sam Harmon]] 05:50, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

:Sorry you got directed to a dead page, I will fix it shortly. I'm sorry you don't like the title as it is now, but it is the proper title. Most former OSU NFL players I've heard say they went to Ohio State. Whether or not they graduated is irrelevant to this discussion. I attended this fine institution, graduated, and I fully support it being titled properly. As illustrated on the talk page, the naming conventions say in this instance that the definite article '''should''' be used, as it is used throughout the running text in university materials, and has caught on elsewhere. I.e., nobody says they went to Ohio State University, they either say they went to "Ohio State" or "''The'' Ohio State University", tongue in cheek though it may sound. --[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 13:31, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

::Now you are moving the goalposts. If Ohio University's official name is not important, then how is Ohio State's? They are both in the Ohio Revised Code. [[User:Rkevins82|Rkevins82]] 17:57, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

::To clairfy, the reason OU's official name is not important is because it is not used in "running text throughout university materials" (per naming conventions). In the above discussion heading, I put a link to the OU news page to show that they never refer to themselves as The Ohio University, but rather Ohio University, whereas OSU always uses the definite article on their news page (as well as other official university materials).--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 18:14, 3 January 2007 (UTC)
:::So the Revised Code argument is moot? You are leaving out the second part of the naming convention guideline (which is only a proposal): ''...if that usage has caught on elsewhere.'' I doubt that you can make that argument. The [http://www.dispatch.com/ local paper] doesn't call use the definite article, nor do (my eclectic mix) [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/directory/brief/drglance_6883_brief.php U.S. News & World Reports in its college guide], [http://www.thelantern.com/ The Lantern (school newspaper)], [http://web1.ncaa.org/ssLists/orgInfo.do?orgID=518 NCAA], [http://www.nndb.com/edu/552/000068348/ NNDB], [http://www.princetonreview.com/college/research/profiles/generalinfo.asp?listing=1023960&LTID=1 Princeton Review], [http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-9331868 Encyclopedia Britannica], and [http://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/LooseNukes/story?id=988679 ABC News]. Those who do include [http://www.petersons.com/ugchannel/code/InstVC.asp?inunid=7934&sponsor=1 Peterson's] and a variety of university-related entities.
:::Looking at google, there are a little over 1 million hits for "the ohio state university" -site:osu.edu -site:ohio-state.edu, though this undoubtedly included many mentions that are not supportive of the use, as the "the" would be capitalized. The more restrictive search "the ohio state university" -site:osu.edu -site:ohio-state.edu yields well over 3 million hits. [[User:Rkevins82|Rkevins82]] 05:34, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

::::I can indeed make the argument that it has caught on elsewhere. My Moms Brothers Best-Friends Dogs Owners Dads Cousins Aunt '''always''' says The Ohio State University, and she's always right. (haha, just kidding) Some of those sources do indeed omit the definite article. However, mentioning the Lantern and the Dispatch doesn't work as a citation if you can't give a specific example from an article. That's not to say they're unreliable sources, just that we can't assume. Google can be confusing in this case, as when you type in "The Ohio State University", it omits the "The". A quick glance through the bookcase next to my desk reveals some more substantial evidence in the form of hard citations from reputable books and publishers. Here is what I found:
::::{{cite book
| last =Trachtenberg
| first =Marvin
| coauthors =Isabelle Hyman
| title =Architecture - From Prehistory to Postmodernity (2nd Edition)
| publisher =Prentice-Hall, Inc., and Harry N. Abrams, Inc.
| date =2002
| pages =p. 563
| id = ISBN 0-8109-0607-4 }} This book says "''At the Wexner Center for the Arts, built at The Ohio State University in 1982-89, Eisenman's...''"
::::{{cite book
| last =Lentz
| first =Ed
| title =As It Were - Stories of Old Columbus
| publisher =Red Mountain Press
| date =1998
| pages =p. 85
| id = ISBN 0-966-7950-0-8 }} As some of you know, Ed Lentz is a well regarded Columbus historian. He has written at least two books on Columbus (can't remember if there are more). He frequently appears on [http://www.wosu.org/radio/radio-open-line/ Open Line with Fred Andrle] and writes a history column for [http://www.thisweeknews.com/ This Week]. In chapter 21, Lentz says "''...I made the unpardonable error of remarking that this was my first visit to Ohio State University. I was rather peremptorily told that the proper name of the school was and always has been '''The''' Ohio State University.''"
::::{{cite book
| last =Lyttle
| first =Jeff
| title =Gorillas in Our Midst
| publisher =Ohio State University Press
| date =1997
| location =Columbus, Ohio
| pages =Back Cover
| id = ISBN 0-8142-0766-9 }} This book has nothing to do with the subject at hand, but since it is published by the university press, I thought it a good source. In the biography of the author, it says "''Jeff Lyttle is a graduate of The Ohio State University and has worked as a professional writer...''". Now before someone points out the name of the publisher, remember that we're discussing the name of the university as a whole, not of it's subdivisions which I strongly feel should ''not'' use the definite article in their titles (they don't anyway).
::::{{cite book
| last =Mitsch
| first =William J.
| coauthors =James G. Gosselink
| title =Wetlands Third Edition
| publisher =John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
| date =2000
| pages =p. iii
| id = ISBN 0-471-29232-X }} Here is some pretty damming evidence. The cited page is the internal title page, with the title, authors, and publisher. Here, it says "''William J. Mitsch, Professor, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio''". Right below it says "''James G. Gosselink, Professor Emeritus, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.''". Note that when referring specifically to Ohio State, the definite article is used, when referring to LSU, it is not. Another example you say?
::::{{cite book
| last =Brown
| first =Theodore L.
| coauthors =H. Eugene LeMay, Jr., Bruce E. Bursten
| title =Chemistry - The Central Science Eighth Edition
| publisher =Prentice Hall
| date =2000
| pages =p. i
| id = ISBN 0-13-010310-1 }} Yes, yes, I know its that book from that class you probably don't want to remember. But again, we find the definite article in use. The internal title page is akin to the Wetlands book above. It says "''Theodore L. Brown, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr., University of Nevada, Reno; and Bruce E. Bursten, The Ohio State University; With contributions from Julia R. Burdge, University of Akron''". Yet again we find the institutions rightful title being utilized. One more...
::::{{cite book
| last =Falkenberg
| first =Barth
| title =The Ohio State University
| publisher =Harmony House
| date =1987
| pages =pp. 8, 13, 15, 17, 81, 87
| id = ISBN 0-916509-08-7 }} Well the title pretty much says it all. In addition, the other pages cited also make use of The Ohio State University. Now a quote from page 81 from a person in the news recently: "''It is a very great honor for me to be at The Ohio State University, sometimes known as the Land of the Free and the Home of Woody Hayes. I met Woody at the airport. We just had our picture taken together and when the picture appears in today's'' Dispatch, ''I'm pretty sure what the caption will say: Woody Hayes and friend. - President Gerald Ford, Commencement Address, 1974.''"
::::That about does it for my long drawn out citations. In writing this, I got to thinking as to a possible underlying cause of people's uneasiness about the title. Wikipedia has a strong and well regarded [[Wikipedia:Neutral Point of View|Neutral]] policy. Perhaps it seems that by including "the" in the title, it somehow becomes POV. I thought about this for a while, but then I came across something: [[The Greatest Show on Earth]]. Now there is a POV title if I ever heard one. And yet it remains. What else could you call it? "That one movie by those guys about a show"?--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 02:13, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

I agree with User:Sam Harmon and others that the title should be "Ohio State University" and this debate seems ridiculous. There's a very clear and explicit policy regarding this exact issue. Every school with a similar name uses this convention. There's simply no reason to have moved this page, and the move should be reverted. --[[User:MZMcBride|MZMcBride]] 05:47, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

:You're right, there is a clear and explicit policy, and I spelled out in the discussion why it should be titled as "The Ohio State University". It does not say never use it, it says use it if and only if you meet the two criteria. With all the hard citations now, is that really in doubt? Who is to say other schools are presently titled improperly because of a blanket policy that was applied to everything and it shouldn't have been? Whether or not the others are titled properly is beyond the scope of this discussion. But the policy does provide for an exception in this case.--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 13:16, 5 January 2007 (UTC)
::Intentionally or not, you have side-stepped the Google problem. I specified "the ohio state university" and "ohio state university," so the definite article is signigificantly more likely ''not'' to be included. The guideline says that the definite article should be included in the title only when the usage has caught on elsewhere. In this case, some places use it, while most don't. Also, there is a difference in our examples. Mine are from broadly used sources (and don't give me that argument about not specifically citing them—that is absurd), while yours are more niche. I hope some more people will join this argument. [[User:Rkevins82|Rkevins82]] 19:11, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

::::[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] has made some great points here, and I support the use of "The" in the university's title. The fact is that its official name is "The Ohio State University." It can be seen in a Google search for "the THE in The Ohio State University," that many people disagree with the use of the definite article, but that's another matter worth discussing within the article. [[User:Kruckenberg.1|~Kruck]] 19:20, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

In this case, Google cannot be used to establish relevance due to the technical limitations of the system. As previously mentioned, when discussing a specific entity of the university, one should say "Ohio State University's Geology Department" (for example). Now when you search for just "Ohio State University", remember you are capturing all of these usages where it didn't stand alone but rather was part of a sentence describing some subdivision. I.e. it was referring to the department, not the official title of the university as a whole. Therefore, the results you get will be highly skewed, as there are probably many more mentions of specific things within the university than to the university as a whole. Broadly used sources do not necessarily make them [[Wikipedia:Reliable Sources|Reliable Sources]]. Certainly I wouldn't argue with Britannica as a good source, but the others don't hold as much weight as printed material from a widely distributed book. I fail to see how it is absurd to cite a specific article. Both papers have been around for over a hundred years, and have written thousands of articles. Thus, how am I supposed to know for sure how they use the article? For example, even this [http://www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2006/11/17/FirstDown/Boooo.Columbus-2467512.shtml?norewrite200701051447&sourcedomain=www.thelantern.com Scathing Op/Ed] piece from that city up north uses it. Other Opinion pieces such as [http://www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2006/10/02/Opinion/Construction.Necessary-2319723.shtml?norewrite200701051460&sourcedomain=www.thelantern.com this] also use it. [http://www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2006/06/20/Campus/Graduates.Set.Record.As.Largest.Class-2116816.shtml?norewrite200701051502&sourcedomain=www.thelantern.com Here] is an example of why Google picks up so many more hits without the "The". It says "Ohio State University's President". Searching further, I found [http://www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2005/11/29/Campus/Osu-Falls.To.Third.In.Student.Enrollment-1115045.shtml?norewrite200701051505&sourcedomain=www.thelantern.com another example], and [http://www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2005/10/12/Campus/Usg-Puts.Pressure.On.Hicks-1018043.shtml?norewrite200701051506&sourcedomain=www.thelantern.com another], and yet [http://www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2004/06/03/Arts/University.Shuts.Cinematic.Doors-684340.shtml?norewrite200701051510&sourcedomain=www.thelantern.com another]. I too welcome any and all to contribute to the discussion. --[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 20:18, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

it seems allot of emotion is wrapped up in this topic. I don't think thats productive. This decision is not that difficult. If we were uncertain of the correct spelling of a university, we would contact that university. same concept here. Give OSU's marketing department a ring and ask them: 614-292-4272 or check their website: [[http://www.osu.edu/identity/overview.php]] this particular page makes a total of 8 references to "THE Ohio State University" and zero to "Ohio State University". Would anyone here argue that the band [[The The]] should get moved to [[The (band)]] ? I doubt it. For that matter, under this argument, shouldn't [[The Band]] just be listed as [[Band (band)]]? Obviously, I support keeping the article at "The Ohio State University" as labeling it anything else is simply incorrect. [[User:Stuph|Stuph]] 04:05, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

Count me for [[Ohio State University]]. [[The Band]] is always called as such. [[The Ohio State University]] is rarely called as such by anyone who does not work for the university. Wikipedia has a policy of using common names, not using official names, and with respect to articles, we only use them in things like titles of literary works. [[Ohio State University]] is universally recognizable, non-ambiguous, and the way people who aren't pretentious Ohio State homers refer to the place. Note also [[George Washington University]], where many of the same arguments were hashed out, and we ended up with, well [[George Washington University]]. [[User:John Kenney|john k]] 07:27, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

Also note that we have a naming convention about this at [[Wikipedia:Naming conventions (definite and indefinite articles at beginning of name)#Universities]], which says not to use direct articles. [[User:John Kenney|john k]] 07:30, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

a direct quote from the naming conventions page:
::If such usage is prevalent on university press releases and press kits, contact information, "about" pages, and internal department websites, and it is reasonably common in external sources, then it is more appropriate to name the Wikipedia article [[The University of X]].
Thus, until someone brings forth evidence of [[Ohio State University]] being used MORE than [[The Ohio State University]], the conventions page supports the move to [[The Ohio State University]].

A list of uses by credited sources other than the university itself:
* http://www.petersons.com/ugchannel/code/InstVC.asp?inunid=7934&sponsor=1
* http://www.wexarts.org/
* http://www.thelantern.com/
* http://www.princetonreview.com/mba/research/profiles/schoolsays.asp?category=1&listing=1011056&LTID=2&intbucketid=

[[User:Stuph|Stuph]] 16:02, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

The text you are quoting is a proposed substitution, not the actual current policy. As to credited sources that use "Ohio State University" rather than "the Ohio State University", [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Ohio+State+University%22+-%22The+Ohio+State+University%22&btnG=Google+Search Google] gives 4.3 million of them, as compared to only [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=%22The+Ohio+State+University%22&btnG=Search 1 million or so] for "The Ohio State University". Also check out the [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=%22Ohio+State+University%22+-%22The+Ohio+State+University%22+site%3Aosu.edu&btnG=Search 28,700] hits that don't include the direct article on OSU's own website. The comparable figures for "The Ohio state University" on OSU's site is 165,000, but note that this includes many instances where you'd always right that - "The Ohio state University School of Law" and such. At any rate, the general rule is not to use articles. [[User:John Kenney|john k]] 23:10, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

:The Googling misconception has already been addressed by [[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]]. Referring to "Ohio State University's Geology Department," for example, is a Google hit for "Ohio State University." It does not refer to the entire university, which is the topic of this article. I am an Ohio State University engineering student. I attend THE Ohio State University. Your Googling strategy would say I call OSU "Ohio State University" as often as "THE Ohio State University." This is not correct. [[User:Kruckenberg.1|~Kruck]] 05:45, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

::There is no googling misconception, because it works both ways - one also has "The Ohio State University School of Law," and so forth. There is no particular reason to think this issue affects the one side more than the other. [[User:John Kenney|john k]] 06:45, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

:::To clarify my google note, I agree with what john k said; it shouldn't be used at all in this debate as there are too many variables in writing style to know what the hits are referring to one way or the other. I see in an above post that it was said that people who refer to the university using the definite article are pretentious. This is a borderline personal attack on those who favor using "The". Remember, the issue is not people from the university, it is naming conventions. Let's keep the discussion centered on that issue and not what we might think of those who've attended.
:::Two more points I'd like to emphasize again: 1. Naming conventions are a '''''Guideline''''', NOT a rule. There are only [[Wikipedia:Five pillars|5 firm rules]]. 2. The naming conventions do NOT say the definite article should never be used. They spell out pretty specifically when it should be allowed. Using [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|Reliable Sources]], I have spelled out why it should be "The Ohio State University". Is there any argument over the fact that common usage refers to the university as "Ohio State"? Obviously we can't call it by this name, thus we go with the official and next most common name as shown by my numerous citations. --[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 07:52, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

There are two versions of the naming convention. One of them would suggest (but not necessarily mandate) [[The Ohio State University]]. The other pretty clearly says [[Ohio State University]]. It is the latter that is currently in plain text, and appears so far as I can tell, to be th guideline. The former is a "proposed new version", which has seemingly not been adopted. Let me repeat the text of what appears to be the current guideline:
:''The definite article should not be used for universities, even if the official name of the university uses the definite article, as indicated on the website links below.''
Note also the large number of other articles on universities that call themselves "The University of X", but where the article is ''not'' located there. We need to resolve this issue at the level of the naming conventions, I think. [[User:John Kenney|john k]] 17:04, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

::I agree, it seems that the naming conventions are flawed as they currently stand. Looking at that talk page, it appears that there was no consensus arrived when originally formulating them. It may have been assumed that common usage never uses the definite article, which is not the case here. The proposed conventions would allow the definite article based on the evidence presented here. There is probably no point in continuing this discussion until the naming conventions are agreed upon, as one can honestly argue that "Ohio State University" meets the naming conventions, even though it is incorrect. --[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 20:45, 7 January 2007 (UTC)
:::"Ohio State University" is not incorrect, it is merely less formal than "The Ohio State University". It is incorrect to state that "Ohio State University" is the formal name of the school. But it is not incorrect to call the school "Ohio State University," any more than it is incorrect to call it "Ohio State." We should not confuse "informal name" with "incorrect name." [[User:John Kenney|john k]] 16:10, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

::::The Google test that I used is appropriate and I can explain it further if necessary. I would keep Ohio State University in line with the other universities that eschew the definite article and the majority of common users (Google test). I am glad that some more people are joining the discussion and hope more will in the future. In the meantime, we should continue on the [[Talk:Ohio State University|the Talk page for Ohio State University]]. [[User:Rkevins82|Rkevins82]] 20:27, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

I would like to support having the article located at "The Ohio State University." Clearly, the official name of the shcool is The Ohio State University; it seems that everyone is in agreement on that. The next questions seem to be (1) what do Wikipedia naming conventions suggest would be appropriate? and (2) which phrase is most commonly used to refer to the school, "Ohio State University" or "THE Ohio State University"? It is my opinion that (1) Wikipedia naming conventions would definitely allow for the use of "The" in the article title since it is part of the university's official title and that (2) which usage is more common is irrelevant to this debate. Although Wikipedia makes important and valuable concessions to "common usage" arguments, these concessions are only valuable when there is no definitively right or wrong answer. In this case, however, it is clear that to refer to the university as simply "Ohio State University" is unquestionably incorrect, and so whether this is the common usage or not is irrelevant. The article should be moved to "The Ohio State University" for the sake of accuracy and correctness. [[User:Dave Runger|Dave Runger]] ([[User talk:Dave Runger|talk]]) 01:34, 26 April 2009 (UTC)

Talk:The Ohio State University

2009-04-26T01:34:30Z

Dave Runger: support move to THE Ohio State University

'''''Please use [[Talk:Ohio State University]] for all new and continuing discussions'''''
{{talkarchive|Talk:Ohio State University}}
{| class="infobox" width="150"
|- align="center"
| [[Image:Vista-file-manager.png|50px|Archive]]
'''[[Wikipedia:How to archive a talk page|Archives]]'''
----
|- align="center
| [[Talk:Ohio State University/archive 1|Archive 1]] 
|}

==Name Change ==
There's no mention of when OSU actually added the "The", which was only in the last few years, and partially in response to the fight with Ohio University over the web domain name www.ohio.edu

:That's not my understanding. I'm pretty sure the name was originally The Ohio State University, and has been so since the current name was chartered in the 1880's. [[User:Bcirker|Analoguekid]] 21:04, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

::Bcirker is correct. The "The" was part of the official, legal name of the university as of its last formal name change in 1878. It's recent emphasis predates the lawsuit and was a response to Governor Rhodes' attempt to dumb down the university system and emphasize quantity rather than quality--in effect, Rhodes attempted to undo the very reason (establish a flagship research university for Ohio) that Ohio State was founded. Emphasizing the "The" was simply a subtle attempt to punture his populist illusions of no differences among Ohio's public universities. In a more direct incident, showing how Ohio State felt about Jim Rhodes, his transcripts were mysteriously leaked to The Plain Dealer showing that he had, in reality, flunked out of Ohio State his freshman year rather than left in good standing "to support his family" as his "official biography" maintained.

::The last sentence of the first paragraph in the history section makes note of this.--[[User:24.136.28.175|24.136.28.175]] 07:07, 9 December 2006 (UTC)

:::It's important to keep in mind that OSU was founded as a [[land-grant university]] principally under the [[Morrill Act of 1862]]. The intent was to create schools for teaching [[agriculture]], [[military tactics]], and the [[engineering|mechanical arts]] so that members of the working classes might obtain a practical college education.[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_grant_university] Research was a later mission and an extension outside the bounds of its original land grant. --[[User:Ssbohio|Ssbohio]] 04:43, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

== Special projects in engineering ==

There is an artcle about the [[Buckeye Bullet]] -- this may also be of interest to add somewhere: [http://engineering.osu.edu/news/archive/2006/darpaQualify.php DARPA vehicle]. [[User:Rkevins82|Rkevins82]] 15:54, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

==Communistic==

Right now, the word [[communistic]] (in the first sentence) redirects to [[homosexuality]]. I'll change the redirect to [[communism]] like it is supposed to. But is that the intention of the word? If the adjective form of 'community' is meant than I'd suggest 'communital'. [[User:John Reaves|John Reaves]] 05:50, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

:If you check older history of the page, the word is supposed to be [[coeducation|coeducational]] but it was vandalized. I corrected it. [[User:Kruckenberg.1|~Kruck]] 15:07, 1 December 2006 (UTC)

== Moved page ==

Moved page from "Ohio State University" to "The Ohio State University". Now a question and answer session:

Q. '''Doesn't having "The" in the title violate [[Wikipedia:Naming conventions (definite and indefinite articles at beginning of name)#Universities|Naming conventions]]?'''

A. At first glance, it may appear that this is the case; however, it is not that simple. First of all, please note that this page is a '''guideline''', NOT and official policy of wikipedia. Thus we don't necessarily have to follow it, but for the sake of preventing anarchy, I can explain the move within the pretenses of this guideline anyway.

The guideline goes on to say that the most common name should be used. If you follow the Buckeyes or other activities at the institution in the media, you will here the university referred to as "Ohio State". Of course this would not be a correct title for the page, as it is ambiguous at best. It also says a definite article may be used if it is "used in running text throughout university materials and if that usage has caught on elsewhere".

The first point is easy to prove, simply look at [http://www.osu.edu/news/newsrel_index.php News and Information]. I encourage all to look through and find a single example of a lack of "The" ''when referring to the university as a whole''. Note that if some department is mentioned, they will say "Ohio State University's Geology Department." However, this page is not about the geology department, it is about the university as a whole, thus "The" should appear.

As for the second point, common usage refers to the university as "Ohio State", and as mentioned, this would not be a proper page title at all.

Q. '''Isn't this "The" nonsense all made up by some pundit of the university?'''

A. Although it may seem as such, Ohio law R.C. 3335.01 says "The educational institution originally designated as the Ohio agricultural and mechanical college shall be known as "The Ohio State University."

Q. '''Doesn't having the page titled with "The" penalize people for not typing it in?'''

A. No, as wikipedia has many redirects, including "OSU" (disambiguation), "Ohio State", and after the move, "Ohio State University".

Q. '''Isn't having "The" in the title rather pretentious?'''

A. You may think so; however, opinions should not dictate this encyclopedia. Thus although you make think graduates from this university are stuck up snobs because they always say they went to "'''The''' Ohio State University", that doesn't change the fact that the name is what it is.

Q. '''Didn't we discuss this before?'''

A. Yes, and in fact, 6 people were in favor of "The Ohio State University" and 4 people were opposed. As it happens, those opposed were especially vocal with their opinions.
--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 19:22, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

:Move was requested, as it is not possible to move it on it's own.--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 19:30, 26 December 2006 (UTC)
::I afraid that 6 to 4 is not a consensus to move. Perhaps opening a new debate with your ideas above is in order. —[[User:Mets501|Mets501]] ([[User talk:Mets501|talk]]) 20:37, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

:::Debate away!--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 20:59, 26 December 2006 (UTC)

::::<del>Every Buckeye knows that "THE Ohio State University" is the official title of the university, but this article is correct in referring to the university by its proper name within the article while having the title “Ohio State University.” The simple reason for the title to withhold the “THE” is that people would look for Ohio State under “O,” especially non-buckeyes who forget the technicality. For example, the [[:Category:Big_Ten_Conference]] page would list Ohio State under “T” if the title were “The Ohio State University.” It is correct to list Ohio State under “O.”</del>

::::<del>The proper name of the university needs to be emphasized, but that is already done every time it is referenced in the article. I disagree with changing the name of the article. [[User:Kruckenberg.1|~Kruck]] 14:34, 29 December 2006 (UTC)
</del>

::::My previous argument wasn't a good one considering that category names can be corrected as in ''<nowiki>[[Category:Association of American Universities|Ohio State University, The]]</nowiki>''. The name of the university is "'''The''' Ohio State University," so that should be the title of the article. See http://www.osu.edu and the university's logo - the proper name is "The Ohio State University." [[User:Kruckenberg.1|~Kruck]] 14:55, 29 December 2006 (UTC)

::::I support the move to [[The Ohio State University]]. That is the official name, and whenever the school is refered to by its full name (rather than "Ohio State" which is almost always used), the "The" is included. --- [[User:RockMFR|RockMFR]] 02:54, 30 December 2006 (UTC)

:::::As someone who supported the move when the last serious attempt was made, I wanted to voice my opposition. There is no reason to move the page and the thousands of internal links in this article. The article makes it perfectly clear what the legal name of the university is. Inclusion of the "the" by university officials appears to be a concious branding decision, but it is not one that must be repeated here. Furthermore, it is out of place, when other universities, such as [[Ohio University|"The Ohio University"]] ([http://onlinedocs.andersonpublishing.com/oh/lpExt.dll?f=templates&eMail=Y&fn=main-h.htm&cp=PORC/146bf/16548/1654a link for official name]) or [[University of Arizona|"The University of Arizona"]] ([http://www.arizona.edu/uaweb/title-guide.php link for official name]). [[User:Rkevins82|Rkevins82]] 16:29, 3 January 2007 (UTC)
:::::Again, I will repeat: Inclusion of the "The" is not a "branding decision". It is the official name of the university per the above cited Ohio law. Naming conventions state the university should be named per what it calls itself in running text. OU may officially have a definite article in its name. However, it is never mentioned [http://www.ohio.edu/outlook/ here]. On that page, there is no mention of "The Ohio University", however on the above Ohio State news page, the definite article is '''always''' included. As for the links to the article, it is of little significance as the links redirect to the correct title.--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 16:56, 3 January 2007 (UTC)
::::::The bottom line is: the name of the university starts with "The," and, broadly speaking, so should the name of the article. Of course, it is incumbent on the editor making the move to clean up the collateral damage, such as links that have been turned into redirects (or worse). By my estimation, there are something like 1900 internal links still pointing to [[Ohio State University]]. --[[User:Ssbohio|Ssbohio]] 05:00, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

::::::I cleaned up all the double redirects, so there are no link stops. As far as single redirects, wikipedia has that happen all the time, and it's pretty transparent. Longer term it might be nice to have everything pointing to one page, but prior to the move, there were still approximately 300 links pointing to the "The" page.--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 13:22, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

== featured article nomination==
Hi, I just sent a request for feedback from [[Wikipedia:Peer review]] on the ''[[Ohio State University]]'' article. It is the first step to become a featured article on Wikipedia. Let's work together and respond to peer reviews [[Wikipedia:Peer_review/Ohio_State_University]]--[[User:140.254.115.133|140.254.115.133]] 10:38, 29 December 2006 (UTC)

==Naming Convention==
*OK, Let's stop the frickin' madness. I've probably written the lion's share of the current Ohio State article, and when my browser shortcut directs me to a dead page...enough is enough. The whole "The" thing is getting out of hand. I understand why it was first emphasized a quarter century ago--and with good reason (in response to Jim Rhodes' attempt to dumb down the university and pretend that there was no qualitative difference between The Ohio State University and the other 12 public universities). Today, however, those reasons have long since been negated. Now, it has become simply a "chest thumpin" statement for NFL players--most of whom NEVER GRADUATED from THE university that they're bragging about! Stop this ridiculous B.S. and follow the wikipedia naming convention for every other Xxxxx State University.--[[User:Sam Harmon|Sam Harmon]] 05:50, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

:Sorry you got directed to a dead page, I will fix it shortly. I'm sorry you don't like the title as it is now, but it is the proper title. Most former OSU NFL players I've heard say they went to Ohio State. Whether or not they graduated is irrelevant to this discussion. I attended this fine institution, graduated, and I fully support it being titled properly. As illustrated on the talk page, the naming conventions say in this instance that the definite article '''should''' be used, as it is used throughout the running text in university materials, and has caught on elsewhere. I.e., nobody says they went to Ohio State University, they either say they went to "Ohio State" or "''The'' Ohio State University", tongue in cheek though it may sound. --[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 13:31, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

::Now you are moving the goalposts. If Ohio University's official name is not important, then how is Ohio State's? They are both in the Ohio Revised Code. [[User:Rkevins82|Rkevins82]] 17:57, 3 January 2007 (UTC)

::To clairfy, the reason OU's official name is not important is because it is not used in "running text throughout university materials" (per naming conventions). In the above discussion heading, I put a link to the OU news page to show that they never refer to themselves as The Ohio University, but rather Ohio University, whereas OSU always uses the definite article on their news page (as well as other official university materials).--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 18:14, 3 January 2007 (UTC)
:::So the Revised Code argument is moot? You are leaving out the second part of the naming convention guideline (which is only a proposal): ''...if that usage has caught on elsewhere.'' I doubt that you can make that argument. The [http://www.dispatch.com/ local paper] doesn't call use the definite article, nor do (my eclectic mix) [http://www.usnews.com/usnews/edu/college/directory/brief/drglance_6883_brief.php U.S. News & World Reports in its college guide], [http://www.thelantern.com/ The Lantern (school newspaper)], [http://web1.ncaa.org/ssLists/orgInfo.do?orgID=518 NCAA], [http://www.nndb.com/edu/552/000068348/ NNDB], [http://www.princetonreview.com/college/research/profiles/generalinfo.asp?listing=1023960&LTID=1 Princeton Review], [http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-9331868 Encyclopedia Britannica], and [http://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/LooseNukes/story?id=988679 ABC News]. Those who do include [http://www.petersons.com/ugchannel/code/InstVC.asp?inunid=7934&sponsor=1 Peterson's] and a variety of university-related entities.
:::Looking at google, there are a little over 1 million hits for "the ohio state university" -site:osu.edu -site:ohio-state.edu, though this undoubtedly included many mentions that are not supportive of the use, as the "the" would be capitalized. The more restrictive search "the ohio state university" -site:osu.edu -site:ohio-state.edu yields well over 3 million hits. [[User:Rkevins82|Rkevins82]] 05:34, 4 January 2007 (UTC)

::::I can indeed make the argument that it has caught on elsewhere. My Moms Brothers Best-Friends Dogs Owners Dads Cousins Aunt '''always''' says The Ohio State University, and she's always right. (haha, just kidding) Some of those sources do indeed omit the definite article. However, mentioning the Lantern and the Dispatch doesn't work as a citation if you can't give a specific example from an article. That's not to say they're unreliable sources, just that we can't assume. Google can be confusing in this case, as when you type in "The Ohio State University", it omits the "The". A quick glance through the bookcase next to my desk reveals some more substantial evidence in the form of hard citations from reputable books and publishers. Here is what I found:
::::{{cite book
| last =Trachtenberg
| first =Marvin
| coauthors =Isabelle Hyman
| title =Architecture - From Prehistory to Postmodernity (2nd Edition)
| publisher =Prentice-Hall, Inc., and Harry N. Abrams, Inc.
| date =2002
| pages =p. 563
| id = ISBN 0-8109-0607-4 }} This book says "''At the Wexner Center for the Arts, built at The Ohio State University in 1982-89, Eisenman's...''"
::::{{cite book
| last =Lentz
| first =Ed
| title =As It Were - Stories of Old Columbus
| publisher =Red Mountain Press
| date =1998
| pages =p. 85
| id = ISBN 0-966-7950-0-8 }} As some of you know, Ed Lentz is a well regarded Columbus historian. He has written at least two books on Columbus (can't remember if there are more). He frequently appears on [http://www.wosu.org/radio/radio-open-line/ Open Line with Fred Andrle] and writes a history column for [http://www.thisweeknews.com/ This Week]. In chapter 21, Lentz says "''...I made the unpardonable error of remarking that this was my first visit to Ohio State University. I was rather peremptorily told that the proper name of the school was and always has been '''The''' Ohio State University.''"
::::{{cite book
| last =Lyttle
| first =Jeff
| title =Gorillas in Our Midst
| publisher =Ohio State University Press
| date =1997
| location =Columbus, Ohio
| pages =Back Cover
| id = ISBN 0-8142-0766-9 }} This book has nothing to do with the subject at hand, but since it is published by the university press, I thought it a good source. In the biography of the author, it says "''Jeff Lyttle is a graduate of The Ohio State University and has worked as a professional writer...''". Now before someone points out the name of the publisher, remember that we're discussing the name of the university as a whole, not of it's subdivisions which I strongly feel should ''not'' use the definite article in their titles (they don't anyway).
::::{{cite book
| last =Mitsch
| first =William J.
| coauthors =James G. Gosselink
| title =Wetlands Third Edition
| publisher =John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
| date =2000
| pages =p. iii
| id = ISBN 0-471-29232-X }} Here is some pretty damming evidence. The cited page is the internal title page, with the title, authors, and publisher. Here, it says "''William J. Mitsch, Professor, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio''". Right below it says "''James G. Gosselink, Professor Emeritus, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana.''". Note that when referring specifically to Ohio State, the definite article is used, when referring to LSU, it is not. Another example you say?
::::{{cite book
| last =Brown
| first =Theodore L.
| coauthors =H. Eugene LeMay, Jr., Bruce E. Bursten
| title =Chemistry - The Central Science Eighth Edition
| publisher =Prentice Hall
| date =2000
| pages =p. i
| id = ISBN 0-13-010310-1 }} Yes, yes, I know its that book from that class you probably don't want to remember. But again, we find the definite article in use. The internal title page is akin to the Wetlands book above. It says "''Theodore L. Brown, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; H. Eugene LeMay, Jr., University of Nevada, Reno; and Bruce E. Bursten, The Ohio State University; With contributions from Julia R. Burdge, University of Akron''". Yet again we find the institutions rightful title being utilized. One more...
::::{{cite book
| last =Falkenberg
| first =Barth
| title =The Ohio State University
| publisher =Harmony House
| date =1987
| pages =pp. 8, 13, 15, 17, 81, 87
| id = ISBN 0-916509-08-7 }} Well the title pretty much says it all. In addition, the other pages cited also make use of The Ohio State University. Now a quote from page 81 from a person in the news recently: "''It is a very great honor for me to be at The Ohio State University, sometimes known as the Land of the Free and the Home of Woody Hayes. I met Woody at the airport. We just had our picture taken together and when the picture appears in today's'' Dispatch, ''I'm pretty sure what the caption will say: Woody Hayes and friend. - President Gerald Ford, Commencement Address, 1974.''"
::::That about does it for my long drawn out citations. In writing this, I got to thinking as to a possible underlying cause of people's uneasiness about the title. Wikipedia has a strong and well regarded [[Wikipedia:Neutral Point of View|Neutral]] policy. Perhaps it seems that by including "the" in the title, it somehow becomes POV. I thought about this for a while, but then I came across something: [[The Greatest Show on Earth]]. Now there is a POV title if I ever heard one. And yet it remains. What else could you call it? "That one movie by those guys about a show"?--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 02:13, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

I agree with User:Sam Harmon and others that the title should be "Ohio State University" and this debate seems ridiculous. There's a very clear and explicit policy regarding this exact issue. Every school with a similar name uses this convention. There's simply no reason to have moved this page, and the move should be reverted. --[[User:MZMcBride|MZMcBride]] 05:47, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

:You're right, there is a clear and explicit policy, and I spelled out in the discussion why it should be titled as "The Ohio State University". It does not say never use it, it says use it if and only if you meet the two criteria. With all the hard citations now, is that really in doubt? Who is to say other schools are presently titled improperly because of a blanket policy that was applied to everything and it shouldn't have been? Whether or not the others are titled properly is beyond the scope of this discussion. But the policy does provide for an exception in this case.--[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 13:16, 5 January 2007 (UTC)
::Intentionally or not, you have side-stepped the Google problem. I specified "the ohio state university" and "ohio state university," so the definite article is signigificantly more likely ''not'' to be included. The guideline says that the definite article should be included in the title only when the usage has caught on elsewhere. In this case, some places use it, while most don't. Also, there is a difference in our examples. Mine are from broadly used sources (and don't give me that argument about not specifically citing them—that is absurd), while yours are more niche. I hope some more people will join this argument. [[User:Rkevins82|Rkevins82]] 19:11, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

::::[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] has made some great points here, and I support the use of "The" in the university's title. The fact is that its official name is "The Ohio State University." It can be seen in a Google search for "the THE in The Ohio State University," that many people disagree with the use of the definite article, but that's another matter worth discussing within the article. [[User:Kruckenberg.1|~Kruck]] 19:20, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

In this case, Google cannot be used to establish relevance due to the technical limitations of the system. As previously mentioned, when discussing a specific entity of the university, one should say "Ohio State University's Geology Department" (for example). Now when you search for just "Ohio State University", remember you are capturing all of these usages where it didn't stand alone but rather was part of a sentence describing some subdivision. I.e. it was referring to the department, not the official title of the university as a whole. Therefore, the results you get will be highly skewed, as there are probably many more mentions of specific things within the university than to the university as a whole. Broadly used sources do not necessarily make them [[Wikipedia:Reliable Sources|Reliable Sources]]. Certainly I wouldn't argue with Britannica as a good source, but the others don't hold as much weight as printed material from a widely distributed book. I fail to see how it is absurd to cite a specific article. Both papers have been around for over a hundred years, and have written thousands of articles. Thus, how am I supposed to know for sure how they use the article? For example, even this [http://www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2006/11/17/FirstDown/Boooo.Columbus-2467512.shtml?norewrite200701051447&sourcedomain=www.thelantern.com Scathing Op/Ed] piece from that city up north uses it. Other Opinion pieces such as [http://www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2006/10/02/Opinion/Construction.Necessary-2319723.shtml?norewrite200701051460&sourcedomain=www.thelantern.com this] also use it. [http://www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2006/06/20/Campus/Graduates.Set.Record.As.Largest.Class-2116816.shtml?norewrite200701051502&sourcedomain=www.thelantern.com Here] is an example of why Google picks up so many more hits without the "The". It says "Ohio State University's President". Searching further, I found [http://www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2005/11/29/Campus/Osu-Falls.To.Third.In.Student.Enrollment-1115045.shtml?norewrite200701051505&sourcedomain=www.thelantern.com another example], and [http://www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2005/10/12/Campus/Usg-Puts.Pressure.On.Hicks-1018043.shtml?norewrite200701051506&sourcedomain=www.thelantern.com another], and yet [http://www.thelantern.com/media/storage/paper333/news/2004/06/03/Arts/University.Shuts.Cinematic.Doors-684340.shtml?norewrite200701051510&sourcedomain=www.thelantern.com another]. I too welcome any and all to contribute to the discussion. --[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 20:18, 5 January 2007 (UTC)

it seems allot of emotion is wrapped up in this topic. I don't think thats productive. This decision is not that difficult. If we were uncertain of the correct spelling of a university, we would contact that university. same concept here. Give OSU's marketing department a ring and ask them: 614-292-4272 or check their website: [[http://www.osu.edu/identity/overview.php]] this particular page makes a total of 8 references to "THE Ohio State University" and zero to "Ohio State University". Would anyone here argue that the band [[The The]] should get moved to [[The (band)]] ? I doubt it. For that matter, under this argument, shouldn't [[The Band]] just be listed as [[Band (band)]]? Obviously, I support keeping the article at "The Ohio State University" as labeling it anything else is simply incorrect. [[User:Stuph|Stuph]] 04:05, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

Count me for [[Ohio State University]]. [[The Band]] is always called as such. [[The Ohio State University]] is rarely called as such by anyone who does not work for the university. Wikipedia has a policy of using common names, not using official names, and with respect to articles, we only use them in things like titles of literary works. [[Ohio State University]] is universally recognizable, non-ambiguous, and the way people who aren't pretentious Ohio State homers refer to the place. Note also [[George Washington University]], where many of the same arguments were hashed out, and we ended up with, well [[George Washington University]]. [[User:John Kenney|john k]] 07:27, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

Also note that we have a naming convention about this at [[Wikipedia:Naming conventions (definite and indefinite articles at beginning of name)#Universities]], which says not to use direct articles. [[User:John Kenney|john k]] 07:30, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

a direct quote from the naming conventions page:
::If such usage is prevalent on university press releases and press kits, contact information, "about" pages, and internal department websites, and it is reasonably common in external sources, then it is more appropriate to name the Wikipedia article [[The University of X]].
Thus, until someone brings forth evidence of [[Ohio State University]] being used MORE than [[The Ohio State University]], the conventions page supports the move to [[The Ohio State University]].

A list of uses by credited sources other than the university itself:
* http://www.petersons.com/ugchannel/code/InstVC.asp?inunid=7934&sponsor=1
* http://www.wexarts.org/
* http://www.thelantern.com/
* http://www.princetonreview.com/mba/research/profiles/schoolsays.asp?category=1&listing=1011056&LTID=2&intbucketid=

[[User:Stuph|Stuph]] 16:02, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

The text you are quoting is a proposed substitution, not the actual current policy. As to credited sources that use "Ohio State University" rather than "the Ohio State University", [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&q=%22Ohio+State+University%22+-%22The+Ohio+State+University%22&btnG=Google+Search Google] gives 4.3 million of them, as compared to only [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=%22The+Ohio+State+University%22&btnG=Search 1 million or so] for "The Ohio State University". Also check out the [http://www.google.com/search?hl=en&lr=&safe=off&q=%22Ohio+State+University%22+-%22The+Ohio+State+University%22+site%3Aosu.edu&btnG=Search 28,700] hits that don't include the direct article on OSU's own website. The comparable figures for "The Ohio state University" on OSU's site is 165,000, but note that this includes many instances where you'd always right that - "The Ohio state University School of Law" and such. At any rate, the general rule is not to use articles. [[User:John Kenney|john k]] 23:10, 6 January 2007 (UTC)

:The Googling misconception has already been addressed by [[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]]. Referring to "Ohio State University's Geology Department," for example, is a Google hit for "Ohio State University." It does not refer to the entire university, which is the topic of this article. I am an Ohio State University engineering student. I attend THE Ohio State University. Your Googling strategy would say I call OSU "Ohio State University" as often as "THE Ohio State University." This is not correct. [[User:Kruckenberg.1|~Kruck]] 05:45, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

::There is no googling misconception, because it works both ways - one also has "The Ohio State University School of Law," and so forth. There is no particular reason to think this issue affects the one side more than the other. [[User:John Kenney|john k]] 06:45, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

:::To clarify my google note, I agree with what john k said; it shouldn't be used at all in this debate as there are too many variables in writing style to know what the hits are referring to one way or the other. I see in an above post that it was said that people who refer to the university using the definite article are pretentious. This is a borderline personal attack on those who favor using "The". Remember, the issue is not people from the university, it is naming conventions. Let's keep the discussion centered on that issue and not what we might think of those who've attended.
:::Two more points I'd like to emphasize again: 1. Naming conventions are a '''''Guideline''''', NOT a rule. There are only [[Wikipedia:Five pillars|5 firm rules]]. 2. The naming conventions do NOT say the definite article should never be used. They spell out pretty specifically when it should be allowed. Using [[Wikipedia:Reliable sources|Reliable Sources]], I have spelled out why it should be "The Ohio State University". Is there any argument over the fact that common usage refers to the university as "Ohio State"? Obviously we can't call it by this name, thus we go with the official and next most common name as shown by my numerous citations. --[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 07:52, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

There are two versions of the naming convention. One of them would suggest (but not necessarily mandate) [[The Ohio State University]]. The other pretty clearly says [[Ohio State University]]. It is the latter that is currently in plain text, and appears so far as I can tell, to be th guideline. The former is a "proposed new version", which has seemingly not been adopted. Let me repeat the text of what appears to be the current guideline:
:''The definite article should not be used for universities, even if the official name of the university uses the definite article, as indicated on the website links below.''
Note also the large number of other articles on universities that call themselves "The University of X", but where the article is ''not'' located there. We need to resolve this issue at the level of the naming conventions, I think. [[User:John Kenney|john k]] 17:04, 7 January 2007 (UTC)

::I agree, it seems that the naming conventions are flawed as they currently stand. Looking at that talk page, it appears that there was no consensus arrived when originally formulating them. It may have been assumed that common usage never uses the definite article, which is not the case here. The proposed conventions would allow the definite article based on the evidence presented here. There is probably no point in continuing this discussion until the naming conventions are agreed upon, as one can honestly argue that "Ohio State University" meets the naming conventions, even though it is incorrect. --[[User:Analogue Kid|Analogue Kid]] 20:45, 7 January 2007 (UTC)
:::"Ohio State University" is not incorrect, it is merely less formal than "The Ohio State University". It is incorrect to state that "Ohio State University" is the formal name of the school. But it is not incorrect to call the school "Ohio State University," any more than it is incorrect to call it "Ohio State." We should not confuse "informal name" with "incorrect name." [[User:John Kenney|john k]] 16:10, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

::::The Google test that I used is appropriate and I can explain it further if necessary. I would keep Ohio State University in line with the other universities that eschew the definite article and the majority of common users (Google test). I am glad that some more people are joining the discussion and hope more will in the future. In the meantime, we should continue on the [[Talk:Ohio State University|the Talk page for Ohio State University]]. [[User:Rkevins82|Rkevins82]] 20:27, 8 January 2007 (UTC)

I would like to support having the article located at "The Ohio State University." Clearly, the official name of the shcool is The Ohio State University; it seems that everyone is in agreement on that. The next questions seem to be (1) what to Wikipedia naming conventions suggest would be appropriate? and (2) which phrase is most commonly used to refer to the school, "Ohio State University" or "THE Ohio State University"? It is my opinion that (1) Wikipedia naming conventions would definitely allow for the use of "The" in the article title since it is part of the university's official title and that (2) which usage is more common is irrelevant to this debate. Although Wikipedia makes important and valuable concessions to "common usage" arguments, these concessions are only valuable when there is definitevely right or wrong answer." In this case, however, it is clear that to refer to the university as simply "Ohio State University" is unquestionably incorrect, and so whether this is the common usage or not is irrelevant. The article should be moved to "The Ohio State University." [[User:Dave Runger|Dave Runger]] ([[User talk:Dave Runger|talk]]) 01:34, 26 April 2009 (UTC)

Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Neutrality Schmeutrality

2009-02-19T01:38:22Z

Dave Runger: delete and "salt"

<div class="boilerplate metadata afd vfd xfd-closed" style="background-color: #F3F9FF; margin: 2em 0 0 0; padding: 0 10px 0 10px; border: 1px solid #AAAAAA;">
:''The following discussion is an archived debate of the proposed deletion of the article below. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a [[Wikipedia:Deletion review|deletion review]]). No further edits should be made to this page.''


The result was '''delete'''. Closed early per [[Wikipedia:Snowball clause|the snowball clause]]. This article is [[meta:What is a troll?|trolling]], and ultimately [[Wikipedia:Don't disrupt Wikipedia to make a point|disrupts Wikipedia to make a point]]. Deletion also resolves any conflict of interest, since the author of xkcd545.com notes that "If the Wikipedia article gets deleted, null doesn't pay". Regardless of that clause, however, we should not fall into the ridiculous trap that our actions necessarily constitute a conflict of interest on the matter. This is a scenario constructed specifically to disrupt the system and shouldn't be lent credence even if we love xkcd. <nowiki>{</nowiki>{[[User:Nihiltres|Nihiltres]]<nowiki>|</nowiki>[[User talk:Nihiltres|talk]]<nowiki>|</nowiki>[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:Log?user=Nihiltres log]}<nowiki>}</nowiki> 19:00, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
===[[Neutrality Schmeutrality]]===

:{{la|Neutrality Schmeutrality}} ([{{fullurl:Neutrality Schmeutrality|wpReason={{urlencode: [[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Neutrality Schmeutrality]]}}&action=delete}} delete]) – <includeonly>([[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Neutrality Schmeutrality|View AfD]])</includeonly><noinclude>([[Wikipedia:Articles for deletion/Log/2009 February 18#{{anchorencode:Neutrality Schmeutrality}}|View log]])</noinclude>
As much as I am an inclusionist and as much as I love [[xkcd]], I do not think we need an entry about every logical concept Randall Munroe makes up in his webcomic. Note: I tagged it for prod but it was contested. It was previously speedy deleted but it fails all criteria in its current state (I declined the latest speedy myself). Regards '''[[User:SoWhy|So]][[User talk:SoWhy|Why]]''' 10:40, 18 February 2009 (UTC)

* '''Delete''' It fails to satisfy the notability criteria. There is not yet any coverage of this concept in any independent source. --[[User:FarzanehSarafraz|Farzaneh]] ([[User talk:FarzanehSarafraz|talk]]) 11:10, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete''' Lack of independent sources. - [[User:MacGyverMagic|Mgm]]|[[User talk:MacGyverMagic|(talk)]] 11:35, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Redirect''' to [[xkcd]] -- redirects are cheap. [[User:Baileypalblue|Baileypalblue]] ([[User talk:Baileypalblue|talk]]) 11:49, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
**'''Agreed''' - redirects ''are'' cheap. But I think to avoid further recreations we need to let this AFD run and redirect it as consensus, so future recreations can be handled by it. Doesn't hurt to have it for five days anyway. '''[[User:SoWhy|So]][[User talk:SoWhy|Why]]''' 12:57, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
::*Sounds reasonable. [[User:Baileypalblue|Baileypalblue]] ([[User talk:Baileypalblue|talk]]) 13:02, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*<del>'''Delete'''</del> '''Redirect even though I'm still''' - not sure I see the point of a redirect. It's a one-off neologism and the title of a web comic. If you have the phrase in your head, it's because you've already been to the one source (the comic) or you're headed there because somebody told you to check it out. No need whatsoever for treatment in an encyclopedia. [[User:Jlg4104| J L G 4 1 0 4 ]] 11:51, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
:*Well, probably some people will hear the phrase and then forget exactly where they heard it and search trying to figure out where it came from. As a casual follower of xkcd, I have a hard time remembering that combination of letters, but I would remember a phrase like "Neutrality Schmeutrality". For that matter, people might come up with the phrase "Neutrality Schmeutrality" independently, as a [[snowclone]], and then find out xkcd did it first, in which case they've learned something new. Bottom line, redirects are cheap. [[User:Baileypalblue|Baileypalblue]] ([[User talk:Baileypalblue|talk]]) 12:22, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
::*I buy the point that redirects are cheap, and I have changed my recommendation accordingly. I still don't see a need for it though. A simple [http://www.google.com/search?q=%22neutrality+schmeutrality%22&ie=utf-8&oe=utf-8&aq=t&rls=org.mozilla:en-US:official&client=firefox-a Google search] will turn up plenty. [[User:Jlg4104| J L G 4 1 0 4 ]] 13:50, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Redirect''' - It is now a part of the main XKCD article. [[User:Mmmeee0|Mmmeee0]] ([[User talk:Mmmeee0|talk]]) 12:17, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete''' - Why should that be the name of a 'concept' or the like? The use of [http://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/schm- schm] as a prefix is very common and usually not to be taken very seriously. I also don't think we need a redirect for the title of a certain comic. [[User:Rror|Rror]] ([[User talk:Rror|talk]]) 13:19, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete''' -- due to a lack of secondary sources. - [[User:Longhair|Longhair]]\[[User_talk:Longhair|talk]] 13:21, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete''' -- Zero words is even, and even should win. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/24.177.59.52|24.177.59.52]] ([[User talk:24.177.59.52|talk]]) 13:53, 18 February 2009 (UTC) 
**'''Reminder''' of neutrality of Wikipedia, which is kinda funny based on what the subject is. [[User:Mmmeee0|Mmmeee0]] ([[User talk:Mmmeee0|talk]]) 14:13, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*Although this comic is '''full of win''', '''reluctant redirect''' per obvious notability reasons. [[User:Bsimmons666|'''Bsimmons666''']] ([[User_talk:Bsimmons666|talk]]) 14:44, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete''' Not notable and not worth a redirect. [[User:Edward321|Edward321]] ([[User talk:Edward321|talk]]) 14:59, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*<s>'''Redirect''' If we keep this, we'll have an endless flamewar of people adding words. Also, unless this comic is actually mentioned anywhere [[WP:V|verifiable]], it fails notability and should point to xkcd. [[User:Yellowweasel|Yellowweasel]] ([[User talk:Yellowweasel|talk]]) 15:14, 18 February 2009 (UTC)</s> '''Delete and salt''' as per Chris Cunningham. [[User:Yellowweasel|Yellowweasel]] ([[User talk:Yellowweasel|talk]]) 17:23, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete''' Honestly, I think xkcd's comics are funny enough by themselves and cannot be improved by being 'made real' on Wikipedia. He's probably rolling his eyes at us right now. Even beside all the points made by other people here, which are valid in and of themselves, I think this page should be deleted because it doesn't really contribute anything to xkcd either. However a redirect would be probably just as good since I think interest in this page will die down in a day or so anyway. ''[[User:Soap|Soap]]'' [[User talk:Soap|Talk]]/[[Special:Contributions/Soap|Contributions]] 15:26, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Redirect''' If we redirect, though, we create a little paradox ourselves because by removing the content and simply redirecting to the part of the xkcd article called "Activities inspired by xkcd" then the page is no longer such an activity and doesn't warrant inclusion into that article. Of course, redirecting would be nice for people searching for this.[[User:IncidentalPoint|IncidentalPoint]] ([[User talk:IncidentalPoint|talk]]) 15:36, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
:*Actually there's a good argument for not always creating redirects there; if we make a redirect, it kind of implies that we intend to have some information about that subject in the target article at all times. This is not the case with all redirects; there was a long period of time when [[Rule 34]] redirect to [[xkcd]] with no rule 34-related content in the xkcd article. So, while not endorsing deletion of the info about this week's comic in the xkcd article, I would endorse deletion of this instead of just a redirect in case it ever leads to a situation like the above. ''[[User:Soap|Soap]]'' [[User talk:Soap|Talk]]/[[Special:Contributions/Soap|Contributions]] 15:39, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Redirect''' but after the week has passed, otherwise how would the benefactor know where to make the donation? [[Special:Contributions/75.125.126.8|75.125.126.8]] ([[User talk:75.125.126.8|talk]]) 15:40, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*That's cute, but '''delete'''. [[User:Artw|Artw]] ([[User talk:Artw|talk]]) 15:41, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete and full protect''' for the time being. Though the comics are very amazing, this does not pass the notability policy, and likely never will. I hoped we would not have to do this, but :( Interestingly, this article itself is indeed pretty neutral. It also has 144 words. [[User:NuclearWarfare|NuclearWarfare]]''''' ([[User talk:NuclearWarfare|Talk]])''''' 15:41, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete and protect from re-creation''' Soap is right on the mark...guys like Munroe and Ryan North just like to make crazy suggestions and then watch how crazy people actually carry them out, and I'm sure they get a kick out of seeing people get worked up over such a trivial thing. (I guess they're kind of like the Joker, but not creepy.) We should never be creating an article or editing an article because xkcd, Dinosaur Comics, or whoever else told us to; these things are meant to be jokes. '''[[User:Rjanag|rʨanaɢ]]''' [[User talk:Rjanag|talk]]/[[Special:Contributions/Rjanag|contribs]] 15:42, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
* '''Delete''' the comic has a good point, but this is going to encourage silly editing of a barely-notable concept. '''[[User:Sceptre|Sceptre]]''' ([[User talk:Sceptre|talk]]) 15:42, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
:*Well...it's rapidly becoming vaguely notable. The concept is notable, I know of several people writing articles now, hours after the comic was put up, and it seems at least two people are actually offering to donate real money based on the outcome. However, agreed it probably won't be very notable at all two weeks from now. [[Special:Contributions/75.125.126.8|75.125.126.8]] ([[User talk:75.125.126.8|talk]]) 15:53, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete''' and '''salt'''. Fails [[WP:N|notability]] criteria, and a general lack of [[WP:RS|reliable sources]]. — [[User:HelloAnnyong|'''HelloAnnyong''']] [[User_talk:HelloAnnyong|(say whaaat?!)]] 15:58, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Redirect to XKCD'''- While the whole thing is amusing, it really isn't deserving of its own article, and there is no harm from a redirect. Deleting, or deleting and salting, seem like overly harsh measures for something so harmless. [[User:Umbralcorax|Umbralcorax]] ([[User talk:Umbralcorax|talk]]) 16:10, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete''' Fails notability as an event or for web content. If many notable third-party sources run the story, which I hope to your deity of choice they don't, we should reconsider then. ''' [[User:FlyingToaster|Flying]]'''[[User_Talk:FlyingToaster|Toaster]] 16:24, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete''' No third-party coverage «[[User_talk:Omicron777|O73]]» 16:30, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete and salt'''. Policy is not to create redirects every single time someone who may be notable in and of himself [[WP:MADEUP|makes something up]]. Redirecting this sets a horrible precedent, considering how often xkcd covers Wikipedia. [[user:thumperward|Chris Cunningham (not at work)]] - [[user talk:thumperward|talk]] 16:38, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
:*[[WP:MADEUP]] has nothing to say about redirects -- could you point us to the policy you have in mind? For reference, here's [[WP:R#DELETE|the list of valid reasons to delete a redirect]]. [[User:Baileypalblue|Baileypalblue]] ([[User talk:Baileypalblue|talk]]) 18:19, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete''', non-notable, no third-party sources. — [[User:Hysteria18|Hysteria18]] ([[User talk:Hysteria18|Talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Hysteria18|Contributions]]) 17:20, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*I propose that this discussion be closed per [[WP:SNOW]]. [[User:Skomorokh|Skomorokh]] 17:58, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*I contest your proposition. Such an article could potentially be beneficial to those with interest, and certainly supplements the common knowledge. [[User:Apollo2991|Apollo2991]] ([[User talk:Apollo2991|talk]]) 18:21, 18 February 2009 (UTC)Apollo2991—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Apollo2991|Apollo2991]] ([[User talk:Apollo2991|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Apollo2991|contribs]]) 18:15, 18 February 2009 (UTC) 
* '''Take off and nuke it from orbit''' Some of us still have to do permanent trollwatch on [[Wood]] thanks to XKCD. 8-( [[User:Andy Dingley|Andy Dingley]] ([[User talk:Andy Dingley|talk]]) 18:17, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*This article is neither an xkcd endorsement, nor vandalism. It simply provides a holistic interpretation of a topic, for the good of common knowledge. [[User:Apollo2991|Apollo2991]] ([[User talk:Apollo2991|talk]]) 18:24, 18 February 2009 (UTC)Apollo2991
*'''Delete and protect'''. Other articles get deleted when they fail to establish notability through reliable sources, I don't see why this article would be an exception. Protect because it's very likely to be recreated by fans of XKCD. -- NathanoNL <nowiki>[</nowiki> [[User:NathanoNL|usr]] | [[User talk:NathanoNL|msg]] | [[Special:Contributions/NathanoNL | log]] <nowiki>]</nowiki> 18:46, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Keep for sure'''. What are you bureaucrats so afraid of? [[User:DrTall|DrTall]] ([[User talk:DrTall|talk]]) 18:50, 18 February 2009 (UTC)
*'''Delete and salt'''. Per Chris Cunningham. ("Policy is not to create redirects every single time someone who may be notable in and of himself [[WP:MADEUP|makes something up]].") [[User:Dave Runger|Dave Runger]] ([[User talk:Dave Runger|talk]]) 01:38, 19 February 2009 (UTC)

:''The above discussion is preserved as an archive of the debate. '''Please do not modify it.''' Subsequent comments should be made on the appropriate discussion page (such as the article's talk page or in a [[Wikipedia:Deletion review|deletion review]]). No further edits should be made to this page. </div>

Dominica

2008-12-10T06:18:25Z

Dave Runger: actually "Sunday" in Latin is "Dies Solis" (day of the sun); in Italian it is spelled domenica, but close enough

{{distinguish2|the [[Dominican Republic]]}}
{{Infobox Country
|native_name =
|conventional_long_name= Commonwealth of Dominica
|common_name = Dominica
|image_flag = Flag of Dominica.svg
|image_coat =Coat_of_arms_of_Dominica.png
|image_map = LocationDominica.png
|national_motto = ''"Après Bondie, C'est La Ter"''{{spaces|2}}([[Antillean Creole]]) "After God is the Earth"
|national_anthem = ''[[Isle of Beauty, Isle of Splendour]]''
|official_languages = [[English language|English]]
|demonym = Dominican
|capital = [[Roseau]]
|latd=15 |latm=18 |latNS=N |longd=61 |longm=23 |longEW=W
|largest_city = capital
|government_type = [[Parliamentary republic]]
|leader_title1 = [[President of Dominica|President]]
|leader_name1 = [[Nicholas Liverpool]]
|leader_title2 = [[Prime Minister of Dominica|Prime Minister]]
|leader_name2 = [[Roosevelt Skerrit]]
|sovereignty_type = [[Independence]]
|sovereignty_note = from the [[United Kingdom]]
|established_event1 = Date
|established_date1 = November 3, 1978
|area_rank = 184th
|area_magnitude = 1 E8
|area_km2 = 754
|area_sq_mi = 290 
|percent_water = 1.6
|population_estimate = 72,514
|population_estimate_rank = 195st
|population_estimate_year = July 2008
|population_census = 71,727
|population_census_year = 2003
|population_density_km2 = 105
|population_density_sq_mi = 272 
|population_density_rank = 95th
|GDP_PPP = $687 million<ref name=imf2>{{cite web|url=http://www.imf.org/external/pubs/ft/weo/2008/02/weodata/weorept.aspx?sy=2004&ey=2008&scsm=1&ssd=1&sort=country&ds=.&br=1&c=321&s=NGDPD%2CNGDPDPC%2CPPPGDP%2CPPPPC%2CLP&grp=0&a=&pr.x=97&pr.y=0 |title=Dominica|publisher=International Monetary Fund|accessdate=2008-10-09}}</ref>
|GDP_PPP_year = 2007
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $9,582<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal = $336 million<ref name=imf2/>
|GDP_nominal_year = 2007
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $4,684<ref name=imf2/>
|HDI = {{increase}}0.798
|HDI_rank = 71st
|HDI_year = 2007
|HDI_category = medium
|currency = [[East Caribbean dollar]]
|currency_code = XCD
|country_code =
|time_zone =
|utc_offset = –4
|drives_on = left
|cctld = [[.dm]]
|calling_code = 1 [[Area code 767|767]]
|footnote1 = Rank based on 2005 UN estimate.
}}

The '''Commonwealth of Dominica''', commonly known as '''Dominica''', is an [[island nation]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]]. Locally the name is {{pronEng|ˌdɒmɪˈniːkə}} {{respell|DOM|i|NEE|kə}}, but elsewhere {{IPAlink-en|dəˈmɪnɨkə}} {{respell|də|MIN|i-kə}} is common. In [[Italian language|Italian]], its name means "Sunday", which was the day on which it was spotted by [[Christopher Columbus]].

Dominica's [[pre-Columbian]] name was "Wai'tu kubuli", which means "Tall is her body".<ref>[http://www.dominica.dm/site/dominica.cfm Discover Dominica: an introduction to our Caribbean island] at www.dominica.dm</ref> The indigenous people of the island, the [[Carib]]s, have a territory similar to the [[Indian reserve]]s of [[North America]]. However, its official language is [[English language|English]] because of its history as a British [[colony]], [[territory]], and [[state]] though a [[Antillean Creole|French creole]] is spoken by many, especially people of older generations. The [[demonym]] or adjective of this country is "Dominican" in English, same as that for the [[Dominican Republic]] but unlike the Dominican Republic, in which the stress is on the first "i", the stress is on the second "i".

Dominica has been [[nickname]]d the "Nature Isle of the Caribbean" for its seemingly unspoiled natural beauty. It is one of the youngest islands in the [[Lesser Antilles]], still being formed by [[Geothermal (geology)|geothermal]]-[[volcano|volcanic]] activity, as evidenced by the world's second-largest [[boiling lake]]. The island features lush [[mountain]]ous [[rainforests]], home of many very rare plant, animal, and bird species. There are [[xeric]] areas in some of the western coastal regions, but heavy rainfall can be expected inland. The [[Imperial Amazon|Sisserou parrot]], the island's national bird, is featured on the [[Flag of Dominica|national flag]]. Dominica's economy is heavily dependent on both tourism and agriculture.

In the next hundred years after Columbus' landing Dominica remained isolated, and even more Caribs settled there after being driven from surrounding islands as [[Europe]]an powers entered the region. [[France]] formally ceded possession of Dominica to the United Kingdom in 1763. The United Kingdom then set up a government and made the island a colony in 1805. The emancipation of African slaves occurred throughout the British Empire in 1834, and, in 1838, Dominica became the first British Caribbean colony to have a Black-controlled legislature. In 1896, the United Kingdom reassumed governmental control of Dominica turning it into a [[crown colony]]. Half a century later, from 1958 to 1962, Dominica became a province of the short-lived [[West Indies Federation]]. In 1978 Dominica finally became an independent nation.

==Geography and climate==
[[Image:Map of Dominica.gif|thumb|280px|Map of Dominica]]
{{main|Geography of Dominica}}
Dominica is an [[island nation]] and [[borderless country]] in the [[Caribbean Sea]], the northernmost of the [[Windward Islands]]. The size of the country is about 289.5 square miles (754 [[square kilometers|km²]]). The capital is [[Roseau]].

Dominica is largely covered by [[rainforest]] and is home to the world's second-largest [[boiling lake]]. Dominica has many waterfalls, springs, and rivers. Some plants and animals thought to be extinct on surrounding islands can still be found in Dominica's forests. The volcanic nature of the island and the lack of sandy beaches have made Dominica a popular [[scuba diving]] spot. Dominica is home to several [[protected areas]], including [[List of national parks of Dominica|Cabrits National Park]]. Dominica has 365 rivers.

It is said that when his royal sponsors asked [[Christopher Columbus]] to describe this island in the "New World", he crumpled a piece of parchment roughly and threw it on the table. This, Columbus explained, is what Dominica looks like—completely covered with mountains with nary a flat spot.

[[Morne Trois Pitons National Park]] is a tropical forest blended with scenic volcanic features.<ref>[http://whc.unesco.org/en/list/814 Morne Trois Pitons National Park by World Heritage Sites]</ref> It was recognized as a [[World Heritage Site]] on April 4, 1995. Within the Caribbean, it shares this distinction with historic World Heritage sites in [[Pitons|St. Lucia]] (2004), [[Brimstone Hill|Saint Kitts]] (1999), Hispaniola (Dominican Republic [1990]/Haiti [1982]) and Cuba (multiple).

[[Image:Calibishie Beach (Dominica).jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Calibishie]] beach landscape.]]
The Commonwealth of Dominica is engaged in a long-running dispute with [[Venezuela]] over Venezuela's territorial claims to the sea surrounding [[Isla Aves]] (literally Bird Island, but in fact called Bird Rock by Dominica authorities), a tiny islet located 70 [[mile]]s (110 km) west of the island of Dominica.

The only two major cities are Roseau and [[Portsmouth, Dominica|Portsmouth]].

Dominica possesses the most pristine wilderness in the Caribbean. Originally, it was protected by sheer mountains which led the European powers to build ports and agricultural settlements on other islands. More recently, the citizens of this island have sought to preserve its spectacular natural beauty by discouraging the type of high-impact tourism which has damaged nature in most of the Caribbean.

[[Image:RoseauWide..jpg|thumb|310px|[[Roseau]], From Docked Cruise ship]]
Visitors can find large tropical forests, including one which is on the UNESCO list of World Heritage sites, hundreds of streams, spectacular coastlines and coral reefs.

The [[Imperial Parrot|Sisserou parrot]] is Dominica's national bird and is indigenous to its mountain forests.

The [[Caribbean Sea]] offshore of the island of Dominica is home to many [[cetaceans]]. Most notably a group of [[sperm whale]]s live in this area year round. Other cetaceans commonly seen in the area include [[spinner dolphin]]s, [[pantropical spotted dolphin]]s and [[bottlenose dolphin]]s. Less commonly seen animals include [[killer whales]], [[false killer whale]]s, [[pygmy sperm whale]]s, [[dwarf sperm whale]]s, [[Risso's dolphin]]s, [[common dolphin]]s, [[Atlantic spotted dolphin]]s, [[humpback whales]] and [[Bryde's whale]]s. This makes Dominica a popular destination for tourists interested in [[whale-watching]].

Dominica is especially vulnerable to hurricanes as the island is located in what is referred to as the [[hurricane]] region. In 1979, Dominica was hit directly by category 5 [[Hurricane David]], causing widespread and extreme damage. On August 17, 2007, [[Hurricane Dean]], a category 1 at the time, hit the island. A mother and her seven-year-old son died when a [[landslide]] caused by the heavy rains fell onto their house.<ref name="Forbes Haiti preps">{{cite news | title = Hurricane Dean Gains Caribbean Strength | author = Jonathan Katz | publisher = [[Associated Press]] | url = http://www.forbes.com/feeds/ap/2007/08/18/ap4033014.html | date = 2007-08-18 | accessdate = 2007-08-18}}</ref> In another incident two people were injured when a tree fell on their house.<ref name="cbc_2007-08-17">{{cite web|date=[[2007-08-17]]|title=Hurricane claims one life in St. Lucia and possibly two in Dominica|publisher=CBC|accessdate=2007-08-17|url=http://www.cbc.bb/content/view/12195/45/}}</ref> [[Prime Minister of Dominica|Prime Minister]] [[Roosevelt Skerrit]] estimated that 100 to 125 homes were damaged, and that the agriculture sector was extensively damaged, in particular the banana crop.<ref name="cbc_2007-08-17_02">{{cite web|date=[[2007-08-17]]|title=Dominica Badly Affected|publisher=CBC|accessdate=2007-08-17|url=http://www.cbc.bb/content/view/12195/45/}}</ref>

see also: [[Effects of Hurricane Dean in the Lesser Antilles]]

==Government and administrative divisions==
{{main|Politics of Dominica}}
Dominica is a [[parliamentary democracy]] within the [[Commonwealth of Nations]]. Unlike the majority of countries in the Caribbean, the Commonwealth of Dominica is one of the region's few republics. The president is the [[head of state]], while executive power rests with the [[cabinet]], headed by the [[prime minister]]. The [[unicameral]] [[parliament]] consists of the thirty-member [[House of Assembly of Dominica|House of Assembly]], which consists of twenty-one directly elected members and nine senators, who may either be appointed by the president or elected by the other members of the House of Assembly.

Unlike other former British colonies in the region, Dominica was never a [[Commonwealth realm]] with the [[British monarch]] as head of state, as it instead became a [[republic]] on independence. Dominica is a full and participating member of the [[Caribbean Community|Caribbean Community (CARICOM)]] and the [[Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States]] (OECS). Dominica is also a member of the [[International Criminal Court]] with a Bilateral Immunity Agreement of protection for the [[United States|U.S.]] military, as covered under [[Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court|Article 98]]. In January 2008 Dominica joined the [[Bolivarian Alternative for the Americas]].
{{clear}}

[[Image:Dominica parishes numbered.png|thumb|right|250px|Parishes of Dominica]]
Dominica is divided into ten [[parish]]es:

#[[Saint Andrew Parish, Dominica|Saint Andrew Parish]]
#[[Saint David Parish, Dominica|Saint David Parish]]
#[[Saint George Parish, Dominica|Saint George Parish]]
#[[Saint John Parish, Dominica|Saint John Parish]]
#[[Saint Joseph Parish, Dominica|Saint Joseph Parish]]
#[[Saint Luke Parish, Dominica|Saint Luke Parish]]
#[[Saint Mark Parish, Dominica|Saint Mark Parish]]
#[[Saint Patrick Parish, Dominica|Saint Patrick Parish]]
#[[Saint Paul Parish, Dominica|Saint Paul Parish]]
#[[Saint Peter Parish, Dominica|Saint Peter Parish]]

==Economy and transport==
{{main|Economy of Dominica|Transport in Dominica}}
Dominica's economic situation is among the most challenging of all the Eastern Caribbean states. However, Dominica's economy grew by 3.5% in 2005 and 4.0% in 2006, following a decade of poor performance. The country nearly had a financial crisis in 2003 and 2004. Growth in 2006 was attributed to gains in tourism, construction, offshore and other services, and some sub-sectors of the banana industry. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) recently praised the Government of Dominica for its successful macroeconomic reforms. The IMF also pointed out remaining challenges, including further reductions in public debt, increased financial sector regulation, and market diversification.<ref name=bn>"Background note: Dominica". [[U.S. Department of State]] (July 2008). {{PD-notice}}</ref>

Bananas and other agriculture dominate Dominica's economy, and nearly one-third of the labor force works in agriculture. This sector, however, is highly vulnerable to weather conditions and to external events affecting commodity prices. In 2007, Hurricane Dean caused significant damage to the agricultural sector as well as the country's infrastructure, especially roads. In response to reduced European Union (EU) banana trade preferences, the government has diversified the agricultural sector by promoting the production of coffee, patchouli, aloe vera, cut flowers, and exotic fruits such as mangoes, guavas, and papayas. Dominica has had some success in increasing its manufactured exports, primarily soap.<ref name=bn/>

Dominica is mostly volcanic and has few beaches; therefore, tourism has developed more slowly than on neighboring islands. Nevertheless, Dominica's high, rugged mountains, rainforests, freshwater lakes, hot springs, waterfalls, and diving spots make it an attractive eco-tourism destination. Cruise ship stopovers have increased following the development of modern docking and waterfront facilities in the capital.<ref name=bn/>

Dominica's currency is the Eastern Caribbean Dollar (EC$), a regional currency shared among members of the Eastern Caribbean Currency Union (ECCU). The Eastern Caribbean Central Bank (ECCB) issues the EC$, manages monetary policy, and regulates and supervises commercial banking activities in its member countries. The ECCB has kept the EC$ pegged at EC$2.7=U.S. $1.<ref name=bn/>

Dominica is a beneficiary of the U.S. Caribbean Basin Initiative that grants duty-free entry into the United States for many goods. Dominica also belongs to the predominantly English-speaking Caribbean Community and Common Market (CARICOM), the CARICOM Single Market and Economy (CSME), and the Organisation of Eastern Caribbean States (OECS).<ref name=bn/>

There are two small airports on the island: the main one is [[Melville Hall Airport]] (DOM), about one hour away from Roseau; the second one is [[Canefield Airport]] (DCF) which is about fifteen minutes' travel from Roseau. Neither of them is big enough for typical commercial-size aeroplanes, although Melville Hall is under expansion. There is no major [[highway]] on the island. Before the road was built between Portsmouth and Roseau, people had to take boats, which took several hours. Now, it takes about one hour to drive from Portsmouth to Roseau. Minibus services form the major public transport system.

Dominica also provides a welcoming environment for any [[International business company]] and is seen as an attractive destination for companies wishing to exploit the tax-free status they can enjoy. It is not known how many companies benefit from the tax-free status because of the strict confidentiality the government enforces, although it is known many [[Internet]] businesses utilize Dominica for this reason.

==Demographics==
{{main|Demographics of Dominica}}
There is a significant Mixed minority along with Indo-Caribbean or East Indian groups, a small European origin minority (descendants of French, British, and Irish colonists) and there are small numbers of Lebanese, Syrians and Asians. Dominica is also the only Eastern Caribbean island that still has a population of pre-Columbian native [[Caribs]], who were exterminated or driven from neighbouring islands. There are only about 3,000 Caribs remaining. They live in eight villages on the east coast of Dominica. This special Carib Territory was granted by the British Crown in 1903.<ref>[http://www.avirtualdominica.com/caribs.htm The Carib Indians]</ref> There are also about 1,000 medical students from the United States and Canada who study at the [[Ross University]] School of Medicine in Portsmouth.

The population growth rate of Dominica is very low, due primarily to emigration to other countries. In the early 21st Century, emmigrant numbers for the most popular countries is as follows: the [[United Kingdom]] (6739), the [[United States]] (8560), [[France]] (394), and [[Canada]] (605).

It has recently been noted that Dominica has a relatively large number of [[centenarian]]s. As of March 2007, there are 22 centenarians out of the island's almost 70,000 inhabitants—three times the average incidence of centenarianism in developed countries.<ref name=FOOC>Pickford, John ''From Our Own Correspondent'' BBC Radio 4. First broadcast 31 March 2007. Dominica report 17'49" - 22'55"</ref> The reasons for this are the subject of current research being undertaken at Ross University School of Medicine.

About 80% of the population is [[Roman Catholic]], though in recent years a number of [[Protestant]] churches have been established. There is also a small but growing [[Muslim]] community in Dominica as the nation's first [[mosque]] is currently being built.<ref>[http://www.arabwashingtonian.org/english/article.php?articleID=547&issue=19 Tropical Islam]</ref>

English is the official language of Dominica and is universally spoken and understood. However, because of historic French occupation during different times in history, and the island's location between the two French-speaking departments of [[Martinique]] and [[Guadeloupe]], [[Antillean Creole]] Patois, a French-based [[creole dialect]], is spoken by many people on the island, especially from the older generation. Because of decline in its usage by the younger generation, initiatives have been set up in an effort to increase usage and save this unique part of the nation's history and culture. The dialect of Dominica also includes [[Cocoy]], along with [[Creole (language)|Creole]]—French-based patois. Cocoy, or Kockoy, is a mix of Leeward Island English-Creole and Dominican Creole. It is mainly spoken in the north-eastern villages of Marigot and Wesley.<ref>[http://www.avirtualdominica.com/creole.htm Creole for Beginners]</ref>
At the beginning of the Twentieth Century the Rose's Company which had been producing [[Rose's lime juice]] there saw demand for its product outgrow the ability to available supply from Montserrat. Their response to the situation was to buy land on Dominica and encourage Montserrat farm laborers to relocate. As a result there came to be two linguistic communities in Dominica. Over time there has been much intermarrying but there are still traces of difference in origin. <ref>http://www.lennoxhonychurch.com/article.cfm?id=402
Migration from Montserrat to Dominica</ref>

==Culture==
{{main|Culture of Dominica|Music of Dominica}}
[[Image:Carib Territory.svg|thumb|200px|left|Dominica's East coast territory of the Kaliango (tribe)]]
Dominica is home to a wide range of people. Although it was historically occupied by several native tribes, the Arawaks and Kaliango [[Carib]] tribes remained by the time European settlers reached the island. 'Massacre' is a name of a river dedicated to the murders of the Native villagers by French and British settlers, because the river ran red with blood for days. Each (French and British) claimed the island and imported [[slaves]] from [[Africa]]. The remaining [[Caribs]] now live on a {{convert|3700|acre|km2|0|sing=on}} territory on the east coast of the island. They elect their own chief. This mix of cultures is important to Dominica.

The famed novelist [[Jean Rhys]] was born and raised in Dominica. The island is obliquely depicted in her best-known book, ''[[Wide Sargasso Sea]]''. Recently, Caribbean writer [[Marie-Elena John]]'s début novel ''[[Unburnable]]'' has evoked much of the same spirit of Dominica captured by Rhys, prompting comparisons between the two novels<ref>Harris, Ena. "Dominica as Spiritual Landscape: Representations of Nature and Ritual in Jean Rhys' Wide Sargasso Sea and Marie-Elena John's Unburnable". [http://www.cavehill.uwi.edu/fhe/specialevents/biennialconference/2007/abstracts.htm Trajectories of Freedom: Caribbean Societies Past and Present]. Abstracts. Biennial Conference 2007, University of the West Indies, Cavehill. (Abstract by Dr Ena Harris of [[Bard College]], NJ, USA). </ref> in spite of the hundred-year difference, and suggesting that Dominica has remained one of the Caribbean's most pristine islands. Rhys's friend, the political activist and writer [[Phyllis Shand Allfrey]], set her 1954 novel, ''[[The Orchid House (novel)|The Orchid House]]'' (ISBN 0-8135-2332-X), in Dominica.

[[Image:Dominicaband.jpg|thumb|right|150px|A Dominican drumming band.]]
Music and dance are important facets of Dominica's culture.The annual independence celebrations show an outburst of traditional song and dance preceded since 1997 by weeks of Creole expressions such as "Creole in the Park" and the "World Creole Music Festival".
Dominica gained prominence on the international music stage when in 1973, '''Gordon Henderson''' founded the group '''Exile One''' and an original musical genre which he coined "Cadence-lypso" which paved the way for modern Creole music.

Dominica is often seen a society that is migrating from collectivism to that of an individualism. The economic is a developing one that was previously depended on agriculture. Signs of collectivism are evident in the small towns and villages which are spread across the island.

Currently, Dominica has three major newspapers, ''The Sun'', ''The Times'', and ''The Chronicle''. There are two national television stations and a few radio stations, including [http://wiceqfm.com/index.html Q95 FM], the [[Dominica Broadcasting Corporation]], and [http://www.kairifm.com/ Kairi FM]. Before 2004, there was only one telecommunication company called [[Cable and Wireless (Caribbean)|Cable and Wireless]]. Shortly after that, [[Digicel]] and a UK-based company called [[Orange SA|Orange]] started to offer service to the island. There are a number of mobile networks operating on the island.

{{seealso|Cricket in the West Indies}}
[[Cricket]] is a popular sport on the island, and Dominica competes in [[Test cricket]] as part of the [[West Indies cricket team]]. On October 24, 2007, the 8,000-seat [[Windsor Park (Dominica)|Windsor cricket stadium]] was completed with a donation of [[EC$]]33 million ([[US$]]17 million, [[euro|€]]12 million) from the [[government of the People's Republic of China]]. The 11th annual World [[creole music|Creole Music]] Festival was the first activity held there since its completion on October 27, 2007, part of the island's celebration of independence from Great Britain on November 3. A year long reunion celebration began in January 2008 marking 30 years of independence.

==Education==
The island has its own [[Dominica State College|state college]], formerly named Clifton Dupigny Community College. Some Dominicans get scholarships from the [[Cuba]]n government to attend universities in Cuba. Others go to the [[University of the West Indies]] or to schools in the United Kingdom, the United States, or other countries for higher education. [[Ross University]], a medical school, is located at [[Portsmouth, Dominica|Portsmouth]]. [[The Archbold Tropical Research and Education Center]],<ref>[http://www.springfield-dominica.org Springfield Guesthouse & the Archbold Tropical Research & Education Center, Dominica]</ref> a biological field station owned by [[Clemson University]],<ref>[http://www.clemson.edu Clemson University]</ref> is located at Springfield Estate between Canefield and Pond Cassé. In 2006, another medical school called [[All Saints University of Medicine]] opened in temporary facilities in [[Loubiere]], with a permanent campus being constructed in [[Grand Bay, Dominica|Grand Bay]]. Currently All Saints is located in Roseau, Dominica. There is also a marine biology school in Mahaut, I.T.M.E (Institute for Tropical Marine Ecology), 15 minutes north of Roseau.

==See also==
{{InterWiki|English language|code=w}}
{{main|List of Dominica-related topics}}
{{see also|List of Caribbean-related topics|Topic outline of North America|Lists of country-related topics}}
*[[Communications in Dominica]]
*[[Foreign relations of Dominica]]
*[[Lesser Antilles]]
*[[List of people of Dominica]]
*[[Military of Dominica]]
*[[Music of Dominica]]
*[[The Scout Association of Dominica]]
*[[Transportation in Dominica]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==










{{sisterlinks|Dominica}}
*{{dmoz|Regional/Caribbean/Dominica}}
*[http://www.dominica.gov.dm/ Official website] of the Government of the Commonwealth of Dominica]
*{{wikiatlas|Dominica}}
*{{wikitravel|Dominica}}
*[http://www.discoverdominica.com Discover Dominica: Nature Island of the Caribbean] - Official government tourism website by the Discover Dominica Authority
{{-}}
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{{Countries of North America}}
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|title = International membership
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{{Caribbean Community (CARICOM)|state=collapsed}}
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{{Commonwealth of Nations}}
}}
{{Anglophone states}}


[[Category:Dominica| ]]
[[Category:Lesser Antilles]]
[[Category:Island countries]]
[[Category:CARICOM members]]
[[Category:Member states of La Francophonie]]
[[Category:Microstates]]
[[Category:Republics]]
[[Category:Liberal democracies]]
[[Category:English-speaking countries and territories]]
[[Category:Members of the Commonwealth of Nations]]


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Dunbar's number

2008-11-12T04:19:00Z

Dave Runger: /* Alternative numbers */ clarify what? these are their names -- simple enough

{{seealso|Dunbar (disambiguation)}}
'''Dunbar's number''' is the supposed cognitive limit to the number of individuals with whom any one person can maintain stable social relationships: the kind of relationships that go with knowing who each person is and how each person relates socially to every other person.<ref>{{cite book | last = Gladwell | first = Malcolm | title = The Tipping Point - How Little Things Make a Big Difference | publisher = Little, Brown and Company | year = 2000 | id = ISBN 0-316-34662-4}}</ref> Proponents assert that group sizes larger than this generally require more restricted rules, laws, and enforced policies and regulations to maintain a stable cohesion.

No precise value has been proposed for Dunbar's number, but a commonly cited approximate figure is 150.

Dunbar's number was first proposed by [[United Kingdom|British]] anthropologist [[Robin Dunbar]], who theorized that "this limit is a direct function of relative [[neocortex]] size, and that this in turn limits group size ... the limit imposed by neocortical processing capacity is simply on the number of individuals with whom a stable inter-personal relationship can be maintained." On the periphery, the number also includes past colleagues such as high school friends with whom a person would want to reacquaint themselves if they met again.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://online.wsj.com/article/SB119518271549595364.html?mod=googlenews_wsj |title=Sorry, You May Have Gone Over Your Limit Of Network Friends |author=Carl Bialik |date= 2007-11-16 |publisher=The Wall Street Journal Online |accessdate=2007-12-02}}</ref>

==Research background==
[[Primatology|Primatologists]] have noted that, due to their highly social nature, non-human [[primate]]s have to maintain personal contact with the other members of their social group, usually through [[Social grooming|grooming]]. Such social groups function as protective cliques within the physical groups in which the primates live. The number of social group members a primate can track appears to be limited by the volume of the neocortex region of their brain. This suggests that there is a species-specific index of the social group size, computable from the species' mean neocortex volume.

In a 1992 article, Dunbar used the correlation observed for non-human primates to predict a social group size for [[human]]s. Using a regression equation on data for 38 primate genera, Dunbar predicted a human "mean group size" of 148 (casually rounded to 150), a result he considered exploratory due to the large error measure (a 95% confidence interval of 100 to 230).

Dunbar then compared this prediction with observable group sizes for humans. Beginning with the assumption that the current mean size of the human neocortex had developed about 250,000 years [[Common Era|BCE]], i.e. during the [[Pleistocene]], Dunbar searched the [[Anthropology|anthropological]] and [[Ethnography|ethnographical]] literature for census-like group size information for various [[hunter-gatherer]] societies, the closest existing approximations to how anthropology reconstructs the Pleistocene societies. Dunbar noted that the groups fell into three categories — small, medium and large, equivalent to [[Band society|bands]], cultural lineage groups and [[tribe]]s — with respective size ranges of 30-50, 100-200 and 500-2500 members each.

Dunbar's surveys of [[village]] and tribe sizes also appeared to approximate this predicted value, including 150 as the estimated size of a [[neolithic]] farming village; 150 as the splitting point of [[Hutterite]] settlements; 200 as the upper bound on the number of academics in a discipline's sub-specialization; 150 as the basic unit size of professional [[army|armies]] in [[Ancient Rome|Roman antiquity]] and in [[modern world|modern times]] since the 16th century; and notions of appropriate company size.

Dunbar has argued that 150 would be the mean group size only for communities with a very high incentive to remain together. For a group of this size to remain cohesive, Dunbar speculated that as much as 42% of the group's time would have to be devoted to social grooming. Correspondingly, only groups under intense survival pressure{{Fact|date=May 2008}}, such as [[subsistence farming|subsistence]] villages, [[nomad]]ic tribes, and historical [[war|military]] groupings, have, on average, achieved the 150-member mark. Moreover, Dunbar noted that such groups are almost always physically close: "... we might expect the upper limit on group size to depend on the degree of social dispersal. In dispersed societies, individuals will meet less often and will thus be less familiar with each, so group sizes should be smaller in consequence." Thus, the 150-member group would only occur because of absolute necessity — i.e., due to intense environmental and economic pressures.

Dunbar, author of ''Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language'', proposes furthermore that [[language]] may have arisen as a "cheap" means of social grooming, allowing early humans to efficiently maintain social cohesion. Without language, Dunbar speculates, humans would have to expend nearly half their time on social grooming, which would have made productive, cooperative effort nearly impossible. Language may have allowed societies to remain cohesive, while reducing the need for physical and social intimacy.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.amazon.com/Grooming-Gossip-Evolution-Language-Dunbar/dp/0674363361 |title=Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language (Paperback) by Robin Dunbar (Author) |publisher=amazon.com |accessdate=2007-12-02}}</ref>

Dunbar's number has since become of interest in anthropology, [[evolutionary psychology]],<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.ucis.pitt.edu/clas/events/gap_conference/VirtualResistanceInternetMediatedNetworks-Themudo.pdf
|title=Virtual Resistance: Internet-mediated Networks (Dotcauses) and Collective Action Against Neoliberalism |format=pg. 36 |author=Nuno Themudo |date=2007-03-23 |publisher=University of Pittsburg, University Center for Internation Studies |accessdate=2007-12-02}}</ref>
[[statistics]], and [[business management]]. Developers of social software are interested in it, as they need to know the size of social networks their software needs to take into account.

==Alternative numbers==
Dunbar's number is not derived from systematic observation of the number of relationships that people living in the contemporary world have. As noted above, it comes from extrapolation from nonhuman primates and from inspection of selected documents showing [[social network|network sizes]] in selected pre-industrial villages and settlements in less developed countries.

Anthropologist [[H. Russell Bernard]] and [[Peter Killworth]] and associates have done a variety of field studies in the United States that came up with an estimated mean number of ties - 290 - that is roughly double Dunbar's estimate. The Bernard-Killworth [[median]] of 231 is lower, due to upward straggle in the distribution: this is still appreciably larger than Dunbar's estimate. The Bernard-Killworth estimate of the maximum likelihood of the size of a person's [[social network]] is based on a number of field studies using different methods in various populations. It is not an average of study averages but a repeated finding.<ref>McCarty,C., Killworth, P.D., Bernard,H.R., Johnsen, E. and Shelley, G. “Comparing Two Methods for Estimating Network Size”, Human Organization 60:28-39. (2000).</ref><ref>Bernard, H. Russell, Gene Ann Shelley and Peter Killworth. 1987. "How Much of a Network does the GSS and RSW Dredge Up?" ''Social Networks'' 9: 49-63. H. Russell Bernard. 2006. "Honoring Peter Killworth's contribution to social network theory." Paper presented to the University of Southampton, September. http://nersp.osg.ufl.edu/~ufruss/</ref> Nevertheless, the Bernard-Killworth number has not been popularized as widely as Dunbar's.

==Popularization==
*Dunbar's number has been most popularized by [[Malcolm Gladwell]]'s ''[[The Tipping Point (book)|The Tipping Point]]'', where it plays a central role in Gladwell's arguments about the dynamics of social groups.
*In a 1985 paper titled [http://www.dennisfox.net/papers/commons.html "Psychology, Ideology, Utopia, & the Commons,"] psychologist [[Dennis Fox]] proposed the same concept as it is applied to [[anarchy]], [[politics]], and the [[tragedy of the commons]].
*[[Neo-Tribalism|Neo-Tribalists]] have also used it to support their critiques of modern society. {{Fact|date=January 2008}}
*Recently, the number has been used in the study of [[Internet community|Internet communities]], especially [[MMORPG]]s such as [[Ultima Online]], and [[social network service|social networking]] [[website]]s such as [[Facebook]] and [[MySpace]].<ref>One example is Christopher Allen, [http://www.lifewithalacrity.com/2005/03/dunbar_altruist.html "Dunbar, Altruistic Punishment, and Meta-Moderation"].</ref>
*The [[Sweden|Swedish]] tax authority recently reorganized its functions. The number 150 was set as the maximum number of people in an office, referring to Dunbar's research.<ref>''The Local – Sweden's news in English'', [[July 23]], [[2007]]. [http://www.thelocal.se/7972/20070723/ "Swedish tax collectors organized by apes"].</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==Further reading==
<div class="references-small">
*Dunbar, R.I.M. (1992) ''Neocortex size as a constraint on group size in primates'', Journal of Human Evolution 22: 469-493.
*Dunbar, R.I.M. (1993), ''Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans'', Behavioral and Brain Sciences 16 (4): 681-735.
*''Edney, J. J. (1981a)''. Paradoxes on the commons: Scarcity and the problem of equality. Journal of Community Psychology, 9, 3-34.
*Sawaguchi, T., & Kudo, H. (1990), ''Neocortical development and social structure in primates'', Primates 31: 283-290.
</div>

==External links==
*[http://www.bbsonline.org/documents/a/00/00/05/65/bbs00000565-00/bbs.dunbar.html A pre-publication version] of ''Coevolution of neocortical size, group size and language in humans''. (See also Bibliography section there.)
*[http://www.liv.ac.uk/researchintelligence/issue17/brainteaser.html University of Liverpool Research Intelligence No. 17, August 2003] - "The ultimate brain teaser" - an article on Dunbar's research.
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20051214141613/http://mythical.blogspot.com/2004_06_01_mythical_archive.html Some speculations] about a correlation between the monkeysphere and [[Guild (computer gaming)|Guild]] size in online multiplayer role playing games.
*[http://www.blog.mopsos.com/archives/000075.html Mospos blog entry] - Communities of practice and Dunbar's number
*[http://www.lifewithalacrity.com/2004/03/the_dunbar_numb.html Life With Alacrity blog entry] - Applying Dunbar's number to online gaming, social software, collaboration, trust, security, privacy, and internet tools, by Christopher Allen.
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Constitution of California

2008-11-06T01:41:50Z

Dave Runger: fix my last edit; moved external links from "see also" to "external links"

[[Image:Colton hall.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The 1849 Constitution was signed in Colton Hall in [[Monterey, CA|Monterey]].]]
{{Wikisource}}
The '''Constitution of the State of California''' is the document that establishes and describes the duties, powers, structure and function of the [[government]] of the [[U.S. state]] of [[California]]. The original constitution, adopted in November 1849 in advance of California attaining U.S. statehood in 1850, was superseded by the current constitution, which was ratified on [[May 7]], [[1879]].<ref>Joseph R. Grodin, Calvin R. Massey, and Richard B. Cunningham, ''The California State Constitution: A Reference Guide'' (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993), 8 and 16.</ref>

==Amendments and revisions==
In response to widespread public disgust with the powerful railroads which controlled California's politics and economy at the start of the 20th century, Progressive politicians pioneered the concept of aggressively amending the state constitution by initiative in order to remedy perceived evils.<ref>Grodin, 16-17.</ref> From 1911, the height of the U.S. [[Progressive Era]], to 1986, the California Constitution was [[constitutional amendment|amended]] over 500 times.<ref>Grodin, 21.</ref> The constitution gradually became increasingly bloated, leading to abortive efforts towards a third constitutional convention in 1897, 1914, 1919, 1930, 1934, and 1947.<ref>Grodin, 18-19.</ref> By 1962 the constitution had grown to 75,000 words, which at that time was longer than any other state constitution but Louisiana.<ref>Grodin, 19.</ref> That year, the electorate approved the creation of a California Constitution Revision Commission, which worked on a comprehensive revision of the constitution from 1964 to 1976. The electorate ratified the Commission's revisions in 1966, 1970, 1972, and 1974, but rejected the 1968 revision, whose primary substantive effect would have been to make the state's superintendent of schools into an appointed rather than an elected official.<ref>Grodin, 20.</ref> In the end, the Commission managed to remove about 40,000 words from the constitution.<ref>Grodin, 19.</ref>

==Differences from other constitutions==
Unlike most state [[constitution]]s, the California Constitution is quite long at 110½ pages.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} The length has been attributed to a variety of factors, such as lack of faith in [[elected official]]s and the fact that many [[initiative]]s take the form of a constitutional amendment.<ref>Grodin, 14-15.</ref> Several amendments involved the authorization of the creation of state government agencies, including the [[State Compensation Insurance Fund]] and the [[State Bar of California]]; the purpose of such amendments was to insulate the agencies from being attacked as an unconstitutionally broad exercise of [[police power]] or inherent judicial power.<ref>See Grodin, 267.</ref>

Unlike other state constitutions, the California Constitution strongly protects the corporate existence of cities and counties ''and'' grants them broad plenary home rule powers.<ref>Grodin, 170-192.</ref> By specifically enabling cities to pay counties to perform governmental functions for them, Section 8 of Article XI resulted in the rise of the [[contract city]].<ref>Grodin, 193.</ref>

Many of the individual rights clauses in the state constitution have been construed as providing rights broader than the [[Bill of Rights]] in the [[United States Constitution|federal constitution]].<ref>Grodin, 37.</ref> Two excellent examples are the [[Pruneyard Shopping Center]] case, and the first decision in America in 1972 finding the death penalty unconstitutional, ''[[California v. Anderson]]'', [[Case citation|6 Cal. 3d 628]], which also noted that under the state constitution, a stronger protection applies than the U.S. Constitution's 8th Amendment, which prohibits punishments which are ''cruel '''and''' unusual'', the state constitution prohibits punishments which are ''cruel '''or''' unusual''.

Two universities are expressly mentioned in the constitution: the [[University of California]] and [[Stanford University]]. UC is one of only nine state-run public universities in the United States whose independence from political interference is expressly guaranteed by the state constitution.<ref>Grodin, 156.</ref> Since 1900, Stanford has enjoyed the benefit of a constitutional clause shielding Stanford-owned property from taxes as long as it is used for educational purposes.<ref>Grodin, 311.</ref>

==Signers of the 1849 Constitution==
{|
|-
|
*[[Joseph Aram]]
*Charles T. Botts
*[[Elam Brown]]
*[[Jose Antonio Carrillo]]
*[[Jose Manuel Covarrubias]]
*[[Elisha Oscar Crosby]]
*[[Lewis Dent]]
*Kimball Hale Dimmick
*Manuel Dominguez
*Alfred James Ellis
||
*[[Stephen C. Foster (politician)|Stephen C. Foster]]
*Edward Gilbert
*[[Pablo de la Guerra]]
*[[William M. Gwin]]
*[[Julian Hanks]]
*[[Henry Hill]]
*Jacob David Hoppe
*[[John McDougall]]
*[[Myron Norton]]
*Pacificus Ord
||
*[[Miguel de Pedrorena]]
*[[Rodman M. Price]]
*[[Antonio Ma. Pico]]
*[[Jacinto Rodriguez]]
*[[Hugh Reid]]
*[[John Sutter|J. A. Sutter]]
*Henry A. Tefft
*[[Jacob R. Snyder]]
*[[Winfield S. Sherwood|Winfield Scott Sherwood]]
*William E. Shannon
||
*[[Pedro Sainsevain]]
*[[Abel Stearns]]
*John C. Shaw
*William M. Steuart
*Robert Semple
*[[Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo|M. G. Vallejo]]
*[[Joseph Hobson]]
*Thomas L. Vermeule
*[[Henry Wager Halleck|H. W. Halleck]]
*Joel P. Walker
||
*[[Lansford Hastings|Lansford W. Hastings]]
*Oliver M. Wozencroft
*John McHenry Hollingsworth
*James McHall Jones
*[[Thomas O. Larkin|Thomas Oliver Larkin]]
*[[Francis J. Lippitt]]
*Benjamin S. Lippincott
*[[Benjiman F. Moore]]
*Morton Matthew McCarver
 
|}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Government of California]]
* [[Politics of California]]

==External links==

===Full text===
* [http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/California_Constitution Full text] at Wikisource
* [/media/wikipedia/en/3/38/California_State_Constitution_of_1879.pdf Text of the Constitution as of 1879] (PDF file, 1.6 MB)
* [http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/const.html Search State Constitution] searchable index
* [http://www.ss.ca.gov/archives/level3_const1849txt.html California State Archives - 1849 State Constitution (text)]

===Additional information===

* California Policy Seminar brief: [http://www.ucop.edu/cprc/caconst.pdf The Revision of the California Constitution]
* [http://cpr.ca.gov/updates/pressdetail.php?id=112 California Performance Review]

[[Category:California law|Constitution]]
[[Category:State constitutions of the United States]]
 
{{USsubconstitutions}}

[[bg:Конституция на Калифорния]]
[[fr:Constitution de la Californie]]

Constitution of California

2008-11-06T01:09:15Z

Dave Runger: /* External links */ reverse unproductive linkspam edit to external links

[[Image:Colton hall.jpg|thumb|right|300px|The 1849 Constitution was signed in Colton Hall in [[Monterey, CA|Monterey]].]]
{{Wikisource}}
The '''Constitution of the State of California''' is the document that establishes and describes the duties, powers, structure and function of the [[government]] of the [[U.S. state]] of [[California]]. The original constitution, adopted in November 1849 in advance of California attaining U.S. statehood in 1850, was superseded by the current constitution, which was ratified on [[May 7]], [[1879]].<ref>Joseph R. Grodin, Calvin R. Massey, and Richard B. Cunningham, ''The California State Constitution: A Reference Guide'' (Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 1993), 8 and 16.</ref>

==Amendments and revisions==
In response to widespread public disgust with the powerful railroads which controlled California's politics and economy at the start of the 20th century, Progressive politicians pioneered the concept of aggressively amending the state constitution by initiative in order to remedy perceived evils.<ref>Grodin, 16-17.</ref> From 1911, the height of the U.S. [[Progressive Era]], to 1986, the California Constitution was [[constitutional amendment|amended]] over 500 times.<ref>Grodin, 21.</ref> The constitution gradually became increasingly bloated, leading to abortive efforts towards a third constitutional convention in 1897, 1914, 1919, 1930, 1934, and 1947.<ref>Grodin, 18-19.</ref> By 1962 the constitution had grown to 75,000 words, which at that time was longer than any other state constitution but Louisiana.<ref>Grodin, 19.</ref> That year, the electorate approved the creation of a California Constitution Revision Commission, which worked on a comprehensive revision of the constitution from 1964 to 1976. The electorate ratified the Commission's revisions in 1966, 1970, 1972, and 1974, but rejected the 1968 revision, whose primary substantive effect would have been to make the state's superintendent of schools into an appointed rather than an elected official.<ref>Grodin, 20.</ref> In the end, the Commission managed to remove about 40,000 words from the constitution.<ref>Grodin, 19.</ref>

==Differences from other constitutions==
Unlike most state [[constitution]]s, the California Constitution is quite long at 110½ pages.{{Fact|date=March 2008}} The length has been attributed to a variety of factors, such as lack of faith in [[elected official]]s and the fact that many [[initiative]]s take the form of a constitutional amendment.<ref>Grodin, 14-15.</ref> Several amendments involved the authorization of the creation of state government agencies, including the [[State Compensation Insurance Fund]] and the [[State Bar of California]]; the purpose of such amendments was to insulate the agencies from being attacked as an unconstitutionally broad exercise of [[police power]] or inherent judicial power.<ref>See Grodin, 267.</ref>

Unlike other state constitutions, the California Constitution strongly protects the corporate existence of cities and counties ''and'' grants them broad plenary home rule powers.<ref>Grodin, 170-192.</ref> By specifically enabling cities to pay counties to perform governmental functions for them, Section 8 of Article XI resulted in the rise of the [[contract city]].<ref>Grodin, 193.</ref>

Many of the individual rights clauses in the state constitution have been construed as providing rights broader than the [[Bill of Rights]] in the [[United States Constitution|federal constitution]].<ref>Grodin, 37.</ref> Two excellent examples are the [[Pruneyard Shopping Center]] case, and the first decision in America in 1972 finding the death penalty unconstitutional, ''[[California v. Anderson]]'', [[Case citation|6 Cal. 3d 628]], which also noted that under the state constitution, a stronger protection applies than the U.S. Constitution's 8th Amendment, which prohibits punishments which are ''cruel '''and''' unusual'', the state constitution prohibits punishments which are ''cruel '''or''' unusual''.

Two universities are expressly mentioned in the constitution: the [[University of California]] and [[Stanford University]]. UC is one of only nine state-run public universities in the United States whose independence from political interference is expressly guaranteed by the state constitution.<ref>Grodin, 156.</ref> Since 1900, Stanford has enjoyed the benefit of a constitutional clause shielding Stanford-owned property from taxes as long as it is used for educational purposes.<ref>Grodin, 311.</ref>

==Signers of the 1849 Constitution==
{|
|-
|
*[[Joseph Aram]]
*Charles T. Botts
*[[Elam Brown]]
*[[Jose Antonio Carrillo]]
*[[Jose Manuel Covarrubias]]
*[[Elisha Oscar Crosby]]
*[[Lewis Dent]]
*Kimball Hale Dimmick
*Manuel Dominguez
*Alfred James Ellis
||
*[[Stephen C. Foster (politician)|Stephen C. Foster]]
*Edward Gilbert
*[[Pablo de la Guerra]]
*[[William M. Gwin]]
*[[Julian Hanks]]
*[[Henry Hill]]
*Jacob David Hoppe
*[[John McDougall]]
*[[Myron Norton]]
*Pacificus Ord
||
*[[Miguel de Pedrorena]]
*[[Rodman M. Price]]
*[[Antonio Ma. Pico]]
*[[Jacinto Rodriguez]]
*[[Hugh Reid]]
*[[John Sutter|J. A. Sutter]]
*Henry A. Tefft
*[[Jacob R. Snyder]]
*[[Winfield S. Sherwood|Winfield Scott Sherwood]]
*William E. Shannon
||
*[[Pedro Sainsevain]]
*[[Abel Stearns]]
*John C. Shaw
*William M. Steuart
*Robert Semple
*[[Mariano Guadalupe Vallejo|M. G. Vallejo]]
*[[Joseph Hobson]]
*Thomas L. Vermeule
*[[Henry Wager Halleck|H. W. Halleck]]
*Joel P. Walker
||
*[[Lansford Hastings|Lansford W. Hastings]]
*Oliver M. Wozencroft
*John McHenry Hollingsworth
*James McHall Jones
*[[Thomas O. Larkin|Thomas Oliver Larkin]]
*[[Francis J. Lippitt]]
*Benjamin S. Lippincott
*[[Benjiman F. Moore]]
*Morton Matthew McCarver
 
|}

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==See also==
* [[Government of California]]
* [[Politics of California]]
* [/media/wikipedia/en/3/38/California_State_Constitution_of_1879.pdf Text of the Constitution as of 1879] (PDF file, 1.6 MB)

===Full text===
* [http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/const.html Search State Constitution] searchable index
* [http://www.ss.ca.gov/archives/level3_const1849txt.html California State Archives - 1849 State Constitution (text)]

===Additional information===
* California Policy Seminar brief: [http://www.ucop.edu/cprc/documents/caconst.pdf The Revision of the California Constitution]
* [http://cpr.ca.gov/updates/pressdetail.php?id=112 California Performance Review]

==External links==

===Full text===
* [http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/const.html Search State Constitution] searchable index
* [http://www.ss.ca.gov/archives/level3_const1849txt.html California State Archives - 1849 State Constitution (text)]

===Additional information===

* California Policy Seminar brief: [http://www.ucop.edu/cprc/caconst.pdf The Revision of the California Constitution]
* [http://cpr.ca.gov/updates/pressdetail.php?id=112 California Performance Review]

[[Category:California law|Constitution]]
[[Category:State constitutions of the United States]]
 
{{USsubconstitutions}}

[[bg:Конституция на Калифорния]]
[[fr:Constitution de la Californie]]

Human vestigiality

2008-11-04T06:36:00Z

Dave Runger: /* Behavioral */ not all infants can support their own weight from a rod; only about 37%; fixed and cited (messed up previous citation)

[[Image:Darwin-s-tubercle.jpg|225px|thumb|The muscles connected to the ears of a human do not develop enough to have the same mobility allowed to monkeys.]]

In the context of [[human evolution]], '''human vestigiality''' involves those [[character (biology)|characters]] (such as [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]]s or [[ behavior]]s) occurring in the [[human]] species that are considered [[vestigial]] - in other words having lost all or most of their original [[function (biology)|function]] through [[evolution]]. Although structures usually called "vestigial" are largely or entirely functionless, a vestigial structure may retain lesser functions or develop minor new ones.<ref name=Muller>Muller, G. B. (2002) "Vestigial Organs and Structures." in Encyclopedia of Evolution. Mark Pagel, editor in chief, New York: Oxford University Press. pp 1131-1133</ref>

Vestigial characters occur throughout nature, one example being the vestigial hind limbs of [[whale]]s and [[snake]]s. Many human cases are also vestigial in other [[primate]]s and related animals. The following characters have been or still are considered vestigial in humans:

==Anatomical==
===Appendix===
[[Image:Gray536.png |right|thumb|The vermiform appendix]]
The [[vermiform appendix]] is a vestige of the [[cecum]], an organ that would have been used to digest [[cellulose]] by humans' herbivorous ancestors.<ref name=Descent>[[Charles Darwin|Darwin, Charles]] (1871). ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]''. John Murray: London.</ref> Analogous organs in other animals similar to humans continue to perform that function, whereas other meat-eating animals may have similarly diminished appendices. In line with the possibility of vestigial organs developing new functions, some research suggests that the appendix may guard against the loss of symbiotic bacteria that aid in digestion.<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21153898/ Useful Appendix]</ref><ref>Bollinger, RR; Barbas, AS; Bush, EL, et al., Biofilms in the large bowel suggest an apparent function of the human vermiform appendix. JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL BIOLOGY. 2007 249:826-831 http://apps.isiknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=UA&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=38&SID=4DLHfOdd2@i1Cc38Lc9&page=1&doc=10&colname=WOS</ref>

===Coccyx===
The [[coccyx]], or tailbone, is the remnant of a lost [[tail]]. All mammals have a tail at one point in their development; in humans, it is present for a period of 4 weeks, during [[Carnegie stages|stages]] 14 to 22 of [[human embryogenesis]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Saraga-Babić M, Lehtonen E, Svajger A, Wartiovaara J |title=Morphological and immunohistochemical characteristics of axial structures in the transitory human tail |journal=Ann. Anat. |volume=176 |issue=3 |pages=277–86 |year=1994 |pmid=8059973}}</ref> This tail is most prominent in human embryos 31-35 days old.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fallon JF, Simandl BK |title=Evidence of a role for cell death in the disappearance of the embryonic human tail |journal=Am. J. Anat. |volume=152 |issue=1 |pages=111–29 |year=1978 |pmid=677043 |doi=10.1002/aja.1001520108}}</ref> The tailbone, located at the end of the spine, has lost its original function in assisting balance and mobility, though it still serves some secondary functions, such as being an attachment point for muscles, which explains why it has not degraded further. In rare cases a [[Tail#Human tails|short tail]] can persist after birth, with 23 human babies possessing tails having been reported in the medical literature since 1884.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dao AH, Netsky MG |title=Human tails and pseudotails |journal=Hum. Pathol. |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=449–53 |year=1984 |pmid=6373560 |doi=10.1016/S0046-8177(84)80079-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Dubrow TJ, Wackym PA, Lesavoy MA |title=Detailing the human tail |journal=Annals of plastic surgery |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=340–4 |year=1988 |pmid=3284435 |doi=10.1097/00000637-198804000-00009}}</ref>

===Wisdom teeth===

[[Wisdom teeth]] are vestigial third molars that human ancestors used to help in grinding down plant tissue. The common postulation is that the skulls of human ancestors had larger jaws with more teeth, which were possibly used to help chew down foliage to compensate for a lack of ability to efficiently digest the [[cellulose]] that makes up a plant cell wall. As human diet changed, a smaller jaw was [[selection|selected]] by evolution, yet the third molars, or "wisdom teeth", still commonly develop in human mouths.<ref>Johnson, Dr. George B.. "Evidence for Evolution (Page 12)." Txtwriter Inc.. 8 Jun 2006 <http://www.txtwriter.com/backgrounders/Evolution/EVpage12.html>.</ref>

However, other findings suggest that a given culture's diet is a larger factor than genetics in the development of jaw size (and, consequently, the space available for wisdom teeth):
{{cquotetxt|Dental crowding in modern humans is considered the combined result of tool use to [[comminute]] foods and cooking to modify their mechanical properties, such as toughness.<ref>"Facial dwarfing and dental crowding in relation to diet." Lucas, Peter W. ScienceDirect - International Congress Series 27 August 2007 [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B7581-4K77FW0-D&_user=595307&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F2006&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000030581&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=595307&md5=8eb8dac071cdbc68686caeff59f47a38].</ref>
}}

===Ear===

[[Image:1871 Descent F937.1 fig03.jpg|right|thumb|Human ear (from ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|Descent of Man]]'')]]
{{Further|[[Ear]]}}
The ears of a [[Macaque monkey]], and most other monkeys, have far more developed muscles than those of humans and therefore have the capability to move their ears to better hear potential threats.<ref>Prof. A. Macalister, Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. vii., 1871, p. 342.</ref> Humans and other primates such as the [[orangutan]] and [[chimpanzee]] however have ear [[muscle]]s that are minimally developed and non-functional.<ref name=Descent>[[Charles Darwin|Darwin, Charles]] (1871). ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]''. John Murray: London.</ref> A muscle that cannot move the ear, for whatever reason, can no longer be said to have any biological function. In humans there is variability in these muscles, such that some people are able to move their ears in various directions, and it has been said that it may be possible for others to gain such movement by repeated trials.<ref name=Descent /> In such primates the inability to move the ear is compensated mainly by the ability to turn the [[head]] on a horizontal plane, an ability which is not common to most monkeys— a function once provided by one structure is now replaced by another.<ref>Mr. St. George Mivart, Elementary Anatomy, 1873, p. 396.</ref>

===Eye===
{{Further|[[Nictitating membrane]]}}
The [[plica semilunaris of the conjunctiva|plica semilunaris]] is small fold of tissue on the inside corner of the eye. It is the vestigial remnant of the [[nictitating membrane]] (the "third eyelid") which is present in other animals such as [[bird]]s, [[reptile]]s, and [[fish]]. It is rare in [[mammal]]s, mainly found in [[monotreme]]s and [[marsupial]]s.<ref>[[Richard Owen|Owen, R.]] 1866-1868. ''Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates''. London.</ref> Its associated muscles are also vestigial.<ref name=Descent /> The plica semilunaris of [[African people|Africans]] and [[Indigenous Australians]] have been said to have slightly larger than other peoples.<ref name=Descent>[[Charles Darwin|Darwin, Charles]] (1871). ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]''. John Murray: London.</ref> Only one species of [[primate]] -- the [[Calabar angwantibo]] -- is known to have a functioning nictitating membrane.<ref>Montagna, W., Machida, H., and Perkins, E.M. 1966. The skin of primates XXXIII.: The skin of the angwantibo. ''American Journal of Physical Anthropology''. Vol. 25, 277-290.
</ref>

==Sensory==
{{Further|[[Olfaction]]}}
Although the sense of smell or ''olfaction'' is highly important for many animals in avoiding [[predator]]s, [[prey detection|finding food]], or both, it is far less essential to human survival, having for the most part no predators, and obtaining food mostly by [[agriculture]]. There is great [[genetic variation|variation]] in olfactory sensitivity from person to person, which is common in vestigial characteristics. It has been observed that native South Americans, American Indians, and African peoples have a highly developed sense of smell, such that they may be able to identify others in the dark by their odor alone. <ref name="Descent" /> This does not mean that having any olfactory ability at all is vestigial, for example it may save a person from inhaling [[toxic]] fumes; however, a highly developed [[olfactory system]] seems to be of little survival value. It should be noted that a characteristic may deteriorate despite being of some use so long as there is very little or no [[selection pressure]] on the genes associated with it. In other words, having a good sense of smell may be something a person would desire, but unless those without such abilities have a lower reproductive success or ''[[fitness (biology)|fitness]]'', there is no barrier to it degenerating.

==Behavioral==
[[Image:Gaensehaut.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Goose bumps]] are an example of a vestigial human reaction to stress.]]
Humans also bear some vestigial behaviors and reflexes. For example, the formation of [[goose bump]]s in humans under [[stress (medicine)|stress]] is a vestigial [[reflex action|reflex]]; a possible function in human evolutionary ancestors was to raise the body's hair, making the ancestor appear larger and scaring off predators. Raising the hair is also used to trap an extra layer of air, keeping an animal warm. This reflex formation of goosebumps when cold therefore has a useful function in humans with thick body hair, but the reflex to form them under stress is vestigial.<ref>Darwin, Charles. (1872) ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'' John Murray, London.</ref>

Some [[infant]]s (37% according to a 1932 study) are able to support their own weight from a rod<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=OzL2Bgvf9Q0C&pg=PA122&dq=%22chancy+and+mcgraw+(31)+investigated+the+reflex+in+the+125+infants%22%22 Behavior Development in Infants] (via Google Books) by Evelyn Dewey, citing a study "Reflexes and other motor activities in newborn infants: a report of 125 cases as a preliminary study of infant behavior" published in the ''Bull. Neurol. Inst. New York'', 1932, Vol. 2, pp. 1-56.</ref>, although there is no way they can cling to their mother. However, an ancestral primate would have had sufficient body hair to which an infant could cling, allowing its mother to escape from danger, such as climbing up a tree in the presence of a predator.

==Molecular==
{{Further|[[Junk DNA]]}}
There are also vestigial molecular structures in humans, which are no longer in use but may indicate common ancestry with other species. One example of this is [[L-gulonolactone oxidase]], a gene that is functional in most other mammals and produces an [[enzyme]] that synthesizes [[Vitamin C]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ohta Y, Nishikimi M |title=Random nucleotide substitutions in primate nonfunctional gene for L-gulono-gamma-lactone oxidase, the missing enzyme in L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis |journal=Biochim. Biophys. Acta |volume=1472 |issue=1-2 |pages=408–11 |year=1999 |pmid=10572964}}</ref> In humans and other primates, a mutation disabled the gene and made it unable to produce the enzyme. However, the remains of the gene are still present in the [[human genome]] as a vestigial genetic sequence called a [[pseudogene]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nishikimi M, Fukuyama R, Minoshima S, Shimizu N, Yagi K |title=Cloning and chromosomal mapping of the human nonfunctional gene for L-gulono-gamma-lactone oxidase, the enzyme for L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis missing in man |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=269 |issue=18 |pages=13685–8 |year=1994 |pmid=8175804 |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/269/18/13685}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Color blindness]]
*[[Myopia]]
*[[Vomeronasal organ]]

==References==
{{Wikisource|Descent of Man/Chapter I}}
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Human anatomy]]
[[Category:Human behavior]]
[[Category:Human development]]
[[Category:Human evolution]]
[[Category:Human physiology]]

Human vestigiality

2008-11-04T06:34:04Z

Dave Runger: /* Behavioral */ not all infants can support their own weight from a rod; only about 37%; fixed and cited

[[Image:Darwin-s-tubercle.jpg|225px|thumb|The muscles connected to the ears of a human do not develop enough to have the same mobility allowed to monkeys.]]

In the context of [[human evolution]], '''human vestigiality''' involves those [[character (biology)|characters]] (such as [[Organ (anatomy)|organ]]s or [[ behavior]]s) occurring in the [[human]] species that are considered [[vestigial]] - in other words having lost all or most of their original [[function (biology)|function]] through [[evolution]]. Although structures usually called "vestigial" are largely or entirely functionless, a vestigial structure may retain lesser functions or develop minor new ones.<ref name=Muller>Muller, G. B. (2002) "Vestigial Organs and Structures." in Encyclopedia of Evolution. Mark Pagel, editor in chief, New York: Oxford University Press. pp 1131-1133</ref>

Vestigial characters occur throughout nature, one example being the vestigial hind limbs of [[whale]]s and [[snake]]s. Many human cases are also vestigial in other [[primate]]s and related animals. The following characters have been or still are considered vestigial in humans:

==Anatomical==
===Appendix===
[[Image:Gray536.png |right|thumb|The vermiform appendix]]
The [[vermiform appendix]] is a vestige of the [[cecum]], an organ that would have been used to digest [[cellulose]] by humans' herbivorous ancestors.<ref name=Descent>[[Charles Darwin|Darwin, Charles]] (1871). ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]''. John Murray: London.</ref> Analogous organs in other animals similar to humans continue to perform that function, whereas other meat-eating animals may have similarly diminished appendices. In line with the possibility of vestigial organs developing new functions, some research suggests that the appendix may guard against the loss of symbiotic bacteria that aid in digestion.<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/21153898/ Useful Appendix]</ref><ref>Bollinger, RR; Barbas, AS; Bush, EL, et al., Biofilms in the large bowel suggest an apparent function of the human vermiform appendix. JOURNAL OF THEORETICAL BIOLOGY. 2007 249:826-831 http://apps.isiknowledge.com/full_record.do?product=UA&search_mode=GeneralSearch&qid=38&SID=4DLHfOdd2@i1Cc38Lc9&page=1&doc=10&colname=WOS</ref>

===Coccyx===
The [[coccyx]], or tailbone, is the remnant of a lost [[tail]]. All mammals have a tail at one point in their development; in humans, it is present for a period of 4 weeks, during [[Carnegie stages|stages]] 14 to 22 of [[human embryogenesis]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Saraga-Babić M, Lehtonen E, Svajger A, Wartiovaara J |title=Morphological and immunohistochemical characteristics of axial structures in the transitory human tail |journal=Ann. Anat. |volume=176 |issue=3 |pages=277–86 |year=1994 |pmid=8059973}}</ref> This tail is most prominent in human embryos 31-35 days old.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Fallon JF, Simandl BK |title=Evidence of a role for cell death in the disappearance of the embryonic human tail |journal=Am. J. Anat. |volume=152 |issue=1 |pages=111–29 |year=1978 |pmid=677043 |doi=10.1002/aja.1001520108}}</ref> The tailbone, located at the end of the spine, has lost its original function in assisting balance and mobility, though it still serves some secondary functions, such as being an attachment point for muscles, which explains why it has not degraded further. In rare cases a [[Tail#Human tails|short tail]] can persist after birth, with 23 human babies possessing tails having been reported in the medical literature since 1884.<ref>{{cite journal |author=Dao AH, Netsky MG |title=Human tails and pseudotails |journal=Hum. Pathol. |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=449–53 |year=1984 |pmid=6373560 |doi=10.1016/S0046-8177(84)80079-9}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |author=Dubrow TJ, Wackym PA, Lesavoy MA |title=Detailing the human tail |journal=Annals of plastic surgery |volume=20 |issue=4 |pages=340–4 |year=1988 |pmid=3284435 |doi=10.1097/00000637-198804000-00009}}</ref>

===Wisdom teeth===

[[Wisdom teeth]] are vestigial third molars that human ancestors used to help in grinding down plant tissue. The common postulation is that the skulls of human ancestors had larger jaws with more teeth, which were possibly used to help chew down foliage to compensate for a lack of ability to efficiently digest the [[cellulose]] that makes up a plant cell wall. As human diet changed, a smaller jaw was [[selection|selected]] by evolution, yet the third molars, or "wisdom teeth", still commonly develop in human mouths.<ref>Johnson, Dr. George B.. "Evidence for Evolution (Page 12)." Txtwriter Inc.. 8 Jun 2006 <http://www.txtwriter.com/backgrounders/Evolution/EVpage12.html>.</ref>

However, other findings suggest that a given culture's diet is a larger factor than genetics in the development of jaw size (and, consequently, the space available for wisdom teeth):
{{cquotetxt|Dental crowding in modern humans is considered the combined result of tool use to [[comminute]] foods and cooking to modify their mechanical properties, such as toughness.<ref>"Facial dwarfing and dental crowding in relation to diet." Lucas, Peter W. ScienceDirect - International Congress Series 27 August 2007 [http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B7581-4K77FW0-D&_user=595307&_coverDate=06%2F30%2F2006&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_acct=C000030581&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=595307&md5=8eb8dac071cdbc68686caeff59f47a38].</ref>
}}

===Ear===

[[Image:1871 Descent F937.1 fig03.jpg|right|thumb|Human ear (from ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex|Descent of Man]]'')]]
{{Further|[[Ear]]}}
The ears of a [[Macaque monkey]], and most other monkeys, have far more developed muscles than those of humans and therefore have the capability to move their ears to better hear potential threats.<ref>Prof. A. Macalister, Annals and Magazine of Natural History, vol. vii., 1871, p. 342.</ref> Humans and other primates such as the [[orangutan]] and [[chimpanzee]] however have ear [[muscle]]s that are minimally developed and non-functional.<ref name=Descent>[[Charles Darwin|Darwin, Charles]] (1871). ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]''. John Murray: London.</ref> A muscle that cannot move the ear, for whatever reason, can no longer be said to have any biological function. In humans there is variability in these muscles, such that some people are able to move their ears in various directions, and it has been said that it may be possible for others to gain such movement by repeated trials.<ref name=Descent /> In such primates the inability to move the ear is compensated mainly by the ability to turn the [[head]] on a horizontal plane, an ability which is not common to most monkeys— a function once provided by one structure is now replaced by another.<ref>Mr. St. George Mivart, Elementary Anatomy, 1873, p. 396.</ref>

===Eye===
{{Further|[[Nictitating membrane]]}}
The [[plica semilunaris of the conjunctiva|plica semilunaris]] is small fold of tissue on the inside corner of the eye. It is the vestigial remnant of the [[nictitating membrane]] (the "third eyelid") which is present in other animals such as [[bird]]s, [[reptile]]s, and [[fish]]. It is rare in [[mammal]]s, mainly found in [[monotreme]]s and [[marsupial]]s.<ref>[[Richard Owen|Owen, R.]] 1866-1868. ''Comparative Anatomy and Physiology of Vertebrates''. London.</ref> Its associated muscles are also vestigial.<ref name=Descent /> The plica semilunaris of [[African people|Africans]] and [[Indigenous Australians]] have been said to have slightly larger than other peoples.<ref name=Descent>[[Charles Darwin|Darwin, Charles]] (1871). ''[[The Descent of Man, and Selection in Relation to Sex]]''. John Murray: London.</ref> Only one species of [[primate]] -- the [[Calabar angwantibo]] -- is known to have a functioning nictitating membrane.<ref>Montagna, W., Machida, H., and Perkins, E.M. 1966. The skin of primates XXXIII.: The skin of the angwantibo. ''American Journal of Physical Anthropology''. Vol. 25, 277-290.
</ref>

==Sensory==
{{Further|[[Olfaction]]}}
Although the sense of smell or ''olfaction'' is highly important for many animals in avoiding [[predator]]s, [[prey detection|finding food]], or both, it is far less essential to human survival, having for the most part no predators, and obtaining food mostly by [[agriculture]]. There is great [[genetic variation|variation]] in olfactory sensitivity from person to person, which is common in vestigial characteristics. It has been observed that native South Americans, American Indians, and African peoples have a highly developed sense of smell, such that they may be able to identify others in the dark by their odor alone. <ref name="Descent" /> This does not mean that having any olfactory ability at all is vestigial, for example it may save a person from inhaling [[toxic]] fumes; however, a highly developed [[olfactory system]] seems to be of little survival value. It should be noted that a characteristic may deteriorate despite being of some use so long as there is very little or no [[selection pressure]] on the genes associated with it. In other words, having a good sense of smell may be something a person would desire, but unless those without such abilities have a lower reproductive success or ''[[fitness (biology)|fitness]]'', there is no barrier to it degenerating.

==Behavioral==
[[Image:Gaensehaut.jpg|thumb|right|150px|[[Goose bumps]] are an example of a vestigial human reaction to stress.]]
Humans also bear some vestigial behaviors and reflexes. For example, the formation of [[goose bump]]s in humans under [[stress (medicine)|stress]] is a vestigial [[reflex action|reflex]]; a possible function in human evolutionary ancestors was to raise the body's hair, making the ancestor appear larger and scaring off predators. Raising the hair is also used to trap an extra layer of air, keeping an animal warm. This reflex formation of goosebumps when cold therefore has a useful function in humans with thick body hair, but the reflex to form them under stress is vestigial.<ref>Darwin, Charles. (1872) ''[[The Expression of the Emotions in Man and Animals]]'' John Murray, London.</ref>

Some [[infant]]s (37% according to a 1932 study) are able to support their own weight from a rod<ref>[Behavior Development in Infants http://books.google.com/books?id=OzL2Bgvf9Q0C&pg=PA122&dq=%22chancy+and+mcgraw+(31)+investigated+the+reflex+in+the+125+infants%22%22] (via Google Books) by Evelyn Dewey, citing a study "Reflexes and other motor activities in newborn infants: a report of 125 cases as a preliminary study of infant behavior" published in the ''Bull. Neurol. Inst. New York'', 1932, Vol. 2, pp. 1-56.</ref>, although there is no way they can cling to their mother. However, an ancestral primate would have had sufficient body hair to which an infant could cling, allowing its mother to escape from danger, such as climbing up a tree in the presence of a predator.

==Molecular==
{{Further|[[Junk DNA]]}}
There are also vestigial molecular structures in humans, which are no longer in use but may indicate common ancestry with other species. One example of this is [[L-gulonolactone oxidase]], a gene that is functional in most other mammals and produces an [[enzyme]] that synthesizes [[Vitamin C]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Ohta Y, Nishikimi M |title=Random nucleotide substitutions in primate nonfunctional gene for L-gulono-gamma-lactone oxidase, the missing enzyme in L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis |journal=Biochim. Biophys. Acta |volume=1472 |issue=1-2 |pages=408–11 |year=1999 |pmid=10572964}}</ref> In humans and other primates, a mutation disabled the gene and made it unable to produce the enzyme. However, the remains of the gene are still present in the [[human genome]] as a vestigial genetic sequence called a [[pseudogene]].<ref>{{cite journal |author=Nishikimi M, Fukuyama R, Minoshima S, Shimizu N, Yagi K |title=Cloning and chromosomal mapping of the human nonfunctional gene for L-gulono-gamma-lactone oxidase, the enzyme for L-ascorbic acid biosynthesis missing in man |journal=J. Biol. Chem. |volume=269 |issue=18 |pages=13685–8 |year=1994 |pmid=8175804 |url=http://www.jbc.org/cgi/reprint/269/18/13685}}</ref>

==See also==
*[[Color blindness]]
*[[Myopia]]
*[[Vomeronasal organ]]

==References==
{{Wikisource|Descent of Man/Chapter I}}
{{reflist}}
[[Category:Human anatomy]]
[[Category:Human behavior]]
[[Category:Human development]]
[[Category:Human evolution]]
[[Category:Human physiology]]

Jerry Sanders (politician)

2008-11-03T06:22:44Z

Dave Runger: /* Mayor */ remove inappropriate/unneccessary editorializing commentary on Sanders' pro-gay-marriage decision

{{For|the [[Advanced Micro Devices]] founder and former [[CEO]]|Jerry Sanders (businessman)}}
{{Infobox Mayor
| name = Jerry Sanders
| image = JerrySandersByPhilKonstantin.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1950|07|14}}
| birth_place = San Pedro, California
| nationality = {{flagicon|USA}} [[United States|American]]
| children = 2
| spouse = Rana Sampson (?-present)
| residence = Kensington, San Diego, California
| profession = Police Officer
| alma_mater = San Diego State University
| website =
| title = [[Mayor of San Diego]]
| term_start = [[December 5]], [[2005]]
| predecessor = [[Toni Atkins]] (acting)
| successor =
| party = Republican
| religion =
| signature =
}}

'''Gerald Robert "Jerry" Sanders''' (born [[July 14]], [[1950]]) is a [[United States Republican Party|Republican]] [[politician]], [[Mayor of San Diego]], [[California]], and former [[Chief of Police]].

== Personal ==
Sanders was born 1950 in [[San Pedro, California]]. He went to [[San Diego State University]] and was a member of the [[Sigma Alpha Epsilon]] fraternity. He lives in the neighborhood of [[Kensington, San Diego, California|Kensington]] with his wife Rana Sampson. He has two daughters, Lisa and Jamie.

== San Diego Police ==
During his senior year at San Diego State University, Jerry Sanders became a police officer with the [[San Diego Police Department]]. He served in the Police Department for 26 years, [[1973]]–[[1999]], ultimately serving as Chief of Police from [[1993]] until [[1999]]. He was commander of the San Diego [[SWAT team]] during the 1984 [[San Ysidro McDonald's massacre]], and his management of the tragedy, which resulted in twenty-two deaths, earned him criticism from the city's [[Mexican-American]] community.<ref>{{cite news | last =Múñoz| first =Daniel| title =Former San Diego Police Chief Jerry Sanders Unfit to be Mayor| work =La Prensa San Diego| publisher =La Prensa| date =2005-08-19| url =http://laprensa-sandiego.org/archieve/august19-05/sanders.htm| accessdate =2007-07-09}}</ref> During his tenure as chief, he and the department's employees gained national recognition for their pioneering work with community policing and, with active assistance from the community, achieved a more than 40% decrease in crime during the six-year period he led the department. He also re-organized the department, making it more responsive to the community, reaching out to neighborhoods, and utilizing more than 1,000 volunteers to address [[San Diego]]'s public safety needs.

== Community service ==
Sanders left the Police Department to become president and CEO of the [[United Way of America|United Way]] of San Diego County ([[April 1999]]). During his tenure, the local United Way dramatically increased fundraising and decreased overhead costs.{{Fact|date=June 2008}} In addition, he served as the United Way Community Campaign Chair in 2002.

Sanders was appointed to the board of the [[American Red Cross]] [http://www.sdarc.org/ San Diego/Imperial Counties Chapter] (July 2002) after the local CEO was fired by the national headquarters in the aftermath of controversy concerning the Alpine Fire. He helped recruit Navy Rear Admiral Ronne Froman to be CEO, and oversaw the turnaround of the local chapter, which resulted in support for victims of the [[Cedar Fire]], praise from former critics for the transparency of fundraising efforts, and a staff re-organization that substantially reduced overhead costs.

Sanders had also been active in the private sector, serving as founding partner and consultant for local high-tech start-ups involved with homeland security and infrastructure assessment. He is currently board chair of the San Diego Police Foundation, established to raise private funds for SDPD equipment and programs. He serves on the board of STAR/PAL, the San Diego Chapter of the [[National Multiple Sclerosis Society]], San Diego State University's Dean's Advisory Board, and Coronado First Bank (in organization). Sanders has served on the Wells Fargo Community Bank Board, the Mediation Center's Board, the National Conference for Community and Justice Board, the Vera Institute of Justice's Advisory Board on Foster Children, and the Children's Initiative. Sanders has been nominated to the National Red Cross Board of Governors.

== Mayor ==
[[Image:GRS Mira Mesa Parade.jpg|right|300px|thumb|Jerry Sanders in the 2005 [[Independence Day (United States)|4th of July]] Parade in the [[Mira Mesa, San Diego, California|Mira Mesa]] neighborhood of [[San Diego, California|San Diego]] with John Witt, County Board of Education, driving.]]

Jerry Sanders was elected mayor in a special run-off election held [[2005-11-08]], receiving 54% of the vote against city council member [[Donna Frye]]. Sanders is the first mayor under the new "strong mayoral" form of city government. He is a member of the [[Mayors Against Illegal Guns Coalition]],<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.mayorsagainstillegalguns.org/html/about/members.shtml| title=Mayors Against Illegal Guns: Coalition Members}}</ref> an organization formed in 2006 and co-chaired by [[New York City]] mayor [[Michael Bloomberg]] and [[Boston]] mayor [[Thomas Menino]]. He appointed [[Ronne Froman]] as Chief of Staff.

On [[September 19]], [[2007]], Sanders abruptly reversed his public opposition to [[same-sex marriage]] before signing a City Council resolution aimed at overturning the state's ban on same-sex weddings. He gave a speech in which he explained that he could not tell his daughter Lisa, who is [[gay]], that her relationship with a partner is not as important as that of a straight couple and that he had "decided to lead with my heart. . . to take a stand on behalf of equality and social justice."<ref name=LAT092907>Tony Perry, [http://www.latimes.com/news/local/la-me-sdmayor20sep20,1,3927626.story S.D. mayor supports suit for gay marriage], ''Los Angeles Times'', September 20, 2007.</ref>

Sanders won reelection over successful businessman Steve Francis in 2008<ref>http://www.signonsandiego.com/news/politics/20080603-2340-bn03elect3.html</ref>. On April 24, Jerry Sanders was quoted in the San Diego Tribune as acknowledging saying "Fuck you, Steve" to Francis during an attempted handshake initiated by Francis at a candidates' forum.<ref>{{cite video|url=http://video.nbcsandiego.com/player/?id=244244|publisher=[[KNSD]]|title=Mayor Remains Unapologetic About F-Bomb|accessdate=2008-04-24}}</ref>

On October, 25th, city attorney Michael Aguirre held a press conference in which he criticized Sanders for not doing more to deal with San Diego's deepening pension crisis.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.sandiego.gov/mayor/ City of San Diego Mayor's Website]
* [http://www.mayorsagainstillegalguns.org/ Mayors Against Illegal Guns homepage]
* [http://cbs5.com/video/?id=26888@kpix.dayport.com Video of Mayor's September 19, 2007 Press Conference on Same Sex Marriage]

{{start box}}
{{succession box
| before = [[Toni Atkins]] (acting)
| title = [[Mayor of San Diego, California]]
| years = [[2005]]–
| after = Incumbent
}}
{{end box}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Sanders, Jerry}}
[[Category:1950 births]]
[[Category:American police chiefs]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Mayors of San Diego, California]]
[[Category:San Diego State University alumni]]

[[de:Jerry Sanders]]
[[fr:Jerry Sanders]]
[[fi:Jerry Sanders]]

Pit of despair

2008-10-09T01:39:47Z

Dave Runger: /* Vertical chamber apparatus */ Add section header "Reaction"

[[Image:Pitofdespair-Harlow.jpg|frame|Harry Harlow's pit of despair]]
The '''pit of despair''', or '''vertical chamber''', was a device used in experiments conducted on [[rhesus macaque]] monkeys during the [[1970s]] by American [[Comparative psychology|comparative psychologist]] [[Harry Harlow]] and his students at the [[University of Wisconsin-Madison]]. <ref name=Blum1994/95>Blum, Deborah. ''The Monkey Wars''. Oxford University Press, 1994, p. 95.</ref> The aim of the research was to produce an animal model of human [[clinical depression]].

<blockquote>
The vertical chamber was little more than a stainless-steel trough with sides that sloped to a rounded bottom. A 3/8 in. wire mesh floor 1 in. above the bottom of the chamber allowed waste material to drop through the drain and out of holes drilled in the stainless-steel. The chamber was equipped with a food box and a water-bottle holder, and was covered with a pyramid top [removed in the accompanying photograph], designed to discourage incarcerated subjects from hanging from the upper part of the chamber. <ref name=Suomi1971/33>Suomi, Stephen John. ''Experimental Production of Depressive Behavior in Young Rhesus Monkeys: A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Psychology) at the University of Wisconsin''. University of Wisconsin, 1971, p. 33.</ref>
</blockquote>

Harlow placed [[baby]] monkeys in the chamber alone for up to one year. Within a few days, they stopped moving about and remained huddled in a corner. The monkeys were found to be [[Psychosis|psychotic]] when removed from the chamber, and most did not recover.
__TOC__
==Background==
[[Image:Harlow-Isolationchamber.gif|left|thumb|240px|A [[rhesus monkey]] infant in one of Harlow's isolation chambers. The photograph was taken when the chamber door was raised for the first time after six months of total isolation. <ref>Stephens, M.L. ''Maternal Deprivation Experiments in Psychology: A Critique of Animal Models''. AAVS, NAVS, NEAVS, 1986, p. 17.</ref>]]
Harlow's first experiments into the effects of loneliness involved isolating a monkey in a cage surrounded by steel walls with a small one-way [[mirror]], so the experimenters could look in, but the monkey couldn't look out. The only connection the monkey had with the world was when the experimenters' hands changed his bedding or delivered fresh water and food. Baby monkeys were placed in these boxes soon after [[birth]]; four were left for 30 days, four for six months, and four for a year.

After 30 days, the "total isolates," as they were called, were found to be "enormously disturbed." After being isolated for a year, they barely moved, didn't explore or play, and were incapable of having [[sex|sexual relations]]. When put with other monkeys for a daily play session, they were badly [[Bullying|bullied]]. Two of them refused to eat and starved themselves to death.<ref name=Blum2002/216>Blum, Deborah. ''Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection''. Perseus Publishing, 2002, p. 216.</ref>

In order to find out how the isolates would parent, Harlow devised what he called a "[[rape]] rack," to which the female isolates were tied in the position taken by a normal female monkey in order to be [[Impregnation|impregnated]]. Artificial insemination had not been developed at that time. He found that, just as they were incapable of having sexual relations, they were also unable to parent their offspring, either abusing or neglecting them. "Not even in our most devious dreams could we have designed a surrogate as evil as these real monkey mothers were," he wrote. <ref name=Blum2002/217>Blum, Deborah. ''Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection''. Perseus Publishing, 2002, p. 217.</ref> Having no social experience themselves, they were incapable of appropriate social interaction. One mother held her baby's face to the floor and chewed off his feet and fingers. Another crushed her baby's head. Most of them simply ignored their offspring. <ref name=Blum2002/217/>

These experiments showed Harlow what total and partial isolation did to developing monkeys, but he felt he hadn't captured the essence of [[clinical depression|depression]], which he believed was characterized by feelings of [[loneliness]], helplessness, and a sense of being trapped, or being "sunk in a well of despair," he said. <ref name=Blum2002/217/>

==Vertical chamber apparatus==
{{animal testing}}
The technical name for the new depression chamber was "vertical chamber apparatus," though Harlow himself called it the "pit of despair," "well of despair," "dungeon of despair," and "well of loneliness." <ref name=Blum1994/95/>

Most of the monkeys placed inside it were at least three months old and had already bonded with others. The point of the experiment was to break those bonds in order to create the symptoms of depression.

According to Harlow: "most subjects typically assume a hunched position in a corner of the bottom of the apparatus. One might presume at this point that they find their situation to be hopeless." <ref name=Blum1994/218>Blum, Deborah. ''The Monkey Wars''. Oxford University Press, 1994, p. 218.</ref>

Steven Suomi, one of Harlow's many doctoral students, placed some monkeys in the chamber for his [[Doctor of Philosophy|PhD]]. He wrote that he could find no monkey who had any defense against it. Even the happiest monkeys came out damaged. He concluded that even a happy, normal [[childhood]] was no defense against depression.

The experiments delivered what science writer [[Deborah Blum]] has called "common sense results": that monkeys, very social animals in nature, when placed in isolation emerge badly damaged, and that some recover and some do not. <ref name=Blum2002/225>Blum, Deborah. ''Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection''. Perseus Publishing, 2002, p. 225.</ref>

==Reaction==

Gene Sackett of the [[University of Washington]] in [[Seattle]], and another of Harlow's doctoral students who went on to conduct additional deprivation studies, told Blum that, in his view, the [[animal liberation movement]] in the U.S. was born as a result of Harlow's experiments. Willam Mason, another of Harlow's students who continued <ref>Capitanio, J.P. & Mason, W.A. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10890583&query_hl=6&itool=pubmed_docsum "Cognitive style: problem solving by rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) reared with living or inanimate substitute mothers"], California Regional Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis. 1: J Comp Psychol. 2000 Jun;114(2):115-25.</ref> after leaving Wisconsin, told Blum that Harlow "kept this going to the point where it was clear to many people that the work was really violating ordinary sensibilities, that anybody with respect for life or people would find this offensive. It's as if he sat down and said, 'I'm only going to be around another ten years. What I'd like to do, then, is leave a great big mess behind.' If that was his aim, he did a perfect job." <ref name=Blum1994/96>Blum, Deborah. ''The Monkey Wars''. Oxford University Press, 1994, p. 96.</ref>

==See also==
*[[Animal testing]]
*[[Britches (monkey)]]
*[[Primate experimentation at Cambridge University]]
*[[Silver Spring monkeys]]
*''[[Unnecessary Fuss]]'' (video showing brain damage experiments on baboons)

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
<div class="references-small">
*[[Deborah Blum|Blum, Deborah]]. ''The Monkey Wars''. Oxford University Press, 1994. ISBN 0-19-510109-X
*Blum, Deborah. ''Love at Goon Park: Harry Harlow and the Science of Affection''. Perseus Publishing, 2002. ISBN 0-7382-0278-9
*Capitanio, J.P. & Mason, W.A. [http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=10890583&query_hl=6&itool=pubmed_docsum "Cognitive style: problem solving by rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta) reared with living or inanimate substitute mothers"], California Regional Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis. 1: J Comp Psychol. 2000 Jun;114(2):115-25.
*Stephens, M.L. ''Maternal Deprivation Experiments in Psychology: A Critique of Animal Models''. AAVS, NAVS, NEAVS, 1986.
*Suomi, Stephen John. "Experimental Production of Depressive Behavior in Young Rhesus Monkeys: Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy (Psychology) at the University of Wisconsin," University of Wisconsin, 1971, p. 33.</div>

==Further reading==
*[http://darkwing.uoregon.edu/~adoption/studies/HarlowMLE.htm Harry Harlow's Monkey Love Experiments]
*[[Lauren Slater|Slater, Lauren]]. ''Opening Skinner's Box: Great Psychological Experiments of the Twentieth Century''. W.W. Norton & Company, 2004, ISBN 0-393-05095-5

{{alibend}}

[[Category:Animal rights movement]]
[[Category:Animal rights]]
[[Category:Animal testing]]

Western Express Bicycle Route

2008-08-07T09:29:53Z

Dave Runger: I guess the route has changed slightly? I did the math at ACA website and this is what it comes to

The '''Western Express Bicycle Route''' is a 1579 mile (2541 km) [[bicycle touring]] route connects [[San Francisco, California]], to the [[TransAmerica Bicycle Trail]] in [[Pueblo, Colorado]], travelling through [[California]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], and [[Colorado]]. The route is mapped by the [[Adventure Cycling Association]]. Combining the Western Express Route with the TransAmerica Trail forms a 3762 mile (6054 km) transcontinental bicycle route through nine [[U.S. state]]s from [[San Francisco, California]], to [[Yorktown, Virginia]].

==See also==
*[[Bicycle touring]]
*[[Adventure Cycling Association]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.adventurecycling.org/routes/westernexpress.cfm Western Express Bicycle Route] at the Adventure Cycling Association website

[[Category:Bike paths in California]]
[[Category:Bike paths in Nevada]]
[[Category:Bike paths in Utah]]
[[Category:Bike paths in Colorado]]

Kurt Gödel

2008-07-21T19:42:12Z

Dave Runger: /* Gödel's friendship with Einstein */ every little bit helps

{{Infobox_Scientist
| name = Kurt Gödel
| image = Kurt Gödel.jpg
| image_width = 150
| caption = Kurt Gödel
| birth_date = {{birth date|1906|4|28}}
| birth_place = [[Brno]], [[Moravia]], [[Austria-Hungary]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1978|1|14|1906|4|28}}
| death_place = [[Princeton, New Jersey]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| field = [[Mathematics]], [[Mathematical logic]]
| work_institutions = [[Institute for Advanced Study]]
| alma_mater = [[University of Vienna]]
| doctoral_advisor = [[Hans Hahn]]
| doctoral_students =
| known_for = [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems]]
| prizes = [[Albert Einstein Award]] (1951)
| religion = Christian
| footnotes =
}}

'''Kurt Gödel''' ({{IPA2|kʊɐ̯t ˈgøːdl̩}}) ([[April 28]], [[1906]] [[Brno]] (Brünn), [[Austria-Hungary]] (now [[Czech Republic]]) – [[January 14]], [[1978]] [[Princeton, New Jersey]]) was an [[Austria]]n [[United States|American]] [[logician]], [[mathematician]] and [[philosopher]].

One of the most significant logicians of all time, Gödel's work has had immense impact upon scientific and philosophical thinking in the 20th century, a time when many, such as [[Bertrand Russell]], [[A. N. Whitehead]] and [[David Hilbert]], were pioneering the use of [[logic]] and [[set theory]] to understand the foundations of [[mathematics]].<ref>[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/principia-mathematica/ Principia Mathematica (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)]</ref>

Gödel is best known for his two [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems|incompleteness theorems]], published in 1931 when he was 25 years of age, one year after finishing his doctorate at the [[University of Vienna]]. The more famous incompleteness theorem states that for any self-consistent [[Recursive set|recursive]] [[axiomatic system]] powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the [[natural number]]s ([[Peano arithmetic]]), there are true propositions about the naturals that cannot be proved from the axioms. To prove this theorem, Gödel developed a technique now known as [[Gödel number]]ing, which codes formal expressions as natural numbers.

He also showed that the [[continuum hypothesis]] cannot be disproved from the accepted [[axiomatic set theory|axioms of set theory]], if those axioms are consistent. He made important contributions to [[proof theory]] by clarifying the connections between [[classical logic]], [[intuitionistic logic]], and [[modal logic]].

==Life==
===Childhood===
Kurt Friedrich Gödel was born [[April 28]], [[1906]], in [[Brno]] ([[German language|German]]: ''Brünn''), [[Moravia]], [[Austria-Hungary]] (now the [[Czech Republic]]) into the [[ethnic German]] family of Rudolf Gödel, the manager of a textile factory, and Marianne Gödel (born Handschuh).<ref>Dawson 1997, pp. 3-4</ref> At the time of his birth the town had a slight [[German language|German-speaking]] majority,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=1911_Encyclopædia_Britannica/Brünn&oldid=447734|title=1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Brünn||accessdate=2008-03-13 }}</ref> and this was the language of his parents.<ref>Dawson 1997, p. 12</ref>

Although he spoke very little [[Czech language|Czech]] himself, Gödel automatically became a [[Czechoslovakia|Czechoslovak]] citizen at age 12 when the Austro-Hungarian empire broke up at the end of [[World War I]]. He later told his biographer John W. Dawson that he felt like an "exiled Austrian in Czechoslovakia" ("''ein Österreicher im Exil in der Tschechoslowakei''") during this time. He chose to become an [[Austria]]n citizen at age 23. When [[Nazi Germany]] [[Anschluss|annexed Austria]], Gödel automatically became a [[Germany|German]] citizen at age 32. After [[World War II]], at the age of 42, he became an [[United States|American]] citizen.

In his family, young Kurt was known as ''Herr Warum'' ("Mr. Why") because of his insatiable curiosity.
According to his brother Rudolf, at the age of six or seven Kurt suffered from rheumatic fever; he completely recovered, but for the rest of his life he remained convinced that his heart had suffered permanent damage.

He attended German language primary and secondary school in Brno and completed them with honors in 1923. Although Kurt had first excelled in languages, he later became more interested in history and mathematics. His interest in mathematics increased when in 1920 his older brother Rudolf (born 1902) left for [[Vienna]] to go to medical school at the [[University of Vienna]] (UV). During his teens, Kurt studied [[Gabelsberger shorthand]], [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe]]'s ''[[Theory of Colours]]'' and criticisms of [[Isaac Newton]], and the writings of [[Immanuel Kant]].

===Studying in Vienna===
At the age of 18, Kurt joined his brother Rudolf in Vienna and entered the UV. By that time, he had already mastered university-level mathematics. Although initially intending to study [[theoretical physics]], Kurt also attended courses on mathematics and philosophy. During this time, he adopted ideas of [[mathematical realism]]. He read [[Immanuel Kant|Kant]]'s ''[[Metaphysical Foundations of Natural Science|Metaphysische Anfangsgründe der Naturwissenschaft]]'', and participated in the [[Vienna Circle]] with [[Moritz Schlick]], [[Hans Hahn]], and [[Rudolf Carnap]]. Kurt then studied [[number theory]], but when he took part in a seminar run by Moritz Schlick which studied [[Bertrand Russell]]'s book ''Introduction to Mathematical Philosophy'', Kurt became interested in [[mathematical logic]].

Attending a lecture by [[David Hilbert]] in [[Bologna]] on completeness and consistency of mathematical systems may have set Gödel's life course.
In 1928, Hilbert and [[Wilhelm Ackermann]] published ''Grundzüge der theoretischen Logik'' ([[Principles of Theoretical Logic]]), an introduction to [[first-order logic]] in which the problem of completeness was posed: ''Are the axioms of a formal system sufficient to derive every statement that is true in all models of the system?''
This was the topic chosen by Gödel for his doctorate work.
In 1929, at the age of 23, he completed his doctoral [[dissertation]] under [[Hans Hahn]]'s supervision. In it, Gödel established the completeness of the [[first-order predicate calculus]] (this result is known as [[Gödel's completeness theorem]]). He was awarded the doctorate in 1930. His thesis, along with some additional work, was published by the Vienna Academy of Science.

===Working in Vienna===
In 1931, Gödel published his famous incompleteness theorems in "Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der ''Principia Mathematica'' und verwandter Systeme" (called in English "[[On Formally Undecidable Propositions of Principia Mathematica and Related Systems|On formally undecidable propositions of ''Principia Mathematica'' and related systems]]"). In that article, he proved that for any [[Recursion theory|computable]] [[axiomatic system]] that is powerful enough to describe the arithmetic of the [[natural numbers]] (e.g. the [[Peano axioms]] or [[ZFC]]), then:
# If the [[Formal system|system]] is [[Consistency proof|consistent]], it cannot be [[Completeness|complete]]. (This is generally known as ''the'' [[Gödel's incompleteness theorems|incompleteness theorem]].)
# The consistency of the [[axiom]]s cannot be proved within the [[Axiomatic system|system]].
These theorems ended a half-century of attempts, beginning with the work of [[Frege]] and culminating in [[Principia Mathematica]] and [[philosophy of mathematics#formalism|Hilbert's formalism]], to find a set of axioms sufficient for all mathematics. The incompleteness theorems also imply that not all mathematical questions are computable.

In hindsight, the basic idea at the heart of the incompleteness theorem is rather simple. Gödel essentially constructed a formula that claims that it is unprovable in a given formal system. If it were provable, it would be false, which contradicts the fact that in a consistent system, provable statements are always true.
Thus there will always be at least one true but unprovable statement.
That is, for any [[recursion theory|humanly constructible]] set of axioms for arithmetic, there is a formula which obtains in arithmetic, but which is not provable in that system.
To make this precise, however, Gödel needed to solve several technical issues, such as encoding statements, proofs, and the very concept of provability into the natural numbers. He did this using a process known as [[Gödel number]]ing.

In his two-page paper "Zum intuitionistischen Aussagenkalkül" (1932) Gödel refuted the finite-valuedness of [[intuitionistic logic]]. In the proof he implicitly used what has later become known as [[intermediate logic|Gödel–Dummett intermediate logic]] (or [[t-norm fuzzy logic|Gödel fuzzy logic]]).

Gödel earned his [[habilitation]] at the UV in 1932, and in 1933 he became a ''[[Privatdozent]]'' (unpaid lecturer) there. Hitler's 1933 ascension in Germany had little effect on Gödel in Vienna, as he took little interest in politics. He was, however, much affected by the 1936 murder of [[Moritz Schlick]] (whose seminar had aroused Gödel's interest in logic) by a deranged student, which resulted in Gödel's first [[nervous breakdown]].

===Visits to the USA===
In 1933, Gödel first traveled to the [[United States|U.S.]], where he met [[Albert Einstein]], who became a good friend. He delivered an address to the annual meeting of the [[American Mathematical Society]]. During this year, Gödel also developed the ideas of computability and [[recursive function]]s to the point where he delivered a lecture on general recursive functions and the concept of truth. This work was developed in number theory, using Gödel numbering.

In 1934 Gödel gave a series of lectures at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] (IAS) in [[Princeton, New Jersey|Princeton]], [[New Jersey]], entitled ''On undecidable propositions of formal mathematical systems''. [[Stephen Kleene]], who had just completed his Ph.D. at Princeton, took notes of these lectures which have been subsequently published.

Gödel would visit the IAS again in the autumn of 1935. The traveling and the hard work had exhausted him and the next year he had to recover from a depression. He returned to teaching in 1937. During this time, he worked on the proof of consistency of the [[axiom of choice]] and of the [[continuum hypothesis]]; he would go on to show that these hypotheses cannot be disproved from the common system of axioms of set theory.

He married Adele Nimbursky (née Porkert, 1899-1981), whom he had known for over 10 years, on September 20, 1938.
Their relationship had been opposed by his parents on the grounds that she was a divorced dancer, six years older than he. They had no children.

Subsequently, he left for another visit to the USA, spending the autumn of 1938 at the IAS and the spring of 1939 at the [[University of Notre Dame]].

Gödel and his wife Adele spent the summer of 1942 in Blue Hill, Maine, in the Blue Hill Inn at the top of the bay. Gödel was taking a vacation from the IAS.

Gödel was not merely vacationing, and had a very productive summer of work. Using Heft 15 [volume 15] of Gödel's still-unpublished Arbeitshefte [working notebooks], John W. Dawson, Jr. conjectures that Gödel discovered a proof for the independence of the axiom of choice from finite type theory, a weakened form of set theory, while in Blue Hill in 1942. Gödel's close friend Hao Wang supports this conjecture, noting that Gödel's Blue Hill notebooks contain his most extensive treatment of the problem.

===Princeton===
After the [[Anschluss]] in 1938, Austria had become a part of [[Nazi Germany]].
Germany abolished the title of ''[[Privatdozent]]'', so Gödel had to apply for a different position under the new order. His former association with Jewish members of the Vienna Circle, especially with Hahn, weighed against him.
His predicament precipitated when he was found fit for military service and was now at risk of being conscripted into the German army. [[World War II]] started in September 1939.
In January 1940, Gödel and his wife left Europe. Due to the difficulty of an Atlantic crossing, they took the [[trans-Siberian railway]] and passed through [[Japan]] en route to the [[United States|U.S.]]. Arriving in [[San Francisco, California]] on March 4, 1940, they crossed the U.S. by train so that Gödel could take up a position at the [[Institute for Advanced Study]] (IAS) in [[Princeton, New Jersey]].

Gödel very quickly resumed his mathematical work. In 1940, he published his work ''Consistency of the axiom of choice and of the generalized continuum-hypothesis with the axioms of set theory'' which is a classic of modern mathematics. In that work he introduced the [[constructible universe]], a model of [[set theory]] in which the only sets that exist are those that can be constructed from simpler sets. Gödel showed that both the [[axiom of choice]] (AC) and the [[Continuum hypothesis#The generalized continuum hypothesis|generalized continuum hypothesis]] (GCH) are true in the constructible universe, and therefore must be consistent with the [[Zermelo-Frankel axioms]] for set theory (ZF). [[Paul Cohen (mathematician)|Paul Cohen]] later constructed a [[structure (mathematical logic)|model]] of ZF in which AC and GCH are false; together these proofs mean that AC and GCH are independent of the ZF axioms for set theory.

In the late 1940s, Gödel demonstrated the existence of [[paradox]]ical solutions to Albert Einstein's field equations in [[general relativity]]. These "rotating universes" would allow [[time travel]] and caused Einstein to have doubts about his own theory. His solutions are known as the [[Gödel metric]].

During his many years at the Institute, Gödel's interests turned to philosophy and physics. He studied and admired the works of [[Gottfried Leibniz]], but came around to the (unsupported) belief that most of Leibniz's works had been suppressed. To a lesser extent he studied [[Kant]] and [[Edmund Husserl]]. In the early 1970s, Gödel circulated among his friends an elaboration of [[Leibniz]]'s [[ontological argument|ontological proof]] of [[God]]'s existence. This is now known as [[Gödel's ontological proof]].

Gödel became a permanent member of the IAS in 1946. Around this time he stopped publishing, though he continued to work. He became a full professor at the Institute in 1953 and an emeritus professor in 1976.

Gödel was awarded (with [[Julian Schwinger]]) the first [[Albert Einstein Award]], in 1951, and was also awarded the [[National Medal of Science]], in 1974.

===Death===
In later life, Gödel suffered periods of mental instability and illness.
He had an obsessive fear of being poisoned; he wouldn't eat unless his wife, Adele, tasted his food for him.
Late in 1977, Adele was hospitalized for six months and could not taste Gödel's food anymore.
In her absence, he refused to eat, eventually starving himself to death.
He was 65 pounds when he died. His death certificate reported that he died of "malnutrition and inanition caused by personality disturbance" in Princeton Hospital on [[January 14]], [[1978]].<ref>{{cite book
| last = Toates
| first = Frederick
| coauthors = Olga Coschug Toates
| title = Obsessive Compulsive Disorder: Practical Tried-and-Tested Strategies to Overcome OCD
| publisher = Class Publishing
| date = 2002
| pages = 221
| isbn = 978-1859590690}}</ref>

==Legacy==
The [[Kurt Gödel Society]], founded in 1987, was named in his honor. It is an international organization for the promotion of research in the areas of logic, philosophy, and the history of mathematics.

== Gödel's friendship with Einstein ==
[[Image:Godel Einstein 1950.jpeg|thumb|right|150px|Gödel and Einstein at the IAS (1950)]]

[[Albert Einstein]] and Gödel had a legendary friendship, shared in the walks they took together to and from the Institute for Advanced Study. The nature of their conversations was a mystery to the other Institute members. Economist [[Oskar Morgenstern]] recounts that toward the end of his life Einstein confided that his "own work no longer meant much, that he came to the Institute merely…to have the privilege of walking home with Gödel".<ref>{{cite book
| last = Goldstein
| first = Rebecca
| authorlink = Rebecca Goldstein
| title = Incompleteness: The Proof and Paradox of Kurt Godel
| publisher = W. W. Norton
| date = 2005
| pages = 33
| isbn = 978-0393051698}}</ref>

Einstein and Morgenstern coached Gödel for his [[U.S. citizenship]] exam, concerned that their friend's unpredictable behavior might jeopardize his chances. When the [[Nazi regime]] was briefly mentioned, Gödel informed the presiding judge that he had discovered a way in which a [[dictatorship]] could be legally installed in the United States, through a logical contradiction in the [[U.S. Constitution]]. Neither the judge, nor Einstein or Morgenstern allowed Gödel to finish his line of thought and he was awarded citizenship.<ref>{{cite journal
| last = Holt
| first = Jim
| title = The Loophole: A logician challenges the Constitution
| journal = [[Lingua Franca (magazine)|Lingua Franca]]
| date = February 1998
| url = http://linguafranca.mirror.theinfo.org/9802/hyp.html| accessdate = 2007-11-17}}</ref>

==Gödel in popular culture==
In the 1994 romantic comedy ''[[I.Q. (film)|I.Q.]]'' directed by [[Fred Schepisi]], Gödel was dramatized as a secondary character portrayed by actor [[Lou Jacobi]]. The film portrays Gödel without his paranoia and fully enjoying his retirement.
In 2007 students from the [[Nederlandse Filmacademie]] (Dutch Film Academy) graduated with a 25-minute short "Gödel".<ref>{{imdb title|1100094|Gödel}}</ref> It was directed by Igor Kramer with Austrian actor Robert Stuc in the title role. In this short a retired Gödel realizes his surroundings are a film set, feeding his paranoia.

==Important publications==
In German:
*1931, "Über formal unentscheidbare Sätze der ''[[Principia Mathematica]]'' und verwandter Systeme," ''Monatshefte für Mathematik und Physik 38'': 173-98.
*1932, "Zum intuitionistischen Aussagenkalkül", ''Anzeiger Akademie der Wissenschaften Wien'' '''69''': 65–66.

In English:
*1940. ''The Consistency of the Axiom of Choice and of the Generalized Continuum Hypothesis with the Axioms of Set Theory.'' Princeton University Press.
*1947. "What is Cantor's continuum problem?" ''The American Mathematical Monthly 54'': 515-25. Revised version in [[Paul Benacerraf]] and [[Hilary Putnam]], eds., 1984 (1964). ''Philosophy of Mathematics: Selected Readings''. Cambridge Univ. Press: 470-85.

In English translation:
* Kurt Godel, 1992. ''On Formally Undecidable Propositions Of Principia Mathematica And Related Systems'', tr. B. Meltzer, with a comprehensive introduction by [[Richard Braithwaite]]. Dover reprint of the 1962 Basic Books edition.
* Kurt Godel, 2000. http://www.research.ibm.com/people/h/hirzel/papers/canon00-goedel.pdf ''On Formally Undecidable Propositions Of Principia Mathematica And Related Systems'', tr. Martin Hirzel
*[[Jean van Heijenoort]], 1967. ''A Source Book in Mathematical Logic, 1879-1931''. Harvard Univ. Press.
**1930. "The completeness of the axioms of the functional calculus of logic," 582-91.
**1930. "Some metamathematical results on completeness and consistency," 595-96. Abstract to (1931).
**1931. "On formally undecidable propositions of ''Principia Mathematica'' and related systems," 596-616.
**1931a. "On completeness and consistency," 616-17.

*''Collected Works'': Oxford University Press: New York. Editor-in-chief: [[Solomon Feferman]].
**Volume I: Publications 1929-1936 ISBN 0195039645,
**Volume II: Publications 1938-1974 ISBN 0195039726,
**Volume III: Unpublished Essays and Lectures ISBN 0195072553,
**Volume IV: Correspondence, A-G ISBN 0198500734.
**Volume V: Correspondence, H-Z ISBN 0198500750

==See also==
{{portalpar|Logic}}
<div style="-moz-column-count:2; column-count:2;">
*[[Gödel's incompleteness theorem]]
*[[Gödel metric|Gödel dust]], an [[exact solution]] of the [[Einstein field equation]]
*[[Gödel Prize]]
*[[Gödel programming language]]
*''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach]]''
*[[Gödel's Slingshot]]
*[[List of Austrian scientists]]
</div>

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
* Dawson, John W., 1997. ''Logical dilemmas: The life and work of Kurt Gödel''. Wellesley MA: A K Peters.
* 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Brünn. (2007, September 19). In Wikisource, The Free Library. Retrieved 10PM EST 13 March, 2008, from http://en.wikisource.org/w/index.php?title=1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Br%C3%BCnn&oldid=447734

==Further reading==

* Depauli-Schimanovich, Werner, and Casti, John L., 19nn. ''Gödel: A life of logic.'' Perseus.
* Franzén, Torkel, 2005. ''Gödel's Theorem: An Incomplete Guide to Its Use and Abuse''. Wellesley, MA: A K Peters.
* [[Ivor Grattan-Guinness]], 2000. ''The Search for Mathematical Roots 1870–1940''. Princeton Univ. Press.
* [[Jaakko Hintikka]], 2000. ''On Gödel''. Wadsworth.
* [[Douglas Hofstadter]], 1980. ''[[Gödel, Escher, Bach]]''. Vintage.
* [[Stephen Kleene]], 1967. ''Mathematical Logic''. Dover paperback reprint ca. 2001.
* [[J.R. Lucas]], 1970. ''The Freedom of the Will''. Clarendon Press, Oxford.
* [[Ernst Nagel]] and Newman, James R., 1958. ''Gödel's Proof.'' New York Univ. Press.
* Procházka, Jiří, 2006, 2006, 2008. ''Kurt Gödel: 1906–1978: Genealogie''. ITEM, Brno. Volume I. Brno 2006, ISBN 80-902297-9-4. In Ger., Engl. Volume II. Brno 2006, ISBN 80-903476-0-6. In Germ., Engl. Volume III. Brno 2008, ISBN 80-903476-4-9. In Germ., Engl.
* [[Ed Regis]], 1987. ''Who Got Einstein's Office?'' Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.
* [[Raymond Smullyan]], 1992. ''Godel's Incompleteness Theorems''. Oxford University Press.
* [[Hao Wang (academic)|Hao Wang]], 1987. ''Reflections on Kurt Gödel.'' MIT Press.
* Wang, Hao. 1996. A Logical Journey: From Godel to Philosophy. MIT Press.
* Yourgrau, Palle, 1999. ''Gödel Meets Einstein: Time Travel in the Gödel Universe.'' Chicago: Open Court.
* Yourgrau, Palle, 2004. ''A World Without Time: The Forgotten Legacy of Gödel and Einstein.'' Basic Books.

==External links==
{{Commons|Category:Kurt Gödel|Kurt Gödel}}
* {{MacTutor Biography|id=Godel}}
* {{MathGenealogy|id=19539}}
* {{ScienceWorldBiography | urlname=Goedel | title=Gödel, Kurt (1906-1978)}}
* Kennedy, Juliette. [http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/goedel "Kurt Gödel."] In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
* [http://www.marxists.org/reference/subject/philosophy/works/at/godel.htm Kurt Gödel ''The modern development of the foundations of mathematics in the light of philosophy'']
* [http://www.newyorker.com/critics/atlarge/?050228crat_atlarge Time Bandits] - an article about the relationship between Gödel and Einstein by Jim Holt
* [http://plus.maths.org/issue39/features/dawson/ "Gödel and the limits of logic"] by John W Dawson Jr. (June 2006)
* [http://www.ams.org/notices/200604/200604-toc.html Notices of the AMS, April 2006, Volume 53, Number 4] Kurt Gödel Centenary Issue
* [http://www.abc.net.au/rn/scienceshow/stories/2006/1807626.htm Paul Davies and Freeman Dyson discuss Kurt Godel]
* [http://www.edge.org/3rd_culture/goldstein05/goldstein05_index.html "Gödel and the Nature of Mathematical Truth"] Edge: A Talk with Rebecca Goldstein on Kurt Gödel.
* [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-3503877302082311448&hl=en Dangerous Knowledge] Google Video of a BBC documentary featuring Kurt Gödel and other revolutionary mathematical thinkers.
* [http://www.whoisgodel.com Who is Gödel?] The official website for 2007 student film "Gödel" (Dutch)

{{Logic}}

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Western Express Bicycle Route

2008-07-12T21:34:48Z

Dave Runger: sadly this was all copied and pasted from adventure cycling assoc's website. copyright violation.

The '''Western Express Bicycle Route''' is a 1579 mile (2541 km) [[bicycle touring]] route connects [[San Francisco, California]], to the [[TransAmerica Bicycle Trail]] in [[Pueblo, Colorado]], travelling through [[California]], [[Nevada]], [[Utah]], and [[Colorado]]. The route is mapped by the [[Adventure Cycling Association]]. Combining the Western Express Route with the TransAmerica Trail forms a 3788 mile (6095 km) transcontinental bicycle route through nine [[U.S. state]]s from [[San Francisco, California]], to [[Yorktown, Virginia]].

==See also==
*[[Bicycle touring]]
*[[Adventure Cycling Association]]

== External links ==
*[http://www.adventurecycling.org/routes/westernexpress.cfm Western Express Bicycle Route] at the Adventure Cycling Association website

[[Category:Bike paths in California]]
[[Category:Bike paths in Nevada]]
[[Category:Bike paths in Utah]]
[[Category:Bike paths in Colorado]]

Mirror (computing)

2008-05-29T06:08:59Z

Dave Runger: slightly better word choice, am i right?

In [[computing]], a '''mirror''' is an exact copy of a [[data]] set. On the [[Internet]], a '''mirror site''' is an exact copy of another Internet site.
Mirror sites are most commonly used to provide multiple sources of the same information, and are of particular value as a way of providing reliable access to large [[download]]s. Mirroring is a type of [[file synchronization]].

A ''live mirror'' is automatically updated as soon as the original is changed.

This article does not cover a [[disk mirror]], which is a set of two [[hard disk]]s containing the same data for [[fault-tolerance]]. If one of the hard drives fails, all of the data are protected from loss. Those disks are automatically updated together. This scheme is also called [[RAID1]].

==Reasons==
Mirroring of sites occurs for a variety of reasons.
* To preserve a website or page, especially when it is closed or is about to be closed.
* To allow faster downloads for users at a specific geographical location. For example, a [[United States|U.S.]] server could be mirrored in [[Japan]], allowing Japanese Internet users to download content faster from the local Japanese server than from the original American one. This may be viewed as [[caching]] on a worldwide scale.
* To counteract [[censorship]] and promote [[freedom of information]]. For example, an [[activist]] might post pictures on a website of a company conducting illegal activities or make available information on secret government activity and be [[litigation|litigated]] for such. Other internet users will make the content in question available on other servers when the legal action results in the cancelation of [[internet service provider|ISP]] or [[Domain Name System|DNS]] services for the original activist.
* To provide access to otherwise unavailable information. For example, when the popular [[Google]] search engine was banned in [[2002]] by the [[People's Republic of China]], the mirror [[elgooG]] was used as a way of effectively circumventing the ban.
* To preserve historic content. Financial constraints and/or bandwidth prevent the maintainers of a server from keeping older and unsupported content available to users who still may desire them - a mirror may be made to prevent this content from disappearing.
* To balance load. If one server is extremely popular a mirror may help relieve this load: for example if a [[Linux]] distribution is released as an [[ISO image]] onto the distribution developer's own server, this server may become overloaded with demand. Alternative download points allow the total number of download requests to be spread among several servers, maintaining the availability of the distribution. [[Metalink]] is frequently used for automatic load balancing by listing all mirrors.
* As a temporary measure to counterbalance a sudden, temporary increase in [[web traffic|traffic]]. For example, [[Slashdot effect|Slashdotted]] websites will often be mirrored by a few [[slashdot]] posters until the article is pushed off the front page.
* To increase a site's ranking in a [[search engine]] by placing [[hyperlinks]] from each mirror to every other mirror (a technique known as [[link farm]]ing). This is viewed as [[ethics|unethical]] by most search engine administrators and websurfers.
* Rarely, as a form of [[plagiarism]]; this is, however, usually pointless, as a website popular enough to be worth plagiarizing will quickly discover the copy as soon as one of their many readers stumbles onto the plagiarized site.
* As a form of raising advertising revenue. [[Wikipedia]] is probably the best example of material released under the [[GNU Free Documentation License]] which is then duplicated by other companies which, unlike Wikipedia, then attempt to generate money from advertising, etc. See [[Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks]]. An example of this is the [[television]] article, which is mirrored at
::<nowiki>http://omniknow.com/common/wiki.php?in=en&term=Television</nowiki> 
::<nowiki>http://www.startlearningnow.com/TV.htm</nowiki> 
::<nowiki>http://www.yourart.com/research/encyclopedia.cgi?subject=/television</nowiki> 
::<nowiki>http://www.internet-encyclopedia.org/wiki.php?title=Television</nowiki> 
::<nowiki>http://www.everybase.com/Television</nowiki> 
::<nowiki>http://www.nationmaster.com/encyclopedia/Television</nowiki> 
* To serve as a method of circumventing firewalls.

==Examples==
A good example of mirroring is the well-known [http://sourceforge.net SourceForge.net] website. The basis of the [[Sourceforge]] concept is, primarily, the hosting of [[open-source software]] projects, but secondarily the use of many different locations to achieve one goal: to maintain download availability to the user. Many innovative [[computer]] projects host their sites and software on SourceForge, which provides mirrors in several [[state]]s and [[countries]], from [[Dublin]], [[Ireland]] to [[Tokyo]], [[Japan]].

Examples of even larger mirrored networks include those of the [[Debian]] and [[FreeBSD]] software projects. The encyclopedia [[Wikipedia]] is mirrored at numerous locations.

Examples of free file mirroring sites are [[MassMirror]], [[ShareBee]], and [[ShareOnAll]]. They allow anyone to mirror any file.

==Programs==
There are numerous [[Offline browsing|offline browsers]] that provide automated mirroring of entire sites. Some are oriented towards personal use, which allows browsing from a local copy — this means an initial waiting time but much improved load time for those pages once they're mirrored.

Other programs are intended to be used by public mirror maintainers.
* [[rsync]]
* [[CVSup]]

As of Feb, 3rd 2008 the only known free file mirroring software is [[MMup]] by [[MassMirror]].

==See also==
*[[Offline browsing]]
*[[Coral CDN]]
*[[Disk mirroring]]
*[[Wikipedia:Mirrors and forks]]

[[Category:Data management]]
[[Category:Web technology]]
[[Category:Black hat seo]]

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[[cs:Mirror]]
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[[fr:Site miroir]]
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[[it:Mirror]]
[[he:מראה (מחשוב)]]
[[nl:Mirror (server)]]
[[ja:ミラーリング]]
[[pl:Mirror]]
[[pt:Mirror]]
[[ru:Зеркало (в сети)]]
[[sk:Zrkadlo (informatika)]]
[[fi:Toisiopalvelin]]
[[zh:镜像站点]]

Bicycle touring

2008-05-27T22:10:16Z

Dave Runger: /* See also */ still tired

[[Image:Bike refelector safety flash.JPG|thumb|A type of touring bicycle]]
'''Bicycle touring''' is a [[leisure]] [[travel]] activity which involves touring, exploring or [[sightseeing]] by [[bicycle]]. Bicycle [[tourism]] can be likened to [[backpacking (urban)|backpacking]] on a bicycle.

Distances vary considerably. Depending on fitness, speed and the number of stops, the rider usually covers between 50–150 kilometres (30–90 mi) per day. A short tour over a few days may cover as little as 200 kilometres (120 mi) and a long tour may go right across a country or around the world.

== Types ==
[[Image:Bicycle touring.jpg|thumb|A group of self-supported bicycle tourists crossing Ohio.]]
There are many different types of bicycle touring:

* In lightweight touring—informally called '''credit-card touring''' among cyclists—the rider carries a minimum of equipment and a lot of money. Overnight accommodation is in [[youth hostel]]s, [[hotel]]s, ''pensions'' or [[Bed & breakfast|B&B]]s. Food is bought at cafes, restaurants or markets. This type of bicycle touring is common in [[Europe]].
* In '''fully loaded touring''' (also known as '''self-supported touring''') cyclists carry everything they need, including [[food]], cooking equipment, and a [[tent]] for [[camping (recreation)|camping]]. Some travelers go "ultralight" with basic supplies, food, and a [[Bivouac sack|bivy]].
* '''Expedition touring''' means traveling extensively, often through [[developing nations]] or remote areas. The bicycle is loaded with food, spares, tools, and camping equipment so that the traveler is largely self-supporting.
* In '''supported touring''' a vehicle such as a van carries most of the rider's equipment. This can be organized by private groups of cyclists or commercial holiday companies. These companies sell places on guided bicycle tours, including booked lodging, luggage transfers, route planning and often meals and rental bikes.
* In a '''mass day trip''', such as [[MS Bike Tour]] and [[Five Boro Bike Tour]] hundreds or thousands pay a fee to be conducted, sometimes by representatives of a charitable organization, on a day tour of usually tens of miles or kilometers. Accommodation is provided in the form of rest and refreshment stops, marshalling to aid safety, and [[Bicycling terminology#S|SAG service]].

== Touring bike ==

{{main|Touring bicycle}}

Cycle touring beyond the range of a [[day trip]] may need a bike capable of carrying heavy loads. Although many different bicycles can be used, most cycle tourists prefer a [[touring bicycle|touring bike]] built for the loads and which can be ridden more comfortably over long distances. A typical bicycle would have a longer wheelbase for stability and heel clearance, frame fittings for front and rear pannier racks, additional water bottle mounts, frame fittings for front and rear mudguards/fenders, a broader range of gearing to cope with the increased weight, and touring tires which are wider and more puncture-resistant.

"Ultralight tourers" choose traditional [[road bicycle]]s or "Audax bicycles" for speed and simplicity. However, these bikes are harder to ride on unmade roads, which in extreme cases can mean riding on busy roads. For some, the advantages of a [[recumbent bicycle]] are particularly relevant to touring. Other tourists find more comfort and better views riding in the upright position.

Another option is to pull a [[bicycle trailer]]. This removes most of the requirements for a touring bike.

Finally, a rider can have his load carried in a following car or van, cyclists call this being "supported". When the cyclist and bicycle are picked up, cyclist call this being "sagged", which comes from the colloquial name of the rescue bus that follows riders in races and picks up those who have sagged, who don't have the strength to ride further. For this, almost any type of bicycle may be suitable.

== Route planning ==
A successful bike tour may benefit from good planning, although many tourers prefer a less-structured trip. The following are useful planning resources in the United States.

* The [[Adventure Cycling Association]] has extensive route maps for all over the United States. These maps include dining, supplies and camping suggestions.

* Departments of Transportation in each state of the USA have bicycle coordinators and websites that can provide official bike routes, maps showing highway volumes / geometrics (especially shoulder widths) and current highway construction projects. These coordinators can quite often be contacted by e-mail, postal mail or telephone.

* [[American Automobile Association]] maps and guides – even though this information is designed for automobiles, AAA provides county maps, camping maps & guides, and other travel guides.

* Internet – Journals, websites and forums. Some examples are listed in this article.

* Tour groups – These groups can provide an itinerary with camp areas, lodging, schedule and meals. Generally, they are guided and supported.

* Routing software - For Europe (e.g. Alps) good and free bike routing software is available <ref>{{cite web |url=http://tourenplaner.quaeldich.de/
|title=Bicycle routing software |format=html}}</ref>

== Travelogues ==
Many cycle tourists have published [[Travel literature|travelogue]]s of their tours in books or magazines or on the [[World Wide Web|Web]] that are both entertaining and informative. Some notable examples are [[Thomas Stevens (cyclist)|Thomas Stevens]], [[Alastair Humphreys]], [[Ken Kifer]], [[Dervla Murphy]], [[Josie Dew]], [[Heinz Stücke]] and [[Janne Corax]].

== Bike touring associations ==
Many associations for [[cyclist]]s, such as the [[Cyclists' Touring Club]] in the UK and [[Adventure Cycling Association]] in the US, began as small touring clubs, bringing together enthusiasts and perhaps organizing tours and accommodation. The Adventure Cycling Association (then called [[Bikecentennial]]) organised a mass ride in 1976 from one side of the USA to the other to mark the nation's 200th anniversary. The Bikecentennial route is still in use as the [[TransAmerica Trail]]. In France, long-distance cyclists belong to the Fédération Française de Cyclo-Tourisme and to the smaller Cyclo-Camping International, which pools members' experiences and holds an annual conference in Paris. The FFCT is the largest cycling organisation in the world; the CTC is the oldest.

== History ==
[[Image:Bicycling-ca1887-bigwheelers.jpg|thumb|Touring the countryside, 1887]]
From the invention of the bicycle, it has always been a challenge to see how far it could be ridden. When the limits of a day's ride were reached, cyclists began carrying luggage for an overnight stop, thus creating bicycle touring. Since this was impromptu progression, accelerated when the equally-sized wheels of the [[safety bicycle]] made it simpler to carry bags, it is impossible to say when it started. By 1878, however, recreational cycling was well enough established in Britain to lead to the formation of the Bicycle Touring Club, later renamed Cyclists' Touring Club. It is the oldest national tourism organisation in the world. Membership of the CTC inspired the Frenchman Paul de Vivie (b. April 29, 1853) to found what became the Fédération Française de Cyclotourisme, the world's largest cycling association, and to coin the French word "cyclo-tourisme".

== See also ==
* [[Adventure Cycling Association]]
* [[Audax (cycling)]]
* [[Bicycle safety]]
* [[Challenge riding]]
* [[Cycleway]]
* [[Cyclists' Touring Club]]
* [[League of American Bicyclists]]
* [[Recreational cycling]]
* [[Utility cycling]]

== References ==
{{Unreferenced|date=May 2007}}
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{linkfarm}}

* [http://kanadaihirlap.com/2008/02/16/hungarian-students-prepare-for-1000km-bicycle-tour-of-central-canada/ Students prepare for 1000km bicycle tour of central Canada ]
* [http://www.velomonde.com/vh_a.html Hospitality Sites for Cyclists] – A list of hospitality sites for touring cyclists.
* [http://www.thebarrys.org/Reservations/biking.html Recreational biking in U.S.A.] – Find recreational biking area's U.S.A.
* [http://biketourist.podomatic.com Bike Tourist Podcast] – A radio style show featuring interviews with bicycle tourists, reviews, and interesting articles
* [http://erasmoperez.blogspot.com GPS Cycling Tours - Randonneuring in Mexico] – A blog presenting GPS track data (like dynamic Trackmaps and altitude profiles), plus geo-referenced photographs and travel reports, of several cycling tours made to different archaeological sites in Mexico.
* [http://oak.ucc.nau.edu/cjs235/Base_Touring.html A Northern Italy itinerary] – Cycling in Northern Italy
* [http://www.adventurecycling.org/outreach/pedalpioneers.cfm Pedal Pioneers Guide] – A complete guide for planning and conducting youth bike tours.
* [http://www.angusadventures.com/cycling/index.html Cycle Touring Handbook] – An extensive resource detailing long-distance cycling
* [http://www.bicycletour.com/ World Wide Bicycle Tour Directory] – World Wide Bicycle Tour Directory
* [http://www.bicycletouring101.com/ Bicycle Touring 101] – Informative resource for anyone thinking about starting bicycle touring
* [http://www.bicycletraveler.com BicycleTraveler] – Huge Resource of Personal Travelogues
* [http://www.biketouringtips.com/ The On-line Bike Touring Archive] – An indexed archive devoted to bike touring information.
* [http://www.crazyguyonabike.com CrazyGuyOnABike] – Over 2,100 Journals and Articles by bicycle tourists
* [http://www.englicious.com/__bike Rolling Across Europa] – A documented trans-Europe journey with tips and observations
* [http://www.mapitpronto.com/ MapItPronto] – Map out or view other's bike routes
* [http://www.nbtda.com/ National Bicycle Tour Directors Association] – National Bicycle Tour Directors Association
* [http://www.tierrawiki.org/ TierraWiki] – Community project to share outdoor routes, including bike touring.
* [http://www.veloroutes.org Veloroutes.org] – Create, share and find cycling maps
* [http://www.wheretocycle.com/ WheretoCycle.com] – A place to share bicycle touring information about locations around the world
* [http://www.xcountrybike.com/planning.html Transcendental Transcontinental] – Helpful route planning guide. Links to US state bicycle coordinators for maps and local info.
* [http://www.bikely.com/ Bikely] – More than 40000 bike trails, paths and routes from over 40 countries.
* [http://www.cyclistswelcome.eu/ Cyclists Welcome] – Czech certification scheme.
* [http://www.bike2oz.com] – Cycling from England to Australia

{{cb start}}
{{cycling}}
{{Bicycle racing}}
{{cb end}}

{{Template:Adventure travel}}

[[Category:Bicycle tours| ]]
[[Category:Cycling]]
[[Category:Types of tourism]]

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[[nl:Fietsvakantie]]
[[pt:Cicloturismo]]
[[ru:Велосипедный туризм]]
[[sk:Cykloturistika]]

Touring bicycle

2008-05-27T22:05:34Z

Dave Runger: /* See also */ tired of edit summaries

A '''touring bicycle''' is a bicycle either specially designed for, or modified to handle [[bicycle touring]]. What makes a touring bike different from other bicycles is its superior ability to carry gear on racks mounted to the front and rear of the bicycle frame. Other commonly found differences are a longer [[Bicycle_and_motorcycle_geometry#Wheelbase|wheel base]] with sturdier wheels for carrying more weight, mudguard/fender mounting points, triple water bottle mounts and a frameset that allows for wider tires.

== Types of touring bicycles ==
Touring bicycles are available in many different types, such as road, trail, recumbent and tandem.

=== Road tourers ===
Road tourers are usually built around 700C (622mm) wheels which have rims the same diameter as a racing bicycle but typically the touring bike will have wider rims and more clearance in the frame for wider tires. This is the classic touring bike. Prior to the 1980s many touring bikes were built with 27" wheels which had rims with a slightly larger diameter (630mm). Note that 27" wheels are still occasionally used, but are generally found on older bikes.

Some companies, especially [[Thorn Cycles]] of England, have attempted to popularize the 26" mountain bike wheel size for touring bikes, whether for off-road or on-road use. Others such as Roberts and Hewitt have followed and offer 26"-wheeled touring bikes alongside conventional 700C machines. Claimed advantages of the slightly smaller wheel include additional strength, worldwide tire availability, and lighter weight. Some touring bicycles, such as the American Surly Long Haul Trucker are built around 26" (or 650C) wheels in smaller sizes and 700C wheels in larger sizes as the larger wheel can compromise touring geometry in a small frame.

In practice most 26" tires are made for mountain bikes so are too wide, heavy and deeply treaded to be useful on a road touring bike. Few light narrow tires are available for 26" wheels, which negates any weight advantage from the smaller rim and shorter spokes. Riders leaving areas such as western Europe and North America, where cycle equipment is readily and widely available, nevertheless often prefer 26-inch wheels because mountain-bike sizes are often more easily obtained in the Third World and even in eastern Europe. The Fédération Française de Cyclotourisme's mass ride from Paris to the Beijing Olympics in 2008 insisted all riders use 26-inch wheels for that reason.

The difference in rolling resistance between sizes and widths is debated; theoretically a 26" fat tire (say 38mm width) has less rolling resistance than a narrow 700C tire if the air pressure is the same, due to lower casing deformation, but the larger 700c tire will roll better on rough roads, is lighter and has less aerodynamic drag, and in practice is run at a higher pressure.

There are numerous variants on the traditional road tourer depending on the weight carried and the type of terrain expected. They vary from lightweight bikes, little heavier than racing bikes, to tough and heavy bikes designed for carrying heavy loads over the roughest roads. The former are often called [[audax]] bikes while the latter are sometimes referred to as [[expedition touring bikes]]. Mountain bikes are often used for expedition touring; they can usually be easily adapted to touring by adding panniers and road tires. Most riders who show accounts of their tours at the Cyclo-Camping International meeting in Paris each winter use mountain bikes.

=== Recumbent tourers ===
[[Image:Canto_at_Niagara.JPG|thumb|Fully loaded recumbent]] [[Recumbent bicycle|Recumbent]]s are different in that the rider sits with his legs in front. Recumbents have their handlebars not in front, as with conventional bicycles, but above or below the seat. Depending on design, the ability to carry gear on the front wheel may be limited or absent.

=== Tandem tourers ===
[[Tandem bicycle|Tandem]]s are bikes built for two riders and many couples tour on them. They can make it easier for two riders of different abilities to ride together, but the tandem frame does not allow for any more luggage than a single bike does. This limitation can be overcome by pulling a trailer.

==Touring bike specifications==
[[Image:Thorn.nz.JPG|thumb|Modern touring bicycle]]Touring bicycles are usually equipped with luggage [[Luggage carrier|racks]] front and rear, designed to hold [[Pannier|panniers]] or other forms of luggage. Because of the increased weight requirements and reliability demands, touring bicycles typically consist of steel frames and forks, comfortable handlebars and saddles for long-distance riding, combined with durable hubs, double-wall rims and 36-spoke wheels to provide the durability and reliability essential for loaded touring. Sometimes instead of panniers [[bicycle trailer]]s are towed. Some riders prefer them because they provide a low center of gravity and can be detached easily. However, they decrease maneuverability.

Touring bicycle frames typically have a long wheelbase and stable [[Bicycle and motorcycle geometry|steering geometry]], with numerous attachments for luggage racks, fenders (mudguards), [[Bicycle lighting|lights]], water bottles, tools and spare parts. Chainstays must be long enough to accommodate panniers without their brushing the rider's heels, and the entire structure must be stiff enough to safely handle long, fast descents with the machine fully loaded.

Touring bicycles traditionally employ wide-ratio [[derailleur gear]]s, often with a very low gear, referred to in some countries as a "granny gear", for steep hills under load. [[Hub gear|internal-geared hub]]s have become popular in recent years because of their robustness and low maintenance.

Touring bicycles are sometimes equipped with [[Bicycle brake systems|cantilever brakes]] or linear-pull brakes, instead of the caliper brakes used on [[racing bicycle]]s. The need for mudguard (fender) and wide tire clearance can sometimes preclude the use of caliper road brakes, which may be excessively large and flexible if made to fit a touring bike. Some newer touring bicycles use [[disc brake]]s, because of their superior stopping power in wet weather.

Thus, touring bikes trade some speed for utility and ruggedness. This combination is popular with commuters and couriers as well.

==See also==
* [[Bicycle]]
* [[Luggage carrier|Bicycle rack]]
* [[Bicycle trailer]]
* [[Bicycle touring]]
* [[Pannier]]
* [[Road bicycle]]
* [[Saddlebag]]
* [[Touring motorcycle]]
* [[Utility bicycle]]

==External links==
* [http://www.ctc.org.uk The Cyclists' Touring Club of Great Britain]
* [http://www.fullyloadedtouring.com Fully Loaded Touring] - photographs of bicycles carrying touring luggage

[[Category:Cycle types]]
[[Category:Road cycles]]

[[de:Reiserad]]
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User:Dave Runger/monobook.js

2008-05-19T07:08:01Z

Dave Runger: popups are slwoing me down i think

importScript('User:AzaToth/twinkle.js');

Stephen H. Webb

2008-05-08T20:07:12Z

Dave Runger: spelling

{{notability|date=January 2008}}
{{refimprove|date=January 2008}}
{{otherpeople|Stephen Webb}}
'''Stephen H. Webb''' is a [[theologian]] and [[philosopher of religion]].

Webb graduated from [[Wabash College]] in 1983, earned his Ph.D. at the [[University of Chicago]], and has been teaching at [[Wabash College]] as Professor of Religion and Philosophy since 1988. Born and raised in [[Indianapolis]], [[Indiana]], he grew up at Englewood Christian Church, an evangelical church in the [[Restoration Movement]]. He recounts his experiences there in Taking Religion to School (Brazos Press, 2000). He joined the [[Disciples of Christ]] during graduate school but soon became disenchanted with their theological direction. He was briefly a [[Lutheran]], and spent several months considering the [[Roman Catholic Church]]. On Easter Sunday, 2007, he officially came into full communion with the Roman Catholic Church.

He is known for his scholarship and journalism on animals, vegetarianism, and diet. He co-founded the Christian Vegetarian Association (ChristianVeg.com), but was removed from his position as co-chairman in 2006 after writing several articles in which he admitted to eating meat occasionally, while promoting vegetarianism. He defends the value of animals by reaffirming traditional notions of human uniqueness and human responsibility for nature. Many animal rights arguments are influenced by a leveling of the differences between humans and animals as well as a levelling of the differences between God and the world. This vision of a non-dogmatic and non-legalistic vegetarianism linked to traditional biblical principles rather than the [[pantheism]] of the New Age movement or the abdication of human uniqueness entailed in animal rights legislation has been controversial in both theological and philosophical circles.

Most recently, Dr. Webb has turned his attention to politics, culture, and popular culture. Within this field, Webb has generated positive and negative reviews with his book ''American Providence'' (Continuum, 2004) in which he defends the idea that the doctrine of [[providence]] has been a crucial ingredient in American history and American identity. Providential interpretations of American national aspirations went into decline after the [[Vietnam War]], but with [[George W. Bush|President Bush]]'s openness regarding the role of faith in his presidency, providence has returned to the public square. Webb argues that even [[anti-Americanism]] is dependent upon providential logic, because conspiracy theories about how evil America is grant America a special role in world history. He also argues that the future belongs to the triad of [[capitalism]], [[democracy]], and various forms of [[evangelical Christianity]], not limited to explicitly evangelical churches (a statement concerning Catholicisms role in this mission is forthcoming).

Dr. Webb is also known for his work in what he calls theo-acoustics, or a theology of sound. He wrote a comprehensive history of Christianity and sound in ''The Divine Voice: Christian Proclamation and the Theology of Sound'' (Brazos Press, 2004). This book, which was named the Religious Communication Association's Book of the Year for 2005, is divided into three parts. The first part surveys the biblical tradition on the importance of the human voice as a medium of revelation in the Bible. The second part focuses on the Protestant Reformation as the revival of that tradition. The third part discusses the transformations of that tradition in contemporary culture, which is increasingly oriented toward the visual over the auditory. He also discusses the role of deafness in Christian history and various theological debates over the question of how God created the world through sound. He ends that book talking about wordless music and the decline of authenitc vocalization in rock and roll, so it was a natural progression to turn Bob Dylan in his next book, ''Dylan Redeemed: From Highway 61 to Saved'' (Continuum, 2006). This book, which as been written about in many Dylan blogs, is a reassessment of [[Bob Dylan]]'s musical career that focuses on Dylan's mid-life conversion to Christianity.

Dr. Webb has written about C. S. Lewis in ''The Chronicles of Narnia and Philosophy'' (ed. by Jerry Walls, Open Court Publishing, 2005), Indiana small town basketball in ''Basketball and Philosophy'' (University of Kentucky Press, 2007), and eschatology and politics in ''The Oxford Handbook of Eschatology'' (Oxford University Press, 2008). He also wrote the commendation for John Updike for the Presentation of the Christianity and Literature Lifetime Achievement Award at the Modern Languages Association Meeting in December, 2006. His remarks, and Updike's generous response, appear in ''Christianity and Literature'', vol. 56, No. 3 (Spring 2007), pp. 481-485. He has given invited lectures at Aberdeen University, Calvin College, Wheaton College, Bangor, Maine, Arizona State University, Pepperdine University, Butler University, Hartford Seminary, Creighton University, Wilfrid Laurier University, Hope College, Kalamazoo College, Purdue University, Elmhurst College, and Loyola University in Baltimore.

He is currently working on a book entitled, ''Christianity and Its Enemies'' as well as a new book on compassion and animals. He also contributes to ''First Things'', ''Books & Culture'', ''Christianity Today'', and other magazines and journals.

Stephen Webb lives in [[Brownsburg, Indiana]] with his wife, Diane Timmerman, who is an Associate Professor of Theatre at [[Butler University]], and their three children (Charis, Barek and Asher) and two Dachshunds (Max and Herbie).

==Bibliography==
* ''Dylan Redeemed: From Highway 61 to Saved'' (Continuum, 2006)
* ''The Divine Voice: Christian Proclamation and the Theology of Sound'' (Brazos Press, 2004)
* ''American Providence: A Nation with a Mission'' (Continuum, 2004)
*''Good Eating: The Bible, Diet and the Proper Love of Animals'' (Grand Rapids: Brazos Press/Baker, 2001)
*''Taking Religion to School: Christian Theology and Secular Education.''(Brazos Press, 2000, 253 pages with notes)
*''On God and Dogs: A Christian Theology of Compassion for Animals'' (With a Foreword by Andrew Linzey) (Oxford University Press, 1998)
*''The Gifting God: A Trinitarian Ethics of Excess'' (Oxford University Press, 1996)
*''Blessed Excess: Religion and the Hyperbolic Imagination'' (SUNY Series in Rhetoric and Theology) (Albany: SUNY Press, 1993)
* ''Refiguring Theology: The Rhetoric of Karl Barth'' (SUNY, 1991)

==External links==
*[http://www.stephenhwebb.com Stephen H. Webb: American Theologian]
*[http://www.christianitytoday.com/bc/2005/006/13.14.html Christianity Today/Books and Culture article] In "Revenge of the Ebionites," a book review of ''Holy Cow!: Does God Care About What We Eat?'' by [[Hope Egan]], Webb confesses his recent "semi-vegetarianism" (as a result, he was asked to step down as co-chairman at the request of the [[Christian Vegetarian Association]])
For an online journal publication of an essay by Dr. Webb about theology and animals, see http://www.theotherjournal.com/print.php?id=171 For two articles about liberal arts education by Dr. Webb from LiberalArtsOnline, see http://liberalarts.wabash.edu/cila/home.cfm?news_id=1449 and http://liberalarts.wabash.edu/cila/home.cfm?news_id=1446
For a review of ''American Providence'' in the journal First Things, see http://www.firstthings.com/article.php3?id_article=145&var_recherche=Stephen+H.+Webb
For an article about Dylan, see http://www.firstthings.com/article.php3?id_article=5336
For a review of ''Dylan Redeemed'', see http://spacemonkeylab.com/dylandaily/blog/archives/00000475.php and, for an interview of Webb on Dylan in the UK's The Guardian, see http://education.guardian.co.uk/egweekly/story/0,,2217255,00.html

[[Category:American vegetarians|Webb, Stephen H.]]
[[Category:Christian vegetarians|Webb, Stephen H.]]
[[Category:Christian writers|Webb, Stephen H.]]
[[Category:Living people|Webb, Stephen H.]]
[[Category:American Roman Catholics]]

Brad Pitt

2008-04-08T11:01:17Z

Dave Runger: reverting subtle number vandalism

{{Infobox actor
| name = Brad Pitt
| image = Brad Pitt Palm Film Festival.jpg
| imagesize =
| caption = Brad Pitt at the [[Palm Springs International Film Festival]] in 2007

| birthname = William Bradley Pitt
| birthdate = {{birth date and age|1963|12|18}}
| location = [[Shawnee, Oklahoma]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| spouse = [[Jennifer Aniston]] (2000-2005)
| domesticpartner = [[Angelina Jolie]] (2005-present)
| years active = 1987-present
| goldenglobeawards = '''[[Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture|Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture]]''' 1996 ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]''
| goldenraspberryawards = '''Worst Screen Couple''' 1994 ''[[Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles]]''
| awards = '''[[Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor (film)|Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture]]''' 1995 ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]'' '''[[Venice Film Festival|Volpi Cup for Best Actor]]''' 2007 ''[[The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford]]''
}}

'''William Bradley "Brad" Pitt''' (born [[December 18]], [[1963]]) is an [[United States|American]] [[actor]], [[film producer]], and social activist. He became famous during the mid 1990s after starring in several major Hollywood films.<ref name="www.tv-now.com">{{cite web| title=Brad Pitt Biography|publisher=tv-now.com|accessdate=2008-01-01|url=http://www.tv-now.com/stars/bradpitt.html}}</ref> Pitt received a [[Golden Globe Award]] and an [[Academy Award]] nomination for his role in the 1995 film ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]''.<ref name=www.tv-now.com/>

Pitt is consistently cited by popular media as one of the most attractive men alive<ref name=www.tv-now.com/><ref name="www.people.com">{{cite web| title=The Sexiest Men Alive - Brad Pitt|publisher=''[[People (magazine)|People Magazine]]''|accessdate=2008-01-01|url=http://www.people.com/people/package/sma2006/gallery/0,,1539441_1559557_15,00.html}}</ref><ref name="www.livescience.com">{{cite web| first= Andrea| last=Thompson | title=Study Explains Why We're Not All Beautiful: A new study explains why we aren't all born with Brad Pitt's perfectly chiseled features or Angelina Jolie's pouty lips..|publisher=livescience.com|accessdate=2008-01-01|url=http://www.livescience.com/health/070328_lek_paradox.html}}</ref><ref name="www.foxnews.com">{{cite web| first= Jeanna| last=Bryner | title=Study: Men With 'Cavemen' Faces Most Attractive to Women|publisher=[[Fox News Channel]]|date=2007-08-23|accessdate=2008-01-01|url=
http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,294134,00.html}}</ref> and is regarded as a [[Hollywood]] [[A-list]]er.<ref name="www.contactmusic.com">{{cite web| title=BRAD PITT - BRAD PITT "VULNERABLE" AFTER FAN ATTACK|publisher=contactmusic.com|accessdate=2008-01-01|url=http://www.contactmusic.com/news.nsf/article/brad%20pitt%20vulnerable%20after%20fan%20attack_1043922}}</ref> His former marriage to actress [[Jennifer Aniston]] and current relationship with actress [[Angelina Jolie]] have been widely covered in the world media.<ref name=www.tv-now.com/> He is the father of four children with Jolie, one biological, all of whom have also received media coverage. Since his connection with Jolie, he has become increasingly involved in social issues, both domestically and internationally.
==Early life==
Pitt was born in [[Shawnee, Oklahoma]], the son of Jane Etta ([[married and maiden names|née]] Hillhouse), a [[high school]] counselor, and William Alvin Pitt, a truck company owner.<ref>[http://www.filmreference.com/film/24/Brad-Pitt.html Brad Pitt Biography (1963-)]</ref> Along with his brother Doug and sister Julie Neal, he grew up in [[Springfield, Missouri|Springfield]], [[Missouri]], where the family moved soon after his birth. Pitt was raised a Baptist.<ref>[http://www.genealogy.com/famousfolks/bpitt/index.html Ancestry of Brad Pitt]</ref><ref>[http://www.hellomagazine.com/profiles/bradpitt/ Brad Pitt Hello Magazine Profile]</ref> He attended [[Kickapoo High School (Springfield, Missouri)|Kickapoo High School]], where he was involved in sports, debating, student government, and acting. He attended the [[Missouri School of Journalism]] at the [[University of Missouri–Columbia]]. He is a member of the [[Sigma Chi]] Fraternity.

==Career==

===Moderate success===
In 1988, Pitt had his first starring role, in ''[[The Dark Side of the Sun (film)|The Dark Side of the Sun]]'', where he played a young American taken by his family to the [[Adriatic]] to find a remedy for a skin condition. The movie was shot in [[Yugoslavia]] in the summer of '88 with Pitt being paid $1,523 per week for seven weeks. However, with editing nearly complete, war broke out and much of the footage was lost; the film was released years later. Pitt won a part in the TV movie ''[[Too Young to Die?]]'', about an abused [[teenager]] given the [[death penalty]] for murder. Pitt played the part of a drug addict, Billy Canton, who took advantage of a runaway played by [[Juliette Lewis]].

In 1991, Pitt starred, along with Vera Martins, as Joe Maloney in ''[[Across the Tracks]]'', in which he portrayed a high school runner with a difficult criminal brother played by [[Ricky Schroder]]. Pitt attracted broader public attention from a supporting role in ''[[Thelma & Louise]]'', where he played a small-time criminal drifter who befriends Thelma ([[Geena Davis]]). His love scene with Davis, which showed Pitt topless and wearing a cowboy hat, has been referred to as "iconic", often cited as the moment that defined Pitt as a "[[sex symbol]]".

After ''Thelma & Louise'', Pitt starred alongside [[Catherine Keener]] and [[Nick Cave]] in the low budget, [[Tom DiCillo]]-directed 1991 film ''[[Johnny Suede]]'', as an awkward dreamer who aspired to be a big-haired rock star. Pitt had agreed to play the part before ''Thelma & Louise'' was released. After appearing in ''[[Cool World]]'', Pitt starred in [[Robert Redford]]'s ''[[A River Runs Through It (film)|A River Runs Through It]]'' in 1992, for which Pitt learned [[fly fishing]] by casting off of [[Hollywood]] buildings. In 1993 came ''[[Kalifornia]]'', a road movie in which he played a scruffy serial killer alongside [[Juliette Lewis]] and ''[[X-Files]]'' actor [[David Duchovny]].

===1994-2000: Mainstream success and acclaim===
In 1994, Pitt played [[vampire]] [[Louis de Pointe du Lac]] in the movie adaptation of [[Anne Rice]]'s novel ''[[Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles|Interview with the Vampire]]''. The role of the eighteenth-century vampire required Pitt to endure several hours of make-up being applied every day to achieve the characteristic white skin; Pitt wore a pair of [[luminous]] green eyes, [[vampire]] [[fangs]], and a shoulder-length hairpiece to complete the appearance. Pitt's co-stars included the eleven-year-old [[Kirsten Dunst]], [[Tom Cruise]], [[Christian Slater]], and [[Antonio Banderas]]. He then starred in ''[[Legends of the Fall]]'' and ''[[Seven (film)|Se7en]]''. In ''Se7en'', Pitt starred alongside [[Morgan Freeman]] as the police detective David Mills who hunts a serial killer played by [[Kevin Spacey]]. Pitt was then nominated for an [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]] as [[Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor|Best Supporting Actor]] for his portrayal of Jeffrey Goines in the 1995 film ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]''.

In 1997, Pitt starred alongside [[Harrison Ford]] as the [[Provisional Irish Republican Army|IRA]] terrorist Rory Devany in ''[[The Devil's Own]]'', the first of several films where Pitt used an [[Ireland|Irish]] [[accent]] in his performance. That same year he played the main role of [[Austria]]n [[mountaineer]] [[Heinrich Harrer]] in the [[Jean Jacques Annaud]] film ''[[Seven Years in Tibet (1997 film)|Seven Years in Tibet]]''. Pitt trained for months for the role, which demanded a great deal of [[trekking]] and mountain climbing, by rock climbing in [[California]] and the [[Alps]] with his co-star, [[David Thewlis]]. Due to the themes of Tibetan nationalism in the film, the Chinese government banned Pitt and Thewlis from entering China for life.<ref>[http://www.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&sql=B56988 Brad Pitt at AllMovie]</ref><ref>[http://www.allmovie.com/cg/avg.dll?p=avg&sql=BP|70493 David Thewlis at AllMovie]</ref>

In 1998, Pitt starred as the main character in the film ''[[Meet Joe Black]]'', where he played a [[personification]] of [[Death]] inhabiting the body of a young man in order to learn what it is like to be human. The film gave Pitt another chance to work alongside Welsh actor Sir [[Anthony Hopkins]], with whom he had previously worked on ''[[Legends of the Fall]]''. In 1999, Pitt starred in ''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]'', an adaptation of [[Chuck Palahniuk]]'s novel. Directed by ''[[Se7en]]'''s [[David Fincher]], Pitt portrayed the highly complex and colorful character of [[Tyler Durden]].

In 2000, Pitt played the role of Mickey, an [[Irish Travellers|Irish Gypsy]] [[boxing|boxer]] in the gangster movie ''[[Snatch (film)|Snatch]]'', alongside [[Jason Statham]], [[Vinnie Jones]] and [[Benicio del Toro]]. The film was a wild caper involving a [[diamond]] heist, the [[Russia]]n and American [[mafia]] and the shady underground world, that saw Pitt brought in as a ringer by two failing promoters. The movie saw him moving on from the Northern Irish [[accent]] he attempted in ''The Devil's Own''; Pitt created a just-barely-intelligible accent suggesting the Irish Gypsies, referred to as [[Pikey]]s in the movie. Pitt continued to train for the role, and honed his [[boxing]] skills at Ricky English's gym in [[Watford]].

===2000s: Ascension to the A-list===
In 2000, Pitt filmed the [[Cold War]] thriller ''[[Spy Game]]'' in which he starred alongside veteran actor [[Robert Redford]], who played the role of his mentor. In 2001, Pitt worked with long-time friend [[Julia Roberts]] in the comical road movie ''[[The Mexican]]''. At the end of the year, Pitt finished filming ''[[Ocean's Eleven (2001 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]'' with [[George Clooney]] and [[Matt Damon]], a remake of the 1960s version which starred [[Frank Sinatra]].

[[Image:Brad Pitt at Incirlik2.jpg|thumb|right|200px| Brad Pitt at the Incirlik hospital, [[Incirlik Air Base]]]]Since then, he has starred in numerous films, including ''[[Ocean's Twelve]]'' and the epic ''[[Troy (film)|Troy]]'', based on the [[Iliad]], in which he portrayed the legendary hero [[Achilles]]. Ironically, during the production of ''[[Troy (film)|Troy]]'', Pitt injured his [[Achilles tendon]], delaying production for several weeks.<ref>[http://www.smh.com.au/articles/2004/05/06/1083635286338.html?from=storyrhs For Pitt's sake]</ref> In 2005, Pitt starred in ''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2005 film)|Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]'', in which he and [[Angelina Jolie]] played husband and wife assassins.

In March 2006, it was announced that [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]] had purchased the rights to ''[[The Sparrow (novel)|The Sparrow]]'' for Pitt's production company, Plan B, and that Pitt would be playing the lead role of Sandoz.<ref>[http://www.aintitcool.com/display.cgi?id=22626 Warner Bros has captured a SPARROW and is planning on giving it to Brad Pitt!!!]</ref> In June 2006 it was announced that Paramount and Plan B will be working on a new zombie film called ''World War Z'', based on the [[World War Z|book of the same name]] by [[Max Brooks]].<ref>[http://www.moviesonline.ca/movienews_9032.html Paramount Gets World War Z]</ref>

Pitt made his return to Hollywood in late 2006 with [[Alejandro González Iñárritu]]'s critically acclaimed ''[[Babel (film)|Babel]]'', starring alongside [[Cate Blanchett]]. The movie garnered a total of seven [[Academy Award]] and [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] nominations, one of which was a [[Golden Globe Award|Golden Globe]] nomination for Pitt as [[Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture|Best Supporting Actor in a Motion Picture]]. The movie has since become Pitt's highest grossing drama. That same year, he also produced the eventual [[Academy Award for Best Picture|Best Picture]] winner, ''[[The Departed]]''. In 2005 he produced and starred in [[The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford]], directed by Andrew Dominik, but the film was not released until late 2007. Although both Pitt and the film gained much critical success (the film appeared on many 'Top 10' lists of 2007), it performed poorly at the box office.

===Other projects===
Pitt has appeared in [[television commercial]]s designed for the Asian market, advertising such diverse products as [[Edwin (clothing brand)|Edwin Jeans]], the [[Toyota]] Altis, and [[Japanese people|Japanese]] canned coffee. He also appeared in a [[Heineken Pilsener|Heineken]] commercial which aired during the [[Super Bowl XXXIX|2005 Super Bowl]]; it was directed by [[David Fincher]], who directed Pitt in the feature films ''[[Se7en (film)|Se7en]]'' and ''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]''.

Together with [[Jennifer Aniston]] and [[Paramount Pictures]] head [[Brad Grey]], Pitt founded the production company Plan B. Aniston is no longer a partner in the company, although she is still attached to many projects that were set up before her divorce from Pitt. The company produced the blockbuster ''[[Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (film)|Charlie and the Chocolate Factory]]'', starring [[Johnny Depp]], as well as ''[[The Departed]]'' and ''[[The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford]]''.

Pitt made a guest appearance in [[The One with the Rumor|an eighth-season episode]] of ''[[Friends]]'', as a man who has a grudge against Aniston's character [[Rachel Green]], lent his voice on an episode of ''[[King of the Hill]]'', where he played Boomhauer's brother, ''[[Patch Boomhauer]]'', and on an episode of [[MTV]]'s ''[[Jackass (TV series)|Jackass]]'', in which he took part in a staged abduction of himself. In a later ''Jackass'' episode, he and several cast members ran wild through the streets of [[Los Angeles]] in gorilla suits.

Pitt has been an active supporter of research into diseases such as [[AIDS]]. He is the narrator of the acclaimed Public Television series ''Rx for Survival: A Global Health Challenge'',<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/rxforsurvival/index.html Rx for Survival: A Global Health Challenge | PBS]</ref> which discusses current important global health issues. Pitt is behind ''Not On Our Watch'', an organization that focuses global attention and resources to stop and prevent mass atrocities such as in [[Darfur conflict|Darfur]], along with [[George Clooney]], [[Matt Damon]], [[Don Cheadle]], and [[Jerry Weintraub]].<ref>[http://notonourwatchproject.org/ Not On Our Watch: Darfur | George Clooney, Brad Pitt, Matt Damon, Don Cheadle, Jerry Weintraub]</ref>

Pitt is also a knowledgeable fan of architecture, particularly that of [[Frank Lloyd Wright]], and has helped the [[National Trust for Historic Preservation]] raise money.<ref>{{cite news
|url=http://www.nationaltrust.org/magazine/archives/arc_news_2007/082207.htm
|title=Brad Pitt Visits Farnsworth House
|author=Margaret Foster
|date=[[2007-08-22]]
|publisher=[[National Trust for Historic Preservation|Preservation Online]]
|accessdate=2007-08-26}}</ref>

==Personal life==
In the late 1980s and 1990s, Pitt dated several of his co-stars, including [[Robin Givens]] (''[[Head Of The Class]]''),<ref name="www.channel4.com">{{cite web| title=Brad Pitt|publisher=channel4.com|accessdate=2008-03-12|url=http://www.channel4.com/film/reviews/person.jsp?id=15123}}</ref><ref name="eonline.com">{{cite web| title=Robin Givens Profile|publisher=[[E!]]|accessdate=2008-03-12|url=http://www.eonline.com/celebrities/profile/index.jsp?uuid=7b3f1f1d-20b6-4df5-9419-6ae581ae02d8}}</ref><ref name="movies.aol.com">{{cite web| title=Spotlight: Brad Pitt|publisher=movies.aol.com|accessdate=2008-03-12|url=http://movies.aol.com/celebrity/brad-pitt/56988/main}}</ref> [[Jill Schoelen]] (''[[Cutting Class]]''),<ref name="nndb.com">{{cite web| title=Jill Schoelen|publisher=nndb.com|accessdate=2008-03-12|url=http://www.nndb.com/people/961/000132565/}}</ref><ref name=movies.aol.com/> [[Juliette Lewis]] (''[[Too Young to Die?]]'' and ''[[Kalifornia]]''), who at sixteen was ten years his junior when they started dating,<ref name="www.People.com">{{cite web| title=Brad Pitt|publisher=''[[People (magazine)|People Magazine]]''|accessdate=2008-03-12|url=http://www.people.com/people/brad_pitt}}</ref><ref name=www.channel4.com/><ref name=movies.aol.com/> and [[Gwyneth Paltrow]] (''[[Se7en]]''),<ref name=www.channel4.com/><ref name=movies.aol.com/> with whom he had a much-publicized engagement. Pitt also dated actresses [[Sinitta]] and [[Thandie Newton]].<ref name=movies.aol.com/>

===Marriage to Jennifer Aniston===
Pitt met ''[[Friends]]'' actress [[Jennifer Aniston]] in 1998 and married her during an enclosed wedding ceremony in [[Malibu, California|Malibu]] on [[July 29]], [[2000]]. The couple ensured that the ceremony would be a private affair by hiring hundreds of guards to block any attempts of invasion by the paparazzi; just one wedding picture was released to the media. Not long after the wedding, Pitt sued [[Damiani International]], the company which had made the wedding ring he gave Aniston, for selling replica "Brad and Jennifer" rings. According to Pitt, the ring was his design and was to be exclusive. Under the settlement reached in January 2002, Pitt would design jewelry for Damiani that Aniston would model in ads, and the company would stop selling the copies.

Though their marriage was for years considered the rare Hollywood success, rumors of marital problems began circulating, and the Pitts announced their separation on [[January 7]], [[2005]]. As Pitt's marriage to Aniston drew to a close, he and actress [[Angelina Jolie]] were involved in a well-publicized Hollywood scandal in which Jolie was often painted as the "other woman", largely due to their chemistry during the filming of ''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2005 film)|Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]''. While Jolie and Pitt both denied any claims of adultery, speculations continued to mount throughout 2004 and early 2005. In an interview with Ann Curry in June 2005, Jolie explained, "To be intimate with a married man, when my own father cheated on my mother, is not something I could forgive. I could not look at myself in the morning if I did that. I wouldn't be attracted to a man who would cheat on his wife."<ref>[http://www.who.com/who/scoop/article/0,19971,1066953,00.html Angelina Denies Being 'Intimate' with a Married Brad]</ref>

In early 2005, the concept of a "troubled marriage" - and arguably his own - inspired Pitt to cooperate with photographer [[Steven Klein]] for a photoshoot entitled "Domestic Bliss" for ''[[W magazine]]''. The spread showed Pitt and Jolie as a 1963 married couple with children. Pitt expressed the desire to tell a darker, truer tale, one that explored the "unidentifiable malaise" that often haunts a seemingly happy couple. "You don't know what's wrong", he remarked, "because the marriage is everything you signed up for."<ref>Bagley, Christopher (2005). [http://www.style.com/w/feat_story/060605/full_page.html "Domestic Bliss"] Style.com Retrieved on [[July 10]], [[2007]]</ref> For her part, Aniston later cited the shoot as evidence that Pitt has "a sensitivity chip that's missing."<ref>Bennetts Leslie (September 2005). [http://www.vanityfair.com/fame/features/2005/09/aniston200509?currentPage=1 "The Unsinkable Jennifer Aniston"] VanityFair.com. Retrieved [[September 4]], [[2007]]</ref>

Aniston filed for divorce on [[March 25]]; the divorce was finalized on [[October 2]], [[2005]].

===Relationship with Angelina Jolie===
One month after Aniston filed for divorce, in April 2005, a set of paparazzi photos emerged that seemed to confirm the rumors of a relationship between Pitt and actress [[Angelina Jolie]]. The photos, which were reportedly sold for $500,000, showed Pitt, Jolie and her son Maddox at a beach in Kenya. During the summer, the pair were seen together with increasing frequency, and the entertainment media dubbed the couple "Brangelina". Two months later, the highly-anticipated July 2005 issue of ''[[W magazine]]'' hit newsstands, featuring Pitt and Jolie posed as a couple.

In July 2005, Pitt accompanied Jolie to Ethiopia,<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/news/wenn/2005-07-08#celeb1 Magazine Apologizes After Jolie Adoption Mix-Up]</ref> where Jolie adopted her second child, a six-month-old girl named Zahara;<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/news/wenn/2005-07-07#celeb1 Jolie Adopts Ethiopian Baby]</ref> later Jolie indicated that she and Pitt made the decision to adopt the child together.<ref>[http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0606/20/acd.01.html Angelina Jolie: Her Mission and Motherhood]</ref> In December 2005, it was confirmed that Pitt was seeking to legally adopt Jolie's two children as his own; per the legal requirements, classified advertisements in the Los Angeles paper ''Daily Commerce'' announced the name change request.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/news/wenn/2005-12-05#celeb1 Pitt To Officially Adopt Jolie's Children]</ref><ref>[http://www.imdb.com/news/wenn/2006-01-11#celeb4 Jolie Takes Out Ads as Part of Her Bid to Change Kids' Names]</ref> On [[January 19]], [[2006]], a judge in California approved this request, and the children's legal surnames were formally changed to "Jolie-Pitt".<ref>[http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/10927183/ Judge says Jolie's children can take Pitt's name]</ref>

During a charity trip to [[Haiti]] with [[Wyclef Jean]], rumors began to circulate that Jolie was pregnant. On [[January 11]], [[2006]], Jolie confirmed to ''People'' magazine that she was pregnant with Pitt's child.<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/news/wenn/2006-01-11#celeb11 Jolie and Pitt Expecting]</ref> On [[May 27]], [[2006]], Jolie gave birth to a daughter, Shiloh Nouvel Jolie-Pitt, at the Cottage Medi-Clinic Hospital in [[Swakopmund]], [[Namibia]]. Public interest in the child was immense, as evidenced by an August 2006 survey, in which 41 percent of participating 18-to-24-year-old American adults correctly identified that the couple had named their baby Shiloh.<ref>[http://www.prnewswire.com/cgi-bin/stories.pl?ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/08-22-2006/0004419958&EDATE= New survey finds that majority of young adults know "American Idol" winner, while only 14% are aware of number of lives saved from blood donation]</ref>

Following media reports suggesting Jolie might be pregnant again, she attended the [[Independent Spirit Awards]] 2008 in a close-fitting dress, indirectly confirming those rumors. ''[[People (magazine)|People]]'' quoted a source who confirmed her pregnancy.<ref>Green, Mary. [http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20180064,00.html Jolie-Pitts 'Thrilled To Be Adding to Their Brood']. ''People''. February 23, 2008. Accessed February 24, 2008.</ref>

====The Jolie-Pitt children====
;'''Maddox Chivan Jolie-Pitt'''
: Born on [[August 5]], [[2001]] as '''Rath Vibol''' in [[Cambodia]];<ref>http://www.eonline.com/news/article/index.jsp?uuid=71ee1ce0-30ab-41c1-b600-eb381d91d427 ''Angelina Jolie's Name Interrupted''</ref> adopted at seven months old on [[March 10]], [[2002]]. Prior to the adoption, he lived in an orphanage in Cambodia's second-largest city, [[Battambang]]. Jolie's adoption of Maddox, which took place during her former marriage to actor [[Billy Bob Thornton]], is often credited with sparking the celebrity adoption trend of the 2000s. Maddox has gained considerable celebrity in his own right; he appears regularly in the tabloid media and was named the "cutest celebrity kid" in 2006.<ref>[http://www.lse.co.uk/ShowbizNews.asp?Code=EQ203331T&headline=maddox_cutest_kid_ Maddox cutest kid]</ref>

;'''Pax Thien Jolie-Pitt
: Born on [[November 29]], [[2003]] as '''Pham Quang Sang''' in [[Vietnam]]; adopted at three years old on [[March 16]], [[2007]]. On [[March 2]], [[2007]], Vu Duc Long, the head of Vietnam's international adoption department, confirmed that Jolie had filed papers to adopt a child from Vietnam. Two weeks later, on [[March 16]], Jolie traveled to Vietnam with Maddox to pick up her new son. Pax had lived in the Tam Binh orphanage since he was found abandoned outside a [[Ho Chi Minh City]] hospital shortly after his birth. Since the orphanage does not allow unmarried couples to adopt, Jolie adopted Pax as a single parent, with Pitt later adopting his son domestically.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/entertainment/6411339.stm Jolie and Pitt 'to adopt again']</ref><ref>[http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20013922,00.html Official: Angelina Jolie Files to Adopt in Vietnam]</ref>

;'''Zahara Marley Jolie-Pitt'''
: Born on [[January 8]], [[2005]] as '''Tena Adam''' or '''Yemsrach''' in [[Ethiopia]]; adopted at six months old on [[July 6]], [[2005]]. Jolie adopted her from a Wide Horizons for Children orphanage in [[Addis Ababa]]. Shortly after they returned to the United States, Zahara was hospitalized for [[salmonella]]-intestinal infection, as well as dehydration and malnutrition.<ref name="save">[http://www.imdb.com/news/wenn/2005-07-21#celeb4 Jolie Saved Baby Daughter from Death]</ref> Jolie stated that "she was six months and not nine pounds. Her skin, you could squeeze it, it stuck together".<ref name="save"/> Although it was initially reported in the media that Zahara had been orphaned by AIDS,<ref>[http://movies.yahoo.com/mv/news/st/20050714/112135320003.html ANGELINA'S BABY ZAHARA: HER TOUCHING FAMILY STORY]</ref> in 2007 media outlets stated that Zahara's biological mother, Mentewabe Dawit, was still alive and had abandoned her shortly after giving birth. Dawit denied reports claiming she wanted the child back, instead saying she thought Zahara was a "very fortunate human being to be adopted by a world famous lady."<ref>http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/main.jhtml?xml=/news/2007/11/20/wjolie120.xml ''Angelina Jolie's adopted baby 'result of rape'</ref>

;'''Shiloh Nouvel Jolie-Pitt'''
: Born on [[May 27]], [[2006]] at Cottage Medi-Clinic Hospital in [[Swakopmund]], [[Namibia]]; Pitt and Jolie's only biological child. Shiloh was born by a scheduled cesarean section due to [[breech presentation]]; Jolie was assisted during the birth by the couple's Los Angeles obstetrician and local staff. Pitt confirmed that their newborn daughter would have a Namibian passport.<ref>ACCT=104&STORY=/www/story/08-22-2006/0004419958&EDATE= New survey finds that majority of young adults know "American Idol" winner, while only 14% are aware of number of lives saved from blood donation]</ref> The couple decided to offer the first pictures of Shiloh through the distributor Getty Images themselves, rather than allowing paparazzi to take these extremely valuable snapshots. ''[[People magazine|People]]'' magazine paid more than $4.1 million for the North American rights, while British magazine ''[[Hello!]]'' obtained the international rights for roughly $3.5 million; the total rights sale earned up to $10 million worldwide - the most expensive celebrity image of all time.<ref>[http://www.gawker.com/news/brangelina/gossip-roundup-people-kidnaps-shiloh-for-41m-178712.php Gossip Roundup: 'People' Kidnaps Shiloh for $4.1m]</ref> All profits were donated to an undisclosed charity by Pitt and Jolie. On [[July 26]], [[2006]], [[Madame Tussauds|Madame Tussauds of New York]] unveiled a wax figure of two-month-old Shiloh; she was the first infant to be recreated in wax by Madame Tussauds.<ref>[http://www.usatoday.com/life/people/2006-07-27-shiloh_x.htm NYC wax museum shows off Jolie-Pitt baby]</ref>

=== Life in New Orleans ===
The family divides its time between [[Los Angeles, California]] and [[New Orleans, Louisiana]].<ref>[http://www.usmagazine.com/i_us_i_exclusive_jolie_confirms_she_and_pitts_move_to_new_orleans Us Exclusive: Jolie Confirms She and Pitt Have Moved to New Orleans]</ref> In an interview with ''[[the Times-Picayune]]'', while filming ''[[The Curious Case of Benjamin Button]]'', Pitt said:
{{cquote|I can't describe why we're allowed to live a more normal life (in New Orleans). Living in the [[French Quarter]] is a thrill for us. We have some semblance of real family life. People have been very, very gracious with us. If we're on the front deck, people go by and say, 'Hi.' Then they go on their way, very friendly.<ref>Boucher, Phil ([[May 14]], [[2007]]).
[http://www.people.com/people/article/0,,20038783,00.html "Brad Pitt Says He Misses Living in New Orleans"] People.com Retrieved [[July 23]], [[2007]]</ref>}}

In December 2006, Pitt gathered a group of housing professionals together in the [[Hurricane Katrina]]-stricken [[New Orleans]] to begin planning a project that Pitt calls ''Make It Right'', with the goal of financing and constructing 150 new houses in New Orleans' [[Ninth Ward of New Orleans|Ninth Ward]].<ref>{{cite web | title =Make It Right Project webpage | date =2007 | url =http://makeitrightnola.org/mir_SUB.php?section=mir&page=vision | accessdate = 2007-12-03 }}</ref> The houses are being designed with an emphasis on [[sustainability]] and affordability, with the hope that the project can and will be replicated throughout the city. Thirteen architectural firms are involved in the project, many of which are donating their services. Pitt and philanthropist [[Steve Bing]] have each committed to matching $5 million in donations.<ref>{{cite news | last =Pogrebin | first =Robin | title =Brad Pitt Commissions Designs for New Orleans | work =New York Times | date =[[3 December]] [[2007]] | url =http://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/03/arts/design/03pitt.html | accessdate = 2007-12-03 }}</ref>

=== Religious views ===

In an October 7, 2007 interview, Pitt told [[PARADE]] that he is no longer a [[fundamentalist Christian]].<ref>{{cite news | last =Rader | first =Dotson | title =I have faith in my family | work =PARADE | date =[[7 October]] [[2007]] | url =http://www.parade.com/articles/editions/2007/edition_10-07-2007/Brad_Pitt | accessdate = 2008-03-03 }}</ref> In this interview, Pitt said:

{{cquote|I always had a lot of questions about the world, even in kindergarten. A big question to me was fairness. If I'd grown up in some other religion, would I get the same shot at Heaven as a Christian has? My mom would come into my room and talk to me. I was very fortunate to have that dialogue with her, but in high school I started to realize that I felt differently from others.}}

==Popular esteem==
In 1995, Pitt was chosen by ''[[Empire (magazine)|Empire]]'' magazine as one of the 25 sexiest stars in film history. Pitt has also twice been named the [[Sexiest Man Alive]] by ''[[People (magazine)|People]]'' magazine.<ref name=www.tv-now.com/>

Pitt was also prominently featured in the December 2006 Art Issue of ''[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]]''. He appears on the cover in nothing but a pair of white boxers. The cover promotes an article on the Robert Wilson video portraits, a production of [[LAB HD]] that includes numerous celebrities and noted personalities. This cover has drawn criticism from Pitt because, although he had signed a release for the image, he did not expect it to end up on the cover of ''Vanity Fair'' more than a year later. The video portrait, which represents Pitt's first effort in [[avant-garde cinema]], was exhibited at the 2006 Tribeca Film Festival.

In 2007, Pitt was listed among artists and entertainers as one of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine's [[Time 100|100 Most Influential People in The World]]. He was credited, along with his best friend Tiago Miranda Paulo, with using "his star power to get people to look at places and stories that cameras don't usually catch."<ref>Winters Keegan, Rebecca (2007).[http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/time100/article/0,28804,1595326_1595332_1616809,00.html "Brad Pitt"] Time.com Retrieved [[July 11]], [[2007]].</ref>

==Filmography==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year !! Film !! Role !! Notes and Awards
|-
|rowspan="4"|'''1987'''||''[[No Way Out (1987 film)|No Way Out]]'' || Officer at party ||
|-
|''[[No Man's Land (1987 film)|No Man's Land]]'' || Waiter ||
|-
|''[[Less Than Zero (film)|Less Than Zero]]'' || Partygoer ||
|-
|''[[Cutting Class]]'' || Dwight Ingalls ||First major role
|-
|'''1990'''||''[[Too Young to Die?]]'' || Billy Canton ||With [[Juliette Lewis]]
|-
|rowspan="3"|'''1991'''||''[[Across the Tracks]]'' || Joe Maloney || Athletics teen drama
|-
|''[[Thelma & Louise]]'' || J.D. ||First mainstream film
|-
|''[[Johnny Suede]]'' || Johnny Suede ||
|-
|rowspan="3"|'''1992'''||''Contact'' || ||Short
|-
|''[[Cool World]]'' || Detective Frank Harris ||
|-
|''[[A River Runs Through It (film)|A River Runs Through It]]'' ||Paul Maclean ||Directed by [[Robert Redford]]
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''1993'''||''[[Kalifornia]]'' || Early Grayce ||With [[David Duchovny]]
|-
|''[[True Romance]]'' || Floyd ||
|-
|rowspan="3"|'''1994'''||''[[The Favor]]'' || Elliott Fowler ||
|-
|''[[Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles|Interview with the Vampire]]'' || Louis de Pointe du Lac ||
|-
|''[[Legends of the Fall]]'' || Tristan Ludlow ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''1995'''||''[[Se7en]]'' ||David Mills ||
|-
|''[[Twelve Monkeys]]'' || Jeffrey Goines || Won - Golden Globe
|-
|'''1996'''||''[[Sleepers (film)|Sleepers]]'' || Michael Sullivan ||
|-
|rowspan="3"|'''1997'''||''[[The Devil's Own]]'' || Francis "Frankie" Austin McQuire/Rory Devaney ||
|-
|''[[Seven Years in Tibet (1997 film)|Seven Years in Tibet]]'' || [[Heinrich Harrer]] ||Chinese authorities saw Pitt banned from China and Tibet for life.
|-
|''[[The Dark Side of the Sun (film)|The Dark Side of the Sun]]'' || Rick ||Filmed in 1988 in Yugoslavia
|-
|'''1998'''||''[[Meet Joe Black]]'' || Joe Black/Man in the Coffee Shop ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''1999'''||''[[Being John Malkovich]]'' || Himself ||Cameo
|-
|''[[Fight Club (film)|Fight Club]]'' || [[Tyler Durden]] ||
|-
|'''2000'''||''[[Snatch (film)|Snatch]]'' || Mickey O'Neil ||
|-
|rowspan="3"|'''2001'''||''[[The Mexican]]'' || Jerry Welbach ||With [[Julia Roberts]]
|-
|''[[Spy Game]]'' || Tom Bishop ||
|-
|[[Ocean's Eleven (2001 film)|''Ocean's Eleven'']] || [[Rusty Ryan]] ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''2002'''||''[[Full Frontal (film)|Full Frontal]]'' || Brad/Himself ||
|-
|''[[Confessions of a Dangerous Mind]]'' || Brad, Bachelor #1 ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''2003'''||''[[Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas]]'' || Sinbad || Voice Actor
|-
|''[[Abby Singer (film)|Abby Singer]]'' || Himself ||Cameo
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''2004'''||''[[Troy (film)|Troy]]'' || [[Achilles]] ||
|-
|''[[Ocean's Twelve]]'' || [[Rusty Ryan]] ||
|-
|'''2005''' || ''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2005 film)|Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]'' ||John Smith ||With [[Angelina Jolie]]
|-
|'''2006'''|| ''[[Babel (2006 film)|Babel]]'' || Richard ||
|-
|rowspan="2"|'''2007'''||''[[Ocean's Thirteen]]'' || [[Rusty Ryan]] ||
|-
|''[[The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford|The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford]]'' || [[Jesse James]] ||
|-
|rowspan="3"|'''2008'''|| ''[[Burn After Reading]]'' || Chad Feldheimer || ''post-production''
|-
|''[[The Curious Case of Benjamin Button (film)|The Curious Case of Benjamin Button]]'' || Benjamin Button || ''post-production''
|-
|''[[Dirty Tricks (film)|Dirty Tricks]]'' || John Dean || ''on hold''
|-
|'''2009'''|| ''[[Tree of Life (2009 film)|Tree of Life]]'' || Mr. O'Brien || ''filming''
|-
|}

===Producer===
*''[[The Departed]]'' (2006)
*''[[Running with Scissors (film)|Running with Scissors]]'' (2006)
*''[[Year of the Dog (film)|Year of the Dog]]'' (2007) (executive producer)
*''[[A Mighty Heart (film)|A Mighty Heart]]'' (2007) (Co-producer)
*''[[The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford]]'' (2007)
*''[[Shantaram (film)|Shantaram]]'' (2008) (Co-producer)

==Awards and nominations==
'''Awards won:'''
*1993: ShoWest Convention: Male Star of Tomorrow
*1995: [[MTV Movie Awards]]: Best Male Performance for ''[[Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles]]''
*1995: MTV Movie Awards: Most Desirable Male for ''[[Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles]]''
*1996: MTV Movie Awards: Most Desirable Male for ''[[Se7en]]''
*1996: Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films: Best Supporting Actor for ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]''
*1996: [[Golden Globes]]: Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Motion Picture for ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]''
*1996: Sci-Fi Universe Magazine: Best Supporting Actor in a Genre Motion Picture for ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]''
*1997: Blockbuster Entertainment Awards: Favorite Supporting Actor, Science Fiction for ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]''
*1998: Rembrandt Awards: Best Actor for ''[[Seven Years in Tibet (1997 film)|Seven Years in Tibet]]''
*2004: [[Teen Choice Awards]]: Choice Movie Actor, Drama/Action Adventure for ''[[Troy (film)|Troy]]''
*2005: [[People's Choice Awards]]: Favorite Leading Man
*2006: MTV Movie Awards: Best Fight Scene for [[Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2005 film)|Mr. & Mrs. Smith]]
*2007: [[Venice Film Festival]] [[Venice Film Festival#Volpi Cup best actor|Volpi Cup best actor]]: Best Actor for ''[[The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford|The Assassination of Jesse James]]''

{{start box}}
{{succession box
| title=[[People (magazine)|People]]'s Sexiest Man Alive
| years=1995 
| before=[[Richard Gere]] and [[Cindy Crawford]] (as Sexiest Couple Alive in 1993) (no award given in 1994) 
| after=[[Denzel Washington]]}}
{{succession box
| title=[[People (magazine)|People]]'s Sexiest Man Alive
| years=2000 
| before=[[Richard Gere]]
| after=[[Pierce Brosnan]]}}
{{s-awards}}
|-
! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | [[Saturn Award]]
|-
{{succession box
| title = [[Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor (film)|Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture]]
| years = 1995 '''for ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]'' '''
| before= [[Gary Sinise]] for ''[[Forrest Gump (film)|Forrest Gump]]''
| after = [[Brent Spiner]] for ''[[Star Trek: First Contact]]''
}}
|-
! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | [[Golden Globe Award]]
|-
{{succession box
| title = [[Golden Globe Award for Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture|Best Supporting Actor - Motion Picture]]
| years = 1996 '''for ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]'' '''
| before= [[Martin Landau]] for ''[[Ed Wood (film)|Ed Wood]]''
| after = [[Edward Norton]] for ''[[Primal Fear (film)|Primal Fear]]''
}}
|-
! colspan="3" style="background: #DAA520;" | [[Venice Film Festival]]
|-
{{succession box
| title = [[Venice Film Festival|Best Actor]]
| years = 2007 '''for ''[[The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford]]'' '''
| before= [[Ben Affleck]] for ''[[Hollywoodland]]''
| after = TBD
}}
|-
{{end}}

'''Awards nominations:'''
*1995: [[Golden Globes]]: Best Performance by an Actor in a Motion Picture, Drama for ''[[Legends of the Fall]]''
*1995: Academy of Science Fiction, Fantasy & Horror Films: Best Actor for ''[[Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles]]''
*1996: [[Academy Awards]]: Best Actor in a Supporting Role for ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]''
*1995: [[MTV Movie Awards]]: Best On-Screen Duo for ''[[Interview with the Vampire: The Vampire Chronicles]]''
*1996: MTV Movie Awards: Best Male Performance for ''[[Twelve Monkeys]]''
*1996: MTV Movie Awards: Best On-Screen Duo for ''[[Se7en]]''
*2000: Blockbuster Entertainment Awards: Favorite Action Team for ''[[Fight Club]]''
*2001: Golden Satellite Awards: Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role, Comedy or Musical for ''[[Snatch (film)|Snatch]]''
*2001: [[Teen Choice Awards]]: Choice Chemistry for ''[[The Mexican]]''
*2002: [[Emmy Awards]]: Outstanding Guest Actor in a Comedy Series for ''[[Friends]]'' ("[[The One with the Rumor]]")
*2002: MTV Movie Awards: Best On-Screen Team for ''[[Ocean's Eleven (2001 film)|Ocean's Eleven]]''
*2004: [[Kids' Choice Awards]]: Favorite Voice from an Animated Movie for ''[[Sinbad: Legend of the Seven Seas]]''
*2005: [[Broadcast Film Critics Association Awards]]: Best Acting Ensemble for ''[[Ocean's Twelve]]''
*2006: MTV Movie Awards: Best On-Screen Kiss for ''[[Mr. & Mrs. Smith (2005 film)|Mr. and Mrs. Smith]]''
*2007: Golden Globes: Best Performance by an Actor in a Supporting Role in a Motion Picture for ''[[Babel (2006 film)|Babel]]''

==See also==
*[[Supercouple]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commons|Brad Pitt}}
*{{imdb name|id=0000093|name=Brad Pitt}}
*{{ymovies name|1800018965}}
*{{people.com}}
*{{worldcat id|id=lccn-no92-31176}}
*[http://www.notstarring.com/actors/pitt-brad Roles turned down by Brad Pitt]
*[http://usliberals.about.com/od/celebrityactivists/p/BradPitt.htm About.com Profile of Brad Pitt, Activist & Actor]
* {{tvtome person|id=38699|name=Brad Pitt}}
* [http://notonourwatchproject.org/ Not On Our Watch: George Clooney, Brad Pitt, Matt Damon, Don Cheadle, Jerry Weintraub]

{{Persondata
|NAME=Pitt, William Bradley
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=Pitt, Brad
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=American actor
|DATE OF BIRTH=[[December 18]], [[1963]]
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Shawnee, Oklahoma|Shawnee]], [[Oklahoma]], USA
|DATE OF DEATH=
|PLACE OF DEATH=
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Pitt, Brad}}
[[Category:1963 births]]
[[Category:Action film actors]]
[[Category:American adoptive parents]]
[[Category:American film actors]]
[[Category:American male models]]
[[Category:American television actors]]
[[Category:Baptists from the United States]]
[[Category:Best Supporting Actor Golden Globe (film) winners]]
[[Category:Liberals]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Missouri actors]]
[[Category:Oklahoma (state) actors]]
[[Category:People from Pottawatomie County, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:People from Springfield, Missouri]]
[[Category:University of Missouri–Columbia alumni]]

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[[zh:畢·彼特]]

The Real News Network

2008-02-24T01:57:26Z

Dave Runger: /* External links */ this link now just redirects to therealnews.com (which is linked below already)

{{for|the Pakistani comedy show|The Real News (Pakistan)}}
{{cleanup-rewrite}}{{Citations missing|date=August 2007}}
{{Infobox_TV_channel |
name = The Real News|
logofile =|
logosize=175px|
branding = Independent World Television|
headquarters = {{flagicon|Canada}} [[Toronto, Ontario]]|
country = {{flag|United States}}|
slogan = "The future depends on knowing"|
available = Online |
key_people = [[Allen Booth]] (Web Developer) [[Geraldine Cahill]] (Communications and Volunteer Coordinator) [[Jonas Crawley]] (Post-Production Supervisor/Video Editor) [[Paul Jay]] (CEO and Senior Editor) [[Desrine nelson]] (Executive Assistant to Paul Jay) [[Jessica Kate Weatherup]] (Producer) [[Jane Will]] (Web Producer)|
website = [http://therealnews.com/ www.therealnews.com]|
|}}

'''Independent World Television''' is a project to create an international English-language [[television network]] which is funded by its viewers, instead of by [[advertising]]. The network will focus on news, debate, and current affairs, with an emphasis on [[citizen journalism]].

The project was initiated by [[Paul Jay]], former Executive Director of the [[Canadian Broadcasting Corporation]] debate program [[CounterSpin (TV series)|counterSpin]]. Jay describes the project as an attempt to "change the economics of journalism".<ref>[http://www.therealnews.com/web/index.php?thisdataswitch=0&thisid=174&thisview=item The Real News]</ref>. IWT's founding committee includes such notables as [[Lewis Lapham]], [[Gore Vidal]], [[Amy Goodman]], [[Naomi Klein]], and [[Howard Zinn]].<ref>[http://www.therealnews.com/web/index.php?thisdataswitch=1&thisid=personnel&thisview=list The Real News]</ref>

According to their Prospectus, IWT are raising an initial $7 million start-up budget by means of a combination of individual and foundation donors. They subsequently intend to carry out an international fundraising campaign to raise $25 million involving high-profile media events and Internet organizing. They plan to begin broadcasting their first program, '''IWTnews Nightly''' in 2007.

Independent World Television, first major news show is [[The Real News]]. Also known as [[IWT - The Real News]].

==Journalists==

* [[Tom Morris, Jr. (journalist)]]

==References==
<references />

== See also ==
* [[counterSpin]]
* [[Citizen journalism]]
* [[Guerrilla News Network]]
* [[Adbusters]]
* [[Corporate media]]
* [[Propaganda model]]

== External links ==
* [http://www.therealnews.com/ The Real News]
* [http://www.youtube.com/user/TheRealNews The Real News on YouTube.com]

[[Category:Citizen journalism]]
[[Category:News agencies]]
[[Category:Alternative journalism]]

[[fr:Independent World Television]]
[[fr:Média alternatif]]
[[nl:Alternatieve media]]
[[no:Alternative medier]]
[[pt:Mídia Alternativa]]