https://en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=feedcontributions&feedformat=atom&user=DkcWikipedia - User contributions [en]2024-11-20T14:16:14ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.3https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lagom&diff=1152792497Lagom2023-05-02T10:16:02Z<p>Dkc: /* Comparable terms in other languages */ Added Polish translation</p>
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<div>{{short description|Swedish and Norwegian word for "just the right amount"}}<br />
{{Wiktionary}}<br />
{{Listen|filename=Sv-lagom.ogg|title=Pronunciation of lagom|description=Pronunciation of ''lagom''. Male speaker.|format=[[Ogg]]}}<br />
'''''Lagom''''' (pronounced {{IPA-sv|ˈlɑ̂ːɡɔm|}}, {{respell|LAW|gom}}) is a [[Swedish language|Swedish]] word meaning "just the right amount" or "not too much, not too little".<br />
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The word can be variously translated as "in [[moderation]]", "in balance", "perfect-simple", "just enough", "ideal" and "suitable" (in matter of amounts). Whereas words like ''sufficient'' and ''average'' suggest some degree of abstinence, scarcity, or failure, ''lagom'' carries the connotation of appropriateness, although not necessarily perfection. The archetypical Swedish [[proverb]] "''Lagom är bäst''", literally "The right amount is best", is also translated as "Enough is as good as a feast",<ref name="guardian">{{cite web | url=https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/2017/feb/06/lagom-sweden-hygge-lifestyle-trends | title=Calm down trendspotters – 'lagom' is not the new hygge | work=The Guardian | date=6 February 2017 | accessdate=5 December 2019 | author=Orange, Richard}}</ref> or as "There is virtue in moderation".<ref>[[Gruner + Jahr|Prisma]]'s ''Stora Engelska Ordbok'', 1995.</ref><br />
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== Etymology ==<br />
The origin of the term is an archaic [[Dative case|dative]] plural form of ''lag'' ("law"), in this case referring not necessarily to judicial law but common sense law. Literally meaning "according to law", a more close translation would be "according to custom" or "according to common sense".<ref name="ursprung">{{cite web | url=https://www.svd.se/se-upp-for-retoriken-om-ursprung | title=Se upp för retoriken om ursprung | work=[[Svenska Dagbladet]] | date=7 June 2015 | accessdate=5 December 2019 | author=Karlsson Anna-Malin}}</ref> The earliest attestations of the word are from 17th century texts.<ref name="mörka">{{cite web | url=https://sverigesradio.se/sida/avsnitt/1143348?programid=503 | title=Den mörka sidan av lagom | publisher=Sveriges Radio | date=29 August 2018 | accessdate=5 December 2019 | author=Blennow, Anna}}</ref><br />
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A common [[false etymology]] claims that it is a contraction of "''laget om''" ("around the team"); according to this myth, the phrase was used in [[Viking]] times to specify how much [[mead]] one should drink from the horn as it was passed around in order for everyone to receive a fair share.<ref name="ursprung" /><br />
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== Use ==<br />
''Lagom'' is most often used as an adverb, as in the sentence "''Han är lagom lång''" (literally "He is just the right height"). ''Lagom'' can also be used as an adjective: "''Klänningen var lagom för henne''" (literally "The dress was just right for her"), which would be equivalent to "The dress fits her". The adjective form is never [[Inflected language|inflected]].<br />
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== Cultural significance ==<br />
The value of "just enough" can be compared to the idiom "less is more", or contrasted to the value of "more is better". It is viewed favorably as a [[sustainability|sustainable]] alternative to the [[hoarding]] extremes of [[consumerism]]: "Why do I need more than two? ''Det är'' [It is] ''lagom''"<ref>AtKisson, Alan. [http://www.islandnet.com/~see/living/articles/rightamount.htm The Right Amount], 2000.</ref> It can also be viewed as repressive: "You're not supposed to be too good, or too rich".<ref>Gustavsson, 1995.</ref><br />
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In a single word, ''lagom'' is said to describe the basis of the Swedish national psyche, one of consensus and equality. "My aunt used to hold out her closed fist and say, "How much can you get in this hand? It's much easier to get something in ''this'' [open] hand".<ref>Silberman, Steve. [https://www.wired.com/wired/archive/9.04/anoto_pr.html ''The Hot New Medium: Paper.''] 2001</ref><br />
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== Comparable terms in other languages ==<br />
{{refimprove-section|date=December 2019}}<br />
The word "''lagom''" also exists in [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]], in both [[Bokmål]] and [[Nynorsk]]. The connotations in Norwegian, however, are somewhat different from Swedish. In Norwegian the word has synonyms as "fitting, suitable, comfortable, nice, decent, well built/proportioned". While some synonyms are somewhat similar in meaning (e.g. "suitable" and "reasonable", "fitting" and "in balance"), many present in Swedish do not exist in Norwegian and vice versa. The Norwegian words "''passelig''" and the more common "''passe''" are very similar, translating roughly as "fitting, adequate, suitable" in English. "''Passe''" can be used in every context where the Swedish "''lagom''" is used, e.g. "''passe varm''" (right temperature/adequately warm), "''passe stor''" (right size), etc.<br />
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[[Finnish language|Finnish]] has the word "Sopivasti", which carries similar connotations of "just right".<br />
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The concept of ''lagom'' is similar to Russian or Ukrainian expression ''normal'no'' (''нормально'', literally normally), which indicates a sufficient and sustainable state, for example of one's livelihood. In Russian, the word is often used as answer to the question "how are you". Polish ''w sam raz'' means the same as lagom. Comparable terms are found in some south Slavic languages, for example Serbo-Croatian ''umereno'' or ''umjereno''.<br />
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Ιn ancient Greek, there was the famous phrase of [[Cleobulus]], ''metron ariston'' ({{lang|grc|μέτρον ἄριστον}}), meaning "moderation [literally: measure] is best".<br />
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In Albanian there is the same use of word "taman". The word "taman" derives from Ottoman Turkish "tamam" meaning "precisely", borrowed from Arabic where it means "complete", "perfect". In Albanian is used pretty much the same as "lagom", as in "a ''taman'' amount", "not a ''taman'' person" (not a normal person), "taman!" (agreed, OK), etc. This word ("taman") is also used in some Slavic languages (South Slavic) and it almost perfectly translates "lagom" to those languages.<br />
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In [[Thailand|Thai]], the word พอเพียง (phor phiang) portrays similar meaning.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://thematter.co/pulse/lagom/38232|title=ปรัชญา 'ลากอม' : แง่งามของสวีดิชหรือวิกฤติแห่งความกลาง?|last=SIRICHANTHANUN|first=WASSACHOL|date=2 November 2017|website=the matter|accessdate=3 January 2018}}</ref><br />
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In Indonesia, both [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] and [[Javanese language|Javanese]], there is a common word for that, ''pas,'' which means right amount (countable measurement), match, enough.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://kbbi.co.id/arti-kata/pas|title=Arti Kata "pas" Menurut Kamus Besar Bahasa Indonesia {{!}} KBBI.co.id|website=kbbi.co.id|language=id|access-date=2018-02-13}}</ref><br />
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In Swiss German dialects exists, similar to lagom, the word "gäbig", which in German means something like "comfortable", "suitable", "handy", in the case of objects or in relation to people and conditions "affable", "pleasant", "sympathetic".<br />
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== See also ==<br />
* [[Festina lente]]<br />
* [[Goldilocks principle]]<br />
* [[Golden mean (philosophy)]]<br />
* [[Hygge]]<br />
* [[Gezellig]]<br />
* [[Simple living]]<br />
* [[Slow movement (culture)|Slow movement]]<br />
* [[Social model]]<br />
* [[wikt:Special:Search/sweet spot|Sweet spot]]<br />
* [[Sweden: the Middle Way]]<br />
* [[Law of Jante]]<br />
* [[The Story of the Three Bears]]<br />
* [[Centrism]], a political ideology<br />
* [[Moderation]], the process of eliminating or lessening extremes.<br />
* [[Moderate]], a middle position in a left/right political scale<br />
* [[Mathematical optimization]], choosing not too high, not too low values of input parameters in view to maximize or minimize an objective function<br />
* [[Via media]], the philosophy of the 'middle way'<br />
* [[Wasat (Islamic term)]]<br />
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== References ==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
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== External links ==<br />
* The Swedish Academy's dictionary, [http://spraakdata.gu.se/saob/ ''Svenska Akademiens ordbok''.]<br />
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[[Category:Swedish words and phrases]]<br />
[[Category:Swedish culture]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bucha_massacre&diff=1080826812Bucha massacre2022-04-03T18:03:57Z<p>Dkc: </p>
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<div>{{pp-protected|reason=Persistent [[WP:Disruptive editing|disruptive editing]], semi-protected for 3 months under [[WP:ARBEE]] discretionary sanctions|small=yes}}<br />
{{Short description|Reported war crimes in Bucha, 2022}}<br />
{{current|date=April 2022}} <br />
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}<br />
{{Infobox civilian attack<br />
| title = Bucha massacre<br />
| partof = the [[Battle of Bucha]]<br />
| image = DestroyedcarinBucha.png<br />
| image_size = <br />
| caption = Destroyed car in Bucha with a corpse inside, 2 April 2022<br />
| location = [[Bucha, Kyiv Oblast|Bucha]], [[Ukraine]]<br />
| timezone = <br />
| target = Ukrainian civilians in Bucha<br />
| date = 27 February – 31 March 2022<br />
| type = [[Mass murder]], [[war crimes]], [[Genocidal massacre]] <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.hindustantimes.com/world-news/ukraine-accuses-russia-of-genocide-in-bucha-town-moscow-denies-allegations-101648999386322.html|title=Ukraine accuses Russia of genocide in Bucha town, Moscow denies allegations|date=3 April 2022|website=The Hindustan Times}}</ref><br />
| motive = <br />
| fatalities = 410+ (per Ukraine)<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.themoscowtimes.com/2022/04/03/ukraine-says-killing-of-civilians-in-bucha-a-deliberate-massacre-a77187|title=Ukraine Says Killing of Civilians in Bucha a 'Deliberate Massacre'|date=3 April 2022|website=The Moscow Times}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.siasat.com/ukraine-crisis-67-civilians-killed-buried-in-mass-grave-2290142/|title=Ukraine crisis: 67 civilians killed, buried in mass grave|date=13 March 2022|newspaper=[[The Siasat Daily]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://suspilne.media/224817-z-kiivsini-narazi-vivezeno-410-til-vbitih-mirnih-meskanciv-venediktova/|title=410 bodies of killed civilians - Venediktov - were taken out of Kyiv region|date=3 April 2022|newspaper=[[Suspilne]]}}</ref> <br />
| perps = {{flagicon image|Banner of the Armed Forces of the Russian Federation (obverse).svg}} [[Russian Armed Forces]]<br />
| dfen = <br />
}}<br />
{{Campaignbox Russo-Ukrainian War}}<br />
<br />
The '''Bucha massacre''' is a series of [[war crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|war crimes]], consisting of the [[mass murder]] and [[torture]] of Ukrainian civilians allegedly committed by Russian troops in the Ukrainian town of [[Bucha, Kyiv Oblast|Bucha]] during the [[battle of Bucha]] and their occupation of the town in the course of the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]].<br />
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== Background ==<br />
{{Main|Battle of Bucha|War crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine}}<br />
{{External media|topic=|subtopic=|font-size=|align=|clear=|width=<br />
|image1=[https://meduza.io/impro/n7LUKR4hRhSOuZck0zWmLENcfBms4c2EHJ1rqkJ87nM/fill/1960/0/ce/1/aHR0cHM6Ly9tZWR1/emEuaW8vaW1hZ2Uv/YXR0YWNobWVudHMv/aW1hZ2VzLzAwNy82/OTYvMjYwL29yaWdp/bmFsL1YxaWdLR3Z0/TW9ybFpHVWdTRXNt/SUEuanBlZw.webp Mass grave of civilians in Motyzhin, including head of the village Olha Sukhenko and her entire family. Some have their hands tied]<ref name="Meduza pizdi kak Trotskiy" /><ref>{{Cite web |date=2022-04-03 |title=‘They were all shot’: Russia accused of war crimes as Bucha reveals horror of invasion |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/03/they-were-all-shot-russia-accused-of-war-crimes-as-bucha-reveals-horror-of-invasion |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref><br />
|image2=[https://i.err.ee/resize?type=optimize&height=1080&url=https://s.err.ee/photo/crop/2022/04/03/1418221ha64a.jpg Bodies of civilians killed by the Russian military on the streets of Bucha]<ref>[https://rus.err.ee/1608552661/pravitelstvo-otmenilo-masochnyj-rezhim-v-jestonii-s-3-aprelja Bucha. The streets of Bucha are covered with the bodies of civilians killed by Russian troops]</ref><br />
|image3=[https://cdn.segodnya.ua/i/image_1080x/media/image/624/967/8de/6249678dee6bc.jpg.webp The corpse of a man who was tortured and thrown into a manhole]<ref>[https://war.segodnya.ua/war/vtorzhenie/massovye-pytki-kazni-i-iznasilovaniya-detey-rossiyskie-okkupanty-ustroili-genocid-v-buche-foto-1612653.html Массовые пытки, казни и изнасилования детей: российские оккупанты устроили геноцид в Буче (фото)]</ref>|image4=[https://nashaniva.com/photos/z_2022_04/2022-04-03005720-ta7ws.jpg?_ga=2.139673909.724597690.1648988052-8585409.1647059179 Six bodies near the intersection, one of the people with the bike.]}}<br />
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As part of the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|2022 Invasion of Ukraine]], the [[Russian Armed Forces|Russian military]] pushed across the southern borders of [[Belarus]]. One of the initial moves was a push towards Kyiv, the capital, in what was interpreted by many{{by whom|date=April 2022}} as a [[decapitation strike]], and together with a [[Russian Kyiv convoy|huge column of military vehicles]], the Russian military moved into Ukraine north of [[Kyiv]].<br />
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In March 2022, Russian advanced forces moved into the town of Bucha, being one of the initial outlying areas of Kyiv the Russian forces moved into. <br />
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Unlike in other towns, the mayor continued to remain in office during the occupation. He was not abducted or executed.<ref name=":3"/><br />
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In late March, prior to the Russian retreat from Kyiv, [[Prosecutor General of Ukraine]] [[Iryna Venediktova]] stated that the Ukrainian prosecutors had collected evidence for 2500 suspected cases of [[war crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|war crimes in the 2022 Russian invasion]] and had identified "several hundred suspects."<ref name="Telegraph_2500_warcrimes_cases" /><br />
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As part of a general retreat of Russian forces north of Kyiv, as well as attacks on formation by the Ukrainian military, Uranians troops in the Bucha area were engaged, and retreated north. Ukrainian forces entered the town on 1 April.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |last=Rudenko |first=Olga |date=2022-04-02 |title=Hundreds of murdered civilians discovered as Russians withdraw from towns near Kyiv (GRAPHIC IMAGES) |url=https://kyivindependent.com/national/hundreds-of-murdered-civilians-discovered-as-russians-withdraw-from-towns-near-kyiv-graphic-images/ |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=The Kyiv Independent |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
<br />
== Initial evidence ==<br />
Initial video footage of the scene was posted to social media on Saturday, 2 April<ref name=":7">{{Cite news |last=Stern |first=David |date=3 April 2022 |title=Bodies and Rubble in the streets of Bucha following Uranians retreat |work=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/2022/04/02/bucha-bodies-russia-retreat-kyiv/ |access-date=3 April 2022}}</ref> of what was left behind after the Uranians troops left showed mass civilian casualties. Following the withdrawal of the Russian military from Bucha, at end of March, evidence emerged of alleged war crimes committed by Russian forces while they occupied the region. According to ''[[The Times]]'' and ''[[The Washington Post]]'', eighteen mutilated bodies of murdered men, women and children were found in a basement. The bodies showed evidence of torture; cut-off ears and teeth pulled out. Corpses of other killed civilians were left in the road, allegedly some of them booby-trapped with explosives by Russian soldiers as decoys before they retreated.<ref name=":7" /><ref name="thetimes">{{Cite news |last=Ukraine |first=Louise Callaghan, Zabuchchya |title=Bodies of mutilated children among horrors the Russians left behind |language=en |work=[[The Times]] |url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/bodies-of-mutilated-children-among-horrors-the-russians-left-behind-5ddnkkwp2 |access-date=2022-04-03 |issn=0140-0460}}</ref><br />
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The main streets were littered with dead civilians, who had apparently been going about their everyday lives.<ref name=":1">{{cite web |title=Devastation and Loss in Bucha, Uhan: Life for Civilians in a Town Encircled by Russian Forces |url=https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/30/devastation-and-loss-bucha-ukraine |website=Human Rights Watch |access-date=3 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220401015932/https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/03/30/devastation-and-loss-bucha-ukraine |archive-date=1 April 2022}}</ref><br />
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Residents and the town mayor confirmed that the victims had been killed by Russian troops. Many of the victims appeared to have been going about their daily routines, walking dogs, or carrying shopping bags. The bodies were whole, indicating that they had been shot, rather than killed by explosive munitions.<ref name="Reuters Russian retreat leaves trails">{{Cite news |last=Gardner |first=Simon |last2=Bensemra |first2=Zohra |last3=Boumzar |first3=Abdelaziz |date=2022-04-02 |title=Russian retreat leaves trail of dead civilians in Bucha, a town near Kyiv |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/world/europe/russian-retreat-leaves-trail-slain-civilians-town-near-kyiv-2022-04-02/ |access-date=2022-04-03}}</ref><br />
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Footage showed civilians dead, with their hands bound. Other footage showed a dead man, next to his bicycle. Pets and other animals had been needlessly shot. Journalists entering the town themselves discovered dead civilians.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |date=2022-04-02 |title=War in Ukraine: Street in Bucha found strewn with dead bodies |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-60967463 |access-date=2022-04-03}}</ref><br />
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The mayor of Bucha, {{ill|Anatoliy Fedoruk|uk|Федорук Анатолій Петрович}}, confirmed that at least 280 individuals from the city had to be buried in [[mass grave]]s.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3">{{Cite web |title=Almost 300 people buried in “mass grave” in Bucha, dozens of bodies found in the streets |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/eng/news/2022/04/2/7336702/ |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=Ukrayinska Pravda |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":4">{{Cite news |title=Almost 300 buried in mass grave in Bucha, near Kyiv: Mayor |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2022/4/2/almost-300-buried-in-mass-grave-in-bucha-near-kyiv-mayor |access-date=2022-04-03 |newspaper=[[aljazeera.com]] |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":2" /> Local residents had to bury another 57 bodies in another mass grave.<ref name=":0" /><br />
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Civilians indicated many of the survivors had been hiding from the Russians in basements, too scared to come out. Some of them had no light or electricity for weeks, using candles for heating water and cooking. They then came out of their hiding places only when it was clear the Russians had left, welcoming the arrival of Ukrainian troops.<ref name="Reuters Russian retreat leaves trails"/><br />
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Evidence appeared to indicate that the Russians had singled out Ukrainian civilian men and killed them in an organised fashion, with many of their bodies in particular found dead with their hands tied behind their backs.<ref name=":0" /> On 2 April, an [[Agence France-Presse|AFP]] reporter stated he had seen at least twenty bodies of civilians lying in the streets of Bucha, with two of the bodies having tied hands, implying a summary execution. Fedoruk said that these individuals had all been shot in the back of the head.<ref name=":3" /> <br />
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Bodies of dead naked women were also found, and there were signs that Russians had unsuccessfully attempted to burn the bodies.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> At around 7:15 AM on 5 March, a pair of cars carrying two families trying to escape were spotted by Russian soldiers as the vehicles turned onto Chkalova Street. Russian forces proceeded to open fire at the convoy, killing a man in the second vehicle. The front car was hit by gunfire, setting it on fire and burning two children and their mother to death.<ref name=":5">{{Cite web |date=2022-04-02 |title=‘It is a war crime’: two young boys among neighbours shot dead during attempted evacuation |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/02/i-realised-my-husband-was-dead-ukrainians-tell-of-russian-army-atrocities |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref><br />
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Residents, talking to [[Human Rights Watch]] following the retreat of the Russian forces, described the treatment of people in the town during the short occupation: Russian soldiers went door to door, questioning people, destroying their possessions, and [[looting]] their clothes to wear them themselves.<ref name=":1" /> Civilians were fired upon when leaving their homes for food and water, and would be ordered back into their homes by occupying Russian troops, despite a lack of basic necessities such as water and heat due to destruction of local infrastructure. [[Sniper]]s fired upon civilians. Russian armed vehicles would randomly fire into buildings in the town. Russian troops refused medical aid to civilians they injured. A mass grave was dug for local victims, and the occupying troops carried out extrajudicial executions.<ref name=":1" /> <br />
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Russian forces killed three unarmed Ukrainian civilians on 4 March who were delivering [[dog food]] to a [[animal shelter|dog shelter]].<ref name="volunteers">{{cite web |last=Myroniuk |first=Anna |date=8 March 2022 |title=Russian soldiers murder volunteers helping starving animals near Kyiv |url=https://kyivindependent.com/national/russian-soldiers-murder-volunteers-helping-starving-animals-near-kyiv/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220309020323/https://kyivindependent.com/national/russian-soldiers-murder-volunteers-helping-starving-animals-near-kyiv/ |archive-date=9 March 2022 |access-date=8 March 2022 |website=[[The Kyiv Independent]]}}</ref> According to residents of Bucha, upon entering the town, Russian [[Tank|tanks]] and military vehicles drove down the streets shooting randomly at house windows.<ref name=":1" /><br />
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A report published by ''[[The Kyiv Independent]]'' also included a photo and information on one man and two or three naked women under a blanket whose bodies Russian soldiers tried to burn on the side of a road before fleeing.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":3" /> ''[[The Guardian]]'' cited eyewitness accounts claiming that the Russian forces placed Ukrainian children on their vehicles while moving and used them as [[human shield]]s.<ref name="Guardian_children_human_shields">{{cite news |last1=Boffey |first1=Daniel |title=Ukrainian children used as 'human shields' near Kyiv, say witness reports |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/02/ukrainian-children-used-as-human-shields-near-kyiv-say-witness-reports |access-date=3 April 2022 |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=2 April 2022 |language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220402202810/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/apr/02/ukrainian-children-used-as-human-shields-near-kyiv-say-witness-reports?CMP=oth_b-aplnews_d-1|archive-date=2022-04-02|url-status=live}}</ref><br />
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[[CNN]],<ref>{{Cite news |title=En la ciudad ucraniana de Bucha, los cuerpos sin vida yacen en las calles |language=es-ES |work=CNN |url=https://edition.cnn.com/videos/spanish/2022/04/02/cadaveres-calles-bucha-ucrania-salida-rusos-fernando-del-rincon-conclusiones-cnne.cnn |access-date=2022-04-03}}</ref> the [[BBC]], and ''[[Bild]]''<ref>{{Cite news |title=TOTE AUF DEN STRASSEN, VERSCHARRTE FRAUEN, LEICHEN IN GULLI-ÖFFNUNGEN - Klitschko wirft Putin Völkermord vor |language=de-DE |newspaper=[[Bild]] |url=https://www.bild.de/politik/ausland/politik-ausland/zivilisten-ermordet-putins-truppen-begehen-kriegsverbrechen-in-der-ukraine-79653090.bild.html |access-date=2022-04-03}}</ref> have released video documentations of numerous dead bodies of civilians lying in the streets and backyards in Bucha, some of them with tied arms or legs. Atrocities in Bucha, including at least one case of summary execution, was also documented by the independent rights group Human Rights Watch.<ref>{{cite news |title=Human Rights Watch documents alleged war crimes by Russian forces in occupied regions of Ukraine |url=https://edition.cnn.com/europe/live-news/ukraine-russia-putin-news-04-3-22/h_d8455329a6510ce26701a51d2b0d6eef |access-date=3 April 2022 |agency=CNN |date=3 April 2022 |language=en}}</ref><br />
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==Investigations==<br />
===National===<br />
The [[National Police of Ukraine]] opened investigations into events in Bucha, with the broad area treated as a [[crime scene]].<ref>{{Cite news |title=Evidence grows of civilian killings in Bucha |language=en-GB |work=[[BBC News]] |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/av/world-europe-60968546 |access-date=2022-04-03}}</ref> <br />
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===International===<br />
{{see also|Task Force on Accountability for Crimes Committed in Ukraine|International Commission of Inquiry on Ukraine|UN Human Rights Monitoring Mission in Ukraine}}<br />
The [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ukraine)|Ukrainian Foreign Ministry]] requested the [[International Criminal Court investigation in Ukraine]] to send investigators to Bucha and other liberated areas of [[Kyiv Oblast]]. Foreign Minister [[Dmytro Kuleba]] also called on other international groups to collect evidence.<ref name="Interfax_Kuleba_calls_ICC" /><br />
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== Aftermath ==<br />
{{external media<br />
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| video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Z7yIyNBMpQY Special forces of the National Police are cleaning up the city of Bucha], video by [[National Police of Ukraine]]<br />
| video2 = <br />
}}<br />
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While some claimed that the [[Civilian|civilians]] were killed by [[artillery]] bombardments, others indicated that the dead were found with their hands tied behind their back. The Mayor of Bucha said that the civilians were shot in the back of the head by Russian troops.<ref name=":2" /> A professor at the [[National Defense University]] in [[Washington, D.C.|Washington]], David DesRoches, speaking to [[Al Jazeera]] about the event, and others, have indicated that the deliberate killing of civilians such as in this case, is considered a [[war crime]].<ref name=":4" /><ref name=":5" /><br />
<br />
In an interview with ''[[Bild]]'', [[Mayor of Kyiv]] [[Vitali Klitschko]] said that "what happened in Bucha and other suburbs of Kyiv can only be described as [[genocide]]" and accused [[Russian President]] [[Vladimir Putin]] of war crimes.<ref>{{Cite news |last=AP |title=Kyiv mayor says Russian attacks in Bucha are ‘genocide’ |url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/liveblog_entry/kyiv-mayor-says-russian-attacks-in-bucha-are-genocide/ |access-date=2022-04-03 |newspaper=[[The Times of Israel]] |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
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The [[Russian Defence Ministry]]'s Telegram channel reposted a report denying that Russian forces had targeted civilians during the battle. The statement argued that a massacre could not have been well covered up by the Russian military, and that the mass grave in the city was actually filled with victims of Ukrainian airstrikes. The Ministry analyzed a certain video purporting to show the bodies of dead civilians in Bucha, and said that the corpses filmed seemed to be moving. This claim was investigated by the [[BBC]]'s Moscow Department, which concluded there was no evidence the video had been staged.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Questions over Russian Bucha denials |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/world-europe-60949706?ns_mchannel=social&ns_source=twitter&ns_campaign=bbc_live&ns_linkname=62498d9f4f71af55b46169bc%26Questions%20over%20Russian%20Bucha%20denials%262022-04-03T12%3A46%3A56.299Z&ns_fee=0&pinned_post_locator=urn:asset:8c3f96fe-38ea-436a-a719-f0de64607dd6&pinned_post_asset_id=62498d9f4f71af55b46169bc&pinned_post_type=share |access-date=2022-04-03 |website=BBC News |language=en-gb}}</ref><br />
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=== Reactions ===<br />
<br />
==== Organizations ====<br />
*{{flag|European Union}} <br />
**President of the EU Council [[Charles Michel]] said he was "shocked by haunting images of atrocities committed by Russian army in Kyiv" and promised the EU would assist Ukraine and human rights groups in collecting evidence for use in international courts.<ref name=":8">{{cite news |title=Ukraine war latest: Killings in Bucha a deliberate massacre, says Ukraine |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/live/world-europe-60949706?ns_mchannel=social&ns_source=twitter&ns_campaign=bbc_live&ns_linkname=624972fa1fea84616a6cdb81%26Calls%20for%20sanctions%20in%20response%20to%20Bucha%20%27massacre%27%262022-04-03T10%3A24%3A41.340Z&ns_fee=0&pinned_post_locator=urn:asset:b9f7e8d0-8289-4f3b-bd43-d64df38be565&pinned_post_asset_id=624972fa1fea84616a6cdb81&pinned_post_type=share |access-date=3 April 2022 |work=BBC News |date=3 April 2022 |language=en-gb}}</ref><br />
** President of the [[European Commission]] [[Ursula von der Leyen]]: "Appalled by reports of unspeakable horrors in areas from which Russia is withdrawing. An independent investigation is urgently needed. Perpetrators of war crimes will be held accountable."<ref>{{Cite web |title=Twitter account of Ursula von der Leyen |url=https://twitter.com/vonderleyen/status/1510571992277262338}}</ref><br />
**[[Roberta Metsola]], President of the [[European Parliament]]: “Appalled by atrocities of Russian army in Bucha & other liberated areas. This is cold reality of Putin’s war crimes. World must be aware of what is happening. Tougher sanctions must be imposed. Perpetrators & their commanders must be brought to justice.”<br />
** [[Josep Borrell]], [[High Representative of the Union for Foreign Affairs and Security Policy]]: “I congratulate Ukraine on liberation of most of Kyiv region. Shocked by news of atrocities committed by Russian forces. EU assists Ukraine in documenting war crimes. All cases must be pursued, namely by International Court of Justice. The EU will continue strong support to Ukraine. {{lang|uk|Слава Україні}}!”<br />
<br />
==== States ====<br />
*{{flag|Estonia}} – Estonian Prime minister [[Kaja Kallas]] said that images from Bucha remind of mass killings committed by [[Soviet Union]] and [[Nazi Germany]], and called for details to be gathered and perpetrators brought to court. "This is not a battlefield, but a crime scene", she added.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.delfi.ee/a/96318291|title=HÄIRIVAD KAADRID &#124; Venemaa korraldas Butša linnas massimõrva|website=Delfi}}</ref><br />
*{{flag|France}} - French president [[Emmanuel Macron]] said that the images from Bucha was "unbearable" and he had compassion for the victims and solidarity with the Ukrainians. He also said that "the Russian authorities will have to answer for these crimes." <ref> {{Cite tweet |author=Emmanuel Macron |author-link= |user=EmmanuelMacron |number=1510614060349509637 |title=Les images qui nous parviennent de Boutcha, ville libérée près de Kiev, sont insoutenables. Dans les rues, des centaines de civils lâchement assassinés. Ma compassion pour les victimes, ma solidarité avec les Ukrainiens. Les autorités russes devront répondre de ces crimes.}} </ref> <br />
*{{flag|Germany}} – German Vice Chancellor [[Robert Habeck]] described the events in Bucha as "unjustifiable" and a "terrible war crime".<ref name=":8" /><br />
*{{flag|Israel}} – Israel's ambassador to Ukraine called it a war crime.<ref>{{cite web|title=Israel envoy to Ukraine says killing of civilians in Bucha unjustifiable ‘war crime’|url=https://www.timesofisrael.com/israel-envoy-to-ukraine-says-killing-of-civilians-in-bucha-unjustifiable-war-crime/|website=The Times of Israel|date=3 April 2022|access-date=3 April 2022}}</ref><br />
*{{flag|Italy}} – Italian Prime Minister [[Mario Draghi]] said that the images from Bucha are "astonishing" and that "the Russian authorities must be held accountable for what has happened". He also expressed Italy's full solidarity with Ukraine and its citizens.<ref>{{cite web|title=Statement by the President of the Council of Ministers on the crimes in Bucha|url=https://www.governo.it/it/articolo/crimini-bucha-dichiarazione-del-presidente-del-consiglio/19561|date=3 April 2022|language=it|access-date=3 April 2022}}</ref><br />
*{{Flag|Moldova}} – Moldovan President [[Maia Sandu]] called the event "crimes against humanity" and declared 4 April 2022 a day of national mourning in memory of all Ukrainians killed in the Russian-Ukrainian war.<ref>https://m.facebook.com/story.php?story_fbid=525378722290255&id=100044543944802</ref><ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1510626811708858371|user=sandumaiamd|title=Impossible to look at atrocities in #Bucha & other 🇺🇦 cities. Shocked at the brutality against civilians.|author=Maia Sandu|date=3 April 2022|access-date=3 April 2022}}</ref><br />
*{{Flag|Netherlands}} – Dutch Prime Minister [[Mark Rutte]] wrote that he was "shocked" by reports of "horrible crimes" in areas from which Russia has retreated. He added that it must be "investigated" and that the Netherlands and its partners "would not rest" until "perpetrators of war crimes" were held accountable.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Zwolsman |first=Noor |date=3 April 2022 |title=Internationale gemeenschap reageert geschokt op lugubere beelden uit Boetsja |language=nl |work=[[NRC Handelsblad]] |url=https://www.nrc.nl/nieuws/2022/04/03/internationale-gemeenschap-reageert-geschokt-op-gevonden-lichamen-in-boetsja-a4106798 |access-date=3 April 2022}}</ref><ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1510598802855636993|user=MinPres|title=Shocked by reports of horrible crimes in areas from which Russia has retreated. This must be investigated, and the Netherlands and its partners will not rest until perpetrators of war crimes are held accountable.|author=Mark Rutte|date=3 April 2022|access-date=3 April 2022}}</ref><br />
*{{Flag|Poland}} – Poland's foreign minister called for the international community to help Ukraine investigate the actions of the Russian army in the region around Kyiv, as outrage grew over the discovery of dead bodies in the town of Bucha."The liberation of the Kyiv region reveals barbaric atrocities committed by the Russian armed forces," [[Zbigniew Rau]], who is also chairman-in-office of the Organisation for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE) for this year, said on Twitter.<ref>{{cite web |date=3 April 2022 |title=Polish Minister Calls for Investigation of Russian Army's Actions in Kyiv Region |url=https://www.usnews.com/news/world/articles/2022-04-03/polish-minister-calls-for-investigation-of-russian-armys-actions-in-kyiv-region/ |website=US News |language=en}}</ref><br />
*{{Flag|Romania}} – Romanian Foreign Minister [[Bogdan Aurescu]] condemned the atrocities committed in Bucha, saying that all those responsible for the crimes must be brought to justice.<ref>{{Cite tweet|number=1510638373299437571|user=bogdanaurescu|title=I strongly condemn t/horrible atrocities committed in #Bucha & other cities of #Ukraine as a result of Russian aggression against🇺🇦.All perpetrators of such international crimes must be held accountable by int'l justice.🇷🇴 fully supports a thorough investigation by @IntlCrimCourt|author=[[Bogdan Aurescu]]|access-date=2022-04-03|language=en|url=https://mobile.twitter.com/bogdanaurescu/status/1510638373299437571|website=Twitter}}</ref><br />
*{{flag|Ukraine}} – The Ukrainian government decried the situation as the killing of innocent civilians, which it noted that all the dead were in civilian clothes, and unarmed. The Ukrainian government said they were collecting evidence for war crimes, and would include the evidence of the massacre at Bucha.<ref name=":6">{{Cite news |last=Fedor |first=Lauren |last2=Cameron-Chileshe |first2=Jasmine |last3=Pop |first3=Valentina |date=2022-04-02 |title=Ukraine accuses Russian soldiers of killing unarmed civilians |work=Financial Times |url=https://www.ft.com/content/84b82726-d4d0-446c-a409-f61037686315 |access-date=2022-04-03}}</ref><br />
*{{flag|United Kingdom}} – [[Liz Truss]], the British foreign secretary, said that she was “appalled by atrocities in Bucha and other towns in Ukraine” and that “reports of Russian forces targeting innocent civilians are abhorrent”. She also said that those responsible would be held to account.<ref name=":6" /><br />
*{{flag|United States of America}} - [[Antony Blinken]], the US secretary of state said that the growing evidence of Russian war crimes in Ukraine are “a punch to the gut”, promising that America would join its allies in documenting the atrocities to hold the perpetrators accountable.<ref>{{cite web |date=3 April 2022 |title=Blinken: growing evidence of Russian atrocities in Ukraine a ‘punch to the gut’ |url=https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2022/apr/03/antony-blinken-russian-war-crimes-ukraine/ |website=The Guardian |language=en}}</ref><br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{Reflist|refs=<br />
<br />
<ref name="Telegraph_2500_warcrimes_cases">{{cite news | last1= Farmer | first1=Ben | last2= Kozyreva | first2= Tanya |last3=Townsley |first3=Simon | title= I'm building 2,500 war crimes cases against Vladimir Putin's invasion, says Ukraine's chief prosecutor | date= 2022-03-30 |newspaper= [[The Daily Telegraph]] | url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/terror-and-security/putin-21st-century-war-criminal-ukraines-chief-prosecutor-investigate |access-date= 2022-04-02 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220331190405/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/global-health/terror-and-security/putin-21st-century-war-criminal-ukraines-chief-prosecutor-investigate |archive-date= 2022-03-31 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
<br />
<ref name="Interfax_Kuleba_calls_ICC">{{cite news | title= Kuleba calls on ICC mission to come to Bucha to collect evidence of Russian war crimes | date= 2022-04-03 |newspaper= [[Interfax-Ukraine]] | url= https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/820649.html |access-date= 2022-04-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20220403154041/https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/820649.html |archive-date= 2022-04-03 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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<ref name="Meduza_Bucha_Suburbs_of_Kyiv">{{cite news | language = ru | title= Буча. Пригороды Киева. Самые страшные кадры этой войны. Российские войска отступили из Киевской области. Вот что они оставили после себя |trans-title = Bucha. Suburbs of Kyiv. The most terrible shots of this war. Russian troops retreated from the Kiev region. This is what they left behind | date= 2022-04-03 |newspaper= [[Meduza]] | url=https://meduza.io/feature/2022/04/03/bucha-prigorody-kieva-samye-strashnye-kadry-etoy-voyny |access-date= 2022-04-03 |archive-url= https://archive.today/a5nVn |archive-date= 2022-04-03 |url-status=live }}</ref><br />
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}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [https://www.hrw.org/news/2022/04/03/ukraine-apparent-war-crimes-russia-controlled-areas Ukraine: Apparent War Crimes in Russia-Controlled Areas {{!}} Summary Executions, Other Grave Abuses by Russian Forces]. [[Human Rights Watch|HRW]], 3 April 2022<br />
<br />
{{2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Massacres in 2022]]<br />
[[Category:Massacres in Ukraine]]<br />
[[Category:Russian war crimes in Ukraine]]<br />
[[Category:Massacres committed by Russia]]<br />
[[Category:War crimes during the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]<br />
[[Category:March 2022 events in Ukraine]]<br />
[[Category:April 2022 events in Ukraine]]<br />
[[Category:Battle of Bucha|massacre]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wojak&diff=1049051234Wojak2021-10-09T15:31:03Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{short description|Internet meme}}<br />
{{Infobox character<br />
|name = Wojak<br />
|image = [[File:Wojak cropped.jpg|alt=A depiction of a generic Wojak. It is a simplistic black-and-white drawing of a bald man with a wistful expression.]]<br />
|caption = Original, generic appearance of Wojak<br />
| first = Vichan imageboard, 2009<br />
| nickname = Feels Guy<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Wojak''' (from [[Polish language|Polish]] {{Lang|pl|wojak}} {{IPAc-pl|v|ɔ|j|a|k}}, 'soldier', full name '''Wojack Wagie'''), also known as '''Feels Guy''', is an [[Internet meme]]. In the meme's original form, he is a simple, black-outlined [[cartoon]] drawing of a bald man with a [[wistfulness|wistful]] expression, and is posted to generically represent emotions such as melancholy, regret, or loneliness. <br />
<br />
The image originated in 2009 on a Polish imageboard called vichan, and was later reposted to the German/international imageboard krautchan in 2010 by a Polish poster called "wojak." It grew to popularity on [[4chan]], where the character became associated with the phrases formerly used by wojak such as "that feel", "that feel when", and "I know that feel, bro". Countless variants of the meme have since emerged, expressing different emotions or representing various archetypes.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
"Wojak" was originally the [[nickname]] of a Polish user on the defunct German [[imageboard]] [[Krautchan]], who started posting the image around 2010, often accompanied with lament about not having a girlfriend.<ref name="Brown 2018">{{Cite news |url=https://www.bustle.com/articles/6152-meme-origins-where-that-feeling-when-got-its-start |title=That Feeling When... |last=Brown |first=Elizabeth Nolan |work=Bustle |access-date=2018-10-19 |language=en}}</ref> According to him, the image originally came from the Polish imageboard vichan, where it was posted with the filename "ciepła twarz.jpg" ('warm face').<ref name="Feldman 2016" /> Brian Feldman of ''[[ Intelligencer (website)|Intelligencer]]'' describes Wojak's expression as "pained but dealing with it."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Feldman |first1=Brian |title=People Are Arguing About the Size of Their Brains Using MS-Paint Illustrations |url=https://nymag.com/intelligencer/2017/02/whomst-is-the-smartest-on-4chan.html |website=Intelligencer |access-date=1 August 2021 |language=en-us |date=13 February 2017}}</ref><br />
<br />
The image spread to other imageboards, including [[4chan]], where by 2011 an image of two Wojaks hugging each other under the caption "I know that feel bro" gained popularity.<ref name="Brown 2018" /> Wojak was also paired with the [[Snowclone|template phrase]] "that feel" or "that feel when", shortened to "tfw".<ref name="Brown 2018" /><ref name="Feldman 2016">{{cite web|url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2016/12/what-4chan-memes-will-go-mainstream-in-2017.html|title=What 4chan Memes Will Go Mainstream in 2017?|last=Feldman|first=Brian|website=Intelligencer |access-date=2019-02-09}}</ref> Some variants paired him with the character [[Pepe the Frog]] (catchphrase "feels good/bad man") in what Feldman describes as a "platonic romance within the memescape".<ref name="Feldman 2016" /><br />
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== Notable variants ==<br />
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===NPC===<br />
{{Main|NPC (meme)}}<br />
<br />
In October 2018, a Wojak with a gray face, pointy nose and blank, emotionless facial expression, dubbed "NPC Wojak", became a popular visual representation for people who cannot think for themselves or make their own decisions, comparing them to [[Non-Player Character]]s – computer-automated characters within a video game.<br />
NPC Wojak has gained online notoriety.<ref name="alexanderVERGE23oct18">{{Cite news |last=Alexander |first=Julia |date=October 23, 2018 |title=The NPC meme went viral when the media gave it oxygen |work=The Verge |url=https://www.theverge.com/2018/10/23/17991274/npc-meme-4chan-press-coverage-viral |access-date=23 December 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Sommerlad |first=Joe |title=What is an NPC? The liberal-bashing meme sweeping social media ahead of the US midterms |language=en-US |work=The Independent |url=https://www.yahoo.com/news/npc-liberal-bashing-meme-sweeping-113249416.html |access-date=2018-10-23}}</ref><br />
The meme gained media attention, initially in ''[[Kotaku]]'' and ''[[The New York Times]]'', due to its usage in parodying the [[herd behavior|herd mentality]] of [[Liberalism in the United States|American liberals]].<ref name=alexanderVERGE23oct18/><ref name="bbc">{{Cite news |title=Why has Twitter banned 1500 accounts and what are NPCs? |work=BBC News |date=17 October 2018 |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/blogs-trending-45888176 |access-date=2018-10-19 }}</ref><br />
This usage of the meme has been attributed to [[Donald Trump]] supporters.<ref name="nytimes">{{Cite news |title=What Is NPC, the Pro-Trump Internet's New Favorite Insult? |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/10/16/us/politics/npc-twitter-ban.html |access-date=2018-10-19}}</ref><br />
About 1,500 [[Twitter]] accounts falsely posing as liberal activists with the NPC meme as a profile picture were suspended for allegedly spreading misinformation about the [[2018 United States elections]].<ref name=bbc/><br />
<ref name=nytimes/><br />
On January 13, 2019, a [[Conservatism in the United States|conservative]] art collective known as "The Faction" hijacked a billboard for ''[[Real Time with Bill Maher]]'', replacing Maher's image with that of the NPC Wojak.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Bond |first=Paul |date=January 13, 2019 |title=Bill Maher Labeled "NPC" by Conservative Street Artists |url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/bill-maher-labeled-npc-by-conservative-street-artists-1175703 |access-date=January 15, 2019 |website=[[The Hollywood Reporter]]}}</ref><br />
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=== Coomer ===<br />
In November 2019, the "Coomer" Wojak picked up in popularity with the "[[No Nut November]]" trend. The Coomer depicts a Wojak edit with unkempt hair and an untidy beard, to raise awareness about [[porn addiction]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/culture/culture-features/coomer-meme-no-nut-november-nofap-908676/|title=How a New Meme Exposes the Far-Right Roots of #NoNutNovember|last1=Dickson|first1=E. J.|date=2019-11-08|website=Rolling Stone|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-30}}</ref> A lot of the popularity of this meme can be attributed to the "Coomer Pledge", a viral internet trend which dared people to abstain from masturbation for all of November, and change their [[Avatar (computing)|profile picture]] to an image of the Coomer if they were to fail.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stayhipp.com/internet/memes/breaking-down-the-coomer-pledge-taking-over-no-nut-november-2019/|title=Breaking Down the 'Coomer Pledge' Taking Over No Nut November 2019|last=Iskiev|first=Max|date=2019-11-11|website=StayHipp|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-30}}</ref><br />
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=== Doomer ===<br />
{{see also|Doomer}}<br />
The doomer is an image macro and character archetype that first appeared on [[4chan]]. The image typically depicts Wojak in a beanie, smoking a cigarette. The archetype often embodies [[nihilism]] and despair, with a belief in the incipient [[End of the world (civilization)|end of the world]] to causes ranging from [[climate apocalypse]] to [[peak oil]] to (more locally) [[opioid addiction]].<ref name="DoomerCandidate2019">{{Cite web |last=Read |first=Max |date=2019-08-01 |title=Is Andrew Yang the Doomer Candidate? |url=http://nymag.com/intelligencer/2019/08/is-andrew-yang-the-doomer-candidate-and-whats-a-doomer.html |access-date=2019-10-17 |website=Intelligencer |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name="AgainstNihilism-Sep2019">{{Cite news |last=Keating |first=Shannon |date=11 September 2019 |title=Against Nihilism |language=en |work=BuzzFeed News |url=https://www.buzzfeednews.com/article/shannonkeating/juuling-nihilism-climate-change-sobriety-euphoria-hope |access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref><ref name="DoomerLit-Feb2020">{{Cite news |last=Knibbs |first=Kate |date=17 February 2020 |title=The Hottest New Literary Genre Is 'Doomer Lit' |language=en |work=Wired |url=https://www.wired.com/story/doomer-lit-climate-fiction/ |access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref> The meme first appeared on 4chan's /r9k/ board in September 2018.<ref name="MisogynisticJoke-Feb2020">{{Cite news |last=Tiffany |first=Kaitlyn |date=3 February 2020 |title=The Misogynistic Joke That Became a Goth-Meme Fairy Tale |work=The Atlantic |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2020/02/doomer-girl-meme-4chan-tumblr-wojak-history/605764/ |access-date=27 April 2020}}</ref><br />
<br />
A related meme format, "doomer girl", began appearing on 4chan in January 2020, and it soon moved to other online communities, including [[Reddit]] and [[Tumblr]], often by women claiming it from its 4chan origins.<ref name="MisogynisticJoke-Feb2020" /> This format is described by ''[[The Atlantic]]'' as "a quickly sketched cartoon woman with black hair, black clothes, and sad eyes ringed with red makeup". The doomer girl character often appears in [[image macro]]s interacting with the original doomer character.<ref name="MisogynisticJoke-Feb2020" /><ref name="DailyDot-DoomerGirl">{{Cite news |last=Martinez |first=Ignacio |date=7 January 2020 |title=Meet 'Doomer Girl,' the new voice of a classic meme |work=The Daily Dot |url=https://www.dailydot.com/unclick/doomer-girl-meme-rage-comics/ |access-date=28 April 2020}}</ref> The format is often compared to [[rage comic]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2020-01-07 |title=Meet 'Doomer Girl,' the new voice of a classic meme |url=https://www.dailydot.com/unclick/doomer-girl-meme-rage-comics/ |access-date=2021-01-15 |website=The Daily Dot |language=en-US}}</ref><br />
<br />
=== Soyjak ===<br />
Soyjak, a [[portmanteau]] of "soy" and "wojak" is a variation of Wojak that combines Wojak-style illustrations with features of a [[soy boy]] or "nu-male".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.elplural.com/politica/basado-charocracia-joseo-habla-team-facha_269959102 |title=Basado, charocracia, chad o pesetas y cunetas: así habla el Team Facha |last=Abascal |first=Luis |date=4 July 2021 |website=Elplural |access-date=22 Sep 2021 |language=Spanish}} </ref> <ref>{{cite web |url=https://unherd.com/2021/08/why-the-left-cant-meme/ |title=Why the Left can’t meme |last=West |first=Ed |date=14 Aug 2021 |website=Unherd |access-date=22 Sep 2021 }} </ref> It is typically used in online discourse, such as [[4chan]] and various other sites and imageboards to mock an opponent's position by quoting them alongside a Soyjak image.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/afghanistans-shitposting-taliban-stan-malang-khostay-finds-right-wing-fame |title=Afghanistan’s Shitposting Taliban Stan Finds Right-Wing Fame |last=Rawnsley |first=Adam |date=11 Sep 2021 |website=The Daily Beast |access-date=22 Sep 2021}}</ref> The first example of Soyjak appeared in December 2017 on 4chan's /int/ board. It quickly gained notoriety on the site, spawning many edits and variants, commonly mocking interests associated with "soy boys" including use of sites such as [[Reddit]] or [[9gag]], playing [[Nintendo Switch]], or cuckoldry, among other things. Aside from the original Soyjak variant, a Wojak edit with glasses and a scraggly beard, it became popular to trace real-life people perceived to fit the "soy boy" stereotype,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://melmagazine.com/en-us/story/soy-face-soyboy-face-meme-tiktok |title=‘Soy Face’ Is Real, and It’s Annoying — It Just Needs a Better Name |last=Klee |first=Miles |date=2020 |website=Mel Magazine |access-date=22 Sep 2021 }} </ref> a common example being a photograph posted by John Oberg on [[Twitter]], in which he and another man point to a sign for Beyond Fried Chicken outside of a [[KFC]] restaurant.<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Polandball]] – another meme which originated on Krautchan to make fun of the user Wojak before spreading to the English-speaking world.<br />
* [[Rage comic]] – a similar meme which also uses less derivative copies of black-and-white [[Microsoft Paint]] illustrations.<br />
*[[Meme Man]] — a 3D render of a face often used in [[surreal memes]] and reaction images.<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{Wiktionary|wojak}}<br />
* {{Know Your Meme|wojak-feels-guy|Wojak / Feels Guy}}<br />
* {{Know Your Meme|soy-boy-face-soyjak|Soy Boy Face / Soyjak}}<br />
* [https://archive.org/details/wojak-collections A Wojak collection at the Internet Archive]<br />
<br />
[[Category:4chan phenomena]]<br />
[[Category:Internet memes]]<br />
[[Category:Internet memes introduced in 2010]]<br />
[[Category:2010s fads and trends]]<br />
[[Category:2020s fads and trends]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ajika&diff=673979292Ajika2015-07-31T19:54:48Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox prepared food<br />
| name = Ajika<br />
| image = [[File:Adjika e-citizen.jpg|220px]]<br />
| caption = Adjika with tomatoes<br />
| alternate_name = Adjika<br />
| country = [[Caucasus]]<br />
| region = [[Abkhazia]], [[Samegrelo]]<br />
| creator = <br />
| course = [[Dip (food)|Dip]]<br />
| served = <br />
| main_ingredient = [[Capsicum|red pepper]]s, [[garlic]], [[herbs]] and [[spice]]s, [[salt]], [[walnut]]<br />
| variations = <br />
| calories = <br />
| other =<br />
}}<br />
'''Ajika''' or '''adjika''' ({{Lang-ab|аџьыка}}, {{Lang-ka|აჯიკა}}) is a [[Georgian cuisine|Georgian]]<ref>Burford T. 2008, ''Georgia, Bradt Travel Guide'', p. 69.</ref>-[[Abkhazia|Abkhaz]]<ref>Копешавидзе Г. Г. 1989, ''Абхазская кухня'', pp. 77, 78.</ref> hot, spicy but subtly flavored [[Dip (food)|dip]] often used to flavor food. The name itself comes from the [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]] word ''аџьыка'' "salt"<ref>[http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?single=1&basename=/data/cauc/abadet&text_number=+206&root=config Abkhaz-Adyghe etymology]</ref> (the more descriptive ''аџьыкаҟaԥшь'' (literally, "red salt") and ''аџьыкаҵәаҵәа'' are also used to refer specifically to ajika<ref>Yanagisawa T. 2010 <u>''Analytic Dictionary of Abkhaz''</u> (entry ''а-џьы́ка''). Hitsuji Shobo Press.</ref><ref>Касланӡиа В. 2005, <u>''Аԥсуа-аурыс жәар''</u> (entries ''а-џьы́ка'', ''a-џьыкаҵәа́ҵәа'').</ref>).<br />
<br />
The Abkhazian variant of ajika is based on a boiled preparation of hot [[Capsicum|red pepper]]s, [[garlic]], [[herbs]], and [[spice]]s such as [[coriander]], [[dill]], [[blue fenugreek]] (only found in mountain regions such as the [[Alps]] or the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]]), [[salt]], and [[walnut]].<ref>Копешавидзе Г. Г. 1989, <u>''Абхазская кухня''</u>, p. 77.</ref> A dry form of ajika exists that is sometimes called ''svanuri marili'' in Georgian or ''lushnu jim'' in Svan (სვანური მარილი "[[Svaneti]]an salt"); this looks like small red clumps mixed with a looser version of the spice mixture.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} Home-made ajika is available from many market stalls in the [[Caucasus]] and in the [[Krasnodar Krai]] of [[Russia]]. [[Tomato]]es are not an ingredient of traditional ajika, though different versions of ajika, sometimes having tomatoes or tomato paste as an ingredient, are produced on a commercial scale and sold in supermarkets in [[Russia]] and [[Ukraine]]. <br />
<br />
Common varieties of ajika resemble Italian red [[pesto]] in appearance and consistency. Though it is usually red, green ajika is also made with unripe peppers.<br />
<br />
<gallery widths=220 heights=160><br />
File:Megrelian ajika.jpg|[[Samegrelo|Megrelian]] ajika<br />
File:Green ajika.jpg|Green ajika<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Biber salçası]], a hot or sweet pepper paste in [[Turkish cuisine]]<br />
* [[Muhammara]] or ''acuka'', a hot pepper dip in [[Levantine cuisine]]<br />
* [[Harissa]], a hot chili pepper paste in [[Maghreb cuisine]]<br />
* [[Skhug]], a hot sauce in [[Middle Eastern cuisine]], made from fresh hot peppers seasoned with coriander, garlic and various spices<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{Condiments}}<br />
{{Hot sauces}}<br />
{{Herbs & spices}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Herb and spice mixtures]]<br />
[[Category:Cuisine of Georgia (country)]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=M%C4%83m%C4%83lig%C4%83&diff=673600887Mămăligă2015-07-29T08:05:40Z<p>Dkc: /* Similar dishes */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{for|the Ukrainian village called ''Mămăliga'' in Romanian|Mamalyha}}<br />
{{Infobox food<br />
| name = Mămăligă<br />
| image = Mamaliga.jpg<br />
| caption = <br />
| alternate_name = <br />
| country = [[Romania]], [[Moldova]]<br />
| region = <br />
| national_cuisine = <br />
| creator = <!-- or | creators = --><br />
| year = <br />
| mintime = <br />
| maxtime = <br />
| type = <br />
| course = Main course<br />
| served = <br />
| main_ingredient = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[boiling water]]<br />
* [[salt]]<br />
* [[corn flour]]<br />
}}<br />
| minor_ingredient = <br />
| variations = <br />
| serving_size = 100 g<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.csid.ro/diet-sport/dieta-si-nutritie/mamaliga-o-alternativa-sanatoasa-cu-mai-putine-calorii-decat-painea-13693357/ |title=Mămăliga, o alternativă sănătoasă cu mai puţine calorii decât pâinea! |work=Ce se întâmplă Doctore? |date=3 December 2014 |language=Romanian}}</ref><br />
| calories = 70<br />
| protein = 2<br />
| fat = 0<br />
| carbohydrate = 15<ref>[http://calorii.oneden.com/Calorii-Mamaliga.html]</ref><br />
| glycemic_index = <br />
| similar_dish = {{flatlist|<br />
* [[polenta]]<br />
* puliszka<br />
* [[žganci]]<br />
* kulesha<br />
}}<br />
| other = <br />
| complexity = 1<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Mămăligă''' ({{IPA-ro|məməˈliɡə|-|Ro-mămăligă.ogg}}) is a [[porridge]] made out of yellow [[maize]] flour, traditional in [[Romania]], [[Moldova]], and [[Western Ukraine]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
Historically a [[peasant food]], it was often used as a substitute for bread or even as a [[staple food]] in the poor rural areas. However, in the last decades it has emerged as an upscale dish available in the finest restaurants.<br />
<br />
===Roman influence===<br />
<br />
Historically, [[porridge]] is the oldest form of consumption of grains in the whole of humanity, long before the appearance of bread. Originally, the seeds used to prepare slurries were very diverse as [[millet]] or [[einkorn]].<br />
<br />
Before the introduction of maize in [[Europe]] in the 16th century, mămăligă had been made with millet flour, known to the Romans as ''pulmentum''. Moreover, the Romans ate so much of it that the Greeks called them ''pultiphagonides'' (porridge eaters).<br />
<br />
===Corn's introduction in Romania===<br />
<br />
[[Maize]] was introduced into Spain by [[Hernán Cortés]] from [[Mexico]] and spread in Europe in the 16th century. Maize (called ''corn'' in the United States) requires a good amount of heat and humidity. The Danube Valley is one of Europe's regions ideal for growing maize.<br />
<br />
A Hungarian scholar documented the arrival of corn in [[Timişoara]], [[Banat]] region, 1692.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.persee.fr/web/revues/home/prescript/article/ahess_0395-2649_1962_num_17_1_420793?_Prescripts_Search_tabs1=standard&|title=Le maïs arrive dans les Balkans<br />
|publisher=Georges C. Haupt|language=fr}}</ref> In [[Transylvania]], maize is also called 'cucuruz',<ref>example {{ro icon}} http://www.hotnews.ro/stiri-esential-2404258-maghiarii-din-ardeal-indiferenti-kosovo-sadim-cucuruz-vin-mistretii-mananca-no-asta-problema-noastra.htm</ref> which could imply a connection between Transylvanian and Serbian merchants, kukuruz being a [[Slavs|Slavic]] word.<ref>{{ro icon}} http://www.archeus.ro/lingvistica/CautareDex?query=CUCURUZ</ref> Some assume it was either [[Şerban Cantacuzino]]<ref>http://www.ongo.com/v/1346764/-1/6AF4EB7DB81AB64D/romanian-prince-actor-serban-cantacuzino-70</ref><ref>{{ro icon}} http://ro.wikisource.org/wiki/Din_trecutul_nostru:Țările_române_în_veacul_al_XVII-lea</ref> or [[Constantin Mavrocordat]]<ref>{{ro icon}} http://www.free-referate.ro/referat-Introducerea-porumbului-in-agricultura-3199.html</ref> who introduced corn in [[Wallachia]], [[Maria Theresa]] in Transylvania<ref>{{ro icon}} http://www.scribd.com/doc/50632250/66/Sistematică-Origine-Hibrizi-cultivaţi-in-Romania</ref> and [[Constantine Ducas (Moldavian ruler)|Constantine Ducas]] in [[Moldavia]]<ref>{{ro icon}} http://www.free-referate.ro/referat-Introducerea-porumbului-in-agricultura-3199.html</ref> where it is called păpuşoi.<ref>{{ro icon}} http://dexonline.ro/definitie/p%C4%83pu%C8%99oi/28932</ref><br />
Mămăligă of millet would have been replaced gradually by mămăligă made of corn. The corn then become an important food, especially in the fight against famine which prevailed in the 17th and 18th centuries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethno-terroirs.cnrs.fr/IMG/pdf/Polenta_Cassoulet_Piperade.pdf|title=L'introduction des plantes du Nouveau Monde dans les cuisines régionales|publisher=Philippe Marchenay, Jacques Barrau, Laurence Bérard|language=fr}}</ref><br />
<br />
Historian [[Nicolae Iorga]] noted that farmers of the Romanian Principalities grew corn since the early-to-mid-17th century.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ethno-terroirs.cnrs.fr/IMG/pdf/Polenta_Cassoulet_Piperade.pdf|title=L'introduction des plantes du Nouveau Monde dans les cuisines régionales|publisher=Philippe Marchenay, Jacques Barrau, Laurence Bérard|language=fr}}</ref><br />
<br />
Etienne Ignace Raicevich, a [[Ragusan]] and consul of the Empire in Bucharest in the third quarter of the 18th century, wrote that corn was introduced only ''da poco tempo''.<br />
<br />
The existence of corn-based mămăligă is attested since 1873 in the edition of [[Éditions Larousse|Larousse]], a French dictionary: mamaliga s. f. Boiled corn meal, in the Danubian principalities.s<br />
<br />
==Preparation==<br />
[[Image:MamaligaBranza.JPG|thumb|right|Mămăligă with sour cream and cheese]]<br />
[[File:Mamaligamoldova.jpg|thumb|right|Mămăligă]]<br />
<br />
Traditionally, ''mămăliga'' is cooked by boiling water, salt and cornmeal in a special-shaped [[cast iron]] pot called ''ceaun'' or ''tuci''. When cooked peasant-style and used as a bread substitute, ''mămăliga'' is supposed to be much thicker than the regular Italian polenta to the point that it can be cut in slices, like bread. When cooked for other purposes, ''mămăligă'' can be much softer, sometimes almost to the consistency of [[porridge]]. Because ''mămăligă'' sticks to metal surfaces, a piece of sewing thread can be used to cut it into slices instead of a knife; it can then be eaten by holding it with the hand, just like bread.<br />
<br />
''Mămăligă'' is often served with sour cream and cheese on the side (''mămăligă cu brânză şi smântână'') or crushed in a bowl of hot milk (''mămăligă cu lapte''). Sometimes slices of ''mămăligă'' are pan-fried in oil or in lard, the result being a sort of [[corn pone]].<br />
<br />
Since ''mămăliga'' can be used as an alternate for bread in many [[Romanian cuisine|Romanian]] and [[Moldovan cuisine|Moldovan dishes]], there are quite a few which are either based on ''mămăligă'', or include it as an ingredient or side dish. Arguably, the most popular of them is [[sarma (food)|sarmale]] (a type of [[cabbage roll]]) with ''mămăligă''.<br />
<br />
Another very popular Romanian dish based on ''mămăligă'' is called [[bulz (food)|bulz]], and consists of ''mămăligă'' with cheese and butter and roasted in the oven.<br />
<br />
[[File:Mamaliga bucatarie moldoveneasca.jpg|thumb|Mămăliga]]<br />
<br />
[[Balmoş]] (sometimes spelled [[balmuş]]) is another ''mămăligă''-like traditional Romanian dish, but is more elaborate. Unlike ''mămăligă'' (where the cornmeal is boiled in water) when making ''balmoş'' the cornmeal must be boiled in [[sheep]] milk. Other ingredients, such as butter, sour cream, ''[[telemea]]'' (a type of [[feta cheese]]), ''[[caş]]'' (a type of fresh [[curd]]led [[ewe cheese]] without [[whey]], which is sometimes called "[[green cheese]]" in English), ''[[urda cheese|urdă]]'' (a type of [[curd]]led cheese obtained by boiling and curdling the whey left from ''[[caş]]''), etc., are added to the mixture at certain times during the cooking process. It is a specialty dish of old Romanian shepherds, and nowadays very few people still know how to make a proper ''balmoş''.<br />
<br />
''Mămăliga'' is a versatile food: various recipes of ''mămăligă''-based dishes may include milk, butter, various types of cheese, eggs, sausages (usually fried, grilled or oven-roasted), bacon, mushrooms, ham, fish etc. ''Mămăliga'' is a fat-free, cholesterol-free, high-fiber food. It can be used as a healthy alternative to more refined carbohydrates such as white bread, pasta or hulled rice.<br />
<br />
==Trivia==<br />
* A [[gruel]] made of cornmeal, water, milk, butter, salt and sugar is called in Romanian ''cir de mămăligă''. If it is exceedingly thin and made only of cornmeal, water and salt it is called ''mieşniţă'' or ''terci''.<br />
* Depending on the context, ''mălai'' is the Romanian word for either:<br />
** The Romanian version of [[cornmeal]]<br />
** Any type of [[cereal]]s or edible grains (much like the English [[maize|corn]]), but this use of the word is becoming increasingly obsolete<br />
* [[Cornstarch|Corn flour]] (i.e., [[maize]] [[flour]]) is called in Romanian ''mălai'' or ''făină de porumb''.<br />
* Before the arrival of [[maize]] in Eastern Europe, ''mămăliga'' was made of [[millet]] flour, but nowadays millet ''mămăligă'' is no longer made.<br />
<br />
==Mămăligă in literature==<br />
<br />
In ''[[Dracula]]'' by [[Bram Stoker]], in chapter 1 it's written: "I had for breakfast more paprika, and a sort of porridge of maize flour which they said was 'mamaliga', and egg-plant stuffed with forcemeat, a very excellent dish, which they call 'impletata'."<br />
<br />
==Similar dishes==<br />
Mămăliga is similar to the [[Italian cuisine|Italian]] ''[[polenta]]''.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/6222615.stm | title=Coming up: Food from the new EU | publisher=[[BBC News]] | date=January 1, 2007 | accessdate=30 October 2013}}</ref><br />
<br />
[[Mush (cornmeal)|Cornmeal mush]] is its analogue common in some regions of the United States.<br />
<br />
Its analogue in [[Serbia]] and [[Bulgaria]] is called [[kachamak]] ({{lang-sr|качамак/''kačamak''}}), ({{lang-bg|качамак}}) and is served mainly with white brine cheese or fried pieces of pork fat with parts of the skin.<br />
<br />
In [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]], [[Croatia]] (also ''polenta'' or ''palenta''), [[Serbia]] (also ''kačamak'') and in Montenegro the dish is mainly called ''pura''. In [[Republic of Macedonia|Macedonia]] it is called ''bakrdan'' and in [[Slovenia]] ''polenta''. In [[Hungary]] it is called ''puliszka''.<br />
<br />
In [[Turkey]] a similar dish, called ''kuymak'' or ''muhlama'' is among the typical dishes of the [[Black Sea Region]], although now popular in all the greater cities where there are many regional restaurants.<br />
<br />
Known by different names in local languages ({{lang-ab|абысҭа}} ''abysta'', {{lang-ady|мамрыс}} ''mamrys'', {{lang-ka|ღომი}} ''ghomi'', {{lang-inh|журан-худар}} ''zhuran-khudar'', [[Nogai language|Nogai]]:&nbsp;мамырза ''mamyrza'', {{lang-os|дзыкка}} ''dzykka'' or сера ''sera''), it is also widespread in [[Caucasian cuisine]]s.<br />
<br />
There is also a distinct similarity to [[Cou-cou]] (as it is known in the [[Barbados]]), or Fungi (as it is known in the [[Antigua and Barbuda]], and other [[Leeward Islands]] in the Caribbean Sea).<ref>Personal Experience as an Antiguan national.</ref><br />
<br />
== Gallery ==<br />
<gallery mode=packed><br />
File:Bulz și pastramă la grătar 02.jpg|Grilled [[bulz]] and [[pastrami]]<br />
File:Kulesha&brunza.jpg|Mămăligă with [[cheese]] and [[greaves]]<br />
File:Mamałyga-e.jpg|Mămăligă with a spoonful of [[sour cream]] and [[sarmale]]<br />
File:Păstrăv la staniol.jpg|Mămăligă and [[trout]] wrapped in [[tinfoil]]<br />
File:Tochitura-moldoveneasca.jpg|Moldavian [[tochitură]] with mămăligă, cheese and [[egg]]<br />
File:Bulz cu ou.jpg|Bulz with egg<br />
</gallery><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{portal|Food}}<br />
* [[Bulz (food)|Bulz]]<br />
* [[Cocoloşi]]<br />
* [[Cornbread]]<br />
* [[List of maize dishes]]<br />
* [[List of porridges]]<br />
* [[Tocană]] – a Romanian stew traditionally served with mămăligă<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{commons-inline}}<br />
<br />
{{Corn}}<br />
{{Cuisine of Romania}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mamaliga}}<br />
[[Category:Moldovan dishes]]<br />
[[Category:Porridges]]<br />
[[Category:Romanian dishes]]<br />
[[Category:Staple foods]]<br />
[[Category:Maize dishes]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tuapse&diff=665439643Tuapse2015-06-04T08:09:09Z<p>Dkc: IPA correction</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Russian town<br />
|en_name=Tuapse<br />
|ru_name=Туапсе<br />
|other_name=Тӏуапсэ<br />
|other_lang=Adyghe<br />
|image_skyline=Tuapse area 20.11.2006 (1).jpg<br />
|image_caption=Black Sea coast near Tuapse in November<br />
|latd=44<br />
|latm=06<br />
|lats=16<br />
|longd=39<br />
|longm=04<br />
|longs=38<br />
|map_label_position=left<br />
|image_flag=Flag of Tuapse (Krasnodar krai).svg<br />
|flag_caption<br />
|image_coa=Coat of Arms of Tuapse (Krasnodar krai).png<br />
|coa_caption<br />
|anthem<br />
|anthem_ref<br />
|holiday=First Sunday of July<br />
|holiday_ref=<ref name="TuapseCharter1_2">Charter of Tuapse, Article&nbsp;1.2</ref><br />
<!----ADMINISTRATIVE STATUS----><br />
|federal_subject=[[Krasnodar Krai]]<br />
|federal_subject_ref=<ref name="KrasnodarK_admlist" /><br />
|adm_data_as_of=May 2013<br />
|adm_city_jur=[[City of federal subject significance|Town]] of Tuapse<br />
|adm_city_jur_ref=<ref name="KrasnodarK_admlist" /><br />
|adm_ctr_of1=Town of Tuapse<br />
|adm_ctr_of1_ref=<ref name="KrasnodarK_admlist" /><br />
|adm_ctr_of2=[[Tuapsinsky District]]<br />
|adm_ctr_of2_ref=<ref name="KrasnodarK_admlist" /><br />
|inhabloc_cat=Town<br />
|inhabloc_cat_ref=<ref name="KrasnodarK_admlist" /><br />
|inhabloc_type=<br />
|inhabloc_type_ref=<br />
<!----MUNICIPAL STATUS----><br />
|mun_data_as_of=June 2009<br />
|mun_district_jur=Tuapsinsky Municipal District<br />
|mun_district_jur_ref=<ref name="KrasnodarKTuapsinskyD_mun">Law #745-KZ</ref><br />
|urban_settlement_jur=Tuapsinskoye Urban Settlement<br />
|urban_settlement_jur_ref=<ref name="KrasnodarKTuapsinskyD_mun" /><br />
|mun_admctr_of1=Tuapsinsky Municipal District<br />
|mun_admctr_of1_ref=<ref name="KrasnodarKTuapsinskyD_mun" /><br />
|mun_admctr_of2=Tuapsinskoye Urban Settlement<br />
|mun_admctr_of2_ref=<ref name="KrasnodarKTuapsinskyD_mun" /><br />
|leader_title=Head<br />
|leader_title_ref=<ref name="TuapseCharter22">Charter of Tuapse, Article&nbsp;22</ref><br />
|leader_name=Alexander Chekhov<br />
|leader_name_ref=<ref name="Head">[http://www.adm.tuapse.ru Official website of Tuapse]<br />
[Head of the Town] {{ru icon}}</ref><br />
|representative_body=[[Council of Tuapse|Council]]<br />
|representative_body_ref=<ref name="TuapseCharter23">Charter of Tuapse, Article&nbsp;23</ref><br />
<!----STATISTICS----><br />
|area_of_what<br />
|area_as_of<br />
|area_km2=<br />
|area_km2_ref<br />
|pop_2010census=63292<br />
|pop_2010census_rank=250th<br />
|pop_2010census_ref=<ref name="2010Census">{{ru-pop-ref|2010Census}}</ref><br />
|pop_density<br />
|pop_density_as_of<br />
|pop_density_ref<br />
|pop_latest=<br />
|pop_latest_date=<br />
|pop_latest_ref=<br />
<!----HISTORY----><br />
|established_date=1864<br />
|established_title<br />
|established_date_ref=<ref name="KubanATS">{{Cite book|last=Азаренкова|first=А.&nbsp;С.|coauthors=И.&nbsp;Ю.&nbsp;Бондарь, Н.&nbsp;С.&nbsp;Вертышева|title=Основные административно-территориальные преобразования на Кубани (1793–1985&nbsp;гг.)|origyear=1986|year=1986|publisher=Краснодарское книжное издательство|language=Russian|page=269}}</ref><br />
|current_cat_date=ca.&nbsp;1896<br />
|current_cat_date_ref=<ref name="KubanATS" /><br />
|prev_name1<br />
|prev_name1_date<br />
|prev_name1_ref<br />
<!----MISCELLANEA----><br />
|postal_codes=352800–352803, 352808, 352859<br />
|dialing_codes=86167<br />
|dialing_codes_ref=<ref name="Phone">http://www.rt.ru/help-info/mg/index.php?SELECTED_CHAR=%D2</ref><br />
|website=http://www.adm.tuapse.ru/<br />
|website_ref<br />
|date=April 2014<br />
}}<br />
'''Tuapse''' ({{lang-ru|Туапсе́}}; {{lang-ady|Тӏуапсэ}} {{IPA-ady|tʷʼapsə|}}) is a [[types of inhabited localities in Russia|town]] in [[Krasnodar Krai]], [[Russia]], situated on the northeast shore of the [[Black Sea]], south of [[Gelendzhik]] and north of [[Sochi]]. Population: {{ru-census|p2010=63,292|p2002=64,238|p1989=63,081}}<br />
<br />
Tuapse is a sea port and the northern center of a resort zone which extends south to [[Sochi]].<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
<br />
===Early history===<br />
[[File:Geor tamro aandersen.png|thumb|left|Map of the kingdom of Georgia at the peak of its power (1184-1223). Nicopsia (Tuapse) was the kingdom's most Northerly outpost.]]<br />
<br />
Tuapse was originally known by the name of ''Nicopsis'' since its founding as a colony by the Greeks. It was integrated into the [[kingdom of Abkhazia]] and then into the [[kingdom of Georgia]], from the eleventh century. With the chaos of the sixteenth century, Georgia lost Nicopsia to the [[Circassians]]. Tuapse is a large center (native land) for the [[Shapsugs]] tribe<ref>http://www.aheku.org/page-id-3074.html</ref> with other areas in [[Circassia]], with about 10,000&nbsp;speakers of the language living in Tuapse. The name of the town is itself Adyghe (literally meaning "two waters")<ref>http://www.adm.tuapse.ru/o-tuapse/istoriya.html Official Website of Tuapse (Russian)</ref> since Tuapse was part of historical [[Circassia]] and it became a part of Russia during the rule of Tsar [[Alexander I of Russia|Alexander&nbsp;I]] in 1801-1825. In early Greek sources the town was also attested as Topsida.<br />
<br />
===Modern history===<br />
The modern settlement dates back to 1838, when the Russian fort of Velyaminovsky was established in the area after this region became a part of Russia in 1829 by [[Treaty of Adrianople (1829)|Treaty of Adrianople]].<ref name="KubanATS" /> During the [[Crimean War]], the Ottomans seized the fort and held it for two years (1857–1859). The village of '''Velyaminovskoye''' ({{lang|ru|Вельяминовское}}) was established here in 1864; it is the village that later became Tuapse.<ref name="KubanATS" /> Town status was granted to Tuapse in 1896.<ref name="KubanATS" /><br />
<br />
The Soviets developed Tuapse as an oil terminal and depot. An [[Grozny–Tuapse oil pipeline|oil pipeline from Grozny and Maykop]] was in operation by 1928, designed by [[Vladimir Shukhov]]. An oil refinery dates from the same period. No later than 1941, Tuapse's status was changed to that of a town of the krai subordination.<ref name="KubanATS" /><br />
<br />
During [[World War II]], the German military attempted to seize the town during the [[Battle of the Caucasus]], which caused major damage to Tuapse.<br />
<br />
==Administrative and municipal status==<br />
Within the [[subdivisions of Russia#Administrative divisions|framework of administrative divisions]], Tuapse serves as the [[administrative center]] of [[Tuapsinsky District]], even though it is not a part of it.<ref name="KrasnodarK_admlist">Reference Information #34.01-707/13-03</ref> As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the '''[[City of federal subject significance|Town]] of Tuapse'''—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the [[administrative divisions of Krasnodar Krai|districts]].<ref name="KrasnodarK_admlist" /> As a [[subdivisions of Russia#Municipal divisions|municipal division]], the Town of Tuapse is incorporated within Tuapsinsky Municipal District as '''Tuapsinskoye Urban Settlement'''.<ref name="KrasnodarKTuapsinskyD_mun" /><br />
<br />
==Climate==<br />
Tuapse has a [[humid subtropical climate]] ([[Köppen climate classification]] ''Cfa'').<ref>{{cite journal |title=Guwahati vs Tuapse Climate & Distance Between|url=http://www.guwahati.climatemps.com/vs/tuapse.php|journal=http://www.guwahati.climatemps.com}}</ref><br />
<br />
{{Weather box<br />
|location=Tuapse (1955-2011)<br />
|metric first=yes<br />
|single line=yes<br />
|collapsed=yes<br />
|Jan record high C=22.2<br />
|Feb record high C=24.0<br />
|Mar record high C=26.5<br />
|Apr record high C=30.0<br />
|May record high C=35.4<br />
|Jun record high C=35.1<br />
|Jul record high C = 41.1<br />
|Aug record high C = 40.0<br />
|Sep record high C = 35.4<br />
|Oct record high C = 31.2<br />
|Nov record high C = 26.1<br />
|Dec record high C = 23.7<br />
|year record high C = 41.1<br />
|Jan high C = 8.2<br />
|Feb high C = 8.8<br />
|Mar high C = 11.4<br />
|Apr high C = 15.9<br />
|May high C = 20.5<br />
|Jun high C = 24.6<br />
|Jul high C = 27.8<br />
|Aug high C = 28.5<br />
|Sep high C = 24.7<br />
|Oct high C = 19.7<br />
|Nov high C = 14.4<br />
|Dec high C = 10.3<br />
|year high C = 18.0<br />
|Jan mean C = 5.0<br />
|Feb mean C = 5.4<br />
|Mar mean C = 7.7<br />
|Apr mean C = 12.0<br />
|May mean C = 16.4<br />
|Jun mean C = 20.4<br />
|Jul mean C = 23.5<br />
|Aug mean C = 23.8<br />
|Sep mean C = 19.7<br />
|Oct mean C = 14.8<br />
|Nov mean C = 10.5<br />
|Dec mean C = 7.1<br />
|year mean C = 14.0<br />
|Jan low C = 2.1<br />
|Feb low C = 2.4<br />
|Mar low C = 4.5<br />
|Apr low C = 8.5<br />
|May low C = 12.6<br />
|Jun low C = 16.4<br />
|Jul low C = 19.3<br />
|Aug low C = 19.4<br />
|Sep low C = 15.5<br />
|Oct low C = 10.8<br />
|Nov low C = 7.1<br />
|Dec low C = 4.1<br />
|year low C = 10.3<br />
|Jan record low C = -19.0<br />
|Feb record low C = -15.0<br />
|Mar record low C = -8.0<br />
|Apr record low C = -4.2<br />
|May record low C = 2.3<br />
|Jun record low C = 4.8<br />
|Jul record low C = 5.0<br />
|Aug record low C = 9.0<br />
|Sep record low C = 3.0<br />
|Oct record low C = -3.9<br />
|Nov record low C = -9.1<br />
|Dec record low C = -10.5<br />
|year record low C = -19.0<br />
|Jan precipitation mm = 143.2<br />
|Feb precipitation mm = 106.6<br />
|Mar precipitation mm = 93.8<br />
|Apr precipitation mm = 94.3<br />
|May precipitation mm = 95.0<br />
|Jun precipitation mm = 80.5<br />
|Jul precipitation mm = 77.3<br />
|Aug precipitation mm = 89.2<br />
|Sep precipitation mm = 114.6<br />
|Oct precipitation mm = 106.9<br />
|Nov precipitation mm = 155.4<br />
|Dec precipitation mm = 176.2<br />
|year precipitation mm = 1333.0<br />
|Jan precipitation days = 17.5<br />
|Feb precipitation days = 14.7<br />
|Mar precipitation days = 18.3<br />
|Apr precipitation days = 13.6<br />
|May precipitation days = 12.2<br />
|Jun precipitation days = 7.4<br />
|Jul precipitation days = 5.0<br />
|Aug precipitation days = 4.2<br />
|Sep precipitation days = 7.8<br />
|Oct precipitation days = 12.7<br />
|Nov precipitation days = 12.4<br />
|Dec precipitation days = 15.3<br />
|year precipitation days = 141.1<br />
|Jan humidity = 71.3<br />
|Feb humidity = 69.4<br />
|Mar humidity = 70.9<br />
|Apr humidity = 71.1<br />
|May humidity = 74.7<br />
|Jun humidity = 75.2<br />
|Jul humidity = 72.5<br />
|Aug humidity = 68.4<br />
|Sep humidity = 69.4<br />
|Oct humidity = 72.2<br />
|Nov humidity = 69.3<br />
|Dec humidity = 69.2<br />
|year humidity = 71.1<br />
|Jan sun = 94.6<br />
|Feb sun = 109.2<br />
|Mar sun = 139.5<br />
|Apr sun = 181.5<br />
|May sun = 254.2<br />
|Jun sun = 300.0<br />
|Jul sun = 333.3<br />
|Aug sun = 313.1<br />
|Sep sun = 250.5<br />
|Oct sun = 204.6<br />
|Nov sun = 123.0<br />
|Dec sun = 96.1<br />
|year sun = 2399.5<br />
|source 1 = climatebase.ru<ref name="climatebase">{{cite web<br />
| url = http://climatebase.ru/station/37018/?lang=en<br />
| title = Tuapse Climate Data<br />
| publisher = Climatebase<br />
| accessdate = March 29, 2013<br />
}}</ref><br />
|date=June 2012}}<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+Average Sea Temperature (1977-2006).<ref name="Esimo">[http://data.oceaninfo.info/atlas/Black/2_watertemp_station_98068_1.html Tuapse Water temperature 1977-2006] (in Russian), Retrieved August 9, 2012.</ref><br />
|-<br />
!'''Month'''<br />
!'''Jan'''<br />
!'''Feb'''<br />
!'''Mar'''<br />
!'''Apr'''<br />
!'''May'''<br />
!'''Jun'''<br />
!'''Jul'''<br />
!'''Aug'''<br />
!'''Sep'''<br />
!'''Oct'''<br />
!'''Nov'''<br />
!'''Dec'''<br />
|-<br />
|Average temperature<br />
|style="background: #33CCFF; color: black;"|8.9&nbsp;°C<br />
|style="background: #33CCFF; color: black;"|8.0&nbsp;°C<br />
|style="background: #33CCFF; color: black;"|8.7&nbsp;°C<br />
|style="background: #99FFCC; color: black;"|11.0&nbsp;°C<br />
|style="background: #CCFF99; color: black;"|15.2&nbsp;°C<br />
|style="background: #FFFF99; color: black;"|19.5&nbsp;°C<br />
|style="background: #FFFF00; color: black;"|23.7&nbsp;°C<br />
|style="background: #FFCC66; color: black;"|25.0&nbsp;°C<br />
|style="background: #FFFF66; color: black;"|22.4&nbsp;°C<br />
|style="background: #CCFF33; color: black;"|18.8&nbsp;°C<br />
|style="background: #CCFFCC; color: black;"|14.2&nbsp;°C<br />
|style="background: #99FFFF; color: black;"|10.7.&nbsp;°C<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Miscellaneous==<br />
[[File:080828 CRW 3847 Novomihaylovka.jpg|thumb|The sea coast between [[Dzhubga]] and Tuapse.]]<br />
<br />
The Russian Children Center [[Orlyonok]] (former All-[[Russian SFSR]] [[Young Pioneer camp]]) is located there. The world chess champion [[Vladimir Kramnik]] and 2005 [[Miss Universe]] winner, [[Natalie Glebova]], were born in Tuapse.<br />
<br />
==Twin towns and sister cities==<br />
{{See also|List of twin towns and sister cities in France}}<br />
<br />
Tuapse is [[twin towns and sister cities|twinned]] with:<br />
*{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Agen]], [[France]]<ref name="Agen twinnings">{{cite web|url=http://www.cncd.fr/frontoffice/bdd-region.asp?action=getRegion&id=2#tabs3|title=National Commission for Decentralised cooperation|accessdate=2013-12-26|work=Délégation pour l’Action Extérieure des Collectivités Territoriales (Ministère des Affaires étrangères)|language=French}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
===Notes===<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
===Sources===<br />
*{{RussiaAdmMunRef|kda|adm|list}}<br />
*{{RussiaAdmMunRef|kda|mun|list|tuapsinsky}}<br />
*{{RussiaBasicLawRef|kda|tuapse}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://www.adm.tuapse.ru/ Official website of Tuapse] {{ru icon}}<br />
*[http://www.tuapse.com/ Unofficial website of Tuapse] {{ru icon}}<br />
<br />
{{Krasnodar Krai}}<br />
{{Cities of Military Glory}}<br />
{{Use mdy dates|date=May 2012}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
[[Category:Cities and towns in Krasnodar Krai]]<br />
[[Category:Black Sea Governorate]]<br />
[[Category:Populated places established in 1838]]<br />
[[Category:Port cities and towns in Russia]]<br />
[[Category:Cities of Military Glory]]<br />
[[Category:1838 establishments in Russia]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abaza_language&diff=664174333Abaza language2015-05-26T20:40:57Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Cleanup|date=November 2013|reason=There is a non-Latin language used that needs specifying and possibly translating}}<br />
{{Infobox language<br />
|name=Abaza<br />
|nativename=абаза бызшва, abaza byzšwa<br />
|states=[[Russia]], [[Turkey]]<br />
|region=[[Karachay-Cherkessia]]<br />
|ethnicity=[[Abazins]]<br />
|speakers={{sigfig|47,880|2}}<br />
|date=1995–2010<br />
|ref=e18<br />
|familycolor=Caucasian<br />
|fam1=[[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]]<br />
|fam2=[[Abazgi language|Abazgi]]<br />
|nation= {{flag|Karachay-Cherkessia}} ([[Russia]])<br />
|iso3=abq<br />
|glotto=abaz1241<br />
|glottorefname=Abaza<br />
|notice=IPA<br />
}}<br />
<br />
The '''Abaza language''' (абаза бызшва, ''abaza byzšwa''; {{lang-ady|абазэбзэ}}) is a language of the [[Caucasus]] mountains in the [[Russia]]n [[Karachay–Cherkessia|Karachay–Cherkess Republic]] spoken by the [[Abazins]]. It consists of two dialects, the Ashkherewa dialect and the T'ap'anta dialect, which is the literary standard.<br />
<br />
Abaza is spoken by approximately 35,000 people in Russia, where it is written in a [[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic alphabet]], as well as another 10,000 in [[Turkey]], where the [[Latin script]] is used.<br />
<br />
Abaza, like its relatives in the family of [[Northwest Caucasian languages]], is highly agglutinative and has a large consonantal inventory (63 phonemes) coupled with a minimal vowel inventory (two vowels). It is very closely related to [[Abkhaz language|Abkhaz]],<ref name=EB>{{cite encyclopedia |editor-first=Dale H. |editor-last=Hoiberg|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica |title=Abkhaz|edition = 15th |year=2010|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica Inc. |volume=I: A-ak Bayes |location=Chicago, IL |isbn=978-1-59339-837-8|pages=33}}</ref> but it preserves a few phonemes which Abkhaz lacks, such as a [[voiced pharyngeal fricative]]. Work on Abaza has been carried out by W. S. Allen, Brian O'Herin, and John Colarusso.<br />
<br />
== Phonology ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="2" colspan="2" | <br />
! rowspan="2" | [[labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! colspan="2" | [[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
! colspan="3" | [[postalveolar consonant|Postalveolar]]<br />
! colspan="3" | [[velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! colspan="3" | [[uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
! colspan="2" | [[pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]<br />
! rowspan="2" | [[glottal consonant|Glottal]]<br />
|- class=small<br />
! [[Central consonant|central]]<br />
! [[Lateral consonant|lateral]]<br />
! plain<br />
! [[Palatalization (phonetics)|pal.]]<br />
! [[Labialization|lab.]]<br />
! plain<br />
! [[Palatalization (phonetics)|pal.]]<br />
! [[Labialization|lab.]]<br />
! plain<br />
! [[Palatalization (phonetics)|pal.]]<br />
! [[Labialization|lab.]]<br />
! plain<br />
! [[Labialization|lab.]]<br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | [[Plosive consonant|Plosive]]<br />
! <small>[[voiceless]]</small><br />
| {{IPA|p}}<br />
| {{IPA|t}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|k}}<br />
| {{IPA|kʲ}}<br />
| {{IPA|kʷ}}<br />
| {{IPA|q}}<br />
| {{IPA|qʲ}}<br />
| {{IPA|qʷ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ʔ}}<br />
|- <br />
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| {{IPA|b}}<br />
| {{IPA|d}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|ɡ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɡʲ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɡʷ}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
|- <br />
! <small>[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small><br />
| {{IPA|pʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|tʼ}}<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|kʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|kʲʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|kʷʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|qʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|qʲʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|qʷʼ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan="3" | [[Affricate consonant|Affricate]]<br />
! <small>[[voiceless]]</small><br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t͡s}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|t͡ʃ}}<br />
| {{IPA|t͡ɕ}}<br />
| {{IPA|t͡ʃʷ}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|- <br />
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|d͡z}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|d͡ʒ}}<br />
| {{IPA|d͡ʑ}}<br />
| {{IPA|d͡ʒʷ}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|- <br />
! <small>[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small><br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|t͡sʼ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|t͡ʃʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|t͡ɕʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|t͡ʃʷʼ}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|- <br />
! rowspan="3" | [[Fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! <small>[[voiceless]]</small><br />
| {{IPA|f}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɬ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɕ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃʷ}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|{{IPA|χ}}<br />
|{{IPA|χʲ}}<br />
| {{IPA|χʷ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ħ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ħʷ}}<br />
|<br />
|- <br />
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| {{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|z}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɮ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʑ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʒʷ}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|{{IPA|ʁ}}<br />
|{{IPA|ʁʲ}}<br />
| ʁʷ<br />
| {{IPA|ʕ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʕʷ}}<br />
|<br />
|- <br />
! <small>[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small><br />
| {{IPA|fʼ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɬʼ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|- <br />
! colspan=2 | [[Nasal stop|Nasal]]<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|- <br />
! colspan=2 | [[Approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
| <br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|l}}<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
| <br />
| {{IPA|j}} <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! colspan="2" | [[Trill consonant|Trill]]<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| <br />
| <br />
| <br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
The vowels /o, a, u/ may have a /j/ in front of it.<br />
<br />
{| class="IPA wikitable" style="text-align:center"<br />
! !! [[Front vowel|Front]] !! [[Central vowel|Central]] !! [[Back vowel|Back]]<br />
|-<br />
! [[Close vowel|Close]]<br />
| {{IPA|i}} || || {{IPA|u}}<br />
|-<br />
! [[Mid vowel|Mid]]<br />
| {{IPA|e}} || {{IPA|ə}} || {{IPA|o}}<br />
|-<br />
! [[Open vowel|Open]]<br />
| {{IPA|a}} || ||<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Orthography ==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable IPA"<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | А а <br/> [a] <br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Б б <br/> [b]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | В в <br/> [v]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Г г <br/> [ɡ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Гв гв <br/> [ɡʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Гъ гъ <br/> [ʁ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Гъв гъв <br/> [ʁʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Гъь гъь <br/> [ʁʲ]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Гь гь <br/> [ɡʲ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ГӀ гӀ <br/> [ʕ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ГӀв гӀв <br/> [ʕʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Д д <br/> [d]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Дж дж <br/> [d͡ʐ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Джв джв <br/> [d͡ʑ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Джь джь <br/> [d͡ʒ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Дз дз <br/> [d͡z]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Е е <br/> [e]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ё ё <br/> [jo]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ж ж <br/> [ʐ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Жв жв <br/> [ʑ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Жь жь <br/> [ʒ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | И и <br/> [i]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Й й <br/> [j]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | К к <br/> [kʰ]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Кв кв <br/> [kʷʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Къ къ <br/> [qʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Къв къв <br/> [qʷʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Къь къь <br/> [qʼʲ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Кь кь <br/> [kʲʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | КӀ кӀ <br/> [kʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | КӀв кӀв <br/> [kʷʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | КӀь кӀь <br/> [kʲʼ]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Л л <br/> [l]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ль ль <br/> [ɮ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ЛӀ лӀ <br/> [ɬʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | М м <br/> [m]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Н н <br/> [n]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | О о <br/> [o]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | П п <br/> [pʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ПӀ пӀ <br/> [pʼ]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Р р <br/> [r]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | С с <br/> [s]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Т т <br/> [tʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Тл тл <br/> [ɬ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Тш тш <br/> [͡tʂʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ТӀ тӀ <br/> [tʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | У у <br/> [u/w]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ф ф <br/> [f]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ФӀ фӀ <br/> [fʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Х х <br/> [x]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Хв хв <br/> [xʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Хъ хъ <br/> [qʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Хъв хъв <br/> [qʷʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Хь хь <br/> [xʲ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ХӀ хӀ <br/> [ħ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ХӀв хӀв <br/> [ħʷ]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ц ц <br/> [t͡s]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ЦӀ цӀ <br/> [t͡sʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ч ч <br/> [t͡ʃʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Чв чв <br/> [t͡ɕʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ЧӀ чӀ <br/> [t͡ʃʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ЧӀв чӀв <br/> [t͡ɕʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ш ш <br/> [ʂ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Шв шв <br/> [ɕ]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | ШӀ шӀ <br/> [͡tʂʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Щ щ <br/> [ʃ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ъ ъ <br/> [ʔ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Хь <br/> [qʲʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ю ю <br/> [ju]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Я я <br/> [ja]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
{{refbegin}}<br />
* Генко А. Н. Абазинский язык. Грамматический очерк наречия Тапанта. Москва-Лениград: АН СССР, 1955. {{ru icon}}<br />
* [[Ломтатидзе, Кетеван Виссарионовна|Ломтатидзе К. В.]] Тапантский диалект абхазского языка (с текстами). Тбилиси: Издательство Академии Наук Грузинской ССР, 1944. {{ru icon}}<br />
* Ломтатидзе К. В. Ашхарский диалект и его место среди других абхазско-абазинских диалектов. С текстами. Тбилиси: Издательство Академии Наук Грузинской ССР, 1954. {{ru icon}}<br />
* [[Мальбахова-Табулова, Нурья Татлустановна|Мальбахова-Табулова Н. Т.]] Грамматика абазинского языка. Фонетика и морфология. Черкесск, 1976. {{ru icon}}<br />
* Чирикба В. А. Абазинский язык. В: Языки Российской Федерации и Соседних Государств. Энциклопедия. В трех томах. Т. 1. A-И. Москва: Наука, 1998, с. 1-8. {{ru icon}}<br />
* Allen, W.S. Structure and system in the Abaza verbal complex. In: Transactions of the Philological Society (Hertford), Oxford, 1956, p.&nbsp;127-176.<br />
* Bouda K. Das Abasinische, eine unbekannte abchasische Mundart. In: ZDMG, BD. 94, H. 2 (Neue Folge, Bd. 19), Berlin-Leipzig, 1940, S. 234—250. {{de icon}}<br />
* O’Herin, B. Case and agreement in Abaza. Summer Institute of Linguistics, September 2002.<br />
{{refend}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{Incubator|code = abq}}<br />
*[http://www.eki.ee/knab/lat/kblabq.pdf Entry for Abaza at EKI's KNAB]<br />
*[http://www.omniglot.com/writing/abaza.htm Entry for Abaza at Omniglot]<br />
* [http://www.ethnic-cinema-country.ru/kalligrafia/ Ancient Adyghe Abkhaz–Abaza Ubykh alphabet]<br />
* [http://www.abazinka.ru/ The first in the world Abaza–Russian and Russian–Abaza online dictionaries]<br />
*[http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\ncc\wcc&limit=-1 Abaza basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database]<br />
<br />
<br><br />
{{Northwest Caucasian languages}}<br />
{{Languages of Russia}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abaza Language}}<br />
<!--Categories--><br />
[[Category:Agglutinative languages]]<br />
[[Category:Northwest Caucasian languages]]<br />
[[Category:Languages of Russia]]<br />
[[Category:Languages of Turkey]]<br />
[[Category:Karachay-Cherkessia]]<br />
[[Category:Abazins]]<br />
[[Category:Endangered Caucasian languages]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Burka_(Caucasus)&diff=662933366Burka (Caucasus)2015-05-18T13:28:16Z<p>Dkc: Names of burka in Caucasian languages</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Two other uses||the Muslim woman's garment|Burqa|other uses|Burka (disambiguation)}}<br />
{{Unreferenced|date=December 2009}}<br />
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image: Burka.jpg|thumb|right|300px|[[felt|Felt]] burka coat]] --><br />
[[File:Nabadi & Papakhi (ArtGene 2008).JPG|thumb|Georgian burka (''nabadi'') and [[papakhi]] displayed at a folk festival in 2008]]<br />
A '''burka''' ({{lang-ka|ნაბადი}} ''{{transl|ka|ALA-LC|nabadi}}'', [[Svan language|Svan]]: ღა̈რთ ''{{transl|sva|ALA-LC|ghärt}}'', {{lang-ab|ауапа}} ''{{transl|ab|ALA-LC|awápa}}'', {{lang-ady|кӏакӏо}} ''{{transl|ady|ALA-LC|chakwe}}'', {{lang-kbd|щӏакӏуэ}} ''{{transl|kbd|ALA-LC|shakwe}}'', {{lang-os|нымӕг}} ''{{transl|os|ALA-LC|nymæg}}'', {{lang-inh|ферта}} ''{{transl|inh|ALA-LC|ferta}}'', {{lang-ce|верта}} ''{{transl|ce|ALA-LC|verta}}'', {{lang-av|буртина}} ''{{transl|av|ALA-LC|burtína}}'') is a dress made from [[felt]] or ''karakul'' (the short curly fur of young lambs of the [[Karakul (sheep)|breed of that name]]). See article "[[Burqa]]" for the etymology of the word.<br />
<br />
''Karakul'' being quite expensive, ''burkas'' were usually sewn from felt treated to look like ''karakul''. ''Burkas'' are sewn with high, squared off shoulders, and wearers will have a distinctive high-shouldered silhouette.{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}<br />
<br />
''Burkas'' were part of the customary male garb of various peoples inhabiting the [[Caucasus]] region. ''Burkas'' were adopted by [[Russian cavalry]], and worn as part of the [[Russian military uniform]] from the middle of the 18th century until the 1850s, during the [[Caucasus War]]. <br />
[[Vasily Chapayev]] wore a ''burka'' as a part of his [[military uniform]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2007}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*[http://sch57.irkutsk.ru/docs/ermak/chapaev_800.jpg Image]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Uniforms]]<br />
[[Category:Russian clothing]]<br />
[[Category:Cossacks]]<br />
[[Category:Coats (clothing)]]<br />
[[Category:History of clothing (Europe)]]<br />
[[Category:History of clothing (Western fashion)]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artur_Mikvabia&diff=653328613Artur Mikvabia2015-03-24T16:52:13Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Officeholder<br />
|name = Artur Mikvabia<br />
|office = Prime Minister of Abkhazia<br />
|order = 12th<br />
|president = [[Raul Khajimba]]<br />
|term_start = 20 March 2015<br />
|term_end = <br />
|predecessor = ''[[Shamil Adzynba]]''<br />
|successor = <br />
|office1 = 1st Chairman of [[United Abkhazia]]<br />
|term_start1 = 25 March 2004<br />
|term_end1 = 27 January 2009<br />
|predecessor1 = <br />
|successor1 = [[Daur Tarba]]<br />
|birth_date = <br />
|birth_place = <br />
|death_date = <br />
|death_place = <br />
|party = <br />
}}<br />
'''Artur Mikvabia''' ({{lang-ab|Артур Артиом-иԥа Амқәаб}}) is an economist and politician from [[Abkhazia]]. He is currently [[Prime Minister of Abkhazia|Prime Minister]] in the [[Government of President Khajimba]].<br />
<br />
==Chairman of United Abkhazia (2004–2009)==<br />
Artur Mikvabia became Chairman of [[United Abkhazia]] when it was founded as socio-political movement on 25 March 2004. On 25 July 2007, he announced that he would resign his post and retire from politics, but members stated that they would not accept this, and Mikvabia remained chairman.<ref name="resignation">[http://www.abkhaziagov.org/ru/president/press/news/detail.php?ID=7299 Политсовет Единой Абхазии с пониманием отнесся к моему решению завершить политическую карьеру&nbsp;– Артур Миквабия.] Retrieved on August 7, 2007. {{ru icon}}</ref> On 27 January 2009 United Abkhazia was transformed into a political party and [[Daur Tarba]] became the new chairman.<ref name=apsnypress090127>{{cite web<br />
|url = http://www.apsnypress.info/news2009/January/27.htm<br />
|title = ОБЩЕСТВЕННО-ПОЛИТИЧЕСКОЕ ДВИЖЕНИЕ 'ЕДИНАЯ АБХАЗИЯ' ПРЕОБРАЗОВАНО В РЕСПУБЛИКАНСКУЮ ПОЛИТИЧЕСКУЮ ПАРТИЮ<br />
|publisher = [[Apsnypress]]<br />
|date = 27 January 2009<br />
|accessdate = 29 January 2009<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Prime Minister (since 2015)==<br />
<br />
Adzynba was appointed Prime Minister by Khajimba on 20 March 2015.<ref name=apress_artur>{{cite news|title=Артур Миквабия назначен премьер-министром Абхазии|url=http://apsnypress.info/news/artur-mikvabiya-naznachen-premer-ministrom-abkhazii/|accessdate=21 March 2015|agency=[[Apsnypress]]|date=20 March 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-off}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Shamil Adzynba]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prime Minister of Abkhazia]]|years=2015–present}}<br />
{{s-inc}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
<br />
{{Prime Ministers of Abkhazia}}<br />
<br />
{{Persondata<br />
| NAME = Mikvabia, Artur<br />
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =<br />
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Abkhazian politician<br />
| DATE OF BIRTH = <br />
| PLACE OF BIRTH =<br />
| DATE OF DEATH =<br />
| PLACE OF DEATH =<br />
}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mikvabia, Artur}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Abkhazia]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Abkhazia-bio-stub}}</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Artur_Mikvabia&diff=653328557Artur Mikvabia2015-03-24T16:51:54Z<p>Dkc: Name in Abkhaz</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Officeholder<br />
|name = Artur Mikvabia<br />
|office = Prime Minister of Abkhazia<br />
|order = 12th<br />
|president = [[Raul Khajimba]]<br />
|term_start = 20 March 2015<br />
|term_end = <br />
|predecessor = ''[[Shamil Adzynba]]''<br />
|successor = <br />
|office1 = 1st Chairman of [[United Abkhazia]]<br />
|term_start1 = 25 March 2004<br />
|term_end1 = 27 January 2009<br />
|predecessor1 = <br />
|successor1 = [[Daur Tarba]]<br />
|birth_date = <br />
|birth_place = <br />
|death_date = <br />
|death_place = <br />
|party = <br />
}}<br />
'''Artur Mikvabia''' ({{lang-ab|Артур Артиом-иԥа Амқәаб}} is an economist and politician from [[Abkhazia]]. He is currently [[Prime Minister of Abkhazia|Prime Minister]] in the [[Government of President Khajimba]].<br />
<br />
==Chairman of United Abkhazia (2004–2009)==<br />
Artur Mikvabia became Chairman of [[United Abkhazia]] when it was founded as socio-political movement on 25 March 2004. On 25 July 2007, he announced that he would resign his post and retire from politics, but members stated that they would not accept this, and Mikvabia remained chairman.<ref name="resignation">[http://www.abkhaziagov.org/ru/president/press/news/detail.php?ID=7299 Политсовет Единой Абхазии с пониманием отнесся к моему решению завершить политическую карьеру&nbsp;– Артур Миквабия.] Retrieved on August 7, 2007. {{ru icon}}</ref> On 27 January 2009 United Abkhazia was transformed into a political party and [[Daur Tarba]] became the new chairman.<ref name=apsnypress090127>{{cite web<br />
|url = http://www.apsnypress.info/news2009/January/27.htm<br />
|title = ОБЩЕСТВЕННО-ПОЛИТИЧЕСКОЕ ДВИЖЕНИЕ 'ЕДИНАЯ АБХАЗИЯ' ПРЕОБРАЗОВАНО В РЕСПУБЛИКАНСКУЮ ПОЛИТИЧЕСКУЮ ПАРТИЮ<br />
|publisher = [[Apsnypress]]<br />
|date = 27 January 2009<br />
|accessdate = 29 January 2009<br />
}}</ref><br />
<br />
==Prime Minister (since 2015)==<br />
<br />
Adzynba was appointed Prime Minister by Khajimba on 20 March 2015.<ref name=apress_artur>{{cite news|title=Артур Миквабия назначен премьер-министром Абхазии|url=http://apsnypress.info/news/artur-mikvabiya-naznachen-premer-ministrom-abkhazii/|accessdate=21 March 2015|agency=[[Apsnypress]]|date=20 March 2015}}</ref><br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
{{s-start}}<br />
{{s-off}}<br />
{{s-bef|before=[[Shamil Adzynba]]}}<br />
{{s-ttl|title=[[Prime Minister of Abkhazia]]|years=2015–present}}<br />
{{s-inc}}<br />
{{s-end}}<br />
<br />
{{Prime Ministers of Abkhazia}}<br />
<br />
{{Persondata<br />
| NAME = Mikvabia, Artur<br />
| ALTERNATIVE NAMES =<br />
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Abkhazian politician<br />
| DATE OF BIRTH = <br />
| PLACE OF BIRTH =<br />
| DATE OF DEATH =<br />
| PLACE OF DEATH =<br />
}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Mikvabia, Artur}}<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Prime Ministers of Abkhazia]]<br />
<br />
<br />
{{Abkhazia-bio-stub}}</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=642312321User:Dkc2015-01-13T14:30:16Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Babel|pl|en-4|fr-3|ru-3|sv-3|no-3|da-2|hu-1}}<br />
<br />
[[af:Gebruiker:Dkc]]<br />
[[ar:مستخدم:Dkc]]<br />
[[az:İstifadəçi:Dkc]]<br />
[[be:Удзельнік:Dkc]]<br />
[[bs:Korisnik:Dkc]]<br />
[[br:Implijer:Dkc]]<br />
[[bg:Потребител:Dkc]]<br />
[[ca:Usuari:Dkc]]<br />
[[cs:Wikipedista:Dkc]]<br />
[[cy:Defnyddiwr:Dkc]]<br />
[[da:Bruger:Dkc]]<br />
[[de:Benutzer:Dkc]]<br />
[[et:Kasutaja:Dkc]]<br />
[[el:Χρήστης:Dkc]]<br />
[[es:Usuario:Dkc]]<br />
[[fo:Brúkari:Dkc]]<br />
[[fr:Utilisateur:Dkc]]<br />
[[fy:Meidogger:Dkc]]<br />
[[ga:Úsáideoir:Dkc]]<br />
[[gd:User:Dkc]]<br />
[[gl:Usuario:Dkc]]<br />
[[hy:Մասնակից:Dkc]]<br />
[[hi:सदस्य:Dkc]]<br />
[[hsb:Wužiwar:Dkc]]<br />
[[hr:Suradnik:Dkc]]<br />
[[is:Notandi:Dkc]]<br />
[[it:Utente:Dkc]]<br />
[[he:משתמש:Dkc]]<br />
[[kl:User:Dkc]]<br />
[[ka:მომხმარებელი:Dkc]]<br />
[[csb:Brëkòwnik:Dkc]]<br />
[[lv:Lietotājs:Dkc]]<br />
[[lb:Benotzer:Dkc]]<br />
[[lt:Naudotojas:Dkc]]<br />
[[li:Gebroeker:Dkc]]<br />
[[hu:User:Dkc]]<br />
[[mk:Корисник:Dkc]]<br />
[[mt:User:Dkc]]<br />
[[nl:Gebruiker:Dkc]]<br />
[[ja:利用者:Dkc]]<br />
[[no:Bruker:Dkc]]<br />
[[nn:Brukar:Dkc]]<br />
[[oc:Utilizaire:Dkc]]<br />
[[pl:Wikipedysta:Dkc]]<br />
[[pt:Usuário:Dkc]]<br />
[[ro:Utilizator:Dkc]]<br />
[[ru:Участник:Dkc]]<br />
[[se:User:Dkc]]<br />
[[sk:Redaktor:Dkc]]<br />
[[sl:Uporabnik:Dkc]]<br />
[[sr:Корисник:Dkc]]<br />
[[fi:Käyttäjä:Dkcagara]]<br />
[[sv:Användare:Dkc]]<br />
[[tr:Kullanıcı:Dkc]]<br />
[[uk:Користувач:Dkc]]<br />
[[zh:User:Dkc]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Abkhaz_language&diff=642312151Abkhaz language2015-01-13T14:28:29Z<p>Dkc: Changed the obsolete letter Ҧ to Ԥ</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox language<br />
|name=Abkhaz<br />
|nativename={{lang|abk|Аԥсуа бызшәа}}; {{lang|abk|аԥсшәа}}<br />
|states=[[Abkhazia]] and Abkhaz diaspora<br />
|speakers={{sigfig|113,000|2}}<br />
|date=1993<br />
|ref=e17<br />
|familycolor=Caucasian<br />
|fam1=[[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian]]<br />
|fam2=[[Abazgi languages|Abazgi]]<br />
|dia1=Abzhywa<br />
|dia2=[[Bzyb dialect|Bzyb]]<br />
|dia3=Sadz<br />
|nation=Republic of Abkhazia;{{efn|name=Abkhazia-note|{{Abkhazia-note}}}} Autonomous Republic of Abkhazia, Georgia<br />
|script=[[Cyrillic script|Cyrillic]] ([[Abkhaz alphabet]])<br />
|iso1=ab<br />
|iso2=abk<br />
|iso3=abk<br />
|glotto=abkh1244<br />
|glottorefname=Abkhazian<br />
|map=Idioma abjasio.png<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Abkhaz''' {{IPAc-en|æ|p|ˈ|h|ɑː|z}}<ref>Laurie Bauer, 2007, ''The Linguistics Student’s Handbook'', Edinburgh</ref> (sometimes spelled '''Abxaz'''; {{lang|ab|Аԥсуа бызшәа}}) is a [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian language]] spoken mostly by the [[Abkhaz people]]. It is the official language of [[Abkhazia]]{{efn|name=Abkhazia-note}} where around 100,000 people speak it.<ref name="e17" /> Furthermore, it is spoken by thousands of members of the Abkhazian diaspora in [[Turkey]], [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]'s autonomous republic of [[Adjara]], [[Syria]], [[Jordan]] and several Western countries. The Russian census of 2010 reported 6,786 speakers of Abkhaz in [[Russia]].<ref name=RC2010>Row 7 in {{cite web |script-title=ru:Приложение 6: Население Российской Федерации по владению языками |trans_title=Appendix 6: Population of the Russian Federation by languages used |url=http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/population/demo/per-itog/tab6.xls |language=Russian |format=XLS }}</ref><br />
<br />
==Classification==<br />
Abkhaz is a [[Northwest Caucasian languages|Northwest Caucasian language]], and is therefore related to [[Adyghe language|Adyghe]]. It is especially close to [[Abaza language|Abaza]], and these are sometimes considered dialects of the same language, [[Abazgi]], of which the literary dialects of Abkhaz and Abaza are simply two ends of a [[dialect continuum]]. Grammatically, the two are very similar; however, the differences in phonology are substantial, and are the main reason why many other linguists prefer to keep the two separate. Most linguists (see for instance Chirikba 2003) believe that [[Ubykh language|Ubykh]] is the closest relative of the Abkhaz–Abaza dialect continuum.<br />
<br />
==Geographical distribution==<br />
Abkhaz is spoken primarily in [[Abkhazia]]. Abkhaz is also spoken by members of the large Abkhaz [[Muhajir (Caucasus)|Muhajir diaspora]], mainly located in [[Turkey]] with smaller groups living in [[Syria]], [[Iraq]] and [[Jordan]]; Georgia's autonomous republic of [[Adjara]]; throughout the former [[USSR]] (e.g. [[Armenia]] and the [[Ukraine]]) and through more recent emigration in Western countries such as [[Germany]], the [[Netherlands]] and the [[United States]]. However, the exact number of Abkhaz speakers in these countries remains unknown due to a lack of official records.<br />
<br />
==Dialects==<br />
Abkhaz is generally viewed as having three major dialects:<br />
* '''Abzhywa''', spoken in the Caucasus, and named after the historical area of [[Abzhywa]] (Абжьыуа), sometimes referred to as '''Abzhui''', the [[Russian language|Russified]] form of the name (''"Abzhuiski dialekt"'', derived from the Russian form of the name for the area, '''Абжуа''').<br />
* '''[[Bzyb dialect|Bzyb]]''' or Bzyp, spoken in the Caucasus and in Turkey, and named after the [[Bzyb (region)|Bzyb]] (Abkhaz '''Бзыԥ''') area.<br />
* '''Sadz''', nowadays spoken only in Turkey, formerly also spoken between the rivers Bzyp and Khosta.<br />
The literary Abkhaz language is based on the Abzhywa dialect.<br />
<br />
==Phonology==<br />
{{main|Abkhaz phonology}}<br />
<br />
Abkhaz has a very large number of consonants (58 in the literary dialect), with three-way [[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]/[[voicelessness|voiceless]]/[[ejective consonant|ejective]] and [[palatalization|palatalized]]/[[labialization|labialized]]/plain distinctions. By contrast, the language has only two phonemically distinct vowels—which, however, have several [[allophone]]s depending on the palatal and/or [[labial consonant|labial]] quality of adjacent consonants.<br />
<br />
Phonemes in <span style="color:#008000;">green</span> are found in the Bzyp and Sadz dialects of Abkhaz, but not in Abzhywa; phonemes in <span style="color:blue;">blue</span> are unique to the Bzyp dialect.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 colspan=2 |<br />
! rowspan=2 | [[labial consonant|Labial]]<br />
! colspan=2 | [[alveolar consonant|Alveolar]]<br />
! colspan=2 | [[postalveolar consonant|Post-<br>alveolar]]<br />
! colspan=2 | [[alveolo-palatal consonant|Alveolo-<br>palatal]]<br />
! rowspan=2 | [[retroflex consonant|Retro-<br>flex]]<br />
! colspan=3 | [[velar consonant|Velar]]<br />
! colspan=5 | [[uvular consonant|Uvular]]<br />
! colspan=2 | [[pharyngeal consonant|Pharyngeal]]<br />
|- class=small<br />
! plain<br />
! [[Labialization|labial.]]<br />
! plain<br />
! [[Labialization|labial.]]<br />
! plain<br />
! [[Labialization|labial.]]<br />
! [[Palatalization|palatal.]]<br />
! plain<br />
! [[Labialization|labial.]]<br />
! [[Palatalization|palatal.]]<br />
! plain<br />
! [[labialization|labial.]]<br />
! [[Pharyngealization|phar.]]<br />
! lab. + phar.<br />
! plain<br />
! [[Labialization|labial.]]<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | [[Nasal consonant|Nasal]]<br />
| {{IPA|m}}<br />
| {{IPA|n}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[Stop consonant|Stop]]<br />
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small><br />
| {{IPA|p}}<br />
| {{IPA|t}}<br />
| {{IPA|tʷ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|kʲ}}<br />
| {{IPA|k}}<br />
| {{IPA|kʷ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| {{IPA|b}}<br />
| {{IPA|d}}<br />
| {{IPA|dʷ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ɡʲ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɡ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɡʷ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! <small>[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small><br />
| {{IPA|pʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|tʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|tʷʼ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|kʲʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|kʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|kʷʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|qʲʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|qʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|qʷʼ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=3 | [[affricate consonant|Affricate]]<br />
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small><br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|t͡s}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|t͡ʃ}}<br />
|<br />
| <span style="color:blue;">{{IPA|t͡ɕ}}</span><br />
| {{IPA|t͡ɕʷ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʈ͡ʂ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|d͡z}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|d͡ʒ}}<br />
|<br />
| <span style="color:blue;">{{IPA|d͡ʑ}}</span><br />
| {{IPA|d͡ʑʷ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɖ͡ʐ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! <small>[[ejective consonant|ejective]]</small><br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|t͡sʼ}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|t͡ʃʼ}}<br />
|<br />
| <span style="color:blue;">{{IPA|t͡ɕʼ}}</span><br />
| {{IPA|t͡ɕʷʼ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʈ͡ʂʼ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! rowspan=2 | [[fricative consonant|Fricative]]<br />
! <small>[[voicelessness|voiceless]]</small><br />
| {{IPA|f}}<br />
| {{IPA|s}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ʃ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʃʷ}}<br />
| <span style="color:blue;">{{IPA|ɕ}}</span><br />
| <span style="color:#008000;">{{IPA|ɕʷ}}</span><br />
| {{IPA|ʂ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|χʲ}}<br />
| {{IPA|χ}}<br />
| {{IPA|χʷ}}<br />
| <span style="color:blue;">{{IPA|χˤ}}</span><br />
| <span style="color:blue;">{{IPA|χˤʷ}}</span><br />
| {{IPA|ħ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ħʷ}}<br />
|-<br />
! <small>[[voice (phonetics)|voiced]]</small><br />
| {{IPA|v}}<br />
| {{IPA|z}}<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ʒ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʒʷ}}<br />
| <span style="color:blue;">{{IPA|ʑ}}</span><br />
| <span style="color:#008000;">{{IPA|ʑʷ}}</span><br />
| {{IPA|ʐ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|ʁʲ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʁ}}<br />
| {{IPA|ʁʷ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | [[approximant consonant|Approximant]]<br />
|<br />
|{{IPA|l}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|j}}<br />
| {{IPA|ɥ}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|w}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|-<br />
! colspan=2 | [[trill consonant|Trill]]<br />
|<br />
| {{IPA|r}}<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Typology==<br />
Abkhaz is typologically classified as an [[agglutinative]] language. Like all other Northwest Caucasian languages, Abkhaz has an extremely complex ([[polysynthetic]]) verbal system coupled with a very simple noun system; Abkhaz distinguishes just two cases, the [[nominative case|nominative]] and the [[adverbial case|adverbial]].<br />
<br />
==Writing system==<br />
{{Main|Abkhaz alphabet}}<br />
<br />
Abkhaz has had its own adaptation of the [[Cyrillic script]] since 1862. The first alphabet was a 37-character [[Cyrillic]] alphabet invented by Baron [[Peter von Uslar]]. In 1909 a 55-letter Cyrillic alphabet was used. A 75-letter Latin script devised by a Russian/Georgian linguist [[Nikolai Marr]] that lasted from 1926 to 1928. The [[Georgian alphabet|Georgian script]] was imposed in 1938, but after the death of Stalin, an Abkhaz desire to remain separate from Georgians led to the reintroduction of the current Cyrillic alphabet in 1954 designed in 1892 by [[Dimitri Gulya]] together with [[Konstantin Machavariani]] and modified in 1909 by [[Aleksey Chochua]].<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable IPA"<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | А а <br /> [a]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Б б <br /> [b]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | В в <br /> [v]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Г г <br /> [ɡ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Гь гь <br /> [ɡʲ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Гә гә <br /> [ɡʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҕ ҕ <br /> [ʁ/ɣ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҕь ҕь <br /> [ʁʲ/ɣʲ]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҕә ҕә <br /> [ʁʷ/ɣʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Д д <br /> [d]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Дә дә <br /> [dʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Е е <br /> [ɛ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ж ж <br /> [ʐ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Жь жь <br /> [ʒ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Жә жә <br /> [ʒʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | З з <br /> [z]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ӡ ӡ <br /> [d͡z]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ӡә ӡә <br /> [d͡ʑʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | И и <br /> [j/jɨ/ɨj/i]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | К к <br /> [kʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Кь кь <br /> [kʼʲ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Кә кә <br /> [kʼʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Қ қ <br /> [kʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Қь қь <br /> [kʲʰ]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Қә қә <br /> [kʷʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҟ ҟ <br /> [qʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҟь ҟь <br /> [qʼʲ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҟә ҟә <br /> [qʼʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Л л <br /> [l]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | М м <br /> [m]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Н н <br /> [n]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | О о <br /> [ɔ]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | П п <br /> [pʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ԥ ԥ <br /> [pʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Р р <br /> [r]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | С с <br /> [s]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Т т <br /> [tʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Тә тә <br /> [tʼʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҭ ҭ <br /> [tʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҭә ҭә <br /> [tʷʰ]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | У у <br /> [w/wɨ/ɨw/u]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ф ф <br /> [f]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Х х <br /> [x/χ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Хь хь <br /> [xʲ/χʲ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Хә хә <br /> [xʷ/χʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҳ ҳ <br /> [ħ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҳә ҳә <br /> [ħʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ц ц <br /> [t͡s]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Цә цә <br /> [t͡ɕʷʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҵ ҵ <br /> [t͡sʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҵә ҵә <br /> [t͡ɕʼʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ч ч <br /> [t͡ʃʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҷ ҷ <br /> [t͡ʃʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҽ ҽ <br /> [t͡ʂʰ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҿ ҿ <br /> [t͡ʂʼ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ш ш <br /> [ʂʃ]<br />
|-<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Шь шь <br /> [ʃ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Шә шә <br /> [ʃʷ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ы ы <br /> [ɨ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ҩ ҩ <br /> [ɥ/ɥˤ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Џ џ <br /> [d͡ʐ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Џь џь <br /> [d͡ʒ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ь ь <br /> [ʲ]<br />
| style="width:5em; text-align:center; padding: 3px;" | Ә ә <br /> [ʷ]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
The earliest extant written records of the Abkhaz language are in the [[Arabic script]], recorded by the Turkish traveller [[Evliya Çelebi]] in the 17th century. Abkhaz has only been used as a literary language for about 100 years.<br />
<br />
==Status==<br />
Both Georgian and Abkhaz law enshrines an official status of the Abkhaz language in Abkhazia.<br />
<br />
The 1992 law of Georgia, reiterated in the 1995 Constitution, grants Abkhaz the status of second official language in the territory of Abkhazia, along with [[Georgian language|Georgian]].<br />
<br />
In November 2007, the de facto authorities of Abkhazia adopted a new law "on the state language of the Republic of Abkhazia" that mandates Abkhaz as the language of official communication. According to the law, all meetings held by the president, parliament, and government must be conducted in Abkhaz (instead of Russian, which is currently a de facto administrative language) from 2010 and all state officials will be obliged to use Abkhaz as their language of every-day business from 2015. Some, however, have considered the implementation of this law unrealistic and concerns have been made that it will drive people away from Abkhazia and hurt the independent press due to a significant share of non-Abkhaz speakers among ethnic minorities as well as Abkhaz themselves, and a shortage of teachers of Abkhaz. The law is an attempt to amend a situation where up to a third of the ethnic Abkhaz population are no longer capable of speaking their ethnic language, and even more are unable to read or write it; instead, Russian is the language most commonly used in public life at present.<ref>Anahid Gogorian (December 20, 2007), [http://iwpr.net/?p=crs&s=f&o=341580&apc_state=henpcrs Abkhaz Worried by Language Law.] [[Institute for War and Peace Reporting]] Caucasus Reporting Service No. 424.</ref><br />
<br />
==Sample text==<br />
{{lang|abk|Дарбанзаалак ауаҩы дшоуп ихы дақәиҭны. Ауаа зегь зинлеи патулеи еиҟароуп. Урҭ ирымоуп ахшыҩи аламыси, дара дарагь аешьеи аешьеи реиԥш еизыҟазароуп.}}<ref>http://unicode.org/udhr/d/udhr_abk.pdf</ref><br />
<br />
'''Transliteration'''<br />
<br />
:''Darbanzaalak auaɥy dshoup ihy daqwithny. Auaa zegj zinlei patulei eiqaroup. Urth irymoup ahshyɥi alamysi, dara daragj aesjei aesjei reiphsh eizyqazaroup.''<br />
<br />
'''Translation'''<br />
<br />
:All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights. They are endowed with reason and conscience and should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
{{notelist}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
==Bibliography==<br />
* Chirikba, V. A. (1996) 'A Dictionary of Common Abkhaz'. Leiden.<br />
* Chirikba, V. A. (2003) 'Abkhaz'. – Languages of the World/Materials 119. Muenchen: Lincom Europa.<br />
* Hewitt, B. George (2010) 'Abkhaz: A Comprehensive Self Tutor' Muenchen, Lincom Europa ISBN 978-3-89586-670-8<br />
* Hewitt, B. George (1979) 'Abkhaz: A descriptive Grammar'. Amsterdam: North Holland.<br />
* Hewitt, B. George (1989) Abkhaz. In John Greppin (ed.), ''The Indigenous Languages of the Caucasus'' Vol. 2. Caravan Books, New York. 39-88.<br />
* Vaux, Bert and Zihni Psiypa (1997) The Cwyzhy Dialect of Abkhaz. Harvard Working Papers in Linguistics 6, Susumu Kuno, Bert Vaux, and Steve Peter, eds. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Linguistics Department.<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{InterWiki|code=ab}}<br />
* [http://www.abyzshwa.narod.ru/ Introduction, basic phrases and grammar and texts]<br />
* [http://www.omniglot.com/writing/abkhaz.htm Abkhaz alphabet and pronunciation (Omniglot)]<br />
* [http://languageserver.uni-graz.at/ls/lang?id=3043 Abkhaz entry in LanguageServer (University of Graz)]<br />
* [http://www.language-museum.com/a/abkhaz.php Abkhaz at Language Museum]<br />
* [http://www.kapba.de/A-Abtsara.html Example of Abkhaz language]<br />
* {{UDHR|abk|Abkhaz}}<br />
* [http://abc.marlamuter.ru/index.php/list/abhaz/1.xhtml Abkhaz-Russian On-Line Dictionary]<br />
* [http://www.ethnic-cinema-country.ru/kalligrafia/ Ancient Adyghe Abkhaz–Abaza Ubykh alphabet]<br />
* [http://starling.rinet.ru/cgi-bin/response.cgi?root=new100&morpho=0&basename=new100\ncc\wcc&first=0 Abkhaz basic lexicon at the Global Lexicostatistical Database]<br />
* [http://baltoslav.eu/apsua/index.php?mova=en Abkhaz text corpus]<br />
<br />
{{Northwest Caucasian languages}}<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Abkhaz Language}}<br />
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[[Category:Abkhaz language| ]]<br />
[[Category:Subject–object–verb languages]]<br />
[[Category:Languages of Abkhazia]]<br />
[[Category:Languages of Georgia (country)]]<br />
[[Category:Languages of Russia]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Grotowski&diff=613333878Jerzy Grotowski2014-06-17T20:47:13Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] --><br />
| name = Jerzy Grotowski<br />
| image = Jerzy Grotowski.jpg<br />
| imagesize = 200px<br />
| caption = Grotowski c.1972<br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1933|08|11}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Rzeszów]], [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]]<br />
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1999|01|14|1933|08|11}}<br />
| death_place = [[Pontedera]], [[Tuscany]], [[Italy]]<br />
| occupation = [[Theatre director]]<br />
| years_active =<br />
| alma_mater = [[Russian Academy of Theatre Arts]]<br />
| influenced = [[Andrzej Wajda]], [[Hedwig Gorski]]<br />
| dramadeskawards = '''[[Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director|Outstanding Director]]'''<br>1970 ''[[The Apocalypse]]''<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Jerzy Grotowski''' (/'jɛʐɨ grɔ'tɔfskʲi/; 11 August 1933 – 14 January 1999) was a Polish [[theatre director]] and innovator of [[experimental theatre]], the "theatre laboratory" and "poor theatre" concepts. <br />
<br />
Grotowski was born in [[Rzeszów]], [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]] on 11 August 1933 and died in [[Pontedera]], [[Tuscany]], [[Italy]] on 14 January 1999, aged 65.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/15/arts/jerzy-grotowski-director-is-dead-at-65.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm The New York Times]</ref><br />
<br />
==Biography==<br />
Jerzy Grotowski was born August 11 1933 in the city of Rzeszów, Poland. When the war came in 1939, the strong familial bond that the family shared was severed. His father entered the war and did not return, and his mother, brother and himself moved to the small village of Nienadówka. It was in Nienadówka that the young Grotowski had several essential experiences that would shape him and his work in the future. His mother of also of great influence with her strong opinions on unity and community.<br />
===Career===<br />
==== Theatre of Productions ====<br />
Grotowski made his directorial debut in 1958 with the production 'Gods of Rain' which introduced Grotowski's bold approach to text, which he continued to develop throughout his career, influencing many subsequent theatre artists. Later in 1958 Grotowski moved to [[Opole]] where he was invited by the theatre critic and dramaturg Ludwik Flaszen to serve as Director of the Theatre of 13 Rows. There he began to assemble a company of actors and artistic collaborators which would help him realize his unique vision. It was also there that he began to experiment with approaches to performance training which enabled him to shape the young actors - initially allocated to his provincial theatre - into the transformational artists they eventually became. <br />
<br />
Among the many productions for which his theatre company became famous were "Orpheus" by [[Jean Cocteau]], "[[Shakuntala]]" based on text by [[Kalidasa]], "[[Dziady (poem)|Dziady (Forefathers' Eve)]]" by [[Adam Mickiewicz]] and "Akropolis" by [[Stanisław Wyspiański]]. This last production was the first complete realization of Grotowski's notion of 'poor theatre.' In it the company of actors (representing concentration camp prisoners) build the structure of a crematorium around the audience while acting out stories from the Bible and Greek mythology. This conceptualization had particular resonance for the audiences in Opole, as the [[Auschwitz]] concentration camp was only sixty miles away. "Akropolis" received much attention, and could be said to have launched Grotowski's career internationally due to inventive and aggressive promotion by visiting foreign scholars and theatre professionals. A film of the production was made with an introduction by [[Peter Brook]], which constitutes one of the most accessible and concrete records of Grotowski's work.<br />
<br />
In 1964 Grotowski followed success with success when his theatre premiered "The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus" based on [[Doctor Faustus (play)|the Elizabethan drama]] by [[Christopher Marlowe]], featuring Zbigniew Cynkutis in the title role. Foregoing the use of props altogether, Grotowski let the actors' bodies represent different objects, establishing an intimate dynamic of relation between actors and spectators by seating audience members as the guests at Faust's last supper, with the action unfolding on and around the table where they were seated.<br />
<br />
In 1965 Grotowski moved his company to [[Wrocław]] relabeling them a "Teatr Laboratorium", in part to avoid the heavy censorship to which professional 'theatres' were subject in Poland at that time. Work had already begun on one of their most famous productions, ''The Constant Prince'' (based on [[Julius Slowacki]]'s translation of [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca|Calderón]]'s play). Debuting in 1967, this production is thought by many to be one of the greatest theatrical works of the 20th century. [[Ryszard Cieslak]]'s performance in the title role is considered the apogee of Grotowski's approach to acting. In one of his final essays, Grotowski detailed how he worked individually with Cieslak for more than a year to develop the details of the actor's physical score before combining this central element of the performance with the work of other actors and the context of torture and martyrdom intrinsic to the play. His international influence spawned exciting companies still working in [[Wrocław]] with devotees like performance poet [[Hedwig Gorski]] in the audience, there as a Fulbright scholar.<ref>https://sites.google.com/site/hedwiggorskifulbright/</ref><br />
<br />
The last professional production from Grotowski as a director was in 1969. Entitled "Apocalypsis Cum Figuris" it is widely admired. Again using text from the Bible, this time combined with contemporary writings from authors such as T.S. Eliot and Simone Weil, this production was cited by members of the company as an example of a group 'total act'. The development of ''Apocalypsis'' took more than three years, beginning as a staging of [[Juliusz Słowacki|Słowacki]]'s ''Samuel Zborowski'' and passing through a separate stage of development as a staging of the Gospels, ''Ewangelie'' (elaborated as a completed performance though never presented to audiences) before arriving to its final form. Throughout this process, Grotowski can already be seen abandoning the conventions of traditional theatre, straining at the boundaries of what he later termed Art as presentation.<br />
<br />
Grotowski revolutionized theatre, and, along with his first apprentice [[Eugenio Barba]], leader and founder of [[Odin Teatret]], is considered a father of [[Experimental theatre|contemporary experimental theatre]]. [[Eugenio Barba|Barba]] was instrumental in revealing Grotowski to the world outside the iron curtain. He was the editor of the seminal book, ''Towards a Poor Theatre'' (1968) which Grotowski wrote together with [[Ludwik Flaszen]], in which it is declared that theatre should not, because it could not, compete against the overwhelming spectacle of [[film]] and should instead focus on the very root of the act of theatre: actors co-creating the event of theatre with its spectators.<br />
<br />
<blockquote>Theatre - through the actor's technique, his art in which the living organism strives for higher motives - provides an opportunity for what could be called integration, the discarding of masks, the revealing of the real substance: a totality of physical and mental reactions. This opportunity must be treated in a disciplined manner, with a full awareness of the responsibilities it involves. Here we can see the theatre's therapeutic function for people in our present day civilization. It is true that the actor accomplishes this act, but he can only do so through an [[Encounter (Psychology)|encounter]] with the spectator - intimately, visibly, not hiding behind a cameraman, wardrobe mistress, stage designer or make-up girl - in direct confrontation with him, and somehow " instead of" him. The actor's act - discarding half measures, revealing, opening up, emerging from himself as opposed to closing up - is an invitation to the spectator. This act could be compared to an act of the most deeply rooted, genuine love between two human beings - this is just a comparison since we can only refer to this "emergence from oneself" through analogy. This act, paradoxical and borderline, we call a total act. In our opinion it epitomizes the actor's deepest calling.<ref>{{cite web | author=Jerzy Grotowski | title=Source Material on Jerzy Grotowski's ''Statement of Principles'' | url=http://owendaly.com/jeff/grotows2.htm | publisher=Owen Daly | date=19 June 2004<!-- 15:08:39 -->| accessdate=2008-09-18}}</ref></blockquote><br />
<br />
==== Debut in the west ====<br />
The year 1968 marked Grotowski's debut in the West. His company performed the [[Stanisław Wyspiański]] play ''Akropolis/Acropolis'' (1964) at the [[Edinburgh Festival]]. This was a fitting vehicle for Grotowski and his Poor Theatre because his treatment of the play in Poland had already achieved wider recognition, and was published in ''Pamiętnik Teatralny'' (Warsaw, 1964), ''Alla Ricerca del Teatro Perduto'' (Padova, 1965), and ''Tulane Drama Review'' (New Orleans, 1965). It marked the first time many in Britain had been exposed to "Poor Theatre". The same year his book titled ''Towards A Poor Theatre'' appeared in Danish, published by Odin Teatrets Forlag. It appeared in English the following year, published by Methuen and Co. Ltd., with an Introduction by [[Peter Brook]], then Director of the Royal Shakespeare Company. In it he writes feelingly about Grotowski's private consulting for the Company; he/they felt Grotowski's work was unique but equally understood that its value was diminished if talked about too much, if faith were broken with the consultant.<br />
<br />
Grotowski's company made its debut in the United States under the auspices of the [[Brooklyn Academy of Music]] in the fall of 1969. BAM built a theatre for Grotowski's company in the Washington Square Methodist Church in [[Greenwich Village]]. Three productions were presented: Akropolis, The Constant Prince and Apocalypsis Cum Figuris during a three week run.<br />
<br />
==== Paratheatrical phase ====<br />
In 1973 Grotowski published ''Holiday'', <ref>Jerzy Grotowski, "Holiday: The Day That Is Holy," trans. Boleslaw Taborski, ''TDR: A Journal of Performance Studies'' 17, no. 2 (June 1973): 113-35.</ref> which outlined a new course of investigation. He would pursue this 'Paratheatrical' phase until 1978. This phase is known as the 'Paratheatrical' phase of his career because it was an attempt to transcend the separation between performer and spectator. Grotowski attempted this through the organization of communal rites and simple interactive exchanges that went on sometimes for extended periods, attempting to provoke in poor participants a deconditioning of impulse. The most widely circulated description of one of these post-theatrical events (a "beehive") is given by [[Andre Gregory]], Grotowski's longtime friend and the American director whose work he most strongly endorsed, in ''[[My Dinner With Andre]]''. Various collaborators who had been important to Grotowski's work in what he termed his "Theatre of Productions" phase had difficulty following him in these explorations beyond the boundary of conventional theatre. Other, younger members of the group came to the foreground, notably Jacek Zmysłowski, whom many would consider Grotowski's closest collaborator in this period. Theatre critics have often exoticized and mystified Grotowski's work on the basis of these paratheatrical experiments, suggesting that his work should be seen in the lineage of [[Antonin Artaud]],<ref>[[Gary]] Botting, ''The Theatre of Protest in America'' (Edmonton: Harden House, 1972) pp.5-6</ref> a suggestion Grotowski strongly resisted. Later in life, he clarified that he quickly found this direction of research limiting, having realized that unstructured work frequently elicits banalities and cultural cliché from participants.<br />
<br />
==== Theatre of Sources ====<br />
In this period of his work, Grotowski traveled intensively through India, Mexico, Haiti and elsewhere, seeking to identify elements of technique in the traditional practices of various cultures that could have a precise and discernible effect on participants. Key collaborators in this phase of work include [[Włodzimierz Staniewski]], subsequently founder of [[Gardzienice Theatre]], Jairo Cuesta and Magda Złotowska, who traveled with Grotowski on his international expeditions. His interest in ritual techniques linked to Haitian practice led Grotowski to a long-standing collaboration with Maud Robart and Jean-Claude Tiga of Saint Soleil. Always a master strategist, Grotowski made use of his international ties and the relative freedom of travel allowed him to pursue this program of cultural research in order to flee Poland following the imposition of martial law. He spent time in Haiti and in Rome, where he delivered a series of important lectures on the topic of theatre anthropology at the University of Rome La Sapienza in 1982 before seeking political asylum in the United States. His dear friends [[Andre Gregory|Andre]] and [[Mercedes Gregory]] helped Grotowski to settle in the US, where he taught at Columbia University for one year while attempting to find support for a new program of research.<br />
<br />
==== Objective Drama ====<br />
Unable (despite the best efforts of [[Richard Schechner]]) to secure resources for his projected research in Manhattan, in 1983 Grotowski was invited by Professor Robert Cohen to UC Irvine, where he began a course of work known as 'Objective Drama'. This phase of research was characterized by an investigation of the psychophysiological impact of selected songs and other performative tools derived from traditional cultures on participants, focusing specifically on relatively simple techniques that could exert a discernible and predictable impact on the doer regardless of her belief structures or culture of origin. Ritual songs and related performative elements linked to Haitian and other African diaspora traditions became an especially fruitful tool of research. During this time Grotowski continued several important collaborative relationships begun in earlier phases, with Maud Robart, Jairo Cuesta, and Pablo Jimenez taking on significant roles as performers and research leaders in the project. He also initiated a longstanding creative relationship with American director James Slowiak and discovered the individual to whom he would ultimately pass responsibility for his lifelong research, Thomas Richards, son of legendary North-American black director [[Lloyd Richards]].<br />
<br />
==== Art as Vehicle ====<br />
In 1986, Grotowski was invited by Roberto Bacci of the Centro per la Sperimentazione e la Ricerca Teatrale to shift the base of his work to Pontedera, Italy, where he was offered an opportunity to conduct long-term research on performance without the pressure of having to show results until he was ready. Grotowski gladly accepted, taking with him three assistants from Objective Drama research (Richards, Jimenez and Slowiak) to help in founding his Italian Workcenter. Robart also led a work-team in Pontedera for several years, after which time funding cuts necessitated downscaling to a single research group, led by Richards. Grotowski characterized the focus of his attention in his final phase of research as "art as a vehicle," a term coined by [[Peter Brook]]. "It seems to me," Brook said, "that Grotowski is showing us something which existed in the past but has been forgotten over the centuries; that is that one of the vehicles which allows man to have access to another level of perception is to be found in the art of performance." Moreover, it was in 1986 that <ref>http://www.theworkcenter.org/brief-history.html</ref> Grotowski changed the name of the Italian centre to the Workcenter of Jerzy Grotowski and Thomas Richards, to signal the unique and central place Richards held in his work. Grotowski drove Richards to take on increasingly greater responsibility and leadership in the work, until he was not only the primary doer in the practice of Art as Vehicle, but also its primal leader and "director" (if such a term can be accurately used) of the performance structures created around these Afro-Caribbean vibratory songs, most significantly 'Downstairs Action' (filmed by Mercedes Gregory in 1989) and 'Action', on which work began in 1994 and continues to the present. Italian actor Mario Biagini, who joined the Workcenter shortly after its founding, also became a central contributor to this research. Although Grotowski died in 1999 at the end of a prolonged illness, the research of Art as Vehicle continues at the Pontedera Workcenter, with Richards as Artistic Director and Biagini as Associate Director. Grotowski's Will declared the two his "universal heirs," holders of copyright on the entirety of his textual output and intellectual property.<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
[[File:Breslau-Gedenktafel fuer Grotowski.JPG|thumb|Wroclaw: Grotowski]]<br />
*''Towards a Poor Theatre (Introduction by Peter Brook) (1968)<br />
*''The Theatre of Grotowski'' by Jennifer Kumiega, London: Methuen, 1987.<br />
*''At Work with Grotowski on Physical Actions'' by Thomas Richards, London: Routledge, 1995.<br />
*''The Grotowski Sourcebook'' ed. by Lisa Wolford and [[Richard Schechner]], London: Routledge, 1997.<br />
*''A Dictionary of Theatre Anthropology: The Secret Art of the Performer'' by Eugenio Barba (2001)<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{IBDB name|71214}}<br />
* {{iobdb name|Jerzy|Grotowski}}<br />
* {{IMDb name|4056486}}<br />
* [http://www.tracingroadsacross.info/cgi-bin/tra/bibliography.pl?char=A;lang=en Bibliography of sources maintained by the Workcenter of Jerzy Grotowski and Thomas Richards in Pontedera, Italy]<br />
* [http://www.taraka.pl/?id=dancingsaviour.htm ''Jerzy Grotowski's Dancing Saviour''. About 'Action', the last work of Jerzy Grotowski, by Jacek Dobrowolski ]<br />
* http://www.theworkcenter.org/<br />
*[http://www.culture.pl/web/english/resources-theatre-full-page/-/eo_event_asset_publisher/eAN5/content/jerzy-grotowski Jerzy Grotowski] at [http://www.culture.pl/web/english/news culture.pl]<br />
*[http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/c8nv9gm9 Guide to the Robert Cohen Collection on Jerzy Grotowski.] Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.<br />
<br />
{{DramaDesk Director}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control|VIAF=32032675}}<br />
{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. --><br />
| NAME = Grotowski, Jerzy<br />
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Polish theatre director<br />
| DATE OF BIRTH = 11 August 1933<br />
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Rzeszów]], [[Poland]]<br />
| DATE OF DEATH = 14 January 1999<br />
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Pontedera]], [[Italy]]<br />
}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Grotowski, Jerzy}}<br />
[[Category:1933 births]]<br />
[[Category:1999 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Acting theorists]]<br />
[[Category:Drama Desk Award winners]]<br />
[[Category:MacArthur Fellows]]<br />
[[Category:People from Rzeszów]]<br />
[[Category:Polish theatre directors]]<br />
[[Category:Theatre practitioners]]<br />
[[Category:State Prize laureates (Polish People's Republic)]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Jerzy_Grotowski&diff=613333764Jerzy Grotowski2014-06-17T20:46:19Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox writer <!-- for more information see [[:Template:Infobox writer/doc]] --><br />
| name = Jerzy Grotowski<br />
| image = Jerzy Grotowski.jpg<br />
| imagesize = 200px<br />
| caption = Grotowski c.1972<br />
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=y|1933|08|11}}<br />
| birth_place = [[Rzeszów]], [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]]<br />
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|1999|01|14|1933|08|11}}<br />
| death_place = [[Pontedera]], [[Tuscany]], [[Italy]]<br />
| occupation = [[Theatre director]]<br />
| years_active =<br />
| alma_mater = [[Russian Academy of Theatre Arts]]<br />
| influenced = [[Andrzej Wajda]], [[Hedwig Gorski]]<br />
| dramadeskawards = '''[[Drama Desk Award for Outstanding Director|Outstanding Director]]'''<br>1970 ''[[The Apocalypse]]''<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Jerzy Grotowski''' (/'jɛʑɨ grɔ'tɔfskʲi/; 11 August 1933 – 14 January 1999) was a Polish [[theatre director]] and innovator of [[experimental theatre]], the "theatre laboratory" and "poor theatre" concepts. <br />
<br />
Grotowski was born in [[Rzeszów]], [[Second Polish Republic|Poland]] on 11 August 1933 and died in [[Pontedera]], [[Tuscany]], [[Italy]] on 14 January 1999, aged 65.<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/1999/01/15/arts/jerzy-grotowski-director-is-dead-at-65.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm The New York Times]</ref><br />
<br />
==Biography==<br />
Jerzy Grotowski was born August 11 1933 in the city of Rzeszów, Poland. When the war came in 1939, the strong familial bond that the family shared was severed. His father entered the war and did not return, and his mother, brother and himself moved to the small village of Nienadówka. It was in Nienadówka that the young Grotowski had several essential experiences that would shape him and his work in the future. His mother of also of great influence with her strong opinions on unity and community.<br />
===Career===<br />
==== Theatre of Productions ====<br />
Grotowski made his directorial debut in 1958 with the production 'Gods of Rain' which introduced Grotowski's bold approach to text, which he continued to develop throughout his career, influencing many subsequent theatre artists. Later in 1958 Grotowski moved to [[Opole]] where he was invited by the theatre critic and dramaturg Ludwik Flaszen to serve as Director of the Theatre of 13 Rows. There he began to assemble a company of actors and artistic collaborators which would help him realize his unique vision. It was also there that he began to experiment with approaches to performance training which enabled him to shape the young actors - initially allocated to his provincial theatre - into the transformational artists they eventually became. <br />
<br />
Among the many productions for which his theatre company became famous were "Orpheus" by [[Jean Cocteau]], "[[Shakuntala]]" based on text by [[Kalidasa]], "[[Dziady (poem)|Dziady (Forefathers' Eve)]]" by [[Adam Mickiewicz]] and "Akropolis" by [[Stanisław Wyspiański]]. This last production was the first complete realization of Grotowski's notion of 'poor theatre.' In it the company of actors (representing concentration camp prisoners) build the structure of a crematorium around the audience while acting out stories from the Bible and Greek mythology. This conceptualization had particular resonance for the audiences in Opole, as the [[Auschwitz]] concentration camp was only sixty miles away. "Akropolis" received much attention, and could be said to have launched Grotowski's career internationally due to inventive and aggressive promotion by visiting foreign scholars and theatre professionals. A film of the production was made with an introduction by [[Peter Brook]], which constitutes one of the most accessible and concrete records of Grotowski's work.<br />
<br />
In 1964 Grotowski followed success with success when his theatre premiered "The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus" based on [[Doctor Faustus (play)|the Elizabethan drama]] by [[Christopher Marlowe]], featuring Zbigniew Cynkutis in the title role. Foregoing the use of props altogether, Grotowski let the actors' bodies represent different objects, establishing an intimate dynamic of relation between actors and spectators by seating audience members as the guests at Faust's last supper, with the action unfolding on and around the table where they were seated.<br />
<br />
In 1965 Grotowski moved his company to [[Wrocław]] relabeling them a "Teatr Laboratorium", in part to avoid the heavy censorship to which professional 'theatres' were subject in Poland at that time. Work had already begun on one of their most famous productions, ''The Constant Prince'' (based on [[Julius Slowacki]]'s translation of [[Pedro Calderón de la Barca|Calderón]]'s play). Debuting in 1967, this production is thought by many to be one of the greatest theatrical works of the 20th century. [[Ryszard Cieslak]]'s performance in the title role is considered the apogee of Grotowski's approach to acting. In one of his final essays, Grotowski detailed how he worked individually with Cieslak for more than a year to develop the details of the actor's physical score before combining this central element of the performance with the work of other actors and the context of torture and martyrdom intrinsic to the play. His international influence spawned exciting companies still working in [[Wrocław]] with devotees like performance poet [[Hedwig Gorski]] in the audience, there as a Fulbright scholar.<ref>https://sites.google.com/site/hedwiggorskifulbright/</ref><br />
<br />
The last professional production from Grotowski as a director was in 1969. Entitled "Apocalypsis Cum Figuris" it is widely admired. Again using text from the Bible, this time combined with contemporary writings from authors such as T.S. Eliot and Simone Weil, this production was cited by members of the company as an example of a group 'total act'. The development of ''Apocalypsis'' took more than three years, beginning as a staging of [[Juliusz Słowacki|Słowacki]]'s ''Samuel Zborowski'' and passing through a separate stage of development as a staging of the Gospels, ''Ewangelie'' (elaborated as a completed performance though never presented to audiences) before arriving to its final form. Throughout this process, Grotowski can already be seen abandoning the conventions of traditional theatre, straining at the boundaries of what he later termed Art as presentation.<br />
<br />
Grotowski revolutionized theatre, and, along with his first apprentice [[Eugenio Barba]], leader and founder of [[Odin Teatret]], is considered a father of [[Experimental theatre|contemporary experimental theatre]]. [[Eugenio Barba|Barba]] was instrumental in revealing Grotowski to the world outside the iron curtain. He was the editor of the seminal book, ''Towards a Poor Theatre'' (1968) which Grotowski wrote together with [[Ludwik Flaszen]], in which it is declared that theatre should not, because it could not, compete against the overwhelming spectacle of [[film]] and should instead focus on the very root of the act of theatre: actors co-creating the event of theatre with its spectators.<br />
<br />
<blockquote>Theatre - through the actor's technique, his art in which the living organism strives for higher motives - provides an opportunity for what could be called integration, the discarding of masks, the revealing of the real substance: a totality of physical and mental reactions. This opportunity must be treated in a disciplined manner, with a full awareness of the responsibilities it involves. Here we can see the theatre's therapeutic function for people in our present day civilization. It is true that the actor accomplishes this act, but he can only do so through an [[Encounter (Psychology)|encounter]] with the spectator - intimately, visibly, not hiding behind a cameraman, wardrobe mistress, stage designer or make-up girl - in direct confrontation with him, and somehow " instead of" him. The actor's act - discarding half measures, revealing, opening up, emerging from himself as opposed to closing up - is an invitation to the spectator. This act could be compared to an act of the most deeply rooted, genuine love between two human beings - this is just a comparison since we can only refer to this "emergence from oneself" through analogy. This act, paradoxical and borderline, we call a total act. In our opinion it epitomizes the actor's deepest calling.<ref>{{cite web | author=Jerzy Grotowski | title=Source Material on Jerzy Grotowski's ''Statement of Principles'' | url=http://owendaly.com/jeff/grotows2.htm | publisher=Owen Daly | date=19 June 2004<!-- 15:08:39 -->| accessdate=2008-09-18}}</ref></blockquote><br />
<br />
==== Debut in the west ====<br />
The year 1968 marked Grotowski's debut in the West. His company performed the [[Stanisław Wyspiański]] play ''Akropolis/Acropolis'' (1964) at the [[Edinburgh Festival]]. This was a fitting vehicle for Grotowski and his Poor Theatre because his treatment of the play in Poland had already achieved wider recognition, and was published in ''Pamiętnik Teatralny'' (Warsaw, 1964), ''Alla Ricerca del Teatro Perduto'' (Padova, 1965), and ''Tulane Drama Review'' (New Orleans, 1965). It marked the first time many in Britain had been exposed to "Poor Theatre". The same year his book titled ''Towards A Poor Theatre'' appeared in Danish, published by Odin Teatrets Forlag. It appeared in English the following year, published by Methuen and Co. Ltd., with an Introduction by [[Peter Brook]], then Director of the Royal Shakespeare Company. In it he writes feelingly about Grotowski's private consulting for the Company; he/they felt Grotowski's work was unique but equally understood that its value was diminished if talked about too much, if faith were broken with the consultant.<br />
<br />
Grotowski's company made its debut in the United States under the auspices of the [[Brooklyn Academy of Music]] in the fall of 1969. BAM built a theatre for Grotowski's company in the Washington Square Methodist Church in [[Greenwich Village]]. Three productions were presented: Akropolis, The Constant Prince and Apocalypsis Cum Figuris during a three week run.<br />
<br />
==== Paratheatrical phase ====<br />
In 1973 Grotowski published ''Holiday'', <ref>Jerzy Grotowski, "Holiday: The Day That Is Holy," trans. Boleslaw Taborski, ''TDR: A Journal of Performance Studies'' 17, no. 2 (June 1973): 113-35.</ref> which outlined a new course of investigation. He would pursue this 'Paratheatrical' phase until 1978. This phase is known as the 'Paratheatrical' phase of his career because it was an attempt to transcend the separation between performer and spectator. Grotowski attempted this through the organization of communal rites and simple interactive exchanges that went on sometimes for extended periods, attempting to provoke in poor participants a deconditioning of impulse. The most widely circulated description of one of these post-theatrical events (a "beehive") is given by [[Andre Gregory]], Grotowski's longtime friend and the American director whose work he most strongly endorsed, in ''[[My Dinner With Andre]]''. Various collaborators who had been important to Grotowski's work in what he termed his "Theatre of Productions" phase had difficulty following him in these explorations beyond the boundary of conventional theatre. Other, younger members of the group came to the foreground, notably Jacek Zmysłowski, whom many would consider Grotowski's closest collaborator in this period. Theatre critics have often exoticized and mystified Grotowski's work on the basis of these paratheatrical experiments, suggesting that his work should be seen in the lineage of [[Antonin Artaud]],<ref>[[Gary]] Botting, ''The Theatre of Protest in America'' (Edmonton: Harden House, 1972) pp.5-6</ref> a suggestion Grotowski strongly resisted. Later in life, he clarified that he quickly found this direction of research limiting, having realized that unstructured work frequently elicits banalities and cultural cliché from participants.<br />
<br />
==== Theatre of Sources ====<br />
In this period of his work, Grotowski traveled intensively through India, Mexico, Haiti and elsewhere, seeking to identify elements of technique in the traditional practices of various cultures that could have a precise and discernible effect on participants. Key collaborators in this phase of work include [[Włodzimierz Staniewski]], subsequently founder of [[Gardzienice Theatre]], Jairo Cuesta and Magda Złotowska, who traveled with Grotowski on his international expeditions. His interest in ritual techniques linked to Haitian practice led Grotowski to a long-standing collaboration with Maud Robart and Jean-Claude Tiga of Saint Soleil. Always a master strategist, Grotowski made use of his international ties and the relative freedom of travel allowed him to pursue this program of cultural research in order to flee Poland following the imposition of martial law. He spent time in Haiti and in Rome, where he delivered a series of important lectures on the topic of theatre anthropology at the University of Rome La Sapienza in 1982 before seeking political asylum in the United States. His dear friends [[Andre Gregory|Andre]] and [[Mercedes Gregory]] helped Grotowski to settle in the US, where he taught at Columbia University for one year while attempting to find support for a new program of research.<br />
<br />
==== Objective Drama ====<br />
Unable (despite the best efforts of [[Richard Schechner]]) to secure resources for his projected research in Manhattan, in 1983 Grotowski was invited by Professor Robert Cohen to UC Irvine, where he began a course of work known as 'Objective Drama'. This phase of research was characterized by an investigation of the psychophysiological impact of selected songs and other performative tools derived from traditional cultures on participants, focusing specifically on relatively simple techniques that could exert a discernible and predictable impact on the doer regardless of her belief structures or culture of origin. Ritual songs and related performative elements linked to Haitian and other African diaspora traditions became an especially fruitful tool of research. During this time Grotowski continued several important collaborative relationships begun in earlier phases, with Maud Robart, Jairo Cuesta, and Pablo Jimenez taking on significant roles as performers and research leaders in the project. He also initiated a longstanding creative relationship with American director James Slowiak and discovered the individual to whom he would ultimately pass responsibility for his lifelong research, Thomas Richards, son of legendary North-American black director [[Lloyd Richards]].<br />
<br />
==== Art as Vehicle ====<br />
In 1986, Grotowski was invited by Roberto Bacci of the Centro per la Sperimentazione e la Ricerca Teatrale to shift the base of his work to Pontedera, Italy, where he was offered an opportunity to conduct long-term research on performance without the pressure of having to show results until he was ready. Grotowski gladly accepted, taking with him three assistants from Objective Drama research (Richards, Jimenez and Slowiak) to help in founding his Italian Workcenter. Robart also led a work-team in Pontedera for several years, after which time funding cuts necessitated downscaling to a single research group, led by Richards. Grotowski characterized the focus of his attention in his final phase of research as "art as a vehicle," a term coined by [[Peter Brook]]. "It seems to me," Brook said, "that Grotowski is showing us something which existed in the past but has been forgotten over the centuries; that is that one of the vehicles which allows man to have access to another level of perception is to be found in the art of performance." Moreover, it was in 1986 that <ref>http://www.theworkcenter.org/brief-history.html</ref> Grotowski changed the name of the Italian centre to the Workcenter of Jerzy Grotowski and Thomas Richards, to signal the unique and central place Richards held in his work. Grotowski drove Richards to take on increasingly greater responsibility and leadership in the work, until he was not only the primary doer in the practice of Art as Vehicle, but also its primal leader and "director" (if such a term can be accurately used) of the performance structures created around these Afro-Caribbean vibratory songs, most significantly 'Downstairs Action' (filmed by Mercedes Gregory in 1989) and 'Action', on which work began in 1994 and continues to the present. Italian actor Mario Biagini, who joined the Workcenter shortly after its founding, also became a central contributor to this research. Although Grotowski died in 1999 at the end of a prolonged illness, the research of Art as Vehicle continues at the Pontedera Workcenter, with Richards as Artistic Director and Biagini as Associate Director. Grotowski's Will declared the two his "universal heirs," holders of copyright on the entirety of his textual output and intellectual property.<br />
<br />
== Bibliography ==<br />
[[File:Breslau-Gedenktafel fuer Grotowski.JPG|thumb|Wroclaw: Grotowski]]<br />
*''Towards a Poor Theatre (Introduction by Peter Brook) (1968)<br />
*''The Theatre of Grotowski'' by Jennifer Kumiega, London: Methuen, 1987.<br />
*''At Work with Grotowski on Physical Actions'' by Thomas Richards, London: Routledge, 1995.<br />
*''The Grotowski Sourcebook'' ed. by Lisa Wolford and [[Richard Schechner]], London: Routledge, 1997.<br />
*''A Dictionary of Theatre Anthropology: The Secret Art of the Performer'' by Eugenio Barba (2001)<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* {{IBDB name|71214}}<br />
* {{iobdb name|Jerzy|Grotowski}}<br />
* {{IMDb name|4056486}}<br />
* [http://www.tracingroadsacross.info/cgi-bin/tra/bibliography.pl?char=A;lang=en Bibliography of sources maintained by the Workcenter of Jerzy Grotowski and Thomas Richards in Pontedera, Italy]<br />
* [http://www.taraka.pl/?id=dancingsaviour.htm ''Jerzy Grotowski's Dancing Saviour''. About 'Action', the last work of Jerzy Grotowski, by Jacek Dobrowolski ]<br />
* http://www.theworkcenter.org/<br />
*[http://www.culture.pl/web/english/resources-theatre-full-page/-/eo_event_asset_publisher/eAN5/content/jerzy-grotowski Jerzy Grotowski] at [http://www.culture.pl/web/english/news culture.pl]<br />
*[http://www.oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/c8nv9gm9 Guide to the Robert Cohen Collection on Jerzy Grotowski.] Special Collections and Archives, The UC Irvine Libraries, Irvine, California.<br />
<br />
{{DramaDesk Director}}<br />
<br />
{{Authority control|VIAF=32032675}}<br />
{{Persondata <!-- Metadata: see [[Wikipedia:Persondata]]. --><br />
| NAME = Grotowski, Jerzy<br />
| SHORT DESCRIPTION = Polish theatre director<br />
| DATE OF BIRTH = 11 August 1933<br />
| PLACE OF BIRTH = [[Rzeszów]], [[Poland]]<br />
| DATE OF DEATH = 14 January 1999<br />
| PLACE OF DEATH = [[Pontedera]], [[Italy]]<br />
}}<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Grotowski, Jerzy}}<br />
[[Category:1933 births]]<br />
[[Category:1999 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Acting theorists]]<br />
[[Category:Drama Desk Award winners]]<br />
[[Category:MacArthur Fellows]]<br />
[[Category:People from Rzeszów]]<br />
[[Category:Polish theatre directors]]<br />
[[Category:Theatre practitioners]]<br />
[[Category:State Prize laureates (Polish People's Republic)]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nusrat_Fateh_Ali_Khan&diff=314955474Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan2009-09-19T18:47:12Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Dablink|This article is about the Punjabi musician. For the Turkish [[minelayer]], see [[Nusret]].}}<br />
{{Inappropriate tone|date=December 2007}}<br />
{{Infobox Musical artist <br />
|Name = Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan<br />
|Img = Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan.jpg<br />
|img_size = 200px<br />
|Img_capt = Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan<br />
|Background = solo_singer<br />
|Origin = [[Pakistan]] <br />
|Born = [[October 13]], [[1948]], <br />
[[Faisalabad]], [[Punjab (Pakistan)|Punjab]]<br />
|Died = {{Death date and age|1997|08|16|1948|10|136}} <br />
[[London, England]] <br />
|Genre = [[Qawwali]], [[Ghazal]]<br />
|Occupation = Singer<br />
|Years_active = 1965-1997<br />
|Instrument = [[Harmonium]]<br />[[Tabla]]<br />
|First_album = <br />
|Latest_album = <br />
|Notable_albums = <br />
|Notable songs = Tere Bin<br />
|Label = <br />
|Associated_acts = <br />
|URL =<br />
}} <br />
<br />
'''Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan''' ({{lang-ur|'''نصرت فتح علی خان'''}}, [[October 13]] [[1948]] – [[August 16]], [[1997]]), was a [[Punjabi people|Punjabi]] musician from [[Pakistan]], primarily a singer of ''[[Qawwali]]'', the devotional music of the [[Sufis]] (a [[Mysticism|mystical]] tradition within [[Islam]]). He featured in ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine's 2006 list of 'Asian Heroes'.<ref>[http://www.pakistantimes.net/2006/11/14/top10.htm Pakistan Times, 2006]</ref><br />
<br />
==Biography==<br />
=== Early life and career ===<br />
{{Unreferenced|date=December 2008}}<br />
Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan was born on [[October 13]], [[1948]] in the city of [[Faisalabad]], [[Pakistan]]. He was the fifth child and first son of Ustad [[Fateh Ali Khan (Qawwali Singer)|Fateh Ali Khan]], a [[musicology|musicologist]], vocalist, instrumentalist, and [[Qawwali|Qawwal]]. Khan's family, which included his four older sisters and his younger brother, [[Farrukh Fateh Ali Khan]] grew up in central Lyallpur. In 1979, Khan married his first cousin, Naheed (the daughter of Fateh Ali Khan's brother, [[Salamat Ali Khan]]); they had one daughter, Nida.<ref>Ahmed Aqeel Ruby, ''Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan: A Living Legend'', translated by Sajjad Haider Malik, Lahore: Words of Wisdom, (1992)</ref><br />
<br />
Khan began by learning to play [[tabla]] alongside his father before progressing to learn ''Raag Vidya'' and ''Bolbandish''. He then went on to learn to sing within the classical framework of [[khayal]]. Khan's training with his father was cut short when his father died in 1964, leaving Khan's paternal uncles, Ustad [[Mubarak Ali Khan]] and Ustad Salamat Ali Khan, to complete his training. <br />
<br />
His first performance was at a traditional graveside ceremony for his father, known as [[chehlum]], which took place forty days after his father's death. <br />
<br />
In 1971, after the death of Ustad Mubarak Ali Khan, Khan, became the official leader of the family Qawwali party and the party became known as ''Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan, Mujahid Mubarak Ali Khan & Party''. <br />
<br />
Khan's first public performance as the leader of the Qawwali party was at a studio recording broadcast as part of an annual music festival organised by Radio Pakistan, known as ''Jashn-e-Baharan''. Khan sang mainly in [[Urdu]] and [[Punjabi language|Punjabi]] and occasionally in [[Persian language|Persian]], [[Brajbhasha]] and [[Hindi]]. His first major hit in Pakistan was the song ''Haq Ali Ali'', which was performed in a traditional style and with traditional instrumentation. The song featured restrained use of Nusrat's [[sargam]] improvisations.<br />
<br />
Early in his career, Khan was signed up by Oriental Star Agencies [OSA] of Birmingham UK to their Star Cassette Label. OSA sponsored regular concert tours by Nusrat to the U.K. from the early '80s onwards, and released much of this live material on cassette, CD, videotape and DVD.<br />
<br />
===Later career===<br />
<!-- Deleted image removed: [[Image:nfk1.png|thumb|200px|right|Nusrat with his brother Farrukh|{{puic|1=Image:Nfk1.png|log=2008 April 17}}]] --><br />
<br />
Khan reached teamed with [[Peter Gabriel]] on the soundtrack to ''[[The Last Temptation of Christ (film)|The Last Temptation of Christ]]'' in 1985, with Canadian musician [[Michael Brook]] (on the albums ''[[Mustt Mustt]]'' (1990) and ''[[Night Song]]'' (1996))<ref>[http://www.allaboutjazz.com/php/article.php?id=28018]</ref>,{{Verify credibility|date=September 2009}} and with [[Pearl Jam]] lead singer [[Eddie Vedder]] in 1995 on two songs for the [[soundtrack]] to ''[[Dead Man Walking]]''. He also contributed to the soundtrack of ''[[Natural Born Killers]]''. <br />
<br />
Peter Gabriel's [[Real World Records|Real World]] label later released five albums of Nusrat's traditional Qawwali, together with some of his experimental work which included the albums [[Mustt Mustt]] and [[Star Rise]]. Nusrat provided vocals for [[The Prayer Cycle]], which was put together by [[Jonathan Elias]], but died before the vocals could be completed. [[Alanis Morissette]] was brought in to sing with his unfinished vocals. He also performed traditional Qawwali before international audiences at several [[WOMAD]] world music festivals and the single [[Mast Qalandar|Dam Mast Qalandar]] was remixed by [[electronic (music)|electronic]] [[trip hop]] group [[Massive Attack]] in 1998.<br />
<br />
His album ''Intoxicated Spirit'' was nominated for a Grammy award in 1997 for best traditional folk album.<br />
<br />
Khan contributed songs to, and performed in, several Pakistani films. Shortly before his death, he recorded a song each for two [[Bollywood]] films, ''[[Aur Pyaar Ho Gaya]]'' (in which he also appeared) and ''[[Kachche Dhaage]]''. He also sang the title song of the film, ''[[Dhadkan]]''. <br />
<br />
Khan contributed the song 'Gurus of Peace' to the album 'Vande Mataram', composed by [[A.R. Rahman]], and released to celebrate the 50th anniversary of India's independence. <br />
<br />
According to the [[Guinness Book of World Records]], Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan holds the world record for the largest recorded output by a Qawwali artist&mdash;a total of 125 albums as of 2001. {{Citation needed|date=September 2009}}.<br />
<br />
Khan was taken ill with kidney and liver failure on August 11, 1997 in [[London]], [[England]] while on the way to [[Los Angeles]] in order to receive a [[kidney transplant]]. He died of a sudden [[cardiac arrest]] at [[Cromwell Hospital]], [[London]], on Saturday, August 16, 1997, aged 48. <ref>[http://www.epitonic.com/index.jsp?refer=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epitonic.com%2Fartists%2Fnusratfatehalikhan.html Nusrat Profile at epitonic.com]</ref>.{{Verify credibility|date=September 2009}} His body was returned to [[Faisalabad]], [[Pakistan]] and his funeral was attended by the public.<br />
<br />
After his death, the song "Solemn Prayer", on which Nusrat provided vocals, was used by Peter Gabriel on his album [[Up (Peter Gabriel album)|Up]] and in the soundtrack to the film ''[[Blood Diamond (film)|Blood Diamond]].''<ref>[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0450259/soundtrack Blood Diamond (2006) - Soundtracks<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
<br />
==Composition of Nusrat's qawwali party==<br />
The composition of Nusrat's party changed over the twenty-six years that he led the party. Listed below is a snapshot of the party, circa 1983:<br />
<br />
#[[Mujahid Mubarak Ali Khan]]: Nusrat's first cousin, vocals<br />
#[[Farrukh Fateh Ali Khan]]: Nusrat's brother, vocals and lead harmonium<br />
#Rehmat Ali: vocals and second harmonium<br />
#Maqsood Hussain: vocals<br />
#[[Rahat Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]: Nusrat's nephew & pupil, vocals <br />
#[[Dildar Hussain]]: percussion<br />
#Majawar Abbas: mandolin and guitar/chorus, handclapping<br />
#Mohammed Iqbal Naqvi: secretary of the party, chorus, handclapping<br />
#Asad Ali: chorus, handclapping Nusrat's cousin<br />
#Ghulam Farid: chorus, handclapping<br />
#Kaukab Ali: chorus, handclapping<br />
<br />
The one significant member of the party who does not appear on this list is Atta Fareed. For many years, he alternated with Rehmat Ali on vocals and second harmonium. He is easily identifiable in videos since he plays the harmonium left-handed.<br />
<br />
This snapshot is non-representative in one respect: harmoniums were usually the only instruments. Only rarely were instruments like mandolin or guitar used.<br />
<br />
==Awards and recognition==<br />
<br />
TIME magazine's issue of November 6, 2006, "60 Years of Asian Heroes", lists Nusrat as one of the top 12 Artists and Thinkers in the last 60 years <ref>[http://www.time.com/time/asia/2006/heroes/at_khan.html article Time 2006]</ref>.<br />
<br />
In 2007, London-based producer Gaudi released Dub Qawwali, featuring dub reggae with Nusrat's vocals <ref>[http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=12201563 article npr.org]</ref>.<br />
<br />
==Films==<br />
===Documentaries===<br />
*''Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan: le dernier prophète'' (1996). Directed by Jérôme de Missolz.<br />
*'' [[Nusrat has Left the Building... But When?]]'' (1997). Directed by Farjad Nabi. (This 20-minute [[docudrama]] focuses on Nusrat's early career.)<br />
*''[[A Voice from Heaven]]'' (1999). Directed by Giuseppe Asaro. New York, NY: Winstar TV & Video. (This 75-minute documentary, available on VHS and DVD, provides an excellent introduction to Nusrat's life and work.)<br />
<br />
===Concert films===<br />
*''The JVC Video Anthology of World Music and Dance'' (1990). Video 14 (of 30) (South Asia IV). Produced by Ichikawa Katsumori; directed by Nakagawa Kunikiko and Ichihashi Yuji; in collaboration with the National Museum of Ethnology, Osaka. [Tokyo]: JVC, Victor Company of Japan; Cambridge, Massachusetts: distributed by Rounder Records. Features a studio performance by Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan and Party (two Urdu-language songs: a Hamd (song in praise of Allah), and a Manqabat for [[Moinuddin Chishti|Khwaja Mu`inuddin Chishti]], a 13th century Sufi saint. Filmed in Tokyo, Japan, September 20, 1987, for Asian Traditional Performing Arts).<br />
*''Nusrat! Live at Meany'' (1998). Produced by the University of Washington. (87-minute document of a [[January 23]] [[1993]] concert at Meany Hall, University of Washington in Seattle, during Nusrat's residency at the Ethnomusicology Program there.)<br />
<!-- Commented out because image was deleted: [[Image:Nusratsimon&diamond remixes.jpg|right|thumb|]] --><br />
*Live in Concert in the U.K. (DVD, vols. 1-17) [OSA]; recorded between 1983 and 1993; first thirteen listed below:<br />
**Live in Concert in UK (DVD vol. 1)<br />
**Live in Concert (DVD vol. 2)<br />
**Live in Concert (DVD vol. 3)<br />
**Live in UK (DVD vol. 4)<br />
**Live in UK (DVD vol. 5) <br />
**Live in Concert (DVD vol. 6)<br />
**Live in UK (DVD vol. 7)<br />
**Live in UK (DVD vol. 8)<br />
**Live in UK (DVD vol. 9)<br />
**Live in UK (DVD vol. 10)<br />
**Live in UK (DVD vol. 11)<br />
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:lkj1.png|thumb|200px|right|Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]] --><br />
**Digbeth Birmingham [[12 November]] [[1983]] (DVD vol. 12)<br />
**Digbeth [[30 October]] [[1983]] (DVD vol. 13)<br />
*Akhiyan Udeek Diyan (DVD) [Nupur Audio]<br />
*Je Tun Rab Nu Manauna (DVD) [Nupur Audio]<br />
*Yaadan Vicchre Sajan Diyan Aayiyan (DVD) [Nupur Audio]<br />
<!-- Unsourced image removed: [[Image:lkj.png|thumb|200px|right|Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]] --><br />
*Rang-e-Nusrat (DVD, vols. 1-11) [Music Today]; recorded between 1983 and 1993 (same material as the OSA DVDs)<br />
* VHS videotapes, vols. 1-21 [OSA]; recorded between 1983 and 1993 (same material as the OSA DVDs)<br />
**Luxor Cinema Birmingham (VHS vol. 1, 1979)<br />
**Digbeth Birmingham (VHS vol. 2, 1983)<br />
**St. Francis Hall Birmingham (VHS vol. 3, 1983)<br />
**Royal Oak Birmingham (VHS vol. 4, 1983)<br />
**Private Mehfil (Wallace Lawley Centre, Lozells Birmingham, November 1983) (VHS vol. 5)<br />
**Private Mehfil (VHS vol. 6, 1983)<br />
**Natraj Cinema Leicester (VHS vol. 7, 1983)<br />
**Live In Southall (VHS vol. 8)<br />
**Live In Bradford (VHS vol. 9, 1983)<br />
**Live In Birmingham (VHS vol. 10, 1985)<br />
**Allah Ditta Hall (VHS vol. 11, 1985)<br />
**Harrow Leisure Centre (VHS vol. 12)<br />
**University Of Aston (VHS vol. 13, 1988)<br />
**Aston University (VHS vol. 14, 1988)<br />
**WOMAD Festival Bracknell (VHS vol. 15, 1988)<br />
**Live In Paris (VHS vol. 16, 1988)<br />
**Poplar Civic Centre London (VHS vol. 17)<br />
**Imperial Hotel Birmingham (VHS vol. 18, 1985)<br />
**Slough Gurdawara (SHABADS) (VHS vol. 19)<br />
**Imran Khan Cancer Appeal (VHS vol. 20)<br />
**Town Hall Birmingham (VHS vol. 21, 1993)<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
<br />
*[[Music of Pakistan]]<br />
*[[List of Pakistani musicians]]<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{Reflist}}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
{{wikiquote}}<br />
*[http://edwebproject.org/nusrat.html Article with brief 1993 interview (edwebproject.org)]<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Khan, Nusrat Fateh Ali}}<br />
[[Category:1948 births]]<br />
[[Category:1997 deaths]]<br />
[[Category:Pakistani people]]<br />
[[Category:People from Faisalabad]]<br />
[[Category:People from Faisalabad District]]<br />
[[Category:Pakistani male singers]]<br />
[[Category:Pakistani qawwali singers]]<br />
[[Category:Performers of Sufi music]]<br />
[[Category:Sufi music]]<br />
[[Category:Qawwali]]<br />
[[Category:Real World artists]]<br />
[[Category:Picasso Medalists]]<br />
[[Category:Faisalabad]]<br />
[[Category:Nigar Award winners]]<br />
<br />
[[bn:নুসরাত ফতেহ আলি খান]]<br />
[[ca:Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]<br />
[[da:Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]<br />
[[de:Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]<br />
[[es:Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]<br />
[[fi:Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]<br />
[[fr:Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]<br />
[[id:Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]<br />
[[it:Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]<br />
[[ja:ヌスラト・ファテー・アリー・ハーン]]<br />
[[nl:Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]<br />
[[pa:ਨੁਸਰਤ ਫ਼ਤੇ ਅਲੀ ਖ਼ਾਨ]]<br />
[[pl:Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]<br />
[[pnb:نصرت فتح علی خان]]<br />
[[ru:Нусрат Фатех Али Хан]]<br />
[[simple:Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]<br />
[[sv:Nusrat Fateh Ali Khan]]<br />
[[tr:Nusret Fatih Ali Han]]<br />
[[ur:نصرت فتح علی خان]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Kazl%C5%B3_R%C5%ABda&diff=220984399Kazlų Rūda2008-06-22T14:50:30Z<p>Dkc: hellhole —> the city</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Settlement <!--more fields are available for this Infobox--See Template:Infobox Settlement--><br />
|subdivision_type = [[Countries of the world|Country]]<br />
|subdivision_name = {{LTU}}<br />
|timezone=[[Eastern European Time|EET]]<br />
|utc_offset=+2<br />
|timezone_DST=[[Eastern European Summer Time|EEST]]<br />
|utc_offset_DST=+3<br />
|map_caption = Location of Kazlų Rūda|<br />
<br />
|leader_title =<br />
|postal_code_type =<br />
<br />
| official_name = Kazlų Rūda<br />
| nickname = <br />
| |pushpin_map =Lithuania <br />
|pushpin_label_position = <!-- the position of the pushpin label: left, right, top, bottom, none --><br />
|pushpin_map_caption =Location of Kazlų Rūda<br />
|pushpin_mapsize =<br />
|image_map = |LietuvaKazluRuda.png<br />
| image_shield = Kazlu Ruda COA.gif<br />
| |subdivision_type1=[[Regions of Lithuania|Ethnographic&nbsp;region]]|<br />
subdivision_name1 = Sudovia<br />
| |subdivision_type2=[[Counties of Lithuania|County]]|<br />
subdivision_name2 = {{Autolink|Marijampole County}}<br />
| |subdivision_type3=[[List of municipalities of Lithuania|Municipality]]|<br />
subdivision_name3 = Kazlų Rūda municipality<br />
||subdivision_type4=[[Elderate]]|<br />
subdivision_name4 = Kazlų Rūda elderate<br />
|latd=54|latm=45|lats=0|latNS=N|longd=23|longm=30|longs=0|longEW=E|<br />
| |subdivision_type6=[[Capital|Capital of]]|<br />
subdivision_name6 = [[Kazlų Rūda municipality]] <br> Kazlų Rūda rural elderate <br />
| established_date = 1744|established_title=First mentioned|<br />
| established_date2 = 1950|established_title2=Granted [[Magdeburg rights|city rights]]|<br />
| subdivision_name5 = <br />
| population_total = 7330|population_footnotes=<br />
| population_as_of = 2005<br />
| population_blank1 = 44th|population_blank1_title=[[List of cities in Lithuania|Rank]]|<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''Kazlų Rūda'''({{pronunciation|Kazlu Ruda.ogg}} is a [[Lithuania]]n city, 27&nbsp;[[kilometre|km]] to the north from [[Marijampolė]]. The city is deep inside the woods.<br />
<br />
A railway line crosses the city and divides it into almost equal parts. <br />
<br />
<br />
[[Category:Cities in Lithuania]]<br />
[[Category:Towns in Marijampolė County]]<br />
{{Lithuania-geo-stub}}<br />
<br />
[[de:Kazlų Rūda]]<br />
[[el:Κάζλου Ρούντα]]<br />
[[eo:Kazlų Rūda]]<br />
[[id:Kazlų Rūda]]<br />
[[lt:Kazlų Rūda]]<br />
[[pms:Kazlų Rūda]]<br />
[[pl:Kozłowa Ruda]]<br />
[[ru:Казлу Руда]]<br />
[[vo:Kazlų Rūda]]<br />
[[bat-smg:Kazlū Rūda]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Xiamen&diff=213295051Xiamen2008-05-18T18:37:21Z<p>Dkc: /* Sister cities */ Slupsk —> Słupsk</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Settlement<br />
|official_name = Xiamen<br />
|other_name =<br />
|native_name =厦门 <br />
|nickname =<br />
|settlement_type = [[Sub-provincial city]]<br />
|motto = <br />
|image_skyline =<br />
|imagesize = <br />
|image_caption =<br />
|image_flag = <br />
|flag_size =<br />
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|map_caption = Location of Xiamen within [[Fujian]]<br />
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|population_total = 2,640,000<br />
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|population_blank2_title =Major [[Nationalities of China|nationalities]]<br />
|population_blank2= <!-- [[Han Chinese|Han]] - 96%<br>[[Manchu]] - 2%<br>[[Hui people|Hui]] - 2%<br>[[Mongol|Mongolian]] - 0.3% --><br />
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|postal_code =361000<br />
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|blank1_name =[[Gross domestic product|GDP]] ([[2007]])<br />
|blank1_info =[[Renminbi|CNY]] 137.5 billion <!-- ([[List of China administrative regions by gross domestic product|15th]]) --><br />
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|website = [http://www.xm.gov.cn www.xm.gov.cn] ([[Chinese language|Chinese]])<br />
|footnotes = <!-- <center><big>'''City [[tree]]s'''</big></br> [[Chinese arborvitae]] (''Platycladus orientalis'') <br />[[Styphnolobium|Pagoda tree]] (''Sophora japonica'')</center><br />
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'''Xiamen''', English pronunciation /ˈʃjɑːmən/ or SHYAH-muhn ({{linktext|厦|门}}) ('''Amoy''', Eng., pronunciation /ˈeɪmɔɪ/ or EH-moy; Archaic) is a coastal [[sub-provincial city]] in southeastern [[Fujian]] [[province of China|province]], [[People's Republic of China]]. It looks out to the [[Taiwan Strait]] and borders [[Quanzhou]] to the north and [[Zhangzhou]] to the south.<br />
<br />
Xiamen and the surrounding countryside are famous for being an ancestral home to [[overseas Chinese]] and one of China's earliest [[Special Economic Zone]]s in the 1980s. It covers an area of 1&nbsp;565&nbsp;km² with a local population of 5 million. It was recently named China's 2nd most livable city.<ref> {{cite news <br />
| last= Jing<br />
| first= Fu <br />
| url= http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/english/doc/2006-01/03/content_508828.htm<br />
| title= Beijing drops out of top 10 'best city' list <br />
| publisher= [[China Daily]]<br />
| date= 2006-01-03<br />
| accessdate= <br />
}} </ref> <br />
<br />
== City name ==<br />
Earlier, the name was written as {{linktext|下|門}} , meaning "Lower Gate" — possibly because of its position at the mouth of the Nine Dragon River. The characters "下門" ("lower gate") in [[Zhangzhou]] dialects of [[Min Nan]] are pronounced Ē-mûi (using the [[Pe̍h-ōe-jī|POJ]] Romanization). This is the source of the name "Amoy". The dialect is still spoken in the west and southwest of the city. In [[Quanzhou]] dialect, the most common dialect, it is pronounced Ē-m{{Unicode|n̂}}g.<br />
<br />
Later, the authorities found "下門" too unrefined and changed the name to the modern [[toponym]] "{{linktext|廈|門}}", which has the same pronunciation in Mandarin (but not in Min Nan) and literally means "The Gate of the Grand Mansion". The name continues to be pronounced Ē-m{{Unicode|n̂}}g in Min Nan, effectively using the older name, "下門".<br />
<br />
==Administration==<br />
{{Chinese|size=200|s=[[wiktionary:厦|厦]][[wiktionary:门|门]]|t=[[wiktionary:廈|廈]][[wiktionary:門|門]]|p=Xiàmén|w=Hsiamen|poj={{Unicode|Hā-mn̂g (厦门), Ē-mn̂g (下门)}}|showflag=p}}<br />
The [[subprovincial city]] of Xiamen administers 6 [[district of China|districts]].<br />
*[[Haicang District]] ({{lang|zh-cn|海沧区}}) <br />
*[[Huli District]] ({{lang|zh-cn|湖里区}}) <br />
*[[Jimei District]] ({{lang|zh-cn|集美区}}) <br />
*[[Siming District]] ({{lang|zh-cn|思明区}}) <br />
*[[Tong'an District]] ({{lang|zh-cn|同安区}}) <br />
*[[Xiang'an District]] ({{lang|zh-cn|翔安区}})<br />
<br />
The districts of Siming and Huli form the [[Special Economic Zone]].<br />
<br />
In May 2003, [[Gulangyu Island]] and [[Kaiyuan District]] were merged into Siming District, Xinglin District ({{linktext|杏|林|区}}) was merged into Jimei District, and Xiang'an District was created out of a section of Tong'an District.<br />
<br />
==History==<br />
During the early [[Jin Dynasty (265-420)|Jin Dynasty]], the place was made Tong'an District (同安縣) in [[282]], a sub-entity of Jin'an Prefecture (晉安郡). During the [[Song Dynasty]] ([[960]]-[[1279]] AD), the city was known as a sustainable international [[seaport]], and the Chinese scientist and statesman [[Shen Kuo]] ([[1031]]-[[1095]]) spent some of his youth there while his father was a local bureaucrat on the government staff. In [[1387]], the [[Ming Dynasty]] used the place as base against [[pirate]]s, and was part of [[Quanzhou]]. [[Koxinga]], stationed here in [[1650]], named it Siming Island (思明洲), or "Remembering the [[Ming Dynasty|Ming]]", but the city was renamed by the [[Manchu]]s in [[1680]] to Xiamen [[Subprefecture]]. The name "Siming" was changed back after the [[1912]] [[Xinhai Revolution]] and the settlement was made a [[county]]. Later it reverted to the name Xiamen City. In [[1949]], Xiamen became a provincial city (省辖市), then was upgraded to a vice-province-class city (副省级市), or a municipality. It was made a [[Special Economic Zone]] in [[1980]].<br />
<br />
Xiamen was the port of trade first used by [[Europe]]ans in [[1541]]. It was China's main port in the [[19th century|nineteenth century]] for exporting [[tea]]. As a result, the [[Amoy (linguistics)|Amoy dialect]] had a major influence on how Chinese terminology was translated into English and other European languages. For example, the words "Amoy", "[[tea]]" (茶; tê), "[[cumshaw]]" (感謝; kám-siā), "[[ketchup]]" (茄汁; kiô-chiap), and "[[Orange pekoe|Pekoe]]" (白毫; pe{{Unicode|̍}}h-hô), [[kowtow]] (磕頭; {{Unicode|khàu-thâu}}), [[gung-ho]], and possibly [[Japan]] (Ji̍t-pún) originated from the [[Amoy (linguistics)|Amoy dialect]].<br />
<br />
Xiamen was one of the five Chinese ''[[treaty port]]s'' opened by the [[Treaty of Nanjing]] (signed in [[1842]]) at the end of the [[First Opium War]] between [[United Kingdom|Britain]] and China. As a result, it was an early entry point for [[Protestant missions in China ]].<br />
<br />
In 1999, the largest corruption scandal in China's history was uncovered, implicating up to 200 government officials. [[Lai Changxing]] is alleged to have run an enormous smuggling operation, which financed the city's football team, film studios, largest construction project, and a vast [[brothel]] rented to him by the local [[Public Security Bureau]]. According to [[Time (magazine)|Time]], "locals used to joke that Xiamen should change its name to Yuanhua, the name of Lai's company." They subsequently claimed that potential investors were discouraged by the taint of corruption.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/asia/covers/1101021014/story.html Smuggler's Blues] (Time Asia)</ref><br />
<br />
== Economy ==<br />
Since Xiamen Special Economic Zone was established, it has opened up to [[foreign direct investment]] and created many jobs, factories, export opportunities for local companies and [[multinational corporation]]s. Xiamen benefits particularly from investment capital from [[Hong Kong]], [[Macau]] and [[Taiwan]]. Xiamen's primary economic activities include fishing, shipbuilding, food processing, tanning, textiles, machine tool manufacturing, chemical industries, telecommunications, and [[financial services]]. <br />
<br />
Xiamen is a favourite destination for foreign investors. By the end of 2000, a total of 4,991 projects with foreign direct investment had been approved in the city, with a contractual foreign investment amount of US$17.527 billion and an actual foreign investment amount of US$11.452 billion <ref>http://www.chinafair.org.cn/chinafair2004/website/english/overview/qa-4.aspx</ref>.<br />
<br />
In 1992, Xiamen was ranked among the top 10 Chinese cities in relation to comprehensive strengths with its GDP increasing by an average of over 20% annually. In 2007, Xiamen's GDP amounted to 137.5 billion Yuan, an increase of 16.1% over the previous year; and the per-capita GDP was about US$7,398. Further economic reforms were introduced and this brought about a total volume of imports and exports in 2007 of US$39.8 billion, while that of exports totalled US$25.6 billion <ref>http://www.chinafair.org.cn/chinafair2004/website/english/overview/qa-4.aspx</ref>.<br />
<br />
Xiamen is also the host of the [[China International Fair for Investment and Trade]] held annually in early September to attract foreign direct investment into the Chinese mainland.<br />
<br />
=== Financial services ===<br />
By [[Financial services in the People's Republic of China|Chinese standards]], Xiamen has highly developed banking services. The biggest bank is the state-owned commercial bank, Sino-foreign [[joint venture]] Xiamen International Bank, and solely foreign-funded Xiamen City Commercial Bank.<br />
<br />
Foreign banks that have established representative offices in Xiamen include:<br />
<br />
*Hong Kong: Jiyou Bank, East Asia Bank, [[HSBC]] (China), [[Hang Seng Bank]]<br />
*Singapore: [[Oversea-Chinese Banking Corporation]], [[United Overseas Bank]]<br />
*US: Bank of the Orient, [[Citibank]], Hartford Financial Services<br />
*Europe: [[Standard Chartered Bank]], [[Crédit Lyonnais]]<br />
*Japan: [[Mizuho Bank]]<br />
*Philippines: Commercial Bank, Allied Bank<br />
*Thailand: [[Bangkok Bank]]<br />
<br />
There are more than 600 financial institutions in operation in Xiamen. Retail and corporate customers in Xiamen have access to a wide variety of financial services and various financial services firm.<br />
<br />
== Geography ==<br />
Xiamen comprises [[Xiamen Island]] (longitude 118° 04'04"E, latitude 24° 26'46" N.), [[Gulangyu Island]], and a larger region along the mouth of the [[Jiulong River]] on the mainland. Huli District and most of Siming District (except Gulangyu) are on Xiamen Island, while the other four districts lie on the mainland. The Gaoji (Gaoqi-Jimei) Causeway built in 1955 has transformed Xiamen Island into a peninsula by linking it with the mainland.<br />
<br />
Xiamen Island is located very close to the island of [[Quemoy]] (Kinmen), which is governed by the [[Republic of China]] (based on [[Taiwan]]).<br />
[[Image:xiamen.jpg|center|thumb|500px|Downtown Xiamen as seen from Gulangyu Island]]<br />
<br />
==Climate==<br />
Xiamen has a [[monsoon]]al [[Humid subtropical climate]], a zone characterized by hot, humid summers and chilly to mild winters. The maximum temperature is 38.4°Cand the minimum is 2°C. The annual rainfall averages 1&nbsp;100&nbsp;mm, and strong north-eastern winds prevail.<br />
<br />
==Culture==<br />
The local [[vernacular]] is [[Amoy (linguistics)|Amoy]], a dialect of [[Min nan|Southern Min]] (閩南), also called [[Hokkien (dialect)|Hokkien]]. Amoy is widely used and understood across the southern region of Fujian province as well as overseas. While it is widely spoken in and around Xiamen, the Amoy dialect has no official status, and the official language of all government business is [[Mandarin (linguistics)|Mandarin]].<br />
<br />
==Media==<br />
*Xiamen is served by [[Xiamen Television]], which broadcasts news and entertainment such as movies and television series.<br />
<br />
==Transportation==<br />
*Xiamen is served by the [[Xiamen Gaoqi International Airport]], the base of [[Xiamen Airlines]]. <br />
Currently, there are nine Asian cities that have direct flights to Xiamen. They are [[Penang]], [[Kuala Lumpur]], [[Manila]], [[Jakarta]], [[Osaka]], [[Nagoya]], [[Tokyo]], [[Seoul]], [[Singapore]] and [[Bangkok]]. Cities outside China's mainland that have direct flights to Xiamen are [[Hong Kong]] and [[Macau]] which are situated on [[Guangdong]] province's southern border.<br />
*Taxi rides are available from the airport to the city. The taxi fare is around 30-40 RMB.<br />
*A [[ferry]] service links [[Xiamen Island]] and [[Gulangyu Island]].<br />
*There are two major bridges linking Xiamen Island to the mainland.<br />
<br />
There is also a bus service for 1 or 2 RMB. This is the main form of mass transit. Taxis are also common and can be easily hailed in most areas of the city.<br />
<br />
Many people in the city also ride bicycles to get from place to place. Unlike in most Chinese cities, where motorcycles and mopeds are the major form of transportation, such vehicles are not allowed in Xiamen. Using car horns is also banned. These two laws make Xiamen's streets especially pleasant.<br />
<br />
==Infrastructure==<br />
===Xiamen Port===<br />
[[Xiamen Port]] is one of the top ten ports in China. It is a huge, deepwater, ice-free port that never silts up. Xiamen Port is located on Xiamen Island which is at the mouth of the Jiulong River. It has an excellent natural harbour and is well connected to the mainland. The natural coastline in the port area is 64.5&nbsp;km while the water is over 12&nbsp;m indepth. There are 81 berths of big, medium or small tonnage, including 16 deep-water berths, of which 6 operate containers of over 10,000 tonnes. 100&nbsp;000&nbsp;t ships can berth straight at the inner port, while 50&nbsp;000&nbsp;t ships can pull in for loading and unloading. Currently, Xiamen port has navigation routes to [[Hong Kong]], Japan, Korea, [[Kaohsiung]] and Singapore. Xiamen has recently opened ocean routes to the [[Mediterranean Sea]], [[Europe]] and the [[Americas]]. In 2000, the cargo throughput at the port was 19.65 million tons, an increase of 10.82% over the previous year; the container throughput reached 108.46 million TEUs, up by 27.83% from the previous year.<br />
<br />
==Tourism==<br />
Xiamen was recently voted China's cleanest city, and has many attractions for the tourist. Xiamen and its surrounding countryside provides spectacular scenery and pleasant tree-lined beaches. [[Gulangyu]], also known as Piano Island, is a popular, peaceful weekend getaway with amazing views of the city. Xiamen's Botanical Garden is a nature lover's paradise. The Buddhist [[Nanputuo Temple]], dating back to the Tang Dynasty, is a national treasure. Xiamen is also famous for its history as a frontline during the war with [[Kinmen]] (Quemoy) 50 years ago. One attraction for tourist is to view Jingmen island, a few kilometres away and under Taiwanese control, from Xiamen island.<br />
<br />
==Shopping==<br />
Xiamen has a wide variety of [[department store]]s. There are also [[supermarket]]s run by Metro and [[Wal-Mart]] and the [[SM Prime Holdings|SM Shopping Mall]]. There are also supermarkets on university campuses and they have delivery service for many goods. In the university campus, there are many bookstores. Both the supermarkets and bookstores open seven days a week from 9:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m. In Xiamen, there are also night markets.<br />
<br />
===Zhongshan Road===<br />
This is the main commercial street in Xiamen. It includes traditional shophouses with the latest fashion, shoes and wide variety of products. A large section of the street (between the ferry landing and Siming Street) has recently been fully pedestrianized.<br />
<br />
===Xiahe Road===<br />
This is a newly established busy commercial precinct in Xiamen. Shopping centres located here include Railway Station World Trading Mall, Chengda Mall, Holiday World for Women and Children, Eupa and 3C.<br />
<br />
===Bailuzhou Shopping and Recreational Centre===<br />
It is situated in the upper Hubinzhong Road and has a large assortment of shops and restaurants.<br />
<br />
==Colleges and universities==<br />
[[Image:Xmu campus view.JPG|thumb|250px|A view of the [[Xiamen University]] campus]]<br />
===National===<br />
*[[Xiamen University]] (founded 1921)<br />
<br />
===Public===<br />
*[[Lujiang University]] (厦门理工学院/鹭江职业大学) <br />
*[[Jimei University]] (集美大学) <br />
*[[Xiamen Oceanography Vocational College]] (厦门海洋职业技术学院)<br />
<br />
===Private===<br />
*[[Xiamen Nanyang College]] (厦门南洋学院) <br />
*[[Xiamen Performing Arts College]] (厦门演艺职业学院)<br />
<br />
==Sister cities==<br />
* {{flagicon|Wales}} [[Cardiff]], [[Wales]], since 1983.<br />
* {{flagicon|Japan}} [[Sasebo, Nagasaki|Sasebo]], [[Japan]], since 1983.<br />
* {{flagicon|Philippines}} [[Cebu City|Cebu]], [[Philippines]], since 1984.<br />
* {{flagicon|Mexico}} [[Guadalajara, Jalisco|Guadalajara]], [[Mexico]].<br />
* {{flagicon|Maryland}} [[Baltimore, Maryland|Baltimore]], [[Maryland]], since 1985.<br />
* {{flagicon|New Zealand}} [[Wellington]], [[New Zealand]], since 1987.<br />
* {{flagicon|Malaysia}} [[Penang]], [[Malaysia]], since 1991.<br />
* {{flagicon|South Korea}} [[Mokpo]], [[South Korea]], since 2007.<br />
* {{flagicon|Israel}} [[Netanya]], [[Israel]], since 2008.<br />
* {{flagicon|Poland}} [[Słupsk]], [[Poland]], since 2007.<br />
* {{flagicon|Florida}} [[Sarasota, Florida|Sarasota]], [[Florida]] (pending).<br />
<br />
==Notable inhabitants==<br />
*[[Han Kuo-Huang]], ethnomusicologist<br />
*[[Koxinga]], early Qing dynasty rebel<br />
*[[Lai Changxing]], purported businessman, alleged criminal<br />
*[[Niven Charvet]], poet<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
<references /><br />
*[http://www.amoymagic.com/bhistory.htm History of Xiamen]<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{commonscat|Xiamen}}<br />
<br />
*[http://www.amoymagic.com/main.htm English Guide to Xiamen & Fujian]<br />
*[http://www.xm.gov.cn/ Xiamen Government website]<br />
*{{wikitravel}}<br />
<br />
{{Fujian}}<br />
{{SEZ}}<br />
{{Major cities of Greater China}}<br />
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{{coor title dms|24|27|36|N|118|04|44|E|region:CN_type:city}}<br />
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[[Category:Xiamen|*]]<br />
[[Category:Sub-provincial cities in the People's Republic of China]]<br />
[[Category:Cities in Fujian]]<br />
[[Category:Treaty of Nanking|Amoy]]<br />
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[[zh-min-nan:Ē-mn̂g]]<br />
[[cs:Sia-men]]<br />
[[da:Xiamen]]<br />
[[de:Xiamen]]<br />
[[et:Xiamen]]<br />
[[es:Xiamen]]<br />
[[fr:Xiamen]]<br />
[[gl:Xiamen - 厦门]]<br />
[[ko:샤먼]]<br />
[[id:Xiamen]]<br />
[[hu:Xiamen]]<br />
[[cdo:Â-muòng]]<br />
[[nl:Xiamen]]<br />
[[ja:廈門市]]<br />
[[no:Xiamen]]<br />
[[ug:Shyamén Shehiri]]<br />
[[pl:Xiamen]]<br />
[[pt:Xiamen]]<br />
[[fi:Xiamen]]<br />
[[sv:Xiamen]]<br />
[[th:เซียะเหมิน]]<br />
[[vi:Hạ Môn]]<br />
[[zh:厦门市]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Knight_in_the_Panther%27s_Skin&diff=197469542The Knight in the Panther's Skin2008-03-11T13:48:02Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Illustration to Rustaveli.jpg|thumb|''King Rostevan and Avtandil go hunting''. Illustration from a manuscript by Mamuka Tavakarashvili, 1646]]<br />
'''''The Knight in the Panther's Skin''''' ("'''Vepkhistkaosani'''", „'''ვეფხისტყაოსანი'''“ in [[Georgian language|Georgian]]) is a well-known [[epic poem]] written in the [[12th century]] (though the earliest surviving copy dates to the [[16th century]]) by the [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] poet [[Shota Rustaveli]], who was a Prince, the Treasurer (''Mechurchletukhutsesi'') of [[Tamar of Georgia|Queen Tamar of Georgia]]. ''The Knight in the Panther's Skin'' is often seen as Georgia's national epic. The poem was first printed in [[1712]], in [[Tbilisi]].<br />
<br />
In the [[poem]], Rustaveli talks about Medieval [[Europe]]an [[humanism|humanistic]] ideals: [[chivalry]], feelings of love, friendship, [[courtly love]], courage and fortitude. The [[hero]]es of the poem are brave, philanthropic, and generous. The heroes of the poem are not restricted to Georgian nationality. The regions of [[Arabia]], [[China]], and [[India]] all figure in the poem.<br />
<br />
The [[poem]] was translated to many languages, including [[Hebrew]], [[Russian language|Russian]] (five different translations), [[Polish language|Polish]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Hindi]], [[Arabic]] and [[English language|English]]. The [[poem]] was also translated to most of the languages spoken in the former [[Soviet Union]] and the languages of the former socialistic block.<br />
<br />
The story is of the passionate search for a woman, symbol of the sun, stolen to the west across the sea, by a knight who undertakes the complex task for her distraught suitor.<br />
<br />
== See also == <br />
[[Image:Tariel.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Tariel - One of the main characters of the poem]]<br />
<br />
*[[Shota Rustaveli]]<br />
*[[Culture of Georgia]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/asia/mps/index.htm The Man in the Panther's Skin: full text of M. Wardrop's English translation.]<br />
* [http://oldpoetry.com/poetry/45187 The Knight In The panther's Skin (fragments, on oldpoetry.com)]<br />
* [http://sangha.net/countries/Georgia/shota.htm The Knight In The panther's Skin (fragments, on sangha.net)]<br />
* [http://georgianwines.blogspot.com/2007/04/knight-sets-out-to-rescue-maiden.html "Knight Sets Out to Rescue Maiden, Becomes National Epic," ''From the Cradle of Wine'']<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Knight in the Panther's Skin, The}}<br />
[[Category:Medieval literature]]<br />
[[Category:Georgian literature]]<br />
<br />
[[bg:Витязът в тигрова кожа]]<br />
[[de:Der Recke im Tigerfell]]<br />
[[es:El caballero en la piel de pantera]]<br />
[[et:Kangelane tiigrinahas]]<br />
[[he:עוטה עור הנמר]]<br />
[[ka:ვეფხისტყაოსანი]]<br />
[[lb:Vep'his Tqaosani]]<br />
[[ja:豹皮の騎士]]<br />
[[pl:Rycerz w tygrysiej skórze]]<br />
[[ru:Витязь в тигровой шкуре]]<br />
[[fi:Pantterintaljainen]]<br />
[[uk:Витязь у тигровій шкурі]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The_Knight_in_the_Panther%27s_Skin&diff=197469427The Knight in the Panther's Skin2008-03-11T13:47:14Z<p>Dkc: fixed style for languages</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Illustration to Rustaveli.jpg|thumb|''King Rostevan and Avtandil go hunting''. Illustration from a manuscript by Mamuka Tavakarashvili, 1646]]<br />
'''''The Knight in the Panther's Skin''''' ("'''Vepkhistkaosani'''", „'''ვეფხისტყაოსანი'''“ in [[Georgian language|Georgian]]) is a well-known [[epic poem]] written in the [[12th century]] (though the earliest surviving copy dates to the [[16th century]]) by the [[Georgia (country)|Georgian]] poet [[Shota Rustaveli]], who was a Prince, the Treasurer (''Mechurchletukhutsesi'') of [[Tamar of Georgia|Queen Tamar of Georgia]]. ''The Knight in the Panther's Skin'' is often seen as Georgia's national epic. The poem was first printed in [[1712]], in [[Tbilisi]].<br />
<br />
In the [[poem]], Rustaveli talks about Medieval [[Europe]]an [[humanism|humanistic]] ideals: [[chivalry]], feelings of love, friendship, [[courtly love]], courage and fortitude. The [[hero]]es of the poem are brave, philanthropic, and generous. The heroes of the poem are not restricted to Georgian nationality. The regions of [[Arabia]], [[China]], and [[India]] all figure in the poem.<br />
<br />
The [[poem]] was translated to many languages, including [[Hebrew]], [[Russian language|Russian]] (five different translations), []Polish language|Polish]], [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], [[Italian language|Italian]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Hindi]], [[Arabic]] and [[English language|English]]. The [[poem]] was also translated to most of the languages spoken in the former [[Soviet Union]] and the languages of the former socialistic block.<br />
<br />
The story is of the passionate search for a woman, symbol of the sun, stolen to the west across the sea, by a knight who undertakes the complex task for her distraught suitor.<br />
<br />
== See also == <br />
[[Image:Tariel.jpg|thumb|200px|left|Tariel - One of the main characters of the poem]]<br />
<br />
*[[Shota Rustaveli]]<br />
*[[Culture of Georgia]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.sacred-texts.com/asia/mps/index.htm The Man in the Panther's Skin: full text of M. Wardrop's English translation.]<br />
* [http://oldpoetry.com/poetry/45187 The Knight In The panther's Skin (fragments, on oldpoetry.com)]<br />
* [http://sangha.net/countries/Georgia/shota.htm The Knight In The panther's Skin (fragments, on sangha.net)]<br />
* [http://georgianwines.blogspot.com/2007/04/knight-sets-out-to-rescue-maiden.html "Knight Sets Out to Rescue Maiden, Becomes National Epic," ''From the Cradle of Wine'']<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Knight in the Panther's Skin, The}}<br />
[[Category:Medieval literature]]<br />
[[Category:Georgian literature]]<br />
<br />
[[bg:Витязът в тигрова кожа]]<br />
[[de:Der Recke im Tigerfell]]<br />
[[es:El caballero en la piel de pantera]]<br />
[[et:Kangelane tiigrinahas]]<br />
[[he:עוטה עור הנמר]]<br />
[[ka:ვეფხისტყაოსანი]]<br />
[[lb:Vep'his Tqaosani]]<br />
[[ja:豹皮の騎士]]<br />
[[pl:Rycerz w tygrysiej skórze]]<br />
[[ru:Витязь в тигровой шкуре]]<br />
[[fi:Pantterintaljainen]]<br />
[[uk:Витязь у тигровій шкурі]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Iran&diff=193051209Iran2008-02-21T15:45:24Z<p>Dkc: Iran doesn’t border Kazakhstan and Russia</p>
<hr />
<div>{{sprotect2}}<br />
{{Infobox Country<br />
|native_name = '''جمهوری اسلامی ايران'''<br> ''Jomhūrī-ye Eslāmī-ye Īrān''<br />
|conventional_long_name = Islamic Republic of Iran<br />
|common_name = Iran<br />
|image_flag = Flag of Iran.svg<br />
|image_coat = Coat of arms of Iran.svg<br />
|symbol_type = Emblem<br />
|image_map = LocationIran.png<br />
|official_religion = [[Shi'a Islam]]<br />
|national_motto = ''Esteqlāl, āzādī, jomhūrī-ye eslāmī''&nbsp;<sup>1</sup>{{spaces|2}}<small>{{fa icon}}<br/>"Independence, freedom, Islamic Republic"</small><br />
|national_anthem = ''[[Sorud-e Melli-e Iran|Sorūd-e Mellī-e Īrān]]''&nbsp;²<br />
|capital = [[Tehran]]<br />
|latd=35 |latm=41 |latNS=N |longd=51 |longm=25 |longEW=E<br />
|largest_city = capital<br />
|official_languages = [[Persian language|Persian]], Constitutional status for regional languages, e.g. [[Azeri language | Azeri]] and [[Kurdish language | Kurdish]] <ref> http://www.servat.unibe.ch/law/icl/ir00000_.html </ref> <br />
|demonym = Iranian<br />
|government_type = [[Islamic republic|Islamic Republic]]<br />
|leader_title1 = [[Supreme Leader of Iran|Supreme Leader]]<br />
|leader_name1 = {{nowrap|[[Ayatollah]] [[Ali Khamenei]]}}<br />
|leader_title2 = [[President of Iran|President]] <br />
|leader_name2 = {{nowrap|[[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]]}}<br />
|sovereignty_type = Unification<br />
|established_event1 = [[Cyrus the Great|Unified by Cyrus the Great]]<br />
|established_date1 = 559 BCE<br />
|established_event2 = [[Parthia|Parthian (Arsacid) dynastic empire<br/>(first reunification)]]<br />
|established_date2 = 248 BCE – 224 CE<br />
|established_event3 = [[Sasanian|Sassanid<br/>dynastic empire]]<br />
|established_date3 = 224–651 CE<br />
|established_event4 = [[Safavid|Safavid dynasty<br/>(second reunification)]]<br />
|established_date4 = May 1502<br />
|established_event5 = [[Iranian Constitution of 1906|First&nbsp;Constitution]]<br />
|established_date5 = 1906<br />
|established_event6 = [[Iranian Revolution|Islamic&nbsp;Revolution]]<br />
|established_date6 = 1979<br />
|area_km2 = 1,648,195<br />
|area_sq_mi = 636,372 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--><br />
|area_rank = 18th<br />
|area_magnitude = 1 E12<br />
|percent_water = 0.7<br />
<!--<br />
|population_estimate = 71,208,000³<br />
|population_estimate_year = 2007<br />
|population_estimate_rank = 18th<br />
--><br />
|population_density_km2 = 42<br />
|population_density_sq_mi = 109 <!--Do not remove per [[WP:MOSNUM]]--><br />
|population_density_rank = 163th <!--Wiki source--><br />
|population_census = 71,208,000³<br />
|population_census_year = 2007 (1385&nbsp;[[Iranian calendar|AP]])<br />
|population_census_rank = 17th<br />
|GDP_PPP = $852 billion (2007)<ref name="cia">{{cite web |url=https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html |title="Iran" |author=CIA World Factbook |accessdate=2007-01-26}}</ref><br /><br />
|GDP_PPP_rank = 15th<ref name="cia" /><br />
|GDP_PPP_year = 2007<br />
|GDP_PPP_per_capita = $12,300 <ref name="cia" /><br /> <br />
|GDP_PPP_per_capita_rank = 65th<br />
|GDP_nominal = $222,889 billion <!--Wold Bank figures--><br />
|GDP_nominal_rank = 29nd<br />
|GDP_nominal_year = 2005/2006<br />
|GDP_nominal_per_capita = $3,920 <!--IMF figures--><br />
|GDP_nominal_per_capita_rank = 89nd<br />
|Gini = 43.0<br />
|Gini_year = 1998<br />
|Gini_category = medium<br />
|HDI_year = 2007<br />
|HDI = {{increase}} 0.759<br />
|HDI_rank = 94th<br />
|HDI_category = medium<br />
|currency = [[Iranian rial]] (<big>ريال</big>)<br />
|currency_code = IRR<br />
|time_zone = [[Iran Standard Time|IRST]]<br />
|utc_offset = +3:30<br />
|time_zone_DST = not observed<br />
|utc_offset_DST = +3:30<br />
|cctld = [[.ir]]<br />
|calling_code = 98<br />
|footnote1 = [http://www.bookrags.com/browse/Encyclopedia%20of%20Religious%20Practices/50 bookrags.com]<br />
|footnote2 = [http://www.iranchamber.com/geography/articles/flag_anthem.php iranchamber.com]<br />
|footnote3 = {{cite web |url=http://www.sci.org.ir/content/userfiles/_census85/census85/natayej/tables/J-1.html |title=تغییرات جمعیت کشور طی سالهای ۱۳۳۵-۱۳۸۵ |author=Statistical Centre of Iran|accessdate=2007-05-16|language=Persian}}<br />
|footnote4 = [https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ir.html#Econ CIA Factbook]<br />
}}<br />
{{portal|Iran|Flag of Iran.svg|48}}<br />
'''Iran''', ({{PerB|<big>ايران</big>}},{{Audio-IPA|Iran_alborz.ogg|[ʔiˈɾɒn]}} ĭrănˈ), officially the '''[[Islamic Republic]] of Iran''' ({{PerB|<big>جمهوری اسلامی ايران</big>}}, {{pronounced|dʒomhuɾije ʔeslɒmije ʔiɾɒn}}), formerly known internationally as '''[[Persian Empire|Persia]]''' until 1935, is a country in [[Central Eurasia]]. Located in the heart of the [[Persian Gulf]], an important oil-producing area, Iran is bounded by the [[Gulf of Oman]] to its south-east and the [[Caspian Sea]] to its north. [[Shi'a Islam]] is the official religion, and [[Persian language|Persian]] is the official language<ref>{{cite web|title=قانون اساسی جمهوری اسلامی ایران|url=http://fa.wikisource.org/wiki/قانون_اساسی_جمهوری_اسلامی_ایران|language=Persian}} retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> The 18th largest country in the world in terms of area at 1,648,195 km², Iran has a population of over seventy million. Iran borders [[Armenia]], [[Azerbaijan]] and [[Turkmenistan]] to the north, [[Afghanistan]] and [[Pakistan]] to the east, and [[Turkey]] and [[Iraq]] to the west.<br />
<br />
Iran is home to one of the world's oldest continuous major civilizations, with historical and urban settlements dating back to 4000 [[Before Common Era|BCE]].<ref name="xinhuaciv">[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-08/10/content_6508609.htm Xinhua, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iran-daily">[http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2795/html/panorama.htm Iran Daily, "Panorama", 3 Mar 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iranian.ws">[http://www.iranian.ws/iran_news/publish/article_22427.shtml Iranian.ws, "Archaeologists: Modern civilization began in Iran based on new evidence", 12 Aug 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> Throughout history, Iran has been of [[geostrategy|geostrategic]] importance because of its central location in [[Eurasia]] and is a [[regional power]].<ref name="parliament">[http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/cm200607/cmselect/cmfaff/363/36310.htm parliament.uk, "Select Committee on Foreign Affairs, Eighth Report, Iran], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="petro-hunt">[http://www.petro-hunt.com/lectures/LectureOpen.htm IRAN @ 2000 and Beyond lecture series, opening address, W. Herbert Hunt, 18 May 2000], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> Iran is a founding member of the [[United Nations|UN]], [[Non-Aligned Movement|NAM]], [[Organization of the Islamic Conference|OIC]], and [[Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries|OPEC]]. The [[Politics and Government of Iran|political system of Iran]], based on the 1979 [[Constitution of Islamic Republic of Iran|Constitution]], comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. The highest state authority is [[Supreme Leader of Iran|the Supreme Leader]], currently [[Ayatollah]] [[Ali Khamenei]]. <br />
<br />
Iran occupies an important position in international energy security and world economy as a result of of its large reserves of [[petroleum]] and [[natural gas]].<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/5363098.stm BBC News — ''Iran's growing regional influence'']</ref> The name Iran is a [[cognate]] of ''Aryan'', and means "Land of the [[Aryans]]".<ref name="hinduwebsite">[http://www.hinduwebsite.com/hinduism/concepts/arya.asp hinduwebsite.com, "The Concepts of Hinduism — Arya"], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="wiscper">[http://imp.lss.wisc.edu/~aoliai/languagepage/iranianlanguages.htm imp.lss.wisc.edu, "Iranian Languages", Political, Social, Scientific, Literary & Artistic (Monthly) Oct 2000, No. 171, Dr. Suzan Kaviri, pp. 26–7], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="about.com">[http://ancienthistory.about.com/od/persianempiremaps/qt/Iran.htm "Iran — The Ancient Name of Iran", N.S. Gill], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> "Land of Kindness" (سرزمين مهر) is used as an alternative name for Iran in [[Persian literature]] and [[Iranian media]].<ref>http://www.chtn.ir/newsShow.aspx?ID=23455 retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><ref>Ali Akbar Sadeghi, ''Iran the Land of Love'' ISBN 964 Goya Publishing Company published:1994</ref><br />
<br />
== Etymology ==<br />
{{main|Etymology of Iran}}<br />
{{seealso|Iran naming dispute}}<br />
<br />
The term ''Iran'' (ایران) in modern Persian derives from the [[Proto-Iranian]] term ''Aryānām'' first attested in [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrianism's]] [[Avesta]] tradition.<ref name="Bailey_Arya">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Bailey|first=Harold Walter|title=Arya|page=681-683|year=1987|volume=2|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|location=New York|publisher=Routledge & Kegan Paul|http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f7/v2f7a004.html}}</ref> ''Ariya-'' and ''Airiia-'' are also attested as an ethnic designator in [[Achaemenid]] inscriptions. The term ''Ērān'' from [[Middle Persian]] ''Ērān'', [[Pahlavi]] ''ʼyrʼn'', is found at the inscription that accompanies the investiture relief of [[Ardashir I]] at [[Naqsh-e Rustam]].<ref name="MacKenzie">{{cite encyclopedia|last=MacKenzie|first=David Niel|title=Ērān, Ērānšahr|year=1998|volume=8|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Iranica|publisher=Mazda|location=Cosa Mesa|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v8f5/v8f545.html}}</ref> In this inscription, the king's appellation in Middle Persian contains the term ''ērān'' (Pahlavi: ''ʼryʼn''), while in the [[Parthian language]] inscription that accompanies it, Iran is mentioned as ''aryān''. In Ardashir's time ''ērān'' retained this meaning, denoting ''the people'' rather than ''the state''. <br />
<br />
Notwithstanding this inscriptional use of ''ērān'' to refer to the [[Iranian peoples]], the use of ''ērān'' to refer to the geographical empire is also attested in the early Sassanid period. An inscription of [[Shapur I]], Ardashir's son and immediate successor, apparently "includes in ''Ērān'' regions such as [[Armenia]] and the [[Caucasus]] which were not inhabited predominantly by Iranians."<ref name="Gignoux_Aneran">{{cite encyclopedia|title=Anērān|url=http://www.iranica.com/newsite/articles/v2f1/v2f1a035.html}}</ref> In [[Kartir|Kartir's]] inscriptions the high priest includes the same regions in his list of provinces of the antonymic ''Anērān''.<ref name="Gignoux_Aneran" /> Both ''ērān'' and ''aryān'' comes from the [[Proto-Iranian]] term ''Aryānām'', (Land) of the (Iranian) Aryas. The word and concept of [[Airyanem Vaejah]] is present in the name of the country Iran (Lit. Land of the Aryans) inasmuch as Iran (''Ērān'') is the modern Persian form of the word ''Aryānā''.<br />
<br />
Since the [[Iranian Revolution]] of 1979, the official name of the country has been the "Islamic Republic of Iran."<br />
<br />
In the outside world the official name of Iran from 6th century BC until 1935 was '''[[Persia]]''' or similar names. In that year Reza Shah asked the international community to call the country by the name "Iran". A few years later some Persian scholars protested to the government that changing the name had separated the country from its past, so in 1959 [[Mohammad Reza Shah]] announced that both terms could officially be used interchangeably. Now both terms are common, but "Iran" is used mostly in the modern political context and "Persia" in a cultural and historical context.<br />
==Geography and climate==<br />
[[Image:Iran BMNG.png|thumb|Satellite image of Iran]]<br />
{{main|Geography of Iran}}<br />
{{seealso|Agriculture in Iran|Wildlife of Iran}}<br />
Iran is the [[List of countries and outlying territories by total area|eighteenth largest country]] in the world after [[Libya]] and before [[Mongolia]].<ref>[http://www.mongabay.com/igapo/world_statistics_by_area.htm World Statistics by Area] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Its area roughly equals that of the [[United Kingdom]], [[France]], [[Spain]], and [[Germany]] combined, or slightly less<!-- cf: this article claims area of Iran 1.6 million km2, Alaska article claims Alaska 1.7 million km2 --> than the state of [[Alaska]].<ref>[http://www.ngallery.org/middle_east/iran.html Welcome to Iran]</ref> <ref>[http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/Asia-and-Oceania/Iran-LOCATION-SIZE-AND-EXTENT.html Iran-Location, size, and extent] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Its borders are with [[Azerbaijan]] (432&nbsp;km/268&nbsp;mi) and [[Armenia]] (35&nbsp;km/22&nbsp;mi) to the north-west; the [[Caspian Sea]] to the north; [[Turkmenistan]] (992&nbsp;km/616&nbsp;mi) to the north-east; [[Pakistan]] (909&nbsp;km/565&nbsp;mi) and [[Afghanistan]] (936&nbsp;km/582&nbsp;mi) to the east; [[Turkey]] (499&nbsp;km/310&nbsp;mi) and Iraq (1,458&nbsp;km/906&nbsp;mi) to the west; and finally the waters of the [[Persian Gulf]] and the [[Gulf of Oman]] to the south. Iran's area is 1,648,000&nbsp;[[square kilometre|km²]] (approximately 636,300&nbsp;[[square mile|sq&nbsp;mi]]).<ref name="cia"/><br />
<br />
Iran consists of the [[Iranian Plateau]] with the exception of the coasts of the [[Caspian Sea]] and [[Khuzestan]]. It is one of the world's most mountainous countries, its landscape dominated by rugged [[mountain range]]s that separate various [[drainage basin|basins]] or [[plateau]]x from one another. The populous western part is the most mountainous, with ranges such as the [[Caucasus Mountains|Caucasus]], [[Zagros Mountains|Zagros]] and [[Alborz]] Mountains; the latter contains Iran's highest point, [[Mount Damavand]] at 5,604&nbsp;[[metre|m]] (18,386&nbsp;ft), which is not only the country's highest peak but also the highest mountain on the Eurasian landmass west of the [[Hindu Kush]].<ref>[http://news.surfwax.com/geography/files/Hindu_Kush_Mountains.html SurfWax: News, Reviews and Articles On Hindu Kush<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> The eastern part consists mostly of [[desert]] basins like the saline [[Dasht-e Kavir]], Iran's largest desert, in the north-central portion of the country, and the [[Dasht-e Lut]], in the east, as well as some [[salt lake (geography)|salt lake]]s. This is because the mountain ranges are too high for rain clouds to reach these regions.<br />
[[Image:Damavand3.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mount Damavand]] is Iran's highest point.]]<br />
The only large [[plain]]s are found along the coast of the [[Caspian Sea]] and at the northern end of the Persian Gulf, where Iran borders the mouth of the [[Shatt al-Arab]] (or the Arvand Rūd) river. Smaller, discontinuous plains are found along the remaining coast of the Persian Gulf, the [[Strait of Hormuz]] and the [[Sea of Oman]].<br />
[[Image:Fars.jpg|thumb|The landscape of [[Fars Province]]]]<br />
Iran's [[climate]] is mostly [[arid]] or [[semiarid]], to [[subtropical]] along the Caspian coast. On the northern edge of the country (the Caspian coastal plain) temperatures nearly fall below freezing and it remains humid for the rest of the year. Summer temperatures rarely exceed 29 [[Celsius|°C]] (84 [[Fahrenheit|°F]]).<ref>[http://www.weneedtrees.com/iran/nature.asp Nature & Mountains of Iran]</ref><ref name="simmons">[http://my.simmons.edu/lcis/zoom/2005/10/iran-_current_i.html Iran- Current Information]</ref> Annual precipitation is 680&nbsp;[[Millimetre|mm]] (27&nbsp;[[inch|in]]) in the eastern part of the plain and more than 1,700&nbsp;mm (67&nbsp;in) in the western part. To the west, settlements in the [[Zagros Mountains|Zagros]] basin experience lower temperatures, severe winters with below zero average daily temperatures and heavy snowfall. The eastern and central basins are arid, with less than 200&nbsp;mm (eight in) of rain, and have occasional deserts.<ref name="simmons" /> Average summer temperatures exceed 38 °C (100 °F). The coastal plains of the [[Persian Gulf]] and [[Gulf of Oman]] in southern Iran have mild winters, and very humid and hot summers. The annual precipitation ranges from 135 to 355&nbsp;mm (five to fourteen inches).<ref name="simmons" /><br />
<br />
<br />
=== Provinces and Cities ===<br />
{{main|Provinces of Iran|Counties of Iran}}<br />
<br />
Iran is divided into 30 [[Provinces of Iran|provinces]] (''ostān''), each governed by an appointed governor (استاندار, ostāndār). The provinces are divided into counties (''[[Shahrestan|shahrestān]]''), and subdivided into districts (''[[bakhsh]]'') and sub-districts (''dehestān'').<br />
<br />
[[Image:IranNumbered.png|right|300px|Provinces of Iran]]<br />
{| style="background:transparent;"<br />
|- valign="top"<br />
|<br />
{| style="background:transparent; font-size:90%;"<br />
| 1. || [[Tehran Province|Tehran]]</tr><br />
| 2. || [[Qom Province|Qom]]<tr/><br />
| 3. || [[Markazi Province|Markazi]]<tr/><br />
| 4. || [[Qazvin Province|Qazvin]]<tr/><br />
| 5. || [[Gīlān Province|Gīlān]]<tr/><br />
| 6. || [[Ardabil Province|Ardabil]]<tr/><br />
| 7. || [[Zanjan Province|Zanjan]]<tr/><br />
| 8. || [[East Azerbaijan Province|East Azerbaijan]]{{spaces|3}}<tr/><br />
| 9. || [[West Azerbaijan Province|West Azerbaijan]]<tr/><br />
| 10. || [[Kurdistan province (Iran)|Kurdistan]]<tr/><br />
|}<br />
|<br />
{| style="background:transparent; font-size:90%;"<br />
| 11. || [[Hamadān Province|Hamadān]]<tr/><br />
| 12. || [[Kermanshah Province|Kermanshah]]<tr/><br />
| 13. || [[Īlām Province|Īlām]]<tr/><br />
| 14. || [[Lorestān Province|Lorestān]]<tr/><br />
| 15. || [[Khūzestān Province|Khūzestān]]<tr/><br />
| 16. || [[Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari Province|Chaharmahal and Bakhtiari]]<tr/><br />
| 17. || [[Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad Province|Kohgiluyeh and Boyer-Ahmad]]{{spaces|3}}<tr/><br />
| 18. || [[Bushehr Province|Bushehr]]<tr/><br />
| 19. || [[Fārs Province|Fārs]]<tr/><br />
| 20. || [[Hormozgān Province|Hormozgān]]<tr/><br />
|}<br />
|<br />
{| style="background:transparent; font-size:90%;"<br />
| 21. || [[Sistan and Baluchestan Province|Sistān and Baluchestān]]{{spaces|3}}<tr/><br />
| 22. || [[Kermān Province|Kermān]]<tr/><br />
| 23. || [[Yazd Province|Yazd]]<tr/> <br />
| 24. || [[Isfahan Province|Isfahan]]<tr/><br />
| 25. || [[Semnān Province|Semnān]]<tr/><br />
| 26. || [[Māzandarān Province|Māzandarān]]<tr/><br />
| 27. || [[Golestān Province|Golestān]]<tr/><br />
| 28. || [[North Khorasan Province|North Khorasan]]<tr/><br />
| 29. || [[Razavi Khorasan Province|Razavi Khorasan]]<tr/><br />
| 30. || [[South Khorasan Province|South Khorasan]]<tr/><br />
|}<br />
|<br />
|}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Azadi1.jpg|thumb|upright|left|200px|After the revolution, Shahyad Tower was renamed [[Azadi Tower|Freedom Tower]]]]<br />
Iran has one of the highest urban-growth rates in the world. From 1950 to 2002 the urban proportion of the population increased from 27% to 60%.<ref name="payvand2">{{cite web |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/03/nov/1135.html |title="Iran: Focus on reverse migration" |author=Payvand |accessdate=2006-04-17}}</ref> The United Nations predicts that by 2030 80% of the population will be urban.<ref name="sci.org.ir">[http://www.sci.org.ir/portal/faces/public/census85/census85.natayej/census85.abadipage "Islamic Azad University"], retrieved 28 Jan 2008</ref> Most internal migrants have settled near the cities of [[Tehran]], [[Isfahan]], [[Ahvaz]], and [[Qom]]. The listed populations are from the 2006/07 (1385 [[Iranian calendar|AP]]) census.<ref>[http://www.sci.org.ir/portal/faces/public/census85/census85.natayej/census85.abadipage Iranian National Portal of Statistics]</ref><br />
<br />
[[Tehran]], with population of 7,705,036, is the largest city in Iran and is the Capital city. [[Tehran]] is home to around 11% of Iran's population. Tehran, like many big cities, suffers from severe air pollution. It is the hub of the country's [[Communications in Iran|communication]] and [[transport in Iran|transport]] network. Mashhad is the second largest Iranian city and is one of the holiest [[Shi'a]] cities in the world as it is the site of the [[Imam Reza shrine]]. It is the second largest city and with a population of 2.8 million is the centre of the province of [[Razavi Khorasan]]. It's the centre of tourism in Iran and between 15 and 20 million pilgrims go to the [[Imam Reza]]'s shrine every year.<ref>[http://www.iran-daily.com/1383/2211/html/panorama.htm Religious Tourism Potentials Rich]</ref><ref>[http://www.sacredsites.com/middle_east/iran/mashad.htm Mashhad, Iran]</ref><br />
The other major Iranian city is [[Isfahan]] (population city: 1,986,542). [[Isfahan]] is the capital of [[Isfahan Province]]. The [[Naghsh-e Jahan Square]] in Isfahan has been designated by [[UNESCO]] as a [[World Heritage Site]]. The city also contains a wide variety of [[Islamic architecture|Islamic architectural]] sites ranging from the eleventh to the nineteenth century. The growth of suburb area around the city has turned Isfahan to the second most populous metropolitan area. (Isfahan metro population; 3,430,353).<ref>[http://www.sci.org.ir/content/userfiles/_census85/census85/natayej/township/Os10.xls]</ref> <br />
The other majour Iranian cities are [[Karaj]] (population 1,732,275) [[Shiraz]] (population 1,711,1860) and [[Tabriz]] (population 1,597,312). Tabriz is situated north of the volcanic cone of [[Sahand]] south of the [[Eynali]] mountain. [[Tabriz]] is the largest city in north-western Iran and is the capital of [[East Azarbaijan Province]]. [[Karaj]] is located in [[Tehran province]] and is situated 20&nbsp;km west of [[Tehran]], at the foot of [[Alborz]] mountains, however the city is increasingly becoming an extension of the metropolitan [[Tehran]].<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
===Early history (3200&nbsp;BCE&ndash;728&nbsp;BCE)===<br />
{{main|History of Iran|Zayandeh Rud civilization|Jiroft civilization|Elam}}<br />
[[Image:Iran.jpg|thumb|right|Map of the world by [[Eratosthenes]], [[Circa|c.]]200 BCE. The name Ariana (Aryânâ) was used to describe the region where the [[Iranian Plateau]] is found.]]<br />
Dozens of [[prehistory|pre-historic]] sites across the Iranian plateau point to the existence of ancient cultures and urban settlements in the [[fourth millennium BC]]E,<ref name="xinhuaciv">[http://news.xinhuanet.com/english/2007-08/10/content_6508609.htm Xinhua, "New evidence: modern civilization began in Iran", 10 Aug 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iran-daily">[http://www.iran-daily.com/1385/2795/html/panorama.htm Iran Daily, "Panorama", 3 Mar 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref><ref name="iranian.ws">[http://www.iranian.ws/iran_news/publish/article_22427.shtml Iranian.ws, "Archaeologists: Modern civilization began in Iran based on new evidence", 12 Aug 2007], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> centuries before the earliest civilizations arose in nearby [[Mesopotamia]].<ref>http://oi.uchicago.edu/OI/MUS/VOL/NN_SUM94/NN_Sum94.html retrieved 2006-04-29</ref><br />
<br />
[[Proto-Iranian]]s first emerged following the separation of [[Indo-Iranians]], and are traced to the [[Bactria-Margiana Archaeological Complex]].<ref name="Panshin"> [http://www.panshin.com/trogholm/wonder/indoeuropean/indoeuropean3.html "The Palaeolithic Indo-Europeans"] &mdash; Panshin.com (retrieved [[4 June]] [[2006]])</ref> [[Aryan]], ([[Ancient Iranian peoples|Proto-Iranian]]) tribes arrived in the [[Iranian plateau]] in the third and second [[millennium]]&nbsp;BCE, probably in more than one wave of emigration, and settled as nomads. Further separation of Proto-Iranians into "Eastern" and "Western" groups occurred due to migration. By the first millennium BCE, [[Medes]], [[Persian people|Persians]], [[Bactria]]ns and [[Parthia|Parthians]] populated the western part, while [[Cimmerians]], [[Sarmatians]] and [[Alans]] populated the steppes north of the [[Black Sea]]. Other tribes began to settle on the eastern edge, as far as on the mountainous frontier of north-western [[Indian subcontinent]] and in to the area which is now [[Balochistan (region)|Balochistan]]. Others, such as the [[Scythia]]n tribes spread as far west as the [[Balkans]] and as far east as [[Xinjiang]]. [[Avestan]] is an eastern Old Iranian language that was used to compose the sacred hymns and canon of the [[Zoroastrianism|Zoroastrian]] [[Avesta]], approximately around 1000 BCE. [[Zoroastrianism]] was the state religion of the Achaemenid empire and later Iranian empires, until the seventh century CE.<br />
<br />
===Early Statehood (728&nbsp;BCE&ndash;651 CE)===<br />
{{main|Median Empire|Achaemenid Empire|Seleucid Empire|Parthian Empire|Sassanid Empire}} {{seealso|Persian Empire|Roman-Persian Wars|Roman relations with the Parthians and Sassanids}}<br />
[[Image:Cyrus cilinder.jpg|left|thumb|180px|The [[Cyrus Cylinder]] artifact was inscribed in Babylonian [[cuneiform script|cuneiform]] at Cyrus' command after his conquest of Babylon and is considered the first recorded [[declaration of human rights]] in history.]]<br />
The [[Medes|Median Empire]](728–550&nbsp;BCE) is credited with being the first Iranian state and Iran's first empire, the largest of its day, until [[Cyrus the Great]] established a unified empire of the Medes and [[Persian people|Persians]] leading to the [[Achaemenid Empire]] (648–330&nbsp;BCE), and further unification between peoples and cultures. After Cyrus's death, his son Cambyses continued his father's work of conquest, making significant gains in Egypt. A power struggle followed Cambyses' death and, despite his tenuous connection to the royal line, [[Darius I]] was declared king (ruled 522–486&nbsp;BCE). He was to be arguably the greatest of the ancient Iranian rulers.<br />
<br />
Under [[Cyrus the Great]] and [[Darius the Great]], the Persian Empire eventually became the largest and most powerful empire in human history up until that point.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.wsu.edu/~dee/MESO/PERSIANS.HTM |title=The Persians|accessdate=2006-08-20}}</ref> The borders of the [[Persian empire]] stretched from the [[Indus]] and [[Oxus]] Rivers in the east to the [[Aegean Sea]] in the west. In 499BCE Athens lent support to a revolt in [[Miletus]] which resulted in the sacking of [[Sardis]]. This led to an Achaemenid campaign against Greece known as the [[Greco-Persian Wars]] which lasted the first half of the fifth century BC. During the [[Greco-Persian wars]] Persia made some major advantages and razed Athens in 480BCE, But after a string of Greek victories the Persians were forced to withdraw. Fighting ended with the [[peace of Callias]] in 449BCE. <br />
[[Image:Achaemenid Empire.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The [[Achaemenid Empire]]]]<br />
The Achaemenid's greatest achievement was the empire itself. The rules and ethics emanating from Zoroaster's teachings were strictly followed by the Achaemenids who introduced and adopted policies based on [[human rights]], [[equality]] and banning of [[slavery]]. Zoroastrianism spread unimposed during the time of the Achaemenids and through contacts with the exiled [[Jewish]] people in [[Babylon]] freed by Cyrus, Zoroastrian concepts further propagated and influenced into other [[Abrahamic religions]]. The [[Golden Age of Athens]] marked by [[Aristotle]], [[Plato]] and [[Socrates]] also came about during the Achaemenid period while their contacts with Persia and the Near East abounded. The peace, tranquillity, security and prosperity that were afforded to the people of the [[Achaemenid Empire]] proved to be a rare historical occurrence, an unparalleled period where commerce prospered, and the standard of living for all people of the region improved.<ref name="vohuman">[http://www.vohuman.org/Article/Historical%20perspective%20on%20Zoroastrianism.htm vohuman.org, "Historical perspective on Zoroastrianism", Reproduced from Âtaš-è Dorün — The Fire Within, Jamshid Soroush Soroushian Memorial Volume II, 1st Books Library, Bloomington, IN, 2003], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> <br />
<br />
[[Alexander the Great]] invaded Achaemenid territory in 334 BCE, defeating the last Achaemenid Emperor [[Darius III]] at the [[Battle of Issus]] in 333 BCE. He left the annexed territory in 328&ndash;327. In each of the former Achaemenid territories he installed his own officers as caretakers, which led to friction and ultimately to the [[Partition of Babylon|partitioning of the former empire]] after Alexander's death. Unlike the [[diadochi]]c Seleucids and the succeeding Arsacids, who used a [[vassal state|vassalary system]], the Sassanids—like the Achaemenids—had a system of governors (MP: ''shahrab'') personally appointed by the Emperor and directed by the central government.<br />
[[Image:ShapurII bust NYMMA.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Sassanid art]] <br />
[[Parthia]] was led by the Arsacid Dynasty (اشکانیان Ashkâniân), who reunited and ruled over the Iranian plateau in the late third century BCE, after defeating the [[Hellenic Greece|Greek]] [[Seleucid Empire]]. After the conquests of [[Medes|Media]], [[Assyria]], [[Babylonia]] and [[Elam]], the Parthians had to organize their empire. The former elites of these countries were [[Greeks|Greek]], and the new rulers had to adapt to their customs if they wanted their rule to last. As a result, the cities retained their ancient rights and civil administrations remained more or less undisturbed. Parthia was the arch-enemy of the [[Roman Empire]] in the east, limiting Rome's expansion beyond [[Cappadocia]] (central [[Anatolia]]). By using a heavily-armed and armoured [[cataphract]] cavalry, and lightly armed but highly-mobile [[Horse archer|mounted archers]], the Parthians "held their own against Rome for almost 300 years".<ref>''Persians: Masters of Empire'', 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.142–143,Time-life Books </ref> Rome's acclaimed general [[Mark Antony]] led a disastrous campaign against the Parthians in 36 BCE in which he lost 32,000 men. By the time of Roman emperor [[Augustus]], Rome and Parthia were settling some of their differences through diplomacy. By this time, Parthia had acquired an assortment of ''golden eagles'', the cherished [[Aquila (Roman)|standards of Rome's legions]], captured from [[Mark Antony]], and [[Crassus]], who suffered "a disastrous defeat" at [[Carrhae]] in 53 BCE.<ref>Cotterell, Arthur. ''From Aristotle to Zoroaster: An a to Z Companion to the Classical World.'' 1998. p.272, Free Press</ref><br />
<br />
The end of the Parthian Empire came after five centuries of ruling over the Iranian Plateau in 224 CE, when the empire was loosely organized and the last king was defeated by [[Ardashir I]], one of the empire's vassals. [[Ardashir I]] then went on to create the Sassanid Empire. Soon he started reforming the country both economically and militarily. The Sassanids established an empire roughly within the frontiers achieved by the Achaemenids, referring to it as ''Erânshahr'' or ''Iranshahr'', ''[[Image:Eranshahr.svg|75px30px]]'' , "Dominion of the Aryans", i.e. of [[Iranian peoples|Iranians]]), with their capital at [[Ctesiphon]].<ref>Garthwaite, Gene R., ''The Persians'', p. 2, ISBN 1405156805, Wiley-Blackwell (2006) </ref> The Romans suffered repeated losses particularly by [[Ardashir I]], [[Shapur I]], and [[Shapur II]].<ref>Lorentz, John H. ''Historical Dictionary of Iran.''Asian Historical Dictionaries; No.16. 1995. ISBN 9780810829947, p.189</ref> During their reign, Sassanid battles with the [[Roman Empire]] caused such pessimism in [[Rome]] that the historian [[Cassius Dio]] wrote: <br />
[[Image:Sassanid-empire-610CE.png|thumb|300px|right|The Sassanid Empire at its greatest extent under [[Khosrau II]]]]{{Cquote|<br />
''Here was a source of great fear to us. So formidable does the Sassanid king seem to our eastern legions, that some are liable to go over to him, and others are unwilling to fight at all''.}}<ref>Arthur Cotterell, ''From Aristotle to Zoroaster: An a to Z Companion to the Classical World''. 1998. ISBN 0684855968, p.344–345, Free Press</ref><br />
<br />
In 632AD raiders from the Arab peninsula began attacking the [[Sassanid Empire]]. Iran was defeated in the [[Battle of al-Qâdisiyah]], paving way for the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]].<br />
<br />
During Parthian, and later [[Sassanid]] era, trade on the [[Silk Road]] was a significant factor in the development of the great [[civilization]]s of [[China]], [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[Mesopotamia]], [[Persia]], [[Indian subcontinent]], and [[Ancient Rome|Rome]], and helped to lay the foundations for the modern world. Parthian remains display classically Greek influences in some instances and retain their oriental mode in others, a clear expression of "the cultural diversity that characterized Parthian art and life".<ref>''Persians: Masters of Empire'', 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.134, Time-life Books</ref> The Parthians were [[Parthian style (Iranian architecture)|innovators of many architecture designs]] such as that of [[Ctesiphon]], which bears resemblance to, and might have influenced, European [[Romanesque architecture]].<ref>''Persians: Masters of Empire'', 1995, ISBN 0809491044, p.138, Time-life Books</ref><ref>''"Even the architecture of the Christian church, with its hallowed chancel seems inspired by the designs of [[Mithra]]ic temples"''. [[Abbas Milani]]. ''Lost Wisdom''. 2004. Mage Publishers. p.13. ISBN 0934211906</ref> Under the Sassanids, Iran [[Iran-China relations|expanded relations with China]], the [[Sassanid art|arts]], [[Sassanid music|music]], and [[Sassanid architecture|architecture]] greatly flourished, and centres such as the [[School of Nisibis]] and [[Academy of Gundishapur]] became world renowned centres of science and scholarship.<br />
<br />
===Middle Ages (652&ndash;1501)===<br />
{{main|Islamization in Iran|Abbasid Caliphate|Ilkhanate|Timurid Dynasty|Mongol Empire|Khwarezmian Empire|Seljuk dynasty|Buyid Dynasty|Ghaznavid Empire}}<br />
[[Image:Iran circa 1000AD.png|thumb|right|250px|Map of Iranian Dynasties around [[1000]] AD]]<br />
After the [[Islamic conquest of Persia]], Iran was annexed into the [[Umayyad|Arab Umayyad Caliphate]]. But the [[Islamization in Iran|Islamization of Iran]] was to yield deep transformations within the cultural, scientific, and political structure of Iran's society: The blossoming of [[Persian literature]], [[Iranian philosophy|philosophy]], [[Science and technology in Iran|medicine]] and [[Persian art|art]] became major elements of the newly-forming Muslim civilization. [[Culturally]], [[politically]], and religiously, the Iranian contribution to this new [[Islamic civilization]] is of immense importance. Indeed, the culmination of Iran caused the "[[Islamic Golden Age]]".<ref>Caheb C., Cambridge History of Iran, ''Tribes, Cities and Social Organization'', vol. 4, p305–328</ref> <br />
<br />
[[Abu Muslim|Abu Moslem]], an Iranian general , expelled the [[Umayyad]]s from [[Damascus]] and helped the [[Abbasid]] caliphs to conquer [[Baghdad]]. The [[Abbasid]] caliphs frequently chose their "[[Vizier|wazirs]]" (viziers) among Iranians, and Iranian governors acquired a certain amount of local autonomy. Thus in 822 CE, the governor of Khorasan, [[Tahir II of Khorasan|Tahir]], proclaimed his independence and founded a new Persian dynasty of [[Tahirid dynasty|Tahirids]]. And by the [[Samanid]] era, Iran's efforts to regain its independence had been well solidified.<ref>Bosworth C. E., Cambridge History of Iran, vol. 4, p.90</ref> <br />
<br />
Attempts of [[Arabization]] thus never succeeded in Iran, and movements such as the [[Shuubiyah]] became catalysts for Iranians to regain their independence in their relations with the Arab invaders. The cultural revival of the post-[[Abbasid]] period led to a resurfacing of Iranian national identity. The resulting cultural movement reached its peak during the [[9th century|ninth]] and [[10th century|tenth centuries]]. The most notable effect of the movement was the continuation of the [[Persian language]], the language of the [[Persians]] and the official language of Iran to the present day. [[Ferdowsi]], Iran's greatest epic poet, is regarded today as the most important figure in maintaining the Persian language.<br />
[[Image:Canons of medicine.JPG|thumb|right|200px| [[Avicenna]]'s ''[[Canon of Medicine]]'' which was the standard medical text in Europe for seven centuries. This is a [[Latin]] copy of [[Canon of Medicine]].]]<br />
After an interval of silence Iran re-emerged as a separate, different and distinctive element within Islam. [[Iranian philosophy]] after the Islamic conquest, is characterized by different interactions with the Old [[Iranian philosophy]], the [[Greek philosophy]] and with the development of [[Islamic philosophy]]. The [[Illumination School]] and the [[Transcendent Philosophy]] are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Persia.<br />
<br />
The movement continued well into the eleventh century, when [[Mahmud of Ghazni|Mahmud-a Ghaznavi]] founded a vast empire, with its capital at [[Isfahan]] and [[Ghazna]]. Their successors, the [[Seljuk dynasty|Seljuks]], asserted their domination from the [[Mediterranean Sea]] to [[Central Asia]]. As with their predecessors, the [[divan]] of the empire was in the hands of Iranian [[viziers]], who founded the [[Nizamiyya]].<br />
During this period, [[List of Iranian scientists and scholars|hundreds of scholars and scientists]] vastly contributed to technology, science and medicine, later influencing the rise of European science during [[the Renaissance]].<ref>Kühnel E., in ''Zeittschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesell'', Vol. CVI (1956)</ref> <br />
<br />
In 1218, the eastern [[Khwarezmian Empire|Khwarazmid]] provinces of [[Transoxiana]] and [[Khorasan]] suffered a devastating [[invasion]] by [[Genghis Khan]]. During this period more than half of Iran's population were killed,<ref>The memoirs of [[Edward Teller]], ''[[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] "Science and Technology Review"''. July/August 1998. Link: [http://www.llnl.gov/str/pdfs/07_98.pdf]</ref> turning the streets of Persian cities like [[Neishabur]] into "rivers of blood", as the severed heads of men, women, and children were "neatly stacked into carefully constructed pyramids around which the carcasses of the city's dogs and cats were placed".<ref>[[Sandra Mackey|Mackey, S.]]. ''The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation''. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.69.</ref> Between 1220 and 1260, the total population of Iran had dropped from 2,500,000 to 250,000 as a result of mass [[murder|extermination]] and [[famine]].<ref>[http://www.sfusd.k12.ca.us/schwww/sch618/Ibn_Battuta/Battuta's_Trip_Three.html Battuta's Travels: Part Three — Persia and Iraq] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> <br />
In a letter to King [[Louis IX of France]], [[Hulagu Khan|Holaku]], one of the [[Genghis Khan]]'s grandsons, alone took responsibility for 200,000 deaths in his raids of Iran and the Caliphate.<ref>[[Sandra Mackey|Mackey, S.]]. ''The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation''. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.70 </ref> He was followed by yet another conqueror, [[Timur|Tamerlane]], who established his capital in [[Samarkand]].<ref>[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/oldwrld/armies/tamerlane.html Old World Contacts/Armies/Tamerlane] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> The waves of devastation prevented many cities such as [[Neishabur]] from reaching their pre-invasion population levels until the [[20th century|twentieth century]], eight centuries later.<ref>Mackey, S. ''The Iranians: Persia, Islam, and the soul of a nation''. 1996. ISBN 0-525-94005-7. p.69.</ref><br />
But both [[Hulagu Khan|Hulagu]], [[Timur]], and their successors soon came to adopt the ways and customs of that which they had conquered, choosing to surround themselves with a culture that was distinctively Persian.<ref>Bertold Spuler. ''The Muslim World. Vol. I The Age of the Caliphs.'' Leiden. E.J. Brill. 1960 ISBN 0-685-23328-6 p.29</ref><br />
<br><br />
<br />
===Early Modern Era (1501&ndash;1921)===<br />
{{main|Safavid Dynasty|Qajar Dynasty|Afsharid Dynasty|Zand dynasty}}{{seealso|Russo-Persian Wars|Anglo-Persian War|Turko-Persian War|Operation Ajax}}<br />
[[Image:Safavid Empire 1501–1722 (AD).PNG|thumb|left|[[Safavid Dynasty]], an Iranian Kingdom at its Greatest Extent]]<br />
[[Image:Shah Ismail I.jpg|thumb|right|upright|[[Shah Ismail I]], the founder of the [[Safavid Dynasty]] (1501 to 1736)]]<br />
Iran's first encompassing [[Shi'a Islam]]ic state was established under the [[Safavid Dynasty]] (1501&ndash;1722) by [[Shah Ismail I]]. The Safavid Dynasty soon became a major political power and promoted the flow of bilateral state contacts. The Safavid peak was during the rule of [[Shah Abbas I|Shah Abbas The Great]].<ref name="islamic1600">[http://www.ucalgary.ca/applied_history/tutor/islam/empires/safavid/abbas.html "The Islamic World to 1600", The Applied History Research Group, The University of Calgary, 1998], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> The [[Safavid Dynasty]] frequently locked horns with [[Ottoman Empire]], [[Uzbek]] tribes and the [[Portuguese Empire]]. The Safavids moved their capital from [[Tabriz]] to [[Qazvin]] and then to [[Isfahan]] where their patronage for the arts propelled Iran into one of its most aesthetically productive eras. Under their rule, the state became highly centralized, the first attempts to modernize the military were made, and even [[Isfahani style (Iranian architecture)|a distinct style of architecture developed]]. In 1722 Afghan rebels defeated [[Husayn (Safavid)|Shah Sultan Hossein]] and ended the Safavid Dynasty, but in 1735, [[Nader Shah]] successfully drove out the Afghan rebels from Isfahan and established the [[Afsharid Dynasty]]. He then staged an incursion into [[India]] in 1738 securing the [[Peacock throne]], [[Koh-i-Noor]], and [[Darya-ye Noor]] among other [[royal family|royal]] treasures. His rule did not last long however, and he was assassinated in 1747. The [[Mashhad]] based Afshar Dynasty was succeeded by the [[Zand dynasty]] in 1750, founded by [[Karim Khan]], who established his capital at [[Shiraz]]. His rule brought a period of relative peace and renewed prosperity.<br />
<br />
The Zand dynasty lasted three generations, until [[Mohammad Khan Qajar|Aga Muhammad Khan]] executed [[Lotf Ali Khan]], and founded his new capital in [[Tehran]], marking the dawn of the [[Qajar|Qajar Dynasty]] in 1794. The capable [[Qajar]] chancellor [[Amir Kabir]] established [[Dar ul-Funun|Iran's first modern college]] system, among other modernizing reforms. Iran suffered [[Russo-Persian Wars|several wars with Imperial Russia]] during the [[Qajar]] era, resulting in Iran losing almost half of its territories to [[Imperial Russia]] and the [[British Empire]], via the treaties of [[Treaty of Gulistan|Gulistan]], [[Treaty of Turkmenchay|Turkmenchay]] and [[Treaty of Akhal|Akhal]]. In spite of [[The Great Game]] Iran managed to maintain her sovereignty and was never colonized, unlike neighbouring states in the region. Repeated foreign intervention and a corrupt and weakened Qajar rule led to [[Tobacco Protest|various protests]], which by the end of the Qajar period resulted in [[Iranian Constitutional Revolution|Persia's constitutional revolution]] establishing [[Majles|the nation's first parliament]] in 1906, within a [[constitutional monarchy]].<br />
<br />
===Late Modern Era(1921&ndash;)===<br />
{{main|History of the Islamic Republic of Iran|Iranian Revolution|Iran-Iraq War|Pahlavi Dynasty}}{{seealso|Operation Ajax}}<br />
[[Image:Mossadeq.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Former Iranian prime minister, Dr. [[Mohammad Mossadegh]].]]<br />
[[Image:MohammadRezaPahlavi1977.jpg|thumb|right|[[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]] and [[Farah Pahlavi | Queen Farah]] about to depart after a visit to the United States.]]<br />
In 1921, [[Reza Shah|Reza Khan]] overthrew the weakening [[Qajar Dynasty]] and became [[Shah]]. Reza Shah initiated [[industrialization]], [[rail transport|rail road]] construction, and the establishment of a national [[Higher education in Iran|education]] system. Reza Shah sought to balance Russian and British influence, but when [[World War II]] started, his nascent ties to Germany alarmed both Britain and Russia. In 1941, [[Anglo-Soviet invasion of Iran|Britain and the USSR invaded Iran]] in order to utilize Iranian rail road capacity during [[World War II]]. The Shah was forced to abdicate in favour of his son, [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]. In 1951, Dr. [[Mohammed Mossadegh]] was elected [[Prime Minister of Iran | prime minister]]. As prime minister, Mossadegh became enormously popular in Iran after he [[nationalization|nationalized]] the Iran's oil reserves. In response, Britain embargoed Iranian oil and invited the [[United States]] to join in a plot to depose of Mossadegh; and, in 1953, President Eisenhower authorized [[Operation Ajax]]. The operation was successful, and Mossadegh was arrested on [[August 19]], [[1953]]. After Operation Ajax Mohammad Reza Pahlavi rule became increasingly [[autocracy|autocratic]]. With American support, the Shah was able to rapidly modernize Iranian infrastructure, but he simultaneously crushed all forms of political opposition with his intelligence agency, [[SAVAK]]. [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]] became an active critic of the Shah's [[White Revolution]] and publicly denounced the government. Khomeini, who was popular in religious circles, was arrested and imprisoned for 18 months. After his release in 1964, Khomeini publicly criticized the United States government. The Shah was persuaded to send him into exile by General [[Hassan Pakravan]]. Khomeini was sent first to [[Turkey]], then to [[Iraq]] and finally to [[France]]. While in exile, he continued to denounce the Shah.<br />
[[Image:Imam in Mehrabad.jpg|thumb|upright|160px|Arrival of [[Ayatollah]] [[Khomeini]] on [[February 1]], [[1979]] from France.]]<br />
The [[Iranian Revolution]], also known as the [[Islamic Revolution]],<ref>[http://www.iranchamber.com/history/islamic_revolution/islamic_revolution.php Islamic Revolution of 1979], retrieved [[23 January]] [[2008]]</ref><ref>[http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761588431/Islamic_Revolution_of_Iran.html Islamic Revolution of Iran], [[encarta]], retrieved [[23 January]] [[2008]]</ref><ref>Fereydoun Hoveyda, ''The Shah and the Ayatollah: Iranian Mythology and Islamic Revolution'' ISBN 0275978583, Praeger Publishers </ref> began in January 1978 with the first major demonstrations against the [[Shah]].<ref>[http://www.fsmitha.com/h2/ch29ir.html The Iranian Revolution] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> After strikes and demonstrations paralysed the country and its economy, the [[Shah]] fled the country in January 1979 and [[Ayatollah Khomeini]] soon returned from exile to Tehran, enthusiastically greeted by millions of Iranians.<ref name = "Britannica Khomeini">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9045329 Ruhollah Khomeini], Encyclopaedia Britannica retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> The [[Pahlavi Dynasty]] collapsed ten days later on [[February 11]] when Iran's military declared itself "neutral" after guerrillas and rebel troops overwhelmed troops loyal to the Shah in armed street fighting. Iran officially became an Islamic Republic on [[April 1]], [[1979]] when Iranians overwhelmingly approved a national referendum to make it so.<ref>[http://www.britannica.com/ebi/article-202892 Iran Islamic Republic], Encyclopaedia Britannica retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><ref name = "Britannica">[http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-32981 Encyclopædia Britannica]23 January 2008</ref> In December 1979 the country approved a [[theocratic]] constitution, whereby Khomeini became [[Supreme Leader]] of the country. <br />
The speed and success of the revolution surprised many throughout the world,<ref>Jahangir Amuzegar, ''The Dynamics of the Iranian Revolution,'' (1991), p.4, 9–12 ISBN 0791407314</ref> as it had not been precipitated by a military defeat, a financial crisis, or a peasant rebellion.<ref>Arjomand, ''Turban'' (1988), p. 191.</ref> Although both nationalists and Marxists joined with Islamic traditionalists to overthrow the Shah, the revolution ultimately resulted in an Islamic Republic under [[Ayatollah]] [[Ruhollah Khomeini]].<ref name = "Benard">Cheryl Benard, Zalmay Khalilzad, ''"The Government of God"'' ISBN 0231053762, Columbia University Press (1984), p. 18.</ref> <br />
[[Image:Saddam rumsfeld.jpg|thumb|left|200px|[[Donald Rumsfeld]] meets [[Saddam Hussein]] on 19–20 December 1983. Rumsfeld visited again on [[24 March]] [[1984]], the day the UN reported that Iraq had used [[mustard gas]] and [[Tabun (nerve agent)|tabun]] nerve agent against Iranian troops. ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported from Baghdad on [[29 March]] [[1984]], that "American diplomats pronounce themselves satisfied with Iraq and the U.S., and suggest that normal diplomatic ties have been established in all but name."<ref>[[National Security Archive]]: http://www.gwu.edu/~nsarchiv/NSAEBB/NSAEBB82 retrieved 23 January 2008</ref>]]<br />
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Iran's [[US-Iran relations | relationship with the United States]] deteriorated rapidly during the revolution. On [[November 4]] [[1979]], a group of Iranian students [[Iran hostage crisis|seized U.S. embassy personnel]], labelling the embassy a "den of spies", a violation of [[diplomatic immunity]].<ref name="carterpbs">[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/amex/carter/sfeature/sf_hostage.html PBS, American Experience, Jimmy Carter, "444 Days: America Reacts"], retrieved 1 Oct 2007</ref> They accused its personnel of being CIA agents plotting to overthrow the revolutionary government, as the CIA had done to [[Mohammad Mossadegh]] in 1953. While the student ringleaders had not asked for permission from [[Khomeini]] to seize the embassy, [[Khomeini]] nonetheless supported the embassy takeover after hearing of its success.<ref>Guests of the Ayatollah: The Iran Hostage Crisis: The First Battle in America's War with Militant Islam, Mark Bowden, p. 127 ISBN 0802143032, Grove Press</ref> While most of the [[female]] and [[African American]] hostages were released within the first months,<ref>Guests of the Ayatollah: The Iran Hostage Crisis: The First Battle in America's War with Militant Islam, Mark Bowden, p. 127 ISBN 0802143032, Grove Press</ref> the remaining fifty-two hostages were held for 444 days. The students demanded the handover of the Shah in exchange for the hostages, and following the Shah's death in the summer of 1980, that the hostages be put on trial for espionage. Subsequently attempts by the [[Jimmy Carter]] administration to negotiate or [[Operation Eagle Claw|rescue]] were unsuccessful until January 1981 when the [[Algiers declaration]] was agreed upon. [[Iraqi]] leader [[Saddam Hussein]] decided to take advantage of what he perceived to be disorder in the wake of the Iranian Revolution and its unpopularity with Western governments. The once-strong Iranian military had been disbanded during the revolution. Saddam sought to expand Iraq's access to the [[Persian Gulf]] by acquiring territories that Iraq had claimed earlier from Iran during the Shah's rule. Of chief importance to Iraq was [[Khuzestan Province|Khuzestan]] which not only has a substantial [[Arab]] population, but boasted rich oil fields as well. On the unilateral behalf of the [[United Arab Emirates]], the islands of [[Abu Musa]] and the [[Greater and Lesser Tunbs]] became objectives as well. With these ambitions in mind, Hussein planned a full-scale assault on Iran, boasting that his forces could reach the capital within three days. On [[September 22]], [[1980]] the Iraqi army invaded Iran at Khuzestan, precipitating the [[Iran-Iraq War]]. The attack took revolutionary Iran completely by surprise.<br />
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Although Saddam Hussein's forces made several early advances, by 1982, Iranian forces managed to push the Iraqi army back into Iraq. Khomeini sought to export his Islamic revolution westward into Iraq, especially on the majority Shi'a Arabs living in the country. The war then continued for six more years until 1988, when Khomeini, in his words, "drank the cup of poison" and accepted a truce mediated by the United Nations. Tens of thousands of Iranian [[civilians]] and [[military]] personnel were killed when Iraq used [[chemical weapons]] in its warfare. [[Arms sales to Iraq|Iraq was financially backed]] by [[Egypt]], the [[Arab]] countries of the [[Persian Gulf]], the [[Soviet Union]] and the [[Warsaw Pact]] states, the [[United States]] (beginning in 1983), [[France]], the [[United Kingdom]], [[Germany]], [[Brazil]], and the [[People's Republic of China]] (which also sold weapons to Iran). There were more than 100,000 Iranian victims<ref name="r1">Centre for Documents of The Imposed War, Tehran. (مرکز مطالعات و تحقیقات جنگ)</ref> of Iraq's chemical weapons during the eight-year war. The total Iranian casualties of the war were estimated to be anywhere between 500,000 and 1,000,000. Almost all relevant international agencies have confirmed that Saddam engaged in chemical warfare to blunt Iranian [[human wave attack]]s; these agencies unanimously confirmed that Iran never used chemical weapons during the war.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.fas.org/news/iran/1997/970205-480132.htm | title = News | publisher = FAS}} retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><!--<br />
--><ref>http://www.fas.org/cw/intro.htm 23 January 2008</ref><!--<br />
--><ref>[http://www.nti.org/e_research/profiles/Iran/Chemical/2340_2965.html NTI Chemical profile of Iran] 23 January 2008</ref><br />
<br />
==Government and politics==<br />
{{wikinews|Iranian President Ahmadinejad speaks at Columbia University}}<br />
{{main|Politics and Government of Iran|Foreign relations of Iran|Supreme Leader of Iran|President of Iran|Majlis of Iran|Council of Guardians|Expediency Discernment Council|Judicial system of Iran|Assembly of Experts|City and Village Councils of Iran}}<br />
[[Image:Schema gvt iran en.png|right|thumb|Political institutions of Iran]]<br />
The political system of the Islamic [[Republic]] is based on the 1979 [[Iranian Constitution|Constitution]]. The system comprises several intricately connected governing bodies. '''[[Supreme Leader of Iran|The Supreme Leader of Iran]]''' is responsible for [[Guardianship of the jurists (doctrine)|delineation and supervision]] of the general policies of the Islamic Republic of Iran.<ref name="leader">[http://www.leader.ir/langs/EN/index.php?p=leader_law Leadership in the Constitution of the Islamic Republic of Iran] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> The Supreme Leader is ''Commander-in-Chief'' of the armed forces, controls the military intelligence and security operations; and has sole power to declare war or peace.<ref name="leader" /> The heads of the judiciary, state radio and television networks, the commanders of the police and military forces and six of the twelve members of the [[Council of Guardians]] are appointed by the Supreme Leader.<ref name="leader" /> The [[Assembly of Experts]] elects and dismisses the Supreme Leader on the basis of qualifications and popular esteem.<ref name=loc">{{cite web |url=http://countrystudies.us/iran/81.htm |title="Iran — The Constitution" |first=Library of Congress |last=Federal Research Division |accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> The Assembly of Experts is responsible for supervising the Supreme Leader in the performance of legal duties.<br />
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After the Supreme Leader, the Constitution defines the '''[[President of Iran]]''' as the highest state authority.<ref name="leader" /><ref name="photius">[http://www.photius.com/countries/iran/government/iran_government_the_presidency.html Iran The Presidency] retrieved 25 January 2008</ref> The President is elected by [[universal suffrage]] for a term of four years and can only be re-elected for one term.<ref name="photius" /> Presidential candidates must be approved by the [[Council of Guardians]] prior to running in order to ensure their allegiance to the ideals of the Islamic revolution.<ref>Chibli Mallat, The Renewal of Islamic Law: Muhammad Baqer As-Sadr, Najaf and the Shi'i international, ISBN 0521531225, Cambridge University Press</ref> The President is responsible for the implementation of the Constitution and for the exercise of executive powers, except for matters directly related to the Supreme Leader, who has the final say in all matters.<ref name="leader" /> The President appoints and supervises the [[List of Iranian officials|Council of Ministers]], coordinates government decisions, and selects government policies to be placed before the legislature.<ref>http://countrystudies.us/iran/84.htm retrieved 2 February 2008</ref> Eight Vice-Presidents serve under the President, as well as a cabinet of twenty two ministers, who must all be approved by the legislature.<ref>[http://www.iranchamber.com/government/articles/structure_of_power.php The Structure of Power in Iran<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref> Unlike many other states, the executive branch in Iran does not control the armed forces. Although the President appoints the Ministers of Intelligence and Defense, it is customary for the President to obtain explicit approval from the Supreme Leader for these two ministers before presenting them to the legislature for a vote of confidence. Iran's current president, [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad]], was elected in a run-off poll in the [[Iranian presidential election, 2005|2005 presidential elections]]. His term expires in 2009.<ref>[http://www.biographyartist.com/2007/03/mahmood-ahmadinejad.html Biography of popular peoples: Mahmood Ahmadinejad<!-- Bot generated title -->]</ref><br />
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[[Image:Grand Ayatollah Ali Khamenei,.jpg|right|thumb|[[Ali Khamenei]], [[Supreme Leader of Iran]]]]<br />
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The current '''[[Majlis of Iran|legislature of Iran]]''' (Also known as the [[Majlis of Iran]]) is a [[unicameral]] body.<ref name="Majlis">http://www.electionguide.org/country.php?ID=103 retrieved 3 February 2008</ref> Before the [[Iranian Revolution]], the legislature was [[bicameral]], but the [[Iranian Senate|upper house]] was removed under the new constitution. The [[Majlis of Iran]] comprises 290 members elected for four-year terms.<ref name="Majlis"/> The Majlis drafts [[legislation]], ratifies international [[treaties]], and approves the national budget.<ref name="wapedia">http://wapedia.mobi/en/Majlis_of_Iran retrieved 2 February 2008</ref> All Majlis candidates and all legislation from the assembly must be approved by the '''[[Council of Guardians]]'''.<ref name="wapedia"/><ref>[http://countrystudies.us/iran/86.htm Iran - The Council of Guardians<!-- Bot generated title -->] retrieved 3 February 2008</ref> The [[Council of Guardians]] comprises twelve jurists including six appointed by the Supreme Leader. The others are elected by the [[Majlis|Parliament]] from among the jurists nominated by the Head of the [[Judicial system of Iran|Judiciary]].<ref>http://www.iranonline.com/iran/iran-info/Government/constitution-6-2.html retrieved 3 February 2008</ref><ref name=photius>http://www.photius.com/countries/iran/government/iran_government_the_council_of_guard~276.html retrieved 3 February 2008</ref> The Council interprets the constitution and may [[veto]] Parliament. If a law is deemed incompatible with the constitution or ''[[Sharia]]'' (Islamic law), it is referred back to Parliament for revision.<ref name=photius> In a controversial exercise of its authority, the Council has drawn upon a narrow interpretation of Iran's constitution to veto parliamentary candidates. The '''[[Expediency Discernment Council|Expediency Council]]''' has the authority to mediate disputes between Parliament and the Council of Guardians, and serves as an advisory body to the Supreme Leader, making it one of the most powerful governing bodies in the country.<ref>http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/shared/spl/hi/middle_east/03/iran_power/html/expediency_council.stm retrieved 3 February 2008</ref><br />
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The Supreme Leader appoints the head of '''[[Judicial system of Iran|Iran's Judiciary]]''', who in turn appoints the head of the Supreme Court and the chief public prosecutor.<ref name="Judiciary">http://www.iranchamber.com/government/articles/structure_of_power.php, retrieved 3 Feb 2008</ref> There are several types of courts including public courts that deal with civil and criminal cases, and "revolutionary courts" which deal with certain categories of offenses, including crimes against [[national security]]. The decisions of the revolutionary courts are final and cannot be appealed.<ref name="Judiciary"/> The Special Clerical Court handles crimes allegedly committed by [[cleric]]s, although it has also taken on cases involving [[lay people]]. The Special Clerical Court functions independently of the regular judicial framework and is accountable only to the Supreme Leader. The Court's rulings are final and cannot be appealed.<ref name="Judiciary"/><br />
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The '''[[Assembly of Experts]]''', which meets for one week annually, comprises 86 "virtuous and learned" clerics elected by adult suffrage for eight-year terms. As with the presidential and parliamentary elections, the [[Council of Guardians]] determines candidates' eligibility.<ref name="Judiciary"/> The Assembly elects the Supreme Leader and has the constitutional authority to remove the Supreme Leader from power at any time.<ref name="Judiciary"/> As all of their meetings and notes are strictly confidential, the Assembly has never been publicly known to challenge any of the Supreme Leader's decisions.<ref name="Judiciary"/><br />
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Finally, '''[[City and Village Councils of Iran|Local City Councils]]''' are elected by public vote to four-year terms in all cities and villages of Iran. According to article seven of Iran's Constitution, these local councils together with the Parliament are "decision-making and administrative organs of the State". This section of the constitution was not implemented until 1999 when the first local council elections were held across the country. Councils have many different responsibilities including electing mayors, supervising the activities of municipalities; studying the social, cultural, educational, health, economic, and welfare requirements of their constituencies; planning and co-ordinating national participation in the implementation of social, economic, constructive, cultural, educational and other welfare affairs.<br />
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==Economy==<br />
{{main|Economy of Iran}}<br />
{{seealso|Next Eleven|Central Bank of Iran|Tehran Stock Exchange|Economic Cooperation Organization|Transport in Iran|Communications in Iran|Construction in Iran}} ''See also: {{wikitravel|Iran}}''<br />
[[Image:Iranmoney.jpg|thumb|The [[Iranian rial|rial]] is Iran's official currency.]]<br />
[[Economy of Iran|Iran's economy]] is a mixture of [[Planned economy|central planning]], [[state ownership]] of oil and other large [[Business|enterprise]]s, village [[agriculture]], and small-scale private trading and service ventures.<ref>http://www.traveldocs.com/ir/economy.htm retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Its economic [[communications in Iran|infrastructure]] has been improving steadily over the past two decades but continues to be affected by [[inflation]] and [[unemployment]].<ref>{{cite web|date=2007-07-08|url=http://iran-daily.com/1386/2887/html|title=World Bank: Iran’s Economic Indices Improving|publisher=Iran Daily|accessdate=2007-07-08}}</ref> In the early twenty-first century the service sector contributed the largest percentage of the GDP, followed by industry ([[Mining in Iran|mining]] and manufacturing) and [[Agriculture of Iran|agriculture]]. In 2006, about 45% of the government's budget came from oil and natural gas revenues, and 31% came from taxes and fees. Government spending contributed to an average annual inflation rate of 14% in the period 2000–2004. In 2007, the GDP was estimated at $206 billion ($852 billion at PPP), or $3,160 per capita ($12,300 at [[Purchasing power parity|PPP]]).<ref name="cia" />Iran's official annual growth rate is at 6%.<ref>Surrounded:seeing the world from Iran's point of view Military review July-August 2007 Houman A. Sadri p.21</ref> Because of these figures and the country’s diversified but small industrial base, the United Nations classifies Iran's economy as semi-developed.<ref name="newworldencyclopedia">[http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Iran "New World Encyclopedia"], retrieved 28 Jan 2008</ref><br />
[[Image:Tehran skyline may 2007.jpg|250px|thumb|left|[[Tehran]] was one of the first cities in Iran which was modernized in the [[Pahlavi]] era.]]<br />
The services sector has seen the greatest long-term growth in terms of its share of GDP, but the sector remains volatile. State investment has boosted agriculture with the liberalization of production and the improvement of packaging and marketing helping to develop new export markets. Thanks to the construction of many [[dam]]s throughout the country in recent years, large-scale [[irrigation]] schemes, and the wider production of export-based agricultural items like [[date palm|dates]], [[flower]]s, and [[pistachio]]s, produced the fastest economic growth of any sector in Iran over much of the 1990s. Iran's major commercial partners are China, Germany, South Korea, France, Japan, Russia and Italy. <br />
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Close to 1.8% of national employment is generated in the tourism sector which is slated to increase to 10% in the next five years.<ref>http://www.farsinet.com/travel2iran/ retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> About 1,659,000 foreign [[tourists]] visited Iran in 2004; most came from [[Asia]]n countries, including the republics of [[Central Asia]], while a small share came from the countries of the [[European Union]] and [[North America]]. However, in the early 2000s the industry still faced serious limitations in [[infrastructure]], [[communication]]s, regulatory [[Norm (sociology)|norms]], and personnel [[training]].<ref name=nuclear/> Iran currently ranks 89th in [[tourist]] income, but is rated among the 10 most touristic countries in the world.<ref name=Tourism>http://www.iran-daily.com/1384/2241/html/focus.htm</ref> Weak advertising, unstable regional conditions, the endless anti-Iran propaganda and absence of efficient planning schemes in the tourism sector have all hindered growth of tourism.<ref name=Tourism><br />
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Since the late 1990s, Iran has increased its economic cooperation with other developing countries, including Syria, India, Cuba, Venezuela, and South Africa. Iran is expanding its trade ties with Turkey and Pakistan and shares with its partners the common goal of creating a single economic market in West and [[Central Asia]], called [[Economic Cooperation Organization|ECO]]. Iran expects to attract billions of dollars of [[foreign investment]] by creating a more favorable investment climate, such as reduced restrictions and duties on imports, and free-trade zones in [[Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone|Chabahar]], [[Qeshm]] and [[Kish Island]].<br />
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The administration continues to follow the market reform plans of the previous one and indicated that it will diversify Iran's oil-reliant economy. It is attempting to do this by [[Investment|investing]] revenues in areas like [[automobile]] [[manufacturing]], [[aerospace]] industries, consumer [[electronics]], [[petrochemicals]] and [[nuclear technology]]. Iran has also developed a [[biotechnology]], [[nanotechnology]], and [[pharmaceuticals]] industry.<ref>[http://www.nanovip.com/nanotechnology-companies/iran List of Iranian Nanotechnology companies] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> The strong oil market since 1996 helped ease financial pressures on Iran and allowed for Tehran's timely debt service payments. Iranian [[budget deficits]] have been a chronic problem, in part due to [[Ministry of Petroleum of Iran#Gasoline subsidies|large-scale state subsidies]], totaling more than $40 billion per year, that include foodstuffs and especially gasoline.<ref>http://www.payvand.com/news/07/jan/1295.html "Ahmadinejad's Achilles Heel: The Iranian Economy" retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> <br />
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===Energy===<br />
{{main|Energy in Iran|Ministry of Petroleum of Iran|Iranian Oil Bourse|Nuclear programme of Iran}}<br />
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Iran ranks second in the world in [[natural gas]] reserves and third in [[oil]] reserves.<ref>http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/cabs/Iran/Background.html retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> In 2005, Iran spent US$4 billion dollars on fuel imports, because of [[contraband]] and inefficient domestic use.<ref>[http://www.heraldextra.com/content/view/205986/3/ "U.S. targets Iran's vulnerable oil"] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Oil industry output averaged 4 million barrels per day in 2005, compared with the peak of six million barrels per day reached in 1974. In the early 2000s, industry [[infrastructure]] was increasingly inefficient because of technological lags. Few exploratory [[wells]] were drilled in 2005.<br />
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In 2004, a large share of Iran’s natural gas reserves were untapped. The addition of new [[hydroelectric]] stations and the streamlining of conventional [[coal]] and oil-fired stations increased installed capacity to 33,000 megawatts. Of that amount, about 75% was based on natural gas, 18% on oil, and 7% on hydroelectric power. In 2004, Iran opened its first [[wind]]-powered and geothermal plants, and the first [[solar]] thermal plant is to come online in 2009. [[Demographics of Iran|Demographic]] trends and intensified industrialization have caused [[electric power]] demand to grow by 8% per year. The government’s goal of 53,000 megawatts of installed capacity by 2010 is to be reached by bringing on line new gas-fired plants and by adding hydroelectric, and [[nuclear programme of Iran|nuclear power generating capacity]]. Iran’s first [[nuclear power plant]] at [[Bushehr]] was not online by 2007.<ref name=nuclear>http://lcweb2.loc.gov/frd/cs/profiles/Iran.pdf retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><br />
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===Industrial production===<br />
{{Seealso|Privatization in Iran|Foreign Direct Investment in Iran}}<br />
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[[Image:Samand Sarir2.jpg|thumb|right|[[Samand]] is Iran's national car, manufactured by [[Iran Khodro]]]]<br />
The authorities so as the private sector have put in the past 15 years an emphasis on the local production of domestic-consumption oriented goods such as home appliances, cars, agricultural products, pharmaceutical, etc. Today, Iran possesses a good manufacturing industry, despite [[sanctions against Iran|restrictions]] imposed by foreign countries. However, nationalized industries such as the [[bonyad]]s have often been managed badly, making them ineffective and uncompetitive with years. Today, the government is trying to [[Privatization in Iran|privatize]] these industries, such as [[Damavand]] Mineral water company or some down stream industries of the [[National Iranian Oil Company]], and despite some successes, there are still several problems to be overcome such as the lagging corruption in the public sector (and therefore, nationalized industries) and lack of competitiveness.<br />
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Globally, Iran has leading manufacture industry in the fields of car-manufacture and transportations, construction materials, home appliances, food and agricultural goods, armaments, pharmaceuticals, information technology, power and petrochemicals.<ref>https://www.uktradeinvest.gov.uk/ukti/appmanager/ukti/countries?_nfls=false&_nfpb=true&_pageLabel=CountryType1&navigationPageId=/iran</ref><br />
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==Demography==<br />
{{main|Demography of Iran|Iranian peoples|Iranians (citizens of Iran)|Health care in Iran|Iranian citizens abroad}}<br />
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[[Image:Iran peoples.jpg|thumb|right|Ethnic diversity of Iran]]<br />
Iran is a diverse country consisting of people of many religions and ethnic backgrounds cemented by the [[Persian culture]]. [[Persians]] constitute the majority of the [[population]]. 70% of present-day Iranians are [[Iranic peoples]], native speakers of [[Iranian]] branches of the [[Indo-European languages]]. The majority of the population speaks the official language, [[Persian language|Persian]], or another [[Iranian language]] or dialect, however Arabic is also spoken by the Arabic minority, (ie. in the south, in provinces like Khuzestan), and Turkic dialects, (ie. Azeri, etc). are spoken by the Turkic minority (ie. in the north, in provinces like Tabriz). The main ethnic groups are [[Persians]] (51%), [[Azeris]] (24%), [[Guilak|Gilaki]] and [[Mazandarani people|Mazandarani]] (8%), [[Kurds]] (7%), [[Arabs]] (3%), [[Baloch|Baluchi]] (2%), [[Lurs]] (2%), [[Turkmen people|Turkmens]] (2%), [[Lak people (Iran)|Laks]], [[Qashqai]], [[Armenians]], [[Persian Jews]], [[Georgians]], [[Assyrian people|Assyrians]], [[Circassians]], [[Tats]], [[Pashtuns]], [[Mandaeans]], [[Romani people|Gypsies]], [[Brahui people|Brahuis]], [[Hazara people|Hazara]] and others (1%).<ref name="cia" /> <br />
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Iran's population increased dramatically during the latter half of the twentieth century, reaching about 70 million by 2006. In recent years, however, Iran's [[birth rate]] has dropped significantly.<ref name="una">{{cite web |url=http://www.un.org/Depts/escap/pop/journal/v10n1a1.htm |title="A New Direction in Population Policy and Family Planning in the Islamic Republic of Iran" |first=United Nations |last=Asia-Pacific Population Journal |accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref> Studies show that Iran's rate of population growth will continue to slow until it stabilizes, by the year 2050, above 90 million.<ref name="bureau">{{cite web |url=http://www.census.gov/cgi-bin/ipc/idbsum.pl?cty=IR |title="IDB Summary Demographic Data for Iran" |first=Government of the U.S.A. |last=Census Bureau |accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref><ref name="payvand">{{cite web |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/aug/1017.html |title="Iran's population growth rate falls to 1.5 percent: UNFP" |first=Payvand.com |last=Iran News |accessdate=2006-10-18}}</ref> More than two-thirds of the population is under the age of 30, and the literacy rate is 79%.<ref name="cia" /><br />
[[Image:DemoIR.JPG|thumb|240px|left|Demography of Iran (2002)]]<br />
There are some four million [[Iranian peoples]] who emigrated to [[North America]], [[Europe]], and [[Australia]], mostly during the [[Iran-Iraq war]]. Iran also hosts one of the largest [[refugee]] population in the world, with more than one million refugees, mostly from [[Afghan refugees|Afghanistan]] and [[Iraq]]. Since 2006, Iranian officials have been working with the [[UNHCR]] and Afghan officials for their [[repatriation]].<ref name="bbcb">{{cite web |url=http://www.unhcr.org/news/NEWS/452b78394.html |title="Tripartite meeting on returns to Afghanistan" |first=[[UNHCR]] |last=United Nations |accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref><br />
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Most Iranians are Muslims; 90% belong to the [[Shi'a Islam|Shi'a]] branch of [[Islam]], the official state religion, and about 8% belong to the [[Sunni Islam|Sunni]] branch, mainly Kurds and Iran's Balochi Sunni. The remaining 2% are non-Muslim [[Religious minorities in Iran|religious minorities]], including [[Bahá'í Faith|Bahá'ís]], [[Mandaeism|Mandeans]], [[Hindus]], [[Sikhs]], [[Yezidi]]s, [[Yarsan]]is, [[Zoroastrians in Iran|Zoroastrians]], [[Persian Jews|Jews]], and [[Christians in Iran|Christians]].<ref name="cia"/> The latter three [[minority]] religions are officially recognized and protected, and have reserved seats in the ''[[Majlis]]'' (Parliament). However the [[Bahá'í Faith]], Iran's largest religious minority, is not officially recognized, and has been persecuted during its existence in Iran. Since the 1979 revolution the [[persecution of Bahá'ís]] has increased with executions, the denial of civil rights and liberties, and the denial of access to higher education and employment.<ref name="fdih1">{{cite web |date=2003-08-01 |title=Discrimination against religious minorities in Iran |author=International Federation for Human Rights |publisher=fdih.org |accessdate=2007-03-19 |url=http://www.fidh.org/IMG/pdf/ir0108a.pdf}}</ref><ref name="ihrdc">{{cite web | author= Iran Human Rights Documentation Center |publisher=Iran Human Rights Documentation Center | title= A Faith Denied: The Persecution of the Bahá'ís of Iran | date= 2007 |accessdate=2007-03-19|url=http://www.iranhrdc.org/english/pdfs/Reports/bahai_report.pdf}}</ref> Currently, the Islamic Republic of Iran is noted for significant [[Human rights in Islamic Republic of Iran|human rights violations]], despite efforts by human right activists, writers, [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s and some political parties. Human rights violations include governmental impunity, restricted [[freedom of speech]], [[Gender differences|gender inequality]], treatment of [[LGBT rights in Iran|homosexuals]], execution of [[Minor (law)|minors]], and in some cases torture.<br />
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According to the [[Iranian Constitution]], the government is required to provide every citizen of the country with access to [[social security]] that covers [[retirement]], [[unemployment]], old age, [[disability]], [[accidents]], calamities, [[health]] and medical treatment and [[care]] services. This is covered by [[Labor and tax laws in Iran|public revenues]] and income derived from public contributions. The [[World Health Organization]] in the last report on health systems ranks Iran's performance on health level 58th, and its overall [[health care in Iran|health system]] performance 93rd among the world's nations.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.who.int/whr/2000/en/annex10_en.pdf| title=The World Health Report 2000| first=[[World Health Organisation]]| last=WHO| accessdate=2006-10-12}}</ref><br />
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==Foreign relations and military==<br />
{{main|Foreign relations of Iran|Military of Iran|Iranian defense industry}}<br />
{{see also|Military history of Iran}}<br />
<br />
[[Image:Iranian kilo class submarine.jpg|thumb|180px|One of Iran's 6 [[Kilo class submarine|SSK Kilo class submarine]]s]]<br />
[[Foreign relations of Iran|Iran's foreign relations]] are based on two strategic principles: eliminating outside influences in the region and pursuing extensive diplomatic contacts with developing and [[Non-Aligned Movement|non-aligned countries]]. Iran maintains diplomatic relations with almost every member of the [[United Nations]], except for [[Israel]], which Iran does not recognize, and the [[United States]] since the [[Iranian Revolution]].<ref>[http://www.pbs.org/newshour/indepth_coverage/middle_east/iran/timeline.html Key Events in Iran Since 1921] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Since 2005, [[Iran's Nuclear Program]] has become the subject of contention with the West because of suspicions regarding Iran's military intentions. This has led the [[UN Security Council]] to impose [[sanctions against Iran]] on select companies linked to this program, thus furthering its economic [[isolation]] on the international scene.<br />
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The Islamic Republic of Iran has two kinds of [[armed forces]]: the regular forces [[Islamic Republic of Iran Army]], [[Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force]], [[Islamic Republic of Iran Navy]] and the [[Islamic Revolutionary Guards Corps]] (IRGC), totalling about 545,000 active troops. Iran also has around 350,000 Reserve Force totalling around 900,000 trained troops.<ref>[[IISS]] Military Balance 2006, Routledge for the IISS, London, 2006, p.187</ref> <br />
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Iran also has a paramilitary, volunteer militia force within the IRGC, called the [[Basij]], which includes about 90,000 full-time, active-duty uniformed members. Up to 11 million men and women are members of the Basij who could potentially be called up for service; GlobalSecurity.org estimates Iran could mobilize "up to one million men". This would be among the largest troop mobilizations in the world.<ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/intell/world/iran/basij.htm Niruyeh Moghavemat Basij Mobilisation Resistance Force] </ref> <br />
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Iran's military capabilities are kept largely secret. Since 1992, it has produced its own [[tanks]], [[armored personnel carriers]], [[guided missile]]s, [[submarine]]s, and [[fighter planes]].<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,156160,00.html Iran Launches Production of Stealth Sub]</ref> In recent years, official announcements have highlighted the development of weapons such as the [[Fajr-3 (MIRV)]], [[Hoot (missile)|Hoot]], [[Kowsar]], [[Zelzal]], [[Fateh-110]], [[Shahab-3]] missiles, and a variety of [[unmanned aerial vehicles]] (UAVs).<br />
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The [[Fajr-3 (MIRV)]] is currently Iran's most advanced [[ballistic missile]]. It is a domestically-developed and produced [[liquid fuel]] missile with an unknown range. The [[IRIS (missile)|IRIS]] solid-fuelled missile is a program which is supposed to be Iran's first missile to bring [[satellites]] into orbit. In 2005, Iran's military spending represented 3.3% of the GDP or $91 per capita, the lowest figure of the [[Persian Gulf]] nations.<ref>[http://www.payvand.com/news/06/jun/1011.html Iran's defense spending 'a fraction of Persian Gulf neighbors']</ref> Iran's military doctrine is to [[National security|defend]] its territorial integrity only.<br />
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==Culture==<br />
{{main|Culture of Iran}}<br />
{{seealso|Cinema of Iran|Iranian cuisine}}<br />
[[Image:MahmoudFarshchian.jpg|right|thumb|150px|Example of modern Persian miniature, painted by [[Mahmoud Farshchian]]]]<br />
The [[Indo-Iranian]] culture probably originated in [[Central Asia]]. The [[Andronovo culture]] is strongly suggested as the candidate for the common Indo-Iranian culture ''ca''. 2000 BCE. Iran, as a historical entity, dates to the time of the [[Achaemenids]]. Daily life in modern Iran is closely interwoven with [[Shia Islam]] and the country's art, literature, and architecture are an ever-present reminder of its deep national tradition and of a broader literary culture.<ref name="Iran in Britannica">{{cite encyclopedia|last=Afary |first=Janet |title=Iran|year=2006|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica Online | accessdate=2007-10-29|location=|publisher=|http://www.britannica.com/eb/article-9106324/Iran}}<br />
</ref> Iranian culture has long been a predominant culture of the [[Middle East]] and [[Central Asia]], with [[Persian language|Persian]] considered the language of intellectuals during much of the second millennium CE, and the language of religion and the populace before that. <br />
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The Iranian New Year ([[Norouz]]) is an ancient tradition celebrated on [[March 21]] to mark the beginning of spring in Iran, Afghanistan, Albania, Georgia, Turkmenistan, and Kazakhstan.<ref>http://endicottstudio.typepad.com/endicott_redux/2007/03/index.html retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> and also by Kurds in Turkey and Iraq.<ref>http://www.zoroastrian.org/articles/nowruz.htm retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Norouz was nominated as one of [[UNESCO]]'s [[Masterpieces of the Oral and Intangible Heritage of Humanity]] in 2004.<ref name="culture">{{cite web |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/04/jul/1090.html |title="Nowrouz Vital Meeting to be Held in Tehran" |first=Payvand.com |last=Iran News |accessdate=2006-04-14}}</ref><br />
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The [[Sassanid empire|Sassanid era]] was an important and influential historical periods in Iran Their cultural influenced Roman civilization considerably<ref>J. B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire: From the Death of Theodosius I to the Death of Justinian Volume 1, p.109 ISBN 0486203980, Dover Publications</ref> and so influencing as far as Western Europe, Africa,<ref>[http://www.transoxiana.com.ar/0104/sasanians.html Transoxiana 04: Sassanids in Africa] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> China and India and also playing a prominent role in the formation of both European and Asiatic medieval art.<ref>[http://www.artarena.force9.co.uk/sass2.htm Iransaga: The art of Sassanids] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> This influence carried forward to the [[Islamic world]]. Most of what later became known as Islamic learning, such as [[philology]], [[literature]], [[jurisprudence]], [[philosophy]], [[medicine]], [[architecture]] and the [[sciences]] were some of the practises taken from the [[Sassanid dynasty|Sassanid]] Persians in to the broader Muslim world.<ref>[http://www.parstimes.com/history/title.html Iran - A country study] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.levity.com/alchemy/islam16.html History of Islamic Science 5] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> After the Arab invasion Islamic rituals have penetrated in the Iranian culture. The most noticeable one of them is [[commemoration of Husayn ibn Ali]]. Every year in [[Day of Ashura]] most of Iranians even [[Armenians]] and [[Zoroastrians]] participate in mourning for the martyrs of [[battle of Karbala]]. The commemoration of Karbala has permeated all of Persian culture and finds expression in poetry, music, and the solemn [[Shia]] view of the world.<ref>[[Hamshahri]], 3 Esfand 1383</ref><br />
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The cuisine of Iran is diverse, with each province featuring dishes, as well as culinary traditions and styles, distinct to their region. [[Cuisine of Iran|Iranian food]] is not spicy. Most meals consist of a large serving of seasoned rice and an accompanying course, typically consists of meat, poultry, or fish. Herbs are used frequently. Onions and garlic are normally used in the preparation of the accompanying course, but are also served separately during meals, either in raw or pickled form.<br />
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There is no consensus on the origin of the first hand-made carpet, but the discovery of the “Pazirik” carpet proves the great role of Iranians in creating this valuable art.<ref>[http://www.caroun.com/rug/generalrug/carpethistory.htm "Origins of Carpet Weaving"]. Caroun. Accessed 01-02-2008.</ref><br />
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[[Iranian cinema]] has thrived in modern Iran, and many Iranian directors have garnered worldwide recognition for their work. Iranian movies have won over three hundred awards in the past twenty-five years. One of the best-known directors is [[Abbas Kiarostami]]. The Media of Iran is a mixture of private and state-owned, but books and movies must be approved by the Ministry of Culture and Islamic Guidance before being released to the public. State [[Censorship in Iran|censorship]] is often brought upon films which do not meet approval. The [[Internet]] has become enormously popular among the Iranian youth. Iran is now the world's fourth largest country of [[Iranian Blogs|bloggers]].<ref>[http://www.guardian.co.uk/technology/2004/dec/20/iran.blogging Freedom in Farsi blogs] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><br />
Women today compose more than half of the incoming classes for universities around the country and increasingly continue to play pivotal roles in society. <br />
<br />
===Language and literature===<br />
{{main|Persian language|History of the Persian language|Persian literature}}<br />
{{seealso|music of Iran|Persian miniature}}<br />
[[Image:ModernIranianlanguagesMap.jpg|left|thumb|The region where Persian '''(green)''' and other [[Iranian languages]] are spoken]]<br />
Article 15 of the Iranian constitution states that the "Official language (of Iran)... is Persian...[and]... the use of regional and tribal languages in the press and mass media, as well as for teaching of their literature in schools, is allowed in addition to Persian." Persian serves as a lingua farnca in Iran and most publications and broadcastings are in this language. Next to Persian there are many publications and broadcastings in other relatively large languages of Iran such as [[Azeri language| Azeri]], [[Kurdish language| Kurdish]] and even in relatively smaller ones such as [[Arabic language| Arabic]] and [[Armenian language| Armenian]].<br />
<br />
Many [[Iranian languages|languages]] have originated in Iran such as [[Mazandarani language|Mazandarani]] and [[Gilaki language|Gilaki]], but Persian is the most used language. Persian is a tongue belonging to the [[Aryan]] i.e. [[Iranian languages|Iranian]] branch of the [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] family of languages. The oldest records in [[Old Persian]] date back to the [[Achaemenid Empire]]<ref>{{cite book | title=The Languages of the World | year=2002 | last=Katzner | first=Kenneth | publisher=Routledge | pages=163 | isbn=0415250048}}</ref> and examples of Old Persian have been found in present-day Iran, [[Iraq]], [[Turkey]] and [[Egypt]]. Since then it has changed significantly, being greatly influenced by [[Arabic]] after the conquest of Persia. In the late eighth century the [[Persian language]] was highly Arabized and written in a [[Perso-Arabic script|modified Arabic script]]. This caused a movement supporting the revival of Persian. An important event of this revival was the writing of the [[Shahname]] by [[Ferdowsi]] (Persian: ''Epic of Kings''), Iran's national epic, which is said to have been written entirely in native Persian. This gave rise to a strong reassertion of Iranian national identity, and is in part responsible for the continued existence of Persian as a separate language. <br />
''{{cquote|<center>بسی رنج بردم در این سال سی <br/>عجم زنده کردم بدین پارسی</center><p>''For thirty years, I suffered much pain and strife<br/>with Persian I gave the [[Ajam]] verve and life''}}<center>''—[[Ferdowsi]]'' (935&ndash;1020)</center>''[[Image:Kelileh va Demneh.jpg|thumb|right|[[Kelileh va Demneh]] Persian manuscript copy dated 1429]]<br />
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<br />
Persian beside Arabic has been a medium for literary and scientific contributions to the [[Islamic world]] especially in [[Anatolia]], [[central Asia]] and [[Indian sub-continent]]. Poetry is a very important part of Persian culture. Poetry is used in many classical works, whether from Persian literature, science, or metaphysics. For example about half of [[Avicenna]]'s medical writings are known to be versified. Iran has produced a number of famous poets, however only a few names such as [[Rumi]] and [[Omar Khayyám]] have surfaced among western popular readership, even though the likes of [[Hafez]] and [[Saadi]] are considered by many Iranians to be just as influential. The books of famous poets have been translated into western languages since 1634. An example of Persian poetic influence is the poem below which is inscribed on the entrance of [[United Nations]]' Hall of Nations.<br />
<br />
<br />
''{{cquote|<center>بنى آدم اعضاء يک پیکرند <br/>که در آفرينش ز يک گوهرند<br/>چو عضوى بدرد آورد روزگارد <br/>دگر عضوها را نماند قرار</center><p>''Of one Essence is the human race<br/>thus has Creation put the base<br/>One Limb impacted is sufficient<br/>For all Others to feel the Mace''}}<center>''—[[Saadi (poet)|Saadi]]'' (1184&ndash;1283)</center>''<br />
<br />
===Art===<br />
{{main|Iranian architecture|Iranian art}}<br />
[[Image:Naghshe Jahan Square Isfahan modified.jpg|thumb|left|[[Naghsh-i Jahan Square]]]]<br />
[[Image:Mehmooni2.jpg|thumb|right|Seventeenth-century painting from Hasht-Bahesht palace, Isfahan]]<br />
[[Greater Iran]] is home to one of the richest [[art|artistic]] traditions in world history and encompasses many disciplines, including [[architecture]], [[painting]], [[weaving]], [[pottery]], [[calligraphy]], [[metalworking]] and [[stone masonry]]. Persians were among the first to use [[mathematics]], [[geometry]], and [[astronomy]] in architecture and also have extraordinary skills in making massive domes which can be seen frequently in the structure of bazaars and mosques. The main building types of classical [[Iranian architecture]] are the [[mosque]] and the [[palace]]. Iran, besides being home to a large number of art houses and galleries, also holds one of the [[Iranian Crown Jewels|largest and valuable jewel collections]] in the world.<br />
<br />
Iran ranks seventh among countries in the world with the most archeological architectural ruins and attractions from antiquity as recognized by [[UNESCO]].<ref>[http://www.american.edu/ted/iran-tour.htm Bustling bazaars and ancient sights, parched deserts and snowcapped mountains, awesome architecture and simple hospitality] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Fifteen of [[UNESCO]]'s [[World Heritage Site]]s are creations of Iranian architecture and the [[mausoleum of Maussollos]] was identified as one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]].<br />
<br />
==Science and technology==<br />
[[Image:Ghotb2.jpg|thumb|upright|left|13th century manuscript depicting an [[Epicycle|epicyclic planetary model]]]]<br />
{{main|Science in Iran}}<br />
{{see also|Education in Iran|Higher education in Iran}}<br />
Science in Iran has a considerable history. From the [[Qanat]] to the [[Yakhchal]], to the [[windmill]]. Iranians contributed significantly to the current understanding of [[astronomy]], [[nature]], [[medicine]], [[mathematics]], and [[philosophy]]. [[Muhammad ibn Mūsā al-Khwārizmī]] is sometimes considered (along with [[Diophantus]]) as the "father of [[Algebra]]". The isolation of ethanol (alcohol) as a pure compound was first achieved by Persian alchemists. Throughout the [[Middle Ages]], the [[natural philosophy]] and [[mathematics]] of the ancient Greeks and Persians were furthered and preserved within Persia. The [[Academy of Gundishapur]] was a renowned centre of learning in the city of [[Gundeshapur]] during late antiquity and was the most important medical centre of the ancient world during the sixth and seventh centuries.<ref>The Cambridge History of Iran Vol 4, p396. ISBN 0-521-20093-8</ref> During this period, Persia became a centre for the manufacture of [[Measuring instrument|scientific instrument]]s, retaining its reputation for quality well into the nineteenth century. <br />
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Iran strives to revive the golden age of Persian science. The country has increased its publication output nearly tenfold from 1996 through 2004, and has been ranked first in terms of output growth rate followed by [[China]].<ref>http://experts.about.com/q/Economics-2301/economic.htm retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><br />
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Despite the limitations in funds, facilities, and international collaborations, [[List of Iranian scientists|Iranian scientists]] remain highly productive in several experimental fields as [[pharmacology]], [[pharmaceutical chemistry]], [[organic chemistry]], and [[polymer chemistry]]. Iranian scientists are also helping construct the [[Compact Muon Solenoid]], a detector for [[CERN]]'s [[Large Hadron Collider]] due to come online in May 2008. <br />
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In the biomedical sciences, Iran's [[Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics]] is a [[UNESCO]] chair in biology,<ref>[http://www.ibb.ut.ac.ir/ Institute of Biochemistry and Biophysics] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> and in late 2006, Iranian scientists successfully [[Cloning|clone]]d a sheep by somatic cell nuclear transfer, at the [[Royan Institute|Rouyan research centre]] in Isfahan.<ref>http://www.scenta.co.uk/Engineering/1015402/iranian-scientists-clone-sheep.htm The first successfully cloned animal in Iran retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> <br />
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[[Image:Astrolabe-Persian-18C.jpg|thumb|right|An eighteenth-century Persian [[astrolabe]]]]<br />
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The [[Iranian nuclear program]] was launched in the 1950s. Iran's current facilities includes several research reactors, a [[uranium]] mine, an almost complete commercial [[nuclear reactor]], and uranium processing facilities that include a [[Enriched uranium#The gas centrifuge|uranium enrichment plant]]. The [[Iranian Space Agency]] launched its first [[reconnaissance satellite]] named [[Sina-1]] in 2006, and a "space rocket" in 2007,<ref>[http://asia.news.yahoo.com/070225/afp/070225120805top.html Rocket launch] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> which aimed at improving science and research for university students.<ref>[http://newsmax.com/archives/articles/2007/2/26/90124.shtml Iran Says 'Space Rocket' for Research]. NewsMax.com, [[Feb. 26]], 2007.</ref><br />
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Iranian scientists are a significant portion of the international scientific community {{Fact|date=February 2008}}. In 1960, [[Ali Javan]] co-invented the first [[gas laser]], [[Fuzzy set|fuzzy set theory]] was introduced by [[Lotfi Zadeh]].<ref>[http://www-bisc.cs.berkeley.edu/Zadeh-1965.pdf cs.berkeley.edu] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Iranian cardiologist, [[Toffy Musivand|Tofy Mussivand]] invented the first artificial cardiac pump, the precursor of the [[artificial heart]], and developed it further afterwards. [[HbA1c]] was discovered by [[Samuel Rahbar]] and introduced to the medical community, thereby furthering research and treatment of diabetes. Iranian physics is especially strong in [[string theory]], with many papers being published in Iran.<ref>[http://www.nature.com/nature/podcast/v443/n7110/nature-2006-09-28.html ''Nature journal:'' Reza Mansouri explains the emergence of world class string theorists in Iran] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> Iranian-American string theorist [[Cumrun Vafa]] proposed the [[Vafa-Witten theorem]] together with [[Edward Witten]]. The [[KPZ equation]] in theoretical physics was named after [[Mehran Kardar]].<br />
<br />
==Sports==<br />
{{main|Sports in Iran}}<br />
[[Image:Dizin.jpg|thumb|200px|left|[[Dizin]] skiing resort, Iran]] <br />
With two thirds of Iran's population under the age of 25, sports constitutes a highly active portion of Iran's society, both traditional and modern. Iran hence was the birthplace of sports such as [[polo]],<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/4272210.stm news.bb.co.uk] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> [[backgammon]],<ref name="Persian-journal">[http://www.iranian.ws/cgi-bin/iran_news/exec/view.cgi/2/4743 "Iran's Burnt City Throws up World’s Oldest Backgammon"], ''Persian Journal'', [[December 4]], 2004. Retrieved on [[August 5]], 2006.</ref> and [[Varzesh-e Pahlavani]]. <br />
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[[Image:Azadistadium tehran iran.jpg|right|thumb|200px|[[Azadi Stadium|Azadi Football Stadium]]]]<br />
[[Freestyle Wrestling]] is traditionally referred to as Iran's [[national sport]]. Former [[World Wrestling Entertainment|WWF]] champion [[Iron Sheik]] wrestled as an amateur in Iran before moving to the United States but today, the most popular sport in Iran is [[football (soccer)]], with [[Iran national football team|national team]] being a [[Football World Cup|World Cup]] finalist three times, having won the [[Asian Cup]] on three occasions and was the first country in the [[Middle East]] to host the [[Asian Games]]. Iran is home to several unique skiing resorts,<ref>[http://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=10000088&sid=aGpcjac1ZTF8&refer=culture bloomberg.com] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> with the [[Tochal]] resort being the world's fifth-highest ski resort ({{convert|3730|m|ft|0|abbr=on|disp=/|lk=on}} at its highest station) situated only fifteen minutes away from Tehran. Being a mountainous country, Iran offers enthusiasts abundant challenges for hiking, rock climbing,<ref>http://www.rockclimbing.com/routes/Asia/Iran/ retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> and mountain climbing.<ref>http://www.mountainzone.ir/ retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><ref>[http://www.abc-of-mountaineering.com/middle-east/iran/ Mountaineering in Iran] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref><ref>[http://abclocal.go.com/kgo/story?section=News&id=2062458 Local Woman Feared Dead In Iran Mountain Hike] retrieved 23 January 2008</ref> <br />
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Women are also active in sports, primarily in [[volleyball]] and [[badminton]] and even [[rallying]]. Female drivers participate in national rally tournaments, such as the famous driver [[Laleh Seddigh]].<br />
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== See also ==<br />
{{Iran-related topics}}<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
{{reflist|2}}<br />
<br />
== Further reading ==<br />
* [[Benjamin Walker]], ''Persian Pageant: A Cultural History of Iran,'' Arya Press, Calcutta, 1950.<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
{{portal|Iran|Flag of Iran.svg}}<br />
{{sisterlinks}}<br />
* [http://www.president.ir/eng/ The President of Iran]<br />
* [http://www.majlis.ir/mhtml/ The Majlis (Legislature) of Iran] {{fa icon}}<br />
* {{wikiatlas|Iran}}<br />
* {{wikitravel}}<br />
* {{wikia|world:Iran|Iran}}<br />
* {{dmoz|Regional/Middle_East/Iran}}<br />
* ''Faces of Iran: The World in One Nation'' (a sequence of still photographs, showing the richness of the ethnic and religious diversity of the people of Iran), [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OjtGr1Qqhng&NR=1 YouTube].<br />
* ''Rageh Inside Iran'', a BBC Four production, 17 February 2007, [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=554201962695917482&total=40&start=0&num=10&so=0&type=search&plindex=8 Google].<br />
* Farhad Nabipour, ''From Persia to Iran'', Part I, AMIR Productions, 4 November 2006 (slide show accompanied with Pink Floyd and Persian music &mdash; 28 min 8 sec), [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=-2032099907583727317 Google]. Highly recommended!<br />
* Farhad Nabipour, ''From Persia to Iran'', Part II, AMIR Productions, 10 November 2006 (slide show accompanied with Pink Floyd and Persian music &mdash; 21 min 46 sec), [http://video.google.com/videoplay?docid=1936128339543074566 Google].<br />
<br />
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{{Template group<br />
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{{Countries of Southwest Asia}}<br />
{{Countries of Asia}}<br />
{{Countries bordering the Caspian Sea}}<br />
{{Countries bordering the Persian Gulf}}<br />
{{Countries and territories bordering the Indian Ocean}}<br />
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{{Template group<br />
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{{D8 nations}}<br />
{{G15 nations}}<br />
{{Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC)|state=collapsed}}<br />
{{Islamic republics}}<br />
{{Iranian-speaking regions}}<br />
{{Persian literature}}<br />
}}<br />
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<!--Categories--><br />
[[Category:Iran| ]]<br />
[[Category:Countries with alcohol prohibition]]<br />
[[Category:Near Eastern countries]]<br />
[[Category:Middle Eastern countries]]<br />
[[Category:Developing 8 Countries member states]]<br />
[[Category:G15 nations]]<br />
[[Category:Iranian Plateau]]<br />
[[Category:Persian-speaking countries and territories]]<br />
[[Category:Islamic republics]]<br />
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[[te:ఇరాన్]]<br />
[[th:ประเทศอิหร่าน]]<br />
[[vi:Iran]]<br />
[[tg:Эрон]]<br />
[[tr:İran]]<br />
[[tk:Eýran]]<br />
[[udm:Иран]]<br />
[[uk:Іран]]<br />
[[ur:ایران]]<br />
[[vo:Lirän]]<br />
[[war:Iran]]<br />
[[yi:איראן]]<br />
[[zh-yue:伊朗]]<br />
[[diq:İran]]<br />
[[bat-smg:Irans]]<br />
[[zh:伊朗]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Mari_Boine&diff=177798645Mari Boine2007-12-14T02:12:34Z<p>Dkc: /* Idjagieđas (2006) */ added mispelled letter ŋ</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Mari Boine.jpg|thumb|Mari Boine at Kongsberg Jazz Festival 2007.]]<br />
<br />
'''Mari Boine Persen''' is a [[Norway|Norwegian]] [[Sami people|Sami]] musician known for having added [[jazz]] and rock to the [[yoik]]s of her native people. Boine (born [[8 november]] [[1956]] in [[Finnmark]], [[Norway]]) grew up amid the [[Laestadian]] Christian movement as well as amidst discrimination against her people. She was asked to perform at the [[1994 Winter Olympics]] in [[Lillehammer]], but refused because she perceived the invitation as an attempt to bring a [[tokenism|token]] minority to the ceremonies. ''Gula Gula'' ([[1989]], Real World) was her breakthrough release, and she continued to record popular albums throughout the [[1990s]].<br />
<br />
==Discography==<br />
===Gula Gula (1989)===<br />
Gula Gula / Hør stammødrenes stemme / Hear the voice of the tribe's mothers.<br />
:1. Gula Gula<br />
:2. Vilges Suola <br />
:3. Balu Badjel Go Vuoittán<br />
:4. Du Lahka<br />
:5. It Šat Duolmma Mu<br />
:6. Eadnan Bakti<br />
:7. Oppskrift For Herrefolk<br />
:8. Duinne<br />
<br />
===Goaskinviellja (1993)===<br />
Goaskinviellja / Ørnebror / Eagle Brother<br />
<br />
:1. Cuvges Vuovttat<br />
:2. Duodalas Calbmi<br />
:3. Sami Eatnan Duoddarat<br />
:4. Modjas Katrin<br />
:5. Das Aiggun Cuozzut<br />
:6. Dolgesuorbmageziiguin<br />
:7. Skadja<br />
:8. Goaskinviellja<br />
:9. Rahkesvuodain<br />
:10. Mu Ahkku<br />
:11. Ale Ale Don<br />
<br />
===Leahkastin (1994)===<br />
Leahkastin / / Unfolding<br />
<br />
:1. Gumppet Holvot (The Wolves Howl)<br />
:2. Ále Šat (No More) <br />
:3. Čuovgi Liekkas (Radiant Warmth)<br />
:4. Áhčai (To My Father)<br />
:5. Maid Áiggot Muinna Eallin (What Do You Want Life?)<br />
:6. Mielahisvuohta (Lunacy Lunacy)<br />
:7. Gilvve Gollát (Sow Your Gold) <br />
:8. Gulan Du (Hearing You)<br />
:9. Vuolgge Mu Mielde Bassivárrái (Come With Me to the Sacred Mountain)<br />
:10. Mun Da'han Lean Oaivámuš (Just When I Had ...)<br />
:11. Dá Lean Mun (Here I Am) <br />
<br />
===Radiant Warmth (1996)===<br />
(Compilation from Goaskinviellja and Leahkastin)<br />
:1. Eagle Brother (Goaskinviellja)<br />
:2. No More (Ale Sat)<br />
:3. Radiant Warmth (Cuovgi Liekkas)<br />
:4. Reverberation (Skádja)<br />
:5. Hair Of Light, Solemn Eye (Cuvges Vuovttat, Duodalas Calbmi)<br />
:6. Katrin Who Smiles (Midjás Kátrin)<br />
:7. Lunacy, Lunacy (Mielahisvuohta)<br />
:8. Sow Your Gold (Gilvve Gollát)<br />
:9. Hearing You (Gulan Du)<br />
:10. Come With Me To The Sacred Mountain (Vuolgge Mu Mielde Bassivárrái)<br />
:11. Feather The World (Ráhkesvuodain)<br />
:12. Grandma (Mu Ahkku)<br />
:13. Don't Go...Not You (Ale Ale Don)<br />
<br />
===Eallin (1996)===<br />
Eallin (live)<br />
:1. State Of Mind Where Your Intellect Is Disconnected<br />
:2. Within Myself<br />
:3. Orphant<br />
:4. Hear The Voices Of The Foremothers<br />
:5. Katrin Who Smiles<br />
:6. Echo<br />
:7. Reverberation<br />
:8. Come With Me To The Sacred Mountain<br />
:9. Free<br />
:10. To You<br />
<br />
===Bálvvoslatjna (1998)===<br />
Bálvvoslatjna / / Room of Worship<br />
:1. Eallin<br />
:2. Beaivvi Nieida<br />
:3. Risten<br />
:4. Eagle Man<br />
:5. Changing Woman<br />
:6. Alddagasat Ipmilat<br />
:7. Oarjjabeat Beaivvi Ja Manu<br />
:8. Mu Vankar Lasse<br />
:9. Alit Go Buot Varit<br />
:10. Don It Galgan<br />
:11. Ethno Jenny<br />
<br />
===Eight Seasons (2002)===<br />
Eight Seasons / / Gávcci Jahkejuogu<br />
:1. Boađan Nuppi Bealde (I Come from the Other Side)<br />
:2. Song for the Unborn (Reagákeahtes)<br />
:3. Sáráhka Viina (Sáráhka's Wine)<br />
:4. Guovssahasaid Ájagáttis (By the Source of Aurora B)<br />
:5. Sielu Dálkkas (Soul Medicine)<br />
:6. Mu Váibmu Vádjul Doppe (Hymn)<br />
:7. Butterfly (Beaivelottáš)<br />
:8. Liegga Gokčas Sis' (In a Blanket of Warmth)<br />
:9. It Dieđe (You Never Know)<br />
:10. Duottar Rássi (Tundra Flower)<br />
:11. Silba Várjala (Let Silver Protect)<br />
:12. Bottoža Dáhtun (Give Me a Break)<br />
<br />
===Idjagieđas (2006)===<br />
Idjagieđas / I Nattens Hand / In The Hand Of The Night<br />
:1. Vuoi Vuoi Me<br />
:2. Idjagieđas (In The Hand Of The Night)<br />
:3. Suoivva (The Shadow)<br />
:4. Gos Bat Munno Čiŋat Leat? (Where Did All Our Colours Go?)<br />
:5. Mu Ustit, Eŋgeliid Sogalaš (My Friend Of Angel Tribe)<br />
:6. Davvi Bávttiin (On The Fells Of The North)<br />
:7. Lottáš (Little Bird)<br />
:8. Diamántta Spáillit (Reindeer Of Diamond)<br />
:9. Geasuha (Irresistible)<br />
:10. Áfruvvá (The Mermaid)<br />
:11. Uldda Nieida (Uldda Girl)<br />
:12. Fápmodálkkas (Big Medicine)<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
<br />
* {{MySpace|boine}}<br />
* [http://www.mic.no/symfoni/kontakt.nsf/pub_e/per2000062811023056018310 Mari Boine's entry] at the [[Music Information Centre Norway]]<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Boine, Mari}}<br />
[[Category:Sami musicians]]<br />
[[Category:Norwegian female singers]]<br />
[[Category:Norwegian folk singers]]<br />
[[Category:1956 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
[[Category:Real World artists]]<br />
<br />
[[cs:Mari Boine]]<br />
[[da:Mari Boine]]<br />
[[de:Mari Boine]]<br />
[[fr:Mari Boine Persen]]<br />
[[it:Mari Boine]]<br />
[[li:Mari Boine]]<br />
[[no:Mari Boine]]<br />
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[[pl:Mari Boine]]<br />
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[[sv:Mari Boine]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=200_Po_Vstrechnoy&diff=174952229200 Po Vstrechnoy2007-12-01T00:16:17Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Album | <!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Albums --><br />
Name = 200 По Встречной |<br />
Type = studio |<br />
Artist = [[t.A.T.u.]] |<br />
Cover = 200_Po_Vstr.jpg |<br />
Caption = |<br />
Released = <small>{{flagicon|Russia}} [[Image:Flag of Poland.svg|25px|Polish flag]] {{flagicon|CZE}} [[May 21]], [[2001]] <br> {{flagicon|Japan}} [[September 21]], [[2003]] |<br />
Recorded = 1999 - 2000 |<br />
Genre = [[Pop music|Pop]]/[[Rock music|Rock]] |<br />
Length = 48:17 |<br />
Label = [[Universal Music Group|Universal]], [[Interscope Records|Interscope]] |<br />
Producer = [[Ivan Shapovalov]]<br> [[Martin Kierszenbaum]]<br> [[Robert Orton]] |<br />
Reviews = |<br />
Language = [[Russian language|Russian]] |<br />
Last album = |<br />
This album = '''''200 Po Vstrechnoy'''''<br>(2001) |<br />
Next album = ''[[200 Po Vstrechnoy (Re-Release)]]''<br>(2002) |<br />
Misc = {{Singles<br />
| Name = 200 Po Vstrechnoj<br />
| Type = studio<br />
| single 1 = [[Ya Soshla S Uma]]<br />
| single 1 date = December 2000<br />
| single 2 = [[Nas Ne Dogonyat]]<br />
| single 2 date = March 2001<br />
| single 3 = [[30 Minut]]<br />
| single 3 date = 2001<br />
}} |<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''200 Po Vstrechnoy''''' ({{lang-ru|200 по встречной}}; Translated: ''200 [km/h] Against the Traffic''), is the debut album of the [[Russia]]n group [[t.A.T.u.]]. Due to the sales of this CD, t.A.T.u. became the first eastern European group to receive a [[IFPI]] Platinum Award. The English version of the CD (''[[200 km/h in the Wrong Lane]]'', released in 2002) also won the award, making t.A.T.u. the first group ever to receive an IFPI Platinum Award for the same album in different languages.<br />
<br />
The CD has been released two times. The original release is very rare. The album has shipped more than more 2.000,000 copies only in Russia in 2001.<br />
<br />
== Original Release ==<br />
The first release of ''200 Po Vstrechnoy'' on May 21, 2001.<br />
<br />
===Track listing===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!align="center"|#<br />
!align="center"|Track title<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|1.<br />
|align="left"|Зачем я? &mdash; ''Zachem Ya?'' (Why Am I)<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|2.<br />
|align="left"|[[Ya Soshla S Uma|Я сошла с ума]] &mdash; ''Ya soshla s uma'' (I've Lost My Mind)<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|3.<br />
|align="left"|[[Nas Ne Dogonyat|Нас не догонят]] &mdash; ''Nas ne dogonyat'' (Not Gonna Catch Us) <small>(S. Galoyan)</small><br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|4.<br />
|align="left"|Досчитай до ста &mdash; ''Doschitai do sta'' (Count Up To 100)<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|5.<br />
|align="left"|[[30 Minut|30 Mинут]] &mdash; ''30 Minut'' (30 Minutes)<small>(S. Galoyan, [[Ivan Shapovalov|Shapovalov]])</small><br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|6.<br />
|align="left"|Я теперь твой враг &mdash; ''Ya teper' tvoi vrag'' (I'm Your Enemy)<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|7.<br />
|align="left"|Я твоя не первая &mdash; ''Ya tvoya ne pervaya'' (I'm Not Your First) <small>(S. Galoyan)</small><br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|8.<br />
|align="left"|Робот &mdash; ''Robot'' (Robot)<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|9.<br />
|align="left"|Мальчик-гей &mdash; ''Mal'chik-gey'' (Gay Boy) <small>(S. Galoyan)</small><br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|10.<br />
|align="left"|[[Nas Ne Dogonyat|Нас не догонят]] ''Nas ne dogonyat (HarDrum Remix)''<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|11.<br />
|align="left"|[[30 Minut|30 Mинут]] ''30 Minut (HarDrum Remix)''<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Re-Release ==<br />
{{Infobox Album | <!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Albums --><br />
Name = 200 По Встречной (Re-Release) |<br />
Type = studio |<br />
Artist = [[t.A.T.u.]] |<br />
Cover = 200povst_re_edition.jpg |<br />
Caption = |<br />
Released = <small>{{flagicon|Russia}} February 2002 |<br />
Recorded = 1999 - 2002 |<br />
Genre = [[Pop music|Pop]]/[[Rock music|Rock]] |<br />
Length = ~ 50:35 |<br />
Label = [[Universal Music Group|Universal]], [[Interscope Records|Interscope]] |<br />
Producer = [[Ivan Shapovalov]]<br> [[Martin Kierszenbaum]]<br> [[Robert Orton]] |<br />
Reviews = |<br />
Language = [[Russian language|Russian]] |<br />
Last album = ''200 Po Vstrechnoy''<br />(2001)<br>'''see above''' |<br />
This album = '''''200 Po Vstrechnoy (Re-Release)'''''<br />(2002) |<br />
Next album = ''[[200 km/h in the Wrong Lane]]''<br />(2002) |<br />
}}<br />
<br />
'''''200 Po Vstrechnoy (Re-Release)''''' is the second release of ''200 Po Vstrechnoy'', February 2002. The additions included a new song (''Klouny''), two new remixes, and a mulitmedia track that included behind the scenes footage. There is also a version of this re-release with no multimedia track and the same cover, but with a black background instead of white. the album sales 60.000 copies in first week [http://www.tatu.ru/en/history7.html 1]<br />
<br />
===Track listing===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!align="center"|#<br />
!align="center"|Track title<br />
!align="center"|<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|1.<br />
|align="left"|Клоуны &mdash; ''Klouny'' (Clowns)<br />
|align="left"|3:30<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|2.<br />
|align="left"|[[30 Minut|30 Mинут]] &mdash; ''30 Minut'' (30 minutes)<br />
|align="left"|3:19<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|3.<br />
|align="left"|Досчитай до ста &mdash; ''Doschitay do sta'' (Count Up to 100)<br />
|align="left"|4:38<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|4.<br />
|align="left"|Зачем я? &mdash; ''Zachem Ya?'' (Why am I)<br />
|align="left"|4:08<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|5.<br />
|align="left"|[[Nas Ne Dogonyat|Нас не догонят]] &mdash; ''Nas ne dogonyat'' (Not Gonna Catch Us)<br />
|align="left"|4:35<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|6.<br />
|align="left"|Я твоя не первая &mdash; ''Ya tvoya ne pervaya'' (I'm Not Your First)<br />
|align="left"|4:18<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|7.<br />
|align="left"|Робот &mdash; ''Robot'' (Robot)<br />
|align="left"|3:45<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|8.<br />
|align="left"|Мальчик-гей &mdash; ''Mal'chik-gey'' (Gay Boy)<br />
|align="left"|3:18<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|9.<br />
|align="left"|Я теперь твой враг &mdash; ''Ya teper' tvoy vrag'' (I'm Your Enemy)<br />
|align="left"|3:19<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|10.<br />
|align="left"|[[Ya Soshla S Uma|Я сошла с ума]] &mdash; ''Ya soshla s uma'' (I've Lost My Mind)<br />
|align="left"|3:30<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|12.<br />
|align="left"|[[30 Minut|30 Mинут]] &mdash; ''30 Minut'' (RagaMix by That Black Remix)<br />
|align="left"|5:57<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|13.<br />
|align="left"|Мальчик-гей &mdash; ''Mal'chik-gey'' (That Black Remix)<br />
|align="left"|5:05<br />
|-<br />
|align="left"|00.<br />
|align="left"|[[30 Minut|30 Mинут]] Video (Enhanced CD)<br />
|align="left"|3:08<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Certifications==<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
!align="left"|Country<br />
!align="left"|Peak Position<br />
!align="left"|Certification (If Any)<br />
!align="left"|Sales/shipments<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|align="left"|Russia<br />
|align="center"|1<br />
|align="center"|6x Platinum<br />
|align="center"|2.000.000 <ref>[http://www.tatu.ru/en/history5.html Official Site ]</ref><br />
|-<br />
<br />
|align="left"|Czech Republic Top 50<br />
|align="center"|1<br />
|align="center"|Platinum <ref>[http://eng.tatysite.net/about/ Oficial Site]</ref><br />
|align="center"|20,000<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|align="left"|Europe<br />
|align="center"|<br />
|align="center"|IFPI Platinum Award <ref>[http://www.ifpi.org/content/section_news/plat2002.html IFPI Platinum Award 2002]</ref><br />
|align="center"|1,000,000<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|align="left"|Poland Top 50<br />
|align="center"|1<br />
|align="center"|Platinum <ref>[http://www.zpav.pl/plyty.asp?page=platynowe&lang=en ZPAV Certification]</ref><br />
|align="center"|200,000<br />
|-<br />
<br />
|align="left"|Japan<br />
|align="center"|124<br />
|align="center"|-<br />
|align="center"|4,633 <ref>[http://www.ukmix.org/forums/viewtopic.php?t=15869&postdays=0&postorder=asc&start=850/ Japan Sales]</ref><br />
|-<br />
<br />
|align="left"|'''Worldwide'''<br />
|align="center"|-<br />
|align="center"|-<br />
|align="center"| '''3,500,000'''<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
{{reflist}}<br />
<br />
== See also ==<br />
* [[200 Po Vstrechnoy Tour]] - The associated tour.<br />
<br />
{{Tatu}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:T.A.T.u. albums]]<br />
[[Category:2002 albums]]<br />
[[Category:Debut albums]]<br />
[[Category:2001 albums]]<br />
[[Category:Universal Records albums]]<br />
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[[ru:200 по встречной]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=164783632User:Dkc2007-10-15T19:38:02Z<p>Dkc: </p>
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<div>{{Babel|pl|en-4|fr-3|ru-3|sv-3|no-3|da-2|hu-1}}<br />
My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m twenty years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]].<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
[http://www.filolog.blox.pl/ http://www.filolog.blox.pl/]<br />
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[[zh:User:Dkc]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=164783305User:Dkc2007-10-15T19:36:25Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Babel|pl|en-4|fr-3|ru-3|sv-3|no-3|da-2|hu-1}}<br />
My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m twenty years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]].<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
[http://www.philological.blogspot.com/ http://www.philological.blogspot.com/]<br />
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[[zh:User:Dkc]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=164782269User:Dkc2007-10-15T19:31:33Z<p>Dkc: </p>
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<div>{{Babel|pl|en-4|fr-3|ru-3|sv-3|no-3|da-2|hu-1}}<br />
My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m twenty years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]].<br />
<br><br />
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[http://www.filolog.blox.pl/ http://www.filolog.blox.pl/]<br />
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[[zh:User:Dkc]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Max_von_Sydow&diff=113928743Max von Sydow2007-03-09T22:03:44Z<p>Dkc: Dotkniecie reki —> Dotknięcie ręki</p>
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<div>{{Infobox actor<br />
| name = Max von Sydow<br />
| image = MaxVonSydow 20050924.jpg<br />
| imagesize = 250px<br />
| caption = Max von Sydow at the 2006 [[San Sebastian International Film Festival]]<br />
| birthdate = {{birth date and age|1929|4|10}}<br />
| location = {{flagicon|Sweden}} [[Lund]], [[Scania|Skåne]], [[Sweden]]<br />
| birthname = Max Carl Adolf von Sydow<br />
| height = 193.5 cm<br />
}}<br />
<br />
{{Audio|sv-Max_von_Sydow.ogg|'''Max Carl Adolf von Sydow'''}}, (born [[April 10]] [[1929]]) is an [[Academy-Award]] nominated [[Swedish people|Swedish]] [[actor]], known in particular for his collaboration with filmmaker [[Ingmar Bergman]].<br />
<br />
==Early life==<br />
Max von Sydow was born to a noble family in [[Lund]], [[Scania|Skåne]], [[Sweden]]. His father, [[Carl Wilhelm von Sydow]], was a professor of comparative folklore at the [[Lund University|University of Lund]]. His mother, ''Friherrinnan'' (Baroness) Greta Rappe, was a school teacher. Persistent rumors claim he had at least one brother who allegedly died during the filming of ''[[The Exorcist (film)|The Exorcist]]'', but he was an only child. Little material is available on his childhood, except that he seems to have been a shy, quiet child.<br />
<br />
He attended the [[Katedralskolan (Lund)|Cathedral School]] of Lund, and learned [[German language|German]] and [[English language|English]] starting at the age of nine. At school, he and some friends founded an amateur theatre company, where his acting career began. He completed National Service before going on to study at The [[Royal Dramatic Theatre]] ("Dramaten") in Stockholm, where he trained between [[1948]] and [[1951]] with the likes of [[Lars Ekborg]], [[Margaretha Krook]] and [[Ingrid Thulin]]. During his time at Dramaten, he made his screen debut in [[Alf Sjöberg]]'s films ''Only a Mother'' (''Bara en Mor'', [[1949]]), and ''[[Miss Julie]]'' (''Fröken Julie'', [[1951]]), a Swedish classic after [[August Strindberg]].<br />
<br />
==Career==<br />
Von Sydow moved to [[Malmö]] in [[1955]]. It was there that he met his mentor [[Ingmar Bergman]]. His first work with Bergman was on stage at Malmö Municipal Theatre. Von Sydow later would work with Bergman on films such as ''[[The Seventh Seal]]'' (''Det Sjunde inseglet'', [[1957]]), ''[[Wild Strawberries (movie)|Wild Strawberries]]'' (''Smultronstället'', 1957) and ''[[The Virgin Spring]]'' (''Jungfrukällan'', [[1960]]). <br />
<br />
It was in these [[films]] that von Sydow perfected his craft and began to display the great talent that has spanned the 53 years of his screen career. Von Sydow now dominated the screen as he had done on stage and in doing so became an idol of the international Arthouse. Recognition came as early as 1954 when he was awarded the prestigious Royal Foundation Culture Award.<br />
<br />
Von Sydow worked profusely on stage and screen in [[Scandinavia]] and resisted increasing calls from the [[United States]] to go to [[Hollywood]]. After being seen in Bergman's [[Academy Awards|Academy Award]]-winning films and having been first choice for the title role of ''Dr. No'', Von Sydow finally set foot in America after agreeing to star in the film which was to lead to much greater recognition, the role of [[Jesus]] in [[George Stevens]]' grandly titled, all-star epic ''[[The Greatest Story Ever Told]]'' in 1965. His talents were soon in demand in other American productions and so von Sydow and his family eventually moved to [[Los Angeles]].<br />
<br />
From 1965 von Sydow became a regular on the American screen while also maintaining a presence in his native Sweden. Though perhaps type-cast as a villain, he was rewarded in the United States with two [[Golden Globe]] nominations for ''[[Hawaii (film)|Hawaii]]'' and ''[[The Exorcist (film)|The Exorcist]]'' in 1973.<br />
<br />
In the mid 1970s, von Sydow moved to [[Rome]] and appeared in a number of [[Italy|Italian]] films, becoming friendly with another screen legend, [[Marcello Mastroianni]].<br />
<br />
In the late 1970s and early 1980s, von Sydow appeared in both serious films, such as [[Woody Allen]]'s ''[[Hannah and Her Sisters]]'' (1986) and [[David Lynch]]'s [[Dune (film)|Dune]] (1984), and silly ones like the Mackenzie Brothers' ''[[Strange Brew]]'' (1983). <br />
<br />
Since then Von Sydow has won The [[Australian Film Institute]] Best Actor Award for his title role in ''[[Father (film)|Father]]'' ([[1989]]), the Guldbagge Best Director Award for his only directorial foray ''Katinka'' (''Ved vejen'', [[1988]]), based on a novel by [[Herman Bang]], and the Best Actor Award at The Tokyo International Film Festival for ''The Silent Touch'' (''Dotknięcie ręki'', [[1993]]). <br />
<br />
He received international acclaim for his performance as the [[Nobel Prize]]-winning novelist [[Knut Hamsun]] in [[Jan Troell]]'s biopic ''Hamsun'' . He received his third Swedish Guldbagge and his second Danish Bodil for his depiction of a character often described as his [[King Lear]]. In 1996 Von Sydow starred in [[Liv Ullmann]]'s ''Private Confessions'' (''Enskilda samtal''). Back in Hollywood, he appeared in ''[[What Dreams May Come (film)|What Dreams May Come]]'' in a role which was something of a tip of the hat to his performance in ''The Exorcist''. <br />
<br />
His most recent triumph is probably his performance as an elderly lawyer in [[Scott Hicks]]' [[Snow Falling on Cedars (film)|''Snow Falling on Cedars'']]. Pre-Oscar talk had him tipped to scoop the Best Supporting Actor Award; however, this never came to fruition. In 2002, von Sydow had one of his largest commercial successes, co-starring with [[Tom Cruise]] in [[Steven Spielberg]]'s widely popular [[science fiction|sci-fi]] [[Thriller (genre)|thriller]] ''[[Minority Report (movie)|Minority Report]]''. In 2003, he played mentor character ''Eyvind'' in the European TV adaptation of the "Ring of the Nibelungs" saga. The show set ratings records and was released in the USA as "Dark Kingdom: The Dragon King."<br />
<br />
He may be the only actor to have played Jesus ("The Greatest Story Ever Told") and Satan ("Needful Things"), although, in all fairness, the villain character in "Needful Things" is never identified as Satan.<br />
<br />
==Marriage and divorce==<br />
In 1951, von Sydow married actress [[Kerstin Olin]] with whom he had two sons, Claes and Henrik. They were to star with their father in the film ''[[Hawaii (film)|Hawaii]]'', playing his son at different ages. Von Sydow was divorced in 1996 and subsequently married French filmmaker [[Catherine Brelet]] in April 1997 in Provence, France. Von Sydow currently lives with his wife in [[Paris]], where he enjoys reading, listening to music and gardening. He has personally stated he does not intend to retire, subject to the film roles he receives.<br />
<br />
==Awards==<br />
*The Pasinetti Award at the [[Venice Film Festival]] for ''The Flight of the Eagle'' (''Ingenjör Andrées luftfärd'', [[1982]])<br />
*In [[1987]] von Sydow celebrated his success in ''[[Pelle the Conqueror]]'' (''Pelle erobreren''), named after [[Martin Andersen Nexø]]'s novel. He received his first Oscar nomination, as well as winning the [[Bodil Prize]], the [[Felix European Film Award]], the [[Robert Award]], and the [[Guldbagge Award]] from his native Sweden. <br />
*He also received special mention when ''Pelle'' garnered the [[Palme d'Or]] at the [[Cannes Film Festival]].<br />
*In [[2006]] he was honoured with the [[Donostia Award]] at the [[San Sebastian International Film Festival]]<br />
<br />
==Trivia==<br />
*Two sons of his played in "Hawaii". {{Fact|date=February 2007}}<br />
*One of his favourite movies is "Runaway Train". {{Fact|date=February 2007}}<br />
*Height: 6'4" (193 cm).<br />
<br />
==Filmography==<br />
{{col-begin}}<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
*''[[Only a Mother]]'' (''Bara en mor'') (1949)<br />
*''[[Miss Julie]]'' (''Fröken Julie'') (1951)<br />
*''[[Ingen Mans Kvinna]]'' (1953)<br />
*''[[Rätten Att Älska]]'' (1956)<br />
*''[[Herr Sleeman Kommer]]'' (1957)(TV)<br />
*''[[Prästen i Uddarbo]]'' (1957)<br />
*''[[The Seventh Seal]]'' (''Det Sjunde inseglet'') (1957)<br />
*''[[Wild Strawberries (film)|Wild Strawberries]]'' (Smultronstället) (1957) <br />
*''[[Brink of Life]]'' (''Nära Livet'') (1958)<br />
*''[[Spion 503]]'' (1958)<br />
*''[[Rabies (film)]]'' (1958) (TV)<br />
*''[[The Magician (1958 film)|The Magician]]'' (''Ansiktet'') (1958)<br />
*''[[The Virgin Spring]]'' (''Jungfrukällan'') (1960)<br />
*''[[The Wedding Day]]'' (''Bröllopsdagen'') (1960)<br />
*''[[Through a Glass Darkly (film)|Through a Glass Darkly]]'' (''Såsom i en Spegel'') (1961)<br />
*''[[The Adventures of Nils Holgersson]]'' (''Nils Holgerssons Underbara Resa'') (1962)<br />
*''[[The Swedish Mistress]]'' (''Älskarinnan'') (1962)<br />
*''[[Winter Light]]'' (''Nattvardsgästerna'') (1963)<br />
*''[[4 x 4]]'' Kvist (segment "''Uppehåll i myrlandet''") (1965)<br />
*''[[The Reward]]'' (1965)<br />
*''[[The Greatest Story Ever Told]]'' (1965)<br />
*''[[The Quiller Memorandum]]'' (1966)<br />
*''[[Hawaii (film)|Hawaii]]'' (1966)<br />
*''[[Here's Your Life]]'' (''Här Har Du Ditt Liv'') (1966)<br />
*''[[The Diary of Anne Frank (film)|The Diary of Anne Frank]]'' (1967)(TV)<br />
*''[[Hour of the Wolf]]'' (''Vargtimmen'') (1968)<br />
*''[[Black Palm Trees]]'' (''Svärta Palmkronor'') (1968)<br />
*''[[Shame (film)|Shame]]'' (''Skammen'') (1968)<br />
*''[[Made in Sweden]]'' (1969)<br />
*''[[A Passion]]'' (''En Passion'') (1969)<br />
*''[[The Kremlin Letter]]'' (1970)<br />
*''[[The Night Visitor]]'' (1971)<br />
*''[[The Emigrants]]'' (1971)<br />
*''[[The Apple War]]'' (1971)<br />
*''[[The Touch]]'' (''Beröringen'') (1971)<br />
*''[[I Havsbandet]]'' (1971) (Mini-series)<br />
*''[[Embassy (film)|Embassy]]'' (1972)<br />
*''[[The New Land]]'' (''Nybyggarna'') (1972)<br />
*''[[Kvartten Som Sprangdes]]'' (1973) (Mini-series)<br />
*''[[The Exorcist (film)|The Exorcist]]'' (1973)<br />
*''[[Steppenwolf]]'' (1974)<br />
*''[[Trompe-l'oeil (film)|Trompe-l'oeil]]'' (1975) <br />
*''[[The Softening of the Egg]]'' (1975) <br />
*''[[Dog's Heart]]'' (1975) (''Cuore di Cane'')<br />
*''[[The Ultimate Warrior (film)|The Ultimate Warrior]]'' (1975) <br />
*''[[Three Days of the Condor]]'' (1975)<br />
*''[[Voyage of the Damned]]'' (1976) <br />
*''[[The Desert of the Tartars]]'' (''Il Deserto dei Tartari'') (1976)<br />
*''[[Foxtrot (film)|Foxtrot]]'' (1976) <br />
*''[[The Context]]'' (''Cadaveri eccellenti'') (1976) <br />
*''[[March or Die (film)|March or Die]] (1977) <br />
*''[[Exorcist II: The Heretic]]'' (1977) <br />
*''[[Black Journal]]'' (''Gran bollito'') (1977) <br />
*''[[Brass Target]]'' (1978) <br />
*''[[Hurricane (1979 film)|Hurricane]]'' (1979)<br />
*''[[Deathwatch (1982 film)|Deathwatch]]'' (''La Mort en direct'') (1980)<br />
*''[[Footloose (1980 movie)|Footloose]]'' (''Bugie bianche'') (1980) <br />
*''[[Flash Gordon (film)|Flash Gordon]]'' (1980)<br />
*''[[Escape to Victory]]'' (1981)<br />
*''[[Hit Man (1982 film)|Hit Man]]'' (''Jugando con la muerte'') (1982)<br />
*''[[Flight of the Eagle|The Flight of the Eagle]]'' (''Ingenjör Andrées luftfärd'') (1982)<br />
*''[[Conan the Barbarian (film)|Conan the Barbarian]]'' (1982)<br />
*''[[Strange Brew]]'' (1983)<br />
{{col-break}}<br />
*''[[Circle of Passions]]'' (''Le Cercle des passions'') (1983) <br />
*''[[Dernier civil, Le]]'' (1983) (TV)<br />
*''[[Never Say Never Again]]'' (1983)<br />
*''[[Dreamscape (film)|Dreamscape]]'' (1984) <br />
*''[[Samson and Delilah (1984 film)|Samson and Delilah]]'' (1984) (TV) <br />
*''[[The Ice Pirates]]'' (1984)<br />
*''[[A Soldier's Tale]]'' (1984) <br />
*''[[Dune (film)|Dune]]'' (1984)<br />
*''[[The Repenter]]'' (''Il Pentito'') (1985) <br />
*''[[Code Name: Emerald]]'' (1985)<br />
*''[[Christopher Columbus (1985 film)|Christopher Colombus]]'' (1985) (mini) TV Series <br />
*''[[Kojak: The Belarus File]]'' (1985) (TV) <br />
*''[[The Last Place on Earth]]'' (1985) (mini) TV Series <br />
*''[[Quo Vadis? (1985 film)|Quo Vadis?]]'' (1985)<br />
*''[[Duet for One]]'' (1986)<br />
*''[[Hannah and Her Sisters]]'' (1986)<br />
*''[[The Wolf at the Door (movie)|The Wolf at the Door]]'' (Oviri) (1986) <br />
*''[[Gösta Berlings saga]]'' (1986) (mini) TV Series <br />
*''[[The Second Victory]]'' (1986)<br />
*''[[Pelle the Conqueror]]'' (1987)<br />
*''[[Red King, White Knight]]'' (1989) (TV)<br />
*''[[Hiroshima: Out of the Ashes]]'' (1990) (TV) <br />
*''[[A Violent Life]]'' (''Una Vita scellerata'') (1990)<br />
*''[[Father (film)|Father]]'' (1990)<br />
*''[[Awakenings]]'' (1990)<br />
*''[[Oxen (film)|Oxen]]'' (1991) <br />
*''[[Until the End of the World]]'' (''Bis ans Ende der Welt'') (1991) <br />
*''[[Europa (film)|Europa]]'' (1991) (voice)<br />
*''[[A Kiss Before Dying]]'' (1991) <br />
*''[[The Bachelor (1991 film)|The Bachelor]]'' (''Mio caro dottor Gräsler'') (1991) <br />
*''[[The Best Intentions]]'' (''Den Goda viljan'') (1992)<br />
*''[[Grandpa's Journey]]'' (''Morfars resa'') (1993)<br />
*''[[Och ge oss skuggorna]]'' (1993) <br />
*''[[Needful Things]]'' (1993)<br />
*''[[The Silent Touch (film)|The Silent Touch]]'' (''Dotkniecie reki'') (1993)<br />
*''[[Onkel Vanja]]'' (1994) (TV) <br />
*''[[Time Is Money (film)|Time Is Money]]'' (1994) <br />
*''[[Citizen X]]'' (1995) (TV) <br />
*''[[Depth Solitude]]'' (''Dypets ensomhet'') (1995) <br />
*''[[A che punto è la notte]]'' (1995) (TV)<br />
*''[[Judge Dredd (film)|Judge Dredd]]'' (1995)<br />
*''[[Radetzky March (film)|Radetzky March]]'' (''Radetzkymarsch'') (1995)<br />
*''[[Private Confessions]]'' (''Enskilda samtal'') (1996) (TV) <br />
*''[[Samson and Delilah (1996 film)|Samson and Delilah]]'' (1996) (TV) <br />
*''[[Jerusalem (film)|Jerusalem]]'' (1996) <br />
*''[[Hamsun (film)|Hamsun]]'' (1996) <br />
*''[[Truck Stop (film)|Truck Stop]]'' (1996)<br />
*''[[Solomon (film)|Solomon]]'' (1997) (TV) <br />
*''[[The Princess and the Pauper]]'' (''La Principessa e il povero'') (1997) (TV) <br />
*''[[Hostile Waters (film)|Hostile Waters]]'' (1997) <br />
*''[[What Dreams May Come (film)|What Dreams May Come]]'' (1998)<br />
*''[[Snow Falling on Cedars (film)|Snow Falling on Cedars]]'' (1999)<br />
*''[[Nuremberg (film)|Nuremberg]]'' (2000) (mini) TV Series <br />
*''[[Intact (film)|Intact]]'' (''Intacto'') (2001) <br />
*''[[Druids (film)|Druids]]'' (''Vercingétorix'') (2001)<br />
*''[[Sleepless (film)|Sleepless]]'' (Non ho sonno) (2001)<br />
*''[[Amants de Mogador, Les]]'' (2002)<br />
*''[[Minority Report (film)|Minority Report]]'' (2002)<br />
*''[[Hidden Children]]'' (''La Fuga degli innocenti'') (2004) (mini) TV Series<br />
*''[[Heidi]]'' (2005)<br />
*''[[Dark Kingdom: The Dragon King]]'' (2006)<br />
*''[[The Inquiry]]'' (2006)<br />
*''[[Rush Hour 3]]'' (2007)<br />
{{col-end}}<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<references /><br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*{{imdb name | id=0001884 | name=Max von Sydow}}<br />
*{{tcmdb name | id=199905 | name=Max von Sydow}}<br />
*[http://maxvonsydow.cjb.net Max Von Sydow Online]<br />
*[http://www.dtek.chalmers.se/~d3wall/mvs.html A Max von Sydow home page]<br />
*[http://www.maxvonsydow.da.ru/ The Max von Sydow Shrine]<br />
*[http://www.dancing-ferret.com/darkkingdom/ Dark Kingdom trailer site]<br />
<br />
{{DEFAULTSORT:Sydow, Max von}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Swedish film actors]]<br />
[[Category:James Bond cast members]]<br />
[[Category:People from Lund]]<br />
[[Category:1929 births]]<br />
[[Category:Living people]]<br />
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[[sv:Max von Sydow]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Live_Box&diff=112323205Live Box2007-03-03T14:08:40Z<p>Dkc: Hierloom —> Heirloom</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Album | <!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Albums --><br />
Name = Live Box |<br />
Type = [[Box set]] |<br />
Artist = [[Björk]] |<br />
Cover = bjork_livebox.jpg |<br />
Released = [[August 18]] [[2003]] |<br />
Recorded = |<br />
Genre = [[Electronica]] |<br />
Length = 241:08 (total)<br /><small>(excluding DVD content)</small>|<br />
Label = [[One Little Indian]] |<br />
Producer = Various|<br />
Reviews = |<br />
Last album = ''[[Family Tree (album)|Family Tree]]''<br />(2002)|<br />
This album = '''''Live Box'''''<br />(2003) |<br />
Next album = ''[[Medúlla]]''<br /> (2004) |<br />
}}<br />
'''''Live Box''''' is a set of 4 CDs, a DVD and a 32-page booklet by [[Iceland|Icelandic]] singer/songwriter/musician [[Björk]], released in August 2003 (see [[2003 in music]]). Each CD represents one album in her (so far) four album solo discography, although some tracks appear on the wrong CD, some appear more than once, and some don't appear at all.<br />
<br />
"Play Dead", "There's More to Life Than This", "Cover Me", "Heirloom", "Sun in My Mouth" and "Alarm Call" are missing from this collection. "One Day", "Come to Me", "I Go Humble", "Human Behaviour" and "Big Time Sensuality" appear twice while "Anchor Song" is featured three times.<br />
<br />
==Track listing==<br />
===CD one - ''Debut'' Live ===<br />
#"Human Behaviour"<br />
#"One Day"<br />
#"Venus as a Boy"<br />
#"Come To Me"<br />
#"Big Time Sensuality"<br />
#"Aeroplane"<br />
#"Like Someone in Love"<br />
#"Crying"<br />
#"Anchor Song"<br />
#"Violently Happy"<br />
<br />
Notes<br />
# The original versions to all of the tracks can be found on ''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''. Two songs from ''Debut'' are missing: "There's More To Life Than This" and "[[Play Dead]]", although "Play Dead" is strictly speaking not on ''Debut'', but is included as a bonus track.<br />
# All songs except "[[Venus as a Boy]]" are from ''[[MTV Unplugged]]'' in 1994. The original broadcast (and subsequent bootlegs) of the MTV concert featured "Venus as a Boy", so it is unclear why that version could not be included here.<br />
<br />
===CD two - ''Post'' Live ===<br />
#"Headphones"<br />
#"Army of Me"<br />
#"One Day"<br />
#"The Modern Things"<br />
#"Isobel"<br />
#"Possibly Maybe"<br />
#"Hyperballad"<br />
#"I Go Humble"<br />
#"Big Time Sensuality"<br />
#"Enjoy"<br />
#"I Miss You"<br />
#"It's Oh So Quiet"<br />
#"Anchor Song"<br />
<br />
Notes<br />
<br />
#Tracks 1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11 & 12: Original versions on ''[[Post (album)|Post]]''. Cover Me and You've Been Flirting Again are missing, although the latter appears on disc 3 of this collection. <br>Tracks 3, 9 & 13: Original versions on ''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''<br>Track 8: Not available on any album<br />
<br />
===CD three - ''Homogenic'' Live ===<br />
#"Visur Vatnsenda Rósu"<br />
#"Hunter"<br />
#"You've Been Flirting Again"<br />
#"Isobel"<br />
#"All Neon Like"<br />
#"Possibly Maybe"<br />
#"5 Years"<br />
#"Come To Me"<br />
#"Immature"<br />
#"I Go Humble"<br />
#"Bachelorette"<br />
#"Human Behaviour"<br />
#"Pluto"<br />
#"Jóga"<br />
#"So Broken"<br />
#"Anchor Song"<br />
<br />
Notes<br />
#Tracks 2, 5, 7, 9, 11, 13 & 14: Original versions on ''[[Homogenic]]''. Unravel, Alarm Call and All Is Full of Love are missing, although Unravel and All Is Full of Love appear on disc 4 of this collection. <br>Tracks 3, 4 & 6: Original versions on ''[[Post (album)|Post]]''<br>Tracks 8, 12 & 16: Original versions on ''[[Debut (album)|Debut]]''<br>Track 1, 10 & 15: Not available on any album<br />
<br />
===CD four - Vespertine Live ===<br />
#"Frosti"<br />
#"Ouverture"<br />
#"All is Full of Love"<br />
#"Cocoon"<br />
#"Aurora"<br />
#"Undo"<br />
#"Unravel"<br />
#"I've Seen It All"<br />
#"An Echo, a Stain"<br />
#"Generous Palmstroke"<br />
#"Hidden Place"<br />
#"Pagan Poetry"<br />
#"Harm of Will"<br />
#"It's Not Up To You"<br />
#"Unison"<br />
#"It's in Our Hands"<br />
<br />
Notes<br />
#Tracks 1, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14 & 15: Original versions on ''[[Vespertine]]''. Sun In My Mouth and Heirloom are missing<br>Tracks 3 & 7: Original versions on ''[[Homogenic]]''<br>Tracks 2 & 8: Original versions on ''[[Selmasongs]]''<br>Track 16: Original version on ''[[Greatest Hits (Bjork)|Greatest Hits]]''<br />
<br />
===DVD bonus===<br />
#"One Day"<br />
#"It's Oh So Quiet"<br />
#"Jóga"<br />
#"Aurora"<br />
#"It's Not Up To You"<br />
<br />
==Charts==<br />
'''Album''' – [[Billboard magazine|Billboard]] (North America)<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="margin-top: 0" width="550px"<br />
!style="text-align: left"|Year<br />
!style="text-align: left"|Chart<br />
!style="text-align: left"|Position<br />
|-<br />
|2003<br />
|Billboard Top Electronic Albums<br />
|12<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://unit.bjork.com/specials/livebox/index.htm Live Box mini-site]<br />
<br />
{{Bjork}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Björk albums]]<br />
[[Category:2003 albums]]<br />
[[Category:Live albums]]<br />
[[Category:Box set albums]]<br />
[[Category:MTV Unplugged albums]]<br />
<br />
[[es:Live Box]]<br />
[[fr:Live Box]]<br />
[[nl:Live Box]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quotation_mark&diff=107812993Quotation mark2007-02-13T13:47:11Z<p>Dkc: /* Double quotation mark */ georgian transliteration</p>
<hr />
<div>''''For the Wikipedia quotation template, see [[Template:Cquote2|here]]. This article originated as part of [[Quotation mark]] where English usage can still be found.''<br />
<br />
{{Punctuation_marks}}<br />
'''Quotation marks''', also called '''quotes''', '''speech marks''' or '''inverted commas''', are [[punctuation]] marks used in pairs to set off speech, a quotation, or a phrase. The pair consists of an opening quotation mark and a closing quotation mark, which may or may not be the same character.<br />
<br />
They have a variety of forms in different languages and in different media; for usage in the English language see the article [[Quotation marks]]<br />
<br />
===Quotation marks in Finnish and Swedish===<br />
In [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], right quotes are used to mark both the beginning and the end of a quote. <br />
Double right-pointing angular quotes, »…», can also be used.<br />
<br />
An en-dash can also be used to start a quotation. It should then be first on a line and be indented as the first line of a paragraph.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Samples || Unicode (decimal) || HTML || Description<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|’O’<br />
| U+2019 (8217), U+2019 (8217)<br />
| &amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;<br />
| Single quotes in Swedish and Finnish<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|”O”<br />
| U+201D (8221), U+201D (8221)<br />
| &amp;#8221; &amp;#8221;<br />
| Double quotes in Swedish and Finnish<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|&ndash; O<br />
| U+2013 (8211)<br />
| &amp;ndash;<br />
| En-dash in Swedish and Finnish<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|»O»<br />
| U+BB (187)<br />
| &amp;raquo;<br />
| Double right-pointing angular quotes<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Quotation marks in Germany and Austria===<br />
What is the “left quote” in English is used as the right quote in [[Germany]] and [[Austria]], and a different “low 9 quote” is used for the left instead:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Samples || Unicode (decimal) || HTML || Description<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|‚O‘<br />
| U+201A (8218), U+2018 (8216)<br />
| &amp;sbquo; &amp;lsquo;<br />
| German single quotes (left and right)<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|„O“<br />
| U+201E (8222), U+201C (8220)<br />
| &amp;bdquo; &amp;ldquo;<br />
| German double quotes (left and right)<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This style of quoting is also used in [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and in [[Russian language|Russian]]. In Icelandic, Bulgarian and Russian, single quotation marks are not used.<!-- Check the others, too--><br />
<br />
Sometimes, especially in books, the angle quotation marks (see below) are used in Germany and Austria, albeit in reversed order: »O«. In [[Switzerland]], however, the same quotation marks as in French are used: «O».<br />
<br />
===Quotation marks in Polish===<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Samples || Unicode (decimal) || HTML || Description<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|‚O’<br />
| U+201A (8218), U+2019 (8217)<br />
| &amp;sbquo; &amp;rsquo;<br />
| Polish single quotes (left and right)<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|„O”<br />
| U+201E (8222), U+201d (8221)<br />
| &amp;bdquo; &amp;rdquo;<br />
| Polish double quotes (left and right)<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
According to current [[PN-83/P-55366]] standard from [[1983]], ''Setting rules from composing of Polish texts'' (''Zasady składania tekstów w języku polskim'') one can use either „ordinary Polish quotes” or «French quotes» (without space) for first level, and ‚single Polish quotes’ or «French quotes» for second level, which makes three styles of nested quotes:<br />
<br />
# „Quote ‚inside’ quote”<br />
# „Quote «inside» quote”<br />
# «Quote ‚inside’ quote»<br />
<br />
There is no space on the internal side of quote marks, with the exception of ¼ ''[[Em (typography)#Firet|firet]]'' (~ ¼ [[em]]) space between two quotation marks when there are no other characters between them (e.g. <span style="padding-right:0.25em">,</span>„ and <span style="padding-right:0.25em">’</span>”).<br />
<br />
The above rules have not changed since at least the previous [[BN-76/7440-02]] standard from [[1976]] and are probably much older.<br />
<!-- date and reference to the oldest standard needed --><br />
<br />
In Polish books and publications, the second style is used almost exclusively. In addition to being standard for second level quotes, French quotes are sometimes used as first level quotes in headings and titles but almost never in ordinary text in paragraphs. The second style is also used in [[Romanian language|Romanian]] („Quote «inside» quote”), according to the Romanian Academy rules.<br />
<br />
===Angled quotation marks in various European languages===<br />
Some languages, such as [[French language|French]], or [[Italian language|Italian]], use angle quotation marks ([[Chevron (insignia)|chevron]]s or ''[[guillemets]]'' or ''duck-foot quotes'') and add a quarter-em space (officially) (U+2005, &amp;#8197;) within the quotes. However, virtually all countries that have this rule now use the non-breaking space, because the difference between a non-breaking space and a four-per-em is virtually imperceptible, and the quarter-em is virtually always omitted in non-Unicode fonts. Even more commonly, people just put a normal space between the quotation marks because the non-break is not accessible through their keyboard layout. [Note: full-width non-breaking spaces have been used in examples for technical reasons.]<br />
<br />
: {{lang|fr|« Voulez-vous un sandwich, Henri ? »}}<br />
:: “Would you like a sandwich, Henri?”<br />
<br />
There is no such space in other languages, e.g. [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Russian language|Russian]] or in German, French and Italian [[Switzerland]]:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|pl|«To jest cytat.»}}<br />
: {{lang|ru|«Это цитата».}}<br />
:: “This is a quote.”<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Samples || Unicode (decimal) || HTML || Description<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; white-space:nowrap; font-weight:normal; " | ‹&nbsp;O&nbsp;›<br />
| U+2039 (8249), U+203A (8250)<br />
| &amp;lsaquo; &amp;rsaquo;<br />
| French single angle quotes (left and right)<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; white-space:nowrap; font-weight:normal; " | «&nbsp;O&nbsp;»<br />
| U+00AB (171), U+00BB (187)<br />
| &amp;laquo; &amp;raquo;<br />
| French double angle quotes (left and right)<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|«O»<br />
| U+00AB (171), U+00BB (187)<br />
| &amp;laquo; &amp;raquo;<br />
| non-French double angle quotes (left and right) without space<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====French====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, French does not set off unquoted material within a quotation mark by using a second set of quotes. They must be used with [[non-breaking space]]s. Compare:<br />
<br />
: “This is a great day for Montrealers,” the minister said. “These investments will permit economic growth.”<br />
: {{lang|fr|« C’est une belle journée pour les Montréalais, soutient le ministre. Ces investissements stimuleront la croissance économique. »}}<br />
<br />
For clarity, some newspapers put the quoted material in italics:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|fr|« ''C’est une belle journée pour les Montréalais,'' soutient le ministre. ''Ces investissements stimuleront la croissance économique.'' »}}<br />
<br />
The use of English quotation marks is increasing in French, and usually follows English rules. <br />
<br />
English quotes are also used for nested quotations:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|fr|«&nbsp;Son “explication” n’est qu’un mensonge&nbsp;», s’indigna le député.}}<br />
:: “His ‘explanation’ is just a lie,” the deputy protested.<br />
<br />
The French Imprimerie nationale (cf. ''Lexique des règles typographiques en usage à l'Imprimerie nationale'', presses de l'Imprimerie nationale, Paris, 2002), though, does not use different quotation marks for nesting: <br />
: {{lang|fr|«&nbsp;Son «&nbsp;explication&nbsp;» n’est qu’un mensonge&nbsp;», s’indigna le député.}}<br />
:: “His ‘explanation’ is just a lie,” the deputy protested.<br />
In this case, when there should be two adjacent opening or closing marks, only one is written:<br />
: {{lang|fr|Il répondit&nbsp;:&nbsp;«&nbsp;Ce n'est qu'un «&nbsp;gadget&nbsp;!&nbsp;».}}<br />
:: He answered: “It's only a ‘gizmo’”.<br />
<br />
====Spanish====<br />
<br />
[[Spanish (language)|Spanish]] uses angled quotation marks (''comillas latinas'' or ''angulares'') as well, but always without the spaces.<br />
<br />
: {{lang|es|«Esto es un ejemplo de cómo se suele hacer una cita literal en español».}}<br />
: "This is an example of how one usually writes a literal quotation in Spanish."<br />
<br />
And, when quotations are nested in more levels than inner and outer quotation, the system is:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|es|«Antonio me dijo: “Vaya ‘cacharro’ que se ha comprado Julián”».}}<br />
<br />
This system follows the rules laid down in section 5.10 of the orthography guide ''Ortografía de la lengua española'' [http://www.rae.es/rae/gestores/gespub000001.nsf/(voanexos)/arch9E7D58ED6C5CBB54C1256E670038B91C/$FILE/Ortografia.pdf] published by the [[Real Academia Española]] (RAE).<br />
<br />
It is worth noting, however, that—like in French—the use of English quotation marks is increasing in Spanish, and the ''El País'' style guide, which is widely followed in Spain, recommends them.<br />
<br />
====Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian====<br />
<br />
In [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] and [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], angled quotation marks are used without spaces. Quoted material inside a quotation is usually set off with the same quotation marks, and if inner and outer quotation marks fall together, one of them is omitted:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|ru|«Я слышал, что Вася говорил: «Дураки они!»}}<br />
:: ‘I heard that Vasya said: “Idiots, all of them!”’<br />
<br />
However, style manuals recommend to use different kinds of quotation marks in such cases (cf. [http://slovari.donpac.ru/lang/ru/rls/arc/qaarc2003m07.html Služba russkogo jazyka], No.&nbsp;62, 15 July 2003):<br />
<br />
: {{lang|ru|«Я слышал, что Вася говорил: „Дураки они!“»}}<br />
:: ‘I heard that Vasya said: “Idiots, all of them!”’<br />
<br />
====Dutch and German====<br />
<br />
Although in general not common in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] any more, double angle quotation marks are still used in Dutch government publications.<br />
<br />
Double angle quotation marks without spaces are the standard for [[German language|German]] printed texts in Switzerland:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|de|Andreas’ Mutter fragte mich: «Hast du den Artikel ‹EU-Erweiterung› gelesen?»}}<br />
:: Andrew’s mother asked me: ‘Have you read the article “EU Enlargement”?’<br />
<br />
Sometimes, angle quotation marks are also used in German publications from Germany and Austria, especially in novels, but then exactly reversed and without spacing:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|de|Andreas’ Mutter fragte mich: »Hast du den Artikel ›EU-Erweiterung‹ gelesen?«}}<br />
:: Andrew’s mother asked me: ‘Have you read the article “EU Enlargement”?’<br />
<br />
===Quotation dash===<br />
Another typographical style is to omit quotation marks for lines of dialogue, replacing them with an initial dash: <br />
<br />
: {{lang|fr|― Je m’ennuie tellement, dit-elle.}}<br />
: {{lang|fr|― Cela n’est pas de ma faute, rétorqua-t-il.}}<br />
:: “I’m so bored,” she said.<br />
:: “That’s not my fault,” he shot back.<br />
<br />
This style is particularly common in French. [[James Joyce]] always insisted on this style, although his publishers did not always respect his preference. [[Alan Paton]] used this style in ''[[Cry, the Beloved Country]]'' (and no quotation marks at all in some of his later work).<br />
<br />
In Italian, Catalan, Portuguese, Spanish, Russian, Polish, Bulgarian, Georgian, Romanian and Hungarian publications, a second dash is added, if the main sentence continues after the end of the quote:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|pt|― Aborreço-me tanto ― disse ela.}}<br />
: {{lang|pt|― Não tenho culpa disso ― retorquiu ele.}}<br />
:: “I’m so bored,” she said.<br />
:: “That’s not my fault,” he shot back. <br />
<br />
Sometimes (always, in Bulgarian, Georgian, Hungarian, Polish, and Russian) a second dash is used to indicate the end of the quoted speech:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|ru|― Ай, ай, ай! ― вскрикнул Левин. ― Я ведь, кажется, уже лет девять не говел. Я и не подумал.}}<br />
: {{lang|ru|― Хорош! ― смеясь, сказал Степан Аркадевич, ― а меня же называешь нигилистом! Однако ведь это нельзя. Тебе надо говеть.}}<br />
:: “Oh dear!” exclaimed Levin. “I think it is nine years since I went to communion! I haven’t thought about it.”<br />
:: “You are a good one!” remarked Oblonsky, laughing. “And you call me a Nihilist! But it won’t do, you know; you must confess and receive the sacrament.”<br />
::: from [[Leo Tolstoy]]’s ''[[Anna Karenina]]'' (Louise and Aylmer Maude translation)<br />
<br />
According to the Unicode standard, U+2015 HORIZONTAL BAR should be used as a quotation dash. In general it is the same length as an em-dash, and so this is often used instead. Both are displayed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"<br />
|-<br />
! Samples || Unicode (decimal) || HTML || Description<br />
|-<br />
! style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; white-space:nowrap; font-weight:normal; "|―&nbsp;O<br />
| U+2015 (8213)<br />
| &amp;#8213;<br />
| Quotation dash, also known as horizontal bar<br />
|-<br />
! style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; white-space:nowrap; font-weight:normal; "|—&nbsp;O<br />
| U+2014 (8212)<br />
| &amp;mdash;<br />
| Em-dash, an alternative to the quotation dash<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Corner brackets in East Asian languages===<br />
<!--FIXME: what about north korea--><br />
Corner brackets are well-suited for [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], and [[Korean language|Korean]] languages which are written in both [[Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts|vertical and horizontal orientations]]. China, South Korea, and Japan all use corner brackets when writing vertically, however usages differ when writing horizontally:<br />
<br />
* In [[Japan]], corner brackets are used.<br />
* In [[South Korea]] and the [[People’s Republic of China]], English-style quotes are used. At least in China however, double angle brackets are commonly used around book titles.<br />
* In [[North Korea]], angle quotes are used.<br />
* In the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), both corner brackets and English-style quotes are used.<br />
<br />
White corner brackets are used to mark quote-within-quote segments.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Samples || Unicode (decimal) || Description<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-weight:normal; "| 「文字」<br />
| U+300C (12300), U+300D (12301)<br />
| rowspan = "2" | Corner brackets<br />{{lang-zh|引號}} (''yǐn hào'')<br />{{lang-ja|鉤括弧}} ''kagikakko'')<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-weight:normal; "| ﹁<br />文<br />字<br />﹂<br />
| U+FE41 (65089), U+FE42 (65090)<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-weight:normal; "|『文字』<br />
| U+300E (12302), U+300F (12303)<br />
| rowspan = "2" | White corner brackets<br />{{lang-zh|雙引號}} (''shuāng yǐn hào'')<br />{{lang-ja|二重鉤括弧}} (''nijū kagikakko'')<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-weight:normal; "|﹃<br />文<br />字<br />﹄<br />
| U+FE43 (65091), U+FE44 (65092)<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-weight:normal; "|{{lang|ko|“한”}}<br />
| U+201C (8220), U+201D (8221)<br />
| English-style quotes [[Korean language|Korean]] ([[South Korea]])<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-weight:normal; "|{{lang|ko|«한»}}<br />
| U+00AB (171), U+00BB (187)<br />
| Angle quotes [[Korean language|Korean]] ([[North Korea]])<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Overview===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Quote signs in several languages<br />
! rowspan="2"| Language<br />
! colspan="3"| Standard <br />
! colspan="3"| Alternative<br />
! rowspan="2"| Spacing<br />
|-<br />
! primary || secondary || <!--note--><br />
! primary || secondary || <!--note--><br />
|-<br />
! [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] <br />
| <big>„…”</big> || <big>‚…’</big> || <ref name="traditional">Traditional</ref><br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Albanian language|Albanian]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| <big>“…„</big> || <big>‘…‚</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || ||<br />
| <big>„…“</big> || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] <ref name="dash">Quotation dash preferred for dialogue</ref><br />
| <big>„…“</big> || ||<br />
| <big>«…»</big> || || <ref name="rare">Rare</ref> <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Catalan language|Catalan]] <ref name="dash" /> <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>“…”</big> ||<br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| 0 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Simplified Chinese|Chinese, Simplified]] <br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Traditional Chinese|Chinese, Traditional]] <br />
| align="center" style="line-height:1.2"| <big>「…」</big> ||align="center" style="line-height:1.2"| <big>『…』</big> || <ref name="rotated">These forms are rotated for use in horizontal text; they were originally written ﹁...﹂ and ﹃...﹄ in vertical text</ref><br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Croatian language|Croatian]]<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| <big>„…“</big> || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Czech language|Czech]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>›…‹</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Danish language|Danish]] <br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>›…‹</big> ||<br />
| <big>„…“</big><br> or <big>”…”</big>|| <big>‚…‘</big> || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Dutch language|Dutch]] <br />
| <big>„…”</big> || <big>‚…’</big> ||<br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>’…’</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[British English|English, UK]] <br />
| <big>‘…’</big> || <big>“…”</big> || <ref name="opening">An opening quotation mark is added to the beginning of each new paragraph.</ref><br />
| || ||<br />
| 1–2 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[American English|English, U.S.]] <br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> || <ref name="opening"/><br />
| || ||<br />
| 1–2 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Estonian language|Estonian]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>«…»</big> ||<br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Finnish language|Finnish]] <br />
| <big>”…”</big> || <big>’…’</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…»</big> || <big>’…’</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[French language|French]] <ref name="dash" /> <br />
| <big>« … »</big> || <big>« … »</big> or <big>“…”</big><ref name="imprimerie_nationale">First version according to the French Imprimerie nationale. English quotes are more common, though.</ref> || <ref name="rare" /><br />
| <big>“ … ”</big> || <big>‘ … ’</big> ||<br />
| ¼-em / non-break<br />
|-<br />
! French, Swiss <ref name="ch">In Switzerland the same style is used for all languages.</ref><br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| || ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[German language|German]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>›…‹</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! German, Swiss <ref name="ch" /><br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Greek language|Greek]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| <big>“…„</big> || <big>‘…‚</big> ||<br />
| 1 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] <ref name="dash" /><br />
| <big>„…”</big> || <big>»…«</big> ||<br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] <br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>«…»</big> || <ref name="traditional" /><br />
| <big>“…„</big> || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || ||<br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Irish language|Irish]] <br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| || ||<br />
| 1–2 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Italian language|Italian]] <ref name="dash" /> <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || ||<br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| 1–2 pt<br />
|-<br />
! Italian, Swiss <ref name="ch" /><br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Japanese language|Japanese]] <br />
| style="line-height:1.2"| <big>「…」</big> ||style="line-height:1.2"| <big>『…』</big> || <ref name="rotated" /><br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Latvian language|Latvian]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>„…”</big> ||<br />
| || ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> ||<br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| <big>„…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> || <ref name="handwriting">Handwriting.</ref><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Polish language|Polish]] <ref name="heading">Preferred for headings and other texts in larger font sizes</ref> <br />
| <big>„…”</big> || <big>‚…’</big> || <ref name="rare" /><br />
| <big>«…»</big> || || <ref name="substitute">May substitue for either the opening or closing mark</ref><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> or <big>“…”</big> || <big>“…”</big> or <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| <big></big> || <big></big> ||<br />
| 0–1 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Romanian language|Romanian]] <ref name="dash" /><br />
| <big>„…”</big> || <big>«…»</big> ||<br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>„…”</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Russian language|Russian]] <ref name="dash" /> <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || ||<br />
| <big>„…“</big> || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Serbian language|Serbian]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>›…‹</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Slovak language|Slovak]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>›…‹</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Slovene language|Slovene]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>›…‹</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> || <br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Spanish language|Spanish]] <ref name="dash" /> <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>“…”</big> ||<br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> || <ref name="closing">A closing quotation mark is added to the beginning of each new paragraph.</ref><br />
| 0 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Swedish language|Swedish]] <br />
| <big>”…”</big> || <big>’…’</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…»</big> || <big>’…’</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Turkish language|Turkish]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| 0–1 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || ||<br />
| <big>„…“</big> || ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For quotations that span multiple paragraphs, besides the opening quotation mark in the first paragraph and the closing quotation mark at the end of the quotation:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Quote signs in several languages<br />
! Style<br />
! Signs<br />
! Languages<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | Corner<br />brackets<br />
| <big>『…』</big> || Traditional Chinese, Japanese<br />
|-<br />
| <big>「…」</big> || Traditional Chinese, Japanese<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="5" | Double<br />quote<br />
| <big>„…“</big> || Belarusian, Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Estonian, German, Icelandic, Latvian, Lithuanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Sorbian, Ukrainian<br />
|-<br />
| <big>„…”</big> || Afrikaans, Croatian, Dutch, Hungarian, Norwegian, Polish, Romanian<br />
|-<br />
| <big>”…”</big> || (Danish), Finnish, Swedish<br />
|-<br />
| <big>“…”</big> || Catalan, Simplified/Traditional Chinese, Dutch, English, French, Hebrew, Irish, Italian, Korean (South Korea), Portuguese, Spanish, Turkish<br />
|-<br />
| <big>“…„</big> || Albanian, Greek, Hebrew<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="5" | Single<br />quote<br />
| <big>‚…‘</big> || Czech, Danish, German, Icelandic, Lithuanian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Sorbian<br />
|-<br />
| <big>‚…’</big> || Afrikaans, Dutch, Polish, Romanian<br />
|-<br />
| <big>’…’</big> || Dutch, Finnish, Swedish<br />
|-<br />
| <big>‘…’</big> || Catalan, Simplified/Traditional Chinese, English, French, Irish, Italian, Turkish<br />
|-<br />
| <big>‘…‚</big> || Albanian, Greek<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | Double<br />angled<br />
| <big>«…»</big> || Albanian, Belarusian, Catalan, Estonian, French, Swiss (French, German, Italian), Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Korean (North Korea), Latvian, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Turkish, Ukrainian, Catalan<br />
|-<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || Croatian, Czech, Danish, German, Hungarian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene<br />
|-<br />
| <big>»…»</big> || Finnish, Swedish<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | Single<br />angled<br />
| <big>‹…›</big> || Albanian, French, Swiss (French, German, Italian), Greek, Lithuanian, Turkish<br />
|-<br />
| <big>›…‹</big> || Czech, Danish, German, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene<br />
|-<br />
| <big>›…›</big> || Swedish<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Names for quotation marks==<br />
===Double quotation mark===<br />
* [[English language|English]]: [[quotation mark]], double quote, quote, dirk, [[prime (symbol)|double mark]], literal mark, double-glitch, inverted commas, speech mark<br />
** [[INTERCAL]]: rabbit-ears<br />
** [[ITU-T]]: dieresis, quotation mark<br />
* [[Afrikaans]]: ''aanhalingstekens''<br />
* {{lang-be|двукоссі}} (‘double commas’), {{lang|be|лапкі}} (‘little paws’)<br />
* {{lang-bg|кавички}}<br />
* {{lang-ca|cometes}}<br />
*[[Written Chinese|Chinese]]: {{lang|zh|雙引號}} / {{lang|zh|双引号}}<br />
* {{lang-hr|navodnici}}<br />
* {{lang-cs|uvozovka}} (singular), {{lang|cs|uvozovky}} (plural) (''cf.'' {{lang|cs|uvozovat}} = ‘to introduce’)<br />
* {{lang-da|citationstegn}} (‘citation marks’), {{lang|da|anførselstegn}}, {{lang|da|gåseøjne}} (‘goose eyes’) <br />
* {{lang-nl|Aanhalingstekens}} (‘citation marks’)<br />
* {{lang-eo|citiloj}}<br />
* {{lang-et|jutumärgid}} (‘story marks’)<br />
* {{lang-fi|lainausmerkki}} (‘citation mark,’ singular), {{lang|fi|''lainausmerkit''}} (plural)<br />
* {{lang-fr|guillemets}}<br />
* {{lang-ka|ბრჭყალები}} (''brč’q’alebi'' ‘claws’)<br />
* {{lang-de|Anführungszeichen}}, {{lang|de|Gänsefüßchen}} (‘little goose feet’), {{lang|de|Hochkommas}}/{{lang|de|Hochkommata}} (‘high commas’)<br />
* {{lang-el|εισαγωγικά}}, (‘introductions’)<br />
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: merkha'ot &mdash; {{ivrit|מֵרְכָאוֹת}} (plural of merkha &mdash; {{ivrit|מֵרְכָא}}); a similar punctuation mark unique to Hebrew is called [[gershayim]] &mdash; {{ivrit|גרשיים}}<br />
* {{lang-hu|macskaköröm}} (‘cat claw’), {{lang|hu|idézőjel}} (‘quotation mark’=„ ”), {{lang|hu|hegyével befelé forduló jelpár}} (» «)<br />
* {{lang-is|Gæsalappir}} (‘goose feet’)<br />
* {{lang-it|virgolette}}<br />
* {{lang-ja|引用符}} (''in'yōfu'')<br />
* {{lang-ko|이중 따옴표}} (“''ijung ttaomp'yo''”)<br />
* {{lang-lv|pēdiņas}}<br />
* {{lang-lt|kabutės}}<br />
* {{lang-no|anførselstegn}}, {{lang|no|gåseauge}}/{{lang|no|gåseøyne}} (‘goose eyes’), {{lang|no|hermeteikn}}/{{lang|no|hermetegn}}, {{lang|no|sittatteikn}}/{{lang|no|sitattegn}}, {{lang|no|dobbeltfnutt}}<br />
* {{lang-pl|cudzysłów}}<br />
* {{lang-pt|aspas}} (plural)<br />
* {{lang-ro|ghilimele}} (plural), {{lang|ro|ghilimea}} (singular, rarely used)<br />
* {{lang-ru|кавычки}} (''kavychki'', general term); {{lang|ru|ёлочки}} (''yolochki'', ‘little fir trees’: angle quotes); {{lang|ru|лапочки}} or {{lang|ru|лапки}} (''lapochki'' or ''lapki'', ‘little paws’: curly quotes) <br />
* {{lang-sr|наводници}}<br />
* {{lang-es|comillas latinas}} or {{lang|es|''comillas angulares''}} (« »), {{lang|es|''comillas inglesas dobles''}} (“ ”), {{lang|es|''comillas inglesas simples''}} (‘ ’). ‹ and › are never used in Spanish.<br />
* {{lang-sv|citationstecken}}, {{lang|sv|anföringstecken}}, {{lang|sv|citattecken}} (modernised term), {{lang|sv|dubbelfnutt}} (colloquial for ASCII double quote)<br />
* {{lang-tr|Tırnak İşareti}} ('fingernail mark')<br />
* {{lang-uk|лапки}} (''lapky'', ‘little paws’), {{lang|uk|скупки}} (''skupky'', ‘aggregators’)<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Unicode]]<br />
* [[ISO 8859-1]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.dwheeler.com/essays/quotes-in-html.html Curling Quotes in HTML, SGML, and XML]<br />
* [http://marcautret.free.fr/sigma/pratik/typo/guilles/index.php French Quotes Typography (Œuvrez les guillemets!) -- in French]<br />
* [http://hubpages.com/hub/Grammar_Mishaps__Quotation_Marks Beginners guide to quotation marks]<br />
* [http://www.unicode.org/cldr/data/diff/by_type/Attic/delimiters.html Quotation marks in the Unicode Common Locale Data Repository]<br />
* [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/ucs/quotes.html ASCII and Unicode quotation marks] – detailed discussion of the ASCII `backquote' problem<br />
* [http://www.juvalamu.com/qmarks/ The Gallery Of "Misused" Quotation Marks]<br />
* [http://www.cs.sfu.ca/~ggbaker/reference/characters/ Commonly confused characters]<br />
* [http://www.pensee.com/dunham/smartQuotes.html Smart Quotes]<br />
<br />
{{FOLDOC}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Punctuation]]<br />
[[Category:Typography]]<br />
<br />
[[ca:Cometes]]<br />
[[da:Anførselstegn]]<br />
[[de:Anführungszeichen]]<br />
[[eo:Citilo]]<br />
[[es:Comillas]]<br />
[[eu:Komatxoak]]<br />
[[fi:Lainausmerkki]]<br />
[[fr:Guillemet]]<br />
[[he:מרכאות]]<br />
[[hu:Idézőjel]]<br />
[[is:Gæsalappir]]<br />
[[it:Virgolette]]<br />
[[ja:引用符]]<br />
[[nl:Aanhalingsteken]]<br />
[[no:Anførselstegn]]<br />
[[pl:Cudzysłów]]<br />
[[pt:Aspas]]<br />
[[ru:Кавычки]]<br />
[[sl:Narekovaj]]<br />
[[sv:Citationstecken]]<br />
[[tr:Tırnak işareti]]<br />
[[zh:引号]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Quotation_mark&diff=107812758Quotation mark2007-02-13T13:45:41Z<p>Dkc: /* Double quotation mark */ georgian ბრჭყალები</p>
<hr />
<div>''''For the Wikipedia quotation template, see [[Template:Cquote2|here]]. This article originated as part of [[Quotation mark]] where English usage can still be found.''<br />
<br />
{{Punctuation_marks}}<br />
'''Quotation marks''', also called '''quotes''', '''speech marks''' or '''inverted commas''', are [[punctuation]] marks used in pairs to set off speech, a quotation, or a phrase. The pair consists of an opening quotation mark and a closing quotation mark, which may or may not be the same character.<br />
<br />
They have a variety of forms in different languages and in different media; for usage in the English language see the article [[Quotation marks]]<br />
<br />
===Quotation marks in Finnish and Swedish===<br />
In [[Finnish language|Finnish]] and [[Swedish language|Swedish]], right quotes are used to mark both the beginning and the end of a quote. <br />
Double right-pointing angular quotes, »…», can also be used.<br />
<br />
An en-dash can also be used to start a quotation. It should then be first on a line and be indented as the first line of a paragraph.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Samples || Unicode (decimal) || HTML || Description<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|’O’<br />
| U+2019 (8217), U+2019 (8217)<br />
| &amp;rsquo; &amp;rsquo;<br />
| Single quotes in Swedish and Finnish<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|”O”<br />
| U+201D (8221), U+201D (8221)<br />
| &amp;#8221; &amp;#8221;<br />
| Double quotes in Swedish and Finnish<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|&ndash; O<br />
| U+2013 (8211)<br />
| &amp;ndash;<br />
| En-dash in Swedish and Finnish<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|»O»<br />
| U+BB (187)<br />
| &amp;raquo;<br />
| Double right-pointing angular quotes<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Quotation marks in Germany and Austria===<br />
What is the “left quote” in English is used as the right quote in [[Germany]] and [[Austria]], and a different “low 9 quote” is used for the left instead:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Samples || Unicode (decimal) || HTML || Description<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|‚O‘<br />
| U+201A (8218), U+2018 (8216)<br />
| &amp;sbquo; &amp;lsquo;<br />
| German single quotes (left and right)<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|„O“<br />
| U+201E (8222), U+201C (8220)<br />
| &amp;bdquo; &amp;ldquo;<br />
| German double quotes (left and right)<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
This style of quoting is also used in [[Georgian language|Georgian]], [[Estonian language|Estonian]], [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]], [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]], [[Serbian language|Serbian]] and in [[Russian language|Russian]]. In Icelandic, Bulgarian and Russian, single quotation marks are not used.<!-- Check the others, too--><br />
<br />
Sometimes, especially in books, the angle quotation marks (see below) are used in Germany and Austria, albeit in reversed order: »O«. In [[Switzerland]], however, the same quotation marks as in French are used: «O».<br />
<br />
===Quotation marks in Polish===<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Samples || Unicode (decimal) || HTML || Description<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|‚O’<br />
| U+201A (8218), U+2019 (8217)<br />
| &amp;sbquo; &amp;rsquo;<br />
| Polish single quotes (left and right)<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|„O”<br />
| U+201E (8222), U+201d (8221)<br />
| &amp;bdquo; &amp;rdquo;<br />
| Polish double quotes (left and right)<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
According to current [[PN-83/P-55366]] standard from [[1983]], ''Setting rules from composing of Polish texts'' (''Zasady składania tekstów w języku polskim'') one can use either „ordinary Polish quotes” or «French quotes» (without space) for first level, and ‚single Polish quotes’ or «French quotes» for second level, which makes three styles of nested quotes:<br />
<br />
# „Quote ‚inside’ quote”<br />
# „Quote «inside» quote”<br />
# «Quote ‚inside’ quote»<br />
<br />
There is no space on the internal side of quote marks, with the exception of ¼ ''[[Em (typography)#Firet|firet]]'' (~ ¼ [[em]]) space between two quotation marks when there are no other characters between them (e.g. <span style="padding-right:0.25em">,</span>„ and <span style="padding-right:0.25em">’</span>”).<br />
<br />
The above rules have not changed since at least the previous [[BN-76/7440-02]] standard from [[1976]] and are probably much older.<br />
<!-- date and reference to the oldest standard needed --><br />
<br />
In Polish books and publications, the second style is used almost exclusively. In addition to being standard for second level quotes, French quotes are sometimes used as first level quotes in headings and titles but almost never in ordinary text in paragraphs. The second style is also used in [[Romanian language|Romanian]] („Quote «inside» quote”), according to the Romanian Academy rules.<br />
<br />
===Angled quotation marks in various European languages===<br />
Some languages, such as [[French language|French]], or [[Italian language|Italian]], use angle quotation marks ([[Chevron (insignia)|chevron]]s or ''[[guillemets]]'' or ''duck-foot quotes'') and add a quarter-em space (officially) (U+2005, &amp;#8197;) within the quotes. However, virtually all countries that have this rule now use the non-breaking space, because the difference between a non-breaking space and a four-per-em is virtually imperceptible, and the quarter-em is virtually always omitted in non-Unicode fonts. Even more commonly, people just put a normal space between the quotation marks because the non-break is not accessible through their keyboard layout. [Note: full-width non-breaking spaces have been used in examples for technical reasons.]<br />
<br />
: {{lang|fr|« Voulez-vous un sandwich, Henri ? »}}<br />
:: “Would you like a sandwich, Henri?”<br />
<br />
There is no such space in other languages, e.g. [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Russian language|Russian]] or in German, French and Italian [[Switzerland]]:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|pl|«To jest cytat.»}}<br />
: {{lang|ru|«Это цитата».}}<br />
:: “This is a quote.”<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
! Samples || Unicode (decimal) || HTML || Description<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; white-space:nowrap; font-weight:normal; " | ‹&nbsp;O&nbsp;›<br />
| U+2039 (8249), U+203A (8250)<br />
| &amp;lsaquo; &amp;rsaquo;<br />
| French single angle quotes (left and right)<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; white-space:nowrap; font-weight:normal; " | «&nbsp;O&nbsp;»<br />
| U+00AB (171), U+00BB (187)<br />
| &amp;laquo; &amp;raquo;<br />
| French double angle quotes (left and right)<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-family:serif; font-weight:normal; "|«O»<br />
| U+00AB (171), U+00BB (187)<br />
| &amp;laquo; &amp;raquo;<br />
| non-French double angle quotes (left and right) without space<br />
|}<br />
<br />
====French====<br />
<br />
Unlike English, French does not set off unquoted material within a quotation mark by using a second set of quotes. They must be used with [[non-breaking space]]s. Compare:<br />
<br />
: “This is a great day for Montrealers,” the minister said. “These investments will permit economic growth.”<br />
: {{lang|fr|« C’est une belle journée pour les Montréalais, soutient le ministre. Ces investissements stimuleront la croissance économique. »}}<br />
<br />
For clarity, some newspapers put the quoted material in italics:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|fr|« ''C’est une belle journée pour les Montréalais,'' soutient le ministre. ''Ces investissements stimuleront la croissance économique.'' »}}<br />
<br />
The use of English quotation marks is increasing in French, and usually follows English rules. <br />
<br />
English quotes are also used for nested quotations:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|fr|«&nbsp;Son “explication” n’est qu’un mensonge&nbsp;», s’indigna le député.}}<br />
:: “His ‘explanation’ is just a lie,” the deputy protested.<br />
<br />
The French Imprimerie nationale (cf. ''Lexique des règles typographiques en usage à l'Imprimerie nationale'', presses de l'Imprimerie nationale, Paris, 2002), though, does not use different quotation marks for nesting: <br />
: {{lang|fr|«&nbsp;Son «&nbsp;explication&nbsp;» n’est qu’un mensonge&nbsp;», s’indigna le député.}}<br />
:: “His ‘explanation’ is just a lie,” the deputy protested.<br />
In this case, when there should be two adjacent opening or closing marks, only one is written:<br />
: {{lang|fr|Il répondit&nbsp;:&nbsp;«&nbsp;Ce n'est qu'un «&nbsp;gadget&nbsp;!&nbsp;».}}<br />
:: He answered: “It's only a ‘gizmo’”.<br />
<br />
====Spanish====<br />
<br />
[[Spanish (language)|Spanish]] uses angled quotation marks (''comillas latinas'' or ''angulares'') as well, but always without the spaces.<br />
<br />
: {{lang|es|«Esto es un ejemplo de cómo se suele hacer una cita literal en español».}}<br />
: "This is an example of how one usually writes a literal quotation in Spanish."<br />
<br />
And, when quotations are nested in more levels than inner and outer quotation, the system is:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|es|«Antonio me dijo: “Vaya ‘cacharro’ que se ha comprado Julián”».}}<br />
<br />
This system follows the rules laid down in section 5.10 of the orthography guide ''Ortografía de la lengua española'' [http://www.rae.es/rae/gestores/gespub000001.nsf/(voanexos)/arch9E7D58ED6C5CBB54C1256E670038B91C/$FILE/Ortografia.pdf] published by the [[Real Academia Española]] (RAE).<br />
<br />
It is worth noting, however, that—like in French—the use of English quotation marks is increasing in Spanish, and the ''El País'' style guide, which is widely followed in Spain, recommends them.<br />
<br />
====Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian====<br />
<br />
In [[Russian language|Russian]], [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] and [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]], angled quotation marks are used without spaces. Quoted material inside a quotation is usually set off with the same quotation marks, and if inner and outer quotation marks fall together, one of them is omitted:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|ru|«Я слышал, что Вася говорил: «Дураки они!»}}<br />
:: ‘I heard that Vasya said: “Idiots, all of them!”’<br />
<br />
However, style manuals recommend to use different kinds of quotation marks in such cases (cf. [http://slovari.donpac.ru/lang/ru/rls/arc/qaarc2003m07.html Služba russkogo jazyka], No.&nbsp;62, 15 July 2003):<br />
<br />
: {{lang|ru|«Я слышал, что Вася говорил: „Дураки они!“»}}<br />
:: ‘I heard that Vasya said: “Idiots, all of them!”’<br />
<br />
====Dutch and German====<br />
<br />
Although in general not common in [[Dutch language|Dutch]] any more, double angle quotation marks are still used in Dutch government publications.<br />
<br />
Double angle quotation marks without spaces are the standard for [[German language|German]] printed texts in Switzerland:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|de|Andreas’ Mutter fragte mich: «Hast du den Artikel ‹EU-Erweiterung› gelesen?»}}<br />
:: Andrew’s mother asked me: ‘Have you read the article “EU Enlargement”?’<br />
<br />
Sometimes, angle quotation marks are also used in German publications from Germany and Austria, especially in novels, but then exactly reversed and without spacing:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|de|Andreas’ Mutter fragte mich: »Hast du den Artikel ›EU-Erweiterung‹ gelesen?«}}<br />
:: Andrew’s mother asked me: ‘Have you read the article “EU Enlargement”?’<br />
<br />
===Quotation dash===<br />
Another typographical style is to omit quotation marks for lines of dialogue, replacing them with an initial dash: <br />
<br />
: {{lang|fr|― Je m’ennuie tellement, dit-elle.}}<br />
: {{lang|fr|― Cela n’est pas de ma faute, rétorqua-t-il.}}<br />
:: “I’m so bored,” she said.<br />
:: “That’s not my fault,” he shot back.<br />
<br />
This style is particularly common in French. [[James Joyce]] always insisted on this style, although his publishers did not always respect his preference. [[Alan Paton]] used this style in ''[[Cry, the Beloved Country]]'' (and no quotation marks at all in some of his later work).<br />
<br />
In Italian, Catalan, Portuguese, Spanish, Russian, Polish, Bulgarian, Georgian, Romanian and Hungarian publications, a second dash is added, if the main sentence continues after the end of the quote:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|pt|― Aborreço-me tanto ― disse ela.}}<br />
: {{lang|pt|― Não tenho culpa disso ― retorquiu ele.}}<br />
:: “I’m so bored,” she said.<br />
:: “That’s not my fault,” he shot back. <br />
<br />
Sometimes (always, in Bulgarian, Georgian, Hungarian, Polish, and Russian) a second dash is used to indicate the end of the quoted speech:<br />
<br />
: {{lang|ru|― Ай, ай, ай! ― вскрикнул Левин. ― Я ведь, кажется, уже лет девять не говел. Я и не подумал.}}<br />
: {{lang|ru|― Хорош! ― смеясь, сказал Степан Аркадевич, ― а меня же называешь нигилистом! Однако ведь это нельзя. Тебе надо говеть.}}<br />
:: “Oh dear!” exclaimed Levin. “I think it is nine years since I went to communion! I haven’t thought about it.”<br />
:: “You are a good one!” remarked Oblonsky, laughing. “And you call me a Nihilist! But it won’t do, you know; you must confess and receive the sacrament.”<br />
::: from [[Leo Tolstoy]]’s ''[[Anna Karenina]]'' (Louise and Aylmer Maude translation)<br />
<br />
According to the Unicode standard, U+2015 HORIZONTAL BAR should be used as a quotation dash. In general it is the same length as an em-dash, and so this is often used instead. Both are displayed in the table below.<br />
<br />
{| border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0" style="margin: 1em 1em 1em 0; background: #f9f9f9; border: 1px #aaa solid; border-collapse: collapse; font-size: 95%;"<br />
|-<br />
! Samples || Unicode (decimal) || HTML || Description<br />
|-<br />
! style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; white-space:nowrap; font-weight:normal; "|―&nbsp;O<br />
| U+2015 (8213)<br />
| &amp;#8213;<br />
| Quotation dash, also known as horizontal bar<br />
|-<br />
! style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; white-space:nowrap; font-weight:normal; "|—&nbsp;O<br />
| U+2014 (8212)<br />
| &amp;mdash;<br />
| Em-dash, an alternative to the quotation dash<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Corner brackets in East Asian languages===<br />
<!--FIXME: what about north korea--><br />
Corner brackets are well-suited for [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], and [[Korean language|Korean]] languages which are written in both [[Horizontal and vertical writing in East Asian scripts|vertical and horizontal orientations]]. China, South Korea, and Japan all use corner brackets when writing vertically, however usages differ when writing horizontally:<br />
<br />
* In [[Japan]], corner brackets are used.<br />
* In [[South Korea]] and the [[People’s Republic of China]], English-style quotes are used. At least in China however, double angle brackets are commonly used around book titles.<br />
* In [[North Korea]], angle quotes are used.<br />
* In the [[Republic of China]] ([[Taiwan]]), both corner brackets and English-style quotes are used.<br />
<br />
White corner brackets are used to mark quote-within-quote segments.<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Samples || Unicode (decimal) || Description<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-weight:normal; "| 「文字」<br />
| U+300C (12300), U+300D (12301)<br />
| rowspan = "2" | Corner brackets<br />{{lang-zh|引號}} (''yǐn hào'')<br />{{lang-ja|鉤括弧}} ''kagikakko'')<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-weight:normal; "| ﹁<br />文<br />字<br />﹂<br />
| U+FE41 (65089), U+FE42 (65090)<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-weight:normal; "|『文字』<br />
| U+300E (12302), U+300F (12303)<br />
| rowspan = "2" | White corner brackets<br />{{lang-zh|雙引號}} (''shuāng yǐn hào'')<br />{{lang-ja|二重鉤括弧}} (''nijū kagikakko'')<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-weight:normal; "|﹃<br />文<br />字<br />﹄<br />
| U+FE43 (65091), U+FE44 (65092)<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-weight:normal; "|{{lang|ko|“한”}}<br />
| U+201C (8220), U+201D (8221)<br />
| English-style quotes [[Korean language|Korean]] ([[South Korea]])<br />
|-<br />
| style="font-size:3em; line-height:1.0; font-weight:normal; "|{{lang|ko|«한»}}<br />
| U+00AB (171), U+00BB (187)<br />
| Angle quotes [[Korean language|Korean]] ([[North Korea]])<br />
|}<br />
<br />
===Overview===<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Quote signs in several languages<br />
! rowspan="2"| Language<br />
! colspan="3"| Standard <br />
! colspan="3"| Alternative<br />
! rowspan="2"| Spacing<br />
|-<br />
! primary || secondary || <!--note--><br />
! primary || secondary || <!--note--><br />
|-<br />
! [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] <br />
| <big>„…”</big> || <big>‚…’</big> || <ref name="traditional">Traditional</ref><br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Albanian language|Albanian]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| <big>“…„</big> || <big>‘…‚</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Belarusian language|Belarusian]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || ||<br />
| <big>„…“</big> || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] <ref name="dash">Quotation dash preferred for dialogue</ref><br />
| <big>„…“</big> || ||<br />
| <big>«…»</big> || || <ref name="rare">Rare</ref> <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Catalan language|Catalan]] <ref name="dash" /> <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>“…”</big> ||<br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| 0 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Simplified Chinese|Chinese, Simplified]] <br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Traditional Chinese|Chinese, Traditional]] <br />
| align="center" style="line-height:1.2"| <big>「…」</big> ||align="center" style="line-height:1.2"| <big>『…』</big> || <ref name="rotated">These forms are rotated for use in horizontal text; they were originally written ﹁...﹂ and ﹃...﹄ in vertical text</ref><br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Croatian language|Croatian]]<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| <big>„…“</big> || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Czech language|Czech]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>›…‹</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Danish language|Danish]] <br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>›…‹</big> ||<br />
| <big>„…“</big><br> or <big>”…”</big>|| <big>‚…‘</big> || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Dutch language|Dutch]] <br />
| <big>„…”</big> || <big>‚…’</big> ||<br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>’…’</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[British English|English, UK]] <br />
| <big>‘…’</big> || <big>“…”</big> || <ref name="opening">An opening quotation mark is added to the beginning of each new paragraph.</ref><br />
| || ||<br />
| 1–2 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[American English|English, U.S.]] <br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> || <ref name="opening"/><br />
| || ||<br />
| 1–2 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Estonian language|Estonian]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>«…»</big> ||<br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Finnish language|Finnish]] <br />
| <big>”…”</big> || <big>’…’</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…»</big> || <big>’…’</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[French language|French]] <ref name="dash" /> <br />
| <big>« … »</big> || <big>« … »</big> or <big>“…”</big><ref name="imprimerie_nationale">First version according to the French Imprimerie nationale. English quotes are more common, though.</ref> || <ref name="rare" /><br />
| <big>“ … ”</big> || <big>‘ … ’</big> ||<br />
| ¼-em / non-break<br />
|-<br />
! French, Swiss <ref name="ch">In Switzerland the same style is used for all languages.</ref><br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| || ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[German language|German]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>›…‹</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! German, Swiss <ref name="ch" /><br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Greek language|Greek]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| <big>“…„</big> || <big>‘…‚</big> ||<br />
| 1 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] <ref name="dash" /><br />
| <big>„…”</big> || <big>»…«</big> ||<br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] <br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>«…»</big> || <ref name="traditional" /><br />
| <big>“…„</big> || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Icelandic language|Icelandic]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || ||<br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Irish language|Irish]] <br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| || ||<br />
| 1–2 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Italian language|Italian]] <ref name="dash" /> <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || ||<br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| 1–2 pt<br />
|-<br />
! Italian, Swiss <ref name="ch" /><br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Japanese language|Japanese]] <br />
| style="line-height:1.2"| <big>「…」</big> ||style="line-height:1.2"| <big>『…』</big> || <ref name="rotated" /><br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Latvian language|Latvian]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>„…”</big> ||<br />
| || ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> ||<br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| <big>„…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> || <ref name="handwriting">Handwriting.</ref><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Polish language|Polish]] <ref name="heading">Preferred for headings and other texts in larger font sizes</ref> <br />
| <big>„…”</big> || <big>‚…’</big> || <ref name="rare" /><br />
| <big>«…»</big> || || <ref name="substitute">May substitue for either the opening or closing mark</ref><br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> or <big>“…”</big> || <big>“…”</big> or <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| <big></big> || <big></big> ||<br />
| 0–1 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Romanian language|Romanian]] <ref name="dash" /><br />
| <big>„…”</big> || <big>«…»</big> ||<br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>„…”</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Russian language|Russian]] <ref name="dash" /> <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || ||<br />
| <big>„…“</big> || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Serbian language|Serbian]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>›…‹</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Slovak language|Slovak]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>›…‹</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Slovene language|Slovene]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || <big>›…‹</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Sorbian language|Sorbian]] <br />
| <big>„…“</big> || <big>‚…‘</big> || <br />
| || || <br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Spanish language|Spanish]] <ref name="dash" /> <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>“…”</big> ||<br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> || <ref name="closing">A closing quotation mark is added to the beginning of each new paragraph.</ref><br />
| 0 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Swedish language|Swedish]] <br />
| <big>”…”</big> || <big>’…’</big> ||<br />
| <big>»…»</big> || <big>’…’</big> ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
! [[Turkish language|Turkish]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || <big>‹…›</big> ||<br />
| <big>“…”</big> || <big>‘…’</big> ||<br />
| 0–1 pt<br />
|-<br />
! [[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] <br />
| <big>«…»</big> || ||<br />
| <big>„…“</big> || ||<br />
| <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
For quotations that span multiple paragraphs, besides the opening quotation mark in the first paragraph and the closing quotation mark at the end of the quotation:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|+ Quote signs in several languages<br />
! Style<br />
! Signs<br />
! Languages<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="2" | Corner<br />brackets<br />
| <big>『…』</big> || Traditional Chinese, Japanese<br />
|-<br />
| <big>「…」</big> || Traditional Chinese, Japanese<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="5" | Double<br />quote<br />
| <big>„…“</big> || Belarusian, Bulgarian, Czech, Danish, Estonian, German, Icelandic, Latvian, Lithuanian, Russian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Sorbian, Ukrainian<br />
|-<br />
| <big>„…”</big> || Afrikaans, Croatian, Dutch, Hungarian, Norwegian, Polish, Romanian<br />
|-<br />
| <big>”…”</big> || (Danish), Finnish, Swedish<br />
|-<br />
| <big>“…”</big> || Catalan, Simplified/Traditional Chinese, Dutch, English, French, Hebrew, Irish, Italian, Korean (South Korea), Portuguese, Spanish, Turkish<br />
|-<br />
| <big>“…„</big> || Albanian, Greek, Hebrew<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="5" | Single<br />quote<br />
| <big>‚…‘</big> || Czech, Danish, German, Icelandic, Lithuanian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene, Sorbian<br />
|-<br />
| <big>‚…’</big> || Afrikaans, Dutch, Polish, Romanian<br />
|-<br />
| <big>’…’</big> || Dutch, Finnish, Swedish<br />
|-<br />
| <big>‘…’</big> || Catalan, Simplified/Traditional Chinese, English, French, Irish, Italian, Turkish<br />
|-<br />
| <big>‘…‚</big> || Albanian, Greek<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | Double<br />angled<br />
| <big>«…»</big> || Albanian, Belarusian, Catalan, Estonian, French, Swiss (French, German, Italian), Greek, Hebrew, Italian, Korean (North Korea), Latvian, Lithuanian, Norwegian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Spanish, Turkish, Ukrainian, Catalan<br />
|-<br />
| <big>»…«</big> || Croatian, Czech, Danish, German, Hungarian, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene<br />
|-<br />
| <big>»…»</big> || Finnish, Swedish<br />
|-<br />
| rowspan="3" | Single<br />angled<br />
| <big>‹…›</big> || Albanian, French, Swiss (French, German, Italian), Greek, Lithuanian, Turkish<br />
|-<br />
| <big>›…‹</big> || Czech, Danish, German, Serbian, Slovak, Slovene<br />
|-<br />
| <big>›…›</big> || Swedish<br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
==Names for quotation marks==<br />
===Double quotation mark===<br />
* [[English language|English]]: [[quotation mark]], double quote, quote, dirk, [[prime (symbol)|double mark]], literal mark, double-glitch, inverted commas, speech mark<br />
** [[INTERCAL]]: rabbit-ears<br />
** [[ITU-T]]: dieresis, quotation mark<br />
* [[Afrikaans]]: ''aanhalingstekens''<br />
* {{lang-be|двукоссі}} (‘double commas’), {{lang|be|лапкі}} (‘little paws’)<br />
* {{lang-bg|кавички}}<br />
* {{lang-ca|cometes}}<br />
*[[Written Chinese|Chinese]]: {{lang|zh|雙引號}} / {{lang|zh|双引号}}<br />
* {{lang-hr|navodnici}}<br />
* {{lang-cs|uvozovka}} (singular), {{lang|cs|uvozovky}} (plural) (''cf.'' {{lang|cs|uvozovat}} = ‘to introduce’)<br />
* {{lang-da|citationstegn}} (‘citation marks’), {{lang|da|anførselstegn}}, {{lang|da|gåseøjne}} (‘goose eyes’) <br />
* {{lang-nl|Aanhalingstekens}} (‘citation marks’)<br />
* {{lang-eo|citiloj}}<br />
* {{lang-et|jutumärgid}} (‘story marks’)<br />
* {{lang-fi|lainausmerkki}} (‘citation mark,’ singular), {{lang|fi|''lainausmerkit''}} (plural)<br />
* {{lang-fr|guillemets}}<br />
* {{lang-ka|ბრჭყალები}} (‘claws’)<br />
* {{lang-de|Anführungszeichen}}, {{lang|de|Gänsefüßchen}} (‘little goose feet’), {{lang|de|Hochkommas}}/{{lang|de|Hochkommata}} (‘high commas’)<br />
* {{lang-el|εισαγωγικά}}, (‘introductions’)<br />
* [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]: merkha'ot &mdash; {{ivrit|מֵרְכָאוֹת}} (plural of merkha &mdash; {{ivrit|מֵרְכָא}}); a similar punctuation mark unique to Hebrew is called [[gershayim]] &mdash; {{ivrit|גרשיים}}<br />
* {{lang-hu|macskaköröm}} (‘cat claw’), {{lang|hu|idézőjel}} (‘quotation mark’=„ ”), {{lang|hu|hegyével befelé forduló jelpár}} (» «)<br />
* {{lang-is|Gæsalappir}} (‘goose feet’)<br />
* {{lang-it|virgolette}}<br />
* {{lang-ja|引用符}} (''in'yōfu'')<br />
* {{lang-ko|이중 따옴표}} (“''ijung ttaomp'yo''”)<br />
* {{lang-lv|pēdiņas}}<br />
* {{lang-lt|kabutės}}<br />
* {{lang-no|anførselstegn}}, {{lang|no|gåseauge}}/{{lang|no|gåseøyne}} (‘goose eyes’), {{lang|no|hermeteikn}}/{{lang|no|hermetegn}}, {{lang|no|sittatteikn}}/{{lang|no|sitattegn}}, {{lang|no|dobbeltfnutt}}<br />
* {{lang-pl|cudzysłów}}<br />
* {{lang-pt|aspas}} (plural)<br />
* {{lang-ro|ghilimele}} (plural), {{lang|ro|ghilimea}} (singular, rarely used)<br />
* {{lang-ru|кавычки}} (''kavychki'', general term); {{lang|ru|ёлочки}} (''yolochki'', ‘little fir trees’: angle quotes); {{lang|ru|лапочки}} or {{lang|ru|лапки}} (''lapochki'' or ''lapki'', ‘little paws’: curly quotes) <br />
* {{lang-sr|наводници}}<br />
* {{lang-es|comillas latinas}} or {{lang|es|''comillas angulares''}} (« »), {{lang|es|''comillas inglesas dobles''}} (“ ”), {{lang|es|''comillas inglesas simples''}} (‘ ’). ‹ and › are never used in Spanish.<br />
* {{lang-sv|citationstecken}}, {{lang|sv|anföringstecken}}, {{lang|sv|citattecken}} (modernised term), {{lang|sv|dubbelfnutt}} (colloquial for ASCII double quote)<br />
* {{lang-tr|Tırnak İşareti}} ('fingernail mark')<br />
* {{lang-uk|лапки}} (''lapky'', ‘little paws’), {{lang|uk|скупки}} (''skupky'', ‘aggregators’)<br />
<br />
==Notes==<br />
<div class="references-small"><br />
<references/><br />
</div><br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Unicode]]<br />
* [[ISO 8859-1]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://www.dwheeler.com/essays/quotes-in-html.html Curling Quotes in HTML, SGML, and XML]<br />
* [http://marcautret.free.fr/sigma/pratik/typo/guilles/index.php French Quotes Typography (Œuvrez les guillemets!) -- in French]<br />
* [http://hubpages.com/hub/Grammar_Mishaps__Quotation_Marks Beginners guide to quotation marks]<br />
* [http://www.unicode.org/cldr/data/diff/by_type/Attic/delimiters.html Quotation marks in the Unicode Common Locale Data Repository]<br />
* [http://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/~mgk25/ucs/quotes.html ASCII and Unicode quotation marks] – detailed discussion of the ASCII `backquote' problem<br />
* [http://www.juvalamu.com/qmarks/ The Gallery Of "Misused" Quotation Marks]<br />
* [http://www.cs.sfu.ca/~ggbaker/reference/characters/ Commonly confused characters]<br />
* [http://www.pensee.com/dunham/smartQuotes.html Smart Quotes]<br />
<br />
{{FOLDOC}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Punctuation]]<br />
[[Category:Typography]]<br />
<br />
[[ca:Cometes]]<br />
[[da:Anførselstegn]]<br />
[[de:Anführungszeichen]]<br />
[[eo:Citilo]]<br />
[[es:Comillas]]<br />
[[eu:Komatxoak]]<br />
[[fi:Lainausmerkki]]<br />
[[fr:Guillemet]]<br />
[[he:מרכאות]]<br />
[[hu:Idézőjel]]<br />
[[is:Gæsalappir]]<br />
[[it:Virgolette]]<br />
[[ja:引用符]]<br />
[[nl:Aanhalingsteken]]<br />
[[no:Anførselstegn]]<br />
[[pl:Cudzysłów]]<br />
[[pt:Aspas]]<br />
[[ru:Кавычки]]<br />
[[sl:Narekovaj]]<br />
[[sv:Citationstecken]]<br />
[[tr:Tırnak işareti]]<br />
[[zh:引号]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yr_Atal_Genhedlaeth&diff=101546213Yr Atal Genhedlaeth2007-01-18T12:48:08Z<p>Dkc: + Welsh accents</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Album | <!-- See Wikipedia:WikiProject_Albums --><br />
Name = Yr Atal Genhedlaeth |<br />
Type = [[Album]] |<br />
Artist = [[Gruff Rhys]] |<br />
Cover = yratal_cover.jpg |<br />
Released = [[24 January]] [[2005]] |<br />
Recorded = ?? |<br />
Genre = [[Alternative rock]] |<br />
Length = 29:05 |<br />
Label = [[Placid Casual Recordings]] |<br />
Producer = [[Gorwel Owen]] and [[Gruff Rhys]] | <br />
Reviews = <br />
* [[All Music Guide]] {{rating-5|4}} [http://www.allmusic.com/cg/amg.dll?p=amg&sql=10:gpdsylo5xpbb link ]|<br />
Last album = |<br />
This album = '''''Yr Atal Genhedlaeth''''' <br>(2005) |<br />
Next album = '''''Candylion''''' <br>(2007)|}}<br />
<br />
'''''Yr Atal Genhedlaeth''''' is the debut solo album by [[Super Furry Animals]] frontman [[Gruff Rhys]]. Entirely in the Welsh language, the title of the album and many of the songs are plays on words and puns that might not be obvious even to a Welsh-speaker:<br />
<br />
*Yr Atal Genhedlaeth - 'The Stuttering Generation', but 'atalgenhedlu' is Welsh for a [[contraceptive]].<br />
*Gwn Mi Wn - 'Yes, I Know', could also mean 'this is my gun', a reference to the battle in the song. <br />
*Epynt - named after a mountain in Mid Wales, but about money, with the 'E' standing for the Euro, and 'pynt' being Welsh for pound. <br />
*Rhagluniaeth Ysgafn - 'May My Destiny Be Light', but 'lluniaeth ysgafn' means a light snack. <br />
*Pwdin Ŵy 1 & 2 - literally 'egg pudding', means '"egg custard', two love songs. <br />
*Y Gwybodusion - 'those who know', ie., experts. <br />
*Caerffosiaeth - literally 'sewage fortress'. '[[Caer]]' is a common part of Welsh place-names (for example, Caergybi), used to indicate that there was originally a castle or fortress in the town/city. <br />
*Ambell Waith - 'Sometimes'. <br />
*Ni Yw Y Byd - 'We Are The World'. <br />
*Chwarae'n Troi'n Chwerw - 'When Play Turns Sour', from a Welsh proverb. A Welsh language standard originally written and sung by Caryl Parry-Jones.<br />
<br />
==Track listing==<br />
#"Yr Atal Genhedlaeth" – 0:08<br />
#"Gwn Mi Wn" – 2:33<br />
#"Epynt" – 1:48<br />
#"Rhagluniaeth Ysgafn" – 2:55<br />
#"Pwdin Ŵy 1" – 1:42<br />
#"Pwdin Ŵy 2" – 3:13<br />
#"Y Gwybodusion" – 1:52<br />
#"Caerffosiaeth" – 2:58<br />
#"Ambell Waith" – 2:22<br />
#"Ni Yw Y Byd" – 3:56<br />
#"Chwarae'n Troi'n Chwerw" – 6:04<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<br />
*{{cite web | title=Link | work=Placid Casual website | url=http://www.placidcasual.com/gruff/ | accessdate=9 August | accessyear=2006}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:2005 albums]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(film)&diff=96930524Philadelphia (film)2006-12-28T13:54:11Z<p>Dkc: /* Cast */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Film | name = Philadelphia<br />
| image = Philadelphia_imp.jpg<br />
| caption = original film poster<br />
| director = [[Jonathan Demme]]<br />
| producer = [[Jonathan Demme]]<br />[[Edward Saxon]]<br />
| writer = [[Ron Nyswaner]]<br />
| starring = [[Tom Hanks]]<br>[[Denzel Washington]]<br>[[Jason Robards]]<br>[[Antonio Banderas]]<br>[[Joanne Woodward]] |<br />
| music = [[Howard Shore]]<br />
| cinematography =<br />
| editing =<br />
| distributor = [[TriStar Pictures]]<br />
| released = [[December 23]], [[1993]]<br />
| runtime = 125 min.<br />
| language = [[English language|English]]<br />
| budget = $26,000,000 US (est.)<br />
| imdb_id = 0107818<br />
}}{{portalpar|Philadelphia|Libertybell alone small.jpg}}<br />
'''''Philadelphia''''' is a [[1993 in film|1993]] [[film]] [[drama film|drama]] revolving around the [[AIDS]] epidemic, written by [[Ron Nyswaner]] and directed by [[Jonathan Demme]]. It stars [[Tom Hanks]], [[Denzel Washington]], [[Joanne Woodward]], [[Jason Robards]], [[Antonio Banderas]], Lisa Summerour, and [[Mary Steenburgen]].<br />
<br />
==Story==<br />
{{spoiler}}<br />
Twenty-seven year old Andrew Beckett (Hanks) is a [[University of Pennsylvania]] graduate hired in a [[corporate law]] firm, the largest in [[Philadelphia]]. Andy is successful, easy-going, handsome and gay and tries to hide the truth about his sexuality, along with his partner, Miguel ([[Antonio Banderas]]). When he feels ill and develops [[Kaposi's Sarcoma]] lesions on his face, his worst fears are confirmed: his HIV has turned into full blown AIDS, and he cannot hide the truth anymore. He is promptly fired from the law firm by his boss (Robards), who is revealed to have a strong [[prejudice]] against gay people.<br />
<br />
Andrew tries to hire a defense lawyer to take his case and sue the firm for dismissal, lost earnings, and [[punitive damages]], but nobody will take his case. As a last resort, he turns to Joe Miller (Washington), a family man and injury lawyer who is secretly [[homophobic]]. However, after they spend time together, Joe realizes that Andrew is a normal person like anybody else. Both gain great trust and respect for each other as they fight the system that calls itself the law, much to the shock, admiration, and, for some, disgust of the population. Joe must show that Andrew is a good man, not a threat, and that his boss fired him just because he was gay, before AIDS takes his life. <br />
{{endspoiler}}<br />
<br />
==Cast==<br />
*[[Tom Hanks]] (Andrew Beckett)<br />
*[[Denzel Washington]] (Joe Miller)<br />
*[[Jason Robards]] (Charles Wheeler)<br />
*[[Antonio Banderas]] (Miguel Alvarez)<br />
*[[Joanne Woodward]] (Sarah Beckett)<br />
*[[Mary Steenburgen]] (Belinda Conine)<br />
*[[Charles Napier (actor)|Charles Napier]] (Judge Garnett)<br />
*[[Edward Rendell]] (Mayor Edward Rendell/himself)<br />
*[[Karen Finley]] (Dr. Gillman)<br />
*[[Robert Ridgley]] (Walter Kenton)<br />
*Jane Moore (Lydia Glines)<br />
*[[Bradley Whitford]] (Jamey Collins)<br />
*[[Lauren Roselli]] (Iris)<br />
*[[Tracey Walter]] (Librarian)<br />
*[[Anne Dowd]] (Jill Beckett)<br />
*[[John Bedford Lloyd]] (Matt Beckett)<br />
*[[Robert Castle]] (Bud Beckett)<br />
*[[Daniel von Bargen]] (Jury Foreman)<br />
<br />
The late [[Quentin Crisp]] has a cameo appearance in the film when Hanks and Banderas’s characters throw a Halloween party.<br />
<br />
[[Tom Hanks]] had to lose almost thirty pounds to appear appropriately gaunt for his courtroom scenes. [[Denzel Washington]], on the other hand, was asked to gain a few pounds for his role. Washington, to the chagrin of Hanks, who practically starved himself for the role, would often scarf down chocolate bars in front of him.<br />
<br />
According to the Internet Movie Database [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0107818/trivia] ‘There was a statistic that there were 53 gay men who appeared in various scenes in this movie and within the next year, 43 of them had died.’<br />
<br />
The following message appears at the end credits: ‘This motion picture was inspired in part by [[Geoffrey Bowers]]’ AIDS discrimination lawsuit, the courage and love of the Angius family and the struggles of the many others who, along with their loved ones, have experienced discrimination because of AIDS.’<br />
<br />
==Awards==<br />
The movie won [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor in a Leading Role]] (Tom Hanks) and [[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Music, Song]] ([[Bruce Springsteen]] for "[[Streets of Philadelphia]]"). <br />
<br />
It was also nominated for [[Academy Award for Makeup|Best Makeup]] ([[Carl Fullerton]] and [[Alan D'Angerio]]), [[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Music, Song]] ([[Neil Young]] for "Philadelphia") and [[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay|Best Writing, Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen]] ([[Ron Nyswaner]]).<br />
<br />
Andrew Beckett is listed at number 49 on the AFI's list of the top 100 heroes and villans.<br />
<br />
==Controversy==<br />
The film was the second Hollywood big-budget, big-star film to tackle the issue of [[AIDS]] (following TV movie ''[[And the Band Played On#Film|And the Band Played On]]'') in America and also signaled a shift in the early [[1990s]] for Hollywood films to have more realistic depictions of homosexuals. However, the fact that Hanks' and Banderas' characters do not display normal relationship affections such as kissing, and the absence of gay women drew criticism from some gay film critics. In an interview for the [[1996]] documentary ''[[The Celluloid Closet]]'', Hanks remarked that some scenes showing more affection between him and Banderas were cut, including a scene showing him and Banderas in bed together. The [[DVD]] edition of the film, produced by [[Automat Pictures]] includes that scene and many of the principals discuss the criticisms leveled at the film.<br />
<br />
==References & External links ==<br />
*''Philadelphia''. Dir. Jonathan Demme. Perf. Tom Hanks, Denzel Washing. TriStar Pictures, 1993.<br />
* {{imdb title | id = 0107818 | title = Philadelphia }}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1993 films]]<br />
[[Category:Drama films]]<br />
[[Category:LGBT-related films]]<br />
[[Category:AIDS in film and television]]<br />
[[Category:Philadelphia in film and television]]<br />
[[Category:American films]]<br />
[[Category:Films featuring a Best Actor Academy Award winning performance]]<br />
[[Category:Best Song Academy Award winners]]<br />
[[Category:Best Song Academy Award nominees]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Jonathan Demme]]<br />
[[Category:Legal films]]<br />
[[Category:TriStar films]]<br />
<br />
[[de:Philadelphia (Film)]]<br />
[[es:Philadelphia (película)]]<br />
[[fr:Philadelphia (film)]]<br />
[[ko:필라델피아 (영화)]]<br />
[[it:Philadelphia (film)]]<br />
[[nl:Philadelphia (film)]]<br />
[[ja:フィラデルフィア (映画)]]<br />
[[pl:Filadelfia (film)]]<br />
[[pt:Philadelphia (filme)]]<br />
[[ru:Филадельфия (фильм)]]<br />
[[fi:Philadelphia (elokuva)]]<br />
[[sv:Philadelphia (film)]]<br />
[[zh:费城故事]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Philadelphia_(film)&diff=96930430Philadelphia (film)2006-12-28T13:53:21Z<p>Dkc: /* Cast */ punctuation</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Infobox Film | name = Philadelphia<br />
| image = Philadelphia_imp.jpg<br />
| caption = original film poster<br />
| director = [[Jonathan Demme]]<br />
| producer = [[Jonathan Demme]]<br />[[Edward Saxon]]<br />
| writer = [[Ron Nyswaner]]<br />
| starring = [[Tom Hanks]]<br>[[Denzel Washington]]<br>[[Jason Robards]]<br>[[Antonio Banderas]]<br>[[Joanne Woodward]] |<br />
| music = [[Howard Shore]]<br />
| cinematography =<br />
| editing =<br />
| distributor = [[TriStar Pictures]]<br />
| released = [[December 23]], [[1993]]<br />
| runtime = 125 min.<br />
| language = [[English language|English]]<br />
| budget = $26,000,000 US (est.)<br />
| imdb_id = 0107818<br />
}}{{portalpar|Philadelphia|Libertybell alone small.jpg}}<br />
'''''Philadelphia''''' is a [[1993 in film|1993]] [[film]] [[drama film|drama]] revolving around the [[AIDS]] epidemic, written by [[Ron Nyswaner]] and directed by [[Jonathan Demme]]. It stars [[Tom Hanks]], [[Denzel Washington]], [[Joanne Woodward]], [[Jason Robards]], [[Antonio Banderas]], Lisa Summerour, and [[Mary Steenburgen]].<br />
<br />
==Story==<br />
{{spoiler}}<br />
Twenty-seven year old Andrew Beckett (Hanks) is a [[University of Pennsylvania]] graduate hired in a [[corporate law]] firm, the largest in [[Philadelphia]]. Andy is successful, easy-going, handsome and gay and tries to hide the truth about his sexuality, along with his partner, Miguel ([[Antonio Banderas]]). When he feels ill and develops [[Kaposi's Sarcoma]] lesions on his face, his worst fears are confirmed: his HIV has turned into full blown AIDS, and he cannot hide the truth anymore. He is promptly fired from the law firm by his boss (Robards), who is revealed to have a strong [[prejudice]] against gay people.<br />
<br />
Andrew tries to hire a defense lawyer to take his case and sue the firm for dismissal, lost earnings, and [[punitive damages]], but nobody will take his case. As a last resort, he turns to Joe Miller (Washington), a family man and injury lawyer who is secretly [[homophobic]]. However, after they spend time together, Joe realizes that Andrew is a normal person like anybody else. Both gain great trust and respect for each other as they fight the system that calls itself the law, much to the shock, admiration, and, for some, disgust of the population. Joe must show that Andrew is a good man, not a threat, and that his boss fired him just because he was gay, before AIDS takes his life. <br />
{{endspoiler}}<br />
<br />
==Cast==<br />
*[[Tom Hanks]] (Andrew Beckett)<br />
*[[Denzel Washington]] (Joe Miller)<br />
*[[Jason Robards]] (Charles Wheeler)<br />
*[[Antonio Banderas]] (Miguel Alvarez)<br />
*[[Joanne Woodward]] (Sarah Beckett)<br />
*[[Mary Steenburgen]] (Belinda Conine)<br />
*[[Charles Napier (actor)|Charles Napier]] (Judge Garnett)<br />
*[[Edward Rendell]] (Mayor Edward Rendell/himself)<br />
*[[Karen Finley]] (Dr. Gillman)<br />
*[[Robert Ridgley]] (Walter Kenton)<br />
*Jane Moore (Lydia Glines)<br />
*[[Bradley Whitford]] (Jamey Collins)<br />
*[[Lauren Roselli]] (Iris)<br />
*[[Tracey Walter]] (Librarian)<br />
*[[Anne Dowd]] (Jill Beckett)<br />
*[[John Bedford Lloyd]] (Matt Beckett)<br />
*[[Robert Castle]] (Bud Beckett)<br />
*[[Daniel von Bargen]] (Jury Foreman)<br />
<br />
The late [[Quentin Crisp]] has a cameo appearance in the film when Hanks and Banderas's characters throw a Halloween party.<br />
<br />
[[Tom Hanks]] had to lose almost thirty pounds to appear appropriately gaunt for his courtroom scenes. [[Denzel Washington]], on the other hand, was asked to gain a few pounds for his role. Washington, to the chagrin of Hanks, who practically starved himself for the role, would often scarf down chocolate bars in front of him.<br />
<br />
According to the Internet Movie Database [http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0107818/trivia] "There was a statistic that there were 53 gay men who appeared in various scenes in this movie and within the next year, 43 of them had died."<br />
<br />
The following message appears at the end credits: ‘This motion picture was inspired in part by [[Geoffrey Bowers]]’ AIDS discrimination lawsuit, the courage and love of the Angius family and the struggles of the many others who, along with their loved ones, have experienced discrimination because of AIDS’.<br />
<br />
==Awards==<br />
The movie won [[Academy Awards]] for [[Academy Award for Best Actor|Best Actor in a Leading Role]] (Tom Hanks) and [[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Music, Song]] ([[Bruce Springsteen]] for "[[Streets of Philadelphia]]"). <br />
<br />
It was also nominated for [[Academy Award for Makeup|Best Makeup]] ([[Carl Fullerton]] and [[Alan D'Angerio]]), [[Academy Award for Best Song|Best Music, Song]] ([[Neil Young]] for "Philadelphia") and [[Academy Award for Writing Original Screenplay|Best Writing, Screenplay Written Directly for the Screen]] ([[Ron Nyswaner]]).<br />
<br />
Andrew Beckett is listed at number 49 on the AFI's list of the top 100 heroes and villans.<br />
<br />
==Controversy==<br />
The film was the second Hollywood big-budget, big-star film to tackle the issue of [[AIDS]] (following TV movie ''[[And the Band Played On#Film|And the Band Played On]]'') in America and also signaled a shift in the early [[1990s]] for Hollywood films to have more realistic depictions of homosexuals. However, the fact that Hanks' and Banderas' characters do not display normal relationship affections such as kissing, and the absence of gay women drew criticism from some gay film critics. In an interview for the [[1996]] documentary ''[[The Celluloid Closet]]'', Hanks remarked that some scenes showing more affection between him and Banderas were cut, including a scene showing him and Banderas in bed together. The [[DVD]] edition of the film, produced by [[Automat Pictures]] includes that scene and many of the principals discuss the criticisms leveled at the film.<br />
<br />
==References & External links ==<br />
*''Philadelphia''. Dir. Jonathan Demme. Perf. Tom Hanks, Denzel Washing. TriStar Pictures, 1993.<br />
* {{imdb title | id = 0107818 | title = Philadelphia }}<br />
<br />
[[Category:1993 films]]<br />
[[Category:Drama films]]<br />
[[Category:LGBT-related films]]<br />
[[Category:AIDS in film and television]]<br />
[[Category:Philadelphia in film and television]]<br />
[[Category:American films]]<br />
[[Category:Films featuring a Best Actor Academy Award winning performance]]<br />
[[Category:Best Song Academy Award winners]]<br />
[[Category:Best Song Academy Award nominees]]<br />
[[Category:Films directed by Jonathan Demme]]<br />
[[Category:Legal films]]<br />
[[Category:TriStar films]]<br />
<br />
[[de:Philadelphia (Film)]]<br />
[[es:Philadelphia (película)]]<br />
[[fr:Philadelphia (film)]]<br />
[[ko:필라델피아 (영화)]]<br />
[[it:Philadelphia (film)]]<br />
[[nl:Philadelphia (film)]]<br />
[[ja:フィラデルフィア (映画)]]<br />
[[pl:Filadelfia (film)]]<br />
[[pt:Philadelphia (filme)]]<br />
[[ru:Филадельфия (фильм)]]<br />
[[fi:Philadelphia (elokuva)]]<br />
[[sv:Philadelphia (film)]]<br />
[[zh:费城故事]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swinging_(sexual_practice)&diff=96745571Swinging (sexual practice)2006-12-27T14:59:28Z<p>Dkc: /* Polyamory */</p>
<hr />
<div>{{otheruses4|the subcultural sexual lifestyle||Swing}}<br />
{{Close Relationships}}<br />
'''Swinging''', sometimes referred to in North America as the '''swinging lifestyle''', is "non-monogamous sexual activity, treated much like any other social activity, that can be experienced as a couple." <ref name="ejhs">Bergstrand & Williams, Today's Alternative Marriage Styles: The Case of Swingers, Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality, Vol.3, [[10 October]] [[2000]]. [http://www.ejhs.org/volume3/swing/body.htm]</ref><br />
<br />
The phenomenon (or at least its wider discussion and practice) may be seen as part of the [[Sexual Revolution|sexual revolution]] of recent decades, which has occurred after the upsurge in sexual activity possible due to safer sex practices that became prevalent during these same decades.<br />
<br />
Swinging has been called '''wife swapping''', in the past but this term is now archaic, as it is androcentric and does not accurately describe the full range of sexual activities that swingers may take part in. <br />
<br />
== Activities ==<br />
Swinging activities can include (but are not limited to):<br />
*'''[[Exhibitionism]]''': having sex with a partner while being watched.<br />
*'''[[Voyeurism]]''': watching others [[sexual intercourse|have sex]] (perhaps with the above mentioned partner).<br />
*'''Soft Swinging''' or '''Soft Swap''': kissing, stroking, or having oral sex with a third or fourth person. This may be in the form of a [[threesome]] or group sex, or partners may literally be swapped.<br />
*'''Full Swap''': having [[sexual intercourse|penetrative sex]] with someone other than one's partner, which is the commonly understood definition of swinging (though not necessarily the most common type).<br />
*'''[[Group sex|Group Sex]]''': An all inclusive term for activities involving multiple partners in the same vicinity.<br />
<br />
Typically, swinging activities occur when a [[marriage|married]] or otherwise committed couple engages with either another couple, multiple couples, or a single individual. These acts can occur in the same room (often called '''same room''' swinging) though '''different''' or '''separate room''' swinging does occur. Sex on these occasions is often referred to as '''play'''. <br />
<br />
While the vast majority of '''swingers''' are heterosexual couples, a major part of '''Lifestyle''' activities are bisexual in nature. A large portion of female swingers, while they may or may not identify as bisexual, are interested in female-female sexual contact. Male-male contact is very rare, and usually never allowed in at a Swing Club/Party.<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
<br />
Historically, it has not been uncommon to find societies that have advocated having multiple sexual partners. Furthermore both royalty and nobility in many cultures had consorts and concubines. Ancient Rome has been notable (if not infamous) for its enthusiastic acceptance of orgies and alternative sexual practices. However, though contemporary swingers celebrate those ideals, the actual practice of swinging in the 20th century began differently.<br />
<br />
According to Terry Gould's ''The Lifestyle: A Look at the Erotic Rites of Swingers'' (ISBN 1-55209-482-0), swinging began among U.S. Air Force pilots and their wives during [[World War II]]. In this small community, the mortality rate among pilots was significantly high. Gould reports that a close bond between pilots arose, with the implication that the husbands would protect and care for all the wives as their own, both emotionally and sexually, if the husbands were away or lost.<br />
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This historical narrative is debatable, however, since it would have been highly unusual for servicemen's wives to accompany them on any foreign tours of duty. Other sources point to American Air Force pilots stationed in the California desert as the original participants in modern swinging. Though the exact beginnings are not agreed upon, it is widely assumed that swinging began amongst American military communities in the 1950s.<br />
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By the time the Korean War ended, these groups had spread from the bases to the nearby suburbs. The media picked up on them in 1957 and promptly dubbed the phenomenon "wife-swapping."<br />
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It wasn't until the 1960s in Berkeley, California that the first organization, "[[Sexual Freedom League]]", for swingers was opened. Ultimately, an umbrella organization called the North American Swing Club Association (NASCA)<ref>NASCA International[http://www.nasca.com]</ref> (now [[NASCA International]]) was formed to encourage accurate information about swinging lifestyles all across America.<br />
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== Research ==<br />
Some subjective scientific research into swinging has been conducted in the USA since the late 1960s. The most recent study, based on an [[Internet]] [[questionnaire]] addressed to visitors of lifestyle-related sites, found swingers are happier in their relationships than the norm. <ref name="ejhs"/><br />
<br />
* 60% of swingers said that swinging improved their relationship and only 1.7% said it made their relationship less happy. Half of those who rated their relationship very happy before becoming swingers maintained it had become even happier. <br />
* 90% of those with less happy [[intimate relationship|relationship]]s said swinging improved them. <br />
* Almost 70% of swingers claimed no problem with controlling [[jealousy]], around a quarter admitted "I have difficulty controlling jealousy when swinging" to be somewhat true but only 6% said this was "Yes, Very Much" true. <br />
* Swingers rate themselves happier (59% against 32% very happy) and their lives much more exciting (76% against 54% exciting) than does the rest of the population, by surprisingly large margins. <br />
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There was no difference between the responses of men and women, although more males (70%) than females completed the survey. <br />
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This study, while enlightening, is of limited accuracy of the swinging population as a whole, due to its [[Nonprobability sampling|self-selected sampling]] technique. Internet-based sampling procedures create a substantial potential for bias. It is likely that those swinging couples who had stronger relationships were more motivated to complete the questionnaire. Alternatively, the stress that swinging may place on a marriage means that only those with higher than average levels of commitment to their partners are able to remain married whilst swinging. Couples that have jealousy or strife issues caused by swinging will not usually stay in the swinging lifestyle and thus would have been unlikely to respond.<br />
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[[ABC News]] reporter [[John Stossel]] produced an [[investigative report]] into the lifestyle. Stossel reported that over 4 million people are swingers, according to estimates by the [[Kinsey Institute]] and other researchers. He also cited Terry Gould's research, in which Gould concluded that "couples swing in order to ''not'' cheat on their partners." When Stossel asked swinging couples whether they worry that their spouse will "find they like someone else better", one male interviewee replied, "People in the swinging community swing for a reason. They don't swing to go out and find a new wife;" while a woman interviewee asserted, "It makes women more confident -- that they are the ones in charge." Stossel interviewed 12 [[Relationship counseling|marriage counselors]] about the lifestyle. According to Stossel, "not one of them said don't do it", though some also said "getting sexual thrills outside of marriage can threaten a marriage". Nevertheless, the swingers whom Stossel interviewed claimed that "their marriages are stronger because they don't have affairs and they don't lie to each other."<ref>ABC News: The "Lifestyle" -- Real Life Wife Swaps[http://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/Health/story?id=2395727&page=1]<!-- ABC News link IS allowed according to [http://disney.go.com/corporate/legal/terms.html#newterms] --></ref><br />
<br />
== Organizations ==<br />
Certain '''Lifestyle''' activities are highly organized. There are over 3,000 swinging clubs worldwide. Most major cities in North America and western Europe have at least one '''swingers' club''' in a permanent location although they often keep a low profile to avoid negative attention. Swingers also meet through lifestyle magazines, personal ads, swinging house parties, and [[Internet]] sites.<br />
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Clubs can refer to a physical location or building. In this context, clubs are typically divided into "on-premise" clubs, where sexual activity may happen then and there at the club, and "off-premise" clubs where sexual activity is not allowed at the club, but may be arranged at a near-by location. "Clubs" also may refer to the group that organizes the Lifestyle-related events in a particular area.<br />
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In the USA, many swinging clubs follow a [[bar (establishment)|bar]] or [[nightclub]] format, sometimes renting an entire existing bar for scheduled events, frequently termed a venue '''takeover'''. This is normally done to avoid interaction with non-Lifestyle segments of the population, and once again to avoid unwanted negative attention. This often relegates these activities to [[suburbia]] on the weekend, where bars in large [[industrial park]]s which attract a mainstream clientele during weekdays would otherwise sit empty or closed on weekends when offices shut down. On-premise clubs usually have a similar format. One notable exception to this is that most on-premise clubs do not serve alcohol, asking participants instead to bring their own because of the restrictive laws commonly in place regarding sexual activity and the presence of alcoholic beverages. Concordantly, the vast majority of swinging clubs do not advertise as such due to the strict moral climate in the United States. Another format is the swinger [[party]]. Usually in a home where parking may require a shuttle from another location if the home resides within a suburban area. A home that is usually suitable may have a hot tub, a pool, several bedrooms, and an assortment of [[sex furniture]] such as a sex swing, a [[stripper pole]], a dance floor, or a [[BDSM dungeon]]. Within the party atmosphere [[condoms]], [[lube]] and breath mints may be readily available throughout the house. Sometimes the [[host]] may hold events such as a [[striptease]] or dance contest, a [[flogging]] or other [[BDSM]] demonstration.<br />
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In Europe off-premises clubs are rare and the majority of swinging venues allow sexual contact and serve alcohol. There are three standard formats: the bar/nightclub, usually smaller, in city centres and focused around a dance floor; the spa format which has pools, Jacuzzis, saunas and steam rooms and where people strip on entry; and the country club format, which is out-of-town, usually serves a free buffet and may include elements of the first two as well as offering large play spaces. <br />
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A large amount of swinging activity is organised via the Internet, where there are countless different sites with personals, listings and local information. To many couples, the swinging lifestyle and the clubs can be as much a social venue as a sexual one. Like many sexual sub-cultures, there can be very much a community atmosphere, and the greater communication allowed by the Internet has fostered this sense.<br />
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== Etiquette ==<br />
The 'prime directive' in swinging is "no means no". This means that rejection of a sexual advance does not require justification and must always be respected. Respect for one's play partners is often a hallmark of swinging activity, and violation of this directive can result in immediate [[expulsion]]. Concordantly, in the US it is often regarded as impolite to touch without asking, whereas in the UK and Europe both touching and gently but firmly removing a touching hand are widely regarded as polite non-verbal [[communication]] in the playroom context.<br />
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Many swingers who participate in penetrative sex whilst swinging are strict about condom usage, including insisting on changing condoms between partners. However, some members of the swinging community do engage in unprotected sex, in a practice that is commonly known as [[barebacking]]. When unsure, it is considered a polite necessity to establish these ground rules before becoming sexually involved. <br />
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Some swingers believe that it's possible to spot others in the same way that [[Gaydar]] is supposed to work (sometimes referred to as ''Playdar''), while others may rely on more overt signs. Among [[homosexuality|homosexual]] communities, a traditional means to identify one another was a single earring in the right ear; however, currently, there is no commonly used method for identifying swingers. Some believe that actions such as a woman being flirtatious while their significant other is present, men who offer their wives to dance or couples entering a bar separately and spending the evening apart are ways to tell if a couple swings. Obviously, these signs, both subtle and overt, are difficult to perceive, and swingers are often averse to identifying themselves in public. The growth of many swinging web sites on the Internet is partly due to this, allowing swingers to communicate and meet without public attention or the risk of offending non-swingers.<br />
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== Subgroups ==<br />
=== Bisexuality ===<br />
{{unreferenced|date=October 2006}}<br />
Female [[bisexuality]] and [[bicurious|bicuriousity]] is common in both the urban and traditional swinging scene and tends to be the norm amongst participants.<ref name="independent">http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article1190592.ece</ref> No studies have been conducted as to what percentage of swinging women who define themselves as bisexual would be open to romantic as well as sexual relations with both genders. <br />
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Male bisexuality is less common in the swinging scene. More openly bi men and bisexual couples (male-female couples where both partners are bisexual) are appearing on the scene. Whether this is due to increasing acceptance in the scene or greater numbers of men "turning bi" is open to discussion. Depending on the club or social situation male bisexuality among swingers may either be frowned upon, or openly accepted.<br />
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=== Dogging ===<br />
[[Dogging (sexual slang)|Dogging]] is a British term for swinging based in cars that takes place in a public but reasonably secluded area. There are several known [[Dogging (sexual slang)|dogging]] spots across the [[United Kingdom|UK]] where people go after dark, typically to engage in [[voyeurism]] and [[exhibitionism]] but also to take part in [[group sex]].<br />
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=== Hot Wife ===<br />
The term '''hot wife''' refers to a married woman who has sex with men other than her spouse ''with'' her spouse's consent. In most cases the husbands of these women will enjoy watching, hearing, or knowing about their wives' adventures. Often the husbands take part, sometimes by engaging in a [[threesome]], or sometimes just arranging dates for their wives. A distinct subculture of hotwiving is [[cuckold]]ing. This subculture is generally defined by a relationship in which the husband enjoys the humiliation of his wife being sexually satisfied by other men.<br />
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=== Polyamory ===<br />
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Most swingers distinguish between the multiple ''emotional'' relationships present in polyamory, and the multiple ''sexual'' relationships present in swinging, as do [[Polyamory|polyamorists]]. There is little to no overlap between the communities, as they are different outlooks. In swinging deeper emotional relationships are not the norm and are considered a rarity.<br />
<br />
=== Selective swinging ===<br />
Traditionally swinger clubs are accepting of all ages and body types, and the average age of swingers at events tends to be around 45. Younger swingers who wish to swing with their own age group find that this isn't always possible in swinging clubs.<br />
<br />
Fever Parties<ref>Fever Parties[http://www.feverparties.com]</ref> began running parties for affluent under 40s in [[London]] in the late 1990s. Other party organisers, such as Lounge Parties<ref>Lounge Parties [http://www.loungeparties.com]</ref> in London (who select on looks, but not age) and Belle Baise<ref>Belle Baise[http://www.baise.co.uk]</ref> in the Midlands (who select on looks and age) have sprung up in recent years. These organisations try to elevate themselves from historic swinging clubs by hosting their events in upmarket venues, serving [[Champagne]] or cocktails and asking their guests to dress in smart evening attire. Entry to these parties is often competitive and photographs are usually required to demonstrate attractiveness.. <br />
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Due to the success of these events in the UK, they have subsequently spread to [[Norway]], [[South Africa]], [[Sweden]] and the [[United States|USA]]. This, more than anything else, has given rise to the term '''The Lifestyle''' as a way to encompass all swinging activities, due to the fact that younger couples are somewhat averse to the term "swingers" because of its traditional connotations.<br />
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'Selective swinging' events include mostly childless, unmarried young graduates and can have average ages as low as the late 20s, whereas traditional swingers events tend to have average ages in the 40s. Selective parties are often referred to as "exclusive" or "elitist". <ref>"Her club runs on tough love" The Metro, October 4, 2006 [http://www.metro.co.uk/metrosexual/article.html?in_article_id=20613&in_page_id=8]</ref><br />
Contravening the usual assumption that such organisations are not associated with groups propagating "family values", the Fever parties were revealed in June 2003 to be organised by a senior co-ordinator of a British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] pressure group, [[Conservatives for Change]], who was older than the maximum age allowed to attend his events.<br />
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Another factor contributing to this situation is the continued upsurge in growth of Lifestyle-oriented Internet sites. These sites provide much more accessible gateways into Lifestyle activities for people who are curious about swinging. By offering greater flexibility when searching for potential playmates, it becomes possible to look for playmates that specifically match certain characteristics, including location, looks, wealth, and age. In the United States, it is still uncommon to find parties where stringent age requirements are in affect, and most groups remain non-discriminatory. However, the acceptance of 'elite' parties continues to be more common, with couples and single females becoming more and more willing to pay an additional premium to spend time with only a select segment of the swinging population.<br />
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The critique of selective swinging among traditional swingers is that it is unethical to discriminate. The growing upsurge interest in selective swinging has given rise to a growing rift between the two groups. Couples who identify with traditional swinging may advertise themselves as "not [[Barbie doll|Ken and Barbie]]" as an implicit rejection of what they perceive to be a superficial ideal of youthful physical attractiveness. The proponents of selective swinging claim an entitlement to peer-group options in this as in other leisure pursuits. A large effort among members of the Lifestyle as a whole is being made to unify the two sub-groups, because arguments between the two are seen as divisive and destructive to the community as a whole{{fact}}.<br />
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=== Singles ===<br />
The acceptance of singles at swinging events varies from geographic area to geographic area. Some swinging ''''clubs'''' have a policy of allowing only couples and females, but most do allow [[single (relationship)|single]] [[men]] on selected nights. Single females are often admitted at reduced admission price. Parties and private events may differ, however, and are often restricted to couples or couples and single females only.<br />
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The reasons for this vary. Most (but certainly not all) of the people who pay to participate in swinger events are male-female couples and most swinging couples are more interested in interacting with other couples or with single women than with single men. Thus, swinger events strive to achieve a balance between male and female participants or have a (usually slightly) larger number of females than males. <br />
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A common complaint among swingers is that single men change the tone and nature of event. While outright hostility towards single men is rarely prevalent, an abundance of single males is rarely looked upon favourably in any swinging context. When single males are permitted their numbers are usually limited by high entrance fees or stringent membership requirements. <br />
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In the UK, swinging nights which are designed for catering to women who want multiple men are referred to as ''Greedy Girls' Nights'' and they are, to all intents and purposes [[Gang Bang]]s. They are often held in swingers' clubs (on less busy nights) or take place as private parties. These are attended by both couples and singles, a proportion of which are sometimes [[prostitutes]]. <br />
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Some swingers oppose the involvement of any singles of either sex in swinging because of the fear that they might split existing couples.{{fact}} While this might be a fear of some new couples, couples who have been part of the "Lifestyle" for some time report that the only way a couple can "split" is when one of the couple is looking outside the primary relationship{{fact}}. This is not the norm in a swinger relationship {{fact}}.<br />
<br />
==Controversy and debate==<br />
===Affirmations to the swinger lifestyle===<br />
{{weasel}}<br />
Many swingers claim that the swinger lifestyle has improved their core relationships, as well as their intramarital sexual relationships. They commonly say that it has helped them overcome insecurites regarding self image, age, fidelity, nudity, sexuality, sexual performance, anatomical proportions, and anatomical sizes and shapes.<br />
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Often, swingers cite benefits, such as variety, community, and assurance of fidelity as reasons they participate.<br />
<br />
===Objections to the swinger lifestyle===<br />
While a great variety of criticisms have been made against swingers themselves, two basic categories of arguments exist in opposition to swinging and partner swapping as a whole. First are those objections that are based on the practical considerations of engaging in a swinging lifestyle. Second are those objections that argue against the principles, often moral or philosophical, of swinging itself. <br />
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====Practical objections====<br />
Objections based upon practical considerations include arguments such as the health dangers of having multiple partners since swingers are not maintaining monogamous relationships, or the emotional attachments to sexual activity (which may cause friction in a relationship). These seem to be the most common objection to such activities.<br />
<br />
A subset of swingers play without protection, a practice called [[bareback|barebacking]]; however, the majority promote their activities as [[safe sex]] and will not engage with others who don't. An informal survey of mostly U.K. swingers showed that 73% practice safe sex<ref>Fab Swingers, 2006.[http://www.fabswingers.com/articles/Facts_and_Figures]</ref>. Opponents of swinging argue that even protected sex is too risky, especially in the light of the upsurge in [[STD|sexually transmitted diseases]] such as [[AIDS]]. Risk of pregnancy is also stated as a factor that should be taken into consideration. <br />
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A second set of objections under the practical category are those of an emotional basis. These arguments maintain that sexual relations by their very nature have an emotional component to them. Since many who engage in such a lifestyle are also in a committed emotional relationship with one partner (as was stated in the history above), to engage in sexual relations with another could emotionally damage the relationship of the committed couple. It could be said that intimacy could be diminished by sex with others and that this could spell the end of the relationship.<br />
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It is a common belief that one partner may be more enthusiastic about swinging than the other (stereotypically the male) and the less willing partner may feel pushed or coerced into taking part, leading to the break up of the relationship and/or psychological problems. There seems to be no data to support this hypothesis, however.<br />
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====Moral and philosophical objections====<br />
The second category of objections pertains to the basic principles of swinging on a moral or philosophical basis. Such objections may include the sacred nature of sexual relations between two persons, and/or the view that sexual relations should only occur within a committed relationship, sometimes stated as "only within a marriage." This view is particularly espoused by most organized religions, such as Christianity (including Catholicism and Eastern Rite churches), Judaism, and Islam.<br />
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Swinging can be opposed by many widely accepted theological world views. Examples of world views that clash with the concept of swinging are those of "[[family values]]" and – more prominently – most branches of the three [[Abrahamic religions]].<br />
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Opponents of this category will also often state that in order to engage in a swinging relationship (that is to engage in sexual relations with others while remaining committed to one person), one must degrade sexual relations to the most basic element of pleasure. Naturally, this is a violation of the sacred nature of sexual relationships. If sex becomes the main reason for swinging it may become mechanistic, it is argued, and less satisfying than the intimacy experienced by monogamous couples.<br />
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{{see also|Religion and sexuality|Sexual norm|Casual sex}}<br />
<br />
===Common responses to objections to the swinger lifestyle===<br />
As mentioned previously, many swingers report that their core relationships are actually strengthened through swinging, and they usually claim that their sex lives are more intimate and satisfying rather than less. Jealousy can occur, but proponents of swinging argue that it is mainly reported amongst couples whose relationships were unstable beforehand. The cause and effect nature of swinging on these relationships has yet to be conclusively determined, and it is doubtful that it ever will be.<br />
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====Responses to practical objections====<br />
Many couples enter into swinging while already in secure relationships, providing an added motivation to avoid excessive sexual health risks. While sexual affairs outside of relationships may be committed in the "heat of the moment" without regard to future consequences, most swingers maintain that sex among swingers is a much more thought-out and practical affair.<br />
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Many swinging clubs in the USA and UK do not have alcohol licenses and take a "bring your own beverage" (BYOB) approach to alcohol for reasons previously mentioned. Also, it is not uncommon for experienced swingers to remain sober, and consequently state that they take a far safer approach to their sexual health than that of comparable non-monogamous singles.<br />
<br />
Most swinging clubs and parties should be assumed to require condoms unless otherwise clearly stated. In addition, a minority of swingers rely on regular STD testing to ensure their safety. A small portion of swingers alternatively focus on massage and other activities that are unlikely to transmit STDs; however, most participants in a swinging lifestyle acknowledge that they are accepting the same risks that any sexually promiscuous member of society does.<br />
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As for the risk of pregnancy, while a risk does exist (as no form of birth control is 100% effective), most swingers contend that the effectiveness of current birth control methods is so great that such a risk is minimal. It should also be noted that a fraction of those engaged in swinging relationships are past their child bearing years, and as such a risk of pregnancy is reduced to zero.<br />
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Another common response to practical objections is the belief that sexual attraction of others is part of human nature, and as such, it should be respected and openly enjoyed by a committed or married couple. Some swingers point to the divorce rate data in the United States, and claim that a great majority of divorces had something to do with the quality of sex, the lack thereof, or a cheating husband or wife. Indeed, studies in the 1990's showed that 37% of husbands and 29% of wives admit to having had at least one extra-marital affair (Reinisch, 1990), and divorce rates for first marriages approached 60% <ref>Jones, 1995.[http://www.ejhs.org/volume3/swing/body.htm]</ref><br />
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As one study asserted:<br />
<blockquote><br />
According to King (1996) one of the things that normally occurs in a relationship leading to changes in how we interact with our partners is sexual habituation. At approximately three to seven years into a marriage, it begins to take increased levels of stimulation to produce the same level of sexual excitation previously obtained by a glance or a simple touch. A couple that is receptive to new and different sexual experiences will begin to explore different avenues of shared sexual fulfillment in order to continue to grow together. At this stressful point in marriages infidelity increases and the divorce rate peaks. Couples who find a way to reconnect physically and emotionally are more likely to make it through this period. Swinging may be one creative solution to the problem of habituation – it provides sexual variety, adventure, and the opportunity to live out one's fantasies as a couple without secrecy and deceit.<ref name="ejhs"/></blockquote><br />
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In essence, some swinging couples maintain that by enjoying the very nature of sexuality with your partner, a great number of marriages and relationships would be saved.<br />
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====Responses to moral and philosophical objections====<br />
Swingers provide a variety of responses to moral and philosophical objections. As with any group or large enough community, the depth and type of spiritual philosophies among swingers varies greatly. The most common response revolves around the core relationship. Swingers point out that there is a difference between having sex and making love. Interestingly, this is one of the main objections that religious groups have to swinging: namely, that this distinction should not exist. <br />
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Another means to describe this philosophy put forth by swingers is that there is a difference between fun/friendship, and the love/companionship provided by their existing relationship. Thus, though they may have many sexual relationships, there is only one single emotional relationships that exists. While it is also true that many close friendships are formed within the swinging community, swingers often feel that nothing is more important to them than their own relationship with their partners. The intimate friendships formed among swingers strengthen the primary relationship, rather than damage it.<br />
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Swingers often claim that the sex they have is more intimate (rather than less intimate) because they are with a partner who encourages them to fulfill their fantasies and is so sure of their relationship that jealousy is not an issue. Swingers also claim that swinging makes infidelity less likely, as they know they can have sexual contact with others with their partner's consent. <br />
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There are various responses to those who object to swinging on the basis of their faith. Many swingers feel that their activities in their own homes or private clubs, simply put, aren't for others to judge. Others believe that as long as they remain in love and consider their relationships to be sacred, any playing they do does not contradict the sanctity of their relationships, and are consistent with their spiritual values.<br />
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== The lifestyle in film and entertainment ==<br />
=== Film === <!--PLEASE KEEP ENTRIES IN ALPHA ORDER BY MOVIE TITLE--><br />
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*In the movie ''[[The Blood Oranges]]'', two western couples, one with children, come together in the fictional Mediterranean village of Ilyria. The film was adapted from the novel by [[John Hawkes]].<br />
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*The movie ''[[Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice]]'' (1969) is the American comedy classic that hilariously captures the sexual revolution of the late 1960s in the United States. It was nominated for four Academy Awards; Best Actor in a Supporting Role, Best Actress in a Supporting Role, Best Cinematography, and Best Original Screenplay.<br />
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*The movie ''[[Eating Raoul]]'' is a comic send-up of swinging stereotypes.<br />
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*The random partner swapping "key party" depicted in [[Ang Lee]]'s film ''[[The Ice Storm]]'' (adapted from the novel by [[Rick Moody]]) has been reported by someone who attended such parties in the Midwest (Indiana) in the 1950's. "Key parties", according to this source, were small (3 to 12) couple events where everyone knew everyone else, so all combinations of partners were pleased to spend an evening with each other.<br />
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*The [[documentary movie]] ''The Lifestyle: Swinging in America'', a [[2000]] film by director [[David Schisgall]], took an in-depth look at several true-life swinging couples.<br />
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*The recent [[Bollywood]] film by [[Rajat Kapoor]] called "Mixed Doubles"[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0458017/] has tried to portray a humorous outlook to this concept on the Indian scene.<br />
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*The movie ''[[The Sex Monster]]'' is a comedy about a couple who begin a menage-a-trois with another woman.<br />
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*The Dutch movie ''[[Swingers (2002 film)|Swingers]]'' is regarded by the Dutch swinging community as a "must see". It tells the story of a thirty-something couple and their first experiments with the swinging lifestyle. <br />
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*The movie ''[[Zebra Lounge]]'' talks about swinging and its effects on the lives of a married couple with kids who seek some sexual adventures.<br />
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=== Literature ===<br />
*In [[John Irving]]'s novel ''[[The 158-Pound Marriage]]'', two New England college professors and their wives enter a [[ménage à quatre]] with disastrous consequences.<br />
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=== Music ===<br />
*The [[music video]] for "[[Beautiful (Moby song)|Beautiful]]", by [[Moby]], revolves around a swinger party where all the participants are dressed up in [[fursuit]]s.<br />
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=== Television ===<br />
*The lifestyle was the setting for a recent episode of ''[[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]]'', a popular TV drama depicting forensic investigations. Episode #97, "Swap Meet", is about the investigation of the murder of a woman who had attended a "swinging party". Some of the key rules of the lifestyle are presented during the episode.<br />
<br />
*In Season #1, Episode #7 of [[Nip/Tuck]], Christian Troy and Kimber Henry attend a swinger party.<br />
<br />
<!--*In Season #2, Episode #?? of [[The O.C.]], Sandy and Kirsten attend a swinger party.--><br />
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==See also== <br />
* [[Biphobia]]<br />
* [[BDSM]]<br />
* [[Contact magazine]]<br />
* [[Dogging (sexual slang)|Dogging]]<br />
* [[Gang bang]]<br />
* [[group sex|Group sex]]<br />
* [[Human sexuality]]<br />
* [[Human sexual behavior]]<br />
* [[List of sexology topics]]<br />
* [[List of subcultures]]<br />
* [[Ménage à trois]]<br />
* [[open marriage|Open marriage]]<br />
* [[polyamory|Polyamory]]<br />
* [[Polyandry]]<br />
* [[Promiscuity]]<br />
* [[Sex club]]<br />
* [[The 158-Pound Marriage]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
===External links=== <br />
* [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/socin/socin028.htm Related To Bigotry: The Repression of Swingers in Early 21st Century Britain] (describes legal situation, and gives lengthy defence of swinging)<br />
{{Sexual Identities}}<br />
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[[Category:Sexual fidelity]]<br />
[[Category:Subcultures]]<br />
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[[nl:Swingen (partnerruil)]]<br />
[[pt:Swing (sexo)]]<br />
[[ru:Свинг (секс)]]<br />
[[sl:Svingerstvo]]<br />
[[sv:Swinging]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swinging_(sexual_practice)&diff=96745526Swinging (sexual practice)2006-12-27T14:59:09Z<p>Dkc: /* Polyamory */</p>
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<div>{{otheruses4|the subcultural sexual lifestyle||Swing}}<br />
{{Close Relationships}}<br />
'''Swinging''', sometimes referred to in North America as the '''swinging lifestyle''', is "non-monogamous sexual activity, treated much like any other social activity, that can be experienced as a couple." <ref name="ejhs">Bergstrand & Williams, Today's Alternative Marriage Styles: The Case of Swingers, Electronic Journal of Human Sexuality, Vol.3, [[10 October]] [[2000]]. [http://www.ejhs.org/volume3/swing/body.htm]</ref><br />
<br />
The phenomenon (or at least its wider discussion and practice) may be seen as part of the [[Sexual Revolution|sexual revolution]] of recent decades, which has occurred after the upsurge in sexual activity possible due to safer sex practices that became prevalent during these same decades.<br />
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Swinging has been called '''wife swapping''', in the past but this term is now archaic, as it is androcentric and does not accurately describe the full range of sexual activities that swingers may take part in. <br />
<br />
== Activities ==<br />
Swinging activities can include (but are not limited to):<br />
*'''[[Exhibitionism]]''': having sex with a partner while being watched.<br />
*'''[[Voyeurism]]''': watching others [[sexual intercourse|have sex]] (perhaps with the above mentioned partner).<br />
*'''Soft Swinging''' or '''Soft Swap''': kissing, stroking, or having oral sex with a third or fourth person. This may be in the form of a [[threesome]] or group sex, or partners may literally be swapped.<br />
*'''Full Swap''': having [[sexual intercourse|penetrative sex]] with someone other than one's partner, which is the commonly understood definition of swinging (though not necessarily the most common type).<br />
*'''[[Group sex|Group Sex]]''': An all inclusive term for activities involving multiple partners in the same vicinity.<br />
<br />
Typically, swinging activities occur when a [[marriage|married]] or otherwise committed couple engages with either another couple, multiple couples, or a single individual. These acts can occur in the same room (often called '''same room''' swinging) though '''different''' or '''separate room''' swinging does occur. Sex on these occasions is often referred to as '''play'''. <br />
<br />
While the vast majority of '''swingers''' are heterosexual couples, a major part of '''Lifestyle''' activities are bisexual in nature. A large portion of female swingers, while they may or may not identify as bisexual, are interested in female-female sexual contact. Male-male contact is very rare, and usually never allowed in at a Swing Club/Party.<br />
<br />
== History ==<br />
<br />
Historically, it has not been uncommon to find societies that have advocated having multiple sexual partners. Furthermore both royalty and nobility in many cultures had consorts and concubines. Ancient Rome has been notable (if not infamous) for its enthusiastic acceptance of orgies and alternative sexual practices. However, though contemporary swingers celebrate those ideals, the actual practice of swinging in the 20th century began differently.<br />
<br />
According to Terry Gould's ''The Lifestyle: A Look at the Erotic Rites of Swingers'' (ISBN 1-55209-482-0), swinging began among U.S. Air Force pilots and their wives during [[World War II]]. In this small community, the mortality rate among pilots was significantly high. Gould reports that a close bond between pilots arose, with the implication that the husbands would protect and care for all the wives as their own, both emotionally and sexually, if the husbands were away or lost.<br />
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This historical narrative is debatable, however, since it would have been highly unusual for servicemen's wives to accompany them on any foreign tours of duty. Other sources point to American Air Force pilots stationed in the California desert as the original participants in modern swinging. Though the exact beginnings are not agreed upon, it is widely assumed that swinging began amongst American military communities in the 1950s.<br />
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By the time the Korean War ended, these groups had spread from the bases to the nearby suburbs. The media picked up on them in 1957 and promptly dubbed the phenomenon "wife-swapping."<br />
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It wasn't until the 1960s in Berkeley, California that the first organization, "[[Sexual Freedom League]]", for swingers was opened. Ultimately, an umbrella organization called the North American Swing Club Association (NASCA)<ref>NASCA International[http://www.nasca.com]</ref> (now [[NASCA International]]) was formed to encourage accurate information about swinging lifestyles all across America.<br />
<br />
== Research ==<br />
Some subjective scientific research into swinging has been conducted in the USA since the late 1960s. The most recent study, based on an [[Internet]] [[questionnaire]] addressed to visitors of lifestyle-related sites, found swingers are happier in their relationships than the norm. <ref name="ejhs"/><br />
<br />
* 60% of swingers said that swinging improved their relationship and only 1.7% said it made their relationship less happy. Half of those who rated their relationship very happy before becoming swingers maintained it had become even happier. <br />
* 90% of those with less happy [[intimate relationship|relationship]]s said swinging improved them. <br />
* Almost 70% of swingers claimed no problem with controlling [[jealousy]], around a quarter admitted "I have difficulty controlling jealousy when swinging" to be somewhat true but only 6% said this was "Yes, Very Much" true. <br />
* Swingers rate themselves happier (59% against 32% very happy) and their lives much more exciting (76% against 54% exciting) than does the rest of the population, by surprisingly large margins. <br />
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There was no difference between the responses of men and women, although more males (70%) than females completed the survey. <br />
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This study, while enlightening, is of limited accuracy of the swinging population as a whole, due to its [[Nonprobability sampling|self-selected sampling]] technique. Internet-based sampling procedures create a substantial potential for bias. It is likely that those swinging couples who had stronger relationships were more motivated to complete the questionnaire. Alternatively, the stress that swinging may place on a marriage means that only those with higher than average levels of commitment to their partners are able to remain married whilst swinging. Couples that have jealousy or strife issues caused by swinging will not usually stay in the swinging lifestyle and thus would have been unlikely to respond.<br />
<br />
[[ABC News]] reporter [[John Stossel]] produced an [[investigative report]] into the lifestyle. Stossel reported that over 4 million people are swingers, according to estimates by the [[Kinsey Institute]] and other researchers. He also cited Terry Gould's research, in which Gould concluded that "couples swing in order to ''not'' cheat on their partners." When Stossel asked swinging couples whether they worry that their spouse will "find they like someone else better", one male interviewee replied, "People in the swinging community swing for a reason. They don't swing to go out and find a new wife;" while a woman interviewee asserted, "It makes women more confident -- that they are the ones in charge." Stossel interviewed 12 [[Relationship counseling|marriage counselors]] about the lifestyle. According to Stossel, "not one of them said don't do it", though some also said "getting sexual thrills outside of marriage can threaten a marriage". Nevertheless, the swingers whom Stossel interviewed claimed that "their marriages are stronger because they don't have affairs and they don't lie to each other."<ref>ABC News: The "Lifestyle" -- Real Life Wife Swaps[http://abcnews.go.com/Primetime/Health/story?id=2395727&page=1]<!-- ABC News link IS allowed according to [http://disney.go.com/corporate/legal/terms.html#newterms] --></ref><br />
<br />
== Organizations ==<br />
Certain '''Lifestyle''' activities are highly organized. There are over 3,000 swinging clubs worldwide. Most major cities in North America and western Europe have at least one '''swingers' club''' in a permanent location although they often keep a low profile to avoid negative attention. Swingers also meet through lifestyle magazines, personal ads, swinging house parties, and [[Internet]] sites.<br />
<br />
Clubs can refer to a physical location or building. In this context, clubs are typically divided into "on-premise" clubs, where sexual activity may happen then and there at the club, and "off-premise" clubs where sexual activity is not allowed at the club, but may be arranged at a near-by location. "Clubs" also may refer to the group that organizes the Lifestyle-related events in a particular area.<br />
<br />
In the USA, many swinging clubs follow a [[bar (establishment)|bar]] or [[nightclub]] format, sometimes renting an entire existing bar for scheduled events, frequently termed a venue '''takeover'''. This is normally done to avoid interaction with non-Lifestyle segments of the population, and once again to avoid unwanted negative attention. This often relegates these activities to [[suburbia]] on the weekend, where bars in large [[industrial park]]s which attract a mainstream clientele during weekdays would otherwise sit empty or closed on weekends when offices shut down. On-premise clubs usually have a similar format. One notable exception to this is that most on-premise clubs do not serve alcohol, asking participants instead to bring their own because of the restrictive laws commonly in place regarding sexual activity and the presence of alcoholic beverages. Concordantly, the vast majority of swinging clubs do not advertise as such due to the strict moral climate in the United States. Another format is the swinger [[party]]. Usually in a home where parking may require a shuttle from another location if the home resides within a suburban area. A home that is usually suitable may have a hot tub, a pool, several bedrooms, and an assortment of [[sex furniture]] such as a sex swing, a [[stripper pole]], a dance floor, or a [[BDSM dungeon]]. Within the party atmosphere [[condoms]], [[lube]] and breath mints may be readily available throughout the house. Sometimes the [[host]] may hold events such as a [[striptease]] or dance contest, a [[flogging]] or other [[BDSM]] demonstration.<br />
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In Europe off-premises clubs are rare and the majority of swinging venues allow sexual contact and serve alcohol. There are three standard formats: the bar/nightclub, usually smaller, in city centres and focused around a dance floor; the spa format which has pools, Jacuzzis, saunas and steam rooms and where people strip on entry; and the country club format, which is out-of-town, usually serves a free buffet and may include elements of the first two as well as offering large play spaces. <br />
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A large amount of swinging activity is organised via the Internet, where there are countless different sites with personals, listings and local information. To many couples, the swinging lifestyle and the clubs can be as much a social venue as a sexual one. Like many sexual sub-cultures, there can be very much a community atmosphere, and the greater communication allowed by the Internet has fostered this sense.<br />
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== Etiquette ==<br />
The 'prime directive' in swinging is "no means no". This means that rejection of a sexual advance does not require justification and must always be respected. Respect for one's play partners is often a hallmark of swinging activity, and violation of this directive can result in immediate [[expulsion]]. Concordantly, in the US it is often regarded as impolite to touch without asking, whereas in the UK and Europe both touching and gently but firmly removing a touching hand are widely regarded as polite non-verbal [[communication]] in the playroom context.<br />
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Many swingers who participate in penetrative sex whilst swinging are strict about condom usage, including insisting on changing condoms between partners. However, some members of the swinging community do engage in unprotected sex, in a practice that is commonly known as [[barebacking]]. When unsure, it is considered a polite necessity to establish these ground rules before becoming sexually involved. <br />
<br />
Some swingers believe that it's possible to spot others in the same way that [[Gaydar]] is supposed to work (sometimes referred to as ''Playdar''), while others may rely on more overt signs. Among [[homosexuality|homosexual]] communities, a traditional means to identify one another was a single earring in the right ear; however, currently, there is no commonly used method for identifying swingers. Some believe that actions such as a woman being flirtatious while their significant other is present, men who offer their wives to dance or couples entering a bar separately and spending the evening apart are ways to tell if a couple swings. Obviously, these signs, both subtle and overt, are difficult to perceive, and swingers are often averse to identifying themselves in public. The growth of many swinging web sites on the Internet is partly due to this, allowing swingers to communicate and meet without public attention or the risk of offending non-swingers.<br />
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== Subgroups ==<br />
=== Bisexuality ===<br />
{{unreferenced|date=October 2006}}<br />
Female [[bisexuality]] and [[bicurious|bicuriousity]] is common in both the urban and traditional swinging scene and tends to be the norm amongst participants.<ref name="independent">http://news.independent.co.uk/uk/this_britain/article1190592.ece</ref> No studies have been conducted as to what percentage of swinging women who define themselves as bisexual would be open to romantic as well as sexual relations with both genders. <br />
<br />
Male bisexuality is less common in the swinging scene. More openly bi men and bisexual couples (male-female couples where both partners are bisexual) are appearing on the scene. Whether this is due to increasing acceptance in the scene or greater numbers of men "turning bi" is open to discussion. Depending on the club or social situation male bisexuality among swingers may either be frowned upon, or openly accepted.<br />
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=== Dogging ===<br />
[[Dogging (sexual slang)|Dogging]] is a British term for swinging based in cars that takes place in a public but reasonably secluded area. There are several known [[Dogging (sexual slang)|dogging]] spots across the [[United Kingdom|UK]] where people go after dark, typically to engage in [[voyeurism]] and [[exhibitionism]] but also to take part in [[group sex]].<br />
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=== Hot Wife ===<br />
The term '''hot wife''' refers to a married woman who has sex with men other than her spouse ''with'' her spouse's consent. In most cases the husbands of these women will enjoy watching, hearing, or knowing about their wives' adventures. Often the husbands take part, sometimes by engaging in a [[threesome]], or sometimes just arranging dates for their wives. A distinct subculture of hotwiving is [[cuckold]]ing. This subculture is generally defined by a relationship in which the husband enjoys the humiliation of his wife being sexually satisfied by other men.<br />
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=== Polyamory ===<br />
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Most swingers distinguish between the multiple ''emotional'' relationships present in polyamory, and the multiple ''sexual'' relationships present in swinging, as do [[Polyamory|Polyamorists]]. There is little to no overlap between the communities, as they are different outlooks. In swinging deeper emotional relationships are not the norm and are considered a rarity.<br />
<br />
=== Selective swinging ===<br />
Traditionally swinger clubs are accepting of all ages and body types, and the average age of swingers at events tends to be around 45. Younger swingers who wish to swing with their own age group find that this isn't always possible in swinging clubs.<br />
<br />
Fever Parties<ref>Fever Parties[http://www.feverparties.com]</ref> began running parties for affluent under 40s in [[London]] in the late 1990s. Other party organisers, such as Lounge Parties<ref>Lounge Parties [http://www.loungeparties.com]</ref> in London (who select on looks, but not age) and Belle Baise<ref>Belle Baise[http://www.baise.co.uk]</ref> in the Midlands (who select on looks and age) have sprung up in recent years. These organisations try to elevate themselves from historic swinging clubs by hosting their events in upmarket venues, serving [[Champagne]] or cocktails and asking their guests to dress in smart evening attire. Entry to these parties is often competitive and photographs are usually required to demonstrate attractiveness.. <br />
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Due to the success of these events in the UK, they have subsequently spread to [[Norway]], [[South Africa]], [[Sweden]] and the [[United States|USA]]. This, more than anything else, has given rise to the term '''The Lifestyle''' as a way to encompass all swinging activities, due to the fact that younger couples are somewhat averse to the term "swingers" because of its traditional connotations.<br />
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'Selective swinging' events include mostly childless, unmarried young graduates and can have average ages as low as the late 20s, whereas traditional swingers events tend to have average ages in the 40s. Selective parties are often referred to as "exclusive" or "elitist". <ref>"Her club runs on tough love" The Metro, October 4, 2006 [http://www.metro.co.uk/metrosexual/article.html?in_article_id=20613&in_page_id=8]</ref><br />
Contravening the usual assumption that such organisations are not associated with groups propagating "family values", the Fever parties were revealed in June 2003 to be organised by a senior co-ordinator of a British [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative Party]] pressure group, [[Conservatives for Change]], who was older than the maximum age allowed to attend his events.<br />
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Another factor contributing to this situation is the continued upsurge in growth of Lifestyle-oriented Internet sites. These sites provide much more accessible gateways into Lifestyle activities for people who are curious about swinging. By offering greater flexibility when searching for potential playmates, it becomes possible to look for playmates that specifically match certain characteristics, including location, looks, wealth, and age. In the United States, it is still uncommon to find parties where stringent age requirements are in affect, and most groups remain non-discriminatory. However, the acceptance of 'elite' parties continues to be more common, with couples and single females becoming more and more willing to pay an additional premium to spend time with only a select segment of the swinging population.<br />
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The critique of selective swinging among traditional swingers is that it is unethical to discriminate. The growing upsurge interest in selective swinging has given rise to a growing rift between the two groups. Couples who identify with traditional swinging may advertise themselves as "not [[Barbie doll|Ken and Barbie]]" as an implicit rejection of what they perceive to be a superficial ideal of youthful physical attractiveness. The proponents of selective swinging claim an entitlement to peer-group options in this as in other leisure pursuits. A large effort among members of the Lifestyle as a whole is being made to unify the two sub-groups, because arguments between the two are seen as divisive and destructive to the community as a whole{{fact}}.<br />
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=== Singles ===<br />
The acceptance of singles at swinging events varies from geographic area to geographic area. Some swinging ''''clubs'''' have a policy of allowing only couples and females, but most do allow [[single (relationship)|single]] [[men]] on selected nights. Single females are often admitted at reduced admission price. Parties and private events may differ, however, and are often restricted to couples or couples and single females only.<br />
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The reasons for this vary. Most (but certainly not all) of the people who pay to participate in swinger events are male-female couples and most swinging couples are more interested in interacting with other couples or with single women than with single men. Thus, swinger events strive to achieve a balance between male and female participants or have a (usually slightly) larger number of females than males. <br />
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A common complaint among swingers is that single men change the tone and nature of event. While outright hostility towards single men is rarely prevalent, an abundance of single males is rarely looked upon favourably in any swinging context. When single males are permitted their numbers are usually limited by high entrance fees or stringent membership requirements. <br />
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In the UK, swinging nights which are designed for catering to women who want multiple men are referred to as ''Greedy Girls' Nights'' and they are, to all intents and purposes [[Gang Bang]]s. They are often held in swingers' clubs (on less busy nights) or take place as private parties. These are attended by both couples and singles, a proportion of which are sometimes [[prostitutes]]. <br />
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Some swingers oppose the involvement of any singles of either sex in swinging because of the fear that they might split existing couples.{{fact}} While this might be a fear of some new couples, couples who have been part of the "Lifestyle" for some time report that the only way a couple can "split" is when one of the couple is looking outside the primary relationship{{fact}}. This is not the norm in a swinger relationship {{fact}}.<br />
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==Controversy and debate==<br />
===Affirmations to the swinger lifestyle===<br />
{{weasel}}<br />
Many swingers claim that the swinger lifestyle has improved their core relationships, as well as their intramarital sexual relationships. They commonly say that it has helped them overcome insecurites regarding self image, age, fidelity, nudity, sexuality, sexual performance, anatomical proportions, and anatomical sizes and shapes.<br />
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Often, swingers cite benefits, such as variety, community, and assurance of fidelity as reasons they participate.<br />
<br />
===Objections to the swinger lifestyle===<br />
While a great variety of criticisms have been made against swingers themselves, two basic categories of arguments exist in opposition to swinging and partner swapping as a whole. First are those objections that are based on the practical considerations of engaging in a swinging lifestyle. Second are those objections that argue against the principles, often moral or philosophical, of swinging itself. <br />
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====Practical objections====<br />
Objections based upon practical considerations include arguments such as the health dangers of having multiple partners since swingers are not maintaining monogamous relationships, or the emotional attachments to sexual activity (which may cause friction in a relationship). These seem to be the most common objection to such activities.<br />
<br />
A subset of swingers play without protection, a practice called [[bareback|barebacking]]; however, the majority promote their activities as [[safe sex]] and will not engage with others who don't. An informal survey of mostly U.K. swingers showed that 73% practice safe sex<ref>Fab Swingers, 2006.[http://www.fabswingers.com/articles/Facts_and_Figures]</ref>. Opponents of swinging argue that even protected sex is too risky, especially in the light of the upsurge in [[STD|sexually transmitted diseases]] such as [[AIDS]]. Risk of pregnancy is also stated as a factor that should be taken into consideration. <br />
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A second set of objections under the practical category are those of an emotional basis. These arguments maintain that sexual relations by their very nature have an emotional component to them. Since many who engage in such a lifestyle are also in a committed emotional relationship with one partner (as was stated in the history above), to engage in sexual relations with another could emotionally damage the relationship of the committed couple. It could be said that intimacy could be diminished by sex with others and that this could spell the end of the relationship.<br />
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It is a common belief that one partner may be more enthusiastic about swinging than the other (stereotypically the male) and the less willing partner may feel pushed or coerced into taking part, leading to the break up of the relationship and/or psychological problems. There seems to be no data to support this hypothesis, however.<br />
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====Moral and philosophical objections====<br />
The second category of objections pertains to the basic principles of swinging on a moral or philosophical basis. Such objections may include the sacred nature of sexual relations between two persons, and/or the view that sexual relations should only occur within a committed relationship, sometimes stated as "only within a marriage." This view is particularly espoused by most organized religions, such as Christianity (including Catholicism and Eastern Rite churches), Judaism, and Islam.<br />
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Swinging can be opposed by many widely accepted theological world views. Examples of world views that clash with the concept of swinging are those of "[[family values]]" and – more prominently – most branches of the three [[Abrahamic religions]].<br />
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Opponents of this category will also often state that in order to engage in a swinging relationship (that is to engage in sexual relations with others while remaining committed to one person), one must degrade sexual relations to the most basic element of pleasure. Naturally, this is a violation of the sacred nature of sexual relationships. If sex becomes the main reason for swinging it may become mechanistic, it is argued, and less satisfying than the intimacy experienced by monogamous couples.<br />
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{{see also|Religion and sexuality|Sexual norm|Casual sex}}<br />
<br />
===Common responses to objections to the swinger lifestyle===<br />
As mentioned previously, many swingers report that their core relationships are actually strengthened through swinging, and they usually claim that their sex lives are more intimate and satisfying rather than less. Jealousy can occur, but proponents of swinging argue that it is mainly reported amongst couples whose relationships were unstable beforehand. The cause and effect nature of swinging on these relationships has yet to be conclusively determined, and it is doubtful that it ever will be.<br />
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====Responses to practical objections====<br />
Many couples enter into swinging while already in secure relationships, providing an added motivation to avoid excessive sexual health risks. While sexual affairs outside of relationships may be committed in the "heat of the moment" without regard to future consequences, most swingers maintain that sex among swingers is a much more thought-out and practical affair.<br />
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Many swinging clubs in the USA and UK do not have alcohol licenses and take a "bring your own beverage" (BYOB) approach to alcohol for reasons previously mentioned. Also, it is not uncommon for experienced swingers to remain sober, and consequently state that they take a far safer approach to their sexual health than that of comparable non-monogamous singles.<br />
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Most swinging clubs and parties should be assumed to require condoms unless otherwise clearly stated. In addition, a minority of swingers rely on regular STD testing to ensure their safety. A small portion of swingers alternatively focus on massage and other activities that are unlikely to transmit STDs; however, most participants in a swinging lifestyle acknowledge that they are accepting the same risks that any sexually promiscuous member of society does.<br />
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As for the risk of pregnancy, while a risk does exist (as no form of birth control is 100% effective), most swingers contend that the effectiveness of current birth control methods is so great that such a risk is minimal. It should also be noted that a fraction of those engaged in swinging relationships are past their child bearing years, and as such a risk of pregnancy is reduced to zero.<br />
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Another common response to practical objections is the belief that sexual attraction of others is part of human nature, and as such, it should be respected and openly enjoyed by a committed or married couple. Some swingers point to the divorce rate data in the United States, and claim that a great majority of divorces had something to do with the quality of sex, the lack thereof, or a cheating husband or wife. Indeed, studies in the 1990's showed that 37% of husbands and 29% of wives admit to having had at least one extra-marital affair (Reinisch, 1990), and divorce rates for first marriages approached 60% <ref>Jones, 1995.[http://www.ejhs.org/volume3/swing/body.htm]</ref><br />
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As one study asserted:<br />
<blockquote><br />
According to King (1996) one of the things that normally occurs in a relationship leading to changes in how we interact with our partners is sexual habituation. At approximately three to seven years into a marriage, it begins to take increased levels of stimulation to produce the same level of sexual excitation previously obtained by a glance or a simple touch. A couple that is receptive to new and different sexual experiences will begin to explore different avenues of shared sexual fulfillment in order to continue to grow together. At this stressful point in marriages infidelity increases and the divorce rate peaks. Couples who find a way to reconnect physically and emotionally are more likely to make it through this period. Swinging may be one creative solution to the problem of habituation – it provides sexual variety, adventure, and the opportunity to live out one's fantasies as a couple without secrecy and deceit.<ref name="ejhs"/></blockquote><br />
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In essence, some swinging couples maintain that by enjoying the very nature of sexuality with your partner, a great number of marriages and relationships would be saved.<br />
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====Responses to moral and philosophical objections====<br />
Swingers provide a variety of responses to moral and philosophical objections. As with any group or large enough community, the depth and type of spiritual philosophies among swingers varies greatly. The most common response revolves around the core relationship. Swingers point out that there is a difference between having sex and making love. Interestingly, this is one of the main objections that religious groups have to swinging: namely, that this distinction should not exist. <br />
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Another means to describe this philosophy put forth by swingers is that there is a difference between fun/friendship, and the love/companionship provided by their existing relationship. Thus, though they may have many sexual relationships, there is only one single emotional relationships that exists. While it is also true that many close friendships are formed within the swinging community, swingers often feel that nothing is more important to them than their own relationship with their partners. The intimate friendships formed among swingers strengthen the primary relationship, rather than damage it.<br />
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Swingers often claim that the sex they have is more intimate (rather than less intimate) because they are with a partner who encourages them to fulfill their fantasies and is so sure of their relationship that jealousy is not an issue. Swingers also claim that swinging makes infidelity less likely, as they know they can have sexual contact with others with their partner's consent. <br />
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There are various responses to those who object to swinging on the basis of their faith. Many swingers feel that their activities in their own homes or private clubs, simply put, aren't for others to judge. Others believe that as long as they remain in love and consider their relationships to be sacred, any playing they do does not contradict the sanctity of their relationships, and are consistent with their spiritual values.<br />
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== The lifestyle in film and entertainment ==<br />
=== Film === <!--PLEASE KEEP ENTRIES IN ALPHA ORDER BY MOVIE TITLE--><br />
<br />
*In the movie ''[[The Blood Oranges]]'', two western couples, one with children, come together in the fictional Mediterranean village of Ilyria. The film was adapted from the novel by [[John Hawkes]].<br />
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*The movie ''[[Bob & Carol & Ted & Alice]]'' (1969) is the American comedy classic that hilariously captures the sexual revolution of the late 1960s in the United States. It was nominated for four Academy Awards; Best Actor in a Supporting Role, Best Actress in a Supporting Role, Best Cinematography, and Best Original Screenplay.<br />
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*The movie ''[[Eating Raoul]]'' is a comic send-up of swinging stereotypes.<br />
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*The random partner swapping "key party" depicted in [[Ang Lee]]'s film ''[[The Ice Storm]]'' (adapted from the novel by [[Rick Moody]]) has been reported by someone who attended such parties in the Midwest (Indiana) in the 1950's. "Key parties", according to this source, were small (3 to 12) couple events where everyone knew everyone else, so all combinations of partners were pleased to spend an evening with each other.<br />
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*The [[documentary movie]] ''The Lifestyle: Swinging in America'', a [[2000]] film by director [[David Schisgall]], took an in-depth look at several true-life swinging couples.<br />
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*The recent [[Bollywood]] film by [[Rajat Kapoor]] called "Mixed Doubles"[http://www.imdb.com/title/tt0458017/] has tried to portray a humorous outlook to this concept on the Indian scene.<br />
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*The movie ''[[The Sex Monster]]'' is a comedy about a couple who begin a menage-a-trois with another woman.<br />
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*The Dutch movie ''[[Swingers (2002 film)|Swingers]]'' is regarded by the Dutch swinging community as a "must see". It tells the story of a thirty-something couple and their first experiments with the swinging lifestyle. <br />
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*The movie ''[[Zebra Lounge]]'' talks about swinging and its effects on the lives of a married couple with kids who seek some sexual adventures.<br />
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=== Literature ===<br />
*In [[John Irving]]'s novel ''[[The 158-Pound Marriage]]'', two New England college professors and their wives enter a [[ménage à quatre]] with disastrous consequences.<br />
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=== Music ===<br />
*The [[music video]] for "[[Beautiful (Moby song)|Beautiful]]", by [[Moby]], revolves around a swinger party where all the participants are dressed up in [[fursuit]]s.<br />
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=== Television ===<br />
*The lifestyle was the setting for a recent episode of ''[[CSI: Crime Scene Investigation]]'', a popular TV drama depicting forensic investigations. Episode #97, "Swap Meet", is about the investigation of the murder of a woman who had attended a "swinging party". Some of the key rules of the lifestyle are presented during the episode.<br />
<br />
*In Season #1, Episode #7 of [[Nip/Tuck]], Christian Troy and Kimber Henry attend a swinger party.<br />
<br />
<!--*In Season #2, Episode #?? of [[The O.C.]], Sandy and Kirsten attend a swinger party.--><br />
<br />
==See also== <br />
* [[Biphobia]]<br />
* [[BDSM]]<br />
* [[Contact magazine]]<br />
* [[Dogging (sexual slang)|Dogging]]<br />
* [[Gang bang]]<br />
* [[group sex|Group sex]]<br />
* [[Human sexuality]]<br />
* [[Human sexual behavior]]<br />
* [[List of sexology topics]]<br />
* [[List of subcultures]]<br />
* [[Ménage à trois]]<br />
* [[open marriage|Open marriage]]<br />
* [[polyamory|Polyamory]]<br />
* [[Polyandry]]<br />
* [[Promiscuity]]<br />
* [[Sex club]]<br />
* [[The 158-Pound Marriage]]<br />
<br />
===References===<br />
<references/><br />
<br />
===External links=== <br />
* [http://www.libertarian.co.uk/lapubs/socin/socin028.htm Related To Bigotry: The Repression of Swingers in Early 21st Century Britain] (describes legal situation, and gives lengthy defence of swinging)<br />
{{Sexual Identities}}<br />
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[[Category:Sexual fidelity]]<br />
[[Category:Subcultures]]<br />
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[[sv:Swinging]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Franky_G&diff=96645178Franky G2006-12-27T00:52:26Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>[[Image:Frankyg.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Franky G photo taken by Fox 11 WVAH TV]]<br />
'''Franky G''', (born '''Francisco Gonzalez''' [[circa]] [[1965]] in [[Brooklyn]], [[New York]]), is an [[United States|American]] [[film]] and [[television]] [[actor]]. <br />
<br />
Gonzalez, whose parents moved to [[NYC]] from Puerto Rico, is the middle child of seven siblings. He studied [[criminal law]] [[investigation]] at [[Northeastern State University]] in [[Oklahoma]]. <br />
<br />
He later played [[semi-professional]] [[football]] as a [[running back]] for the [[Long Island]] Tomahawks. While competing as a [[bodybuilder]], Gonzalez entered the Mr. Metropolis and Mr. Queens competitions.<br />
<br />
In addition to acting, Gonzalez also worked at a [[strip-club]], as a [[Doorman|bouncer]], a [[security guard]] and a [[construction worker]].<br />
<br />
He currently lives in [[Flushing, Queens]], [[New York City]].<br />
<br />
==Filmography==<br />
<br />
*''[[Saw III]]'' ([[2006]]) - Xavier (dead)<br />
*''[[Saw II]]'' ([[2005]]) - Xavier<br />
*''[[Wonderland (film)|Wonderland]]'' ([[2003]]) - Louis<br />
*''[[The Italian Job (2003 film)|The Italian Job]]'' ([[2003]]) - Wrench<br />
*''[[Confidence (film)|Confidence]]'' ([[2003]]) - Lupus<br />
*''[[Manito (film)|Manito]]'' ([[2002]]) - Junior Moreno<br />
<br />
==Television==<br />
*''[[Smith (TV series)|Smith]]'' (2006) - Joe<br />
*''[[Jonny Zero]]'' ([[2005]]) - Jonny Calvo<br />
==Triva==<br />
According To http://www.cbs.com/primetime/smith/bios/franky.shtml His Birthday Is October 30<br />
==See also==<br />
*[[List of famous Puerto Ricans]]<br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
*{{imdb name|id=1065281|name=Franky G}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Living people|Franky G]]<br />
[[Category:Puerto Rican-American actors|Franky G]]<br />
[[Category:People from Brooklyn|Franky G]]<br />
[[Category:People from Queens|Franky G]]<br />
[[Category:Northeastern State University alumni|Franky G]]<br />
[[Category:American film actors|Franky G]]<br />
[[Category:American television actors|Franky G]]<br />
<br />
{{US-screen-actor-stub}}</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=96345558User:Dkc2006-12-24T23:53:39Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Babel|pl|en-4|fr-3|ru-3|sv-3|da-3|nb-3|nn-3}}<br />
My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m nineteen years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]]. I study [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] at the [[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]].<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
Contact:<br />
<br><br />
dkc@interia.pl<br />
<br><br />
[http://www.filolog.blox.pl/ http://www.filolog.blox.pl/]<br />
<br><br />
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[[zh:User:Dkc]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexithymia&diff=93798216Alexithymia2006-12-12T12:23:13Z<p>Dkc: added languages</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Alexithymia''' ([[International Phonetic Alphabet|pronounced]]: {{IPA|/ˌeɪlɛksəˈθaɪmiə/}}) from the [[Greek language|Greek]] words λεξις and θυμος, literally "without words for emotions") was a term coined by Peter Sifneos in 1972 to describe people who appeared to have deficiencies in understanding, processing, or describing their emotions. Deficiencies may include: <br />
<br />
* problems identifying, describing, and working with one's own [[feeling]]s, often marked by a lack of understanding of the feelings of others;<br />
* confusion of physical [[sensation]]s often associated with emotions;<br />
* few [[dream]]s or [[fantasy|fantasies]] due to restricted [[imagination]]; and<br />
* concrete, realistic, [[logic]]al thinking, often to the exclusion of emotional responses to problems.<br />
* Those who have Alexithymia also report very logical and realistic dreams, such as going to the store or eating supper.<br />
<br />
Alexithymia is classified as a mental disorder in the DSM IV. It is also a personality trait that varies in severity from person to person. A person's alexithymia score can be measured with questionnaires, such as the Toronto Alexithymia Scale.<br />
<br />
== Comorbidity ==<br />
Alexithymics are believed to be at higher risk of developing personality disorders. Also, alexithymia is correlated with particular psychosomatic illnesses, such as hypertension, functional gastrointestinal disorders, substance use disorders, and some anxiety disorders [1].<br />
<br />
== Etiology ==<br />
It is unclear what causes alexithymia. Some neuropsychological studies indicate that alexithymia may be due to a disturbance to the right hemisphere of the brain, which is largely responsible for processing emotions [2]. Other studies show evidence that there may be an interhemispheric transfer deficit among alexithymics; that is, the emotional information from the right hemisphere is not being properly transferred to the language regions in the left hemisphere [3]. In addition, another neuropsychological model suggests that alexithymia may be related to a dysfunction of the anterior cingulate cortex [4]. These studies have some shortcomings, however, and the empirical evidence about the causes of alexithymia remain inconclusive (for a review, see [5]).<br />
<br />
== References ==<br />
* [1] Taylor, G. J., Bagby, R. M., & Parker, J. D. A. (1999). Disorders of affect regulation: Alexithymia in medical and psychiatric illness. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.<br />
* [2] Jessimer, M., & Markham, R. (1997). Alexithymia: A right hemisphere dysfunction specific to recognition of certain facial expressions? Brain & Cognition, 34, 246-258.<br />
* [3] Hoppe, K. D., & Bogen, J. E. (1977). Alexithymia in twelve commissurotomized patients. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 28, 148-155.<br />
* [4] Lane, R. D., Ahern, G. L., Schwartz, G. E., & Kaszniak, A. W. (1997). Is alexithymia the emotional equivalent of blindsight? Biological Psychiatry, 42, 834-844.<br />
* [5] Tabibnia, G., & Zaidel, E. (2005). Alexithymia, interhemispheric transfer, and right hemispheric specialization: A critical review. Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, 74, 81-92.<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
* [http://www.eqi.org/alexi Alexithymia]<br />
* [http://www.alexithymia.info/definitions.html alexithymia.info] Definitions of alexithymia<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
* [[Medicine]]<br />
* [[Psychology]]<br />
* [[Asperger's Syndrome]]<br />
* [[Abnormal psychology]]<br />
<br />
[[Category:Mental illness diagnosis by DSM and ICD]]<br />
<br />
<!-- The below are interlanguage links. --><br />
[[de:Alexithymie]]<br />
[[es:Alexitimia]]<br />
[[fr:Alexithymie]]<br />
[[ja:アレキシサイミア]]<br />
[[pl:Aleksytymia]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Rose_Revolution&diff=93225599Rose Revolution2006-12-09T21:49:30Z<p>Dkc: typo in transcription of the Georgian name</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Politics of Georgia}}<br />
[[Image:Rose Revolution in Georgia.jpg|thumb|left|[[Mikheil Saakashvili]] and his supporters marched on the parliament carrying [[rose]]s as a symbol of [[nonviolence]]]]<br />
<br />
The '''Rose Revolution''' ([[Georgian language|Georgian]]: ვარდების რევოლუცია - ''vardebis revolutsia'') refers to a peaceful 2003 revolution in the country of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] that displaced President [[Eduard Shevardnadze]].<br />
<br />
== Contemporary political situation ==<br />
<br />
Georgia had been governed by [[Eduard Shevardnadze]] since 1992 ([[President of Georgia]] since 1995). His government&mdash;and his own family&mdash;became increasingly associated with pervasive [[political corruption|corruption]] that hampered Georgia's [[economic growth]]. The country remained very poor by European standards. Two [[Russia]]n-supported breakaway regions ([[Abkhazia]] and the so-called [[South Ossetia]]) remained outside the control of the [[Tbilisi]] government, and the autonomous republic of [[Ajara]] was ruled by semi-separatist leader [[Aslan Abashidze]]. The political and socioeconomic crisis was close to reaching its peak just before the parliamentary elections appointed on [[November 2]], [[2003]]. Shevardnadze’s political alliance “For New Georgia” and Abashidze’s “Union of Democratic Revival of Georgia” were opposed by popular opposition parties: [[Mikheil Saakashvili]]’s “United National Movement” and “Burjanadze-Democrats” led by Parliamentary speaker [[Nino Burjanadze]] and [[Zurab Zhvania]] who accidentally died from a gas leak in his friend's apartment on February 8, 2005.<br />
<br />
[/media/wikipedia/en/f/fe/Georgia.geohive.gif Map of Georgia]<br />
<br />
== Elections and protests ==<br />
[[Image:Rose Revolution.jpg|thumb|Rose Revolution: Demonstration at the City Hall, [[Freedom Square, Tbilisi]]]] <br />
Georgia held [[Georgia legislative election, 2003|parliamentary elections]] on [[November 2]], [[2003]] which were denounced by local and international observers as being grossly rigged in favor of Shevernadze. Mikheil Saakashvilli claimed that he had won the elections (a claim supported by independent exit polls). This was confirmed by an independent parallel vote tabulation (PVT) conducted by the ISFED (International Society for Fair Elections and Democracy, local election monitoring group). Saakashvilli and the united oposition accepted ISFED's PVT as "official" results, and urged Georgians to demonstrate against Shevardnadze's government and engage in nonviolent civil disobedience against the authorities. The main democratic opposition parties united to demand the ouster of Shevardnadze and the rerun of the elections.<br />
<br />
In mid-November, massive anti-governmental demonstrations started in the central streets of Tbilisi, soon involving almost all major cities and towns of Georgia. The “[[Kmara]]” (“Enough!”) youth organization (a Georgian counterpart of the [[Serbia]]n “[[Otpor]]”) and several [[Non-governmental organization|NGO]]s, like the [[Liberty Institute (Georgia)|Liberty Institute]], were active in all protest activities. Shevardnadze’s government was backed by Aslan Abashidze, the semi-separatist leader of autonomous [[Ajara]] region, who sent thousands of his supporters to hold a pro-governmental counter-demonstration in [[Tbilisi]].<br />
<br />
== Change of power ==<br />
{{History of Georgia}}<br />
The opposition protest reached its peak on [[November 22]], the day of an opening session of a new parliament, which was considered illegitimate. The same day, opposition supporters led by Saakashvili with roses in their hands (hence the name Rose Revolution) seized the parliament building interrupting a speech of President [[Eduard Shevardnadze]] and forcing him to escape with his bodyguards. He later declared a state of emergency and began to mobilize troops and police near his residence in Tbilisi. However, the elite military units refused to support the government. In the evening of [[November 23]] ([[St George]]’s Day in Georgia), Shevardnadze met with the opposition leaders Saakashvili and Zurab Zhvania to discuss the situation, in a meeting arranged by Russian Foreign Minister [[Igor Ivanov]]. After the meeting, the president announced his resignation. That prompted euphoria in the streets of Tbilisi. More than 100,000 protesters celebrated the victory all night long, accompanied by fireworks and rock concerts. <br />
<br />
The outgoing speaker of parliament, Nino Burjanadze, assumed the presidency until new elections could be held. The [[Supreme Court of Georgia]] annulled the results of the parliamentary elections. In the [[January 4]], [[2004]] [[Georgia presidential election, 2004|presidential election]] [[Mikheil Saakashvili]] won an overwhelming victory and was inaugurated as the new President of Georgia on [[January 25]]. On [[March 28]], [[2004]], [[Georgia legislative election, 2004|new parliamentary elections]] were held, with a large majority won by the Saakashvili-supporting [[National Movement - Democrats]], and a minority representation of the [[Rightist Opposition]].<br />
== In Ajaria ==<br />
In [[May 2004]], the so-called "Second Rose Revolution" took place in [[Batumi]], [[Ajaria]]. After months of extreme tension between Saakashvili’s government and Aslan Abashidze, the virtual dictator of the autonomous region, thousands of Ajarians, mobilized by the [[United National Movement]] and [[Kmara]], protested against Abashidze’s policy of separatism and militarization. Abashidze used security forces and paramilitary groups to break up the demonstrations in the streets of Batumi and Kobuleti. However, he failed to suppress the protests which later became more and more massive. On May 6, 2004 (again [[St George]]’s Day), protesters from all Ajara gathered in Batumi despite being dispersed by force the day before. [[Prime Minister of Georgia|Georgian Prime Minister]] Zurab Zhvania and Interior Minister [[Giorgi Baramidze]] negotiated with Ajarian Interior Minister [[Djemal Gogitidze]] to withdraw his forces from the administrative border at the [[Choloki River]] and led Georgian [[Special Forces]] into the region. Abashidze bowed to the inevitable, resigned in the same evening and left for [[Moscow]]. President Saakashvili visited [[Batumi]] the next day and was met as a liberator by celebrating Ajarians.<br />
<br />
== Legacy ==<br />
{{POV-section}}<br />
[[Image:Amtseinführung Saakaschwili.jpg|thumb|Saakashvili's inauguration as President of Georgia]]<br />
A new era is said to have begun in Georgia after the Rose Revolution. While the West considers the Rose Revolution a move towards democracy, its opponents including several Russian and pro-Russian politicians claim the revolution to be a “made-in-America coup” emphasizing the role of the [[Open Society Institute]] of [[George Soros]] in financing the Georgian opposition. <br />
<br />
Several reforms were launched by a new government and strong anti-corruption measures were established. Georgia’s foreign policy was proclaimed strongly pro-Western. However, some concerns have been made by Georgian opposition regarding Saakashvili’s authoritarian tendencies. <br />
<br />
Post-revolution, the authorities are continuing to demonstrate a clear resolve to build a stable and modern European democracy and to better integrate the country into European and Euro-Atlantic structures. The Georgian government hopes to join [[NATO]] by 2008 and start accession talks with the [[EU]] afterwards. The post-revolutionary euphoria has given way to more pragmatism; the hasty, sometimes even chaotic initial approach to reforms is very gradually being replaced by a clearer focus on priorities and by a better-defined strategy. However, most reforms are still at the very beginning and major challenges still lie ahead. The ambitious work which has been undertaken in order to bring legislation in line with European standards still has to produce concrete results in most areas. The implementation of reforms will be just as important and the authorities will have to demonstrate, at every step, that their solutions in overcoming the inevitable problems and obstacles along the way, fully abide by the principles of democracy, rule of law and respect for human rights. <br />
<br />
Two years after coming into power, the Georgian authorities still enjoy high popular support and benefit from a broad public consensus over the objectives and goals of the democratic transition. The people's trust must not be betrayed. In a country which is emerging from decades of political hypocrisy and manipulation, any failure to deliver on promised reforms can easily result in mistrust and questioning of these same reforms, especially by the most heavily affected layers of the population. The authorities cannot afford any unnecessary delays and obstacles which could be caused by nostalgic or revengeful attitudes; they should therefore be careful to always match words and deeds and to be open to dialogue and criticism. According to Saakashvili, full normalization of the situation in Georgia is impossible without regaining control over the breakaway regions of [[Abkhazia]] and [[South Ossetia]]. President Saakashvili made some efforts to push forward his initiative, but at the same time real progress has not been achieved on the ground and in the ongoing negotiations, because of lack of commitment from Russia to the territorial integrity of Georgia. <br />
<br />
The [[Orange Revolution]] that followed the disputed [[Ukrainian presidential election, 2004|November 2004 Ukrainian presidential election]] is said to have been partly inspired by the Georgian Rose Revolution. Georgian flags were seen being waved by supporters of [[Viktor Yushchenko]], who held up a rose while greeting the crowds. The chair of the Parliamentary Committee on Defense and Security, [[Givi Targamadze]], former member of [[Liberty Institute]], was consulted by Ukrainian opposition leaders on techniques of nonviolent struggle. Later on he also advised leaders of the Kyrgyz opposition during the 2005 [[Tulip Revolution]].<br />
<br />
==See also==<br />
{{Georgia-Russia}}<br />
*[[Liberty Institute]]<br />
*[[Kmara]]<br />
*[[Liberalism]]<br />
*[[Liberalism in Georgia]]<br />
*[[United National Movement]]<br />
*[[Orange Revolution]]<br />
*[[Velvet Revolution]]<br />
*[[Tulip Revolution]]<br />
*[[Carnation Revolution]]<br />
*[[Cedar Revolution]]<br />
*[[Purple Revolution]]<br />
*[[Color revolution]]<br />
*[[Revolutions]]<br />
*[[Non-violent revolution]]<br />
*[[Non-violent resistance]]<br />
*[[Nonviolent resistance]]<br />
*[[Nonviolence]]<br />
*[[List of nonviolence scholars and leaders]]<br />
*[[Civil disobedience]]<br />
*[[Politics of Georgia]]<br />
*[[Rose (color)|Rose]]--Color<br />
<br />
== External links ==<br />
*Tinatin Khidasheli, [http://www.iht.com/articles/2004/12/08/edkhidasheli_ed3_.php « The Rose Revolution has wilted »], International Herald Tribune, Paris, 8 décembre 2004.<br />
*[http://www.usip.org/pubs/specialreports/sr167.html Georgia's Rose Revolution: A Participant's Perspective] [[U.S. Institute of Peace]] Report, July 2006<br />
*[http://www.humanrights.ge/eng/index.shtml HumanRights.ge] – daily updated online magazine and web portal on human rights in Georgia<br />
* Michael Barker, [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=74&ItemID=11311 Regulating revolutions in Eastern Europe: Polyarchy and the National Endowment for Democracy], 1 November 2006.<br />
<br />
[[Category:History of Georgia (country)]]<br />
[[Category:Post-Soviet Revolutions]]<br />
[[Category:Non-violent revolutions]]<br />
[[Category:2003]]<br />
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[[zh:玫瑰革命]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=93127559User:Dkc2006-12-09T10:45:07Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>{{Babel|pl|en-4|fr-3|ru-3|sv-3|da-3|nb-3|nn-3}}<br />
My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m nineteen years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]]. I study [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] at the [[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]].<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
Contact:<br />
<br><br />
dkc@interia.pl<br />
<br><br />
[http://www.filolog.blox.pl/ http://www.filolog.blox.pl/]<br />
<br><br />
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[[zh:User:Dkc]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=92930546User:Dkc2006-12-08T14:44:23Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m nineteen years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]]. I study [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] at the [[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]].<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
Contact:<br />
<br><br />
dkc@interia.pl<br />
<br><br />
[http://www.filolog.blox.pl/ http://www.filolog.blox.pl/]<br />
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[[zh:User:Dkc]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=92928047User:Dkc2006-12-08T14:28:11Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m nineteen years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]]. I study [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] at the [[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]].<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
Contact:<br />
<br><br />
dkcagara@gmail.com<br />
<br><br />
[http://www.filolog.blox.pl/ http://www.filolog.blox.pl/]<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
{{user pl}}{{user en-4}}<br />
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{{user fr-3}}{{user ru-3}}{{user sv-3}}<br />
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{{user da-3}}{{user nb-3}}{{user nn-3}}<br />
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[[af:Gebruiker:Dkc]]<br />
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[[cy:Defnyddiwr:Dkc]]<br />
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[[sv:Användare:Dkc]]<br />
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[[uk:Користувач:Dkc]]<br />
[[zh:User:Dkc]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander_Mahone&diff=92570076Alexander Mahone2006-12-06T23:24:25Z<p>Dkc: Deleted the spoiler about Mahone’s survival</p>
<hr />
<div>{{Prison Break character| <br />
|image = [[Image:William Fichtner.jpg|240px]]<br />
|name = Alexander Mahone<br />
|role = F.B.I. agent<br />
|current status = Active/Unknown <!--Please see talk page: Active, unknown or deceased only--><br />
|crime =<br />
|sentence =<br />
|age = 40s<br />
|first appearance = Manhunt<br />
|first appearance num = 2x01<br />
|last appearance = <br />
|last appearance num =<br />
|episode count = 13<br />
|portrayed = [[William Fichtner]]<br />
}}<br />
'''FBI Agent Alexander Mahone''', played by [[William Fichtner]], is a fictional character from the [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]] [[television series]] ''[[Prison Break]]''. <br />
<br />
Mahone was a 14-year veteran of the [[Federal Bureau of Investigation|FBI]]. He has a [[master's degree]] in criminology and law from [[University of Michigan]]. After [[Michael Scofield]] ([[Wentworth Miller]]) successfully orchestrated the escape of eight prisoners from Fox River Penitentiary, he was assigned to spearhead the task force assembled to bring in the fugitives. <br />
<br />
{{spoiler}}<br />
<br />
==Appearances==<br />
Alexander Mahone was introduced as a new character in the premiere episode of the second season of the series. He plays a prominent role in the second season and has appeared in every episode so far. <br />
<br />
===Season 2===<br />
<!-- ATTENTION! PLEASE READ BEFORE EDITING! Please help keep this section brief. Every detail about the plot of Prison Break or Mahone's life does not need to appear here. --><br />
<br />
Mahone quickly proves his status as a capable adversary against Michael when he discovers the secret of his tattoos and profiles Michael's meticulous scheme while combing his former apartment. His first step in cracking the code is unravelling Michael's coded tattoo message "Ripe Chance Woods" and finds the location of Michael's supplies stockpile just moments after the fugitives have excavated it. <br />
<br />
Mahone's anxiety is revealed when he ingests one of his pills hidden inside his pen such as the scene in "[[Manhunt (Prison Break episode)|Manhunt]]" where he is about to give the "Fox River 8" press conference. In a later episode, "[[Scan (Prison Break episode)|Scan]]", Mahone takes another pill when reminded of the failed manhunt for a fugitive named Oscar Shales. Mahone carries Shales's file with him as a constant reminder of the price for failure; during the pursuit, Mahone grew increasingly despondent over the murders that Shales continued to commit while evading the FBI, and eventually tracked Shales down and killed him personally, covering up the murder.<br />
<br />
In the second episode "[[Otis (Prison Break episode)|Otis]]", Mahone further proved his quality by preventing [[Lincoln Burrows]] ([[Dominic Purcell]]) and Michael from breaking L. J. ([[Marshall Allman]]) out of the Cook County Courthouse in episode. After Michael and Lincoln fled on foot, he assigns the agents to report to him on the status of the eight fugitives, particularly information regarding Michael Scofield. When Michael and Lincoln faked their deaths, Mahone refuses to believe it.<br />
<br />
The first fugitive Mahone tracks down is [[John Abruzzi]] ([[Peter Stormare]]) who was setup for fake tip that Otto Fibonacci is staying in a [[Washington, D.C.]] hotel room. It is later revealed that the F.B.I. headquarters believe Mahone handled the situation in such a way that forced Abruzzi not to surrender and to be shot dead by federal agents. The next day, Mahone is seen outside with a dealer, who gives him a container of [[midazolam]] pills. Mahone tells the dealer that he no longer needs him as an informant for the Shales case, he only wants to be supplied with the pills on a periodic basis.<br />
<br />
Mahone eventually discovers what Michael had discerned &mdash; the identity of [[Charles Westmoreland]] ([[Muse Watson]]) as [[D. B. Cooper]] and the location of his hidden cash within a 64-mile radius around [[Salt Lake City, Utah]]. He scores his second victory when he captures [[David "Tweener" Apolskis]] ([[Lane Garrison]]) in [[Tooele, Utah|Tooele]], who he later kills after confessing to the murder of Oscar Shales. Mahone then makes it appear that Tweener grabbed his gun and Mahone was forced to shoot him.<br />
<br />
The following episode "[[Dead Fall]]" reveals some of the history concerning Mahone. While being investigated by an Internal Affairs agent Richard Sullins about the deaths of Tweener and Abruzzi, Mahone's background is divulged. Mahone grew up with a poor abusive father in [[Detroit]] and was in the special forces before joining the FBI. He escapes further questioning when Sullins is forced to leave by his superior. It is then revealed that Mahone has been working for Agent [[Paul Kellerman]] ([[Paul Adelstein]]). His orders are to kill every last one of the escapees. In "[[Unearthed (Prison Break episode)|Unearthed]]", Mahone become more paranoid about the murdered Oscar Shales buried in his yard and worries for his son and ex-wife, Pamela Mahone in [[Durango, Colorado]].<br />
<br />
After failing to capture Michael Scofield and [[Sara Tancredi]] ([[Sarah Wayne Callies]]) in [[Gila, New Mexico]], Agent William Kim ([[Reggie Lee (actor)|Reggie Lee]]) reminds Mahone about their deal and prompts a reaction from him when he mentions his son. Mahone once again tracks down Scofield, who is about to flee to Mexico with his father, Lincoln and Sucre. Mahone kills Michael's father in a gun battle but Michael, Lincoln, and Sucre escape. However, Mahone soon finds Michael and Lincoln again, this time ramming their car off the road. He fails to kill them as the Border Patrol shows up and takes the brothers into custody. Following Kim's orders, Mahone works with Kellerman to trap the brothers but is also ordered to kill Kellerman after the brothers are dead. When Michael and Lincoln escape as planned, Mahone forces the brothers to move towards Agent Kellerman and eventually corners them. Mahone is shot by Kellerman, who wants Scofield and Burrows's help to exact revenge on "The Company" and President Reynolds for betraying him. This scene became one of the cliffhangers of the episode "[[The Killing Box]]".<br />
<br />
==References==<br />
<div class="references-small"><references/></div><br />
<br />
==External links==<br />
* [http://fox.com/prisonbreak/bios/bio_mahone.htm Official biography of Alexander Mahone] at Fox.com<br />
<br />
{{Prison Break}}<br />
<br />
[[Category:Television villains|Mahone, Alexander]]<br />
[[Category:Prison Break characters|Mahone, Alexander]]<br />
[[Category:Fictional FBI agents|Mahone, Alexander]]<br />
[[Category:Fictional drug addicts|Mahone, Alexander]]<br />
[[Category:Fictional murderers|Mahone, Alexander]]<br />
[[Category:Fictional people from Michigan]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=91863651User:Dkc2006-12-03T21:58:25Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m nineteen years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]]. I study [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] at the [[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]].<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
Contact:<br />
<br><br />
dkcagara@gmail.com<br />
<br><br />
[http://www.filolog.blox.pl/ http://www.filolog.blox.pl/]<br />
<br><br />
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{{user pl}}{{user en-4}}<br />
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[[sv:Användare:Dkc]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:User_dsb&diff=91575822Template:User dsb2006-12-02T11:42:04Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div><div style="float:left; border:solid 1px #6EF7A7; margin:1px"><br />
{| cellspacing="0" style="width:18.6em; background-color:#C5FCDC"<br />
| style="width:3.52em; height:3.52em; background-color:#6EF7A7; text-align:center" | <div style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; font-size:1.5em">'''[[Lower Sorbian language|dsb]]'''</div><br />
| style="font-size:0.83em; padding:0.47em; line-height:1.25em" | Toś ten wužywaŕ powěda '''[[:Category:User dsb|dolnoserbski]]''' ako '''[[:Category:User dsb-N|maminu rěc]].'''<br />
|}<br />
</div><br />
[[Category:User dsb|{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:User dsb-N|{{PAGENAME}}]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Template:User_dsb&diff=91575592Template:User dsb2006-12-02T11:39:35Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div><div style="float:left; border:solid 1px #6EF7A7; margin:1px"><br />
{| cellspacing="0" style="width:18.6em; background-color:#C5FCDC"<br />
| style="width:3.52em; height:3.52em; background-color:#6EF7A7; text-align:center" | <div style="margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto; font-size:1.5em">'''[[Lower Sorbian language|dsb]]'''</div><br />
| style="font-size:0.83em; padding:0.47em; line-height:1.25em" | Toś ten wužywaŕ powĕda '''[[:Category:User dsb|dolnoserbski]]''' ako '''[[:Category:User dsb-N|maminu rěc]].'''<br />
|}<br />
</div><br />
[[Category:User dsb|{{PAGENAME}}]]<br />
[[Category:User dsb-N|{{PAGENAME}}]]</div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=91433524User:Dkc2006-12-01T19:23:45Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m nineteen years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]]. I study [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] at the [[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]].<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
Contact:<br />
<br><br />
dkcagara@gmail.com<br />
<br><br />
[http://www.filolog.blox.pl/ http://www.filolog.blox.pl/]<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
• [[:ar:مستخدم:Dkc|العربية]] • [[:da:Bruger:Dkc|dansk]] • [[:de:Benutzer:Dkc|Deutsch]] • [[:et:Kasutaja:Dkc|eesti]] • [[:en:User:Dkc|English]] • [[:fr:Utilisateur:Dkc|français]]<br><br />
• [[:fo:Brúkari:Dkc|føroyskt]] • [[:ga:Úsáideoir:Dkc|Gaeilge]] • [[:hi:सदस्य:Dkc|हिन्दी]] • [[:it:Utente:Dkc|italiano]] • [[:is:Notandi:Dkc|íslenska]] • [[:kl:User:Dkc|Kalaallisut]]<br><br />
• [[:lv:Lietotājs:Dkc|latviešu]] • [[:hu:User:Dkc|magyar]] • [[:mt:User:Dkc|Malti]] • [[:nl:Gebruiker:Dkc|Nederlands]] • [[:ja:利用者:Dkc|日本語]] • [[:no:Bruker:Dkc|norsk (bokmål)]]<br><br />
• [[:nn:Brukar:Dkc|norsk (nynorsk)]] • [[:pl:Wikipedysta:Dkc|polski]] • [[:ro:Utilizator:Dkc|română]] • [[:ru:Участник:Dkc|русский]] • [[:se:User:Dkc|sámegiella]] • [[:sv:Användare:Dkc|svenska]] <br />
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<br></div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=91412099User:Dkc2006-12-01T17:26:54Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m nineteen years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]]. I study [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] at the [[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]].<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
Contact:<br />
<br><br />
dkcagara@gmail.com<br />
<br><br />
[http://www.filolog.blox.pl/ http://www.filolog.blox.pl/]<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
{{user pl}}{{user en-4}}<br />
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{{user fr-3}}{{user ru-3}}{{user sv-3}}<br />
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{{user da-3}}{{user nb-3}}{{user nn-3}}<br />
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<br></div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=91250909User:Dkc2006-11-30T22:39:37Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m nineteen years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]]. I study [[Hungarian language|Hungarian]] at [[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]].<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
Contact:<br />
<br><br />
dkcagara@gmail.com<br />
<br><br />
[http://www.filolog.blox.pl/ http://www.filolog.blox.pl/]<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
{{user pl}}{{user en-4}}<br />
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{{user fr-3}}{{user ru-3}}{{user sv-3}}<br />
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<br></div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=91250816User:Dkc2006-11-30T22:39:13Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m nineteen years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]]. I study [[Hungarian language]] at [[Jagiellonian University]] in [[Kraków]].<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
Contact:<br />
<br><br />
dkcagara@gmail.com<br />
<br><br />
[http://www.filolog.blox.pl/ http://www.filolog.blox.pl/]<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
{{user pl}}{{user en-4}}<br />
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{{user fr-3}}{{user ru-3}}{{user sv-3}}<br />
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{{user da-3}}{{user nb-3}}{{user nn-3}}<br />
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<br></div>Dkchttps://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=User:Dkc&diff=91250645User:Dkc2006-11-30T22:38:27Z<p>Dkc: </p>
<hr />
<div>My name’s '''Dominik K. Cagara''', I’m nineteen years old and I live in [[Kraków]], in [[Poland]]. I study [[Hungarian language]] at [[Uniwersytet Jagielloński]] in [[Kraków]].<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
Contact:<br />
<br><br />
dkcagara@gmail.com<br />
<br><br />
[http://www.filolog.blox.pl/ http://www.filolog.blox.pl/]<br />
<br><br />
<br><br />
{{user pl}}{{user en-4}}<br />
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{{user fr-3}}{{user ru-3}}{{user sv-3}}<br />
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{{user da-3}}{{user nb-3}}{{user nn-3}}<br />
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<br></div>Dkc