Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Automobile auxiliary power outlet

2024-04-19T13:31:23Z

Eugrus: /* History */

{{Short description|Outlet for portable accessories}}
{{Distinguish|text = the similarly looking but incompatible [[ISO 4165]] sockets/plugs (also called a 'Hella', 'Powerlet' or 'Merit') used on Motorcycles (esp. BMW), in caravaning etc}}
{{rdr|car charger|connector clips used to connect to and charge car batteries|crocodile clips|charging stations and connectors for electric vehicles|Charging station}}
[[File:12volt-socket_21mm.jpg|thumb|Auxiliary power outlet for front passengers]]
[[File:CigarSockets.jpg|thumb|right|Metal and plastic cigarette lighter receptacles]]
[[File:Dymond_Mini_duo_USB_car_charger,_Oude_Pekela_(2019)_01.jpg|thumb|[[Battery_charger#Mobile_phone_charger|Mobile phone charger]] for use in automobiles]]
[[File:Inverter_CJC01.jpg|thumb|[[Power inverter]] for producing 60 Hertz square wave power from an automobile outlet as a way to power home appliances.]]
An '''automobile auxiliary power outlet''' (also known as '''car cigarette lighter''' or '''auxiliary power outlet'''<ref name=lifewire />) in an [[automobile]] was initially designed to power an electrically heated [[Lighter|cigarette lighter]],<ref name=lifewire>LifeWire.com article: [https://www.LifeWire.com/car-cigarette-lighter-12v-socket-534754 ''“From Car Cigarette Lighter To 12V Accessory Socket”'']</ref> but became a [[de facto standard]] [[DC connector]] to supply electrical power for portable accessories used in or near an automobile directly from the vehicle's electrical system. Such include [[mobile phone charger]]s, [[cooling fan]]s, portable [[fridge]]s, electric [[air pump]]s, and [[power inverter]]s.<ref name=lifewire />

In most vehicles, at least one car outlet is present. Some vehicles may have more power outlets: usually one for the front passengers, one for the rear passengers and one for the luggage trunk.

The [[voltage]] of the power outlet is usually near 12 V [[direct current|DC]], and may be elevated between 13.5 V to 15 V while the engine is running.

The 12 V power circuit is protected by a [[Fuse (automotive)|car fuse]], often rated at 10 to 20 amperes, which provides 120 to 240 watts of power. Large appliances such as hair dryers or toasters draw too much power to be fed from an auxiliary power socket. If wired directly rather than through the ignition, an empty car battery can be charged through the outlet from an external power source, which is more convenient albeit slower than currents supported through electrical clamps on the car battery.<ref>{{cite web |last1=Sandoval |first1=David |title=How to Charge a Car Battery Through a Cigarette Lighter |url=https://itstillruns.com/charge-battery-through-cigarette-lighter-7298917.html |website=It Still Runs |access-date=27 October 2021 |language=en |date=2010-10-06}}</ref>

== History ==
The electrical cigar-lighter was invented and patented in the early 1880s by the Swiss-Austrian inventor [[Friedrich Wilhelm Schindler]].<ref>{{cite patent |country=GB |number=GB189412411A |status=patent |title=Electric Igniting Device, suitable for Lighting Tobacco-pipes and Cigars. |gdate=1895-04-20 |fdate=1894-06-26 |pridate=1894-06-26 |inventor=Friedrich Wilhelm Schindler |url=https://worldwide.espacenet.com/patent/search?q=pn%3DGB189412411A}}</ref> In the 1890s, these tools were sold as electrical cigar lighters (''Cigarrenanzünder'', later ''Zigarrenanzünder'') in the major German warehouse catalogues.{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} Before the [[Great Depression]], cigarettes overtook cigars in sale, and they became more popularly known as "cigarette lighters", though they have remained the diameter of a standard cigar of {{convert|21|mm|in}}, or a 52 [[Cigar#Size and shape|ring gauge]].

In 1921, the Morris {{US patent|1,376,154}} was issued for a so-called "wireless" or "cordless" lighter with a removable element. The igniter was heated in the socket and then manually removed for use after an appropriate time interval.<ref name="supreme.justia.com"/>

In the United States, cigarette lighters started appearing in 1925-1926 in some models. They were a standard feature by the 1950s.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://money.cnn.com/2003/11/04/pf/autos/lighters/index.htm?cnn=yes|title=Cigarette lighters: The new cupholders?|publisher=CNN.com|access-date=2007-06-05 | date=2003-11-04 | first=Peter | last=Valdes-Dapena}}</ref>

In 1928, the Connecticut Automotive Specialty Company (Casco) in [[Bridgeport, Connecticut|Bridgeport]] [[patent]]ed its version of an automotive cigarette lighter, which used a cord and reel.<ref name="Casco">{{cite web|url=http://www.cascoglobal.com/n20845/i22128.html |title=Casco Cigar lighter Facts & Figures |publisher=Casco |access-date=2007-06-05 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070625154507/http://www.cascoglobal.com/n20845/i22128.html |archive-date=2007-06-25 }}{{dubious|date=February 2016}}</ref> In the reel-type lighters, the igniter unit was connected with a source of current by a cable which was wound on a spring drum so that the igniter unit and cable could be withdrawn from the socket and be used for lighting a cigar or cigarette. As the removable plug was returned to the socket, the wires were reeled back into it. The circuit was closed either by pressing a button or removing the igniter from its socket.<ref name="supreme.justia.com">{{cite web|url=https://supreme.justia.com/us/314/84/index.html|title=Cuno Engineering v. Automatic Devices}}</ref>

The modern "automatic" removable automotive V-Coil lighter was developed by Casco in 1956,<ref name="Casco" /> for which it received {{US patent|2,959,664}}, issued in 1960.

==Technical design==
The sockets and mating plugs are defined in the ANSI/SAE J563<ref name="SAE">{{cite web|title=Standard for 12 Volt Cigarette Lighters, Power Outlets, and Accessory Plugs|url=https://www.sae.org/standards/content/j563_200902/|website=SAE International|access-date=2016-02-16}}</ref> specification. For the 12 volt systems, the center contact is the positive terminal and the shell is the negative terminal. Most automobiles connect the negative terminal to the frame of the vehicle (negative ground).

12 volt auto connectors are made to comply with a standard by [[Underwriters Laboratories]] for safety. UL2089 was developed to cover the requirements for portable adapters rated 24 V DC or less that are intended to be supplied from the battery powered electrical system of a vehicle. Products covered by the standard include cord assemblies of a plug that mates with the standard cigarette receptacle found in automobiles.

;6-volt cigarette lighter receptacle and plug
* Receptacle inside diameter: {{nowrap|21.34–21.46 mm}} (median {{nowrap|21.4 mm}})
* Plug body diameter: {{nowrap|21.08–21.23 mm}} (median {{nowrap|21.155 mm}})

; 12-volt cigarette lighter receptacle and plug, size A
* Receptacle inside diameter: {{nowrap|20.93–21.01 mm}} (median {{nowrap|20.97 mm}})
* Plug body diameter: {{nowrap|20.73–20.88 mm}} (median {{nowrap|20.805 mm}})
* Most often used in American automobiles

; 12-volt cigarette lighter receptacle and plug, size B
* Receptacle inside diameter: {{nowrap|21.41–21.51 mm}} (median {{nowrap|21.455 mm}})
* Plug body diameter: {{nowrap|21.13–21.33 mm}} (median {{nowrap|21.18 mm}})
* Most often used in European automobiles, and sometimes as a second socket in American automobiles expressly for DC power connections.

Plugs often include a [[pilot light]] [[LED]] indicator to indicate that electrical power is connected. Optionally, the plug may be equipped with an internal [[Fuse (automotive)|fuse]] for electrical safety, usually rated at 10 amps or less.{{cn|date=October 2021}} In some designs, the tip of the plug may be unscrewed to reveal a cylindrical glass fuse; other variants may use a blade-type fuse inserted into the side or back of the plug.

== Uses==
=== Lighter ===
[[Image:Car cigarette lighter.jpg|thumb|Car cigarette lighter, with brass-colored heating element visible at front]]
The lighter is a metal or plastic cylinder containing a thin flat coil of [[nichrome]] metal strip, through which high current (≈10 [[ampere]]s) passes when the device is activated, usually by pushing it into the socket as though it were a [[push-button]]. When pushed in, the lighter is held against the force of a spring by a clip attached to a [[bimetallic strip]].<ref>{{US patent|5,932,126}}</ref> The [[heating element]] glows orange hot in seconds, causing the bimetallic strip to bend and release the mechanism. The handle pops out, eliminating the need for the user to time the heating operation. If the lighter is then promptly removed from its socket, it can light a cigarette, cigar, or [[tinder]].

A common feature of Italian cars in the 1960s to the 1970s, such as Alfa Romeos and Ferraris, is the Brico Pram cigarette lighter, which differs from conventional designs in that the lighter does not pop out for removal to light a cigarette, even though it visually resembles the traditional design. Instead, the center of the lighter features a tapered opening for the user to insert a cigarette until it touches the heating element, the rim of the handle is then pressed down to activate the lighter, the heating element then lights the cigarette and disengages the circuit with an audible ping once the desired temperature is reached as per a conventional lighter. The advantage of such a design is in safety as the red-hot heating element cannot be accidentally dropped onto an occupant's lap. Still, it takes away the ability for the lighter to be removed for the receptacle to be used as a power outlet, and it also does not allow cigars to be lit as the opening is not large enough.

=== Electrical outlet ===
[[File:Car 12V DC plug.jpg|thumb|upright|A 12 volt cigarette lighter plug, with a tip that may be unscrewed to replace an internal [[Fuse (automotive)|fuse]]]]
[[File:Prise multiple allume-cigare.jpg|thumb|A [[power strip]] designed for use with auxiliary power outlets]]
In newer cars, the socket is equipped with a plastic cover without the lighter heating element.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.gallup.com/poll/28213/Latest-Gallup-Update-Shows-Cigarette-Smoking-Near-Historical-Lows.aspx|title=Latest Gallup Update Shows Cigarette Smoking Near Historical Lows|date=25 July 2007|publisher=Gallup.com|access-date=2009-04-08}}</ref> However, the socket has been repurposed and continues to be used to power [[consumer electronics]] in vehicles.<ref name="Laukkonen">{{cite web|last1=Laukkonen|first1=Jeremy|title=12V Socket or Cigarette Lighter Receptacle? The De Facto 12V DC Power Socket|url=https://www.lifewire.com/car-cigarette-lighter-12v-socket-534754|website=Lifewire.com|access-date=2021-02-28}}</ref> Often, a vehicle may come with several outlets for convenience, some in the rear passenger area of the vehicle or even the cargo area, for powering portable devices. These outlets usually have a plastic cap tethered to them, and are usually labeled as being only for DC power, because they are not intended to withstand the heat produced by an electrical cigarette lighter.

The use of cigarette lighter receptacles to supply 12 volt DC power is an example of [[backward compatibility]] to a [[de facto standard]]. As a power connector, the lighter receptacle is larger, harder to use and less reliable than other DC connectors{{citation needed|date=June 2019}}. Cigarette lighter receptacles are in widespread use in many highway vehicles and some boats. Portable cigarette lighter receptacles attached to cables and [[alligator clip]]s for connection directly to [[car battery|car batteries]] are available for temporary use. In newer vehicles, one or more [[USB connector]]s may also be provided. Plus in newer cars, the power output from the lighter plug is so reliable that it can charge laptops, without any voltage problems.

Standardized 12 volt DC automobile plugs are defined in the United States by [[Underwriters Laboratories|UL]] Standard 2089 regarding vehicle battery adapters. This standard covers plugs and cord sets that insert into cigarette lighter receptacles. In Europe, 12 volt plugs and sockets are not specially regulated and do not require approvals for the [[CE mark]].{{citation needed|date=April 2012}}

The male plug is sometimes used to feed power ''into'' a vehicle to recharge its battery because it usually has no regulatory circuitry between the outlet and the car battery. For instance, portable solar battery maintainers generally connect to a vehicle's battery in this manner. [[Trickle charge]]rs also sometimes connect in this way, eliminating the need to leave a vehicle's hood open, as well as eliminating the possibility of reversed polarity. Most cars nowadays are designed with a battery-negative earthing system and therefore have a +12V positive power distribution. In such a case, the centre pin of a plug/socket will be +12V DC and the outer casing 0V. While polarity is not an issue for a cigarette lighter, it is prudent to verify the correct matching of polarities when connecting other kinds of accessories.

In some models, the cigarette lighter outlet is not powered when the ignition key is removed and charging is not possible, though modification of the fuse box may allow unlocking continuous power output, by establishing a [[parallel circuit]] from a continuously powered fuse slot through a "piggyback" connector.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://rdtk.net/hardware/how-you-can-add-wires-for-an-automotive-fuse-box/|title=How you can Add Wires for an Automotive Fuse Box - Hardware | RDTK.net|date=29 July 2020}}</ref>

Since the cigarette lighter socket was originally designed only to heat a cigarette lighter, repurposing these sockets as generic power connectors can lead to many problems. In addition to the issues with partially-compatible physical dimensions, the plugs can vibrate out of the socket under normal driving conditions, owing to poor retention. Also, there have been reports of melted plug tips due to poor contact and heat generation from [[electrical resistance|ohmic resistance]].

A second problem is that nominally "twelve-volt" power in cars fluctuates widely. The outlet is connected directly to the electrical system of the car. The actual voltage, matching the car battery's voltage, will be approximately 12.5 volts when dormant (less in cold conditions), approximately 14.5 volts when the engine and the alternator/generator are operating (more when cold), and may briefly drop as low as 5–6 volts during engine start due to the high temporary battery current usage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.servicemanagement365.com/Mobile_Communications_Hardware/Article405913.aspx |title=Plugging the cigar lighter gap |publisher=Service Management 365 |access-date=2007-05-30 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070717205010/http://www.servicemanagement365.com/Mobile_Communications_Hardware/Article405913.aspx |archive-date=July 17, 2007 }}</ref> When used, [[DC to DC converter]]s will usually compensate for small fluctuations, but reliable power may not be available without an independent battery-powered [[uninterruptible power supply]].

Rarely, more extreme cases of voltage fluctuation can occur when the car battery is disconnected while the engine is running, or when the car receives a [[Jump start (vehicle)|jump start]]. When the battery is disconnected while the engine is running, its voltage smoothing effect (similar to [[capacitor]]s) is unavailable and a [[load dump]] transient can produce very high voltages as the built-in [[voltage regulator]] has been controlling the alternator field current to charge the vehicle battery and although it will attempt to reduce the field current to keep the output voltage constant, the field winding is highly inductive and setting the current to its new value takes several hundred milliseconds, during which the alternator output voltage will exceed its intended value. The load dump transient may also ruin the [[diode]]s in the [[alternator]] by exceeding their breakdown voltage. A car receiving a jump start from a truck may be subject to a 24 V electrical system used in some vehicles.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c984D31D2sQC&pg=PA119|title=Handbook of automotive power electronics and motor drives|first=Ali|last=Emadi|page=119|isbn=0-8247-2361-9|publisher=CRC press|date=2005-05-25|quote=The maximum operating voltage for 14 V systems is specified at 24 V, representing a double battery jump-start condition.}}</ref> Also, a "double battery jump-start" is performed by some tow truck drivers in cold climates.<ref>{{citation|url=https://www.maximintegrated.com/en/design/technical-documents/app-notes/3/3893.html|work=High-Frequency Automotive Power Supplies|series=Application note 3893|date=2007-07-17|publisher=Maxim Integrated Products|title= Double-Battery Jump Start | quote = Another steady-state [[Overvoltage|OV]] condition is the double-battery jump start, which occurs when a [[tow truck]] or other service personnel use 24 V to jump-start a disabled vehicle or otherwise charge a dead battery. The typical [[Original equipment manufacturer|OEM]] test requirement for this condition is about 24 V for two minutes. Some systems related to safety and engine management are required to operate under these conditions.}}</ref>

Equipment intended to be powered by the receptacle needs to account for intermittent contact, and voltages outside the nominal {{nowrap|12 V DC}}, such as maximum voltage {{nowrap|9–16 V}} continuously, or maximum voltage of {{nowrap|20 V}} lasting {{nowrap|1 hour}}, {{nowrap|24 V}} lasting {{nowrap|1 minute}}, and {{nowrap|40 V}} lasting {{nowrap|400 ms}}.<ref name="fordemc">[https://hum2d.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/08/EMC_CS_2009rev1.pdf EMC_CS_2009rev1.pdf]</ref> An example of protection component ratings tolerance is {{nowrap|+50}} to {{nowrap|−60 V DC}}.<ref name="LM2931">{{cite web|title=LM2931 Datasheet|url=https://www.cika.com/soporte/Information/Semiconductores/Reguladores/LM2931-xx_On.pdf|website=Cika|access-date=2016-02-16}}</ref> Robust equipment must tolerate temperatures varying between {{convert|-40|and|+85|°C}}, plus possible high humidity and condensation of water.<ref name="fordemc"/>

== See also ==
* [[Automobile accessory power]]
* [[EmPower (aircraft power adapter)]]
* [[Inductive charging]]
* [[ISO 4165|ISO 4165: Road vehicles — Electrical connections — Double-pole connection]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== References ==
{{refbegin}}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110120065450/http://electronicdesign.com/article/analog-and-mixed-signal/standards-and-specs-for-in-seat-power-on-aircraft-.aspx Standards And Specs For In-Seat Power On Aircraft Still In The Clouds] discusses mechanical and electrical deficiencies of using the cigarette lighter socket for power.
* [http://www.sae.org/technical/standards/J563_200902 SAE J563 (Six- and Twelve Volt Cigarette Lighter Receptacles)]
* [https://www.sae.org/standards/content/uscar4-1/ SAE USCAR-4 (Standard for Cigar Lighters and Power Outlets)] (USCAR: United States Council for Automotive Research)
* [http://www.eetimes.com/design/automotive-design/4011095/Clamping-circuit-tames-automotive-voltage-transients Automotive voltage transients]
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Car cigarette lighters|Automobile auxiliary power outlet}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070625153852/http://www.cascoglobal.com/n20845/i20934.html CASCO Lighter History (1925 - 1960)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070819085003/http://www.cascoglobal.com/n20845/i20937.html CASCO Lighter History (1960 - 2005)]
* [http://www.12v-parts.com/search.php?cat=Cigarette+Plug Pictures of 12-V Connectors]

{{Car-interior}}

[[Category:Automotive accessories]]
[[Category:DC power connectors]]
[[Category:Cigarettes]]
[[Category:Repurposing]]

Interactive notebook

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Phoenix Technologies

2024-01-27T01:52:48Z

Eugrus: /* Cloning the IBM PC BIOS */ clarification on the role of the manual

{{Short description|American company}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{More citations needed|date=June 2008}}
{{Lead too short|date=June 2020}}
{{Undisclosed paid|date=December 2020}}
}}
{{coord|34|08|36.3|N|118|08|27.4|W|display=title}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Phoenix Technologies Ltd.
| logo = Phoenix Technologies logo.svg
| type = [[Privately held company|Privately held]]
| genre =
| foundation = {{Start date and age|1979}}
| founder =
| location_city =
| location_country = [[United States|US]]
| location = [[Campbell, California|Campbell]], [[California]]
| locations =
| area_served =
| key_people = Gerard Moore, President and Chief Executive Officer
| industry = [[Software]]
| products = [[BIOS]] firmware: SecureCore, OmniCore, ServerCore BMC firmware: ServerBMC Consumer products: SecureWipe, PassKey
| services =
| revenue = {{loss}}$67.7 Million [[United States dollar|USD]] (2009)<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://investor.phoenix.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=417323 |title=Phoenix Technologies Ltd - Phoenix Technologies LTD. Reports Fourth Quarter and Full Fiscal Year 2009 Financial Results |access-date=2010-01-18 |archive-date=2009-10-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091025031558/http://investor.phoenix.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=417323 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
| operating_income =
| net_income =
| owner =
| num_employees = 200+
| parent =
| divisions =
| caption =
| footnotes =
| intl =
}}

'''Phoenix Technologies Ltd''' is an American company that designs, develops and supports core [[system software]] for [[personal computer]]s and other computing devices. The company's products{{snd}} commonly referred to as [[BIOS]] (Basic Input/Output System) or firmware{{snd}} support and enable the compatibility, connectivity, security and management of the various components and technologies used in such devices. Phoenix Technologies and [[IBM]] developed the [[El Torito (CD-ROM standard)|El Torito]] standard.

Phoenix was incorporated in [[Massachusetts]] in September 1979, and its headquarters are in [[Campbell, California]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.phoenix.com/pages/corporate-offices |title=Corporate Offices |website=Phoenix Technologies |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160613000028/http://www.phoenix.com/pages/corporate-offices |archive-date=2016-06-13 }}</ref>

==History==
In 1979, Neil Colvin formed what was then called Phoenix Software Associates after his prior employer, [[Technical Design Labs|Xitan]], went out of business. Neil hired Dave Hirschman, a former Xitan employee. During 1980–1981, they rented office space for the first official Phoenix location at 151 Franklin Street, [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]].

In this same time period Phoenix purchased a non-exclusive license for [[Seattle Computer Products]] [[86-DOS]]. Phoenix developed customized versions of 86-DOS (or sometimes called PDOS for Phoenix [[DOS]]) for various [[microprocessor]] platforms. Phoenix also provided PMate as a replacement for [[Edlin]] as the DOS file editor. Phoenix also developed [[C (programming language)|C language]] libraries, called PForCe, along with Plink-86/Plink-86plus, overlay linkers, and Pfix-86, a windowed Debugger for DOS. These products only provided a small revenue stream to Phoenix during the early 1980s and the company did not significantly expand in size.

===Cloning the IBM PC BIOS===
[[File:Siemens-Nixdorf PCD-3Nsl.JPG|thumb|[[Siemens Nixdorf]] Laptop from 1992 using ''Phoenix 80386 ROM BIOS PLUS Version 1.10.00'']]
After the success of the [[IBM Personal Computer|IBM PC]], many companies began making [[IBM PC compatible|PC clones]]. Some, like [[Compaq]], developed their own compatible ROM [[BIOS]], but others violated copyright by directly copying the PC's BIOS from the ''IBM PC Technical Reference Manual'' (appendix of the manual incorporated [[assembly code]] listings). After ''[[Apple Computer, Inc. v. Franklin Computer Corp.]]'' IBM sued companies that it claimed infringed IBM's copyright. Clone manufacturers needed a legal, fully compatible BIOS.<ref name="caruso19840227">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gy4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA15 |title=IBM wins disputes over PC copyrights |journal=[[InfoWorld]] |date=1984-02-27 |access-date=2015-01-15 |author-last=Caruso |author-first=Denise |pages=15}}</ref>{{r|langdell19840710}}{{r|schmidt199407}}

To develop a legal BIOS, Phoenix used a [[clean room design]]. Engineers read the BIOS source listings in the ''IBM PC Technical Reference Manual''. They wrote [[Specification (technical standard)|technical specifications]] for the BIOS APIs for a single, separate engineer—one with experience programming the [[Texas Instruments TMS9900]], not the [[Intel 8088]] or [[Intel 8086|8086]]—who had not been exposed to IBM BIOS source code. The single engineer developed code to mimic the BIOS APIs. By recording the [[audit trail]] of the two groups' interactions, Phoenix developed a defensibly non-infringing [[IBM PC compatible]] ROM BIOS. Because the programmers who wrote the Phoenix code never read IBM's reference manuals, nothing they wrote could have been copied from IBM's code, no matter how closely the two matched.<ref name="langdell19840710">{{cite journal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Bwng8NJ5fesC&pg=PA56 |title=Phoenix Says Its BIOS May Foil IBM's Lawsuits |journal=[[PC Magazine]] |date=1984-07-10 |access-date=2013-10-25 |author-last=Langdell |author-first=James |pages=56}}</ref><ref name="schmidt199407">{{cite news |url=http://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/article.asp?article=articles%2F1994%2Fjuly94%2Fpcn0713%2Fpcn0713.asp |title=What Is The BIOS? |work=Computing Basics |date=July 1994 |author-last=Schmidt |author-first=Robert |access-date=2011-09-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120310002756/http://www.smartcomputing.com/editorial/article.asp?article=articles%2F1994%2Fjuly94%2Fpcn0713%2Fpcn0713.asp |archive-date=2012-03-10}}</ref> This reverse engineering technique is commonly referred to as a "[[Chinese wall#Computer science|Chinese wall]]". This story was portrayed in the TV show ''[[Halt and Catch Fire (TV series)#First season|Halt and Catch Fire]]''.

The first Phoenix PC ROM BIOS was introduced in May 1984, which enabled OEMs such as [[Hewlett-Packard]], [[Tandy Corporation]], and [[AT&T Computer Systems]] to build essentially 100%-compatible clones without having to reverse-engineer the PC BIOS themselves as [[Compaq]] had.<ref name=warner19870309>[https://books.google.com/books?id=zzAEAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA8 Phoenix Eagerly Waiting to Clone Next-Generation IBM BIOS], ''InfoWorld'', March 9, 1987</ref>{{r|schmidt199407}}

Phoenix licensed the BIOS to clone makers for $290,000. To reassure customers, the company obtained a $2 million insurance policy from [[The Hartford]] against copyright-infringement lawsuits.{{r|langdell19840710}} Phoenix's revenues grew by 100% in 1987, and the company shifted to licensing the BIOS on a per-machine basis instead of a flat fee.{{r|warner19870309}} Competitors appeared, such as [[AMI BIOS]].{{r|schmidt199407}} Phoenix shipped an [[IBM Personal Computer AT|IBM PC/AT]]-compatible BIOS six months after the computer's announcement,{{r|warner19870309}} and also developed IBM [[IBM PS/2|PS/2]] Micro Channel-compatible BIOS, including the [[ABIOS]],<ref name="Phoenix_1987_System-BIOS">{{cite book |title=System BIOS for IBM PC/XT/AT Computers and Compatibles: The Complete Guide to ROM-Based System Software |author=Phoenix Technologies, Ltd. |author-link=Phoenix Technologies |series=Phoenix Technical Reference Series |publisher=[[Addison Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.]] |edition=1st |orig-year=1987 |date=1989 |isbn=0-201-51806-6}}</ref><ref name="Phoenix_1987_CBIOS">{{cite book |title=CBIOS for IBM PS/2 Computers and Compatibles: The Complete Guide to ROM-Based System Software for DOS |author=Phoenix Technologies, Ltd. |author-link=Phoenix Technologies |series=Phoenix Technical Reference Series |publisher=[[Addison Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.]] |edition=1st |orig-year=1987 |date=1989 |isbn=0-201-51804-X}}</ref><ref name="Phoenix_1987_ABIOS">{{cite book |title=ABIOS for IBM PS/2 Computers and Compatibles: The Complete Guide to ROM-Based System Software for OS/2 |author=Phoenix Technologies, Ltd. |author-link=Phoenix Technologies |series=Phoenix Technical Reference Series |publisher=[[Addison Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.]] |edition=1st |orig-year=1987 |date=1989 |isbn=0-201-51805-8}}</ref> and [[Extended Industry Standard Architecture|EISA]] compatible BIOS during 1988 and 1989.<ref name="Phoenix_1991_System-BIOS">{{cite book |title=System BIOS for IBM PCs, Compatibles, and EISA Computers: The Complete Guide to ROM-Based System Software |author=Phoenix Technologies, Ltd. |author-link=Phoenix Technologies |series=Phoenix Technical Reference Series |publisher=[[Addison Wesley Publishing Company, Inc.]] |edition=2nd |date=June 1991 |location=Amsterdam |isbn=0-201-57760-7 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780201577600 }}</ref>

===1987–1989===
In 1987, Phoenix began the first of many expansion, acquisition, and collapse cycles. It acquired Softstyle, Inc, and Softset, Inc, and began a printer emulation product line, and a Phoenix publishing division. Phoenix also tripled the number of employees from late 1986 to 1989.

Phoenix launched an [[Initial public offering|IPO]] in June 1988 and made the founder and early employees instant millionaires on paper. The stock price did not sustain its peak of 18¾, and by late 1989 it had plummeted to 3¾. In addition, the company posted a loss of $7.7 million in 1989, due primarily to the consolidation of the PC market, and Phoenix's unsuccessful branching out into collateral markets. In December 1989, Ron Fisher took over as CEO,<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1989/12/07/business/business-people-phoenix-technologies-appoints-top-officer.html|title=BUSINESS PEOPLE; Phoenix Technologies Appoints Top Officer|last=Cuff|first=Daniel F.|date=1989-12-07|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-08-29|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> and again the company focused on the core PC BIOS products, and prevented a hostile takeover bid by Norwood Partners Limited Partnership.

===1990s===
[[File:PhoenixBios K7 - 01.jpg|thumb|Phoenix Bios, 1999]]
By 1992, Phoenix was financially healthy enough to start another expansion and acquisition cycle. In January 1992, Phoenix acquired Quadtel, a leading BIOS supplier.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1992/01/20/business/phoenix-to-buy-quadtel-corp.html|title=Phoenix to Buy Quadtel Corp.|agency=Associated Press|date=1992-01-20|work=The New York Times|access-date=2019-08-29|language=en-US|issn=0362-4331}}</ref> The Quadtel BIOS code base was newer than the original Phoenix ROM BIOS code base, and the development effort switched to the Quadtel products. It was rebranded as PhoenixBIOS. The original ROM BIOS code base was used on a joint development effort with David Keenan at IBM (called SurePath), but Phoenix did no further development work on the original code.

Phoenix also expanded its presence in foreign markets. In 1993 Phoenix acquired SRI KK, a Phoenix distributor, and formed the Phoenix KK Japanese subsidiary. In addition, the offices in Taipei, and Europe were expanded in size. In 1994, Phoenix acquired Guildford, Surrey, UK-based [[DIP Research]] Ltd. and continued to expand European operations, who had previously developed the [[DIP DOS]] operating system for the ''DIP Pocket PC'' aka [[Atari Portfolio]] in 1989. In 1996, Phoenix acquired Virtual Chips, Inc., a maker of synthesizable cores for PC peripherals, and [[Mountain View, California]]-based [[Award Software]] in 1998. Due to these expansions, Phoenix reduced its global work force by 5% by ending 38 jobs.<ref>"[https://web.archive.org/web/20121020062334/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-53208280.html PHOENIX TO CUT 38 JOBS, TAKE CHARGE FOR RESTRUCTURE.]." ''Computergram International''.</ref>

===2001–2003===
Phoenix continued to grow steadily from the late 1990s, and saw a significant increase in revenues from the [[Year 2000 problem|Y2K]] product refreshes in the PC industry. However, by mid-2001, the PC industry suffered another downturn, and Phoenix was forced to reduce the less profitable product lines, such as the [[IA-64]] effort, and close a number of redundant offices. Phoenix again focused on the core BIOS business for the next few years.

During late 2002 and 2003, Phoenix began to develop specialized firmware-based applications. These applications often had components embedded in the BIOS that allowed them to function in damaged PC systems. These included security applications for password hiding and authentication, PC backup and recovery applications, and basic diagnostic applications. Several applications were obtained through complete acquisitions of other companies, such as the [[SPEKE]] technology from Integrity Sciences, or the browser technology from Ravisent.

The PC BIOS business continued its steady, but slow, growth despite a rapidly declining unit price. The Award product line was focused on the low-margin, high volume Desktop product line, while the Phoenix TrustedCore BIOS was primarily successful in the high-end PC systems, and Servers. The revenues from the BIOS business continued to provide the capital to invest further in the applications business.

===2005–2008===
By late 2005, it became clear that the BIOS revenues could not sustain the losses incurred by the applications business. The BIOS revenue stream was heavily leveraged through fully paid-up licenses, and by early 2006 this business model was no longer sustainable. Phoenix announced some of the largest losses in the company history, and went through another consolidation cycle. Several offices were closed and over 70% of the employees were laid off. By late 2006, after senior management changes, the company refocused on the PC BIOS business and the couple of potentially profitable applications.

In September, the company named Woodson "Woody" Hobbs as president and CEO of Phoenix Technologies. Hobbs had a history of turning struggling companies around. According to company documents, "prior to joining Phoenix, Hobbs served as president and CEO of Intellisync Corporation from 2002 until the company's acquisition by Nokia in February 2006. Under Hobbs' leadership, Intellisync became the number two wireless email company, increased its stock price by nearly ten times, and grew [[enterprise value]] from zero to over $430 million."<ref>http://investor.phoenix.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=210260 {{Dead link|date=March 2022}}</ref>

By January 2008, Phoenix had posted higher-than-expected Q1 revenues and increased full year guidance.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://investor.phoenix.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=284884 |title=Phoenix Technologies Ltd - Phoenix Announces Higher-Than-Expected Q1 Revenues and Increased Full Year Guidance |access-date=2008-12-11 |archive-date=2008-04-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080415164111/http://investor.phoenix.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=284884 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In 2008, Phoenix also acquired several companies:

* In May, Phoenix acquired BeInSync, Ltd., an Israeli-based provider of an all-in-one solution that allows users to back up, synchronize, share and access data online.<ref>http://investor.phoenix.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=307684 {{Dead link|date=March 2022}}</ref> Although Phoenix did not disclose the amount of the transaction, according to at least one online report, Phoenix acquired BeInSync for $25 million.<ref>{{cite web|author=Nicholas Deleon |url=https://techcrunch.com/2008/03/26/beinsync-acquired-by-phoenix-technologies-for-25m/ |title=BeInSync Acquired by Phoenix Technologies for $25M |publisher=TechCrunch |date=2008-03-26 |access-date=2011-09-19}}</ref>
* In July, in an effort to develop a strong online presence and infrastructure for web-based automated service delivery, Phoenix acquired [[TouchStone Software Corporation]] for its online PC diagnostics and software update technology, eSupport.com this included the recently purchased [[HijackPro]] and [[Drivermagic]] software from Glenn Bluff.<ref>[http://www.esupport.com eSupport.com] this included the recently purchased [[HijackPro]] and [[Drivermagic]] software from Glenn Bluff</ref> The net value of the transaction was approximately $17 million.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://investor.phoenix.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=319106 |title=Phoenix Technologies Ltd - Phoenix Technologies LTD. Completes Acquisition of TouchStone Software |access-date=2008-12-11 |archive-date=2010-02-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100202005752/http://investor.phoenix.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=319106 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* In September, Phoenix acquired [[General Software]] of Bellevue, WA, to extend its firmware leadership to a wide array of specialized high-value, high-margin devices that use embedded processors ([[embedded systems]]), from mobile and consumer electronics to data communications.<ref>http://investor.phoenix.com/releasedetail.cfm?ReleaseID=331506 {{Dead link|date=March 2022}}</ref>

===2009–2010===
In 2009, Phoenix shut down their Engineering and Sales offices in [[Shanghai]] and [[Nanjing]], [[China]]. Phoenix also laid off most of the staff in those offices, although some of the managers were moved to other offices in [[Taiwan]]. Phoenix opened a new office in Bangalore, India and closed its office in Hyderabad, India. Most of the Hyderabad employees were given the option to move to the new Bangalore office.{{Citation needed|date=February 2022}}

In late Q4 2009, Phoenix began exploring strategic alternatives for the products it had developed and purchased in its prior acquisition phase. On January 5, 2010, Phoenix announced it had hired GrowthPoint Technology partners to find alternative business strategies for the FailSafe, HyperSpace and eSupport.com products and would aim to refocus its business strategy on BIOS where it still retained a substantial majority of its revenue.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/phoenix-technologies-retains-growthpoint-technology-partners-to-explore-strategic-alternatives-for-failsafer-hyperspacetm-and-esupport-businesses-80755497.html |title=Phoenix Technologies Retains GrowthPoint Technology Partners to Explore Strategic Alternatives for FailSafe, HyperSpace |location=Milpitas, California |website=PRNewsWire.com |date=2010-01-05 |access-date=2011-09-19}}</ref>

On April 9, 2010 it was announced that Absolute Software would pay $6.9 million for Phoenix Technologies security technologies, including FailSafe and Freeze.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://seekingalpha.com/article/197885-phoenix-sheds-failsafe |title=Phoenix Sheds FailSafe |website=Seeking Alpha |date=9 April 2010 |access-date=2011-09-19}}</ref>

In August 2010, Marlin Equity Partners, a Los Angeles-based private investment firm, acquired the outstanding shares of Phoenix Technologies for $139 million.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://social.techcrunch.com/2010/08/18/marlin-equity-phoenix-technologies/|title=Private Investment Firm Buys Phoenix Technologies For $139 Million|website=TechCrunch|date=18 August 2010 |language=en-US|access-date=2019-08-29}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Portal|Companies|San Francisco Bay Area}}
* [[American Megatrends]]
* [[Insyde Software]]
* [[Tim Paterson]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Official website}}
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20000817070717/http://www.award.com.tw/download |date=August 17, 2000 |title=AwardBIOS motherboard download page}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:BIOS]]
[[Category:Software companies established in 1979]]
[[Category:1979 establishments in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Companies based in Pasadena, California]]
[[Category:Private equity portfolio companies]]
[[Category:Software companies based in California]]
[[Category:Hewlett-Packard acquisitions]]
[[Category:2010 mergers and acquisitions]]
[[Category:2013 mergers and acquisitions]]
[[Category:Software companies of the United States]]

2024 Bashkortostan protests

2024-01-27T01:24:36Z

Eugrus: /* Background */ wikifikation

{{Short description|Demonstrations in Russia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2024}}
{{Infobox civil conflict
| image = Беспорядки в Баймаке. Столкновения с силовиками.png
| caption = Protesters clashing with police
| date = 15–19 January 2024 ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=01|day1=15|year1=2024|month2=01|day2=19|year2=2024}})
| place = [[Bashkortostan]], [[Russia]] ([[Baymak]] and [[Ufa]])
| causes = Imprisonment of [[Fail Alsynov]]
| methods = * [[Protest]]s
* [[Political demonstration|Demonstration]]s
* [[Civil disobedience]]
* [[Online activism]]
* [[Riot]]s
| goals = *Release of Fail Alsynov
* Release of detained protesters<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ахметова |first=Дания |date=2024-01-17 |title=«Государство наше – террорист»: в Баймаке не думают прекращать протест |url=https://arbatmedia.kz/exo-moskvy/gosudarstvo-nase-terrorist-v-baimake-ne-dumayut-prekrashhat-protest-7369 |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Arbat Media |language=ru}}</ref>
* Resignation of Bashkir Head [[Radiy Khabirov]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Мельникова |first=Ирина |date=2024-01-15 |title=«Хабирова в отставку!»: протестующие против суда над Алсыновым* обратились к Путину |url=https://prufy.ru/news/society/145321-khabirova_v_otstavku_protestuyushchie_protiv_posadki_aktivista_alsynova_obratilis_k_putinu/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Prufy.ru |language=ru}}</ref>
| result = *Temporary blocking of [[WhatsApp]] and [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]] in Bashkortostan<ref>{{Cite web |last=Бирюков |first=Андрей |date=2024-01-22 |title=В Башкирии снова заработали Telegram и WhatsApp* |url=https://ufa1.ru/text/incidents/2024/01/22/73146236/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=ufa1.ru |language=ru}}</ref>
* Crackdown on protesters<ref>{{Cite web |last=Абдулова |first=Азалия |date=2024-01-23 |title=Башкирия осталась без лидеров протеста, там продолжаются задержания |url=https://newizv.ru/news/2024-01-23/bashkiriya-ostalas-bez-liderov-protesta-tam-prodolzhayutsya-zaderzhaniya-426441 |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=newizv.ru |language=ru}}</ref>
| concessions =
| side1 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Bashkortostan (1918).svg}} [[Bashkirs|Bashkir]] protestors
----
{{plainlist|
* '''Supported by:'''
* {{flagicon image|Flag of the Committee of Bashkir Resistance.svg}} [[Committee of Bashkir Resistance]]<ref>{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2024-01-20 |title=Statement of the Bashkir national movement abroad |url=https://abn.org.ua/en/documents/statement-of-the-bashkir-national-movement-abroad/ |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Anti-imperial Block of Nations |language=en-GB}}</ref>
}}
| side2 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Bashkortostan.svg}} [[Government of Bashkortostan]]
* [[Ministry of Internal Affairs (Bashkortostan)|Bashkir Ministry of Internal Affairs]]<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-16 |title=МВД предупредило об ответственности за участие в несанкционированных акциях |url=https://www.bashinform.ru/news/social/2024-01-16/mvd-predupredilo-ob-otvetstvennosti-za-uchastie-v-nesanktsionirovannyh-aktsiyah-3605644 |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Bashinform |language=ru}}</ref>
{{flagicon|Russia}} [[Government of Russia|Russian government]]
* {{flagicon image|Flag of National Guard of the Russian Federation.svg}} [[National Guard of Russia|National Guard]]
* [[File:Patch of the OMON.svg|18px]] [[OMON]]
| howmany1 = unknown
| howmany2 = unknown
| leadfigures1 = {{flagicon image|Flag of Bashkortostan (1918).svg}} [[Fail Alsynov]] {{flagicon image|Flag of the Committee of Bashkir Resistance.svg}} {{ill|Ruslan Gabbasov|uk|Габбасов Руслан Салаватович}}
| leadfigures2 = {{flagicon image|Flag of the President of Bashkortostan.svg}} [[Radiy Khabirov]] {{ill|Alexander Pryadko|tt|Александр Прядко}}<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ахметова |first=Дания |date=2024-01-17 |title=«Государство наше – террорист»: в Баймаке не думают прекращать протест |url=https://arbatmedia.kz/exo-moskvy/gosudarstvo-nase-terrorist-v-baimake-ne-dumayut-prekrashhat-protest-7369 |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Arbat Media |language=ru}}</ref>
}}

On 15 January 2024, protests began in the [[Republic of Bashkortostan]], [[Russian Federation|Russia]], sparked by the authorities initiating a criminal case against the [[Bashkirs|Bashkir]] environmental activist [[Fail Alsynov]], who was subsequently sentenced to four years in prison. This led to demonstrations in the town of [[Baymak]], where at least 1,000 Bashkir protesters assembled. The protests resulted in clashes with the riot police, who in response deployed [[tear gas]] and [[Baton (law enforcement)|batons]] against the protesters.<ref name="BBC">{{cite news |last1=Greenall |first1=Robert |title=Russia protest: Crowds clash with riot police as activist jailed |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-68006123 |agency=BBC |date=17 January 2024 |access-date=18 January 2024 |archive-date=18 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118150936/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-68006123 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title=Russia protest: crowds clash with riot police as activist jailed – video |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2024/jan/17/russia-protest-riot-police-bashkortostan-fail-alsynov-video |access-date=18 January 2024 |agency=Reuters |work=The Guardian |archive-date=17 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117210136/https://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2024/jan/17/russia-protest-riot-police-bashkortostan-fail-alsynov-video |url-status=live }}</ref> The protests spread into the regional capital of [[Ufa]] on 19 January, where 10 people were arrested in response.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Davies |first=Alys |date=2024-01-19 |title=Bashkortostan protests against jail term reach regional capital Ufa |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-68029262 |access-date=2024-01-19 |language=en-GB |archive-date=19 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119201535/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-68029262 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Due to the growing protests in [[Bashkortostan]], messaging services [[WhatsApp]] and [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]] were reportedly blocked across the region, as messages sent by users from major cities such as [[Moscow]], [[Kazan]], [[Nizhny Novgorod]], and [[Saint Petersburg]] failed to deliver. Most of the failed messages were from the city of Ufa, which is estimated to comprise 22% of all messages in the country, according to the data provided by the [[Downdetector]] service.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 January 2024 |title=В Башкирии сотни людей пришли к суду поддержать активиста, защищавшего шихан Куштау |url=https://www.bbc.com/russian/articles/ce9m7p05pe0o |access-date=17 January 2024 |website=BBC News Русская служба |language=ru |archive-date=16 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240116204001/https://www.bbc.com/russian/articles/ce9m7p05pe0o |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=У россиян сбоит WhatsApp на фоне массовых протестов в Башкирии |author=Санкт-Петербург Live |url=https://m.vk.com/wall-49684148_4882184?ysclid=lriu42y6rd963870855 |access-date=18 January 2024 |website=VK |url-status=live |archive-url= https://archive.is/0x4aU |archive-date= 19 January 2024}}</ref>

== Background ==
In April 2023, Bashkir environmental activist [[Fail Alsynov]] participated in protests in the village of [[Ishmurzino]], [[Baymaksky District]], [[Bashkortostan]], opposing geological exploration work within the Irendik mountain range.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Ларина |first=Анастасия |date=17 January 2024 |title=Башкирского активиста Фаиля Алсынова приговорили к четырем годам колонии |url=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/6454816 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119013441/https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/6454816 |archive-date=19 January 2024 |access-date=19 January 2024 |website=Коммерсантъ |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Мельникова |first=Ирина |date=16 January 2024 |title=От Куштау до Баймака. Кто такой Фаиль Алсынов* и против чего он выступает? |url=https://prufy.ru/news/society/145391-ot_kushtau_do_baymaka_kto_takoy_fail_alsynov_i_protiv_chego_on_vystupaet/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117083146/https://prufy.ru/news/society/145391-ot_kushtau_do_baymaka_kto_takoy_fail_alsynov_i_protiv_chego_on_vystupaet/ |archive-date=17 January 2024 |access-date=19 January 2024 |website=Prufy.ru |language=ru}}</ref>

In May 2023, the [[Head of the Republic of Bashkortostan|Head of Bashkortostan]], [[Radiy Khabirov]], asked deputies of the local parliament, the [[State Assembly of the Republic of Bashkortostan|Kurultai]], to propose an initiative to transfer to Russian regions the authority to issue licenses for the [[Gold extraction|extraction of gold]] using the alluvial (placer) method. Khabirov said:<ref>{{cite news|last=Kazantsev|first=Vladislav|title=Хабиров попросил передать Башкирии полномочия по выдаче лицензий на добычу золота|url=https://www.ufa.kp.ru/online/news/5285220/|website=Komsomol'skaya Pravda|access-date=24 January 2024|date=25 May 2023|lang=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|title=Радий Хабиров попросил передать Башкирии полномочия по выдаче лицензий на добычу золота|website=Kommersant|lang=ru|access-date=24 January 2024|date=25 May 2023|last=Shipilova|first=Vlada|url=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/6001587}}</ref>
{{blockquote|For quite a long time we have been concerned about the situation with [[gold mining]] in a number of areas of the Trans-Urals using the alluvial method. Residents of the republic and heads of municipalities learn that a license for gold mining has been issued when the first equipment appears. And people are very outraged by this. I propose something that concerns specifically the issuance of licenses for the extraction of gold using the alluvial method, and this is sometimes the most barbaric method of unscrupulous licensees... I ask you to come up with a proposal to transfer these powers to the level of the [[Federal subjects of Russia|constituent entities of Russia]], in this case, to our republic. Really, I can't say it any other way, I'm tired of it all.}}

Following Alsynov's public speech to Ishmurzino residents in October 2023, Radiy Khabirov issued a personal statement against Alsynov. Khabirov accused Alsynov of delivering a speech with negative content about the ethnicities of [[Armenians]], [[Ethnic_groups_in_the_Caucasus|Caucasians]], and [[Central Asian]]s during the April 2023 rally organized in defense of the lands of the Bashkir Trans-Urals from mining ([[migrant workers]] from outside Bashkortostan were planned to be employed in mining operations,<ref name=rfe1023>{{Cite news|author=RFE/RL's Idel.Realities|date=12 October 2023 |title=Former Leader Of Banned Group In Russia's Bashkortostan Faces Charge Of Inciting Hatred |url=https://www.rferl.org/a/bashkortostan-banned-group-former-leader-inciting-hatred/32634825.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112163336/https://www.rferl.org/a/bashkortostan-banned-group-former-leader-inciting-hatred/32634825.html |archive-date=12 January 2024 |access-date=25 January 2024 |work=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty |language=en}}</ref> some of which Alysnov believes are illicit<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.idelreal.org/a/32634677.html|date=12 October 2023|author=Idel.Реалии|lang=ru|title="Дело — заказное". Активиста из Уфы Фаиля Алсынова обвиняют в "возбуждении ненависти" к жителям Кавказа, в частности к армянам|website=RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty|access-date=25 January 2024}}</ref>). The rally aimed to prevent resource extraction due to negative perceptions of companies and organizers affiliated with the Bashkir government, who faced backlash from local residents.<ref name=rfe1023/>

In early 2024, the prosecutor's office imposed a four-year prison term on Alsynov for "inciting hatred on ethnic grounds". Closed court hearings took place, accompanied by rallies involving thousands of supporters of Alsynov in his defense.<ref name="meduza">{{Cite web |date=15 January 2024 |title=В Башкортостане около тысячи человек вышли на акцию в защиту активиста Фаиля Алсынова. Они потребовали отправить в отставку главу республики |url=https://meduza.io/feature/2024/01/15/v-bashkortostane-okolo-tysyachi-chelovek-vyshli-na-aktsiyu-v-zaschitu-aktivista-failya-alsynova-oni-potrebovali-otpravit-v-otstavku-glavu-respubliki |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119131909/https://meduza.io/feature/2024/01/15/v-bashkortostane-okolo-tysyachi-chelovek-vyshli-na-aktsiyu-v-zaschitu-aktivista-failya-alsynova-oni-potrebovali-otpravit-v-otstavku-glavu-respubliki |archive-date=19 January 2024 |access-date=19 January 2024 |website=[[Meduza]] |language=ru}}</ref>

== Protests ==
On 15 January 2024, the town of [[Baymak]] hosted the third court hearing, during which the verdict announcement was scheduled for 17 January. Approximately 1,000–5,000 individuals, according to various estimates, attended the trial proceedings to show support for Alsynov.<ref>{{Cite web |date=15 January 2024 |title=В Башкирии сотни людей пришли к суду поддержать активиста, защищавшего шихан Куштау |url=https://www.bbc.com/russian/articles/ce9m7p05pe0o |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117112401/https://www.bbc.com/russian/articles/ce9m7p05pe0o |archive-date=17 January 2024 |access-date=19 January 2024 |website=BBC News Русская служба |language=ru}}</ref>

On 16 January 2024, Alsynov was added to the "list of extremists".<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 January 2024 |title=Башкирского активиста Фаиля Алсынова внесли в перечень "экстремистов" |url=https://www.idelreal.org/a/bashkirskogo-aktivista-failya-alsynova-vnesli-v-perechen-ekstremistov-/32776575.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240118051421/https://www.idelreal.org/a/bashkirskogo-aktivista-failya-alsynova-vnesli-v-perechen-ekstremistov-/32776575.html |archive-date=18 January 2024 |access-date=19 January 2024 |website=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |language=ru}}</ref>

On 17 January 2024, the Baymaksky District Court of [[Bashkortostan]] found Alsynov guilty and sentenced him to four years in prison. This decision led to violent skirmishes outside the courthouse, and clashes with security forces persisted for several days. Several protest participants and supporters were detained.<ref>{{Cite web |date=16 January 2024 |title=В Башкортостане после массовой акции задержали четырех сторонников экоактивиста Фаиля Алсынова – его судят по делу о "разжигании вражды" |url=https://www.currenttime.tv/a/bashkortostan-alsynov/32776991.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117100334/https://www.currenttime.tv/a/bashkortostan-alsynov/32776991.html |archive-date=17 January 2024 |access-date=19 January 2024 |website=Current Time TV |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Лебедева |first=Ольга |date=16 January 2024 |title=В Башкортостане задержали сторонников экоактивиста Алсынова |url=https://www.dw.com/ru/v-baskortostane-zaderzali-storonnikov-ekoaktivista-alsynova/a-68005442 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240117190838/https://www.dw.com/ru/v-baskortostane-zaderzali-storonnikov-ekoaktivista-alsynova/a-68005442 |archive-date=17 January 2024 |access-date=19 January 2024 |website=dw.com |language=ru}}</ref> Protest estimates suggested a turnout of about 10,000 demonstrators in the relatively populated town of [[Baymak]], which has a population of 17,700 residents.{{cn|date=January 2024}}

An unsanctioned rally occurred in Salavat Yulayev Square in the Bashkir capital of [[Ufa]] on 19 January 2024. The [[National Guard of Russia|National Guard]] and [[OMON]] riot police were deployed against a crowd of approximately 2,000 people. The protest took an unusual form, with participants engaging in [[folk dance]], circling, and singing songs in the [[Bashkir language]].<ref>{{Cite web |last= |date=2024-01-19 |title=Митинг в Уфе сегодня 19 января: танцы на площади Салавата Юлаева, «кара халык», задержания, последние новости |url=https://omvesti.ru/obshchestvo/miting-v-ufe-segodnya-19-yanvarya-tanczy-na-ploshhadi-salavata-yulaeva-kara-halyk-zaderzhaniya/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240122135729/https://omvesti.ru/obshchestvo/miting-v-ufe-segodnya-19-yanvarya-tanczy-na-ploshhadi-salavata-yulaeva-kara-halyk-zaderzhaniya/ |archive-date=22 January 2024 |access-date=2024-01-19 |website=omvesti.ru |language=ru-RU}}</ref> A group holding posters that read {{lang|ba|кара халык}} ({{trans|Common Person}}) was detained early in the rally and forcefully placed into police buses.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-19 |title=В Уфе задержали девушку с табличкой "Кара Халык" на спине. За эту фразу осудили Фаиля Алсынова |url=https://www.idelreal.org/a/32783021.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119180627/https://www.idelreal.org/a/32783021.html |archive-date=19 January 2024 |access-date=2024-01-19 |website=Radio Free Europe / Radio Liberty |language=ru}}</ref> Rally participants reportedly attempted unsuccessfully to block the road and prevent the police bus carrying detainees from leaving.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-19 |title=Участники митинга в Уфе попытались остановить автобус с задержанными |url=https://mkset.ru/news/2024-01-19/uchastniki-mitinga-v-ufe-popytalis-ostanovit-avtobus-s-zaderzhannymi-3156620 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119200427/https://mkset.ru/news/2024-01-19/uchastniki-mitinga-v-ufe-popytalis-ostanovit-avtobus-s-zaderzhannymi-3156620 |archive-date=19 January 2024 |access-date=2024-01-19 |website=mkset.ru |language=ru}}</ref> In total, 10 people were detained.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Музычук |first=Анастасия |date=2024-01-19 |title=В Уфе прошел митинг в поддержку активиста Алчинова. СМИ пишут о задержаниях |url=https://rtvi.com/news/v-ufe-proshel-miting-v-podderzhku-aktivista-alchinova-smi-pishut-o-zaderzhaniyah/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240120143255/https://rtvi.com/news/v-ufe-proshel-miting-v-podderzhku-aktivista-alchinova-smi-pishut-o-zaderzhaniyah/ |archive-date=20 January 2024 |access-date=2024-01-19 |website=RTVI |language=ru}}</ref>

== Aftermath ==
On 20 January 2024, a picket in support of Alsynov and Bashkir protesters occurred in [[Khabarovsk]]. Participants rallied for the release of all political prisoners, including former [[Khabarovsk Krai]] governor [[Sergei Furgal]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-20 |title=Хабаровск: жители поддержали протестующих в Башкирии |url=https://www.sibreal.org/a/zhiteli-habarovska-podderzhali-protestuyuschih-v-bashkirii/32784488.html |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Сибирь.Реалии |language=ru}}</ref>

== Reactions ==
[[Radiy Khabirov]], the [[Head of the Republic of Bashkortostan]], pledged not to tolerate extremism and any attempts to undermine the situation in the region. He stated, "You can put on the mask of a good environmental activist, a patriot, but in reality the situation is not at all like that. A group of people, some of whom are abroad, essentially being traitors, are calling for the separation of [[Bashkortostan]] from [[Russia]]. They are calling for guerrilla warfare here. This includes [Ruslan] Gabbasov."<ref>{{Cite news |date=2024-01-18 |title=Глава Башкирии прокомментировал несанкционированные акции в республике |url=https://www.vedomosti.ru/society/news/2024/01/18/1015609-glava-bashkirii-prokommentiroval |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119022010/https://www.vedomosti.ru/society/news/2024/01/18/1015609-glava-bashkirii-prokommentiroval |archive-date=19 January 2024 |access-date=2024-01-19 |work=Ведомости |language=ru}}</ref> Khabirov also characterized the decision to recognize the political party ''{{ill|Bashkort (organization)|lt=Bashkort|ru|Башкирская общественная организация «Башкорт»|uk|Башкорт}}'' as an extremist organization as the "right decision".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-18 |title=Глава Башкирии Хабиров о беспорядках в Баймаке: группа лиц призывает к отделению Башкортостана от России и партизанской войне |url=https://www.fontanka.ru/2024/01/18/73133117/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240119152441/https://www.fontanka.ru/2024/01/18/73133117/ |archive-date=19 January 2024 |access-date=2024-01-19 |website=fontanka.ru |language=ru}}</ref>

Kremlin Press Secretary [[Dmitry Peskov]] commented on the situation in press call, rejecting the characterization of mass riots or protests in [[Bashkortostan]]. He clarified, "There are some manifestations that are more likely to be exclusively within the competence of local authorities and law enforcement agencies. But I categorically disagree that they are massive."<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-19 |title=В Кремле не считают события в Башкирии массовыми беспорядками |url=https://www.interfax.ru/russia/941012 |access-date=2024-01-23 |website=interfax.ru |language=ru}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-01-19 |title=Дмитрий Песков: в Башкирии нет массовых беспорядков |url=https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/6463971 |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=Коммерсантъ |language=ru}}</ref>

Russian political scientist [[Ekaterina Schulmann|Ekaterina Shulman]] characterized the police response in Baymak as a type of "administrative dysfunction". She noted that such incidents contribute to regional grievances and could pose risks for the Russian authorities ahead of the [[2024 Russian presidential election]], especially about [[Ethnic conflict|ethnic tension]]s.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Стрельников |first=Алексей |date=2024-01-17 |title=Задержания в Башкортостане – "дисфункция" в год выборов? |url=https://www.dw.com/ru/zaderzania-v-baskortostane-disfunkcia-v-god-vyborov/a-68015946 |access-date=2024-01-24 |website=dw.com |language=ru}}</ref>

Russian-Bashkir rapper [[Morgenshtern]] supported the protest. He posted the image of [[Salawat Yulayev]] on social networks, which is widely considered a national hero of the republic.<ref>{{Citation|title=Протесты в Башкирии: стычки с ОМОНом, аресты и обвинения Украины {{!}} Новости России|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=AbYcrlV-XB0|accessdate=2024-01-21|language=ru}}</ref>

== See also ==
* {{ill|2020 Kushtau protests|ru|Протесты на Куштау|uk|Протести на Куштау}}
* [[Separatism in Russia]]
* [[Opposition to Vladimir Putin in Russia]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Russian opposition|state=collapsed}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bashkortostan protests, 2024}}
[[Category:2024 protests]]
[[Category:January 2024 events in Russia]]
[[Category:Protests in Russia]]
[[Category:Opposition to Vladimir Putin]]
[[Category:History of Bashkortostan|2024 protests]]

Altair 8800

2024-01-08T11:19:01Z

Eugrus:

{{short description|Microcomputer designed in 1974}}
{{Infobox information appliance
| name = MITS Altair 8800
| title =
| aka =
| logo =
| image = Altair 8800 Computer.jpg
| caption = Altair 8800 Computer with 8-inch floppy disk system
| developer = [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems|MITS]]
| manufacturer = MITS
| family =
| type =
| generation =
| releasedate = {{Start date and age|1975|1}}
| lifespan =
| price = Kit: {{nowrap|US $439}} {{nowrap|(${{Inflation|US|439|1975|r=-2}} in {{Inflation/year|US}})}} Assembled: {{nowrap|US $621}} {{nowrap|(${{Inflation|US|621|1975|r=-2}} in {{Inflation/year|US}})}}
| discontinued =
| unitssold = 25,000<ref>{{Cite web|last=Reimer|first=Jeremy|date=2005-12-15|title=Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures|url=https://arstechnica.com/features/2005/12/total-share/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-11-27|website=[[Ars Technica]]|language=en-us |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607023023/http://arstechnica.com:80/features/2005/12/total-share/ |archive-date=2012-06-07}}
*{{cite web |author=Jeremy Reimer |date=2012-12-07 |title=Total Share: Personal Computer Market Share 1975-2010 |url=https://jeremyreimer.com/rockets-item.lsp?p=137 |website=Jeremy Reimer}}</ref>
| unitsshipped =
| media =
| os =
| power =
| soc =
| cpu = [[Intel 8080]] @ 2 [[MHz]]
| memory =
| storage =
| memory card =
| display =
| graphics =
| sound =
| input =
| controllers =
| camera =
| touchpad =
| connectivity =
| platform =
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| compatibility =
| predecessor =
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| related =
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}}
The '''Altair 8800''' is a [[microcomputer]] designed in 1974 by [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems|MITS]] and based on the [[Intel 8080]] [[central processing unit|CPU]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rojas|first1=Raúl|title=Encyclopedia of computers and computer history|date=2001|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn|location=Chicago [u.a.]|isbn=1-57958-235-4}}</ref> Interest grew quickly after it was featured on the cover of the January 1975 issue of ''[[Popular Electronics]]''<ref>Copyright catalogs at the Library of Congress. January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics was published on November 29, 1974. [[:File:Copyright_Popular_Electronics_1975.jpg]]</ref> and was sold by mail order through advertisements there, in ''[[Radio-Electronics]]'', and in other hobbyist magazines.<ref>Newscientist Sept 21 gallery: [https://www.newscientist.com/gallery/dn17805-computer-museums-of-the-world/4 ''March of the outdated machines'']</ref><ref name = "Young 1998">{{cite book | last = Young | first = Jeffrey S. | title = Forbes Greatest Technology Stories: Inspiring Tales of the Entrepreneurs | url = https://archive.org/details/forbesgreatestte00youn | url-access = registration | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year =1998 | location =New York | isbn = 0-471-24374-4 |chapter=Chapter 6: 'Mechanics: Kits & Microcomputers'}}</ref> According to Harry Garland, the Altair 8800 was the product that catalyzed the [[microcomputer revolution|microcomputer revolution of the 1970s]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Garland|first=Harry|title=Design Innovations in Personal Computers|journal=Computer|publisher=IEEE Computer Society|quote=There is little question that the current enthusiasm in personal computing was catalyzed by the introduction of the MITS Altair computer kit in January 1975.|date=March 1977|volume=10|issue=3|page=24 |url=http://www.computer.org/csdl/mags/co/1977/03/01646402-abs.html|doi=10.1109/c-m.1977.217669|s2cid=32243439}}</ref> It was the first commercially successful personal computer.<ref>Dorf, Richard C., ed. The engineering handbook. CRC Press, 2004.</ref> The [[computer bus]] designed for the Altair was to become a [[de facto standard|''de facto'' standard]] in the form of the [[S-100 bus]], and the first programming language for the machine was [[Microsoft]]'s founding product, [[Altair BASIC]].<ref name = "Altair announcement">{{cite book | last = Ceruzzi | first = Paul E. | title = A History of Modern Computing | publisher = MIT Press | year = 2003 | location = Cambridge, MA | page = [https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/226 226] | isbn = 0-262-53203-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/226 |url-access=registration}} "This announcement [Altair 8800] ranks with IBM's announcement of the System/360 a decade earlier as one of the most significant in the history of computing."</ref><ref name = "Altair Impact">{{cite book | last1 = Freiberger | first1 = Paul | author-link1 = Paul Freiberger | first2 = Michael | last2 = Swaine | author-link2 = Michael Swaine (technical author) | title = Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 2000 | location = New York | isbn = 0-07-135892-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/fireinvalleymaki00frei_0 | url-access=registration}}</ref>

The Altair 8800 had no built-in screen or video output, so it would have to be connected to a serial terminal (such as a [[VT100]]-compatible terminal) to have any output. To connect it to a terminal a serial interface card had to be installed. Alternatively to using a terminal Altair could be programmed using its front-panel switches.

== History ==
[[File: MITS Rocket Light Flasher.jpg|thumb|right| This "Tracking Light for Model Rockets" project appeared in the September 1969 issue of [[Model Rocketry (magazine)|'' Model Rocketry'']] and was the first kit sold by MITS.]]

While serving at the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] Weapons Laboratory at [[Kirtland Air Force Base]], [[Ed Roberts (computer engineer)|Ed Roberts]] and [[Forrest Mims|Forrest M. Mims III]] decided to use their electronics background to produce small kits for [[model rocket]] hobbyists. In 1969, Roberts and Mims, along with Stan Cagle and Robert Zaller, founded [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems]] (MITS) in Roberts' garage in [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]], and started selling [[radio]] [[transmitter]]s and instruments for model rockets.

===Calculators===
The model rocket kits were a modest success and MITS wanted to try a kit that would appeal to more hobbyists. The November 1970 issue of ''Popular Electronics'' featured the Opticom, a kit from MITS that would send voice over an [[LED]] light beam. As Mims and Cagle were losing interest in the kit business, Roberts bought his partners out, then began developing a calculator kit. [[Electronic Arrays]] had just announced the EAS100, a set of six [[Integrated circuit#SSI.2C MSI and LSI|large scale integrated]] (LSI) circuit chips that would make a four-function calculator.<ref name = "Calculator Patent">{{US patent reference | number = 3800129 | y = 1974 | m = 03 | d = 26 | inventor = Richard H. Umstattd | title = MOS Desk Calculator}}</ref> The [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems#Calculators|MITS 816]] calculator kit used the chipset and was featured on the November 1971 cover of ''Popular Electronics''. This calculator kit sold for {{US$|long=no|175}}, or $275 assembled.<ref name = "MITS 816">{{cite magazine | author = Ed Roberts |date=November 1971 | title = Electronic desk calculator you can build |magazine= Popular Electronics | volume = 35 | issue = 5 | pages =27–32 | publisher = Ziff Davis}}</ref> Forrest Mims wrote the assembly manual for this kit and many others over the next several years. As payment for each manual he often accepted a copy of the kit.

The calculator was successful and was followed by several improved models. The MITS 1440 calculator was featured in the July 1973 issues of ''Radio-Electronics''. It had a 14-digit display, memory, and [[square root]] function. The kit sold for {{US$|long=no|200}} and the assembled version was {{US$|long=no|250}}.<ref name="MITS 1440">{{cite journal|last=Kellahin|first=James R.|date=July 1973|title=The 1440: A calculator with memory, square root and other new features|journal=Radio-Electronics|publisher=Gernsback Publication|volume=44|issue=7|pages=55–57}} The cover story is for the MITS 1700 waveform generator. An ad for the MITS 1200, a {{US$|long=no|99}} battery operated handheld calculator, is on page 15.</ref> MITS later developed a programmer unit that would connect to the 816 or 1440 calculator and allow programs of up to 256 steps.<ref name = "Calculator Book">{{cite book | last =Roberts | first =H. Edward | author-link = Ed Roberts (computer engineer) | editor =Forrest M. Mims | title =Electronic Calculators | publisher =Howard W. Sams | year =1974 | pages = 128–143 | isbn = 0-672-21039-8}}</ref>

In 1972, [[Texas Instruments]] developed its own calculator chip and started selling complete calculators at less than half the price of other commercial models. MITS and many other companies were devastated by this, and Roberts struggled to reduce his quarter-million-dollar debt.

===Test equipment===
In addition to calculators, MITS made a line of test equipment kits. These included an IC tester, a waveform generator, a digital voltmeter, and several other instruments. To keep up with the demand, MITS moved into a larger building at 6328 Linn NE in Albuquerque in 1973. They installed a [[wave soldering]] machine and an assembly line at the new location.

===''Popular Electronics''===
[[File:Popular Electronics Cover Jan 1975.jpg|thumb|right|January 1975 ''Popular Electronics'' with the Altair 8800 computer. Published on November 29, 1974.<ref name="PE-1975-01-PDF"/>]]
In January 1972, ''Popular Electronics'' merged with another [[Ziff-Davis]] magazine, ''Electronics World''. The change in editorial staff upset many of their authors, and they started writing for a competing magazine, ''Radio-Electronics''. In 1972 and 1973, some of the best construction projects appeared in ''Radio-Electronics''.

In 1974, Art Salsberg became editor of ''Popular Electronics''. It was Salsberg's goal to reclaim the lead in electronics projects. He was impressed with [[Don Lancaster]]'s [[TV Typewriter]] (''Radio Electronics'', September 1973) article and wanted computer projects for ''Popular Electronics''. Don Lancaster did an ASCII keyboard for ''Popular Electronics'' in April 1974. They were evaluating a computer trainer project by Jerry Ogden when the [[Mark-8]] [[Intel 8008|8008]]-based computer by Jonathan Titus appeared on the July 1974 cover of ''Radio-Electronics''. The computer trainer was put on hold and the editors looked for a real computer system. (''Popular Electronics'' gave Jerry Ogden a column, ''Computer Bits'', starting in June 1975.)<ref name ="Computer Bits">{{cite magazine | last =Ogdin | first =Jerry | title =Computer Bits |magazine=Popular Electronics | volume =7 | issue =6 | page =69 | publisher =Ziff-Davis | location =New York | date =June 1975 }} "The breakthrough in low-cost microprocessors occurred just before Christmas 1974, when the January issue of Popular Electronics reached readers … "</ref>

One of the editors, Les Solomon, knew MITS was working on an Intel 8080 based computer project and thought Roberts could provide the project for the always popular January issue. The TV Typewriter and the Mark-8 computer projects were just a detailed set of plans and a set of bare printed circuit boards. The hobbyist faced the daunting task of acquiring all of the integrated circuits and other components. The editors of ''Popular Electronics'' wanted a complete kit in a professional-looking enclosure.<ref name="Creative Computing">{{cite magazine | last = Mims | first = Forrest M. |date=November 1984 | title = The Altair story; early days at MITS |magazine= Creative Computing | volume = 10 | issue = 11 | page =17 | url = http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/17_The_Altair_story_early_d.php | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070408035039/http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/17_The_Altair_story_early_d.php| archive-date= 8 April 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>

[[Ed Roberts (computer engineer)|Ed Roberts]] and his head engineer, Bill Yates,  finished the first prototype in October 1974 and shipped it to ''Popular Electronics'' in New York via the [[Railway Express Agency]]. However, it never arrived due to a strike by the shipping company. Solomon already had a number of pictures of the machine and the article was based on them. Roberts got to work on building a replacement. The computer on the magazine cover is an empty box with just switches and LEDs on the front panel. The finished Altair computer had a completely different circuit board layout than the prototype shown in the magazine.<ref name = "PE Jan 1975">{{cite magazine | author = H. Edward Roberts |author2= William Yates |date=January 1975 | title = Altair 8800 minicomputer |magazine= Popular Electronics | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages =33–38 | publisher = Ziff Davis }}</ref> The January 1975 issues appeared on newsstands a week before Christmas of 1974 and the kit was officially (if not yet practically) available for sale.<ref name ="Computer Bits"/><ref name="Creative Computing"/><ref name="PE-1975-01-PDF">{{Cite web|url=https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Poptronics/70s/1975/Poptronics-1975-01.pdf|title=Popular Electronics; January 1975 issue.}}</ref>

===The name===
[[File:Altair 8800 and Model 33 ASR Teletype .jpg|thumb|A kit-built Altair 8800 computer with the popular [[Teletype_Model_33|Model 33 ASR (Automatic Send and Receive) Teletype]] as terminal|276x276px|alt=]]The typical MITS product had a generic name like the "[[:File:MITS Calculator Model 1440 1972.jpg|Model 1440 Calculator]]" or the "[[:File:MITS Test Equipment Nov 1973.jpg|Model 1600 Digital Voltmeter]]". Ed Roberts was busy finishing the design and left the naming of the computer to the editors of ''Popular Electronics''.

One explanation of the Altair name, which editor Les Solomon later told the audience at the first Altair Computer Convention (March 1976), is that the name was inspired by Les's 12-year-old daughter, Lauren. "She said why don't you call it Altair – that's where the Enterprise is going tonight."<ref name="Computer Notes">{{cite journal|title=Computer Power of the Future - The Hobbyists |journal=Computer Notes |last=Milford |first=Annette |volume=1 |issue=11 |page=7 |publisher=Altair Users Group, MITS Inc. |date=April 1976 |url=http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=76_4&p=7 |access-date=2007-12-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323162008/http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=76_4&p=7 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }}"Les Solomon entertained a curious audience with anecdotes about how it all began for MITS, The name for MITS' computer, for example, was inspired by his 12-year-old daughter. She said why don't you call it Altair -- that's where the ''Enterprise'' is going tonight."</ref> The ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek]]'' episode is probably "[[Amok Time]]", as this is the only one from ''The Original Series'' which takes the Enterprise crew to Altair (Six).

Another explanation is that the Altair was originally going to be named the PE-8 (Popular Electronics 8-bit), but Les Solomon thought this name to be rather dull, so Les, Alexander Burawa (associate editor), and John McVeigh (technical editor) decided that: "It's a stellar event, so let's name it after a star." McVeigh suggested "[[Altair]]", the twelfth brightest star in the sky.<ref name="Creative Computing"/><ref name = "Salsberg 1984">{{cite magazine | last = Salsberg | first = Arther | title = Jaded Memory |magazine= InfoWorld | volume = 6 | issue = 46 | page =7 | date = November 12, 1984 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oy4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA7 | issn = 0199-6649 | publisher = InfoWorld Media Group, Inc.}} Salsberg states that the Altair was named by John McVeigh</ref>

===Intel 8080===
Ed Roberts had designed and manufactured programmable calculators and was familiar with the microprocessors available in 1974. He thought the [[Intel 4004]] and [[Intel 8008]] were not powerful enough (in fact several microcomputers based on Intel chips were already on the market: the Canadian company [[Microsystems International]]'s CPS-1 built-in 1972 used a MIL MF7114 chip modeled on the 4004, the [[Micral]] marketed in January 1973 by the French company [[R2E]] and the [[MCM/70]] marketed in 1974 by the Canadian company Micro Computer Machines); the National Semiconductor IMP-8 and [[IMP-16]] required external hardware; the [[Motorola 6800]] was still in development. So he chose the 8-bit [[Intel 8080]].<ref name = "73 Magazine">{{cite magazine | last = Green | first = Wayne | title = Believe Me - I'm No Expert! |magazine=73 Magazine | issue = 184 | page =89 | publisher = 73, Inc | location = Peterborough, NH | date = February 1976}} Wayne Green visited MITS in August 1975 and interviewed Ed Roberts. The article has several paragraphs on the design of the Altair 8800.</ref> At that time, Intel's main business was selling memory chips by the thousands to computer companies. They had no experience in selling small quantities of microprocessors. When the 8080 was introduced in April 1974, Intel set the single unit price at {{US$|long=no|360}} (${{Inflation|US|360|1974|r=-1}} in {{Inflation/year|US}}). "That figure had a nice ring to it," recalled Intel's Dave House in 1984. "Besides, it was a computer, and they usually cost thousands of dollars, so we felt it was a reasonable price."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.intel.com/Assets/PDF/General/15yrs.pdf|title=A Revolution in Progress - A History to Date of Intel|last=Intel Corporation|publisher=Intel Corporation|year=1984|editor=Glynnis Thompson Kaye|page=14|id=Order number:231295}}</ref> Ed Roberts had experience in buying [[Original equipment manufacturer|OEM]] quantities of calculator chips and he was able to negotiate a {{US$|long=no|75}} price (${{Inflation|US|75|1974|r=-1}} in {{Inflation/year|US}}) for the 8080 microprocessor chips.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Freiberger | author-link = Paul Freiberger | first1 = Paul | first2 = Michael | last2 = Swaine | author-link2 = Michael Swaine (technical author) | title = Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 2000 | location = New York, NY | page = [https://archive.org/details/fireinvalleymaki00frei_0/page/42 42] | isbn = 0-07-135892-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/fireinvalleymaki00frei_0/page/42 | url-access=registration}} "Roberts was sure he could get the chip price much cheaper, and he did. Intel knocked the price down to {{US$|long=no|75}}."</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Mims | first = Forrest |date=January 1985 | title = The Tenth Anniversary of the Altair 8800 | journal = Computers & Electronics | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages =58–62, 81–82 | publisher = Ziff Davis}}"But because the 8080 sold for {{US$|long=no|360}} in single quantities, few people could afford it. Ed Roberts bought the chips in large quantities and was able to get a substantial discount…"</ref>

Intel made the [[Intellec-8]] Microprocessor Development System that typically sold for a very profitable {{US$|long=no|10000}}. It was functionally similar to the Altair 8800 but it was a commercial grade system with a wide selection of peripherals and development software.<ref name = "Intellec-8">{{cite book | last = Ceruzzi | first = Paul E. | title = A History of Modern Computing | publisher = MIT Press | year = 2003 | location = Cambridge, MA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/222 222–224] | isbn = 0-262-53203-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/222 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name = "New Products Oct 1976">{{cite journal | last = Michalopoulos | first = Demetrios A. | title = New Products | journal = Computer | volume = 9 | issue = 10 | pages =59–64 | publisher = IEEE | date = October 1976 | doi = 10.1109/C-M.1976.218414}} "Intel Corporation has announced that an interactive display console and highspeed line printer are now available for the Intellec MDS microcomputer development system. … The display console costs {{US$|long=no|2240}} and the printer {{US$|long=no|3200}} in quantities of 1 to 9. Delivery is in 30 days. Price of the basic Intellec MDS with 16K bytes of RAM memory, including interfaces and resident software for operating the peripherals, is {{US$|long=no|3950}}."</ref> Customers would ask Intel why their Intellec-8 was so expensive when that Altair was only {{US$|long=no|400}}. Some salesmen said that MITS was getting cosmetic rejects or otherwise inferior chips. In July 1975, Intel sent a letter to its sales force stating that the MITS Altair 8800 computer used standard Intel 8080 parts. The sales force should sell the Intellec system based on its merits and that no one should make derogatory comments about valued customers like MITS. The letter was reprinted in the August 1975 issue of MITS Computer Notes.<ref name="Computer Notes - Intel">{{cite journal|title=Across the Editor's Desk |journal=Computer Notes |last=Bunnell |first=David |volume=1 |issue=3 |page=2 |publisher=Altair Users Group, MITS Inc. |date=August 1975 |url=http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=75_8&p=2 |access-date=2007-12-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323162008/http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=75_8&p=2 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }} Intel letter to its sales force. "We wish to clarify any misconception that may exist in your minds regarding the MITS ALTAIR system. This product is designed around the Intel Standard Data Sheet 8080 family."</ref> The "cosmetic defect" rumor has appeared in many accounts over the years although both MITS and Intel issued written denials in 1975.<ref name = "Stan Veit">{{cite book | last = Veit | first = Stan | title = Stan Veit's History of the Personal Computer | publisher = WorldComm Press | year = 1993 | location = Alexander, North Carolina | page = 283 | isbn = 1-56664-030-X }} "Ed Roberts was able to get around this problem by obtaining a supply of cosmetic reject chips for about 1/3 the retail price."</ref>

===The launch===
[[File:Altair Computer Ad May 1975.jpg|thumb|right|A May 1975 advertisement for the Altair 8800 Computer appeared in ''Popular Electronics'', ''Radio-Electronics'', and other magazines.]]
For a decade, colleges had required science and engineering majors to take a course in computer programming, typically using the [[FORTRAN]] or [[BASIC]] languages.<ref name = "Brillinger 1970">{{cite journal | last = Brillinger | first = P. C. |author2=D. D. Cowan | title = A complete package for introducing computer science | journal = SIGCSE Bulletin | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages =118–126 | publisher = ACM | date = November 1970 | doi = 10.1145/873641.873659| s2cid = 16270182 }} Describes the introductory computer science courses at the University of Waterloo.</ref><ref name = "Ceruzzi education">{{cite book | last = Ceruzzi | first = Paul E. | title = A History of Modern Computing | publisher = MIT Press | year = 2003 | location = Cambridge, MA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/201 201–206] | isbn = 0-262-53203-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/201 |url-access=registration}}</ref> This meant there was a sizable customer base who knew about computers. In 1970, electronic calculators were not seen outside of a laboratory, but by 1974 they were a common household item. Calculators and video games like ''[[Pong]]'' introduced computer power to the general public. Electronics hobbyists were moving on to digital projects such as digital voltmeters and frequency counters. The Altair had enough power to be actually useful, and was designed as an expandable system that opened it up to all sorts of applications.

Ed Roberts optimistically told his banker that he could sell 800 computers, while in reality they needed to sell 200 over the next year just to break even. When readers got the January issue of ''Popular Electronics'', MITS was flooded with inquiries and orders. They had to hire extra people just to answer the phones. In February MITS received 1,000 orders for the Altair 8800. The quoted delivery time was 60 days but it was months before they could meet that. Roberts focused on delivering the computer; all of the options would wait until they could keep pace with the orders. MITS claimed to have delivered 2,500 Altair 8800s by the end of May.<ref name = "Computer Design Ad">{{cite journal | last =MITS | title = MITS advertisement | journal =Digital Design | volume = 4 | issue = 6 | publisher = CMP Information | date = June 1975 | url =http://altair.ftldesign.com/ | access-date =2008-01-01| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071210115832/http://altair.ftldesign.com/| archive-date= 10 December 2007 | url-status= live}} "There was a subsequent article in February's Popular Electronics and the MITS people knew the Altair was here to stay. During that month alone, over 1,000 mainframes were sold. Datamation, March 1975." "By the end of May, MITS had shipped over 2,500 Altair 8800's"</ref> The number was over 5,000 by August 1975.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Green | first = Wayne |date=October 1975 | title = From the Publisher .. Are they real? | journal = BYTE | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages =61, 81, 87 | publisher = Green Publishing}} In August 1975 Wayne Green visited several personal computer manufacturers. A photo caption in his trip report says; "Meanwhile, at MITS, over 5,000 Altair 8800's have been shipped. Here is a view of part of the production line."</ref> MITS had under 20 employees in January but had grown to 90 by October 1975.<ref name="Computer Notes - Employees">{{cite journal|title=Letter from the President |journal=Computer Notes |last=Roberts |first=H. Edward |volume=1 |issue=5 |page=3 |publisher=Altair Users Group, MITS Inc. |date=October 1975 |url=http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=75_10&p=3 |access-date=2008-07-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323162008/http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=75_10&p=3 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }} "We had less than 20 employees when we introduced the Altair and now we have grown to 90 as a result of our Altair customers." Roberts also discussed the problems with the 4K dynamic RAM boards. Customers got a $50 refund.</ref>

The Altair 8800 computer was a break-even sale for MITS. They needed to sell additional memory boards, I/O boards and other options to make a profit. The system came with a "1024 word" (1024 byte) memory board populated with 256 bytes. The BASIC language was announced in July 1975 and it required one or two 4096 word memory boards and an interface board.

MITS Price List, ''Popular Electronics'', August 1975.<ref name = "MITS Price List">{{cite magazine | author = MITS |date=August 1975 | title = Worlds Most Inexpensive BASIC language system |magazine= Popular Electronics | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | page =1 | publisher = Ziff Davis}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Description !! Kit price !! Assembled
|-
| Altair 8800 Computer ||align="right"| $439 ||align="right"| $621
|-
| 1024-word Memory Board ||align="right"| $176 ||align="right"| $209
|-
| 4096-word Memory Board ||align="right"| $264 ||align="right"| $338
|-
| Parallel Interface Board ||align="right"| $92 || style="text-align:right;"| $114
|-
| Serial Interface Board (RS-232) ||align="right"| $119 || style="text-align:right;"| $138
|-
| Serial Interface Board (Teletype) ||align="right"| $124 || style="text-align:right;"| $146
|-
| Audio Cassette Interface Board ||align="right"| $128 || style="text-align:right;"| $174
|-
| Teletype Model 33 ASR ||align="right"| N/A|| style="text-align:right;" | $1,500
|}
* 4K BASIC language (when purchased with Altair, 4096 words of memory and interface board): $60
* 8K BASIC language (when purchased with Altair, two 4096-word memory boards and interface board): $75

MITS had no competition in the US for the first half of 1975. Their 4K memory board used dynamic RAM and it had several design problems.<ref name="Computer Notes - Employees"/> The delay in shipping optional boards and the problems with the 4K memory board created an opportunity for outside suppliers.

An enterprising Altair owner, Robert Marsh, designed a 4K static memory that was plug-in compatible with the Altair 8800 and sold for $255.<ref name = "Marsh">{{cite journal |last = Moore | first = Fred | title = Hardware | journal = Homebrew Computer Club Newsletter | volume = 1 | issue = 5 | pages =2, 5 | date = July 1976 | url = http://www.digibarn.com/collections/newsletters/homebrew/V1_05/index.html | access-date = 2007-12-30}}</ref> His company was [[Processor Technology]], one of the most successful Altair compatible board suppliers. Their advertisement in the July 1975 issue of ''Popular Electronics'' promised interface and PROM boards in addition to the 4K memory board. They would later develop a popular video display board that would plug directly into the Altair.

A consulting company in San Leandro, California, [[IMS Associates, Inc.]], wanted to purchase several Altair computers, but the long delivery time convinced them that they should build their own computers. In the October 1975 issue of ''Popular Electronics'', a small advertisement announced the [[IMSAI 8080]] computer. The ad noted that all boards were "[[plug compatible]]" with the Altair 8800. The computer cost $439 as a kit. The first 50 IMSAI computers shipped in December 1975.<ref name = "ComputerLand">{{cite book | last = Littman | first = Jonathan | title = Once Upon a Time in ComputerLand: The Amazing, Billion-Dollar Tale of Bill Millard | publisher = Price Stern Sloan | date =1987 | page = 18 | location = Los Angeles | isbn = 0-89586-502-5 | url=https://archive.org/details/onceupontimeinco0000litt/ |url-access=registration}} "Later that day, December 16 [1975], United Parcel Service picked up the first shipment of 50 IMS computer kits for delivery to customers."</ref> The IMSAI 8080 computer improved on the original Altair design in several areas. It was easier to assemble: The Altair required 60 wire connections between the front panel and the motherboard ([[backplane]]). The IMSAI required only two soldered connections between the front panel and power supply. The MITS motherboard consisted of 4 slot segments that had to be connected together with 100 wires. The IMSAI motherboard implemented 22 slots on a single segment. The IMSAI replaced the Altair's [[Multivibrator|one-shot]] clock generator with the Intel 8224. The IMSAI also had a larger power supply to handle the increasing number of expansion boards used in typical systems. The IMSAI advantage was short lived because MITS had recognized these shortcomings and developed the Altair 8800B, which was introduced in June 1976.

In 1977, [[Pertec Computer Corporation]] purchased MITS and began to market the computer, without changes (except for branding), as the PCC 8800 in 1978.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.old-computers.com/history/detail.asp?n=34 | title = MITS - ALTAIR COMPANY IS SOLD TO PERTEC (MAY 1977) | website = OldComputers.Com | access-date = October 14, 2015 }}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Altair 8800 at the Computer History Museum, cropped.jpg|thumb|300px|Altair 8800 front panel (1st model)]]
[[File:Altair Computer Front Panel.jpg|thumb|300px|Altair 8800b front panel (2nd model)]]
[[File:Altair 8800b Computer.jpg|thumb|300px|Inside the Altair 8800b (2nd model)]]

In the first design of the Altair, the parts needed to make a complete machine would not fit on a single [[motherboard]], and the machine consisted of four boards stacked on top of each other with stand-offs. Another problem facing Roberts was that the parts needed to make a truly useful computer were not available, or would not be designed in time for the January launch date. So during the construction of the second model, he decided to build most of the machine on removable cards, reducing the [[motherboard]] to nothing more than an interconnect between the cards, a [[backplane]]. The basic machine consisted of five cards, including the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] on one and memory on another. He then looked for a cheap source of connectors and came across a supply of 100-pin [[edge connector]]s. The [[S-100 bus]] was eventually acknowledged by the professional computer community and adopted as the [[IEEE-696]] computer bus standard.

The [[Altair bus]] consists of the pins of the [[Intel 8080]] run out onto the backplane. No particular level of thought went into the design, which led to disasters such as [[Short circuit|shorting]] from various power lines of differing [[voltage]]s being located next to each other.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Another oddity was that the system included two unidirectional [[8-bit]] [[Bus (computing)|data buses]], when the normal practice was for a single bidirectional bus (this oddity did, however, allow a later expansion of the S-100 standard to 16 bits bidirectional by using both 8-bit buses in parallel). A deal on power supplies led to the use of +8 [[volt|V]] and ±18 V,{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} which had to be locally regulated on the cards to [[transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] (+5 V) or [[RS-232]] (±12 V) standard voltage levels.

The Altair shipped in a two-piece case. The backplane and power supply were mounted on a base plate, along with the front and rear of the box. The "lid" was shaped like a C, forming the top, left, and right sides of the box. The [[front panel]], which was inspired by the [[Data General Nova]] minicomputer, included a large number of [[toggle switch]]es to feed [[binary number|binary]] data directly into the memory of the machine, and a number of red [[light-emitting diode|LEDs]] to read those values back out.<ref name=" Nova 2">{{cite journal | last = Greelish | first = David | title = Ed Roberts Interview with Historically Brewed magazine | journal = Historically Brewed | issue = 9 | publisher = Historical Computer Society | year = 1996 | url = http://www.virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp | access-date = 2007-11-22 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071011045729/http://virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp | archive-date = 2007-10-11 | url-status = dead }} Ed Roberts said: "We had a Nova 2 by Data General in the office that we sold timeshare on … The front panel on an Altair essentially models every switch that was on the Nova 2. We had that machine to look at. The switches are pretty much standard of any front panel machine. It would have taken forever if we would have had to re-decide where every switch had to go."</ref>

Programming the Altair via the front panel could be a tedious and time-consuming process. Programming required the toggling of the switches to positions corresponding to the desired 8080 microprocessor instruction or [[opcode]] in binary, then used the "DEPOSIT NEXT" switch to load that instruction into the next address of the machine's memory. This step was repeated until all the opcodes of a presumably complete and correct program were in place. The only output from the programs was the patterns of lights on the panel. Nevertheless, many were sold in this form. Development was already underway on additional cards, including a [[paper tape]] reader for storage, additional [[random-access memory|RAM]] cards, and an [[RS-232]] interface to connect to a proper [[teleprinter|teletype]] [[Computer terminal|terminal]].

==Software==

===Altair BASIC===
{{Main|Altair BASIC}}

[[Ed Roberts (computer engineer)|Ed Roberts]] received a letter from [[Traf-O-Data]] asking whether he would be interested in buying what would eventually be the [[BASIC]] [[programming language]] for the machine. He called the company and reached a private home, where no one had heard of anything like BASIC. In fact the letter had been sent by [[Bill Gates]] and [[Paul Allen]] from the [[Boston]] area, and they had no BASIC yet to offer. When they called Roberts to follow up on the letter he expressed his interest, and the two started work on their BASIC [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] using a self-made [[Simulator#Computer science|simulator]] for the 8080 on a [[PDP-10]] [[mainframe computer]]. They figured that they had 30 days before someone else beat them to the punch, and once they had a version working on the simulator, Allen flew to Albuquerque to deliver the program, [[Altair BASIC]] (aka MITS 4K BASIC), on a [[paper tape]]. The first time it was run, it displayed "READY",<ref name="NM Interview">{{cite web |last=Gates |first=Bill |title=NATIONAL MUSEUM OF AMERICAN HISTORY Bill Gates interview |url=http://americanhistory.si.edu/comphist/gates.htm#tc12}}</ref> then Allen typed "PRINT 2+2", and it immediately printed the correct answer: "4". The game ''[[Lunar Lander (video game genre)|Lunar Lander]]'' was entered in, and this worked as well. Gates soon joined Allen and formed [[Microsoft]], then spelled "Micro-Soft".

=== Altair DOS ===
Announced in late 1975, it started shipping in August 1977.

==See also==
* [[SIMH]] emulates Altair 8800 with both 8080 and [[Zilog Z80|Z80]].
* [[IMSAI 8080]]
* {{ill|Legacy8080|ja|Legacy8080}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==

===Books===
*{{cite book
| last =Solomon
| first =Les
| chapter =Solomon's Memory
| editor-last =Ditlea
| editor-first =Steve
| title =Digital Deli: The Comprehensive, User-Lovable Menu of Computer Lore, Culture, Lifestyles and Fancy
| publisher =Workman Publishing
| date =September 1984
| url =https://archive.org/details/digitaldelicompr0000unse
| isbn =0-89480-591-6
| url-access =registration
| ref =none
}}
*{{cite book | last1 = Freiberger | first1 = Paul | author-link1 = Paul Freiberger | first2 = Michael | last2 = Swaine | author-link2 = Michael Swaine (technical author) | title = Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 2000 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-07-135892-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/fireinvalleymaki00frei_0 | ref =none |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book | last = Mims | first = Forrest M | title = Siliconnections: Coming of Age in the Electronic Era | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 1986 | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-042411-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/siliconnectionsc00mims | ref =none |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book | last =Veit | first =Stanley | title = Stan Veit's history of the personal computer. | publisher = WorldComm | year = 1993 | url = http://www.pc-history.org/altair.htm | location = Asheville, N.C | isbn = 978-1-56664-030-5 | ref =none}}
*{{cite book | last = Young | first = Jeffrey S. | title = Forbes Greatest Technology Stories: Inspiring Tales of the Entrepreneurs | url = https://archive.org/details/forbesgreatest00youn | url-access = registration | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year =1998 | location =New York | isbn = 0-471-24374-4| ref =none}} Chapter 6 "Mechanics: Kits & Microcomputers"

===Magazines===
*{{cite journal | last = Greelish | first = David | title = Ed Roberts Interview with Historically Brewed magazine | journal = Historically Brewed | issue = 9 | publisher = Historical Computer Society | year = 1996 | url = http://www.virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp | access-date = 2007-11-22 | ref = none | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071011045729/http://virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp | archive-date = 2007-10-11 | url-status = dead }}
*{{cite journal | last = Green| first = Wayne|date=October 1975 | title = From the Publisher .. Are they real? | journal = BYTE | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages =61, 81, 87 | publisher = Green Publishing| ref =none}}
*{{cite magazine | last = Mims | first = Forrest M. |date=November 1984 | title = The Altair story; early days at MITS |magazine= Creative Computing | volume = 10 | issue = 11 | page =17 | url = http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/17_The_Altair_story_early_d.php | access-date = 2007-03-17| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070408035039/http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/17_The_Altair_story_early_d.php| archive-date= 8 April 2007 | url-status= live| ref =none}}
*{{cite journal | last = Mims | first = Forrest |date=January 1985 | title = The Tenth Anniversary of the Altair 8800 | journal = Computers & Electronics | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages =58–62, 81–82 | publisher = Ziff Davis| ref =none}}
*{{cite magazine | last = Roberts | first = H. Edward | author-link = Ed Roberts (computer engineer) | author2 = William Yates | date = January 1975 | title = Altair 8800 minicomputer | magazine = Popular Electronics | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–38 | publisher = Ziff Davis | location = New York, NY | url = http://www.swtpc.com/mholley/PopularElectronics/Jan1975/PE_Jan1975.htm | access-date = 2008-04-26 | ref = none | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080821145707/http://www.swtpc.com/mholley/PopularElectronics/Jan1975/PE_Jan1975.htm | archive-date = 2008-08-21 | url-status = dead }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Altair 8800}}
* {{cite web|title=Altair 8800 |publisher=New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science |url=http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/item.php?ii=26 |access-date=2007-12-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323162008/http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/item.php?ii=26 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }}
* [https://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=62&st=1 MITS Altair 8800 exhibit at old-computers.com's virtual computer museum]
* [http://www.virtualaltair.com/ Virtual Altair Museum]
* [http://www.vintage-computer.com/machines.php?altair8800 Altair 8800 images and information at vintage-computer.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121120181144/http://maben.homeip.net/static/S100/altair/index.html Marcus Bennett's Altair Documentation resource]
* [http://www.brielcomputers.com Maker of a hardware emulation of the 8800 running on an Atmel AVR 8515] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918025305/http://www.brielcomputers.com/ |date=2020-09-18 }}
* [http://altairclone.com Altair 8800 Clone]
* [http://s2js.com/altair True-to-life MITS Altair 8800 online simulator]

[[Category:Computer-related introductions in 1974]]
[[Category:S-100 machines]]
[[Category:8-bit computers]]

Altair 8800

2024-01-08T11:18:19Z

Eugrus: sentence alignment

{{short description|Microcomputer designed in 1974}}
{{Infobox information appliance
| name = MITS Altair 8800
| title =
| aka =
| logo =
| image = Altair 8800 Computer.jpg
| caption = Altair 8800 Computer with 8-inch floppy disk system
| developer = [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems|MITS]]
| manufacturer = MITS
| family =
| type =
| generation =
| releasedate = {{Start date and age|1975|1}}
| lifespan =
| price = Kit: {{nowrap|US $439}} {{nowrap|(${{Inflation|US|439|1975|r=-2}} in {{Inflation/year|US}})}} Assembled: {{nowrap|US $621}} {{nowrap|(${{Inflation|US|621|1975|r=-2}} in {{Inflation/year|US}})}}
| discontinued =
| unitssold = 25,000<ref>{{Cite web|last=Reimer|first=Jeremy|date=2005-12-15|title=Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures|url=https://arstechnica.com/features/2005/12/total-share/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-11-27|website=[[Ars Technica]]|language=en-us |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607023023/http://arstechnica.com:80/features/2005/12/total-share/ |archive-date=2012-06-07}}
*{{cite web |author=Jeremy Reimer |date=2012-12-07 |title=Total Share: Personal Computer Market Share 1975-2010 |url=https://jeremyreimer.com/rockets-item.lsp?p=137 |website=Jeremy Reimer}}</ref>
| unitsshipped =
| media =
| os =
| power =
| soc =
| cpu = [[Intel 8080]] @ 2 [[MHz]]
| memory =
| storage =
| memory card =
| display =
| graphics =
| sound =
| input =
| controllers =
| camera =
| touchpad =
| connectivity =
| platform =
| service =
| dimensions =
| weight =
| topgame =
| compatibility =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| related =
| website = 
}}
The '''Altair 8800''' is a [[microcomputer]] designed in 1974 by [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems|MITS]] and based on the [[Intel 8080]] [[central processing unit|CPU]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rojas|first1=Raúl|title=Encyclopedia of computers and computer history|date=2001|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn|location=Chicago [u.a.]|isbn=1-57958-235-4}}</ref> Interest grew quickly after it was featured on the cover of the January 1975 issue of ''[[Popular Electronics]]''<ref>Copyright catalogs at the Library of Congress. January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics was published on November 29, 1974. [[:File:Copyright_Popular_Electronics_1975.jpg]]</ref> and was sold by mail order through advertisements there, in ''[[Radio-Electronics]]'', and in other hobbyist magazines.<ref>Newscientist Sept 21 gallery: [https://www.newscientist.com/gallery/dn17805-computer-museums-of-the-world/4 ''March of the outdated machines'']</ref><ref name = "Young 1998">{{cite book | last = Young | first = Jeffrey S. | title = Forbes Greatest Technology Stories: Inspiring Tales of the Entrepreneurs | url = https://archive.org/details/forbesgreatestte00youn | url-access = registration | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year =1998 | location =New York | isbn = 0-471-24374-4 |chapter=Chapter 6: 'Mechanics: Kits & Microcomputers'}}</ref> According to Harry Garland, the Altair 8800 was the product that catalyzed the [[microcomputer revolution|microcomputer revolution of the 1970s]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Garland|first=Harry|title=Design Innovations in Personal Computers|journal=Computer|publisher=IEEE Computer Society|quote=There is little question that the current enthusiasm in personal computing was catalyzed by the introduction of the MITS Altair computer kit in January 1975.|date=March 1977|volume=10|issue=3|page=24 |url=http://www.computer.org/csdl/mags/co/1977/03/01646402-abs.html|doi=10.1109/c-m.1977.217669|s2cid=32243439}}</ref> It was the first commercially successful personal computer.<ref>Dorf, Richard C., ed. The engineering handbook. CRC Press, 2004.</ref> The [[computer bus]] designed for the Altair was to become a [[de facto standard|''de facto'' standard]] in the form of the [[S-100 bus]], and the first programming language for the machine was [[Microsoft]]'s founding product, [[Altair BASIC]].<ref name = "Altair announcement">{{cite book | last = Ceruzzi | first = Paul E. | title = A History of Modern Computing | publisher = MIT Press | year = 2003 | location = Cambridge, MA | page = [https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/226 226] | isbn = 0-262-53203-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/226 |url-access=registration}} "This announcement [Altair 8800] ranks with IBM's announcement of the System/360 a decade earlier as one of the most significant in the history of computing."</ref><ref name = "Altair Impact">{{cite book | last1 = Freiberger | first1 = Paul | author-link1 = Paul Freiberger | first2 = Michael | last2 = Swaine | author-link2 = Michael Swaine (technical author) | title = Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 2000 | location = New York | isbn = 0-07-135892-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/fireinvalleymaki00frei_0 | url-access=registration}}</ref>

The Altair 8800 had no built-in screen or video output, so it would have to be connected to a serial terminal (such as a [[VT100]]-compatible terminal) to have any output. To connect it to terminal a serial interface card had to be installed. Alternatively to using a terminal Altair could be programmed using its front-panel switches.

== History ==
[[File: MITS Rocket Light Flasher.jpg|thumb|right| This "Tracking Light for Model Rockets" project appeared in the September 1969 issue of [[Model Rocketry (magazine)|'' Model Rocketry'']] and was the first kit sold by MITS.]]

While serving at the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] Weapons Laboratory at [[Kirtland Air Force Base]], [[Ed Roberts (computer engineer)|Ed Roberts]] and [[Forrest Mims|Forrest M. Mims III]] decided to use their electronics background to produce small kits for [[model rocket]] hobbyists. In 1969, Roberts and Mims, along with Stan Cagle and Robert Zaller, founded [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems]] (MITS) in Roberts' garage in [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]], and started selling [[radio]] [[transmitter]]s and instruments for model rockets.

===Calculators===
The model rocket kits were a modest success and MITS wanted to try a kit that would appeal to more hobbyists. The November 1970 issue of ''Popular Electronics'' featured the Opticom, a kit from MITS that would send voice over an [[LED]] light beam. As Mims and Cagle were losing interest in the kit business, Roberts bought his partners out, then began developing a calculator kit. [[Electronic Arrays]] had just announced the EAS100, a set of six [[Integrated circuit#SSI.2C MSI and LSI|large scale integrated]] (LSI) circuit chips that would make a four-function calculator.<ref name = "Calculator Patent">{{US patent reference | number = 3800129 | y = 1974 | m = 03 | d = 26 | inventor = Richard H. Umstattd | title = MOS Desk Calculator}}</ref> The [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems#Calculators|MITS 816]] calculator kit used the chipset and was featured on the November 1971 cover of ''Popular Electronics''. This calculator kit sold for {{US$|long=no|175}}, or $275 assembled.<ref name = "MITS 816">{{cite magazine | author = Ed Roberts |date=November 1971 | title = Electronic desk calculator you can build |magazine= Popular Electronics | volume = 35 | issue = 5 | pages =27–32 | publisher = Ziff Davis}}</ref> Forrest Mims wrote the assembly manual for this kit and many others over the next several years. As payment for each manual he often accepted a copy of the kit.

The calculator was successful and was followed by several improved models. The MITS 1440 calculator was featured in the July 1973 issues of ''Radio-Electronics''. It had a 14-digit display, memory, and [[square root]] function. The kit sold for {{US$|long=no|200}} and the assembled version was {{US$|long=no|250}}.<ref name="MITS 1440">{{cite journal|last=Kellahin|first=James R.|date=July 1973|title=The 1440: A calculator with memory, square root and other new features|journal=Radio-Electronics|publisher=Gernsback Publication|volume=44|issue=7|pages=55–57}} The cover story is for the MITS 1700 waveform generator. An ad for the MITS 1200, a {{US$|long=no|99}} battery operated handheld calculator, is on page 15.</ref> MITS later developed a programmer unit that would connect to the 816 or 1440 calculator and allow programs of up to 256 steps.<ref name = "Calculator Book">{{cite book | last =Roberts | first =H. Edward | author-link = Ed Roberts (computer engineer) | editor =Forrest M. Mims | title =Electronic Calculators | publisher =Howard W. Sams | year =1974 | pages = 128–143 | isbn = 0-672-21039-8}}</ref>

In 1972, [[Texas Instruments]] developed its own calculator chip and started selling complete calculators at less than half the price of other commercial models. MITS and many other companies were devastated by this, and Roberts struggled to reduce his quarter-million-dollar debt.

===Test equipment===
In addition to calculators, MITS made a line of test equipment kits. These included an IC tester, a waveform generator, a digital voltmeter, and several other instruments. To keep up with the demand, MITS moved into a larger building at 6328 Linn NE in Albuquerque in 1973. They installed a [[wave soldering]] machine and an assembly line at the new location.

===''Popular Electronics''===
[[File:Popular Electronics Cover Jan 1975.jpg|thumb|right|January 1975 ''Popular Electronics'' with the Altair 8800 computer. Published on November 29, 1974.<ref name="PE-1975-01-PDF"/>]]
In January 1972, ''Popular Electronics'' merged with another [[Ziff-Davis]] magazine, ''Electronics World''. The change in editorial staff upset many of their authors, and they started writing for a competing magazine, ''Radio-Electronics''. In 1972 and 1973, some of the best construction projects appeared in ''Radio-Electronics''.

In 1974, Art Salsberg became editor of ''Popular Electronics''. It was Salsberg's goal to reclaim the lead in electronics projects. He was impressed with [[Don Lancaster]]'s [[TV Typewriter]] (''Radio Electronics'', September 1973) article and wanted computer projects for ''Popular Electronics''. Don Lancaster did an ASCII keyboard for ''Popular Electronics'' in April 1974. They were evaluating a computer trainer project by Jerry Ogden when the [[Mark-8]] [[Intel 8008|8008]]-based computer by Jonathan Titus appeared on the July 1974 cover of ''Radio-Electronics''. The computer trainer was put on hold and the editors looked for a real computer system. (''Popular Electronics'' gave Jerry Ogden a column, ''Computer Bits'', starting in June 1975.)<ref name ="Computer Bits">{{cite magazine | last =Ogdin | first =Jerry | title =Computer Bits |magazine=Popular Electronics | volume =7 | issue =6 | page =69 | publisher =Ziff-Davis | location =New York | date =June 1975 }} "The breakthrough in low-cost microprocessors occurred just before Christmas 1974, when the January issue of Popular Electronics reached readers … "</ref>

One of the editors, Les Solomon, knew MITS was working on an Intel 8080 based computer project and thought Roberts could provide the project for the always popular January issue. The TV Typewriter and the Mark-8 computer projects were just a detailed set of plans and a set of bare printed circuit boards. The hobbyist faced the daunting task of acquiring all of the integrated circuits and other components. The editors of ''Popular Electronics'' wanted a complete kit in a professional-looking enclosure.<ref name="Creative Computing">{{cite magazine | last = Mims | first = Forrest M. |date=November 1984 | title = The Altair story; early days at MITS |magazine= Creative Computing | volume = 10 | issue = 11 | page =17 | url = http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/17_The_Altair_story_early_d.php | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070408035039/http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/17_The_Altair_story_early_d.php| archive-date= 8 April 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>

[[Ed Roberts (computer engineer)|Ed Roberts]] and his head engineer, Bill Yates,  finished the first prototype in October 1974 and shipped it to ''Popular Electronics'' in New York via the [[Railway Express Agency]]. However, it never arrived due to a strike by the shipping company. Solomon already had a number of pictures of the machine and the article was based on them. Roberts got to work on building a replacement. The computer on the magazine cover is an empty box with just switches and LEDs on the front panel. The finished Altair computer had a completely different circuit board layout than the prototype shown in the magazine.<ref name = "PE Jan 1975">{{cite magazine | author = H. Edward Roberts |author2= William Yates |date=January 1975 | title = Altair 8800 minicomputer |magazine= Popular Electronics | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages =33–38 | publisher = Ziff Davis }}</ref> The January 1975 issues appeared on newsstands a week before Christmas of 1974 and the kit was officially (if not yet practically) available for sale.<ref name ="Computer Bits"/><ref name="Creative Computing"/><ref name="PE-1975-01-PDF">{{Cite web|url=https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Poptronics/70s/1975/Poptronics-1975-01.pdf|title=Popular Electronics; January 1975 issue.}}</ref>

===The name===
[[File:Altair 8800 and Model 33 ASR Teletype .jpg|thumb|A kit-built Altair 8800 computer with the popular [[Teletype_Model_33|Model 33 ASR (Automatic Send and Receive) Teletype]] as terminal|276x276px|alt=]]The typical MITS product had a generic name like the "[[:File:MITS Calculator Model 1440 1972.jpg|Model 1440 Calculator]]" or the "[[:File:MITS Test Equipment Nov 1973.jpg|Model 1600 Digital Voltmeter]]". Ed Roberts was busy finishing the design and left the naming of the computer to the editors of ''Popular Electronics''.

One explanation of the Altair name, which editor Les Solomon later told the audience at the first Altair Computer Convention (March 1976), is that the name was inspired by Les's 12-year-old daughter, Lauren. "She said why don't you call it Altair – that's where the Enterprise is going tonight."<ref name="Computer Notes">{{cite journal|title=Computer Power of the Future - The Hobbyists |journal=Computer Notes |last=Milford |first=Annette |volume=1 |issue=11 |page=7 |publisher=Altair Users Group, MITS Inc. |date=April 1976 |url=http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=76_4&p=7 |access-date=2007-12-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323162008/http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=76_4&p=7 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }}"Les Solomon entertained a curious audience with anecdotes about how it all began for MITS, The name for MITS' computer, for example, was inspired by his 12-year-old daughter. She said why don't you call it Altair -- that's where the ''Enterprise'' is going tonight."</ref> The ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek]]'' episode is probably "[[Amok Time]]", as this is the only one from ''The Original Series'' which takes the Enterprise crew to Altair (Six).

Another explanation is that the Altair was originally going to be named the PE-8 (Popular Electronics 8-bit), but Les Solomon thought this name to be rather dull, so Les, Alexander Burawa (associate editor), and John McVeigh (technical editor) decided that: "It's a stellar event, so let's name it after a star." McVeigh suggested "[[Altair]]", the twelfth brightest star in the sky.<ref name="Creative Computing"/><ref name = "Salsberg 1984">{{cite magazine | last = Salsberg | first = Arther | title = Jaded Memory |magazine= InfoWorld | volume = 6 | issue = 46 | page =7 | date = November 12, 1984 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oy4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA7 | issn = 0199-6649 | publisher = InfoWorld Media Group, Inc.}} Salsberg states that the Altair was named by John McVeigh</ref>

===Intel 8080===
Ed Roberts had designed and manufactured programmable calculators and was familiar with the microprocessors available in 1974. He thought the [[Intel 4004]] and [[Intel 8008]] were not powerful enough (in fact several microcomputers based on Intel chips were already on the market: the Canadian company [[Microsystems International]]'s CPS-1 built-in 1972 used a MIL MF7114 chip modeled on the 4004, the [[Micral]] marketed in January 1973 by the French company [[R2E]] and the [[MCM/70]] marketed in 1974 by the Canadian company Micro Computer Machines); the National Semiconductor IMP-8 and [[IMP-16]] required external hardware; the [[Motorola 6800]] was still in development. So he chose the 8-bit [[Intel 8080]].<ref name = "73 Magazine">{{cite magazine | last = Green | first = Wayne | title = Believe Me - I'm No Expert! |magazine=73 Magazine | issue = 184 | page =89 | publisher = 73, Inc | location = Peterborough, NH | date = February 1976}} Wayne Green visited MITS in August 1975 and interviewed Ed Roberts. The article has several paragraphs on the design of the Altair 8800.</ref> At that time, Intel's main business was selling memory chips by the thousands to computer companies. They had no experience in selling small quantities of microprocessors. When the 8080 was introduced in April 1974, Intel set the single unit price at {{US$|long=no|360}} (${{Inflation|US|360|1974|r=-1}} in {{Inflation/year|US}}). "That figure had a nice ring to it," recalled Intel's Dave House in 1984. "Besides, it was a computer, and they usually cost thousands of dollars, so we felt it was a reasonable price."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.intel.com/Assets/PDF/General/15yrs.pdf|title=A Revolution in Progress - A History to Date of Intel|last=Intel Corporation|publisher=Intel Corporation|year=1984|editor=Glynnis Thompson Kaye|page=14|id=Order number:231295}}</ref> Ed Roberts had experience in buying [[Original equipment manufacturer|OEM]] quantities of calculator chips and he was able to negotiate a {{US$|long=no|75}} price (${{Inflation|US|75|1974|r=-1}} in {{Inflation/year|US}}) for the 8080 microprocessor chips.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Freiberger | author-link = Paul Freiberger | first1 = Paul | first2 = Michael | last2 = Swaine | author-link2 = Michael Swaine (technical author) | title = Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 2000 | location = New York, NY | page = [https://archive.org/details/fireinvalleymaki00frei_0/page/42 42] | isbn = 0-07-135892-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/fireinvalleymaki00frei_0/page/42 | url-access=registration}} "Roberts was sure he could get the chip price much cheaper, and he did. Intel knocked the price down to {{US$|long=no|75}}."</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Mims | first = Forrest |date=January 1985 | title = The Tenth Anniversary of the Altair 8800 | journal = Computers & Electronics | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages =58–62, 81–82 | publisher = Ziff Davis}}"But because the 8080 sold for {{US$|long=no|360}} in single quantities, few people could afford it. Ed Roberts bought the chips in large quantities and was able to get a substantial discount…"</ref>

Intel made the [[Intellec-8]] Microprocessor Development System that typically sold for a very profitable {{US$|long=no|10000}}. It was functionally similar to the Altair 8800 but it was a commercial grade system with a wide selection of peripherals and development software.<ref name = "Intellec-8">{{cite book | last = Ceruzzi | first = Paul E. | title = A History of Modern Computing | publisher = MIT Press | year = 2003 | location = Cambridge, MA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/222 222–224] | isbn = 0-262-53203-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/222 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name = "New Products Oct 1976">{{cite journal | last = Michalopoulos | first = Demetrios A. | title = New Products | journal = Computer | volume = 9 | issue = 10 | pages =59–64 | publisher = IEEE | date = October 1976 | doi = 10.1109/C-M.1976.218414}} "Intel Corporation has announced that an interactive display console and highspeed line printer are now available for the Intellec MDS microcomputer development system. … The display console costs {{US$|long=no|2240}} and the printer {{US$|long=no|3200}} in quantities of 1 to 9. Delivery is in 30 days. Price of the basic Intellec MDS with 16K bytes of RAM memory, including interfaces and resident software for operating the peripherals, is {{US$|long=no|3950}}."</ref> Customers would ask Intel why their Intellec-8 was so expensive when that Altair was only {{US$|long=no|400}}. Some salesmen said that MITS was getting cosmetic rejects or otherwise inferior chips. In July 1975, Intel sent a letter to its sales force stating that the MITS Altair 8800 computer used standard Intel 8080 parts. The sales force should sell the Intellec system based on its merits and that no one should make derogatory comments about valued customers like MITS. The letter was reprinted in the August 1975 issue of MITS Computer Notes.<ref name="Computer Notes - Intel">{{cite journal|title=Across the Editor's Desk |journal=Computer Notes |last=Bunnell |first=David |volume=1 |issue=3 |page=2 |publisher=Altair Users Group, MITS Inc. |date=August 1975 |url=http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=75_8&p=2 |access-date=2007-12-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323162008/http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=75_8&p=2 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }} Intel letter to its sales force. "We wish to clarify any misconception that may exist in your minds regarding the MITS ALTAIR system. This product is designed around the Intel Standard Data Sheet 8080 family."</ref> The "cosmetic defect" rumor has appeared in many accounts over the years although both MITS and Intel issued written denials in 1975.<ref name = "Stan Veit">{{cite book | last = Veit | first = Stan | title = Stan Veit's History of the Personal Computer | publisher = WorldComm Press | year = 1993 | location = Alexander, North Carolina | page = 283 | isbn = 1-56664-030-X }} "Ed Roberts was able to get around this problem by obtaining a supply of cosmetic reject chips for about 1/3 the retail price."</ref>

===The launch===
[[File:Altair Computer Ad May 1975.jpg|thumb|right|A May 1975 advertisement for the Altair 8800 Computer appeared in ''Popular Electronics'', ''Radio-Electronics'', and other magazines.]]
For a decade, colleges had required science and engineering majors to take a course in computer programming, typically using the [[FORTRAN]] or [[BASIC]] languages.<ref name = "Brillinger 1970">{{cite journal | last = Brillinger | first = P. C. |author2=D. D. Cowan | title = A complete package for introducing computer science | journal = SIGCSE Bulletin | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages =118–126 | publisher = ACM | date = November 1970 | doi = 10.1145/873641.873659| s2cid = 16270182 }} Describes the introductory computer science courses at the University of Waterloo.</ref><ref name = "Ceruzzi education">{{cite book | last = Ceruzzi | first = Paul E. | title = A History of Modern Computing | publisher = MIT Press | year = 2003 | location = Cambridge, MA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/201 201–206] | isbn = 0-262-53203-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/201 |url-access=registration}}</ref> This meant there was a sizable customer base who knew about computers. In 1970, electronic calculators were not seen outside of a laboratory, but by 1974 they were a common household item. Calculators and video games like ''[[Pong]]'' introduced computer power to the general public. Electronics hobbyists were moving on to digital projects such as digital voltmeters and frequency counters. The Altair had enough power to be actually useful, and was designed as an expandable system that opened it up to all sorts of applications.

Ed Roberts optimistically told his banker that he could sell 800 computers, while in reality they needed to sell 200 over the next year just to break even. When readers got the January issue of ''Popular Electronics'', MITS was flooded with inquiries and orders. They had to hire extra people just to answer the phones. In February MITS received 1,000 orders for the Altair 8800. The quoted delivery time was 60 days but it was months before they could meet that. Roberts focused on delivering the computer; all of the options would wait until they could keep pace with the orders. MITS claimed to have delivered 2,500 Altair 8800s by the end of May.<ref name = "Computer Design Ad">{{cite journal | last =MITS | title = MITS advertisement | journal =Digital Design | volume = 4 | issue = 6 | publisher = CMP Information | date = June 1975 | url =http://altair.ftldesign.com/ | access-date =2008-01-01| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071210115832/http://altair.ftldesign.com/| archive-date= 10 December 2007 | url-status= live}} "There was a subsequent article in February's Popular Electronics and the MITS people knew the Altair was here to stay. During that month alone, over 1,000 mainframes were sold. Datamation, March 1975." "By the end of May, MITS had shipped over 2,500 Altair 8800's"</ref> The number was over 5,000 by August 1975.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Green | first = Wayne |date=October 1975 | title = From the Publisher .. Are they real? | journal = BYTE | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages =61, 81, 87 | publisher = Green Publishing}} In August 1975 Wayne Green visited several personal computer manufacturers. A photo caption in his trip report says; "Meanwhile, at MITS, over 5,000 Altair 8800's have been shipped. Here is a view of part of the production line."</ref> MITS had under 20 employees in January but had grown to 90 by October 1975.<ref name="Computer Notes - Employees">{{cite journal|title=Letter from the President |journal=Computer Notes |last=Roberts |first=H. Edward |volume=1 |issue=5 |page=3 |publisher=Altair Users Group, MITS Inc. |date=October 1975 |url=http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=75_10&p=3 |access-date=2008-07-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323162008/http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=75_10&p=3 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }} "We had less than 20 employees when we introduced the Altair and now we have grown to 90 as a result of our Altair customers." Roberts also discussed the problems with the 4K dynamic RAM boards. Customers got a $50 refund.</ref>

The Altair 8800 computer was a break-even sale for MITS. They needed to sell additional memory boards, I/O boards and other options to make a profit. The system came with a "1024 word" (1024 byte) memory board populated with 256 bytes. The BASIC language was announced in July 1975 and it required one or two 4096 word memory boards and an interface board.

MITS Price List, ''Popular Electronics'', August 1975.<ref name = "MITS Price List">{{cite magazine | author = MITS |date=August 1975 | title = Worlds Most Inexpensive BASIC language system |magazine= Popular Electronics | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | page =1 | publisher = Ziff Davis}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Description !! Kit price !! Assembled
|-
| Altair 8800 Computer ||align="right"| $439 ||align="right"| $621
|-
| 1024-word Memory Board ||align="right"| $176 ||align="right"| $209
|-
| 4096-word Memory Board ||align="right"| $264 ||align="right"| $338
|-
| Parallel Interface Board ||align="right"| $92 || style="text-align:right;"| $114
|-
| Serial Interface Board (RS-232) ||align="right"| $119 || style="text-align:right;"| $138
|-
| Serial Interface Board (Teletype) ||align="right"| $124 || style="text-align:right;"| $146
|-
| Audio Cassette Interface Board ||align="right"| $128 || style="text-align:right;"| $174
|-
| Teletype Model 33 ASR ||align="right"| N/A|| style="text-align:right;" | $1,500
|}
* 4K BASIC language (when purchased with Altair, 4096 words of memory and interface board): $60
* 8K BASIC language (when purchased with Altair, two 4096-word memory boards and interface board): $75

MITS had no competition in the US for the first half of 1975. Their 4K memory board used dynamic RAM and it had several design problems.<ref name="Computer Notes - Employees"/> The delay in shipping optional boards and the problems with the 4K memory board created an opportunity for outside suppliers.

An enterprising Altair owner, Robert Marsh, designed a 4K static memory that was plug-in compatible with the Altair 8800 and sold for $255.<ref name = "Marsh">{{cite journal |last = Moore | first = Fred | title = Hardware | journal = Homebrew Computer Club Newsletter | volume = 1 | issue = 5 | pages =2, 5 | date = July 1976 | url = http://www.digibarn.com/collections/newsletters/homebrew/V1_05/index.html | access-date = 2007-12-30}}</ref> His company was [[Processor Technology]], one of the most successful Altair compatible board suppliers. Their advertisement in the July 1975 issue of ''Popular Electronics'' promised interface and PROM boards in addition to the 4K memory board. They would later develop a popular video display board that would plug directly into the Altair.

A consulting company in San Leandro, California, [[IMS Associates, Inc.]], wanted to purchase several Altair computers, but the long delivery time convinced them that they should build their own computers. In the October 1975 issue of ''Popular Electronics'', a small advertisement announced the [[IMSAI 8080]] computer. The ad noted that all boards were "[[plug compatible]]" with the Altair 8800. The computer cost $439 as a kit. The first 50 IMSAI computers shipped in December 1975.<ref name = "ComputerLand">{{cite book | last = Littman | first = Jonathan | title = Once Upon a Time in ComputerLand: The Amazing, Billion-Dollar Tale of Bill Millard | publisher = Price Stern Sloan | date =1987 | page = 18 | location = Los Angeles | isbn = 0-89586-502-5 | url=https://archive.org/details/onceupontimeinco0000litt/ |url-access=registration}} "Later that day, December 16 [1975], United Parcel Service picked up the first shipment of 50 IMS computer kits for delivery to customers."</ref> The IMSAI 8080 computer improved on the original Altair design in several areas. It was easier to assemble: The Altair required 60 wire connections between the front panel and the motherboard ([[backplane]]). The IMSAI required only two soldered connections between the front panel and power supply. The MITS motherboard consisted of 4 slot segments that had to be connected together with 100 wires. The IMSAI motherboard implemented 22 slots on a single segment. The IMSAI replaced the Altair's [[Multivibrator|one-shot]] clock generator with the Intel 8224. The IMSAI also had a larger power supply to handle the increasing number of expansion boards used in typical systems. The IMSAI advantage was short lived because MITS had recognized these shortcomings and developed the Altair 8800B, which was introduced in June 1976.

In 1977, [[Pertec Computer Corporation]] purchased MITS and began to market the computer, without changes (except for branding), as the PCC 8800 in 1978.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.old-computers.com/history/detail.asp?n=34 | title = MITS - ALTAIR COMPANY IS SOLD TO PERTEC (MAY 1977) | website = OldComputers.Com | access-date = October 14, 2015 }}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Altair 8800 at the Computer History Museum, cropped.jpg|thumb|300px|Altair 8800 front panel (1st model)]]
[[File:Altair Computer Front Panel.jpg|thumb|300px|Altair 8800b front panel (2nd model)]]
[[File:Altair 8800b Computer.jpg|thumb|300px|Inside the Altair 8800b (2nd model)]]

In the first design of the Altair, the parts needed to make a complete machine would not fit on a single [[motherboard]], and the machine consisted of four boards stacked on top of each other with stand-offs. Another problem facing Roberts was that the parts needed to make a truly useful computer were not available, or would not be designed in time for the January launch date. So during the construction of the second model, he decided to build most of the machine on removable cards, reducing the [[motherboard]] to nothing more than an interconnect between the cards, a [[backplane]]. The basic machine consisted of five cards, including the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] on one and memory on another. He then looked for a cheap source of connectors and came across a supply of 100-pin [[edge connector]]s. The [[S-100 bus]] was eventually acknowledged by the professional computer community and adopted as the [[IEEE-696]] computer bus standard.

The [[Altair bus]] consists of the pins of the [[Intel 8080]] run out onto the backplane. No particular level of thought went into the design, which led to disasters such as [[Short circuit|shorting]] from various power lines of differing [[voltage]]s being located next to each other.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Another oddity was that the system included two unidirectional [[8-bit]] [[Bus (computing)|data buses]], when the normal practice was for a single bidirectional bus (this oddity did, however, allow a later expansion of the S-100 standard to 16 bits bidirectional by using both 8-bit buses in parallel). A deal on power supplies led to the use of +8 [[volt|V]] and ±18 V,{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} which had to be locally regulated on the cards to [[transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] (+5 V) or [[RS-232]] (±12 V) standard voltage levels.

The Altair shipped in a two-piece case. The backplane and power supply were mounted on a base plate, along with the front and rear of the box. The "lid" was shaped like a C, forming the top, left, and right sides of the box. The [[front panel]], which was inspired by the [[Data General Nova]] minicomputer, included a large number of [[toggle switch]]es to feed [[binary number|binary]] data directly into the memory of the machine, and a number of red [[light-emitting diode|LEDs]] to read those values back out.<ref name=" Nova 2">{{cite journal | last = Greelish | first = David | title = Ed Roberts Interview with Historically Brewed magazine | journal = Historically Brewed | issue = 9 | publisher = Historical Computer Society | year = 1996 | url = http://www.virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp | access-date = 2007-11-22 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071011045729/http://virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp | archive-date = 2007-10-11 | url-status = dead }} Ed Roberts said: "We had a Nova 2 by Data General in the office that we sold timeshare on … The front panel on an Altair essentially models every switch that was on the Nova 2. We had that machine to look at. The switches are pretty much standard of any front panel machine. It would have taken forever if we would have had to re-decide where every switch had to go."</ref>

Programming the Altair via the front panel could be a tedious and time-consuming process. Programming required the toggling of the switches to positions corresponding to the desired 8080 microprocessor instruction or [[opcode]] in binary, then used the "DEPOSIT NEXT" switch to load that instruction into the next address of the machine's memory. This step was repeated until all the opcodes of a presumably complete and correct program were in place. The only output from the programs was the patterns of lights on the panel. Nevertheless, many were sold in this form. Development was already underway on additional cards, including a [[paper tape]] reader for storage, additional [[random-access memory|RAM]] cards, and an [[RS-232]] interface to connect to a proper [[teleprinter|teletype]] [[Computer terminal|terminal]].

==Software==

===Altair BASIC===
{{Main|Altair BASIC}}

[[Ed Roberts (computer engineer)|Ed Roberts]] received a letter from [[Traf-O-Data]] asking whether he would be interested in buying what would eventually be the [[BASIC]] [[programming language]] for the machine. He called the company and reached a private home, where no one had heard of anything like BASIC. In fact the letter had been sent by [[Bill Gates]] and [[Paul Allen]] from the [[Boston]] area, and they had no BASIC yet to offer. When they called Roberts to follow up on the letter he expressed his interest, and the two started work on their BASIC [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] using a self-made [[Simulator#Computer science|simulator]] for the 8080 on a [[PDP-10]] [[mainframe computer]]. They figured that they had 30 days before someone else beat them to the punch, and once they had a version working on the simulator, Allen flew to Albuquerque to deliver the program, [[Altair BASIC]] (aka MITS 4K BASIC), on a [[paper tape]]. The first time it was run, it displayed "READY",<ref name="NM Interview">{{cite web |last=Gates |first=Bill |title=NATIONAL MUSEUM OF AMERICAN HISTORY Bill Gates interview |url=http://americanhistory.si.edu/comphist/gates.htm#tc12}}</ref> then Allen typed "PRINT 2+2", and it immediately printed the correct answer: "4". The game ''[[Lunar Lander (video game genre)|Lunar Lander]]'' was entered in, and this worked as well. Gates soon joined Allen and formed [[Microsoft]], then spelled "Micro-Soft".

=== Altair DOS ===
Announced in late 1975, it started shipping in August 1977.

==See also==
* [[SIMH]] emulates Altair 8800 with both 8080 and [[Zilog Z80|Z80]].
* [[IMSAI 8080]]
* {{ill|Legacy8080|ja|Legacy8080}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==

===Books===
*{{cite book
| last =Solomon
| first =Les
| chapter =Solomon's Memory
| editor-last =Ditlea
| editor-first =Steve
| title =Digital Deli: The Comprehensive, User-Lovable Menu of Computer Lore, Culture, Lifestyles and Fancy
| publisher =Workman Publishing
| date =September 1984
| url =https://archive.org/details/digitaldelicompr0000unse
| isbn =0-89480-591-6
| url-access =registration
| ref =none
}}
*{{cite book | last1 = Freiberger | first1 = Paul | author-link1 = Paul Freiberger | first2 = Michael | last2 = Swaine | author-link2 = Michael Swaine (technical author) | title = Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 2000 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-07-135892-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/fireinvalleymaki00frei_0 | ref =none |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book | last = Mims | first = Forrest M | title = Siliconnections: Coming of Age in the Electronic Era | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 1986 | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-042411-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/siliconnectionsc00mims | ref =none |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book | last =Veit | first =Stanley | title = Stan Veit's history of the personal computer. | publisher = WorldComm | year = 1993 | url = http://www.pc-history.org/altair.htm | location = Asheville, N.C | isbn = 978-1-56664-030-5 | ref =none}}
*{{cite book | last = Young | first = Jeffrey S. | title = Forbes Greatest Technology Stories: Inspiring Tales of the Entrepreneurs | url = https://archive.org/details/forbesgreatest00youn | url-access = registration | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year =1998 | location =New York | isbn = 0-471-24374-4| ref =none}} Chapter 6 "Mechanics: Kits & Microcomputers"

===Magazines===
*{{cite journal | last = Greelish | first = David | title = Ed Roberts Interview with Historically Brewed magazine | journal = Historically Brewed | issue = 9 | publisher = Historical Computer Society | year = 1996 | url = http://www.virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp | access-date = 2007-11-22 | ref = none | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071011045729/http://virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp | archive-date = 2007-10-11 | url-status = dead }}
*{{cite journal | last = Green| first = Wayne|date=October 1975 | title = From the Publisher .. Are they real? | journal = BYTE | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages =61, 81, 87 | publisher = Green Publishing| ref =none}}
*{{cite magazine | last = Mims | first = Forrest M. |date=November 1984 | title = The Altair story; early days at MITS |magazine= Creative Computing | volume = 10 | issue = 11 | page =17 | url = http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/17_The_Altair_story_early_d.php | access-date = 2007-03-17| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070408035039/http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/17_The_Altair_story_early_d.php| archive-date= 8 April 2007 | url-status= live| ref =none}}
*{{cite journal | last = Mims | first = Forrest |date=January 1985 | title = The Tenth Anniversary of the Altair 8800 | journal = Computers & Electronics | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages =58–62, 81–82 | publisher = Ziff Davis| ref =none}}
*{{cite magazine | last = Roberts | first = H. Edward | author-link = Ed Roberts (computer engineer) | author2 = William Yates | date = January 1975 | title = Altair 8800 minicomputer | magazine = Popular Electronics | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–38 | publisher = Ziff Davis | location = New York, NY | url = http://www.swtpc.com/mholley/PopularElectronics/Jan1975/PE_Jan1975.htm | access-date = 2008-04-26 | ref = none | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080821145707/http://www.swtpc.com/mholley/PopularElectronics/Jan1975/PE_Jan1975.htm | archive-date = 2008-08-21 | url-status = dead }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Altair 8800}}
* {{cite web|title=Altair 8800 |publisher=New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science |url=http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/item.php?ii=26 |access-date=2007-12-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323162008/http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/item.php?ii=26 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }}
* [https://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=62&st=1 MITS Altair 8800 exhibit at old-computers.com's virtual computer museum]
* [http://www.virtualaltair.com/ Virtual Altair Museum]
* [http://www.vintage-computer.com/machines.php?altair8800 Altair 8800 images and information at vintage-computer.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121120181144/http://maben.homeip.net/static/S100/altair/index.html Marcus Bennett's Altair Documentation resource]
* [http://www.brielcomputers.com Maker of a hardware emulation of the 8800 running on an Atmel AVR 8515] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918025305/http://www.brielcomputers.com/ |date=2020-09-18 }}
* [http://altairclone.com Altair 8800 Clone]
* [http://s2js.com/altair True-to-life MITS Altair 8800 online simulator]

[[Category:Computer-related introductions in 1974]]
[[Category:S-100 machines]]
[[Category:8-bit computers]]

Altair 8800

2024-01-08T11:13:10Z

Eugrus: accuracy of the statement

{{short description|Microcomputer designed in 1974}}
{{Infobox information appliance
| name = MITS Altair 8800
| title =
| aka =
| logo =
| image = Altair 8800 Computer.jpg
| caption = Altair 8800 Computer with 8-inch floppy disk system
| developer = [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems|MITS]]
| manufacturer = MITS
| family =
| type =
| generation =
| releasedate = {{Start date and age|1975|1}}
| lifespan =
| price = Kit: {{nowrap|US $439}} {{nowrap|(${{Inflation|US|439|1975|r=-2}} in {{Inflation/year|US}})}} Assembled: {{nowrap|US $621}} {{nowrap|(${{Inflation|US|621|1975|r=-2}} in {{Inflation/year|US}})}}
| discontinued =
| unitssold = 25,000<ref>{{Cite web|last=Reimer|first=Jeremy|date=2005-12-15|title=Total share: 30 years of personal computer market share figures|url=https://arstechnica.com/features/2005/12/total-share/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-11-27|website=[[Ars Technica]]|language=en-us |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120607023023/http://arstechnica.com:80/features/2005/12/total-share/ |archive-date=2012-06-07}}
*{{cite web |author=Jeremy Reimer |date=2012-12-07 |title=Total Share: Personal Computer Market Share 1975-2010 |url=https://jeremyreimer.com/rockets-item.lsp?p=137 |website=Jeremy Reimer}}</ref>
| unitsshipped =
| media =
| os =
| power =
| soc =
| cpu = [[Intel 8080]] @ 2 [[MHz]]
| memory =
| storage =
| memory card =
| display =
| graphics =
| sound =
| input =
| controllers =
| camera =
| touchpad =
| connectivity =
| platform =
| service =
| dimensions =
| weight =
| topgame =
| compatibility =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| related =
| website = 
}}
The '''Altair 8800''' is a [[microcomputer]] designed in 1974 by [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems|MITS]] and based on the [[Intel 8080]] [[central processing unit|CPU]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Rojas|first1=Raúl|title=Encyclopedia of computers and computer history|date=2001|publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn|location=Chicago [u.a.]|isbn=1-57958-235-4}}</ref> Interest grew quickly after it was featured on the cover of the January 1975 issue of ''[[Popular Electronics]]''<ref>Copyright catalogs at the Library of Congress. January 1975 issue of Popular Electronics was published on November 29, 1974. [[:File:Copyright_Popular_Electronics_1975.jpg]]</ref> and was sold by mail order through advertisements there, in ''[[Radio-Electronics]]'', and in other hobbyist magazines.<ref>Newscientist Sept 21 gallery: [https://www.newscientist.com/gallery/dn17805-computer-museums-of-the-world/4 ''March of the outdated machines'']</ref><ref name = "Young 1998">{{cite book | last = Young | first = Jeffrey S. | title = Forbes Greatest Technology Stories: Inspiring Tales of the Entrepreneurs | url = https://archive.org/details/forbesgreatestte00youn | url-access = registration | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year =1998 | location =New York | isbn = 0-471-24374-4 |chapter=Chapter 6: 'Mechanics: Kits & Microcomputers'}}</ref> According to Harry Garland, the Altair 8800 was the product that catalyzed the [[microcomputer revolution|microcomputer revolution of the 1970s]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Garland|first=Harry|title=Design Innovations in Personal Computers|journal=Computer|publisher=IEEE Computer Society|quote=There is little question that the current enthusiasm in personal computing was catalyzed by the introduction of the MITS Altair computer kit in January 1975.|date=March 1977|volume=10|issue=3|page=24 |url=http://www.computer.org/csdl/mags/co/1977/03/01646402-abs.html|doi=10.1109/c-m.1977.217669|s2cid=32243439}}</ref> It was the first commercially successful personal computer.<ref>Dorf, Richard C., ed. The engineering handbook. CRC Press, 2004.</ref> The [[computer bus]] designed for the Altair was to become a [[de facto standard|''de facto'' standard]] in the form of the [[S-100 bus]], and the first programming language for the machine was [[Microsoft]]'s founding product, [[Altair BASIC]].<ref name = "Altair announcement">{{cite book | last = Ceruzzi | first = Paul E. | title = A History of Modern Computing | publisher = MIT Press | year = 2003 | location = Cambridge, MA | page = [https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/226 226] | isbn = 0-262-53203-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/226 |url-access=registration}} "This announcement [Altair 8800] ranks with IBM's announcement of the System/360 a decade earlier as one of the most significant in the history of computing."</ref><ref name = "Altair Impact">{{cite book | last1 = Freiberger | first1 = Paul | author-link1 = Paul Freiberger | first2 = Michael | last2 = Swaine | author-link2 = Michael Swaine (technical author) | title = Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 2000 | location = New York | isbn = 0-07-135892-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/fireinvalleymaki00frei_0 | url-access=registration}}</ref>

The Altair could be programmed using its front-panel switches, or alternatively if it had a serial interface card installed, it could be connected to a terminal for programming and display output. The Altair 8800 had no built-in screen or video output, so it would have to be connected to a serial terminal (such as a [[VT100]]-compatible terminal) to have any output.

== History ==
[[File: MITS Rocket Light Flasher.jpg|thumb|right| This "Tracking Light for Model Rockets" project appeared in the September 1969 issue of [[Model Rocketry (magazine)|'' Model Rocketry'']] and was the first kit sold by MITS.]]

While serving at the [[United States Air Force|Air Force]] Weapons Laboratory at [[Kirtland Air Force Base]], [[Ed Roberts (computer engineer)|Ed Roberts]] and [[Forrest Mims|Forrest M. Mims III]] decided to use their electronics background to produce small kits for [[model rocket]] hobbyists. In 1969, Roberts and Mims, along with Stan Cagle and Robert Zaller, founded [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems]] (MITS) in Roberts' garage in [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]], and started selling [[radio]] [[transmitter]]s and instruments for model rockets.

===Calculators===
The model rocket kits were a modest success and MITS wanted to try a kit that would appeal to more hobbyists. The November 1970 issue of ''Popular Electronics'' featured the Opticom, a kit from MITS that would send voice over an [[LED]] light beam. As Mims and Cagle were losing interest in the kit business, Roberts bought his partners out, then began developing a calculator kit. [[Electronic Arrays]] had just announced the EAS100, a set of six [[Integrated circuit#SSI.2C MSI and LSI|large scale integrated]] (LSI) circuit chips that would make a four-function calculator.<ref name = "Calculator Patent">{{US patent reference | number = 3800129 | y = 1974 | m = 03 | d = 26 | inventor = Richard H. Umstattd | title = MOS Desk Calculator}}</ref> The [[Micro Instrumentation and Telemetry Systems#Calculators|MITS 816]] calculator kit used the chipset and was featured on the November 1971 cover of ''Popular Electronics''. This calculator kit sold for {{US$|long=no|175}}, or $275 assembled.<ref name = "MITS 816">{{cite magazine | author = Ed Roberts |date=November 1971 | title = Electronic desk calculator you can build |magazine= Popular Electronics | volume = 35 | issue = 5 | pages =27–32 | publisher = Ziff Davis}}</ref> Forrest Mims wrote the assembly manual for this kit and many others over the next several years. As payment for each manual he often accepted a copy of the kit.

The calculator was successful and was followed by several improved models. The MITS 1440 calculator was featured in the July 1973 issues of ''Radio-Electronics''. It had a 14-digit display, memory, and [[square root]] function. The kit sold for {{US$|long=no|200}} and the assembled version was {{US$|long=no|250}}.<ref name="MITS 1440">{{cite journal|last=Kellahin|first=James R.|date=July 1973|title=The 1440: A calculator with memory, square root and other new features|journal=Radio-Electronics|publisher=Gernsback Publication|volume=44|issue=7|pages=55–57}} The cover story is for the MITS 1700 waveform generator. An ad for the MITS 1200, a {{US$|long=no|99}} battery operated handheld calculator, is on page 15.</ref> MITS later developed a programmer unit that would connect to the 816 or 1440 calculator and allow programs of up to 256 steps.<ref name = "Calculator Book">{{cite book | last =Roberts | first =H. Edward | author-link = Ed Roberts (computer engineer) | editor =Forrest M. Mims | title =Electronic Calculators | publisher =Howard W. Sams | year =1974 | pages = 128–143 | isbn = 0-672-21039-8}}</ref>

In 1972, [[Texas Instruments]] developed its own calculator chip and started selling complete calculators at less than half the price of other commercial models. MITS and many other companies were devastated by this, and Roberts struggled to reduce his quarter-million-dollar debt.

===Test equipment===
In addition to calculators, MITS made a line of test equipment kits. These included an IC tester, a waveform generator, a digital voltmeter, and several other instruments. To keep up with the demand, MITS moved into a larger building at 6328 Linn NE in Albuquerque in 1973. They installed a [[wave soldering]] machine and an assembly line at the new location.

===''Popular Electronics''===
[[File:Popular Electronics Cover Jan 1975.jpg|thumb|right|January 1975 ''Popular Electronics'' with the Altair 8800 computer. Published on November 29, 1974.<ref name="PE-1975-01-PDF"/>]]
In January 1972, ''Popular Electronics'' merged with another [[Ziff-Davis]] magazine, ''Electronics World''. The change in editorial staff upset many of their authors, and they started writing for a competing magazine, ''Radio-Electronics''. In 1972 and 1973, some of the best construction projects appeared in ''Radio-Electronics''.

In 1974, Art Salsberg became editor of ''Popular Electronics''. It was Salsberg's goal to reclaim the lead in electronics projects. He was impressed with [[Don Lancaster]]'s [[TV Typewriter]] (''Radio Electronics'', September 1973) article and wanted computer projects for ''Popular Electronics''. Don Lancaster did an ASCII keyboard for ''Popular Electronics'' in April 1974. They were evaluating a computer trainer project by Jerry Ogden when the [[Mark-8]] [[Intel 8008|8008]]-based computer by Jonathan Titus appeared on the July 1974 cover of ''Radio-Electronics''. The computer trainer was put on hold and the editors looked for a real computer system. (''Popular Electronics'' gave Jerry Ogden a column, ''Computer Bits'', starting in June 1975.)<ref name ="Computer Bits">{{cite magazine | last =Ogdin | first =Jerry | title =Computer Bits |magazine=Popular Electronics | volume =7 | issue =6 | page =69 | publisher =Ziff-Davis | location =New York | date =June 1975 }} "The breakthrough in low-cost microprocessors occurred just before Christmas 1974, when the January issue of Popular Electronics reached readers … "</ref>

One of the editors, Les Solomon, knew MITS was working on an Intel 8080 based computer project and thought Roberts could provide the project for the always popular January issue. The TV Typewriter and the Mark-8 computer projects were just a detailed set of plans and a set of bare printed circuit boards. The hobbyist faced the daunting task of acquiring all of the integrated circuits and other components. The editors of ''Popular Electronics'' wanted a complete kit in a professional-looking enclosure.<ref name="Creative Computing">{{cite magazine | last = Mims | first = Forrest M. |date=November 1984 | title = The Altair story; early days at MITS |magazine= Creative Computing | volume = 10 | issue = 11 | page =17 | url = http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/17_The_Altair_story_early_d.php | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070408035039/http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/17_The_Altair_story_early_d.php| archive-date= 8 April 2007 | url-status= live}}</ref>

[[Ed Roberts (computer engineer)|Ed Roberts]] and his head engineer, Bill Yates,  finished the first prototype in October 1974 and shipped it to ''Popular Electronics'' in New York via the [[Railway Express Agency]]. However, it never arrived due to a strike by the shipping company. Solomon already had a number of pictures of the machine and the article was based on them. Roberts got to work on building a replacement. The computer on the magazine cover is an empty box with just switches and LEDs on the front panel. The finished Altair computer had a completely different circuit board layout than the prototype shown in the magazine.<ref name = "PE Jan 1975">{{cite magazine | author = H. Edward Roberts |author2= William Yates |date=January 1975 | title = Altair 8800 minicomputer |magazine= Popular Electronics | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages =33–38 | publisher = Ziff Davis }}</ref> The January 1975 issues appeared on newsstands a week before Christmas of 1974 and the kit was officially (if not yet practically) available for sale.<ref name ="Computer Bits"/><ref name="Creative Computing"/><ref name="PE-1975-01-PDF">{{Cite web|url=https://www.americanradiohistory.com/Archive-Poptronics/70s/1975/Poptronics-1975-01.pdf|title=Popular Electronics; January 1975 issue.}}</ref>

===The name===
[[File:Altair 8800 and Model 33 ASR Teletype .jpg|thumb|A kit-built Altair 8800 computer with the popular [[Teletype_Model_33|Model 33 ASR (Automatic Send and Receive) Teletype]] as terminal|276x276px|alt=]]The typical MITS product had a generic name like the "[[:File:MITS Calculator Model 1440 1972.jpg|Model 1440 Calculator]]" or the "[[:File:MITS Test Equipment Nov 1973.jpg|Model 1600 Digital Voltmeter]]". Ed Roberts was busy finishing the design and left the naming of the computer to the editors of ''Popular Electronics''.

One explanation of the Altair name, which editor Les Solomon later told the audience at the first Altair Computer Convention (March 1976), is that the name was inspired by Les's 12-year-old daughter, Lauren. "She said why don't you call it Altair – that's where the Enterprise is going tonight."<ref name="Computer Notes">{{cite journal|title=Computer Power of the Future - The Hobbyists |journal=Computer Notes |last=Milford |first=Annette |volume=1 |issue=11 |page=7 |publisher=Altair Users Group, MITS Inc. |date=April 1976 |url=http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=76_4&p=7 |access-date=2007-12-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323162008/http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=76_4&p=7 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }}"Les Solomon entertained a curious audience with anecdotes about how it all began for MITS, The name for MITS' computer, for example, was inspired by his 12-year-old daughter. She said why don't you call it Altair -- that's where the ''Enterprise'' is going tonight."</ref> The ''[[Star Trek: The Original Series|Star Trek]]'' episode is probably "[[Amok Time]]", as this is the only one from ''The Original Series'' which takes the Enterprise crew to Altair (Six).

Another explanation is that the Altair was originally going to be named the PE-8 (Popular Electronics 8-bit), but Les Solomon thought this name to be rather dull, so Les, Alexander Burawa (associate editor), and John McVeigh (technical editor) decided that: "It's a stellar event, so let's name it after a star." McVeigh suggested "[[Altair]]", the twelfth brightest star in the sky.<ref name="Creative Computing"/><ref name = "Salsberg 1984">{{cite magazine | last = Salsberg | first = Arther | title = Jaded Memory |magazine= InfoWorld | volume = 6 | issue = 46 | page =7 | date = November 12, 1984 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=oy4EAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA7 | issn = 0199-6649 | publisher = InfoWorld Media Group, Inc.}} Salsberg states that the Altair was named by John McVeigh</ref>

===Intel 8080===
Ed Roberts had designed and manufactured programmable calculators and was familiar with the microprocessors available in 1974. He thought the [[Intel 4004]] and [[Intel 8008]] were not powerful enough (in fact several microcomputers based on Intel chips were already on the market: the Canadian company [[Microsystems International]]'s CPS-1 built-in 1972 used a MIL MF7114 chip modeled on the 4004, the [[Micral]] marketed in January 1973 by the French company [[R2E]] and the [[MCM/70]] marketed in 1974 by the Canadian company Micro Computer Machines); the National Semiconductor IMP-8 and [[IMP-16]] required external hardware; the [[Motorola 6800]] was still in development. So he chose the 8-bit [[Intel 8080]].<ref name = "73 Magazine">{{cite magazine | last = Green | first = Wayne | title = Believe Me - I'm No Expert! |magazine=73 Magazine | issue = 184 | page =89 | publisher = 73, Inc | location = Peterborough, NH | date = February 1976}} Wayne Green visited MITS in August 1975 and interviewed Ed Roberts. The article has several paragraphs on the design of the Altair 8800.</ref> At that time, Intel's main business was selling memory chips by the thousands to computer companies. They had no experience in selling small quantities of microprocessors. When the 8080 was introduced in April 1974, Intel set the single unit price at {{US$|long=no|360}} (${{Inflation|US|360|1974|r=-1}} in {{Inflation/year|US}}). "That figure had a nice ring to it," recalled Intel's Dave House in 1984. "Besides, it was a computer, and they usually cost thousands of dollars, so we felt it was a reasonable price."<ref>{{cite book|url=https://www.intel.com/Assets/PDF/General/15yrs.pdf|title=A Revolution in Progress - A History to Date of Intel|last=Intel Corporation|publisher=Intel Corporation|year=1984|editor=Glynnis Thompson Kaye|page=14|id=Order number:231295}}</ref> Ed Roberts had experience in buying [[Original equipment manufacturer|OEM]] quantities of calculator chips and he was able to negotiate a {{US$|long=no|75}} price (${{Inflation|US|75|1974|r=-1}} in {{Inflation/year|US}}) for the 8080 microprocessor chips.<ref>{{cite book | last1 = Freiberger | author-link = Paul Freiberger | first1 = Paul | first2 = Michael | last2 = Swaine | author-link2 = Michael Swaine (technical author) | title = Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 2000 | location = New York, NY | page = [https://archive.org/details/fireinvalleymaki00frei_0/page/42 42] | isbn = 0-07-135892-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/fireinvalleymaki00frei_0/page/42 | url-access=registration}} "Roberts was sure he could get the chip price much cheaper, and he did. Intel knocked the price down to {{US$|long=no|75}}."</ref><ref>{{cite journal | last = Mims | first = Forrest |date=January 1985 | title = The Tenth Anniversary of the Altair 8800 | journal = Computers & Electronics | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages =58–62, 81–82 | publisher = Ziff Davis}}"But because the 8080 sold for {{US$|long=no|360}} in single quantities, few people could afford it. Ed Roberts bought the chips in large quantities and was able to get a substantial discount…"</ref>

Intel made the [[Intellec-8]] Microprocessor Development System that typically sold for a very profitable {{US$|long=no|10000}}. It was functionally similar to the Altair 8800 but it was a commercial grade system with a wide selection of peripherals and development software.<ref name = "Intellec-8">{{cite book | last = Ceruzzi | first = Paul E. | title = A History of Modern Computing | publisher = MIT Press | year = 2003 | location = Cambridge, MA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/222 222–224] | isbn = 0-262-53203-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/222 |url-access=registration}}</ref><ref name = "New Products Oct 1976">{{cite journal | last = Michalopoulos | first = Demetrios A. | title = New Products | journal = Computer | volume = 9 | issue = 10 | pages =59–64 | publisher = IEEE | date = October 1976 | doi = 10.1109/C-M.1976.218414}} "Intel Corporation has announced that an interactive display console and highspeed line printer are now available for the Intellec MDS microcomputer development system. … The display console costs {{US$|long=no|2240}} and the printer {{US$|long=no|3200}} in quantities of 1 to 9. Delivery is in 30 days. Price of the basic Intellec MDS with 16K bytes of RAM memory, including interfaces and resident software for operating the peripherals, is {{US$|long=no|3950}}."</ref> Customers would ask Intel why their Intellec-8 was so expensive when that Altair was only {{US$|long=no|400}}. Some salesmen said that MITS was getting cosmetic rejects or otherwise inferior chips. In July 1975, Intel sent a letter to its sales force stating that the MITS Altair 8800 computer used standard Intel 8080 parts. The sales force should sell the Intellec system based on its merits and that no one should make derogatory comments about valued customers like MITS. The letter was reprinted in the August 1975 issue of MITS Computer Notes.<ref name="Computer Notes - Intel">{{cite journal|title=Across the Editor's Desk |journal=Computer Notes |last=Bunnell |first=David |volume=1 |issue=3 |page=2 |publisher=Altair Users Group, MITS Inc. |date=August 1975 |url=http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=75_8&p=2 |access-date=2007-12-26 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323162008/http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=75_8&p=2 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }} Intel letter to its sales force. "We wish to clarify any misconception that may exist in your minds regarding the MITS ALTAIR system. This product is designed around the Intel Standard Data Sheet 8080 family."</ref> The "cosmetic defect" rumor has appeared in many accounts over the years although both MITS and Intel issued written denials in 1975.<ref name = "Stan Veit">{{cite book | last = Veit | first = Stan | title = Stan Veit's History of the Personal Computer | publisher = WorldComm Press | year = 1993 | location = Alexander, North Carolina | page = 283 | isbn = 1-56664-030-X }} "Ed Roberts was able to get around this problem by obtaining a supply of cosmetic reject chips for about 1/3 the retail price."</ref>

===The launch===
[[File:Altair Computer Ad May 1975.jpg|thumb|right|A May 1975 advertisement for the Altair 8800 Computer appeared in ''Popular Electronics'', ''Radio-Electronics'', and other magazines.]]
For a decade, colleges had required science and engineering majors to take a course in computer programming, typically using the [[FORTRAN]] or [[BASIC]] languages.<ref name = "Brillinger 1970">{{cite journal | last = Brillinger | first = P. C. |author2=D. D. Cowan | title = A complete package for introducing computer science | journal = SIGCSE Bulletin | volume = 2 | issue = 3 | pages =118–126 | publisher = ACM | date = November 1970 | doi = 10.1145/873641.873659| s2cid = 16270182 }} Describes the introductory computer science courses at the University of Waterloo.</ref><ref name = "Ceruzzi education">{{cite book | last = Ceruzzi | first = Paul E. | title = A History of Modern Computing | publisher = MIT Press | year = 2003 | location = Cambridge, MA | pages = [https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/201 201–206] | isbn = 0-262-53203-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernc00ceru_0/page/201 |url-access=registration}}</ref> This meant there was a sizable customer base who knew about computers. In 1970, electronic calculators were not seen outside of a laboratory, but by 1974 they were a common household item. Calculators and video games like ''[[Pong]]'' introduced computer power to the general public. Electronics hobbyists were moving on to digital projects such as digital voltmeters and frequency counters. The Altair had enough power to be actually useful, and was designed as an expandable system that opened it up to all sorts of applications.

Ed Roberts optimistically told his banker that he could sell 800 computers, while in reality they needed to sell 200 over the next year just to break even. When readers got the January issue of ''Popular Electronics'', MITS was flooded with inquiries and orders. They had to hire extra people just to answer the phones. In February MITS received 1,000 orders for the Altair 8800. The quoted delivery time was 60 days but it was months before they could meet that. Roberts focused on delivering the computer; all of the options would wait until they could keep pace with the orders. MITS claimed to have delivered 2,500 Altair 8800s by the end of May.<ref name = "Computer Design Ad">{{cite journal | last =MITS | title = MITS advertisement | journal =Digital Design | volume = 4 | issue = 6 | publisher = CMP Information | date = June 1975 | url =http://altair.ftldesign.com/ | access-date =2008-01-01| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20071210115832/http://altair.ftldesign.com/| archive-date= 10 December 2007 | url-status= live}} "There was a subsequent article in February's Popular Electronics and the MITS people knew the Altair was here to stay. During that month alone, over 1,000 mainframes were sold. Datamation, March 1975." "By the end of May, MITS had shipped over 2,500 Altair 8800's"</ref> The number was over 5,000 by August 1975.<ref>{{cite journal | last = Green | first = Wayne |date=October 1975 | title = From the Publisher .. Are they real? | journal = BYTE | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages =61, 81, 87 | publisher = Green Publishing}} In August 1975 Wayne Green visited several personal computer manufacturers. A photo caption in his trip report says; "Meanwhile, at MITS, over 5,000 Altair 8800's have been shipped. Here is a view of part of the production line."</ref> MITS had under 20 employees in January but had grown to 90 by October 1975.<ref name="Computer Notes - Employees">{{cite journal|title=Letter from the President |journal=Computer Notes |last=Roberts |first=H. Edward |volume=1 |issue=5 |page=3 |publisher=Altair Users Group, MITS Inc. |date=October 1975 |url=http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=75_10&p=3 |access-date=2008-07-12 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323162008/http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/notesViewer.php?ii=75_10&p=3 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }} "We had less than 20 employees when we introduced the Altair and now we have grown to 90 as a result of our Altair customers." Roberts also discussed the problems with the 4K dynamic RAM boards. Customers got a $50 refund.</ref>

The Altair 8800 computer was a break-even sale for MITS. They needed to sell additional memory boards, I/O boards and other options to make a profit. The system came with a "1024 word" (1024 byte) memory board populated with 256 bytes. The BASIC language was announced in July 1975 and it required one or two 4096 word memory boards and an interface board.

MITS Price List, ''Popular Electronics'', August 1975.<ref name = "MITS Price List">{{cite magazine | author = MITS |date=August 1975 | title = Worlds Most Inexpensive BASIC language system |magazine= Popular Electronics | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | page =1 | publisher = Ziff Davis}}</ref>
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Description !! Kit price !! Assembled
|-
| Altair 8800 Computer ||align="right"| $439 ||align="right"| $621
|-
| 1024-word Memory Board ||align="right"| $176 ||align="right"| $209
|-
| 4096-word Memory Board ||align="right"| $264 ||align="right"| $338
|-
| Parallel Interface Board ||align="right"| $92 || style="text-align:right;"| $114
|-
| Serial Interface Board (RS-232) ||align="right"| $119 || style="text-align:right;"| $138
|-
| Serial Interface Board (Teletype) ||align="right"| $124 || style="text-align:right;"| $146
|-
| Audio Cassette Interface Board ||align="right"| $128 || style="text-align:right;"| $174
|-
| Teletype Model 33 ASR ||align="right"| N/A|| style="text-align:right;" | $1,500
|}
* 4K BASIC language (when purchased with Altair, 4096 words of memory and interface board): $60
* 8K BASIC language (when purchased with Altair, two 4096-word memory boards and interface board): $75

MITS had no competition in the US for the first half of 1975. Their 4K memory board used dynamic RAM and it had several design problems.<ref name="Computer Notes - Employees"/> The delay in shipping optional boards and the problems with the 4K memory board created an opportunity for outside suppliers.

An enterprising Altair owner, Robert Marsh, designed a 4K static memory that was plug-in compatible with the Altair 8800 and sold for $255.<ref name = "Marsh">{{cite journal |last = Moore | first = Fred | title = Hardware | journal = Homebrew Computer Club Newsletter | volume = 1 | issue = 5 | pages =2, 5 | date = July 1976 | url = http://www.digibarn.com/collections/newsletters/homebrew/V1_05/index.html | access-date = 2007-12-30}}</ref> His company was [[Processor Technology]], one of the most successful Altair compatible board suppliers. Their advertisement in the July 1975 issue of ''Popular Electronics'' promised interface and PROM boards in addition to the 4K memory board. They would later develop a popular video display board that would plug directly into the Altair.

A consulting company in San Leandro, California, [[IMS Associates, Inc.]], wanted to purchase several Altair computers, but the long delivery time convinced them that they should build their own computers. In the October 1975 issue of ''Popular Electronics'', a small advertisement announced the [[IMSAI 8080]] computer. The ad noted that all boards were "[[plug compatible]]" with the Altair 8800. The computer cost $439 as a kit. The first 50 IMSAI computers shipped in December 1975.<ref name = "ComputerLand">{{cite book | last = Littman | first = Jonathan | title = Once Upon a Time in ComputerLand: The Amazing, Billion-Dollar Tale of Bill Millard | publisher = Price Stern Sloan | date =1987 | page = 18 | location = Los Angeles | isbn = 0-89586-502-5 | url=https://archive.org/details/onceupontimeinco0000litt/ |url-access=registration}} "Later that day, December 16 [1975], United Parcel Service picked up the first shipment of 50 IMS computer kits for delivery to customers."</ref> The IMSAI 8080 computer improved on the original Altair design in several areas. It was easier to assemble: The Altair required 60 wire connections between the front panel and the motherboard ([[backplane]]). The IMSAI required only two soldered connections between the front panel and power supply. The MITS motherboard consisted of 4 slot segments that had to be connected together with 100 wires. The IMSAI motherboard implemented 22 slots on a single segment. The IMSAI replaced the Altair's [[Multivibrator|one-shot]] clock generator with the Intel 8224. The IMSAI also had a larger power supply to handle the increasing number of expansion boards used in typical systems. The IMSAI advantage was short lived because MITS had recognized these shortcomings and developed the Altair 8800B, which was introduced in June 1976.

In 1977, [[Pertec Computer Corporation]] purchased MITS and began to market the computer, without changes (except for branding), as the PCC 8800 in 1978.<ref>{{cite web | url = https://www.old-computers.com/history/detail.asp?n=34 | title = MITS - ALTAIR COMPANY IS SOLD TO PERTEC (MAY 1977) | website = OldComputers.Com | access-date = October 14, 2015 }}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Altair 8800 at the Computer History Museum, cropped.jpg|thumb|300px|Altair 8800 front panel (1st model)]]
[[File:Altair Computer Front Panel.jpg|thumb|300px|Altair 8800b front panel (2nd model)]]
[[File:Altair 8800b Computer.jpg|thumb|300px|Inside the Altair 8800b (2nd model)]]

In the first design of the Altair, the parts needed to make a complete machine would not fit on a single [[motherboard]], and the machine consisted of four boards stacked on top of each other with stand-offs. Another problem facing Roberts was that the parts needed to make a truly useful computer were not available, or would not be designed in time for the January launch date. So during the construction of the second model, he decided to build most of the machine on removable cards, reducing the [[motherboard]] to nothing more than an interconnect between the cards, a [[backplane]]. The basic machine consisted of five cards, including the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] on one and memory on another. He then looked for a cheap source of connectors and came across a supply of 100-pin [[edge connector]]s. The [[S-100 bus]] was eventually acknowledged by the professional computer community and adopted as the [[IEEE-696]] computer bus standard.

The [[Altair bus]] consists of the pins of the [[Intel 8080]] run out onto the backplane. No particular level of thought went into the design, which led to disasters such as [[Short circuit|shorting]] from various power lines of differing [[voltage]]s being located next to each other.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} Another oddity was that the system included two unidirectional [[8-bit]] [[Bus (computing)|data buses]], when the normal practice was for a single bidirectional bus (this oddity did, however, allow a later expansion of the S-100 standard to 16 bits bidirectional by using both 8-bit buses in parallel). A deal on power supplies led to the use of +8 [[volt|V]] and ±18 V,{{citation needed|date=September 2018}} which had to be locally regulated on the cards to [[transistor-transistor logic|TTL]] (+5 V) or [[RS-232]] (±12 V) standard voltage levels.

The Altair shipped in a two-piece case. The backplane and power supply were mounted on a base plate, along with the front and rear of the box. The "lid" was shaped like a C, forming the top, left, and right sides of the box. The [[front panel]], which was inspired by the [[Data General Nova]] minicomputer, included a large number of [[toggle switch]]es to feed [[binary number|binary]] data directly into the memory of the machine, and a number of red [[light-emitting diode|LEDs]] to read those values back out.<ref name=" Nova 2">{{cite journal | last = Greelish | first = David | title = Ed Roberts Interview with Historically Brewed magazine | journal = Historically Brewed | issue = 9 | publisher = Historical Computer Society | year = 1996 | url = http://www.virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp | access-date = 2007-11-22 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071011045729/http://virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp | archive-date = 2007-10-11 | url-status = dead }} Ed Roberts said: "We had a Nova 2 by Data General in the office that we sold timeshare on … The front panel on an Altair essentially models every switch that was on the Nova 2. We had that machine to look at. The switches are pretty much standard of any front panel machine. It would have taken forever if we would have had to re-decide where every switch had to go."</ref>

Programming the Altair via the front panel could be a tedious and time-consuming process. Programming required the toggling of the switches to positions corresponding to the desired 8080 microprocessor instruction or [[opcode]] in binary, then used the "DEPOSIT NEXT" switch to load that instruction into the next address of the machine's memory. This step was repeated until all the opcodes of a presumably complete and correct program were in place. The only output from the programs was the patterns of lights on the panel. Nevertheless, many were sold in this form. Development was already underway on additional cards, including a [[paper tape]] reader for storage, additional [[random-access memory|RAM]] cards, and an [[RS-232]] interface to connect to a proper [[teleprinter|teletype]] [[Computer terminal|terminal]].

==Software==

===Altair BASIC===
{{Main|Altair BASIC}}

[[Ed Roberts (computer engineer)|Ed Roberts]] received a letter from [[Traf-O-Data]] asking whether he would be interested in buying what would eventually be the [[BASIC]] [[programming language]] for the machine. He called the company and reached a private home, where no one had heard of anything like BASIC. In fact the letter had been sent by [[Bill Gates]] and [[Paul Allen]] from the [[Boston]] area, and they had no BASIC yet to offer. When they called Roberts to follow up on the letter he expressed his interest, and the two started work on their BASIC [[interpreter (computing)|interpreter]] using a self-made [[Simulator#Computer science|simulator]] for the 8080 on a [[PDP-10]] [[mainframe computer]]. They figured that they had 30 days before someone else beat them to the punch, and once they had a version working on the simulator, Allen flew to Albuquerque to deliver the program, [[Altair BASIC]] (aka MITS 4K BASIC), on a [[paper tape]]. The first time it was run, it displayed "READY",<ref name="NM Interview">{{cite web |last=Gates |first=Bill |title=NATIONAL MUSEUM OF AMERICAN HISTORY Bill Gates interview |url=http://americanhistory.si.edu/comphist/gates.htm#tc12}}</ref> then Allen typed "PRINT 2+2", and it immediately printed the correct answer: "4". The game ''[[Lunar Lander (video game genre)|Lunar Lander]]'' was entered in, and this worked as well. Gates soon joined Allen and formed [[Microsoft]], then spelled "Micro-Soft".

=== Altair DOS ===
Announced in late 1975, it started shipping in August 1977.

==See also==
* [[SIMH]] emulates Altair 8800 with both 8080 and [[Zilog Z80|Z80]].
* [[IMSAI 8080]]
* {{ill|Legacy8080|ja|Legacy8080}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==

===Books===
*{{cite book
| last =Solomon
| first =Les
| chapter =Solomon's Memory
| editor-last =Ditlea
| editor-first =Steve
| title =Digital Deli: The Comprehensive, User-Lovable Menu of Computer Lore, Culture, Lifestyles and Fancy
| publisher =Workman Publishing
| date =September 1984
| url =https://archive.org/details/digitaldelicompr0000unse
| isbn =0-89480-591-6
| url-access =registration
| ref =none
}}
*{{cite book | last1 = Freiberger | first1 = Paul | author-link1 = Paul Freiberger | first2 = Michael | last2 = Swaine | author-link2 = Michael Swaine (technical author) | title = Fire in the Valley: The Making of the Personal Computer | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 2000 | location = New York, NY | isbn = 0-07-135892-7 | url = https://archive.org/details/fireinvalleymaki00frei_0 | ref =none |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book | last = Mims | first = Forrest M | title = Siliconnections: Coming of Age in the Electronic Era | publisher = McGraw-Hill | year = 1986 | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-07-042411-1 | url = https://archive.org/details/siliconnectionsc00mims | ref =none |url-access=registration}}
*{{cite book | last =Veit | first =Stanley | title = Stan Veit's history of the personal computer. | publisher = WorldComm | year = 1993 | url = http://www.pc-history.org/altair.htm | location = Asheville, N.C | isbn = 978-1-56664-030-5 | ref =none}}
*{{cite book | last = Young | first = Jeffrey S. | title = Forbes Greatest Technology Stories: Inspiring Tales of the Entrepreneurs | url = https://archive.org/details/forbesgreatest00youn | url-access = registration | publisher = John Wiley & Sons | year =1998 | location =New York | isbn = 0-471-24374-4| ref =none}} Chapter 6 "Mechanics: Kits & Microcomputers"

===Magazines===
*{{cite journal | last = Greelish | first = David | title = Ed Roberts Interview with Historically Brewed magazine | journal = Historically Brewed | issue = 9 | publisher = Historical Computer Society | year = 1996 | url = http://www.virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp | access-date = 2007-11-22 | ref = none | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20071011045729/http://virtualaltair.com/virtualaltair.com/mits0011.asp | archive-date = 2007-10-11 | url-status = dead }}
*{{cite journal | last = Green| first = Wayne|date=October 1975 | title = From the Publisher .. Are they real? | journal = BYTE | volume = 1 | issue = 2 | pages =61, 81, 87 | publisher = Green Publishing| ref =none}}
*{{cite magazine | last = Mims | first = Forrest M. |date=November 1984 | title = The Altair story; early days at MITS |magazine= Creative Computing | volume = 10 | issue = 11 | page =17 | url = http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/17_The_Altair_story_early_d.php | access-date = 2007-03-17| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20070408035039/http://www.atarimagazines.com/creative/v10n11/17_The_Altair_story_early_d.php| archive-date= 8 April 2007 | url-status= live| ref =none}}
*{{cite journal | last = Mims | first = Forrest |date=January 1985 | title = The Tenth Anniversary of the Altair 8800 | journal = Computers & Electronics | volume = 23 | issue = 1 | pages =58–62, 81–82 | publisher = Ziff Davis| ref =none}}
*{{cite magazine | last = Roberts | first = H. Edward | author-link = Ed Roberts (computer engineer) | author2 = William Yates | date = January 1975 | title = Altair 8800 minicomputer | magazine = Popular Electronics | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 33–38 | publisher = Ziff Davis | location = New York, NY | url = http://www.swtpc.com/mholley/PopularElectronics/Jan1975/PE_Jan1975.htm | access-date = 2008-04-26 | ref = none | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20080821145707/http://www.swtpc.com/mholley/PopularElectronics/Jan1975/PE_Jan1975.htm | archive-date = 2008-08-21 | url-status = dead }}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Altair 8800}}
* {{cite web|title=Altair 8800 |publisher=New Mexico Museum of Natural History and Science |url=http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/item.php?ii=26 |access-date=2007-12-18 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120323162008/http://startup.nmnaturalhistory.org/gallery/item.php?ii=26 |archive-date=March 23, 2012 }}
* [https://www.old-computers.com/museum/computer.asp?c=62&st=1 MITS Altair 8800 exhibit at old-computers.com's virtual computer museum]
* [http://www.virtualaltair.com/ Virtual Altair Museum]
* [http://www.vintage-computer.com/machines.php?altair8800 Altair 8800 images and information at vintage-computer.com]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121120181144/http://maben.homeip.net/static/S100/altair/index.html Marcus Bennett's Altair Documentation resource]
* [http://www.brielcomputers.com Maker of a hardware emulation of the 8800 running on an Atmel AVR 8515] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200918025305/http://www.brielcomputers.com/ |date=2020-09-18 }}
* [http://altairclone.com Altair 8800 Clone]
* [http://s2js.com/altair True-to-life MITS Altair 8800 online simulator]

[[Category:Computer-related introductions in 1974]]
[[Category:S-100 machines]]
[[Category:8-bit computers]]

Talk:Remote Desktop Protocol

2023-12-19T02:42:10Z

Eugrus: /* "proprietary protocol"? */ new section

{{Talk header}}
{{WikiProject banner shell|1=
{{WikiProject Computing|class=B|importance=Mid}}
{{WikiProject Microsoft|class=B|importance=Mid}}
{{WikiProject Microsoft Windows|class=B|importance=Mid}}
{{WikiProject Software|class=B|importance=Low}}
}}
{{Connected contributor|user=me_and|declared=yes|otherlinks={{diff2|988309497|declared here}}}}

== ''Back Orifice'' peer review ==

We are having a [[wikipedia:peer review|peer review]] for remote administration tool [[Back Orifice]]. We're hoping that you could join [[Wikipedia:Peer review/Back Orifice/archive1|the discussion]] and give us some ideas, how to improve the article further. --[[User:Easyas12c|Easyas12c]] 19:54, 12 January 2006 (UTC)

== Difference? ==

Apart from the lack of Remote Desktop, what other differences are there in Home and Professional editions? --[[User:Tenryuu|Tenryuu]] 21:26, 7 June 2006 (UTC)

== Disadvantages(?!) ==

I fail to see how RDP not being in Windows XP Home is a "disadvantage" of the RDP protocol itself? Therefore I renamed "Disadvantages" to "Supported Operating Systems".
It also might be interesting to note the differences between RDP and ICA... or even VNC. [[User:Urbanriot|Urbanriot]] 18:32, 13 August 2006 (UTC)
:Actually XP Home does contain an RDP server but it can only be accessed via the Remote Assistance feature. Windows 2000 Server also contains an RDP server, of course, but the Terminal Services client is not installed by default. Windows 2000 Professional does not provide an RDP client. --[[User:80.175.250.218|80.175.250.218]] 09:52, 18 August 2006 (UTC)
::But Windows 2000 pro can run an RDP client, and has an unlimited client license for using it. [[User:Crocodealer|Crocodealer]] 06:40, 1 November 2006 (UTC)

wouldn't it be useful to have a clear definition of exactly what we mean by client and what we mean with server - perhaps even with a little diagram? In fact, the proper terminology in this network mamagement context is "manager" and "agent". I think that any description of the feature that says that is available on windows 2000 or xp home without making it clear that it can only be a *manager* and not an *agent* is perhaps guilty of being disingenuous. I suspect that's where the adjective "disadvantage" may have inadvertently popped up. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:91.7.195.250|91.7.195.250]] ([[User talk:91.7.195.250|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/91.7.195.250|contribs]]) 15:33, 23 March 2007

: Client and server are pretty standard terms. In this case the client (aka "manager") is an application that allows you to connect to remote RDP servers and if authenticated, to get a desktop. Note that with Windows 2000 and 2003 you are getting a new desktop and not viewing/controlling the server's physical console desktop. Thus multiple clients can RDP into a single server and they don't see each other. As far as I know, there are no license restrictions on the clients. The RDP server component supports inbound connections from clients. These are licensed meaning that by default Windows is a single user machine and with licensed RDP sessions you can then have more than one user logged into the server at once.

: As noted before, Windows XP has a remote access server ("agent") but it's part of the Remote Assistance feature. I've never used this but have the impression that if someone starts the Remote Assistance feature that they can see on the physical console what the logged in client ("manager") is doing.

: As for Windows 2000 Professional - It does not come with a terminal services client but it looks like it's available for download from Microsoft [http://www.microsoft.com/windowsxp/downloads/tools/rdclientdl.mspx] or [http://support.microsoft.com/kb/925876] [[User:Marc Kupper|Marc Kupper]] ([[User_talk:Marc Kupper|talk]]) ([[Special:Contributions/Marc_Kupper|contribs]]) 17:32, 10 October 2007 (UTC)

== style ==

Could someone please change all occurances of 'to remote' into 'to access remotely'? It hurts.
[[User:Guenthert|Guenthert]]
:Real pedants wouldn't stand the verb 'access', either, but it's easier than thinking. 'Abstracted' might be a suitable word, if it weren't so heavily overloaded in the industry. Superficially that may have similar status to access, but I'm not so sure. --[[User:ToobMug|ToobMug]] 11:10, 24 November 2006 (UTC)

== supported operating systems ==

It should be mentioned that there is an open source implementation of the RDP server (for Linux and Unix/Unix like OS): [http://xrdp.sourceforge.net/ xrdp].
[[User:Guenthert|Guenthert]]

More clear would be that there is an open source implementation of the RDP ''manager'' (for ....
---

This paragraph is misleading:

Work [...]. There are other products which provide RDP server functionality for LINUX using non RDP protocols such as VNC, NX and X Window System. These are however not compatible with the Windows RDP client.

Instead, it should be listed under "related work", "similar solutions" or in a category "Remote Desktop Protocols" or something AND linked to the appropriate pages. [[:de:Benutzer:maxberger|maxberger]]

== general observation about definitions ==

Like a lot of technical definitions, this one does not really tell a user who knows very little what this protocol really does. I.e., what is the end user use case, how do RDP and MS Term Services help them do something? I have not used MTS so I can't answer this myself. I also don't mean this as a gripe, Wikipedia is an unbelievably positive accomplishment. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:128.107.248.220|128.107.248.220]] ([[User talk:128.107.248.220|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/128.107.248.220|contribs]]) 11:44, November 27, 2006
:Well, the first sentence of the definition is actually a tautology :/ [[User:82.229.207.75|82.229.207.75]] 14:02, 15 March 2007 (UTC)

What does "multi-channel protocol" in the first sentence mean? As far as I know, RDP is a straightforward client-server protocol from a network perspective, and doesn't implement back connections or dynamic data connections (as FTP, SQL*Net). [[User:Dave au|Dave au]] ([[User talk:Dave au|talk]]) 03:00, 3 April 2009 (UTC)
:You're right. RDP operates over a single TCP port. Originally it was planned that audio would run over a separate UDP port, but this is no longer the case. The phrase "multi-channel" refers to the fact that besides basic graphics output RDP can also redirect devices (printers, drives), send audio, and share the clipboard. These additional features, according to the spec, and transferred over a virtual channel. [[User:Devster310|Devster310]] ([[User talk:Devster310|talk]]) 00:10, 16 April 2009 (UTC)

== Seamless Windows ? ==

The page says RDP 6.0 has the following new feature : "Seamless Windows: Remote applications can run on a client machine that are served by a Remote Desktop" connection.
But older versions also can run remote apps on a client machine. Or does it mean, that the actual program is transferred and executed on the client ? Please clarify.

xerces8
--[[User:85.10.2.6|85.10.2.6]] 11:06, 9 December 2006 (UTC)

The phrase "Seamless Windows" comes from Citrix, it means that the application program that is physically running on the remote processor has it's windows displayed directly on the local display the user cannot see the remote desktop.
This is an alien concept to X where all remote applications use "Seamless windows" except for special programs like VNC and Xnest but it is an upgrade to the "Remote desktop" hack. [[User:86.17.213.200|86.17.213.200]] 07:20, 25 September 2007 (UTC)

==Article needs to be updated for version 6==
Version 6.0 supports 32-bit color, yet under features it only says 24-bit color. Also, is a section really needed for the new features in 6.0?

[[User:128.2.33.147|128.2.33.147]] 07:08, 24 December 2006 (UTC)
: Agreed. I updated the article to reflect 32-bit color support. I also took out the "features new to 6.0" section; in its place I provided a link to MS's official new features page in the "version history" section. — [[User:EagleOne|EagleOne]]\[[User_talk:EagleOne|Talk]] 02:55, 20 June 2007 (UTC)

== RDP server functionality for LINUX ==

''Work has started on an open source implementation of the RDP server available for Unix-like operating systems [3]. There are other products which provide RDP server functionality for LINUX using non RDP protocols such as VNC, NX and X Window System. These are however not compatible with the Windows RDP client.''
I think this line is now defunct, with the following first project, and another thread after -the XRDP software at least allows windows rdp clients to connect.

[http://sourceforge.net/projects/xrdp XRDP Linux RDP server], and an [http://ubuntuforums.org/showthread.php?t=248552 Ubuntu forum thread]. —The preceding [[Wikipedia:Sign your posts on talk pages|unsigned]] comment was added by [[Special:Contributions/84.68.110.116|84.68.110.116]] ([[User talk:84.68.110.116|talk]]) 21:15, 21 March 2007 (UTC).

: There is also a commercial RDP Server for Linux from Thinstuff. It is called LX Server and comes with a web based admin GUI. LX Server - Linux RDP server —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[User:Mgibson99|Mgibson99]] ([[User talk:Mgibson99|talk]] • [[Special:Contributions/Mgibson99|contribs]]) 13:31, November 21, 2007

== RemoteApp ==

RemoteApp info: [http://technet2.microsoft.com/windowsserver2008/en/library/57995ee7-e204-45a4-bcee-5d1f4a51a09f1033.mspx?mfr=true] --[[User:Soumyasch|soum]] [[User talk:Soumyasch|talk]] 13:40, 22 September 2007 (UTC)

== RPC ==

Is RDP a variant of RPC? --[[User:Ramu50|Ramu50]] ([[User talk:Ramu50|talk]]) 20:45, 6 October 2008 (UTC)
:: As in Remote Procedure Call? If that is what you are meaning then no, not a variant and not really in the same arena. [[User:CupOfJava|CupOfJava]] ([[User talk:CupOfJava|talk]]) 06:36, 1 December 2009 (UTC)

== Adverts ==

The entire "Other implementations" reads like some advertisement. I suggest we drop it. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/68.5.246.7|68.5.246.7]] ([[User talk:68.5.246.7|talk]]) 11:06, 24 November 2009 (UTC) 

I have adjusted the "Other implementations" section to follow wiki guidelines and not be an advert. I sourced information from credible sources such as large vendors like Microsoft. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/68.5.246.7|68.5.246.7]] ([[User talk:68.5.246.7|talk]]) 11:29, 24 November 2009 (UTC) 

== Non-Microsoft implementations ==

I want to suggest for consideration another open architecture, but closed source RDP client implementation. The product was developed by Elusiva. Please see http://www.elusiva.com/products/RemoteDesktopClient.aspx for more information. Two aspects about this might be notable: client works on various desktop and mobile platforms. Elusiva promised us Linux, Android and webOS in addition to Windows and Apple OS X and iOS available today. Another interesting fact, this client like Microsoft client can be extended by 3rd-party ISVs. Unlike rdesktop supporing only RDP 5.1, Elusiva supports current RDP 7 including Remote App.
I thought that this could interesting to wikipedia readers. —Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/178.178.3.106|178.178.3.106]] ([[User talk:178.178.3.106|talk]]) 08:46, 1 March 2011 (UTC) 

== Can we have some information on security concerns? ==

This being a Microsoft product, concerns for security (or lack thereof) are something real. There are a couple mentions in passing, about some exploits having been taken care of in the latest release (Win 7), but that leaves concerns on what the status is among those using Vista and legacy OSs. User:Yamaplos, away from his collection of passwords, sorry.... — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/216.136.92.126|216.136.92.126]] ([[User talk:216.136.92.126|talk]]) 21:57, 12 July 2011 (UTC) 

== Remote Desktop Connection 7.0 client update ==

Remote Desktop Connection 7.0 client update for Remote Desktop Services (RDS) for Windows XP SP3, Windows Vista SP1, and Windows Vista SP2
http://support.microsoft.com/kb/969084

~~[[User:PidGin128|PidGin128]] ([[User talk:PidGin128|talk]]) 01:29, 30 March 2012 (UTC)

Also, rdpclip crashing on server:
http://social.technet.microsoft.com/Forums/en-US/itprovistanetworking/thread/39475a5d-fc4c-4d51-87a5-bb4e3ded318e

~~
[[User:PidGin128|PidGin128]] ([[User talk:PidGin128|talk]]) 01:56, 30 March 2012 (UTC)

== Is RDP considered as [[cloud computing]]? ==

I was looking for RDP, and found out that some sites considerring it as a cloud-computing service? Is it true? Can it be mentioned here? Or is it only true when buying a server which is using the RDP protocol to provide the user access to control the server (for example, as a replacement for SSH)? Anyway, using RDP is for remote access using the Internet - indepensently with the computer you are using, but the question is, when it's defined as a cloud? Only when it's provided by a large company, equipped with lots of servers, which are giving it away as a service by the browser (platform independent environment) after an online registration. [[User:Galzigler|Galzigler]] ([[User talk:Galzigler|talk]]) 13:10, 16 November 2012 (UTC)

: RDP might be used by a cloud service provider offering Desktop as a Service , or a means of providing remote console access to a Windows server, but beyond that it no relevance to cloud computing per se.
:--[[User:SimonBramfitt|SimonBramfitt]] ([[User talk:SimonBramfitt|talk]]) 22:00, 20 January 2013 (UTC)

== Which versions of Windows come with Remote Desktop? ==

The article should list which versions of Windows come with Remote Desktop, such as Windows 98, 2000, XP, Vista, 7, 8. It should also include subversion like Windows 7 Pro vs. Windows 7 Basic. This is very useful information.

== Remote Desktop Services ==

The article "Remote Desktop Services", mentioned in the first paragraph, covers the same ground but does a better job of it. This article would be better trimmed down, and concentrating on the Protocol rather than the services.

== Win 7 XP mode. ==

XP mode on Win 7 is also a RDP server, and it was partly broken by KB2592687 (RDP 8.1), which, among other things, changed or dissabled parts of the protocol:

http://support.microsoft.com/KB/2592687#Known%20issues

"RDP 8.0 on remote computers that are running Windows 7 SP1 does not use the UDP protocol." — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/203.206.162.148|203.206.162.148]] ([[User talk:203.206.162.148|talk]]) 06:21, 4 March 2014 (UTC) 

"Enhanced Mode is implemented using a connection channel based on the Microsoft® Remote Desktop Services RDP protocol" [[http://blogs.technet.com/b/windows_vpc/archive/2009/08/27/three-modes-of-windows-xp-mode.aspx]] — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/203.206.162.148|203.206.162.148]] ([[User talk:203.206.162.148|talk]]) 03:57, 25 March 2014 (UTC) 

== COI edit request: wikify ==

{{edit COI|A}}

Making this as a request rather than just doing it as I'm a COI editor here: I work for Metaswitch, formerly known as Data Connection, and since acquired by Microsoft. Nonetheless I think this should be an uncontroversial change: please replace "<tt>Data Connection Limited</tt>" at the end of [[Remote Desktop Protocol#Version 4.0]] with "<tt><nowiki>[[Data Connection]]</nowiki></tt>". —[[User:me_and|me]]_[[User talk:me_and|and]] 11:33, 12 November 2020 (UTC)

{{partly done}} Since the company is a redirect to Metaswitch, I wikified it to that page instead. I also posted your COI declaration at the top of this talk page. [[User:Z1720|Z1720]] ([[User talk:Z1720|talk]]) 16:36, 13 November 2020 (UTC)

== "proprietary protocol"? ==

How is RDP proprietary? It seem to be openly documented: https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/openspecs/windows_protocols/ms-rdpbcgr And so are at least some extensions: https://learn.microsoft.com/en-us/openspecs/windows_protocols/ms-rdpegfx Not being developed by a commission or standardized by a regulatory body doesn't prevent a protocol from being open. [[User:Eugrus|eugrus]] ([[User talk:Eugrus|talk]]) 02:42, 19 December 2023 (UTC)

Category:People of the Wagner Group

2023-09-04T19:58:35Z

Eugrus: not reflective of the group Undid revision 1173649458 by PastelLobster (talk)

[[Category:Wagner Group]]
[[Category:Russian mercenaries]]
[[Category:People by organization in Russia|Wagner ]]

Category:People of the Wagner Group

2023-08-28T14:28:55Z

Eugrus: not reflective of the group

[[Category:Wagner Group]]
[[Category:Russian mercenaries]]
[[Category:People by organization in Russia|Wagner ]]

Category:Pro-Russian people of the war in Donbas

2023-08-28T14:27:25Z

Eugrus: wild edit: most are communists Undid revision 1172248758 by Tonimicho (talk)

{{cat main|War in Donbas (2014–2022)}}

[[Category:Russian people by war]]
[[Category:21st-century Russian people|War in Donbass]]
[[Category:People of the war in Donbas|Russia]]

Glock switch

2023-08-25T20:51:20Z

Eugrus: /* Operation */ coordination of sentences after an insertion

{{Short description|Auto sear installable on a Glock}}
[[File:Glock Switch.jpg|thumb|A switch attached to a Glock pistol]]
A '''Glock switch''' or '''Glock auto-sear''' is a small device that can be attached to the rear of the [[gun slide|slide]] of a [[Glock]] handgun, converting the [[semi-automatic pistol]] into a [[machine pistol]] capable of [[Automatic firearm|fully automatic]] fire. As a type of [[auto sear]], it functions by applying force to the trigger bar to prevent it from limiting fire to one round of ammunition per trigger pull. This device by itself, regardless if it is installed on a slide or not, is considered by the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives]] (ATF) to be a machine gun, making possession of the device illegal in the United States.

==Operation==
A Glock switch<ref>Fire selector system, {{US patent|5705763A|U.S. Patent 5,705,763, to J.A. Leon, 1/6/1998}}</ref> functions by applying force to a [[semi-automatic pistol]]'s trigger bar to prevent it from limiting fire to one round of ammunition per trigger pull.<ref name="Justice2"/> Normally, in a semiautomatic pistol, after firing the trigger bar catches the firing pin until the trigger is released, but when depressed by the switch it does not catch. A Glock switch thus converts the weapon into a [[machine pistol]] capable of automatic fire.<ref name="Justice"/> The device is roughly the size of a [[Quarter (United States coin)|United States quarter]], and when installed on the rear of the [[gun slide|slide]] on a Glock pistol (replacing the slide cover plate), adds a [[selective fire]] switch; flipping the switch sets the weapon to [[Automatic firearm|full automatic]] mode.<ref name="Justice"/>

==History==

A patent ({{patent|US|5705763A}}) for the Glock auto-sear was filed in 1996 and approved in 1998, with its invention credited to Jorge A. Leon.

A handgun with a Glock switch attached fits the definition of a machine gun under United States federal law.<ref name="Smith" /> The 1986 [[Firearm Owners Protection Act]] made new machine guns illegal for civilians to own, banning "possession and transfer of new automatic firearms and parts that fire bullets without stopping once the trigger is depressed", with the exception of machine guns manufactured prior to May 19, 1986.<ref name="Nestel" /> Those caught with a switch-modified handgun can be prosecuted federally.<ref name="Schratz" /> The penalties for possession of an unregistered machine gun in the United States are up to a $250,000 fine and prison sentences of up to 10 years.<ref name="Nestel" />

In 2019, the ATF recovered thousands of the devices which were imported from China.<ref name="CNN"/> In 2021 and 2022, people have been manufacturing the switch devices with [[3D printing|3D printers]].<ref name="Smith"/><ref name="CNN"/> In March 2022, a [[Vice News]] investigation learned that the federal prosecutions which involved conversion devices have been rising since 2017. They determined that from 2017 to 2022, advances in low-cost 3D printers and global commerce on the internet have made the devices available for as little as $20 US.<ref name="Stephens"/> In 2022, federal authorities documented a dramatic rise in the prevalence of the Glock switches.<ref name="Barned-Smith"/>

==See also==
*[[Hell-fire trigger]]
*[[Bump stock]]
*[[Recoil operation]]
*[[Slamfire]]
*[[Gun politics in the United States]]

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Justice">{{cite web |title=Jacksonville Man Sentenced To Five Years In Federal Prison For Selling Machinegun-Conversion Device To Undercover Agent |url=https://www.justice.gov/usao-mdfl/pr/jacksonville-man-sentenced-five-years-federal-prison-selling-machinegun-conversion |date=2 December 2022 |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |access-date=29 December 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207204439/https://www.justice.gov/usao-mdfl/pr/jacksonville-man-sentenced-five-years-federal-prison-selling-machinegun-conversion|archive-date=December 7, 2022}}</ref>
<ref name="Justice2">{{cite web |title=Indictment: So-called ‘Glock switches’ Would have Turned Pistols into Machine Guns |url=https://www.justice.gov/usao-ks/pr/indictment-so-called-glock-switches-would-have-turned-pistols-machine-guns |date=30 May 2019 |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |access-date=29 December 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411184932/https://www.justice.gov/usao-ks/pr/indictment-so-called-glock-switches-would-have-turned-pistols-machine-guns|archive-date= April 11, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="Smith">{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Kelli |title=Devices that turn pistols into illegal machine guns on the rise in Texas, chief says |url=https://www.news-journal.com/news/devices-that-turn-pistols-into-illegal-machine-guns-on-the-rise-in-texas-chief-says/article_34433f96-7a53-11ed-98c4-37bd7f02dd6a.html |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=The Dallas Morning News |date=13 December 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330222522/https://www.news-journal.com/news/devices-that-turn-pistols-into-illegal-machine-guns-on-the-rise-in-texas-chief-says/article_34433f96-7a53-11ed-98c4-37bd7f02dd6a.html|archive-date= March 30, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="CNN">{{cite news |last1=Glover |first1=Scott |last2=Devine |first2=Curt |title=A device that can turn a semi-automatic weapon into a machine gun in moments is wreaking havoc on American streets |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/30/us/automatic-machine-gun-fire-invs/index.html |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=Cable News Network (CNN) |date=30 August 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416034511/https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/30/us/automatic-machine-gun-fire-invs/index.html|archive-date= April 16, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="Schratz">{{cite news |last1=Schratz |first1=Joe |title='Glock switch' shows up in Jonesboro |url=https://www.jonesborosun.com/news/glock-switch-shows-up-in-jonesboro/article_d4cc9a73-7c2f-5327-b32a-17366c0d5235.html |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=The Jonesboro Sun |date=26 August 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117044832/https://www.jonesborosun.com/news/glock-switch-shows-up-in-jonesboro/article_d4cc9a73-7c2f-5327-b32a-17366c0d5235.html|archive-date= January 17, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="Barned-Smith">{{cite news |last1=Barned-Smith |first1=St. John |title=More Houston shootings are involving 'Glock switches,' which turn pistols into machine guns |url=https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/crime/article/More-Houston-shootings-involve-Glock-16945519.php |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=Houston Chronicle |date=25 February 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229201857/https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/crime/article/More-Houston-shootings-involve-Glock-16945519.php|archive-date= December 29, 2022}}</ref>
<ref name="Nestel">{{cite news |last1=Nestel |first1=M.L. |last2=Miller |first2=Andrea |title=What to know about machine gun laws in the US |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/machine-gun-laws-us/story?id=50256580 |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=ABC News |date=4 October 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229201858/https://abcnews.go.com/US/machine-gun-laws-us/story?id=50256580|archive-date=December 29, 2022}}</ref>
<ref name="Stephens">{{cite news |last1=Stephens |first1=Alain |title=Tiny 'Glock Switches' Have Quietly Flooded the US With Deadly Machine Guns |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/pkp8p8/glock-switches-auto-sears |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=Vice Media Group |date=24 March 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515105427/https://www.vice.com/en/article/pkp8p8/glock-switches-auto-sears|archive-date= May 15, 2023}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20230330052736/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pOtiIUOmns8&t=153s Video More 'Glock Switches' confiscated in Tennessee]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20230325030427/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kc5mvAAPraI Video Penny-sized 'Glock switch' turns handgun into automatic weapon]

[[Category:Firearm actions]]
[[Category:Gun politics in the United States]]
[[Category:Firearm components]]

Glock switch

2023-08-17T22:38:49Z

Eugrus: /* History */

{{Short description|Auto sear installable on a Glock}}
[[File:Glock Switch.jpg|thumb|A switch attached to a Glock pistol]]
A '''Glock switch''' or '''Glock auto-sear''' is a small device that can be attached to the rear of the [[gun slide|slide]] of a [[Glock]] handgun, converting the [[semi-automatic pistol]] into a [[machine pistol]] capable of [[Automatic firearm|fully automatic]] fire. As a type of [[auto sear]], it functions by applying force to the trigger bar to prevent it from limiting fire to one round of ammunition per trigger pull. This device by itself, regardless if it is installed on a slide or not, is considered by the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives]] (ATF) to be a machine gun, making possession of the device illegal in the United States.

==Operation==
A Glock switch<ref>Fire selector system, {{US patent|5705763A|U.S. Patent 5,705,763, to J.A. Leon, 1/6/1998}}</ref> functions by applying force to a [[semi-automatic pistol]]'s trigger bar to prevent it from limiting fire to one round of ammunition per trigger pull.<ref name="Justice2"/> It thus converts the weapon into a [[machine pistol]] capable of automatic fire.<ref name="Justice"/> The device is roughly the size of a [[Quarter (United States coin)|United States quarter]], and when installed on the rear of the [[gun slide|slide]] on a Glock pistol (replacing the slide cover plate), adds a [[selective fire]] switch; flipping the switch sets the weapon to [[Automatic firearm|full automatic]] mode.<ref name="Justice"/>

==History==

A patent ({{patent|US|5705763A}}) for the Glock auto-sear was filed in 1996 and approved in 1998, with its invention credited to Jorge A. Leon.

A handgun with a Glock switch attached fits the definition of a machine gun under United States federal law.<ref name="Smith" /> The 1986 [[Firearm Owners Protection Act]] made new machine guns illegal for civilians to own, banning "possession and transfer of new automatic firearms and parts that fire bullets without stopping once the trigger is depressed", with the exception of machine guns manufactured prior to May 19, 1986.<ref name="Nestel" /> Those caught with a switch-modified handgun can be prosecuted federally.<ref name="Schratz" /> The penalties for possession of an unregistered machine gun in the United States are up to a $250,000 fine and prison sentences of up to 10 years.<ref name="Nestel" />

In 2019, the ATF recovered thousands of the devices which were imported from China.<ref name="CNN"/> In 2021 and 2022, people have been manufacturing the switch devices with [[3D printing|3D printers]].<ref name="Smith"/><ref name="CNN"/> In March 2022, a [[Vice News]] investigation learned that the federal prosecutions which involved conversion devices have been rising since 2017. They determined that from 2017 to 2022, advances in low-cost 3D printers and global commerce on the internet have made the devices available for as little as $20 US.<ref name="Stephens"/> In 2022, federal authorities documented a dramatic rise in the prevalence of the Glock switches.<ref name="Barned-Smith"/>

==See also==
*[[Hell-fire trigger]]
*[[Bump stock]]
*[[Recoil operation]]
*[[Slamfire]]
*[[Gun politics in the United States]]

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Justice">{{cite web |title=Jacksonville Man Sentenced To Five Years In Federal Prison For Selling Machinegun-Conversion Device To Undercover Agent |url=https://www.justice.gov/usao-mdfl/pr/jacksonville-man-sentenced-five-years-federal-prison-selling-machinegun-conversion |date=2 December 2022 |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |access-date=29 December 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207204439/https://www.justice.gov/usao-mdfl/pr/jacksonville-man-sentenced-five-years-federal-prison-selling-machinegun-conversion|archive-date=December 7, 2022}}</ref>
<ref name="Justice2">{{cite web |title=Indictment: So-called ‘Glock switches’ Would have Turned Pistols into Machine Guns |url=https://www.justice.gov/usao-ks/pr/indictment-so-called-glock-switches-would-have-turned-pistols-machine-guns |date=30 May 2019 |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |access-date=29 December 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411184932/https://www.justice.gov/usao-ks/pr/indictment-so-called-glock-switches-would-have-turned-pistols-machine-guns|archive-date= April 11, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="Smith">{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Kelli |title=Devices that turn pistols into illegal machine guns on the rise in Texas, chief says |url=https://www.news-journal.com/news/devices-that-turn-pistols-into-illegal-machine-guns-on-the-rise-in-texas-chief-says/article_34433f96-7a53-11ed-98c4-37bd7f02dd6a.html |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=The Dallas Morning News |date=13 December 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330222522/https://www.news-journal.com/news/devices-that-turn-pistols-into-illegal-machine-guns-on-the-rise-in-texas-chief-says/article_34433f96-7a53-11ed-98c4-37bd7f02dd6a.html|archive-date= March 30, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="CNN">{{cite news |last1=Glover |first1=Scott |last2=Devine |first2=Curt |title=A device that can turn a semi-automatic weapon into a machine gun in moments is wreaking havoc on American streets |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/30/us/automatic-machine-gun-fire-invs/index.html |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=Cable News Network (CNN) |date=30 August 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416034511/https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/30/us/automatic-machine-gun-fire-invs/index.html|archive-date= April 16, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="Schratz">{{cite news |last1=Schratz |first1=Joe |title='Glock switch' shows up in Jonesboro |url=https://www.jonesborosun.com/news/glock-switch-shows-up-in-jonesboro/article_d4cc9a73-7c2f-5327-b32a-17366c0d5235.html |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=The Jonesboro Sun |date=26 August 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117044832/https://www.jonesborosun.com/news/glock-switch-shows-up-in-jonesboro/article_d4cc9a73-7c2f-5327-b32a-17366c0d5235.html|archive-date= January 17, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="Barned-Smith">{{cite news |last1=Barned-Smith |first1=St. John |title=More Houston shootings are involving 'Glock switches,' which turn pistols into machine guns |url=https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/crime/article/More-Houston-shootings-involve-Glock-16945519.php |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=Houston Chronicle |date=25 February 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229201857/https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/crime/article/More-Houston-shootings-involve-Glock-16945519.php|archive-date= December 29, 2022}}</ref>
<ref name="Nestel">{{cite news |last1=Nestel |first1=M.L. |last2=Miller |first2=Andrea |title=What to know about machine gun laws in the US |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/machine-gun-laws-us/story?id=50256580 |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=ABC News |date=4 October 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229201858/https://abcnews.go.com/US/machine-gun-laws-us/story?id=50256580|archive-date=December 29, 2022}}</ref>
<ref name="Stephens">{{cite news |last1=Stephens |first1=Alain |title=Tiny 'Glock Switches' Have Quietly Flooded the US With Deadly Machine Guns |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/pkp8p8/glock-switches-auto-sears |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=Vice Media Group |date=24 March 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515105427/https://www.vice.com/en/article/pkp8p8/glock-switches-auto-sears|archive-date= May 15, 2023}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20230330052736/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pOtiIUOmns8&t=153s Video More 'Glock Switches' confiscated in Tennessee]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20230325030427/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kc5mvAAPraI Video Penny-sized 'Glock switch' turns handgun into automatic weapon]

[[Category:Firearm actions]]
[[Category:Gun politics in the United States]]
[[Category:Firearm components]]

GS1

2023-06-03T11:27:19Z

Eugrus: /* History */

{{Short description|Organization for barcode standards}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2016}}
{{Infobox company
| name = GS1
| native_name =
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| type = Not-for-profit organisation
| industry = Standards
| num_locations = 116 offices worldwide<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-38498700|title=How the barcode changed retailing and manufacturing|last=Harford|first=Tim|date=2017-01-23|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-04-28|language=en-GB}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gs1.org/articles/2510/gs1-grows-by-adding-two-new-member-organisations|title = GS1 grows by adding two new Member Organisations | GS1}}</ref>
| founded = 26 April 1974
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| location = [[Brussels]], Belgium
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| key_people = Renaud de Barbuat ([[CEO]])
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'''GS1''' is a [[Nonprofit organization|not-for-profit]], international organization developing and maintaining its own standards for barcodes and the corresponding issue company prefixes. The best known of these standards is the [[barcode]], a symbol printed on products that can be scanned electronically.

GS1 has 116 local member organizations and over 2 million user companies. Its main office is in Brussels ([[Avenue Louise]]).

==History==
In 1969, the retail industry in the US was searching for a way to speed up the check-out process in shops. The Ad Hoc Committee for a Uniform Grocery Product Identification Code was established{{By whom|date=June 2023}} to find a solution.

In 1973, the [[Universal Product Code]] (UPC) was selected by this group as the first single standard for unique product identification. In 1974, the [[GS1 US|Uniform Code Council (UCC)]] was founded to administer the standard.<ref name=":0">{{Cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-38498700|title=How the barcode changed retailing and manufacturing|last=Harford|first=Tim|date=2017-01-23|work=BBC News|access-date=2017-04-28|language=en-GB}}</ref> On 26 June 1974, a pack of [[Wrigley Company|Wrigley]]’s chewing gum became the first ever product with a barcode to be scanned in a shop.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/history-bar-code-180956704/|title=The History of the Bar Code|work=Smithsonian|access-date=2017-04-28|language=en}}</ref>

In 1976, the original 12-digit code was expanded to 13 digits, which allowed the identification system to be used outside the U.S. In 1977, the [[International Article Number|European Article Numbering Association (EAN)]] was established in Brussels, with founding members from 12 countries.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://40.gs1.org/historic-timeline.php|title=Historic Timeline - GS1 40th Anniversary|website=40.gs1.org|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190717103404/http://40.gs1.org/historic-timeline.php|archive-date=2019-07-17}}</ref>

In 1990, EAN and UCC signed a global cooperation agreement and expanded their overall presence to 45 countries. In 1999, EAN and UCC launched the [[Auto-ID Labs|Auto-ID Centre]] to develop [[Electronic Product Code|Electronic Product Code (EPC)]], enabling GS1 standards to be used for RFID.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gs1.org/about/how-we-got-here|title=How we got here|last=Anonymous|date=2014-12-18|website=www.gs1.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-28}}</ref>

In 2004, EAN and UCC launched the [[Global Data Synchronization Network|Global Data Synchronization Network (GDSN)]], a global, internet-based initiative that enables trading partners to efficiently exchange product master data.<ref name=":1" />

By 2005, the organisation was present in over 90 countries, and it started to use the name GS1 on a worldwide basis. Whilst "GS1" is not an acronym, it refers to the organisation offering one global system of standards.<ref name=":1" />

In August 2018, the GS1 Web URI Structure Standard was ratified, allowing unique ID's to be added to products by storing a URI (a webpage-like address) as a QR code.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.gs1.org/docs/Digital-Link/GS1_Web_URI_Standard_i1_r_2018-07-17.pdf|title=GS1 Web URI Structure Standard|website=GS1}}</ref>

== Barcodes ==
[[File:Gs1-barcodes.png|thumb|The GS1 barcodes]]
[[Barcode]]s defined by GS1 standards are very common.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BizOBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA263|title=Food Packaging: Principles and Practice, Third Edition|last=Robertson|first=Gordon L.|date=2016-04-19|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=9781439862421|language=en}}</ref> GS1 introduced the barcode in 1974.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.gs1.org/about|title=GS1 - Organisation that manages the barcode standard used by retailers, manufacturers and suppliers}}</ref> A barcode encodes a product identification number that can be [[barcode reader|scanned electronically]], making it easier for products to be tracked, processed, and stored.

Barcodes improve the efficiency, safety, speed and visibility of supply chains across physical and digital channels. They have a crucial role in the retail industry, including today's online marketplaces, moving beyond just faster checkout to improved inventory and delivery management, and the opportunity to sell online on a global scale. In the UK alone, the introduction of the barcode in the retail industry has resulted in savings of 10.5 billion pounds per year.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{Citation|last=GS1UK|title=Ever wondered what the GS1 barcode has done for you?|date=2013-12-10|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XJa3_ExVFPE |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211221/XJa3_ExVFPE |archive-date=2021-12-21 |url-status=live|access-date=2017-04-28}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

Some of the barcodes that GS1 developed and manages are: [[International Article Number|EAN]]/[[Universal Product Code|UPC]] (used mainly on consumer goods), GS1 [[Data Matrix]] (used mainly on healthcare products), [[Code 128|GS1-128]], [[GS1 DataBar]], and GS1 QR Code.

== Standards ==
The most influential GS1 standard is the [[Global Trade Item Number|GTIN]]. It identifies products uniquely around the world and forms the base of the GS1 system.

Main GS1 standards are as follows:
{{colbegin|colwidth=}}
* [[Application Level Events | Application Level Events (ALE)]]
* Core Business Vocabulary (CBV)
* [[International Article Number|EAN]]/[[Universal Product Code|UPC]] barcodes
* [[Electronic Product Code|EPC/RFID tags]]
* [[EPCIS]]
* [[GEPIR]]
* Global Data Model
* [[Global Data Synchronization Network|Global Data Synchronization Network (GDSN)]]
* Global Document Type Identifier (GDTI)
* Global Individual Asset Identifier (GIAI)
* Global Identification Number for Consignment (GINC)
* [[Global Location Number|Global Location Number (GLN)]]
* Global Product Classification (GPC)
* Global Returnable Asset Identifier (GRAI)
* Global Service Relationship Number (GSRN)
* Global Shipment Identification Number (GSIN)
* [[Global Trade Item Number|Global Trade Item Number (GTIN)]]
* GS1-128
* [[GS1 DataBar]]
* [[Data Matrix|GS1 DataMatrix]]
* GS1 Digital Link
* [[GS1 EDI]]
* [[ITF-14]]
* Low-Level Reader Protocol (LLRP)
* Object Name Service (ONS)
* [[Serial Shipping Container Code|Serial Shipping Container Code (SSCC)]]
{{colend}}
Many GS1 standards are also [[International Organization for Standardization|ISO]] standards, including the [[Global Trade Item Number|GTIN]], [[Global Location Number|GLN]], and [[Serial shipping container code|SSCC]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=https://www.iso.org/organizations-in-cooperation-with-iso.html|title=Organizations in cooperation with ISO|website=www.iso.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-28}}</ref>

GS1 also acts as the secretariat for ISO's Automatic identification and data capture techniques technical committee ([[ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 31]]).<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.iso.org/committee/45332.html|title=ISO/IEC JTC 1/SC 31 - Automatic identification and data capture techniques|website=www.iso.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-28}}</ref>

GS1 standards are developed and maintained through the GS1 Global Standards Management Process (GSMP), a community-based forum that brings together representatives from different industries and businesses.

== Industries ==

=== Retail and marketplaces ===
[[Retail]] was the first industry that GS1 began working with and has remained their primary focus. Today, GS1 operates in four retail sub-sectors on a global level: [[Clothing|Apparel]], Fresh Foods, [[Fast-moving consumer goods|CPG]] and [[General line of merchandise|General Merchandise]].

Key focus areas in retail include [[sustainability]], [[data quality]], compliance with regulatory requirements, [[traceability]] of products<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.gs1india.org/content/traceability |title=Traceability |date=2020-01-27 |accessdate=2021-06-27 }}</ref> from their origin through delivery, and upstream integration between manufacturers and suppliers.

As consumers are recurring to [[e-commerce]] more often throughout the years, GS1 has developed standards that uniquely identify products for the benefit of consumers and for search engines, providing accurate and complete product information digitally.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://apparel.edgl.com/news/Tackling-Disruptive-Forces-through-Industry-Collaboration--108651|title=Tackling Disruptive Forces through Industry Collaboration|last=Communications|first=Edgell|access-date=2017-04-28}}</ref>

Major e-commerce companies such as eBay, Amazon and Google Shopping require companies to use a GS1 GTIN to sell on their websites.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://pages.ebay.com/sellerinformation/news/springupdate2015/product-identifiers.html|title=Product Identifiers {{!}} eBay Seller Center|website=pages.ebay.com|language=en|access-date=2017-04-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.repricerexpress.com/product-upcs-gtins/|title=Amazon Announcement: Product UPCs and GTINs - RepricerExpress|website=www.repricerexpress.com|date=30 June 2016|language=en-US|access-date=2017-04-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://commerce.googleblog.com/2015/09/reach-more-customers-online-add-gtins.html|title=Reach more customers online: Add GTINs to your Google Shopping data feed|work=Google Commerce|access-date=2017-04-28|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Healthcare ===
Since 2005, GS1 has operated in [[Health care|Healthcare]] with the primary objective to enhance patient safety, and to drive supply chain efficiencies.

More than 70 countries have healthcare-related regulations or trading partner requirements where GS1 standards are being used for the above reasons as well for medicines as medical devices. Members of GS1 Healthcare include more than 140 leading healthcare organisations worldwide.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.gs1.org/healthcare|title=Healthcare|last=Anonymous|date=2014-12-23|website=www.gs1.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-28}}</ref>

=== Other industries ===
GS1 operates three other key industries globally: Transport & Logistics, [[Food service]] and Technical Industries. GS1's 116 Member Organisations in over 116 countries around the world collectively focus on dozens of industry sectors.<ref name=":3">{{Cite web|url=http://www.gs1.org/1/strategy/|title=GS1 Strategy|website=www.gs1.org|language=en|access-date=2017-04-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180117131351/https://www.gs1.org/1/strategy/|archive-date=17 January 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>

==See also==
* [[List of GS1 country codes]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.gs1.org www.gs1.org]

[[Category:GS1| ]]
[[Category:Organisations based in Brussels]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 1974]]
[[Category:Standards organizations]]

[[es:EAN]]

ArcaOS

2023-06-02T03:12:52Z

Eugrus:

{{Short description|Computer operating system based on IBM's OS/2 Warp}}
{{Primary sources|date=January 2023}}
{{Infobox OS |
|name = ArcaOS
|logo = Arcaos-logo.png
|logo size = 64px
|logo alt = ArcaOS Logo
|screenshot = ArcaOS 5.0 Screenshot.png
|caption = ArcaOS 5.0.5 desktop
|developer = Arca Noae, LLC (based on code from [[IBM]], [[Microsoft]], and other developers)
|family = [[OS/2]] (and includes a [[Unix-like|Unix]] compatibility subsystem)
|source_model = [[Closed source]] with [[open-source software|open-source]] components
| released = {{Start date and age|2017|05|15}}<ref name="Arca-22" />
|latest_release_version = 5.0.8
|latest_release_date = {{Start date and age|2023|05|29}}<ref name="arcaos508">https://www.arcanoae.com/arcaos-5-0-8-now-available/</ref>
|latest_test_version = 5.1
|latest_test_date =
|marketing_target =
| package manager = ANPM (based on [[RPM Package Manager|RPM]] and [[yum (software)|YUM]])
| supported platforms = [[32-bit]] [[x86]]
| programmed in = [[C (programming language)|C]], [[C++]], [[REXX]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[assembly language]]
| kernel type = [[Hybrid kernel]]
| ui = [[Workplace Shell]], [[cmd.exe|cmd]]
|working_state = Current
|license = [[Proprietary software]]
|website = [https://www.arcanoae.com/arcaos/ www.arcanoae.com]
}}

'''ArcaOS''' is an [[operating system]] based on [[OS/2]], developed and marketed by Arca Noae, LLC under license from [[IBM]].<ref name="arcaos">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arcaos/|title=ArcaOS 5.0 from Arca Noae is the new release of OS/2 for the 21st century|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref><ref name="Arca-08">[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q9-oyli_lzQ&t=27m39s Blue Lion Announcement at Warpstock 2015]</ref> It was codenamed '''Blue Lion''' during its development.<ref name="Arca-06" /> It builds on OS/2 Warp 4.52 by adding support for new hardware, fixing defects and limitations in the operating system, and by including new applications and tools,<ref name="Arca-03">{{cite web|access-date=2020-08-31|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arcaos/|title=About ArcaOS}}</ref> and includes some [[Linux]]/Unix (tool) compatibility. It is targeted at professional users who need to run their OS/2 applications on new hardware, as well as personal users of OS/2.<ref name="lundukehour" />

Like OS/2 Warp, ArcaOS is a [[32-bit]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/faqwd/do-you-have-plans-for-a-64-bit-arcaos/|title=Do you have plans for a 64-bit ArcaOS?|access-date=2020-09-05|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref> [[single user]], [[multiprocessing]],<ref name="arcaos-acpi" /> [[preemptive multitasking]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/glimpse-new-arcaos-desktop/|title=Have a glimpse of the new ArcaOS desktop|date=2017-05-21|access-date=2020-09-05|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref> operating system for the [[x86]] architecture.<ref name="arcaos-requirements" /> It is supported on both physical hardware<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/arcaos/tested-hardware/|title=Tested Hardware|access-date=2020-09-05}}</ref> and virtual machine [[hypervisors]].<ref name="arcaos-vm">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/arcaos/installation-planning/virtual-machine-configuration/|title=Virtual Machine Configuration|access-date=2020-09-05}}</ref>

==Features==
===Hardware compatibility===

ArcaOS supports [[symmetric multiprocessing]] systems with up to 64 processor cores, although it is recommended to disable [[hyperthreading]].<ref name="arcaos-acpi">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/acpi/requirements/|access-date=2020-09-06|title=ACPI Driver Requirements|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref> As of version 5.0.6, ArcaOS is [[Advanced Configuration and Power Interface|ACPI]] 6.1-compliant and includes the 20200717 release of [[ACPICA]].<ref name="Arca-23">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wp-content/uploads/wiki/ReadMe-ACPI.txt|website=arcanoae.com|title=Readme for the ACPI Driver Package|access-date=2020-09-06}}</ref>

While ArcaOS is a 32-bit operating system, it has limited [[Physical Address Extension|PAE]] support which allows it to use [[RAM]] in excess of 4GB as a [[RAM disk]].<ref name="lundukehour">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8oXKMZ56R2o|title="OS/2 Based ArcaOS" - Lunduke Hour - May 23, 2017|first=Bryan|last= Lunduke|date=23 May 2017|via=YouTube}}</ref>

ArcaOS supports being run as a [[virtual machine]] guest inside [[VirtualBox]], [[VMware ESXi]], [[VMWare Workstation]] and [[Microsoft Virtual PC]].<ref name="arcaos-vm" />

In addition to the [[device drivers]] included with OS/2 Warp 4, ArcaOS includes a variety of drivers developed by Arca Noae, and various third parties:

* Network adapters are supported either with Arca Noae's MultiMac<ref name="Arca-24">[https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/multimac/ Arca Noae wiki: MultiMac NIC Drivers]</ref> technology, which employs [[FreeBSD]] driver code, or a selection of GenMAC<ref name="Arca-25">[http://genmac.netlabs.org/en/site/index.xml Project: Generic MAC Wrapper Driver (GenMac)]</ref> drivers. Support for wireless networking is somewhat limited, though MultiMac support for additional chipsets is planned for future releases of ArcaOS.<ref name="warpstock-2020-day-2" />
* ArcaOS replaces the 16-bit IBM OS/2 USB driver with a new 32-bit driver capable of supporting [[USB 2.0]] and [[USB 3.0]] controllers.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arca-noae-progress-report-usb-arcaos-updater-multimedia/|website=arcanoae.com|access-date=2020-09-22|date=2019-10-16|title=Arca Noae progress report: USB, ArcaOS updater, multimedia}}</ref><ref name="arcaos505" />
* Audio support utilizes the Uniaud<ref name="Arca-26">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/uniaud/|title=Arca Noae wiki: Uniaud - Audio subsystem|access-date=2020-09-22|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref> generic audio driver, now maintained by Arca Noae. Uniaud is based on the [[Advanced Linux Sound Architecture|ALSA]] framework from the [[Linux kernel]]. In addition, a selection of device-specific drivers are included with ArcaOS. A new audio driver is planned for future releases of ArcaOS, based on [[FreeBSD]] audio drivers.<ref name="warpstock-2020-day-2">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=olz_KpTz1cU|date=2020-05-17|access-date=2020-09-22|website=youtube.com|title=Warpstock Europe Conference 2020 - Day 2}}</ref>
* Video support is provided by Panorama<ref name="Arca-27">[https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/panorama/ Arca Noae wiki: Panorama Video Driver]</ref> generic unaccelerated [[VESA]] driver, or SNAP<ref name="Arca-28">[https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/snap/ Arca Noae wiki: Arca Noae SNAP Graphics for OS/2]</ref> accelerated video driver. Features such as acceleration and multi-head are supported for a limited number of graphics chipsets. Support for these features in additional chipsets, such as the [[Intel HD]] series, is planned.<ref name="warpstock-2020-day-2" />
* Storage drivers are available for [[Parallel ATA|IDE]], [[Advanced Host Controller Interface|AHCI]], [[NVMe]] and a number of [[SCSI]] adapters.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/faqwd/how-can-i-tell-if-my-current-disk-drive-is-compatible-with-arcaos/|title=How can I tell if my current disk drive is compatible with ArcaOS?|access-date=2020-09-22|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.os2world.com/cms/index.php/past-news/80-news/software/23010-arca-noae-nvme-driver-version-1-01-released|date=2021-04-14|access-date=2021-04-16|title=NVME Driver version 1.01 released|website=os2world.com}}</ref>
* Support for printers is provided by the eCups project, which is based on the open-source [[CUPS|Common Unix Printing System]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://trac.netlabs.org/ecups/wiki|title=Welcome to eCups|website=netlabs.org|access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref>

===Software===

[[File:Arcaos-5.0-apps.png|thumb|right|Some of the [[open source software]] included with ArcaOS - Firefox, Lucide, 4OS2, PMDCalc Plus]]

In addition to the software bundled with OS/2 Warp 4, ArcaOS includes some additional software, such as:<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/tpw|title=Third Party Work|access-date=2020-09-08|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/glimpse-new-arcaos-desktop/|title=Have a glimpse of the new ArcaOS desktop|access-date=2020-09-08|website=arcanoae.com|date=21 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="arcaos-changes" />

* Outdated/insecure [[Mozilla]] [[Firefox]], [[Mozilla Thunderbird|Thunderbird]] and [[SeaMonkey]]
* [[Apache OpenOffice]]
* Lucide, an open source document viewer
* XWorkplace, a set of open source enhancements to the [[Workplace Shell]]
* [[4OS2]]
* [[OpenJDK]] 6
* [[Qt (software)|Qt]] 4 and 5
* [[Samba (software)|Samba]] 4
* Heimdal [[Kerberos (protocol)|Kerberos]]
* VirtualBox

===Cross-platform compatibility===

[[File:Arcaos-5.0-compatibility.png|thumb|right|Some of the compatibility subsystems in ArcaOS - a [[Bash (Unix shell)|Bash]] shell (bottom left), [[QBASIC]] in a [[DOS#DOS under OS/2 and Windows|DOS]] window (middle), and the [[Windows 3.1]] [[Program Manager]] (top right)]]

ArcaOS includes a number of software components which allow it to directly run software developed for other operating systems, and to simplify the process of porting software to ArcaOS:

* ArcaOS includes OS/2's [[Virtual DOS machine#OS.2F2 MVDM|MVDM]] and [[OS/2#Windows 3.x compatibility|WIN-OS/2]], allowing ArcaOS to run 16-bit [[MS-DOS]] and [[Windows 3.1]] applications natively.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/arcaos/compatibility-subsystems/getting-the-most-out-of-dos-and-win-os2-sessions/|access-date=2020-09-22|title=Getting the most out of DOS and Win-OS/2 sessions|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref> ArcaOS features some improvements to these subsystems which are not found in OS/2, such as the ability to access volumes greater than 2GB from Windows and DOS,<ref name="arcaos-changes" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/faqwd/why-cant-my-dos-and-win-os-2-sessions-see-more-than-2gb-of-free-space/|access-date=2020-09-03|title=Why can't my DOS and Win-OS/2 sessions see more than 2GB of free space?}}</ref> as well as ongoing work which will allow 16-bit Windows and DOS software to run on UEFI systems which do not have a traditional BIOS.<ref name="warpstock-2020-day-1" />
* ArcaOS includes [[Odin (code conversion software)|Odin]], based on [[Wine (software)|Wine]], which provides a subset of the [[Win32]] API.<ref name="lundukehour"/> Odin can be used to run certain Win32 applications directly, while other applications, such as the OS/2 port of [[OpenJDK]], use the Odin API to simplify porting Windows software to OS/2.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://trac.netlabs.org/java|title=Java for OS/2 and OS/2-based systems|access-date=2020-09-22|website=trac.netlabs.org}}</ref>
* ArcaOS provides a Unix compatibility layer named kLIBC which facilitates the porting of open source Linux applications to ArcaOS.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/arcaos/compatibility-subsystems/getting-to-know-the-unix-compatibility-subsystem-klibc/|website=arcanoae.com|title=Getting to know the Unix Compatibility Subsystem (kLIBC)|access-date=2020-09-08}}</ref> A variety of Linux tools ship with ArcaOS such as the [[Bash shell]] and the [[GNU coreutils]],<ref name="arcaos-compatibility" /> while others are available through the ArcaOS package manager, such as [[GNU Compiler Collection|GCC]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://trac.netlabs.org/lucide/wiki/BuildingInstructions|title=Lucide Building Instructions|access-date=2020-09-22|website=trac.netlabs.org}}</ref>
* A port of [[OpenJDK]] is included, which allows ArcaOS to run [[Java (programming language)|Java]] applications which do not have platform-specific dependencies.<ref name="arcaos-compatibility">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/arcaos/compatibility-subsystems/|title=Compatibility Subsystems|access-date=2020-09-08}}</ref>

===Filesystems===
ArcaOS's default [[filesystem]] is [[JFS (file system)|JFS]], although [[High Performance File System|HPFS]] is also supported for backwards compatibility.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wp-content/uploads/wiki/ArcaOS50_InstallationGuide.pdf|title=ArcaOS 5.0 Installation Guide|website=arcanoae.com|access-date=2020-09-22|date=May 2017}}</ref> ArcaOS may be installed to and booted from either filesystem.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/arcaos/installation-planning/|title=Installation Planning|date=2020-06-06|access-date=2020-09-22|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref>

[[File Allocation Table#FAT12|FAT12]], [[File Allocation Table#FAT16|FAT16]], and [[File Allocation Table#FAT32|FAT32]] are also supported using either the OS/2 kernel's own [[File Allocation Table|FAT]] driver, or a new Arca Noae-developed FAT32 [[Installable File System|IFS]] driver, included in ArcaOS since version 5.0.3.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/fat32/|title=FAT32 Installable File System Driver|access-date=2020-09-04}}</ref> ArcaOS includes support for [[optical disc]] filesystems such as [[ISO 9660]] and [[Universal Disk Format|UDF]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ecsoft2.org/dvdudf|title=DVD/UDF|access-date=2020-09-22|website=ecsoft2.org}}</ref>

ArcaOS supports serving and accessing [[Server Message Block|CIFS/SMB]] shares using the open source [[Samba (software)|Samba]] project, and provides a graphical utility named ArcaMapper to manage configuration.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/arcamapper/|title=ArcaMapper|access-date=2020-09-22|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref>

NetDrive for OS/2 provides access to a variety of additional filesystems such as [[NTFS]] and [[Network File System|NFS]] via its own [[Installable File System|IFS]] driver.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://ecsoft2.org/ntfs-plugin-netdrive|access-date=2020-09-22|website=ecsoft2.org|title=Network File System (NFS) plugin for NetDrive}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://ecsoft2.org/network-file-system-nfs-plugin-netdrive|access-date=2020-09-22|website=ecsoft2.org|title=NTFS plugin for NetDrive}}</ref> The ArcaOS distribution includes a limited license version of NetDrive but the fully licensed version is capable of mounting a number of other local, native, and foreign file systems.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/shop/netdrive-for-os2/|title=NetDrive for OS/2|access-date=2020-09-22|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref>

===Installation and updates===

[[File:Arcaos-5.0-installer.png|thumb|right|The hardware configuration screen from the ArcaOS installer]]

ArcaOS features a new graphical installer which replaces the IBM installer used in OS/2 Warp.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h_8C5e9tsAk|website=youtube.com|access-date=2020-09-22|date=2017-10-06|title=Writing the ArcaOS installer}}</ref> Unlike OS/2, the ArcaOS installation process does not require a boot floppy, and instead the installer can be booted directly from optical media, or from a USB flash drive.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/faqwd/what-installation-media-do-i-need-to-install-arcaos-will-it-install-from-diskettes/|access-date=2020-09-22|title=What installation media do I need to install ArcaOS? Will it install from diskettes?|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref> The installer also provides an update facility, which allows ArcaOS to be updated to the latest release without reinstalling the entire operating system.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/arcaos/updating-from-a-prior-release/|title=Updating from a prior release|access-date=2020-09-22|date=2020-06-24|website=arcanoae.com}}</ref>

Installation and updates of individual software packages is provided through the Arca Noae Package Manager (ANPM), which consists of a native OS/2 graphical frontend on top of [[RPM Package Manager|RPM]] and [[Yum (software)|YUM]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SfyMDczvL1w|website=youtube.com|date=2016-05-31|access-date=2020-09-22|title=YUM and RPM package manager update}}</ref> Software is provided through a mixture of freely available, and subscription only RPM repositories.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/anpm/|website=arcanoae.com|date=2020-06-22|access-date=2020-09-22|title=Package Manager}}</ref>

===Hardware requirements===
The minimum hardware requirements for ArcaOS 5.0 is as follows:<ref name="arcaos-requirements">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/arcaos/technical-specifications/|title=System Requirements for ArcaOS 5.0|website=arcanoae.com|access-date=2020-09-04}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
! [[Central processing unit|Processor]]
| [[Intel Pentium Pro]] or [[AMD K6]]
|-
! [[Random-access memory|Memory (RAM)]]
| 512MB minimum
2GB recommended
|-
! [[Graphics Card]]
| [[VGA]] video card with [[VESA BIOS Extensions|VBE]] 2.0 support<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wiki/panorama/|title=Panorama|website=arcanoae.com|access-date=2020-09-04}}</ref>
|-
! Storage space
| 2GB of available disk space
|-
! [[Removable media]]
| Installation requires [[DVD-ROM]] drive or [[USB flash drive]]
|-
! [[Firmware]]
| Traditional [[BIOS]], or [[UEFI]] with [[Compatibility Support Module|CSM]] enabled
|-
! [[Input devices]]
| [[PS/2 port|PS/2]] or [[USB human interface device class|USB]] keyboard and mouse
|}

==History==
===Blue Lion===
ArcaOS was formally announced on October 23, 2015, at the Warpstock 2015 event (an OS/2 user group event) under the code name "Blue Lion" by Arca Noae's Managing Member, Lewis Rosenthal.<ref name="Arca-08"/><ref name="Arca-06">[http://www.techrepublic.com/article/os2-blue-lion-to-be-the-next-distro-of-the-28-year-old-os/ OS/2: Blue Lion to be the next distro of the 28-year-old OS]</ref>

Some of the planned features for Blue Lion announced at the time were:<ref name="Arca-08"/>

* new Symmetric multiprocessing kernel
* new pre-boot menu
* new OS installer with support for installation from USB flash drive and across a network
* device drivers already produced by Arca Noae as part of their Drivers & Software Subscription<ref name="Arca-12">[https://www.theregister.co.uk/2015/11/03/os2_returns_arca_noae/ Is the world ready for a bare-metal OS/2 rebirth?]</ref>
* the latest [[Workplace Shell]] enhancements
* updated [[CUPS]] print subsystem
* updated [[PostScript]] printer driver pack
* localization in several languages besides English<ref name="Arca-11">[http://www.fudzilla.com/news/40775-os-2-comes-back-from-the-dead OS/2 comes back from the dead]</ref>

At the time of the announcement, the initial release was projected for late third quarter of 2016, but Arca Noae also stated that no actual release date had been set.<ref name="Arca-08"/>

===ArcaOS 5.0===

The name "ArcaOS" was first published in a [[TechRepublic]] article<ref name="Arca-09">{{cite web|title=OS/2 resurrected: Blue Lion becomes ArcaOS, details emerge for upcoming release|url=https://www.techrepublic.com/article/os2-resurrected-blue-lion-becomes-arcaos-details-emerge-for-upcoming-release/|date=2016-08-31|access-date=2021-05-08|first=James|last=Sanders|publisher=[[TechRepublic]]}}</ref> on May 26, 2016, while the arcaos.com domain was registered December 20, 2015. In the same TechRepublic article, Lewis Rosenthal was quoted as saying that the first release of ArcaOS would be version 5.0, as it follows onto the last release of OS/2 Warp from IBM, which was 4.52 (also known as Merlin Convenience Pack 2, or MCP2).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.os2museum.com/wp/os2-history/os2-timeline/|title=OS/2 Timeline|access-date=2020-09-26|website=os2museum.com}}</ref>

ArcaOS 5.0 was released May 15, 2017.<ref name="Arca-22">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arcaos-5-0-now-available|title=ArcaOS 5.0 release announcement|access-date=2021-12-08|website=Arca Noae|date=2017-05-15}}</ref> There were two editions released: a commercial edition, intended for enterprise use (including 12 months of upgraded/prioritized technical support), and a personal edition, targeted at non-business users (including six months of standard technical support) at a reduced price.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.theregister.co.uk/2017/05/19/new_version_of_os_2_arca_os_5/|title=What is dead may never die: a new version of OS/2 just arrived|first=Simon|last=Sharwood|date=2017-05-19|publisher=[[The Register]]|language=en|access-date=2019-10-02}}</ref> Pricing was listed as $229 per license for the commercial edition, and $129 per license for the personal edition, with $99 promotional price in effect for the first 90 days following release.

ArcaOS 5.0 was followed by a number of maintenance releases between 2017 and 2021. In addition to bug fixes and driver updates, the maintenance releases added some significant features such as USB 3.0 support, the ability to install from a USB drive, and the update facility.<ref name="arcaos-changes" /> During Warpstock 2021, Arca Noae announced that 5.0.7 would be the final maintenance release of 5.0, and that it would be followed by the 5.1 release.<ref name=“warpstock-roadmap-2021”>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-66FLu0i4Vc|title=Warpstock 2021 - D1S5 - Lewis Rosenthal, ArcaOS Roadmap|author=Lewis Rosenthal|date=2021-09-19|access-date=2021-09-21|website=[[YouTube]]}}</ref>

===ArcaOS 5.1===

Prior to the release of ArcaOS 5.0, ArcaOS 5.1 was originally planned for release in 2017 with a focus on supporting other languages including French, Spanish, Italian, German, and Dutch.<ref name="Arca-09" /> Following the release of ArcaOS 5.0, Arca Noae began discussing a 5.1 release in their roadmaps, along with proposed new features.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.warpstock.org/filemgmt_data/files/ArcaOS%205.1%20Roadmap.pdf|date=2017|access-date=2020-11-08|website=warpstock.org|title=ArcaOS 5.1 Roadmap}}</ref> During Warpstock 2020, Arca Noae announced that 5.1 is expected to be released during 2021.<ref name="warpstock-2020-november" /> Some features planned for inclusion into 5.1 include:

* Support for booting on [[UEFI]]-only systems without a [[Compatibility Support Module]] (CSM). This involves providing emulation of specific [[BIOS]] functionality which the operating system depends on (particularly interrupts [[INT 10H]] and [[INT 13H]]).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=X07tnbq8_sM|website=youtube.com|date=2019-08-08|access-date=2020-09-22|title=Booting ArcaOS on UEFI hardware (demonstration)}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.techrepublic.com/article/modern-os2-distribution-arcaos-adds-support-for-booting-via-uefi/|date=2019-08-13|access-date=2020-09-22|first=James|last=Sanders|website=techrepublic.com|title=Modern OS/2 distribution ArcaOS adds support for booting via UEFI}}</ref> As of 2020, Arca Noae have demonstrated the installation of ArcaOS onto a UEFI system, and booting with the CSM disabled.<ref name="warpstock-2020-day-1">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JypjdaFtYqo|access-date=2020-09-22|date=2020-05-16|title=Warpstock Europe Conference - Day 1|website=youtube.com}}</ref>
* Support for disks using [[GUID Partition Table|GUID partition tables]] (GPT) is under development, which will allow disks larger than 2TB to be supported.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arca-noaes-plan-for-supporting-gpt-disk-layouts-in-arcaos/|website=arcanoae.com|date=2020-10-26|access-date=2020-10-30|title=Arca Noae's plan for supporting GPT disk layouts in ArcaOS}}</ref>
* [[Language localization|Localized]] releases of ArcaOS, known as National Language Versions (NLV). Planned languages include German, Spanish, French, Italian, Simplified and Traditional Chinese, Japanese, Korean and Dutch.<ref name="warpstock-2020-day-2" /> This involves augmenting the localization in OS/2 Warp 4 with translations for the new software added in ArcaOS, such as the installer and XWorkplace.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fZ-QhNqSAB4|date=2019-04-19|access-date=2020-09-22|title=National Language Support for OS/2|website=youtube.com}}</ref>
* An upgrade facility to allow in-place migration of ArcaOS 5.0 to 5.1 without reinstalling the entire operating system.<ref name="warpstock-2020-november" />
* A migration facility to allow in-place migration of OS/2 Warp 4 and [[eComStation]] systems to ArcaOS without removing the existing operating system installation first.<ref name="warpstock-2020-day-2" /> This feature is unlikely to be included in the initial 5.1 release.<ref name="warpstock-2020-november" />
* [[Desktop search]] functionality based on the open-source [[Recoll]] project.<ref name="warpstock-2020-day-2" />
* Replacing the monolithic IBM Selective Install utility with a number of Arca Noae-developed utilities.<ref name="warpstock-2020-november" />
* New device drivers, particularly support for NVMe drives.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/roadmaps/arcaos/|website=arcanoae.com|access-date=2020-11-08|title=Roadmap: ArcaOS}}</ref>

The OS/2 software vendor Bitwise Works is porting QtWebEngine (based on [[Chromium (software)|Chromium]]) to OS/2 and ArcaOS in order to support a new browser to replace Firefox.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=olz_KpTz1cU|title=Warpstock Europe Conference 2020|date=2020-05-17|access-date=2020-09-09|website=youtube.com}}</ref> This has been prompted by the increasing complexity of the Firefox codebase, and use of the [[Rust programming language]] in newer versions of Firefox - whose compiler is unlikely to ever be supported on the OS/2 platform.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://articles.os2voice.org/category/software/11-sponsorship-needed-for-new-os-2-web-browser.html|title=Sponsorship needed for new OS/2 web browser|last=Klein|first=Roderick|website=articles.os2voice.org|language=en-gb|access-date=2020-09-23|date=2017-10-11}}</ref> During Warpstock 2020, a demo was carried out which showed the Qt WebEngine Demo Browser running on ArcaOS and successfully loading modern web pages.<ref name="warpstock-2020-november" />

They{{clarify|date=May 2023|who? Arca Noae? the VOICE foundation?}} first considered porting the [[Falkon|Falkon browser]] to OS/2. That plan was dismissed, due to Falkon's dependency on [[KDE Frameworks| KDE libraries]]. The [[Otter Browser]] is being considered instead.<ref name="warpstock-2020-november">{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YRH-WbrYtWM|access-date=2020-11-07|date=2020-11-07|website=youtube.com|title=Warpstock 2020 - Virtual & Free}}</ref> The new web browser will be added to the ArcaOS 5.1 release series, once it is complete.

===Release history===

{| class="wikitable"
<caption align=top>''ArcaOS releases''</caption>
|-
! Release!!Date!!Major changes<ref name="arcaos-changes">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/wp-content/uploads/wiki/ArcaOS-changes.txt|title=ArcaOS 5.0 Changes|website=arcanoae.com|access-date=2020-09-04}}</ref>
|-
| 5.0||2017-05-15<ref name="Arca-22" />||First public release of ArcaOS
|-
| 5.0.1||2017-07-09<ref name="arcaos501">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arcaos-5-0-1-now-available/|title=ArcaOS 5.0.1 now available|website=arcanoae.com|date=9 July 2017|access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref>||Installer fixes and driver updates
|-
| 5.0.2||2018-02-10<ref name="arcaos502">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arcaos-5-0-2-now-available/|title=ArcaOS 5.0.2 now available|website=arcanoae.com|date=11 February 2018|access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref>||Added ability to boot from USB media
|-
| 5.0.3||2018-08-19<ref name="arcaos503">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arcaos-5-0-3-now-available/|title=ArcaOS 5.0.3 now available|website=arcanoae.com|date=19 August 2018|access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref>||Updates to software and drivers
|-
| 5.0.4||2019-07-21<ref name="arcaos504">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arcaos-5-0-4-now-available/|title=ArcaOS 5.0.4 now available|website=arcanoae.com|date=21 July 2019|access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref>||Update facility which allows ArcaOS to updated without reinstalling
|-
| 5.0.5||2020-06-06<ref name="arcaos505">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arcaos-5-0-5-now-available/|title=ArcaOS 5.0.5 now available|website=arcanoae.com|date=6 June 2020|access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref>||[[USB 3.0]]/[[xHCI]] support
|-
| 5.0.6||2020-08-31<ref name="arcaos506">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arcaos-5-0-6-now-available/|title=ArcaOS 5.0.6 now available|website=arcanoae.com|date=31 August 2020|access-date=2020-09-23}}</ref>||Installer fixes and updates
|-
| 5.0.7||2021-12-07<ref name="arcaos507">{{cite web|url=https://www.arcanoae.com/arcaos-5-0-7-now-available/|title=ArcaOS 5.0.7 now available|website=arcanoae.com|access-date=2021-12-08|date=2021-12-07}}</ref>||Updated drivers and kernel, installer fixes
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==

* [https://arcanoae.com Arca Noae] – website of the developer of ArcaOS

{{OS/2}}

[[Category:OS/2]]
[[Category:X86 operating systems]]
[[Category:2017 software]]
[[Category:Proprietary operating systems]]

Glock switch

2023-05-28T22:04:53Z

Eugrus: /* Operation */

{{Short description|Auto sear installable on a Glock}}
[[File:Glock Switch.jpg|thumb|A switch attached to a Glock pistol]]
A '''Glock switch''' or '''Glock auto-sear''' is a small device that can be attached to the rear of the [[gun slide|slide]] of a [[Glock]] handgun, converting the [[semi-automatic pistol]] into a [[machine pistol]] capable of [[Automatic firearm|fully automatic]] fire. As a type of [[auto sear]], it functions by applying force to the trigger bar to prevent it from limiting fire to one round of ammunition per trigger pull. This device by itself, regardless if it is installed on a slide or not, is considered by the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives]] (ATF) to be a machine gun. Therefore, the possession of this device is illegal under United States federal law if the person in possession does not have the required licensing.

==Operation==
A Glock switch<ref>Fire selector system, {{US patent|5705763A|U.S. Patent 5,705,763, to J.A. Leon, 1/6/1998}}</ref> functions by applying force to a [[semi-automatic pistol]]'s trigger bar to prevent it from limiting fire to one round of ammunition per trigger pull.<ref name="Justice2"/> It thus converts the weapon into a [[machine pistol]] capable of automatic fire.<ref name="Justice"/> The device is roughly the size of a [[Quarter (United States coin)|United States quarter]], and when installed on the rear of the [[gun slide|slide]] on a Glock pistol (replacing the slide cover plate), adds a [[selective fire]] switch; flipping the switch sets the weapon to [[Automatic firearm|full automatic]] mode.<ref name="Justice"/> Full auto fire makes accurate aiming nearly impossible, which endangers bystanders near shootings.<ref name="Schratz"/>

==History==

A handgun with a Glock switch attached fits the definition of an illegal machine gun under United States federal law.<ref name="Smith"/> The 1986 [[Firearm Owners Protection Act]] made new machine guns illegal for civilians to own, banning "possession and transfer of new automatic firearms and parts that fire bullets without stopping once the trigger is depressed", with the exception of machine guns manufactured prior to May 19, 1986.<ref name="Nestel"/> Those caught with a switch-modified handgun can be prosecuted federally.<ref name="Schratz"/> The penalties for possession of an unregistered machine gun in the United States are up to a $250,000 fine and prison sentences of up to 10 years.<ref name="Nestel"/>

In 2019, the ATF recovered thousands of the devices which were imported from China.<ref name="CNN"/> In 2021 and 2022, people have been manufacturing the switch devices with [[3D printing|3D printers]].<ref name="Smith"/><ref name="CNN"/> In March 2022, a ''[[Vice News]]'' investigation learned that the federal prosecutions which involved conversion devices have been rising since 2017. They determined that from 2017 to 2022, advances in low-cost 3D printers and global commerce on the internet have made the devices available for as little as $20 US.<ref name="Stephens"/> In 2022, federal authorities documented a dramatic rise in the prevalence of the Glock switches.<ref name="Barned-Smith"/>

==See also==
*[[Hell-Fire trigger]]
*[[Bump stock]]
*[[Recoil operation]]
*[[Slamfire]]
*[[Gun politics in the United States]]

==References==
{{Reflist|refs=
<ref name="Justice">{{cite web |title=Jacksonville Man Sentenced To Five Years In Federal Prison For Selling Machinegun-Conversion Device To Undercover Agent |url=https://www.justice.gov/usao-mdfl/pr/jacksonville-man-sentenced-five-years-federal-prison-selling-machinegun-conversion |date=2 December 2022 |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |access-date=29 December 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207204439/https://www.justice.gov/usao-mdfl/pr/jacksonville-man-sentenced-five-years-federal-prison-selling-machinegun-conversion|archive-date=December 7, 2022}}</ref>
<ref name="Justice2">{{cite web |title=Indictment: So-called ‘Glock switches’ Would have Turned Pistols into Machine Guns |url=https://www.justice.gov/usao-ks/pr/indictment-so-called-glock-switches-would-have-turned-pistols-machine-guns |date=30 May 2019 |publisher=U.S. Department of Justice |access-date=29 December 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230411184932/https://www.justice.gov/usao-ks/pr/indictment-so-called-glock-switches-would-have-turned-pistols-machine-guns|archive-date= April 11, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="Smith">{{cite news |last1=Smith |first1=Kelli |title=Devices that turn pistols into illegal machine guns on the rise in Texas, chief says |url=https://www.news-journal.com/news/devices-that-turn-pistols-into-illegal-machine-guns-on-the-rise-in-texas-chief-says/article_34433f96-7a53-11ed-98c4-37bd7f02dd6a.html |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=The Dallas Morning News |date=13 December 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230330222522/https://www.news-journal.com/news/devices-that-turn-pistols-into-illegal-machine-guns-on-the-rise-in-texas-chief-says/article_34433f96-7a53-11ed-98c4-37bd7f02dd6a.html|archive-date= March 30, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="CNN">{{cite news |last1=Glover |first1=Scott |last2=Devine |first2=Curt |title=A device that can turn a semi-automatic weapon into a machine gun in moments is wreaking havoc on American streets |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/30/us/automatic-machine-gun-fire-invs/index.html |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=Cable News Network (CNN) |date=30 August 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416034511/https://www.cnn.com/2022/08/30/us/automatic-machine-gun-fire-invs/index.html|archive-date= April 16, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="Schratz">{{cite news |last1=Schratz |first1=Joe |title='Glock switch' shows up in Jonesboro |url=https://www.jonesborosun.com/news/glock-switch-shows-up-in-jonesboro/article_d4cc9a73-7c2f-5327-b32a-17366c0d5235.html |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=The Jonesboro Sun |date=26 August 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230117044832/https://www.jonesborosun.com/news/glock-switch-shows-up-in-jonesboro/article_d4cc9a73-7c2f-5327-b32a-17366c0d5235.html|archive-date= January 17, 2023}}</ref>
<ref name="Barned-Smith">{{cite news |last1=Barned-Smith |first1=St. John |title=More Houston shootings are involving 'Glock switches,' which turn pistols into machine guns |url=https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/crime/article/More-Houston-shootings-involve-Glock-16945519.php |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=Houston Chronicle |date=25 February 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229201857/https://www.houstonchronicle.com/news/houston-texas/crime/article/More-Houston-shootings-involve-Glock-16945519.php|archive-date= December 29, 2022}}</ref>
<ref name="Nestel">{{cite news |last1=Nestel |first1=M.L. |last2=Miller |first2=Andrea |title=What to know about machine gun laws in the US |url=https://abcnews.go.com/US/machine-gun-laws-us/story?id=50256580 |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=ABC News |date=4 October 2017|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20221229201858/https://abcnews.go.com/US/machine-gun-laws-us/story?id=50256580|archive-date=December 29, 2022}}</ref>
<ref name="Stephens">{{cite news |last1=Stephens |first1=Alain |title=Tiny 'Glock Switches' Have Quietly Flooded the US With Deadly Machine Guns |url=https://www.vice.com/en/article/pkp8p8/glock-switches-auto-sears |access-date=29 December 2022 |publisher=Vice Media Group |date=24 March 2022|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20230515105427/https://www.vice.com/en/article/pkp8p8/glock-switches-auto-sears|archive-date= May 15, 2023}}</ref>
}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20230330052736/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pOtiIUOmns8&t=153s Video More 'Glock Switches' confiscated in Tennessee]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20230325030427/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Kc5mvAAPraI Video Penny-sized 'Glock switch' turns handgun into automatic weapon]

[[Category:Firearm actions]]
[[Category:Gun politics in the United States]]
[[Category:Firearm components]]

A History of British Fishes

2023-05-26T11:36:28Z

Eugrus: /* Other */

{{Short description|1835–1836 book by William Yarrell}}
{{Featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2023}}
{{Use shortened footnotes|date=May 2023}}
{{Infobox book
| name = 
| image = Title Page, Yarrell History of British Fishes.jpg
| caption = Title-page of the first edition. It describes the author as V.P.Z.S. (Vice-President of [[Zoological Society of London|the Zoological Society]]) and an F.L.S. ([[Linnean Society of London|Fellow of the Linnean Society]]).
| alt = Refer to caption
| author = [[William Yarrell]]
| illustrator = {{ubl
|[[Alexander Fussell]] (drawing)
|[[John Thompson (engraver)|John Thompson]] (engraving)
}}
| country = England
| subject = [[Fish]]
| publisher = John Van Voorst
| pub_date = 1836
| pages = 2 vols (408, 472 pp.)
}}

'''''A History of British Fishes''''' is a [[natural history]] book by [[William Yarrell]], serialised in 19 parts from 1835, and then published [[Bookbinding|bound]] in two volumes in 1836. It is a handbook or [[field guide]] systematically describing every type of fish known to occur in the [[British Isles]], with an article for each species.

Yarrell was a London bookseller and newsagent with the time and income to indulge his interest in natural history. He was a prominent member of several natural history societies and knew most of the leading British naturalists of his day. He was able to draw on his own extensive library and collection of specimens, his wide network of like-minded naturalist friends, and his access to major libraries to garner material for his writings, the most important of which were ''A History of British Fishes'' and the 1843 ''[[A History of British Birds (Yarrell book)|A History of British Birds]]''.

''A History of British Fishes'' followed the example of [[Thomas Bewick]]'s natural history books in its combination of up-to-date scientific data, accurate illustrations, detailed descriptions and varied anecdotes. The [[wood engraving]] illustrations were drawn by [[Alexander Fussell]] and engraved by [[John Thompson (engraver)|John Thompson]]; three editions and their two supplements were published by [[John Van Voorst]]'s company, based in [[Paternoster Row]], London. Yarrell died in 1856, and the third edition was produced posthumously. The work was a commercial success and became the standard reference work for a generation of British [[ichthyologist]]s. Yarrell's name is commemorated in eight species, three of which are fish, and in the [[Phosichthyidae|lightfish]] [[genus]] ''[[Yarrella]]''.

==Author==
[[File:William Yarrell. Photograph by Maull & Polyblank. Wellcome V0027361.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|alt=a middle-aged man in Victorian clothes, seated|William Yarrell in 1855]]

[[William Yarrell]] (1784–1856) was the son of Francis Yarrell and his wife Sarah, ''née'' Blane. William's father and his cousin William Jones were partners as booksellers and newsagents in London. William joined the business in 1803 after leaving school, and inherited the company in 1850.<ref name="odnb">{{Cite ODNB |first=JC |last=Edwards |year=2004 |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/30187 |title=Yarrell, William}}</ref>

Yarrell had the free time and income to indulge his hobbies of shooting and fishing, and started to show an interest in rare birds, sending some specimens to the engraver and author [[Thomas Bewick]]. He became a keen student of [[natural history]] and collector of birds, fish, and other wildlife, and by 1825 he had a substantial collection. He was active in the London learned societies, and held senior posts in several for many years.<ref name=odnb/> He was treasurer of the [[Linnean Society of London|Linnean Society]] from May 1849, until his death in 1856, vice president of the [[Zoological Society of London]] from 1839 to 1851, treasurer of the [[Royal Entomological Society]] from 1834 to 1852, and was also on the Council of the [[Medico-Botanical Society of London|Medico-Botanical Society]].<ref name="forbes">{{Cite journal |last=Forbes |first=Thomas |year=1962 |title=William Yarrell, British Naturalist |journal=Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society |volume=106 |issue=6 |pages=505–515 |jstor=985256}}</ref>

He knew many of the leading naturalists of his day, which helped him in the production of his books and articles, notably ''A History of British Fishes'' and his 1843 ''[[A History of British Birds (Yarrell book)|A History of British Birds]]''.<ref name=odnb/>

==Background==
===Written sources===
[[File:Yarrell hippocampus.jpg|thumb|Yarrell established that male [[seahorse]]s carry fertilised eggs in a pouch.<ref name="Jackson56">Jackson (2022) p. 56.</ref>]]

Interest in natural history was growing rapidly in the early nineteenth century, and several writers sought to provide definitive lists of species found in Britain, with descriptions and other pertinent information. When Yarrell came to tackle the fish, written sources were limited.<ref name="Jackson136">Jackson (2022) pp. 136–137.</ref> [[Edward Donovan]]'s ''The Natural History of British Fishes'' (1802–1808) was the only reasonably recent specialist book, although [[Thomas Pennant]]'s ''British Zoology'' (1812) and Bewick's ''A Natural History of British Quadrupeds'' (1808) were among other publications that covered some British fish.<ref name="Jackson143">Jackson (2022) pp. 143–144.</ref>

The most notable foreign sources were the ''[[Histoire naturelle des poissons]]'' (1828–1831) by Baron [[Georges Cuvier]] and [[Achille Valenciennes]], which contained descriptions of five thousand species of fishes, and [[Marcus Elieser Bloch]]'s beautifully illustrated twelve-volume ''Allgemeine Naturgeschichte der Fische'' (1782–1795). The French book was important because Cuvier and Valenciennes had grouped similar species together, providing a logical order to their book.<ref name= Jackson143/> Yarrell had membership of the libraries of the [[British Museum]] and the Linnaean Society, and his friends gave him access to college collections and their own private libraries and notebooks.<ref name= Jackson136/> Yarrell personally owned at least 2000 books, of which about 80 were concerned with fish or fishing. The posthumous sale of his books in 1856 raised [[£]]1100.<ref name="Jackson120">Jackson (2022) pp. 120–123.</ref>{{efn|£109,400 at 2022 values. Yarrell's estate was valued in total at £17,000,<ref name= forbes/> £1,690,000 at 2022 rates; 2022 values were calculated using [https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/ukcompare/ MeasuringWorth] for 1856}}

===Other resources===
[[File:Lear mullet.jpg|thumb|alt=drawing of a fish|The drawing for the [[thicklip grey mullet]] was given to Yarrell by [[Edward Lear]].]]

Yarrell was a keen fisherman, and his journeys to English south coast locations like [[Brighton]], [[Weymouth, Dorset|Weymouth]] and [[Hastings]] gave him direct access to fresh specimens. He also frequented fish vendors, particularly in London's important markets, and had a network of fisherman-naturalist contacts, eight of whom he named in the preface to his book, notably the [[Demography of Cornwall|Cornishman]] [[Jonathan Couch]],{{efn|Couch had a unique set of the ''Fishes'', with blank sheets bound in between most pairs of the printed pages that he used for notes and annotations.<ref name= forbes/>}} who provided him with many fish specimens from the southwest of England. Fellow members of the learned societies he belonged to also helped him with specimens. Yarrell had 220 species of fish as preserved specimens in his personal collection,<ref name="Jackson147">Jackson (2022) pp. 147–150.</ref> now held in the [[Natural History Museum, London|Natural History Museum]].<ref name="Jackson112">Jackson (2022) pp. 112–113.</ref> Fish were mostly preserved in [[Aqua vitae|spirits of wine]], a strong [[ethanol]] solution, although [[whisky]] was an alternative used in Scotland.<ref name="Jackson152">Jackson (2022) p. 152.</ref>{{efn|Yarrell had seen Cuban specimens kept in rum, but cautioned against the use of gin, which was usually too dilute to be effective.<ref name= Jackson152/>}}

As a London-based bookseller and an active member of London's learned societies, Yarrell had contact with many fellow naturalists who could help him with books, illustrations and notes, as well as specimens. He was a life-long friend of clergyman naturalist [[Leonard Jenyns]], and a regular correspondent with the [[taxidermist]] [[John Gould]], [[Sir William Jardine]],<ref name="Jackson42">Jackson (2022) pp. 42–45.</ref> the [[Edward Smith-Stanley, 13th Earl of Derby|Earl of Derby]], [[Edward Lear]] and [[Charles Darwin]].<ref name="Jacksonxix">Jackson (2022) p. xix.</ref><ref name="Jacksondarwin">{{Cite journal |last=Jackson |first=Christine E |year=2020 |title=William Yarrell (1784–1856), friend and adviser to Charles Darwin |journal=Archives of Natural History |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=102–114 |doi=10.3366/anh.2020.0625 |s2cid=216416487}}</ref> Yarrell's knowledge of avian [[anatomy]] helped Lear develop his bird painting skills by teaching him that feather tracts follow the muscle contours, and he in return provided a drawing of a [[thicklip grey mullet]] for the fish book.<ref name="Jackson89">Jackson (2022) p. 89.</ref><ref name="mccrack">Peck (2021) p. 184.</ref>

Yarrell made significant discoveries of his own, including showing that male [[seahorse]]s and [[pipefish]] carried fertilised eggs in a pouch,<ref name= Jackson56/> and clarifying how many ''[[Salmo]]'' (salmon and trout) species occurred in Britain.<ref name="Jackson15">Jackson (2022) p. 45.</ref>

==Format==
[[File:European perch William Yarrell.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|alt=page of a book with a picture of a fish and text|The [[European perch|perch]], vol. 1, page 1]]

Yarrell was a great admirer of Thomas Bewick (he named a new wildfowl species "[[Bewick's swan]]" after the engraver).<ref name="Jackson33">Jackson (2022) p. 33.</ref>
Bewick's ''[[A History of British Birds]]'', published in two volumes in 1797 and in 1804, had brought him nationwide fame,<ref name="Uglow341">Uglow (2006) p. 341.</ref> and since Yarrell owned several editions of Bewick's books, he followed the older man's format for his own fish project.<ref name="Jackson24">Jackson (2022) p. 24.</ref>{{efn|Although Bewick's ''Birds'' is specifically British, it is considered to be the forerunner of all modern field guides.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bate |first=Jonathan |date=15 August 2004 |title=A bird in the bush is always best |work=The Daily Telegraph |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/books/3622244/A-bird-in-the-bush-is-always-best.html |url-access=subscription}}</ref> Bewick had planned to write a book on British fishes, but neither he nor his son, Robert, completed the project.<ref name="Uglow368">Uglow (2006) pp. 366–368.</ref><ref name="Uglow398">Uglow (2006) p. 398.</ref>}}

Volume 1 has a preface which also acknowledges the people who had helped Yarrell with his project, followed by an introduction discussing the general characteristics of fish (fifteen pages in the first edition) and an alphabetical index before the main species accounts start. There was no established [[taxonomic]] sequence for arranging fish, so where possible Yarrell followed Cuvier and Valenciennes, otherwise using anatomical resemblances in features including fins, teeth, and head bones to order his species.<ref name= Jackson145/>

Each entry started with a wood engraving of the species, followed by its scientific and English names and their synonyms, and a lead section "Generic characteristics" summarising the key anatomical features. The main text described the fish in more detail, noted when it was recorded as a British species, mentioned interesting anatomical characteristics, described its habits in terms of gregariousness and water depth, and recorded where it could be found in Britain and Europe. Yarrell also ate many of the fish he described so that he could comment on their palatability.<ref name="Jackson145">Jackson (2022) p. 145.</ref> A typical example is Yarrell's first entry, for the [[European perch|perch]]. As well as the expected detailed anatomical and geographical information, in the five-page text he notes:
{{Blockquote|In rivers, the Perch prefers the sides of the stream rather than the rapid parts of the current, and feeds indiscriminately upon insects, worms, and small fishes{{nbs}}... So remarkable is the Perch for its boldness and voracity, that in a few days{{nbs}}... Mr. Jesse tells us, they came freely and took worms from his fingers{{nbs}}... They are constantly exhibited in the markets of Catholic countries, and, if not sold, are taken back to the ponds from which they were removed in the morning, to be reproduced another day. The flesh of this fish is firm, white, of good flavour, and easy of digestion{{nbs}}... The Perch, though very common, is one of the most beautiful of our fresh-water fishes, and, when in good condition, its colours are brilliant and striking{{nbs}}... <ref name="yarrell1836">Yarrell (1836) pp. [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/75545#page/43/mode/1up 1–5].</ref>}}

==Production and publication==
[[File:Perch head with the bones lettered.jpg|thumb|alt=bones of a fish's head|The bones of a [[European perch|perch]] head lettered for an identification key]]

Yarrell's illustrations were [[wood engraving]]s made using the techniques pioneered by Bewick in which [[Buxus sempervirens|boxwood]] blocks were engraved on their ends using a [[Burin (engraving)|burin]], a tool with a V{{nbh}}shaped tip.<ref name="Richter">Richter (1914) pp. [https://archive.org/details/printsbriefrevie00richuoft/page/114/mode/2up 114–115], [https://archive.org/details/printsbriefrevie00richuoft/page/118/mode/2up 118–119].</ref> The new illustrations for the fish book were drawn onto the blocks by [[Alexander Fussell]] and cut by [[John Thompson (engraver)|John Thompson]], both of whom also worked on the later bird book.<ref name="Jackson213">Jackson (2022) p. 213.</ref><ref name="Jackson223">Jackson (2022) p. 223.</ref> The most expensive part of producing illustrated books in the nineteenth century was the hand colouring of printed plates,<ref name="Jackson50">Jackson (2022) pp. 50–51.</ref> mainly by young women.<ref name="dress139">McGhie (2017) pp. 139–140.</ref> By using [[monochrome]] illustrations Yarrell could avoid this outlay and the associated costs of having the illustrations separate from the text and printed on a different grade of paper. The quality of the illustrations in Yarrell's books was very high, because he could afford to employ Thompson and his sons. Thompson senior was later to win a ''médaille d'or'' at the 1855 [[Exposition Universelle (1855)|Paris Exhibition]].<ref name= Jackson50/>

[[William John Swainson|William Swainson]] suggested to Yarrell that he should produce separate offprints of the illustrations and have them coloured for separate sale as a profitable additional venture, but Yarrell refused. There were practical problems in that the wood engraving blocks were set in the same [[Forme (printing)|forme]]s as the [[letterpress]] for the text, and, if separated, the extra printing demand would wear out the wooden blocks, especially without the protection of the surrounding raised metal type. Yarrell also objected on principle to the prints being sold separately.<ref name= Jackson50/> The book was originally published in 19 [[fascicule]]s (parts), each priced at 2/6d (12.5p).{{efn|£12.52 at 2022 values calculated using [https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/ukcompare/ MeasuringWorth] for 1836}} The last part contained an index.<ref name= Jackson140/>

The publisher of Yarrell's books was [[John Van Voorst]], whose business was in [[Paternoster Row]], a street central to the [[City of London|London]] publishing trade.<ref name="Thornbury_1878">{{Cite book |last=Thornbury |first=Walter |url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/source.aspx?pubid=339 |title=Old and New London |date=1878 |volume=1 |location=London |pages=274–281 |chapter=XXIII, Paternoster Row |chapter-url=http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=45042}}</ref> He began to specialise in natural history publications and was appointed official bookseller to the London Zoological Society in 1837. Van Voorst often visited Yarrell's house, and joined him to shoot and fish on estates and streams around London.<ref name= Jackson140/> He was a Fellow of the Linnean Society and a founding fellow of the [[Royal Microscopical Society]], established in 1839.<ref name="odnbvv">{{Cite ODNB |doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/41202 |title=Voorst, John Van |first=Gill |last=Parsons |year=2004}}</ref>

===Editions===
Three editions and three supplements were published by Van Voorst.<ref name="Jackson140">Jackson (2022) pp. 140–141.</ref>
*'''1835–36''' Two volumes originally published in 19 parts. 226 species described and figured, and 140 vignettes. Volume 1, 408 pp., volume 2, 472 pp.
*'''1839''' Supplement, 27 new species. Volume 1, 48 pp., volume 2, 78 pp.
*'''1841''' Second edition, two volumes containing 263 species and 500 figures. Volume 1, 464 pp., volume 2, 628 pp.
*'''1859''' Posthumous third edition, two volumes, edited by explorer and naturalist [[John Richardson (naturalist)|Sir John Richardson]]. In this edition, the text was preceded by a "Memoir of William Yarrell" and a list of his publications. Volume 1, 679 pp., volume 2, 673 pp.
*'''1860''' Second supplement to first edition, edited by Sir John Richardson, also being the first supplement to the second edition, 71 pp.

===Other publications===
Yarrell's many other ichthyological works included an 1839 three-page, {{convert|30.5|by|44|cm|abbr=on}} oblong [[folio]], ''On the Growth of the Salmon in Fresh Water'', with drawings in the text and six life-sized coloured illustrations of the fish, chapter 8, "Marine Fishes", in [[William Henry Harvey]]'s 1854 ''The Sea-Side Book'',<ref name=Jackson140/> and an article on [[Eurasian dace]] in the ''Transactions of the Linnean Society of London''.<ref name="Jackson172">Jackson (2022) p. 172.</ref>

==Reception==
[[File:Chirolophis ascanii.jpg|thumb|alt=two eel-like fish|[[Yarrell's blenny]] from [[Jonathan Couch]]'s ''A History of the Fishes of the British Islands'']]

Publications writing contemporary positive reviews of ''A History of British Fishes ''included ''[[Athenaeum (British magazine)|The Athenaeum]]'', ''[[The Gentleman's Magazine]]'', ''[[Leigh Hunt|Leigh Hunt's London Journal]]'', the ''[[The Medical Times and Gazette |London Medical Gazette]]'' and ''[[Quarterly Review|The Quarterly Review]]''.<ref name= forbes/><ref name= quarterly/>

''The Gentleman's Magazine'' said
{{Blockquote|... the task could not have been undertaken by one more competent for it. History and patient observations are enriched by a science of no ordinary kind{{nbs}}... We have little hesitation, therefore, in saying that the work before us is, perhaps, the most perfect of its kind which has been yet published. It is
written in a style at once clear and satisfactory, and the illustrations are quite equal, if not superior, to those of Bewick's birds and quadrupeds. Indeed, we hardly thought it possible that fish could be so perfectly represented by engravings on wood{{nbs}}...<ref name="gents">{{Cite journal |year=1835 |title=A History of British Fishes by William Yarrell |journal=The Gentleman's Magazine |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tqHPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA410 410–411]}}</ref>}}

''[[Quarterly Review|The Quarterly Review]]'' saw the book as of wider importance. Near the end of a 35-page review, it states
{{Blockquote|This book ought to be largely circulated, not only on account of its scientific merits{{snd}}though these, as we have in part shown, are great and signal{{snd}}but because it is popularly written throughout, and therefore likely to excite general attention to a subject which ought to be held as one of primary importance by all those gentlemen of education and property who happen to be more immediately connected with some of the most extensive, and which might be among the most useful and important, districts of this empire.}}

The passage continues with the promotion of sea fish as a means to relieve famine.<ref name="quarterly">{{Cite journal |year=1837 |title=A History of British Fishes by William Yarrell, FLS |journal=The Quarterly Review |volume=58 |issue=1 |page=[https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015074711329&view=1up&format=plaintext&seq=379 369–370]}}</ref>

There was a generally appreciative reception from Yarrell's fellow naturalists. [[Prideaux John Selby]], an [[ornithologist]] and natural history artist, wrote to Jardine after receiving the first part to say how impressed he was with the beautifully executed woodcuts and the quality of the printing, and later, when he had the complete set, said to the same recipient that it was a "very beautiful work", although a few of the fish could have been better illustrated. Jardine himself published an enthusiastic review in his ''Magazine of Botany and Zoology''.<ref name="Jackson153">Jackson (2022) pp. 153–154.</ref>

''A History of British Fishes'' and the later ''A History of British Birds'' were both immediately commercially successful and became standard texts until the end of the nineteenth century. Van Voorst believed that Yarrell made around £4000{{efn|About £400,000 at 2022 values, calculated using [https://www.measuringworth.com/calculators/ukcompare/ MeasuringWorth] over the period 1836–1856}} from the two books.<ref name= forbes/><ref name="Jackson136">Jackson (2022) pp. 136–137.</ref>

Yarrell's name is commemorated in eight species, three of which are fish. These are Yarrell's blenny (''[[Chirolophis ascanii]]''), from the European North Atlantic coasts; the giant devil catfish, ''[[Bagarius yarrelli]]'', from the rivers of the [[Indian subcontinent]]; and ''[[Laemonema yarrellii]]'', a deep sea [[morid cod]] from [[Madeira]] and the [[Great Meteor Seamount]] of the [[Atlantic Ocean#North Atlantic|North Atlantic]]. The [[Phosichthyidae|lightfish]] [[genus]] ''[[Yarrella]]'' is also named for him.<ref name="Jackson115">Jackson (2022) pp. 115–118.</ref>

==Notes and references==
{{Notelist}}
{{Reflist}}

==Cited texts==
*{{Cite book |last=Jackson |first=Christine E |title=A Newsworthy Naturalist: The Life of William Yarrell |publisher=John Beaufoy |year=2022 |isbn=978-1913679-04-0 |location=Oxford}}
*{{Cite book |last=McGhie |first=Henry A |title=Henry Dresser and Victorian Ornithology: Birds, Books and Business |publisher=Manchester University Press |year=2017 |isbn=978-1-78499-413-6 |location=Manchester}}
*{{Cite book |last=Peck |first=Robert McCracken |title=The Natural History of Edward Lear |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2021 |isbn=978-0-691-21723-9 |location=Princeton}}
*{{Cite book |last=Richter |first=Emil Heinrich |url=https://archive.org/details/printsbriefrevie00richuoft |title=Prints : a brief review of their technique and history |publisher=Houghton |year=1914 |location=Boston}}
*{{Cite book |last=Uglow |first=Jenny |title=Nature's Engraver: A Life of Thomas Bewick |publisher=Faber and Faber |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-571-22375-6 |location=Croydon}}
*{{Cite book |last=Yarrell |first=William |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/260706#page/7/mode/1up |title=A History of British Fishes |publisher=Van Voorst |year=1836 |edition=First |volume=1 |location=London}}

==Further reading==
===''A History of British Fishes''===
*First edition, 1835–36, [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/75546#page/7/mode/1up volume 2.]
*[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/82303#page/5/mode/1up Supplement, 1839.]
*Second edition, 1841, two volumes.
*Supplement to second edition, 1845.
*Third edition, 1859, [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/260681#page/9/mode/1up volume 1,] [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/260704#page/7/mode/1up volume 2]
*[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/18148 Second supplement to 1st edition, 1860.]

===Other===
{{Spoken Wikipedia|date=2023-05-22|En-A History of British Fishes-article.ogg}}
*{{Cite book |last=Couch |first=Jonathan |title=A History of the Fishes of the British Islands |publisher=Groombridge |year=1867 |location=London}} [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/137605 Four volumes.]
*{{Cite book |last=Harvey |first=William Henry |title=The Sea-Side Book ; Being an Introduction to the Natural History of the British Coasts |publisher=Van Voorst |year=1854 |location=London |pages=[https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=U4cDAAAAQAAJ&pg=GBS.PA236&hl=en 237–269]}}
*{{Cite journal |last=Yarrell |first=William |year=1837 |title=Descriptions of Three British Species of Freshwater Fishes, belonging to the genus ''Leuciscus'' of Klein. |journal=Transactions of the Linnean Society of London |volume=17 |pages=[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/13696#page/9/mode/1up 5–10]}}
*{{Cite book |last=Yarrell |first=William |title=On the Growth of the Salmon in Freshwater |publisher=Van Voorst |year=1839 |location=London |pages=1–3}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:1836 non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Natural history books]]
[[Category:Woodcuts]]
[[Category:Ichthyological literature]]
[[Category:Biology in the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Fauna of the United Kingdom]]

Keyboard layout

2023-03-31T00:05:38Z

Eugrus: /* JCUKEN (Latin) */ this part related to the Cyrillic JCUKEN and is already present in the respective section

{{Short description|Arrangement of keys on a typographic keyboard}}
{{About|the physical and visual arrangement of the keys of a computer keyboard and their function as defined by software|the underlying physical structure and electronic mechanisms of computer keyboards|Keyboard technology|keyboards used in music|Musical keyboard}}
[[File:Qwerty.svg|thumb|right|430px|The 104-key US [[QWERTY]] layout]]
A '''keyboard layout''' is any specific physical, visual or functional arrangement of the keys, legends, or key-meaning associations (respectively) of a [[computer keyboard]], [[mobile phone]], or other computer-controlled [[typographic]] keyboard.

{{em|Physical layout}} is the actual positioning of keys on a keyboard. {{em|Visual layout}} is the arrangement of the legends (labels, markings, engravings) that appear on those keys. {{em|Functional layout}} is the arrangement of the '''key-meaning association''' or '''keyboard mapping''', determined in software, of all the keys of a keyboard; it is this (rather than the legends) that determines the actual response to a key press.

Modern computer keyboards are designed to send a [[scancode]] to the [[operating system]] (OS) when a key is pressed or released: this code reports only the key's row and column, not the specific character engraved on that key. The OS converts the scancode into a specific binary character code using a "scancode to character" conversion table, called the keyboard mapping table. This means that a physical keyboard may be dynamically mapped to any layout without switching hardware components—merely by changing the software that interprets the keystrokes. Often,{{efn|depending on OS and (where applicable) institutional policy.}} a user can change keyboard mapping in system settings. In addition, software may be available to modify or extend keyboard functionality. Thus the symbol shown on the physical key-top need not be the same as appears on the screen or goes into a document being typed. Some settings enable the user to type supplementary symbols which are not engraved on the keys used to invoke them.{{efn|Using, for example, [[AltGr]] to add a third and fourth function to each key; the AltGr key may itself be a reassignment of the right-hand Alt key.}} Modern USB keyboards are [[plug and play]]; they communicate their (default) visual layout to the OS when connected (though the user is still able to reset this at will).

==Key types==
[[File:ISO keyboard (105) QWERTY UK.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|A typical 105-key computer keyboard, consisting of sections with different types of keys]]
A [[computer keyboard]] consists of ''alphanumeric'' or ''character keys'' for typing, ''modifier keys'' for altering the functions of other keys,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Keyboard Shortcuts for Chrome |url=https://www.ctc.ca.gov/site-information/accessibility/key-chrome |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=www.ctc.ca.gov |archive-date=2022-04-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220428023829/https://www.ctc.ca.gov/site-information/accessibility/key-chrome |url-status=live }}</ref> ''navigation keys'' for moving the [[cursor (computers)|text cursor]] on the screen, ''[[function key]]s'' and ''system command keys''—such as {{key press|[[Escape key|Esc]]}} and {{key press|[[Break key|Break]]}}—for special actions, and often a ''[[numeric keypad]]'' to facilitate calculations.<ref>{{Cite web |title=KEYBOARD SHORTCUTS (Windows) |url=https://ehs.ucsc.edu/programs/ergo/documents/keyboard-shortcuts-suggested-list.pdf |website=ehs.ucsc.edu |access-date=2022-05-03 |archive-date=2022-01-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220122191111/https://ehs.ucsc.edu/programs/ergo//documents/keyboard-shortcuts-suggested-list.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Nizam |first=Atm |title=Introduction to Computer Keyboard |url=https://www.academia.edu/30599001 |access-date=2022-05-03 |archive-date=2023-03-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309181903/https://www.academia.edu/30599001 |url-status=live }}</ref>

There is some variation between different keyboard models in the physical layout—i.e., how many keys there are and how they are positioned on the keyboard.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Library |first=NYIT |title=LibGuides: Bloomberg Terminal : Bloomberg Terminal - The Keys |url=https://libguides.nyit.edu/c.php?g=1054896&p=7662441 |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=libguides.nyit.edu |language=en |archive-date=2022-03-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220315114650/https://libguides.nyit.edu/c.php?g=1054896&p=7662441 |url-status=live }}</ref> However, differences between national layouts are mostly due to different selections and placements of symbols on the character keys.<ref>{{Cite web |title=COMPUTER KEYBOARD DESIGN |url=https://ergo.human.cornell.edu/AHTutorials/ckd.htm |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=ergo.human.cornell.edu |archive-date=2022-06-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220608024216/http://ergo.human.cornell.edu/AHTutorials/ckd.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Character keys===
The core section of a keyboard consists of character keys, which can be used to type [[letter (alphabet)|letters]] and other characters. Typically, there are three rows of keys for typing letters and [[punctuation]], an upper row for typing [[numerical digit|digits]] and special symbols, and the {{key press|[[Space bar]]}} on the bottom row. The positioning of the character keys is similar to the keyboard of a [[typewriter]].

===Modifier keys===
{{Main|Modifier key}}
[[File:Space-cadet.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|MIT "[[space-cadet keyboard]]", an early keyboard with a large number of modifier keys. It was equipped with four keys for [[bucky bit]]s ({{Key press|Control}}, {{Key press|Meta}}, {{Key press|Hyper}}, and {{Key press|Super}}); and three shift keys, called "[[shift key|shift]]", "top", and "front".]]
Besides the character keys, a keyboard incorporates special keys that do nothing by themselves but modify the functions of other keys. For example, the {{key press|[[Shift key|Shift]]}} key can be used to alter the output of character keys, whereas the {{key press|[[Control key|Ctrl]]}} (''control''), {{key press|[[Alt key|Alt]]}} (''alternate'') and {{keypress|[[AltGr key|AltGr]]}} (''alternative graphic'') keys trigger special operations when used in concert with other keys. (Apple keyboards have differently labelled but equivalent keys, see below).

Typically, a modifier key is held down while another key is struck. To facilitate this, modifier keys usually come in pairs, one functionally identical key for each hand, so holding a modifier key with one hand leaves the other hand free to strike another key.

An alphanumeric key labelled with only a single letter (usually the [[letter case|capital]] form) can generally be struck to type either a lower case or capital letter, the latter requiring the simultaneous holding of the {{key press|Shift}} key. The {{key press|Shift}} key is also used to type the upper of two symbols engraved on a given key, the lower being typed without using the modifier key.

The [[Latin alphabet]] keyboard has a dedicated key for each of the letters A–Z, keys for [[punctuation]] and other symbols, usually a row of [[function keys]], often a [[numeric keypad]] and some system control keys. In most languages except English, additional letters (some with [[diacritic]]s) are required and some are present as standard on each national keyboard, as appropriate for its national language. These keyboards have another modified key, labelled {{key press|AltGr}} (alternative graphic), to the right of the space-bar. (US keyboards just have a second {{key press|Alt}} key in this position). It can be used to type an extra symbol in addition to the two otherwise available with an alphanumeric key, and using it simultaneously with the {{key press|Shift}} key usually gives access to a fourth symbol. These third-level and fourth-level symbols may be engraved on the right half of the key top, or they may be unmarked. [[Cyrillic alphabet]] and [[Greek alphabet]] keyboards have similar arrangements.

Instead of the {{key press|Ctrl}}, {{key press|Alt}} and {{key press|AltGr}} keys seen on [[commodity]] keyboards, [[Apple Keyboard]]s have {{key press|[[Command key|Cmd]]}} (''command'') and {{key press|[[Option key|Option]]}} keys. The {{key press|Option}} key is used much like the {{key press|AltGr}}, and the {{key press|Cmd}} key like the {{key press|Ctrl}} and {{keypress|Alt}}, to access menu options and shortcuts. Macs have a {{key press|Ctrl}} key for compatibility with programs that expect a more traditional keyboard layout. It is especially useful when using a terminal, [[X window system|X11]] (a Unix environment included with OS X as an install option) or [[Microsoft Windows|MS Windows]]. The key can generally be used to produce a secondary [[mouse button|mouse click]] as well. There is also a {{key press|Fn}} key on modern Mac keyboards, which is used for switching between use of the {{key press|F1}}, {{key press|F2}}, etc. keys either as [[function key]]s or for other functions like media control, accessing [[Spotlight (software)|Spotlight]], controlling the volume, or handling [[Mission Control (macOS)|Mission Control]]. {{key press|Fn}} key can be also found on smaller Windows and Linux laptops and tablets, where it serves a similar purpose.

Many [[Unix workstation]]s (and also [[home computer]]s like the [[Amiga]]) keyboards placed the {{key press|Ctrl}} key to the left of the letter {{key press|A}}, and the {{key press|Caps Lock}} key in the bottom left. This position of the {{key press|Ctrl}} key is also used on the [[XO laptop]], which does not have a {{key press|Caps Lock}}. The [[UNIX]] keyboard layout also differs in the placement of the {{key press|Esc}} key, which is to the left of {{key press|1}}.

Some early keyboards experimented with using large numbers of modifier keys. The most extreme example of such a keyboard, the so-called "[[space-cadet keyboard]]" found on MIT [[LISP machine]]s, had no fewer than ''seven'' modifier keys: four control keys, {{key press|Ctrl}}, {{key press|Meta}}, {{key press|Hyper}}, and {{key press|Super}}, along with three shift keys, {{key press|Shift}}, {{key press|Top}}, and {{key press|Front}}. This allowed the user to type over 8000 possible characters by playing suitable "chords" with many modifier keys pressed simultaneously.

====Dead keys====
{{Main|Dead key}}
A dead key is a special kind of a modifier key that, instead of being held while another key is struck, is ''pressed and released'' before the other key. The dead key does not generate a character by itself, but it modifies the character generated by the key struck immediately after, typically making it possible to type a letter with a specific diacritic. For example, on some keyboard layouts, the [[grave accent]] key {{key press|`}} is a dead key: in this case, striking {{key press|`}} and then {{key press|A}} results in {{char|à}} (''a'' with grave accent); {{key press|`}} followed by {{key press|shift|E}} results in {{char|È}} (''E'' with grave accent). A grave accent in isolated form can be typed by striking {{key press|`}} and then {{key press|[[Space bar]]}}.

A key may function as a dead key by default, or sometimes a normal key can temporarily be altered to function as a dead key by simultaneously holding down the secondary-shift key—{{key press|[[AltGr key|AltGr]]}} or {{key press|[[Option key|Option]]}}: a typical example might be {{keypress|AltGr|6}}{{nbsp}}{{keypress|a}} will produce {{char|â}} (assuming the "6" key is also the "^" key). In some systems, there is no indication to the user that a dead key has been struck, so the key appears dead, but in some text-entry systems the diacritical mark is displayed along with an indication that the system is waiting for another keystroke: either the base character to be marked, an additional diacritical mark, or {{key press|Space bar}} to produce the diacritical mark in isolation.

Compared with the secondary-shift modifier key, the dead-key approach may be a little more complicated, but it allows more additional letters. Using AltGr, only one or (if used simultaneously with the normal shift key) two additional letters with each key, whereas using a dead key, a specific diacritic can be attached to a range of different base letters.

====Compose key====
{{Main|Compose key}}
A Compose key can be characterized as a generic dead key that may in some systems be available instead of or in addition to the more specific dead keys. It allows access to a wide range of predefined extra characters by interpreting a whole sequence of keystrokes following it. For example, striking {{key press|Compose}} followed by {{key press|'}} ([[apostrophe]]) and then {{key press|A}} results in ''á'' (''a'' with [[acute accent]]), {{key press|Compose}} followed by {{key press|A}} and then {{key press|E}} results in ''æ'' (''ae'' [[typographic ligature|ligature]]), and {{key press|Compose}} followed by {{key press|O}} and then {{key press|C}} results in © (circled ''c'', [[copyright symbol]]).

The {{key press|Compose}} key is supported by the [[X Window System]] (used by most [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]]s, including most [[Linux distribution]]s). Some keyboards have a key labeled "Compose", but any key can be configured to serve this function. For example, the otherwise redundant right-hand {{key press|[[Windows key|Win]]}} key may, when available, be used for this purpose. This can be emulated in Windows with third party programs, for example WinCompose.

===System command keys===
Depending on the application, some keyboard keys are not used to enter a printable character but instead are interpreted by the system as a formatting, mode shift, or special commands to the system. The following examples are found on personal computer keyboards.

====SysRq and PrtSc====
[[File:4800-52-mainframe-dumb-terminal-keyboard.jpg|thumb|4800-52 mainframe / dumb terminal keyboard, {{circa|mid-1980s}}. Note the obscure configuration of modifier and arrow keys, line feed key, break key, blank keys, and repeat key.]]
The [[system request]] ({{key press|SysRq}}) and [[print screen]] ({{key press|PrtSc}} or on some keyboards e.g. {{key press|PrtScn}}) commands often share the same key. SysRq was used in earlier computers as a "panic" button to recover from crashes (and it is still used in this sense to some extent by the [[Linux kernel]]; see [[Magic SysRq key]]). The print screen command used to capture the entire screen and send it to the printer, but in the present it usually puts a screenshot in the [[Clipboard (computing)|clipboard]].

====Break key====
The [[Break key]]/Pause key no longer has a well-defined purpose. Its origins go back to teleprinter users, who wanted a key that would temporarily interrupt the communications line. The Break key can be used by software in several different ways, such as to switch between multiple login sessions, to terminate a program, or to interrupt a modem connection.

In programming, especially old DOS-style BASIC, Pascal and C, Break is used (in conjunction with Ctrl) to stop program execution. In addition to this, Linux and variants, as well as many DOS programs, treat this combination the same as Ctrl+C. On modern keyboards, the break key is usually labeled Pause/Break. In most Microsoft Windows environments, the key combination {{keypress|Windows|Pause|chain=}} brings up the system properties.

====Escape key====
{{Main|Esc key}}

The '''[[Esc key|escape key]]''' (often abbreviated Esc) "nearly all of the time"<ref name=SF>{{cite web |title=The Qodem Homepage |website=SourceForge |url=http://qodem.sourceforge.net/ |date=18 June 2017 |quote=Nearly all of the time pressing the ESCAPE key ... will work to get out of dialogs |access-date=1 April 2021 |archive-date=22 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101222041727/http://qodem.sourceforge.net/ |url-status=live }}</ref> signals ''Stop'',<ref>{{cite web |website=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/07/magazine/who-made-that-escape-key.html |title=Who Made That Escape Key? |author=Pagan Kennedy |date=5 October 2012 |access-date=1 April 2021 |archive-date=15 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181115155513/https://www.nytimes.com/2012/10/07/magazine/who-made-that-escape-key.html |url-status=live }}</ref> ''QUIT'',<ref>{{cite web |title=Kermit Manual |url=http://www.columbia.edu/kermit/ftp/bbcmicro/bbckerdoc.txt |quote=ESCAPE key to quit and input another command. |access-date=2021-04-01 |archive-date=2019-11-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191116121311/http://www.columbia.edu/kermit/ftp/bbcmicro/bbckerdoc.txt |url-status=live }}</ref> or let me "get out of a dialog"<ref name=SF/> (or pop-up window).<ref>{{cite web |title=Escape key |url=http://www.dictionary.com/browse/escape-key |website=Dictionary.com |access-date=2021-04-01 |archive-date=2018-08-09 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180809152717/https://www.dictionary.com/browse/escape-key |url-status=live }}</ref>

Another common application today of the {{key press|Esc}} key is to trigger the Stop button in many web browsers.<ref name=SF />

'''ESC''' was part of the standard keyboard of the [[Teletype Model 33]] (introduced in 1964 and used with many early minicomputers).<ref>{{cite web |first=David |last=Gesswein |date=n.d. |url=https://www.pdp8.net/asr33/pics/kbd_top.shtml?large |title=ASR 33 Teletype Top of Teletype Keyboard |access-date=2021-04-01 |archive-date=2021-01-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124021656/https://www.pdp8.net/asr33/pics/kbd_top.shtml?large |url-status=live }}</ref> The [[Digital Equipment Corporation|DEC]] [[VT50]], introduced July 1974, also had an Esc key. The [[TECO (text editor)|TECO]] text editor (c. 1963) and its descendant [[GNU Emacs|Emacs]] ({{circa|1985}}) use the Esc key extensively.

Historically it also served as a type of shift key, such that one or more following characters were interpreted differently, hence the term [[escape sequence]], which refers to a series of characters, usually preceded by the [[escape character]].<ref>{{cite web
|title=ASCII Table – ANSI Escape sequences
|url=http://ascii-table.com/ansi-escape-sequences-vt-100.php
|access-date=2021-04-01
|archive-date=2009-02-27
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090227051140/http://ascii-table.com/ansi-escape-sequences-vt-100.php
|url-status=dead
}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.itsmarc.com/crs/mergedprojects/marcspec/marcspec/accessing_alternate_graphic_character_sets_character_sets_marc_8.htm |title=Accessing Alternate Graphic Character Sets |series=Cataloger's Reference Shelf |publisher=US Library of Congress |access-date=2021-04-01 |archive-date=2019-09-07 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190907001536/https://www.itsmarc.com/crs/mergedprojects/marcspec/marcspec/accessing_alternate_graphic_character_sets_character_sets_marc_8.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

On machines running Microsoft Windows, prior to the implementation of the Windows key on keyboards, the typical practice for invoking the "start" button was to hold down the control key and press escape. This process still works in Windows 95, 98, Me, NT 4, 2000, XP, Vista, 7, 8, and 10.<ref>{{cite web |title=Keyboard shortcuts in Windows |website=microsoft.com |url=https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/12445/windows-keyboard-shortcuts |access-date=2021-04-01 |archive-date=2018-03-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308040855/https://support.microsoft.com/en-us/help/12445/windows-keyboard-shortcuts |url-status=live }}</ref>

====Enter key====
An "enter" key may terminate a paragraph of text and advance an editing cursor to the start of the next available line, similar to the "carriage return" key of a typewriter. When the attached system is processing a user [[command line]], pressing "enter" may signal that the command has been completely entered and that the system may now process it.

====Shift key====
Shift key: when one presses shift and a letter, it will capitalize the letter pressed with the shift key. Another use is to type more symbols than appear to be available, for instance the [[semi-colon]] key is accompanied with a [[colon (punctuation)|colon]] symbol on the top. To type a semi-colon, the key is pressed without pressing any other key. To type a colon, both this key and the Shift key are pressed concurrently. (Some systems make provision for users with mobility impairment by allowing the Shift key to be pressed first and then the desired symbol key).

====Menu key, Command key, Windows key====
The [[Menu key]] or Application key is a key found on Windows-oriented computer keyboards: on Apple keyboard the same function is provided by the [[Command key]] (labelled ⌘). It is used to launch a context menu with the keyboard rather than with the usual right mouse button. The key's symbol is usually a small icon depicting a cursor hovering above a menu. On some Samsung keyboards the cursor in the icon is not present, showing the menu only. This key was created at the same time as the Windows key. This key is normally used when the right mouse button is not present on the mouse. Some Windows public terminals do not have a Menu key on their keyboard to prevent users from right-clicking (however, in many Windows applications, a similar functionality can be invoked with the Shift+F10 [[keyboard shortcut]]).

The [[Windows key]] opens the 'Start' (applications) menu.

==History==
{{Main|Typewriter}}
[[File:Telegraph Keyboard.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Keyboard of a Letter-Printing Telegraph Set built by [[Siemens & Halske|Siemens and Halske]] in Russia {{circa|1900}}]]
Keyboard layouts have evolved over time, usually alongside major technology changes. Particularly influential have been: the [[Sholes and Glidden typewriter]] (1874, also known as Remington No. 1), the first commercially successful typewriter, which introduced [[QWERTY]];<ref>{{Cite web |date=2021-09-22 |title=Origins of the QWERTY Keyboard |url=https://wi101.wisc.edu/2021/09/22/qwerty-keyboard-and-morse-code/ |access-date=2022-05-03 |website=Wisconsin 101 Our History in Objects |language=en-US |archive-date=2021-10-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211019191347/https://wi101.wisc.edu/2021/09/22/qwerty-keyboard-and-morse-code/ |url-status=live }}</ref> its successor, the Remington No. 2 (1878), which introduced the shift key; the [[IBM Selectric]] (1961), a very influential electric typewriter, which was imitated by computer keyboards;<ref name=edlin198211>{{cite news |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vy3cBZkjbZgC&pg=PA175 |title=The PC's Keys |work=PC Magazine |date=November 1982 |access-date=21 October 2013 |author=Edlin, Jim |pages=175 |archive-date=9 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230309181901/https://books.google.com/books?id=vy3cBZkjbZgC&pg=PA175 |url-status=live }}</ref> and the [[IBM PC]] (1981), namely the [[Model M]] (1985), which is the basis for many modern keyboard layouts.

Within a community, keyboard layout is generally quite stable, due to the high training cost of [[Touch typing|touch-typing]], and the resulting [[network effect]] of having a standard layout and high [[switching cost]] of retraining, and the suboptimal QWERTY layout is a case study in switching costs. Nevertheless, significant market forces can result in changes (as in Turkish adoption of QWERTY), and non-core keys are more prone to change, as they are less frequently used and less subject to the lock-in of touch-typing. The main, alphanumeric portion is typically stable, while symbol keys and shifted key values change somewhat, modifier keys more so, and function keys most of all: QWERTY dates to the No. 1 (1874) (though 1 and 0 were added later), shifted keys date in some cases to the No. 2 (1878), in other cases to the Selectric (1961), and modifier key placement largely dates to the Model M (1985); function key placement typically dates to the Model M, but varies significantly, particularly on laptops.

The earliest mechanical keyboards were used in musical instruments to play particular notes. With the advent of the [[printing telegraph]], a keyboard was needed to select characters. Some of the earliest [[printing telegraph]] machines either used a piano keyboard outright or else a layout similar to a piano keyboard.<ref>{{cite patent|country=US|number=26003|invent1=Phelps, George M|title=Improvement in Telegraphic Machines|gdate=November 1, 1859}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.telegraph-history.org/george-m-phelps/house.htm |title=The House Printing Telegraph |publisher=Telegraph history |access-date=27 November 2010 |archive-date=17 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110717084353/http://www.telegraph-history.org/george-m-phelps/house.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> The Hughes-Phelps printing telegraph piano keyboard laid keys A-N in left-to-right order on the black piano keys, and keys O-Z in right-to-left order on the white piano keys below.

In countries using the [[Latin script]], the center, alphanumeric portion of the modern keyboard is most often based on the [[QWERTY]] design by [[Christopher Sholes]]. Sholes' layout was long thought to have been laid out in such a way that common two-letter combinations were placed on opposite sides of the keyboard so that his mechanical keyboard would not jam. However, evidence for this claim has often been contested. In 2012, an argument was advanced by two Japanese historians of technology showing that the key order on the earliest Sholes prototypes in fact followed the left-right and right-left arrangement of the contemporary Hughes-Phelps printing telegraph, described above.<ref name="yasuoka">{{cite journal |last1=Yasuoka |first1=Koichi |last2=Yasuoka |first2=Motoko |title=On the prehistory of QWERTY |journal=ZINBUN |date=2011 |volume=42 |pages=161–174 |doi=10.14989/139379 |s2cid=53616602 |url=https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/139379/1/42_161.pdf |access-date=18 September 2021 |archive-date=18 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210918164426/https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/139379/1/42_161.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref> Later iterations diverged progressively for various technical reasons, and strong vestiges of the left-right A-N, right-left O-Z arrangement can still be seen in the modern QWERTY layout. Sholes' chief improvement was thus to lay out the keys in rows offset horizontally from each other by three-eighths, three-sixteenths, and three-eighths inches to provide room for the levers and to reduce hand-movement distance. Although it has been demonstrated that the QWERTY layout is not the most efficient layout for typing,<ref>{{citation |first= Ricard |last= Torres |title= QWERTY vs. Dvorak Efficiency: A Computational Approach |date= June 2013}}</ref> it remains the standard.

Sholes chose the size of the keys to be on three-quarter [{{frac|3|4}}, or 0.75] inch centers (about 19 mm, versus [[musical keyboard|musical piano keys]] which are 23.5 mm or about 0.93 inches wide). 0.75 inches has turned out to be optimum for fast key entry by the average size hand, and keyboards with this key size are called "full-sized keyboards".

On a manual typewriter, the operator could press the key down with a lighter touch for such characters as the period or comma, which did not occupy as much area on the paper. Since an electric typewriter supplied the force to the typebar itself after the typist merely touched the key, the typewriter itself had to be designed to supply different force for different characters. To simplify this, the most common layout for electric typewriters in the United States differed from that for the one most common on manual typewriters. Single-quote and double-quote, instead of being above the keys for the digits 2 and 8 respectively, were placed together on a key of their own. The underscore, another light character, replaced the asterisk above the hyphen.

The ASCII communications code was designed so that characters on a mechanical teletypewriter keyboard could be laid out in a manner somewhat resembling that of a manual typewriter. This was imperfect, as some shifted special characters were moved one key to the left, as the number zero, although on the right, was low in code sequence. Later, when computer terminals were designed from less expensive electronic components, it was not necessary to have any bits in common between the shifted and unshifted characters on a given key. This eventually led to standards being adopted for the "bit-pairing" and "typewriter-pairing" forms of keyboards for computer terminals.

The typewriter-pairing standard came under reconsideration, on the basis that typewriters have many different keyboard arrangements.<ref>Inside ASCII Part 2; R. W. Bemer; Interface Age; June 1978; page 64</ref> The U.S. keyboard for the IBM PC, although it resembles the typewriter-pairing standard in most respects, differs in one significant respect: the braces are on the same two keys as the brackets, as their shifts. This innovation predated the IBM Personal Computer by several years.<ref name=savard>{{cite web|title=Computer Keyboards|url=http://www.quadibloc.com/comp/kybint.htm|author=John J. G. Savard|access-date=2014-08-24|df=dmy-all|archive-date=2014-09-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140924183236/http://www.quadibloc.com/comp/kybint.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

IBM adopted the [[IBM Personal Computer#Keyboard|101/102 key layout]] on the [[IBM PS/2|PS/2]] in 1987 (after previously using an 84-key keyboard which did not have separate cursor and numeric key pads).

Most modern keyboards basically conform to the layout specifications contained in parts 1, 2, and 5 of the international standard series [[ISO/IEC 9995]]. These specifications were first defined by the user group at [[AFNOR]] in 1984 working under the direction of Alain Souloumiac.<ref>{{Citation |first= Alain |last= Souloumiac |title= Les perspectives de l'informatique |publisher= La Documentation Française |year= 1983 |page= 72}}</ref> Based on this work, a well known ergonomic expert wrote a report<ref>{{Citation |first= Yves |last= Neuville |title= Le clavier bureautique et informatique |publisher= Cedic-Natan |year= 1985}}</ref> which was adopted at the ISO Berlin meeting in 1985 and became the reference for keyboard layouts.

The 104/105-key PC keyboard was born when two {{key press|[[Windows key|Win]]}} keys and a {{key press|[[Menu key|Menu]]}} key were added on the bottom row (originally for the [[Microsoft Windows]] operating system). Newer keyboards may incorporate even further additions, such as Internet access (World Wide Web navigation) keys and multimedia (access to media players) buttons.

==Physical, visual, and functional layouts==
As noted before, the ''layout'' of a keyboard may refer to its physical (arrangement of keys), visual (physical labeling of keys), or functional (software response to a key press or release) layout.

===Physical layouts===
[[File:Physical keyboard layouts comparison ANSI ISO KS ABNT JIS.png|thumb|upright=1.5|A comparison of common physical layouts. The ISO-standard physical layout (center left) is common, e.g., in the [[United Kingdom]]. Compared with the ANSI layout (top left), the [[enter key]] is vertical rather than horizontal. In addition, the left [[shift key]] is smaller, to make room for an additional key to its right. The JIS physical layout (bottom right) is the basis for [[Japanese language|Japanese]] keyboards. Here it is the right-hand shift key that is smaller. Furthermore, the [[space bar]] and [[backspace key]] are also smaller, to make room for four additional keys.]]
Physical layouts only address tangible differences among keyboards. When a key is pressed, the keyboard does not send a message such as ''the A-key is depressed'' but rather ''the left-most main key of the home row is depressed''. (Technically, each key has an internal reference number, the scan code, and these numbers are what is sent to the computer when a key is pressed or released.) The keyboard and the computer each have no information about what is marked on that key, and it could equally well be the letter ''A'' or the digit ''9''. Historically, the user of the computer was requested to identify the ''functional layout'' of the keyboard when installing or customizing the [[operating system]]. Modern USB keyboards are [[plug and play]]; they communicate their visual layout to the OS when connected (though the user is still able to reset this at will).{{Example needed|date=December 2022}}

Today, most keyboards use one of three different physical layouts, usually referred to as simply ''ISO'' ([[ISO/IEC 9995]]-2), ''ANSI'' ([[ANSI]]-[[INCITS]] 154-1988), and ''JIS'' ([[Japanese Industrial Standards|JIS]] X 6002-1980), referring roughly to the organizations issuing the relevant worldwide, United States, and Japanese standards, respectively. (In fact, the physical layouts referred such as "ISO" and "ANSI" comply to the primary recommendations in the named standards, while each of these standards in fact also allows the other.) ''Keyboard layout'' in this sense may refer either to this broad categorization or to finer distinctions within these categories. For example, {{As of |2008|5|lc=on}}, [[Apple Inc]] produces ISO, ANSI, and JIS desktop keyboards, each in both extended and compact forms. The extended keyboards have 110, 109, and 112 keys (ISO, ANSI, and JIS, respectively), and the compact models have 79, 78, and 80.

===Visual layouts===
[[File:Multi-keyboard.jpg|thumb|A visual layout consisting of both factory-printed symbols and customized stickers]]
The visual layout includes the symbols printed on the physical keycaps. Visual layouts vary by language, country, and user preference, and any one physical and functional layout can be employed with a number of different visual layouts. For example, the "ISO" keyboard layout is used throughout Europe, but typical French, German, and UK variants of physically identical keyboards ''appear'' different because they bear different legends on their keys. Even blank keyboards—with no legends—are sometimes used to learn typing skills or by user preference.

Some users choose to attach custom labels on top of their keycaps. This can be, e.g., for masking foreign layouts, adding additional information such as [[keyboard shortcut|shortcuts]], learning aid, gaming controls, or solely for decorational purposes.

===Functional layouts===

The ''functional layout'' of the keyboard refers to the mapping between the physical keys, such as the {{key press|A}} key, and software events, such as the letter "A" appearing on the screen. Usually the functional layout is set (in the [[Computer configuration|system configuration]]) to match the visual layout of the keyboard being used, so that pressing a key will produce the expected result, corresponding to the legends on the keyboard. However, most [[operating system]]s have software that allow the user to easily switch between functional layouts, such as the [[language bar]] in [[Microsoft Windows]]. For example, a user with a Swedish keyboard who wishes to type more easily in German may switch to a functional layout intended for German—without regard to key markings—just as a [[Dvorak keyboard layout|Dvorak]] touch typist may choose a Dvorak layout regardless of the visual layout of the keyboard used.

====Customized functional layouts====
{{See also|Overlay keyboard}}
Functional layouts can be redefined or customized within the operating system, by reconfiguring operating system keyboard driver, or with a use of a separate software application. [[Transliteration]] is one example of that whereby letters in other language get matched to visible Latin letters on the keyboard by the way they sound. Thus, a touch typist can type various foreign languages with a visible English-language keyboard only.

Mixed hardware-to-software keyboard extensions exist to overcome above discrepancies between functional and visual layouts. A ''keyboard overlay''<ref>{{Citation |url= http://www.google.com/patents?hl=en&lr=&vid=USPAT4075465&oi=fnd&dq=keyboard+overlay&printsec=abstract#v=onepage&q&f=false |format= US patent |number= 4,075,465 |title= Keyboard overlay |first1= Buddy Keith |last1= Funk |first2= Elton Earl |last2= Tetrick |access-date= 2012-03-10 |archive-date= 2023-03-09 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230309181819/https://www.google.com/?tbm=pts#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status= live }}</ref> is a plastic or paper masks that can be placed over the empty space between the keys, providing the user with the functional use of various keys. Alternatively, a user applies keyboard stickers with an extra imprinted language alphabet and adds another keyboard layout via language support options in the operating system.<ref>{{cite web
| url=http://www.latkey.com/
| title=Latkey: Defining keyboard layouts with stickers
| access-date=2010-10-31
| archive-date=2010-11-15
| archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101115170942/http://www.latkey.com/
| url-status=live
}}</ref> The visual layout of any keyboard can also be changed by simply replacing its keys or attaching labels to them, such as to change an English-language keyboard from the common [[QWERTY]] to the Dvorak layout, although for touch typists, the placement of the tactile bumps on the home keys is of more practical importance than that of the visual markings.

In the past, complex software that mapped many non-standard functions to the keys (such as a [[flight simulator]]) would be shipped with a "keyboard overlay", a large sheet of paper with pre-cut holes matching the key layout of a particular model of computer. When placed over the keyboard, the overlay provided a quick visual reference as to what each key's new function was, without blocking the keys or permanently modifying their appearance. The overlay was often made from good-quality laminated paper and was designed to fold up and fit in the game's packaging when not in use.

====National variants====
The U.S. [[IBM PC keyboard]] has 104 keys, while the PC keyboards for most other countries have 105 keys. In an [[operating system]] configured for a non-English language, the keys are placed differently. For example, keyboards designed for typing in [[Spanish language|Spanish]] have some characters shifted, to make room for [[Ñ]]/ñ; similarly those for French or Portuguese may have a special key for the character [[Ç]]/ç. Keyboards designed for Japanese may have special keys to switch between Japanese and Latin scripts, and the character {{keypress|¥}} ([[yen and yuan sign]]) instead of {{keypress|\}} ([[backslash]]{{snd}} which itself additionally may be displayed as a ¥ or a ₩ in some renditions). Using the same keyboard for alternative languages leads to a conflict: the image on the key may not correspond to the character displayed on screen because of different [[keyboard mapping]]s. In such cases, each new language may require an additional label on the key, because the national standard keyboard layouts may not share similar characters of different languages or even lay them out in different ways.

The United States keyboard layout is used as default in some [[Linux distribution]]s.<ref>{{Citation|date=December 2009 |url=http://www.liberiangeek.net/2009/12/introduction-linux-mint-8-main-edition-helena/ |title=An introduction to Linux Mint 8 |edition=Main (Helena) |publisher=Liberian Geek |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101225110203/http://www.liberiangeek.net/2009/12/introduction-linux-mint-8-main-edition-helena/ |archive-date=2010-12-25 }}</ref>

Most operating systems allow switching between functional keyboard layouts, using a key combination involving register keys that are not used for normal operations (e.g. [[Microsoft]] reserve {{key press|Alt|Shift}} or {{key press|Ctrl|Shift}} register control keys for sequential layout switching; those keys were inherited from old DOS keyboard drivers). There are keyboards with two parallel sets of characters labeled on the keys, representing alternate alphabets or scripts. It is also possible to add a second set of characters to a keyboard with keyboard stickers manufactured by third parties.

===Size variation===
{{more|Computer keyboard#Types and standards}}
[[File:ANSI Keyboard Layout Diagram with Form Factor.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Sections on a standard 104 keyboard. Percentages and relevant values of keys denote the presence of keys at common keyboard sizes.]]
Modern keyboard models contain a set number of total keys according to their given standard, described as 104, 105, etc., and sold as "full-size" keyboards.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Recommended specifications for administrative computer purchases |website=Technology Purchase Consulting |url=https://sites.udel.edu/computing-purchases/admin-specs/ |access-date=2022-05-16 |publisher=[[University of Delaware]] |archive-date=2022-09-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220928070844/https://sites.udel.edu/computing-purchases/admin-specs/ |url-status=live }}</ref> This number is not always followed, and individual keys or whole sections are commonly skipped for the sake of compactness or user preference. Consequently, generic keyboard mappings may not be completely effective on unusual layouts.

==Latin-script keyboard layouts==
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2012}}

Although there are a large number of keyboard layouts used for languages written with [[Latin-script alphabet]]s, most of these layouts are quite similar. They can be divided into three main families according to where the {{key press|A}}, {{key press|M}}, {{key press|Q}}, {{key press|W}}, {{key press|Y}} and {{key press|Z}} keys are placed on the keyboard. These layouts are usually named after the first six letters on the first row: AZERTY, QWERTY, QWERTZ, QZERTY and national variants thereof.

While the central area of the keyboard, the alphabetic section, remains fairly constant, and the numbers from 1–9 are almost invariably on the row above, keyboards may differ in:
*the placement of punctuation, typographic and other special characters, and which of these characters are included,
*whether numbers are accessible directly or in a shift-state,
*the presence and placement of letters with [[diacritic]]s (In some layouts, diacritics are applied using [[dead key]]s but these are rarely engraved).
*the presence and placement of a row of [[function key]]s above the number row
*the presence and placement of one or two [[Alt key]]s, an [[AltGr key]] or [[Option key]], a [[backspace]] or delete key, a [[control key]] or [[command key]], a [[compose key]], an [[Esc key]], and OS-specific keys like the [[Windows key]].

The physical keyboard is of the basic ISO, ANSI, or JIS type; pressing a key sends a [[scan code]] to the operating-system or other software, which in turn determines the character to be generated: this arrangement is known as the [[keyboard mapping]]. It is customary for keyboards to be engraved appropriately to the local default mapping. For example, when the {{key press|[[Shift key|Shift]]}} and numeric {{key press|2}} keys are pressed simultaneously on a US keyboard; "@" is generated, and the key is engraved appropriately. On a UK keyboard this key combination generates the double-quote character, and UK keyboards are so engraved.

In the keyboard charts listed below, the primary letters or characters available with each alphanumeric key are often shown in black in the left half of the key, whereas characters accessed using the {{key press|[[AltGr key|AltGr]]}} key appear in blue in the right half of the corresponding key. Symbols representing [[dead key]]s usually appear in red.

===QWERTY===
{{Main|QWERTY}}
The QWERTY layout is, by far, the most widespread layout in use, and the only one that is not confined to a particular geographical area. In some territories, keys like {{key press|Enter}} and {{key press|Caps Lock}} are not translated to the language of the territory in question. In other varieties such keys have been translated, like {{key press|↵ Intro}} and {{key press|⇪ Bloq Mayús}}, on [[Spanish language|Spanish]] computer keyboards respectively for the example above. On Macintosh computers these keys are usually just represented by symbols without the word "Enter", "Shift", "Command", "Option/Alt" or "Control", with the exception of keyboards distributed in the US and East Asia.

{{Anchor|QÜERTY|Azerbaijani}}

===QÜERTY (Azerbaijani)===
[[File:KB_Azerbaijan.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Azerbaijani QÜERTY keyboard layout]]
[[Azerbaijani language|Azerbaijani]] keyboards use a layout known as QÜERTY, where [[Ü]] appears in place of [[W]] above [[S]], with W not being accessible at all. It is supported by Microsoft Windows.<ref name="Microsoft Keyboard Layouts">{{cite web|title=Microsoft Keyboard Layouts|url=https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/globalization/windows-keyboard-layouts|publisher=Microsoft|access-date=13 June 2021|archive-date=26 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526090150/https://docs.microsoft.com/en-us/globalization/windows-keyboard-layouts|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{Clear}}

===ÄWERTY (Turkmen)===
[[File:KB_Turkmenistan.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Turkmen ÄWERTY keyboard layout]]
[[Turkmen language|Turkmen]] keyboards use a layout known as ÄWERTY, where [[Ä]] appears in place of [[Q]] above [[A]], [[Ü]] appears in place of [[X]] below [[S]], [[Ç]] appears in place of [[C]], and [[Ý]] appears in place of [[V]], with C, Q, V, and X not being accessible at all. It is supported by Microsoft Windows (Vista and later only).<ref name="Microsoft Keyboard Layouts"/>

{{Clear}}

===QWERTZ===
{{Anchor|German|Germany|Austria}}
{{Anchor|Czech QWERTZ}}
{{Anchor|Poland}}
{{Anchor|Slovak QWERTZ}}
{{Anchor|Serbian Latin}}
{{Anchor|Switzerland|Liechtenstein|Luxembourg}}
{{Main|QWERTZ}}
[[File:German keyboard layout T2 according to DIN 2137-01--2012-06.png|thumb|[[German keyboard layout|German]] QWERTZ layout]]
[[File:Albanian keyboard layout.jpg|upright=1.5|thumb|[[Albanian keyboard layout|Albanian]] QWERTZ keyboard]]
The QWERTZ layout is the normal keyboard layout in Germany, Austria and Switzerland. It is also fairly widely used in Czechia, Slovakia and other parts of Central Europe. The main difference between it and QWERTY is that {{key press|Y}} and {{key press|Z}} are swapped, and some special characters such as brackets are replaced by diacritical characters like Ä, Ö, Ü, ß. In Czechia and Slovakia diacritical characters like Ě, Š, Č, Ř, Ž, Ý, Á, Í also replace numbers. ''Caps lock'' can be a ''shift lock'' as in AZERTY (see below).

{{Clear}}

===AZERTY===
{{Main|AZERTY}}
[[File:KB - AZERTY - FR - Windows - FR.png|thumb|[[French keyboard|French]] AZERTY layout]]
The AZERTY layout is used in [[France]], [[Belgium]], and some African countries. It differs from the QWERTY layout thus:
*{{key press|A}} and {{key press|Q}} are swapped,
*{{key press|Z}} and {{key press|W}} are swapped,
*{{key press|M}} is moved to the right of {{key press|L}}, (taking place of the {{key press|:}}/{{key press|;}} or colon/semicolon key on a US keyboard),
*The digits 0 to 9 are on the same keys, but to be typed the shift key must be pressed. The unshifted positions are used for accented characters,
*[[Caps lock]] is replaced by ''Shift lock'', thus affecting non-letter keys as well. However, there is an ongoing evolution towards a ''Caps lock'' key instead of a ''Shift lock''.{{Clear}}

{{Anchor|ĄŽERTY|Lithuanian}}

===ĄŽERTY (Lithuanian)===
As standardized in LST 1582, [[Lithuanian language|Lithuanian]] keyboards have a defined layout known as ĄŽERTY,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Lietuviška standartinė kompiuterio klaviatūra |url=http://www.ims.mii.lt/klav/lithkeyb4.html |access-date=2023-02-06 |website=www.ims.mii.lt |archive-date=2023-02-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230206090548/http://www.ims.mii.lt/klav/lithkeyb4.html |url-status=live }}</ref> where [[Ą]] appears in place of [[Q]] above [[A]], [[Ž]] in place of [[W]] above [[S]], and [[Ū]] in place of [[X]] below [[S]], with [[Q]], [[W]], and [[X]] being available either on the far right-hand side or by use of the [[AltGr]] key. However instead of ĄŽERTY, the [[QWERTY#Lithuanian|Lithuanian QWERTY]] keyboard is universally used.
{{Anchor|QZERTY}}

{{Clear}}

===QZERTY===
[[File:Lettera 22 2.JPG|thumb|Italian typewriter [[Olivetti Lettera 22]]]]
The QZERTY layout was used mostly in Italy, where it was the traditional [[typewriter]] layout. In recent years, however, a modified QWERTY layout with stressed keys such as à, è, ò, has gained widespread usage throughout Italy.<ref>Daniele Giacomini, Appunti di informatica libera, Capitolo 108 Introduzione alla tastiera, [http://wwwcdf.pd.infn.it/AppuntiLinux/a2138.htm#almlanchor1709 108.9 Mutazione della mappa italiana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906020303/http://wwwcdf.pd.infn.it/AppuntiLinux/a2138.htm#almlanchor1709 |date=2019-09-06 }}</ref><ref>collezioneolivetti.tk, [http://www.collezioneolivetti.tk/col_tipo/Macchine%20per%20scrivere?order=title&sort=asc Collezione Pino – Macchine per scrivere] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200310145940/http://www.collezioneolivetti.tk/col_tipo/Macchine%20per%20scrivere?order=title&sort=asc |date=2020-03-10 }}. All 17 items in the collection have a QZERTY layout.</ref> Computer keyboards usually have [[#Italian QWERTY|QWERTY]], although non-[[alphanumeric]] characters vary.
*{{key press|Z}} and {{key press|W}} are swapped
*{{key press|M}} is moved from the right of {{key press|N}} to the right of {{key press|L}}, as in AZERTY
*Number keys are shifted

Apple supported QZERTY layout in its early Italian keyboards, and currently [[iPod Touch]] also has it available.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://manuals.info.apple.com/en/iPod_touch_Features_Guide.pdf |title=iPod touch Features Guide |access-date=2012-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120209010821/http://manuals.info.apple.com/en/iPod_touch_Features_Guide.pdf |archive-date=2012-02-09 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

{{Clear}}

===Sámi Extended===
[[Sámi languages|Sámi]] keyboards use a layout known as the Sámi Extended, where [[Á]] appears in place of [[Q]] above [[A]], [[Š]] appears in place of [[W]] above [[S]], [[Č]] appears in place of [[X]] to the left of [[C]], and [[Ŧ]] appears in place of [[Y]] to the right of [[T]], with [[Q]], [[W]], [[X]], and [[Y]] being available by use of the [[AltGr]] key. Also, [[Å]] is to the right of [[P]] (to match the Norwegian and Swedish/Finnish keyboards), [[Ŋ]] is to the right of Å, and [[Đ]] is to the right of Ŋ. It is different in Norway than in Sweden and Finland, because of the placement of the letters different between Norwegian and Swedish/Finnish ([[Ä]], [[Æ]], [[Ö]], and [[Ø]]), which are placed where they match the standard keyboard for the main language spoken in the country. It is supported by Microsoft Windows (Windows XP SP2 and later only).<ref name="Microsoft Keyboard Layouts"/> Microsoft Windows also has Swedish with Sami, Norwegian with Sami and Finnish with Sami layouts, which match the normal Swedish, Norwegian, or Finnish keyboards, but has additional Sami characters as AltGr-combinations.

{{Clear}}

==Other Latin-script keyboard layouts==
{{See also|List of Latin-script keyboard layouts}}
There are also keyboard layouts that do not resemble traditional typewriter layouts very closely, if at all. These are designed to reduce finger movement and are claimed by some proponents to offer higher typing speed along with [[ergonomics|ergonomic]] benefits.

===Dvorak===
{{Main|Dvorak keyboard layout}}
[[File:KB United States Dvorak.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|The [[Dvorak keyboard layout]]]]

The Dvorak layout was named after its inventor, [[August Dvorak]]. There are also numerous adaptations for languages other than English, and single-handed variants. Dvorak's original layout had the numerals rearranged, but the present-day layout has them in numerical order. Dvorak has numerous properties designed to increase typing speed, decrease errors, and increase comfort. Research has found a 4% average advantage to the end user in typing speed.<ref>{{Citation|date=1998|url=https://www.santafe.edu/research/results/working-papers/the-standard-and-dvorak-keyboards-revisited-direct|title=The Standard and Dvorak Keyboards Revisited: Direct Measures of Speed|author=Leonard J. West|publisher=Santa Fe Institute|access-date=2018-03-28|archive-date=2019-09-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906020302/https://www.santafe.edu/research/results/working-papers/the-standard-and-dvorak-keyboards-revisited-direct|url-status=live}}</ref> The layout concentrates the most used English letters in the home row where the fingers rest, thus having 70% of typing done in the home row (compared to 32% in QWERTY).

The Dvorak layout is available out-of-the-box on most [[operating system]]s, making switching through software very easy. "Hardwired" Dvorak keyboards are also available, though only from specialized hardware companies.{{Clear}}

===Colemak===
{{Main|Colemak}}
[[File:KB US-Colemak.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Colemak keyboard layout (US)]]
The Colemak layout is another popular alternative to the standard QWERTY layout, offering a more familiar change for users already accustomed to the standard layout.<ref name='colemak-home'>{{cite web|url= http://www.colemak.com/|title= Colemak keyboard layout|access-date= 2011-08-29|archive-date= 2020-02-28|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200228110555/https://colemak.com/|url-status= live}}</ref>

It builds upon the QWERTY layout as a base, changing the positions of 17 keys while retaining the QWERTY positions of most non-alphabetic characters and many popular [[keyboard shortcuts]], supposedly making it easier to learn than [[Dvorak keyboard layout|Dvorak]] for people who already type in QWERTY without sacrificing efficiency. It shares several design goals with the Dvorak layout, such as minimizing finger path distance and making heavy use of the home row.<ref name="colemak-carpalx">{{cite web |url= http://mkweb.bcgsc.ca/carpalx/?colemak |title= Colemak — Popular Alternative |last= Krzywinski |first= Martin |work= Carpalx keyboard layout optimizer |location= Canada |publisher= Michael Smith Genome Sciences Centre |access-date= 2010-02-04 |archive-date= 2019-04-18 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190418212108/http://mkweb.bcgsc.ca/carpalx/?colemak |url-status= live }}</ref> An additional defining (albeit optional) feature of the Colemak layout is the lack of a [[caps lock]] key; an additional [[backspace]] key occupies the position typically occupied by Caps Lock on modern keyboards.<ref name="colemak-home"/>

[[Operating system]]s such as [[macOS]], [[Linux]], [[Android (operating system)|Android]], [[ChromeOS]], and [[Berkeley Software Distribution|BSD]] allow a user to switch to the Colemak layout. A program to install the layout is available for [[Microsoft Windows]], as well as a [[portable application|portable]] [[AutoHotKey]] implementation.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://colemak.com/wiki/index.php?title=Windows |title= Colemak keyboard layout |quote= ergonomic, fast and easy to learn QWERTY/Dvorak alternative |publisher= Colemak |access-date= 2013-02-23 |archive-date= 2014-06-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20140625111931/http://colemak.com/wiki/index.php?title=Windows |url-status= live }}</ref>

Colemak variants exist, including Colemak Mod-DH, which seeks to rectify concerns that the layout places too much emphasis on the middle-row centre-column keys (D and H), leading to awkward lateral hand movements for certain common English bigrams such as HE.<ref>{{cite web|title=Colemak Mod-DH|url=https://colemakmods.github.io/mod-dh/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200728191708/https://colemakmods.github.io/mod-dh/|archive-date=2020-07-28|website=GitHub}}</ref> Others seek to have more compatibility with other keyboard layouts.<ref>{{cite web|title=DreymaR's Big Bag of Keyboard Tricks|url=https://forum.colemak.com/topic/2315-dreymars-big-bag-of-keyboard-tricks-main-topic/|access-date=2019-05-29|work=Colemak forum|archive-date=2019-03-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190324040211/https://forum.colemak.com/topic/2315-dreymars-big-bag-of-keyboard-tricks-main-topic/|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Workman===
[[File:KB English Workman.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Workman layout for the English language, showing home keys highlighted]]
Workman is an English layout supported out-of-the-box in Linux/X11 systems.<ref>{{cite web|date=2015-03-10|title=Bug 56998 – Support for the Workman Keyboard Layout (US)|url=https://bugs.freedesktop.org/show_bug.cgi?id=56998|work=freedesktop.org|access-date=2015-07-10|archive-date=2019-04-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190403210940/https://bugs.freedesktop.org/show_bug.cgi?id=56998|url-status=live}}</ref>

The Workman layout employs a hypothesis about the preferential movement of each finger rather than categorically considering the lowest letter row to be least accessible. Specifically, the index finger prefers to curl inwards rather than stretch outwards. So for the index finger, the position of second preference goes to the bottom row rather than the top row. Contrarily, the middle and ring fingers are relatively long and prefer to stretch out rather than curl in. Based on this, weighting is allotted to each key specifically rather than each row generically.

Another principle applied is that it is more natural and less effort to curl in or stretch out fingers rather than rotate
one's wrist inwards or outwards. Thus the Workman layout allots a lower priority to the two innermost columns between the home keys (G and H columns on a QWERTY layout), similarly to the Colemak-DH or "Curl" mods. Workman also balances the load quite evenly between both hands.

The Workman layout is found to achieve overall less travel distance of the fingers for the English language than even Colemak.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Bucao|first=OJ|date=2010-09-06|title=The Workman Keyboard Layout Philosophy|url=https://workmanlayout.org/|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200708131741/https://workmanlayout.org/|archive-date=2020-07-08|access-date=2020-08-23|website=Workman Keyboard Layout}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Norman|first=David|title=Workman keyboard layouts|url=https://github.com/workman-layout/Workman|access-date=2020-08-23|website=GitHub|archive-date=2020-08-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200825125135/https://github.com/workman-layout/Workman|url-status=live}}</ref> It does however generally incur higher same-finger n-gram frequencies; or in other words, one finger will need to hit two keys in succession more often than in other layouts.

===Other English layouts===
There are many other layouts for English, each developed with differing basic principles.

The ''Norman Layout'', like Workman, deprioritizes the central columns but gives more load to the right hand with the assumption that the right hand is more capable than the left. It also gives importance to retaining letters in the same position or at least the same finger as QWERTY.

''MTGAP's Layout'' for a Standard Keyboard / an Ergonomic Keyboard has the lowest finger travel for a standard keyboard, and travel distance for an ergonomic keyboard second only to Arensito keyboard layout.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mtgap.bilfo.com/completed_keyboard.html |title=MTGAP |access-date=2018-09-11 |archive-date=2018-09-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180906131714/http://mtgap.bilfo.com/completed_keyboard.html |url-status=live }}</ref>
Further variations were created using the keyboard layout optimizer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://mathematicalmulticore.wordpress.com/category/keyboards/|title=Keyboards|access-date=2018-09-11|archive-date=2018-09-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180912022530/https://mathematicalmulticore.wordpress.com/category/keyboards/|url-status=live}}</ref>

Other layouts lay importance on minimal key deviation from QWERTY to give a reasonable increase in typing speed and ergonomics with minimal relearning of keys.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.michaelcapewell.com/projects/keyboard/layout_capewell.htm#CapewellQWERTY|title=Projects / Alternative Keyboard Layouts / The Capewell Layout | Michael Capewell | smozoma|access-date=2018-09-11|archive-date=2019-04-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190414015226/http://www.michaelcapewell.com/projects/keyboard/layout_capewell.htm#CapewellQWERTY|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:QWPR keyboard layout.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Qwpr keyboard layout (letters moved from QWERTY in teal, or yellow if different hand)]]
''Qwpr'' is a layout that changes only 11 basic keys from their QWERTY positions, with only 2 keys typed with different fingers.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sourceforge.net/projects/qwpr/ |title=Qwpr |access-date=4 September 2014 |author=Quinn, Jameson |archive-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906020304/https://sourceforge.net/projects/qwpr/ |url-status=live }}</ref> Minimak has versions which changes four, six, eight, or twelve keys, all have only 3 keys change finger.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.minimak.org/ |title=Minimak |access-date=2 September 2014 |author=Lilley, Ted |archive-date=20 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141220050252/http://www.minimak.org/ |url-status=live }}</ref> These intend to offer much of the reduced finger movement of Dvorak without the steep learning curve and with an increased ability to remain proficient with a QWERTY keyboard. The Qwpr layout is also designed for programmers and multilingual users, as it uses Caps Lock as a "punctuation shift", offering quicker access to ASCII symbols and arrow keys, as well as to 15 dead keys for typing hundreds of different glyphs such as accented characters, mathematical symbols, or [[emoji]].

In Canada, the [[CSA keyboard]] is designed to write several languages, especially French.

===Sholes 2nd Layout===
[[File:Sholes Second Layout.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Sholes second layout]]
[[Christopher Latham Sholes]], inventor of the QWERTY layout, created his own alternative, and patented it in 1896.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://patents.google.com/patent/US568630A/en |title=Sholes 1896 patent |access-date=5 June 2018 |archive-date=22 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222092102/https://patents.google.com/patent/US568630A/en |url-status=live }}</ref>
Similar to Dvorak, he placed all the vowels on the home row, but in this case on the right hand. The layout is right-hand biased with both the vowels and many of the most common consonants on the right side of the layout.

===JCUKEN (Latin)===
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2016}}
[[File:UKNC keyboard.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|JCUKEN keyboard of the [[UKNC]] computer]]
The JCUKEN layout was used in the USSR for all computers (both domestically produced and imported such as Japan-made [[MSX]]-compatible systems) except IBM-compatible [[ES PEVM]] due to its phonetic compatibility with [[#JCUKEN|Russian ЙЦУКЕН]] layout (see right). The layout has the advantage of having punctuation marks on Latin and Cyrillic layouts mapped on the same keys.<ref name="Lebedev 2004">{{Citation |first= Artemy |last= Lebedev |url= http://www.artlebedev.com/mandership/105/ |title= Where once was a comma |year= 2004 |publisher= Art Lebedev |access-date= 2010-01-04 |archive-date= 2020-01-08 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20200108175458/https://www.artlebedev.com/mandership/105/ |url-status= live }}</ref>

===Neo===
{{Main|Neo (keyboard layout)}}
[[File:Neo 2.0-Tastaturbelegung Ebene1.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Neo Layout, layer 1]]
The Neo layout is an optimized [[German language|German]] keyboard layout developed in 2004 by the Neo Users Group,<ref>{{Citation|url=http://www.neo-layout.org/ |title=Neo layout |publisher=Neo users group |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922181149/http://www.maltron.com/maltron-key-layout-custom.html |archive-date=2010-09-22 }}</ref> supporting nearly all [[Latin script|Latin-based]] alphabets, including the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]],<ref>{{cite web |url= https://wiki.neo-layout.org/wiki/IPA%20mit%20Neo |title= IPA mit Neo |work= Neo-Layout |language= de |format= wiki |publisher= Neo users group |access-date= 2012-03-30 |archive-date= 2018-12-22 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181222092045/https://wiki.neo-layout.org/wiki/IPA%20mit%20Neo |url-status= live }}</ref> the [[Vietnamese language]] and some African languages.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://wiki.neo-layout.org/wiki/Sprachen%20mit%20Neo |title= Sprachen mit Neo |work= Neo Layout |format= wiki |publisher= Neo users group |language= de |access-date= 2012-03-30 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180329120906/https://wiki.neo-layout.org/wiki/Sprachen%20mit%20Neo |archive-date= 2018-03-29 |url-status= dead }}</ref>

The positions of the letters are not only optimized for German letter frequency, but also for typical groups of two or three letters. English is considered a major target as well. The design tries to enforce the alternating usage of both hands to increase typing speed. It is based on ideas from de-ergo and other ergonomic layouts. The high frequency keys are placed in the home row. The current layout, Neo 2.0, has unique features not present in other layouts, making it suited for many target groups such as programmers, mathematicians, scientists or [[LaTeX]] authors.<ref>{{Citation |last=Leutloff |first=Hannes |title=Neo 2 for ErgoDox on QWERTZ |date=2021-09-20 |url=https://github.com/yeldiRium/qmk-neo2 |access-date=2022-10-26 |archive-date=2022-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026101615/https://github.com/yeldiRium/qmk-neo2 |url-status=live }}</ref> Neo is grouped in different layers, each designed for a special purpose.

[[File:Neo 2.0-Tastaturbelegung Ebene3.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Neo Layout, layer 3]]
Most special characters inherit the meaning of the lower layers—the {{angbr|¿}} character is one layer above the {{angbr|?}}, or the Greek {{angbr|α}} is above the {{angbr|a}} character. Neo uses a total of six layers with the following general use:<ref>{{Citation |language= de |first= Phillip H |last= Poll |title= Neu verteilt. Ergonomischeres Tastaturlayout mit Neo |publisher= LinuxUser |date=May 2009}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |language= de |first= Daniel |last= Knittl-Frank |title= Neo – Ergonomisch optimiert |publisher= Yalm-Magazine |date=July 2009}}</ref>

# Lowercase characters
# Uppercase characters, typographical characters
# Special characters for programming, etc.
# WASD-like movement keys and number block
# Greek characters
# Mathematical symbols and Greek uppercase characters

{{Anchor|PLOVER}}

===BÉPO===
{{Main|BÉPO}}
[[File:KB French Dvorak bépo simplifié.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|BÉPO layout]]
The BÉPO layout is an optimized [[French language|French]] keyboard layout developed by the BÉPO community,<ref>{{Citation |url=http://bepo.fr/ |title=Disposition de clavier francophone et ergonomique bépo |trans-title=The French-speaking ergonomic keyboard layout BÉPO |language=fr |format=wiki |access-date=2011-05-28 |archive-date=2009-05-27 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090527042500/http://bepo.fr/ |url-status=live }}</ref> supporting all [[Latin script|Latin-based]] alphabets of the European Union, [[Greek language|Greek]] and [[Esperanto]].<ref name="carbepo">{{Citation |url= http://bepo.fr/wiki/Caract%C3%A8res_support%C3%A9s |title= Caractères supportés |trans-title= Characters and languages supported by the Bépo layout |language= fr |format= wiki |access-date= 2011-05-28 |archive-date= 2011-04-09 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110409013019/http://bepo.fr/wiki/Caract%C3%A8res_support%C3%A9s |url-status= live }}</ref> It is also designed to ease programming. It is based on ideas from the Dvorak and other ergonomic layouts. Typing with it is usually easier due to the high frequency keys being in the home row.
Typing tutors exist to ease the transition.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://bepo.fr/wiki/Apprentissage|title=Apprentissage – Disposition de clavier francophone et ergonomique bépo|website=bepo.fr|access-date=2019-02-20|archive-date=2020-02-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200206172438/http://bepo.fr/wiki/Apprentissage|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2019, a slightly modified version of the BÉPO layout is featured in a French standard developed by [[AFNOR]], along with an improved version of the traditional [[AZERTY]] layout.<ref>{{Citation
|url=https://normalisation.afnor.org/actualites/faq-clavier-francais/
|title=Clavier français : une norme volontaire pour faciliter la saisie de tous les caractères
|date=2 April 2019
|trans-title=French keyboard: a voluntary standard to facilitate entering all characters
|language=fr
|access-date=4 December 2019
|archive-date=9 January 2020
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200109101622/https://normalisation.afnor.org/actualites/faq-clavier-francais/
|url-status=live
}}</ref>
{{Clear}}

{{Anchor|Turkish F-keyboard}}

===Dvorak-fr===
[[File:Dvorak-fr2-couleurs.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Dvorak-fr]]
The [https://www.algo.be/ergo/dvorak-fr.html Dvorak-fr layout] is a Dvorak like layout specific to the French language, without concession to the use of programming languages, and published in 2002 by Francis Leboutte. Version 2 was released in June 2020. Its design meets the need to maximize comfort and prevent risks when typing in French.
Unlike Azerty, the characters needed for good French typography are easily accessible: for example, the quotation marks (« ») and the curved apostrophe are available directly. More than 150 additional characters are available via dead keys.

===Turkish (F-keyboard)===
[[File:KB Turkey f yeni.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Turkish language|Turkish]] F-keyboard layout]]
The Turkish language uses the [[Turkish alphabet|Turkish Latin alphabet]], and a dedicated keyboard layout was designed in 1955 by İhsan Sıtkı Yener<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dho.edu.tr/pusula/69/f-klavyenin-tarihi.html |title=F klavyenin tarihi |language=tr |access-date=2013-11-04 |archive-date=2015-09-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923214242/http://www.dho.edu.tr/pusula/69/f-klavyenin-tarihi.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ([[:tr:İhsan Sıtkı Yener|tr]]). During its design, letter frequencies in the [[Turkish language]] were investigated with the aid of [[Turkish Language Association]]. These statistics were then combined with studies on bone and muscle anatomy of the fingers to design the Turkish F-keyboard ({{lang-tr|F klavye}}). The keyboard provides a balanced distribution of typing effort between the hands: 49% for the left hand and 51% for the right. With this scientific preparation, Turkey has broken 14 world records in typewriting championships between 1957 and 1995.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.msxlabs.org/forum/bilim-tr/276542-ihsan-sitki-yener-ihsan-sitki-yener-kimdir-ihsan-sitki-yener-hakkinda.html |title= Biography of Ihsan Sıtkı Yener |date= 19 October 2009 |publisher= MSX labs |language= tr |access-date= 27 February 2010 |archive-date= 8 October 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121008183003/http://www.msxlabs.org/forum/bilim-tr/276542-ihsan-sitki-yener-ihsan-sitki-yener-kimdir-ihsan-sitki-yener-hakkinda.html |url-status= live }}</ref> In 2009, Recep Ertaş and in 2011, Hakan Kurt from Turkey came in first in the text production event of the 47th (Beijing) and 48th (Paris) Intersteno congresses respectively.<ref>{{cite web |location= IT |url= http://www.intersteno.it/uploads/BEIJING_RESULTLIST.pdf |title= Results list of 47th Intersteno congress |publisher= Instersteno |access-date= 2010-08-11 |archive-date= 2011-07-22 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110722035636/http://www.intersteno.it/uploads/BEIJING_RESULTLIST.pdf |url-status= live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.intersteno.it/uploads/ClassificationsListParis2011.pdf |title= 48th Intersteno congress, Final Results |location= IT |access-date= 12 January 2012 |publisher= International Federation for Information Processing |archive-date= 31 October 2019 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20191031070309/https://www.intersteno.it/uploads/ClassificationsListParis2011.pdf |url-status= live }}</ref> Despite the greater efficiency of the Turkish F-keyboard however, the modified QWERTY keyboard ("[[QWERTY#Turkish|Q-keyboard]]") is the one that is used on most computers in Turkey. The reason for the popularity of QWERTY in Turkey is that they were overwhelmingly imported since the beginning of the 1990s.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.stargundem.com/ekonomi/1368022-f-klavye-ithalat-rejimi-yuzunden-yayginlasmiyor.html|title=F Klavye, İthalat Rejimi Yüzünden Yaygınlaşmıyor!|access-date=7 March 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140307065517/http://www.stargundem.com/ekonomi/1368022-f-klavye-ithalat-rejimi-yuzunden-yayginlasmiyor.html|archive-date=7 March 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref>

===ŪGJRMV===
[[File:Latvian_Keyboard.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Latvian Keyboard Layout]]
The ŪGJRMV layout is specifically designed for the [[Latvian language]].<ref name="Microsoft Keyboard Layouts"/>
{{Clear}}

===HCESAR===
[[File:Hcesar keyboard.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|HCESAR keyboard layout]]
The [[HCESAR]] layout was a layout created in 1937 for typewriters during Portugal's [[Estado Novo (Portugal)|Estado Novo]]. It was specifically designed for the [[Portuguese language]]. It is no longer used.
{{Clear}}

===Malt===
The Malt layout—named for its inventor, South African-born Lilian Malt—is best known for its use on molded, [[ergonomic keyboard|ergonomic]] [[Maltron]] keyboards. Nevertheless, it has been adapted as well for flat keyboards, with a compromise involved: a flat keyboard has a single, wide space-bar, rather than a space button as on Maltron keyboards, so the E key was moved to the bottom row.

{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100922181149/http://www.maltron.com/maltron-key-layout-custom.html |date=September 22, 2010}}

===Modified Blickensderfer===
[[File:Blickensderfer.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Original Blickensderfer keyboard]]
[[File:Blick-modified.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Blick keyboard for computers]]

The [[Blickensderfer typewriter]], designed by George Canfield Blickensderfer in 1892, was known for its novel keyboard layout, its interchangeable font, and its suitability for travel. The Blickensderfer keyboard had three banks (rows of keys), with special characters being entered using a separate Shift key; the home row was, uniquely, the bottom one (i.e., the typist kept her hands on the bottom row). A computer or standard typewriter keyboard, on the other hand, has four banks of keys, with home row being second from bottom.

To fit on a Sholes-patterned (typewriter or computer) keyboard, the Blickensderfer layout was modified by Nick Matavka in 2012, and released for both [[Mac OS X]] and [[Windows]]. To accommodate the differences between Blickensderfer and Sholes keyboards (''not'' the layouts, but the keyboards themselves), the order of the rows was changed and special characters were given their own keys.

The keyboard drivers created by Nick Matavka for the modified Blickensderfer layout (nicknamed the 'Blick') have several variations, including one that includes the option of switching between Blick and another keyboard layout and one that is internationalised, allowing the entry of [[diacritics]].
{{Clear}}

===Hexagon===
{{Main|Typewise}}
[[File:Hexagonal keyboard layout.png|thumb|Hexagon keyboard layout]]The honeycomb layout has [[hexagon]] keys and was invented by Typewise in cooperation with the [[ETH Zurich]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://userinterfaces.aalto.fi/typing37k/resources/Mobile_typing_study.pdf|title=How do People Type on Mobile Devices Observations from a Study with 37,000 Volunteers|date=2020-11-27|website=userinterfaces|access-date=2020-11-27|archive-date=2020-03-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200309175946/https://userinterfaces.aalto.fi/typing37k/resources/Mobile_typing_study.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> in 2015 for smartphones.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://patents.google.com/patent/USD805534S1/en?oq=usd805534|title=Display screen with graphical user interface functioning as a keyboard|date=2015-08-25|website=Google Patents|access-date=2020-12-21|archive-date=2022-10-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008145112/https://patents.google.com/patent/USD805534S1/en?oq=usd805534|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://techcrunch.com/2015/09/08/wrio-hip-to-not-be-square/|title=Wrio keyboard app reshapes keys to reduce typos|date=2015-09-08|website=Tech Crunch|access-date=2020-12-21|archive-date=2021-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210124104336/https://techcrunch.com/2015/09/08/wrio-hip-to-not-be-square/|url-status=live}}</ref> It exists for 40+ languages including [[English language|English]], [[German language|German]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]], [[French language|French]] and [[Afrikaans]]. The keys are arranged like those of the respective traditional keyboard with a few changes. Instead of the {{key press|[[Space bar]]}} there are two smaller space bars in the middle of the keyboard. The {{key press|[[Shift key|Shift]]}} is replaced by swiping up on keys and {{keypress|[[Backspace]]}} by swiping to the left on the keyboard. [[Diacritic]] characters can be accessed by holding on a key.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.techrepublic.com/article/how-to-ease-typing-on-your-mobile-phone-with-the-typewise-keyboard/|title=How to ease typing on your mobile phone with the Typewise keyboard|date=2020-11-27|website=TechRepublic|access-date=2020-11-27|archive-date=2020-11-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201120105359/https://www.techrepublic.com/article/how-to-ease-typing-on-your-mobile-phone-with-the-typewise-keyboard/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://medium.com/better-texting-with-typewise/10-tips-for-typewise-you-didnt-know-aa1537657f|title=10 tips for Typewise you didn't know|date=2020-11-27|website=Medium|access-date=2020-11-27|archive-date=2021-05-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210516103841/https://medium.com/better-texting-with-typewise/10-tips-for-typewise-you-didnt-know-aa1537657f|url-status=live}}</ref>

===Alphabetical layout===
A few companies offer "ABC" (alphabetical) layout keyboards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abckeyboard.co.uk/|title=The ABC keyboard|access-date=2011-04-03|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110414094428/http://www.abckeyboard.co.uk/|archive-date=2011-04-14|df=dmy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fentek-ind.com/bigkey.htm|publisher=Fentek|title=Big key keyboaards ABC Layout or QWERTY Layout|access-date=2011-04-03|df=dmy-all|archive-date=2011-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110326190133/http://www.fentek-ind.com/bigkey.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

The layout can also be useful for people who do not type often or where using both hands is not practical, such as [[touchscreen]]s.

===Chorded keyboards and mobile devices===
{{Main|Chorded keyboard}}
[[Chorded keyboard]]s, such as the [[Stenotype]] and [[Velotype]], allow letters and words to be entered using combinations of keys in a single stroke. Users of stenotype machines regularly reach rates of 225 words per minute.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.captions.org/2006/02/captioning-students-thoughts.html |title=Closed Captioning Web |publisher=Captions.org |date=2006-02-13 |access-date=2019-01-01 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060310062955/http://www.captions.org/2006/02/captioning-students-thoughts.html |archive-date=March 10, 2006 }}</ref> These systems are commonly used for real-time transcription by court reporters and in live closed captioning systems. Ordinary keyboards may be adapted for this purpose using [[Plover (software)|Plover]]. However, due to hardware constraints, chording three or more keys may not work as expected. Many high-end keyboards support [[Key rollover#n-key rollover|''n''-key rollover]] and so do not have this limitation.

The multi-touch screens of mobile devices allow implementation of virtual on-screen [[chorded keyboard]]s. Buttons are fewer, so they can be made larger. Symbols on the keys can be changed dynamically depending on what other keys are pressed, thus eliminating the need to memorize combos for characters and functions before use. For example, in the chorded [[GKOS keyboard]] which has been adapted for the [[Google]] [[Android (operating system)|Android]], Apple [[iPhone]], MS [[Windows Phone]], and Intel [[MeeGo]]/Harmattan platforms, thumbs are used for chording by pressing one or two keys at the same time. The layout divides the keys into two separate pads which are positioned near the sides of the screen, while text appears in the middle. The most frequent letters have dedicated keys and do not require chording.

Some other layouts have also been designed specifically for use with mobile devices. The [[FITALY]] layout is optimised for use with a stylus by placing the most commonly used letters closest to the centre and thus minimising the distance travelled when entering words. A similar concept was followed to research and develop the [[MessagEase]] keyboard layout for fast text entry with stylus or finger. The ATOMIK layout, designed for stylus use, was developed by IBM using the [[Metropolis Algorithm]] to mathematically minimize the movement necessary to spell words in English.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.almaden.ibm.com/u/zhai/ATOMIK.htm |title= Atomik |publisher= IBM |access-date=2012-03-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120610172520/http://www.almaden.ibm.com/u/zhai/ATOMIK.htm |archive-date=2012-06-10 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The ATOMIK keyboard layout is an alternative to QWERTY in ShapeWriter's WritingPad software.<ref>{{Citation |url= http://www.shapewriter.com/demo.html |title= Demo |publisher= Shapewriter |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110807091838/http://www.shapewriter.com/demo.html |archive-date= 2011-08-07 }}</ref> ASETNIOP is a keyboard layout designed for [[tablet computer]]s that uses 10 input points, eight of them on the [[home row]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://phys.org/news/2012-11-asetniop-chords-tablet-text-video.html |title=ASETNIOP may hit the right chords for tablet text |work=Phys.org |date=8 November 2012 |access-date=14 February 2015 |author=Owano, Nancy |archive-date=15 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150215071359/http://phys.org/news/2012-11-asetniop-chords-tablet-text-video.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

===Other original layouts and layout design software===
[[File:KB Maltron 3D US.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|United-States [[Maltron keyboard|Maltron]] 3D keyboard layout]]
Several other alternative keyboard layouts have been designed either for use with specialist commercial keyboards (e.g. [[Maltron keyboard|Maltron]] and [[PLUM keyboard|PLUM]]) or by hobbyists (e.g. Asset,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://millikeys.sourceforge.net/asset/ |work= Milli keys |title= The Asset Keyboard |publisher= Source forge |access-date= 2012-11-27 |archive-date= 2012-08-27 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120827083749/http://millikeys.sourceforge.net/asset/ |url-status= live }}</ref> Arensito,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.pvv.org/~hakonhal/main.cgi/keyboard |title= The Arensito Keyboard Layout |publisher= PVV |access-date= 2012-11-27 |archive-date= 2012-09-03 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120903151303/http://www.pvv.org/~hakonhal/main.cgi/keyboard |url-status= live }}</ref> Minimak,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.minimak.org/ |title= Minimak |access-date= 2012-12-21 |archive-date= 2013-02-10 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130210011621/http://www.minimak.org/ |url-status= live }}</ref> Norman,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://normanlayout.info/ |title= Norman layout |access-date= 2012-12-21 |archive-date= 2013-02-24 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130224023443/http://normanlayout.info/ |url-status= live }}</ref> Qwpr,<ref>{{cite web |url= https://sourceforge.net/p/qwpr/wiki/Home/ |title= Qwpr layout |publisher= Source forge |access-date= 2013-03-19 |archive-date= 2013-05-24 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130524120052/http://sourceforge.net/p/qwpr/wiki/Home/ |url-status= live }}</ref> Workman<ref name="Workman Layout">{{cite web |url= http://www.workmanlayout.com/ |title= Workman Layout |access-date= 2012-11-27 |archive-date= 2018-11-18 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20181118033410/http://www.workmanlayout.com/ |url-status= live }}</ref> as well as symmetric typing<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Symmetric Typing Project|url=http://kennetchaz.github.io/symmetric-typing/|access-date=2021-09-01|website=kennetchaz.github.io|archive-date=2021-09-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901234606/http://kennetchaz.github.io/symmetric-typing/|url-status=live}}</ref> layouts Niro<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Symmetric Typing Project: Niro Layout|url=http://kennetchaz.github.io/symmetric-typing/niro.html|access-date=2021-09-01|website=kennetchaz.github.io|archive-date=2021-07-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709171852/https://kennetchaz.github.io/symmetric-typing/niro.html|url-status=live}}</ref> and Soul<ref>{{Cite web|title=The Symmetric Typing Project: Soul Layout|url=http://kennetchaz.github.io/symmetric-typing/soul.html|access-date=2021-09-01|website=kennetchaz.github.io|archive-date=2021-09-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210901234607/http://kennetchaz.github.io/symmetric-typing/soul.html|url-status=live}}</ref>); however, none of them are in widespread use, and many of them are merely proofs of concept. Principles commonly used in their design include maximising use of the home row, minimising finger movement, maximising hand alternation or inward rolls (where successive letters are typed moving towards the centre of the keyboard), minimising changes from QWERTY to ease the learning curve, and so on.

Maltron also has a single-handed keyboard layout.<ref>{{Citation |chapter-url= http://www.maltron.com/training/left-hand-single-keyboard-training/103-introduction-from-lillian-malt-1-of-2.html |publisher= Maltron |title= Left hand single keyboard training |chapter= Introduction |first= Lillian |last= Malt |page= 1 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120314065730/http://www.maltron.com/training/left-hand-single-keyboard-training/103-introduction-from-lillian-malt-1-of-2.html |archive-date= 2012-03-14 }}</ref>

Programs such as the Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator<ref>{{cite web |url= http://msdn.microsoft.com/goglobal/bb964665 |archive-url= https://archive.today/20130129011008/http://msdn.microsoft.com/goglobal/bb964665 |url-status= dead |archive-date= 2013-01-29 |title= Developer network |publisher= Microsoft |access-date= 2011-02-03 }}</ref> (basic editor, free, for use on MS Windows), SIL Ukelele<ref>{{cite web |url= http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=ukelele |title= Ukelele |access-date= 2012-11-27 |archive-date= 2012-11-01 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20121101110109/http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?item_id=ukelele |url-status= live }}</ref> (advanced editor, free, for use on Apple's Mac OS X),
KbdEdit<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.kbdedit.com/ |title= KbdEdit |access-date= 2007-10-04 |archive-date= 2019-04-18 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20190418213053/http://www.kbdedit.com/ |url-status= live }}</ref> (commercial editor, for Windows) and Keyman Developer<ref>{{cite web |url= https://keyman.com/developer/ |title= Keyman Developer |publisher= SIL International |access-date= 2018-08-09 |archive-date= 2018-08-09 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20180809122408/https://keyman.com/developer/ |url-status= live }}</ref> (free, open source editor for Windows, macOS, iOS, Android, or for sites on the web as virtual keyboards) make it easy to create custom keyboard layouts for regular keyboards;<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.siao2.com/2006/11/28/1170048.aspx |title= Your layout (in all likelihood) bores me |first= Michael |last= Kaplan |publisher= Microsoft |date= 2006-11-28 |work= Developer network |access-date= 2007-07-26 |archive-date= 2023-03-09 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230309181901/http://archives.miloush.net/michkap/archive/2006/11/28/1170048.html |url-status= live }}</ref> users may satisfy their own typing patterns or specific needs by creating new ones from scratch (like the IPA<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.rejc2.co.uk/ipakeyboard/ |publisher= Rejc2 |title= IPA Keyboard Layout for MS Windows |location= UK |access-date= 2009-03-26 |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090407021712/http://www.rejc2.co.uk/ipakeyboard/ |archive-date= 2009-04-07 }}</ref> or pan-Iberian<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.farah.cl/DistribucionesDeTeclado/PaniberN_en.html|location=CL|title=Keyboard layouts for Windows: pan-Iberian|publisher=Farah|work=Distribuciones de teclado|access-date=2009-04-26|df=dmy-all|archive-date=2010-06-14|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614075931/http://www.farah.cl/DistribucionesDeTeclado/PaniberN_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref>
layouts) or modify existing ones (for example, the
Latin American Extended<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.farah.cl/DistribucionesDeTeclado/LatAmExt_en.html|publisher=Farah|title=Keyboard layouts for Windows: Latin American extended|work=Distribuciones de teclado|date=10 February 2009|access-date=2009-03-26|df=dmy-all|archive-date=2009-06-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090622041406/http://www.farah.cl/DistribucionesDeTeclado/LatAmExt_en.html|url-status=live}}</ref> or
Gaelic<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/~oduibhin/mearchlar/windows.htm|last=O'Duibhin|title=Gaelic Keyboards for MS Windows|publisher=UHI|access-date=2009-03-26|df=dmy-all|archive-date=2009-03-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090322041829/http://www.smo.uhi.ac.uk/~oduibhin/mearchlar/windows.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>
layouts). Such editors can also construct complex key sequences using [[dead key]]s or the {{key press|[[AltGr key|AltGr]]}} key.

Certain virtual keyboards and keyboard layouts are accessible online.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.latkey.com/|title=Online Virtual Keyboard, QWERTY / DVORAK / bi-lingual keyboard layouts|access-date=2016-04-01|df=dmy-all|archive-date=2016-03-26|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160326091715/http://www.latkey.com/|url-status=live}}</ref> With no hardware limitations, those online keyboards can display custom layouts, or allow the user to pre-configure or try out different language layouts. Resulting text can then be pasted into other web sites or applications flexibly with no need to reprogram keyboard mappings at all.

Some high end keyboards allow users flexibility to reprogram keyboard mappings at the hardware level. For example, the [[Kinesis (keyboard)|Kinesis Advantage contoured keyboard]] allows for reprogramming single keys (not key combinations), as well as creating macros for remapping combinations of keys (this however includes more processing from the keyboard hardware, and can therefore be slightly slower, with a lag that may be noticed in daily use).

Non-QWERTY layouts were also used with specialized machines such as the 90-key [[Linotype machine#Keyboard|Linotype]] type setting machine.

==Keyboard layouts for non-Latin alphabetic scripts==
Some keyboard layouts for non-Latin alphabetic scripts, most notably the Greek layout, are based on the QWERTY layout, in that glyphs are assigned as far as possible to keys that bear similar-sounding or appearing glyphs in QWERTY. This saves learning time for those familiar with QWERTY, and eases entry of Latin characters (with QWERTY) as well for Greek users.

This is not a general rule, and many non-Latin keyboard layouts have been invented from scratch.

All non-Latin computer keyboard layouts can also input Latin letters as well as the script of the language, for example, when typing in [[Uniform Resource Locator|URLs]] or names. This may be done through a special key on the keyboard devoted to this task, or through some special combination of keys, or through software programs that do not interact with the keyboard much.

===Abugida===
{{Main|Abugida}}

====Brahmic scripts====
* {{Commons category-inline|Brahmic keyboard layouts}}

=====Baybayin=====
{{Main|Baybayin}}

[[File:Baybayin Keyboad by Gboard Screenshot.png|thumb|A screenshot image of the {{Lang|tl|[[baybayin]]}} keyboard on Gboard]]
It is possible to type {{Lang|tl|baybayin}} directly from one's keyboard without the need to use [[web applications]] which implement an [[input method]]. The Philippines Unicode Keyboard Layout<ref name="techmagus">{{cite web |url=https://techmagus.icu/paninap-unicode-keyboard-layout/the-philippines-national-keyboard-layout/ |title=Philippines Unicode Keyboard Layout |website=techmagus |access-date=2021-09-05 |archive-date=2020-06-12 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200612110746/https://techmagus.icu/paninap-unicode-keyboard-layout/the-philippines-national-keyboard-layout/ |url-status=live }}</ref> includes different sets of {{Lang|tl|baybayin}} layout for different keyboard users: QWERTY, Capewell-Dvorak, Capewell-QWERF 2006, Colemak, and Dvorak, all of which work in both Microsoft Windows and Linux.

This keyboard layout with {{Lang|tl|baybayin}} can be downloaded [https://bitbucket.org/paninap/ph-ukl/ here].

=====Bengali=====
{{Main|Bengali input methods}}
[[File:KB-Bengali-Jatiyo.svg|right|upright=1.5|thumb|Bangla National (Jatiyo) Keyboard by [[Bangladesh Computer Council]]]]
There are many different systems developed to type [[Bengali language]] characters using a typewriter or a computer keyboard and mobile device. There were efforts taken to standardize the input system for Bengali in Bangladesh ({{lang|bn|জাতীয়}} Jatiyo layout), but still no input method has still been effectively adopted widely.
{{Clear}}

=====Dhivehi=====
Dhivehi Keyboards have two layouts. Both are supported by Microsoft Windows (Windows XP and later only).<ref name="Microsoft Keyboard Layouts"/>

=====InScript=====
{{Main|InScript}}
{{See also|Devanagari#Devanagari keyboard layouts}}
[[File:Keyboard Layout Sanskrit.png|thumb|upright=1.5|[[InScript]] keyboard layout for [[Sanskrit]]]]
[[File:Devanagari INSCRIPT Keyboard.JPG|thumb|upright=1.5|right|A Devanagari InScript bilingual keyboard]]

[[InScript]] is the standard keyboard for 12 [[India]]n scripts including [[Devanagari]], [[Bengali alphabet|Bengali]], [[Gujarati script|Gujarati]], [[Gurmukhi]], [[Kannada script|Kannada]], [[Malayalam script|Malayalam]], [[Oriya script|Oriya]], [[Tamil script|Tamil]], and [[Telugu script|Telugu]] etc.

Most Indian scripts are derived from [[Brahmic|Brahmi]], therefore their alphabetic order is identical. On the basis of this property, the [[InScript keyboard]] layout scheme was prepared. So a person who knows InScript typing in one language can type in other scripts using dictation even without knowledge of that script.

An InScript keyboard is inbuilt in most modern [[operating system]]s including [[Windows]], [[Linux]], and [[Mac OS]]. It is also available in some [[mobile phone]]s.
{{Clear}}

=====Khmer=====

[[File:Keyboard Layout Khmer.png|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Khmer language|Khmer]] keyboard layout]]{{Main|Khmer keyboard}}
[[Khmer language|Khmer]] uses its own layout designed to correspond, to the extent practicable, to its QWERTY counterpart, thus easing the learning curve in either direction. For example, the letter {{lang|km|ល}} {{IPA-km|lɔː|}} is typed on the same key as the letter '''L''' on the English-based qwerty. It also has many specifics due to its record number of vowels, consonants and punctuation signs as well as its cluster structure which bundles letters together in one. {{Clear}}

=====Thai=====
[[File:Thai Kedmanee keyboard layout.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Thai Kedmanee keyboard layout]]
[[File:Pattajoti.gif|upright=1.5|thumb|right|Thai Pattachote keyboard layout]]

The [[Thai Kedmanee keyboard layout]] predominates. The [[Thai Pattachote keyboard layout]] is also used, though it is much less common. Infrequently used characters are accessed via the Shift key. Despite their wide usage in [[Thai language|Thai]], Arabic numerals are not present on the main section of the keyboard. Instead they are accessed via the [[numeric keypad]] or by switching to the Latin character set on keyboards without dedicated numeric keys.
{{Clear}}

=====Lao=====
[[File:Lao keyboard win.png|thumb|upright=1.5|right|Lao keyboard layout]]
The keyboard layout used for [[Lao language]].
{{Clear}}

=====Sinhala=====
[[File:Sinhala keyboard win.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Windows [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] layout]]
[[File:Sinhalese Keyboard.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Wijesekara layout]]

The [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] keyboard layout is based on the Wijesekara typewriter for [[Sinhala script]].
{{Clear}}

=====Tibetan=====
======Tibetan (China)======
[[File:Tibetan Keyboard.png|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]] keyboard layout]]
The [[Standardization Administration of China|Chinese National Standard]] on Tibetan Keyboard Layout standardises a layout for the [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan language]] in [[China]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.yalasoo.com/English/docs/yalasoo_en_MStbKb.html |title=MS Tibetan keyboard |publisher=Yalasoo.com |date=2007-05-10 |access-date=2012-03-30 |archive-date=2019-08-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190826234108/http://www.yalasoo.com/English/docs/yalasoo_en_MStbKb.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

The first version of Microsoft Windows to support the Tibetan keyboard layout is MS [[Windows Vista]]. The layout has been available in Linux since September 2007.
{{Clear}}

======Tibetan (International)======
Mac OS-X introduced Tibetan Unicode support with OS-X version 10.5 and later, now with three different keyboard layouts available: Tibetan-Wylie, Tibetan QWERTY and Tibetan-Otani.
{{Clear}}

======Dzongkha (Bhutan)======
{{Main|Dzongkha keyboard layout}}
[[File:Dzongkha Keyboard layout Main.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Dzongkha]] keyboard layout]]

The Bhutanese Standard for a [[Dzongkha keyboard layout]] standardizes the layout for typing [[Dzongkha]], and other languages using the Tibetan script, in [[Bhutan]]. This standard layout was formulated by the Dzongkha Development Commission and Department of Information Technology in Bhutan. The Dzongkha keyboard layout is very easy to learn as the key sequence essentially follows the order of letters in the Dzongkha and Tibetan alphabet. The layout has been available in Linux since 2004.
{{Clear}}

====Inuktitut====
[[File:KB Inuktitut-Latin.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Latin keyboard layout for [[Inuktitut]]]]
[[File:KB Inuktitut-Naqittaut.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Naqittaut keyboard layout for [[Inuktitut]]]]

[[Inuktitut]] has two similar, though not identical, commonly available keyboard layouts for Windows. Both contain a basic Latin layout in its base and shift states, with a few Latin characters in the AltGr shift states. The [[Canadian Aboriginal syllabics]] can be found in the Capslock and AltGr shift states in both layouts as well.

The difference between the two layouts lies in the use of {{key press|]}} as an alternate to AltGr to create the dotted, long vowel syllables, and the mapping of the small plain consonants to the Caps + number keys in the "Naqittaut" layout, while the "Latin" layout does not have access to the plain consonants, and can only access the long vowel syllables through the AltGr shift states.

===Abjad===
{{Main|Abjad}}

====Arabic====
{{Main|Arabic keyboard}}
[[File:KB Arabic.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Arabic language|Arabic]] Windows keyboard layout]]

This layout was developed by Microsoft from the classic Arabic typewriter layout and is used by {{nowrap|IBM PCs}}. There is also a 102-key variant and a 102-key phonetic variant that maps to AZERTY.<ref name="Microsoft Keyboard Layouts"/>
{{Clear}}

[[File:KB Arabic MAC.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Arabic language|Arabic]] Mac keyboard layout]]

For Apple keyboards there is a different layout.
{{Clear}}

For Chrome a 1:1 layout also exists.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/type-arabeasy-arabic-on-l/makncdgkhgjppmehkcgncbikakkdhndp?hl=en |publisher= arabeasy.net |title= Arabic Keyboard 1:1 reversible map |access-date= 2015-01-20 |archive-date= 2015-08-16 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20150816192041/https://chrome.google.com/webstore/detail/type-arabeasy-arabic-on-l/makncdgkhgjppmehkcgncbikakkdhndp?hl=en |url-status= dead }}</ref>

====Hebrew====
{{Main|Hebrew keyboard}}
[[File:Hebrew keyboard layout.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] keyboard]]

All keyboards in Israel are fitted with both Latin and [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]] letters. Trilingual editions including either Arabic or Cyrillic also exist.

Note that in the standard layout (but not all keyboards), paired delimiters—parentheses (), brackets [], and braces {}, as well as less/greater than <>—are in the opposite order from the standard in other left-to-right languages. This results in "open"/"close" being consistent with right-to-left languages (Shift-9 always gives "close parenthesis" U+0029, which visually looks like "open parenthesis" in left-to-right languages). This is shared with [[Arabic keyboard]]s.

Certain Hebrew layouts are extended with [[niqqud]] symbols (vowel points),<ref>{{Citation |url=http://www.latkey.com/en/hebrew-nikkud-keyboard-stickers |title=Nikkud |publisher=Latkey |access-date=2018-04-10 |archive-date=2018-12-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222092030/https://www.latkey.com/en/hebrew-nikkud-keyboard-stickers |url-status=dead }}</ref> which require Alt+Shift or similar key combination in order to be typed.
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====Tifinagh====
[[File:KB Moroccan Tamazight Tifinagh.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Moroccan ([[Royal institute of the Amazigh culture|IRCAM]]) [[Berber language|Tamazight]] (Berber) keyboard layout for Tifinagh script]]
The [[Royal institute of the Amazigh culture]] (IRCAM) developed a national standard Tifinagh layout for Tamazight (Berber) in Morocco. It is included in Linux and Windows 8, and is available [https://web.archive.org/web/20120310055912/http://www.ircam.ma/fr/index.php?soc=telec&rd=3 from IRCAM] for the Mac and older versions of Windows.

A compatible, international version of this layout, called "Tifinagh (International)" exists for typing a wide range of Tamazight (Berber) language variants, and includes support for Tuareg variants. It was designed by the [[Universal Amazigh Keyboard Project]] and is available from its page on [[SourceForge]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://anamam.sourceforge.net/ |title=Universal Amazigh Keyboard Project |access-date=2012-03-18 |archive-date=2013-02-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130210011620/http://anamam.sourceforge.net/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==== Urdu ====
[[File:Urdukey.jpg|thumb|The standard layout]]
Urdu has a standardized layout present, developed by the National Authority Language. More commonly, however, the [https://urdu.ca/2 phonetic keyboard] is used on smartphones and desktops which align the Urdu letters with their Latin counterparts (for example, Pressing Q will write ق)
[[File:Urdu Phonetic keyboard.JPG|thumb|The phonetic keyboard layout on Windows 7]]
Another version of the keyboard, developed by Designer and Engineer Zeerak Ahmed, has witnessed an increase in usage among the younger generations. The keyboard, [https://matnsaz.net/ Matnsāz], is currently under development and available for beta testing in iOS.
{{Clear}}

===Alphabetic===
{{Main|Alphabet}}

====Armenian====
The Armenian language keyboard is similar to the Greek in that in most (but not all) cases, a given Armenian letter is at the same location as the corresponding Latin letter on the QWERTY keyboard. The illustrated keyboard layout can be enabled on Linux with: {{code|setxkbmap am -variant phonetic}}. Western and Eastern Armenian have different layouts.

In the pre-computer times Armenian keyboards had quite a different layout, more suitable for producing letter combinations inherent to the language.

Several attempts have been made to create innovative ergonomical layouts, some of them inspired by Dvorak.
{{gallery
| title = [[Armenian language|Armenian]] keyboard layouts
| height = 100
|File:Keyboard Layout Armenian.png
| Armenian computer keyboard layout
|File:Armenian typewriter keyboard layout.png
| Armenian typewriter keyboard layout
|File:Armenian Dvorak.png
|Armenian keyboard layout inspired by Dvorak
}}

====Cyrillic====
=====Bulgarian=====
[[File:Bulgarian BDS layout.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] keyboard layout (BDS 5237:1978)]]
The current official [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] keyboard layout for both typewriters and computer keyboards is described in BDS (Bulgarian State/National Standard) 5237:1978.<ref name="BDS 5237:1978">{{cite web |url= http://www.bds-bg.org/standard/info.php?standard_id=14264 |title= БДС 5237:1978 |access-date= 2009-02-10 |language= bg |trans-title= BDS 5237:1978 |publisher= Bulgarian Institute for Standardization |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090304141512/http://www.bds-bg.org/standard/info.php?standard_id=14264 |archive-date= 2009-03-04 |url-status= dead }}</ref> It superseded the old standard, BDS 5237:1968, on 1 January 1978.<ref name="BDS 5237:1978"/> Like the [[Dvorak keyboard layout|Dvorak layout]], it has been designed to optimize typing speed and efficiency, placing the most common letters in the Bulgarian language—[[О]], [[Н]], [[Т]], and [[А]]—under the strongest fingers. In addition to the standard 30 letters of the [[Bulgarian alphabet]], the layout includes the non-Bulgarian [[Cyrillic]] symbols [[Э]] and [[ы]] and the [[Roman numerals]] I and V (the X is supposed to be represented by the Cyrillic capital [[Х]], which is acceptable in typewriters but problematic in computers).

There is also a second, informal layout in widespread use—the so-called "[[Phonetic transcription|phonetic]]" layout, in which Cyrillic letters are mapped to the QWERTY keys for Latin letters that "sound" or "look" the same, with several exceptions ([[Я]] is mapped to Q, [[Ж]] is mapped to V, etc.—see [[:File:Keyboard Layout Bulgarian Phonetic.png|the layout]] and compare it to the standard QWERTY layout). This layout is available as an alternative to the BDS one in some [[operating system]]s, including [[Microsoft Windows]], Apple [[Mac OS X]] and [[Ubuntu (operating system)|Ubuntu]] [[Linux]]. Normally, the layouts are set up so that the user can switch between Latin and Cyrillic script by pressing ''Shift + Alt'', and between BDS and Phonetic by pressing ''Shift + Ctrl''.

In 2006, Prof. [[Dimiter Skordev]] from the Faculty of Mathematics and Informatics of [[Sofia University]] and Dimitar Dobrev from the [[Bulgarian Academy of Sciences]] proposed a new standard, prBDS 5237:2006, including a revised version of the old BDS layout, which includes the letter Ѝ and the capital Ы and replaces the letters I and V with the currency symbols of $ and € respectively, and a standardization of the informal "phonetic" layout. After some controversy and a public discussion in 2008, ''the proposal was not accepted'',<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bds-bg.org/news/?news_id=56 |title=Състоя се една ползотворна дискусия |access-date=2009-02-10 |work=News |publisher=Bulgarian Institute for Standardization |date=2008-06-20 |language=bg |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090304141508/http://www.bds-bg.org/news/?news_id=56 |archive-date=2009-03-04 |url-status=dead }}</ref> although it had been already used in several places—the "Bulgarian Phonetic" layout in MS [[Windows Vista]] is based on it. There is a new "Bulgarian Phonetic" layout in MS [[Windows 7]].<ref name="Microsoft Keyboard Layouts"/>
{{Clear}}

=====Russian=====
======JCUKEN======
{{See also|JCUKEN|Keyboard layout#JCUKEN (Latin)}}
{{More citations needed section|date=March 2016}}
[[File:KB Russian.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Russian language|Russian]] Windows keyboard layout]]

The most common keyboard layout in modern Russia is the so-called ''Windows'' layout, which is the default [[Russian language|Russian]] layout used in the [[Microsoft Windows|MS Windows]] operating system. The layout was designed to be compatible with the hardware standard in many other countries, but introduced compromises to accommodate the larger alphabet. The full stop and comma symbols share a key, requiring the shift key to be held to produce a comma, despite the high relative frequency of comma in the language.<ref name="Lebedev 2004"/>

There are some other Russian keyboard layouts in use: in particular, the traditional Russian Typewriter layout (punctuation symbols are placed on numerical keys, one needs to press Shift to enter numbers) and the Russian ''DOS'' layout (similar to the Russian Typewriter layout with common punctuation symbols on numerical keys, but numbers are entered without Shift). The Russian Typewriter layout can be found on many Russian typewriters produced before the 1990s, and it is the default Russian keyboard layout in the [[OpenSolaris]] operating system.<ref>[[:ru:Русская раскладка клавиатуры]]</ref>{{Better source needed|date=April 2017|reason=[[WP:CIRCULAR]]}}

Keyboards in Russia always have Cyrillic letters on the keytops as well as Latin letters. Usually Cyrillic and Latin letters are labeled with different colors.

{{Anchor|Russian QWERTY}}

======Russian QWERTY/QWERTZ-based phonetic layouts======
[[File:Keyboard layout ru phonetic.png|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Russian language|Russian]] [[phonetic keyboard layout]]]]

The Russian [[phonetic keyboard layout]] (also called homophonic or transliterated) is widely used ''outside'' Russia, where normally there are no Russian letters drawn on keyboard buttons. This layout is made for typists who are more familiar with other layouts, like the common English QWERTY keyboard, and follows the Greek and Armenian layouts in placing most letters at the corresponding Latin letter locations. It is famous among both native speakers and people who use, teach, or are learning Russian, and is recommended—along with the Standard Layout—by the linguists, translators, teachers and students of AATSEEL.org. The earliest known implementation of the Cyrillic-to-QWERTY homophonic keyboard was by former AATSEEL officer Constance Curtin between 1972 and 1976, for the [[PLATO (computer system)|PLATO]] education system's Russian Language curriculum developed at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Curtin|first1=Constance|title=The PLATO System: Using the Computer to Teach Russian|journal=The Slavic and East European Journal|date=Autumn 1976|volume=20|issue=3|page=291 (note 8)|doi=10.2307/306322|jstor=306322|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Curtin's design sought to map phonetically related Russian sounds to QWERTY keys, to map proximate phonetic and visual cues nearby one another, as well as to map unused positions in a mnemonically ideal way. Peter Zelchenko worked under Curtin at UIUC, and his later modifications to the number row for Windows and Macintosh keyboards follow Curtin's original design intent.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Zelchenko |first1=Peter |title=Typist's American-Cyrillic Homophonic Keyboard Улучшенная Клавиатура ЯШЕРТЫ |url=http://www.suba.com/~pete/cyrillic.htm |access-date=21 December 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20001218002400/http://www.suba.com/~pete/cyrillic.htm |archive-date=December 18, 2000}}</ref>

There are several different Russian phonetic layouts, for example YaZhERT (яжерт), YaWERT (яверт), and YaShERT (яшерт) suggested by AATSEEL.org and called "Student" layout. They are named after the first several letters that take over the 'QWERTY' row on the Latin keyboard. They differ by where a few of the letters are placed. For example, some have Cyrillic 'B' (which is pronounced 'V') on the Latin 'W' key (after the German transliteration of B), while others have it on the Latin 'V' key.
The images of AATSEEL "Student", YaZhERT (яжерт) and YaWERT (яверт) are shown on [http://winrus.com/print_e.htm this page].

There are also variations within these variations; for example the Mac OS X Phonetic Russian layout is YaShERT but differs in placement of ж and э.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/international/keyboards/mackey.html |title= Mac OS X Keyboards |publisher= Penn State University |access-date= 2009-09-13 |date= 2009-03-06 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090621032244/http://tlt.its.psu.edu/suggestions/international/keyboards/mackey.html |archive-date= 2009-06-21 |url-status= dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=ukelele |title= Mac OS X Keyboard Layout Editor |publisher= SIL International] |access-date= 2009-09-13 |date= 2009-03-06 |archive-date= 2009-09-18 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090918124430/http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&item_id=ukelele |url-status= live }}</ref>

Windows 10 includes its own implementation of a mnemonic QWERTY-based input method for Russian, which does not fully rely on assigning a key to every Russian letter, but uses the sh, sc, ch, ya (ja), yu (ju), ye (je), yo (jo) combinations to input ш, щ, ч, я, ю, э, and ё respectively.

Virtual (on-screen) keyboards allow entering Cyrillic directly in a browser without activating the system layout.
{{Clear}}



=====Serbian (Cyrillic)=====
[[File:Serbian Cyrillic keyboard layout (QWERTZ) - Српски ћирилични распоред тастатуре.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Serbian language|Serbian Cyrillic]] keyboard layout]]

Apart from a set of characters common to most Cyrillic alphabets, the Serbian Cyrillic layout uses six additional special characters unique or nearly unique to the [[Serbian Cyrillic alphabet]]: [[Љ]], [[Њ]], [[Ћ]], [[Ђ]], [[Џ]], and [[Je (Cyrillic)|Ј]].

Due to the [[Digraphia|bialphabetic]] nature of the language, actual physical keyboards with the Serbian Cyrillic layout printed on the keys are uncommon today. Typical keyboards sold in Serbian-speaking markets are marked with Serbian Latin characters and used with both the Latin ([[#Serbian Latin|QWERTZ]]) and Cyrillic layout configured in the software. What makes the two layouts this readily interchangeable is that the non-alphabetic keys are identical between them, and alphabetic keys always correspond directly to their counterparts (except the Latin letters Q, W, X, and Y that have no Cyrillic equivalents, and the Cyrillic letters Љ, Њ and Џ whose Latin counterparts are digraphs LJ, NJ and DŽ). This also makes the Serbian Cyrillic layout a rare example of a non-Latin layout based on QWERTZ.

The Macedonian [[dze]] is on this keyboard despite not being used in Serbian Cyrillic. The [[gje]] and [[kje]] can be typed by striking the apostrophe key then striking the G or K key.

There is also a dedicated Macedonian keyboard that is based on QWERTY (LjNjERTDz) and uses Alt Gr to type the dje and tshe. However, the capital forms are next to the small forms. An alternative version of the layout is quite different and has no dje or tshe access. This alternative was not supported until Windows Vista.<ref name="Microsoft Keyboard Layouts"/>
{{Clear}}

=====Ukrainian=====
[[File:Keyboard layout ua vista ext.png|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] keyboard layout]]

[[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]] keyboards, based on a slight modification of Russian Standard Layout, often also have the Russian Standard ("Windows") layout marked on them, making it easy to switch from one language to another. This keyboard layout had several problems, one of which was the omission of the letter [[Ґ]], which does not exist in Russian. The other long-standing problem was the omission of the [[apostrophe]], which is used in Ukrainian almost as commonly as in English (though with a different meaning), but which also does not exist in Russian. Both of these problems were resolved with the "improved Ukrainian" keyboard layout for Windows available with Vista and subsequent Windows versions.

There also exists an adapted keyboard for Westerners learning Ukrainian (mostly in the diaspora) which closely matches the qwerty keyboard, so that the letters either have the same sound or same shape, for example pressing the "v" on the Latin QWERTY produces the Cyrillic в (which makes roughly the same sound) and pressing the qwerty "w" key gives the Cyrillic ш (based on the similar shape). This is usually called a homophonic or phonetic layout.

{{Clear}}

====Georgian====
{{Main|Georgian keyboard layout}}
[[File:KB Georgia.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Georgian language|Georgian]] keyboard]]

All keyboards in [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] are fitted with both Latin and [[Georgian alphabet|Georgian]] letters.{{Dubious|date=August 2017|Georgian|reason=It's not certain that all keyboards are actually "fitted" with both alphabets, and there's no source. See talk page.}} As with the Armenian, Greek, and phonetic Russian layouts, most Georgian letters are on the same keys as their Latin equivalents. During the Soviet era, the Georgian alphabet was adapted to the Russian JCUKEN layout, mainly for typewriters. Soviet computers did not support Georgian keyboards. After the dissolution of the Soviet Union a large variety of computers were introduced to post-Soviet countries. The keyboards had QWERTY layout for Latin alphabet and JCUKEN for Cyrillic both printed on keys. Georgia started to adopt the QWERTY pattern. In both cases the letters which did not exist in the Cyrillic or Latin alphabets were substituted by letters that did not exist in Georgian alphabet. Today the most commonly used layout follows the QWERTY pattern with some changes.{{Clear}}

====Greek====
[[File:KB Greek.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Greek language|Greek]] keyboard layout in comparison to US layout]]

The usual [[Greek language|Greek]] layout follows the US layout for letters related to Latin letters (ABDEHIKLMNOPRSTXYZ, ΑΒΔΕΗΙΚΛΜΝΟΠΡΣΤΧΥΖ, respectively), substitutes phonetically similar letters (Φ at F; Γ at G) and uses the remaining slots for the remaining Greek letters: Ξ at J; Ψ at C; Ω at V; Θ at U).

Greek has two fewer letters than English, but has two [[Greek diacritics|diacritic marks]] which, because of their frequency, are placed on the home row at the U.K. ";" position; they are [[dead key]]s. Word-final [[sigma]] has its own position as well, replacing W, and semicolon (which is used as a question mark in Greek) and colon move to the position of Q.

The '''Greek Polytonic''' layout has various dead keys to input the accented letters. There is also the '''Greek 220''' layout and the Greek '''319''' layout.<ref name="Microsoft Keyboard Layouts"/>
{{Clear}}

===Syllabic===
{{Main|Syllabary}}

====Cherokee====
[[File:UCB Cherokee.png|upright=1.5|thumb|right]]

The [[Cherokee language]] uses an 86-character [[Syllabary]]. The keyboard is available for the [[iPhone]] and [[iPad]] and is supported by [[Google]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Cherokee Nation Language Department |url=https://language.cherokee.org/fonts-and-keyboards/cherokee-keyboards/ |access-date=2022-10-26 |website=Cherokee Nation Language Department |language=en-US |archive-date=2022-10-26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221026102306/https://language.cherokee.org/fonts-and-keyboards/cherokee-keyboards/ |url-status=live }}</ref>
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==East Asian languages==
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2013}}
{{more|Input method editor|Chinese input methods for computers|Japanese input methods|Korean language and computers|language input keys}}
The orthography used for [[Chinese language|Chinese]], [[Japanese language|Japanese]], and [[Korean language|Korean]] ("[[CJK characters]]") require special [[input method]]s, due to the thousands of possible characters in these languages. Various methods have been invented to fit every possibility into a QWERTY keyboard, so East Asian keyboards are essentially the same as those in other countries. However, their input methods are considerably more complex, without one-to-one mappings between keys and characters.

In general, the range of possibilities is first narrowed down (often by entering the desired character's pronunciation). Then, if there remains more than one possibility, the desired [[ideogram]] is selected, either by typing the number before the character, or using a graphical menu to select it. The computer assists the typist by using [[heuristic]]s to guess which character is most likely desired. Although this may seem painstaking, East Asian input methods are today sufficient in that, even for beginners, typing in these languages is only slightly slower than typing an [[alphabet]]ic language like English (where each [[phoneme]] is represented by one [[grapheme]]).

In Japanese, the QWERTY-based [[Japanese Industrial Standard|JIS]] keyboard layout is used, and the pronunciation of each character is entered using various approximations to [[Hepburn romanization]] or [[Kunrei-shiki]] romanization. There are several [[kana]]-based typing methods. .

Of the three, Chinese has the most varied input options. Characters can either be entered by pronunciation (like Japanese and Hanja in Korean), or by structure. Most of the structural methods are very difficult to learn but extremely efficient for experienced typists, as there is no need to select characters from a menu.

There exist a variety of other, slower methods in which a character may be entered. If the pronunciation of a character is not known, the selection can be narrowed down by giving its component shapes, [[radical (Chinese character)|radicals]], and [[Stroke (Chinese character)|stroke]] count. Also, many input systems include a "drawing pad" permitting "handwriting" of a character using a [[computer mouse|mouse]]. Finally, if the computer does not have CJK software installed, it may be possible to enter a character directly through its [[character encoding|encoding]] number (e.g., [[Unicode]]).

In contrast to Chinese and Japanese, Korean is typed similarly to Western languages. There exist two major forms of keyboard layouts: Dubeolsik (두벌식), and Sebeolsik (세벌식). Dubeolsik, which shares its symbol layout with the QWERTY keyboard, is much more commonly used. While Korean consonants and vowels (''[[Hangul consonant and vowel tables|jamo]]'') are grouped together into syllabic grids when written, the script is essentially [[alphabet]]ical, and therefore typing in Korean is quite simple for those who understand the Korean alphabet [[Hangul]]. Each ''jamo'' is assigned to a single key. As the user types letters, the computer automatically groups them into syllabic characters. Given a sequence of ''jamo'', there is only one unambiguous way letters can be validly grouped into syllables, so the computer groups them together as the user types.

===Hangul (for Korean) ===
{{See also|Korean language and computers|Hangul|Korean language}}
Pressing the Han/Eng({{key press|한/영}}) key once switches between Hangul as shown, and QWERTY. There is another key to the left of the space bar for [[Hanja]]({{key press|한자}} or {{key press|漢字}}) input. If using an ordinary keyboard without the two extra keys, the right Alt key will become the Ha/En key, and the right Ctrl key will become the Hanja key. [[Apple Keyboard]]s do not have the two extra keys.

====Dubeolsik====
[[File:KB South Korea.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Dubeolsik Hangul keyboard layout]]
Dubeolsik (두벌식; 2-set) is by far the most common and the sole national standard of Hangul keyboard layout in use in South Korea since 1969. [[Consonant]]s occupy the left side of the layout, while [[vowel]]s are on the right.

====Sebeolsik 390====
[[File:KB Sebeolsik 390.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Sebeolsik 390 Hangul keyboard layout]]
Sebeolsik 390 (세벌식 390; 3-set 390) was released in 1990. It is based on Dr. [[:ko:공병우|Kong Byung Woo]]'s earlier work. This layout is notable for its compatibility with the QWERTY layout; almost all QWERTY symbols that are not alphanumeric are available in Hangul mode. Numbers are placed in three rows. Syllable-initial consonants are on the right (shown green in the picture), and syllable-final consonants and consonant clusters are on the left (shown red). Some consonant clusters are not printed on the keyboard; the user has to press multiple consonant keys to input some consonant clusters, unlike Sebeolsik Final. It is more ergonomic than the dubeolsik, but is not in wide use.
{{Clear}}

====Sebeolsik Final====
[[File:KB Sebeolsik Flnal.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Sebeolsik Final Hangul keyboard layout]]
Sebeolsik Final (세벌식 최종; 3-set Final) is another Hangul keyboard layout in use in South Korea. It is the final Sebulsik layout designed by Dr. [[:ko:공병우|Kong Byung woo]], hence the name. Numbers are placed on two rows. Syllable-initial consonants are on the right, and syllable-final consonants and consonant clusters are on the left. Vowels are in the middle. All consonant clusters are available on the keyboard, unlike the Sebeolsik 390 which does not include all of them. It is more ergonomic than the dubeolsik, but is not in wide use.
{{Clear}}

====Sebeolsik Noshift====
[[File:KB Sebeolsik NoShift.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Sebeolsik Noshift Hangul keyboard layout]]

Sebeolsik Noshift is a variant of sebeolsik which can be used without pressing the [[shift key]]. Its advantage is that people with [[disability|disabilities]] who cannot press two keys at the same time will still be able to use it to type in Hangul.
{{Clear}}

===Chinese===
{{More|Chinese input methods for computers}}
[[Chinese language|Chinese]] keyboards are usually in US layout with/without [[Chinese input methods for computers|Chinese input method]] labels printed on keys. Without an [[input method]] handler activated, these keyboards would simply respond to Latin characters as physically labelled, provided that the US keyboard layout is selected correctly in the [[operating system]]. Most modern input methods allow input of both simplified and traditional characters, and will simply default to one or the other based on the locale setting.

====People's Republic of China====
{{Further|Standard Chinese|Simplified Chinese characters}}
Keyboards used in the [[People's Republic of China]] are standard or slightly modified [[#US|English US]] (QWERTY) ones without extra labelling, while various [[Input Method Editor|IMEs]] are employed to input Chinese characters. The most common IMEs are [[Hanyu pinyin]]-based, representing the pronunciation of characters using Latin letters. However, keyboards with labels for alternative structural input methods such as [[Wubi method]] can also be found, although those are usually very old products and are extremely rare, as of 2015.

====Taiwan====
{{Further|Taiwanese Mandarin|Traditional Chinese characters}}
[[File:Standard Taiwanese Keyboard Layout.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Taiwanese Mandarin|Chinese (Taiwan)]] keyboard layout, a US keyboard with [[Bopomofo|Zhuyin]], [[Cangjie input method|Cangjie]], and [[Dayi method|Dayi]] key labels]]

Computers in [[Taiwan]] often use [[Zhuyin]] (bopomofo) style keyboards (US keyboards with bopomofo labels), many also with [[Cangjie method]] key labels, as Cangjie is a popular method for typing in Traditional Chinese. The bopomofo style keyboards are in [[lexicographical order]], top-to-bottom left-to-right.
The codes of three input methods are typically printed on the Chinese (traditional) keyboard: [[Zhuyin]] (upper right); [[Cangjie method|Cangjie]] (lower left); and [[Dayi method|Dayi]] (lower right).
{{Clear}}

====Hong Kong and Macau====
{{More citations needed section|date=January 2017}}
In [[Hong Kong]], both Chinese (Taiwan) and US keyboards are found. Japanese keyboards are occasionally found, and UK keyboards are rare.

For Chinese input, Shape-based input methods such as [[Cangjie input method|Cangjie]] (pronounced ''cong1 kit3'' in Cantonese) or Chinese handwriting recognition are the most common input method. The use of phonetic-based input method is uncommon due to the lack of official standard for Cantonese romanisation and people in Hong Kong almost never learn any romanisation schemes in schools. An advantage of phonetic-based input method is that most Cantonese speakers are able to input Traditional Chinese characters with no particular training at all where they spell out the Cantonese sound of each character without tone marks, e.g. 'heung gong' for 香港({{Lang-zh|cy=Hēung góng}}; Hong Kong) and to choose the characters from a list. However, [[Microsoft Windows]], which is the most popular operating system used in desktops, does not provide any Cantonese phonetic input method, requiring users to find and install third-party input method software. Also, most people find the process of picking characters from a list being too slow due to homonyms so the Cangjie method is generally preferred.

Although thorough training and practice are required to use [[Cangjie input method|Cangjie]], many Cantonese speakers have taken Cangjie input courses because of the fast typing speed availed by the input method. This method is the fastest because it has the capability to fetch the exact, unambiguous Chinese character which the user has in mind to input, pinpointing to only one character in most cases. This is also the reason why no provision for an input of phonetic accent is needed to complement this Input Method. The Cangjie character feature is available on both Mac OS X and Windows. On Mac OS X, [[handwriting recognition]] input method is bundled with the OS.

Macau utilizes the same layouts as Hong Kong, with the addition of the Portuguese layout used in Portugal.

{{See also|British and American keyboards|Technical standards in Hong Kong}}

===Japanese===
{{unreferenced section|date=February 2019}}
[[File:KB Japanese.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|[[Japanese language|Japanese]] (OADG 109A) keyboard layout with Hiragana keys]]
[[File:KB Japanese Mac - Apple Keyboard (MB869JA).svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Japanese Apple keyboard layout with Hiragana keys]]
{{more|Japanese language and computers}}
The [[Japanese Industrial Standards|JIS]] standard layout includes Japanese [[kana]] in addition to a QWERTY style layout. The shifted values of many keys (digits, together with {{key press|{{colon}}{{asterisk}}}} {{key press|[[;]] [[+]]}} {{key press|[[-]] [[=]]}}) are a legacy of [[bit-paired keyboard]]s, dating to ASCII telex machines and terminals of the 1960s and 1970s.

For entering Japanese, the most common method is entering text phonetically, as [[romanization of Japanese|romanized]] (transliterated) kana, which are then converted to [[kanji]] as appropriate by an [[input method editor]]. It is also possible to type kana directly, depending on the mode used. To type {{nowrap|たかはし}}, "Takahashi", a Japanese name, one could type either {{key press|T}}{{key press|A}}{{key press|K}}{{key press|A}}{{key press|H}}{{key press|A}}{{key press|S}}({{key press|H}}){{key press|I}} in Romanized ([[Rōmaji]]) input mode, or {{key press|Q}}{{key press|T}}{{key press|F}}{{key press|D}} in kana input mode. Then the user can proceed to the conversion step to convert the input into the appropriate kanji.

The [[language input keys|extra keys]] in the bottom row ([[Language input keys#Non-conversion (無変換)|muhenkan]], [[language input keys#Conversion (変換)|henkan]], and the [[Hiragana]]/[[Katakana]] switch key), and the special keys in the leftmost column (the [[language input keys#Half-width/Full-width/Kanji|hankaku/zenkaku]] key at the upper left corner, and the [[language input keys#Alphanumeric (英数)|eisū]] key at the [[Caps Lock]] position), control various aspects of the conversion process and select different modes of input.

[[File:OASYS100.png|right|thumb|upright=1.5|The "Thumb-shift" layout. Note the multiple letters and the two modifying keys. "{{key press|シフト}}" means {{key press|L/R Thumb Shift}}, "{{key press|後退}}" means {{key press|Backspace}}, "{{key press|取消}}" means {{key press|Delete}}, and "{{key press|空白}}" means {{key press|Space}} keys.]]
The [[thumb-shift keyboard|Oyayubi Shifuto (Thumb Shift)]] layout is based on kana input, but uses two modifying keys replacing the space bar. When a key is pressed simultaneously with one of the keys, it yields another letter. Letters with the "dakuten" diacritic are typed with the opposite side "thumb shift". Letters with "handakuten" are either typed while the conventional pinky-operated shift key is pressed (that is, each key corresponds to a maximum of 4 letters), or, on the "NICOLA" variation, on a key which does not have a dakuten counterpart.

The {{key press|H}} key in the QWERTY layout individually yields は, but with the {{key press|変換}} ({{key press|R Thumb Shift}}) key, yields み. Simultaneous input with {{key press|無変換}} ({{key press|L Thumb Shift}}) yields ば, which is the individually mapped letter with the aforementioned dakuten. While the pinky-operated {{key press|Shift}} key is pressed, the same key yields ぱ. (This same letter must be typed with {{key press|無変換}}({{key press|L Thumb Shift}}) + {{key press|Y}} on the NICOLA variant.)
{{Clear}}

==Layout changing software==
The character code produced by any key press is determined by the keyboard driver software. A key press generates a [[scancode]] which is interpreted as an alphanumeric character or control function. Depending on operating systems, various application programs are available to create, add and switch among keyboard layouts. Many programs are available, some of which are language specific.

The arrangement of symbols of specific language can be customized. An existing keyboard layout can be edited, and a new layout can be created using this type of software.

For example, {{sic|Ukelele|nolink=y}} for Mac,<ref>{{cite web|last1=Brownie|first1=John|title={{sic|Ukelele|nolink=y}}|url=http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&id=ukelele|website=NRSI: Computers & Writing Systems|publisher=[[SIL International]]|access-date=8 December 2014|date=8 March 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206054653/http://scripts.sil.org/cms/scripts/page.php?site_id=nrsi&id=ukelele|archive-date=6 December 2014|df=dmy-all}}</ref> [[AutoHotkey]] or The Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator<ref>{{cite web | url = http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/goglobal/bb964665.aspx | title = The Microsoft Keyboard Layout Creator | work = msdn.microsoft.com | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20100119042027/http://msdn.microsoft.com/en-us/goglobal/bb964665.aspx | archive-date = 19 January 2010 | df = dmy-all }}</ref> for Windows, and open-source [[Avro Keyboard]] provide the ability to customize the keyboard layout as desired.

==See also==
* [[Half-keyboard]]
* [[Telephone keypad#Letter mapping|Telephone keypad letter mapping]]

==Notes==
{{Notelist}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Prone to spam|date=March 2012}}{{Commons category|Keyboard layouts}}
*{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181028225712/https://www-01.ibm.com/software/globalization/topics/keyboards/ |date=October 28, 2018 |title=Introduction to keyboards, at IBM}}
*{{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181103130511/http://www-01.ibm.com/software/globalization/topics/keyboards/registry_index.html |date=November 3, 2018 |title=Keyboard layouts: Logical keyboard layout registry index for countries and regions around the world, at IBM}}
*[https://support.apple.com/en-us/HT201794 How to identify an Apple keyboard layout by country or region]

{{Keyboard keys}}
{{Keyboard layouts}}

[[Category:Keyboard layouts| ]]

Asciinema

2023-03-30T23:43:09Z

Eugrus: ←Changed redirect target from Script (Unix)#asciinema to Script (Unix)#Alternatives to Script Command

#REDIRECT [[script (Unix)#Alternatives to Script Command]]

J. B. Priestley

2023-03-24T23:18:36Z

Eugrus: /* Selected plays */ there is an article in English Wikipedia

{{Other people|similarly|Priestley (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|English writer (1894–1984)}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}

{{Infobox writer
| image = J B Priestley at work in his study, 1940. (7893553148).jpg
| caption = J. B. Priestley at work in the study at his home in Highgate, London
| pseudonym =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1894|9|13|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Manningham, Bradford]], [[West Riding of Yorkshire]], England
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1984|8|14|1894|9|13|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Alveston, Warwickshire]], England
| occupation = {{hlist|Novelist|playwright|screenwriter|broadcaster|commentator}}
| period = [[20th century in literature|20th century]]
| genre =
| subject =
| movement =
| signature =
| website = {{URL|jbpriestley.co.uk}}
| influences =
| influenced =
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|OM}}
| spouse = {{plain list|
* {{marriage|Pat Tempest|1921|1925|reason=d.}}
* {{marriage|Jane Wyndham-Lewis|1925|1953|reason=divorce}}
* {{marriage|[[Jacquetta Hawkes]]|1953}} }}
| children = 5, including [[Sylvia Goaman|Sylvia]], [[Mary Priestley|Mary]] & [[Tom Priestley|Tom]]
}}
'''John Boynton Priestley''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|OM}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|r|iː|s|t|l|i}}; 13 September 1894 – 14 August 1984) was an English novelist, playwright, screenwriter, broadcaster and social commentator.<ref>{{cite web|title=J B Priestley|url=https://www.bl.uk/people/j-b-priestley|access-date=13 May 2021|website=The British Library}}</ref>

His [[Yorkshire]] background is reflected in much of his fiction, notably in ''[[The Good Companions]]'' (1929), which first brought him to wide public notice. Many of his plays are structured around a [[time slip]], and he went on to develop a new theory of time, with different dimensions that link past, present and future.

In 1940 he broadcast a series of short [[propaganda]] radio talks, which were credited with strengthening civilian morale during the [[Battle of Britain]]. In the following years his left-wing beliefs brought him into conflict with the government and influenced the development of the [[Welfare state in the United Kingdom|welfare state]].

== Early life ==
Priestley was born on 13 September 1894 at 34 Mannheim Road, [[Manningham, Bradford|Manningham]], which he described as an "extremely respectable" suburb of [[Bradford]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Cook|first=Judith|author-link=Judith Cook|title=Priestley|year=1997|publisher=Bloomsbury|location=London|isbn=0-7475-3508-6|page=5|chapter=Beginnings and Childhood}}</ref> His father, Jonathan Priestley (1868–1924), was a headmaster. His mother, Emma (''née'' Holt; 1865–1896), was a mill girl.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jbpriestleysociety.com/biography/|title=Biography|accessdate=11 September 2022}}</ref> She died when Priestley was just two years old and his father remarried four years later.<ref name="konkle">Lincoln Konkle, ''J. B. Priestley'', in British Playwrights, 1880–1956: A Research and Production Sourcebook, by William W. Demastes, Katherine E. Kelly; [[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood Press]], 1996</ref> Priestley was educated at [[Belle Vue Boys' School|Belle Vue Grammar School]], which he left at 16 to work as a junior clerk at Helm & Co., a wool firm in the [[Swan Arcade, Bradford|Swan Arcade]]. During his years at Helm & Co. (1910–1914) he started writing at night and had articles published in local and London newspapers. He was to draw on memories of Bradford in many of the works he wrote after he had moved south, including ''[[Bright Day]]'' and ''[[When We Are Married]]''. As an old man he deplored the destruction by developers of [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] buildings in Bradford such as the Swan Arcade, where he had his first job.

Priestley served in the British army during the [[First World War]], volunteering for the [[Duke of Wellington's Regiment]] on 7 September 1914 and being posted to the 10th Battalion in France as a Lance-Corporal on 26 August 1915. He was badly wounded in June 1916 when he was buried alive by a trench mortar. He spent many months in military hospitals and convalescent establishments and on 26 January 1918 was commissioned as an officer in the [[Devonshire Regiment]] and posted back to France in the late summer. As he describes in his literary reminiscences, ''Margin Released'', he suffered from the effects of poison gas and then supervised German prisoners of war before being demobilised in early 1919.

After his military service Priestley received a university education at [[Trinity Hall, Cambridge]].<ref>{{cite web|date=16 August 2019|title=JB Priestley, grand old grumbler, dies at 89 – archive, 16 August 1984|url=http://www.theguardian.com/stage/2019/aug/16/jb-priestley-grand-old-grumbler-dies-1984|access-date=13 May 2021|website=The Guardian}}</ref> By the age of 30 he had established a reputation as an essayist and critic. His novel ''[[Benighted (novel)|Benighted]]'' (1927) was adapted into the [[James Whale]] film ''[[The Old Dark House (1932 film)|The Old Dark House]]'' (1932); the novel was published under the film's name in the United States.

== Career ==
Priestley's first major success came with a novel, ''[[The Good Companions]]'' (1929), which earned him the [[James Tait Black Memorial Prize]] for fiction and made him a national figure. His next novel, ''[[Angel Pavement]]'' (1930), further established him as a successful novelist. However some critics were less than complimentary about his work and Priestley threatened legal action against [[Graham Greene]] for what he took to be a defamatory portrait of him in the novel ''[[Stamboul Train]]'' (1932).

In 1934 he published the travelogue ''[[English Journey]]'', an account of what he saw and heard while travelling through the country in the depths of the [[Great Depression in the United Kingdom|Great Depression]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Marr | first=Andrew | author-link=Andrew Marr | title=A History of Modern Britain | year=2008 | page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernb0000marr/page/ xxii] | publisher=Macmillan | isbn=978-0-330-43983-1 | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernb0000marr/page/ }}</ref>

Priestley is today seen as having a prejudice against the Irish,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/irish-butt-of-english-racism-for-more-than-eight-centuries-1342976.html|title=Irish butt of English racism for more than eight centuries|website=[[Independent.co.uk]]|date=23 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="Fagge2011">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNpNtZAB0yoC&pg=PA29|title=The Vision of J.B. Priestley|date=15 December 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-0480-9|pages=29–|author=Roger Fagge}}</ref><ref name="Holmes2015">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdq9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|title=John Bull's Island: Immigration and British Society, 1871–1971|date=16 October 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-38273-7|pages=149–|author=Colin Holmes}}</ref> as is shown in ''English Journey'': "A great many speeches have been made and books written on the subject of what England has done to Ireland... I should be interested to hear a speech and read a book or two on the subject of what Ireland has done to England... if we do have an [[Irish Republic]] as our neighbour, and it is found possible to return her exiled citizens, what a grand clearance there will be in all the western ports, from the Clyde to Cardiff, what a fine exit of ignorance and dirt and drunkenness and disease."<ref>J. B. Priestley, ''English Journey'' (London: William Heinemann, 1934), pp. 248-9</ref>

He moved into a new genre and became equally well known as a [[dramatist]]. ''[[Dangerous Corner]]'' (1932) was the first of many plays that would enthral West End theatre audiences. His best-known play is ''[[An Inspector Calls]]'' (1945). His plays are more varied in tone than the novels, several being influenced by [[J. W. Dunne]]'s theory of time, which plays a part in the plots of ''Dangerous Corner'' (1932) and ''[[Time and the Conways]]''.

In 1940 Priestley wrote an essay for ''[[Horizon (magazine)|Horizon]]'' magazine in which he criticised [[George Bernard Shaw]] for his support of [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]: "Shaw presumes that his friend Stalin has everything under control. Well, Stalin may have made special arrangements to see that Shaw comes to no harm, but the rest of us in Western Europe do not feel quite so sure of our fate, especially those of us who do not share Shaw's curious admiration for dictators."<ref>J. B. Priestley, "The War – And After", in ''Horizon'', January 1940. Reprinted in Andrew Sinclair, ''War Decade: An Anthology of the 1940s'', Hamish Hamilton, 1989. {{ISBN|0241125677}} (p. 19).</ref>

During the [[Second World War]] he was a regular broadcaster on the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]]. The ''Postscript'', broadcast on Sunday night in 1940 and again in 1941, drew peak audiences of 16 million; only [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was more popular with listeners. [[Graham Greene]] wrote that Priestley "became in the months after Dunkirk a leader second only in importance to Mr Churchill. And he gave us what our other leaders have always failed to give us – an ideology."<ref>Cited in {{cite book |title=The Road To 1945: British Politics and the Second World War |last=Addison |first=Paul |publisher=Random House |year=2011|isbn=978-1-4464-2421-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C2hit1s8B04C&q=priestley}}</ref> But his talks were cancelled.<ref>{{cite book|title=Revisiting the Welfare State |series=Introducing Social Policy |last=Page |first=Robert M. |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education (UK) |year=2007 |page=10 |isbn=978-0-335-23498-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Os5EBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10}}</ref> It was thought that this was the effect of complaints from Churchill that they were too left-wing; however in 2015 Priestley's son said in a talk on the latest book being published about his father's life that it was in fact Churchill's Cabinet that brought about the cancellation by supplying negative reports on the broadcasts to Churchill.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cheltenhamfestivals.com/whats_on/event_detail.html?id=2545 |title=? |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915121708/http://cheltenhamfestivals.com/whats_on/event_detail.html?id=2545 |archive-date=15 September 2008 }}</ref><ref name="biography">{{cite news|title=Priestley war letters published |publisher= BBC News website |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7655113.stm |access-date=10 June 2008 | date=6 October 2008}}</ref>

Priestley chaired the [[1941 Committee]] and in 1942 he was a cofounder of the socialist [[Common Wealth Party]]. The political content of his broadcasts and his hopes of a new and different Britain after the war influenced the politics of the period and helped the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] gain its landslide victory in the [[1945 United Kingdom general election|1945 general election]]. Priestley himself, however, was distrustful of the state and dogma, though he did stand for the [[Cambridge University (UK Parliament constituency)|Cambridge University]] constituency in 1945.

Priestley's name was on [[Orwell's list]], a list of people that George Orwell prepared in March 1949 for the [[Information Research Department]] (IRD), a propaganda unit set up at the [[Foreign Office]] by the Labour government. Orwell considered or suspected these people to have pro-communist leanings and therefore to be unsuitable to write for the IRD.<ref>{{cite news|title=Blair's babe Did love turn Orwell into a government stooge? |first=John |last=Ezard |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=21 June 2003 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2003/jun/21/books.artsandhumanities |access-date=30 December 2008}}</ref>

He was a founding member of the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] in 1958.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/stage/2018/jun/17/jb-priestley-memoir-insight-vanities-friendships|title=Life with JB Priestley, by the woman he trusted most of all|date=17 June 2018|website=The Guardian|accessdate= 15 October 2022}}</ref>

In 1960 Priestley published ''Literature and Western Man'', a 500-page survey of [[Western literature]] in all its genres from the second half of the 15th century to the present. (The last author discussed was [[Thomas Wolfe]].)

His interest in the problem of time led him to publish an extended essay in 1964 under the title of ''Man and Time''. (Aldus published this as a companion to [[Carl Jung]]'s ''[[Man and His Symbols]]''.) In the book he explored in depth various theories and beliefs about time as well as his own research and unique conclusions, including an analysis of the phenomenon of [[precognitive dreams|precognitive dreaming]], based in part on a broad sampling of experiences gathered from the British public, who responded enthusiastically to a televised appeal he made while being interviewed in 1963 on the BBC programme ''[[Monitor (BBC TV)|Monitor]]''.

[[File:NMM Priestley 01.jpg|thumb|right|Statue outside the National Media Museum]]
The [[University of Bradford]] awarded Priestley the title of honorary [[Doctor of Letters]] in 1970 and he was awarded the [[Freedom of the City]] of Bradford in 1973. His connections with the city were also marked by the naming of the J. B. Priestley Library at the University of Bradford, which he officially opened in 1975,<ref>[http://www.bradford.ac.uk/library/special-collections/collections/j-b-priestley-archive/ J. B. Priestley Archive] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806101809/http://www.bradford.ac.uk/library/special-collections/collections/j-b-priestley-archive/ |date=6 August 2013 }}. University of Bradford. Retrieved 16 February 2016.</ref> and by the larger-than-life statue of him, commissioned by the [[Bradford City Council]] after his death and which now stands in front of the [[National Media Museum]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/bradford/content/articles/2008/09/26/priestley_lost_city_reaction_feature.shtml A "sentimental journey"? Priestley's Lost City]. bbc.co.uk (26 September 2008). Retrieved 2 May 2012.</ref>

== Personal life ==
Priestley had a deep love for classical music, especially [[chamber music]]. This love is reflected in a number of Priestley's works, notably his own favourite novel, ''Bright Day'' (Heinemann, 1946). His book ''Trumpets Over the Sea'' is subtitled "a rambling and egotistical account of the London Symphony Orchestra's engagement at Daytona Beach, Florida, in July–August 1967".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fagge|first1=Roger|title=The Vision of J.B. Priestley|date=2011|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4411-6379-0|page=Note 9 to Chapter 6|no-pp=yes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_z5o6hPsNLsC&q=Priestley+Trumpets&pg=PT120}}</ref>

In 1941 he played an important part in organising and supporting a fund-raising campaign on behalf of the [[London Philharmonic Orchestra]], which was struggling to establish itself as a self-governing body after the withdrawal of Sir [[Thomas Beecham]]. In 1949 the opera ''[[The Olympians]]'' by [[Arthur Bliss]], to a libretto by Priestley, was premiered.

Priestley snubbed the chance to become a [[life peer]] in 1965 and also declined appointment as a [[Companion of Honour]] in 1969.<ref>{{cite press release|title=Individuals, now deceased, who refused honours between 1951 and 1999|publisher=[[Cabinet Office]]|date=25 January 2012|url=https://update.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/sites/default/files/resources/document2012-01-24-075439.pdf|access-date=27 January 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120404180350/https%3A//update.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/sites/default/files/resources/document2012%2D01%2D24%2D075439.pdf|archive-date=4 April 2012}}</ref> But he did become a member of the [[Order of Merit]] in 1977. He also served as a British delegate to [[UNESCO]] conferences.

=== Marriages ===
[[File:In The Grove, Highgate - geograph.org.uk - 1834159.jpg|thumb|[[3, The Grove, Highgate|3 The Grove]]]]
Priestley was married three times. He also had a number of affairs, including a serious relationship with the actress [[Peggy Ashcroft]]. Writing in 1972, Priestley described himself as "lusty" and as one who has "enjoyed the physical relations with the sexes{{nbsp}}[...] without the feelings of guilt which seems to disturb some of my distinguished colleagues".<ref name=":0">{{cite ODNB|title=Priestley, John Boynton (1894–1984), writer {{!}} Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/31565|year=2004}}</ref>

In 1921 Priestley married Emily "Pat" Tempest, a music-loving Bradford librarian. Two daughters were born: Barbara (later known as the architect Barbara Wykeham)<ref>{{cite news|title= Barbara Wykeham |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1521646/Barbara-Wykeham.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1521646/Barbara-Wykeham.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=15 August 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref> in 1923 and Sylvia (a designer known as [[Sylvia Goaman]] following her marriage to [[Michael Goaman]])<ref>{{cite news|title= Sylvia Goaman |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1527258/Sylvia-Goaman.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1527258/Sylvia-Goaman.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=15 August 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref> in 1924. In 1925, his wife died of cancer.<ref>[http://unitedagents.co.uk/jb-priestley-estate JB Priestley (estate)]. Unitedagents.co.uk. Retrieved 2 May 2012.</ref>

In September 1926 Priestley married Jane Wyndham-Lewis (ex-wife of the one-time '[[Beachcomber (pen name)|Beachcomber]]' columnist [[D. B. Wyndham-Lewis]], no relation to the artist [[Wyndham Lewis]]); they had two daughters (including music therapist [[Mary Priestley]], conceived in 1924 while Jane was still married to D. B. Wyndham-Lewis) and one son, the film editor [[Tom Priestley]].<ref name=":0" /> During the [[World War II|Second World War]] Jane ran several residential nurseries for evacuated mothers and their children, many of whom had come from poor districts.<ref>Women's Group on Public Welfare. ''The Neglected Child and His Family''. Oxford University Press: London, 1948, p. x.</ref> For much of their married life they lived at [[3, The Grove, Highgate|3, The Grove]] in [[Highgate]], formerly the home of the poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=John |title=Highgate: Its history since the Fifteeenth Century |date=1983 |publisher=Eyre and Spottiswoode |isbn=0-9503656-4-5}}</ref>

In 1953 Priestley was divorced by his second wife and then married the archaeologist and writer [[Jacquetta Hawkes]], with whom he collaborated on the play ''Dragon's Mouth''.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|title= Biography |publisher= J. B. Priestley website |url= http://www.jbpriestley.co.uk/bio.php |access-date=28 July 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070702084801/http://www.jbpriestley.co.uk/bio.php |archive-date = 2 July 2007}}</ref> The couple lived at [[Alveston, Warwickshire]], near [[Stratford-upon-Avon]], later in his life.

[[File:St. Michael and All Angels Church, Hubberholme (12th February 2013) 004.JPG|thumb|right|Priestley's ashes were buried at St Michael and All Angels' Church in [[Hubberholme]] in the [[Yorkshire Dales National Park]].]]

=== Death ===
Priestley died of [[pneumonia]] on 14 August 1984, a month short of his ninetieth birthday.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}

His ashes were buried in [[Hubberholme]] churchyard at the head of [[Wharfedale]] in Yorkshire.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.yorkshire-dales.com/hubberholme-church.html|title=Hubberholme Church|website=www.yorkshire-dales.co|access-date=22 April 2020}}</ref> The exact location of his ashes has never been made public and was known only to the three people present. A plaque in the church just states that his ashes are buried 'nearby'. Three photographs exist showing the ashes being interred, taken by Dr Brian Hoyle Thompson. He and his wife were two of the three people present. The brass plate on the box containing the ashes reads J. B. Priestley and can be seen clearly in one of the pictures.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}

== Archives ==
Priestley began placing his papers at the [[Harry Ransom Center]] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] in 1960, with additions being made throughout his lifetime. The Center has continued to add to the collection through gifts and purchases when possible. The collection comprises 23 boxes {{asof|2016|lc=y}}, including original manuscripts for many of his works and an extensive series of correspondence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid=01211|title=J. B. Priestley: An Inventory of His Collection at the Harry Ransom Center|website=norman.hrc.utexas.edu|access-date=3 November 2017}}</ref>

The [[University of Bradford#Library|University of Bradford Library]] holds the J. B. Priestley Archive as part of their Special Collections. The collection includes scripts, journal articles, lectures, press cuttings, correspondence, photographs and objects such as Priestley's iconic pipe. Most of the material in this collection was donated by the Priestley Estate.<ref>{{cite web|title=J. B. Priestley Archive - Special Collections|url=https://www.bradford.ac.uk/library/special-collections/collections/collections/j-b-priestley-archive/|access-date=13 October 2021|website=University of Bradford}}</ref>

== Bibliography ==

=== Novels ===
*''Adam in Moonshine'' (1927)
*''[[Benighted (novel)|Benighted]]'' (1927) (filmed as ''The Old Dark House'')
*''[[The Good Companions]]'' (1929)
*''[[Angel Pavement]]'' (1930)
*''Faraway'' (1932)
*''Wonder Hero'' (1933)
*''Albert Goes Through'' (1933)
*''They Walk in the City'' (1936)
*''The Doomsday Men'' (1937)
*''[[Let the People Sing (novel)|Let the People Sing]]'' (1939)
*''[[Blackout in Gretley]]'' (1942)
*''[[Daylight on Saturday]]'' (1943)
*''Three Men in New Suits'' (1945)
*''[[Bright Day]]'' (1946)
*''[[Jenny Villiers]]'' (1947)
*''[[Festival at Farbridge]]'' (1951)
*''Low Notes on a High Level'' (1954)
*''[[The Magicians (Priestley novel)|The Magicians]]'' (1954)
*''Saturn over the Water'' (1961)
*''The Thirty-First of June'' (1961)
*''[[Salt Is Leaving]]'' (1961)
*''[[The Shapes of Sleep]]'' (1962)
*''Sir Michael and Sir George'' (1964)
*''[[Lost Empires (novel)|Lost Empires]]'' (1965)
*''[[It's an Old Country]]'' (1967)
*''The Image Men Vol. 1: Out of Town'' (1968)
*''The Image Men Vol. 2: London End'' (1968)
*''[[Found, Lost, Found]]'' (1976)

=== Other fiction ===
*''Farthing Hall'' (1929) (Novel written in collaboration with [[Hugh Walpole]])
*''The Town Major of Miraucourt'' (1930) (Short story published in a limited edition of 525 copies)
*''I'll Tell You Everything'' (1932) (Novel written in collaboration with [[Gerald Bullett]])
*''[[The Other Place (Priestley)|The Other Place]]'' (1952) (Short Stories)
*''Snoggle'' (1971) (Novel for children)
*''The Carfitt Crisis'' (1975) (Two novellas and a short story)
; Novelizations by Ruth Mitchell (author of the wartime novel ''The Lost Generation'' and Priestley's sister-in-law by way of his second marriage):
* ''[[Dangerous Corner]]'' (1933), based on the later Broadway draft of the play, with a foreword by Priestley (paperback)
* ''[[Laburnum Grove]]'' (1936), based on the play and subsequent screenplay, published as a hardcover tie-in edition to the film

=== Selected plays ===
{{See also|J. B. Priestley's Time Plays}}
* ''[[The Good Companions (play)|The Good Companions]]'' (1931)
*''[[Dangerous Corner]]'' (1932)
*''[[Laburnum Grove (play)|Laburnum Grove]]'' (1933)
*''[[Eden End]]'' (1934)
*''Cornelius'' (1935)
*''People at Sea'' (1936)
* ''[[Bees on the Boat Deck]]'' (1936)
*''[[Time and the Conways]]'' (1937)
*''[[I Have Been Here Before]]'' (1937)
*''[[When We Are Married]]'' (1938)
*''[[Johnson Over Jordan]]'' (1939)
*''The Long Mirror'' (1940)
*''[[They Came to a City (play)|They Came to a City]]'' (1943)
*''[[An Inspector Calls]]'' (1945)
* ''[[Ever Since Paradise]]'' (1946)
*''[[The Linden Tree]]'' (1947)
*''[[Summer Day's Dream]]'' (1949)
*''Mother's Day'' (1950)
* ''[[The White Countess (play)|The White Countess]]'' (1954)
* ''[[Mr. Kettle and Mrs. Moon]]'' (1955)
* ''[[The Glass Cage (play)|The Glass Cage]]'' (1957)
*''The Thirty-first of June: A Tale of True Love, Enterprise and Progress in the Arthurian and AD-Atomic Ages''
**Novel. December 1961: hardback; {{ISBN|0-434-60326-0}} / {{ISBN|978-0-434-60326-8}} (UK edition); William Heinemann Ltd
**BBC radio dramatisation; one and a half hours
**Novel. 1996: paperback; {{ISBN|0-7493-2281-0}} / {{ISBN|978-0-7493-2281-6}} (UK edition); Mandarin
**''[[31 June]]'' (1978) (TV) Soviet film
* ''Benighted'' (2016, adapted from his 1928 novel by Duncan Gates)
*''The Roundabout'' (1931)

=== Films ===
*''[[Sing As We Go]]'' (1934)
*''[[The Princess Comes Across]]'' (1936)
*''[[Jamaica Inn (film)|Jamaica Inn]]'' (1939)
*''[[Britain at Bay]]'' (1940, Short)
*''[[The Foreman Went to France]]'' (1942)
*''[[Last Holiday (1950 film)|Last Holiday]]'' (1950, wrote story, screenplay and produced the film)
*''[[An Inspector Calls (1954 film)|An Inspector Calls]]'' (1954)

=== Television work ===
*''[[You Know What People Are]]'' (1955)
*''[[Armchair Theatre]]: Now Let Him Go'' (ABC – 15 September 1957)
*''Doomsday for Dyson'' (Granada – 10 March 1958)
*''[[Out of the Unknown]]: Level Seven'' (BBC2 – 27 October 1966, adaptation of a story by [[Mordecai Roshwald]])
*''[[The Wednesday Play]]: [[The Wednesday Play#Anyone for Tennis?|Anyone for Tennis?]]'' (BBC1 – 25 September 1968)
*''[[Shadows (TV series)|Shadows]]: The Other Window'' (Thames – 15 October 1975, co-written with [[Jacquetta Hawkes]])
*''[[An Inspector Calls]]'' (several versions including BBC - 2015)

=== Literary criticism ===
*''The English Comic Characters'' (1925)
*''The English Novel'' (1927)
*''Literature and Western Man'' (1960)
*''Charles Dickens and his world'' (1969)

=== Social and political works ===
*''[[English Journey]]'' (1934)
*''Out of the people'' (1941)
*''The Secret Dream: an essay on Britain, America and Russia'' (1946)
*''The Arts under Socialism'' (1947)
*''The Prince of Pleasure and his Regency'' (1969)
*''The Edwardians'' (1970)
*'' Victoria's Heyday (1972)
*''The English'' (1973)
*''A Visit to New Zealand'' (1974)

=== Autobiography and essays ===
*''Essays of To-day and Yesterday (1926)
*''Apes and Angels'' (1928)
*''The Balconinny'' (1931)
*''Midnight on the Desert'' (1937)
*''Rain Upon Godshill: A Further Chapter of Autobiography'' (1939)
*''Postscripts'' (1940)
*''Delight'' (1949)
*''Journey Down a Rainbow'' (co-authored with Jacquetta Hawkes, 1955)
*''Margin Released'' (1962)
*''Man and Time'' (1964)
*''The Moments and Other Pieces'' (1966)
*''Over the Long High Wall'' (1972)
*''The Happy Dream'' (Limited edition, 1976)
*''Instead of the Trees'' (1977)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

'''Other sources'''
* [[Vincent Brome|Brome, Vincent]] (1988). ''J.B. Priestley.'' {{ISBN|0-241-12560-X}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070603075024/http://www.gnbooks.co.uk/books/1905080182.shtml Bright Day: A special collectors' edition, by J.B. Priestley]
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=John Boynton Priestley |sopt=t}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|John Boynton Priestley}}
* [https://jbpriestley.co.uk/ The Official J. B. Priestley website]
* [http://www.jbpriestleysociety.com/ The J. B. Priestley Society]
* [http://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid=01211 J. B. Priestley Papers] at the [[Harry Ransom Center]] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]
* [http://www.spartacus-educational.com/Jpriestley.htm J. B. Priestley biography] at [[Spartacus Educational]]
* [https://www.bradford.ac.uk/library/special-collections/collections/collections/j-b-priestley-archive/ J. B. Priestley Archive] at the [[University of Bradford]]
* [http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/search/people_sub_plays_all?forename=J%20b&surname=PRIESTLEY&job=Author&pid=61&image_view=Yesamp;x=19amp;y=17 Priestley in the Theatre Collection], [[University of Bristol]]
*[http://www.photohistories.com/Photo-Histories/53/john-angersons-english-journey ''John Angerson's English Journey'']. Photographer Angerson retraces J.B. Priestley's footsteps 75 years after publication of Priestley's seminal travelog, ''English Journey''. Article by Graham Harrison for the Photo Histories web site.
*[https://www.britishpathe.com/video/personalities-j-b-priestley 1944 film of Priestley at work] at [[British Pathé]]
* {{Gutenberg author|id=45526}}
* {{isfdb name|1261}}
* {{imdb name}}
* {{LCAuth|n79116394|J. B. Priestley|338|ue}}
* {{20th Century Press Archives|FID=pe/023779}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/dunkirk/14310.shtml BBC Archives – J. B. Priestley's 'Postscript' – radio broadcast from 5 June 1940]
*{{cite book
| last = Wolfe
| first = Graham
| title = Theatre-Fiction in Britain from Henry James to Doris Lessing: Writing in the Wings
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jQedDwAAQBAJ
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2019
|isbn=978-1-00-012436-1}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-off}}
{{s-bef|before = ''New post''}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[Common Wealth Party|Chairman of the Common Wealth Party]]|years = 1942}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Richard Acland]]}}
{{S-end}}

{{J. B. Priestley}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Priestley, J. B.}}
[[Category:1894 births]]
[[Category:1984 deaths]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge]]
[[Category:English anti–nuclear weapons activists]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament activists]]
[[Category:Common Wealth Party politicians]]
[[Category:Duke of Wellington's Regiment soldiers]]
[[Category:Devonshire Regiment officers]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Bradford]]
[[Category:English opera librettists]]
[[Category:English humorists]]
[[Category:English socialists]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit]]
[[Category:Writers from Bradford]]
[[Category:James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients]]
[[Category:English male novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century English novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century English dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:British male dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:People educated at Belle Vue Boys' Grammar School, Bradford]]
[[Category:Philosophers of time]]
[[Category:20th-century English male writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Common Wealth Party]]
[[Category:Presidents of the English Centre of PEN]]

Talk:Lumina (software)

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Talk:Lumina (desktop environment)

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Lumina (software)

2023-02-19T15:28:32Z

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Lumina (desktop environment)

2023-02-19T15:28:32Z

Eugrus: Eugrus moved page Lumina (software) to Lumina (desktop environment) over redirect: previous renaming was without discussion and broke the template

{{Short description|Desktop environment for X Window System}}
{{Infobox software
| name = Lumina
| logo =
| logo alt =
| logo caption =
| screenshot = DragonFly BSD 6.2.1 Lumina desktop screenshot.png
| screenshot alt =
| caption = Lumina 1.6.2 on [[DragonFly BSD]]
| collapsible =
| author =
| developer = iXsystems, Inc.
| released = 
| discontinued =
| ver layout = 
| latest release version = {{wikidata|property|preferred|references|edit|Q19599479|P348|P548=Q2804309}}
| latest release date = {{wikidata|qualifier|preferred|single|Q19599479|P348|P548=Q2804309|P577}}
| latest preview version = {{wikidata|property|preferred|references|edit|Q19599479|P348|P548=Q51930650}}
| latest preview date = {{wikidata|qualifier|preferred|single|Q19599479|P348|P548=Q51930650|P577}}
| programming language = [[C++]]
| operating system = [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]]
| platform =
| size =
| language =
| language count = 
| language footnote =
| genre = [[Desktop environment]]
| license = [[BSD licenses|BSD-3-Clause]]
| alexa =
| website = {{URL|https://lumina-desktop.org}}
| repo =
| standard =
| AsOf =
}}

'''Lumina Desktop Environment''', or simply '''Lumina''', is a [[Plug-in (computing)|plugin]]-based [[desktop environment]] for [[Unix]] and [[Unix-like]] operating systems. It is designed specifically as a system interface for [[TrueOS]], and systems derived from [[Berkeley Software Distribution]] (BSD) in general,{{sfn|Lumina FAQ}} but has been ported to various [[Linux distribution]]s.{{sfn|Watson|2016}}

==History==
Created in 2012 by Ken Moore, Lumina was initially a set of extensions to [[Fluxbox]], a [[stacking window manager]] for the [[X Window System]].{{sfn|Moore|2015}} By late 2013, Moore had developed a graphical overlay for Fluxbox based on [[Qt (software)|Qt4]], and had created a [[Utility software|utility]] for "launching applications and opening files".{{sfn|Moore|2015}} The [[codebase]] was integrated into the [[TrueOS|PC-BSD]] source [[Repository (version control)|repository]] by early 2014, and a [[Porting|port]] was added to the [[FreeBSD Ports]] collection in April 2014.{{sfn|Moore|2015}} The [[source code]] has since been moved to a separate [[GitHub]] repository "under the PC-BSD umbrella" and converted to use Qt5.{{sfn|Moore|2015}} Development also focused on replacing the Fluxbox core with a Qt-based [[window manager]] integrated with the Lumina desktop.{{sfn|Moore|2015}}

The project avoids use of Linux-based tools or frameworks, such as [[D-Bus]], [[Polkit]], and [[systemd]].{{sfn|Lumina Desktop Environment homepage}}

==Features==
The desktop and application menus are dynamically configured upon first being launched, as the desktop environment finds installed applications automatically to add to the menu and as a desktop icon.{{sfn|Watson|2016}} The default panel includes a [[Start menu#Open-source operating systems|Start menu]], [[task manager]], and [[Notification area|system tray]], and its location can be customized.{{sfn|Watson|2016}} Menus may be accessed via the Start menu or by right-clicking the mouse on the desktop background.{{sfn|Watson|2016}}

Some features are specific to TrueOS, including hardware control of screen brightness (monitor backlight), preventing shutdown of an updating system, and integration with various TrueOS utilities.{{sfn|Lumina FAQ}}

Utilities include: ''Insight'', a [[file manager]]; ''File information'', which reports a file's [[File format|format]] and other details; and ''Lumina Open'', a graphical utility to launch applications based on the selected [[Computer file|file]] or [[Directory (computing)|folder]].{{sfn|Watson|2016}}

Version 1.4 included several new utilities.{{sfn|Nestor|2017}} The [[Portable Document Format|PDF]] reader ''lumina-pdf'' is based on the [[Poppler (software)|poppler]] library.{{sfn|Larabel|2017}} The ''Lumina Theme Engine'' replaced an earlier [[Theme (computing)|theme]] system; it enables a [[User (computing)|user]] to configure the desktop appearance and functionality, and ensures all Qt5 applications "present a unified appearance".{{sfn|Nestor|2017}}

==Ports==
Lumina has been ported to various BSD operating systems and [[Linux distribution]]s. These include:

*[[Berkeley Software Distribution]]
**[[TrueOS]]{{sfn|Lumina 1.0 release}}
**[[DragonFly BSD]]{{sfn|Lumina 1.0 release}}
**[[FreeBSD]]{{sfn|Freshports}}
**[[NetBSD]]{{sfn|Lumina 1.0 release}}
**[[OpenBSD]]{{sfn|Lumina 1.0 release}}
**[[Debian GNU/kFreeBSD|kFreeBSD]]{{sfn|Lumina 1.0 release}}
*Linux distributions
**[[AntiX|antiX Linux]]<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://antixlinux.com/lumina-desktop-added-to-repos/|title=lumina-desktop added to repos – antiX Linux|website=antixlinux.com|language=en-US|access-date=2018-08-09}}</ref>
**[[Arch Linux]]{{sfn|Arch Linux}}
**[[Debian]]{{sfn|Lumina 1.0 release}}
**[[Fedora (operating system)|Fedora 24]]<ref name=insider>{{Cite web|url=https://www.linuxinsider.com/story/84301.html|title=Lumina Adds Luster to Linux Desktop|date=14 February 2017}}</ref>
**[[Gentoo Linux]]{{sfn|Lumina 1.0 release}}
**[[Manjaro Linux]]{{r|insider}}
**[[NixOS]]{{r|insider}}
**[[PCLinuxOS]]{{r|insider}}
**[[Void Linux]]{{sfn|Void Linux}}

==Notes==
{{reflist}}

==References==
{{refbegin}}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.phoronix.com/scan.php?page=news_item&px=Lumina-1.4-Released|title=Lumina 1.4 Desktop Environment Released|last=Larabel|first=Michael|publisher=Phoronix|date=23 November 2017|access-date=13 January 2018}}
*{{cite journal|journal=BSD Magazine|url=https://bsdmag.org/lumina_desktop/|title=Basis Of The Lumina Desktop Environment|last=Moore|first=Ken|date=September 2015|access-date=23 November 2016}}
*{{cite web|url=http://news.softpedia.com/news/lumina-1-4-desktop-environment-debuts-with-new-theme-engine-and-zfs-integrations-518678.shtml|title=Lumina 1.4 Desktop Environment debuts with new Theme Engine and ZFS integrations|last=Nestor|first=Marius|publisher=Softpedia|date=22 November 2017|access-date=13 January 2018}}
*{{cite web|url=http://www.zdnet.com/article/hands-on-lumina-desktop-1-0-0/|title=Hands-on: Lumina Desktop 1.0.0|last=Watson|first=J.A.|publisher=[[ZDNet]]|date=18 August 2016|access-date=23 November 2016}}
*{{cite web|url=https://wiki.archlinux.org/index.php/Lumina|title=Lumina|publisher=Arch Linux|access-date=23 November 2016|ref={{harvid|Arch Linux}} }}
*{{cite web|url=https://www.freshports.org/x11/lumina/|title=Lumina|publisher=Freshports|access-date=23 November 2016|ref={{harvid|Freshports}} }}
*{{cite web|url=https://lumina-desktop.org/version-1-0-0-released/|title=Version 1.0.0 Released|publisher=Lumina Desktop Environment project|access-date=23 November 2016|ref={{harvid|Lumina 1.0 release}}|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918010108/https://lumina-desktop.org/version-1-0-0-released/|archive-date=18 September 2016|url-status=dead}}
*{{cite web|url=https://lumina-desktop.org/faq/|title=Lumina Desktop FAQ/Status Update|publisher=Lumina Desktop Environment project|access-date=23 November 2016|ref={{harvid|Lumina FAQ}} }}
*{{cite web|url=https://lumina-desktop.org/|title=Lumina Desktop Environment|publisher=Lumina Desktop Environment project|access-date=23 November 2016|ref={{harvid|Lumina Desktop Environment homepage}} }}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*[https://lumina-desktop.org/ Lumina Desktop Environment]
*{{cite web|url=http://blog.pcbsd.org/2014/04/quick-lumina-desktop-faq/|title=Quick Lumina Desktop FAQ|last=Moore|first=Ken|date=26 April 2014|access-date=23 November 2016}}
*{{github|trueos/lumina}}
{{Desktop environments and window managers for X11 and Wayland}}

[[Category:Free desktop environments]]

The Freedom Fighter's Manual

2023-02-13T22:48:04Z

Eugrus: /* External links */ replacing a page gone 404 with archive

{{italic title}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2013}}
[[Image:Freedom Fighters Manual Cover.jpg|200px|right|thumb|Front cover of the manual]]

'''''The Freedom Fighter's Manual''''' is a fifteen-page [[propaganda]] booklet that was manufactured by the United States [[Central Intelligence Agency]] and [[airdrop]]ped over [[Nicaragua]] in 1983, with the stated goal of providing a "Practical guide to liberating Nicaragua from oppression and misery by paralyzing the [[military-industrial complex]] of the traitorous [[marxist]] state". The manual explains several methods by which the average citizen could cause [[civil disorder]].<ref>{{cite book|last1=Blum|first1=William| authorlink =William Blum|title=[[Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II|Killing Hope: US Military and CIA Interventions Since World War II - Updated Edition]]|date=September 2014|publisher=[[Zed Books]]|isbn=9781783601776|page=295}}</ref> A [[Contras|Contra]] fighter gave the manual to a U.S. reporter in [[Honduras]] in 1984.<ref>{{cite news|title=Cold War Freedom Fighter's Manual |publisher=[[CNN]] |url=http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/18/documents/cia.ops/ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060210134317/http://www.cnn.com/SPECIALS/cold.war/episodes/18/documents/cia.ops/ |archivedate=February 10, 2006 |url-status=unfit }}</ref>

== Contents ==
[[Image:FreedomFightersManual.jpg|right|thumb|A page of the manual showing a man unnecessarily calling in sick to work, diminishing productivity, especially in the [[nationalized]] industries of a [[Communist country]].]]

The publication describes many ways in which the average citizen could disrupt the everyday workings of the government. It begins with actions that require little to no risk at all, such as hiding or destroying important tools, calling in sick for work, and leaving lights and faucets on. It then progresses to instruct people to steal food from the government, release livestock from farming [[cooperative]]s, make false reports of fires and crimes, and sever telephone lines. Four pages are devoted to disabling vehicles. By the end of the pamphlet, there are detailed diagrams showing how to make [[Molotov cocktail]]s and use them to [[Firebombing|firebomb]] police stations.

== See also ==
* [[CIA activities in Nicaragua]]
* [[Iran–Contra affair]]

* [[Oliver North]]
* ''[[Nicaragua v. United States]]''
* [[Psychological warfare]]
* [[Psychological Operations in Guerrilla Warfare]]
* [[U.S. Army and CIA interrogation manuals]]
* [[U.S. Army Field Manual 30-31B]]
* [[United States involvement in regime change]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* ''[https://archive.org/details/freedomfightersm00unit The Freedom Fighter's Manual (Full Copy in Spanish with English Translation)]''
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20160128144318/http://propagandahistory.ru/2288/Rukovodstvo-dlya-bortsa-za-svobodu--Posobie-TSRU-dlya-protivnikov-sandinistov-v-Nikaragua/ The Freedom Fighter's Manual (Copy in Russian Translation)]
*[http://www.nicaragua.com/blog/the-freedom-fighters-manual-battling-communist-rule The Freedom Fighter's Manual - battling communist rule], nicaragua.com
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20121026104614/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,926864-1,00.html How to "Neutralize" the Enemy] by Evan Thomas, Ross H. Munro, and Martin Casey in [[Time magazine]], October 29, 1984

{{DEFAULTSORT:Freedom Fighter's Manual}}
[[Category:Central Intelligence Agency publications]]
[[Category:Contras]]
[[Category:Guerrilla warfare handbooks and manuals]]
[[Category:1983 non-fiction books]]
[[Category:Nicaragua–United States relations]]
[[Category:American propaganda during the Cold War]]
[[Category:Nicaraguan Revolution]]

J. B. Priestley

2023-02-08T19:23:07Z

Eugrus: /* Selected plays */

{{Other people|similarly|Priestley (disambiguation)}}
{{short description|English writer (1894–1984)}}
{{more citations needed|date=January 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}

{{Infobox writer
| image = J B Priestley at work in his study, 1940. (7893553148).jpg
| caption = J. B. Priestley at work in the study at his home in Highgate, London
| pseudonym =
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1894|9|13|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Manningham, Bradford]], [[West Riding of Yorkshire]], England
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1984|8|14|1894|9|13|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Alveston, Warwickshire]], England
| occupation = {{hlist|Novelist|playwright|screenwriter|broadcaster|commentator}}
| period = [[20th century in literature|20th century]]
| genre =
| subject =
| movement =
| signature =
| website = {{URL|jbpriestley.co.uk}}
| influences =
| influenced =
| honorific_suffix = {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|OM}}
| spouse = {{plain list|
* {{marriage|Pat Tempest|1921|1925|reason=d.}}
* {{marriage|Jane Wyndham-Lewis|1925|1953|reason=divorce}}
* {{marriage|[[Jacquetta Hawkes]]|1953}} }}
| children = 5, including [[Sylvia Goaman|Sylvia]], [[Mary Priestley|Mary]] & [[Tom Priestley|Tom]]
}}
'''John Boynton Priestley''' {{post-nominals|country=GBR|size=100%|OM}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|r|iː|s|t|l|i}}; 13 September 1894 – 14 August 1984) was an English novelist, playwright, screenwriter, broadcaster and social commentator.<ref>{{cite web|title=J B Priestley|url=https://www.bl.uk/people/j-b-priestley|access-date=13 May 2021|website=The British Library}}</ref>

His [[Yorkshire]] background is reflected in much of his fiction, notably in ''[[The Good Companions]]'' (1929), which first brought him to wide public notice. Many of his plays are structured around a [[time slip]], and he went on to develop a new theory of time, with different dimensions that link past, present and future.

In 1940 he broadcast a series of short [[propaganda]] radio talks, which were credited with strengthening civilian morale during the [[Battle of Britain]]. In the following years his left-wing beliefs brought him into conflict with the government and influenced the development of the [[Welfare state in the United Kingdom|welfare state]].

== Early life ==
Priestley was born on 13 September 1894 at 34 Mannheim Road, [[Manningham, Bradford|Manningham]], which he described as an "extremely respectable" suburb of [[Bradford]].<ref>{{cite book|last=Cook|first=Judith|author-link=Judith Cook|title=Priestley|year=1997|publisher=Bloomsbury|location=London|isbn=0-7475-3508-6|page=5|chapter=Beginnings and Childhood}}</ref> His father, Jonathan Priestley (1868–1924), was a headmaster and his mother, Emma (''née'' Holt; 1865–1896), was a mill girl.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://jbpriestleysociety.com/biography/|title=Biography|accessdate=11 September 2022}}</ref> She died when Priestley was just two years old then his father remarried four years later.<ref name="konkle">Lincoln Konkle, ''J. B. Priestley'', in British Playwrights, 1880–1956: A Research and Production Sourcebook, by William W. Demastes, Katherine E. Kelly; [[Greenwood Publishing Group|Greenwood Press]], 1996</ref> Priestley was educated at [[Belle Vue Boys' School|Belle Vue Grammar School]], which he left at 16 to work as a junior clerk at Helm & Co., a wool firm in the [[Swan Arcade, Bradford|Swan Arcade]]. During his years at Helm & Co. (1910–1914) he started writing at night and had articles published in local and London newspapers. He was to draw on memories of Bradford in many of the works he wrote after he had moved south, including ''[[Bright Day]]'' and ''[[When We Are Married]]''. As an old man he deplored the destruction by developers of [[Victorian architecture|Victorian]] buildings in Bradford such as the Swan Arcade, where he had his first job.

Priestley served in the British army during the [[First World War]], volunteering for the [[Duke of Wellington's Regiment]] on 7 September 1914 and being posted to the 10th Battalion in France as a Lance-Corporal on 26 August 1915. He was badly wounded in June 1916 when he was buried alive by a trench mortar so he spent many months in military hospitals and convalescent establishments and on 26 January 1918 was commissioned as an officer in the [[Devonshire Regiment]] and posted back to France in the late summer. As he describes in his literary reminiscences, ''Margin Released'', he suffered from the effects of poison gas and then supervised German prisoners of war before being demobilised in early 1919.

After his military service Priestley received a university education at [[Trinity Hall, Cambridge]].<ref>{{cite web|date=16 August 2019|title=JB Priestley, grand old grumbler, dies at 89 – archive, 16 August 1984|url=http://www.theguardian.com/stage/2019/aug/16/jb-priestley-grand-old-grumbler-dies-1984|access-date=13 May 2021|website=The Guardian}}</ref> By the age of 30 he had established a reputation as an essayist and critic. His novel ''[[Benighted (novel)|Benighted]]'' (1927) was adapted into the [[James Whale]] film ''[[The Old Dark House (1932 film)|The Old Dark House]]'' (1932); the novel was published under the film's name in the United States.

== Career ==
Priestley's first major success came with a novel, ''[[The Good Companions]]'' (1929), which earned him the [[James Tait Black Memorial Prize]] for fiction and made him a national figure. His next novel, ''[[Angel Pavement]]'' (1930), further established him as a successful novelist. However some critics were less than complimentary about his work and Priestley threatened legal action against [[Graham Greene]] for what he took to be a defamatory portrait of him in the novel ''[[Stamboul Train]]'' (1932).

In 1934 he published the travelogue ''[[English Journey]]'', an account of what he saw and heard while travelling through the country in the depths of the [[Great Depression in the United Kingdom|Great Depression]].<ref>{{cite book | last=Marr | first=Andrew | author-link=Andrew Marr | title=A History of Modern Britain | year=2008 | page=[https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernb0000marr/page/ xxii] | publisher=Macmillan | isbn=978-0-330-43983-1 | url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmodernb0000marr/page/ }}</ref>

Priestley is today seen as having a prejudice against the Irish,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/irish-butt-of-english-racism-for-more-than-eight-centuries-1342976.html|title=Irish butt of English racism for more than eight centuries|website=[[Independent.co.uk]]|date=23 October 2011}}</ref><ref name="Fagge2011">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNpNtZAB0yoC&pg=PA29|title=The Vision of J.B. Priestley|date=15 December 2011|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1-4411-0480-9|pages=29–|author=Roger Fagge}}</ref><ref name="Holmes2015">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cdq9CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA149|title=John Bull's Island: Immigration and British Society, 1871–1971|date=16 October 2015|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-38273-7|pages=149–|author=Colin Holmes}}</ref> as is shown in ''English Journey'': "A great many speeches have been made and books written on the subject of what England has done to Ireland... I should be interested to hear a speech and read a book or two on the subject of what Ireland has done to England... if we do have an [[Irish Republic]] as our neighbour, and it is found possible to return her exiled citizens, what a grand clearance there will be in all the western ports, from the Clyde to Cardiff, what a fine exit of ignorance and dirt and drunkenness and disease."<ref>J. B. Priestley, ''English Journey'' (London: William Heinemann, 1934), pp. 248-9</ref>

He moved into a new genre and became equally well known as a [[dramatist]]. ''[[Dangerous Corner]]'' (1932) was the first of many plays that would enthral West End theatre audiences. His best-known play is ''[[An Inspector Calls]]'' (1945). His plays are more varied in tone than the novels, several being influenced by [[J. W. Dunne]]'s theory of time, which plays a part in the plots of ''Dangerous Corner'' (1932) and ''[[Time and the Conways]]''.

In 1940 Priestley wrote an essay for ''[[Horizon (magazine)|Horizon]]'' magazine in which he criticised [[George Bernard Shaw]] for his support of [[Joseph Stalin|Stalin]]: "Shaw presumes that his friend Stalin has everything under control. Well, Stalin may have made special arrangements to see that Shaw comes to no harm, but the rest of us in Western Europe do not feel quite so sure of our fate, especially those of us who do not share Shaw's curious admiration for dictators."<ref>J. B. Priestley, "The War – And After", in ''Horizon'', January 1940. Reprinted in Andrew Sinclair, ''War Decade: An Anthology of the 1940s'', Hamish Hamilton, 1989. {{ISBN|0241125677}} (p. 19).</ref>

During the [[Second World War]] he was a regular broadcaster on the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]]. The ''Postscript'', broadcast on Sunday night in 1940 and again in 1941, drew peak audiences of 16 million; only [[Winston Churchill|Churchill]] was more popular with listeners. [[Graham Greene]] wrote that Priestley "became in the months after Dunkirk a leader second only in importance to Mr Churchill. And he gave us what our other leaders have always failed to give us – an ideology."<ref>Cited in {{cite book |title=The Road To 1945: British Politics and the Second World War |last=Addison |first=Paul |publisher=Random House |year=2011|isbn=978-1-4464-2421-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C2hit1s8B04C&q=priestley}}</ref> But his talks were cancelled.<ref>{{cite book|title=Revisiting the Welfare State |series=Introducing Social Policy |last=Page |first=Robert M. |publisher=McGraw-Hill Education (UK) |year=2007 |page=10 |isbn=978-0-335-23498-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Os5EBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA10}}</ref> It was thought that this was the effect of complaints from Churchill that they were too left-wing; however in 2015 Priestley's son said in a talk on the latest book being published about his father's life that it was in fact Churchill's Cabinet that brought about the cancellation by supplying negative reports on the broadcasts to Churchill.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://cheltenhamfestivals.com/whats_on/event_detail.html?id=2545 |title=? |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915121708/http://cheltenhamfestivals.com/whats_on/event_detail.html?id=2545 |archive-date=15 September 2008 }}</ref><ref name="biography">{{cite news|title=Priestley war letters published |publisher= BBC News website |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/7655113.stm |access-date=10 June 2008 | date=6 October 2008}}</ref>

Priestley chaired the [[1941 Committee]] and in 1942 he was a cofounder of the socialist [[Common Wealth Party]]. The political content of his broadcasts and his hopes of a new and different Britain after the war influenced the politics of the period and helped the [[Labour Party (UK)|Labour Party]] gain its landslide victory in the [[1945 United Kingdom general election|1945 general election]]. Priestley himself, however, was distrustful of the state and dogma, though he did stand for the [[Cambridge University (UK Parliament constituency)|Cambridge University]] constituency in 1945.

Priestley's name was on [[Orwell's list]], a list of people that George Orwell prepared in March 1949 for the [[Information Research Department]] (IRD), a propaganda unit set up at the [[Foreign Office]] by the Labour government. Orwell considered or suspected these people to have pro-communist leanings and therefore to be unsuitable to write for the IRD.<ref>{{cite news|title=Blair's babe Did love turn Orwell into a government stooge? |first=John |last=Ezard |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |date=21 June 2003 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2003/jun/21/books.artsandhumanities |access-date=30 December 2008}}</ref>

He was a founding member of the [[Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament]] in 1958.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.theguardian.com/stage/2018/jun/17/jb-priestley-memoir-insight-vanities-friendships|title=Life with JB Priestley, by the woman he trusted most of all|date=17 June 2018|website=The Guardian|accessdate= 15 October 2022}}</ref>

In 1960 Priestley published ''Literature and Western Man'', a 500-page survey of [[Western literature]] in all its genres from the second half of the 15th century to the present. (The last author discussed was [[Thomas Wolfe]].)

His interest in the problem of time led him to publish an extended essay in 1964 under the title of ''Man and Time''. (Aldus published this as a companion to [[Carl Jung]]'s ''[[Man and His Symbols]]''.) In the book he explored in depth various theories and beliefs about time as well as his own research and unique conclusions, including an analysis of the phenomenon of [[precognitive dreams|precognitive dreaming]], based in part on a broad sampling of experiences gathered from the British public, who responded enthusiastically to a televised appeal he made while being interviewed in 1963 on the BBC programme ''[[Monitor (BBC TV)|Monitor]]''.

[[File:NMM Priestley 01.jpg|thumb|right|Statue outside the National Media Museum]]
The [[University of Bradford]] awarded Priestley the title of honorary [[Doctor of Letters]] in 1970 and he was awarded the [[Freedom of the City]] of Bradford in 1973. His connections with the city were also marked by the naming of the J. B. Priestley Library at the University of Bradford, which he officially opened in 1975,<ref>[http://www.bradford.ac.uk/library/special-collections/collections/j-b-priestley-archive/ J. B. Priestley Archive] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130806101809/http://www.bradford.ac.uk/library/special-collections/collections/j-b-priestley-archive/ |date=6 August 2013 }}. University of Bradford. Retrieved 16 February 2016.</ref> and by the larger-than-life statue of him, commissioned by the [[Bradford City Council]] after his death and which now stands in front of the [[National Media Museum]].<ref>[https://www.bbc.co.uk/bradford/content/articles/2008/09/26/priestley_lost_city_reaction_feature.shtml A "sentimental journey"? Priestley's Lost City]. bbc.co.uk (26 September 2008). Retrieved 2 May 2012.</ref>

== Personal life ==
Priestley had a deep love for classical music, especially [[chamber music]]. This love is reflected in a number of Priestley's works, notably his own favourite novel, ''Bright Day'' (Heinemann, 1946). His book ''Trumpets Over the Sea'' is subtitled "a rambling and egotistical account of the London Symphony Orchestra's engagement at Daytona Beach, Florida, in July–August 1967".<ref>{{cite book|last1=Fagge|first1=Roger|title=The Vision of J.B. Priestley|date=2011|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-1-4411-6379-0|page=Note 9 to Chapter 6|no-pp=yes|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_z5o6hPsNLsC&q=Priestley+Trumpets&pg=PT120}}</ref>

In 1941 he played an important part in organising and supporting a fund-raising campaign on behalf of the [[London Philharmonic Orchestra]], which was struggling to establish itself as a self-governing body after the withdrawal of Sir [[Thomas Beecham]]. In 1949 the opera ''[[The Olympians]]'' by [[Arthur Bliss]], to a libretto by Priestley, was premiered.

Priestley snubbed the chance to become a [[life peer]] in 1965 and also declined appointment as a [[Companion of Honour]] in 1969.<ref>{{cite press release|title=Individuals, now deceased, who refused honours between 1951 and 1999|publisher=[[Cabinet Office]]|date=25 January 2012|url=https://update.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/sites/default/files/resources/document2012-01-24-075439.pdf|access-date=27 January 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20120404180350/https%3A//update.cabinetoffice.gov.uk/sites/default/files/resources/document2012%2D01%2D24%2D075439.pdf|archive-date=4 April 2012}}</ref> But he did become a member of the [[Order of Merit]] in 1977. He also served as a British delegate to [[UNESCO]] conferences.

=== Marriages ===
[[File:In The Grove, Highgate - geograph.org.uk - 1834159.jpg|thumb|[[3, The Grove, Highgate|3 The Grove]]]]
Priestley was married three times. He also had a number of affairs, including a serious relationship with the actress [[Peggy Ashcroft]]. Writing in 1972, Priestley described himself as "lusty" and as one who has "enjoyed the physical relations with the sexes{{nbsp}}[...] without the feelings of guilt which seems to disturb some of my distinguished colleagues".<ref name=":0">{{cite ODNB|title=Priestley, John Boynton (1894–1984), writer {{!}} Oxford Dictionary of National Biography|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/31565|year=2004}}</ref>

In 1921 Priestley married Emily "Pat" Tempest, a music-loving Bradford librarian. Two daughters were born: Barbara (later known as the architect Barbara Wykeham)<ref>{{cite news|title= Barbara Wykeham |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1521646/Barbara-Wykeham.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1521646/Barbara-Wykeham.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=15 August 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref> in 1923 and Sylvia (a designer known as [[Sylvia Goaman]] following her marriage to [[Michael Goaman]])<ref>{{cite news|title= Sylvia Goaman |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1527258/Sylvia-Goaman.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/obituaries/1527258/Sylvia-Goaman.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |access-date=15 August 2018}}{{cbignore}}</ref> in 1924. In 1925, his wife died of cancer.<ref>[http://unitedagents.co.uk/jb-priestley-estate JB Priestley (estate)]. Unitedagents.co.uk. Retrieved 2 May 2012.</ref>

In September 1926 Priestley married Jane Wyndham-Lewis (ex-wife of the one-time '[[Beachcomber (pen name)|Beachcomber]]' columnist [[D. B. Wyndham-Lewis]], no relation to the artist [[Wyndham Lewis]]); they had two daughters (including music therapist [[Mary Priestley]], conceived in 1924 while Jane was still married to D. B. Wyndham-Lewis) and one son, the film editor [[Tom Priestley]].<ref name=":0" /> During the [[World War II|Second World War]] Jane ran several residential nurseries for evacuated mothers and their children, many of whom had come from poor districts.<ref>Women's Group on Public Welfare. ''The Neglected Child and His Family''. Oxford University Press: London, 1948, p. x.</ref> For much of their married life they lived at [[3, The Grove, Highgate|3, The Grove]] in [[Highgate]], formerly the home of the poet [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Richardson |first1=John |title=Highgate: Its history since the Fifteeenth Century |date=1983 |publisher=Eyre and Spottiswoode |isbn=0-9503656-4-5}}</ref>

In 1953 Priestley was divorced by his second wife and then married the archaeologist and writer [[Jacquetta Hawkes]], with whom he collaborated on the play ''Dragon's Mouth''.<ref name="autogenerated1">{{cite web|title= Biography |publisher= J. B. Priestley website |url= http://www.jbpriestley.co.uk/bio.php |access-date=28 July 2007 |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070702084801/http://www.jbpriestley.co.uk/bio.php |archive-date = 2 July 2007}}</ref> The couple lived at [[Alveston, Warwickshire]], near [[Stratford-upon-Avon]], later in his life.

[[File:St. Michael and All Angels Church, Hubberholme (12th February 2013) 004.JPG|thumb|right|Priestley's ashes were buried at St Michael and All Angels' Church in [[Hubberholme]] in the [[Yorkshire Dales National Park]].]]

=== Death ===
Priestley died of [[pneumonia]] on 14 August 1984, a month short of his ninetieth birthday.{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}

His ashes were buried in [[Hubberholme]] churchyard at the head of [[Wharfedale]] in Yorkshire.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.yorkshire-dales.com/hubberholme-church.html|title=Hubberholme Church|website=www.yorkshire-dales.co|access-date=22 April 2020}}</ref> The exact location of his ashes has never been made public and was known only to the three people present. A plaque in the church just states that his ashes are buried 'nearby'. Three photographs exist showing the ashes being interred, taken by Dr Brian Hoyle Thompson. He and his wife were two of the three people present. The brass plate on the box containing the ashes reads J. B. Priestley and can be seen clearly in one of the pictures.{{citation needed|date=July 2019}}

== Archives ==
Priestley began placing his papers at the [[Harry Ransom Center]] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]] in 1960, with additions being made throughout his lifetime. The Center has continued to add to the collection through gifts and purchases when possible. The collection comprises 23 boxes {{asof|2016|lc=y}}, including original manuscripts for many of his works and an extensive series of correspondence.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid=01211|title=J. B. Priestley: An Inventory of His Collection at the Harry Ransom Center|website=norman.hrc.utexas.edu|access-date=3 November 2017}}</ref>

The [[University of Bradford#Library|University of Bradford Library]] holds the J. B. Priestley Archive as part of their Special Collections. The collection includes scripts, journal articles, lectures, press cuttings, correspondence, photographs and objects such as Priestley's iconic pipe. Most of the material in this collection was donated by the Priestley Estate.<ref>{{cite web|title=J. B. Priestley Archive - Special Collections|url=https://www.bradford.ac.uk/library/special-collections/collections/collections/j-b-priestley-archive/|access-date=13 October 2021|website=University of Bradford}}</ref>

== Bibliography ==

=== Novels ===
*''Adam in Moonshine'' (1927)
*''[[Benighted (novel)|Benighted]]'' (1927) (filmed as ''The Old Dark House'')
*''[[The Good Companions]]'' (1929)
*''[[Angel Pavement]]'' (1930)
*''Faraway'' (1932)
*''Wonder Hero'' (1933)
*''Albert Goes Through'' (1933)
*''They Walk in the City'' (1936)
*''The Doomsday Men'' (1937)
*''[[Let the People Sing (novel)|Let the People Sing]]'' (1939)
*''[[Blackout in Gretley]]'' (1942)
*''[[Daylight on Saturday]]'' (1943)
*''Three Men in New Suits'' (1945)
*''[[Bright Day]]'' (1946)
*''[[Jenny Villiers]]'' (1947)
*''[[Festival at Farbridge]]'' (1951)
*''Low Notes on a High Level'' (1954)
*''[[The Magicians (Priestley novel)|The Magicians]]'' (1954)
*''Saturn over the Water'' (1961)
*''The Thirty-First of June'' (1961)
*''[[Salt Is Leaving]]'' (1961)
*''[[The Shapes of Sleep]]'' (1962)
*''Sir Michael and Sir George'' (1964)
*''[[Lost Empires (novel)|Lost Empires]]'' (1965)
*''[[It's an Old Country]]'' (1967)
*''The Image Men Vol. 1: Out of Town'' (1968)
*''The Image Men Vol. 2: London End'' (1968)
*''[[Found, Lost, Found]]'' (1976)

=== Other fiction ===
*''Farthing Hall'' (1929) (Novel written in collaboration with [[Hugh Walpole]])
*''The Town Major of Miraucourt'' (1930) (Short story published in a limited edition of 525 copies)
*''I'll Tell You Everything'' (1932) (Novel written in collaboration with [[Gerald Bullett]])
*''[[The Other Place (Priestley)|The Other Place]]'' (1952) (Short Stories)
*''Snoggle'' (1971) (Novel for children)
*''The Carfitt Crisis'' (1975) (Two novellas and a short story)
; Novelizations by Ruth Mitchell (author of the wartime novel ''The Lost Generation'' and Priestley's sister-in-law by way of his second marriage):
* ''[[Dangerous Corner]]'' (1933), based on the later Broadway draft of the play, with a foreword by Priestley (paperback)
* ''[[Laburnum Grove]]'' (1936), based on the play and subsequent screenplay, published as a hardcover tie-in edition to the film

=== Selected plays ===
{{See also|J. B. Priestley's Time Plays}}
* ''[[The Good Companions (play)|The Good Companions]]'' (1931)
*''[[Dangerous Corner]]'' (1932)
*''[[Laburnum Grove (play)|Laburnum Grove]]'' (1933)
*''[[Eden End]]'' (1934)
*''Cornelius'' (1935)
*''People at Sea'' (1936)
* ''[[Bees on the Boat Deck]]'' (1936)
*''[[Time and the Conways]]'' (1937)
*''[[I Have Been Here Before]]'' (1937)
*''[[When We Are Married]]'' (1938)
*''[[Johnson Over Jordan]]'' (1939)
*''The Long Mirror'' (1940)
*''[[They Came to a City (play)|They Came to a City]]'' (1943)
*''[[An Inspector Calls]]'' (1945)
* ''[[Ever Since Paradise]]'' (1946)
*''[[The Linden Tree]]'' (1947)
*''[[Summer Day's Dream]]'' (1949)
*''Mother's Day'' (1950)
* ''[[The White Countess (play)|The White Countess]]'' (1954)
* ''[[Mr. Kettle and Mrs. Moon]]'' (1955)
* ''[[The Glass Cage (play)|The Glass Cage]]'' (1957)
*''The Thirty-first of June: A Tale of True Love, Enterprise and Progress in the Arthurian and AD-Atomic Ages''
**Novel. December 1961: hardback; {{ISBN|0-434-60326-0}} / {{ISBN|978-0-434-60326-8}} (UK edition); William Heinemann Ltd
**BBC radio dramatisation; one and a half hours
**Novel. 1996: paperback; {{ISBN|0-7493-2281-0}} / {{ISBN|978-0-7493-2281-6}} (UK edition); Mandarin
**''[[31 June]]'' (1978) (TV) Soviet film; aka [[:ru:31 июня (фильм)|31 июня]]
* ''Benighted'' (2016, adapted from his 1928 novel by Duncan Gates)
*''The Roundabout'' (1931)

=== Films ===
*''[[Sing As We Go]]'' (1934)
*''[[The Princess Comes Across]]'' (1936)
*''[[Jamaica Inn (film)|Jamaica Inn]]'' (1939)
*''[[Britain at Bay]]'' (1940, Short)
*''[[The Foreman Went to France]]'' (1942)
*''[[Last Holiday (1950 film)|Last Holiday]]'' (1950, wrote story, screenplay and produced the film)
*''[[An Inspector Calls (1954 film)|An Inspector Calls]]'' (1954)

=== Television work ===
*''[[You Know What People Are]]'' (1955)
*''[[Armchair Theatre]]: Now Let Him Go'' (ABC – 15 September 1957)
*''Doomsday for Dyson'' (Granada – 10 March 1958)
*''[[Out of the Unknown]]: Level Seven'' (BBC2 – 27 October 1966, adaptation of a story by [[Mordecai Roshwald]])
*''[[The Wednesday Play]]: [[The Wednesday Play#Anyone for Tennis?|Anyone for Tennis?]]'' (BBC1 – 25 September 1968)
*''[[Shadows (TV series)|Shadows]]: The Other Window'' (Thames – 15 October 1975, co-written with [[Jacquetta Hawkes]])
*''[[An Inspector Calls]]'' (several versions including BBC - 2015)

=== Literary criticism ===
*''The English Comic Characters'' (1925)
*''The English Novel'' (1927)
*''Literature and Western Man'' (1960)
*''Charles Dickens and his world'' (1969)

=== Social and political works ===
*''[[English Journey]]'' (1934)
*''Out of the people'' (1941)
*''The Secret Dream: an essay on Britain, America and Russia'' (1946)
*''The Arts under Socialism'' (1947)
*''The Prince of Pleasure and his Regency'' (1969)
*''The Edwardians'' (1970)
*'' Victoria's Heyday (1972)
*''The English'' (1973)
*''A Visit to New Zealand'' (1974)

=== Autobiography and essays ===
*''Essays of To-day and Yesterday (1926)
*''Apes and Angels'' (1928)
*''The Balconinny'' (1931)
*''Midnight on the Desert'' (1937)
*''Rain Upon Godshill: A Further Chapter of Autobiography'' (1939)
*''Postscripts'' (1940)
*''Delight'' (1949)
*''Journey Down a Rainbow'' (co-authored with Jacquetta Hawkes, 1955)
*''Margin Released'' (1962)
*''Man and Time'' (1964)
*''The Moments and Other Pieces'' (1966)
*''Over the Long High Wall'' (1972)
*''The Happy Dream'' (Limited edition, 1976)
*''Instead of the Trees'' (1977)

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

'''Other sources'''
* [[Vincent Brome|Brome, Vincent]] (1988). ''J.B. Priestley.'' {{ISBN|0-241-12560-X}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070603075024/http://www.gnbooks.co.uk/books/1905080182.shtml Bright Day: A special collectors' edition, by J.B. Priestley]
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=John Boynton Priestley |sopt=t}}

== External links ==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{Commons category|John Boynton Priestley}}
* [https://jbpriestley.co.uk/ The Official J. B. Priestley website]
* [http://www.jbpriestleysociety.com/ The J. B. Priestley Society]
* [http://norman.hrc.utexas.edu/fasearch/findingAid.cfm?eadid=01211 J. B. Priestley Papers] at the [[Harry Ransom Center]] at the [[University of Texas at Austin]]
* [http://www.spartacus-educational.com/Jpriestley.htm J. B. Priestley biography] at [[Spartacus Educational]]
* [https://www.bradford.ac.uk/library/special-collections/collections/collections/j-b-priestley-archive/ J. B. Priestley Archive] at the [[University of Bradford]]
* [http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/search/people_sub_plays_all?forename=J%20b&surname=PRIESTLEY&job=Author&pid=61&image_view=Yesamp;x=19amp;y=17 Priestley in the Theatre Collection], [[University of Bristol]]
*[http://www.photohistories.com/Photo-Histories/53/john-angersons-english-journey ''John Angerson's English Journey'']. Photographer Angerson retraces J.B. Priestley's footsteps 75 years after publication of Priestley's seminal travelog, ''English Journey''. Article by Graham Harrison for the Photo Histories web site.
*[https://www.britishpathe.com/video/personalities-j-b-priestley 1944 film of Priestley at work] at [[British Pathé]]
* {{Gutenberg author|id=45526}}
* {{isfdb name|1261}}
* {{imdb name}}
* {{LCAuth|n79116394|J. B. Priestley|338|ue}}
* {{20th Century Press Archives|FID=pe/023779}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/dunkirk/14310.shtml BBC Archives – J. B. Priestley's 'Postscript' – radio broadcast from 5 June 1940]
*{{cite book
| last = Wolfe
| first = Graham
| title = Theatre-Fiction in Britain from Henry James to Doris Lessing: Writing in the Wings
| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=jQedDwAAQBAJ
| publisher = Routledge
| year = 2019
|isbn=978-1-00-012436-1}}

{{S-start}}
{{S-off}}
{{s-bef|before = ''New post''}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[Common Wealth Party|Chairman of the Common Wealth Party]]|years = 1942}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Richard Acland]]}}
{{S-end}}

{{J. B. Priestley}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Priestley, J. B.}}
[[Category:1894 births]]
[[Category:1984 deaths]]
[[Category:Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge]]
[[Category:English anti–nuclear weapons activists]]
[[Category:British Army personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament activists]]
[[Category:Common Wealth Party politicians]]
[[Category:Duke of Wellington's Regiment soldiers]]
[[Category:Devonshire Regiment officers]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Bradford]]
[[Category:English opera librettists]]
[[Category:English humorists]]
[[Category:English socialists]]
[[Category:Members of the Order of Merit]]
[[Category:Writers from Bradford]]
[[Category:James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients]]
[[Category:English male novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century English novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century English dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:British male dramatists and playwrights]]
[[Category:People educated at Belle Vue Boys' Grammar School, Bradford]]
[[Category:Philosophers of time]]
[[Category:20th-century English male writers]]
[[Category:Writers from Yorkshire]]
[[Category:Common Wealth Party]]
[[Category:Presidents of the English Centre of PEN]]

Iskra-1030

2022-12-25T16:20:36Z

Eugrus: obviously the localizations meant Undid revision 1129467785 by Eugrus (talk)

{{more citations needed|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox information appliance
| name = Iskra 1030
| title =
| aka =
| logo =
| image = ИСКРА 1030.11.jpg
| caption = Искра 1030.11
| developer = Elektronmash in [[Leningrad]]
| manufacturer = Iskra factory in [[Smolensk]] and Shchyotmash factory in [[Kursk]]
| family =
| type =
| generation =
| release date = {{Start date and age|1989}}
| retail availability =
| lifespan =
| price =
| discontinued =
| units sold =
| units shipped =
| media =
| os = ADOS (Russian DOS, compatible with MS-DOS/PC DOS 2.x and 3.x), [[MS-DOS]], [[CP/M-86]]
| power =
| soc =
| cpu = [[K1810VM86]] (Intel [[8086]] clone)
| CPUspeed = 4.77 MHz
| memory = 640 KB
| storage = Hard disk drive: 10 or 20 MB
| memory card = Floppy disk drive: 1×720 KB
| display = Color CGA compatible
| graphics =
| sound =
| input =
| controllers =
| camera =
| touchpad =
| connectivity =
| currentfw =
| platform =
| service =
| dimensions =
| weight =
| topgame =
| compatibility=
| predecessor =
| successor =
| related =
| website =
}}
The '''Iskra 1030''' ({{lang-ru|Искра 1030}}) was an [[Intel 8086]] compatible personal computer produced in the [[USSR]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Balodis |first=Rihards |last2=Borzovs |first2=Juris |last3=Opmane |first3=Inara |last4=Skuja |first4=Andrejs |last5=Ziemele |first5=Evija |title=Research Directions Profile in the Computing Museum of the Institute of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Latvia (IMCS) |url=https://hal.inria.fr/hal-01564644/document |access-date=25 June 2022}}</ref> It was designed by Elektronmash ({{lang-ru|ЛНПО «Электронмаш»}}) in [[Leningrad]]. The main manufacturers were the Iskra factory ({{lang-ru|Искра}}) in [[Smolensk]] and the Shchyotmash factory ({{lang-ru|Счётмаш}}) in [[Kursk]]. The model line consisted of Iskra 1030.11 (basic), Iskra 1030М (modified), Iskra 1031, and Iskra 3104.

== Specification ==
The Iskra 1030M produced from 1989 comprised:

* '''CPU:''' [[K1810VM86]] ({{lang-ru|КР1810ВМ86}}, Intel [[8086]] clone), 4.77 MHz
* '''RAM:''' 640 KB
* '''Display:''' color CGA compatible
* '''Floppy disk drive:''' 1×720 KB
* '''Hard disk drive:''' 20 MB{{citation needed|date=September 2013|reason=Some sources state 10 rather than 20 MB}}
* '''Operating system:''' ADOS ({{lang-ru|АДОС}}; Russian DOS, compatible with MS-DOS/PC DOS 2.x and 3.x), [[MS-DOS]], [[CP/M-86]]
* '''Release Date:''' 1989

<gallery>
I1030m.jpg|Искра 1030М
I1031.jpg|Искра 1031
</gallery>

== Software ==
The computer was shipped with ADOS, a Russian version of MS-DOS/PC DOS 2.x and 3.x, a [[BASIC]] interpreter, the special language and interpreter for accounting calculations YAMB ({{lang-ru|ЯМБ, Язык машин бухгалтерских}}), the text editor R1. The operating system used the [[main code page (Russian)|main code page]], hardwired into the display ROM; it was compatible neither with [[CP 866]] nor [[CP 855]], although partially with [[ISO/IEC 8859-5]].

== See also ==
* [[ES PEVM]]

== External links ==
* Sergei Frolov's Soviet Digital Electronics Museum
** [http://www.leningrad.su/museum/show_calc.php?n=333&lang=0&test=0 Iskra 1030.11]
** [http://www.leningrad.su/museum/show_calc.php?n=112&lang=0&test=0 Iskra 1030M]
** [http://www.leningrad.su/museum/show_calc.php?n=418&lang=0&test=0 Iskra 1031]
* {{in lang|ru}} [http://ru.pc-history.com/desktoptower/pevm-personalnye-evm/pevm-iskra Iskra 1030 (PC Museum)]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{List of Soviet computer systems}}

[[Category:Personal computers]]
[[Category:Soviet computer systems]]

Iskra-1030

2022-12-25T14:38:13Z

Eugrus: /* Software */ not a "version" when no code from the original

{{more citations needed|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox information appliance
| name = Iskra 1030
| title =
| aka =
| logo =
| image = ИСКРА 1030.11.jpg
| caption = Искра 1030.11
| developer = Elektronmash in [[Leningrad]]
| manufacturer = Iskra factory in [[Smolensk]] and Shchyotmash factory in [[Kursk]]
| family =
| type =
| generation =
| release date = {{Start date and age|1989}}
| retail availability =
| lifespan =
| price =
| discontinued =
| units sold =
| units shipped =
| media =
| os = ADOS (Russian DOS, compatible with MS-DOS/PC DOS 2.x and 3.x), [[MS-DOS]], [[CP/M-86]]
| power =
| soc =
| cpu = [[K1810VM86]] (Intel [[8086]] clone)
| CPUspeed = 4.77 MHz
| memory = 640 KB
| storage = Hard disk drive: 10 or 20 MB
| memory card = Floppy disk drive: 1×720 KB
| display = Color CGA compatible
| graphics =
| sound =
| input =
| controllers =
| camera =
| touchpad =
| connectivity =
| currentfw =
| platform =
| service =
| dimensions =
| weight =
| topgame =
| compatibility=
| predecessor =
| successor =
| related =
| website =
}}
The '''Iskra 1030''' ({{lang-ru|Искра 1030}}) was an [[Intel 8086]] compatible personal computer produced in the [[USSR]].<ref>{{Cite web |last=Balodis |first=Rihards |last2=Borzovs |first2=Juris |last3=Opmane |first3=Inara |last4=Skuja |first4=Andrejs |last5=Ziemele |first5=Evija |title=Research Directions Profile in the Computing Museum of the Institute of Mathematics and Computer Science, University of Latvia (IMCS) |url=https://hal.inria.fr/hal-01564644/document |access-date=25 June 2022}}</ref> It was designed by Elektronmash ({{lang-ru|ЛНПО «Электронмаш»}}) in [[Leningrad]]. The main manufacturers were the Iskra factory ({{lang-ru|Искра}}) in [[Smolensk]] and the Shchyotmash factory ({{lang-ru|Счётмаш}}) in [[Kursk]]. The model line consisted of Iskra 1030.11 (basic), Iskra 1030М (modified), Iskra 1031, and Iskra 3104.

== Specification ==
The Iskra 1030M produced from 1989 comprised:

* '''CPU:''' [[K1810VM86]] ({{lang-ru|КР1810ВМ86}}, Intel [[8086]] clone), 4.77 MHz
* '''RAM:''' 640 KB
* '''Display:''' color CGA compatible
* '''Floppy disk drive:''' 1×720 KB
* '''Hard disk drive:''' 20 MB{{citation needed|date=September 2013|reason=Some sources state 10 rather than 20 MB}}
* '''Operating system:''' ADOS ({{lang-ru|АДОС}}; Russian DOS, compatible with MS-DOS/PC DOS 2.x and 3.x), [[MS-DOS]], [[CP/M-86]]
* '''Release Date:''' 1989

<gallery>
I1030m.jpg|Искра 1030М
I1031.jpg|Искра 1031
</gallery>

== Software ==
The computer was shipped with ADOS, a Russian clone of MS-DOS/PC DOS 2.x and 3.x, a [[BASIC]] interpreter, the special language and interpreter for accounting calculations YAMB ({{lang-ru|ЯМБ, Язык машин бухгалтерских}}), the text editor R1. The operating system used the [[main code page (Russian)|main code page]], hardwired into the display ROM; it was compatible neither with [[CP 866]] nor [[CP 855]], although partially with [[ISO/IEC 8859-5]].

== See also ==
* [[ES PEVM]]

== External links ==
* Sergei Frolov's Soviet Digital Electronics Museum
** [http://www.leningrad.su/museum/show_calc.php?n=333&lang=0&test=0 Iskra 1030.11]
** [http://www.leningrad.su/museum/show_calc.php?n=112&lang=0&test=0 Iskra 1030M]
** [http://www.leningrad.su/museum/show_calc.php?n=418&lang=0&test=0 Iskra 1031]
* {{in lang|ru}} [http://ru.pc-history.com/desktoptower/pevm-personalnye-evm/pevm-iskra Iskra 1030 (PC Museum)]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{List of Soviet computer systems}}

[[Category:Personal computers]]
[[Category:Soviet computer systems]]

Andrew S. Tanenbaum

2022-12-04T19:12:21Z

Eugrus: /* Biography */ He moved to the Netherlands{{when}}

{{Use mdy dates|date=March 2022}}
{{short description|American-Dutch computer scientist (born 1944)}}
{{Infobox scientist
| name = Andy Tanenbaum
| birth_name = Andrew Stuart Tanenbaum
| image = Andrew_S._Tanenbaum_2012.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Tanenbaum in 2012
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1944|03|16}}
| birth_place = [[New York City]], New York, U.S.
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| resting_place =
| resting_place_coordinates = 
| residence = 
| citizenship =
| nationality = Dutch{{citation needed|date=November 2020}} / American
| fields = [[Distributed computing]]<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Bal | first1 = H. E.
| last2 = Steiner | first2 = J. G.
| last3 = Tanenbaum | first3 = A. S.
| doi = 10.1145/72551.72552
| title = Programming languages for distributed computing systems
| journal = ACM Computing Surveys
| volume = 21
| issue = 3
| page = 261
| year = 1989
| hdl = 1871/2587| s2cid = 8028479
| url = https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/1230fcf0-4548-4186-8ac4-0c5a6ac03261
| hdl-access = free
}}</ref><ref name="dspp"/> [[Operating system]]s<ref name="mos"/><ref name="dos"/>
| workplaces =
| alma_mater = [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]] [[University of California, Berkeley]]
| thesis_title = A Study of the Five Minute Oscillations, Supergranulation, and Related Phenomena in the Solar Atmosphere
| thesis_url = http://search.proquest.com/docview/302548423/
| thesis_year = 1971
| doctoral_advisor = [[John M. Wilcox]]
| doctoral_students = [[Henri Bal]] [[Frans Kaashoek]] [[Werner Vogels]]<ref name="vogelsphd">{{cite thesis |degree=PhD |first=Werner|last=Vogels |title=Scalable Cluster Technologies for Mission Critical Enterprise Computing |publisher=Vrije Universiteit |date=2003 |author-link= Werner Vogels|hdl=1871/10357}}</ref>
| known_for = [[MINIX]] [[Microkernel]]s [[Electoral-vote.com]]
| awards =
| signature = 
| signature_alt =
| website = {{URL|http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast}} {{URL|http://www.pearsonhighered.com/tanenbaum}}
| footnotes =
| spouse =
| children =
}}

'''Andrew Stuart Tanenbaum''' (born March 16, 1944), sometimes referred to by the handle '''ast''',<ref name="AndyTanenbaumFirstPost">{{cite newsgroup
|author = A. S. Tanenbaum
|title = LINUX is obsolete
|date = January 29, 1992
|newsgroup = comp.os.minix
|message-id = 12595@star.cs.vu.nl
|url = https://groups.google.com/forum/#!original/comp.os.minix/wlhw16QWltI/XdksCA1TR_QJ
|access-date = November 27, 2006
|archive-url = http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20110122130054/https://groups.google.com/forum/#!original/comp.os.minix/wlhw16QWltI/XdksCA1TR_QJ
|archive-date = January 22, 2011
|url-status = live
}}</ref> is an American-Dutch computer scientist and professor emeritus of [[computer science]] at the [[Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam]] in the [[Netherlands]].<ref>{{OL author|id=OL236786A}}</ref><ref name="dblp">{{DBLP}}</ref>

He is the author of [[MINIX]], a free [[Unix-like]] [[operating system]] for teaching purposes, and has written multiple computer science textbooks regarded as standard texts in the field. He regards his teaching job as his most important work.<ref name=teach>[http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/brown/followup/ 2004 article] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040524092728/http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/brown/followup |date=May 24, 2004 }} about Linux, the Usenet debate, and the [[Alexis de Tocqueville Institution]]</ref> Since 2004 he has operated [[Electoral-vote.com]], a [[website]] dedicated to analysis of polling data in [[federal elections in the United States]].

==Biography==
Tanenbaum was born in [[New York City]] and grew up in suburban [[White Plains, New York]]. He is [[Jewish]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.jewishgen.org/Yizkor/khorostkov/khorostkov.html |title=Khorostkiv, Ukraine |access-date=July 31, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801033036/http://www.jewishgen.org/Yizkor/khorostkov/khorostkov.html |archive-date=August 1, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref> His paternal grandfather was born in [[Khorostkiv]] in the [[Austro-Hungarian empire]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/home/faq.html |title=Andrew S. Tanenbaum's FAQ |access-date=July 31, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170801033802/http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/home/faq.html |archive-date=August 1, 2017 |url-status=live }}</ref>

He received his [[Bachelor of Science]] degree in [[physics]] from [[Massachusetts Institute of Technology|MIT]] in 1965 and his PhD degree in astrophysics from the [[University of California, Berkeley]] in 1971. Tanenbaum also served as a lobbyist for the [[Sierra Club]].<ref name="AP">{{cite news
|url=http://www.informationweek.com/news/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=51201889
|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130126102131/http://www.informationweek.com/news/showArticle.jhtml?articleID=51201889
|url-status=dead
|archive-date=January 26, 2013
|title=Man Comes Forward As Web Site Originator
|date=November 1, 2004
|agency=Associated Press
}}</ref>{{Full citation needed|date=August 2014}}

He moved to the Netherlands{{when}} to live with his wife, who is Dutch, but he retains his [[Citizenship in the United States|United States citizenship]]. He teaches courses on Computer Organization and Operating Systems and supervises the work of [[PhD candidacy|PhD candidates]] at the [[VU University Amsterdam]]. On July 9, 2014, he announced his retirement.<ref>[http://www.cs.vu.nl/tanenbaum Retirement of Prof. Andy Tanenbaum] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140712010829/http://www.cs.vu.nl/tanenbaum |date=July 12, 2014 }}</ref>

==Teaching==

===Books===
Tanenbaum's textbooks on computer science include:
* ''Structured Computer Organization''<ref name="sco">{{cite book |author =Tanenbaum, Andrew S. |title=Structured computer organization |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-13-148521-1 }}</ref> (1976)
* ''Computer Networks,'' co-authored with David J. Wetherall and Nickolas Feamster<ref name="cn">{{cite book|author1=David Wetherall|title=Computer networks|author2=Tanenbaum, Andrew S.|last3=Nickolas Feamster|publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall|year=2019|isbn=978-0-13-540800-1|location=Upper Saddle River, NJ}}</ref> (1981)
* ''[[Operating Systems: Design and Implementation]],'' co-authored with Albert Woodhull<ref>{{cite book |author1=Albert S Woodhull |author2=Tanenbaum, Andrew S. |title=Operating systems: design and implementation |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-13-142938-3 }}</ref> (1987)
* ''[[Modern Operating Systems]]''<ref name="mos">{{cite book |author =Tanenbaum, Andrew S. |title=Modern operating systems |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-13-600663-3 }}</ref> (1992)
* ''Distributed Operating Systems''<ref name="dos">{{cite book |author=Tanenbaum, Andrew S. |title=Distributed operating systems |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, N.J |year=1995 |isbn=978-0-13-219908-7 |url=https://archive.org/details/unset0000unse_h1q3 }}</ref> (1994)
* ''Distributed Systems: Principles and Paradigms,'' co-authored with Maarten van Steen<ref name="dspp">{{cite book |author1=Steen, Maarten van |author2=Tanenbaum, Andrew S. |title=Distributed systems: principles and paradigms |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |location=Upper Saddle River, NJ |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-13-239227-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/distributedsyste00tane }}</ref> (2001)

His book, ''Operating Systems: Design and Implementation'' and [[MINIX]] were [[Linus Torvalds]]' inspiration for the [[Linux]] kernel. In his autobiography ''[[Just for Fun (book)|Just for Fun]]'', Torvalds describes it as "the book that launched me to new heights".

His books have been translated into many languages including Arabic, Basque, Bulgarian, Chinese, Dutch, French, German, Greek, Hebrew, Hungarian, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Macedonian, Mexican Spanish, Persian, Polish, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Serbian, and Spanish.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/home/faq.html |title=Andrew S. Tanenbaum's FAQ |access-date=November 30, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206085906/http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/home/faq.html |archive-date=December 6, 2008 |url-status=live }}</ref> They have appeared in over 175 editions and are used at universities around the world.<ref>[http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/publications Andrew S. Tanenbaum - Publications] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509132250/http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/publications |date=May 9, 2007 }}</ref>

===Doctoral students===
Tanenbaum has had a number of [[PhD]] students who themselves have gone on to become widely known computer science researchers.
These include:
* [[Henri Bal]], professor at the [[Vrije Universiteit]] in [[Amsterdam]]
* [[Frans Kaashoek]], professor at [[MIT]]
* Sape Mullender, researcher at [[Bell Labs]]
* Robbert van Renesse, professor at [[Cornell University]]
* Leendert van Doorn, distinguished engineer at the [[Microsoft]] Corporation
* [[Werner Vogels]], Chief Technology Officer at [[Amazon.com]]<ref name="vogelsphd"/>

===Dean of the Advanced School for Computing and Imaging===
In the early 1990s, the Dutch government began setting up a number of thematically oriented research schools that spanned multiple universities. These schools were intended to bring professors and PhD students from different Dutch (and later, foreign) universities together to help them cooperate and enhance their research.

Tanenbaum was one of the cofounders and first Dean of the Advanced School for Computing and Imaging (ASCI). This school initially consisted of nearly 200 faculty members and PhD students from the [[Vrije Universiteit]], [[University of Amsterdam]], [[Delft University of Technology]], and [[Leiden University]]. They were especially working on problems in advanced computer systems such as parallel computing and image analysis and processing.

Tanenbaum remained dean for 12 years, until 2005, when he was awarded an Academy Professorship by the [[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]], at which time he became a full-time research professor. ASCI has since grown to include researchers from nearly a dozen universities in The Netherlands, Belgium, and France. ASCI offers PhD level courses, has an annual conference, and runs various workshops every year.

==Projects==

===Amsterdam Compiler Kit===
The [[Amsterdam Compiler Kit]] is a toolkit for producing portable compilers. It was started sometime before 1981 and Andrew Tanenbaum was the architect from the start until version 5.5.<ref>[http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/publications/ Andrew S. Tanenbaum - Publications, Colloquia section] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070509132250/http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/publications/ |date=May 9, 2007 }}</ref>

===MINIX===
In 1987, Tanenbaum wrote a clone of [[UNIX]], called [[MINIX]] (MINi-unIX), for the [[IBM PC]]. It was targeted at students and others who wanted to learn how an operating system worked. Consequently, he wrote a book that listed the source code in an appendix and described it in detail in the text.<ref>[https://www.amazon.com/dp/0131429388 Amazon.com: Operating Systems Design and Implementation (3rd Edition) (Prentice Hall Software Series): Andrew S Tanenbaum, Albert S Woodhull: Books]</ref> The source code itself was available on a set of floppy disks. Within three months, a [[Usenet]] newsgroup, comp.os.minix, had sprung up with over 40,000 subscribers discussing and improving the system. One of these subscribers was a Finnish student named [[Linus Torvalds]], who began adding new features to MINIX and tailoring it to his own needs. On October 5, 1991, Torvalds announced his own ([[POSIX]]-like) kernel, called [[Linux]], which originally used the MINIX file system but is not based on MINIX code.<ref>[http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/brown/ Some notes on the "Who wrote Linux" Kerfuffle] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100818183310/http://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/brown/ |date=August 18, 2010 }}</ref>

Although MINIX and Linux have diverged, MINIX continues to be developed, now as a production system as well as an educational one.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usenix.org/publications/login/2006-04/openpdfs/herder.pdf |title=USENIX April 06 |access-date=July 17, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807222457/http://www.usenix.org/publications/login/2006-04/openpdfs/herder.pdf |archive-date=August 7, 2007 |url-status=live }}</ref> The focus is on building a highly modular, reliable, and secure operating system. The system is based on a [[microkernel]], with only 5000 lines of code running in kernel mode.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.few.vu.nl/~ast/ |title=Andrew S. Tanenbaum, Professor at the Vrije Universiteit |access-date=October 29, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100111055829/http://www.few.vu.nl/~ast/ |archive-date=January 11, 2010 |url-status=live }}</ref> The rest of the operating system runs as a number of independent processes in user mode, including processes for the file system, process manager, and each device driver. The system continuously monitors each of these processes, and when a failure is detected is often capable of automatically replacing the failed process without a reboot, without disturbing running programs, and without the user even noticing. [[MINIX 3]], as the current version is called, is available under the [[BSD license]] for free.

===Research projects===
Tanenbaum has also been involved in numerous other research projects in the areas of operating systems, distributed systems, and ubiquitous computing, often as supervisor of PhD students or a [[postdoctoral researcher]]. These projects include:
* [[Amoeba distributed operating system|Amoeba]]<ref name=amoeba>{{Cite journal
|last1 = Tanenbaum
|first1 = A. S.
|last2 = Van Renesse
|first2 = R.
|last3 = Van Staveren
|first3 = H.
|last4 = Sharp
|first4 = G. J.
|last5 = Mullender
|first5 = S. J.
|title = Experiences with the Amoeba distributed operating system
|doi = 10.1145/96267.96281
|journal = Communications of the ACM
|volume = 33
|issue = 12
|page = 46
|year = 1990
|hdl = 1871/2583
|s2cid = 1147771
|url = https://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/Publications/Papers/cacm-1990.pdf
|access-date = 2022-07-21
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210826080355/https://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/Publications/Papers/cacm-1990.pdf
|archive-date = 2021-08-26
|url-status = live
}}</ref>
* Globe<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Van Steen | first1 = M.
| last2 = Homburg | first2 = P.
| last3 = Tanenbaum | first3 = A. S.
| title = Globe: A wide area distributed system
| doi = 10.1109/4434.749137
| journal = IEEE Concurrency
| volume = 7
| page = 70
| year = 1999
| hdl = 1871/12837| s2cid = 9181192
| url = https://research.vu.nl/ws/files/1564853/ieeeconc.99.pdf
}}</ref>
* Mansion<ref name=mansion>{{Cite report
|last1 = Noordende
|first1 = Guido van ’t
|last2 = Brazier
|first2 = Frances M. T.
|last3 = Tanenbaum
|first3 = Andrew S.
|title = Mansion: A Structured Middleware Environment for Agents
|year = 2002
|publisher = Division of Mathematics and Computer Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam
|url = https://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/Publications/Papers/sane-2002a.pd
|access-date = 2022-07-21
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210826080311/https://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/Publications/Papers/sane-2002a.pdf
|archive-date = 2021-08-26
|url-status = dead
}}</ref>
* Orca<ref name="orca">{{Cite journal
|last1 = Bal
|first1 = H. E.
|last2 = Kaashoek
|first2 = M. F.
|last3 = Tanenbaum
|first3 = A. S.
|doi = 10.1109/32.126768
|title = Orca: A language for parallel programming of distributed systems
|journal = IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering
|volume = 18
|issue = 3
|page = 190
|year = 1992
|hdl = 1871/2576
|url = https://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/Publications/Papers/tse-1992.pdf
|access-date = 2022-07-21
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190509210404/https://www.cs.vu.nl/~ast/Publications/Papers/tse-1992.pdf
|archive-date = 2019-05-09
|url-status = live
}}</ref>
* Paramecium<ref>{{Cite book
| last1 = Van Doorn | first1 = L.
| last2 = Homburg | first2 = P.
| last3 = Tanenbaum | first3 = A. S.
| doi = 10.1109/HOTOS.1995.513460
| chapter = Paramecium: an extensible object-based kernel
| title = Proceedings 5th Workshop on Hot Topics in Operating Systems (HotOS-V)
| page = 86
| year = 1995
| isbn = 978-0-8186-7081-7
| hdl = 1871/2565
| s2cid = 10004092
| url = https://research.vu.nl/en/publications/efb42287-2714-426f-bcdc-09b970177e92
}}</ref>
* [[Radio-frequency identification|RFID]] Guardian<ref>{{Cite journal
| last1 = Mitrokotsa | first1 = A.
| last2 = Rieback | first2 = M. R.
| last3 = Tanenbaum | first3 = A. S.
| doi = 10.1007/s10796-009-9210-z
| title = Classifying RFID attacks and defenses
| journal = Information Systems Frontiers
| volume = 12
| issue = 5
| page = 491
| year = 2009
| s2cid = 11923232
| url = http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:07f1bb93-24b9-4c90-a491-bfafc2583024
}}</ref>
* [[Turtle F2F]]

===Electoral-vote.com===
In 2004, Tanenbaum created [[Electoral-vote.com]], a web site analyzing [[opinion polls]] for the [[2004 U.S. Presidential Election]], using them to project the outcome in the [[U.S. Electoral College|Electoral College]]. He stated that he created the site as an American who "knows first hand what the world thinks of America and it is not a pretty picture at the moment. I want people to think of America as the land of freedom and democracy, not the land of arrogance and blind revenge. I want to be proud of America again."<ref name="EVFAQ">{{cite web|url=http://www.electoral-vote.com/info/votemaster-faq.html |title=The Votemaster FAQ |access-date=February 26, 2017 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041102014915/http://www.electoral-vote.com/info/votemaster-faq.html |archive-date=November 2, 2004 }}</ref> The site provided a color-coded map, updated each day with projections for each state's electoral votes. Through most of the campaign period Tanenbaum kept his identity secret, referring to himself as "the Votemaster" and acknowledging only that he personally preferred [[John Kerry]]. Mentioning that he supported the [[United States Democratic Party|Democrats]], he revealed his identity on November 1, 2004, the day before the election, and also stating his reasons and qualifications for running the website.<ref name="EVFAQ" />

Through the site he also covered the [[United States general elections, 2006|2006 midterm elections]], correctly predicting the winner of all 33 Senate races that year.

For the [[United States elections, 2008|2008 elections]], he got every state right except for Indiana, which he said McCain would win by 2% (Obama won by 1%) and Missouri, which he said was too close to call (McCain won by 0.1%). He correctly predicted all the winners in the Senate except for Minnesota, where he predicted a 1% win by [[Norm Coleman]] over [[Al Franken]]. After 7 months of legal battling and recounts, Franken won by 312 votes (0.01%).

In 2010, he correctly projected 35 out of 37 Senate races in the Midterm elections on the website. The exceptions were [[Colorado]] and [[Nevada]].

Electoral-vote.com incorrectly predicted Hillary Clinton would win the [[2016 United States presidential election]]. The website incorrectly predicted Clinton would win Wisconsin, Michigan, Pennsylvania, North Carolina, and Florida. Electoral-vote.com did not predict a winner for Nevada, which Clinton would win. The website predicted the winners of the remaining 44 states and the District of Columbia correctly.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.electoral-vote.com/evp2016/Pres/Maps/Nov08.html|title = ElectoralVote}}</ref>

==Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate==
The [[Tanenbaum–Torvalds debate]] was a famous debate between Tanenbaum and Linus Torvalds regarding kernel design on [[Usenet]] in 1992.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://groups.google.com/forum/?fromgroups=#!topic/comp.os.minix/wlhw16QWltI%5B1-25-false%5D |title="LINUX is obsolete" Usenet Debate Text |access-date=July 19, 2014 |archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20121219010015/https://groups.google.com/forum/?fromgroups%3D#!topic/comp.os.minix/wlhw16QWltI%5B1-25-false%5D |archive-date=December 19, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Awards==
* Fellow of the [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]
* Fellow of the [[Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers|IEEE]]
* Member of the [[Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]]<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.knaw.nl/en/members/members/4853 |title=Andrew Tanenbaum |publisher=Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences |access-date=July 17, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150721044135/https://www.knaw.nl/en/members/members/4853 |archive-date=July 21, 2015 |url-status=live }}</ref>
* IEEE Computer Society Tech. Committee on Distributed Processing Outstanding Technical Achievement Award, 2022
* Eurosys Lifetime Achievement Award, 2015
* Honorary doctorate from Petru Maior University, Targu Mures, Romania, 2011
* Winner of the TAA [[William Holmes McGuffey#McGuffey Awards|McGuffey award]] for classic textbooks for Modern Operating Systems, 2010
* Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the LADC Conference, 2009
* Winner of a 2.5 million euro [[European Research Council]] Advanced Grant, 2008
* [[USENIX]] Flame Award 2008 <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.usenix.org/about/flame.html# |title=USENIX Flame Award |access-date=October 24, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006152610/https://www.usenix.org/about/flame |archive-date=October 6, 2012 |url-status=live }}</ref> for his many contributions to systems design and to openness both in discussion and in source
* Honorary doctorate from Polytechnic University of Bucharest, Romania
* Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the Real-Time and Network Systems Conf., 2008
* Winner of the 2007 [[IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ieee.org/documents/education_rl.pdf |title=IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal Recipients |publisher=IEEE |access-date={{Format date|2010|11|24}} |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101124235219/http://ieee.org/documents/education_rl.pdf# |archive-date=November 24, 2010 |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* Coauthor of the Best Paper Award at the USENIX LISA Conf., 2006
* Coauthor of the Best Paper for High Impact at the IEEE Percom Conf., 2006
* Academy Professor, 2004
* Winner of the 2005 PPAP Award for best education on computer science software
* Winner of the 2003 TAA [[William Holmes McGuffey#McGuffey Awards|McGuffey award]] for classic textbooks for Computer Networks
* Winner of the 2002 TAA Texty Award for new textbooks
* Winner of the 1997 ACM [[SIGCSE]] for contributions to computer science education
* Winner of the 1994 ACM Karl V. Karlstrom Outstanding Educator Award
* Coauthor of the 1984 ACM [[SOSP]] Distinguished Paper Award

===Honorary doctorates===
[[File:Tanenbaum-Honorary-Doctorate-UPM.jpg|thumb|right|Tanenbaum in Târgu Mureș]]
[[File:Tanenbaum-honorary-doctorate-Romania.jpg|thumb|right|Tanenbaum is 4th from left]]
* On May 12, 2008, Tanenbaum received an [[honorary doctorate]] from [[Politehnica University of Bucharest|Universitatea Politehnica din București]]. The award was given in the academic senate chamber, after which Tanenbaum gave a lecture on his vision of the future of the computer field. The degree was given in recognition of Tanenbaum's career work, which includes about 150 published papers, 18 books (which have been translated into over 20 languages), and the creation of a large body of open-source software, including the Amsterdam Compiler Kit, Amoeba, Globe, and MINIX.
* On October 7, 2011, Universitatea Petru Maior din Târgu Mureș ([[Petru Maior University of Târgu Mureș]]) granted Tanenbaum the Doctor Honoris Causa (honorary doctorate) title for his remarkable work in the field of computer science and achievements in education. The academic community is hereby honoring his devotion to teaching and research with this award. At the ceremony, the Chancellor, the Rector, the Dean of the Faculty of Sciences and Letters, and others all spoke about Tanenbaum and his work. The pro-rector then read the 'laudatio,' summarizing Tanenbaum's achievements. These include his work developing MINIX (the predecessor to Linux), the RFID Guardian, his work on Globe, Amoeba, and other systems, and his many books on computer science, which have been translated in many languages, including Romanian, and which are used at Petru Maior University.

==Keynote talks==
Tanenbaum has been keynote speaker at numerous conferences, most recently
* [https://icdcs2022.icdcs.org ICDCS 2022] Bologna, Italy, July 12, 2022
* [https://qct-qualcomm.secure.force.com/QCTConference/GenericSitePage?eventname=SecuritySummit&page=Summit+Schedule/ Qualcomm Security Summit] San Diego, May 18, 2022
* [https://summit.riot-os.org/2020/ RIOT Summit 2020] Online Event, September 14, 2020
* [http://www.froscon.de/en/home FrOSCon 2015] Sankt Augustin, Germany, August 22, 2015
* [http://www.bsdcan.org BSDCan 2015] Ottawa, Canada, June 12, 2015
* [http://www.haxpo.nl HAXPO 2015] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150528200928/http://haxpo.nl/ |date=May 28, 2015 }} Amsterdam May 28, 2015
* [[Codemotion 2015]] Rome Italy, March 28, 2015
* [http://www.nwo.nl/nwohome.nsf/pages/NWOP_889BS7 SIREN 2010]{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Veldhoven, The Netherlands, November 2, 2010
* [[FOSDEM]] Brussels, Belgium, February 7, 2010
* [http://neteng.nudt.edu.cn/NSCNE09/cfp2.html NSCNE '09]{{dead link|date=October 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} Changsha, China, November 5, 2009
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090924085448/http://www.e-democracy2009.gr/ E-Democracy 2009 Conference] Athens, Greece, September 25, 2009
* [http://www.froscon.org Free and Open Source Conference] Sankt Augustin, Germany, August 23, 2008
* XV [http://www.sinfo.ist.utl.pt/en/ Semana Informática] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200528154541/https://www.sinfo.org/en/ |date=May 28, 2020 }} of the [[Instituto Superior Técnico]], Lisbon, Portugal, March 13, 2008
* [[NLUUG]] [https://www.nluug.nl/events/nj07/en/programma/tanenbaum.html 25 year anniversary] conference, Amsterdam, November 7, 2007
* [[linux.conf.au]] in Sydney, Australia, January 17, 2007
* Academic IT Festival in Cracow, Poland, February 23, 2006 (2nd edition)
* [http://www.sigops.org/sosp/sosp05/default.htm ACM Symposium on Operating System Principles], Brighton, England, October 24, 2005

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{wikiquote}}
{{commons category|Andrew S. Tanenbaum}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090408071647/http://www.freesoftwaremagazine.com/articles/minix Minix Article in Free Software Magazine] contains an interview with Andrew Tanenbaum
* {{Google scholar id}}
* [http://www.minix3.org/ The MINIX 3 Operating System MINIX Official Website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120621091849/http://www.minix3.org/ |date=June 21, 2012 }}

{{IEEE James H. Mulligan, Jr. Education Medal}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tanenbaum, Andrew S.}}
[[Category:1944 births]]
[[Category:American political writers]]
[[Category:American male non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:American technology writers]]
[[Category:Computer systems researchers]]
[[Category:American computer scientists]]
[[Category:Fellows of the Association for Computing Machinery]]
[[Category:Fellow Members of the IEEE]]
[[Category:Free software programmers]]
[[Category:Kernel programmers]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:MIT Department of Physics alumni]]
[[Category:Members of the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:MINIX]]
[[Category:Scientists from New York City]]
[[Category:University of California, Berkeley alumni]]
[[Category:Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam faculty]]
[[Category:Information technology in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Computer science educators]]
[[Category:Jewish American writers]]
[[Category:European Research Council grantees]]
[[Category:21st-century American Jews]]
[[Category:American emigrants to the Netherlands]]

Besta (computer)

2022-10-21T19:27:54Z

Eugrus: /* External links */ replacing a page gone 404 with archive

{{multiple issues|
{{Sources|date=February 2022}}
{{notability|date=April 2022}}
}}
{{Short description|Computer}}
{{Infobox information appliance
| name = Besta
| image = Bestix.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Boot screen
| aka =
| developer =
| manufacturer =
| type =
| releasedate = {{Start date and age|1988}}
| price =
| connectivity =
| lifespan =
| unitssold = More than 1,000
| media =
| os = [[Bestix]]
| input =
| camera =
| power =
| cpu = [[Motorola]] [[68020]]
| CPUspeed =
| storage =
| memory =
| RAMtype =
| display =
| audio =
| service = 
| dimensions =
| weight =
| touchpad =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| related =
}}
'''Besta''' (Беста) is a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[Unix]]-based graphics [[workstation]]. Starting in 1988, more than 1,000 were produced.

There were several versions of the computer. Besta-88 has a [[Motorola]] [[68020]] [[CPU]] and [[VMEbus|VME bus]].

The Bestix operating system is a legally ported version of [[AT&T]] UNIX [[System V]] Release 3.2.

==External links==
* [https://www.osp.ru/cw/2000/24/5596 «Беста-88», Natalia Dubova (in russian)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080206150907/http://www.linuxcenter.ru/lib/history/lh-05.phtml?style=print Linux in Russia (in russian)] - contains a citation of [[Maksim Moshkow|M. Moshkov]] on Besta

{{List of Soviet computer systems}}

[[Category:68k-based computers]]
[[Category:Soviet computer systems]]

{{compu-graphics-stub}}

Besta (computer)

2022-10-20T10:53:53Z

Eugrus: /* External links */ URL upd

{{multiple issues|
{{Sources|date=February 2022}}
{{notability|date=April 2022}}
}}
{{Short description|Computer}}
{{Infobox information appliance
| name = Besta
| image = Bestix.jpg
| image_size =
| alt =
| caption = Boot screen
| aka =
| developer =
| manufacturer =
| type =
| releasedate = {{Start date and age|1988}}
| price =
| connectivity =
| lifespan =
| unitssold = More than 1,000
| media =
| os = [[Bestix]]
| input =
| camera =
| power =
| cpu = [[Motorola]] [[68020]]
| CPUspeed =
| storage =
| memory =
| RAMtype =
| display =
| audio =
| service = 
| dimensions =
| weight =
| touchpad =
| predecessor =
| successor =
| related =
}}
'''Besta''' (Беста) is a [[USSR|Soviet]] [[Unix]]-based graphics [[workstation]]. Starting in 1988, more than 1,000 were produced.

There were several versions of the computer. Besta-88 has a [[Motorola]] [[68020]] [[CPU]] and [[VMEbus|VME bus]].

The Bestix operating system is a legally ported version of [[AT&T]] UNIX [[System V]] Release 3.2.

==External links==
* [https://www.osp.ru/cw/2000/24/5596 «Беста-88», Natalia Dubova (in russian)]
* [http://www.linuxcenter.ru/lib/history/lh-05.phtml?style=print Linux in Russia (in russian)] - contains a citation of [[Maksim Moshkow|M. Moshkov]] on Besta

{{List of Soviet computer systems}}

[[Category:68k-based computers]]
[[Category:Soviet computer systems]]

{{compu-graphics-stub}}

Talk:Valerii Zaluzhnyi

2022-10-09T19:54:30Z

Eugrus: /* swastika-armband */ new section

{{WikiProject banner shell |living=yes |1=
{{WikiProject Biography|class=Start|living=yes|listas=Zaluzhnyi, Valerii}}
{{WikiProject Ukraine|class=start|importance=mid}}
{{WikiProject Military history|Biography=y|European=y|class=C|b1=no|b2=yes|b3=yes|b4=yes|b5=yes}}
}}

== USSR allegiance? ==

I'm not an expert on the subject, but it seems like he started his military career after 1991. And the article says he "did not serve in the USSR". He was born in USSR, but did he have USSR allegiance? — Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/37.73.57.241|37.73.57.241]] ([[User talk:37.73.57.241#top|talk]]) 14:52, 23 February 2022 (UTC) 

== A Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion ==
The following Wikimedia Commons file used on this page or its Wikidata item has been nominated for deletion:
* [[commons:File:Zaluzhny2021.jpg|Zaluzhny2021.jpg]]
Participate in the deletion discussion at the [[commons:Commons:Deletion requests/Files uploaded by Fisherman1149|nomination page]]. —[[User:Community Tech bot|Community Tech bot]] ([[User talk:Community Tech bot|talk]]) 18:52, 19 June 2022 (UTC)

== swastika-armband ==

{{ping|Schläger4|}}, concerning your following edit: https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Valerii_Zaluzhnyi&type=revision&diff=1115092226&oldid=1115092063
and also the edit war initiated by an anonymous.
 Swastika can be seen on the original zoomed photo on Twitter: https://pbs.twimg.com/media/FeZ69HAWIAEe_uR?format=jpg&name=large
originating from Zaluzhnyi's tweet: https://twitter.com/CinC_AFU/status/1578083916296192000/photo/1
and a [https://deutsche-wirtschafts-nachrichten.de/700618/Oberkommandierender-der-Ukraine-zeigt-sich-mit-Hakenkreuz citation] in accordance with [[WP:RS]] is also provided [[User:Eugrus|eugrus]] ([[User talk:Eugrus|talk]]) 19:54, 9 October 2022 (UTC)

Valerii Zaluzhnyi

2022-10-09T19:46:13Z

Eugrus: Undid revision 1115091684 by 74.92.208.139 (talk)

{{Short description|Ukrainian general (born 1973)}}
{{family name hatnote|Fedorovych|Zaluzhnyi|lang=Eastern Slavic}}
{{use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Valerii Zaluzhnyi
| image = Lieutenant General Valerii Zaluzhnyi.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1973|7|8|df=y}}
| death_date =
| birth_place = [[Novohrad-Volynskyi]], [[Ukrainian SSR]], Soviet Union
| death_place =
| nickname = "Iron General"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ukraine's 'iron general' is a hero, but he's no star |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2022/04/08/ukraines-iron-general-zaluzhnyy-00023901 |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=POLITICO |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hoffman |first=Bryce |title=Business Leaders Need To Be More Like Ukraine's "Iron General" And Less Like Russia's Dinosaurs |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/brycehoffman/2022/04/14/business-leaders-need-to-be-more-like-ukraines-iron-general-and-less-like-russias-dinosaurs/ |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>
| birth_name = Valerii Fedorovych Zaluzhnyi
| allegiance = Ukraine
| branch =
| serviceyears = 1993–present
| rank = [[Military ranks of Ukraine#Rank insignia currently in force|General]] [[File:Погон генерала ЗСУ (2020) гор.svg|40px]]
| servicenumber =
| unit =
| commands = [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine]] [[Operational Command North]] [[Joint Operational Headquarters of the Armed Forces of Ukraine]] [[Operational Command West]] [[51st Guards Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)|51st Guards Mechanized Brigade]] [[24th Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)|24th Guards Mechanized Brigade]]
| known_for = Being the [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine]]
| battles = {{Tree list}}
* '''[[Russo-Ukrainian War]]'''
** [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|War in Donbas]]
** [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]
{{Tree list/end}}
| battles_label =
| relations =
| laterwork =
| signature =
| office = [[Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine]]
| termstart = 27 July 2021
| termend =
| predecessor = [[Ruslan Khomchak]]
| successor =
| primeminister = [[Denys Shmyhal]]
| president = [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]]
| alma_mater = [[Ivan Chernyakhovsky National Defense University of Ukraine]], [[Odessa Military Academy]]
}}

'''Valerii Fedorovych Zaluzhnyi''' ({{lang-uk|Вале́рій Фе́дорович Залу́жний}};{{efn|Sometimes transliterated as Valery or Valeriy Zaluzhny in English.}}<ref name=zaluzhny>{{Cite press release |title=Valeriy Zaluzhny appointed as Commander-in-Chief of Ukraine's Armed Forces instead of Khomchak – Zelensky's press secretary |last=Nikiforov |first=Serhiy |publisher=[[Interfax-Ukraine]] |date=27 July 2021 |url=https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/758177.html}}</ref> born 8 July 1973) is a Ukrainian [[Four-star rank|four-star]] [[General officer|general]] who has served as the [[Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine|Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine]] since 27 July 2021. He is also concurrently a member of the [[National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine]].

Zaluzhnyi was the Commander of the [[Operational Command North|North Operational Command]] (2019–2021), Chief of the Joint Operational Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine — First Deputy Commander of the Joint Forces (2018), Chief of Staff – First Deputy Commander of the [[Operational Command West|West Operational Command]] (2017), Commander of the [[51st Guards Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)|51st Guards Mechanized Brigade]] (2009–2012).

Zaluzhnyi was named by ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' as one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2022.<ref>[https://time.com/collection/100-most-influential-people-2022/6177692/valeriy-zaluzhnyy/ "Valeriy Zaluzhnyy"], ''Time'', 23 May 2022.</ref>

== Biography ==
In 1989, he graduated from the city school No. 9 and entered the [[Novohrad-Volynskyi]] Machine-Building Technical School, from which he graduated in 1991 with honors.

He later entered the general military faculty of the [[Odessa Military Academy|Odessa Institute of Land Forces]]. In 1997 he graduated with honors from the institute, after which he passed all stages of military service: platoon commander, training platoon commander, combat platoon commander, training company commander, cadet company commander, battalion commander.

In 2005 he entered the [[Ivan Chernyakhovsky National Defense University of Ukraine|National Academy of Defense of Ukraine]]. In 2007 he graduated with a gold medal, was appointed Chief of Staff and First Deputy Commander of the [[24th Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)|24th Separate Mechanized Brigade]] in Yavoriv, [[Lviv Oblast]]. He successfully served in this position for two and a half years.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2010|title=Валерій Залужний: "Новоград-Волинський був колискою мрій і прагнень, Володимир-Волинський дав можливість втілити їх у життя…"|url=http://www.zvyagel.com.ua/?p=2802|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=1 March 2018|website=zvyagel.com.ua|publisher=Звягель|language=uk}}</ref>

By the decision of the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine on 13 October 2009, he was appointed commander of the [[51st Guards Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)|51st separate mechanized brigade]]. He commanded it until 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|title=У найбільшої військової частини у Волинській області новий командир!|url=https://blogs.korrespondent.net/blog/users/3232156-u-naibilshoi-viiskovoi-chastyny-u-volynskii-oblasti-novyi-komandyr|access-date=2021-08-11|website=blogs.korrespondent.net|language=uk}}</ref>

In 2014 he graduated from the [[Ivan Chernyakhovsky National Defense University of Ukraine|Ivan Cherniakhovskyi National Defense University of Ukraine]]. As the best graduate of the operational and strategic level of training, he was awarded the Transitional Sword of the Queen of Great Britain {{Clarify|reason=Eh? The sword the Queen uses to knight someone?|date=May 2022}}.<ref>{{Cite web|title=генерал-майор ЗАЛУЖНИЙ Валерій Федорович|url=https://www.zsu.gov.ua/menu/6104f4286d7bf54932890379|access-date=2021-08-25|website=www.zsu.gov.ua|language=uk}}</ref>

In 2017 he was appointed Chief of Staff – First Deputy Commander of the [[Operational Command West]].<ref name=":0" />

In 2018 he was appointed Chief of the Joint Operational Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine – First Deputy Commander of the Joint Forces.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Брифінг начальника штабу — першого заступника Командувача об'єднаних сил генерал-майора Валерія Залужного|work=Офіційний вебсайт Міністерства оборони України|url=http://www.mil.gov.ua/news/2018/05/01/brifing-nachalnika-shtabu-pershogo-zastupnika-komanduvacha-obednanih-sil-valeriya-zaluzhnogo/|access-date=2018-05-01}}</ref>

On 9 December 2019, he was appointed Commander of the [[Operational Command North]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=В ОК "Північ" новий командувач — генерал-майор Валерій Залужний|url=https://armyinform.com.ua/2019/12/v-ok-pivnich-novyj-komanduvach-general-major-valerij-zaluzhnyj/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=10 December 2019|website=armyinform.com.ua|publisher=АрміяInform|language=uk}}</ref>

In December 2020 he graduated from the [[National University Ostroh Academy]] with a master's degree in International Relations.

On 27 July 2021, President of Ukraine [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] appointed Zaluzhnyi [[Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Сфера оборони має функціонувати стабільно, скоординовано, з чіткою перспективою та без непорозумінь між керівниками – Глава держави|url=https://www.mil.gov.ua/news/2021/07/27/sfera-oboroni-mae-funkczionuvati-stabilno-skoordinovano-z-chitkoyu-perspektivoyu-ta-bez-neporozumin-mizh-kerivnikami-%E2%80%93-glava-derzhavi/|access-date=2021-09-22|website=Міністерство оборони України}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Президент призначив головнокомандувачем ЗСУ Валерія Залужного|url=https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-polytics/3287729-prezident-priznaciv-golovnokomanduvacem-zsu-valeria-zaluznogo.html|access-date=2021-09-22|website=www.ukrinform.ua|language=uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАЇНИ №320/2021|url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/3202021-39509|access-date=2021-07-28|website=Офіційне інтернет-представництво Президента України|language=uk}}</ref> He replaced [[Ruslan Khomchak]] in this position.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Хомчак іде з посади. Призначено нового головнокомандувача – ОП|url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/07/27/7301896/|access-date=27 July 2021|website=Українська правда}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Названо наступника Хомчака на посаді головнокомандувача ЗСУ|url=https://www.rbc.ua/ukr/news/nazvan-preemnik-homchaka-postu-glavnokomanduyushchego-1627400338.html|access-date=2021-07-27|website=РБК-Украина|language=uk}}</ref> The next day he was appointed a member of the [[National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАЇНИ №325/2021|url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/3252021-39525|access-date=2021-07-28|website=Офіційне інтернет-представництво Президента України|language=uk}}</ref>

He is called one of the most open-minded generals, who understands the problems of soldiers and junior officers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Хто такий новий головнокомандувач ЗСУ Валерій Залужний|url=https://www.radiosvoboda.org/a/valeriy-zaluzhnyi-komanduvach-zsu/31379957.html|access-date=2021-07-27|website=Радіо Свобода|language=uk}}</ref> As a representative of Ukrainian senior officers and a participant in the hostilities in the Donbass, who did not serve in the USSR, he has a positive attitude to the renewal of personnel by young people and the departure from Soviet practices.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Генерал Валерій Залужний. Що відомо про нового головнокомандувача ЗСУ|url=https://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/news-57986999|access-date=2021-07-27|publisher=BBC News Україна|language=uk}}</ref> One of his first steps in office was to allow the military at the front to open fire in response to the occupiers without the consent of the top leadership and eliminate the need for the military to fill out unnecessary documents.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Військовим в зоні ООС дозволили відповідати окупантам без узгодження з вищим керівництвом, - головнокомандувач ЗСУ Залужний|url=https://espreso.tv/viyskovim-v-zoni-oos-dozvolili-vidpovidati-okupantam-golovnokomanduvach-zsu-zaluzhniy|access-date=2021-09-29|website=Еспресо - український погляд на світ!|language=uk}}</ref>

Regarding his priorities as Commander-in-Chief, Zaluzhnyi said: "The overall course of reforming Ukraine's Armed Forces in line with NATO principles and standards remains irreversible. And the key here is the principles. Changes must take place primarily in the worldview and attitude towards people. I would like you to turn your face to the people, to your subordinates. My attitude towards people has not changed throughout my service."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Новий головнокомандувач ЗСУ Залужний назвав свої пріоритети на цій посаді|url=https://espreso.tv/noviy-golovnokomanduvach-zsu-zaluzhniy-nazvav-svoi-prioriteti-na-tsiy-posadi|access-date=2021-07-31|website=Еспресо - український погляд на світ!|language=uk}}</ref>

On 2 November 2021, Zaluzhnyi appointed [[Dmytro Yarosh]], former leader of [[Right Sector]], as his Adviser; however, according to ''[[Ukrayinska Pravda]]'', Yarosh was dismissed from this position in December 2021, when the (army) post of public advisers was liquidated.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 December 2021 |title=Генштаб не зізнається про роль Яроша. Той проінспектував свою добровольчу армію |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/12/13/7317209/ |access-date= |website=Ukrayinska Pravda |language=uk}}</ref>

On 5 March 2022, in the midst of the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russian invasion of Ukraine]], Lieutenant General Zaluzhnyi was promoted by President Zelenskyy to the rank of General,<ref>{{Cite web |title=УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАЇНИ №108/2022 |url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/1082022-41565}}</ref> the highest possible rank in the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine]].

Zaluzhnyi posed with a [[swastika]]-armband for his [https://twitter.com/CinC_AFU/status/1578083916296192000 Tweet made on 6 October 2022].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://deutsche-wirtschafts-nachrichten.de/700618/Oberkommandierender-der-Ukraine-zeigt-sich-mit-Hakenkreuz |title=Oberkommandierender der Ukraine zeigt sich mit Hakenkreuz |accessdate=2022-10-09 |author=Gregor Uhlig
|date=2022-10-09 |format= |work= |publisher=Deutsche Wirtschaftsnachrichten |pages= |language=de |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref>

== Military ranks ==
* [[Major general]] (23 August 2017)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=24 August 2017|title=Президент України підписав Указ "Про присвоєння військових звань"|url=https://www.mil.gov.ua/news/2017/08/24/prezident-ukraini-pidpisav-ukaz-pro-prisvoennya-vijskovih-zvan/|website=mil.gov.ua}}</ref>
* [[Lieutenant general]] (24 August 2021)
* [[General]] (4 March 2022)<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 March 2022|title=Twitter account of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine|url=https://twitter.com/DefenceU/status/1499904884950421509/|website=twitter.com}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Information ===
* [https://www.zsu.gov.ua/menu/6104f4286d7bf54932890379 генерал-лейтенант ЗАЛУЖНИЙ Валерій Федорович] // ''zsu.gov.ua''

=== Interview ===
* {{Cite web|date=5 November 2010|title=Валерій Залужний: "Новоград-Волинський був колискою мрій і прагнень, Володимир-Волинський дав можливість втілити їх у життя…"|url=http://www.zvyagel.com.ua/?p=2802|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=1 March 2018|website=zvyagel.com.ua|publisher=Звягель|language=uk}}
* ''Олександр Штупун,'' [https://armyinform.com.ua/2020/02/hochemo-vidijty-vid-napysannya-bojovyh-nakaziv-zrazka-1943-roku-vid-czyh-bezgluzdyh-dopovidej-bilya-kart-komanduvach-vijsk-ok-pivnich-general-major-valerij-zaluzhnyj/ «Хочемо відійти від написання бойових наказів зразка 1943 року. Від цих безглуздих доповідей біля карт» — командувач військ ОК «Північ» генерал-майор Валерій Залужний] // ''armyinform.com.ua'', 15 February 2020.

== External links ==
{{commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [https://www.radiosvoboda.org/a/valeriy-zaluzhnyi-komanduvach-zsu/31379957.html Хто такий новий головнокомандувач ЗСУ Валерій Залужний] // Радіо Свобода, 27 July 2021.
* [https://novynarnia.com/2021/07/27/kozhen-soldat-osobystist/ «Кожен солдат для мене — особистість». Принципи нового головнокомандувача ЗСУ Валерія Залужного] // ''Новинарня'', 27 July 2021.

{{Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine}}
{{2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zaluzhnyi, Valerii}}
[[Category:Ivan Chernyakhovsky National Defense University of Ukraine alumni]]
[[Category:1973 births]]
[[Category:Generals of the Army (Ukraine)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Novohrad-Volynskyi]]
[[Category:Ukrainian military personnel of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]

Valerii Zaluzhnyi

2022-10-09T19:44:49Z

Eugrus: explain yourself on the discussion page instead of initiating a war of edits Undid revision 1115091287 by 74.92.208.139 (talk)

Valerii Zaluzhnyi

2022-10-09T19:42:40Z

Eugrus: swastika can be seen on the zoomed photo and a citation in accordance with WP:RS is also provided Undid revision 1115089856 by 74.92.208.139 (talk)

Valerii Zaluzhnyi

2022-10-09T19:25:48Z

Eugrus: /* Biography */ unified date format

Valerii Zaluzhnyi

2022-10-09T19:21:52Z

Eugrus: /* Biography */ Tweet on October 6

{{Short description|Ukrainian general (born 1973)}}
{{family name hatnote|Fedorovych|Zaluzhnyi|lang=Eastern Slavic}}
{{use dmy dates|date=September 2022}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = Valerii Zaluzhnyi
| image = Lieutenant General Valerii Zaluzhnyi.jpg
| caption =
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1973|7|8|df=y}}
| death_date =
| birth_place = [[Novohrad-Volynskyi]], [[Ukrainian SSR]], Soviet Union
| death_place =
| nickname = "Iron General"<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ukraine's 'iron general' is a hero, but he's no star |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2022/04/08/ukraines-iron-general-zaluzhnyy-00023901 |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=POLITICO |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Hoffman |first=Bryce |title=Business Leaders Need To Be More Like Ukraine's "Iron General" And Less Like Russia's Dinosaurs |url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/brycehoffman/2022/04/14/business-leaders-need-to-be-more-like-ukraines-iron-general-and-less-like-russias-dinosaurs/ |access-date=2022-06-16 |website=Forbes |language=en}}</ref>
| birth_name = Valerii Fedorovych Zaluzhnyi
| allegiance = Ukraine
| branch =
| serviceyears = 1993–present
| rank = [[Military ranks of Ukraine#Rank insignia currently in force|General]] [[File:Погон генерала ЗСУ (2020) гор.svg|40px]]
| servicenumber =
| unit =
| commands = [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine]] [[Operational Command North]] [[Joint Operational Headquarters of the Armed Forces of Ukraine]] [[Operational Command West]] [[51st Guards Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)|51st Guards Mechanized Brigade]] [[24th Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)|24th Guards Mechanized Brigade]]
| known_for = Being the [[Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine]]
| battles = {{Tree list}}
* '''[[Russo-Ukrainian War]]'''
** [[War in Donbas (2014–2022)|War in Donbas]]
** [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]
{{Tree list/end}}
| battles_label =
| relations =
| laterwork =
| signature =
| office = [[Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine]]
| termstart = 27 July 2021
| termend =
| predecessor = [[Ruslan Khomchak]]
| successor =
| primeminister = [[Denys Shmyhal]]
| president = [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]]
| alma_mater = [[Ivan Chernyakhovsky National Defense University of Ukraine]], [[Odessa Military Academy]]
}}

'''Valerii Fedorovych Zaluzhnyi''' ({{lang-uk|Вале́рій Фе́дорович Залу́жний}};{{efn|Sometimes transliterated as Valery or Valeriy Zaluzhny in English.}}<ref name=zaluzhny>{{Cite press release |title=Valeriy Zaluzhny appointed as Commander-in-Chief of Ukraine's Armed Forces instead of Khomchak – Zelensky's press secretary |last=Nikiforov |first=Serhiy |publisher=[[Interfax-Ukraine]] |date=27 July 2021 |url=https://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/758177.html}}</ref> born 8 July 1973) is a Ukrainian [[Four-star rank|four-star]] [[General officer|general]] who has served as the [[Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine|Commander-in-Chief]] of the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine]] since 27 July 2021. He is also concurrently a member of the [[National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine]].

Zaluzhnyi was the Commander of the [[Operational Command North|North Operational Command]] (2019–2021), Chief of the Joint Operational Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine — First Deputy Commander of the Joint Forces (2018), Chief of Staff – First Deputy Commander of the [[Operational Command West|West Operational Command]] (2017), Commander of the [[51st Guards Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)|51st Guards Mechanized Brigade]] (2009–2012).

Zaluzhnyi was named by ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' as one of the 100 most influential people in the world in 2022.<ref>[https://time.com/collection/100-most-influential-people-2022/6177692/valeriy-zaluzhnyy/ "Valeriy Zaluzhnyy"], ''Time'', 23 May 2022.</ref>

== Biography ==
In 1989, he graduated from the city school No. 9 and entered the [[Novohrad-Volynskyi]] Machine-Building Technical School, from which he graduated in 1991 with honors.

He later entered the general military faculty of the [[Odessa Military Academy|Odessa Institute of Land Forces]]. In 1997 he graduated with honors from the institute, after which he passed all stages of military service: platoon commander, training platoon commander, combat platoon commander, training company commander, cadet company commander, battalion commander.

In 2005 he entered the [[Ivan Chernyakhovsky National Defense University of Ukraine|National Academy of Defense of Ukraine]]. In 2007 he graduated with a gold medal, was appointed Chief of Staff and First Deputy Commander of the [[24th Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)|24th Separate Mechanized Brigade]] in Yavoriv, [[Lviv Oblast]]. He successfully served in this position for two and a half years.<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 November 2010|title=Валерій Залужний: "Новоград-Волинський був колискою мрій і прагнень, Володимир-Волинський дав можливість втілити їх у життя…"|url=http://www.zvyagel.com.ua/?p=2802|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=1 March 2018|website=zvyagel.com.ua|publisher=Звягель|language=uk}}</ref>

By the decision of the Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine on 13 October 2009, he was appointed commander of the [[51st Guards Mechanized Brigade (Ukraine)|51st separate mechanized brigade]]. He commanded it until 2012.<ref>{{Cite web|title=У найбільшої військової частини у Волинській області новий командир!|url=https://blogs.korrespondent.net/blog/users/3232156-u-naibilshoi-viiskovoi-chastyny-u-volynskii-oblasti-novyi-komandyr|access-date=2021-08-11|website=blogs.korrespondent.net|language=uk}}</ref>

In 2014 he graduated from the [[Ivan Chernyakhovsky National Defense University of Ukraine|Ivan Cherniakhovskyi National Defense University of Ukraine]]. As the best graduate of the operational and strategic level of training, he was awarded the Transitional Sword of the Queen of Great Britain {{Clarify|reason=Eh? The sword the Queen uses to knight someone?|date=May 2022}}.<ref>{{Cite web|title=генерал-майор ЗАЛУЖНИЙ Валерій Федорович|url=https://www.zsu.gov.ua/menu/6104f4286d7bf54932890379|access-date=2021-08-25|website=www.zsu.gov.ua|language=uk}}</ref>

In 2017 he was appointed Chief of Staff – First Deputy Commander of the [[Operational Command West]].<ref name=":0" />

In 2018 he was appointed Chief of the Joint Operational Staff of the Armed Forces of Ukraine – First Deputy Commander of the Joint Forces.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Брифінг начальника штабу — першого заступника Командувача об'єднаних сил генерал-майора Валерія Залужного|work=Офіційний вебсайт Міністерства оборони України|url=http://www.mil.gov.ua/news/2018/05/01/brifing-nachalnika-shtabu-pershogo-zastupnika-komanduvacha-obednanih-sil-valeriya-zaluzhnogo/|access-date=2018-05-01}}</ref>

On 9 December 2019, he was appointed Commander of the [[Operational Command North]].<ref>{{Cite web|date=|title=В ОК "Північ" новий командувач — генерал-майор Валерій Залужний|url=https://armyinform.com.ua/2019/12/v-ok-pivnich-novyj-komanduvach-general-major-valerij-zaluzhnyj/|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=10 December 2019|website=armyinform.com.ua|publisher=АрміяInform|language=uk}}</ref>

In December 2020 he graduated from the [[National University Ostroh Academy]] with a master's degree in International Relations.

On 27 July 2021, President of Ukraine [[Volodymyr Zelenskyy]] appointed Zaluzhnyi [[Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=Сфера оборони має функціонувати стабільно, скоординовано, з чіткою перспективою та без непорозумінь між керівниками – Глава держави|url=https://www.mil.gov.ua/news/2021/07/27/sfera-oboroni-mae-funkczionuvati-stabilno-skoordinovano-z-chitkoyu-perspektivoyu-ta-bez-neporozumin-mizh-kerivnikami-%E2%80%93-glava-derzhavi/|access-date=2021-09-22|website=Міністерство оборони України}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Президент призначив головнокомандувачем ЗСУ Валерія Залужного|url=https://www.ukrinform.ua/rubric-polytics/3287729-prezident-priznaciv-golovnokomanduvacem-zsu-valeria-zaluznogo.html|access-date=2021-09-22|website=www.ukrinform.ua|language=uk}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАЇНИ №320/2021|url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/3202021-39509|access-date=2021-07-28|website=Офіційне інтернет-представництво Президента України|language=uk}}</ref> He replaced [[Ruslan Khomchak]] in this position.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Хомчак іде з посади. Призначено нового головнокомандувача – ОП|url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/07/27/7301896/|access-date=27 July 2021|website=Українська правда}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title=Названо наступника Хомчака на посаді головнокомандувача ЗСУ|url=https://www.rbc.ua/ukr/news/nazvan-preemnik-homchaka-postu-glavnokomanduyushchego-1627400338.html|access-date=2021-07-27|website=РБК-Украина|language=uk}}</ref> The next day he was appointed a member of the [[National Security and Defense Council of Ukraine]].<ref>{{Cite web|title=УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАЇНИ №325/2021|url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/3252021-39525|access-date=2021-07-28|website=Офіційне інтернет-представництво Президента України|language=uk}}</ref>

He is called one of the most open-minded generals, who understands the problems of soldiers and junior officers.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Хто такий новий головнокомандувач ЗСУ Валерій Залужний|url=https://www.radiosvoboda.org/a/valeriy-zaluzhnyi-komanduvach-zsu/31379957.html|access-date=2021-07-27|website=Радіо Свобода|language=uk}}</ref> As a representative of Ukrainian senior officers and a participant in the hostilities in the Donbass, who did not serve in the USSR, he has a positive attitude to the renewal of personnel by young people and the departure from Soviet practices.<ref>{{Cite news|title=Генерал Валерій Залужний. Що відомо про нового головнокомандувача ЗСУ|url=https://www.bbc.com/ukrainian/news-57986999|access-date=2021-07-27|publisher=BBC News Україна|language=uk}}</ref> One of his first steps in office was to allow the military at the front to open fire in response to the occupiers without the consent of the top leadership and eliminate the need for the military to fill out unnecessary documents.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Військовим в зоні ООС дозволили відповідати окупантам без узгодження з вищим керівництвом, - головнокомандувач ЗСУ Залужний|url=https://espreso.tv/viyskovim-v-zoni-oos-dozvolili-vidpovidati-okupantam-golovnokomanduvach-zsu-zaluzhniy|access-date=2021-09-29|website=Еспресо - український погляд на світ!|language=uk}}</ref>

Regarding his priorities as Commander-in-Chief, Zaluzhnyi said: "The overall course of reforming Ukraine's Armed Forces in line with NATO principles and standards remains irreversible. And the key here is the principles. Changes must take place primarily in the worldview and attitude towards people. I would like you to turn your face to the people, to your subordinates. My attitude towards people has not changed throughout my service."<ref>{{Cite web|title=Новий головнокомандувач ЗСУ Залужний назвав свої пріоритети на цій посаді|url=https://espreso.tv/noviy-golovnokomanduvach-zsu-zaluzhniy-nazvav-svoi-prioriteti-na-tsiy-posadi|access-date=2021-07-31|website=Еспресо - український погляд на світ!|language=uk}}</ref>

On 2 November 2021, Zaluzhnyi appointed [[Dmytro Yarosh]], former leader of [[Right Sector]], as his Adviser; however, according to ''[[Ukrayinska Pravda]]'', Yarosh was dismissed from this position in December 2021, when the (army) post of public advisers was liquidated.<ref>{{Cite web |date=13 December 2021 |title=Генштаб не зізнається про роль Яроша. Той проінспектував свою добровольчу армію |url=https://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2021/12/13/7317209/ |access-date= |website=Ukrayinska Pravda |language=uk}}</ref>

On 5 March 2022, in the midst of the [[2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine|Russian invasion of Ukraine]], Lieutenant General Zaluzhnyi was promoted by President Zelenskyy to the rank of General,<ref>{{Cite web |title=УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАЇНИ №108/2022 |url=https://www.president.gov.ua/documents/1082022-41565}}</ref> the highest possible rank in the [[Armed Forces of Ukraine]].

Zaluzhnyi posed with a [[swastika]]-armband for his [https://twitter.com/CinC_AFU/status/1578083916296192000 Tweet made on October 6, 2022].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://deutsche-wirtschafts-nachrichten.de/700618/Oberkommandierender-der-Ukraine-zeigt-sich-mit-Hakenkreuz |title=Oberkommandierender der Ukraine zeigt sich mit Hakenkreuz |accessdate=2022-10-09 |author=Gregor Uhlig
|date=2022-10-09 |format= |work= |publisher=Deutsche Wirtschaftsnachrichten |pages= |language=de |archiveurl= |archivedate= |quote= }}</ref>

== Military ranks ==
* [[Major general]] (23 August 2017)<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|date=24 August 2017|title=Президент України підписав Указ "Про присвоєння військових звань"|url=https://www.mil.gov.ua/news/2017/08/24/prezident-ukraini-pidpisav-ukaz-pro-prisvoennya-vijskovih-zvan/|website=mil.gov.ua}}</ref>
* [[Lieutenant general]] (24 August 2021)
* [[General]] (4 March 2022)<ref>{{Cite web|date=5 March 2022|title=Twitter account of the Ministry of Defense of Ukraine|url=https://twitter.com/DefenceU/status/1499904884950421509/|website=twitter.com}}</ref>

== Notes ==
{{NoteFoot}}
{{notelist}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

=== Information ===
* [https://www.zsu.gov.ua/menu/6104f4286d7bf54932890379 генерал-лейтенант ЗАЛУЖНИЙ Валерій Федорович] // ''zsu.gov.ua''

=== Interview ===
* {{Cite web|date=5 November 2010|title=Валерій Залужний: "Новоград-Волинський був колискою мрій і прагнень, Володимир-Волинський дав можливість втілити їх у життя…"|url=http://www.zvyagel.com.ua/?p=2802|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=1 March 2018|website=zvyagel.com.ua|publisher=Звягель|language=uk}}
* ''Олександр Штупун,'' [https://armyinform.com.ua/2020/02/hochemo-vidijty-vid-napysannya-bojovyh-nakaziv-zrazka-1943-roku-vid-czyh-bezgluzdyh-dopovidej-bilya-kart-komanduvach-vijsk-ok-pivnich-general-major-valerij-zaluzhnyj/ «Хочемо відійти від написання бойових наказів зразка 1943 року. Від цих безглуздих доповідей біля карт» — командувач військ ОК «Північ» генерал-майор Валерій Залужний] // ''armyinform.com.ua'', 15 February 2020.

== External links ==
{{commons category}}
{{wikiquote}}
* [https://www.radiosvoboda.org/a/valeriy-zaluzhnyi-komanduvach-zsu/31379957.html Хто такий новий головнокомандувач ЗСУ Валерій Залужний] // Радіо Свобода, 27 July 2021.
* [https://novynarnia.com/2021/07/27/kozhen-soldat-osobystist/ «Кожен солдат для мене — особистість». Принципи нового головнокомандувача ЗСУ Валерія Залужного] // ''Новинарня'', 27 July 2021.

{{Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces of Ukraine}}
{{2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Zaluzhnyi, Valerii}}
[[Category:Ivan Chernyakhovsky National Defense University of Ukraine alumni]]
[[Category:1973 births]]
[[Category:Generals of the Army (Ukraine)]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Novohrad-Volynskyi]]
[[Category:Ukrainian military personnel of the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine]]

Candi Staton

2022-07-11T16:21:24Z

Eugrus: /* Personal life */ unclear attribution

{{short description|American singer–songwriter (born 1940)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=December 2019}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Candi Staton
| image = Candigf (cropped).JPG
| caption = Staton, 2012
| birth_name = Canzetta Maria Staton
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|mf=yes|1940|3|13}}<ref name=IG/><ref name=UNC>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tDYftTBTFyEC&pg=PA394|title=Uncloudy Days: The Gospel Music Encyclopedia|first=Bil|last=Carpenter|date=April 2, 2019|publisher=Hal Leonard Corporation|via=Google Books|isbn=9780879308414}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=CCoaAQAAMAAJ&q=candi+staton+1943|title=The Da Capo Companion to 20th-century Popular Music|first=Phil|last=Hardy|date=April 2, 1995|publisher=Da Capo Press|via=Google Books|isbn=9780306806407}}</ref><ref name=ALL>{{Cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/candi-staton-mn0000542976/biography|title=Candi Staton | Biography & History|publisher=[[AllMusic]]}}</ref>
| birth_place = [[Hanceville, Alabama]], U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| othername =
| education =
| occupation = {{hlist|Singer|songwriter}}
| spouse = {{marriage|Joe Williams |1960|1968|reason=div}} {{marriage|[[Clarence Carter]] |1970|1973|reason=div}} {{marriage|Jimmy James |1974|1977|reason=div}} {{marriage|John Sussewell |1980|1998|reason=div}} {{marriage|[[Otis Nixon]]|2010|2012|reason=div}} {{marriage|Henry Hooper |2017}}
| module = {{Infobox musical artist
| embed = yes
| genre = {{hlist|[[Soul music|Soul]]|[[Rhythm and blues|R&B]]|[[Gospel music|gospel]]|[[House music|house]]|dance|[[disco]]}}
| label = {{hlist|[[Apollo Records (1944)|Apollo]]|[[Savoy Records|Savoy]]|[[Warner Bros. Records|Warner Bros.]]|Fame|Positiva|[[Intersound Records|Intersound]]}}
| associated_acts = {{hlist|[[The Source (musician)|The Source]]}}
| yearsactive = 1953–present
| website = {{URL|candi-staton.com}}
}}
}}
'''Canzetta Maria "Candi" Staton''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|s|t|eɪ|t|ən}}, {{respell|STAY|tən|}}) (born March 13, 1940)<ref name=IG>{{Cite web|url=https://www.instagram.com/p/Bu8p3zkh2rf/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/iarchive/s/instagram/Bu8p3zkh2rf |archive-date=December 26, 2021 |url-access=registration|title=Candi Staton on Instagram: "My family surprised me for my birthday with a party, they kept this a secret for almost 2 weeks. How thankful I am that I have lived to see…"|website=Instagram}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref name=ALL/><ref>{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/starsofsoulrhyth00hild|url-access=registration|quote=candi staton 1943.|title=Stars of soul and rhythm & blues: top recording artists and showstopping performers, from Memphis and Motown to now|first=Lee|last=Hildebrand|date=October 1, 1994|publisher=Billboard Books|via=Internet Archive|isbn=9780823076338}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OnEkAQAAMAAJ&q=candi+staton+1943|title=A Touch of Classic Soul 2: The Late 1970s|first=Marc|last=Taylor|date=April 2, 2019|publisher=Aloiv Pub.|via=Google Books|isbn=9780965232876}}</ref><ref name=UNC/> is an American singer–songwriter, best known in the United States for her 1970 remake of [[Tammy Wynette]]'s "[[Stand by Your Man]]" and her 1976 [[disco]] chart-topper "[[Young Hearts Run Free]]". In Europe, Staton's biggest selling record is the anthemic "[[You Got the Love]]" from 1986, released in collaboration with [[The Source (musician)|the Source]]. Staton was inducted into the Christian Music Hall of Fame and is a four-time [[Grammy Award]] nominee.

==Biography==
=== Early life and career ===
Born in [[Hanceville, Alabama]], Staton and her sister Maggie were sent to [[Nashville, Tennessee]] at around age 11 or 12 for school. While attending Jewell Christian Academy, Staton's vocal abilities were soon noticed by her peers and the school's pastor. Amazed by her voice, the pastor paired Staton and her sister with a third girl, Naomi Harrison, and they formed the Jewell Gospel Trio.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.npr.org/2019/02/07/691970696/candi-staton-stops-at-nothing-to-create|title=Candi Staton Stops at Nothing To Create|publisher=NPR}}</ref> As teenagers, the group toured the traditional gospel circuit during the 1950s with [[the Soul Stirrers]], [[C. L. Franklin]] and [[Mahalia Jackson]].<ref name="americanamusicshow.com">from an interview on [http://americanamusicshow.com/episode191 episode 191 of the Americana Music Show], published May 12, 2014.</ref> They recorded several sides for Nashbro, [[Apollo Records (1944)|Apollo]] and [[Savoy Records]] between 1953 and 1963.{{Citation needed|date=October 2008}}

==Solo career==
In 1968, Staton was introduced to [[Rick Hall]] by [[Clarence Carter]] and launched her solo career as a Southern soul stylist,<ref name="americanamusicshow.com"/> garnering 16 R&B hits for Rick Hall's Fame Studios and gaining the title of "First Lady of Southern Soul" for her Grammy-nominated R&B renditions of the songs "[[Stand by Your Man]]" and "[[In the Ghetto]]".<ref name="titledivastation: candi staton">{{cite web|url=http://www.divastation.com/candi_staton/staton_bio.html|title=Divastation: Candi Staton|access-date=February 2, 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080112133301/http://www.divastation.com/candi_staton/staton_bio.html|archive-date=January 12, 2008}}</ref> Staton appeared on the September 23, 1972, edition (Season 2, Episode 1) of ''[[Soul Train]]''.

In 1976, Staton began collaborating with producer David Crawford on disco songs such as "[[Young Hearts Run Free]]", which reached No. 1 on the US R&B charts, No. 2 in the [[UK Singles Chart]] and went Top 20 on the Pop Hot 100<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/> during the summer of 1976. It was remixed and re-released in 1986, reaching the UK Top 50.<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/> Follow up song "Destiny" hit the Top 50 in the UK.<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/> and her version of "[[Nights on Broadway]]" hit the UK Top 10 in 1977;.<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/> In 1978, Staton scored another Top 50 hit in the UK with "Honest I Do Love You".<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/> In 1979 from her album ''Chance'', Staton released the single "When You Wake Up Tomorrow" (co-written by [[Patrick Adams (musician)|Patrick Adams]] and Wayne K. Garfield) and the title song "Chance", a top 20 R&B charted record. Other dance club chart hits included "When You Wake Up Tomorrow" and "Victim". In 1982, Staton again hit the UK chart with a version of [[Elvis Presley]]'s "[[Suspicious Minds]]".<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/><ref name="titleCandi Staton">{{cite web |url=http://www.candi-staton.com/ |title=Candi Staton |access-date=February 2, 2008}}</ref>

In 1982, Staton returned to gospel music. Staton and her then-husband, John Sussewell, founded Beracah Ministries in [[Atlanta]], Georgia, with help from [[Jim Bakker|Jim]] and [[Tammy Faye Bakker]]'s PTL Ministries.<ref name="titledivastation: candi staton" /> Staton has since recorded twelve gospel albums, two of which received [[Grammy Award]] nominations. Staton appears on the United Nations Register of Entertainers, Actors And Others Who Have Performed in Apartheid South Africa.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=United Nations Centre against Apartheid|title=REGISTER OF ENTERTAINERS, ACTORS AND OTHERS WHO HAVE PERFORMED IN APARTHEID SOUTH AFRICA|url=http://psimg.jstor.org/fsi/img/pdf/t0/10.5555/al.sff.document.nuun1986_03_final.pdf|journal=Aluka}}</ref>

===Later===
In 1991, Staton returned to UK popular charts by lending her vocals to the Source's British hit, "[[You Got the Love]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.songfacts.com/facts/source-featuring-candi-staton/you-got-the-love|title=You Got The Love by Source featuring Candi Staton – Songfacts|last=Songfacts|website=Songfacts.com}}</ref> Staton signed with [[Intersound Records]] in 1995. In 2000, she released her eleventh album, ''Here's a Blessing''. In 2004, the British record label [[Honest Jon's]] released a compilation album of her soul work from the late 1960s and early 1970s, the self-titled ''Candi Staton''. Staton followed it up with a secular project in 2006 entitled ''His Hands'', produced by Mark Nevers of [[Lambchop (band)|Lambchop]] and with the title track written by [[Will Oldham]]. Two of Staton's children, Cassandra Williams-Hightower (background vocals) and Marcus Williams (drums), joined her on the album. A second studio album for Honest Jon's, titled ''Who's Hurting Now?'', appeared in 2009. She and Rick Hall reunited to make a half dozen more tracks for Staton's 2014 southern soul album, ''Life Happens''. The lead Americana radio single, "[[I Ain't Easy to Love]]", featured Jason Isbell and John Paul White (formerly of The Civil Wars). The trio performed the track on ''The Late Show with David Letterman''. Staton's television show ''New Direction'' aired on [[Trinity Broadcasting Network|TBN]]. Staton has also made appearances on the ''[[Praise the Lord (TV program)|Praise the Lord]]'' telecast with the late [[Paul Crouch]] and his late wife [[Jan Crouch]], as well as regularly performing on [[Robert Tilton]]'s ''Success-N-Life'' show.<ref name="titleCandi Staton" /> In August 2018, Staton released her 30th album, "Unstoppable," which has been touted as a retro psychedelic R&B project. NPR music journalist, Alison Fensterstock, wrote that it, "Delivers the kind of forthright confidence and soul-girding power that can only be summoned by a grown woman who has learned a thing or two. And Staton has lived many lives. Creatively, the quadruple Grammy nominee and Christian Music Hall of Famer has moved between soul and R&B, gospel, disco and even EDM before returning to her roots as an elder stateswoman."<ref>[http://www.hallmuseum.com Christian Music Hall of Fame] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091225224310/http://www.hallmuseum.com/ |date=December 25, 2009 }} Staton inducted into the Christian Music Hall of Fame</ref>

== Personal life ==
Staton has been married six times and has five children. Staton first married Joe Williams{{Specify|reason=common name not sufficient for attribution to a certain person; at least occupation please}} from 1960 until 1968. Together they have four children: Marcus Williams, Marcel Williams, Terry Williams and Cassandra Williams-Hightower. In 1970, Staton married singer [[Clarence Carter]] and together they had one child; Clarence Carter Jr. They divorced in 1973. Staton was married to Jimmy James{{which|date=July 2022}} from 1974 until 1977. Two years after divorcing James, Staton married John Sussewell (who was a drummer for [[Ashford & Simpson]] and also [[Dory Previn]]'s [[We're Children of Coincidence and Harpo Marx|sixth album]]) in 1980, they divorced in 1998 after 18 years of marriage.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soulwalking.co.uk/Candi%20Staton.html |title=Candi Staton Page |website=Soulwalking.co.uk |date=March 13, 1943 |access-date=April 26, 2012}}</ref> From 2010 until 2012, Staton was married to former baseball player [[Otis Nixon]].<ref name="Candi Staton Marries Otis Nixon">{{cite web|last=Staton|first=Candi|title=Candi Staton's Divorce from Otis Nixon|url=http://sosogay.co.uk/2012/interview-candi-staton/|archive-url=https://archive.today/20130421050556/http://sosogay.co.uk/2012/interview-candi-staton/|url-status=dead|archive-date=April 21, 2013|website=SoSoGay.co.uk}}</ref> Staton has been married to Henry Hooper since 2017. On October 30, 2018, Staton announced that she had been diagnosed with breast cancer.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-46029712|title=Candi Staton diagnosed with breast cancer|date=October 30, 2018|publisher=BBC}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.pressherald.com/2018/10/29/singer-candi-staton-says-she-has-breast-cancer/|title=Singer Candi Staton says she has breast cancer|date=October 30, 2018|website=Pressherald.com}}</ref>

== Discography ==
{{Main|Candi Staton discography}}

===Studio albums ===
{{div col|colwidth=14em}}
* ''I'm Just a Prisoner'' (1970)
* ''Stand By Your Man'' (1971)
* ''Candi Staton'' (1972)
* ''Candi'' (1974)
* ''Young Hearts Run Free'' (1976) UK No. 34<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/>
* ''Music Speaks Louder Than Words'' (1977)
* ''House of Love'' (1978)
* ''[[Chance (Candi Staton album)|Chance]]'' (1979)
* ''Candi Staton'' (1980)
* ''Nightlites'' (1982)
* ''Make Me an Instrument'' (1983)
* ''The Anointing'' (1985)
* ''Sing a Song'' (1986)
* ''Love Lifted Me'' (1988)
* ''Stand Up and Be a Witness'' (1990)
* ''Standing on the Promises'' (1991)
* ''I Give You Praise'' (1993)
* ''[[It's Time! (Candi Staton album)|It's Time!]]'' (1995)
* ''Cover Me'' (1997)
* ''Outside In'' (1999)
* ''Here's a Blessing'' (2000)
* ''Christmas in My Heart'' (2000)
* ''Glorify'' (2001)
* ''Proverbs 31 Woman'' (2002)
* ''His Hands'' (2006)
* ''I Will Sing My Praise to You'' (2008)
* ''Who's Hurting Now?'' (Release: spring 2009)
* ''Life Happens'' (2014)
* ''It's Time to Be Free'' (2016)
* ''Unstoppable'' (2018)
{{div col end}}

=== Compilations ===
* ''The best of Candi Staton Featuring Young Hearts Run Free'' (1995 Warner Archives) Originals (not re-recorded)
* ''The Ultimate Gospel Collection'' (2006)
* ''Evidence: The Complete Fame Records Masters'' (2011) – For the first time ever all 48 of the tracks she made for Rick Hall's label between 1969 and 1974 are together in one place. 22 have never been on CD before and 12 are previously unreleased.

=== Singles (non comprehensive) ===
{{div col|colwidth=20em}}
* "I'd Rather Be an Old Man's Sweetheart (Than a Young Man's Fool) (1969) R&B No. 9 US No. 46
* "I'm Just a Prisoner (Of Your Good Lovin')" (1969) R&B No. 13 US No. 56
* "Sweet Feeling" (1970) R&B No. 5 US No. 60
* "[[Stand by Your Man]]" (1970) R&B No. 4 US No. 24
* "He Called Me Baby" (1971) R&B No. 9 US No. 52
* "[[In the Ghetto]]" (1972) R&B No. 12 US No. 48
* "Do It in the Name of Love" (1973) R&B No. 17 US No. 80
* "As Long as He Takes Care of Home" (1974) R&B No. 6 US No. 51
* "[[Young Hearts Run Free]]" (1976) US No. 20 UK No. 2 R&B No. 1 (1986 re-release No. 47, 1999 re-release #29)
* "Destiny" (1976) UK No. 41
* "[[Nights on Broadway]]" (1977) UK No. 6 R&B No. 16 US No. 102
* "Honest I Do Love You" (1978) UK No. 48 R&B No. 77
* "Victim" (1978) R&B No. 17
* "When You Wake Up Tomorrow" (1979) R&B No. 13
* "[[Suspicious Minds]]" (1982) UK No. 31
* "You Got the Love" (1986) UK No. 95 R&B No. 88
* "[[You Got the Love]]" ([[The Source (musician)|The Source]] featuring Candi Staton – 1991) UK No. 4 (1997 re-release UK No. 3 (Now Voyager Mix), 2005 import release UK No. 60, 2006 "You Got the Love (New Voyager Mix)" (featuring Candi Staton – re-release) No. 7 UK)
* "Love On Love" (1999) UK No. 27
* "Young Hearts Run Free" (re-recording) (1999) UK No. 29
* "I Just Can't Get to Sleep at All" (2000) Energise Records, UK; limited release
* "Love Sweet Sound" Groove Armada featuring Candi Staton (2007)
* "Wilder Side" Rasmus Faber & Alf Tumble featuring Candi Staton (2010)<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums">{{cite book
| first= David
| last= Roberts
| year= 2006
| title= British Hit Singles & Albums
| edition= 19th
| publisher= Guinness World Records Limited
| location= London
| isbn= 1-904994-10-5
| page= 525}}</ref>
* "Hallelujah Anyway" (2012)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.residentadvisor.net/dj/larse/biography|title=RA: Larse|last=Resident Advisor|website=Resident Advisor}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.petetong.com/2017/05/30/27th-may-essential-mix-floorplan/|title=27th May – Essential Mix – Floorplan|website=Petetong.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://mymusicisbetterthanyours.com/2012/10/annie-mac-hires-calvin-harris-as-a-substitute/|title=Calvin Harris Takeover – Annie Mac Show (BBC Radio 1)|date=October 3, 2012|website=Mymusicisbetterthanyours.com}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://musicbrainz.org/release/6011cd44-cd65-4bb4-8585-6dd6d1723ec5|title=Release : "Hallelujah Anyway" by Candi Staton – MusicBrainz|website=Musicbrainz.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://old.manchesterconfidential.co.uk/Entertainment-and-Sport/Music/Candi-Staton-Live-Review-MIF-2011|title=Candi Staton Live Review: MIF 2011|website=Manchester Confidential}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mixjunkies.com/tiesto-club-life-284-09-09-2012/|title=Tiesto – Club Life 284 : 09-09-2012|date=September 11, 2012|website=Mixjunkies.com|access-date=December 21, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171222052225/http://www.mixjunkies.com/tiesto-club-life-284-09-09-2012/|archive-date=December 22, 2017|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* "It's Your Season (B.W.Ø Remix)" (2016)
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==
* [http://www.candi-staton.com/ Candi Staton website]
* [http://www.soulexpress.net/candistaton.htm interview at Soul Express]
* [http://www.soulexpress.net/deep2_2011.htm#candistaton interview in 2011 at Soul Express]
* [http://www.soulexpress.net/deep3_2014.htm#candistaton interview in 2014 at Soul Express]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Staton, Candi}}
[[Category:1940 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:People from Hanceville, Alabama]]
[[Category:American dance musicians]]
[[Category:American house musicians]]
[[Category:American gospel singers]]
[[Category:American contraltos]]
[[Category:Georgia (U.S. state) Democrats]]
[[Category:21st-century African-American women singers]]
[[Category:Positiva Records artists]]
[[Category:Warner Records artists]]
[[Category:20th-century African-American women singers]]

Talk:Young Hearts Run Free

2022-06-05T22:45:58Z

Eugrus: /* Interview for BBC Radio 4 */ new section

{{WikiProject Songs|class=start|importance=}}
{{WikiProject R&B and Soul Music|class=Stub|auto=Inherit|importance=}}

== Interview for BBC Radio 4 ==

Probably a nice source to be incorporated: https://www.bbc.co.uk/sounds/play/m0017swt --[[User:Eugrus|eugrus]] ([[User talk:Eugrus|talk]]) 22:45, 5 June 2022 (UTC)

Talk:Astra Linux

2022-05-04T19:35:37Z

Eugrus: /* "State-sponsored" category */ new section

{{WikiProject Linux|class=Start|importance=Mid}}
{{WikiProject Russia |class=Start |importance=Low}}

== External links modified ==

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== GPL ==

An editor [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astra_Linux&diff=820802104&oldid=820745383 recently added] information to the article claiming that Astra Linux does not abide by the terms of the GPL. The claim was originally sourced to a two-year-old [https://www.reddit.com/r/linux/comments/3g4mdt/developers_of_astra_linux_violate_gpl_microsoft/ Reddit discussion], which linked to an [https://web.archive.org/web/20160220102005/https://tlhp.cf/astra-linux-violate-gpl/ article] on a defunct blog called Linux Homefront Project. A Google search for "Astra Linux GPL" brings up a few Russian-language blog and forum posts that look like they're about the controversy, but I'm not sure if there are enough reliable sources to warrant including this information. [[User:Clpo13|clpo13]]([[User_talk:Clpo13|talk]]) 23:40, 16 January 2018 (UTC)
* No "Intellectual property" section was intended to be contained in this article. At the first time, it was added by [https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Astra_Linux&diff=next&oldid=674578750 this anonymous edit] in October 2015, and no reliable sources were provided both then, and now. Can we simply remove the existing named section right now? It is the remnant of this controversy and isn't actually needed because a lack of sources. --[[User:Ssr|ssr]] ([[User talk:Ssr|talk]]) 00:43, 17 January 2018 (UTC)
** This is an "anonymous" user who added information about misleading licensing claims by astra linux. I'm not reverting or inserting unclaimed information. The information is being reverted immediately by people associated with the Astra Linux organization. I'm an Open Source engineer and a licensing specialist. I have no account on wikipedia. I did provide 3 links to confirm the text I was trying to attach. One of the links from astra linux site - an official statement of the company about its licensing restrictions. It's an authoritive source. The other two links are from wikipedia itself - about GPL licensing and from gnu.org site about gpl licensing. I guess all three links are authoritive. From my text it is transparent and clear, that Astra Linux violates the GPL licensed software it's using. The three links if you open and read them just prove that. What is the reason of removing my edit? It is correct and have authoritive links attached! I can see a violation and misuse of wikipedia here by some editors one of whom claims to be a russian government representative on wikipedia (astra associate itself with russian gov) and the other one is an editor with a couple reverts from astra linux wiki page, made long time ago, again from the part concerning violations. He should be an astra linux employee I guess. To me it seems that the company behind Astra Linux does it best to hide its violations, since I've demonstrated an authoritive sources and a factual text about violations and got back nothing except blind removals. No forums, no guesses. Exact statements with urls to sources! This case should be reported to senior wikipedia editors. The current wikipedia article about Astra Linux is MISLEADING. The licensing violation information should get back. [[Special:Contributions/188.162.195.70|188.162.195.70]] ([[User talk:188.162.195.70|talk]]) 05:08, 17 January 2018 (UTC)
** A link to reddit was just an additional link and it was removed on the request. And I have no idea about that tlhp.cf site and what is in there - did not even open it. I've come from the astra-linux licensing page and attached links to GPL on wiki and to gnu.org. Providing detailed description and motivation for addition. [[Special:Contributions/188.162.195.70|188.162.195.70]] ([[User talk:188.162.195.70|talk]]) 05:08, 17 January 2018 (UTC)
* Reference: the anonymous user is currently writing other paragraphs also [[Wikipedia:Administrators'_noticeboard/Edit_warring#User:188.162.195.70_reported_by_User:Ssr_(Result:_Warned_user(s))|here]]. --[[User:Ssr|ssr]] ([[User talk:Ssr|talk]]) 05:32, 17 January 2018 (UTC)
** In a follow-up to that discussion: there's no need to talk about what user works where. It's personal data not related to the article content. Also, it is suggested that discussion should be held here, not there --[[User:Ssr|ssr]] ([[User talk:Ssr|talk]]) 06:38, 17 January 2018 (UTC)
** Reference: the discussion link is broken. Here is [[Wikipedia:Administrators'_noticeboard/3RRArchive359#User:188.162.195.70_reported_by_User:Ssr_(Result:_Warned_user(s))|the working one]] [[Special:Contributions/188.162.195.10|188.162.195.10]] ([[User talk:188.162.195.10|talk]]) 13:40, 21 January 2018 (UTC)

== "State-sponsored" category ==

Is there a source on that? Used by the state is not the same as state sponsored. --[[User:Eugrus|eugrus]] ([[User talk:Eugrus|talk]]) 19:35, 4 May 2022 (UTC)

E2k

2022-04-23T04:30:39Z

Eugrus: ←Redirected page to Elbrus 2000

#REDIRECT [[Elbrus 2000]]

Kay-Achim Schönbach

2022-01-23T16:09:04Z

Eugrus:

[[File:Kay-Achim Schönbach in September 2021 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Kay-Achim Schönbach]]
'''Kay-Achim Schönbach''' (born 5 July, 1965) is a German vice admiral who served as the [[Inspector of the Navy]] of the [[German Navy]] from 24 March 2021 to 22 January 2022. Schönbach resigned his position after his political remarks regarding the [[2021–2022 Russo-Ukrainian crisis|ongoing Russo-Ukrainian crisis]] and prospects of Ukraine and Georgia joining [[NATO]].

Kay-Achim Schönbach joined the [[Bundeswehr]] in 1984. He served in various positions in the German Navy, including being the commanding officer of the frigate ''Mecklenburg-Vorpommern'' from 2008 to 2010, through her service in the [[Operation Enduring Freedom – Horn of Africa|Operation Enduring Freedom]] and [[Operation Atalanta]] off the [[Horn of Africa]]. He then taught at the [[Bundeswehr Command and Staff College]] in Hamburg from 2010 to 2012, commanded the 4th Frigate Squadron in Wilhelmshaven from 2012 to 2014 and headed the Division for the Europe/Eurasia and Arctic region in the Military Policy and Operations Department at the [[Federal Ministry of Defence (Germany)|Federal Ministry of Defence]] from 2014 to 2016. Schönbach's subsequent assignements included being the commander of the [[Standing NATO Maritime Group 2]] from June to December 2016 and of the [[Mürwik Naval School]] from January 2017 to May 2018, when he became Deputy Head of Strategy and Operations at the Federal Ministry of Defence. On 24 March 2021 he was appointed the Inspector of the Navy, succeeding Vice Admiral [[Andreas Krause (admiral)|Andreas Kraus]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Vizeadmiral Kay-Achim Schönbach Inspekteur der Marine |url=https://www.bundeswehr.de/resource/blob/5042594/196942f928e005a5640e083c20f724da/lebenslauf-vizeadmiral-kay-achim-schoenbach-data.pdf |publisher=Bundeswehr |access-date=23 January 2022}}</ref>

{{external media |video1 = [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ODmkoGQw1TU&t=3889 Schönbach answering the question on the eastwards expansion of NATO at the MP-IDSA]}}
Schönbach's talk at the thinktank ''[[Manohar Parrikar Institute for Defense Studies and Analyses]]'' (MP-IDSA) in [[New Delhi]] amid the growing tensions on the Russian-Ukrainian border on 21 January 2022 made international news headlines and caused a political controversy. The admiral said that Russia's alleged intention to invade Ukraine was a "nonsense" and that Ukraine would never be able to regain [[Crimea]]. He further added that [[Vladimir Putin]], "wants and probably also deserves respect", Ukraine was not ready to join NATO and while Georgia met the requirements, it would not be "smart" to admit the country into the alliance.<ref name="guard">{{cite news |last1=agencies |first1=Staff and |title=German navy chief quits after saying Putin deserves respect over Ukraine |url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2022/jan/23/german-navy-chief-quits-after-saying-putin-deserves-respect-over-ukraine |access-date=23 January 2022 |work=The Guardian |date=23 January 2022 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title='Not Smart' to Have Georgia in NATO, Says German Navy Chief |url=https://civil.ge/archives/468090 |access-date=23 January 2022 |work=Civil Georgia |date=22 January 2022}}</ref> In response, the [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Ukraine)|Ukrainian Foreign Ministry]] summoned Germany's ambassador to Kyiv to protest Schönbach's comments, while the German government stated that the admiral's remarks did not reflect Germany's position. On 22 January 2022, Schönbach resigned his command "to avoid any more damage being done to the German navy and above all, to the German federal republic".<ref name="guard"/>

== References ==
{{reflist}}

{{s-start}}
{{s-mil}}
{{s-bef | before = Vizeadmiral [[Andreas Krause (admiral)|Andreas Krause]]}}
{{s-ttl | title = [[Inspector of the Navy]] | years =24 March 2021 – 22 January 2022}}
{{s-aft | after = TBA}}
{{s-end}}
{{Authority control}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Schönbach, Kay-Achim}}

[[Category:1965 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Vice admirals of the German Navy]]
[[Category:Chiefs of Navy (Germany)]]

Astra Linux

2022-01-02T20:08:37Z

Eugrus: mandatory access control

{{Short description|Russian Linux-based computer operating system}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{Infobox OS
| name = Astra Linux
| logo = File:Astra Linux (Linux distribution).png
| logo caption =
| logo_alt = Astra Linux logo
| screenshot = Astra Linux, June 2019.png
| caption = Astra Linux Operating System
| screenshot alt =
| developer = [[Rusbitech]]
| family = [[Linux]] ([[Unix-like]])
| working state = Current
| source model = [[Open-source software|Open-source]]
| released = 
| discontinued = 
| latest release version =
| latest release date = 
| latest preview version =
| latest preview date = 
| marketing target = Russian [[military]]
| programmed in =
| language = [[Russian language|Russian]], [[English language|English]]
| update model = [[Advanced Packaging Tool|APT]]
| package manager = [[dpkg]]
| supported platforms = [[x86-64]], [[ARM architecture|ARM]], [[IBM System z|S390]], [[Elbrus 2000]]
| kernel type = [[Monolithic kernel|Monolithic]]
| userland =
| ui = fly, twm
| license =
| preceded by =
| succeeded by =
| website = {{URL|www.astralinux.ru}}
| other articles =
}}
'''Astra Linux''' is a [[Russia]]n [[Linux]]-based computer [[operating system]] (OS) developed to meet the needs of the [[Russian army]], other [[armed forces]] and [[Intelligence agency|intelligence agencies]].<ref>[http://old.computerra.ru/vision/609608/ Звезда по имени Linux: почему "военные" ОС прочнее] {{in lang|ru}}</ref> It provides [[data protection]] up to the level of "top secret" in Russian [[classified information]] grade by featuring [[mandatory access control]]. It has been officially certified by [[Russian Defense Ministry]], [[Federal Service for Technical and Export Control]]<ref>{{in lang|ru}} http://fstec.ru/en/</ref> and [[Federal Security Service]].<ref>{{in lang|ru}} http://www.astra-linux.com/sertifikat.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180304231836/http://www.astra-linux.com/sertifikat.html |date=2018-03-04}}</ref>

== Specifications ==
The creator of the OS is the Scientific/Manufacturing Enterprise [[Rusbitech]] which is applying solutions according to [[Russian Government]] decree №2299-р of 17/10/2010 that orders federal authorities and budget institutions to implement [[Free Software]] use.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} http://www.computerra.ru/vision/609608/</ref>

The OS releases are named after [[Hero City|Hero Cities]] in Russia and [[Commonwealth of Independent States]] (CIS). There is one release for ''general purpose'' code named ''[[Oryol]]'' aimed at "achieving small and mid-business goals".<ref>{{in lang|ru}} http://rusbitech.ru/products/os/11/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715041817/http://rusbitech.ru/products/os/11/ |date=2014-07-15}}</ref> Other releases are marked "special purpose" – the ''[[Smolensk]]'' for [[x86-64]] PCs, ''[[Tula, Russia|Tula]]'' for [[networking hardware]], ''[[Novorossiysk]]'' for [[ARM architecture|ARM]] mobile devices and ''[[Murmansk]]'' for [[IBM System Z]] [[mainframe computer]]s.

Rusbitech also manufactures a "soft/hardware trusted boot control module" MAKSIM-M1 ("М643М1") with [[PCI bus]]. It prevents [[Access control|unauthorized access]] and offers some other raised [[digital security]] features. The module, besides Astra Linux, also supports OSes with [[Linux kernel]] 2.6.x up to 5.x.x, as well as several [[Microsoft Windows]] OSes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astra-linux.com/features/menu-example.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-07-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714204611/http://www.astra-linux.com/features/menu-example.html |archive-date=2014-07-14 |language=ru}}</ref>

It is declared the Astra Linux licenses correspond with Russian and international laws and "don't contradict with the spirit and demands of [[GPL license]]".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astra-linux.com/support/chasto-zadavaemye-voprosy.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-07-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714222642/http://www.astra-linux.com/support/chasto-zadavaemye-voprosy.html |archive-date=2014-07-14 |language=ru}}</ref> The system uses [[.deb]] packages.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.astra-linux.com/nastrojka-apt.html |title=Archived copy |access-date=2014-07-06 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714203239/http://www.astra-linux.com/nastrojka-apt.html |archive-date=2014-07-14 |language=ru}}</ref>
[[File:Astralinux minoborony.jpg|thumb|Astra Linux Special Edition is being used in the [[The National Defense Management Center|Russian National Center for Defence Control]]]]

Astra Linux is a recognized [[Debian]] derivative.<ref>{{Cite web | url=https://wiki.debian.org/Derivatives/Census/AstraLinux |title = Derivatives/Census/AstraLinux - Debian Wiki}}</ref> Rusbitech has partnership relations with [[The Linux Foundation]]<ref>{{in lang|ru}} http://www.cnews.ru/news/line/2019-02-19_gk_astra_linux_rasshiryaet_sotrudnichestvo_s_the</ref> and [[The Document Foundation]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://blog.documentfoundation.org/blog/2015/10/06/the-document-foundation-welcomes-rusbitech-in-the-project-advisory-board/ |title=The Document Foundation welcomes RusBITech in the project Advisory Board |date=6 October 2015}}</ref>

== Use ==
The Special Edition version (paid) is used in many Russian state-related organizations. Particularly, it is used in the Russian National Center for Defence Control.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} http://spbit.ru/news/n119990/</ref>

There are talks to deploy mass use of Astra Linux in many state institutions of the [[Republic of Crimea]] – legitimate use of other popular OSes is questionable because of [[international sanctions during the Ukrainian crisis]].<ref>{{in lang|ru}} [[n:ru:Власти Крыма планируют переход на Linux из-за санкций]] – [[Russian Wikinews]], 22.07.2015</ref>

Also there are plans on cooperation of Rusbitech and [[Huawei]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telecompaper.com/news/huawei-rusbitex-to-design-information-protection-systems--1112992|title=Huawei, RusBITex to design information protection systems}}</ref><ref>{{in lang|ru}} http://e.huawei.com/ru/news/ru/2015/201510111513</ref>

In January 2018, it was announced that Astra Linux was going to be deployed to all Russian Army computers, and Microsoft Windows will be dropped.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.zdnet.com/article/russian-military-moves-closer-to-replacing-windows-with-astra-linux/|title = Russian military moves closer to replacing Windows with Astra Linux|website = [[ZDNet]]}}</ref>

In February 2018, Rusbitech announced it has ported Astra Linux to [[MCST|Russian-made Elbrus microprocessors]].<ref>{{in lang|ru}} http://www.astralinux.com/home/novosti/469-rbt-elbrus.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180227153805/http://www.astralinux.com/home/novosti/469-rbt-elbrus.html |date=2018-02-27}}</ref>

In February 2019, Astra Linux was announced to be implemented at [[Tianwan Nuclear Power Plant]] in China.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} http://corp.cnews.ru/news/line/2019-02-05_rossijskaya_os_astra_linux_vnedrena_na_tyanvanskoj</ref>

Since 2019 "super-protected" [[tablet computer]]s branded ''MIG'' are available with Astra Linux,<ref>{{in lang|ru}} https://www.cnews.ru/news/top/2020-01-23_rossijskij_zashchishchennyj_planshet</ref> smartphones are expected.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/3999021</ref>

In 2019 [[Gazprom]] national gas/oil holding announced Astra Linux implementation, in 2020 nuclear corporation [[Rosatom]],<ref>{{in lang|ru}} https://www.ixbt.com/news/2020/12/18/800-astra-linux.html</ref> in early 2021 [[Russian Railways]] was reported to do so.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} https://company.rzd.ru/ru/9397/page/104069?id=260438</ref>

In 2020, Astra Linux sold more than a million copies in licenses and generated 2 billion rubles in sales.<ref>{{cite web |title=The Russian distribution of Astra Linux has passed the milestone of 1 million licenses |url=https://servernews.ru/1035200 |access-date=25 March 2021}}</ref>

In 2021, several Russian [[nuclear power plant]]s and subsidiaries of [[Rosatom]] are planned to switch to Astra Linux, with a total of 15000 users.<ref>{{in lang|ru}} https://bankstoday.net/last-news/pervye-9-rossijskih-aes-pereveli-na-sistemu-astra-linux-a-skoro-pomenyayut-i-sami-kompyutery-na-baikal-ili-elbrus</ref>

== Version history ==
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Versions of Astra Linux Special Edition ([[Smolensk]])
! Version !! Release date !! [[Linux kernel]]
|-
| 1.2 || 28 October 2011 || 2.6.34
|-
| 1.3 || 26 April 2013 || 3.2.0<ref>[http://astralinux.ru/osnovnye-komponenty.html Основные компоненты] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150127191957/http://astralinux.ru/osnovnye-komponenty.html |date=2015-01-27}} {{in lang|ru}}</ref>
|-
| 1.4<ref>[http://astralinux.ru/products/new/193-new1-4.html Операционная система "Astra Linux Special Edition" релиз "Смоленск" (версия 1.4)] {{in lang|ru}}</ref> || 19 December 2014 || 3.16.0
|-
| 1.5<ref>[http://astra-linux.com/home/novosti/304-smolensk-1-5.html Завершен инспекционный контроль версии 1.5 релиза "Смоленск" операционной системы специального назначения "Astra Linux Special Edition"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508181653/http://astra-linux.com/home/novosti/304-smolensk-1-5.html |date=2016-05-08}} {{in lang|ru}}</ref> || 8 April 2016 || 4.2.0
|-
| 1.6 || 12 October 2018 || 4.15.0
|-
| 1.7 || 22 October 2021 || 5.4
|}
{| class="wikitable"
|+ Versions of Astra Linux Common Edition ([[Oryol]])
! Version !! Release date !! [[Linux kernel]]
|-
| 1.5 || ending of 2009 || 2.6.31
|-
| 1.6 || 23 November 2010 || {{N/a}}
|-
| 1.7<ref>[http://astra-linux.com/home/novosti/108-vyshla-versiya-1-7-reliza-astra-linux-sommon-edition-orel.html Вышла версия 1.7 релиза Astra Linux Common Edition (Orel)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180419183627/http://astra-linux.com/home/novosti/108-vyshla-versiya-1-7-reliza-astra-linux-sommon-edition-orel.html |date=2018-04-19}} {{in lang|ru}}</ref> || 3 February 2012 || 2.6.34
|-
| 1.9 || 12 February 2013 || 3.2.0
|-
| 1.10<ref>[http://astralinux.ru/home/novosti/188-vyshla-novaya-versiya-astra-linux-common-edition-1-10-reliz-orjol.html Вышла новая версия "Astra Linux Common Edition" 1.10 - релиз "Орёл"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150811035009/http://astralinux.ru/home/novosti/188-vyshla-novaya-versiya-astra-linux-common-edition-1-10-reliz-orjol.html |date=2015-08-11}} {{in lang|ru}}</ref> || 14 November 2014 || 3.16.0
|-
| 1.11<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://astra-linux.com/home/novosti/298-vyshla-fiksirovannaya-versiya-1-11-reliza-orjol.html |title=Вышла фиксированная версия 1.11 релиза "Орёл" |access-date=2018-04-19 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421210302/http://astra-linux.com/home/novosti/298-vyshla-fiksirovannaya-versiya-1-11-reliza-orjol.html |archive-date=2016-04-21 |url-status=dead}}</ref> || 17 March 2016 || 4.2.0
|-
| 2.12 || 21 August 2018 || 4.15
|-
|2.12.29 || 14 May 2020 || 4.15.3-2
|-
|2.12.40
|29 December 2020
|5.4
|-
|2.12.43
|8 September 2021
|5.10
|}

== References ==
{{Commons category}}
{{Reflist}}

{{Linux distributions}}
{{Russian operating systems}}

[[Category:X86-64 Linux distributions]]
[[Category:Debian-based distributions]]
[[Category:Linux distributions]]
[[Category:Russian-language Linux distributions]]
[[Category:State-sponsored Linux distributions]]

Singer Corporation

2021-12-25T01:15:58Z

Eugrus: /* History */

{{Short description|American manufacturer of sewing machines}}
{{Use American English|date=April 2019}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=April 2019}}
{{Infobox company
| logo = SingerLogo.svg
| industry = [[Manufacturing]]
| foundation = 1851 in [[New York City]]
| founders = {{unbulleted list|[[Isaac Singer|Isaac M. Singer]]|[[Edward Cabot Clark|Edward C. Clark]]}}
| location = [[La Vergne, Tennessee]], United States
| products = [[Sewing machine]]
[[Upholstery]]
| owner = [[SVP Worldwide]]
| homepage = {{URL|https://www.singer.com/}}
}}
[[File:Singer sewing machine table.jpg|thumb|A Singer [[treadle]] [[sewing machine]]]]
'''Singer Corporation''' is an American manufacturer of consumer [[sewing machine]]s, first established as '''I. M. Singer & Co.''' in 1851 by [[Isaac Singer|Isaac M. Singer]] with New York lawyer [[Edward Cabot Clark|Edward C. Clark]]. Best known for its sewing machines, it was renamed '''Singer Manufacturing Company''' in 1865, then the '''Singer Company''' in 1963. It is based in [[La Vergne, Tennessee]], near [[Nashville, Tennessee|Nashville]]. Its first large factory for [[mass production]] was built in 1863 in [[Elizabeth, New Jersey]].<ref>{{Cite book
|last = Cunningham
|first = John T.
|title = Ellis Island: Immigration's Shining Center
|publisher = Arcadia Publishing
|year = 2004
|url = https://books.google.com/books?id=OyL6JatN5KwC&q=Island+of+Hope%2C+Island+of+Tears
|isbn = 978-0-7385-2428-3}}</ref>

==History==
[[File:Singer Sewing Machine 1851.jpg|thumb|A Singer 1851 [[sewing machine]]]]

Singer's original design was the first practical sewing machine for general domestic use. It incorporated the basic eye-pointed needle and [[Lockstitch|lock stitch]], developed by [[Elias Howe]], who won a patent-infringement suit against Singer in 1854.

[[File:Singer Sewing Machine Patent Model, No. 8,294, 1851.jpg|thumb|left|Singer's [[patent model]] for his sewing machine]]

Singer obtained {{US patent|8294|patent no. 8294}} in August 1851 for an improved sewing machine that included a circular feed wheel, thread controller, and power transmitted by gear wheels and shafting.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.machine-history.com/THE%20SEWING%20MACHINE|title=Sewing machine history|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328220834/http://www.machine-history.com/THE%20SEWING%20MACHINE|archive-date=2010-03-28}}</ref>

Singer consolidated enough patents in the field to enable him to engage in mass production, and by 1860 his company was the largest manufacturer of sewing machines in the world. In 1885 Singer produced its first "[[vibrating shuttle]]" sewing machine, an improvement over contemporary [[transverse shuttle]] designs (see [[bobbin driver]]s). The Singer company began to market its machines internationally in 1855 and won first prize at the [[Exposition Universelle (1855)|Paris world's fair]] that year. The company demonstrated the first workable electric sewing machine at the Philadelphia electric exhibition in 1889{{Citation needed|date=May 2020|reason=I cannot find any reference online to such an exhibition in that year; only the “International Electrical Exhibition of 1884” (qv Wikipedia article with that title).}} and began mass-producing domestic electric machines in 1910. Singer was also a marketing innovator and a pioneer in promoting the use of installment payment plans.

===Early sales figures===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Year
| style="width: 6em" | 1853
| style="width: 6em" |1859
| style="width: 6em" |1867
| style="width: 6em" |1871
| style="width: 6em" |1873
| style="width: 6em" |1876
|-
! Units
| 810
| 10,953
| 43,053
| 181,260
| 232,444
| 262,316
|-
|colspan="7" | Source:<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.machine-history.com/THE%20SEWING%20MACHINE |title=Sewing Machines |publisher=Machine-History.Com |access-date=2012-09-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100328220834/http://www.machine-history.com/THE%20SEWING%20MACHINE |archive-date=2010-03-28 }}</ref>
|}

[[File:Singer-logo old.png|left|70px|thumb|Old Singer logo]]
By 1876, Singer was claiming cumulative sales of two million sewing machines and had put the two millionth machine on display in Philadelphia.<ref>{{cite book|title=Fort Moultrie Centennial, Part II|date=1876|publisher=Walker, Evans & Cogswell|location=Charleston|page=29|url=http://digital.tcl.sc.edu/cdm/ref/collection/sclpam/id/711 |access-date=22 September 2014}}</ref>

===Singer in Scotland===
[[File:People leaving Singer Sewing Machine Factory, Clydebank.jpg|thumb|Workers leaving Singer sewing machine factory on Clydebank]]

In 1867, the Singer Company decided that the demand for their sewing machines in the United Kingdom was sufficiently high to open a local factory in [[Glasgow]] on John Street. The Vice President of Singer, George Ross McKenzie selected Glasgow because of its iron making industries, cheap labour, and shipping capabilities.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hounshell |first1=David |title=From the American System to Mass Production, 1800-1932: The Development of Manufacturing Technology in the United States |date=1984 |publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press |location=Baltimore and London |isbn=9780801831584 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/fromamericansyst0000houn/page/93 93]–94 |url=https://archive.org/details/fromamericansyst0000houn |url-access=registration |language=en}}</ref> Demand for sewing machines outstripped production at the new plant and by 1873, a new larger factory was completed on James Street, [[Bridgeton, Glasgow|Bridgeton]]. By that point, Singer employed over 2,000 people in Scotland, but they still could not produce enough machines.

In 1882, McKenzie, by then President-elect of the Singer Manufacturing Company, undertook the ground breaking ceremony on {{convert|46|acre}} of farmland at Kilbowie, [[Clydebank]]. Originally, two main buildings were constructed, each {{convert|800|ft|adj=on}} long, {{convert|50|ft|adj=on}} wide and three storeys high. These were connected by three wings. Built above the middle wing was a {{convert|200|ft|adj=on}} tall clock tower with the "Singer" name clearly displayed for all to see for miles around. A total of {{convert|2.75|mi}} of railway lines were laid throughout the factory to connect the different departments such as the boiler room, foundry, shipping and the lines to main railway stations. [[Sir Robert McAlpine]] was the building contractor and the factory was designed to be fire proof with water sprinklers, making it the most modern factory in Europe at that time.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sir-robert-mcalpine.com/files/page/200/SRMBrochure2010_web1.pdf|title=A portrait of achievement|publisher=Sir Robert McAlpine|access-date=24 April 2016|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508151434/http://www.sir-robert-mcalpine.com/files/page/200/SRMBrochure2010_web1.pdf|archive-date=8 May 2016}}</ref>

With nearly a million square feet of space and almost 7,000 employees, it was possible to produce on average 13,000 machines a week, making it the largest sewing machine factory in the world. The Clydebank factory was so productive that in 1905, the U.S. Singer Company set up and registered the Singer Manufacturing Company Ltd. in the United Kingdom. Demand continued to exceed production, so each building was extended upwards to 6 storeys high. A [[Singer railway station|railway station]] with the company name was established in 1907 with connections to adjoining towns and central Glasgow to assist in transporting the workforce to the facility.

In the [[First World War]], sewing machine production gave way to munitions. The Singer Clydebank factory received over 5000 government contracts, and made 303 million artillery shells, shell components, fuses, and aeroplane parts, as well as grenades, rifle parts, and 361,000 horseshoes. Its labour force of 14,000 was about 70% female at war's end.<ref>Robert Bruce Davies, ''Peacefully working to conquer the world'' (Arno Press, 1976) p. 170</ref>

From its opening in 1884 until 1943, the Kilbowie factory produced approximately 36,000,000 sewing machines. Singer was the world leader and sold more machines than all the other makers added together. In 1913, the factory shipped 1.3 million machines. The late 1950s and 1960s saw a period of significant change at the Clydebank factory. In 1958, Singer reduced production at their main American plant and transferred 40% of this production to the Clydebank factory in a bid to reduce costs. Between 1961 and 1964, the Clydebank factory underwent a £4 million modernization program which saw the Clydebank factory cease the production of cast iron machines and focus on the production of aluminium machines for western markets. As part of this modernisation programme, the famous Singer Clock was demolished in 1963. At the height of its productiveness in the mid 1960s, Singer employed over 16,000 workers but by the end of that decade, compulsory redundancies were taking place and 10 years later the workforce was down to 5,000. Financial problems and lack of orders forced the world's largest sewing machine factory to close in June 1980, bringing to an end over 100 years of sewing machine production in Scotland. The complex of buildings was demolished in 1998.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.singersewinginfo.co.uk/kilbowie/|title=Singer Sewing Machine Factory Kilbowie, Clydebank}}</ref>

[[File:singersign.JPG|thumb|Painted Singer Sewing sign in Kingston, New York]]
[[File:Singer-P1010053.jpg|thumb|A Singer [[sewing machine]] with electric retrofit]]

===Marketing===
[[File:Paolo Monti - Servizio fotografico - BEIC 6346702.jpg|thumb|left|Advertising photograph by [[Paolo Monti]], Milan 1963]]

The Singer sewing machine was the first complex standardized technology to be mass marketed. It was not the first sewing machine, and its patent in 1851 led to a patent battle with Elias Howe, inventor of the [[lockstitch]] machine. This eventually resulted in a patent sharing accord among the major firms.<ref name="Joan Perkin 2002">Joan Perkin, "Sewing Machines: Liberation or Drudgery for Women?" History Today 52 (Dec. 2002).</ref> Marketing strategies included focusing on the manufacturing industry,<ref>Andrew Godley "Selling the Sewing Machine Around the World: Singers International Marketing Strategies, 1850-1920." Enterprise and Society (June 2007) 7 281.</ref> gender identity,<ref>Judith G. Coffin, "Credit, Consumption, and Images of Women's Desires: Selling the Sewing Machine in Late Nineteenth-Century France." Historical Studies (Spring, 1994) 18 746-750.</ref> credit plans,<ref>Judith G. Coffin, "Credit, Consumption, and Images of Women's Desires: Selling the Sewing Machine in Late Nineteenth-Century France." Historical Studies (Spring, 1994) 18 752</ref> and "hire purchases."<ref name="Joan Perkin 2002"/>

Singer's marketing emphasized the role of women and their relationship to the home, evoking ideals of virtue, modesty, and diligence.<ref>Judith G. Coffin, "Credit, Consumption, and Images of Women's Desires: Selling the Sewing Machine in Late Nineteenth-Century France." Historical Studies (Spring, 1994) 18 746-752.</ref> Though the sewing machine represented liberation from arduous hand sewing, it chiefly benefited those sewing for their families and themselves. Tradespeople relying on sewing as a livelihood still suffered from poor wages, which dropped further in response to the time savings gained by machine sewing.<ref name="Joan Perkin 2002"/> Singer offered credit purchases and rent-to-own arrangements, allowing people to rent a machine with the rental payments applied to the eventual purchase of the machine,<ref name="Joan Perkin 2002"/> and sold globally through the use of direct-sales door-to-door canvassers to demonstrate and sell the machines.<ref>Andrew Godley "Selling the Sewing Machine Around the World: Singers International Marketing Strategies, 1850-1920." Enterprise and Society (June 2007) 7 269-281.</ref>

=== World War II ===
During [[World War II]], the company suspended sewing machine production to take on government contracts for weapons manufacturing. Factories in the United States supplied the American forces with [[Norden bomb sight]]s and [[M1 Carbine]] rifle receivers, while factories in Germany provided their armed forces with weapons.<ref>Sanders, Richard [http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/53/clark.html Robert S. Clark (1877-1956)], ''Press for Conversion! magazine, Issue 53, "Facing the Corporate Roots of American Fascism," March 2004. Published by the Coalition to Oppose the Arms Trade.''</ref>

In 1939, the company was given a production study by the government to draw plans and develop standard raw material sizes for building [[M1911 pistol|M1911A1 pistols]]. The following April 17, Singer was given an educational order of 500 units with serial numbers S800001 – S800500. The educational order was a program set up by the Ordnance Board in the U.S. to teach companies without gun-making experience to manufacture weapons.

After the 500 units were delivered to the U.S. government, the management decided to produce artillery and bomb sights. The pistol tooling and manufacturing machines were transferred to [[Remington Rand]] whilst some went to the [[Ithaca Gun Company]]. Approximately 1.75 million 1911A1 pistols were produced during World War II, making original Singer pistols relatively rare and collectable.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Karash|first1=Karl|title=Singer Manufacturing Co|url=http://www.coolgunsite.com/images/1911/singer1911a1.htm|website=coolgunsite.com|publisher=Moore, Ty|access-date=15 April 2019|year=2002}}</ref>

In December 1940, Singer won a contract to produce the M5 Antiaircraft Director, a version of the UK-designed [[Kerrison Predictor]]. The [[US Army]] had previously adopted the [[M7 Computing Sight]] for their [[37 mm gun M1]] anti-aircraft guns, but the gun proved temperamental and [[Sperry Corporation]] was too busy producing other systems to build the required number of M7's. After testing in September 1940, the Army accepted the Kerrison as the M5, and later, the [[Bofors 40 mm gun]] in place of the M1.<ref name=Mindell1995>{{cite journal|title=Anti-aircraft fire control and the development of integrated systems at Sperry, 1925-40|journal=IEEE Control Systems Magazine|volume=15|issue=2|date= April 1995|pages=108–113|issn=1066-033X|doi=10.1109/37.375318|first=David A. |last=Mindell}}</ref>

=== Post-war ===
Singer resumed developing sewing machines in 1946.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.singer.com/history|title=The Singer Brand History - 160+ Years of Sewing {{!}} Singer.com|website=www.singer.com|language=en|access-date=2018-10-20}}</ref> After the not so well received Singer 206k, a first attempt in zig-zag machines, starting production in 1936, They introduced one of their most popular, highest-quality and fully-optioned machines in 1957, the 401 Slant-o-Matic. 2011 marked their 160th anniversary. Currently, they manufacture computerized, heavy duty, embroidery, quilting, serging, and mechanical sewing machines.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.singer.com/machines|title=Machines {{!}} Singer.com|website=www.singer.com|language=en|access-date=2018-10-20}}</ref>

In 2017, they launched their new Singer Sewing Assistant App.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.singer.com/software/app|title=SINGER Sewing Assistant App for iPhone & Android {{!}} Singer.com|website=www.singer.com|language=en|access-date=2018-10-20}}</ref>

===Diversification===
[[File:Early 20th-century Singer sewing machine in Malta.png|thumb|right|Singer in [[Malta]]]]
In the 1960s, the company diversified, acquiring the [[Friden, Inc.|Friden]] [[calculator]] company in 1965 and [[General Precision Equipment Corporation]] in 1968. GPE included [[Librascope]], [[Kearfott|The Kearfott Company, Inc]], and [[Link Trainer|Link Flight Simulation]]. In 1968 also, Singer bought out GPS Systems and added it to the Link Simulations Systems Division (LSSD). This unit produced nuclear power plant control room simulators in Silver Spring, Maryland: Tech Road building for Boiling Water Reactor (BWR), Parkway building for Pressurized Water Reactor (PWR) and later moved to Broken Land Parkway in Columbia, Maryland while flight simulators were produced in [[Binghamton, New York]].

In 1987, corporate raider [[Paul Bilzerian]] made a "[[greenmail]]" run at Singer, and ended up owning the company when no "[[White knight (business)|White Knight]]" rescuer appeared. To recover his money, Bilzerian sold off parts of the company. Kearfott was split, the [[Kearfott Guidance & Navigation Corporation]] was sold to the [[Astronautics Corporation of America]] in 1988 and the Electronic Systems Division was purchased the [[Plessey|Plessey Company]] in 1988 and renamed Plessey Electronic Systems (and then acquired by [[GEC-Marconi]] in 1990, renamed GEC-[[Marconi Electronic Systems]], and later incorporated into [[BAE Systems]]). The four Link divisions developing and supporting industrial and flight simulation were sold to Canadian Avionics Electronics ([[CAE Inc.|CAE]]) and became CAE-Link. The nuclear power simulator division became S3 Technologies, and later GSE Systems, and relocated to Eldersburg, MD. The Sewing Machine Division was sold in 1989 to [[International Semi Tech Microsystems|Semi-Tech Microelectronics]], a publicly traded Toronto-based company.<ref>{{cite magazine|url=http://www.businessweek.com/magazine/content/02_31/b3794153.htm|title=Dishonored Dealmaker|magazine=Businessweek|last1=Miller|first1=Matthew|last2=Clifford|first2=Mark L.|last3=Zegel|first3=Susan|date=5 August 2002|access-date=2007-03-25|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

For several years in the 1970s, Singer set up a national sales force for [[CAT (phototypesetter)|CAT phototypesetting machines]] (of [[UNIX]] [[troff]] fame) made by another Massachusetts company, Graphic Systems Inc.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://haagens.com/oldtype.tpl.html#2G |title=Old Phototypesetter Tales |publisher=Haagens.com }}</ref> This division was purchased by [[Wang Laboratories]] in 1978.

===20th century===
[[File:Singer Nähmaschine in Osttimor 2017-04-22.jpg|thumb|Woman with Singer sewing machine in [[East Timor]] (2017)|alt=|210x210px]]

Sales and profits grew until the 1940s. The market was affected in several ways. The USA market matured after WWII. Japanese manufacturers ate into the market with zig-zag sewing machines.<ref>https://www.company-historie.com/The-Singer-Company-NV-Company-History.html</ref> Under the leadership of Donald P. Kircher, Singer diversified into markets such as office equipment, defense, and aerospace. Revenue of which 90% of revenue from sewing machines was reduced to 35% after diversification.

In 1978 Singer moved its HQ from Rockefeller Plaza to Stamford, Conn. This relocation moved 430 jobs to the new location.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1978/06/14/archives/singer-co-is-moving-to-stamford-to-surprise-of-new-york-officials.html|title=Singer Co. Is Moving to. Stamford to Surprise of New York Officials|newspaper=The New York Times|date=June 14, 1978|last1=Sterba|first1=James P.}}</ref>

During the 1980s Singer sewing machine markets were being hit with Japanese machines and European brands including Bernina, Pfaff, and Viking. In 1986, the original Singer company spun off its sewing machine business under the name SSMC. In 1989 Semi-Tech Global purchased SSMC renaming SSMC back to Singer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.forbes.com/global/1999/1115/034_01.html#244b1d823b15|title = The wrecking of Singer}}</ref> Semi-Tech Global incorporated Singer into Singer N.V. based in Netherlands Antilles owned by the Hong Kong holding company.

Singer N.V. filed bankruptcy in 1999 and was acquired by [[Kohlberg & Company]].<ref name="nashvillepost.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nashvillepost.com/home/article/20448916/singer-sewing-company-to-be-sold-to-kohlberg|title=Singer sewing company to be sold to Kohlberg}}</ref> In 1997, Singer (Singer N.V.) US operations moved its consumer products to LaVergne, Tennessee. This location also served its wholesale distribution of sewing machines and parts.<ref name="nashvillepost.com"/> In 2006 The parent company of Singer - Kohlberg & Company, acquired Husqvarna and Pfaff brands. This merged the three brands into the current company the [[SVP Worldwide|SVP Group]].<ref>http://www.singersa.com/svp-group</ref> Its main competitors are [[Tacony Corporation|Baby Lock]], [[Bernina International|Bernina]], [[Brother Industries|Brother]], [[Janome]], [[Juki]] and [[Aisin Seiki]].

[[File:Historic American Buildings Survey, September 1967, VIEW FROM WEST. - Singer Tower, 149 Broadway, New York, New York County, NY HABS NY,31-NEYO,71-4.tif|thumb|left|The tower of the former [[Singer Building]] in Manhattan, the tallest in the world at the time of its construction]]
[[File:Singer House SPB 01.jpg|thumb|[[Singer House]] in [[Saint Petersburg]], Russia]]
Singer was heavily involved in Manhattan real estate in the 1800s through [[Edward Cabot Clark|Edward C. Clark]], a founder of the company. Clark had built [[The Dakota]] apartments and other Manhattan buildings in the 1880s. In 1900, the Singer company retained [[Ernest Flagg]] to build a 12-story loft building at Broadway and Prince Street in Lower Manhattan. The building is now considered architecturally notable, and it has been restored.<ref name="Gray-97">{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/06/29/realestate/style-standard-for-early-steel-framed-skyscraper.html?scp=896&sq=corning&st=nyt|title=Style Standard for Early Steel-Framed Skyscraper|last=Gray|first=Christopher|date=29 June 1997|work=The New York Times|page=7|access-date=1 August 2010}}</ref>

The 47-story [[Singer Building]], completed in 1908, was also designed by Flagg, who designed two landmark residences for Bourne. Constructed during Bourne's tenure, the Singer Building (demolished in 1968) was then the [[tallest building in the world]] and was the tallest building to be intentionally demolished until the Twin Towers of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] were destroyed in the [[September 11 attacks]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nyc-architecture.com/?p=1497|title=New York Architecture Images- HOME|website=nyc-architecture.com}}</ref>

At their [[Clydebank]] factory, Singer built a {{Convert|200|ft|m}} clock tower, which stood over the central wing and had the reputation of being the largest four-faced clock in the world. Each face weighed five tons, and it took four men fifteen minutes twice a week to keep it wound.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.west-dunbarton.gov.uk/leisure-parks-events/museums-and-galleries/collections/singer/|title=Singer Clydebank history on West Dunbarton Council website}}</ref> The tower was demolished in 1963,17 years before the factory closed in 1980 and is now the site of Clydebank Business Park. [[Singer railway station]], built to serve the factory, is only one of two railway stations in the UK, named after a factory, and is still in operation today.

The famous [[Singer House]], designed by architect [[Pavel Suzor]], was built in 1902–1904 at [[Nevsky Prospekt]] in [[Saint Petersburg]] as headquarters of the [[Russia]]n branch of the company. This [[modern style]] building (situated just opposite the [[Kazan Cathedral, St. Petersburg|Kazan Cathedral]]) is officially recognized as an object of Russian historical-cultural heritage.

In 2018, a large factory fire destroyed a Singer distribution office and warehouse in [[Seven Hills, New South Wales|Seven Hills]], [[Sydney]]. Singer had manufactured sewing machines in Australia at a purpose-built plant in the western Sydney suburb of [[Penrith, New South Wales|Penrith]], from 1959 until 1967.

==List of company presidents==
*[[Isaac Singer|Isaac M. Singer]] (1851–1863)
*Inslee Hopper (1863–1875)
*[[Edward Cabot Clark|Edward C. Clark]] (1875–1882)
*George Ross McKenzie (1882–1889)
*[[Frederick Gilbert Bourne]] (1889–1905)
*[[Sir Douglas Alexander, 1st Baronet|Sir Douglas Alexander]] (1905–1949)
*Milton C. Lightner (1949–1958)
*Donald P. Kircher (1958–1975)
*Joseph Bernard Flavin (1975–1987)
*[[Paul Bilzerian]] (1987–1989)<ref>
{{cite magazine
|url = http://jcgi.pathfinder.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,958093,00.html
|title = A Raider's Days Of Reckoning
|magazine = Time Magazine
|date = 10 July 1989
|access-date = 2007-05-01
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20081202164108/http://jcgi.pathfinder.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,958093,00.html
|archive-date = December 2, 2008
|url-status = dead
|df = mdy-all
}}
</ref>
*Iftikhar Ahmed (1989–1997)<ref>{{cite news
| url = http://bestsewingmachinereviewspot.com/singer-semi-techs-ting-jailed-six-years/
| title = Semi-Tech's Ting jailed six years
| newspaper = The Standard (Hong Kong)
|author1=Daniel Hilken |author2=Albert Wong
|name-list-style=amp | date = July 1, 2005
| access-date = 2010-08-15}}</ref>
*Stephen H. Goodman (1998–2004)

==Popular domestic Singer sewing machines==
<gallery>
File:Singer12k.jpg|A Singer model 12K fiddle-bed from 1878
File:Singer66.JPG|A Singer model 66 with Lotus decals from 1922
File:Singer99b.jpg|A Singer model 99 from 1939
File:singer222k.jpg|A [[Singer Featherweight]] model 222k from 1954
</gallery>

==See also==
*[[History of the sewing machine]]
*[[List of sewing machine brands]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*Brandon, Ruth. ''A capitalist romance: Singer and the sewing machine'' (Lippincott, 1977).
*Coffin, Judith G. "Credit, consumption, and images of women's desires: selling the sewing machine in late nineteenth-century France". ''French Historical Studies'' (1994): 749–783. {{jstor|286691}}.
*Davies, Robert Bruce. ''Peacefully working to conquer the world: Singer sewing machines in foreign markets, 1854–1920'' (Arno Press, 1976).
*Godley, Andrew. "The Global Diffusion of the Sewing Machine, 1850–1914". ''Research in Economic History'' 20#1 (2001): 1-46.
*Godley, Andrew. "Selling the Sewing Machine Around the World: Singer's International Marketing Strategies, 1850–1920", ''Enterprise & Society'' (2006) 7#2 pp. 266–314.
*Godley, Andrew. "Singer in Britain: the diffusion of sewing machine technology and its impact on the [[clothing industry]] in the United Kingdom, 1860–1905". ''Textile history'' 27.1 (1996): 59–76.
*Jack, Andrew B. "The channels of distribution for an innovation: The sewing-machine industry in America, 1860–1865". ''Explorations in Economic History'' 9.3 (1957): 113.
*Weber, Nicholas Fox. ''The Clarks of Cooperstown: Their Singer Sewing Machine Fortune, Their Great and Influential Art Collections, Their Forty-year Feud'' (Alfred A. Knopf, 2007).
*Wickramasinghe, Nira. "Following the Singer Sewing Machine: Fashioning a Market in a British Crown Colony" in ''Metallic Modern: Everyday Machines in Colonial Sri Lanka''. (Berghahn Books, 2014) pp. 16–40. {{jstor|j.ctt9qd0gq.6}}.

==External links==
{{Commons category multi|Singer Corporation|Singer sewing machines}}
*{{Official website|https://www.singer.com}}
*Singer Direct [https://www.singermachines.co.uk/faq/singer-sewing-machine-company-history.html Singer history timeline]
*Singer in WWII [https://web.archive.org/web/20090717001750/http://home.roadrunner.com/~featherweight/wwii.htm Singer's contribution to the war effort]
*Singer sewing machine [https://web.archive.org/web/20101231074244/http://www.singerco.com/support/serial_numbers.html serial numbers and dates]
*''[http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCollections/Trade-Literature/Sewing-Machines Sewing Machines, Historical Trade Literature]'' Smithsonian Institution Libraries
*[http://www.newberry.org/collections/FindingAids/singer/Singer.html Singer Manufacturing company records] at [[Newberry Library]]
*[http://findingaids.hagley.org/xtf/view?docId=ead/2207.xml Singer Company records] (1851–1990) at [[Hagley Museum and Library]]
*[http://findingaids.hagley.org/xtf/view?docId=ead/2526.xml Singer Manufacturing Company Records] (1860–1878) at [[Hagley Museum and Library]]
*{{HAER |survey=NJ-51 |id=nj0983 |title=Singer Manufacturing Company, 321 First Street, Elizabeth, Union County, NJ}}

{{Sewing}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Sewing machine brands]]
[[Category:Vacuum cleaner manufacturers]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies based in Tennessee]]
[[Category:Rutherford County, Tennessee]]
[[Category:American companies established in 1851]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies established in 1851]]
[[Category:1851 establishments in New York (state)]]
[[Category:Clark family]]
[[Category:Historic American Engineering Record in New Jersey]]
[[Category:American subsidiaries of foreign companies]]
[[Category:1989 mergers and acquisitions]]
[[Category:2006 mergers and acquisitions]]
[[Category:Home appliance manufacturers of the United States]]

Rachel (given name)

2021-12-18T22:05:10Z

Eugrus: /* Variants */

{{about||a variation of the name|Raquel}}
{{Infobox given name
| name = Rachel
| image=Dante's_Vision_of_Rachel_and_Leah.jpg
| imagesize=200
| caption=''Dante's Vision of Rachel and Leah'', the Biblical [[Rachel]] and [[Leah]] by [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] (1855)
| pronunciation= {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|eɪ|tʃ|əl}} {{respell|RAY|chəl}}, {{IPA-fr|ʁaˈʃɛl|lang}}, {{IPA-de|ʁaˈxɛl|lang}} (Germany) or {{IPA-de|raˈxɛl|}} (Austria/Switzerland), {{IPA-nl|ˈrɑxɛl|lang}}
| gender = [[Female]]
| meaning = ''[[domestic sheep|ewe]]'', ''one with purity''
| region =
| nickname = ''Rae'', ''Rach''
| origin = [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
| related names = Rachael, [[Rae (given name)|Rae]], [[Rahel (disambiguation)|Rahel]], [[Rahela]], [[Raquel]], [[Raye (disambiguation)|Raye]], [[Ruchel]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Rachel''' ({{lang-he|רָחֵל, Standard Raḥel Tiberian Rāḫēl, Rāḥēl}}), meaning "[[wikt:ewe|ewe]]",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://biblehub.com/hebrew/7353.htm |title=Strong's Hebrew: 7353. רָחֵל (rachel) – ewe |publisher=Biblehub.com |access-date=2015-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccg.org/english/s/p295.html |title=Leah and Rachel (No. 295) |publisher=Ccg.org |access-date=2015-12-17}}</ref> is a [[Grammatical gender#Personal names|feminine]] [[given name]]. It is best known as the name of Biblical [[Rachel]].

==Popularity==
The name ranks in the top hundred most popular names for girls in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Ireland, and Australia as well as in Israel.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} According to United States [[Social Security Administration|Social Security]] card applications in 2005, the name Rachel ranked 38th out of the top 100 names chosen by parents for their baby girls.<ref>[http://www.chathamjournal.com/weekly/living/health/top-100-popular-baby-names-60710.shtml 100 most popular baby names for 2005], ''Chatham Journal''</ref> Statistics for England and Wales from the [[Office for National Statistics]] show a decline in popularity of the name: it was the 9th most popular name given to baby girls in 1984, but only 235th in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://names.darkgreener.com/#rachel|title=Babies called Rachel in England & Wales since 1996|author=Powell-Smith, Anna|access-date=8 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-243767|title=Baby Names, England and Wales, 1904–1994|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=28 July 2011|format=XLS}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-370365|title=Baby Names, England and Wales, 2014|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=17 August 2015|format=XLS}}</ref>

==Variants==
* Raschell (English Caribbean)
* Raechel ([[English language|English]])
* Rachael ([[English language|English]])
* Rachela ([[Polish language|Polish]])
* Rachele ([[Italian language|Italian]])
* Rachelle ([[French language|French]])
* Racquel ([[English language|English]])
* Ráhel ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]])
* Rahel/Rachel ([[German language|German]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesia]])
* Rahela ([[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]])
* راحله (Raheleh) ([[Persian language|Persian]])
* Ráichéal ([[Irish language|Irish]])
* Raahel ([[Malayalam]])
* Ραχήλ (Rachíl) ([[Greek language|Greek]])
* Raakel ([[Finnish language|Finnish]])
* Rakel ([[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]])
* Rakeri ([[Kikuyu language|Kikuyu]])
* රාකෙල් (Rakel) ([[Sinhala language|Sinhala]])
* Raichel ([[Tamil language|Tamil]])
* రాహేలు Raahélu ([[Telugu language|Telugu]])
* Raheli ([[Swahili language|Swahili]])
* Rakeli ([[Yoruba language|Yoruba]])
* Rakul([[Faroese language|Faroese]])
* [[Raquel]] ([[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]])
* Rashka ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]])
* Rashke ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]])
* Rechell ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]])
* Reychel ([[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]])
* Ruchel ([[Yiddish]])
* Rahel/Racha ([[Arabic]])
* ریچل (Rachel) ([[Urdu]])<ref>{{cite web|author=|title=Rachel Urdu Meanings: ریچل – rachel – English to Urdu Dictionary|url=http://hamariweb.com/dictionaries/rachel_urdu-meanings.aspx|url-status=live|access-date=2015-12-17|publisher=Hamariweb.com}}</ref>
*ራሄል ([[Amharic]])

==People named Rachel==
* [[Rachel]], Biblical figure known for being the wife that Jacob loved
* [[Rachel, wife of Rabbi Akiva]] (1st century)
* [[Rachel (singer)|Rachel]], a French singer of the 1960s
* [[Rachel Aberlin]] (16th-century) Jewish mystic
* [[Rachel Allen]] (born 1972), Irish celebrity chef
* [[Rachel Amanda]] (born 1995), Indonesian actress, singer and model
* [[Rachel Anderson]] (born 1943), English journalist and author
* [[Rachel Anderson (football agent)]], the UK's first female FIFA-licensed agent
* [[Rachel Ankeny]], professor of history and philosophy of science at University of Adelaide
* [[Rachel Attas]] (1934–2004), Israeli actress and singer
* [[Rokhl Auerbakh]] (Rachel Auerbach) (1903–1976), Polish-Israeli writer, essayist, historian, and Holocaust scholar
* [[Rachel Bilson]] (born 1981), American actress
* [[Rachel Bloom]] (born 1987), American actress
* [[Rachel Bluwstein]] (1890–1931), usually referred to simply as "Rachel", Hebrew-language poet from Palestine
* [[Rachel Bolan]], born James Southworth (born 1966), bassist of [[Skid Row (American band)|Skid Row]]
* [[Rachel Boston]] (born 1982), American actress and producer
* [[Rachel Brosnahan]] (born 1990), American actress
* [[Rachel Carson]] (1907–1964), US environmentalist, scientist
* [[Rachel Chalkowski]] (born 1939), Israeli midwife and [[gemach]] organiser
* [[Rachel Corrie]] (1973–2003), American political activist
* [[Rachel Corsie]] (born 1989), Scottish footballer
* [[Rachel Cosgrove Payes]] (1922–1998), American author
* [[Rachel Crow]] (born 1998), American actress and singer
* [[Rachel Cusk]] (born 1967), Canadian-born novelist
* [[Alfreda de Silva|Rachel Lilian Alfreda de Silva]] (born 1920), Sri Lankan Sinhala poet, journalist, and screenwriter
* [[Rachel Dolezal]] (born 1977), American former civil rights activist known for falsely claiming to be African American
* [[Rachel Dratch]] (born 1966), American actress
* [[Murders of Rachel and Lillian Entwistle|Rachel Entwistle]] née Souza (1980–2006), American murder victim
* [[Rachel Félix]] (1821–1858), French actress (born Elisabeth Rachel Félix, better known as Mademoiselle Rachel)
* [[Rachel Field|Rachel Lyman Field]] (1894–1942), American poet, novelist and children's fiction writer
* [[Rachel G. Fox]] (born 1996), American actress and singer
* [[Rachel Fuller]] (born 1973), British singer-songwriter
* [[Rachel Hardiman]] (born 1961), Irish cricketer
* [[Rachel Harris]] (born 1979), Australian swimmer
* [[Rachel M. Harter]], American statistician
* [[Rachel Haugh]], English architect
* [[Murder of Rachel Hoffman|Rachel Hoffman]] (1984–2008), American murder victim
*[[Rachel Hofstetter]] (born 1992), American video game streamer
* [[Rachel Hopkins]], British Labour MP
* [[Rachel Hunter]] (born 1969), New Zealand supermodel and actress
* [[Rachel Hurd-Wood]] (born 1990), British actress
* [[Rachel Kolly d'Alba]] (born 1981), Swiss soloist violinist
* [[Rachel Levine]] (born 1957), transgender American assistant secretary of health
* [[G. Rachel Levy]] (1884–1966), author and cultural historian
* [[Rachel Maddow]] (born 1973), American journalist
* [[Meghan, Duchess of Sussex|Rachel Meghan Markle]] (born 1981), Duchess of Sussex and former American actress
* [[Rachel McAdams]] (born 1978), Canadian actress
* [[Murder of Rachel McLean|Rachel McLean]] (1971–1991), British murder victim
* [[Rachel Nichols (actress)|Rachel Nichols]] (born 1980), American actress
* [[Murder of Rachel Nickell|Rachel Nickell]] (1968–1992), British murder victim
* [[Rachel Parish]] (born 1981), British sportswoman
*Florence [[Jane Short]] (aka Rachel Peace) (1881 – ''died after'' 1932), British feminist and suffragette
* [[Rachel Peters]], Miss Universe Philippines 2017
* [[Rachel Platten]] (born 1981), American singer and songwriter
* [[Rachel Portman]] (born 1960), British composer
* [[Rachel Rath]] (born 1976), Irish actress
* [[Rachel Reeves]], British MP for the Labour Party
* [[Rachel Rossi]], American criminal justice lawyer
* [[Rachel Scott]] (1981–1999), a victim in the Columbine High School massacre
*[[Rachel Scott (women's education reformer)]] née Cook (1848–1905), British women's education reformer, promoted equality for women
* [[Rachel Raesetja Sebati]] (born 1993) South African footballer
* [[Rachel Shoaf]] (born 1996), American convicted of murder in 2013
* [[Rachel Smith]] (born 1985), Miss USA 2007
* [[Rachel Stevens]] (born 1978), English pop singer, best known as a member of the band S Club 7
* [[Rachel Stuart]] (born 1972), Jamaican-Canadian model and actress
* [[Rachel Sutherland]] (born 1976), New Zealand field hockey player
* [[Rachel Sweet]] (born 1962), American producer, singer, and actress
* [[Rachel Ticotin]] (born 1958), American film and television actress
* [[Rachel Trachtenburg]] (born 1993), American rock singer and drummer
* [[Rachel True]] (born 1968), American actress
* [[Rachel Tucker]] (born 1981), Northern Irish musical theatre actress, and singer
* [[Rachel Wacholder]] (born 1975), American professional beach volleyball player
* [[Rachel Wade]], American teenager convicted of murder
* [[Rachel Walker (disambiguation)]], several people
* [[Rachel Ward]] (born 1957), English-born Australian actress, columnist, film director, and screenwriter
* [[Rachel Weisz]] (born 1970), British actress
* [[Rachel Willis-Sørensen]] (born 1984), American opera singer
* [[Rachel York]] (born 1971), American actress and singer
* [[Rachel Zoe]] (born 1971), American fashion designer, businesswoman, and writer

==People named Rachael==
* [[Hecate (musician)]] (born 1976), born Rachael Kozak, Swiss music producer
* [[Murder of Rachael Anderson|Rachael Anderson]] (died 2018), American female murder victim
* [[Rachael Bella]] (born 1984), an American actress, best known for her role in the 2002 film ''The Ring''
* [[Rachael Blackmore]] (born 1989), Irish jockey
* [[Rachael Blake]] (born 1971), an actress in the 2003 movie ''Perfect Strangers''
* [[Rachael Bland]] (1978–2018), Welsh BBC newsreader
* [[Rachael Boyle]] (born 1991), Scottish footballer
* [[Rachael Carpani]] (born 1980), Australian actress
* [[Rachael Denhollander]] (born 1984), American lawyer, former gymnast and survivor
* [[Rachael Leigh Cook]] (born 1979), American actress
* [[Rachael Finch]] (born 1988), Miss Universe Australia 2009, 3rd runner-up at Miss Universe 2009
* [[Rachael Flatt]] (born 1992), American figure skater
* [[Rachael Grinham]] (born 1977), professional squash player from Australia
* [[Rachael Harris]] (born 1968), American actress and comedian
* [[Rachael Heyhoe Flint]] (1939–2017), English cricketer
* [[Rachael Lampa]] (born 1985), American singer/songwriter best known for her work in the anime series ''[[Revolutionary Girl Utena]]''
* [[Rachael MacFarlane]] (born 1976), American voice actress and sister of Seth MacFarlane
* [[Rachael McLaren]], Canadian dancer
* [[Rachael Price]] (born 1985), American jazz vocalist and lead vocalist of the band [[Lake Street Dive]]
* [[Rachael Ray]] (born 1968), American celebrity chef and television personality
* Rachael Runyan (1979–1982), American [[Murder of Rachael Runyan|murder victim]]
* [[Rachael Sage]], American songwriter
* [[Rachael Scdoris]] (born 1985), blind American dog musher and cross country runner
* [[Rachael Sporn]] (born 1968), Australian female basketball player
* [[Rachael Stirling]] (born 1977), British actress best known for the BBC drama ''Tipping the Velvet''
* [[Rachael Taylor]] (born 1984), Australian actress
* [[Rachael Yamagata]] (born 1977), American singer-songwriter

==People named Rachelle==
* [[Rachelle Leah]] (born 1984), American model
* [[Rachelle Lefevre]] (born 1979), Canadian actress
* [[Rachelle Ann Go]] (born 1986), Filipina singer
* [[Rachelle Ferrell]] (born 1964), American vocalist and musician

==People named Rahel==
* [[Rahel Graf]] (born 1989), Swiss footballer
* [[Rahel Indermaur]] (born 1980), Swiss opera singer
* [[Rahel Jaeggi]] (born 1967), German philosopher
* [[Rahel Kiwic]] (born 1991), Swiss footballer
* [[Rahel Varnhagen]] (1771–1833), German writer
* [[Rahel Vigdozchik]] (born 1989), Israeli rhythmic gymnast

==People named Rachele==
* [[Rachele Bruni]] (born 1990), Italian swimmer
* [[Rachele Fogar]] (born 1991), Italian model and television personality
* [[Rachele Lynae]] (born 1988), American country rock singer
* [[Rachele Mussolini]] (1890–1979), wife of [[Benito Mussolini]]
* [[Rachele Sangiuliano]] (born 1981), Italian volleyball player

==People named Rakel or Raakel==
* [[Rakel Liehu]] (born 1939), Finnish writer

==People named Raquel==
{{Main|Raquel}}

==Fictional characters named Rachel (or variants thereof)==
* Rachel, one of the six main characters of ''[[Animorphs]]''
*Rachel, a character from the ''[[Fantasia 2000#Rhapsody in Blue|Rhapsody in Blue]]'' segment of the Disney movie ''[[Fantasia 2000]]''
*Rachael, a replicant in sci-fi movie ''[[Blade Runner]]''
* Rachel, a friend of Vivian Ward and Kit DeLuca in the romantic movie ''[[Pretty Woman]]''
* Rachel, a character in ''[[Pokémon Masters EX]]''
*[[List of Battle Arena Toshinden characters#Rachael|Rachael (''Battle Arena Toshinden'')]], a character in the ''Battle Arena Toshinden'' fighting game series
*[[Rachel (Ninja Gaiden)]], a female warrior from the ''[[Ninja Gaiden]]'' series of video games
*[[Naughty Rachel]], in the British TV Series ''[[Green Wing]]''
*[[List of Downton Abbey characters#Recurring characters|Rachel Aldridge, Lady Sinderby]], a character introduced in season 5 of the TV show ''[[Downton Abbey]]''
* [[List of BlazBlue characters#Rachel Alucard|Rachel Alucard]], in the ''[[BlazBlue]]'' video game series
* Rachel Amber, a side character in ''[[Life Is Strange (video game)|Life Is Strange]]'' and a main character in its spinoff, ''[[Life Is Strange: Before the Storm]]''
* [[Rachel Berry]], in the television series ''[[Glee (TV series)|Glee]]''
* Rachel Brown, in the play ''[[Inherit the Wind (play)|Inherit the Wind]]''
* [[Rachel Carruthers]], in the ''[[Halloween (franchise)|Halloween]]'' film series
*Rachel Chu, in the American romantic comedy-drama film ''[[Crazy Rich Asians]]''
* Rachel Creed, wife of the main character in Stephen King's 1983 horror novel ''[[Pet Sematary]]''
* [[Rachel Elizabeth Dare]], in the young adult book series ''[[Percy Jackson & the Olympians]]''
*Rachel Dalles, a character in the ''[[Black Butler]]'' manga series and anime
* [[Rachel Dawes]], Assistant District Attorney in the ''[[Batman]]'' series of movies
* [[List of Orphan Black characters#Project Leda|Rachel Duncan]], in the TV show ''[[Orphan Black]]''
* Rachel Finer, in the Netflix series ''[[Grand Army (TV series) | Grand Army]]''
*Rachel Gardner, in the ''[[Angels of Death (video game)|Angels of Death]]'' video game
* [[Rachel Gatina]], in the TV show ''[[One Tree Hill (TV series)|One Tree Hill]]''
* [[Rachel Gibson (Alias)|Rachel Gibson]], in Season 5 of ''[[Alias (TV series)|Alias]]''
* [[Rachel Green]], in the TV series ''[[Friends (TV series)|Friends]]''
* Rachel Greene, a character in the TV series ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'', daughter of [[Mark Greene]]
* [[Rachel Kinski]], a character in the Australian TV show ''[[Neighbours]]''
*[[Rachel Lynde]], a supporting character in [[Lucy Maud Montgomery]]'s 1908 novel ''[[Anne of Green Gables]]''
* [[Rachel Mason (Waterloo Road)|Rachel Mason]], Headmistress of Waterloo Road in the BBC drama ''[[Waterloo Road (TV series)|Waterloo Road]]''
* [[List of Mad Men characters#Rachel Menken|Rachel Menken]], Don Draper's client's daughter and a love interest in ''[[Mad Men]]''
* [[Rachel Moore (Case Closed)|Rachel Moore]], of ''[[Case Closed]]'' (Detective Conan)
*Rachel Roth, the false civilian name of [[Raven (DC Comics)]]
* [[Rachel Summers]], a character in the [[Marvel Universe]], daughter of [[Cyclops (Marvel Comics)|Scott Summers]] and [[Jean Grey]]
*Rachel Taub, a supporting character on the TV show ''[[House (TV series)|House]]'', the wife of Dr. Chris Taub
* Rachel Teller, a character in the ''[[Need for Speed Underground 2]]''
* Rachel Tice, a recurring character in the web series ''[[The Most Popular Girls in School]]''
* Rachel Walker, a main character in the ''[[Rainbow Magic]]'' book franchise
* Rachel Wilson, a minor character in the [[Cartoon Network]] series ''[[The Amazing World of Gumball]]''
*[[List of Suits characters#Rachel Zane|Rachel Zane]], a character in the American TV show ''[[Suits (U.S. TV series)|Suits]]''

==See also==
* {{look from|Rachel}}
*[[Rokhlin]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{given name}}


[[Category:Feminine given names]]
[[Category:Hebrew feminine given names]]
[[Category:Jewish feminine given names]]
[[Category:Given names]]
[[Category:English feminine given names]]
[[Category:French feminine given names]]
[[Category:German feminine given names]]
[[Category:Welsh feminine given names]]
[[Category:English-language feminine given names]]
[[Category:Dutch feminine given names]]

Rachel (given name)

2021-12-18T22:04:51Z

Eugrus: /* Variants */ not actual Russian "variants" - rather just Russian delivery of respective Biblical/Arabic/French names

{{about||a variation of the name|Raquel}}
{{Infobox given name
| name = Rachel
| image=Dante's_Vision_of_Rachel_and_Leah.jpg
| imagesize=200
| caption=''Dante's Vision of Rachel and Leah'', the Biblical [[Rachel]] and [[Leah]] by [[Dante Gabriel Rossetti]] (1855)
| pronunciation= {{IPAc-en|ˈ|r|eɪ|tʃ|əl}} {{respell|RAY|chəl}}, {{IPA-fr|ʁaˈʃɛl|lang}}, {{IPA-de|ʁaˈxɛl|lang}} (Germany) or {{IPA-de|raˈxɛl|}} (Austria/Switzerland), {{IPA-nl|ˈrɑxɛl|lang}}
| gender = [[Female]]
| meaning = ''[[domestic sheep|ewe]]'', ''one with purity''
| region =
| nickname = ''Rae'', ''Rach''
| origin = [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]
| related names = Rachael, [[Rae (given name)|Rae]], [[Rahel (disambiguation)|Rahel]], [[Rahela]], [[Raquel]], [[Raye (disambiguation)|Raye]], [[Ruchel]]
| footnotes =
}}

'''Rachel''' ({{lang-he|רָחֵל, Standard Raḥel Tiberian Rāḫēl, Rāḥēl}}), meaning "[[wikt:ewe|ewe]]",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://biblehub.com/hebrew/7353.htm |title=Strong's Hebrew: 7353. רָחֵל (rachel) – ewe |publisher=Biblehub.com |access-date=2015-12-17}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ccg.org/english/s/p295.html |title=Leah and Rachel (No. 295) |publisher=Ccg.org |access-date=2015-12-17}}</ref> is a [[Grammatical gender#Personal names|feminine]] [[given name]]. It is best known as the name of Biblical [[Rachel]].

==Popularity==
The name ranks in the top hundred most popular names for girls in the United States, Canada, United Kingdom, Ireland, and Australia as well as in Israel.{{Citation needed|date=March 2021}} According to United States [[Social Security Administration|Social Security]] card applications in 2005, the name Rachel ranked 38th out of the top 100 names chosen by parents for their baby girls.<ref>[http://www.chathamjournal.com/weekly/living/health/top-100-popular-baby-names-60710.shtml 100 most popular baby names for 2005], ''Chatham Journal''</ref> Statistics for England and Wales from the [[Office for National Statistics]] show a decline in popularity of the name: it was the 9th most popular name given to baby girls in 1984, but only 235th in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://names.darkgreener.com/#rachel|title=Babies called Rachel in England & Wales since 1996|author=Powell-Smith, Anna|access-date=8 January 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-243767|title=Baby Names, England and Wales, 1904–1994|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=28 July 2011|format=XLS}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ons.gov.uk/ons/publications/re-reference-tables.html?edition=tcm%3A77-370365|title=Baby Names, England and Wales, 2014|publisher=Office for National Statistics|date=17 August 2015|format=XLS}}</ref>

==Variants==
* Raschell (English Caribbean)
* Raechel ([[English language|English]])
* Rachael ([[English language|English]])
* Rachela ([[Polish language|Polish]])
* Rachele ([[Italian language|Italian]])
* Rachelle ([[French language|French]])
* Racquel ([[English language|English]])
* Ráhel ([[Hungarian language|Hungarian]])
* Rahel/Rachel ([[German language|German]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Polish language|Polish]], [[Welsh language|Welsh]], [[Indonesian language|Indonesia]])
* Rahela ([[Hawaiian language|Hawaiian]], [[Romanian language|Romanian]], [[Croatian language|Croatian]])
* Rahil ([[Russian language|Russian]])
* راحله (Raheleh) ([[Persian language|Persian]])
* Ráichéal ([[Irish language|Irish]])
* Raahel ([[Malayalam]])
* Ραχήλ (Rachíl) ([[Greek language|Greek]])
* Raakel ([[Finnish language|Finnish]])
* Rakel ([[Scandinavian languages|Scandinavian]])
* Rakeri ([[Kikuyu language|Kikuyu]])
* රාකෙල් (Rakel) ([[Sinhala language|Sinhala]])
* Raichel ([[Tamil language|Tamil]])
* రాహేలు Raahélu ([[Telugu language|Telugu]])
* Raheli ([[Swahili language|Swahili]])
* Rakeli ([[Yoruba language|Yoruba]])
* Rakul([[Faroese language|Faroese]])
* [[Raquel]] ([[Catalan language|Catalan]], [[Galician language|Galician]], [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]], [[Spanish language|Spanish]])
* Rashka ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]])
* Rashke ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]])
* Rechell ([[Hebrew language|Hebrew]])
* Reychel ([[Ukrainian language|Ukrainian]])
* Ruchel ([[Yiddish]])
* Rahel/Racha ([[Arabic]])
* ریچل (Rachel) ([[Urdu]])<ref>{{cite web|author=|title=Rachel Urdu Meanings: ریچل – rachel – English to Urdu Dictionary|url=http://hamariweb.com/dictionaries/rachel_urdu-meanings.aspx|url-status=live|access-date=2015-12-17|publisher=Hamariweb.com}}</ref>
*ራሄል ([[Amharic]])

==People named Rachel==
* [[Rachel]], Biblical figure known for being the wife that Jacob loved
* [[Rachel, wife of Rabbi Akiva]] (1st century)
* [[Rachel (singer)|Rachel]], a French singer of the 1960s
* [[Rachel Aberlin]] (16th-century) Jewish mystic
* [[Rachel Allen]] (born 1972), Irish celebrity chef
* [[Rachel Amanda]] (born 1995), Indonesian actress, singer and model
* [[Rachel Anderson]] (born 1943), English journalist and author
* [[Rachel Anderson (football agent)]], the UK's first female FIFA-licensed agent
* [[Rachel Ankeny]], professor of history and philosophy of science at University of Adelaide
* [[Rachel Attas]] (1934–2004), Israeli actress and singer
* [[Rokhl Auerbakh]] (Rachel Auerbach) (1903–1976), Polish-Israeli writer, essayist, historian, and Holocaust scholar
* [[Rachel Bilson]] (born 1981), American actress
* [[Rachel Bloom]] (born 1987), American actress
* [[Rachel Bluwstein]] (1890–1931), usually referred to simply as "Rachel", Hebrew-language poet from Palestine
* [[Rachel Bolan]], born James Southworth (born 1966), bassist of [[Skid Row (American band)|Skid Row]]
* [[Rachel Boston]] (born 1982), American actress and producer
* [[Rachel Brosnahan]] (born 1990), American actress
* [[Rachel Carson]] (1907–1964), US environmentalist, scientist
* [[Rachel Chalkowski]] (born 1939), Israeli midwife and [[gemach]] organiser
* [[Rachel Corrie]] (1973–2003), American political activist
* [[Rachel Corsie]] (born 1989), Scottish footballer
* [[Rachel Cosgrove Payes]] (1922–1998), American author
* [[Rachel Crow]] (born 1998), American actress and singer
* [[Rachel Cusk]] (born 1967), Canadian-born novelist
* [[Alfreda de Silva|Rachel Lilian Alfreda de Silva]] (born 1920), Sri Lankan Sinhala poet, journalist, and screenwriter
* [[Rachel Dolezal]] (born 1977), American former civil rights activist known for falsely claiming to be African American
* [[Rachel Dratch]] (born 1966), American actress
* [[Murders of Rachel and Lillian Entwistle|Rachel Entwistle]] née Souza (1980–2006), American murder victim
* [[Rachel Félix]] (1821–1858), French actress (born Elisabeth Rachel Félix, better known as Mademoiselle Rachel)
* [[Rachel Field|Rachel Lyman Field]] (1894–1942), American poet, novelist and children's fiction writer
* [[Rachel G. Fox]] (born 1996), American actress and singer
* [[Rachel Fuller]] (born 1973), British singer-songwriter
* [[Rachel Hardiman]] (born 1961), Irish cricketer
* [[Rachel Harris]] (born 1979), Australian swimmer
* [[Rachel M. Harter]], American statistician
* [[Rachel Haugh]], English architect
* [[Murder of Rachel Hoffman|Rachel Hoffman]] (1984–2008), American murder victim
*[[Rachel Hofstetter]] (born 1992), American video game streamer
* [[Rachel Hopkins]], British Labour MP
* [[Rachel Hunter]] (born 1969), New Zealand supermodel and actress
* [[Rachel Hurd-Wood]] (born 1990), British actress
* [[Rachel Kolly d'Alba]] (born 1981), Swiss soloist violinist
* [[Rachel Levine]] (born 1957), transgender American assistant secretary of health
* [[G. Rachel Levy]] (1884–1966), author and cultural historian
* [[Rachel Maddow]] (born 1973), American journalist
* [[Meghan, Duchess of Sussex|Rachel Meghan Markle]] (born 1981), Duchess of Sussex and former American actress
* [[Rachel McAdams]] (born 1978), Canadian actress
* [[Murder of Rachel McLean|Rachel McLean]] (1971–1991), British murder victim
* [[Rachel Nichols (actress)|Rachel Nichols]] (born 1980), American actress
* [[Murder of Rachel Nickell|Rachel Nickell]] (1968–1992), British murder victim
* [[Rachel Parish]] (born 1981), British sportswoman
*Florence [[Jane Short]] (aka Rachel Peace) (1881 – ''died after'' 1932), British feminist and suffragette
* [[Rachel Peters]], Miss Universe Philippines 2017
* [[Rachel Platten]] (born 1981), American singer and songwriter
* [[Rachel Portman]] (born 1960), British composer
* [[Rachel Rath]] (born 1976), Irish actress
* [[Rachel Reeves]], British MP for the Labour Party
* [[Rachel Rossi]], American criminal justice lawyer
* [[Rachel Scott]] (1981–1999), a victim in the Columbine High School massacre
*[[Rachel Scott (women's education reformer)]] née Cook (1848–1905), British women's education reformer, promoted equality for women
* [[Rachel Raesetja Sebati]] (born 1993) South African footballer
* [[Rachel Shoaf]] (born 1996), American convicted of murder in 2013
* [[Rachel Smith]] (born 1985), Miss USA 2007
* [[Rachel Stevens]] (born 1978), English pop singer, best known as a member of the band S Club 7
* [[Rachel Stuart]] (born 1972), Jamaican-Canadian model and actress
* [[Rachel Sutherland]] (born 1976), New Zealand field hockey player
* [[Rachel Sweet]] (born 1962), American producer, singer, and actress
* [[Rachel Ticotin]] (born 1958), American film and television actress
* [[Rachel Trachtenburg]] (born 1993), American rock singer and drummer
* [[Rachel True]] (born 1968), American actress
* [[Rachel Tucker]] (born 1981), Northern Irish musical theatre actress, and singer
* [[Rachel Wacholder]] (born 1975), American professional beach volleyball player
* [[Rachel Wade]], American teenager convicted of murder
* [[Rachel Walker (disambiguation)]], several people
* [[Rachel Ward]] (born 1957), English-born Australian actress, columnist, film director, and screenwriter
* [[Rachel Weisz]] (born 1970), British actress
* [[Rachel Willis-Sørensen]] (born 1984), American opera singer
* [[Rachel York]] (born 1971), American actress and singer
* [[Rachel Zoe]] (born 1971), American fashion designer, businesswoman, and writer

==People named Rachael==
* [[Hecate (musician)]] (born 1976), born Rachael Kozak, Swiss music producer
* [[Murder of Rachael Anderson|Rachael Anderson]] (died 2018), American female murder victim
* [[Rachael Bella]] (born 1984), an American actress, best known for her role in the 2002 film ''The Ring''
* [[Rachael Blackmore]] (born 1989), Irish jockey
* [[Rachael Blake]] (born 1971), an actress in the 2003 movie ''Perfect Strangers''
* [[Rachael Bland]] (1978–2018), Welsh BBC newsreader
* [[Rachael Boyle]] (born 1991), Scottish footballer
* [[Rachael Carpani]] (born 1980), Australian actress
* [[Rachael Denhollander]] (born 1984), American lawyer, former gymnast and survivor
* [[Rachael Leigh Cook]] (born 1979), American actress
* [[Rachael Finch]] (born 1988), Miss Universe Australia 2009, 3rd runner-up at Miss Universe 2009
* [[Rachael Flatt]] (born 1992), American figure skater
* [[Rachael Grinham]] (born 1977), professional squash player from Australia
* [[Rachael Harris]] (born 1968), American actress and comedian
* [[Rachael Heyhoe Flint]] (1939–2017), English cricketer
* [[Rachael Lampa]] (born 1985), American singer/songwriter best known for her work in the anime series ''[[Revolutionary Girl Utena]]''
* [[Rachael MacFarlane]] (born 1976), American voice actress and sister of Seth MacFarlane
* [[Rachael McLaren]], Canadian dancer
* [[Rachael Price]] (born 1985), American jazz vocalist and lead vocalist of the band [[Lake Street Dive]]
* [[Rachael Ray]] (born 1968), American celebrity chef and television personality
* Rachael Runyan (1979–1982), American [[Murder of Rachael Runyan|murder victim]]
* [[Rachael Sage]], American songwriter
* [[Rachael Scdoris]] (born 1985), blind American dog musher and cross country runner
* [[Rachael Sporn]] (born 1968), Australian female basketball player
* [[Rachael Stirling]] (born 1977), British actress best known for the BBC drama ''Tipping the Velvet''
* [[Rachael Taylor]] (born 1984), Australian actress
* [[Rachael Yamagata]] (born 1977), American singer-songwriter

==People named Rachelle==
* [[Rachelle Leah]] (born 1984), American model
* [[Rachelle Lefevre]] (born 1979), Canadian actress
* [[Rachelle Ann Go]] (born 1986), Filipina singer
* [[Rachelle Ferrell]] (born 1964), American vocalist and musician

==People named Rahel==
* [[Rahel Graf]] (born 1989), Swiss footballer
* [[Rahel Indermaur]] (born 1980), Swiss opera singer
* [[Rahel Jaeggi]] (born 1967), German philosopher
* [[Rahel Kiwic]] (born 1991), Swiss footballer
* [[Rahel Varnhagen]] (1771–1833), German writer
* [[Rahel Vigdozchik]] (born 1989), Israeli rhythmic gymnast

==People named Rachele==
* [[Rachele Bruni]] (born 1990), Italian swimmer
* [[Rachele Fogar]] (born 1991), Italian model and television personality
* [[Rachele Lynae]] (born 1988), American country rock singer
* [[Rachele Mussolini]] (1890–1979), wife of [[Benito Mussolini]]
* [[Rachele Sangiuliano]] (born 1981), Italian volleyball player

==People named Rakel or Raakel==
* [[Rakel Liehu]] (born 1939), Finnish writer

==People named Raquel==
{{Main|Raquel}}

==Fictional characters named Rachel (or variants thereof)==
* Rachel, one of the six main characters of ''[[Animorphs]]''
*Rachel, a character from the ''[[Fantasia 2000#Rhapsody in Blue|Rhapsody in Blue]]'' segment of the Disney movie ''[[Fantasia 2000]]''
*Rachael, a replicant in sci-fi movie ''[[Blade Runner]]''
* Rachel, a friend of Vivian Ward and Kit DeLuca in the romantic movie ''[[Pretty Woman]]''
* Rachel, a character in ''[[Pokémon Masters EX]]''
*[[List of Battle Arena Toshinden characters#Rachael|Rachael (''Battle Arena Toshinden'')]], a character in the ''Battle Arena Toshinden'' fighting game series
*[[Rachel (Ninja Gaiden)]], a female warrior from the ''[[Ninja Gaiden]]'' series of video games
*[[Naughty Rachel]], in the British TV Series ''[[Green Wing]]''
*[[List of Downton Abbey characters#Recurring characters|Rachel Aldridge, Lady Sinderby]], a character introduced in season 5 of the TV show ''[[Downton Abbey]]''
* [[List of BlazBlue characters#Rachel Alucard|Rachel Alucard]], in the ''[[BlazBlue]]'' video game series
* Rachel Amber, a side character in ''[[Life Is Strange (video game)|Life Is Strange]]'' and a main character in its spinoff, ''[[Life Is Strange: Before the Storm]]''
* [[Rachel Berry]], in the television series ''[[Glee (TV series)|Glee]]''
* Rachel Brown, in the play ''[[Inherit the Wind (play)|Inherit the Wind]]''
* [[Rachel Carruthers]], in the ''[[Halloween (franchise)|Halloween]]'' film series
*Rachel Chu, in the American romantic comedy-drama film ''[[Crazy Rich Asians]]''
* Rachel Creed, wife of the main character in Stephen King's 1983 horror novel ''[[Pet Sematary]]''
* [[Rachel Elizabeth Dare]], in the young adult book series ''[[Percy Jackson & the Olympians]]''
*Rachel Dalles, a character in the ''[[Black Butler]]'' manga series and anime
* [[Rachel Dawes]], Assistant District Attorney in the ''[[Batman]]'' series of movies
* [[List of Orphan Black characters#Project Leda|Rachel Duncan]], in the TV show ''[[Orphan Black]]''
* Rachel Finer, in the Netflix series ''[[Grand Army (TV series) | Grand Army]]''
*Rachel Gardner, in the ''[[Angels of Death (video game)|Angels of Death]]'' video game
* [[Rachel Gatina]], in the TV show ''[[One Tree Hill (TV series)|One Tree Hill]]''
* [[Rachel Gibson (Alias)|Rachel Gibson]], in Season 5 of ''[[Alias (TV series)|Alias]]''
* [[Rachel Green]], in the TV series ''[[Friends (TV series)|Friends]]''
* Rachel Greene, a character in the TV series ''[[ER (TV series)|ER]]'', daughter of [[Mark Greene]]
* [[Rachel Kinski]], a character in the Australian TV show ''[[Neighbours]]''
*[[Rachel Lynde]], a supporting character in [[Lucy Maud Montgomery]]'s 1908 novel ''[[Anne of Green Gables]]''
* [[Rachel Mason (Waterloo Road)|Rachel Mason]], Headmistress of Waterloo Road in the BBC drama ''[[Waterloo Road (TV series)|Waterloo Road]]''
* [[List of Mad Men characters#Rachel Menken|Rachel Menken]], Don Draper's client's daughter and a love interest in ''[[Mad Men]]''
* [[Rachel Moore (Case Closed)|Rachel Moore]], of ''[[Case Closed]]'' (Detective Conan)
*Rachel Roth, the false civilian name of [[Raven (DC Comics)]]
* [[Rachel Summers]], a character in the [[Marvel Universe]], daughter of [[Cyclops (Marvel Comics)|Scott Summers]] and [[Jean Grey]]
*Rachel Taub, a supporting character on the TV show ''[[House (TV series)|House]]'', the wife of Dr. Chris Taub
* Rachel Teller, a character in the ''[[Need for Speed Underground 2]]''
* Rachel Tice, a recurring character in the web series ''[[The Most Popular Girls in School]]''
* Rachel Walker, a main character in the ''[[Rainbow Magic]]'' book franchise
* Rachel Wilson, a minor character in the [[Cartoon Network]] series ''[[The Amazing World of Gumball]]''
*[[List of Suits characters#Rachel Zane|Rachel Zane]], a character in the American TV show ''[[Suits (U.S. TV series)|Suits]]''

==See also==
* {{look from|Rachel}}
*[[Rokhlin]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{given name}}


[[Category:Feminine given names]]
[[Category:Hebrew feminine given names]]
[[Category:Jewish feminine given names]]
[[Category:Given names]]
[[Category:English feminine given names]]
[[Category:French feminine given names]]
[[Category:German feminine given names]]
[[Category:Welsh feminine given names]]
[[Category:English-language feminine given names]]
[[Category:Dutch feminine given names]]

Keep a Breast Foundation

2021-07-12T07:35:15Z

Eugrus: /* External links */

{{Infobox organization
| name = Keep A Breast Foundation
| abbreviation = KAB
| formation = 2000
| founder = Shaney jo Darden Mona Mukherjea-Gehrig
| founding_location = [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], [[United States]]
| type = [[non profit]]
| purpose = breast cancer prevention & education
}}

The '''Keep A Breast Foundation''' (KAB) is a [[501(c)(3) organization|501(c)(3) non-profit organization]] focused on breast cancer prevention and education, based in [[Los Angeles]], [[California]], United States. The organization was founded by Shaney jo Darden and Mona Mukherjea-Gehrig in 2000, officially gaining [[Nonprofit organization|NPO]] status in 2005. KAB first gained national prominence with their “''i love boobies!''” bracelets, which were the focus of a [[Federal judiciary of the United States|U.S. federal court]] case. Promoting breast cancer prevention via means of education and early detection remains a key focus of KAB's [[Health campaign|campaigns]].<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/our-story/|title=Our Story|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

== Programs ==

=== Check Yourself! ===
The CYS program creates and distributes breast health education through printed materials, [[blog]]s, and the Check Yourself! App.<ref name=":210">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/check-yourself/|title=Check Yourself|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

Check Yourself's primary focus is raising awareness on the importance of doing a monthly [[Breast self-examination|breast self-check.]] With 40% of diagnosed breast cancers being self-detected, KAB believes that establishing what is “normal” for you is an important step to knowing your body.<ref name=":210" /><ref name=":310">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/breast_center/treatments_services/breast_cancer_screening/breast_self_exam.html|title=Breast Self-Exam Guidelines: Johns Hopkins Breast Center|last=Brown|first=Ken|website=www.hopkinsmedicine.org|language=en|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref>

In 2018, over 160,000 CYS cards were distributed globally.<ref name=":210" />

=== Treasured Chest ===
This program supports women diagnosed with breast cancer or testing positive with the [[BRCA1]] or [[BRCA2]] [[gene]] with an opportunity to create their own breast cast. TCP kits have been sent out to all 50 states, with a large portion of them having gone out to women under 40.<ref name=":47">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/treasured-chest/|title=Treasured Chest|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

=== Non-Toxic Revolution ===
The NTR mission is to inform, educate and inspire young people to revolt against the dangers of toxic chemicals in their environment and food supply, especially those linked to the development of breast cancer. Its aim is to focus on prevention as a means to maintain long-term health and well-being. Non-[[Toxicity|Toxic]] Revolution also provides alternative choices so that young people everywhere can make smart changes.<ref name=":52">{{Cite web|url=https://www.nontoxicrevolution.org/mission/|title=Mission|website=Non Toxic Revolution|language=en-US|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref><ref name=":62">{{Cite web|url=https://hamptons-magazine.com/non-toxic-revolution-exhibition-at-the-montauk-beach-house|title=Non Toxic Revolution Exhibition at the Montauk Beach House|date=2015-08-22|website=Hamptons Magazine|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

== Campaigns ==

=== i love boobies! ===
In 2008, KAB released their “''i love boobies!''” shame-free breast awareness message. This message was designed to take a positive approach to breast cancer dialogue. It particularly resonates with young people and encourages them to be open and active about breast cancer prevention.

''i love boobies!'' is focused on sparking [[dialogue]] among young people about breast cancer and breast health. Many different kinds of ''i love boobies!'' merchandise has been made to further this cause, and [[revenue]]s from this merchandise fund KAB programs and campaigns, broaden its reach and in the past, provide [[Grant (money)|grant money]] supporting important studies.<ref name=":72">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/i-love-boobies/|title=I Love Boobies|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

=== School controversy ===
The "''i love boobies!''" [[bracelet]]s were created by the Keep A Breast Foundation in 2004. The Foundation created and sold a series of one-inch wide [[silicone rubber]] bracelets, emblazoned with the slogan "i ♥ boobies! (Keep A Breast)" to raise money and create a conversation about breast cancer among young people. The positive and upbeat awareness-raising campaign was designed to make young people feel comfortable talking about a subject that is otherwise fearful and [[taboo]].<ref name=":82">{{Cite web|url=http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/40072867/ns/today-today_people/t/i-boobies-charity-wrestles-sudden-spell-success/#.TqstKnHo3J0|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120723033847/http://today.msnbc.msn.com/id/40072867/ns/today-today_people/t/i-boobies-charity-wrestles-sudden-spell-success/%23.TqstKnHo3J0|url-status=dead|archive-date=2012-07-23|title='I ♥ boobies' charity wrestles with sudden spell of success|last=Johnson|first=Alex|last2=Stinchfield|first2=Grant|date=2010-11-15|website=NBC News|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

As the bracelets became a fashion [[Fad|craze]] among teenagers, many school districts began to [[ban (law)|ban]] the wearing of these bracelets as the slogan conflicted with school dress codes that prohibit the wearing of any item that includes sexually suggestive language or pictures.<ref name=":92">{{Cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/new-brunswick/boobie-bracelets-spark-controversy-1.1076709|title=Boobie Bracelets Spark Controversy|date=2011-09-08|website=CBC News}}</ref><ref name=":102">{{Cite web|url=http://easton.patch.com/articles/student-journalist-group-joins-easton-bracelet-fight|title=Student Journalist Group Joins Easton Bracelet Fight|last=Coombe|first=Tom|date=2011-09-02|website=Easton Patch|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref><ref name=":112">{{Cite web|url=https://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/education/2010-09-01-bracelets01_ST_N.htm|title=Schools Ban Bracelets Promoting Cancer Awareness|last=Martin|first=Jeff|website=USA Today|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

A dispute over such a ban reached the [[United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit|U.S. Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit]]. A panel of three of its judges heard the case, and it was then taken up to be re-heard by all 14 judges [[en banc]].<ref name=":122">{{Cite web|url=https://www.law.com/thelegalintelligencer/almID/1202588895085/?slreturn=20181104171112|title='I ♥ Boobies' Case Heard En Banc by Third Circuit|last=Spencer|first=Saranac Hale|date=2013-02-21|website=Law|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref><ref name=":132">{{Cite web|url=https://constitutioncenter.org/blog/supreme-court-could-reject-or-accept-boobies-case-on-monday/|title=Update: How the "Boobies" case almost made it to the Supreme Court|last=Bomboy|first=Scott|date=2014-03-10|website=National Constitution Center|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref> The court ruled 9-5 that the school's ban on the bracelets violated the students' right to [[Freedom of speech|free speech]] because the bracelets were not plainly offensive or disruptive and were speech conducted to raise awareness of a social issue.<ref name=":142">{{Cite web|url=http://articles.mcall.com/2013-08-05/news/mc-easton-boobies-case-decision-20130805_1_hawk-and-martinez-brianna-hawk-boobies|title=Federal court strikes down 'I love boobies' ban|last=Hall|first=Peter|last2=Marcus|first2=Samantha|date=2013-08-05|website=The Morning Call|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref><ref name=":152">{{Cite web|url=https://blogs.findlaw.com/third_circuit/2013/08/i-heart-boobies-campaign-protected-student-speech-says-3rd-cir.html|title='I Heart Boobies' Campaign Protected Student Speech, Says 3rd Cir|last=Khorasanee|first=Gabriella|date=2013-08-07|website=Find Law|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> The [[Supreme Court of the United States|U.S. Supreme Court]] later declined to take up the case.<ref name=":132" />

=== DIY Action ===
The [[Do it yourself|DIY]] Action campaign was created for people that wish to start their own [[Fundraising|fundraiser]] benefiting The Keep A Breast Foundation. KAB provides educational materials and awareness merchandise, and the events range anywhere from skateboarding and music events, to cook offs and birthday parties.<ref name=":162">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/start-a-diy-fundraiser/|title=Start a DIY Fundraiser|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

=== #checkyourselfie ===
This campaign was created to share the message of breast self-checks with friends and followers via [[Social media#Definition and classification|social media]] platforms. It is meant to encourage people to download the KAB Check Yourself! App, since this has become such an effective way to reach teens and young adults. This app is free to download to phones and devices. It shows and explains how to do a self-check and lets users set a monthly reminder for future checks.<ref name=":172">{{Cite web|url=https://www.shape.com/lifestyle/mind-and-body/woman-spreading-breast-cancer-awareness-through-selfies|title=This Woman Is Spreading Breast Cancer Awareness Through Selfies|last=Aldridge|first=Kristen|date=2014-09-30|website=Shape Magazine|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref><ref name=":182">{{Cite web|url=https://www.adventuresportsnetwork.com/transworld-business/keep-breast-checkyourselfie-breast-cancer-awareness-campaign/|title=Keep A Breast #CheckYourSelfie Breast Cancer Awareness Campaign|last=Bradstreet|first=Kailee|date=2014-10-09|website=Adventure Sports Network|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref>

=== Fit 4 Prevention ===
Fit 4 Prevention is a national movement to raise awareness about breast cancer prevention through [[Physical fitness|fitness]] and [[Health|wellness]]. The goal of F4P is to inspire people to reduce their risk of cancers by adopting a healthier, more active lifestyle. KAB works with studios, gyms and individuals around the country to raise funds and increase awareness for The Keep A Breast Foundation and their mission.<ref name=":192">{{Cite web|url=https://www.fit4prevention.com/|title=The Movement Starts With You|website=Keep A Breast Fit 4 Prevention|language=en-US|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

=== Past campaigns ===
Imagine If... was a support program intended for young people to share their feelings concerning what the world would be like if there were no cancer. It was part of the Keep A Breast Traveling Education Booth and traveled on [[Concert tour|music tours]], [[Music festival|festivals]] and events around the world. Participants wrote down their response on a small whiteboard, took photos with their Imagine If... response and then shared the photos on the internet and social media.<ref name=":202">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/imagine-if/|title=Imagine If|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

''This is My Story'' is a campaign that gave people a chance to share the impact breast cancer had on their lives through writing or video. Videos and written testimonies were shared on KAB's YouTube Channel, as well as their website and social media platforms.<ref name=":212">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/this-is-my-story/|title=This is My Story|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

== Breast cast exhibitions ==
Keep A Breast founders developed a technique for creating breast casts at the start of the organization in 2000. The result was a white [[plaster]]/[[gauze]] cast that can be customized by artists. The first breast cast auction was in 2000.<ref name=":222">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/our-work/|title=Our Work|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref> Some past breast cast exhibitions include: ''Tokyo LOVE show,<ref name=":232">{{Cite web|url=https://www.wgsn.com/blogs/keep-a-breast-tokyo-love-show/|title=Keep A Breast : Tokyo LOVE Show|last=Pesce|first=Jeanine|date=2012-05-30|website=WGSN Insider|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> Keep A Breast PDX,<ref name=":242">{{Cite web|url=https://www.pdxmonthly.com/slideshows/2016/9/29/portland-breast-cancer-survivors-lend-their-bodies-for-art|title=Portland Breast Cancer Survivors Lend Their Bodies for Art|last=McCann|first=Fiona|date=2016-09-29|website=Portland Monthly|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> American Rag X LAB Art,<ref name=":252">{{Cite web|url=https://www.gettyimages.com/search/2/image?events=153087734&family=editorial&sort=best#license|title=American Rag and LAB Art Present "Keep A Breast"|website=Getty Images|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> Bare Minerals,<ref name=":262">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/our-work/bare-minerals/|title=Bare Minerals|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref> Bordeaux Love,<ref name=":272">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/our-work/bordeaux-love/|title=Bordeaux Love|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref> and Snow Show.''<ref name=":282">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/our-work/show-show/|title=Snow Show|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref>

== Warped Tour ==
Keep A Breast first went on [[Vans]] [[Warped Tour]] in 2001, and participated each year through 2018, which was the last Vans Warped Tour. This tour was KAB's largest [[outreach]] platform, and helped the organization to grow.<ref name=":292">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast-foundation.reportablenews.com/pr/dickies-girl-and-jenna-mcdougall-from-tonight-alive-are-teaming-up-for-breast-cancer-prevention-on-the-vans-warped-tour|title=Dickies Girl and Jenna McDougall from Tonight Alive are teaming up for Breast Cancer Prevention on the Vans Warped Tour|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref> On this tour, KAB had a tent filled with educational materials and [[Merchandising|merchandise]], as well as [[Volunteering|volunteers]] and employees to help educate and provide support for anyone interested.<ref name=":302">{{Cite web|url=http://www.sandiegomagazine.com/San-Diego-Magazine/September-2008/Warped-Tour-Gets-Busty/|title=Warped Tour Gets Busty|last=Steussy|first=Lauren|date=2008-08-20|website=San Diego Magazine|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> Many of the bands on Vans Warped Tour are Keep A Breast supporters.<ref name=":312">{{Cite web|url=https://www.dailymotion.com/video/x2yp9d5|title=Vans Warped Tour Bands Talk About Breast Cancer and Health|website=Dailymotion|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> Through KAB's work with Vans Warped Tour, they were able to take part in several music compilation collaborations featuring many artists they met over the years on tour.<ref name=":322">{{Cite web|url=https://www.altpress.com/features/keep_a_breast/|title=Keep A Breast releases Music For Boobies compilation, ft. Sleeping With Sirens, Simple Plan, more|date=2016-03-18|website=Alternative Press|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref>

== Celebrity involvement ==
Many [[Professional sports|professional athletes]], [[Celebrity|celebrities]], artists and well-known individuals have been involved with The Keep A Breast Foundation. Pro surfers [[Lisa Anderson]] and [[Layne Beachley]], [[burlesque]] stars [[Dita Von Teese|Dita Von Tesse]] and [[Catherine D'lish|Catherine D’lish]],<ref name=":332">{{Cite web|url=https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20051019006132/en/Breast-Macbeth-Athletics-Launch-Online-Auction-Painted|title=Keep A Breast and Macbeth Athletics Launch Online Auction of Painted Breast Casts Featuring Celebrity Artists and Musicians|date=2005-10-19|website=[[Business Wire]]|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> musicians [[Iggy Pop]], [[Kim Gordon]] of [[Sonic Youth]], [[Mark Mothersbaugh]] of [[Devo|DEVO]],<ref name=":342">{{Cite web|url=http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/keep-a-breast-foundation-910889.htm|title=The Keep A Breast Foundation Joined by Musicians Iggy Pop, Kim Gordon of Sonic Youth and DEVO in Breast Cancer Awareness Campaign|date=2008-10-16|website=Press Release|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref> [[Katy Perry]] and [[Tom DeLonge|Tom Delonge]] of [[Blink-182|Blink 182]] and [[Angels & Airwaves]],<ref name=":352">{{Cite web|url=http://business.transworld.net/11800/news/fox-unite-the-united-present-keep-a-breast-shot-in-the-pit-closing-exhibition/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203053439/http://business.transworld.net/11800/news/fox-unite-the-united-present-keep-a-breast-shot-in-the-pit-closing-exhibition/|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-02-03|title=Fox, Unite the United Present Keep a Breast "Shot in The Pit" Closing Exhibition|date=2008-12-02|website=Press Release|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> and artists [[Shepard Fairey]], Mike Giant, [[Ed Templeton]] and [[Dalek (artist)|Dalek]] to name a few of the big names that have been supporters and contributed to KAB.<ref name=":222" />

== Partnerships ==
The Keep A Breast Foundation partners with many different companies and organizations to help further their reach. Some of these partnerships are for the month of October, which Keep A Breast refers to as Breast Cancer Prevention Month and some go year round. The support these partnerships offer include product [[collaboration]]s, outreach, advertising, special events and [[Promotion (marketing)|promotions]].<ref name=":362">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/partners/|title=Partners|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref> A few of KAB's partners have included [[Rastaclat]],<ref name=":372">{{Cite web|url=https://rastaclat.com/blogs/clatlife/bandingtogether-for-the-keep-a-breast-foundation|title=#BandingTogether for The Keep A Breast Foundation|website=Rastaclat|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> HUF,<ref name=":382">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hufworldwide.com/blog/huf-x-keep-a-breast-collaboration-breast-cancer-awareness-month-2015|title=HUF x KEEP A BREAST COLLABORATION // BREAST CANCER AWARENESS MONTH 2015|date=2015-10-01|website=HUF Worldwide|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> [[True & Co.|True&Co.]],<ref name=":392">{{Cite web|url=https://trueandco.com/wcw-shaney-jo-darden-the-keep-a-breast-foundation|title=#WCW: Shaney Jo Darden, The Keep A Breast Foundation|date=2018-03-14|website=True and Co|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> [[Valiant Comics|Valiant Entertainment]],<ref name=":402">{{Cite web|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/heat-vision/valiants-faith-launching-breast-cancer-931108|title=Valiant's 'Faith' Launching Breast Cancer Awareness Partnership at New York Comic Con|date=2016-09-20|website=The Hollywood Reporter|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> and S.W. Basics.<ref name=":412">{{Cite web|url=https://swbasicsofbk.com/certifiably-awesome/certifiably-awesome-shaney-jo-darden-founder-keep-a-breast-foundation/|title=Certifiably Awesome: Shaney jo Darden, Keep a Breast Foundation|date=2016-10-03|website=S.W. Basics|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref>

In October 1, 2019, [[Thrive Causemetics]] donated 100% of its profits to Keep A Breast Foundation, and donated $5 for every repost on [[Instagram]] of a certain image with the hashtag #thrivecausemetics for the rest of October.<ref>{{Cite web|last=DeMelo|first=Juno|title=What to Buy If You Want Your Cash to Go to Breast Cancer Charities|url=https://www.glamour.com/story/breast-cancer-charity|access-date=2020-08-17|website=Glamour|language=en-us}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=|first=|date=|title=Thrive Causemetics Donates 100% of Profits to Keep a Breast on October 1|url=https://th-cam.com/video/YN5fLs_fUdQ/thrive-causemetics-donates-100-of-profits-to-keep-a-breast-on-october-1.html|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2020-08-17|website=Thrive Causemetics}}</ref>

== Global ==
The Keep A Breast Foundation, as stated in its mission, “is a global non-profit organization 2.” KAB has had affiliates in Japan, [[Canada]], Europe, [[Mexico]] and [[Chile]].<ref name=":422">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast-foundation.reportablenews.com/pr/introducing-checkyourselfie-keep-a-breast-foundation-launches-selfless-selfies-a-new-global-campaign-for-young-people|title=Introducing: #CHECKYOURSELFIE; Keep A Breast Foundation Launches Selfless Selfies, A New Global Campaign For Young People|date=2017-09-26|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref> Currently, Keep A Breast Europe is active and has a headquarters in [[Bordeaux]], France,<ref name=":432">{{Cite web|url=http://www.keep-a-breast.fr/notre-histoire/|title=Notre Histoire|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|language=fr-FR|access-date=2018-11-02}}</ref> which was developed by Lorene Carpentier, the organizations Global CEO.<ref name=":442">{{Cite web|url=https://keep-a-breast.org/team/|title=Team|website=The Keep A Breast Foundation|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref>

== Founder ==
Shaney jo Daren is the Founder and [[Chief creative officer|CCO]] of The Keep A Breast Foundation.<ref name=":442" /> Shaney jo was born in [[Fullerton, California|Fullerton]], CA and was grew up in [[Southern California]]. She began her career in fashion design, which she did predominantly in the action sports industry. In 2008, she quit her job and began focusing on Keep A Breast full-time, shortly after moving the foundation out of her home, and into an office in [[Carlsbad, California|Carlsbad]], CA.<ref name=":452">{{Cite web|url=https://www.sandiegouniontribune.com/lifestyle/people/sdut-shaney-jo-darden-force-behind-those-boobies-2011oct17-story.html|title=Shaney jo Darden: the force behind 'boobies'|last=Rowe|first=Peter|date=2011-10-17|website=San Diego Tribune|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref> Shaney jo did a [[TED (conference)#TEDx|TEDx]] talk in 2011 concerning The Keep A Breast Foundation and the “''i love boobies!''” bracelet [[controversy]].<ref name=":462">{{Cite web|url=https://www.tedxsandiego.com/events/2011-the-world-in-our-grasp/|title=Speakers and Performers @TEDxSanDiego 2011 - The World in Our Grasp|date=2011|website=Ted X San Diego|access-date=2018-12-13}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== External links ==

* [http://keep-a-breast.org Keep A Breast]
* [https://www.nontoxicrevolution.org Non-Toxic Revolution]
* [https://www.keep-a-breast.org/keep-a-breast-app Check Yourself! App]
* [https://www.youtube.com/keepabreast KAB Channel on YouTube]
* [https://www.daughtersagainstbreastcancer.com/kris-carr-5-min-self-breast-exam/ Breast Cancer Prevention Resource Guide] - Daughters Against Breast Cancer
* [https://www.healthline.com/health/breast-cancer/top-iphone-android-apps The Best Breast Cancer Apps of 2018] - Healthline
* [https://www.fastcompany.com/1783224/keep-breasts-lighthearted-touch-inspires-youthful-breast-cancer-awareness-and-prevention Keep A Breast's Lighthearted Touch Inspires Youthful Breast Cancer Awareness and Prevention] - Fast Company

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[[Category:Breast cancer organizations]]
[[Category:Cancer charities in the United States]]
[[Category:Non-profit organizations based in Los Angeles]]
[[Category:Charities based in California]]
[[Category:Medical and health organizations based in California]]
[[Category:Medical and health foundations in the United States]]
[[Category:Organizations established in 2000]]