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Mark Spitz

2024-10-13T12:53:20Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Film and television career */

{{Short description|American Olympic swimmer (born 1950)}}
{{about|the swimmer|the writer|Marc Spitz}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=June 2015}}
{{Infobox swimmer
| name = Mark Spitz
| image = Mark Spitz.jpg
| image_size = 220
| alt =
| caption = Mark Spitz in December 2012
| fullname = Mark Andrew Spitz
| nicknames = "Mark the Shark"
| national_team = {{USA}}
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1950|2|10|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Modesto, California]], U.S.
| death_date =
| death_place =
| height = 6 ft 0 in
| weight = 161 lb 73Kg
| strokes = [[Butterfly swimming|Butterfly]], [[freestyle swimming|freestyle]]
| club = Arden Hills Swim Club [[Santa Clara Swim Club]]
| collegeteam = [[Indiana Hoosiers|Indiana University]]
| coach =[[Doc Counsilman]]
| medaltemplates =
{{MedalCountry | the {{USA}}}}
{{MedalCount
|[[Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]]|9|1|1
|[[Pan American Games]]|5|0|0
|[[Maccabiah Games]]|10|0|0
|'''Total'''|'''24'''|'''1'''|'''1'''
}}
{{MedalCompetition | [[Swimming at the Summer Olympics|Olympic Games]]}}
[[File:Olympic rings.svg|center|80px]]
{{MedalGold | [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics|1968 Mexico City]] | [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|4×100 m freestyle]]}}
{{MedalGold | 1968 Mexico City | [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|4×200 m freestyle]]}}
{{MedalGold | [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|1972 Munich]] | [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|100 m butterfly]]}}
{{MedalGold | 1972 Munich | [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|100 m freestyle]]}}
{{MedalGold | 1972 Munich | [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre butterfly|200 m butterfly]]}}
{{MedalGold | 1972 Munich | [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 200 metre freestyle|200 m freestyle]]}}
{{MedalGold | 1972 Munich | [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|4×100 m freestyle]]}}
{{MedalGold | 1972 Munich | [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|4×100 m medley]]}}
{{MedalGold | 1972 Munich | [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics - Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|4×200 m freestyle]]}}
{{MedalSilver | 1968 Mexico City | [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre butterfly|100 m butterfly]]}}
{{MedalBronze | 1968 Mexico City | [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics - Men's 100 metre freestyle|100 m freestyle]]}}
{{MedalCompetition | [[Pan American Games]]}}
{{MedalGold | [[1967 Pan American Games|1967 Winnipeg]]|[[Swimming at the 1967 Pan American Games|100 m butterfly]]}}
{{MedalGold | 1967 Winnipeg | [[Swimming at the 1967 Pan American Games|200 m butterfly]]}}
{{MedalGold | 1967 Winnipeg | [[Swimming at the 1967 Pan American Games|4×100 m freestyle]]}}
{{MedalGold | 1967 Winnipeg | [[Swimming at the 1967 Pan American Games|4×200 m freestyle]]}}
{{MedalGold | 1967 Winnipeg | [[Swimming at the 1967 Pan American Games|4×100 m medley]]}}
{{MedalCompetition | [[Maccabiah Games]]}}
{{MedalGold | [[1965 Maccabiah Games|1965 Israel]] | Swimming}}
{{MedalGold | 1965 Israel|Swimming}}
{{MedalGold | 1965 Israel|Swimming}}
{{MedalGold | 1965 Israel|Swimming}}
{{MedalGold | [[1969 Maccabiah Games|1969 Israel]] | Swimming}}
{{MedalGold | 1969 Israel|Swimming}}
{{MedalGold | 1969 Israel|Swimming}}
{{MedalGold | 1969 Israel|Swimming}}
{{MedalGold | 1969 Israel|Swimming}}
{{MedalGold | 1969 Israel|Swimming}}
}}

'''Mark Andrew Spitz''' (born February 10, 1950) is an American former competitive swimmer and nine-time Olympic champion. He was the [[Lists of Olympic medalists#Medalist with most medals by Olympiad|most successful]] athlete at the [[1972 Summer Olympics]] in [[Munich]], winning [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|seven gold medals]], each in world-record time. This achievement set a record that lasted for 36 years, until it was surpassed by fellow American [[Michael Phelps]], who won eight golds at the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] in [[Beijing]]. Phelps, like Spitz, set seven world records.

Between 1968 and 1972, Spitz won nine Olympic golds, a silver, and a bronze, in addition to five [[Pan American Games|Pan American]] golds, 31 [[Amateur Athletic Union]] (AAU) titles, and eight [[National Collegiate Athletic Association]] (NCAA) titles. During those years he set 35 world records, two of which were in trials and unofficial.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishsports.net/BioPages/MarkSpitz.htm |title=International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame |publisher=Jewishsports.net |date=February 10, 1950 |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref><ref name="IUspitz">{{cite web |url=http://www.indiana.edu/~radiotv/wtiu/doc/people_spitz.html |title=Mark Spitz |work=Doc Counsilman: Making Waves |publisher=Indiana University |access-date=January 30, 2011 |archive-date=June 2, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100602023542/http://www.indiana.edu/~radiotv/wtiu/doc/people_spitz.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> ''[[Swimming World Magazine]]'' named him [[List of Swimming World Swimmers of the Year|World Swimmer of the Year]] in 1969, 1971, and 1972. He was the third athlete to win [[List of multiple Olympic gold medalists|nine Olympic gold medals]].

==Early life==
Spitz was born on February 10, 1950, in [[Modesto, California]], the first of three children<ref name="JVL-Spitz-bio">{{cite web|url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/biography/Spitz.html |title=Mark Spitz |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=June 25, 2024}}</ref> of Lenore Sylvia (Smith) and Arnold Spitz. His family is [[Jewish]]; his father's family was from Hungary, and his mother's, originally surnamed Sklotkovick, was from Russia.<ref name="transcripts.cnn.com">{{cite news| url=http://transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/1207/14/pmt.01.html | work=CNN | title=Interview with Mark Spitz|date=July 14, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|author=Foster, Richard J. |title=Mark Spitz: The Extraordinary Life of an Olympic Champion |url=https://archive.org/details/markspitzextraor00fost_0 |url-access=registration |date=2008 |publisher=Santa Monica Press |isbn=978-1-59580-999-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/markspitzextraor00fost_0/page/15 15]}}</ref><ref>Lajos, Szabó (January 2010) [http://www.kaleidoscopehistory.hu/index.php?subpage=cikk&cikkid=29 What are the reasons for the success of so many Hungarian Jewish Athletes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181214123004/http://www.kaleidoscopehistory.hu/index.php?subpage=cikk&cikkid=29 |date=December 14, 2018 }}. kaleidoscopehistory.hu</ref> When he was two years old, his family moved to Honolulu, Hawaii, where he swam at [[Waikiki]] beach every day. "You should have seen that little boy dash into the ocean. He'd run like he was trying to commit suicide," Lenore Spitz told a reporter for ''Time'' in 1968.<ref name="JVL-Spitz-bio"/> At age six, his family returned to [[Sacramento, California]], and he began to compete at his local swim club. At age nine, he was training at Arden Hills Swim Club in Sacramento with swimming coach [[Sherm Chavoor]], who mentored six other Olympic medal winners.

At only 10, Spitz held one world age-group record and 17 national records.<ref name="expectations">{{cite web|last=Roberts|first=M. B.|title=Spitz lived up to enormous expectations|work=ESPN|url=https://www.espn.com/sportscentury/features/00016480.html|access-date=September 25, 2016}}</ref> When Spitz was 14, his family moved to [[Santa Clara, California|Santa Clara]], where he joined the [[Santa Clara Swim Club]] and was trained by coach [[George F. Haines]].<ref name="expectations"/> From 1964 to 1968, Mark trained with Haines at SCSC and [[Santa Clara High School (Santa Clara, California)|Santa Clara High School]]. During his four years there, Mark held national high school records in every stroke and in every distance.{{Citation needed|date=August 2008}} In 1966 at age 16, he won the 100-meter butterfly at the AAU national championships, the first of his 24 total AAU titles. The following year, Spitz emerged on the world swimming stage when he set his first world record at a small California meet with a time of 4:10.60 in the 400-meter freestyle.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.santaclaraswimclub.org/alumni/spitzUpdate.html |title=Santa Clara Swim Club. Alumni: Spitz |publisher=Santaclaraswimclub.org |date=November 14, 2007 |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref>

==Swimming career==
===Maccabiah Games===
Spitz swam in his first international competition at the [[1965 Maccabiah Games]] in Israel. At age 15 and weighing 130 pounds, he won four gold medals in Tel Aviv—the 400 m freestyle, the 1,500 freestyle, the 400 m individual medley, and the 800 m freestyle relay, and was named the most outstanding athlete of the Games.<ref name="JVL-Spitz-bio"/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1965/08/25/101564576.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812010402/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1965/08/25/101564576.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 12, 2022|title=U.S. WINS 4 TESTS IN ISRAELI GAMES; Spitz Stars as Maccabiah Squad Dominates Swim|work=The New York Times }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1965/08/28/96716312.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602172522/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1965/08/28/96716312.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 2, 2023|title=SPITZ, U.S., GAINS 4TH GOLD MEDAL; 15-Year-Old Swimmer Wins 1,500 at Tel Aviv|work=The New York Times }}</ref>

He returned to Israel in 1969 following the Mexico Olympics to again compete, at the [[1969 Maccabiah Games]], where he won six gold medals, and was again named outstanding athlete of the Games.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Slater |first1=Elinor |last2=Slater |first2=Robert |year=1996 |title=Great Jewish Men |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=T91sokr_nJYC |location=Middle Village, N.Y. |publisher=J. David |isbn=978-0-8246-0381-6 |oclc=32201895}}</ref><ref name="JVL-Spitz-bio"/><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1965/08/25/101564576.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812010402/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1965/08/25/101564576.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false|url-status=dead|archive-date=August 12, 2022|title=U.S. WINS 4 TESTS IN ISRAELI GAMES; Spitz Stars as Maccabiah Squad Dominates Swim|work=The New York Times }}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1965/08/28/96716312.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230602172522/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1965/08/28/96716312.html?pdf_redirect=true&site=false|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 2, 2023|title=SPITZ, U.S., GAINS 4TH GOLD MEDAL; 15-Year-Old Swimmer Wins 1,500 at Tel Aviv|work=The New York Times }}</ref>

In 1985, Spitz lit the torch to open the [[1985 Maccabiah Games]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Jews in Sports: The Maccabiah Games |url=https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/History/Maccabiah.html |publisher=Jewish Virtual Library |access-date=20 January 2023}}</ref>

In 2005, he was a member of the U.S. delegation at the [[2005 Maccabiah Games]]. He spoke at the JCC Maccabiah Games Opening Ceremonies, which was held in Richmond, Virginia. The Weinstein JCC in Richmond was one of the Host JCC's for the 2005 games, with over 1,000 teenagers participating in various sports, including swimming.

===Pan American Games===
He won five gold medals at the [[1967 Pan American Games]], setting a record that lasted until 2007 when Brazilian swimmer, [[Thiago Pereira]], won six golds at the [[XV Pan American Games]] in [[Rio de Janeiro]].

===1968 Olympics===
{{See also|Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics|1968 Summer Olympics}}
{{MedalTableTop|name=no|Header=Olympic medal record|Mark Spitz 1969 Panini card.jpg|220px|Spitz c. 1968}}
{{MedalSport | [[1968 Summer Olympics|1968 Mexico City]]}}
{{MedalCountry|the USA}}
{{MedalGold| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics – Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|4×100 m freestyle relay]] |3:31.7}}
{{MedalGold| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics – Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|4×200 m freestyle relay]] |7:52.3}}
{{MedalSilver| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics – Men's 100 metre butterfly|100 m butterfly]] |56.40}}
{{MedalBronze| [[Swimming at the 1968 Summer Olympics – Men's 100 metre freestyle|100 m freestyle]] |53.00}}
{{MedalBottom}}

Spitz was already the holder of ten world records, and he brashly predicted that he would win six gold medals at the [[1968 Summer Olympics]] in [[Mexico City]]. However, he won only two team golds: the 4×100-meter freestyle relay in 3:31.70, and the 4×200-meter freestyle relay in 7:52.33.<ref name=sroprofile>[https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/sp/mark-spitz-1.html Mark Spitz] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080730011411/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/sp/mark-spitz-1.html |date=July 30, 2008 }}. sports-reference.com</ref> In addition, Spitz finished second to fellow American [[Doug Russell (swimmer)|Doug Russell]] in the 100-meter butterfly. He lost to Russell by a half second, despite holding the world record and having beaten Russell the previous ten times they had swum against each other that year.<ref>He also won a bronze medal in the 100-meter freestyle in 53.00 seconds at the same games. [http://www.olympic.org/uk/athletes/profiles/bio_uk.asp?PAR_I_ID=20272 International Olympic Committee – Athletes]</ref> Russell did briefly match Spitz's world record in late August 1967, holding the record equally with Spitz for five days before Spitz regained it solely on October 2, 1967. As a result of being beaten by Russell, Spitz did not get to swim in the 4×100-meter medley relay, which gave Russell his second gold medal and the USA team another world record performance.

===College training===
Spitz was disappointed in his 1968 Olympic performance. In January 1969, he decided to attend [[Indiana University]]<ref name="IUspitz"/> to train with legendary [[Indiana Hoosiers]] swimming coach [[Doc Counsilman]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiana.edu/~ocmhptst/051603/text/doc.html |title=Indiana University Archives |publisher=Indiana.edu |date=May 16, 2003 |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref> who was also his Olympic coach in [[Mexico City]]. He called choosing Indiana and Counsilman "the biggest decision of my life (and) the best."<ref name="Glory of Old IU 220">{{cite book|last1=Hammel|first1=Bob|last2=Klingelhoffer|first2=Kit|title=The Glory of Old Iu: 100 Years of Indiana Athletics|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8uobLCQZlhAC|year=1999|publisher=Sports Publishing LLC|isbn=1-58261-068-1|page=156}}</ref> While at Indiana, Spitz won eight individual [[National Collegiate Athletic Association|NCAA]] titles. In 1971, he won the [[James E. Sullivan Award]] as the top amateur athlete in the United States. Spitz also set a number of world records during the [[United States Olympic Trials (swimming)|U.S. Olympic Swim Trials]] held in Chicago's [[Portage Park (Chicago)|Portage Park]] in 1972.

He was nicknamed "Mark the Shark" by his teammates.

===1972 Olympics===
{{See also|Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|1972 Summer Olympics}}
{{MedalTableTop|name=no|Header=Olympic medal record|Mark Spitz 1972.jpg|220px|Spitz at the 1972 Olympics}}
{{MedalSport | [[1972 Summer Olympics|1972 Munich]]}}
{{MedalCountry|the USA}}
{{MedalGold| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics – Men's 200 metre butterfly|200 m butterfly]] |[[World record progression 200 metres butterfly|2:00.70 (WR)]]}}
{{MedalGold| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics – Men's 4 x 100 metre freestyle relay|4×100 m freestyle relay]] |[[World record progression 4 × 100 metres freestyle relay|3:26.42 (WR)]]}}
{{MedalGold| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics – Men's 200 metre freestyle|200 m freestyle]] |[[World record progression 200 metres freestyle|1:52.78 (WR)]]}}
{{MedalGold| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics – Men's 100 metre butterfly|100 m butterfly]] |[[World record progression 100 metres butterfly|54.27 (WR)]]}}
{{MedalGold| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics – Men's 4 x 200 metre freestyle relay|4×200 m freestyle relay]] |[[World record progression 4 × 200 metres freestyle relay|7:35.78 (WR)]]}}
{{MedalGold| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics – Men's 100 metre freestyle|100 m freestyle]] |[[World record progression 100 metres freestyle|51.22 (WR)]]}}
{{MedalGold| [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics – Men's 4 x 100 metre medley relay|4×100 m medley relay]] |[[World record progression 4 × 100 metres medley relay|3:48.16 (WR)]]}}
{{MedalBottom}}

At the [[Swimming at the 1972 Summer Olympics|1972 Summer Olympics]] in [[Munich]], Spitz was back to repeat his quest for the six gold medals. He did even better, winning seven Olympic gold medals. Furthermore, Spitz set a new world record in each of the seven events – 100-meter freestyle (51.22), 200-meter freestyle (1:52.78), 100-meter butterfly (54.27), 200-meter butterfly (2:00.70), 4×100-meter freestyle relay (3:26.42), 4×200-meter freestyle relay (7:35.78), and 4×100-meter medley relay (3:48.16). Spitz was originally reluctant to swim the 100-meter freestyle, fearing that he would not win the gold medal. Minutes before the race, he confessed on the pool deck to [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]]'s [[Donna de Varona]], "I know I say I don't want to swim before every event, but this time I'm serious. If I swim six and win six, I'll be a hero. If I swim seven and win six, I'll be a failure." Spitz won by half a stroke in a world-record time of 51.22 seconds.<ref>Moore, K. Spitz's mark of seven world records in one Olympic meet was equaled by [[Michael Phelps]] in 2008. (This was because Phelps's 100-meter butterfly win fell short of the world mark). [http://vault.sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1068953/2/index.htm "Bionic Man."] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820175221/http://vault.sportsillustrated.cnn.com/vault/article/magazine/MAG1068953/2/index.htm |date=August 20, 2008 }} Sports Illustrated. October 23, 1989. Retrieved August 13, 2008.</ref>
[[File:MarkSpitz1972Jacket.jpg|thumb|Jacket worn by Mark Spitz during the 1972 Summer Olympics.]]

Spitz is one of seven Olympians (four of them swimmers) to win [[List of multiple Olympic gold medalists|nine or more career gold medals]]: [[Larisa Latynina]], [[Paavo Nurmi]], [[Carl Lewis]], [[Katie Ledecky]], and [[Caeleb Dressel]] also have nine;<ref>{{cite book |title= The Complete Book of the Olympics: 2008 Edition |last= Wallechinsky |first= David |author2=Jaime Loucky |year= 2008 |publisher=[[Aurum Press]] |isbn= 978-1-84513-330-6 |page= 702}}</ref> only Michael Phelps has won more, with 23. Spitz's [[List of multiple Olympic gold medalists at a single Games|record]] of seven gold medals in a single Olympics was not surpassed until Phelps broke the record at the [[2008 Summer Olympics]].

After he had completed his events, Spitz left Munich early as a result of the [[Munich Massacre]], where eleven Israeli athletes were taken hostage and later murdered by Palestinian terrorists.<ref name="sports-reference1">{{cite Sports-Reference |url=https://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/la/shaul-ladany-1.html |title=Shaul Ladany |access-date=February 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130207054939/http://www.sports-reference.com/olympics/athletes/la/shaul-ladany-1.html |archive-date=February 7, 2013 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t0KzECrIQDQC&pg=PA161|title=Jews and the Olympic Games: The Clash Between Sport and Politics – With a Complete Review of Jewish Olympic Medalists |author=Taylor, Paul |publisher=Sussex Academic Press |year=2004 |isbn=9781903900888 }}</ref> Being Jewish himself, there was concern among the Olympic authorities that Spitz would become a likely target for the Palestinians and he was escorted to London for his own safety.<ref name="google1">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bKZa91YO_4YC&pg=PT26|title=One Day in September: The Full Story of the 1972 Munich Olympics Massacre and the Israeli Revenge Operation "Wrath of God" |author=Reeve, Simon |publisher=Skyhorse Publishing Inc. |year=2011 |isbn=9781611450354 }}</ref><ref name="google3">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FsgDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA104|author= Moore, Kenny |title=Leading Men|publisher=Runner's World |date=April 2006 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LT2q2tSuIO8C&pg=PA131|title=Making Other Plans: A Memoir |author=MacKin, Tom |publisher=Author House |year=2009|isbn=978-1452071510 }}</ref> It is believed that he was escorted out of the country by US Marines stationed in West Germany.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}}

===Retirement===

Following the Munich Olympics, Spitz retired from competition even though he was only 22 years old.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.today.com/news/mark-spitz-i-m-just-regular-guy-who-achieved-olympic-t100820|title=Mark Spitz: I'm 'just a regular guy' who achieved Olympic swimming glory|website=TODAY.com|date=July 14, 2016 }}</ref>

At age 41, Spitz attempted a comeback for the [[1992 Summer Olympics]] after filmmaker [[Bud Greenspan]] offered him a million dollars if he succeeded in qualifying.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://www.smh.com.au/sport/thorpe-comeback-inspiring-spitz-20120905-25dr3.html|title=Thorpe comeback inspiring: Spitz|first=Rob|last=Forsaith|date=September 5, 2012|website=The Sydney Morning Herald}}</ref> Spitz's comeback attempt made the cover of ''Parade'' and was also reported on in ''Sports Illustrated'' and ''Esquire''.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1992-07-19-sp-4669-story.html|title=COMMENTARY : Spitz's Comeback Sinks, Although He Is One Healthy 42-Year-Old|date=July 19, 1992|website=Los Angeles Times}}</ref> Filmed by Greenspan's cameras, Spitz was two seconds slower than the Olympic standard and failed to qualify.<ref name="auto"/>

In 1999, Spitz ranked No. 33 on ''[[ESPN]] SportsCentury 50 Greatest Athletes'', the only aquatic athlete to make the list.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.topendsports.com/world/lists/greatest-all-time/athletes-espn-century.htm|title=Top Athletes List of the 20th Century|website=www.topendsports.com}}</ref>

==Hall of Fame==
* [[International Swimming Hall of Fame]], Inducted 1977.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ishof.org/mark-spitz--%28usa%29.html |title=Mark Spitz |website=ISHOF.org |publisher=[[International Swimming Hall of Fame]] |access-date=February 15, 2015 |archive-date=February 16, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216031951/http://www.ishof.org/mark-spitz--%28usa%29.html |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* [[International Jewish Sports Hall of Fame]], Inducted 1979.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishsports.net/BioPages/MarkSpitz.htm |title=Mark Spitz |publisher=Jewishsports.net |date=February 10, 1950 |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref>
* [[United States Olympic Hall of Fame]], Inducted 1983.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.usolympichalloffame.com/?page_id=46 |title=Hof Polls, Team USA |publisher=U.S. Olympic Hall of Fame |date=July 1, 2009 |access-date=January 30, 2011 }}{{dead link|date=July 2017 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>
*[[Southern California Jewish Sports Hall of Fame]] Inducted 1990.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://scjewishsportshof.com/spitz.html|title=Southern California Jewish Sports Hall of Fame Home|website=scjewishsportshof.com|access-date=July 31, 2020|archive-date=January 28, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128193729/https://scjewishsportshof.com/spitz.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
* San Jose Sports Hall of Fame, inducted Wednesday, November 14, 2007.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.sjsa.org/hall_of_fame/bios_07.asp#mspitz |title=San Jose Sports Authority – [ Hall of Fame ] |publisher=Sjsa.org |access-date=January 30, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101101165447/http://sjsa.org/hall_of_fame/bios_07.asp#mspitz |archive-date=November 1, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.santaclaraswimclub.org/alumni/spitzUpdate.html |title=Mark Spitz Update |publisher=Santa Clara Swim Club |date=November 14, 2007 |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref>
* [[National Jewish Museum Sports Hall of Fame]], Inducted 2007.<ref>{{cite news|last=Finn |first=Robin |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/05/13/nyregion/nyregionspecial2/13colli.html |title=A Joke Inspires a Hall of Fame That's No Joke |work=The New York Times |date=May 13, 2007 |access-date=May 27, 2017}}</ref>
* [[Long Beach City College]] Hall of Fame, Inducted 2007<ref>{{cite web |url=http://athletics.lbcc.edu/athletichome/athletics101107.cfm |title=Long Beach City College Athletics |publisher=Athletics.lbcc.edu |date=October 11, 2007 |access-date=January 30, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719230714/http://athletics.lbcc.edu/athletichome/athletics101107.cfm |archive-date=July 19, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>
* Indiana University Athletics Hall of Fame<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.indiana.edu/~phipsi/alumni.php?sortby=lname |title=Phi Kappa Psi:.:Indiana Beta |publisher=Indiana.edu |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref>

==Film and television career==
After Spitz retired from competitive swimming at age 22, he was managed by the [[William Morris Agency]], which tried to get him into [[show business]] while he was still a household name due to his athletic success.<ref name=fmddud>{{cite news |url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?id=AaxVAAAAIBAJ&pg=6642%2C1769789 |work=Eugene Register-Guard |location=(Oregon) |agency=Associated Press |last=Grimsley |first=Will |title=Mark Spitz: Olympic hero to a $5 million dud |date=June 7, 1976 |page=3C}}</ref>

A poster featuring Spitz wearing his swimsuit and gold medals that led [[ESPN]] to retroactively label him "the hottest [[pin-up]] since [[Betty Grable]]".<ref name=ESPN>{{cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/sportscentury/features/00016480.html |title=Spitz lived up to enormous expectations | last=Roberts | first= M. B. | work=ESPN |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref>

In Spitz's TV debut, he appeared as himself in a skit as a dentist on a [[Bob Hope]] special that aired October 5, 1972. In 1973–74, Spitz appeared on TV's ''[[The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson]]'' and ''[[The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour]]''. On the TV drama ''[[Emergency!]]'', he portrayed Pete Barlow, whose wife (played by Spitz's wife, Suzy) is accidentally shot by a handgun in an overfull drawer. He also appeared briefly on ''[[The Dean Martin Celebrity Roast]]'' of California Governor [[Ronald Reagan]] in September 1973.

Spitz went to work for [[ABC Sports]] in 1976 and worked on many sports presentations, including coverage of the [[1976 Summer Olympics]] in Montreal and the [[1984 Summer Olympics]] in Los Angeles.<ref name="panasonic.com">{{cite web |url=http://www.panasonic.com/olympics2004/sptiz_bio.html |title=Mark Spitz's biography |publisher=Panasonic.com |year=2004 |access-date=January 30, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101123025214/http://www.panasonic.com/olympics2004/sptiz_bio.html |archive-date=November 23, 2010 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> In 1985 he appeared as a TV announcer in ''[[Challenge of a Lifetime]]''. He continued as a broadcaster for some time, but within a few years, he was hardly seen as a public figure<ref name=ESPN/> except perhaps as a commentator for swimming events like the [[2004 Summer Olympics]]. Instead Spitz focused on his [[real estate]] company in [[Beverly Hills]] and hobbies such as sailing.<ref name=ESPN/>

===Narration===
Spitz narrated ''[[Freedom's Fury]]'', a 2006 Hungarian documentary about the [[Water polo at the 1956 Summer Olympics|Olympic water polo]] team's [[Blood in the Water match]] against the Soviet Union during the [[Hungarian Revolution of 1956]] which was repressed by the Soviet Union—considered among the most famous water polo matches.<ref name="Boardman">{{cite book|last=Boardman|first=Margaret Carroll|editor=Nelson, Murry R.|title=American Sports: A History of Icons, Idols, and Ideas|publisher=ABC-CLIO|year=2013|page=1216|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tfTXAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1216|isbn=9780313397530}}</ref> The film was executive produced by [[Quentin Tarantino]] and [[Lucy Liu]],<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Edwards|first=Russell|title=Freedom's Fury|magazine=Variety|date=April 10, 2007|url=https://variety.com/2007/film/reviews/freedom-s-fury-1200560208/|access-date=November 14, 2018}}</ref> and made its debut at the [[Tribeca Film Festival]].<ref name="Boardman"/>

===Commercials===
He appeared in an advertisement for the California Milk Advisory Board. One of his print advertisements featured the caption "I always drink it--is something I like to do. I want to be loved by the mothers."

In 1974, he was in a number of Schick razors commercials.<ref name="people.com">{{cite web |last=Bruns |first=Bill |url=http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20064247,00.html |title=The Shark Gets Soft – Couples, Olympics, Mark Spitz, Suzy Spitz |work=People |date=July 8, 1974 |access-date=January 30, 2011 |archive-date=February 1, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110201215847/http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20064247,00.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> In 1998 he appeared with [[Evel Knievel]] in a TV commercial for [[PlayStation]].

In 1982, bestselling author Clive Cussler, mentioned Mark Spitz in the novel "Pacific Vortex!", the origin-story of Dirk Pitt.

In 2004, he appeared in a TV commercial for Sprint PCS.<ref>{{IMDb name|id=0819156|section=otherworks|name=Mark Spitz}}</ref> Then in November 2007, Spitz made a [[cameo appearance]] on [[Amanda Beard]]'s first television commercial (for GoDaddy) featuring her own seven Olympic medals (won between 1996 and 2004). The ad was entitled "Shock".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thewhir.com/marketwatch/110707_Go_Daddy_to_Air_New_TV_Commercial.cfm |title=Go Daddy to Air New TV Commercial, WHIR Web Hosting Industry News |publisher=Thewhir.com |access-date=January 30, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080808121305/http://www.thewhir.com/marketwatch/110707_Go_Daddy_to_Air_New_TV_Commercial.cfm |archive-date=August 8, 2008 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Also, in 2007 he appeared in the infomercial for the "Orbitrek Elite" fitness workout.<ref name="imdb.com">{{IMDb name|id=0819156|section=bio|name=Mark Spitz}}</ref>

In 2012, Spitz appeared in a commercial for Ageless Male, a testosterone supplement.{{citation needed|date=May 2021}}

In a 2019 commercial, Spitz pitched a personal EKG device by KardiaMobile.<ref>{{cite web | access-date = May 19, 2021 | url = https://www.ispot.tv/ad/oW5u/kardiamobile-mark-spitz-on-kardiamobile-featuring-mark-spitz | url-status = live | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191030165212/https://www.ispot.tv/ad/oW5u/kardiamobile-mark-spitz-on-kardiamobile-featuring-mark-spitz | archive-date= October 30, 2019 | title = KardiaMobile TV Commercial, 'Facing New Challenges' Featuring Mark Spitz }}</ref>

In 2022, Spitz endorsed the [[health supplement]] Relief Factor.<ref>{{cite web | access-date = August 2, 2022 | url = https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=ACnih4cii38 | title = Relief Factor Commercial (Mark Spitz) (2022) | website=[[YouTube]] }}</ref>

==Personal life==

===Family life===
[[File:Mark Spitz and wife 1973.jpg|thumb|Mark Spitz and Suzy Weiner on their wedding day in May 1973]]
[[File:Mark Spitz and Wife with the Fords B1804 (1).jpg|thumb|right|Spitz (far right) and his wife (far left) with President [[Gerald Ford]] and First Lady [[Betty Ford]] in 1976]]
When Spitz returned from the Olympics, he began dating Suzy Weiner, a [[UCLA]] theater student and part-time model, who also was the daughter of one of his father's business acquaintances.<ref name=ESPN/><ref>{{cite news| url=https://www.usatoday.com/sports/olympics/athens/swimming/2004-08-12-spitz-phelps-sidebar-bonus_x.htm | work=USA Today | title=Golden glow still follows Spitz | first1=Vicki | last1=Michaelis | date=August 13, 2004 | access-date=May 2, 2010}}</ref> Less than a year after the Munich Olympics, they were married on May 6, 1973,<ref name="imdb.com"/> in a traditional Jewish service at the Beverly Hills Hotel.<ref name="people.com"/> They have two sons, Matthew (born October 1981) and Justin (born September 1991). Justin was a member of the Stanford swim team.<ref name="panasonic.com"/><ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20121108112634/http://www.gostanford.com/sports/m-swim/mtt/spitz_justin00.html Justin Spitz]. gostanford.com</ref> Spitz and his wife reside in [[Los Angeles|Los Angeles, California]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.pmgsports.com/talent-overview/mark-spitz/ |title=Mark Spitz - Premier Management Group |access-date=April 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190116212107/https://www.pmgsports.com/talent-overview/mark-spitz/ |archive-date=January 16, 2019 |url-status=dead }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=https://virtualglobetrotting.com/map/mark-spitzs-house/ |title=Mark Spitz's House - Virtual Globetrotting |access-date=April 17, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140923155313/http://virtualglobetrotting.com/map/mark-spitzs-house/ |archive-date=September 23, 2014 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

===Education===
At [[Indiana University]] from 1968 to 1972, Spitz was a pre-dental student and member of [[Phi Kappa Psi]] fraternity. ''Time'' magazine asked him if he wanted to return to dental school after the Olympics. "I always wanted to be a dentist from the time I was in high school, and I was accepted to dental school in the spring of 1972. I was planning to go, but after the Olympics there were other opportunities. I did some television and speaking engagements, and things just went from there."<ref name="10Questions">{{cite magazine|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,994874,00.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060902191741/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0%2C9171%2C994874%2C00.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=September 2, 2006 |first=Alice |last=Park | title=10 Questions For Mark Spitz |magazine=Time |date=August 16, 2004 |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref> Spitz graduated from Indiana University in 1972.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.encyclopedia.com/people/sports-and-games/sports-biographies/mark-andrew-spitz|title=Mark Andrew Spitz | Encyclopedia.com|website=www.encyclopedia.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mark-Spitz|title=Mark Spitz | Biography, Medals, & Facts|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|date=April 9, 2024 }}</ref>

===Post-swimming career===
After Spitz's return to the United States following the 1972 Olympics, he landed several lucrative corporate endorsement contracts. He earned about $7 million in a two-year period.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mark Spitz: Biography |url=http://www.answers.com/topic/mark-spitz |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110213183437/http://www.answers.com/topic/mark-spitz |archive-date=13 February 2011 |url-status=dead |publisher=[[Answers.com]] |access-date=23 January 2020}}</ref> "A million dollars in 1972 would be equivalent to more than $10 million today," Spitz said in 2007. "I did very well, thank you very much."<ref>{{cite news |title=Spitz just can't get away from Phelps |url=http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/03/26/sports/AS-SPT-SWM-Worlds-Mark-Spitz.php?page=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080919035054/http://www.iht.com/articles/ap/2007/03/26/sports/AS-SPT-SWM-Worlds-Mark-Spitz.php |archive-date=19 September 2008 |url-status=dead |work=[[International Herald Tribune]] |date=March 26, 2007 |access-date=23 January 2020}}</ref> Spitz added, "I would say I was a pioneer. There wasn't anyone who'd gone to the Olympics before me who capitalized the same way on opportunity. It depends on timing, it depends on hype, it depends on the economy, and most importantly, it depends on looks. I mean, I've never seen a magazine of uglies. That's our society. I'm not saying it's right. That's just the facts."<ref>[http://www.inrich.com/cva/ric/sports.apx.-content-articles-RTD-2008-07-27-0133.html]{{dead link|date=June 2016|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Spitz went on to start a real estate company.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/sportscentury/features/00016480.html|title=ESPN.com: Spitz lived up to enormous expectations|website=www.espn.com}}</ref>

Per his official website, Spitz is self-employed as a corporate spokesperson and motivational speaker. However, Sports Yahoo! lists his occupation as a stock broker and motivational speaker.<ref name=snub>{{cite web|url=https://sports.yahoo.com/olympics/news?slug=afp-oly2008swimusaspitz&prov=afp&type=lgns |title=Spitz, once the star, upset over Beijing snub |publisher=[[Yahoo! Sports]] |author=Hui, Polly |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080815220118/http://sports.yahoo.com/olympics/news?slug=afp-oly2008swimusaspitz&prov=afp&type=lgns |archive-date=August 15, 2008 }}</ref> According to one interview, "Spitz became a stockbroker in 2002 and has since moved into private equity. He is now also dabbling in the 'water business', as he calls it, and is in negotiations to build a water-bottling facility on aquifer-rich land that he and a business partner own."<ref name=SI>{{cite magazine |last=McGarr |first=Elizabeth |date=July 21, 2008 |title=Catching up with Mark Spitz |url=http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/olympics/2008/07/01/spitz.cuw/index.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080726173334/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/olympics/2008/07/01/spitz.cuw/index.html |archive-date=26 July 2008 |magazine=[[Sports Illustrated]] |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref>

Spitz has pursued various entrepreneurial projects with former NBA player [[Rick Barry]]. He travels the world, delivering about 25 lectures a year. His biography, ''The Extraordinary Life of An Olympic Champion'' by Richard J. Foster, was released in July 2008.<ref>{{cite news| last= Goodman |first=Dean |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/sportsNews/idUSN1935785920080802 |title=Mark Spitz makes splash about Beijing invite |work=Reuters |date= August 2, 2008|access-date=August 16, 2008 }}</ref>

In July 2012, he endorsed [[Istanbul]]'s [[Istanbul bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics|bid]] to host the [[2020 Summer Olympics]], but the award went to [[Tokyo]].<ref>Mackay, Duncan (July 16, 2012) [http://www.insidethegames.biz/sports/2020-bidding-sports/17731-olympic-legend-backs-istanbul-2020 "Olympic legend backs Istanbul 2020"]. insidethegames.biz</ref>

===Hobbies===
His hobbies include sailing, skiing and collecting art.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/sports/2004/aug/10oly-swim1.htm |title=Olympic Legends: Mark Spitz |work=Rediff.com |date=August 10, 2004 |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref>

===Famous moustache during Olympics===
In an era when other swimmers, male and female, were shaving body hair, he swam with a moustache. When asked why he initially grew one, he stated: "I grew the moustache because a coach in college said I couldn't grow one."<ref name="10Questions"/> Spitz said he originally grew the moustache as a form of rebellion against the clean-cut look imposed on him in college. "It took a long time to grow," he said.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://blogs.mercurynews.com/pizarro/2007/11/18/mark-spitz-reveals-the-story-behind-his-mustache/ |title=Mark Spitz reveals the story behind his mustache, Around Town |publisher=Blogs.mercurynews.com |date=November 18, 2007 |access-date=January 30, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012012254/http://blogs.mercurynews.com/pizarro/2007/11/18/mark-spitz-reveals-the-story-behind-his-mustache/ |archive-date=October 12, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> It took four months to grow, but Spitz was proud of it, he decided the moustache was a "good-luck piece".{{citation needed|date=August 2022}}

Spitz is quoted as saying, "When I went to the Olympics, I had every intention of shaving the moustache off, but I realized I was getting so many comments about it—and everybody was talking about it—that I decided to keep it. I had some fun with a Russian coach who asked me if my moustache slowed me down. I said, 'No, as a matter of fact, it deflects water away from my mouth, allows my rear end to rise and make me bullet-shaped in the water, and that's what had allowed me to swim so great.'
According to a ''Sports Illustrated'' article, on February 14, 1988, after talking about shaving off his moustache for a year, he finally did. "He looked great with it, don't get me wrong," explained his wife Suzy, "but he looks so handsome without it."<ref>{{cite news| title=Catching up with Mark Spitz | url= http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/olympics/2008/07/01/spitz.cuw/index.html?eref=si_topstories | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20091001014317/http://sportsillustrated.cnn.com/2008/olympics/2008/07/01/spitz.cuw/index.html?eref=si_topstories | url-status= dead | archive-date= October 1, 2009 |work=CNN| date=July 21, 2008 | access-date=May 2, 2010}}</ref>

When he was asked why he shaved it off, he responded: "Well, one, I'm not swimming anymore; two, it started to turn gray; and three, my wife had never seen me, nor my family, without the moustache ... I'm happy [without it]."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.newsday.com/sports/mark-spitz-talks-about-his-mustache-and-michael-phelps-1.881390|title=Mark Spitz talks about his mustache (and Michael Phelps) |publisher=newsday.com|author=Dickstein, Max J. |date=July 15, 2008}}</ref> He also commented on his moustache in a live, in-studio interview with [[KCRA]] host Mike TeSelle on June 14, 2008, with Spitz stating that he no longer maintains his iconic moustache because it had become "too gray".

===Health issues===
After retirement, Spitz was diagnosed with [[Gastroesophageal reflux disease|acid reflux disease]], a condition from which his physician thinks he suffered throughout his career.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/11653.php |title=Mark Spitz expresses health issues he faced while achieving Olympic dreams |publisher=Medicalnewstoday.com |access-date=January 30, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090115025742/http://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/11653.php |archive-date=January 15, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref> "During my Olympic training, I attributed the symptoms [of acid reflux] to an overexposure to chlorine and eating too soon before and after swimming," says Spitz. "It wasn't until the symptoms began to get in the way of my 1976 Olympic broadcasting career in Montreal, which was four years after retirement that I suspected something more serious must be happening."

He has also reported having high cholesterol and other chronic health issues.<ref>{{cite web |author=Schneiderman, Matt |date=August 1, 2008 |url=http://www.everydayhealth.com/heart-disease/cholesterol/understanding/mylife/mark_spitz/landing.aspx |title=Nearly 20 years ago, while preparing for an Olympic comeback, the decorated swimmer discovered he had high cholesterol – and he's never let it slow him down |publisher=everydayhealth.com |access-date=August 1, 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080901161418/http://www.everydayhealth.com/heart-disease/cholesterol/understanding/mylife/mark_spitz/landing.aspx |archive-date=September 1, 2008 |url-status=dead }}</ref> "People don't believe that I have high cholesterol, but it's a fact," said Spitz. "I take medication every day because my doctor told me that diet and exercise are not enough to keep my cholesterol down." He is a paid spokesperson for [[Medco Health Solutions|Medco]], a [[pharmacy benefit management]] company.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/lane9/news/15897.asp |title=Lane 9 News Archive: Industry News: Mark Spitz, Greg Louganis Join Tour of Champions to Educate Americans on Health Care |publisher=Swimmingworldmagazine.com |access-date=January 30, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120404192201/http://www.swimmingworldmagazine.com/lane9/news/15897.asp |archive-date=April 4, 2012 |df=mdy-all }}</ref>

==Olympic controversies==

===1972 medal podium incident===
In 1972, Spitz was accused of [[product placement]] during the medal ceremony. Following his victory in the 200-meter freestyle, Spitz carried his shoes and arrived barefoot to obtain his gold medal. He put them down as the American national anthem, "The Star-Spangled Banner" was played. After the anthem, he picked up his shoes and waved to the crowd. The Soviet officials viewed this as product placement and complained to the IOC. When questioned by the IOC, Spitz explained that the gesture was innocent, the shoes were old and he was not paid. The IOC cleared him of any wrongdoing.<ref name="expectations"/>

===Issues with 2008 Summer Olympics===
Spitz has said that he felt snubbed by not being asked to attend the [[2008 Summer Olympics]] to watch [[Michael Phelps]] attempt to break his seven-gold-medal record: "I never got invited. You don't go to the Olympics just to say, I am going to go. Especially because of who I am. ... I am going to sit there and watch Michael Phelps break my record anonymously? That's almost demeaning to me. It is not almost—it is."<ref name=snub/> Spitz added, "They voted me one of the top five Olympians of all time. Some of them are dead. But they invited the other ones to go to the Olympics, but not me," he said. "Yes, I am a bit upset about it."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5hLnTiMa1nwi9qHodVSMCWbP2WBdQ |title=AFP: Spitz, once the star, upset over Beijing snub |date=August 10, 2008 |access-date=January 30, 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111012075636/http://afp.google.com/article/ALeqM5hLnTiMa1nwi9qHodVSMCWbP2WBdQ |archive-date=October 12, 2011 |df=mdy-all }}</ref> Spitz has stated that he has no hard feelings towards Phelps.<ref>{{cite web |title=Mark Spitz |url=http://www.mahalo.com/Mark_Spitz |publisher=Mahalo.com |access-date=January 30, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090207173827/http://www.mahalo.com/Mark_Spitz |archive-date=February 7, 2009 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

[[File:Mark Spitz Jul 2008.jpg|thumbnail|Mark Spitz, throwing first pitch at a baseball game (2008)]]

However, on August 14, 2008, Spitz appeared on NBC's ''[[Today (NBC program)|Today Show]]'' where he clarified his statement and his pride in Michael Phelps:

{{blockquote|It's about time that somebody else takes the throne. And I'm very happy for him. I really, truly am ... I was working with a corporate sponsor who elected not to bring their US contingent over to China, and they piled on more work for me here in the United States, which was great. So I wasn't able to get to the Olympics and watch Michael in the first couple of days. And they thought, some of these reporters, that I was supposed to be invited by some entity, and I told them that that wasn't really the case, that doesn't happen that way. And so, I'm sort of disappointed that I wasn't there, but, you know, that interview somehow took a different turn, and I've done hundreds and hundreds of them and I've been true to form about the way I feel about Michael, and he's doing a great job for the United States and inspiring a lot of great performances by the other team members.<ref>{{cite web|last=Considine |first=Bob |url=https://www.today.com/news/mark-spitz-it-s-time-somebody-else-takes-throne-wbna26194898 |title=Spitz on Phelps: 'I'm rooting him on' – TODAY in Beijing |publisher=Today.com |date=August 14, 2008 |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref>}}

Also on August 14, 2008, in an interview aired on Los Angeles KNBC-4's morning news show, ''[[Today in L.A.]]'', Spitz was quoted saying he does believe that "Michael Phelps is the greatest Olympic athlete ever."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jewishjournal.com/sports/article/mark_spitz_michael_phelps_is_the_greatest_olympic_athlete_ever_20080817 |title=Mark Spitz: Michael Phelps is the greatest Olympic athlete ever |publisher=Jewish Journal|access-date= August 17, 2008}}</ref>

On August 15, 2008, as part of an interview on NBC, Spitz said that he felt Phelps's performance in the 100 fly in Beijing was "epic". Spitz paid this compliment to Phelps just two hours after his record-tying seventh gold medal during a live joint interview with [[Bob Costas]]:

{{blockquote|You know, Bob and Michael, I wondered what I was going to say at this monumental time, when it would happen and who I would say it to, and of course I thought I was going to say it to you for some time now. But, it's the word that comes to mind, "epic". What you did tonight was epic, and it was epic for the whole world to see how great you really are. I never thought for one moment that you were out of that race and contention, because I watched you at Athens win the race by similar margins, and 18 months ago at the World's by similar margins. And, you know, that is a tribute to your greatness. And now the whole world knows. We are so proud of you Michael here in America, and we are so proud of you and the way that you handle yourself, and you represent such an inspiration to all the youngsters around the world. You know, you weren't born when I did what I did, and I'm sure that I was a part of your inspiration, and I take that as a full compliment. And they say that you judge one's character by the company you keep, and I'm happy to keep company with you. And you have a tremendous responsibility for all those people that you are going to inspire over the next number of years, and I know that you will wear the crown well. Congratulations, Mike.<ref>"XXIX Summer Olympics, NBC, interview with Bob Costas, August 15, 2008</ref>}}

In 2015, Spitz allegedly claimed that he had seen an email from Omega, the official timekeeper, that Phelps had lost the closely contested [[Swimming at the 2008 Summer Olympics – Men's 100 metre butterfly|100m butterfly final in 2008]].<ref name="SpitzOmega">{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/swimming/11547958/Michael-Phelps-was-given-an-Olympic-gold-in-a-race-he-did-not-win-claims-Mark-Spitz.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/sport/olympics/swimming/11547958/Michael-Phelps-was-given-an-Olympic-gold-in-a-race-he-did-not-win-claims-Mark-Spitz.html |archive-date=January 12, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Michael Phelps was given an Olympic gold in a race he did not win, claims Mark Spitz|date=April 18, 2015|author=Rumsby, Ben |publisher=The Telegraph}}{{cbignore}}</ref> He later claimed that his quote had been "misconstrued".<ref>[https://swimswam.com/mark-spitz-it-is-unfortunate-that-my-quote-was-misconstrued-regarding-phelps/ "Mark Spitz: 'It Is Unfortunate That My Quote Was Misconstrued' Regarding Phelps"]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161013121200/https://swimswam.com/mark-spitz-it-is-unfortunate-that-my-quote-was-misconstrued-regarding-phelps/ |date=October 13, 2016 }}, swimswam.com, April 21, 2015</ref>

===Views on drug testing===

Spitz has been consistent in his criticism of the two swimming world bodies, FINA and the IOC, in their incomplete attempts to keep drugs out of the sport. He has felt that not enough has been done to monitor and encourage drug-free participation. In 1998 he criticized FINA for its "embarrassing" attempts to stamp out drug abuse, urging them to test for all known drugs. In September 1999 Spitz said the IOC had the technology to test for a plethora of drugs but was refusing to do so because of some IOC member protests.<ref name="espn.go.com">{{cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/classic/biography/s/spitz_mark.html |title=ESPN Classic – Spitz lived up to enormous expectations |work=ESPN |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref>

During a radio interview in Australia, Spitz was quoted as saying "They don't want to test for everything because there's tremendous pressure from the television networks because they want the television to have athletic competitions with the world record holders there for the finals. They want the medals not to be tainted in their value of accomplishment by winning them, and it's all about ratings and commercial selling of time and about money. And an International Olympic Committee has got their hand in the pockets of the network television people, so there's a tremendous conflict of interest in what they should do and what they're doing."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abc.net.au/am/stories/s157350.htm |title=AM Archive – Champion swimmer attacks IOC over drug testing |publisher=Australian Broadcasting Corporation |date=July 31, 2000 |access-date=January 30, 2011}}</ref>

In August 2008, the ''Los Angeles Times'' reported that Spitz continued to discuss drug testing and was saying "the IOC has sponsors who demand a good show. Television pays the IOC for the rights to that good show, and its sponsors want that too. Drug news and drug distractions are not a good show. People are not going to tune in to see athletes have their medals taken away from them."<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.latimes.com/news/columnists/la-sp-dwyre2-2008aug02,0,5162507.column?page=2 | work=Los Angeles Times | title=Spitz still a man apart, but not by own choice | first=Bill | last=Dwyre | date=August 2, 2008 | access-date=May 2, 2010}}</ref>

==See also==

{{Portal|Biography|Olympics}}
* [[List of Indiana University (Bloomington) people]]
* [[List of multiple Olympic gold medalists]]
* [[List of multiple Olympic gold medalists at a single Games]]
* [[List of multiple Summer Olympic medalists]]
* [[List of Jews in sports#Swimming|List of select Jewish swimmers]]
* [[List of top Olympic gold medalists in swimming]]
* [[World record progression 100 metres butterfly]]
* [[World record progression 100 metres freestyle]]
* [[World record progression 200 metres butterfly]]
* [[World record progression 200 metres freestyle]]
* [[World record progression 400 metres freestyle]]
* [[World record progression 4 × 100 metres medley relay]]
* [[World record progression 4 × 200 metres freestyle relay]]

==References==

{{Reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Mark Spitz}}
* [https://www.markspitzusa.com/ MarkSpitzUSA.com] – Official website of Mark Spitz
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090107045159/http://www.pmgsports.com/new/swimming_mark_spitz.html Mark Spitz Official Bio]
* [https://www.espn.com/classic/biography/s/spitz_mark.html Mark Spitz ''ESPN Classic'' biography]
* {{Team USA Hall of Fame|new_id=mark-spitz|old_id=Mark-Spitz|archive=20230720073207}}
* {{Olympics.com}}
* {{Olympedia}}
* {{IMDb name}}

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{{s-bef|before = [[Michael Wenden]]}}
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{{s-ttl|title = [[World record progression 200m freestyle|Men's 200-meter freestyle world record-holder (long course)]]|years = July 12, 1969 – August 23, 1974}}
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{{s-aft|after = [[John Ferris (swimmer)|John Ferris]] [[Gary Hall, Sr.]] [[Hans-Joachim Fassnacht]] [[Roger Pyttel]]}}
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{{s-aft|after= [[Michael Phelps]]}}
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{{Footer USA Swimming 1968 Summer Olympics}}
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{{Footer Pan American Champions 200 m Butterfly Men}}
{{Footer Pan American Champions 4x100 m Freestyle Men}}
{{Footer Pan American Champions 4x200 m Freestyle Men}}
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{{APAthleteOTY}}
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{{Authority control}}

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Francis Cromie

2024-10-12T11:42:03Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Death defending the British embassy in Petrograd */

{{Use British English|date=July 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{short description|British Royal Navy officer}}
{{Infobox military person
| name =Francis Newton Allen Cromie
| image =British Royal Navy Captain Francis Newton Cromie (1882-1918) - Naval Attaché.jpg
| caption =Captain Francis Cromie
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1882|1|30|df=y}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1918|8|31|1882|1|30|df=y}}
| placeofburial_label =
| placeofburial = [[Smolensky Cemetery]], Saint Petersburg, Russia
| birth_place =[[Duncannon]], [[Ireland]]
| death_place =Killed in the British Embassy, [[Petrograd]], Russia
| placeofburial_coordinates = 
| nickname =
| allegiance ={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]]
| branch =[[File:Naval Ensign of the United Kingdom.svg|23px]] [[Royal Navy]]
| serviceyears =1897-1918
| rank =[[Captain (Royal Navy)|Captain]] ([[Acting (rank)|Acting]]) [[Commander (Royal Navy)|Commander]] [[Naval attaché]]
| servicenumber =
| unit =
| commands =Depot Ship HMS Onyx and British Royal Navy Devenport submarine flotilla Depot Ship HMS Rosario and British Royal Navy China Hong Kong submarine flotilla British Royal Navy Baltic submarine flotilla [[HMS E19]]
| battles =[[Seymour Expedition]] [[World War I]]
*[[British submarine flotilla in the Baltic]]
| awards =[[Companion of the Order of the Bath]] [[Distinguished Service Order]] [[China War Medal (1900)|China War Medal]] (with Peking clasp) [[Order of St. George]] (4th Class) [[Order of St. Vladimir]] (4th Class with Swords) [[Order of St. Anna]] (2nd Class with Swords) [[Legion of Honour]] (Chevalier) [[Royal Humane Society]] (bronze medal)
| memorials = Archangel Memorial in [[Arkhangelsk]], Russia
| spouse = Gladys (Gwladys) Catherine Josephine (née Cromie, m. 1907-1920; remarried)
| relations =
| laterwork =
}}
[[Acting (rank)|Acting]] [[Captain (Royal Navy)|Captain]] '''Francis Newton Allen Cromie''', [[Order of the Bath|CB]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]] (30 January 1882 – 31 August 1918, Petrograd) was a distinguished British Royal Navy officer,<ref name="TVCDSO">{{Cite book|title=The V.C. AND D.S.O.; A complete record of all those officers, non-commissioned officers and men of His Majesty's naval, military and air forces who have been awarded these decorations from the time of their institution, with descriptions of the deeds and services which won the distinctions and with many biographical and other details, compiled from official publications and despatches, letters from commanding officers and other contemporary accounts, and from information from private sources.|volume=III|first1=Creagh|last1=O'Moore|first2=Edith|last2=Humphris|publisher=The Standard Art Book Co. Ltd.|location=London|year=1926|page=230}}</ref><ref name="TBDE1">{{cite news|title=KERENSKY'S KIN ARRESTED BY REDS; 40 BRITISH TAKEN. Intense Indignation in London Over Killing of Capt. Cromie—Threats of Reprisals.|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/55630566/|format=JPG|publisher=[[The Brooklyn Daily Eagle]]|location=Brooklyn, New York|page=2|date=5 September 1918|access-date=7 April 2014|quote=KERENSKY'S KIN ARRESTED BY REDS; 40 BRITISH TAKEN. Intense Indignation in London Over Killing of Capt. Cromie—Threats of Reprisals.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408214511/http://www.newspapers.com/image/55630566/|archive-date=8 April 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="TWP1">{{cite news|title=SOVIETS RAID BRITISH; Attack on Moscow Consulate Follows Petrograd Outrage.|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/31576161/|format=JPG|agency=[[Associated Press]]|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|location=Washington, District of Columbia|page=1|date=6 September 1918|access-date=7 April 2014|quote=SOVIETS RAID BRITISH; Attack on Moscow Consulate Follows Petrograd Outrage.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408212451/http://www.newspapers.com/image/31576161/|archive-date=8 April 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="OMNZAP1">{{cite news|first=Arthur|last=Pollen|title=THE TRAGEDY OF CAPTAIN CROMIE. A MARTYR TO DUTY.|url=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=OAM19181113.1.6, PNG|work=[[The Oamaru Mail]]|location=Oamaru, New Zealand|page=6|date=13 November 1918|access-date=9 April 2014|volume=XLVIII|issue=13609|quote=THE TRAGEDY OF CAPTAIN CROMIE. A MARTYR TO DUTY.}}</ref> military diplomat, and the de facto chief of British Intelligence operations in northern Russia for the British [[Naval Intelligence Division (United Kingdom)|Naval Intelligence Division]].<ref name="OPSKST">{{Cite book|title=Operation Kronstadt: The True Story of Honour, Espionage, and the Rescue of Britain's Greatest Spy The Man with a Hundred Faces|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZEpiwqT7RgC|first=Harry|last=Ferguson|publisher=Arrow Books|location=London|year=2010|isbn=9780099514657}}</ref> At the outbreak of [[World War I]] he was [[Commanding officer#Navy & Coast Guard|commanding officer]] of the British [[Royal Navy]] China [[Hong Kong]] submarine flotilla, and from 1915 assumed command of the [[British submarine flotilla in the Baltic]].<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OMNZAP1" /> Later during the First World War and [[Russian Revolution]] he was [[Military attaché|naval attaché]] to the diplomatic staff of the British Embassy in [[Petrograd]] (Saint Petersburg), Russia, where he met his death, while defending the British embassy premises.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OMNZAP1" /><ref name="OPSKST" /><ref name="HDNI">{{Cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Naval Intelligence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OyC69ij3AQIC|first=Nigel|last=West|publisher=Scarecrow Press, Inc|location=Lanham, Maryland, USA|year=2010|pages=73–74|isbn=9780810867604}}</ref>

==Early life and naval career==
Born in [[Duncannon]], Ireland, he was the son of British army captain Francis Charles Cromie of the [[Hampshire Regiment]] (later [[Consul (representative)#Consul general|Consul-General]] in [[Dakar]], Senegal).<ref name="TVCDSO" /> His mother was the daughter of the Chief Constable of [[Pembrokeshire]]. He was educated at Haverfordwest [[Grammar School]] in [[Wales]], and in 1897 joined the [[Royal Navy]] as a naval cadet at [[Britannia Royal Naval College|HMS ''Britannia'']]; he joined [[HMS Repulse (1892)|HMS ''Repulse'']] on passing out, and in 1900, as a [[midshipman]] of [[HMS Barfleur (1892)|HMS ''Barfleur'']], took part in the [[Seymour Expedition]] to [[China]], for which he received the [[China War Medal (1900)|China War Medal]] with Peking clasp.<ref name="TVCDSO" />

===Submarine Service===
In 1901 he was promoted Acting [[Sub-lieutenant|Sub-Lieutenant]], two years later he was promoted [[Lieutenant (navy)|Lieutenant]].<ref name="TVCDSO" /> In 1903 he volunteered to join the [[Royal Navy Submarine Service]], and was one of the first officers to command a [[submarine]].<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="HDNI" /> In 1906 he was awarded the bronze [[Royal Humane Society]] medal, while serving on submarine [[HMS A3]] at [[Spithead]], he tried to save a sailor who was swept overboard.<ref name="TVCDSO" /> From 1911 to 1912 he commanded the [[depot ship]] HMS ''Onyx'' and a [[flotilla]] of submarines at [[Devonport, Devon|Devonport]], and in 1913-14 the depot ship HMS Rosario and the British China Hong Kong submarine flotilla.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" />

In August 1915 he commissioned the submarine [[HMS E19|HMS ''E19'']], the following month he forced a passage into the [[Baltic Sea]] to support the Russian [[Baltic Fleet]], preying on [[iron ore]] transports from [[Sweden]] to the [[German Empire]], where for a week long moment he had succeeded in entirely suspending German maritime traffic in the area.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OMNZAP1" /> During his service in the Baltic, he torpedoed a German destroyer and on 7 November 1915 sank the German cruiser [[SMS Undine|''Undine'']], as well as sinking or capturing 10 German [[steamship]]s.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OMNZAP1" /><ref name="ODDBE19">{{Cite web|first=Erik|last=Bjurström|title=Diving in the Baltic Sea, The E19 massacre|url=http://www.ocean-discovery.org/e19.htm|website=Ocean Discovery|at=www.ocean-discovery.org|access-date=10 April 2014|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924054611/http://www.ocean-discovery.org/e19.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 31 December 1915 he was promoted to the British Royal Navy rank of [[Commander (Royal Navy)|Commander]].<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="HDNI" />

===Service distinction===
On 31 May 1916 he received the British Empire [[Distinguished Service Order]] (DSO), followed by a succession of imperial Russian orders; [[Order of St. Anna]] (2nd Class with Swords), [[Order of St. Vladimir]] (4th Class with Swords), [[Order of St. George]] (4th Class), as well as the French National Order of the [[Legion of Honour]] (Chevalier).<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" />

==Diplomatic service in revolutionary Petrograd==
[[File:Captain Cromie.JPG|thumb|right|British naval attaché Captain Cromie, socialising at a tennis club in Petrograd, 1918.]]
Together with his knowledge of the Russian language and prevailing conditions, on 19 October 1917 he was promoted Acting Captain and appointed as [[naval attaché]] to the British Embassy in the tense revolutionary city of Petrograd ([[Saint Petersburg]]), Russia.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OMNZAP1" /><ref name="HDNI" /> Highly respected among Russia's elite, his diplomatic tact, during the [[Russian Revolution]], earned him much respect from the extremists for his fairness.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OMNZAP1" /> In April 1918, after the Germans had secured control over the Baltic coast, he was responsible for the evacuation and [[scuttling]] of the British Baltic submarines.<ref name="TBDE1" />

===Death defending the British embassy in Petrograd===
Prior to the embassy incident that resulted his death, [[Moscow]] authorities claimed to have received a report suggesting a connection between various [[Russian Revolution#Civil war|counter-revolutionary]] organizations in the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] and the embassy in Petrograd, and the [[Bolshevik]]-government commissioner M. Hillier had been instructed to investigate this report.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OPSKST" /><ref name="HDNI" /> It had been supposed that the [[White movement|anti-Bolshevik]] counter-revolutionists [[Boris Savinkov]] and Maximilian Filonenko, who had contacts with British [[Secret Intelligence Service]] agents, were being aided and hiding in the British embassy.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /> Other accounts and sources, however, reveal that meetings with other Russian members of the counter-revolution were at that time taking place, namely with the former imperial Tsarist officers Lieutenant Sabir and Colonel Steckelmann.<ref name="OPSKST" /><ref name="HDNI" />

On 31 August 1918, commissioner Hillier and a detachment of [[Cheka]] "scouts", the Bolsheviks secret police, went to the British embassy in Petrograd.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OPSKST" /><ref name="HDNI" /> On entering the building, shouting in Russian and crashing doors, which echoed up from the embassy ground floor where staff were working,<ref name="OPSKST" /> Captain Cromie glanced out from his office first floor window, saw trucks and over on the [[Neva river]] patrol boats facing the embassy building with weapons trained.<ref name="OPSKST" /> Clearly expecting trouble, he pulled out his revolver, and leaving a meeting with three operatives in his office, had gone out into the first floor hallway passage.<ref name="OPSKST" /><ref name="HDNI" /> Other accounts and sources, however, reveal Captain Cromie was having tea with the British Chaplain, Mr. Lombard, and he had stepped out of the room to return in a short moment.<ref name="TFSSH1">{{Cite book|title=The Fourth Seal|first=Sir Samuel|last=Hoare|author-link=Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|url=https://archive.org/details/fourthseal031079mbp|publisher=William Heinemann Limited|location=London|year=1930|chapter=XIII. A BRITISH AND A RUSSIAN HERO - CROMIE|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fourthseal031079mbp/page/n335 294]–295}}</ref> Some Cheka scouts were now also proceeding up onto the embassy first floor, panic and protests broke out, and they were met with gunfire, one Cheka scout was killed and another wounded.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OPSKST" /> According to the Cheka scouts report of events and a dispatch received from Moscow quoting Russia's political newspaper [[Pravda]]; a fight had ensued in the corridor and the Cheka scouts were obliged to return gunfire.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /> During the ferocious embassy [[shootout]], naval attaché Captain Cromie, received a fatal gunshot or gunshots, and eventually died where he fell, on the grand embassy staircase.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="HDNI" /><ref name="TFSSH1" /><ref>{{Cite book|author=F.F. Raskolnikov|title=Tales of Sub-Lieutenant Ilyin – A prisoner of the British|chapter=XI|url=http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/red-army/1918/raskolnikov/ilyin/ch04.htm}}</ref> Cheka scouts continued searching the embassy building, and with their rifle butts repelled embassy staff from getting close to the corpse of Captain Cromie, which the Cheka had looted and trampled.<ref name="OPSKST" /> The police then entered the British embassy, and 40 embassy persons were arrested, mostly British subjects, including Prince Schaschowsky.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /> It was alleged that weapons and compromising documents were found on the embassy premises.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" />

[[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|British Foreign Office]] advices declared; attaché Captain Cromie opposed the Bolshevik troops and killed three soldiers with his own hands.<ref name="TBDE1" /> Captain Cromie was killed and his corpse mutilated.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="OPSKST" /> Documents at the embassy were destroyed.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /> It was feared similar outrages would be committed against the French embassy in Petrograd and that precautionary measures had been taken including the arrival of French soldiers, the Foreign Office said.<ref name="TBDE1" />

On 3 September 1918, American Consul Haynes (the first American Consul of career)<ref name="EUSHF">{{Cite web |url=http://finland.usembassy.gov/consular-history.html |title=Embassy of the United States, Helsinki, Finland. |access-date=8 April 2014 |archive-date=2 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002102745/http://finland.usembassy.gov/consular-history.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> at [[Helsinki]] in Finland, officially reported the murder of Captain Cromie and attack on the British embassy to the [[United States Department of State]], that the entire British embassy personnel in Petrograd had been arrested, and similar arrests had simultaneously taken place in Moscow.<ref name="TBDE1" />

===British outrage at embassy attack and killing===
The embassy attack and killing of naval attaché Captain Cromie was reported with intense indignation by the British news media.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /> The British media channeled outrage at the Bolsheviks "lawlessness" acts committed against British subjects and the murder of Captain Cromie, prompting reprisals.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /> In London, the Bolshevik representatives [[Maxim Litvinov]] and his staff had been placed by the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] "under preventive arrest" and taken to [[HM Prison Brixton|Brixton Prison]] "until all British representatives in Bolshevik Russia had been set at liberty and allowed to proceed to the [[Finland|Finnish]] border unmolested."<ref name="TWP1" /> Following events, the British embassy was subsequently shut down, and the embassy staff were withdrawn from service in Petrograd.

===Witness recollection of events===
A firsthand recount, published in 1934 by Mary Britnieva,<ref name="OWNSTY">{{Cite book|title=One Woman's Story|first=Mary|last=Britnieva|publisher=Arthur Baker Limited|location=London|year=1934}}</ref> a Red Cross nurse who had served on the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]], recounts the events witnessed by her sister-in-law, who was in the British embassy at the time of the attack:

:"My sister in law ran out into the hallway and as she emerged she saw Captain Cromie running down the steps two at a time, straight towards her. Behind him at the top of the stairs, stood a man firing at the Captain. Several bullets whizzed by her head and crashed through the glass of the entrance doors behind her. Her horror seemed to root her to the spot and suddenly, just as Captain Cromie reached the last stair, he pitched forward as if he had stumbled, staggered a little and then crashed down backwards with his head on the bottom step. My sister in law ran to him and lifted his head. He was moving his eyelids and she felt something warm trickling down the fingers of her right hand with which she was holding up his head from underneath. Suddenly a terrific blow made her drop Captain Cromie's head and sent her spinning against the right hand wall. The man who had struck her grabbed her and ran her up the stairs hitting her violently from time to time and finally pushing her into the Chancery room where she found all of the members of the Embassy and the Consulate standing with hands raised above their heads. After being searched for arms, the Embassy staff were forced to hand over their papers and then marched downstairs and on to the street."<ref name="TFSSH1" /><ref name="OWNSTY" />

==Marriage==
Francis Cromie married Gladys (Gwladys) Catherine Josephine (née Cromie) March 1907, in [[Portsmouth]], Hampshire, England.<ref name="UKMR1">United Kingdom Marriage Registry No.: 2b 867, Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, March 1907; between Francis Newton Allen Cromie and Gladys (Gwladys) Catherine Josephine Cromie. Gladys Catherine Josephine Cromie was born September 1883 in Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire (United Kingdom Birth Registry No.: 11a 900).</ref> They had one daughter, Dolores Anthea, born June 1907, in [[Fareham]], Hampshire, England.<ref name="UKMR2">United Kingdom Birth Registry No.: 2b 580, Fareham, Hampshire, England, June 1907; Dolores Anthea Cromie. Their daughter, Dolores Anthea Cromie, married Thomas W. W. Miller, March 1936, in Westbury, Gloucestershire (United Kingdom Marriage Registry No.: 6a 440).</ref> His widow, Gladys (Gwladys) Catherine Josephine, remarried in June 1920.<ref name="UKMR3">Spouse remarriage - United Kingdom Marriage Registry No.: 1a 1381, St. Martin, June 1920; between Thomas E Blunt and Gladys (Gwladys) Catherine Josephine Cromie.</ref>

==Posthumous Award==
On 17 September 1918 Captain Francis Cromie was posthumously awarded the [[Companion of the Order of the Bath]] (CB) "in recognition of his distinguished service in the Allied cause in Russia, and of the devotion to duty which he displayed in remaining at his post as British Naval Attaché in Russia, when the British Embassy was withdrawn. This devotion to duty cost him his life."<ref name="TVCDSO" /> King [[George V]] received Capt. Cromie's widow Gladys (Gwladys) Catherine Cromie at [[Buckingham Palace]], and handed to her the CB.<ref name="TVCDSO" />

He remains the only naval attaché to be killed in combat.<ref name="HDNI" />

==Burial==
Captain Cromie's body was first taken to the Bolshevik [[Smolny Institute]], and later released to the British Chaplaincy.<ref name="TFSSH1" /> Covered with the Union flag, his body was finally buried in [[Smolensky Cemetery]], Saint Petersburg, by the Scottish [[Minister (Christianity)|minister]] Dr. Kean.<ref name="TFSSH1" /> A memorial in Captain Cromie's memory was laid at the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]] Archangel Memorial ([[Archangel Allied Cemetery]]), in [[Arkhangelsk]], Russia.<ref name="CWGC">[http://www.cwgc.org/find-war-dead/casualty/471883/CROMIE,%20FRANCIS%20NEWTON%20ALLEN Commonwealth War Graves Commission, Casualty details, Captain Francis Newton Allen Cromie]</ref>

==Dramatic representations==
Captain Cromie was portrayed by actor Barry Stokes in 2 episodes of popular 1983 drama [[Reilly, Ace of Spies]] where he is depicted as aiding British agents [[Sidney Reilly]] and [[George Alexander Hill]], culminating in his defence of the embassy.

==Literature==
*{{Cite book|title=The Fourth Seal|first=Sir Samuel|last=Hoare|author-link=Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|url=https://archive.org/details/fourthseal031079mbp|publisher=William Heinemann Limited|location=London|year=1930|chapter=XIII. A BRITISH AND A RUSSIAN HERO - CROMIE|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fourthseal031079mbp/page/n318 277]–296}}
*{{Cite book|title=The V.C. AND D.S.O.; A complete record of all those officers, non-commissioned officers and men of His Majesty's naval, military and air forces who have been awarded these decorations from the time of their institution, with descriptions of the deeds and services which won the distinctions and with many biographical and other details, compiled from official publications and despatches, letters from commanding officers and other contemporary accounts, and from information from private sources.|volume=III|first1=Creagh|last1=O'Moore|first2=Edith|last2=Humphris|publisher=The Standard Art Book Co. Ltd.|location=London|year=1926|page=230}}
*{{Cite book|title=One Woman's Story|first=Mary|last=Britnieva|publisher=Arthur Baker Limited|location=London|year=1934}}
*{{cite news|first=Arthur|last=Pollen|title=THE TRAGEDY OF CAPTAIN CROMIE. A MARTYR TO DUTY.|url=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=OAM19181113.1.6, PNG|work=[[The Oamaru Mail]]|location=Oamaru, New Zealand|page=6|date=13 November 1918|volume=XLVIII|issue=13609}}
*{{Cite book|title=Honored by Strangers: The Life of Captain Francis Cromie, Dso, RN, 1882-1918|first=Roy|last=Bainton|publisher=Airlife Publishing, Ltd.|location=Shrewsbury|year=2002|isbn=9781840371963}}
*{{Cite book|title=Operation Kronstadt: The True Story of Honour, Espionage, and the Rescue of Britain's Greatest Spy The Man with a Hundred Faces|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZEpiwqT7RgC|first=Harry|last=Ferguson|publisher=Arrow Books|location=London|year=2010|isbn=9780099514657}}
*{{Cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Naval Intelligence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OyC69ij3AQIC|first=Nigel|last=West|publisher=Scarecrow Press, Inc|location=Lanham, Maryland, US|year=2010|pages=73–74|isbn=9780810867604}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ocean-discovery.org/e19.htm Diving in the Baltic Sea, The E19 massacre - Ocean Discovery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924054611/http://www.ocean-discovery.org/e19.htm |date=24 September 2015 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140408230428/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Francis_Cromie.htm Spartacus Educational: British History > Spies and Spymasters > Francis Cromie]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cromie, Francis}}
[[Category:Royal Navy submarine commanders]]
[[Category:1882 births]]
[[Category:1918 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths by firearm in Russia]]
[[Category:British people murdered abroad]]
[[Category:People murdered in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 2nd class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Vladimir, 4th class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Fourth Degree]]
[[Category:Royal Navy officers of World War I]]
[[Category:British military personnel killed in World War I]]
[[Category:British naval attachés]]

Francis Cromie

2024-10-12T11:40:41Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Death defending the British embassy in Petrograd */

{{Use British English|date=July 2012}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2020}}
{{short description|British Royal Navy officer}}
{{Infobox military person
| name =Francis Newton Allen Cromie
| image =British Royal Navy Captain Francis Newton Cromie (1882-1918) - Naval Attaché.jpg
| caption =Captain Francis Cromie
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1882|1|30|df=y}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1918|8|31|1882|1|30|df=y}}
| placeofburial_label =
| placeofburial = [[Smolensky Cemetery]], Saint Petersburg, Russia
| birth_place =[[Duncannon]], [[Ireland]]
| death_place =Killed in the British Embassy, [[Petrograd]], Russia
| placeofburial_coordinates = 
| nickname =
| allegiance ={{flagicon|United Kingdom}} [[British Empire]]
| branch =[[File:Naval Ensign of the United Kingdom.svg|23px]] [[Royal Navy]]
| serviceyears =1897-1918
| rank =[[Captain (Royal Navy)|Captain]] ([[Acting (rank)|Acting]]) [[Commander (Royal Navy)|Commander]] [[Naval attaché]]
| servicenumber =
| unit =
| commands =Depot Ship HMS Onyx and British Royal Navy Devenport submarine flotilla Depot Ship HMS Rosario and British Royal Navy China Hong Kong submarine flotilla British Royal Navy Baltic submarine flotilla [[HMS E19]]
| battles =[[Seymour Expedition]] [[World War I]]
*[[British submarine flotilla in the Baltic]]
| awards =[[Companion of the Order of the Bath]] [[Distinguished Service Order]] [[China War Medal (1900)|China War Medal]] (with Peking clasp) [[Order of St. George]] (4th Class) [[Order of St. Vladimir]] (4th Class with Swords) [[Order of St. Anna]] (2nd Class with Swords) [[Legion of Honour]] (Chevalier) [[Royal Humane Society]] (bronze medal)
| memorials = Archangel Memorial in [[Arkhangelsk]], Russia
| spouse = Gladys (Gwladys) Catherine Josephine (née Cromie, m. 1907-1920; remarried)
| relations =
| laterwork =
}}
[[Acting (rank)|Acting]] [[Captain (Royal Navy)|Captain]] '''Francis Newton Allen Cromie''', [[Order of the Bath|CB]], [[Distinguished Service Order|DSO]] (30 January 1882 – 31 August 1918, Petrograd) was a distinguished British Royal Navy officer,<ref name="TVCDSO">{{Cite book|title=The V.C. AND D.S.O.; A complete record of all those officers, non-commissioned officers and men of His Majesty's naval, military and air forces who have been awarded these decorations from the time of their institution, with descriptions of the deeds and services which won the distinctions and with many biographical and other details, compiled from official publications and despatches, letters from commanding officers and other contemporary accounts, and from information from private sources.|volume=III|first1=Creagh|last1=O'Moore|first2=Edith|last2=Humphris|publisher=The Standard Art Book Co. Ltd.|location=London|year=1926|page=230}}</ref><ref name="TBDE1">{{cite news|title=KERENSKY'S KIN ARRESTED BY REDS; 40 BRITISH TAKEN. Intense Indignation in London Over Killing of Capt. Cromie—Threats of Reprisals.|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/55630566/|format=JPG|publisher=[[The Brooklyn Daily Eagle]]|location=Brooklyn, New York|page=2|date=5 September 1918|access-date=7 April 2014|quote=KERENSKY'S KIN ARRESTED BY REDS; 40 BRITISH TAKEN. Intense Indignation in London Over Killing of Capt. Cromie—Threats of Reprisals.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408214511/http://www.newspapers.com/image/55630566/|archive-date=8 April 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="TWP1">{{cite news|title=SOVIETS RAID BRITISH; Attack on Moscow Consulate Follows Petrograd Outrage.|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/31576161/|format=JPG|agency=[[Associated Press]]|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|location=Washington, District of Columbia|page=1|date=6 September 1918|access-date=7 April 2014|quote=SOVIETS RAID BRITISH; Attack on Moscow Consulate Follows Petrograd Outrage.|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140408212451/http://www.newspapers.com/image/31576161/|archive-date=8 April 2014|url-status=dead}}</ref><ref name="OMNZAP1">{{cite news|first=Arthur|last=Pollen|title=THE TRAGEDY OF CAPTAIN CROMIE. A MARTYR TO DUTY.|url=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=OAM19181113.1.6, PNG|work=[[The Oamaru Mail]]|location=Oamaru, New Zealand|page=6|date=13 November 1918|access-date=9 April 2014|volume=XLVIII|issue=13609|quote=THE TRAGEDY OF CAPTAIN CROMIE. A MARTYR TO DUTY.}}</ref> military diplomat, and the de facto chief of British Intelligence operations in northern Russia for the British [[Naval Intelligence Division (United Kingdom)|Naval Intelligence Division]].<ref name="OPSKST">{{Cite book|title=Operation Kronstadt: The True Story of Honour, Espionage, and the Rescue of Britain's Greatest Spy The Man with a Hundred Faces|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZEpiwqT7RgC|first=Harry|last=Ferguson|publisher=Arrow Books|location=London|year=2010|isbn=9780099514657}}</ref> At the outbreak of [[World War I]] he was [[Commanding officer#Navy & Coast Guard|commanding officer]] of the British [[Royal Navy]] China [[Hong Kong]] submarine flotilla, and from 1915 assumed command of the [[British submarine flotilla in the Baltic]].<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OMNZAP1" /> Later during the First World War and [[Russian Revolution]] he was [[Military attaché|naval attaché]] to the diplomatic staff of the British Embassy in [[Petrograd]] (Saint Petersburg), Russia, where he met his death, while defending the British embassy premises.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OMNZAP1" /><ref name="OPSKST" /><ref name="HDNI">{{Cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Naval Intelligence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OyC69ij3AQIC|first=Nigel|last=West|publisher=Scarecrow Press, Inc|location=Lanham, Maryland, USA|year=2010|pages=73–74|isbn=9780810867604}}</ref>

==Early life and naval career==
Born in [[Duncannon]], Ireland, he was the son of British army captain Francis Charles Cromie of the [[Hampshire Regiment]] (later [[Consul (representative)#Consul general|Consul-General]] in [[Dakar]], Senegal).<ref name="TVCDSO" /> His mother was the daughter of the Chief Constable of [[Pembrokeshire]]. He was educated at Haverfordwest [[Grammar School]] in [[Wales]], and in 1897 joined the [[Royal Navy]] as a naval cadet at [[Britannia Royal Naval College|HMS ''Britannia'']]; he joined [[HMS Repulse (1892)|HMS ''Repulse'']] on passing out, and in 1900, as a [[midshipman]] of [[HMS Barfleur (1892)|HMS ''Barfleur'']], took part in the [[Seymour Expedition]] to [[China]], for which he received the [[China War Medal (1900)|China War Medal]] with Peking clasp.<ref name="TVCDSO" />

===Submarine Service===
In 1901 he was promoted Acting [[Sub-lieutenant|Sub-Lieutenant]], two years later he was promoted [[Lieutenant (navy)|Lieutenant]].<ref name="TVCDSO" /> In 1903 he volunteered to join the [[Royal Navy Submarine Service]], and was one of the first officers to command a [[submarine]].<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="HDNI" /> In 1906 he was awarded the bronze [[Royal Humane Society]] medal, while serving on submarine [[HMS A3]] at [[Spithead]], he tried to save a sailor who was swept overboard.<ref name="TVCDSO" /> From 1911 to 1912 he commanded the [[depot ship]] HMS ''Onyx'' and a [[flotilla]] of submarines at [[Devonport, Devon|Devonport]], and in 1913-14 the depot ship HMS Rosario and the British China Hong Kong submarine flotilla.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" />

In August 1915 he commissioned the submarine [[HMS E19|HMS ''E19'']], the following month he forced a passage into the [[Baltic Sea]] to support the Russian [[Baltic Fleet]], preying on [[iron ore]] transports from [[Sweden]] to the [[German Empire]], where for a week long moment he had succeeded in entirely suspending German maritime traffic in the area.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OMNZAP1" /> During his service in the Baltic, he torpedoed a German destroyer and on 7 November 1915 sank the German cruiser [[SMS Undine|''Undine'']], as well as sinking or capturing 10 German [[steamship]]s.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OMNZAP1" /><ref name="ODDBE19">{{Cite web|first=Erik|last=Bjurström|title=Diving in the Baltic Sea, The E19 massacre|url=http://www.ocean-discovery.org/e19.htm|website=Ocean Discovery|at=www.ocean-discovery.org|access-date=10 April 2014|archive-date=24 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924054611/http://www.ocean-discovery.org/e19.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 31 December 1915 he was promoted to the British Royal Navy rank of [[Commander (Royal Navy)|Commander]].<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="HDNI" />

===Service distinction===
On 31 May 1916 he received the British Empire [[Distinguished Service Order]] (DSO), followed by a succession of imperial Russian orders; [[Order of St. Anna]] (2nd Class with Swords), [[Order of St. Vladimir]] (4th Class with Swords), [[Order of St. George]] (4th Class), as well as the French National Order of the [[Legion of Honour]] (Chevalier).<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" />

==Diplomatic service in revolutionary Petrograd==
[[File:Captain Cromie.JPG|thumb|right|British naval attaché Captain Cromie, socialising at a tennis club in Petrograd, 1918.]]
Together with his knowledge of the Russian language and prevailing conditions, on 19 October 1917 he was promoted Acting Captain and appointed as [[naval attaché]] to the British Embassy in the tense revolutionary city of Petrograd ([[Saint Petersburg]]), Russia.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OMNZAP1" /><ref name="HDNI" /> Highly respected among Russia's elite, his diplomatic tact, during the [[Russian Revolution]], earned him much respect from the extremists for his fairness.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OMNZAP1" /> In April 1918, after the Germans had secured control over the Baltic coast, he was responsible for the evacuation and [[scuttling]] of the British Baltic submarines.<ref name="TBDE1" />

===Death defending the British embassy in Petrograd===
Prior to the embassy incident that resulted his death, [[Moscow]] authorities claimed to have received a report suggesting a connection between various [[Russian Revolution#Civil war|counter-revolutionary]] organizations in the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] and the embassy in Petrograd, and the [[Bolshevik]]-government commissioner M. Hillier had been instructed to investigate this report.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OPSKST" /><ref name="HDNI" /> It had been supposed that the [[White movement|anti-Bolshevik]] counter-revolutionists [[Boris Savinkov]] and Maximilian Filonenko, who had contacts with British [[Secret Intelligence Service]] agents, were being aided and hiding in the British embassy.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /> Other accounts and sources, however, reveal that meetings with other Russian members of the counter-revolution were at that time taking place, namely with the former imperial Tsarist officers Lieutenant Sabir and Colonel Steckelmann.<ref name="OPSKST" /><ref name="HDNI" />

On 31 August 1918, commissioner Hillier and a detachment of [[Cheka]] "scouts", the Bolsheviks secret police, went to the British embassy in Petrograd.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OPSKST" /><ref name="HDNI" /> On entering the building, shouting in Russian and crashing doors, which echoed up from the embassy ground floor where staff were working,<ref name="OPSKST" /> Captain Cromie glanced out from his office first floor window, saw trucks and over on the [[Neva river]] patrol boats facing the embassy building with weapons trained.<ref name="OPSKST" /> Clearly expecting trouble, he pulled out his revolver, and leaving a meeting with three operatives in his office, had gone out into the first floor hallway passage.<ref name="OPSKST" /><ref name="HDNI" /> Other accounts and sources, however, reveal Captain Cromie was having tea with the British Chaplain, Mr. Lombard, and he had stepped out of the room to return in a short moment.<ref name="TFSSH1">{{Cite book|title=The Fourth Seal|first=Sir Samuel|last=Hoare|author-link=Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|url=https://archive.org/details/fourthseal031079mbp|publisher=William Heinemann Limited|location=London|year=1930|chapter=XIII. A BRITISH AND A RUSSIAN HERO - CROMIE|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fourthseal031079mbp/page/n335 294]–295}}</ref> Some Cheka scouts were now also proceeding up onto the embassy first floor, panic and protests broke out, and they were met with gunfire, one Cheka scout was killed and another wounded.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="OPSKST" /> According to the Cheka scouts report of events and a dispatch received from Moscow quoting Russia's political newspaper [[Pravda]]; a fight had ensued in the corridor and the Cheka scouts were obliged to return gunfire.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /> During the ferocious embassy [[shootout]], naval attaché Captain Cromie, received a fatal gunshot or gunshots, and eventually died where he fell, on the grand embassy staircase.<ref name="TVCDSO" /><ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /><ref name="HDNI" /><ref name="TFSSH1" /><ref>{{Cite book|author=F.F. Raskolnikov|title=Tales of Sub-Lieutenant Ilyin – A prisoner of the British|chapter=XI|url=http://www.marxists.org/history/ussr/government/red-army/1918/raskolnikov/ilyin/ch04.htm}}</ref> Cheka scouts continued searching the embassy building, and with their rifle butts repelled embassy staff from getting close to the corpse of Captain Cromie, which the Cheka's had looted and trampled.<ref name="OPSKST" /> The police then entered the British embassy, and 40 embassy persons were arrested, mostly British subjects, including Prince Schaschowsky.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /> It was alleged that weapons and compromising documents were found on the embassy premises.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" />

[[Foreign and Commonwealth Office|British Foreign Office]] advices declared; attaché Captain Cromie opposed the Bolshevik troops and killed three soldiers with his own hands.<ref name="TBDE1" /> Captain Cromie was killed and his corpse mutilated.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="OPSKST" /> Documents at the embassy were destroyed.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /> It was feared similar outrages would be committed against the French embassy in Petrograd and that precautionary measures had been taken including the arrival of French soldiers, the Foreign Office said.<ref name="TBDE1" />

On 3 September 1918, American Consul Haynes (the first American Consul of career)<ref name="EUSHF">{{Cite web |url=http://finland.usembassy.gov/consular-history.html |title=Embassy of the United States, Helsinki, Finland. |access-date=8 April 2014 |archive-date=2 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002102745/http://finland.usembassy.gov/consular-history.html |url-status=dead }}</ref> at [[Helsinki]] in Finland, officially reported the murder of Captain Cromie and attack on the British embassy to the [[United States Department of State]], that the entire British embassy personnel in Petrograd had been arrested, and similar arrests had simultaneously taken place in Moscow.<ref name="TBDE1" />

===British outrage at embassy attack and killing===
The embassy attack and killing of naval attaché Captain Cromie was reported with intense indignation by the British news media.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /> The British media channeled outrage at the Bolsheviks "lawlessness" acts committed against British subjects and the murder of Captain Cromie, prompting reprisals.<ref name="TBDE1" /><ref name="TWP1" /> In London, the Bolshevik representatives [[Maxim Litvinov]] and his staff had been placed by the [[Government of the United Kingdom|British government]] "under preventive arrest" and taken to [[HM Prison Brixton|Brixton Prison]] "until all British representatives in Bolshevik Russia had been set at liberty and allowed to proceed to the [[Finland|Finnish]] border unmolested."<ref name="TWP1" /> Following events, the British embassy was subsequently shut down, and the embassy staff were withdrawn from service in Petrograd.

===Witness recollection of events===
A firsthand recount, published in 1934 by Mary Britnieva,<ref name="OWNSTY">{{Cite book|title=One Woman's Story|first=Mary|last=Britnieva|publisher=Arthur Baker Limited|location=London|year=1934}}</ref> a Red Cross nurse who had served on the [[Eastern Front (World War I)|Eastern Front]], recounts the events witnessed by her sister-in-law, who was in the British embassy at the time of the attack:

:"My sister in law ran out into the hallway and as she emerged she saw Captain Cromie running down the steps two at a time, straight towards her. Behind him at the top of the stairs, stood a man firing at the Captain. Several bullets whizzed by her head and crashed through the glass of the entrance doors behind her. Her horror seemed to root her to the spot and suddenly, just as Captain Cromie reached the last stair, he pitched forward as if he had stumbled, staggered a little and then crashed down backwards with his head on the bottom step. My sister in law ran to him and lifted his head. He was moving his eyelids and she felt something warm trickling down the fingers of her right hand with which she was holding up his head from underneath. Suddenly a terrific blow made her drop Captain Cromie's head and sent her spinning against the right hand wall. The man who had struck her grabbed her and ran her up the stairs hitting her violently from time to time and finally pushing her into the Chancery room where she found all of the members of the Embassy and the Consulate standing with hands raised above their heads. After being searched for arms, the Embassy staff were forced to hand over their papers and then marched downstairs and on to the street."<ref name="TFSSH1" /><ref name="OWNSTY" />

==Marriage==
Francis Cromie married Gladys (Gwladys) Catherine Josephine (née Cromie) March 1907, in [[Portsmouth]], Hampshire, England.<ref name="UKMR1">United Kingdom Marriage Registry No.: 2b 867, Portsmouth, Hampshire, England, March 1907; between Francis Newton Allen Cromie and Gladys (Gwladys) Catherine Josephine Cromie. Gladys Catherine Josephine Cromie was born September 1883 in Haverfordwest, Pembrokeshire (United Kingdom Birth Registry No.: 11a 900).</ref> They had one daughter, Dolores Anthea, born June 1907, in [[Fareham]], Hampshire, England.<ref name="UKMR2">United Kingdom Birth Registry No.: 2b 580, Fareham, Hampshire, England, June 1907; Dolores Anthea Cromie. Their daughter, Dolores Anthea Cromie, married Thomas W. W. Miller, March 1936, in Westbury, Gloucestershire (United Kingdom Marriage Registry No.: 6a 440).</ref> His widow, Gladys (Gwladys) Catherine Josephine, remarried in June 1920.<ref name="UKMR3">Spouse remarriage - United Kingdom Marriage Registry No.: 1a 1381, St. Martin, June 1920; between Thomas E Blunt and Gladys (Gwladys) Catherine Josephine Cromie.</ref>

==Posthumous Award==
On 17 September 1918 Captain Francis Cromie was posthumously awarded the [[Companion of the Order of the Bath]] (CB) "in recognition of his distinguished service in the Allied cause in Russia, and of the devotion to duty which he displayed in remaining at his post as British Naval Attaché in Russia, when the British Embassy was withdrawn. This devotion to duty cost him his life."<ref name="TVCDSO" /> King [[George V]] received Capt. Cromie's widow Gladys (Gwladys) Catherine Cromie at [[Buckingham Palace]], and handed to her the CB.<ref name="TVCDSO" />

He remains the only naval attaché to be killed in combat.<ref name="HDNI" />

==Burial==
Captain Cromie's body was first taken to the Bolshevik [[Smolny Institute]], and later released to the British Chaplaincy.<ref name="TFSSH1" /> Covered with the Union flag, his body was finally buried in [[Smolensky Cemetery]], Saint Petersburg, by the Scottish [[Minister (Christianity)|minister]] Dr. Kean.<ref name="TFSSH1" /> A memorial in Captain Cromie's memory was laid at the [[Commonwealth War Graves Commission]] Archangel Memorial ([[Archangel Allied Cemetery]]), in [[Arkhangelsk]], Russia.<ref name="CWGC">[http://www.cwgc.org/find-war-dead/casualty/471883/CROMIE,%20FRANCIS%20NEWTON%20ALLEN Commonwealth War Graves Commission, Casualty details, Captain Francis Newton Allen Cromie]</ref>

==Dramatic representations==
Captain Cromie was portrayed by actor Barry Stokes in 2 episodes of popular 1983 drama [[Reilly, Ace of Spies]] where he is depicted as aiding British agents [[Sidney Reilly]] and [[George Alexander Hill]], culminating in his defence of the embassy.

==Literature==
*{{Cite book|title=The Fourth Seal|first=Sir Samuel|last=Hoare|author-link=Samuel Hoare, 1st Viscount Templewood|url=https://archive.org/details/fourthseal031079mbp|publisher=William Heinemann Limited|location=London|year=1930|chapter=XIII. A BRITISH AND A RUSSIAN HERO - CROMIE|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fourthseal031079mbp/page/n318 277]–296}}
*{{Cite book|title=The V.C. AND D.S.O.; A complete record of all those officers, non-commissioned officers and men of His Majesty's naval, military and air forces who have been awarded these decorations from the time of their institution, with descriptions of the deeds and services which won the distinctions and with many biographical and other details, compiled from official publications and despatches, letters from commanding officers and other contemporary accounts, and from information from private sources.|volume=III|first1=Creagh|last1=O'Moore|first2=Edith|last2=Humphris|publisher=The Standard Art Book Co. Ltd.|location=London|year=1926|page=230}}
*{{Cite book|title=One Woman's Story|first=Mary|last=Britnieva|publisher=Arthur Baker Limited|location=London|year=1934}}
*{{cite news|first=Arthur|last=Pollen|title=THE TRAGEDY OF CAPTAIN CROMIE. A MARTYR TO DUTY.|url=http://paperspast.natlib.govt.nz/cgi-bin/paperspast?a=d&d=OAM19181113.1.6, PNG|work=[[The Oamaru Mail]]|location=Oamaru, New Zealand|page=6|date=13 November 1918|volume=XLVIII|issue=13609}}
*{{Cite book|title=Honored by Strangers: The Life of Captain Francis Cromie, Dso, RN, 1882-1918|first=Roy|last=Bainton|publisher=Airlife Publishing, Ltd.|location=Shrewsbury|year=2002|isbn=9781840371963}}
*{{Cite book|title=Operation Kronstadt: The True Story of Honour, Espionage, and the Rescue of Britain's Greatest Spy The Man with a Hundred Faces|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jZEpiwqT7RgC|first=Harry|last=Ferguson|publisher=Arrow Books|location=London|year=2010|isbn=9780099514657}}
*{{Cite book|title=Historical Dictionary of Naval Intelligence|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OyC69ij3AQIC|first=Nigel|last=West|publisher=Scarecrow Press, Inc|location=Lanham, Maryland, US|year=2010|pages=73–74|isbn=9780810867604}}

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[http://www.ocean-discovery.org/e19.htm Diving in the Baltic Sea, The E19 massacre - Ocean Discovery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924054611/http://www.ocean-discovery.org/e19.htm |date=24 September 2015 }}
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20140408230428/http://www.spartacus.schoolnet.co.uk/Francis_Cromie.htm Spartacus Educational: British History > Spies and Spymasters > Francis Cromie]

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Cromie, Francis}}
[[Category:Royal Navy submarine commanders]]
[[Category:1882 births]]
[[Category:1918 deaths]]
[[Category:Deaths by firearm in Russia]]
[[Category:British people murdered abroad]]
[[Category:People murdered in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Anna, 2nd class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. Vladimir, 4th class]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Order of St. George of the Fourth Degree]]
[[Category:Royal Navy officers of World War I]]
[[Category:British military personnel killed in World War I]]
[[Category:British naval attachés]]

A Murder of Quality

2024-10-11T13:44:41Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Plot summary */

{{short description|1962 novel by John le Carré}}
{{for|the 1991 television film adaptation|A Murder of Quality (film)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox book | 
| name = A Murder of Quality
| title_orig =
| translator =
| image = File:AMurderOfQuality.jpg
| caption = First edition
| author = [[John le Carré]]
| cover_artist =
| country = United Kingdom
| language = English
| series = [[George Smiley]]
| subject =
| genre = [[Mystery novel]]
| publisher = [[Victor Gollancz Ltd|Gollancz]]
| release_date = 1962
| media_type = Print ([[Hardcover|Hardback]] & [[Paperback]])
| pages = 189
| isbn =
| isbn_note =
| oclc =
| dewey =
| congress = PZ4.L4526 L43 1962
| preceded_by = [[Call for the Dead]]
| followed_by = [[The Spy Who Came in from the Cold]]
}}

'''''A Murder of Quality''''' is the second [[novel]] by [[John le Carré]], published in 1962.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Carré|first=John le|title=A Murder of Quality|url=https://www.penguin.co.uk/books/180/180369/a-murder-of-quality/9780241330883.html|access-date=2021-03-02|website=www.penguin.co.uk|language=en}}</ref> It features [[George Smiley]], the most famous of le Carré's recurring characters, in his only book set outside the espionage community.<ref>{{cite web|last1=CRANMER|first1=DAVID|title=A Murder of Quality by John LeCarre: An Old-Fashioned Detective Mystery|url=http://www.criminalelement.com/blogs/2014/10/a-murder-of-quality-by-john-lecarre-george-smiley-series-edward-a-grainger|publisher=criminalelement.com|accessdate=16 September 2016|date=October 29, 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=A Murder of Quality (George Smiley) by John le Carré|url=http://www.goodreads.com/book/show/622855.A_Murder_of_Quality|website=[[Goodreads]]|publisher=goodreads.com|accessdate=16 September 2016}}</ref>

==Plot summary==
Long retired from the intelligence service since the war, Ailsa Brimley is now the editor of a small Christian magazine called ''Christian Voice''. The magazine's membership is small but loyal, and many of its readers have been supporters of the magazine since its inception. Unexpectedly, Brimley receives a letter from a reader, Stella Rode, who claims that her husband, a [[Public school (United Kingdom)|public school]] junior master in the town of Carne, is plotting to kill her. Fearing for Stella's life, Brimley hunts down her former wartime colleague, the retired Circus spy George Smiley, and asks him to help. Smiley, who knew the late brother of school teacher Terence Fielding, agrees to do what he can, but before he is able to intervene, learns that Rode has been murdered. Brimley, feeling a duty of care to Rode on account of her family's long history as magazine subscribers, asks Smiley to go down and see what he can do to help. Smiley agrees and goes down to Carne to find out what he can about Rode's situation.

Upon arrival, Smiley becomes a victim of village gossip, on account of his wife, Ann, and her childhood connection to Carne. Now that they are living apart, Smiley is privately ridiculed by many of the town's occupants. Smiley is introduced to the town's police chief, who shares details about the case with Smiley. Rode was found alone in her house by her husband Stanley, and had been killed in a period of time where he claimed to be out of the house, returning to Fielding's house to collect his bag which he had forgotten, and contained many of the students' exams which he needed to mark. Any footprints were lost in the subsequent increased police presence at the house after the body was discovered. The chief's superior believes that the murder was perpetrated by a homeless madwoman whom Rode knew, but Smiley remains unconvinced. He also witnesses invidious [[class division]] between "[[town and gown]]" which is superimposed upon a religious division between adherents of the [[Church of England]] and [[Nonconformist (Protestantism)|Nonconformist]]s. As the wife of the only public school teacher who was himself not public school-educated (Stanley graduated from a [[grammar school]]), and as a nonconformist, Stella Rode occupied a low rank in the local social hierarchy, especially in the estimation of Carne's upper crust.

Smiley begins to make contact with the village's occupants. He dines with Fielding, attends the funeral, and makes contact with Rode's husband. Whilst walking home from a visit, he is startled by Mad Janie, the homeless woman being sought in connection with the murder. She tells him that the murderer merely 'flew away on the clouds' after she witnessed it. Despite this, the police still believe her to be the perpetrator, and eventually find and arrest her.

Smiley and Brimley become confused by the lack of any material evidence to the crime scene, and the rather cluttered nature of the Rode's conservatory. Smiley learns that Stella was a volunteer for a refugee charity, and that many of the boxes were processed by her and then sent to a distribution centre. This leads Smiley to believe that the evidence may have been removed from the site via a box, so he has Brimley locate the box, confirming his theory. In the meantime, Tim Perkins, a boy in Fielding's school [[House system|house]], becomes the second victim of the murderer, and is found lying dead at the side of the road after being killed in a [[hit and run]].

Smiley returns to Rode, anxious to obtain any more information about Stella in the hope that he can catch both her and Perkins' murderer, believing both crimes to be linked. Under pressure, Stanley Rode buckles and admits that his wife was severely two-faced. In public, she would present herself as apparently pious and ostentatious, whilst in private, his wife was a [[Pathelogical liar|pathological liar]] who emotionally abused him and viciously beat her own dog in order to portray him as mentally insane. Smiley also learns that Stella's social situation in Carne was brought on by her own actions, in which she habitually humiliated, blackmailed, and terrorised the town's residents, unable to be touched on account of her knowledge of intimate details of people's social faux pas and private secrets, as well as her kindly external demeanour.

As a result of this, Smiley is able to follow clues to the real murderer, Terence Fielding. Fielding attempted to frame Stanley for the murder, but failed, and had murdered Stella because she was blackmailing him over his wartime conviction of [[gross indecency]] with another male member of the [[Royal Air Force]]. Fielding was also blackmailed by the school authorities, who used their knowledge of his conviction in order to force him into remaining at his teaching post but on insecure short term contracts with no prospect of a retirement pension. Tim Perkins had accidentally made a discovery that would have derailed Fielding's attempts to implicate Stanley Rode, and would have reassigned the obvious blame to Fielding, despite Fielding maintaining that whatever Perkins had seen was insignificant.

Fielding fails in his attempt to frame Rode, and consigns himself to arrest. Despite his attempts to misdirect Smiley by saying he loved Perkins, the police arrive and arrest him.

==Characters in ''A Murder of Quality''==
* [[George Smiley]] – an officer of [[Cambridge Circus, London|the Circus]]
* Ailsa Brimley - The editor of a magazine "Christian Voice".
* Stella Rode - A long time subscriber to "Christian Voice".
* Stanley Rode - A grammar-school educated teacher at Carne school. Stella Rode's husband.
* Terence Fielding - A history teacher at Carne school.
* Janie Lynn - A homeless woman. Murder suspect.
* Tim Perkins - Head boy in Fielding's House.
* Miss Truebody - Housekeeper to Terrence Fielding.
* Inspector Rigby - A local police officer investigating the murder.

==Television and radio adaptations==
John le Carré himself adapted the novel for [[Thames Television]]. ''[[A Murder of Quality (film)|A Murder of Quality]]'' was shown on the [[ITV (TV network)|ITV]] network in 1991. It stars [[Denholm Elliott]] as George Smiley, [[Glenda Jackson]] as Ailsa Brimley, [[Joss Ackland]] as Terence Fielding, [[Billie Whitelaw]] as Mad Janie, [[David Threlfall]] as Stanley Rode and a teenage [[Christian Bale]] as Tim Perkins.

The novel was read on [[BBC Radio 4]]'s ''Story Time'' in 1976, and dramatised on the same station in 1981. More recently, in 2009, BBC Radio 4 broadcast ''A Murder of Quality'' as the second in a series which featured all the Smiley novels (''The Complete Smiley''), with [[Simon Russell Beale]] in the main role.<ref>[http://genome.ch.bbc.co.uk/search/0/20?order=asc&q=Murder+of+Quality+Le+Carre#search BBC Genome Project - Radio Times listings]</ref>

== References ==

{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb title|qid=Q18639976|title=A Murder of Quality}}

{{John le Carré}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Murder Of Quality, A}}
[[Category:1962 British novels]]
[[Category:British novels adapted into television shows]]
[[Category:Novels by John le Carré]]
[[Category:Victor Gollancz Ltd books]]

Dagmar Overbye

2024-10-10T14:18:05Z

ExtravagAunt: removed excessive redirects

{{Short description|Danish serial killer}}
{{More citations needed|date=January 2019}}
{{Infobox serial killer
| name = Dagmar Overby
| image =
| caption =
| birthname = Dagmar Johanne Amalie Overby
| alias =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1887|4|23|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Denmark]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1929|5|6|1887|4|23|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Denmark]], [[Copenhagen]]
| cause =
| conviction = [[Murder]]
| sentence = [[Capital punishment|Death]]; commuted to [[life imprisonment]]
| victims = 9–25
| beginyear = 1913
| endyear = 1920
| country = [[Denmark]]
| states =
| apprehended =
| children = 3
}}
'''Dagmar Johanne Amalie Overby''' ({{IPA|da|ˈtɑwmɑ ˈɒwɐˌpyˀ|lang}}; 23 April 1887 – 6 May 1929) was a [[Danes|Danish]] [[serial killer]]. She murdered between 9 and 25 children, including one of her own, during a seven-year-period from 1913 to 1920. On 3 March 1921, she was [[Capital punishment in Denmark|sentenced to death]] in one of the most noted trials in Danish history—one that changed legislation on [[childcare]].<ref>{{Cite encyclopedia
| author = Hanne Rimmen Nielsen
| author-link = Hanne Rimmen Nielsen
| title = Dagmar Overby (1887–1929)
| encyclopedia = [[Dansk kvindebiografisk leksikon]]
| year = 2003
| publisher = [[KVINFO]]
| language = Danish
| url = http://www.kvinfo.dk/side/170/bio/904/
}}</ref>
The sentence was later [[clemency|commuted]] to [[life in prison]].

Overbye was working as a professional [[childcare|child caretaker]], caring for babies born [[Illegitimacy|outside of marriage]], murdering her own charges. She strangled them, drowned them or burned them to death in her [[masonry heater]]. The corpses were either cremated, buried or hidden in the loft.

Overbye was convicted of nine murders, as there was insufficient proof of the others. Her lawyer based the case on Overbye being [[Child abuse|abused]] herself as a baby, but that did not impress the judge. She became one of the three women sentenced to death in Denmark in the 20th century, but she – like the other two – was reprieved.{{citation needed|date=October 2011}}

She died in prison on 6 May 1929, at age 42. Notes relating to her case are included in the [[Politihistorisk Museum]] (Museum of Police History) in [[Nørrebro]], Copenhagen.

== In popular culture ==
The Danish author [[Karen Søndergaard Koldste]] wrote a novel called ''Englemagersken'' (''The Angel Maker'') based on her.<ref name=novel>{{Cite web |url=http://www.englemagersken.dk/ |title=Archived copy |access-date=2011-05-25 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140103135034/http://englemagersken.dk/ |archive-date=2014-01-03 |url-status=dead }}</ref> [[Teatret ved Sorte Hest]] in Copenhagen has performed a play named ''Historien om en Mo(r)der'' (''Morder'' meaning "murderer" and ''moder'' meaning "mother") based on her life.

Overbye is a character in the 2024 film ''[[The Girl with the Needle]]'', directed by Poland-based Swedish director [[Magnus von Horn]], where she is portrayed by [[Trine Dyrholm]], a candy shopkeeper who quietly advertises she can get babies adopted for a fee, but in fact kills them after their families drop them off.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Lodge |first=Guy |date=2024-05-15 |title=‘The Girl With the Needle’ Review: Magnus von Horn’s Expressionistic Nightmare of Women Abandoned by Society |url=https://variety.com/2024/film/reviews/the-girl-with-the-needle-review-1236002246/ |access-date=2024-05-16 |website=Variety |language=en-US}}</ref><ref name=":0">{{Cite news |last=Bradshaw |first=Peter |date=2024-05-16 |title=The Girl With the Needle review – horrific drama based on Denmark’s 1921 baby-killer case |url=https://www.theguardian.com/film/article/2024/may/16/the-girl-with-the-needle-review-magnus-van-horne-dagmar-overbye |access-date=2024-05-16 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> The film premiered at the 2024 Cannes Film Festival.<ref name=":0" />

== See also ==
*[[List of serial killers by country]]
*[[List of serial killers by number of victims]]

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Overby, Dagmar Johanne Amalie}}
[[Category:1887 births]]
[[Category:1929 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century Danish criminals]]
[[Category:Danish female murderers]]
[[Category:Danish murderers of children]]
[[Category:Danish people convicted of murder]]
[[Category:Danish people who died in prison custody]]
[[Category:Danish prisoners sentenced to death]]
[[Category:Danish serial killers]]
[[Category:Female serial killers]]
[[Category:Filicides]]
[[Category:People convicted of murder by Denmark]]
[[Category:Prisoners sentenced to death by Denmark]]
[[Category:Prisoners who died in Danish detention]]
[[Category:Serial killers who died in prison custody]]
[[Category:Women sentenced to death]]

Reeperbahn

2024-09-25T01:46:56Z

ExtravagAunt: /* In popular culture */

{{Short description|Street in Hamburg, Germany}}
{{Infobox street
| name = Reeperbahn
| native_name =
| image = Spielbudenplatz Hamburg St. Pauli.jpg
| caption = Reeperbahn (right) passing Spielbudenplatz
| former_names =
| known_for = [[Night life]], [[prostitution]]
| postal_code = 20359, 22767<ref>{{Cite journal |author=Staff |publisher=Statistical office Hamburg and Schleswig-Holstein (Statistisches Amt für Hamburg und Schleswig-Holstein) |title=Straßen- und Gebietsverzeichnis der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg 2008 (Hamburg list of streets and locations) |journal=Straßen- und Gebietsverzeichnis der Freien und Hansestadt Hamburg |year=2008 |location=Hamburg |issn=0938-636X|language=de}}</ref>
| addresses =
| length = 930 m
| width =
| location = [[St. Pauli]], [[Hamburg]], [[Germany]]
| coordinates = {{Coord|53|32|58|N|9|57|44|E|type:landmark_region:DE|display=inline}}
| metro = {{nobreak|[[File:Hamburg S1.svg|30px]][[File:Hamburg S3.svg|30px]] [[Reeperbahn station|Reeperbahn]]}} [[File:Hamburg U3.svg|30px]] [[St. Pauli (Hamburg U-Bahn station)|St. Pauli]]
| direction_a = Millerntor
| terminus_a = Millerntorplatz
| direction_b = Nobistor
| terminus_b = Holstenstraße
| junction = [[Davidstraße]], [[Große Freiheit]]
| client =
| owner =
| sector =
| category =
| cost =
}}
[[File:Reeperbahn sexshop.jpg|thumbnail|A [[sex shop]] on the Reeperbahn]]
[[File:Herbertstrasse.jpg|thumb|Entrance to ''[[Herbertstraße]]''; red sign to the right of the gate reads "No entrance for [[Minor (law)|juveniles]] under 18 years of age and women". The large cigarette ad reads literally, "...For more [[foreplay]]."]]
[[File:Reeperbahn - June 2008.JPG|thumb|Inside ''Herbertstraße'']]
[[File:Pinoy Bar In Germany.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Pinoy]] bar in the red-light district]]
[[File:Reeperbahn Str.jpg|thumb|Admission free]]

The '''Reeperbahn''' ({{IPA|de|ˈʁeːpɐˌbaːn|lang|De-Reeperbahn.ogg}}) is a street and entertainment district in [[Hamburg]]'s [[St. Pauli]] district, one of the two centres of Hamburg's [[nightlife]] (the other being [[Sternschanze]]) and also the city's major [[red-light district]]. In [[German language|German]], it is also nicknamed ''die sündige Meile'' (the sinful mile) and ''[[Kiez]]''. The Reeperbahn Festival is among the largest club festivals.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Reeperbahn Festival |url=https://www.reeperbahnfestival.com/en |access-date=2023-11-05 |website=www.reeperbahnfestival.com}}</ref>

==Name and history==
The [[street name|name]] ''Reeperbahn'' means [[ropewalk]], which is a place where ropes are made ({{lang-nds|Reep}} = rope, the standard German word is {{lang|de|Seil}}; {{lang|nds|Bahn}} = track). Until the 1620s Hamburg's ropewalks had been located in the [[Neustadt, Hamburg|Neustadt]] (New Town) quarter of the inner city close to the [[Elbe]], which then became a densely built up area. Therefore, the ropewalks "had to be relocated outside the city walls on the country road leading toward [[Altona, Hamburg|Altona]] – which later took on the street name 'Reperbahn'."<ref>Rainer Postel, "Hamburg at the Time of the Peace of Westphalia", in: ''1648, War and Peace in Europe'': 3 vols., Klaus Bussmann and Heinz Schilling (eds.), Münster in Westphalia: Veranstaltungsgesellschaft 350 Jahre Westfälischer Friede, 1998, (=Catalogue for the exhibition «1648: War and Peace in Europe» 24 October 1998 – 17 January 1999 in Münster in Westphalia and Osnabrück), vol. 1: ''Politics, Religion, Law, and Society'', pp. 337–343, here p. 340. {{ISBN|3-88789-128-7}}.</ref> The street was a ropewalk in the 17th and 18th centuries.

==The street and its side streets==
The street is lined with [[restaurant]]s, [[night club]]s, [[discotheque]]s and [[Bar (establishment)|bars]]. There are also [[strip club]]s, [[sex shop]]s, [[brothel]]s and similar businesses. Between 1997 and 2007 the [[Erotic Art Museum (Hamburg)|Erotic Art Museum]] was open on Nobistor, a street running between the Reeperbahn and ''Louise-Schroeder-Straße''.

The ''{{lang|de|[[Operettenhaus]]}}'', a [[musical theatre]], is also located at the Reeperbahn. It played [[Andrew Lloyd Webber]]'s ''[[Cats (musical)|Cats]]'' for many years, after that ''[[Mamma Mia! (musical)|Mamma Mia!]]'', an [[ABBA]]-musical, followed by{{when|date=August 2012}} "{{lang|de|Ich war noch niemals in New York}}", ("I have never been to New York"), a [[jukebox musical]] featuring hit songs by Austrian singer/songwriter [[Udo Jürgens]], then ''[[Sister Act (musical)|Sister Act]]'' and finally ''[[Rocky the Musical|Rocky]]'', based on the [[Stallone]] film. There are other theatres at the Reeperbahn ([[St. Pauli Theater]], Imperial Theater, [[Schmidt Theater|Schmidt's Tivoli]]) and also several [[Cabarets]]/Varietés.

A famous landmark is the [[Davidwache]], a police station located on the South side of the Reeperbahn at the cross street ''{{lang|de|Davidstraße}}''. [[prostitution|Street prostitution]] is legal during certain times of the day on ''{{lang|de|Davidstraße}}''. The ''[[Herbertstraße]]'', a short side street off the ''Davidstraße'', has sex workers [[Window prostitution|displaying themselves behind windows]], waiting for customers. Since 1933, large screens block the view into Herbertstraße from the adjacent streets. Since the 1970s, there have been signs saying that entrance to the street is prohibited for women and juveniles; however, it is a public road which anyone may enter.{{Citation needed|date=August 2012}} Many pubs, and street-based sex workers, can be found on the square of [[Hans-Albers-Platz]] south of the Reeperbahn.

The ''{{lang|de|[[Große Freiheit]]}}'' ("Great Freedom") is a street starting on the North Side with several bars, clubs and a Catholic church. In former years, several sex theatres here (''Salambo'', ''Regina'', ''Colibri'', ''Safari'') would show live [[sex show|sex acts on stage]]. {{As of|2007}}, until its closure in 2013, the ''Safari'' was the only live sex theatre left in Germany.<ref name=indep>[https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/death-of-the-reeperbahn-hamburgs-streets-of-shame-799034.html Death of the Reeperbahn: Hamburg's streets of shame], ''The Independent'', 21 March 2008</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.abendblatt.de/hamburg/hamburg-mitte/article124554323/Kiezclub-Safari-schliesst-nach-50-Jahren-seine-Tueren.html|title=Kiezclub Safari schließt nach 50 Jahren seine Türen|first=Daniel|last=Schaefer|date=2014-02-05}}</ref> The popular [[table dance]] club ''Dollhouse'' now takes the place of the ''Salambo''. ''[[Hotel Luxor]]'', Hamburg's oldest brothel that had operated on this street for 60 years, was closed in 2008.<ref name=indep/> The street's name comes from the fact that Catholics were allowed to practise their religion here at a time when this district did not yet belong to Hamburg; they were forbidden from doing so in Protestant Hamburg proper.

In 1967, Europe's largest brothel at the time, the six-floor ''Eros Center'', was opened on the Reeperbahn. It was closed in the late 1980s amidst the [[AIDS]] scare.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1988/05/14/world/hamburg-journal-a-red-light-district-loses-its-allure.html |title=A Red-Light District Loses Its Allure |newspaper=The New York Times |date=14 May 1988 |first=Serge |last=Schmemann }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.spiegel.de/panorama/koenig-von-st-pauli-willi-bartels-ist-tot-a-515535.html |title=Willi Bartels ist tot |work=[[Spiegel Online]] |date=5 November 2007 |lang=de}}</ref>

At a major trial during 2006 and 2007 ten members of the "Marek Gang", which controls brothels on and near the Reeperbahn, were charged with [[pimp]]ing. The judge rejected the charge of forming a criminal gang and handed out suspended sentences: the men had started relationships with young women in local discotheques in order to recruit them to work in their brothels, an illegal practice if the women are under 21 years of age; some men had also abused some of the women who worked for them.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.spiegel.de/panorama/justiz/marek-prozess-freiheit-fuer-die-bordell-bosse-a-478329.html |title=Freiheit für die Bordell-Bosse |work=Spiegel Online |date=19 April 2007 |lang=de}}</ref>

Because of the problems with the high [[crime rate]], in 2007 the [[Senate of Hamburg]] enacted a ban on weapons in the Reeperbahn area. The only other such area with a weapons ban in Hamburg is the ''{{lang|de|Hansaplatz}}'', [[St. Georg, Hamburg|St. Georg]].<ref>[http://www.presseportal.de/polizeipresse/pm/6337/1102163/polizei_hamburg Ban of weapons in Hamburg] press release police Hamburg {{in lang|de}}</ref>

The ''St Pauli Preservation Society'' decries the ongoing [[gentrification]] of the area. Several older residents blamed the decline of the Reeperbahn's [[sex industry]] on the rise of discotheques and cheap bars that attract teenage customers.<ref name=indep/> In 2013, the [[Dancing Towers]] were built at the eastern end of Reeperbahn, symbolizing a couple dancing [[tango]]. The increasing number of these and other modern buildings erected at the Reeperbahn attracted criticism by some St. Pauli inhabitants.<ref>[http://www.abendblatt.de/hamburg/article107415030/Jetzt-kommen-Teheranis-Tanzende-Tuerme-an-die-Reeperbahn.html Jetzt kommen Teheranis "Tanzende Türme" an die Reeperbahn], Hamburger Abendblatt, in German</ref><ref name="sz">[http://www.sueddeutsche.de/geld/hochhauspaar-fuer-hamburg-schlankes-paar-auf-tuchfuehlung-1.412877-2 Club in den Niederungen], Süddeutsche Zeitung, in German</ref>

The Reeperbahn was hit hard by the [[COVID-19 pandemic]]. Almost every establishment was forced to close.

==The Beatles==
{{Main|The Beatles in Hamburg}}
In the early 1960s, [[The Beatles]] (who had not yet become world-famous) played in several clubs around the Reeperbahn, including the ''[[Star-Club]]'', ''[[Kaiserkeller]]'', ''[[Top Ten Club|Top Ten]]'' (Reeperbahn 136) and ''Indra''. Stories about the band's residencies, onstage and offstage antics are legendary; some stories are true ([[John Lennon]] played a song set with a [[toilet seat]] around his neck), others inflated (the band urinating in an alley as [[nun]]s walked past was told{{by whom|date=September 2013}} rather differently later).{{citation needed|date=September 2013}} A fellow musician, [[Kingsize Taylor|Ted "Kingsize" Taylor]], made a crude [[magnetic tape|tape recording]] of their last [[New Year's Eve]] show, at the Star-Club in December 1962; a cleaned-up version of the tape was later released as an album, later characterized by Harrison as "awful".

Famously John Lennon is quoted: "I might have been born in [[Liverpool]] – but I grew up in Hamburg".<ref name="BeatleEchoesOntheReeperbahn">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/echoes.html |title=Beatle Echoes On the Reeperbahn (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |access-date=2009-05-15}}</ref>

To mark the historical importance of their time in Hamburg, a ''[[Beatles-Platz]]'' was built at the cross of Reeperbahn and Große Freiheit.<ref>[http://www.bild.de/BILD/hamburg/aktuell/2008/05/26/baustart-fuer-hamburgs-beatles-platz/donnerstag-ist-spatenstich-an-der-grossen-freiheit,geo=4641162.html Spatensich für Beatles-Platz] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212232240/http://www.bild.de/BILD/hamburg/aktuell/2008/05/26/baustart-fuer-hamburgs-beatles-platz/donnerstag-ist-spatenstich-an-der-grossen-freiheit%2Cgeo%3D4641162.html |date=2009-02-12 }} bild.de {{in lang|de}} Retrieved on June 19, 2008</ref>

==In popular culture==
{{See also|List of songs about Hamburg}}
[[File:Jörg Immendorff 1986, Hans- Albers-Denkmal (Hans Albers Memorial), Hamburg, Germany 4.jpg|thumb|Socle of Hans Albers statue at the Hans-Albers-Platz, by [[Jörg Immendorff]] 1986. ''Auf der Reeperbahn nachts um halb eins'']]
The popular 1944 movie ''[[Große Freiheit Nr. 7]]'' tells the story of a singer (played by [[Hans Albers]]) who works in a Reeperbahn club and falls in love with a girl played by [[Ilse Werner]]. Hans Albers and [[Heinz Rühmann]] played in the 1954 movie ''Auf der Reeperbahn nachts um halb eins'' (''[[On the Reeperbahn at Half Past Midnight (1954 film)|On the Reeperbahn at Half Past Midnight]]'', after a [[On the Reeperbahn at Half Past Midnight (song)|song of the same name]] sung by Albers in the 1944 film).

"Reeperbahn" is a 1978 song by [[Udo Lindenberg]], to the tune of [[Penny Lane]], lamenting the decay of the entertainment there.

In the 1965 film ''[[Ship of Fools (film)|Ship of Fools]]'', [[Jose Ferrer]] and [[Christiane Schmidtmer]] sang "Heute Abend Geh'n Wir Bummeln Auf Der Reeperbahn" ("Tonight We Will Go Strolling on The Reeperbahn").

[[The Police]] song "Low Life" is about the Reeperbahn.

[[Randy Pie]]'s 1975 song "Kitsch" is about a curiosity shop on the Reeperbahn – the group hailed from Hamburg.

Reeperbahn is the name of a 1980s Swedish band. Finnish artist [[Irwin Goodman]] has a song and an album called ''St.Pauli ja Reeperbahn''. The street is also mentioned in the [[Elvis Costello]] song "Human Hands", in [[Van Morrison]]'s song "Heavy Connection", in [[Paul Kelly (Australian musician)|Paul Kelly]]'s song "Every Fucking City", in the [[Midnight Oil]] song "Mountains of Burma", the [[Sloppy Seconds (band)|Sloppy Seconds]] song "Germany" from their album ''[[Destroyed (Sloppy Seconds album)|Destroyed]]'' and in the [[Runrig]] song "Song of the Earth". The heavy metal band [[Blue Cheer]] have a song called "Sweet Child of the Reeperbahn" on their 1991 album ''[[Dining with the Sharks]]''. The punk band [[The Toy Dolls]] have a song titled "Caught up the Reeperbahn", first released on their 1993 album ''[[Absurd-Ditties]]''.

"Reeperbahn" is the name of a track from the Christian rock group [[Model Engine]]'s CD ''The Lean Years Tradition''.

The Reeperbahn is often mentioned in [[Karen Duve]]'s 1999 novel, ''[[Regenroman]]''. (The English translation is entitled ''Rain'').

[[Tom Waits]]' 2002 release ''[[Alice (Tom Waits album)|Alice]]'' contains a track called "Reeperbahn".

Zodiac Mindwarp & The Love Reaction released the track 'Christmas eve on the Reeperbahn' on their 2002 album I Am Rock.

Dutch DJ and producer [[Nicky Romero]] had the music video for his song "[[Toulouse (song)|Toulouse]]" shot in Hamburg, Germany. Near the end, the actors enter the Reeperbahn's subway system.

Australian pop-punk band the [[Hard-Ons]] have a song called "Don't Fear The Reeperbahn" on their 2007 album ''Most People Are Nicer Than Us''. Its title is a play on the [[Blue Öyster Cult]] song "[[(Don't Fear) The Reaper]]".

German electro house duo [[Digitalism (band)|Digitalism]] recorded the song "Reeperbahn" on their 2011 release ''[[I Love You Dude]]''.

Udo Lindenberg recorded 2011 a song titled "Reeperbahn" live together with [[Jan Delay]].

The commercial [[house music]] producer [[Eric Prydz]] has a track titled "Reeperbahn" under his moniker [[Pryda]].

London based indie band [[Spector (band)|Spector]] have a bonus track titled "Reeperbahn" on the deluxe version of their 2015 album ''[[Moth Boys]]''.

UK based folk rock band [[Skinny Lister]] wrote a song titled "Hamburg Drunk", which depicts a rough night "falling and sprawlling down the old Reeperbahn" on their 2016 album ''The Devil, The Heart and the Fight''.

==See also==
{{Portal|Hamburg}}
* [[Prostitution in Germany]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Commons category-inline}}
{{Attached KML|display=inline,title}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20090408044027/http://en.reeperbahn.se/ Information about Reeperbahn and the St. Pauli district] {{in lang|en}}
* [http://reeperbahn.hamburg.de - links and information about the reeperbahn] {{in lang|de}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070928214415/http://www.szene-in-hamburg.de/reeperbahn.html - the night life in Hamburg on the Reeperbahn] {{in lang|de}}
* [http://bilder-hamburg.info/index.php/tag/16/Reeperbahn Picture from the Reeperbahn] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131004220231/http://bilder-hamburg.info/index.php/tag/16/Reeperbahn |date=2013-10-04 }} {{in lang|de}}
* [http://www.rld-europa.com/articles/reeperbahn.html St. Pauli and the Reeperbahn] {{in lang|en}}

{{Hamburg}}
{{Boroughs of Hamburg}}
{{Prostitution in Germany}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Prostitution in Germany]]
[[Category:Red-light districts in Germany]]
[[Category:Streets in Hamburg]]
[[Category:Tourist attractions in Hamburg]]

Winston Marshall

2024-09-10T13:30:19Z

ExtravagAunt:

{{Short description|British musician (born 1987)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{distinguish|Winton W. Marshall}}
{{Infobox person
| image = File:Mumford & Sons - Southside Festival 2019 9927 - 1 (cropped - 1).jpg
| caption = Marshall in 2019
| alt =
| birth_name = Winston Aubrey Aladar deBalkan Marshall
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1987|12|20}}{{efn|There is inconsistency regarding Marshall's date of birth. A birth announcement (giving the 20 December 1987 date) was published in ''[[The Times]]'' in January 1988,<ref name=TimesBirth>{{cite news|title=London, England, Births and Christening Notices: Winston Aubrey Aladar deBalkan Marshall|newspaper=The Times|date=20 January 1988|url=https://search.ancestry.co.uk/cgi-bin/sse.dll?viewrecord=1&r=5538&db=LondonTimesBirths2003&indiv=try&h=60751}}</ref> but Marshall claimed to be 21 in May 2010, meaning year of birth would be 1988 or 1989,<ref name=Fisher2010/> and to be 24 in August 2011, meaning year of birth would be 1986 or 1987.<ref name=Eells2011>{{cite magazine|last=Eells|first=Josh|date=2011-08-04|title=God, Beer & Banjos: Mumford & Sons Take America|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/god-beer-banjos-mumford-sons-take-america-108523/|access-date=2021-07-01|magazine=Rolling Stone|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181909/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/god-beer-banjos-mumford-sons-take-america-108523/|url-status=live}}</ref>|name=birth}}
| birth_place = [[Wandsworth]], [[London]], England
| other_names = Country Winston
| occupation = {{Flatlist|
* Musician
* songwriter
* podcaster
}}
| party = [[Social Democratic Party (UK, 1990–present)|SDP]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marshall |first=Winston |date=19 Dec 2023 |title=Winston Marshall Tweet |url=https://twitter.com/MrWinMarshall/status/1737196901127143827}}</ref>{{Better source needed|reason=saying let’s go isn’t the same as being an actual party member}}
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Dianna Agron]]|2016|2020|end=divorced}}
{{marriage|[[Melissa Chen]]|2016}}
| years_active = 2007–present
| father = [[Paul Marshall (investor)|Sir Paul Marshall]]
| relatives = {{Unbulleted list|[[Penny Marshall (journalist)|Penny Marshall]] (aunt)|[[Princess Maria Gabriella of Savoy]] (great-aunt)}}
| module = {{Infobox musical artist|embed=yes
| associated_acts = {{Flatlist|
* [[Mumford & Sons]]
* [[Mt. Desolation]]
* [[Baaba Maal]]
* [[HVOB]]
}}
| genre = {{Flatlist|
* [[Folk rock]]
* [[Indie rock]]
* [[Alternative rock]]
* [[Electronic music|Electronic]]
}}
| instrument = {{Flatlist|
* [[Banjo]]
* guitar
* bass guitar
* [[resonator guitar]]
* vocals
}}
}}
}}

'''Winston Aubrey Aladar deBalkan Marshall''' (born 20 December 1987) is a British musician. He is best known as the former [[banjo]]ist and lead [[guitarist]] of the [[folk rock]] band [[Mumford & Sons]]. Prior to this he was in the [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]] [[sleaze rock|sleaze]] [[rap]] group Captain Kick and the Cowboy Ramblers. With Mumford & Sons, Marshall won multiple awards, including a [[Grammy Awards|Grammy]] and two [[Brit Awards]]. He has performed music with different supergroups and collaborated with [[Baaba Maal]] and [[HVOB]]. After leaving Mumford & Sons, Marshall started an interview podcast with ''[[The Spectator]]''.

==Early life and family==
Winston Aubrey Aladar deBalkan Marshall was born in [[Wandsworth]], London, on 20 December 1987,<ref name=TimesBirth/>{{efn|name=birth}} to [[Paul Marshall (investor)|Sir Paul Marshall]], a British tycoon who co-founded the [[Marshall Wace]] hedge fund and is the co-owner of [[GB News]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sweney |first=Mark |date=2023-09-27 |title=US billionaire in talks with GB News co-owner over Telegraph bid |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2023/sep/27/us-billionaire-ken-griffin-in-talks-over-bid-to-buy-telegraph-led-by-gb-news-co-owner-paul-marshall |access-date=2024-03-27 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> and Sabina de Balkany,<ref>{{cite web|title=Business profile: The Lib Dems' sugar daddy|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/2933566/Business-profile-The-Lib-Dems-sugar-daddy.html|website=The Telegraph|access-date=6 June 2014|date=5 March 2006|archive-date=30 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130133546/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/2933566/Business-profile-The-Lib-Dems-sugar-daddy.html|url-status=live}}</ref> from a [[genteel]] European Jewish family.<ref name=TimesCover/> He has a sister, singer/songwriter Giovanna.<ref>{{cite web|date=2014-03-05|title=Interview with singer Giovanna|url=http://www.beatmagazine.co.uk/interview-with-singer-giovanna|archive-date=5 March 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305023008/http://www.beatmagazine.co.uk/interview-with-singer-giovanna|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Beat Magazine}}</ref> His mother is French,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fortado|first1=Lindsay|title=Sir Paul Marshall, co-founder Marshall Wace, backing Brexit|url=https://www.ft.com/content/5ab5fb78-2437-11e7-8691-d5f7e0cd0a16|access-date=9 February 2018|work=Financial Times|date=23 April 2017|archive-date=9 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209182239/https://www.ft.com/content/5ab5fb78-2437-11e7-8691-d5f7e0cd0a16|url-status=live}}</ref> and his maternal grandmother was property tycoon Molly de Balkany,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hommages.ch/Announcements/pdf/07E4CBB422098C6698A605CE1C26D293.pdf|website=Hommages|title=Madame Molly de Balkany Obituary|language=French|access-date=7 March 2021|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190613/http://www.hommages.ch/Announcements/pdf/07E4CBB422098C6698A605CE1C26D293.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> one of the first female [[Real estate development|property developers]] in France;<ref>{{cite web|date=26 April 2017|title=Collection of Molly de Balkany, France's first female property tycoon, comes to auction|url=https://www.barnebys.co.uk/blog/collection-of-molly-de-balkany-frances-first-female-property-tycoon-comes-to-auction?uid=collection-of-molly-de-balkany-frances-first-female-property-tycoon-comes-to-auction|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Barnebys|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190615/https://www.barnebys.co.uk/blog/collection-of-molly-de-balkany-frances-first-female-property-tycoon-comes-to-auction?uid=collection-of-molly-de-balkany-frances-first-female-property-tycoon-comes-to-auction|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall's maternal great-uncle was the billionaire developer and collector {{ill|Robert Zellinger de Balkany|fr|Robert Zellinger de Balkany}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Exceptional sale of the Molly de Balkany Collection|url=https://www.artnewsportal.com/art-news/exceptional-sale-of-the-molly-de-balkany-collection|access-date=7 March 2021|website=artnewsportal|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501012706/http://www.artnewsportal.com/art-news/exceptional-sale-of-the-molly-de-balkany-collection|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Salon of Robert Zellinger de Balkany, Hôtel de Feuquières, 62 Rue de…|url=http://www.eerdmansnewyork.com/collection/salon-of-robert-zellinger-de-balkany-hotel-de-feuquieres-62-rue-de-varenne-paris|access-date=2022-07-08|website=Eerdmans New York|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708003441/https://www.eerdmansnewyork.com/collection/salon-of-robert-zellinger-de-balkany-hotel-de-feuquieres-62-rue-de-varenne-paris|url-status=dead}}</ref> Through Robert's marriages, Marshall's great-aunts include Genevieve François-Poncet, daughter of [[André François-Poncet]], and [[Princess Maria Gabriella of Savoy]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Owens|first=Mitchell|title=Inside the Paris Home of One of the 20th Century's Most Fascinating Men|url=https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/robert-zellinger-de-balkany-inside-paris-home-of-one-of-20th-centurys-most-fascinating-men|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Architectural Digest|date=13 September 2016|archive-date=26 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926062543/https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/robert-zellinger-de-balkany-inside-paris-home-of-one-of-20th-centurys-most-fascinating-men|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=HighLife>{{cite web|title=High life » 11 Sep 1993 » The Spectator Archive|url=http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/11th-september-1993/40/high-life|access-date=2022-07-07|website=The Spectator Archive}}</ref> Molly and Robert were the children of Hungarian-Romanian businessman Aladar Zellinger-Balkany,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Family tree of Alladar ZELLINGER-BALKANYI |url=https://gw.geneanet.org/pierfit?lang=en&n=zellinger+balkanyi&p=alladar |access-date=2024-03-27 |website=Geneanet |language=en}}</ref> with the family relocating to France after [[World War II]];<ref name=HighLife/> they added the [[nobiliary particle]] "de" to the name upon arrival in France without actually being ennobled.<ref>{{cite web|title=aristocrazia balcanizzata - muore in francia robert de balkany, ex marito di gabriella di savoia|date=25 September 2015|url=http://www.dagospia.com/rubrica-2/media_e_tv/aristocrazia-balcanizzata-muore-francia-robert-de-balkany-ex-marito-109338.htm|access-date=2021-09-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926121422/http://www.dagospia.com/rubrica-2/media_e_tv/aristocrazia-balcanizzata-muore-francia-robert-de-balkany-ex-marito-109338.htm|archive-date=26 September 2015}}</ref> Marshall has said that thirteen members of his family "were murdered in [...] the [[Holocaust]]", and that his maternal grandmother was a [[Holocaust survivors|survivor]].<ref name=TimesCover/><ref name=Marshall2021>{{cite web|last=Marshall|first=Winston|date=2021-06-24|title=Why I'm Leaving Mumford & Sons|url=https://mrwinstonmarshall.medium.com/why-im-leaving-mumford-sons-e6e731bbc255|access-date=2021-06-24|website=Medium|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624182046/https://mrwinstonmarshall.medium.com/why-im-leaving-mumford-sons-e6e731bbc255|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall was educated at [[St Paul's School, London|St Paul's School]], an [[independent school]] in London.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Cohen|first1=David|title=Hedge fund star: My plan to turn round London schools|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/hedge-fund-star-my-plan-to-turn-round-london-schools-6574459.html|work=London Evening Standard|access-date=6 June 2014|date=7 March 2011|archive-date=19 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419200307/https://www.standard.co.uk/news/hedge-fund-star-my-plan-to-turn-round-london-schools-6574459.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010, ''[[The Guardian]]'' wrote that "there's [nothing] inherently wrong with musicians being privately educated. It's just a bit grating when one of them insists on going by the name "Country" Winston Marshall".<ref>{{cite web|author=Guardian Staff|date=2010-10-24|title=Pass notes No 2,868: Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/oct/24/pass-notes-mumford-sons|access-date=2021-07-01|website=the Guardian|archive-date=31 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831194434/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/oct/24/pass-notes-mumford-sons|url-status=live}}</ref>

Marshall began playing guitar aged thirteen and started a [[ZZ Top]] cover group called Gobbler's Knob.<ref name=Hiatt2013/><ref name=Eells2011/> While the other members of [[Mumford & Sons]] were influenced by [[jazz]], Marshall described the genre in 2013 as "the lowest form of art".<ref name=Hiatt2013/> He was inspired to play [[banjo]] after seeing ''[[O Brother, Where Art Thou?]]'', switching to folk music and wearing his hair in [[dreadlocks]]. Referring to his youth exploits, he saw himself as a [[wikt:trustafarian|trustafarian]], and left university after a year in order to play music.<ref name=Hiatt2013/> Marshall and future bandmate [[Marcus Mumford]] met as teenagers<ref name=UDiscover/> at church, playing [[Contemporary worship music|worship music]] at a church group together and in a worship band, with Mumford saying Marshall is "magnetic to be around".<ref name=Hiatt2013/><ref>{{cite web|last=Roberts|first=Lynn|title=From the archives: FFS interviews Mumford and Sons|url=https://www.forfolkssake.com/interviews/1375/for-folks-sake-interview-mumford-and-sons|access-date=2021-07-01|website=For Folk's Sake|date=12 March 2011 |archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182029/https://www.forfolkssake.com/interviews/1375/for-folks-sake-interview-mumford-and-sons|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall, a multi-instrumentalist, has said that he chose to focus on banjo over guitar because there were fewer banjoists and so it was easier for him to get session jobs.<ref name=GQ2012interview/>

==Career==
===Early music===
In the early 2000s, Marshall was in a bluegrass sleaze rap band<ref name=Frost2009>{{cite web|last1=Frost|first1=Matt|title=Mumford & Sons PM's Question Time|url=http://www.performing-musician.com/pm/feb09/articles/questiontime.htm|website=Performing Musician|access-date=6 June 2014|date=February 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609062824/http://www.performing-musician.com/pm/feb09/articles/questiontime.htm|archive-date=9 June 2014}}</ref> called Captain Kick and the Cowboy Ramblers, who had songs such as "Jesse the Gay" and "Country London".<ref>{{cite web|title=For Now {{!}} Captain Kick and The Cowboy Ramblers|url=https://sonichits.com/video/Captain_Kick_and_The_Cowboy_Ramblers/For_Now|website=Sonic Hits|access-date=2021-06-30|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181326/https://sonichits.com/video/Captain_Kick_and_The_Cowboy_Ramblers/For_Now|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Captain Kick and the Cowboy Ramblers|url=https://myspace.com/captainkickandthecowboyra|website=MySpace|access-date=6 June 2014|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714145906/https://myspace.com/captainkickandthecowboyra|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall was credited as "Country Winston Driftwood" and played the banjo, guitar, [[dobro]], [[mandolin]], and harmonica.<ref>{{cite web|title=Captain Kick And The Cowboy Ramblers|url=http://drownedinsound.com/Captain_Kick_And_The_Cowboy_Ramblers|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Drowned in Sound|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190630/https://drownedinsound.com/Captain_Kick_And_The_Cowboy_Ramblers|url-status=live}}</ref> With Captain Kick and the Cowboy Ramblers,<ref name=Frost2009/> Marshall ran a jam night "for teenagers who wanted to drink and play music"<ref name=Fisher2010>{{cite web|date=2010-05-29|title=Mumford & Sons: sound of the summer|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/may/30/mumford-and-sons-music-festivals|access-date=2021-07-01|website=the Guardian|last=Fisher|first=Alice|archive-date=16 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716192722/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/may/30/mumford-and-sons-music-festivals|url-status=live}}</ref> at Bosun's Locker, a tiny music club beneath a pasty shop on the [[King's Road]] in Fulham.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Jones|first1=Alice|title=Mumford and Sons: The English folkies on top of the world|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/mumford-and-sons-the-english-folkies-on-top-of-the-world-8163114.html|website=The Independent|access-date=6 June 2014|date=21 September 2012|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190618/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/mumford-and-sons-english-folkies-top-world-8163114.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The jam nights attracted a number of musicians who had an affinity for earthy acoustic music,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Bauer|first1=Patricia|title=Mumford & Sons|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1811221/Mumford-Sons|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=6 June 2014|date=8 October 2013|archive-date=9 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609132431/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1811221/Mumford-Sons|url-status=live}}</ref> including [[Noah and the Whale]] and [[Laura Marling]].<ref name=Frost2009/>

===Mumford & Sons===
[[File:Winston Marshall & Marcus Mumford.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Medium shot of two men, close together, playing instruments.|Marshall (left) and Mumford in 2010]]
The group [[Mumford & Sons]] came together in December 2007 after its four members had already been performing together in various configurations.<ref name=No304>{{cite web|date=2008-04-11|title=No 304: Mumford & Sons|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/apr/11/popandrock10|access-date=2021-06-30|website=the Guardian|archive-date=12 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712105155/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/apr/11/popandrock10|url-status=live}}</ref> Co-founder Mumford started songwriting after seeing Marshall's band Captain Kick, and other similar artists, perform while Mumford was at university in [[Edinburgh]];<ref name=Kagler2008>{{cite web|last=Kagler|first=Marcus|title=Mumford and Sons|url=http://undertheradarmag.com/interviews/mumford_and_sons_2008_interview|access-date=10 March 2021|website=undertheradarmag.com|archive-date=23 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123192118/http://www.undertheradarmag.com/interviews/mumford_and_sons_2008_interview/|url-status=live}}</ref> Mumford was struggling at the time and found Marshall's music "a glimpse of salvation", especially as Marshall encouraged him to join them on-stage.<ref name=Hiatt2013/> The first Mumford & Sons performances took place in 2005<ref name=Fisher2010/> at Marshall's Bosun's Locker jam nights<ref name=Frost2009/> as informal performances of the musicians "like a hoedown".<ref name=Kagler2008/> Mumford began performing here, and was joined by Marshall as well as other musician friends with whom he had previously performed, including [[Ben Lovett (British musician)|Ben Lovett]] and [[Ted Dwane]].<ref name=No304/> As well as together, Dwane, Marshall, and Mumford all performed with Marling's band during the jam sessions.<ref name=Roberts2011/> Mumford said that "eventually, Ted [Dwane], Ben [Lovett], and Winston [Marshall] stuck. It wasn't until [they] started writing songs together that [they] realized this was an actual band and not just a singer/songwriter with a couple of mates."<ref name=Kagler2008/> Marshall played the banjo, guitars, dobro, and provided backing vocals, for the group,<ref name=Roberts2011>{{cite web|last1=Roberts|first1=Lynn|title=From the archives: FFS interviews Mumford and Sons|url=http://www.forfolkssake.com/interviews/1375/for-folks-sake-interview-mumford-and-sons|website=For Folk's Sake|access-date=6 June 2014|date=12 March 2011|archive-date=28 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140828001610/http://www.forfolkssake.com/interviews/1375/for-folks-sake-interview-mumford-and-sons|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford & Sons|website=Eagle Music|date=21 February 2013 |url=https://www.eaglemusicshop.com/blog/tag/mumford-sons/|access-date=2021-06-30|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183050/https://www.eaglemusicshop.com/blog/tag/mumford-sons/|url-status=live}}</ref> and was often identified as the comic relief of the line-up.<ref name=Hiatt2013>{{cite magazine|last=Hiatt|first=Brian|date=28 March 2013|title=Mumford & Sons: Rattle and Strum|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/mumford-sons-rattle-and-strum-78883/|access-date=10 March 2021|magazine=Rolling Stone|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307140550/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/mumford-sons-rattle-and-strum-78883/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2012-11-14|title=Mumford And Sons: Gentlemen Of The Road|url=https://americansongwriter.com/mumford-and-sons-gentlemen-of-the-road/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=American Songwriter|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182612/https://americansongwriter.com/mumford-and-sons-gentlemen-of-the-road/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2012-10-03|title=Mumford & Sons: "We're fans of faith, not religion"|url=https://www.bigissue.com/interviews/mumford-sons-fans-faith-not-religion/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The Big Issue|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182410/https://www.bigissue.com/interviews/mumford-sons-fans-faith-not-religion/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=GQ2012interview/>

[[File:Mumford & Sons (4563623664).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A man wearing a cap, denim jacket, and old guitar.|Marshall performing with Mumford & Sons in 2010]]
The band performed at [[Glastonbury Festival]] in 2008 and released their debut EP later the same year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford and Sons|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2008/10/29/londoncalling_mumford_and_sons_feature.shtml|access-date=2021-06-30|website=BBC|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181623/https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2008/10/29/londoncalling_mumford_and_sons_feature.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall and Mumford took jobs in the antique shop run by Marshall's mother in order to save money to produce and record music with Mumford & Sons.<ref>{{cite web|date=2012-09-26|title=Mumford and Sons: The English folkies on top of the world|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/mumford-and-sons-english-folkies-top-world-8163114.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The Independent|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190618/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/mumford-and-sons-english-folkies-top-world-8163114.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They toured with Marling and [[Johnny Flynn (musician)|Johnny Flynn]] from 2008 to 2009; Marshall was nervous to perform in the United States, knowing that banjo is more common there than in the United Kingdom and their audience would know if he was good or not. In 2009, they cut their tour songs as their first album.<ref>{{cite web|date=2009-09-27|title=Mumford & Sons enjoy playing without pressure in the UK|url=http://www.birminghampost.net/whats-on/music/mumford--sons-enjoy-playing-3940436|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Business Live}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The album, ''[[Sigh No More (Mumford & Sons album)|Sigh No More]]'', on which Marshall is credited as "Country Winston",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/sigh-no-more-mw0001762194/credits|title=Sigh No More - Mumford & Sons | Credits|publisher=[[AllMusic]]|date=6 October 2009|access-date=6 May 2020|archive-date=13 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200913151422/https://www.allmusic.com/album/sigh-no-more-mw0001762194/credits|url-status=live}}</ref> was released that year along with the single "[[Little Lion Man]]";<ref>{{cite web|date=2009-08-16|title=Mumford And Sons: 'We were banished from studio by producer'|url=https://www.nme.com/news/mumfordandsons/46631|access-date=2021-07-01|website=NME|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816235928/https://www.nme.com/news/mumfordandsons/46631|archive-date=16 August 2009}}</ref> written by Mumford,<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[ABC Online]]|title=Countdown: Hottest 100 - 2009|date=27 January 2010|accessdate=27 January 2010|url=http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/hottest100/09/countdown/cd_01.htm|archive-date=29 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129045807/http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/hottest100/09/countdown/cd_01.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> the song was nominated at the [[53rd Annual Grammy Awards|2011 Grammy Awards]] as [[Grammy Award for Best Rock Song|Best Rock Song]]. The band was nominated for the [[Grammy Awards|Grammy]] for [[Grammy Award for Best New Artist|Best New Artist]],<ref>{{cite magazine|date=2 December 2010|author=Andre Paine|url=http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/content_display/industry/e3ic181756e03fe4aeeff5ead0628212e6b|title=Mumford & Sons 'Over The Moon' At Double Grammy Nod|magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|accessdate=2012-12-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206145951/http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/content_display/industry/e3ic181756e03fe4aeeff5ead0628212e6b|archive-date=6 December 2010}}</ref> and performed at the ceremony with [[Bob Dylan]] and [[the Avett Brothers]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford and Sons, Avett Brothers, Robert Plant win Americana Music Awards|url=https://ew.com/article/2011/10/14/americana-music-awards-mumford-and-sons-avett-brothers-robert-plant/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=EW|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181846/https://ew.com/article/2011/10/14/americana-music-awards-mumford-and-sons-avett-brothers-robert-plant/|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Sigh No More'' won the [[Brit Award for British Album of the Year]] in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Brit Awards 2011: Mumford & Sons win best British album|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/music-news/8327452/Brit-Awards-2011-Mumford-and-Sons-win-best-British-album.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Telegraph|date=16 February 2011 |archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184040/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/music-news/8327452/Brit-Awards-2011-Mumford-and-Sons-win-best-British-album.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The album was influenced by the music of [[Fleet Foxes]], the Avett Brothers, [[Kings of Leon]] and [[Gomez (band)|Gomez]]; for ''[[Pitchfork (website)|Pitchfork]]'', [[Stephen Deusner]] wrote that the band made this clear by pushing their musical references "with a salesman's insistence."<ref name=DeusnerSighNoMore>{{cite web|title=Mumford & Sons: Sigh No More|url=https://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/13906-sigh-no-more/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Pitchfork|archive-date=20 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210620064302/https://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/13906-sigh-no-more/|url-status=live}}</ref> It was released to minimal attention but steadily garnered more positive reviews,<ref name=Fisher2010/><ref>{{cite web|title=Platinum one good reason for Mumford & Sons to Sigh No More|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music/platinum-one-good-reason-for-mumford-sons-to-sigh-no-more-1.563777|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The National|date=21 March 2011|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181841/https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music/platinum-one-good-reason-for-mumford-sons-to-sigh-no-more-1.563777|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sigh No More by Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.metacritic.com/music/sigh-no-more/mumford-sons|website=Metacritic|access-date=2021-07-01|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183038/https://www.metacritic.com/music/sigh-no-more/mumford-sons|url-status=live}}</ref> and while Deusner criticized the album as derivative, he was impressed that "there are some unexpected textures, mostly courtesy of some guy calling himself Country Winston playing banjo and dobro."<ref name=DeusnerSighNoMore/> The success of the bluegrass banjo-led album placed Mumford & Sons as the breakout of nu-folk music.<ref name=UDiscover>{{cite web|last=Chilton|first=Martin|date=2020-10-02|title='Sigh No More': How Mumford & Sons Found Their Voice|url=https://www.udiscovermusic.com/stories/sigh-no-more-mumford-and-sons-album/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=uDiscover Music|archive-date=16 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216045029/https://www.udiscovermusic.com/stories/sigh-no-more-mumford-and-sons-album/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2011-10-23|title=Sound of summer: Meet the new faces of nu folk|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/sound-of-summer-meet-the-new-faces-of-nu-folk-2021011.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The Independent|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184209/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/sound-of-summer-meet-the-new-faces-of-nu-folk-2021011.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They followed the album with near-constant touring, cementing their presence,<ref name=Fisher2010/> though concert reviews were also mixed, criticizing the repetitiveness of the samey setlist while acknowledging the crowd's enjoyment.<ref name=Richards2011/><ref>{{cite web|last=Moulton|first=Katie|title=Mumford and Sons at the Pageant, 6/5/11: Review, Photos, Setlist|url=https://www.riverfronttimes.com/musicblog/2011/06/06/mumford-and-sons-at-the-pageant-6-5-11-review-photos-setlist|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Riverfront Times|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181825/https://www.riverfronttimes.com/musicblog/2011/06/06/mumford-and-sons-at-the-pageant-6-5-11-review-photos-setlist|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2010-02-19|title=As Mumford & Sons prepare to invade the States, their namesake has a sort of O.C. homecoming|url=https://www.ocregister.com/2010/02/19/as-mumford-sons-prepare-to-invade-the-states-their-namesake-has-a-sort-of-oc-homecoming/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Orange County Register|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182635/https://www.ocregister.com/2010/02/19/as-mumford-sons-prepare-to-invade-the-states-their-namesake-has-a-sort-of-oc-homecoming/|url-status=live}}</ref> Chris Richards of ''[[The Washington Post]]'' added that the musicians' stage presence, particularly Marshall "thrusting his pelvis like a bluegrass [[Rick James]]", was irritating.<ref name=Richards2011>{{cite news|last=Richards|first=Chris|date=2011-06-10|title=In concert: Mumford & Sons at Merriweather Post Pavilion|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/click-track/post/in-concert-mumford-and-sons-at-merriweather-post-pavilion/2011/06/10/AGEyKsOH_blog.html|access-date=2021-07-01|newspaper=Washington Post|archive-date=12 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512013344/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/click-track/post/in-concert-mumford-and-sons-at-merriweather-post-pavilion/2011/06/10/AGEyKsOH_blog.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Mumford & Sons - Teatro Romano, Verona - 2 luglio 2012 (7498989558).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Marshall (right) and Dwane in 2012]]
In 2010, Mumford & Sons were the band and back-up for Marling's album ''[[I Speak Because I Can]]''<ref>{{cite web|date=2010-01-20|title=Laura Marling, 'I Speak Because I Can' - First Listen|url=https://www.nme.com/blogs/nme-blogs/laura-marling-i-speak-because-i-can-first-listen-782091|access-date=2021-06-30|website=NME|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182926/https://www.nme.com/blogs/nme-blogs/laura-marling-i-speak-because-i-can-first-listen-782091|url-status=live}}</ref> and released a joint EP with Marling and Indian group Dharohar Project. Self-titled with all three acts' names, it saw generally warm reviews that praised Marshall's dueling-banjo additions to songs.<ref>{{cite web|last=Irwin|first=Colin|title=BBC - Music - Review of Dharohar Project, Laura Marling and Mumford & Sons - iTunes Festival Live EP|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/reviews/rqzb/|access-date=2021-06-30|website=BBC|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182412/https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/reviews/rqzb/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last=Leeds|first=Sarene|date=2010-12-07|title=Dharohar Project, Laura Marling and Mumford & Sons (EP)|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/dharohar-project-laura-marling-and-mumford-sons-ep-103924/|access-date=2021-07-01|magazine=Rolling Stone|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181612/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/dharohar-project-laura-marling-and-mumford-sons-ep-103924/|url-status=live}}</ref> The group continued to tour extensively, and released their second album, ''[[Babel (Mumford & Sons album)|Babel]]'', which had a more rock sound,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/entertainment/mumford-sons-moves-to-rock-sound-with-babel-1.1194803|website=CBC|title=Mumford & Sons moves to rock sound with Babel|date=20 September 2012|access-date=1 July 2021|archive-date=15 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715185715/https://www.cbc.ca/news/entertainment/mumford-sons-moves-to-rock-sound-with-babel-1.1194803|url-status=live}}</ref> in 2012 to mixed reviews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anydecentmusic.com/review/4875/Mumford--Sons-Babel.aspx|title=Babel by Mumford & Sons reviews|website=[[AnyDecentMusic?]]|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223101359/http://anydecentmusic.com/review/4875/Mumford--Sons-Babel.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall provided lead vocals for the song "For Those Below".<ref>{{cite web|title=Brutalist Truths: Owen Hatherley Interviewed In Ten Songs|url=https://thequietus.com/articles/19589-owen-hatherley-interview-ministry-of-nostalgia|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The Quietus}}</ref> In the same year, Mumford & Sons contributed songs to two films: "The Enemy" for ''[[Wuthering Heights (2011 film)|Wuthering Heights]]''<ref>{{cite web|last=Lichman|first=John|date=2012-01-23|title=Sundance: Andrea Arnold Talks Using Mumford & Sons For 'Wuthering Heights' & Her Intuitive Approach To Filmmaking|url=https://www.indiewire.com/2012/01/sundance-andrea-arnold-talks-using-mumford-sons-for-wuthering-heights-her-intuitive-approach-to-filmmaking-113708/|access-date=2022-01-08|website=IndieWire|archive-date=5 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305142749/https://www.indiewire.com/2012/01/sundance-andrea-arnold-talks-using-mumford-sons-for-wuthering-heights-her-intuitive-approach-to-filmmaking-113708/|url-status=live}}</ref> and "Learn Me Right" with [[Birdy (singer)|Birdy]] for the [[Brave (soundtrack)|soundtrack]] of the [[Pixar]] film ''[[Brave (2012 film)|Brave]]''.<ref>{{cite magazine|date=2012-05-21|title=Mumford & Sons Write New Song for Pixar's 'Brave'|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/mumford-sons-write-new-song-for-pixars-brave-100407/|access-date=2021-07-01|magazine=Rolling Stone|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182527/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/mumford-sons-write-new-song-for-pixars-brave-100407/|url-status=live}}</ref>

''Babel'' became the quickest-selling album of the year, and the growing success of Mumford & Sons led to more detraction, with the band, and its banjo specifically, often criticized as inauthentic; Marshall told ''The Guardian'' that he disagreed, saying they are authentic because they play music that they enjoy and at which they are good.<ref>{{cite web|date=2012-11-15|title=How Mumford & Sons became the biggest band in the world|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/nov/15/mumford-sons-biggest-band-world|access-date=2021-07-01|website=the Guardian|archive-date=12 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712161347/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/nov/15/mumford-sons-biggest-band-world|url-status=live}}</ref> The band embraced other criticisms, creating a [[tongue-in-cheek]] music video for single "[[Hopeless Wanderer]]", parodying their own image. In it, Marshall was portrayed by [[Jason Bateman]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Galuppo|first=Mia|date=2013-08-05|title=Folk Yeah! Jason Sudeikis, Jason Bateman, Will Forte, Ed Helms as Mumford & Sons (Video)|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/music-news/jason-sudeikis-jason-bateman-will-599748/|access-date=2021-07-02|website=The Hollywood Reporter|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182452/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/music-news/jason-sudeikis-jason-bateman-will-599748/|url-status=live}}</ref> With ''Babel'', Marshall shed his "Country Winston" name, saying he had outgrown it (as a holdover from Captain Kick) and had become disillusioned towards [[country music]]; when he began playing the genre he associated it with [[bluegrass music]], and then found that he did not like the country music he heard in the United States. At the same time, he expressed distaste towards the banjo and said that he does not really know how to play it and had been told by his hero [[Jerry Douglas]] to not learn, quoting Douglas saying: "The reason that it's interesting what you do is that you have no f***ing idea what you're doing!"<ref name=GQ2012interview>{{cite web|title=Gentlemen of the road: on tour with Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/article/mumford-and-sons-usa-tour-interview|access-date=2021-07-01|website=British GQ|date=5 December 2012|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181903/https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/article/mumford-and-sons-usa-tour-interview|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Babel'' won the Grammy for [[Grammy Award for Album of the Year|Album of the Year]] in 2013,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music-arts/full-2013-grammy-nominations-list-article-1.1214356|title=Grammys 2013: Full nominations list of the 55th Annual Grammy Awards|date=5 December 2012|work=Daily News|location=New York|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=19 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019011919/https://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music-arts/full-2013-grammy-nominations-list-article-1.1214356|url-status=live}}</ref> with the band being awarded the [[Brit Award for British Group]] the same year.<ref>{{cite web|date=2013-02-27|title=Mumford & Sons win best British group Brit Award|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/mumford-sons-win-best-british-group-brit-award-8503927.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The Independent|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183026/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/mumford-sons-win-best-british-group-brit-award-8503927.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They were also honored with the [[Ivor Novello Award]] for International Achievement in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|date=2014-05-22|title=Ivor Novellos 2014 winners list: Mumford and Sons and Tom Odell take|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/ivor-novellos-2014-winners-list-mumford-and-sons-and-tom-odell-take-home-awards-9420479.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The Independent|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709205315/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/ivor-novellos-2014-winners-list-mumford-and-sons-and-tom-odell-take-home-awards-9420479.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Mumford & Sons at the 2013 Brit Awards.jpg|thumb|Mumford & Sons at the [[33rd Brit Awards|2013 Brit Awards]]]]
The band went on hiatus in 2013,<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford & Sons Is Going on Hiatus|url=https://www.vulture.com/2013/09/mumford-sons-is-going-on-hiatus.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Vulture|date=21 September 2013 |archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182207/https://www.vulture.com/2013/09/mumford-sons-is-going-on-hiatus.html|url-status=live}}</ref> but contributed to a compilation album by [[Idris Elba]] released in 2014, re-recording their song "Home" with [[Thandiswa Mazwai]].<ref name=Johannesburg>{{cite web|date=2016-06-24|title=Review: Mumford & Sons, 'Johannesburg'|url=https://www.spin.com/2016/06/review-mumford-and-sons-baaba-maal-johannesburg-ep/|access-date=2021-07-02|website=SPIN|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902013319/https://www.spin.com/2016/06/review-mumford-and-sons-baaba-maal-johannesburg-ep/|url-status=live}}</ref> They returned in 2015 with the album ''[[Wilder Mind]]'', on which Marshall was credited as "WN5TN".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/wilder-mind-mw0002834704/credits|title=Wilder Mind - Mumford & Sons | Credits|publisher=[[AllMusic]]|date=4 May 2015|access-date=6 May 2020|archive-date=13 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200913151414/https://www.allmusic.com/album/wilder-mind-mw0002834704/credits|url-status=live}}</ref> There is no banjo on ''Wilder Mind'', an electronic rock album that was influenced by [[The National (band)|the National]]; [[Aaron Dessner]] was a producer. Though his bandmates disagreed, Marshall said that they changed the sound because they did not enjoy touring so much with a limited repertoire.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford & Sons: "Fuck the banjo" {{!}} Features|url=http://diymag.com/2015/04/24/mumford-sons-interview-fuck-the-banjo|access-date=2021-07-02|website=DIY|date=24 April 2015 |archive-date=18 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518215040/https://diymag.com/2015/04/24/mumford-sons-interview-fuck-the-banjo|url-status=live}}</ref> However, he also said that he had warmed to the banjo again after time away from having to play it,<ref>{{cite web|date=2015-04-21|title=Mumford & Sons: Electric Minds|url=https://consequence.net/2015/04/mumford-sons-electric-minds/|access-date=2021-07-02|website=Consequence|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182143/https://consequence.net/2015/04/mumford-sons-electric-minds/|url-status=live}}</ref> and used it on the band's 2015 tour.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lawler|first=Joe|title=Gentlemen of the Road review: Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/entertainment/music/2015/06/22/stopover-review-mumford-sons-waverly/29098355/|access-date=2021-07-02|website=Des Moines Register}}</ref> The album received mediocre reviews,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anydecentmusic.com/review/7175/Mumford--Sons-Wilder-Mind.aspx |title=Wilder Mind by Mumford & Sons reviews |website=[[AnyDecentMusic?]] |access-date=8 December 2019 |archive-date=8 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208044950/http://www.anydecentmusic.com/review/7175/Mumford--Sons-Wilder-Mind.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> with critics in disagreement on whether losing the banjos improved the band or not;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nme.com/reviews/mumford-and-sons/16038 |title=Mumford & Sons: 'Wilder Mind' – Review |website=[[NME]] |date=17 April 2015 |access-date=6 May 2015 |last=Cooper |first=Leonie |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304024359/http://www.nme.com/reviews/mumford-and-sons/16038 |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.avclub.com/review/mumford-sons-abandon-banjos-and-plug-pointlessly-218575 |title=Mumford & Sons abandon banjos and plug in, pointlessly |work=[[The A.V. Club]] |date=5 May 2015 |access-date=6 May 2015 |last=Mincher |first=Chris |archive-date=7 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507175334/http://www.avclub.com/review/mumford-sons-abandon-banjos-and-plug-pointlessly-218575 |url-status=live }}</ref> ''The Guardian'' wrote that it "was far less polarising" than their first two albums, due to being "numbingly boring" and lacking the band's [[Unique selling proposition|USP]].<ref name=GuardianDelta>{{cite web|date=2018-11-18|title=Mumford & Sons: Delta review – three minutes of mild excitement|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/nov/18/mumford-and-sons-delta-review|access-date=2022-01-08|website=the Guardian|archive-date=11 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711025148/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/nov/18/mumford-and-sons-delta-review|url-status=live}}</ref> The next year they released an EP, ''[[Johannesburg (EP)|Johannesburg]]'', with African artists [[Baaba Maal]], [[Beatenberg (band)|Beatenberg]] and [[The Very Best (band)|the Very Best]]; they had been approached to do the project after Marshall worked with Maal on other music. The EP does not use the banjo.<ref name=Johannesburg/> Marshall sang lead vocals on the song "Fool You've Landed",<ref>{{cite AV media|title=Mumford & Sons - Fool You've Landed (Live 2016)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yem9m0UvkrQ|via=YouTube|access-date=2022-01-08}}</ref> which he co-wrote with then-girlfriend [[Dianna Agron]] and Beatenberg's Matthew Field.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fool You've Landed - Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.cancioneros.com/lyrics/song/745331/fool-you-ve-landed-mumford-sons|access-date=2022-01-08|website=Cancioneros}}</ref><ref name=Johannesburg/>

[[File:WinstonMarshallGavinBatty.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Marshall performing at [[Madison Square Garden]] in 2018]]
Mumford & Sons then worked on their fourth album, ''[[Delta (Mumford & Sons album)|Delta]]'', which was released in 2018. The album uses banjo again, but in non-folk ways.<ref name=StandardDelta/><ref name=NWC/> Marshall said that ''Delta'': "does sound to me like the culmination of 10 years' work. I'm proud of it for that". The music draws more on their adult life experiences than their previous work, with the ''[[Evening Standard]]'' noting that during its creation Marshall got married but also experienced [[Major depressive disorder|depression]].<ref name=StandardDelta>{{cite web|last=Smyth|first=David|date=2019-05-31|title=Mumford and Sons on Grenfell, Delta and All Points East|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/music/mumford-and-sons-interview-all-points-east-a4156016.html|access-date=2022-01-08|website=Evening Standard}}</ref> Marshall said that since the album was not their first and wouldn't be their last, they felt freedom to branch out in sound.<ref name=NMEDelta/> He started writing some of the songs on ''Delta'' in [[Nashville]],<ref name=DeltaCOS>{{cite web|date=16 November 2018|title=Mumford and Sons give Track by Track breakdown of their new album, Delta: Stream|url=https://consequenceofsound.net/2018/11/mumford-and-sons-delta-track-by-track-stream/|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Consequence of Sound|archive-date=20 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120051712/https://consequenceofsound.net/2018/11/mumford-and-sons-delta-track-by-track-stream/|url-status=live}}</ref> where Agron was filming a movie and they became engaged.<ref>{{cite web|date=2016-02-10|title=Dianna Agron Is a Blushing Bride on Set of Novitiate|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/738585/dianna-agron-is-a-blushing-bride-on-set-of-novitiate|access-date=2022-01-08|website=E! Online|archive-date=11 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211211344/http://www.eonline.com/news/738585/dianna-agron-is-a-blushing-bride-on-set-of-novitiate|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2018-01-02|title=Lightness Of Being: Dianna Agron|url=https://harpersbazaar.my/fashion/lightness-dianna-agron/|access-date=2022-01-08|website=Harper's BAZAAR Malaysia|archive-date=1 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101064028/https://harpersbazaar.my/fashion/lightness-dianna-agron/|url-status=live}}</ref> Lovett said Marshall "was throwing these pretty left-field sounds out of these writing sessions in Nashville"; Marshall was encouraged by sound engineer Garrett Miller to try more synthesized music, resulting in "Picture You", and composed the first verse and the falsetto hook of "[[Woman (Mumford & Sons song)|Woman]]" there.<ref name=DeltaCOS/> He also wrote "Wild Heart",<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford & Sons Detail New Album 'Delta,' Tease 'Rock Oddyssey' Song|url=https://www.iheart.com/content/2018-11-06-mumford-sons-detail-new-album-delta-tease-rock-oddyssy-song/|access-date=2022-01-13|website=iHeart}}</ref> which was recorded so quickly he did not actually perform on the track on the album.<ref name=DeltaCOS/> ''[[Spin (magazine)|Spin]]'' noted the three songs were the more powerful of the album's stripped-back songs.<ref>{{cite web|date=2018-11-14|title=Mumford & Sons' New Album Delta Is Doing Too Much of Everything|url=https://www.spin.com/2018/11/mumford-and-sons-delta-review/|access-date=2022-01-13|website=SPIN}}</ref>

Marshall took the early components of "Woman" to his bandmates in Brooklyn, and Lovett said of the moment: "[it] just felt like something that was very, very different, but also felt really good. Maybe that was a moment that we felt unshackled by anything that we had done previously."<ref name=DeltaCOS/> Marshall said that despite the song title, "Woman" is about the love shared by the couple.<ref name=DanceWoman/> It is an [[R&B]] indie song, with Mumford saying they were influenced by [[Jai Paul]];<ref name=BigRead/> Marshall used a five-string [[cello banjo]] on it, disguising the banjo sound,<ref>{{cite news|date=2018-09-20|title=Exclusive: Mumford & Sons on death, depression and divorce|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-45551673|access-date=2022-01-08|archive-date=1 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201061137/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-45551673|url-status=live}}</ref> with three banjo tracks layered.<ref name=NMEDelta>{{cite web|date=2018-11-23|title=Mumford & Sons – 'Delta' review|url=https://www.nme.com/reviews/mumford-sons-delta-review-2402736|access-date=2022-01-08|website=NME}}</ref> ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' felt that "Picture You" and "Woman" sounded like [[Khalid (singer)|Khalid]] songs;<ref name=RSDelta>{{cite magazine|last=Dolan|first=Jon|date=2018-11-16|title=Review: Mumford and Sons' Epic Bummer 'Delta'|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/review-mumford-and-sons-epic-bummer-delta-757483/|access-date=2022-01-08|magazine=Rolling Stone|archive-date=19 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219050151/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/review-mumford-and-sons-epic-bummer-delta-757483/|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[The Observer (Notre Dame)|The Observer]]'' compared them to [[Coldplay]] songs.<ref>{{cite web|date=2019-01-28|title=Meet Mumford & Sons at the "Delta"—album review // The Observer|url=https://ndsmcobserver.com/2019/01/meet-mumford-sons-at-the-delta-album-review/|access-date=2022-01-13|website=The Observern}}</ref> The album received sub-par reviews.<ref name=RSDelta/><ref>{{cite web|date=2018-11-21|title=Mumford & Sons review – ambitious tour sets sail on a sea of mediocrity|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/nov/21/mumford-sons-review-folk-rockers-sse-hydro-glasgow|access-date=2022-01-09|website=the Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Delta by Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.metacritic.com/music/delta/mumford-sons|website=Metacritic|access-date=2022-01-08}}</ref>

In March 2021, Marshall faced criticism for lauding ''Unmasked: Inside Antifa's Radical Plan to Destroy Democracy'', a book written by conservative American journalist and social media personality [[Andy Ngo]].<ref>{{cite web|date=7 March 2021|title=Mumford and Sons' Winston Marshall praises right-wing agitator Andy Ngo|url=https://consequenceofsound.net/2021/03/mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-andy-ngo/|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Consequence of Sound|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307041234/https://consequenceofsound.net/2021/03/mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-andy-ngo/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=Mumford & Sons' Winston Marshall Faces Backlash After Praising Controversial Right-Wing Personality Andy Ngo|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/9536183/mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-slammed-after-he-praises-andy-ngo/|access-date=7 March 2021|magazine=Billboard|date=7 March 2021|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307224308/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/9536183/mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-slammed-after-he-praises-andy-ngo/|url-status=live}}</ref> Later that month, Marshall apologised for praising the book and stated that he would be taking a break from the band "to examine [his] blindspots";<ref>{{cite web|date=10 March 2021|title=Winston Marshall on break from Mumford and Sons after praising rightwing writer|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/mar/10/winston-marshall-break-mumford-and-sons-rightwing-commentator-andy-ngo|access-date=10 March 2021|website=The Guardian|archive-date=10 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310105428/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/mar/10/winston-marshall-break-mumford-and-sons-rightwing-commentator-andy-ngo|url-status=live}}</ref> in June 2021, he wrote an essay defending his support for Ngo, discussing the reaction to his apology for the tweet, and announcing that he would be permanently leaving Mumford & Sons so that he could exercise [[free speech]] about politics without involving his former bandmates.<ref name=Marshall2021/><ref>{{cite web|date=2021-06-24|title=Guitarist quits Mumford & Sons to 'speak freely' on politics|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/guitarist-quits-mumford-sons-to-speak-freely-on-politics-marcus-mumford-mumford-sons-london-chinese-grammy-b1872164.html|access-date=2021-06-24|website=The Independent|archive-date=25 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625004342/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/guitarist-quits-mumford-sons-to-speak-freely-on-politics-marcus-mumford-mumford-sons-london-chinese-grammy-b1872164.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2021-06-24|title=Winston Marshall quits Mumford & Sons after Andy Ngo controversy, citing free speech|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/jun/24/winston-marshall-quits-mumford-sons-citing-free-speech-concerns|access-date=2021-06-24|website=the Guardian|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624165154/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/jun/24/winston-marshall-quits-mumford-sons-citing-free-speech-concerns|url-status=live}}</ref> In a 2022 interview with ''[[The Sunday Times Magazine]]'' he said that what made it hard to leave the band was that he had thought they would still be playing together in their sixties.<ref name=TimesCover>{{cite news|newspaper=The Sunday Times Magazine|title=Step Away From The Banjo|date=8 May 2022|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/mumford-amp-sons-winston-marshall-on-the-tweet-that-ended-his-career-dsctkz0zs|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
{{clear}}

===Individual music and other ventures===
In 2010, Marshall was involved with a supergroup called [[Mt. Desolation]], recording music and performing shows with [[Ronnie Vannucci Jr.]] of [[The Killers]], Tom Hobden of Noah and the Whale, and [[Jesse Quin]] and [[Tim Rice-Oxley]] of [[Keane (band)|Keane]]. They released a free download single, "State of Affairs", as well as the self-titled album ''[[Mt. Desolation (album)|Mt. Desolation]]''.<ref>{{cite web|date=2010-06-08|title=The Killers, Keane and Mumford & Sons side project announce free download|url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/the-killers-188-1293045|access-date=2021-07-01|website=NME|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183109/https://www.nme.com/news/music/the-killers-188-1293045|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2010-04-20|title=New Supergroup Mt Desolation Announce Details of Forthcoming Record|url=https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/new-supergroup-mt-desolation-announce-details-of-forthcoming-record/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Music Feeds|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709194711/https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/new-supergroup-mt-desolation-announce-details-of-forthcoming-record/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2012, Marshall played the banjo for the [[Dropkick Murphys]] song "[[Rose Tattoo (song)|Rose Tattoo]]"; the band joked that they "kidnapped" him after playing the same festival, adding that his banjo part is "subtle, but with that rolling finger-picking style, you know it's him when you hear it".<ref>{{cite web|website=Fuse|url=https://www.fuse.tv/2013/01/dropkick-murphys-mumford-sons-collabo-rose-tattoo|title=Dropkick Murphys Talk Mumford & Sons Collabo "Rose Tattoo"|access-date=2021-07-01|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181520/https://www.fuse.tv/2013/01/dropkick-murphys-mumford-sons-collabo-rose-tattoo|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall then joined a different, temporary, supergroup called Salvador Dalí Parton in October 2013, with fellow musicians [[Gill Landry]] of [[Old Crow Medicine Show]]; Mike Harris of [[Apache Relay]]; Jake Orrall of [[JEFF the Brotherhood]]; and [[Justin Young (singer, born 1987)|Justin Hayward-Young]] of [[the Vaccines]]. The band, intended as a joke from the start, wrote six songs in 20 minutes on their first day together, held a rehearsal the next day, and performed six shows around [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]], that night before breaking up.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Gold|first1=Adam|title=Salvador Dali Parton Take Nashville|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/salvador-dali-parton-take-nashville-20131027|magazine=Rolling Stone|access-date=6 June 2014|date=27 October 2013|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714172323/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/salvador-dali-parton-take-nashville-20131027|url-status=live}}</ref>

He has also pursued [[stand-up comedy]], taking [[Improvisational theatre|improv]] classes at the [[Upright Citizens Brigade]] (UCB) prior to 2013,<ref name=Hiatt2013/> and planning a comedy web series in 2015.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Billboard Cover Sneak Peek: 5 Things You Definitely Didn't Know About Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/6531126/billboard-cover-sneak-peek-mumford-and-sons|access-date=7 March 2021|magazine=Billboard|date=9 April 2015|archive-date=4 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504114000/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/6531126/billboard-cover-sneak-peek-mumford-and-sons|url-status=live}}</ref> He said that he wanted to take the concept of UCB to England, because they "don't have anything like it", and was invited to perform a monologue there; ''[[Vulture (website)|Vulture]]'' wrote that the monologue, about "condoms and being Jewish", "didn't go well." When asked if he is Jewish, Marshall laughingly replied "ish".<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford & Sons on Trading in Their Banjos for Electric Guitars|url=https://www.vulture.com/2015/04/wilder-mind-mumford-and-sons-interview.html|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Vulture|date=10 April 2015 |archive-date=27 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227045535/https://www.vulture.com/2015/04/wilder-mind-mumford-and-sons-interview.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2015, Marshall became interested in [[techno music]] and [[electronic dance music]] after he attended every night of a [[James Ford (musician)|James Ford]] residency at London club [[XOYO]]. Ford had been working with Mumford & Sons on their album ''Wilder Mind'' through his group, [[Simian Mobile Disco]], and, inspired, Marshall began working on an individual electronic side-project that went nowhere.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Britton|first1=Luke|title=Mumford & Sons' Winston says Simian Mobile Disco inspired his techno project The Floppy Disc Jockey|url=http://www.nme.com/news/music/mumford-and-sons-28-1227050|website=NME|access-date=11 December 2017|date=23 July 2015|archive-date=11 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211160930/http://www.nme.com/news/music/mumford-and-sons-28-1227050|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2017, he collaborated with electronic duo [[HVOB]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mixmag.net/read/hvob-in-the-lab-la-brandedcontent-dj-lab|title=HVOB in the Lab LA |access-date=14 March 2021 |archive-date=10 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190651/https://mixmag.net/read/hvob-in-the-lab-la-brandedcontent-dj-lab |url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall approached HVOB by sending an email that they initially thought was fake. When they began working together, Marshall sent samples to HVOB, who are based in [[Vienna]]. Together they released the single "The Blame Game", on which Marshall contributes vocals, and the album ''Silk''. They had only planned to release an EP, but quickly chose to extend this to a full album despite needing to meet the same deadline. The album is darker than HVOB's other music, with the duo saying that Marshall took their sound and styled it for a concert rather than club. Marshall and HVOB toured Europe in April 2017 on the fifteen-city Silk Tour.<ref>{{cite web|date=2017-02-13|title=New Noise: HBOV|url=https://www.wonderlandmagazine.com/2017/02/13/new-noise-hvob/|access-date=2021-06-30|website=Wonderland|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181455/https://www.wonderlandmagazine.com/2017/02/13/new-noise-hvob/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Interview: HVOB|url=https://www.deephouseamsterdam.com/interview-hvob/|access-date=2021-06-30|website=Deep House Amsterdam|date=13 June 2017|archive-date=1 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301035923/http://www.deephouseamsterdam.com/interview-hvob|url-status=live}}</ref> The single and album were positively reviewed.<ref>{{cite web|date=2017-02-05|title=HVOB and Winston Marshall - The Blame Game (Original Mix)|url=https://dancingastronaut.com/2017/02/hvob-winston-marshall-blame-game-original-mix/|access-date=2021-06-30|website=Dancing Astronaut|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181951/https://dancingastronaut.com/2017/02/hvob-winston-marshall-blame-game-original-mix/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=López Palacios|first=Iñigo|date=2018-06-06|title=Nueve motivos para asistir al nuevo festival de electrónica de Madrid|language=es|work=El País|url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2018/06/04/icon/1528109314_415991.html|access-date=2021-06-30|issn=1134-6582|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181639/https://elpais.com/elpais/2018/06/04/icon/1528109314_415991.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Marshall collaborated individually with Baaba Maal between 2013 and 2015,<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Browne|first=David|date=2016-06-14|title=Mumford & Sons on Their South African Odyssey|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/mumford-sons-on-their-insanely-productive-south-african-odyssey-88683/|access-date=2022-01-08|magazine=Rolling Stone|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108110248/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/mumford-sons-on-their-insanely-productive-south-african-odyssey-88683/|url-status=live}}</ref> at the 2013 and 2014 editions of the Blues du Fleuve festival<ref>{{cite web|title=Baaba Maal's new documentary|website=Baaba Maal|url=https://baabamaal.com/2015/09/22/the-families-we-choose/|access-date=2022-01-08|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418112650/https://baabamaal.com/2015/09/22/the-families-we-choose/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2016-01-14|title=Senegalese Legend Baaba Maal On Making Electronic Fulani Rock In His New Album, 'The Traveller'|url=https://www.okayafrica.com/baaba-maal-the-traveller-goes-electronic/|access-date=2022-01-08|website=OkayAfrica|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411072331/https://www.okayafrica.com/baaba-maal-the-traveller-goes-electronic/|url-status=live}}</ref> and playing banjo on Maal's 2015 album ''The Traveller''.<ref name=Johannesburg/> He experimented with more music in 2019 when he [[remix]]ed the [[Maggie Rogers]] song "[[Light On (Maggie Rogers song)|Light On]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/light-on-winston-marshall-remix-single/1447439914|title=Light On (Winston Marshall Remix) - Single by Maggie Rogers on Apple Music|accessdate=May 11, 2020|work=Apple Music|date=4 January 2019|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709191451/https://music.apple.com/us/album/light-on-winston-marshall-remix-single/1447439914|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DQIlqz_nF2M|title=Light On (Winston Marshall Remix)|date=3 January 2019|author=Maggie Rogers|via=YouTube}}</ref> and [[Kevin Garrett (musician)|Kevin Garrett]] song "Don't Rush".<ref>{{cite web|date=2019-09-24|title=Today's Song: Kevin Garrett Engrosses with the Heart-Poundingly Affecting "Factor In"|url=https://atwoodmagazine.com/kgfi-kevin-garrett-factor-in-song-review/|access-date=2022-01-08|website=Atwood Magazine|archive-date=27 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227124541/https://atwoodmagazine.com/kgfi-kevin-garrett-factor-in-song-review/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In January 2021, Marshall created a group that aims to connect [[Hongkongers|Hong Kongers]] encouraged to immigrate to the UK with British residents, following the implementation of the [[2020 Hong Kong national security law|Hong Kong national security law]].<ref>{{cite web|date=31 January 2021|title=Leave Hong Kong before it's too late, say those who now call Britain home|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/31/leave-hong-kong-before-its-too-late-say-those-who-now-call-britain-home|access-date=10 March 2021|website=The Guardian|archive-date=4 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304182537/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/31/leave-hong-kong-before-its-too-late-say-those-who-now-call-britain-home|url-status=live}}</ref>

In January 2022, he launched the "Marshall Matters" [[podcast]]. It was hosted by British [[politically conservative]] magazine ''[[The Spectator]]'', for which Marshall became a contributor in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-27 |title=Winston Marshall, Author at The Spectator |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/writer/winston-marshall/ |access-date=2024-03-27 |website=The Spectator |language=en-US}}</ref> The podcast was promoted as Marshall interviewing people working in creative industries "to find out what indeed is the state of the arts."<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-12-23|title=Ex-Mumford & Sons member Winston Marshall to return as 'Spectator' podcast host|url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/ex-mumford-sons-member-winston-marshall-return-spectator-podcast-host-3125796|access-date=2022-01-09|website=NME|archive-date=23 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223231159/https://www.nme.com/news/music/ex-mumford-sons-member-winston-marshall-return-spectator-podcast-host-3125796|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Winston Marshall – The Spectator columnists & writers|url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/writer/winston-marshall|access-date=2022-01-09|website=The Spectator}}</ref> By October 2023, 45 episodes had been published, including interviews with [[Laurence Fox]], [[Jordan Peterson]] and [[Candace Owens]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-04 |title=Marshall Matters Archives |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/podcasts/marshall-matters/ |access-date=2024-03-27 |website=The Spectator |language=en-US}}</ref> Of his career move into being a "culture warrior", he said that "Having made all this huge sacrifice so that [he could] speak [his] mind, [he] might as well fucking do it then. It would seem stupid not to."<ref name=TimesCover/>

==Influence==
[[File:Upstarts (16001789400).jpg|thumb|upright|Marshall's banjos on display at the [[American Banjo Museum]]]]
The existence of the British nu-folk scene has been credited to Marshall, as its most successful acts – Marling, Flynn, Hayward-Young, Noah and the Whale, [[Alan Pownall]], [[King Charles (musician)|King Charles]], [[Alessi's Ark]], [[Peggy Sue (band)|Peggy Sue]] – all "graduated" from performing at Bosun's Locker on the folk jam nights that he ran, reportedly starting them as a way to play banjo. One musician who played there said: "I don't think you could pin the craze on anyone else."<ref>{{cite web|last=Godwin|first=Richard|date=2012-04-10|title=Guitar Heroes: nu-folk scene|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/guitar-heroes-nufolk-scene-6522223.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Evening Standard|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182717/https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/guitar-heroes-nufolk-scene-6522223.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Clayton-Lea|first=Tony|title=Noah and the Whale: Where are we now?|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/music/noah-and-the-whale-where-are-we-now-1.1380503|access-date=2021-07-02|newspaper=The Irish Times|archive-date=9 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509222432/http://www.irishtimes.com/culture/music/noah-and-the-whale-where-are-we-now-1.1380503|url-status=live}}</ref>

Marshall's banjo playing in Mumford & Sons has also affected the popularity and credibility of the instrument. [[Emmylou Harris]] said that the band made banjo respectable,<ref>{{cite web|date=2012-09-26|title=Emmylou Harris says Mumford & Sons making banjo respectable|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/entertainment/emmylou-harris-says-mumford-sons-making-banjo-respectable-1.972140|access-date=2021-07-01|website=CTVNews|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182640/https://www.ctvnews.ca/entertainment/emmylou-harris-says-mumford-sons-making-banjo-respectable-1.972140|url-status=live}}</ref> and their music is deemed responsible for a banjo revival both in Europe and the United States.<ref>'''Multiple sources:'''
*{{cite journal|last=Sopiarz|first=Josh|year=2018|title=Dueling Perceptions: The Five-String Banjo in Contemporary American Popular Culture|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03007766.2016.1169643|journal=Popular Music and Society|volume=41|issue=1|pages=1–15|doi=10.1080/03007766.2016.1169643|s2cid=146828269|issn=0300-7766|access-date=1 July 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182730/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03007766.2016.1169643|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|title=About 4-String Banjos|url=https://creekdontrise.com/acoustic/four_string_banjo/four_string_banjo.htm|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Creek Don't Rise|archive-date=6 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206012549/https://creekdontrise.com/acoustic/four_string_banjo/four_string_banjo.htm|url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266373594|title=Bringing The Banjo Back To Life: The Field of Dutch Independent Folk Music as Participatory Culture|last1=van Poecke|first1=Niels|last2=Michael|first2=Janna|institution=[[Erasmus University Rotterdam]]|journal=First Monday|year=2016|volume=21|issue=3|doi=10.5210/fm.v0i0.6385|pages=1–2|hdl=1765/84573|hdl-access=free|access-date=22 August 2021|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109013402/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266373594_Bringing_The_Banjo_Back_To_Life_The_Field_of_Dutch_Independent_Folk_Music_as_Participatory_Culture|url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite web|last=Marks|first=Ben|title=Strummin' on the Old Banjo: How an African Instrument Got a Racist Reinvention|url=https://www.collectorsweekly.com/articles/how-the-african-banjo-got-a-racist-reinvention/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Collectors Weekly|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181935/https://www.collectorsweekly.com/articles/how-the-african-banjo-got-a-racist-reinvention/|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|date=2011-05-17|title=Mumford & Sons: We're an American-ish Band|url=https://www.spin.com/2011/05/mumford-sons-were-american-ish-band/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=SPIN|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182411/https://www.spin.com/2011/05/mumford-sons-were-american-ish-band/|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|date=2019-12-26|title=Visiting The American Banjo Museum|website=Bill On The Road|url=https://billontheroad.com/banjo-museum-bricktown-oklahoma-city/|access-date=2021-07-01|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185539/https://billontheroad.com/banjo-museum-bricktown-oklahoma-city/|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|last=Lang|first=George|title=Oklahoma's American Banjo Museum recently acquired a rare instrument|url=https://www.okgazette.com/oklahoma/oklahomas-american-banjo-museum-recently-acquired-a-rare-instrument/Content?oid=2980459|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Oklahoma Gazette|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183054/https://www.okgazette.com/oklahoma/oklahomas-american-banjo-museum-recently-acquired-a-rare-instrument/Content?oid=2980459|url-status=live}}</ref> The band's identity is said to be synonymous with the banjo,<ref name=NWC>{{cite news|url=https://nwcommons.nwciowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=beacon2018|title=Identity Lost Within Delta|last=Johnston|first=Lizzy|page=2|date=15 February 2019|newspaper=Beacon|volume=92|issue=12|access-date=1 July 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182908/https://nwcommons.nwciowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=beacon2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and Marshall has a [[Deering Banjo Company|Deering]] banjo named after him, the Winston Marshall Signature Model.<ref>{{cite web|last=Waldrep|first=Barry|date=2015-06-30|title=Modern Artists and Bands Who Use the Banjo|url=https://banjo.com/modern-artists-and-bands-who-use-the-banjo/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Banjo.com|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184344/https://banjo.com/modern-artists-and-bands-who-use-the-banjo/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Marshall dated Irish stylist Susan Cooney,<ref name=Relationships>{{cite web|last=Sutton|first=Jeanne|date=2016-01-19|title=Dianna Agron and Mumford & Sons' Winston Marshall Engaged|url=https://www.image.ie/editorial/dianna-agron-mumford-sons-winston-marshall-engaged-47172|access-date=2021-06-25|website=IMAGE.ie|archive-date=25 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625181926/https://www.image.ie/editorial/dianna-agron-mumford-sons-winston-marshall-engaged-47172|url-status=live}}</ref> who dressed Mumford & Sons and [[Haim (band)|Haim]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Mdudu|first=Naomi|date=2014-01-15|title=What I Wear: Mumfords and Haim stylist Susan Cooney|url=https://metro.co.uk/2014/01/15/what-i-wear-mumfords-and-haim-stylist-susan-cooney-4262510/|access-date=2021-06-25|website=Metro|archive-date=25 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625181924/https://metro.co.uk/2014/01/15/what-i-wear-mumfords-and-haim-stylist-susan-cooney-4262510/|url-status=live}}</ref> and in March 2012 attended the [[White House]] British [[State banquet|State dinner]] with her.<ref>{{cite news|date=2012-03-14|title=British State Dinner guest list|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/reliable-source/post/british-state-dinner-guest-list/2012/03/14/gIQAT1jgCS_blog.html|access-date=2021-06-25|newspaper=Washington Post|archive-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125031955/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/reliable-source/post/british-state-dinner-guest-list/2012/03/14/gIQAT1jgCS_blog.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015 he was linked with American singer [[Katy Perry]],<ref name=Relationships/> and reportedly dated her while she was dating [[John Mayer]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Is Katy Perry dating Winston Marshall?|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/people/2015/03/17/katy-perry-dating-winston-marshall/24881883/|access-date=2021-06-25|website=The Arizona Republic|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109013419/https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/people/2015/03/17/katy-perry-dating-winston-marshall/24881883/|url-status=live}}</ref> It was first reported that Marshall was dating American actress [[Dianna Agron]] in July 2015,<ref name=azcentral>{{cite web|title=Reports: Dianna Agron dating Wintson Marshall|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/people/2015/07/07/dianna-agron-dating-wintson-marshall/29804163/|access-date=21 August 2020|website=The Arizona Republic|archive-date=21 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821235358/https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/people/2015/07/07/dianna-agron-dating-wintson-marshall/29804163/|url-status=live}}</ref> and the couple got engaged in late 2015.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dianna Agron Finally Shows Of Her Gorgeous Engagement Ring for the First Time|url=http://eonline.com/news/742629/dianna-agron-finally-shows-off-her-gorgeous-engagement-ring-for-the-first-time|publisher=E!|access-date=23 February 2016|first=Kendall|last=Fisher|date=23 February 2016|archive-date=23 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223222700/http://www.eonline.com/news/742629/dianna-agron-finally-shows-off-her-gorgeous-engagement-ring-for-the-first-time|url-status=live}}</ref> They were married on 15 October 2016, in [[Morocco]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.eonline.com/news/802121/dianna-agron-marries-mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-in-romantic-ceremony|title=Dianna Agron Marries Mumford and Sons' Winston Marshall|date=16 October 2016|access-date=16 October 2016|archive-date=21 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821235401/https://www.eonline.com/news/802121/dianna-agron-marries-mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-in-romantic-ceremony|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://people.com/style/is-this-dianna-agrons-wedding-dress/|title=Is This Dianna Agron's Wedding Dress?|date=17 October 2016|newspaper=People|access-date=15 January 2017|archive-date=16 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116182309/http://people.com/style/is-this-dianna-agrons-wedding-dress/|url-status=live}}</ref> and kept their relationship private, including not posting about each other on social media. They separated in 2019 and divorced in 2020.<ref name="cos">{{cite news|url=https://www.cosmopolitan.com/entertainment/celebs/a33645640/dianna-agron-winston-marshall-broke-up-living-separately/|title=Dianna Agron and Winston Marshall Broke Up After Three Years of Marriage|date=19 August 2020|last=Barbour|first=Shannon|magazine=[[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]] |access-date=20 August 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819234205/https://www.cosmopolitan.com/entertainment/celebs/a33645640/dianna-agron-winston-marshall-broke-up-living-separately/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/dianna-agron-winston-marshall-split-after-3-years-of-marriage/|title=Glee's Dianna Agron and Mumford & Sons' Winston Marshall Split After 3 Years of Marriage|magazine=[[Us Weekly]]|date=10 August 2020|last=Hautman|first=Nicholas |access-date=20 August 2020 |archive-date=20 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820204311/https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/dianna-agron-winston-marshall-split-after-3-years-of-marriage/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=TimesCover/> In 2023, Marshall became engaged to [[Melissa Chen]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Winston Marshall to wed again |url=https://nz.news.yahoo.com/winston-marshall-wed-again-070626343.html |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=Yahoo News |language=en-NZ}}</ref> contributing editor at ''[[The Spectator|The Spectator US]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Melissa Chen |url=https://thespectator.com/author/melissa-chen/ |access-date=2024-03-27 |website=The Spectator World |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2022, Marshall said that after several album tours, the lifestyle had negatively affected him, leading him to start self-medicating with alcohol and to regularly take a mix of hard drugs, describing the time as "all a bit of a blur"; he got [[sobriety|sober]] in 2019, saying this gave him clarity and energy. He then had a "painful separation" from Agron and, when they divorced, returned to his [[Christianity|Christian faith]].<ref name=TimesCover/><ref>{{cite web|title=Former Mumford & Sons member Winston Marshall says he was 'condemned' by other artists following controversial tweets: 'I lost a lot of friends'|url=https://nz.news.yahoo.com/mumford-sons-member-winston-marshall-condemned-by-artists-181504226.html|access-date=2022-05-08|website=Yahoo! News|date=8 May 2022 |language=en-NZ}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2022-05-12|title='I Got My Soul Back': Mumford & Sons' Winston Marshall Reveals the Moment He 'Came to Christ Again'|url=https://www1.cbn.com/cbnnews/entertainment/2022/may/i-got-my-soul-back-mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-reveals-the-moment-he-came-to-christ-again|access-date=2022-05-13|website=CBN News}}</ref>

He is an avid supporter of [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.premierleague.com/news/924580|title=Mumford & Sons: FPL is stressful, but I can't miss out!|date=22 January 2021|publisher=[[Premier League]]|access-date=22 January 2021|archive-date=27 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127071027/https://www.premierleague.com/news/924580|url-status=live}}</ref> He was described as enthusiastic about fashion in 2010, comparing his style to that of the ''[[Brideshead Revisited]]'' character [[Sebastian Flyte]],<ref name=Fisher2010/> though has since expressed regret for choosing to wear this fashion for photoshoots rather than clothes he would personally wear.<ref name=BigRead/> In 2011, he was said to look like "the [[Appalachia]]n [[hillbilly]] version of an Appalachian hillbilly, in shitkicker boots and a ratty semi-mohawk that he appears to have given himself with a whittling knife";<ref name=Eells2011/> he became more interested in style and grooming in 2012 after ''[[GQ]]'' named him the sixth-worst-dressed man in the world.<ref name=Hiatt2013/> In 2018 he was introduced to dance by Agron, and has taken several classes at Kristen Sudeikis' Forward Space dance studio. Other Forward Space dancers are featured in the music video for "Woman".<ref name=DanceWoman>{{cite web|date=4 June 2019|title=Exclusive First Look: The Story Behind Mumford & Sons' Dance-Filled New Music Video|url=https://www.dancemagazine.com/mumford-sons-woman-video-2638665510.html|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Dance Magazine|archive-date=27 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127101216/https://www.dancemagazine.com/mumford-sons-woman-video-2638665510.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Marshall is interested in the books of the Canadian professor of psychology [[Jordan Peterson]], and invited Peterson to Mumford & Sons' studio in 2018, with Peterson sharing a photograph of them together on social media. When asked about his involvement with Peterson, who has been a controversial figure, Marshall told [[CBC Radio]]: "I don't think [Peterson's] psychology is controversial, but the quasi-political stuff... I think it's a conversation we're having a little bit as a band and, do we want to get into the political stuff?"<ref>{{cite news|title=Mumford and Sons address their photo with Jordan B. Peterson {{!}} CBC Radio|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|url=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/q/blog/mumford-and-sons-address-their-photo-with-jordan-b-peterson-1.4831645|access-date=7 March 2021|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308023733/https://www.cbc.ca/radio/q/blog/mumford-and-sons-address-their-photo-with-jordan-b-peterson-1.4831645|url-status=live}}</ref> Later in 2018, Marshall told ''[[NME]]'' that he "[thinks] everyone should read widely. If you read something, work out who's got the opposite opinion and read that guy so you can form your own ideas."<ref name=BigRead/> In the same interview, both Marshall and Mumford opined that musicians should not talk about politics, and said that they did not like being asked about politics, with Marshall telling the magazine:<ref name=BigRead>{{cite web|date=2018-11-23|title=The Big Read – Mumford And Sons|url=https://www.nme.com/big-reads/the-nme-big-read-mumford-and-sons-2411839|access-date=2021-07-01|website=NME|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182909/https://www.nme.com/big-reads/the-nme-big-read-mumford-and-sons-2411839|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{blockquote|I have a little bit of frustration with the politicising of music. I don't mind when artists are political, but I think politics is fucking complicated. It's different from three years ago when we were doing promo for ''Wilder Mind'' – we weren't ever asked about politics. People didn't care, but now everyone's got a fucking opinion. Everything is, "Politics this, politics that". It's a massive change.}}

On 7 July 2022 he was a guest on the BBC's political programme ''[[Question Time (TV programme)|Question Time]]'', discussing the [[July 2022 United Kingdom government crisis#Resignation_of_Boris_Johnson|resignation]] of British Prime Minister [[Boris Johnson]] which had been announced that day.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bedigan |first=Mike |date=8 July 2022 |title=Ex-Mumford and Sons guitarist: Boris Johnson should have gone a long time ago |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/boris-johnson-prime-minister-nhs-winston-marshall-mumford-and-sons-b2118514.html |access-date=27 December 2022}}</ref>

==Selected discography==
===With Mumford & Sons===
{{main|Mumford & Sons discography|List of awards and nominations received by Mumford & Sons}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of studio albums
! scope="col" style="width:15em;"| Title
! scope="col" style="width:19em;"| Details
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Sigh No More (Mumford & Sons album)|Sigh No More]]''
|
* Released: 2 October 2009
* Label: [[Island Records|Island]]
* Formats: [[Compact disc|CD]], [[gramophone record|LP]], [[music download|digital download]]
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Babel (Mumford & Sons album)|Babel]]''
|
* Released: 21 September 2012
* Label: Island
* Formats: CD, LP, digital download
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Wilder Mind]]''
|
* Released: 4 May 2015
* Label: Island
* Formats: CD, LP, digital download
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Delta (Mumford & Sons album)|Delta]]''
|
* Released: 16 November 2018
* Label: Island
* Formats: CD, LP, digital download
|}
{{col-2}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of singles
! scope="col" style="width:17em;"| Title
! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:17em;"| Album
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Little Lion Man]]"
| rowspan="2"| 2009
| rowspan="4"| ''Sigh No More''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Winter Winds]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[The Cave (song)|The Cave]]"{{efn|group=upper-alpha|"The Cave" was originally released 11 months earlier, six months before "Little Lion Man" and ''Sigh No More'' were released. It was a limited edition single with a B-side different from the 2010 single release.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mumfordandsons.com/discography/ | title=Mumford & Sons – Discography | work=mumfordandsons.com | publisher=[[Island Records]] | accessdate=8 December 2012 | archive-date=26 November 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121126114805/http://www.mumfordandsons.com/discography | url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| rowspan="2"| 2010
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Roll Away Your Stone]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[I Will Wait]]"
| rowspan="2"| 2012
| rowspan="5"| ''Babel''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Lover of the Light]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Whispers in the Dark (Mumford & Sons song)|Whispers in the Dark]]"
| rowspan="3"| 2013
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Babel (song)|Babel]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Hopeless Wanderer]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Believe (Mumford & Sons song)|Believe]]"
| rowspan="4"| 2015
| rowspan="5"| ''Wilder Mind''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[The Wolf (Mumford & Sons song)|The Wolf]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Ditmas (song)|Ditmas]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Tompkins Square Park (song)|Tompkins Square Park]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Just Smoke]]"
| rowspan="2"| 2016
|-
! scope="row"| "[[There Will Be Time (song)|There Will Be Time]]" {{small|(with [[Baaba Maal]])}}
| ''Johannesburg''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Guiding Light (song)|Guiding Light]]"
| 2018
| rowspan="3" | ''Delta''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Beloved (Mumford & Sons song)|Beloved]]"
| rowspan="3"| 2019
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Woman (Mumford & Sons song)|Woman]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Blind Leading the Blind (Mumford & Sons song)|Blind Leading the Blind]]"
| rowspan="2" {{N/A|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Forever (Garage Version)"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/forever-garage-version-single/1510594582|title=Forever (Garage Version) - Single by Mumford & Sons on Apple Music|website=Apple Music|date=8 May 2020|access-date=29 November 2021|archive-date=5 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205162558/https://music.apple.com/us/album/forever-garage-version-single/1510594582|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 2020
|-
| colspan="3" style="font-size:90%" | {{notelist-ua}}
|}
{{col-end}}

===Individual===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of studio albums
! scope="col" style="width:15em;"| Title
! scope="col" style="width:19em;"| Details
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Mt. Desolation (album)|Mt. Desolation]]''
|
* Artist: [[Mt. Desolation]]
* Released: 18 October 2010
* Label: [[Island Records|Island]], [[Cherrytree Records|Cherrytree]], Coop
* Formats: [[Compact disc|CD]]
|-
! scope="row"| ''The Traveller''
|
* Artist: [[Baaba Maal]]
* Released: 2015
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Day of the Dead (2016 album)|Day of the Dead]]''<ref>{{cite magazine|date=2016-03-17|title=Grateful Dead Tribute Album Featuring Mumford & Sons, The National, War on Drugs, Jenny Lewis & More Set for May Release|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/grateful-dead-tribute-album-red-hot-benefit-7262989/|access-date=2022-01-08|magazine=Billboard|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109013410/https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/grateful-dead-tribute-album-red-hot-benefit-7262989/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|
* Artist: [[The National (band)|The National]]
* Released: 20 May 2016
* Label: [[4AD]]
* Formats: CD, [[LP record|LP]], [[Digital download (music)|digital download]]
|-
! scope="row" | ''Silk''
|
* Artist: [[HVOB]] and Winston Marshall
* Released: 24 March 2017
|}
{{col-2}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of singles
! scope="col" style="width:17em;"| Title
! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:10em;"| Artist
! scope="col" style="width:10em;"| Album
|-
! scope="row"| "State of Affairs"
| 2010
| Mt. Desolation
| ''Mt. Desolation''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Rose Tattoo (song)|Rose Tattoo]]"
| 2012
| [[Dropkick Murphys]]
| ''Rose Tattoo: For Boston Charity''
|-
! scope="row"| "The Traveller"
| 2015
| Baaba Maal
| ''The Traveller''
|-
! scope="row"| "The Blame Game"
| 2017
| HVOB and Winston Marshall
| ''Silk''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Light On (Maggie Rogers song)|Light On]] (Winston Marshall Remix)"
| 2019
| [[Maggie Rogers]]
| ''[[Heard It in a Past Life]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "Don't Rush (Winston Marshall Remix)"
| 2019
| [[Kevin Garrett]]
| ''Hoax''
|-
|}
{{col-end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{imdb name|4963520}}

{{Mumford & Sons}}
{{Grammy Award for Album of the Year 2010s}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Marshall, Winston}}
[[Category:1987 births]]
[[Category:British Christians]]
[[Category:British people of French-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:British people of Hungarian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:British people of Romanian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:British folk guitarists]]
[[Category:Mumford & Sons members]]
[[Category:British folk rock musicians]]
[[Category:British folk singers]]
[[Category:British rock bass guitarists]]
[[Category:British banjoists]]
[[Category:Grammy Award winners]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century English bass guitarists]]
[[Category:21st-century English male singers]]
[[Category:British indie rock musicians]]
[[Category:English electronic musicians]]
[[Category:British alternative rock musicians]]
[[Category:Musicians from the London Borough of Wandsworth]]
[[Category:People from Wandsworth]]
[[Category:Substack writers]]

Winston Marshall

2024-09-10T13:26:57Z

ExtravagAunt: consistency of formats

{{Short description|British musician (born 1987)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2021}}
{{distinguish|Winton W. Marshall}}
{{Infobox person
| image = File:Mumford & Sons - Southside Festival 2019 9927 - 1 (cropped - 1).jpg
| caption = Marshall in 2019
| alt =
| birth_name = Winston Aubrey Aladar deBalkan Marshall
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|df=yes|1987|12|20}}{{efn|There is inconsistency regarding Marshall's date of birth. A birth announcement (giving the 20 December 1987 date) was published in ''[[The Times]]'' in January 1988,<ref name=TimesBirth>{{cite news|title=London, England, Births and Christening Notices: Winston Aubrey Aladar deBalkan Marshall|newspaper=The Times|date=20 January 1988|url=https://search.ancestry.co.uk/cgi-bin/sse.dll?viewrecord=1&r=5538&db=LondonTimesBirths2003&indiv=try&h=60751}}</ref> but Marshall claimed to be 21 in May 2010, meaning year of birth would be 1988 or 1989,<ref name=Fisher2010/> and to be 24 in August 2011, meaning year of birth would be 1986 or 1987.<ref name=Eells2011>{{cite magazine|last=Eells|first=Josh|date=2011-08-04|title=God, Beer & Banjos: Mumford & Sons Take America|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/god-beer-banjos-mumford-sons-take-america-108523/|access-date=2021-07-01|magazine=Rolling Stone|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181909/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/god-beer-banjos-mumford-sons-take-america-108523/|url-status=live}}</ref>|name=birth}}
| birth_place = [[Wandsworth]], [[London]], England
| other_names = Country Winston
| occupation = {{Flatlist|
* Musician
* songwriter
* podcaster
}}
| party = [[Social Democratic Party (UK, 1990–present)|SDP]]<ref>{{Cite web |last=Marshall |first=Winston |date=19 Dec 2023 |title=Winston Marshall Tweet |url=https://twitter.com/MrWinMarshall/status/1737196901127143827}}</ref>
| spouse = {{marriage|[[Dianna Agron]]|2016|2020|end=divorced}}
{{marriage|[[Melissa Chen]]|2016}}
| years_active = 2007–present
| father = [[Paul Marshall (investor)|Sir Paul Marshall]]
| relatives = {{Unbulleted list|[[Penny Marshall (journalist)|Penny Marshall]] (aunt)|[[Princess Maria Gabriella of Savoy]] (great-aunt)}}
| module = {{Infobox musical artist|embed=yes
| associated_acts = {{Flatlist|
* [[Mumford & Sons]]
* [[Mt. Desolation]]
* [[Baaba Maal]]
* [[HVOB]]
}}
| genre = {{Flatlist|
* [[Folk rock]]
* [[Indie rock]]
* [[Alternative rock]]
* [[Electronic music|Electronic]]
}}
| instrument = {{Flatlist|
* [[Banjo]]
* guitar
* bass guitar
* [[resonator guitar]]
* vocals
}}
}}
}}

'''Winston Aubrey Aladar deBalkan Marshall''' (born 20 December 1987) is a British musician. He is best known as the former [[banjo]]ist and lead [[guitarist]] of the [[folk rock]] band [[Mumford & Sons]]. Prior to this he was in the [[Bluegrass music|bluegrass]] [[sleaze rock|sleaze]] [[rap]] group Captain Kick and the Cowboy Ramblers. With Mumford & Sons, Marshall won multiple awards, including a [[Grammy Awards|Grammy]] and two [[Brit Awards]]. He has performed music with different supergroups and collaborated with [[Baaba Maal]] and [[HVOB]]. After leaving Mumford & Sons, Marshall started an interview podcast with ''[[The Spectator]]''.

==Early life and family==
Winston Aubrey Aladar deBalkan Marshall was born in [[Wandsworth]], London, on 20 December 1987,<ref name=TimesBirth/>{{efn|name=birth}} to [[Paul Marshall (investor)|Sir Paul Marshall]], a British tycoon who co-founded the [[Marshall Wace]] hedge fund and is the co-owner of [[GB News]],<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sweney |first=Mark |date=2023-09-27 |title=US billionaire in talks with GB News co-owner over Telegraph bid |url=https://www.theguardian.com/media/2023/sep/27/us-billionaire-ken-griffin-in-talks-over-bid-to-buy-telegraph-led-by-gb-news-co-owner-paul-marshall |access-date=2024-03-27 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}}</ref> and Sabina de Balkany,<ref>{{cite web|title=Business profile: The Lib Dems' sugar daddy|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/2933566/Business-profile-The-Lib-Dems-sugar-daddy.html|website=The Telegraph|access-date=6 June 2014|date=5 March 2006|archive-date=30 November 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181130133546/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/2933566/Business-profile-The-Lib-Dems-sugar-daddy.html|url-status=live}}</ref> from a [[genteel]] European Jewish family.<ref name=TimesCover/> He has a sister, singer/songwriter Giovanna.<ref>{{cite web|date=2014-03-05|title=Interview with singer Giovanna|url=http://www.beatmagazine.co.uk/interview-with-singer-giovanna|archive-date=5 March 2014|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140305023008/http://www.beatmagazine.co.uk/interview-with-singer-giovanna|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Beat Magazine}}</ref> His mother is French,<ref>{{cite news|last1=Fortado|first1=Lindsay|title=Sir Paul Marshall, co-founder Marshall Wace, backing Brexit|url=https://www.ft.com/content/5ab5fb78-2437-11e7-8691-d5f7e0cd0a16|access-date=9 February 2018|work=Financial Times|date=23 April 2017|archive-date=9 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180209182239/https://www.ft.com/content/5ab5fb78-2437-11e7-8691-d5f7e0cd0a16|url-status=live}}</ref> and his maternal grandmother was property tycoon Molly de Balkany,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hommages.ch/Announcements/pdf/07E4CBB422098C6698A605CE1C26D293.pdf|website=Hommages|title=Madame Molly de Balkany Obituary|language=French|access-date=7 March 2021|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190613/http://www.hommages.ch/Announcements/pdf/07E4CBB422098C6698A605CE1C26D293.pdf|url-status=live}}</ref> one of the first female [[Real estate development|property developers]] in France;<ref>{{cite web|date=26 April 2017|title=Collection of Molly de Balkany, France's first female property tycoon, comes to auction|url=https://www.barnebys.co.uk/blog/collection-of-molly-de-balkany-frances-first-female-property-tycoon-comes-to-auction?uid=collection-of-molly-de-balkany-frances-first-female-property-tycoon-comes-to-auction|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Barnebys|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190615/https://www.barnebys.co.uk/blog/collection-of-molly-de-balkany-frances-first-female-property-tycoon-comes-to-auction?uid=collection-of-molly-de-balkany-frances-first-female-property-tycoon-comes-to-auction|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall's maternal great-uncle was the billionaire developer and collector {{ill|Robert Zellinger de Balkany|fr|Robert Zellinger de Balkany}}.<ref>{{cite web|title=Exceptional sale of the Molly de Balkany Collection|url=https://www.artnewsportal.com/art-news/exceptional-sale-of-the-molly-de-balkany-collection|access-date=7 March 2021|website=artnewsportal|archive-date=1 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170501012706/http://www.artnewsportal.com/art-news/exceptional-sale-of-the-molly-de-balkany-collection|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Salon of Robert Zellinger de Balkany, Hôtel de Feuquières, 62 Rue de…|url=http://www.eerdmansnewyork.com/collection/salon-of-robert-zellinger-de-balkany-hotel-de-feuquieres-62-rue-de-varenne-paris|access-date=2022-07-08|website=Eerdmans New York|archive-date=8 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220708003441/https://www.eerdmansnewyork.com/collection/salon-of-robert-zellinger-de-balkany-hotel-de-feuquieres-62-rue-de-varenne-paris|url-status=dead}}</ref> Through Robert's marriages, Marshall's great-aunts include Genevieve François-Poncet, daughter of [[André François-Poncet]], and [[Princess Maria Gabriella of Savoy]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Owens|first=Mitchell|title=Inside the Paris Home of One of the 20th Century's Most Fascinating Men|url=https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/robert-zellinger-de-balkany-inside-paris-home-of-one-of-20th-centurys-most-fascinating-men|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Architectural Digest|date=13 September 2016|archive-date=26 September 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926062543/https://www.architecturaldigest.com/story/robert-zellinger-de-balkany-inside-paris-home-of-one-of-20th-centurys-most-fascinating-men|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=HighLife>{{cite web|title=High life » 11 Sep 1993 » The Spectator Archive|url=http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/11th-september-1993/40/high-life|access-date=2022-07-07|website=The Spectator Archive}}</ref> Molly and Robert were the children of Hungarian-Romanian businessman Aladar Zellinger-Balkany,<ref>{{Cite web |title=Family tree of Alladar ZELLINGER-BALKANYI |url=https://gw.geneanet.org/pierfit?lang=en&n=zellinger+balkanyi&p=alladar |access-date=2024-03-27 |website=Geneanet |language=en}}</ref> with the family relocating to France after [[World War II]];<ref name=HighLife/> they added the [[nobiliary particle]] "de" to the name upon arrival in France without actually being ennobled.<ref>{{cite web|title=aristocrazia balcanizzata - muore in francia robert de balkany, ex marito di gabriella di savoia|date=25 September 2015|url=http://www.dagospia.com/rubrica-2/media_e_tv/aristocrazia-balcanizzata-muore-francia-robert-de-balkany-ex-marito-109338.htm|access-date=2021-09-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150926121422/http://www.dagospia.com/rubrica-2/media_e_tv/aristocrazia-balcanizzata-muore-francia-robert-de-balkany-ex-marito-109338.htm|archive-date=26 September 2015}}</ref> Marshall has said that thirteen members of his family "were murdered in [...] the [[Holocaust]]", and that his maternal grandmother was a [[Holocaust survivors|survivor]].<ref name=TimesCover/><ref name=Marshall2021>{{cite web|last=Marshall|first=Winston|date=2021-06-24|title=Why I'm Leaving Mumford & Sons|url=https://mrwinstonmarshall.medium.com/why-im-leaving-mumford-sons-e6e731bbc255|access-date=2021-06-24|website=Medium|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624182046/https://mrwinstonmarshall.medium.com/why-im-leaving-mumford-sons-e6e731bbc255|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall was educated at [[St Paul's School, London|St Paul's School]], an [[independent school]] in London.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Cohen|first1=David|title=Hedge fund star: My plan to turn round London schools|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/news/hedge-fund-star-my-plan-to-turn-round-london-schools-6574459.html|work=London Evening Standard|access-date=6 June 2014|date=7 March 2011|archive-date=19 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190419200307/https://www.standard.co.uk/news/hedge-fund-star-my-plan-to-turn-round-london-schools-6574459.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2010, ''[[The Guardian]]'' wrote that "there's [nothing] inherently wrong with musicians being privately educated. It's just a bit grating when one of them insists on going by the name "Country" Winston Marshall".<ref>{{cite web|author=Guardian Staff|date=2010-10-24|title=Pass notes No 2,868: Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/oct/24/pass-notes-mumford-sons|access-date=2021-07-01|website=the Guardian|archive-date=31 August 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831194434/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/oct/24/pass-notes-mumford-sons|url-status=live}}</ref>

Marshall began playing guitar aged thirteen and started a [[ZZ Top]] cover group called Gobbler's Knob.<ref name=Hiatt2013/><ref name=Eells2011/> While the other members of [[Mumford & Sons]] were influenced by [[jazz]], Marshall described the genre in 2013 as "the lowest form of art".<ref name=Hiatt2013/> He was inspired to play [[banjo]] after seeing ''[[O Brother, Where Art Thou?]]'', switching to folk music and wearing his hair in [[dreadlocks]]. Referring to his youth exploits, he saw himself as a [[wikt:trustafarian|trustafarian]], and left university after a year in order to play music.<ref name=Hiatt2013/> Marshall and future bandmate [[Marcus Mumford]] met as teenagers<ref name=UDiscover/> at church, playing [[Contemporary worship music|worship music]] at a church group together and in a worship band, with Mumford saying Marshall is "magnetic to be around".<ref name=Hiatt2013/><ref>{{cite web|last=Roberts|first=Lynn|title=From the archives: FFS interviews Mumford and Sons|url=https://www.forfolkssake.com/interviews/1375/for-folks-sake-interview-mumford-and-sons|access-date=2021-07-01|website=For Folk's Sake|date=12 March 2011 |archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182029/https://www.forfolkssake.com/interviews/1375/for-folks-sake-interview-mumford-and-sons|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall, a multi-instrumentalist, has said that he chose to focus on banjo over guitar because there were fewer banjoists and so it was easier for him to get session jobs.<ref name=GQ2012interview/>

==Career==
===Early music===
In the early 2000s, Marshall was in a bluegrass sleaze rap band<ref name=Frost2009>{{cite web|last1=Frost|first1=Matt|title=Mumford & Sons PM's Question Time|url=http://www.performing-musician.com/pm/feb09/articles/questiontime.htm|website=Performing Musician|access-date=6 June 2014|date=February 2009|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609062824/http://www.performing-musician.com/pm/feb09/articles/questiontime.htm|archive-date=9 June 2014}}</ref> called Captain Kick and the Cowboy Ramblers, who had songs such as "Jesse the Gay" and "Country London".<ref>{{cite web|title=For Now {{!}} Captain Kick and The Cowboy Ramblers|url=https://sonichits.com/video/Captain_Kick_and_The_Cowboy_Ramblers/For_Now|website=Sonic Hits|access-date=2021-06-30|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181326/https://sonichits.com/video/Captain_Kick_and_The_Cowboy_Ramblers/For_Now|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Captain Kick and the Cowboy Ramblers|url=https://myspace.com/captainkickandthecowboyra|website=MySpace|access-date=6 June 2014|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714145906/https://myspace.com/captainkickandthecowboyra|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall was credited as "Country Winston Driftwood" and played the banjo, guitar, [[dobro]], [[mandolin]], and harmonica.<ref>{{cite web|title=Captain Kick And The Cowboy Ramblers|url=http://drownedinsound.com/Captain_Kick_And_The_Cowboy_Ramblers|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Drowned in Sound|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190630/https://drownedinsound.com/Captain_Kick_And_The_Cowboy_Ramblers|url-status=live}}</ref> With Captain Kick and the Cowboy Ramblers,<ref name=Frost2009/> Marshall ran a jam night "for teenagers who wanted to drink and play music"<ref name=Fisher2010>{{cite web|date=2010-05-29|title=Mumford & Sons: sound of the summer|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/may/30/mumford-and-sons-music-festivals|access-date=2021-07-01|website=the Guardian|last=Fisher|first=Alice|archive-date=16 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210716192722/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2010/may/30/mumford-and-sons-music-festivals|url-status=live}}</ref> at Bosun's Locker, a tiny music club beneath a pasty shop on the [[King's Road]] in Fulham.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Jones|first1=Alice|title=Mumford and Sons: The English folkies on top of the world|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/mumford-and-sons-the-english-folkies-on-top-of-the-world-8163114.html|website=The Independent|access-date=6 June 2014|date=21 September 2012|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190618/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/mumford-and-sons-english-folkies-top-world-8163114.html|url-status=live}}</ref> The jam nights attracted a number of musicians who had an affinity for earthy acoustic music,<ref>{{cite encyclopedia|last1=Bauer|first1=Patricia|title=Mumford & Sons|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1811221/Mumford-Sons|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=6 June 2014|date=8 October 2013|archive-date=9 June 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140609132431/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1811221/Mumford-Sons|url-status=live}}</ref> including [[Noah and the Whale]] and [[Laura Marling]].<ref name=Frost2009/>

===Mumford & Sons===
[[File:Winston Marshall & Marcus Mumford.jpg|thumb|left|alt=Medium shot of two men, close together, playing instruments.|Marshall (left) and Mumford in 2010]]
The group [[Mumford & Sons]] came together in December 2007 after its four members had already been performing together in various configurations.<ref name=No304>{{cite web|date=2008-04-11|title=No 304: Mumford & Sons|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/apr/11/popandrock10|access-date=2021-06-30|website=the Guardian|archive-date=12 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712105155/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2008/apr/11/popandrock10|url-status=live}}</ref> Co-founder Mumford started songwriting after seeing Marshall's band Captain Kick, and other similar artists, perform while Mumford was at university in [[Edinburgh]];<ref name=Kagler2008>{{cite web|last=Kagler|first=Marcus|title=Mumford and Sons|url=http://undertheradarmag.com/interviews/mumford_and_sons_2008_interview|access-date=10 March 2021|website=undertheradarmag.com|archive-date=23 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201123192118/http://www.undertheradarmag.com/interviews/mumford_and_sons_2008_interview/|url-status=live}}</ref> Mumford was struggling at the time and found Marshall's music "a glimpse of salvation", especially as Marshall encouraged him to join them on-stage.<ref name=Hiatt2013/> The first Mumford & Sons performances took place in 2005<ref name=Fisher2010/> at Marshall's Bosun's Locker jam nights<ref name=Frost2009/> as informal performances of the musicians "like a hoedown".<ref name=Kagler2008/> Mumford began performing here, and was joined by Marshall as well as other musician friends with whom he had previously performed, including [[Ben Lovett (British musician)|Ben Lovett]] and [[Ted Dwane]].<ref name=No304/> As well as together, Dwane, Marshall, and Mumford all performed with Marling's band during the jam sessions.<ref name=Roberts2011/> Mumford said that "eventually, Ted [Dwane], Ben [Lovett], and Winston [Marshall] stuck. It wasn't until [they] started writing songs together that [they] realized this was an actual band and not just a singer/songwriter with a couple of mates."<ref name=Kagler2008/> Marshall played the banjo, guitars, dobro, and provided backing vocals, for the group,<ref name=Roberts2011>{{cite web|last1=Roberts|first1=Lynn|title=From the archives: FFS interviews Mumford and Sons|url=http://www.forfolkssake.com/interviews/1375/for-folks-sake-interview-mumford-and-sons|website=For Folk's Sake|access-date=6 June 2014|date=12 March 2011|archive-date=28 August 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140828001610/http://www.forfolkssake.com/interviews/1375/for-folks-sake-interview-mumford-and-sons|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford & Sons|website=Eagle Music|date=21 February 2013 |url=https://www.eaglemusicshop.com/blog/tag/mumford-sons/|access-date=2021-06-30|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183050/https://www.eaglemusicshop.com/blog/tag/mumford-sons/|url-status=live}}</ref> and was often identified as the comic relief of the line-up.<ref name=Hiatt2013>{{cite magazine|last=Hiatt|first=Brian|date=28 March 2013|title=Mumford & Sons: Rattle and Strum|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/mumford-sons-rattle-and-strum-78883/|access-date=10 March 2021|magazine=Rolling Stone|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307140550/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/mumford-sons-rattle-and-strum-78883/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2012-11-14|title=Mumford And Sons: Gentlemen Of The Road|url=https://americansongwriter.com/mumford-and-sons-gentlemen-of-the-road/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=American Songwriter|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182612/https://americansongwriter.com/mumford-and-sons-gentlemen-of-the-road/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2012-10-03|title=Mumford & Sons: "We're fans of faith, not religion"|url=https://www.bigissue.com/interviews/mumford-sons-fans-faith-not-religion/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The Big Issue|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182410/https://www.bigissue.com/interviews/mumford-sons-fans-faith-not-religion/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=GQ2012interview/>

[[File:Mumford & Sons (4563623664).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=A man wearing a cap, denim jacket, and old guitar.|Marshall performing with Mumford & Sons in 2010]]
The band performed at [[Glastonbury Festival]] in 2008 and released their debut EP later the same year.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford and Sons|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2008/10/29/londoncalling_mumford_and_sons_feature.shtml|access-date=2021-06-30|website=BBC|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181623/https://www.bbc.co.uk/london/content/articles/2008/10/29/londoncalling_mumford_and_sons_feature.shtml|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall and Mumford took jobs in the antique shop run by Marshall's mother in order to save money to produce and record music with Mumford & Sons.<ref>{{cite web|date=2012-09-26|title=Mumford and Sons: The English folkies on top of the world|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/mumford-and-sons-english-folkies-top-world-8163114.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The Independent|archive-date=10 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190618/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/mumford-and-sons-english-folkies-top-world-8163114.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They toured with Marling and [[Johnny Flynn (musician)|Johnny Flynn]] from 2008 to 2009; Marshall was nervous to perform in the United States, knowing that banjo is more common there than in the United Kingdom and their audience would know if he was good or not. In 2009, they cut their tour songs as their first album.<ref>{{cite web|date=2009-09-27|title=Mumford & Sons enjoy playing without pressure in the UK|url=http://www.birminghampost.net/whats-on/music/mumford--sons-enjoy-playing-3940436|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Business Live}}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The album, ''[[Sigh No More (Mumford & Sons album)|Sigh No More]]'', on which Marshall is credited as "Country Winston",<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/sigh-no-more-mw0001762194/credits|title=Sigh No More - Mumford & Sons | Credits|publisher=[[AllMusic]]|date=6 October 2009|access-date=6 May 2020|archive-date=13 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200913151422/https://www.allmusic.com/album/sigh-no-more-mw0001762194/credits|url-status=live}}</ref> was released that year along with the single "[[Little Lion Man]]";<ref>{{cite web|date=2009-08-16|title=Mumford And Sons: 'We were banished from studio by producer'|url=https://www.nme.com/news/mumfordandsons/46631|access-date=2021-07-01|website=NME|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816235928/https://www.nme.com/news/mumfordandsons/46631|archive-date=16 August 2009}}</ref> written by Mumford,<ref>{{cite web|publisher=[[ABC Online]]|title=Countdown: Hottest 100 - 2009|date=27 January 2010|accessdate=27 January 2010|url=http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/hottest100/09/countdown/cd_01.htm|archive-date=29 January 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100129045807/http://www.abc.net.au/triplej/hottest100/09/countdown/cd_01.htm|url-status=live}}</ref> the song was nominated at the [[53rd Annual Grammy Awards|2011 Grammy Awards]] as [[Grammy Award for Best Rock Song|Best Rock Song]]. The band was nominated for the [[Grammy Awards|Grammy]] for [[Grammy Award for Best New Artist|Best New Artist]],<ref>{{cite magazine|date=2 December 2010|author=Andre Paine|url=http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/content_display/industry/e3ic181756e03fe4aeeff5ead0628212e6b|title=Mumford & Sons 'Over The Moon' At Double Grammy Nod|magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]|accessdate=2012-12-12|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101206145951/http://www.billboard.biz/bbbiz/content_display/industry/e3ic181756e03fe4aeeff5ead0628212e6b|archive-date=6 December 2010}}</ref> and performed at the ceremony with [[Bob Dylan]] and [[the Avett Brothers]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford and Sons, Avett Brothers, Robert Plant win Americana Music Awards|url=https://ew.com/article/2011/10/14/americana-music-awards-mumford-and-sons-avett-brothers-robert-plant/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=EW|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181846/https://ew.com/article/2011/10/14/americana-music-awards-mumford-and-sons-avett-brothers-robert-plant/|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Sigh No More'' won the [[Brit Award for British Album of the Year]] in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|title=Brit Awards 2011: Mumford & Sons win best British album|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/music-news/8327452/Brit-Awards-2011-Mumford-and-Sons-win-best-British-album.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Telegraph|date=16 February 2011 |archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184040/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/music/music-news/8327452/Brit-Awards-2011-Mumford-and-Sons-win-best-British-album.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

The album was influenced by the music of [[Fleet Foxes]], the Avett Brothers, [[Kings of Leon]] and [[Gomez (band)|Gomez]]; for ''[[Pitchfork (website)|Pitchfork]]'', [[Stephen Deusner]] wrote that the band made this clear by pushing their musical references "with a salesman's insistence."<ref name=DeusnerSighNoMore>{{cite web|title=Mumford & Sons: Sigh No More|url=https://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/13906-sigh-no-more/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Pitchfork|archive-date=20 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210620064302/https://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/13906-sigh-no-more/|url-status=live}}</ref> It was released to minimal attention but steadily garnered more positive reviews,<ref name=Fisher2010/><ref>{{cite web|title=Platinum one good reason for Mumford & Sons to Sigh No More|url=https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music/platinum-one-good-reason-for-mumford-sons-to-sigh-no-more-1.563777|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The National|date=21 March 2011|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181841/https://www.thenationalnews.com/arts-culture/music/platinum-one-good-reason-for-mumford-sons-to-sigh-no-more-1.563777|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Sigh No More by Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.metacritic.com/music/sigh-no-more/mumford-sons|website=Metacritic|access-date=2021-07-01|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183038/https://www.metacritic.com/music/sigh-no-more/mumford-sons|url-status=live}}</ref> and while Deusner criticized the album as derivative, he was impressed that "there are some unexpected textures, mostly courtesy of some guy calling himself Country Winston playing banjo and dobro."<ref name=DeusnerSighNoMore/> The success of the bluegrass banjo-led album placed Mumford & Sons as the breakout of nu-folk music.<ref name=UDiscover>{{cite web|last=Chilton|first=Martin|date=2020-10-02|title='Sigh No More': How Mumford & Sons Found Their Voice|url=https://www.udiscovermusic.com/stories/sigh-no-more-mumford-and-sons-album/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=uDiscover Music|archive-date=16 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201216045029/https://www.udiscovermusic.com/stories/sigh-no-more-mumford-and-sons-album/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2011-10-23|title=Sound of summer: Meet the new faces of nu folk|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/sound-of-summer-meet-the-new-faces-of-nu-folk-2021011.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The Independent|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184209/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/features/sound-of-summer-meet-the-new-faces-of-nu-folk-2021011.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They followed the album with near-constant touring, cementing their presence,<ref name=Fisher2010/> though concert reviews were also mixed, criticizing the repetitiveness of the samey setlist while acknowledging the crowd's enjoyment.<ref name=Richards2011/><ref>{{cite web|last=Moulton|first=Katie|title=Mumford and Sons at the Pageant, 6/5/11: Review, Photos, Setlist|url=https://www.riverfronttimes.com/musicblog/2011/06/06/mumford-and-sons-at-the-pageant-6-5-11-review-photos-setlist|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Riverfront Times|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181825/https://www.riverfronttimes.com/musicblog/2011/06/06/mumford-and-sons-at-the-pageant-6-5-11-review-photos-setlist|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2010-02-19|title=As Mumford & Sons prepare to invade the States, their namesake has a sort of O.C. homecoming|url=https://www.ocregister.com/2010/02/19/as-mumford-sons-prepare-to-invade-the-states-their-namesake-has-a-sort-of-oc-homecoming/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Orange County Register|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182635/https://www.ocregister.com/2010/02/19/as-mumford-sons-prepare-to-invade-the-states-their-namesake-has-a-sort-of-oc-homecoming/|url-status=live}}</ref> Chris Richards of ''[[The Washington Post]]'' added that the musicians' stage presence, particularly Marshall "thrusting his pelvis like a bluegrass [[Rick James]]", was irritating.<ref name=Richards2011>{{cite news|last=Richards|first=Chris|date=2011-06-10|title=In concert: Mumford & Sons at Merriweather Post Pavilion|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/click-track/post/in-concert-mumford-and-sons-at-merriweather-post-pavilion/2011/06/10/AGEyKsOH_blog.html|access-date=2021-07-01|newspaper=Washington Post|archive-date=12 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150512013344/http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/click-track/post/in-concert-mumford-and-sons-at-merriweather-post-pavilion/2011/06/10/AGEyKsOH_blog.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Mumford & Sons - Teatro Romano, Verona - 2 luglio 2012 (7498989558).jpg|thumb|left|upright|Marshall (right) and Dwane in 2012]]
In 2010, Mumford & Sons were the band and back-up for Marling's album ''[[I Speak Because I Can]]''<ref>{{cite web|date=2010-01-20|title=Laura Marling, 'I Speak Because I Can' - First Listen|url=https://www.nme.com/blogs/nme-blogs/laura-marling-i-speak-because-i-can-first-listen-782091|access-date=2021-06-30|website=NME|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182926/https://www.nme.com/blogs/nme-blogs/laura-marling-i-speak-because-i-can-first-listen-782091|url-status=live}}</ref> and released a joint EP with Marling and Indian group Dharohar Project. Self-titled with all three acts' names, it saw generally warm reviews that praised Marshall's dueling-banjo additions to songs.<ref>{{cite web|last=Irwin|first=Colin|title=BBC - Music - Review of Dharohar Project, Laura Marling and Mumford & Sons - iTunes Festival Live EP|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/reviews/rqzb/|access-date=2021-06-30|website=BBC|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182412/https://www.bbc.co.uk/music/reviews/rqzb/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|last=Leeds|first=Sarene|date=2010-12-07|title=Dharohar Project, Laura Marling and Mumford & Sons (EP)|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/dharohar-project-laura-marling-and-mumford-sons-ep-103924/|access-date=2021-07-01|magazine=Rolling Stone|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181612/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/dharohar-project-laura-marling-and-mumford-sons-ep-103924/|url-status=live}}</ref> The group continued to tour extensively, and released their second album, ''[[Babel (Mumford & Sons album)|Babel]]'', which had a more rock sound,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.cbc.ca/news/entertainment/mumford-sons-moves-to-rock-sound-with-babel-1.1194803|website=CBC|title=Mumford & Sons moves to rock sound with Babel|date=20 September 2012|access-date=1 July 2021|archive-date=15 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210715185715/https://www.cbc.ca/news/entertainment/mumford-sons-moves-to-rock-sound-with-babel-1.1194803|url-status=live}}</ref> in 2012 to mixed reviews.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://anydecentmusic.com/review/4875/Mumford--Sons-Babel.aspx|title=Babel by Mumford & Sons reviews|website=[[AnyDecentMusic?]]|access-date=23 December 2019|archive-date=23 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191223101359/http://anydecentmusic.com/review/4875/Mumford--Sons-Babel.aspx|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall provided lead vocals for the song "For Those Below".<ref>{{cite web|title=Brutalist Truths: Owen Hatherley Interviewed In Ten Songs|url=https://thequietus.com/articles/19589-owen-hatherley-interview-ministry-of-nostalgia|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The Quietus}}</ref> In the same year, Mumford & Sons contributed songs to two films: "The Enemy" for ''[[Wuthering Heights (2011 film)|Wuthering Heights]]''<ref>{{cite web|last=Lichman|first=John|date=2012-01-23|title=Sundance: Andrea Arnold Talks Using Mumford & Sons For 'Wuthering Heights' & Her Intuitive Approach To Filmmaking|url=https://www.indiewire.com/2012/01/sundance-andrea-arnold-talks-using-mumford-sons-for-wuthering-heights-her-intuitive-approach-to-filmmaking-113708/|access-date=2022-01-08|website=IndieWire|archive-date=5 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210305142749/https://www.indiewire.com/2012/01/sundance-andrea-arnold-talks-using-mumford-sons-for-wuthering-heights-her-intuitive-approach-to-filmmaking-113708/|url-status=live}}</ref> and "Learn Me Right" with [[Birdy (singer)|Birdy]] for the [[Brave (soundtrack)|soundtrack]] of the [[Pixar]] film ''[[Brave (2012 film)|Brave]]''.<ref>{{cite magazine|date=2012-05-21|title=Mumford & Sons Write New Song for Pixar's 'Brave'|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/mumford-sons-write-new-song-for-pixars-brave-100407/|access-date=2021-07-01|magazine=Rolling Stone|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182527/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/mumford-sons-write-new-song-for-pixars-brave-100407/|url-status=live}}</ref>

''Babel'' became the quickest-selling album of the year, and the growing success of Mumford & Sons led to more detraction, with the band, and its banjo specifically, often criticized as inauthentic; Marshall told ''The Guardian'' that he disagreed, saying they are authentic because they play music that they enjoy and at which they are good.<ref>{{cite web|date=2012-11-15|title=How Mumford & Sons became the biggest band in the world|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/nov/15/mumford-sons-biggest-band-world|access-date=2021-07-01|website=the Guardian|archive-date=12 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712161347/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2012/nov/15/mumford-sons-biggest-band-world|url-status=live}}</ref> The band embraced other criticisms, creating a [[tongue-in-cheek]] music video for single "[[Hopeless Wanderer]]", parodying their own image. In it, Marshall was portrayed by [[Jason Bateman]].<ref>{{cite web|last=Galuppo|first=Mia|date=2013-08-05|title=Folk Yeah! Jason Sudeikis, Jason Bateman, Will Forte, Ed Helms as Mumford & Sons (Video)|url=https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/music-news/jason-sudeikis-jason-bateman-will-599748/|access-date=2021-07-02|website=The Hollywood Reporter|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182452/https://www.hollywoodreporter.com/news/music-news/jason-sudeikis-jason-bateman-will-599748/|url-status=live}}</ref> With ''Babel'', Marshall shed his "Country Winston" name, saying he had outgrown it (as a holdover from Captain Kick) and had become disillusioned towards [[country music]]; when he began playing the genre he associated it with [[bluegrass music]], and then found that he did not like the country music he heard in the United States. At the same time, he expressed distaste towards the banjo and said that he does not really know how to play it and had been told by his hero [[Jerry Douglas]] to not learn, quoting Douglas saying: "The reason that it's interesting what you do is that you have no f***ing idea what you're doing!"<ref name=GQ2012interview>{{cite web|title=Gentlemen of the road: on tour with Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/article/mumford-and-sons-usa-tour-interview|access-date=2021-07-01|website=British GQ|date=5 December 2012|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181903/https://www.gq-magazine.co.uk/article/mumford-and-sons-usa-tour-interview|url-status=live}}</ref> ''Babel'' won the Grammy for [[Grammy Award for Album of the Year|Album of the Year]] in 2013,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music-arts/full-2013-grammy-nominations-list-article-1.1214356|title=Grammys 2013: Full nominations list of the 55th Annual Grammy Awards|date=5 December 2012|work=Daily News|location=New York|access-date=18 October 2019|archive-date=19 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191019011919/https://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/music-arts/full-2013-grammy-nominations-list-article-1.1214356|url-status=live}}</ref> with the band being awarded the [[Brit Award for British Group]] the same year.<ref>{{cite web|date=2013-02-27|title=Mumford & Sons win best British group Brit Award|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/mumford-sons-win-best-british-group-brit-award-8503927.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The Independent|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183026/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/mumford-sons-win-best-british-group-brit-award-8503927.html|url-status=live}}</ref> They were also honored with the [[Ivor Novello Award]] for International Achievement in 2014.<ref>{{cite web|date=2014-05-22|title=Ivor Novellos 2014 winners list: Mumford and Sons and Tom Odell take|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/ivor-novellos-2014-winners-list-mumford-and-sons-and-tom-odell-take-home-awards-9420479.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=The Independent|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709205315/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/ivor-novellos-2014-winners-list-mumford-and-sons-and-tom-odell-take-home-awards-9420479.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

[[File:Mumford & Sons at the 2013 Brit Awards.jpg|thumb|Mumford & Sons at the [[33rd Brit Awards|2013 Brit Awards]]]]
The band went on hiatus in 2013,<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford & Sons Is Going on Hiatus|url=https://www.vulture.com/2013/09/mumford-sons-is-going-on-hiatus.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Vulture|date=21 September 2013 |archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182207/https://www.vulture.com/2013/09/mumford-sons-is-going-on-hiatus.html|url-status=live}}</ref> but contributed to a compilation album by [[Idris Elba]] released in 2014, re-recording their song "Home" with [[Thandiswa Mazwai]].<ref name=Johannesburg>{{cite web|date=2016-06-24|title=Review: Mumford & Sons, 'Johannesburg'|url=https://www.spin.com/2016/06/review-mumford-and-sons-baaba-maal-johannesburg-ep/|access-date=2021-07-02|website=SPIN|archive-date=2 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210902013319/https://www.spin.com/2016/06/review-mumford-and-sons-baaba-maal-johannesburg-ep/|url-status=live}}</ref> They returned in 2015 with the album ''[[Wilder Mind]]'', on which Marshall was credited as "WN5TN".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/wilder-mind-mw0002834704/credits|title=Wilder Mind - Mumford & Sons | Credits|publisher=[[AllMusic]]|date=4 May 2015|access-date=6 May 2020|archive-date=13 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200913151414/https://www.allmusic.com/album/wilder-mind-mw0002834704/credits|url-status=live}}</ref> There is no banjo on ''Wilder Mind'', an electronic rock album that was influenced by [[The National (band)|the National]]; [[Aaron Dessner]] was a producer. Though his bandmates disagreed, Marshall said that they changed the sound because they did not enjoy touring so much with a limited repertoire.<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford & Sons: "Fuck the banjo" {{!}} Features|url=http://diymag.com/2015/04/24/mumford-sons-interview-fuck-the-banjo|access-date=2021-07-02|website=DIY|date=24 April 2015 |archive-date=18 May 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210518215040/https://diymag.com/2015/04/24/mumford-sons-interview-fuck-the-banjo|url-status=live}}</ref> However, he also said that he had warmed to the banjo again after time away from having to play it,<ref>{{cite web|date=2015-04-21|title=Mumford & Sons: Electric Minds|url=https://consequence.net/2015/04/mumford-sons-electric-minds/|access-date=2021-07-02|website=Consequence|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182143/https://consequence.net/2015/04/mumford-sons-electric-minds/|url-status=live}}</ref> and used it on the band's 2015 tour.<ref>{{cite web|last=Lawler|first=Joe|title=Gentlemen of the Road review: Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.desmoinesregister.com/story/entertainment/music/2015/06/22/stopover-review-mumford-sons-waverly/29098355/|access-date=2021-07-02|website=Des Moines Register}}</ref> The album received mediocre reviews,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.anydecentmusic.com/review/7175/Mumford--Sons-Wilder-Mind.aspx |title=Wilder Mind by Mumford & Sons reviews |website=[[AnyDecentMusic?]] |access-date=8 December 2019 |archive-date=8 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208044950/http://www.anydecentmusic.com/review/7175/Mumford--Sons-Wilder-Mind.aspx |url-status=live }}</ref> with critics in disagreement on whether losing the banjos improved the band or not;<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nme.com/reviews/mumford-and-sons/16038 |title=Mumford & Sons: 'Wilder Mind' – Review |website=[[NME]] |date=17 April 2015 |access-date=6 May 2015 |last=Cooper |first=Leonie |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304024359/http://www.nme.com/reviews/mumford-and-sons/16038 |archive-date=4 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.avclub.com/review/mumford-sons-abandon-banjos-and-plug-pointlessly-218575 |title=Mumford & Sons abandon banjos and plug in, pointlessly |work=[[The A.V. Club]] |date=5 May 2015 |access-date=6 May 2015 |last=Mincher |first=Chris |archive-date=7 May 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507175334/http://www.avclub.com/review/mumford-sons-abandon-banjos-and-plug-pointlessly-218575 |url-status=live }}</ref> ''The Guardian'' wrote that it "was far less polarising" than their first two albums, due to being "numbingly boring" and lacking the band's [[Unique selling proposition|USP]].<ref name=GuardianDelta>{{cite web|date=2018-11-18|title=Mumford & Sons: Delta review – three minutes of mild excitement|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/nov/18/mumford-and-sons-delta-review|access-date=2022-01-08|website=the Guardian|archive-date=11 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210711025148/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/nov/18/mumford-and-sons-delta-review|url-status=live}}</ref> The next year they released an EP, ''[[Johannesburg (EP)|Johannesburg]]'', with African artists [[Baaba Maal]], [[Beatenberg (band)|Beatenberg]] and [[The Very Best (band)|the Very Best]]; they had been approached to do the project after Marshall worked with Maal on other music. The EP does not use the banjo.<ref name=Johannesburg/> Marshall sang lead vocals on the song "Fool You've Landed",<ref>{{cite AV media|title=Mumford & Sons - Fool You've Landed (Live 2016)|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Yem9m0UvkrQ|via=YouTube|access-date=2022-01-08}}</ref> which he co-wrote with then-girlfriend [[Dianna Agron]] and Beatenberg's Matthew Field.<ref>{{cite web|title=Fool You've Landed - Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.cancioneros.com/lyrics/song/745331/fool-you-ve-landed-mumford-sons|access-date=2022-01-08|website=Cancioneros}}</ref><ref name=Johannesburg/>

[[File:WinstonMarshallGavinBatty.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Marshall performing at [[Madison Square Garden]] in 2018]]
Mumford & Sons then worked on their fourth album, ''[[Delta (Mumford & Sons album)|Delta]]'', which was released in 2018. The album uses banjo again, but in non-folk ways.<ref name=StandardDelta/><ref name=NWC/> Marshall said that ''Delta'': "does sound to me like the culmination of 10 years' work. I'm proud of it for that". The music draws more on their adult life experiences than their previous work, with the ''[[Evening Standard]]'' noting that during its creation Marshall got married but also experienced [[Major depressive disorder|depression]].<ref name=StandardDelta>{{cite web|last=Smyth|first=David|date=2019-05-31|title=Mumford and Sons on Grenfell, Delta and All Points East|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/culture/music/mumford-and-sons-interview-all-points-east-a4156016.html|access-date=2022-01-08|website=Evening Standard}}</ref> Marshall said that since the album was not their first and wouldn't be their last, they felt freedom to branch out in sound.<ref name=NMEDelta/> He started writing some of the songs on ''Delta'' in [[Nashville]],<ref name=DeltaCOS>{{cite web|date=16 November 2018|title=Mumford and Sons give Track by Track breakdown of their new album, Delta: Stream|url=https://consequenceofsound.net/2018/11/mumford-and-sons-delta-track-by-track-stream/|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Consequence of Sound|archive-date=20 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120051712/https://consequenceofsound.net/2018/11/mumford-and-sons-delta-track-by-track-stream/|url-status=live}}</ref> where Agron was filming a movie and they became engaged.<ref>{{cite web|date=2016-02-10|title=Dianna Agron Is a Blushing Bride on Set of Novitiate|url=https://www.eonline.com/news/738585/dianna-agron-is-a-blushing-bride-on-set-of-novitiate|access-date=2022-01-08|website=E! Online|archive-date=11 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210211211344/http://www.eonline.com/news/738585/dianna-agron-is-a-blushing-bride-on-set-of-novitiate|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2018-01-02|title=Lightness Of Being: Dianna Agron|url=https://harpersbazaar.my/fashion/lightness-dianna-agron/|access-date=2022-01-08|website=Harper's BAZAAR Malaysia|archive-date=1 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220101064028/https://harpersbazaar.my/fashion/lightness-dianna-agron/|url-status=live}}</ref> Lovett said Marshall "was throwing these pretty left-field sounds out of these writing sessions in Nashville"; Marshall was encouraged by sound engineer Garrett Miller to try more synthesized music, resulting in "Picture You", and composed the first verse and the falsetto hook of "[[Woman (Mumford & Sons song)|Woman]]" there.<ref name=DeltaCOS/> He also wrote "Wild Heart",<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford & Sons Detail New Album 'Delta,' Tease 'Rock Oddyssey' Song|url=https://www.iheart.com/content/2018-11-06-mumford-sons-detail-new-album-delta-tease-rock-oddyssy-song/|access-date=2022-01-13|website=iHeart}}</ref> which was recorded so quickly he did not actually perform on the track on the album.<ref name=DeltaCOS/> ''[[Spin (magazine)|Spin]]'' noted the three songs were the more powerful of the album's stripped-back songs.<ref>{{cite web|date=2018-11-14|title=Mumford & Sons' New Album Delta Is Doing Too Much of Everything|url=https://www.spin.com/2018/11/mumford-and-sons-delta-review/|access-date=2022-01-13|website=SPIN}}</ref>

Marshall took the early components of "Woman" to his bandmates in Brooklyn, and Lovett said of the moment: "[it] just felt like something that was very, very different, but also felt really good. Maybe that was a moment that we felt unshackled by anything that we had done previously."<ref name=DeltaCOS/> Marshall said that despite the song title, "Woman" is about the love shared by the couple.<ref name=DanceWoman/> It is an [[R&B]] indie song, with Mumford saying they were influenced by [[Jai Paul]];<ref name=BigRead/> Marshall used a five-string [[cello banjo]] on it, disguising the banjo sound,<ref>{{cite news|date=2018-09-20|title=Exclusive: Mumford & Sons on death, depression and divorce|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-45551673|access-date=2022-01-08|archive-date=1 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211201061137/https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-45551673|url-status=live}}</ref> with three banjo tracks layered.<ref name=NMEDelta>{{cite web|date=2018-11-23|title=Mumford & Sons – 'Delta' review|url=https://www.nme.com/reviews/mumford-sons-delta-review-2402736|access-date=2022-01-08|website=NME}}</ref> ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' felt that "Picture You" and "Woman" sounded like [[Khalid (singer)|Khalid]] songs;<ref name=RSDelta>{{cite magazine|last=Dolan|first=Jon|date=2018-11-16|title=Review: Mumford and Sons' Epic Bummer 'Delta'|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/review-mumford-and-sons-epic-bummer-delta-757483/|access-date=2022-01-08|magazine=Rolling Stone|archive-date=19 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210219050151/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/review-mumford-and-sons-epic-bummer-delta-757483/|url-status=live}}</ref> ''[[The Observer (Notre Dame)|The Observer]]'' compared them to [[Coldplay]] songs.<ref>{{cite web|date=2019-01-28|title=Meet Mumford & Sons at the "Delta"—album review // The Observer|url=https://ndsmcobserver.com/2019/01/meet-mumford-sons-at-the-delta-album-review/|access-date=2022-01-13|website=The Observern}}</ref> The album received sub-par reviews.<ref name=RSDelta/><ref>{{cite web|date=2018-11-21|title=Mumford & Sons review – ambitious tour sets sail on a sea of mediocrity|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/nov/21/mumford-sons-review-folk-rockers-sse-hydro-glasgow|access-date=2022-01-09|website=the Guardian}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Delta by Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.metacritic.com/music/delta/mumford-sons|website=Metacritic|access-date=2022-01-08}}</ref>

In March 2021, Marshall faced criticism for lauding ''Unmasked: Inside Antifa's Radical Plan to Destroy Democracy'', a book written by conservative American journalist and social media personality [[Andy Ngo]].<ref>{{cite web|date=7 March 2021|title=Mumford and Sons' Winston Marshall praises right-wing agitator Andy Ngo|url=https://consequenceofsound.net/2021/03/mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-andy-ngo/|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Consequence of Sound|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307041234/https://consequenceofsound.net/2021/03/mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-andy-ngo/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine|title=Mumford & Sons' Winston Marshall Faces Backlash After Praising Controversial Right-Wing Personality Andy Ngo|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/9536183/mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-slammed-after-he-praises-andy-ngo/|access-date=7 March 2021|magazine=Billboard|date=7 March 2021|archive-date=7 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210307224308/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/9536183/mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-slammed-after-he-praises-andy-ngo/|url-status=live}}</ref> Later that month, Marshall apologised for praising the book and stated that he would be taking a break from the band "to examine [his] blindspots";<ref>{{cite web|date=10 March 2021|title=Winston Marshall on break from Mumford and Sons after praising rightwing writer|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/mar/10/winston-marshall-break-mumford-and-sons-rightwing-commentator-andy-ngo|access-date=10 March 2021|website=The Guardian|archive-date=10 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210310105428/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/mar/10/winston-marshall-break-mumford-and-sons-rightwing-commentator-andy-ngo|url-status=live}}</ref> in June 2021, he wrote an essay defending his support for Ngo, discussing the reaction to his apology for the tweet, and announcing that he would be permanently leaving Mumford & Sons so that he could exercise [[free speech]] about politics without involving his former bandmates.<ref name=Marshall2021/><ref>{{cite web|date=2021-06-24|title=Guitarist quits Mumford & Sons to 'speak freely' on politics|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/guitarist-quits-mumford-sons-to-speak-freely-on-politics-marcus-mumford-mumford-sons-london-chinese-grammy-b1872164.html|access-date=2021-06-24|website=The Independent|archive-date=25 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625004342/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/guitarist-quits-mumford-sons-to-speak-freely-on-politics-marcus-mumford-mumford-sons-london-chinese-grammy-b1872164.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2021-06-24|title=Winston Marshall quits Mumford & Sons after Andy Ngo controversy, citing free speech|url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/jun/24/winston-marshall-quits-mumford-sons-citing-free-speech-concerns|access-date=2021-06-24|website=the Guardian|archive-date=24 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210624165154/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2021/jun/24/winston-marshall-quits-mumford-sons-citing-free-speech-concerns|url-status=live}}</ref> In a 2022 interview with ''[[The Sunday Times Magazine]]'' he said that what made it hard to leave the band was that he had thought they would still be playing together in their sixties.<ref name=TimesCover>{{cite news|newspaper=The Sunday Times Magazine|title=Step Away From The Banjo|date=8 May 2022|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/mumford-amp-sons-winston-marshall-on-the-tweet-that-ended-his-career-dsctkz0zs|url-access=subscription}}</ref>
{{clear}}

===Individual music and other ventures===
In 2010, Marshall was involved with a supergroup called [[Mt. Desolation]], recording music and performing shows with [[Ronnie Vannucci Jr.]] of [[The Killers]], Tom Hobden of Noah and the Whale, and [[Jesse Quin]] and [[Tim Rice-Oxley]] of [[Keane (band)|Keane]]. They released a free download single, "State of Affairs", as well as the self-titled album ''[[Mt. Desolation (album)|Mt. Desolation]]''.<ref>{{cite web|date=2010-06-08|title=The Killers, Keane and Mumford & Sons side project announce free download|url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/the-killers-188-1293045|access-date=2021-07-01|website=NME|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183109/https://www.nme.com/news/music/the-killers-188-1293045|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2010-04-20|title=New Supergroup Mt Desolation Announce Details of Forthcoming Record|url=https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/new-supergroup-mt-desolation-announce-details-of-forthcoming-record/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Music Feeds|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709194711/https://musicfeeds.com.au/news/new-supergroup-mt-desolation-announce-details-of-forthcoming-record/|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2012, Marshall played the banjo for the [[Dropkick Murphys]] song "[[Rose Tattoo (song)|Rose Tattoo]]"; the band joked that they "kidnapped" him after playing the same festival, adding that his banjo part is "subtle, but with that rolling finger-picking style, you know it's him when you hear it".<ref>{{cite web|website=Fuse|url=https://www.fuse.tv/2013/01/dropkick-murphys-mumford-sons-collabo-rose-tattoo|title=Dropkick Murphys Talk Mumford & Sons Collabo "Rose Tattoo"|access-date=2021-07-01|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181520/https://www.fuse.tv/2013/01/dropkick-murphys-mumford-sons-collabo-rose-tattoo|url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall then joined a different, temporary, supergroup called Salvador Dalí Parton in October 2013, with fellow musicians [[Gill Landry]] of [[Old Crow Medicine Show]]; Mike Harris of [[Apache Relay]]; Jake Orrall of [[JEFF the Brotherhood]]; and [[Justin Young (singer, born 1987)|Justin Hayward-Young]] of [[the Vaccines]]. The band, intended as a joke from the start, wrote six songs in 20 minutes on their first day together, held a rehearsal the next day, and performed six shows around [[Nashville]], [[Tennessee]], that night before breaking up.<ref>{{cite magazine|last1=Gold|first1=Adam|title=Salvador Dali Parton Take Nashville|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/salvador-dali-parton-take-nashville-20131027|magazine=Rolling Stone|access-date=6 June 2014|date=27 October 2013|archive-date=14 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714172323/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/news/salvador-dali-parton-take-nashville-20131027|url-status=live}}</ref>

He has also pursued [[stand-up comedy]], taking [[Improvisational theatre|improv]] classes at the [[Upright Citizens Brigade]] (UCB) prior to 2013,<ref name=Hiatt2013/> and planning a comedy web series in 2015.<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Billboard Cover Sneak Peek: 5 Things You Definitely Didn't Know About Mumford & Sons|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/6531126/billboard-cover-sneak-peek-mumford-and-sons|access-date=7 March 2021|magazine=Billboard|date=9 April 2015|archive-date=4 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200504114000/https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/6531126/billboard-cover-sneak-peek-mumford-and-sons|url-status=live}}</ref> He said that he wanted to take the concept of UCB to England, because they "don't have anything like it", and was invited to perform a monologue there; ''[[Vulture (website)|Vulture]]'' wrote that the monologue, about "condoms and being Jewish", "didn't go well." When asked if he is Jewish, Marshall laughingly replied "ish".<ref>{{cite web|title=Mumford & Sons on Trading in Their Banjos for Electric Guitars|url=https://www.vulture.com/2015/04/wilder-mind-mumford-and-sons-interview.html|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Vulture|date=10 April 2015 |archive-date=27 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191227045535/https://www.vulture.com/2015/04/wilder-mind-mumford-and-sons-interview.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

In 2015, Marshall became interested in [[techno music]] and [[electronic dance music]] after he attended every night of a [[James Ford (musician)|James Ford]] residency at London club [[XOYO]]. Ford had been working with Mumford & Sons on their album ''Wilder Mind'' through his group, [[Simian Mobile Disco]], and, inspired, Marshall began working on an individual electronic side-project that went nowhere.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Britton|first1=Luke|title=Mumford & Sons' Winston says Simian Mobile Disco inspired his techno project The Floppy Disc Jockey|url=http://www.nme.com/news/music/mumford-and-sons-28-1227050|website=NME|access-date=11 December 2017|date=23 July 2015|archive-date=11 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211160930/http://www.nme.com/news/music/mumford-and-sons-28-1227050|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2017, he collaborated with electronic duo [[HVOB]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://mixmag.net/read/hvob-in-the-lab-la-brandedcontent-dj-lab|title=HVOB in the Lab LA |access-date=14 March 2021 |archive-date=10 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210510190651/https://mixmag.net/read/hvob-in-the-lab-la-brandedcontent-dj-lab |url-status=live}}</ref> Marshall approached HVOB by sending an email that they initially thought was fake. When they began working together, Marshall sent samples to HVOB, who are based in [[Vienna]]. Together they released the single "The Blame Game", on which Marshall contributes vocals, and the album ''Silk''. They had only planned to release an EP, but quickly chose to extend this to a full album despite needing to meet the same deadline. The album is darker than HVOB's other music, with the duo saying that Marshall took their sound and styled it for a concert rather than club. Marshall and HVOB toured Europe in April 2017 on the fifteen-city Silk Tour.<ref>{{cite web|date=2017-02-13|title=New Noise: HBOV|url=https://www.wonderlandmagazine.com/2017/02/13/new-noise-hvob/|access-date=2021-06-30|website=Wonderland|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181455/https://www.wonderlandmagazine.com/2017/02/13/new-noise-hvob/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Interview: HVOB|url=https://www.deephouseamsterdam.com/interview-hvob/|access-date=2021-06-30|website=Deep House Amsterdam|date=13 June 2017|archive-date=1 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200301035923/http://www.deephouseamsterdam.com/interview-hvob|url-status=live}}</ref> The single and album were positively reviewed.<ref>{{cite web|date=2017-02-05|title=HVOB and Winston Marshall - The Blame Game (Original Mix)|url=https://dancingastronaut.com/2017/02/hvob-winston-marshall-blame-game-original-mix/|access-date=2021-06-30|website=Dancing Astronaut|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181951/https://dancingastronaut.com/2017/02/hvob-winston-marshall-blame-game-original-mix/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=López Palacios|first=Iñigo|date=2018-06-06|title=Nueve motivos para asistir al nuevo festival de electrónica de Madrid|language=es|work=El País|url=https://elpais.com/elpais/2018/06/04/icon/1528109314_415991.html|access-date=2021-06-30|issn=1134-6582|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181639/https://elpais.com/elpais/2018/06/04/icon/1528109314_415991.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Marshall collaborated individually with Baaba Maal between 2013 and 2015,<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Browne|first=David|date=2016-06-14|title=Mumford & Sons on Their South African Odyssey|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/mumford-sons-on-their-insanely-productive-south-african-odyssey-88683/|access-date=2022-01-08|magazine=Rolling Stone|archive-date=8 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108110248/https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-news/mumford-sons-on-their-insanely-productive-south-african-odyssey-88683/|url-status=live}}</ref> at the 2013 and 2014 editions of the Blues du Fleuve festival<ref>{{cite web|title=Baaba Maal's new documentary|website=Baaba Maal|url=https://baabamaal.com/2015/09/22/the-families-we-choose/|access-date=2022-01-08|archive-date=18 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210418112650/https://baabamaal.com/2015/09/22/the-families-we-choose/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2016-01-14|title=Senegalese Legend Baaba Maal On Making Electronic Fulani Rock In His New Album, 'The Traveller'|url=https://www.okayafrica.com/baaba-maal-the-traveller-goes-electronic/|access-date=2022-01-08|website=OkayAfrica|archive-date=11 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411072331/https://www.okayafrica.com/baaba-maal-the-traveller-goes-electronic/|url-status=live}}</ref> and playing banjo on Maal's 2015 album ''The Traveller''.<ref name=Johannesburg/> He experimented with more music in 2019 when he [[remix]]ed the [[Maggie Rogers]] song "[[Light On (Maggie Rogers song)|Light On]]"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/light-on-winston-marshall-remix-single/1447439914|title=Light On (Winston Marshall Remix) - Single by Maggie Rogers on Apple Music|accessdate=May 11, 2020|work=Apple Music|date=4 January 2019|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709191451/https://music.apple.com/us/album/light-on-winston-marshall-remix-single/1447439914|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DQIlqz_nF2M|title=Light On (Winston Marshall Remix)|date=3 January 2019|author=Maggie Rogers|via=YouTube}}</ref> and [[Kevin Garrett (musician)|Kevin Garrett]] song "Don't Rush".<ref>{{cite web|date=2019-09-24|title=Today's Song: Kevin Garrett Engrosses with the Heart-Poundingly Affecting "Factor In"|url=https://atwoodmagazine.com/kgfi-kevin-garrett-factor-in-song-review/|access-date=2022-01-08|website=Atwood Magazine|archive-date=27 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227124541/https://atwoodmagazine.com/kgfi-kevin-garrett-factor-in-song-review/|url-status=live}}</ref>

In January 2021, Marshall created a group that aims to connect [[Hongkongers|Hong Kongers]] encouraged to immigrate to the UK with British residents, following the implementation of the [[2020 Hong Kong national security law|Hong Kong national security law]].<ref>{{cite web|date=31 January 2021|title=Leave Hong Kong before it's too late, say those who now call Britain home|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/31/leave-hong-kong-before-its-too-late-say-those-who-now-call-britain-home|access-date=10 March 2021|website=The Guardian|archive-date=4 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210304182537/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2021/jan/31/leave-hong-kong-before-its-too-late-say-those-who-now-call-britain-home|url-status=live}}</ref>

In January 2022, he launched the "Marshall Matters" [[podcast]]. It was hosted by British [[politically conservative]] magazine ''[[The Spectator]]'', for which Marshall became a contributor in 2021.<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-09-27 |title=Winston Marshall, Author at The Spectator |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/writer/winston-marshall/ |access-date=2024-03-27 |website=The Spectator |language=en-US}}</ref> The podcast was promoted as Marshall interviewing people working in creative industries "to find out what indeed is the state of the arts."<ref>{{cite web|date=2021-12-23|title=Ex-Mumford & Sons member Winston Marshall to return as 'Spectator' podcast host|url=https://www.nme.com/news/music/ex-mumford-sons-member-winston-marshall-return-spectator-podcast-host-3125796|access-date=2022-01-09|website=NME|archive-date=23 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211223231159/https://www.nme.com/news/music/ex-mumford-sons-member-winston-marshall-return-spectator-podcast-host-3125796|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Winston Marshall – The Spectator columnists & writers|url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/writer/winston-marshall|access-date=2022-01-09|website=The Spectator}}</ref> By October 2023, 45 episodes had been published, including interviews with [[Laurence Fox]], [[Jordan Peterson]] and [[Candace Owens]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-10-04 |title=Marshall Matters Archives |url=https://www.spectator.co.uk/podcasts/marshall-matters/ |access-date=2024-03-27 |website=The Spectator |language=en-US}}</ref> Of his career move into being a "culture warrior", he said that "Having made all this huge sacrifice so that [he could] speak [his] mind, [he] might as well fucking do it then. It would seem stupid not to."<ref name=TimesCover/>

==Influence==
[[File:Upstarts (16001789400).jpg|thumb|upright|Marshall's banjos on display at the [[American Banjo Museum]]]]
The existence of the British nu-folk scene has been credited to Marshall, as its most successful acts – Marling, Flynn, Hayward-Young, Noah and the Whale, [[Alan Pownall]], [[King Charles (musician)|King Charles]], [[Alessi's Ark]], [[Peggy Sue (band)|Peggy Sue]] – all "graduated" from performing at Bosun's Locker on the folk jam nights that he ran, reportedly starting them as a way to play banjo. One musician who played there said: "I don't think you could pin the craze on anyone else."<ref>{{cite web|last=Godwin|first=Richard|date=2012-04-10|title=Guitar Heroes: nu-folk scene|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/guitar-heroes-nufolk-scene-6522223.html|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Evening Standard|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182717/https://www.standard.co.uk/lifestyle/guitar-heroes-nufolk-scene-6522223.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last=Clayton-Lea|first=Tony|title=Noah and the Whale: Where are we now?|url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/music/noah-and-the-whale-where-are-we-now-1.1380503|access-date=2021-07-02|newspaper=The Irish Times|archive-date=9 May 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509222432/http://www.irishtimes.com/culture/music/noah-and-the-whale-where-are-we-now-1.1380503|url-status=live}}</ref>

Marshall's banjo playing in Mumford & Sons has also affected the popularity and credibility of the instrument. [[Emmylou Harris]] said that the band made banjo respectable,<ref>{{cite web|date=2012-09-26|title=Emmylou Harris says Mumford & Sons making banjo respectable|url=https://www.ctvnews.ca/entertainment/emmylou-harris-says-mumford-sons-making-banjo-respectable-1.972140|access-date=2021-07-01|website=CTVNews|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182640/https://www.ctvnews.ca/entertainment/emmylou-harris-says-mumford-sons-making-banjo-respectable-1.972140|url-status=live}}</ref> and their music is deemed responsible for a banjo revival both in Europe and the United States.<ref>'''Multiple sources:'''
*{{cite journal|last=Sopiarz|first=Josh|year=2018|title=Dueling Perceptions: The Five-String Banjo in Contemporary American Popular Culture|url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03007766.2016.1169643|journal=Popular Music and Society|volume=41|issue=1|pages=1–15|doi=10.1080/03007766.2016.1169643|s2cid=146828269|issn=0300-7766|access-date=1 July 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182730/https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/03007766.2016.1169643|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|title=About 4-String Banjos|url=https://creekdontrise.com/acoustic/four_string_banjo/four_string_banjo.htm|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Creek Don't Rise|archive-date=6 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201206012549/https://creekdontrise.com/acoustic/four_string_banjo/four_string_banjo.htm|url-status=live}}
*{{cite journal|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266373594|title=Bringing The Banjo Back To Life: The Field of Dutch Independent Folk Music as Participatory Culture|last1=van Poecke|first1=Niels|last2=Michael|first2=Janna|institution=[[Erasmus University Rotterdam]]|journal=First Monday|year=2016|volume=21|issue=3|doi=10.5210/fm.v0i0.6385|pages=1–2|hdl=1765/84573|hdl-access=free|access-date=22 August 2021|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109013402/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/266373594_Bringing_The_Banjo_Back_To_Life_The_Field_of_Dutch_Independent_Folk_Music_as_Participatory_Culture|url-status=live |doi-access=free }}
*{{cite web|last=Marks|first=Ben|title=Strummin' on the Old Banjo: How an African Instrument Got a Racist Reinvention|url=https://www.collectorsweekly.com/articles/how-the-african-banjo-got-a-racist-reinvention/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Collectors Weekly|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709181935/https://www.collectorsweekly.com/articles/how-the-african-banjo-got-a-racist-reinvention/|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|date=2011-05-17|title=Mumford & Sons: We're an American-ish Band|url=https://www.spin.com/2011/05/mumford-sons-were-american-ish-band/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=SPIN|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182411/https://www.spin.com/2011/05/mumford-sons-were-american-ish-band/|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|date=2019-12-26|title=Visiting The American Banjo Museum|website=Bill On The Road|url=https://billontheroad.com/banjo-museum-bricktown-oklahoma-city/|access-date=2021-07-01|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185539/https://billontheroad.com/banjo-museum-bricktown-oklahoma-city/|url-status=live}}
*{{cite web|last=Lang|first=George|title=Oklahoma's American Banjo Museum recently acquired a rare instrument|url=https://www.okgazette.com/oklahoma/oklahomas-american-banjo-museum-recently-acquired-a-rare-instrument/Content?oid=2980459|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Oklahoma Gazette|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709183054/https://www.okgazette.com/oklahoma/oklahomas-american-banjo-museum-recently-acquired-a-rare-instrument/Content?oid=2980459|url-status=live}}</ref> The band's identity is said to be synonymous with the banjo,<ref name=NWC>{{cite news|url=https://nwcommons.nwciowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=beacon2018|title=Identity Lost Within Delta|last=Johnston|first=Lizzy|page=2|date=15 February 2019|newspaper=Beacon|volume=92|issue=12|access-date=1 July 2021|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182908/https://nwcommons.nwciowa.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1012&context=beacon2018|url-status=live}}</ref> and Marshall has a [[Deering Banjo Company|Deering]] banjo named after him, the Winston Marshall Signature Model.<ref>{{cite web|last=Waldrep|first=Barry|date=2015-06-30|title=Modern Artists and Bands Who Use the Banjo|url=https://banjo.com/modern-artists-and-bands-who-use-the-banjo/|access-date=2021-07-01|website=Banjo.com|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709184344/https://banjo.com/modern-artists-and-bands-who-use-the-banjo/|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Marshall dated Irish stylist Susan Cooney,<ref name=Relationships>{{cite web|last=Sutton|first=Jeanne|date=2016-01-19|title=Dianna Agron and Mumford & Sons' Winston Marshall Engaged|url=https://www.image.ie/editorial/dianna-agron-mumford-sons-winston-marshall-engaged-47172|access-date=2021-06-25|website=IMAGE.ie|archive-date=25 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625181926/https://www.image.ie/editorial/dianna-agron-mumford-sons-winston-marshall-engaged-47172|url-status=live}}</ref> who dressed Mumford & Sons and [[Haim (band)|Haim]],<ref>{{cite web|last=Mdudu|first=Naomi|date=2014-01-15|title=What I Wear: Mumfords and Haim stylist Susan Cooney|url=https://metro.co.uk/2014/01/15/what-i-wear-mumfords-and-haim-stylist-susan-cooney-4262510/|access-date=2021-06-25|website=Metro|archive-date=25 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210625181924/https://metro.co.uk/2014/01/15/what-i-wear-mumfords-and-haim-stylist-susan-cooney-4262510/|url-status=live}}</ref> and in March 2012 attended the [[White House]] British [[State banquet|State dinner]] with her.<ref>{{cite news|date=2012-03-14|title=British State Dinner guest list|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/reliable-source/post/british-state-dinner-guest-list/2012/03/14/gIQAT1jgCS_blog.html|access-date=2021-06-25|newspaper=Washington Post|archive-date=25 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125031955/https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/reliable-source/post/british-state-dinner-guest-list/2012/03/14/gIQAT1jgCS_blog.html|url-status=live}}</ref> In 2015 he was linked with American singer [[Katy Perry]],<ref name=Relationships/> and reportedly dated her while she was dating [[John Mayer]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Is Katy Perry dating Winston Marshall?|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/people/2015/03/17/katy-perry-dating-winston-marshall/24881883/|access-date=2021-06-25|website=The Arizona Republic|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109013419/https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/people/2015/03/17/katy-perry-dating-winston-marshall/24881883/|url-status=live}}</ref> It was first reported that Marshall was dating American actress [[Dianna Agron]] in July 2015,<ref name=azcentral>{{cite web|title=Reports: Dianna Agron dating Wintson Marshall|url=https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/people/2015/07/07/dianna-agron-dating-wintson-marshall/29804163/|access-date=21 August 2020|website=The Arizona Republic|archive-date=21 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821235358/https://www.azcentral.com/story/entertainment/people/2015/07/07/dianna-agron-dating-wintson-marshall/29804163/|url-status=live}}</ref> and the couple got engaged in late 2015.<ref>{{cite web|title=Dianna Agron Finally Shows Of Her Gorgeous Engagement Ring for the First Time|url=http://eonline.com/news/742629/dianna-agron-finally-shows-off-her-gorgeous-engagement-ring-for-the-first-time|publisher=E!|access-date=23 February 2016|first=Kendall|last=Fisher|date=23 February 2016|archive-date=23 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223222700/http://www.eonline.com/news/742629/dianna-agron-finally-shows-off-her-gorgeous-engagement-ring-for-the-first-time|url-status=live}}</ref> They were married on 15 October 2016, in [[Morocco]],<ref>{{cite web|url=http://m.eonline.com/news/802121/dianna-agron-marries-mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-in-romantic-ceremony|title=Dianna Agron Marries Mumford and Sons' Winston Marshall|date=16 October 2016|access-date=16 October 2016|archive-date=21 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200821235401/https://www.eonline.com/news/802121/dianna-agron-marries-mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-in-romantic-ceremony|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://people.com/style/is-this-dianna-agrons-wedding-dress/|title=Is This Dianna Agron's Wedding Dress?|date=17 October 2016|newspaper=People|access-date=15 January 2017|archive-date=16 January 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170116182309/http://people.com/style/is-this-dianna-agrons-wedding-dress/|url-status=live}}</ref> and kept their relationship private, including not posting about each other on social media. They separated in 2019 and divorced in 2020.<ref name="cos">{{cite news|url=https://www.cosmopolitan.com/entertainment/celebs/a33645640/dianna-agron-winston-marshall-broke-up-living-separately/|title=Dianna Agron and Winston Marshall Broke Up After Three Years of Marriage|date=19 August 2020|last=Barbour|first=Shannon|magazine=[[Cosmopolitan (magazine)|Cosmopolitan]] |access-date=20 August 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200819234205/https://www.cosmopolitan.com/entertainment/celebs/a33645640/dianna-agron-winston-marshall-broke-up-living-separately/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/dianna-agron-winston-marshall-split-after-3-years-of-marriage/|title=Glee's Dianna Agron and Mumford & Sons' Winston Marshall Split After 3 Years of Marriage|magazine=[[Us Weekly]]|date=10 August 2020|last=Hautman|first=Nicholas |access-date=20 August 2020 |archive-date=20 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820204311/https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/dianna-agron-winston-marshall-split-after-3-years-of-marriage/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=TimesCover/> In 2023, Marshall became engaged to [[Melissa Chen]],<ref>{{Cite web |date=2023-12-03 |title=Winston Marshall to wed again |url=https://nz.news.yahoo.com/winston-marshall-wed-again-070626343.html |access-date=2024-02-20 |website=Yahoo News |language=en-NZ}}</ref> contributing editor at ''[[The Spectator|The Spectator US]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Melissa Chen |url=https://thespectator.com/author/melissa-chen/ |access-date=2024-03-27 |website=The Spectator World |language=en-US}}</ref>

In 2022, Marshall said that after several album tours, the lifestyle had negatively affected him, leading him to start self-medicating with alcohol and to regularly take a mix of hard drugs, describing the time as "all a bit of a blur"; he got [[sobriety|sober]] in 2019, saying this gave him clarity and energy. He then had a "painful separation" from Agron and, when they divorced, returned to his [[Christianity|Christian faith]].<ref name=TimesCover/><ref>{{cite web|title=Former Mumford & Sons member Winston Marshall says he was 'condemned' by other artists following controversial tweets: 'I lost a lot of friends'|url=https://nz.news.yahoo.com/mumford-sons-member-winston-marshall-condemned-by-artists-181504226.html|access-date=2022-05-08|website=Yahoo! News|date=8 May 2022 |language=en-NZ}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|date=2022-05-12|title='I Got My Soul Back': Mumford & Sons' Winston Marshall Reveals the Moment He 'Came to Christ Again'|url=https://www1.cbn.com/cbnnews/entertainment/2022/may/i-got-my-soul-back-mumford-and-sons-winston-marshall-reveals-the-moment-he-came-to-christ-again|access-date=2022-05-13|website=CBN News}}</ref>

He is an avid supporter of [[Manchester United F.C.|Manchester United]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.premierleague.com/news/924580|title=Mumford & Sons: FPL is stressful, but I can't miss out!|date=22 January 2021|publisher=[[Premier League]]|access-date=22 January 2021|archive-date=27 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127071027/https://www.premierleague.com/news/924580|url-status=live}}</ref> He was described as enthusiastic about fashion in 2010, comparing his style to that of the ''[[Brideshead Revisited]]'' character [[Sebastian Flyte]],<ref name=Fisher2010/> though has since expressed regret for choosing to wear this fashion for photoshoots rather than clothes he would personally wear.<ref name=BigRead/> In 2011, he was said to look like "the [[Appalachia]]n [[hillbilly]] version of an Appalachian hillbilly, in shitkicker boots and a ratty semi-mohawk that he appears to have given himself with a whittling knife";<ref name=Eells2011/> he became more interested in style and grooming in 2012 after ''[[GQ]]'' named him the sixth-worst-dressed man in the world.<ref name=Hiatt2013/> In 2018 he was introduced to dance by Agron, and has taken several classes at Kristen Sudeikis' Forward Space dance studio. Other Forward Space dancers are featured in the music video for "Woman".<ref name=DanceWoman>{{cite web|date=4 June 2019|title=Exclusive First Look: The Story Behind Mumford & Sons' Dance-Filled New Music Video|url=https://www.dancemagazine.com/mumford-sons-woman-video-2638665510.html|access-date=7 March 2021|website=Dance Magazine|archive-date=27 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210127101216/https://www.dancemagazine.com/mumford-sons-woman-video-2638665510.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

Marshall is interested in the books of the Canadian professor of psychology [[Jordan Peterson]], and invited Peterson to Mumford & Sons' studio in 2018, with Peterson sharing a photograph of them together on social media. When asked about his involvement with Peterson, who has been a controversial figure, Marshall told [[CBC Radio]]: "I don't think [Peterson's] psychology is controversial, but the quasi-political stuff... I think it's a conversation we're having a little bit as a band and, do we want to get into the political stuff?"<ref>{{cite news|title=Mumford and Sons address their photo with Jordan B. Peterson {{!}} CBC Radio|publisher=Canadian Broadcasting Corporation|url=https://www.cbc.ca/radio/q/blog/mumford-and-sons-address-their-photo-with-jordan-b-peterson-1.4831645|access-date=7 March 2021|archive-date=8 March 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308023733/https://www.cbc.ca/radio/q/blog/mumford-and-sons-address-their-photo-with-jordan-b-peterson-1.4831645|url-status=live}}</ref> Later in 2018, Marshall told ''[[NME]]'' that he "[thinks] everyone should read widely. If you read something, work out who's got the opposite opinion and read that guy so you can form your own ideas."<ref name=BigRead/> In the same interview, both Marshall and Mumford opined that musicians should not talk about politics, and said that they did not like being asked about politics, with Marshall telling the magazine:<ref name=BigRead>{{cite web|date=2018-11-23|title=The Big Read – Mumford And Sons|url=https://www.nme.com/big-reads/the-nme-big-read-mumford-and-sons-2411839|access-date=2021-07-01|website=NME|archive-date=9 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709182909/https://www.nme.com/big-reads/the-nme-big-read-mumford-and-sons-2411839|url-status=live}}</ref>

{{blockquote|I have a little bit of frustration with the politicising of music. I don't mind when artists are political, but I think politics is fucking complicated. It's different from three years ago when we were doing promo for ''Wilder Mind'' – we weren't ever asked about politics. People didn't care, but now everyone's got a fucking opinion. Everything is, "Politics this, politics that". It's a massive change.}}

On 7 July 2022 he was a guest on the BBC's political programme ''[[Question Time (TV programme)|Question Time]]'', discussing the [[July 2022 United Kingdom government crisis#Resignation_of_Boris_Johnson|resignation]] of British Prime Minister [[Boris Johnson]] which had been announced that day.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Bedigan |first=Mike |date=8 July 2022 |title=Ex-Mumford and Sons guitarist: Boris Johnson should have gone a long time ago |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/boris-johnson-prime-minister-nhs-winston-marshall-mumford-and-sons-b2118514.html |access-date=27 December 2022}}</ref>

==Selected discography==
===With Mumford & Sons===
{{main|Mumford & Sons discography|List of awards and nominations received by Mumford & Sons}}
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of studio albums
! scope="col" style="width:15em;"| Title
! scope="col" style="width:19em;"| Details
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Sigh No More (Mumford & Sons album)|Sigh No More]]''
|
* Released: 2 October 2009
* Label: [[Island Records|Island]]
* Formats: [[Compact disc|CD]], [[gramophone record|LP]], [[music download|digital download]]
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Babel (Mumford & Sons album)|Babel]]''
|
* Released: 21 September 2012
* Label: Island
* Formats: CD, LP, digital download
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Wilder Mind]]''
|
* Released: 4 May 2015
* Label: Island
* Formats: CD, LP, digital download
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Delta (Mumford & Sons album)|Delta]]''
|
* Released: 16 November 2018
* Label: Island
* Formats: CD, LP, digital download
|}
{{col-2}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of singles
! scope="col" style="width:17em;"| Title
! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:17em;"| Album
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Little Lion Man]]"
| rowspan="2"| 2009
| rowspan="4"| ''Sigh No More''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Winter Winds]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[The Cave (song)|The Cave]]"{{efn|group=upper-alpha|"The Cave" was originally released 11 months earlier, six months before "Little Lion Man" and ''Sigh No More'' were released. It was a limited edition single with a B-side different from the 2010 single release.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.mumfordandsons.com/discography/ | title=Mumford & Sons – Discography | work=mumfordandsons.com | publisher=[[Island Records]] | accessdate=8 December 2012 | archive-date=26 November 2012 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121126114805/http://www.mumfordandsons.com/discography | url-status=live }}</ref>}}
| rowspan="2"| 2010
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Roll Away Your Stone]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[I Will Wait]]"
| rowspan="2"| 2012
| rowspan="5"| ''Babel''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Lover of the Light]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Whispers in the Dark (Mumford & Sons song)|Whispers in the Dark]]"
| rowspan="3"| 2013
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Babel (song)|Babel]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Hopeless Wanderer]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Believe (Mumford & Sons song)|Believe]]"
| rowspan="4"| 2015
| rowspan="5"| ''Wilder Mind''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[The Wolf (Mumford & Sons song)|The Wolf]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Ditmas (song)|Ditmas]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Tompkins Square Park (song)|Tompkins Square Park]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Just Smoke]]"
| rowspan="2"| 2016
|-
! scope="row"| "[[There Will Be Time (song)|There Will Be Time]]" {{small|(with [[Baaba Maal]])}}
| ''Johannesburg''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Guiding Light (song)|Guiding Light]]"
| 2018
| rowspan="3" | ''Delta''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Beloved (Mumford & Sons song)|Beloved]]"
| rowspan="3"| 2019
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Woman (Mumford & Sons song)|Woman]]"
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Blind Leading the Blind (Mumford & Sons song)|Blind Leading the Blind]]"
| rowspan="2" {{N/A|Non-album singles}}
|-
! scope="row"| "Forever (Garage Version)"<ref>{{cite web|url=https://music.apple.com/us/album/forever-garage-version-single/1510594582|title=Forever (Garage Version) - Single by Mumford & Sons on Apple Music|website=Apple Music|date=8 May 2020|access-date=29 November 2021|archive-date=5 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211205162558/https://music.apple.com/us/album/forever-garage-version-single/1510594582|url-status=live}}</ref>
| 2020
|-
| colspan="3" style="font-size:90%" | {{notelist-ua}}
|}
{{col-end}}

===Individual===
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of studio albums
! scope="col" style="width:15em;"| Title
! scope="col" style="width:19em;"| Details
|-
! scope="row" | ''[[Mt. Desolation (album)|Mt. Desolation]]''
|
* Artist: [[Mt. Desolation]]
* Released: 18 October 2010
* Label: [[Island Records|Island]], [[Cherrytree Records|Cherrytree]], Coop
* Formats: [[Compact disc|CD]]
|-
! scope="row"| ''The Traveller''
|
* Artist: [[Baaba Maal]]
* Released: 2015
|-
! scope="row"| ''[[Day of the Dead (2016 album)|Day of the Dead]]''<ref>{{cite magazine|date=2016-03-17|title=Grateful Dead Tribute Album Featuring Mumford & Sons, The National, War on Drugs, Jenny Lewis & More Set for May Release|url=https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/grateful-dead-tribute-album-red-hot-benefit-7262989/|access-date=2022-01-08|magazine=Billboard|archive-date=9 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220109013410/https://www.billboard.com/music/music-news/grateful-dead-tribute-album-red-hot-benefit-7262989/|url-status=live}}</ref>
|
* Artist: [[The National (band)|The National]]
* Released: 20 May 2016
* Label: [[4AD]]
* Formats: CD, [[LP record|LP]], [[Digital download (music)|digital download]]
|-
! scope="row" | ''Silk''
|
* Artist: [[HVOB]] and Winston Marshall
* Released: 24 March 2017
|}
{{col-2}}

{| class="wikitable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center;"
|+ List of singles
! scope="col" style="width:17em;"| Title
! scope="col" style="width:1em;"| Year
! scope="col" style="width:10em;"| Artist
! scope="col" style="width:10em;"| Album
|-
! scope="row"| "State of Affairs"
| 2010
| Mt. Desolation
| ''Mt. Desolation''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Rose Tattoo (song)|Rose Tattoo]]"
| 2012
| [[Dropkick Murphys]]
| ''Rose Tattoo: For Boston Charity''
|-
! scope="row"| "The Traveller"
| 2015
| Baaba Maal
| ''The Traveller''
|-
! scope="row"| "The Blame Game"
| 2017
| HVOB and Winston Marshall
| ''Silk''
|-
! scope="row"| "[[Light On (Maggie Rogers song)|Light On]] (Winston Marshall Remix)"
| 2019
| [[Maggie Rogers]]
| ''[[Heard It in a Past Life]]''
|-
! scope="row"| "Don't Rush (Winston Marshall Remix)"
| 2019
| [[Kevin Garrett]]
| ''Hoax''
|-
|}
{{col-end}}

==Notes==
{{notelist}}

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{imdb name|4963520}}

{{Mumford & Sons}}
{{Grammy Award for Album of the Year 2010s}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Marshall, Winston}}
[[Category:1987 births]]
[[Category:British Christians]]
[[Category:British people of French-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:British people of Hungarian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:British people of Romanian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:British folk guitarists]]
[[Category:Mumford & Sons members]]
[[Category:British folk rock musicians]]
[[Category:British folk singers]]
[[Category:British rock bass guitarists]]
[[Category:British banjoists]]
[[Category:Grammy Award winners]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:21st-century English bass guitarists]]
[[Category:21st-century English male singers]]
[[Category:British indie rock musicians]]
[[Category:English electronic musicians]]
[[Category:British alternative rock musicians]]
[[Category:Musicians from the London Borough of Wandsworth]]
[[Category:People from Wandsworth]]
[[Category:Substack writers]]

James J. Hill

2024-08-19T13:25:56Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Family life */removed duplicative links

{{Short description|American railroad promoter and financier (1838–1916)}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=July 2022}}
{{Infobox person
|name = James J. Hill
|image = Picture of James J. Hill (cropped) (b).jpg
|imagesize =
|caption = James J. Hill in 1916.
|birth_name = James Jerome Hill
|birth_date = {{Birth date|1838|9|16}}
|birth_place = [[Guelph/Eramosa|Eramosa Township]], [[Upper Canada]]
|death_date = {{Death date and age|1916|5|29|1838|9|16}}
|death_place = [[St. Paul, Minnesota]], U.S.
|occupation = Railroad tycoon
|nationality = Canadian-American
|spouse = Mary Theresa Mehegan
|children = 10, including [[Louis W. Hill]]
|relatives = [[Louis Warren Hill Jr.]] (grandson) [[Jerome Hill]] (grandson) [[Samuel Hill]] (son-in-law)
|signature = Famous Living Americans - James J. Hill Signature.jpg
}}

'''James Jerome Hill''' (September 16, 1838 – May 29, 1916) was a Canadian-American railroad director. He was the [[chief executive officer]] of a family of lines headed by the [[Great Northern Railway (U.S.)|Great Northern Railway]], which served a substantial area of the Upper [[midwestern United States|Midwest]], the northern [[Great Plains]], and the [[Pacific Northwest]] in the [[United States]]. Because of the size of this region and the economic dominance exerted by the Hill lines, Hill became known during his lifetime as "The Empire Builder", and died in 1916 with a fortune of about 63 million dollars.<ref name="mnhs.org">[https://www.mnhs.org/hillhouse/learn/james-j-hill James J. Hill, James J. Hill House, Minnesota Historical Society.]</ref> His former home, [[James J. Hill House]], is now a museum in [[Saint Paul, Minnesota]].

==Biography==

===Childhood and youth===
James J. Hill was born September 16, 1838, in [[Guelph/Eramosa|Eramosa Township, Upper Canada]] (now [[Ontario]]) to James Hill Jr. and Ann Dunbar. A childhood accident with a bow and arrow blinded him in the right eye. He had nine years of formal [[school]]ing. He attended the [[Rockwood Academy (Ontario)|Rockwood Academy]] for a short while, where the head gave him free tuition.<ref>See [http://www.railserve.com/JJHill.html James J. Hill and the Building of His Railroad Empire] [[Railserve]]</ref> He was forced to leave school in 1852 due to the death of his father. By the time he had finished, he was adept at math, [[land surveying]], and English. His particular talents for English and mathematics would be helpful in his career.
[[File:JamesJHill1856.jpg|thumb|upright|Hill c. 1856]]
After working as a clerk in Kentucky (during which he learned [[bookkeeping]]), Hill decided to permanently move to the United States and settled in [[St. Paul, Minnesota]], at the age of 18. His first job in St. Paul was with a [[steamboat]] company, where he worked as a bookkeeper. By 1860, he was working for [[wholesale]] grocers, for whom he handled freight transfers, especially dealing with railroads and steamboats. Through this work, he learned all aspects of the freight and transportation business. During this period, Hill began to work for himself for the first time. During the winter months when the [[Mississippi River]] was frozen and steamboats could not run, Hill started bidding on other contracts and won several.<ref name="Pyle. 1918">Pyle. 1918.</ref>

===Young businessman===
Because of his previous experiences in shipping and fuel supply, Hill was able to enter both the coal and steamboat businesses. In 1870, he and his partners started the Red River Transportation Company, which offered steam boat transportation between St. Paul and Winnipeg.<ref>{{cite web|title=James J. Hill Biography|url=http://www.oregonhistoryproject.org/articles/biographies/james-j-hill-biography/|work=The Oregon Historical Society|access-date=September 28, 2013|archive-date=July 29, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190729143319/https://oregonhistoryproject.org/articles/biographies/james-j-hill-biography/|url-status=dead}}</ref> By 1879 he had a local [[monopoly]] by merging with [[Norman Kittson]]. In 1867, Hill entered the coal business, and by 1879 it had expanded five times over, giving Hill a local monopoly in the [[anthracite|anthracite coal]] business. During this same period, Hill also entered into banking and quickly managed to become member of several major banks' [[boards of directors]]. He also bought out bankrupt businesses, built them up again, and then resold them—often gaining a substantial profit. Hill noted that the secret to his success was "work, hard work, intelligent work, and then more work."<ref>{{cite book |title= Highways of Progress |last=Hill |first= James J.|year= 2001 |publisher= Minerva Group |isbn= 0-89499-025-X}}</ref>

===Entry into Gilded Era railroading===
During the [[Panic of 1873]], a number of railroads, including the [[St. Paul and Pacific Railroad]] (StP&P), had gone bankrupt. The StP&P in particular was caught in an almost hopeless legal muddle. For James Hill it was a golden opportunity. For three years, Hill researched the StP&P and finally concluded that it would be possible to make a good deal of money off the StP&P, provided that the initial capital could be found. Hill teamed up with [[Norman Kittson]] (the man he had merged steamboat businesses with), [[Donald Smith, 1st Baron Strathcona and Mount Royal|Donald Smith]],<ref name="martin">{{cite journal|last1=Martin|first1=Joseph E.|title=Titans|journal=Canada's History|date=2017|volume=97|issue=5|pages=47–53|issn=1920-9894}}</ref> [[George Stephen, 1st Baron Mount Stephen|George Stephen]] and [[John Stewart Kennedy]]. Together they not only bought the railroad, they also vastly expanded it by bargaining for trackage rights with the [[Northern Pacific Railway]]. In May 1879, the St. Paul, Minneapolis, and Manitoba Railway Co. (StPM&M) formed—with James J. Hill as general manager. His first goal was to expand and upgrade even more.

Hill was a hands-on, detail-obsessed manager. A Canadian himself of Scotch-Irish Protestant ancestry, he brought in many men with the same background into high management.<ref>Claire Strom, "Among Friends: The Power of Ethnicity in the Great Northern Railway Corporation," ''Journal of the West'' (2009) 48#4 pp 11-17.</ref> He wanted people to settle along his rail lines, so he sold homesteads to immigrants while transporting them to their new homes using his rail lines. When he was looking for the best path for one of his tracks to take, he went on horseback and scouted it personally. Under his management, StPM&M prospered. In 1880, its net worth was $728,000 (equal to ${{Inflation|US|728000|1880|fmt=c}} today); in 1885 it was $25,000,000, equal to ${{Inflation|US|25000000|1885|fmt=c}} today.

One of his challenges at this point was the avoidance of federal action against railroads. If the [[United States Government|federal government]] believed that the railroads were making too much profit, they might see this as an opportunity to force lowering of the railway tariff rates. Hill avoided this by investing a large portion of the railroad's profit back into the railroad itself—and charged those investments to operating expense. It was at this point that Hill went from general manager to the official president of StPM&M, and thereafter decided to expand the rail lines.

[[File:James J. Hill.jpg|150px|thumb|Hill c. 1890]]

==="Empire Builder"===
Between 1883 and 1889, Hill built his railroads across [[Minnesota]], into [[Wisconsin]], and across [[North Dakota]] to [[Montana]].

When there was not enough industry in the areas Hill was building, Hill brought the industry in, often by buying out a company and placing plants along his railroad lines. By 1889, Hill decided that his future lay in expanding into a [[transcontinental railroad]].

"What we want," Hill is quoted as saying, "is the best possible line, shortest distance, lowest grades, and least curvature we can build. We do not care enough for [[Rocky Mountains]] scenery to spend a large sum of money developing it."<ref>{{cite book |title= James J. Hill and the opening of the Northwest|last= Marin |first= Albro |year= 1991 |publisher= Minnesota Historical Society Press |isbn= 0-87351-261-8 |page= 366}}</ref> Hill got what he wanted, and in January 1893 his [[Great Northern Railway (U.S.)|Great Northern Railway]], running from St. Paul, Minnesota to Seattle, Washington — a distance of more than {{convert|1700|mi|km}} — was completed. The Great Northern was the first transcontinental built without public money and just a few [[land grant]]s, and was one of the few transcontinental railroads not to go bankrupt.

Hill chose to build his railroad north of the competing Northern Pacific line, which had reached the Pacific Northwest over much more difficult terrain with more bridges, steeper grades, and tunnelling. Hill did much of the route planning himself, travelling over proposed routes on horseback. The key to the Great Northern line was Hill's use of the previously unmapped [[Marias Pass]]. The pass had initially been described by Lewis and Clark in 1805, but no one since had been able to find it so Hill hired Santiago Jameson to search it out. Jameson discovered the pass 1889 and it shortened the Great Northern's route by almost one hundred miles.{{sfnp|Folsom|2003|p=28}} The pass had been discovered by [[John Frank Stevens]], principal engineer of the Great Northern Railway, in December 1889, and offered an easier route across the Rockies than that taken by the Northern Pacific.

The Great Northern reached Seattle on January 7, 1893.<ref name="ws">{{cite book |last1=Speidel |first1=William |title=Sons of the Profits |date=1967 |publisher=Nettle Creek Publishing Company |location=Seattle |pages=182, 203–209}}</ref>

In 1898 Hill purchased control of large parts of the [[Mesabi Range]] iron mining district in Minnesota, along with its rail lines. The Great Northern began large-scale shipment of ore to the steel mills of the Midwest.<ref>Don L. Hofsommer, "Ore Docks and Trains: The Great Northern Railway and the Mesabi Range," ''Railroad History'' (1996) Issue 174, pp 5-25</ref>

====Settlements====
The Great Northern energetically promoted settlement along its lines in North Dakota and Montana, especially by Germans and Scandinavians from Europe. The Great Northern bought its lands from the federal government—it received no land grants—and resold them to farmers at cheap prices. It operated agencies in Germany and Scandinavia that promoted its lands, and brought families over at low cost. Hill also invested in founding schools and churches for these communities and promoted a variety of progressive techniques to ensure they prospered.<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Robber Barons|url=https://archive.org/details/robberbaronsgrea00jose|url-access=registration|last=Josephson|first=Matthew|publisher=Harcourt, Brace and Company|year=1934|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/robberbaronsgrea00jose/page/237 237]}}</ref> This "Dakota Boom" peaked in 1882 as 42,000 immigrants, largely from northern Europe, poured into the Red River Valley running through the region.<ref>{{Cite book|title=James J. Hill: Empire Builder of the Northwest|last=Malone|first=Michael|publisher=University of Oklahoma|year=1996|isbn=0-8061-2860-7|location=Norman|pages=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjhill00mich/page/27 27]|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjhill00mich/page/27}}</ref> The rapidly increasing settlement in North Dakota's [[Red River Valley]] along the Minnesota border between 1871 and 1890 was a major example of large-scale "bonanza" farming.[8][9][10]

===Hill Lines in the 1890s===
Six months after the railroad reached Seattle came the deep nationwide depression called the [[Panic of 1893]].{{sfnp|Martin|1976|ps= Chap.14}} Hill's leadership became a case study in the successful management of a capital-intensive business during the economic downturn. In order to ensure that he did not lose his patronage during the crisis, Hill lowered rail tariff shipping rates for farmers and gave credit to many of the businesses he owned so they could continue paying their workers and starting a "10 dollar trip" (equal to ${{Inflation|US|10|1893|r=2}} today) for immigrants. He also took strong measures to economize—in just one year, Hill cut the railway's expense of carrying a ton of freight by 13%. Because of these measures, Hill not only stayed in business, but also increased the net worth of his railroad by nearly $10,000,000 (equal to ${{Inflation|US|10000000|1893|fmt=c}} today). Meanwhile, nearly every other transcontinental railroad went bankrupt. His ability to ride out the depression garnered him fame and admiration. Hill saved money by repeatedly cutting wages, made possible by a time of deflation when prices were falling generally.{{sfnp|Martin|1976|p=414-415}}

In 1893, Hill began the process of looking for a source of labor other than Chinese workers. For a brief period of time, he hired Italian and Greek laborers, but company officials were not satisfied with their performance. Hill sent emissaries to the Pacific who found that Japan had the most potential in the market of "Oriental Trade," and he decided to capitalize on this opportunity.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Pacific Connections|last=Chang|first=Kornel|publisher=University of California Press|year=2012|isbn=9780520271685|pages=59}}</ref>

In this time he also began to focus his energies on securing trade with Asian countries. He offered Japanese Industrialists Southern cotton and would even ship it for free if they would compare it with the short staple cotton they were using with the promise of a refund if they were dissatisfied, which they were not. With these friendly relations established, Hill managed to secure the industrializing Japanese order for 15,000 tons of rails against competition from England and Belgium. From 1886 to 1905, American exports to Japan leapt from $7.7 million a year (equal to ${{Inflation|US|7700000|1886|fmt=c}} today) to $51.7 million, equal to ${{Inflation|US|51700000|1905|fmt=c}} today.{{sfnp|Folsom|2003|p=35}}

Leonard says that after 1900 Hill exhibited poor business judgment regarding one Canadian subsidiary, the Vancouver, Westminster and Yukon Railway Company (VW&Y). He ousted its president John Hendry, thereby worsening the problems, prolonging the delays, and adding to the costs of taking over the VW&Y. Hill's top aides were careless about details, bookkeeping, correspondence, and reports.<ref>Frank Leonard, "Railroading a Renegade: Great Northern Ousts John Hendry in Vancouver," ''BC Studies'' (2007), Issue 155, pp 69-92.</ref>

===The Northern Pacific and the "short squeeze" of 1901===
With 1901 and the start of the new century, James Hill now had control of both the Great Northern Railway, and the [[Northern Pacific Railway|Northern Pacific]] (which he had obtained with the help of his friend [[J. P. Morgan]], when that railroad went bankrupt in the depression of the mid-1890s).<ref name="Pyle. 1918"/> Hill also wanted control of the [[Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad|Chicago, Burlington and Quincy railroad]] because of its Midwestern lines and access to Chicago. The [[Union Pacific Railroad]] was the biggest competitor of Great Northern and Northern Pacific Railroads. Although Great Northern and Northern Pacific were backed by J. P. Morgan and James J. Hill, the Union Pacific was backed not only by its president, [[Edward H. Harriman]], but by the extremely powerful [[William Rockefeller]] and [[Jacob Schiff]].

Quietly, Harriman began buying stock in Northern Pacific with the intention of gaining control of Chicago, Burlington, and Quincy. He was within 40,000 shares of control when Hill learned of Harriman's activities and quickly contacted J. P. Morgan, who ordered his men to buy everything they could get their hands on.

The result was chaos on Wall Street. Northern Pacific stock was forced up to $1,000 per share. Many speculators, who had sold Northern Pacific "[[short selling|short]]" in the anticipation of a drop in the railroad's price, faced ruin. The threat of a real economic panic loomed. Neither side could win a distinct advantage, and the parties soon realized that a truce would have to be called. The winners of that truce were Hill and Morgan, who immediately formed the [[Northern Securities Company]] with the aim of tying together their three major rail lines. As the Hill-Morgan alliance formed the Northern Securities Company, [[Theodore Roosevelt]] became president and turned his energies against the great trusts that were monopolizing trade.

===The Hill Lines survive the trust-busting era===
Roosevelt sent his Justice Department to sue the Northern Securities Company in 1902. The Supreme Court [[Northern Securities Co. v. United States|in 1904 ordered it to be dissolved]] as a monopoly. (Ironically, the Burlington Route, Northern Pacific, and Great Northern would later merge in 1970 to form the [[Burlington Northern Railroad]].) This ended Hill's ability to maintain competitive rates in Asian countries and in the subsequent two years American trade with Japan and China dropped 40% (or $41 million).{{sfnp|Folsom|2003|p=28}} Hill moved on without the benefit of a central company, and acquired the [[Colorado and Southern Railway]] lines into Texas. He also built the [[Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway]]. By the time of his death in 1916, James J. Hill was worth more than $63 million, equivalent to ${{Inflation|US|63000000|1916|fmt=c}} today, and over $200 million in related assets.<ref name="mnhs.org"/> When his estate was divided his widow received over $16 million, and each of his children received almost $4 million; $1.5 million was paid in income and inheritance taxes.<ref name=":02">{{Cite book|title=James J. Hill: Empire Builder of the Northwest|last=Malone|first=Michael|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press|year=1996|isbn=0-8061-2860-7|location=Norman|pages=[https://archive.org/details/jamesjhill00mich/page/271 271–272]|url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjhill00mich/page/271}}</ref>

The [[Great Northern Railway (U.S.)|Great Northern Railway]] and the [[Northern Pacific Railway|Northern Pacific]] tried to merge four times, in 1896, 1901, 1927, and 1955. This last attempt lasted from 1955 until final Supreme Court approval and merger in March 1970, which created the [[Burlington Northern Railroad]]. In 1995, Burlington Northern merged with the [[Atchison, Topeka and Santa Fe Railway]] to become the [[Burlington Northern and Santa Fe Railway]].

===Family life===
In 1867, James J. Hill married Mary Theresa Mehegan, a Roman Catholic (born 1846, New York City); they had ten children:

# Mary Frances "Mamie" (Hill) Hill (1869–1947), who married [[Samuel Hill]] of Washington D.C. and Seattle. Samuel Hill was an executive at the Great Northern Railway when he married Mary Hill.
# James Norman "Jimmy" Hill (1870–1932) of New York City, married socialite [[Marguerite Sawyer Davis|Marguerite Sawyer]]. His family did not attend the wedding reportedly owing to Marguerite's status as a divorcee.
# [[Louis W. Hill|Louis Warren Hill]] (1872–1948) of St. Paul, Minnesota, who was named president of the GN in 1907 and board chairman in 1912. He married Maud Van Cortlandt Taylor.
# Clara Anne (Hill) Lindley (1873–1947), who married E. C. Lindley of St. Paul, Minnesota, who was vice-president, counsel general, and a member of the board of directors of the Great Northern Railway.
# Katherine Theresa Hill (1875–1876; died in infancy)
# Charlotte Elizabeth (Hill) Slade (1877–1923), who married George T. Slade of New York City and St. Paul, Minnesota. George T. Slade was an executive at The Great Northern Railway and Yale classmate of Louis W. Hill.
# Ruth (Hill) Beard (1879–1959), who married Anson McCook Beard of New York City.
# Rachel (Hill) Boeckmann (1881–1967), who married Egil Boeckmann of St. Paul, Minnesota.
# Gertrude (Hill) Gavin (1883–1961), who married Michael Gavin of New York City.
# Walter Jerome Hill (1885–1944) of St. Paul, Minnesota. [[Walthill, Nebraska]], was named for Walter.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.casde.unl.edu/history/counties/thurston/walthill/ | title=Walthill, Thurston County | publisher=University of Nebraska | work=Center for Advanced Land Management Information Technologies | access-date=August 23, 2014 | archive-date=August 2, 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150802222050/http://www.casde.unl.edu/history/counties/thurston/walthill/ | url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Death==
By early 1916, Hill began pouring more attention into philanthropy, donating thousands of dollars to various institutions as he privately struggled with a variety of increasingly painful ailments. His condition deteriorated quickly in mid-May, but even with the help of many respected doctors he was beyond saving.<ref name=":02"/> After falling into a coma, he died in his home in [[St. Paul, Minnesota]], on May 29, 1916.[14] Mary Theresa Hill died in 1922 and was buried next to her husband by the shore of Pleasant Lake on their [[North Oaks Farm|North Oaks farm]].

==Hill's legacy==
{{blockquote|Give me Swedes, snuff and whiskey, and I'll build a railroad through hell.|Attributed to James J. Hill<ref name=Osterberg>{{cite web|last1=Osterberg|first1=Ray E.|title=Scandinavians in the Northwest|url=http://www.narhist.ewu.edu/pnf/articles/s1/v-2/scandanavians/scandanavians.html|website=An Historian's Home Page|publisher=J. William T. Youngs|access-date=21 December 2015|ref=Osterberg|archive-date=January 31, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160131195446/http://www.narhist.ewu.edu/pnf/articles/s1/v-2/scandanavians/scandanavians.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>}}

Politically, Hill was a conservative [[Bourbon Democrat]]. The Democratic Party's continued enchantment with the populist [[William Jennings Bryan]] led Hill to support Republican presidential candidates [[William McKinley]] (1896 and 1900), [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (1904), and [[William Howard Taft]] (1908 and 1912). Hill was a supporter of [[free trade]] and was one of the few supporters of free trade with Canada.

In St. Paul, the city's main library building and the adjoining Hill Business Library were funded by him. In addition, he donated to numerous schools, including the [[Saint Paul Seminary School of Divinity|Saint Paul Seminary]]. Hill was a member of the [[Jekyll Island Club]] (aka The Millionaires Club) on [[Jekyll Island]], [[Georgia (U.S. state)|Georgia]], along with [[J. P. Morgan]] and [[William Rockefeller]].

[[File:James J. Hill House (1).jpg|thumb|[[James J. Hill House|Hill's former home]] at 240 [[Summit Avenue (St. Paul)|Summit Avenue]] in St. Paul, Minnesota]]
[[File:Hill House Portrait.jpg|thumb|Portrait of Hill, located in the library of his former home]]
[[File:Gray Hill 2448657007 54a7d4a729 (cropped).jpg|thumb|Hill and [[Carl Raymond Gray]] c. 1913]]
In 1891, after three years of building, construction was completed on Hill's new family home at 240 [[Summit Avenue (St. Paul)|Summit Avenue]] in St. Paul. Over 400 workers labored on the project. Built at a cost of $930,000 and with {{convert|36000|sqft|m2}}, the [[James J. Hill House]] was among the city's largest. As with his business dealings, Hill supervised the construction and design himself, hiring and firing several architects in the process. The house has many early electrical and mechanical systems that predate widespread adoption in modern domestic structures.

Upon completion of the Summit Avenue residence, Hill had the family's old house, which he had constructed in 1878, razed. After the death of Hill's wife in 1921, the house was donated to the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Saint Paul and Minneapolis]]. It was obtained by the [[Minnesota Historical Society]] in 1978 and today is operated as a museum and gallery.

Though a [[Protestant]], Hill maintained a strong [[philanthropic]] relationship with the [[Catholic Church]] in St. Paul and throughout the northwest. Hill's historic home is located next to the cathedral, largely due to the special relationship Hill's wife, a practicing Catholic, had with the Diocese. The Hills maintained close ties with Archbishop [[John Ireland (bishop)|John Ireland]], and Hill was a major contributor to the Saint Paul Seminary, [[Macalester College]], [[Hamline University]], the [[University of St. Thomas (Minnesota)|University of St. Thomas]], [[Carleton College]], and other educational, religious and charitable organizations. He was the first major donor to the Marquette University School of Medicine.

In order to generate business for his railroad, Hill encouraged European immigrants to settle along his line, often paying for Russian and Scandinavian settlers to travel from Europe. To promote settlement and revenue for his rail business, Hill experimented with [[agriculture]] and worked to [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridize]] Russian wheat for Dakota soil and weather conditions. He also ran model experimental farms in Minnesota, such as [[North Oaks, Minnesota|North Oaks]], to develop superior livestock and crop yields for the settlers locating near his railroads.

An enthusiastic conservationist, Hill was invited by President Theodore Roosevelt to a governors' conference on conservation of natural resources, and later appointed to a lands commission.

Drawing on his experience in the development of Minnesota's Iron Range, Hill was, during 1911–1912, in close contact with [[Gaspard Farrer]] of [[Barings Bank|Baring Brothers & Company]] of London regarding the formation of the Brazilian Iron Ore Company to tap that nation's rich mineral deposits.

Near the end of his life, Hill played what a recent [[biographer]], Albro Martin, called his "last and greatest role." After the first punishing year of [[World War I]], the [[Allies of World War I|Allied Powers]] desperately needed financial support to continue the war effort. To that end, Hill was a major figure in the effort launched by J.P. Morgan to float the [[Anglo-French Bond]] drive of 1915, which allowed the Allies to purchase much-needed foodstuffs and other supplies. In September 1915, the first public loan, the $500,000,000 Anglo-French loan, was floated after negotiations with the [[Anglo-French Financial Commission]]. Concomitantly, the resulting trade in munitions with England and France carried the United States from a depression in 1914 to boom years in 1915 and 1916.<ref>See [http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/barnesww1.shtml Harry Elmer Barnes: The World War of 1914–1918] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927201051/http://tmh.floonet.net/articles/barnesww1.shtml |date=September 27, 2007 }} at tmh.floonet.net</ref>

[[Hillsboro, North Dakota]]; [[Hill County, Montana]]; and [[Hillyard, Spokane, Washington|Hillyard, Washington]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Meany|first=Edmond S.|title=Origin of Washington geographic names|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015027074981;view=1up;seq=130|year=1923|publisher=University of Washington Press|location=Seattle|page=114}}</ref> (now a neighborhood of [[Spokane, Washington|Spokane]]), are named for him. [[Jim Hill Mountain]] near Stevens Pass in the Cascade Range is named after him, also. The introduced crop weed in Western US wheat-growing areas [[Sisymbrium altissimum]] also has a common name "Jim Hill Mustard", after the belief by farmers that it was spread from contaminated seed leaking out of railway stock along the railroads he controlled.<ref>{{cite AV media |people=Sadis, Stephen & Kegley, Kyle |date=2022 |title=The EMPIRE BUILDER |url=https://greatnorthernfilmworks.com/ |format=DVD |publisher=Great Northern Filmworks }}</ref>

In 1929, the Great Northern Railway inaugurated a long-distance passenger train extending from Chicago to Seattle, and named it the ''[[Empire Builder]]'' in his honor. The train served as Great Northern's flagship train, and is still operated today by [[Amtrak]]. using former Great Northern tracks west of St. Paul. The [[James J. Hill House]] in St. Paul, is a [[National Historic Landmark]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.mnhs.org/places/sites/jjhh/history/house.htm|title=Hill House: James J. Hill House|publisher=[[Minnesota Historical Society]]|access-date=December 16, 2008}}</ref>

In 1887, the Great Northern's first company headquarters building was constructed in St. Paul. It was designed by [[James Brodie (architect)|James Brodie]], who also built the Hill house on Summit Avenue. The 1887 building was converted between 2000 and 2004 to a 53 unit condo in the [[Lowertown Historic District (Saint Paul, Minnesota)|Historic Lowertown District of St. Paul]].<ref>See [http://www.yourstpaulhome.com/GreatNorthernLofts Great Northern Lofts - Condo and Loft Directory] at http://www.yourstpaulhome.com</ref> Hill had seen the devastation done downtown by the [[Great Chicago Fire]]. As a result, one feature Hill integrated into the construction of the 1887 company headquarters (the Great Northern General Office Building) was barrel-vaulted ceilings constructed of brick and railroad steel rails that held up a layer of sand several inches deep. The theory was that if a fire broke out and the ceiling caved in, the sand would drop and retard or suppress the fire.

Hill was intimately involved in the planning and construction (1914–1916) of a new company headquarters in St. Paul (to be known as the Great Northern Office Building), which was to house the corporate staffs of the Great Northern, the Northern Pacific and Hill's banking enterprises. The 14-story building cost $14 million to construct.

Hill's heirs established the [[James J. Hill Reference Library]] in St. Paul,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.startribune.com/business/11209771.html|title=James Hill legacy a wealth of information|author=Todd Nelson|date=August 12, 2007|work=Star Tribune|access-date=February 7, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091023064552/http://www.startribune.com/business/11209771.html|archive-date=October 23, 2009}}</ref> which is considered by the [[Small Business Administration]] the premier source for publicly accessible practical business information in the United States, and many SBA programs rely on the Hill Library's HillSearch service to provide business information resources to small businesses nationwide. The Hill Library has developed numerous online programs and now serves millions of small business owners worldwide.

In ''[[The Great Gatsby]]'', Hill is the man whom Gatsby's father says Gatsby would have equalled if he had lived long enough.

Hill and his railway are mentioned in the [[Harry McClintock]] song "[[Hallelujah, I'm a Bum]]."

In 1959, Hill High in St. Paul, Minnesota, was established as a school from the funds set aside from Hill's wife for education. The school, which was all-male, consolidated in 1971 with the all-female Archbishop Murray School to form [[Hill-Murray School]] in Maplewood, Minnesota.

[http://www.hillcapitalcorp.com/ Hill Capital] is a venture capital fund established in 2016 "aligned with James J. Hill's belief in the cooperation of the production, distribution and exchange of wealth as outlined in his writings".<ref name="hill_capital">{{Cite web |title=Hill Capital Corporation |url=https://www.hillcapitalcorp.com/ |access-date=2024-01-26 |website=Hill Capital Corporation |language=en-US}}</ref> The Hill library owns 75 shares.<ref name="offering_circular">{{Cite web |url=http://www.hillcapitalcorp.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Hill-Capital-Corporation-Offering-Circular-Feb-1-2016.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=September 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160925013739/http://www.hillcapitalcorp.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/02/Hill-Capital-Corporation-Offering-Circular-Feb-1-2016.pdf |archive-date=September 25, 2016 |url-status=dead }}</ref> As of September 2016, the fund is not yet closed.

In 1958, he was inducted into the [[Hall of Great Westerners]] of the [[National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum]].<ref>{{cite web |title=Hall of Great Westerners |url=https://nationalcowboymuseum.org/hall-of-great-westerners/ |website=National Cowboy & Western Heritage Museum |access-date=November 22, 2019}}</ref>

A bust of Hill is located on the [[University of Washington]] campus in [[Seattle]], [[Washington (state)|Washington]]. It is currently situated in front of More Hall, which is adjacent to the former [[More Hall Annex|on campus nuclear reactor building]].

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography}}
* [https://www.findagrave.com/memorial/5486/james-jerome-hill Find a Grave, James J. Hill]
* [[Charles T. Hinde]] railroad executive, founder of the [[Hotel del Coronado]], and long time friend of James J. Hill.
* [[Pierce Butler (justice)]]
* [[List of railroad executives]]
* [[James J. Hill Sapphire]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book |last=Folsom |first=Burton W. |date=2003 |title=The Myth of the Robber Barons: A New Look at the Rise of Big Business in America |location=Herdon, VA |publisher=Young America's Foundation |isbn=978-0-9630-2031-4 |oclc=260332319 |url=https://archive.org/details/mythofrobberbaro00fols }}
* Haeg, Larry, ''Harriman vs Hill: Wall Street's Great Railroad War.'' (U of Minnesota Press, 2013)
* Holbrook, Stewart H. ''James J. Hill: a great life in brief'' (Epicenter Press, 2018).

* Joslin-Zirngible, Rachel. "James J. Hill: Philanthropy and Reputation in Twentieth Century St. Paul." (PhD Diss. U of Wisconsin 2015) [https://minds.wisconsin.edu/bitstream/handle/1793/72772/Joslin-Zirngible_Rachel_2015.pdf?sequence=1&isAllowed=y online].

* Malone, Michael P., ''James J. Hill: Empire Builder of the Northwest.'' (Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press, 1996).
* {{cite book |last=Martin |first=Albro |title=James J. Hill and the Opening of the Northwest |url=https://archive.org/details/jamesjhillope00albr |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=1976 }}
* Pyle, Joseph G. "James J. Hill" ''Minnesota History Bulletin'' 2#5 (1918), pp. 295–323. [http://www.jstor.org/stable/20160249 online] short scholarly biography
* Pyle, Joseph Gilpin. ''The Life of James J. Hill'' (2 vol 1917)
**[https://archive.org/details/cu31924092564644 online vol 1]; also [https://archive.org/details/lifejamesjhill00pylegoog online vol 2]; long scholarly biography
** [https://www.jstor.org/stable/pdf/20160243.pdf online review]
* Schonberger, Howard. "James J. Hill and the Trade with the Orient." ''Minnesota History'' 41.4 (1968): 178–190. [https://collections.mnhs.org/mnhistorymagazine/articles/41/v41i04p178-190.pdf online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230531044833/https://collections.mnhs.org/mnhistorymagazine/articles/41/v41i04p178-190.pdf |date=May 31, 2023 }}
* Sherman, T. Gary, ''Conquest and Catastrophe: The Triumph and tragedy of the Great Northern Railway Through Stevens Pass'', AuthorHouse, 2004.
*{{cite book |first=Robert |last=Sobel |author-link=Robert Sobel |title=The Entrepreneurs: Explorations Within the American Business Tradition |location=New York |publisher=Weybright & Talley |year=1974 |chapter=James J. Hill : The Business of Empire |pages=[https://archive.org/details/entrepreneursexp00sobe/page/110 110–147] |isbn=0-679-40064-8 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/entrepreneursexp00sobe/page/110 }}
*{{cite book|last=White|first=Richard|author-link=Richard White (historian)|title=Railroaded: The Transcontinentals and the Making of Modern America|publisher=W. W. Norton & Company|date=2011|isbn=978-0-393-06126-0|url=https://archive.org/details/railroadedtransc00whit_0}}
* White, W. Thomas. "A Gilded Age Businessman in Politics: James J. Hill, the Northwest, and the American Presidency, 1884-1912," ''Pacific Historical Review,'' vol. 57, no. 4 (Nov. 1988), pp. 439–456. [https://www.jstor.org/stable/3640376 In JSTOR]
* {{cite book|last=Wills|first=Jocelyn|title=Boosters, Hustlers, and Speculators: Entrepreneurial Culture and the Rise of Minneapolis and St. Paul, 1849-1883|publisher=Minnesota Historical Society Press|date=2005|isbn=978-0-87351-510-8}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101128035128/http://rchs.com/dutiful_son%20Louis%20Hill.htm Dutiful Son: Louis W. Hill Sr. Book], Book about Louis W. Hill Sr., son and successor of empire builder James J. Hill at Ramsey County Historical Society.

===Primary Sources===

* {{cite web |last=JJ Hill Papers |title=James J. Hill; An Inventory of His Papers at the Minnesota Historical Society|url=http://www.mnhs.org/library/findaids/00698.xml |publisher=Minnesota Historical Society }}
* [http://www.mnhs.org/library/findaids/00901.xml Great Northern Railway Company Records], Minnesota Historical Society.
* [http://www.mnhs.org/library/findaids/01010.xml Northern Pacific Railway Corporate Records], Minnesota Historical Society.

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
{{NIE Poster|Hill, James J.|James J. Hill}}

* [http://www.mnopedia.org/person/hill-mary-theresa-mehegan-1846-1921 Mary Theresa Mehegan Hill in MNopedia, the Minnesota Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.mnopedia.org/person/hill-james-j-1838-1916 James J. Hill in MNopedia, the Minnesota Encyclopedia]
* [http://www.historylink.org/essays/output.cfm?file_id=7294 James J. Hill Washington State History]
* [http://www.jjhill.org James J. Hill Reference Library]
* [http://www.railserve.com/JJHill.html James J. Hill and the Building of His Railroad Empire]
* [https://archive.today/20130129161711/http://www.neo-tech.com/neotech/global/appendix4.html The Destruction of a Wealth and Jobs Creator by Parasitical-Elites] A criticism of government intervention in the business of Hill
* [http://www.biographi.ca/009004-119.01-e.php?&id_nbr=7445 Biography at the ''Dictionary of Canadian Biography Online'']
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060101011950/http://www.americanhistory.si.edu/archives/d8334.htm James J. Hill Scrapbook, 1916] Archives Center, National Museum of American History, Smithsonian Institution.
* {{YouTube|QTjEceZfjFE|Webvideo:James J. Hill and the Building of the Stone Arch Bridge}}
* [https://mises.org/daily/2317 The Truth About the "Robber Barons"] A discussion of Hill's building of the transcontinental railroad by [[Thomas DiLorenzo]]
* {{Cite Americana|wstitle=Hill, James Jerome |short=x}}
* {{Cite NSRW|wstitle=Hill, James Jerome |short=x}}
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=James Jerome Hill |sopt=t}}
* {{Librivox author |id=869}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hill, James J.}}
[[Category:1838 births]]
[[Category:1916 deaths]]
[[Category:19th-century American railroad executives]]
[[Category:People from Wellington County, Ontario]]
[[Category:Emigrants from pre-Confederation Ontario to the United States]]
[[Category:20th-century American railroad executives]]
[[Category:Pre-Confederation Canadian businesspeople]]
[[Category:Canadian people of Ulster-Scottish descent]]
[[Category:Great Northern Railway (U.S.)]]
[[Category:Spokane, Portland and Seattle Railway]]
[[Category:Northern Pacific Railway people]]
[[Category:Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad people]]
[[Category:Persons of National Historic Significance (Canada)]]
[[Category:Businesspeople from Saint Paul, Minnesota]]
[[Category:Minnesota Democrats]]

John McEntee (political aide)

2024-06-19T04:52:48Z

ExtravagAunt:

{{Short description|American political advisor (born 1990)}}
{{use mdy dates|date=December 2023}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| name = John McEntee
| image = John McEntee in office.jpg
| caption = McEntee in April 2019
| office = Director of the [[White House Presidential Personnel Office]]
| president = [[Donald Trump]]
| termstart = January 8, 2020
| termend = January 20, 2021
| predecessor = Jordan Karem
| successor = [[Catherine M. Russell]]
| office2 = Personal Aide to the President
| termend2 = March 13, 2018
| termstart2 = January 20, 2017
| president2 = [[Donald Trump]]
| predecessor2 = Joe Paulsen
| successor2 = Jordan Karem
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1990|05|09}}
| birth_place = [[Fullerton, California]], U.S.
| party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
| education = [[University of Connecticut]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|BA]])
}}

'''John David McEntee II''' (born May 9, 1990) is an American political advisor and dating app CEO who served in the [[Presidency of Donald Trump|Trump administration]]. He has been a Trump loyalist during and after the Trump presidency.<ref>{{cite news |title=Behind the Curtain: Trump allies pre-screen loyalists for unprecedented power grab |url=https://www.axios.com/2023/11/13/trump-loyalists-2024-presidential-election |work=Axios |date=November 13, 2023|author1=Josh Dawsey|author2=Juliet Eilperin|author3=John Hudson|author4=Lisa Rein|quote=A staunch Trump loyalist}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last1=Baker |first1=Peter |title=Trump's Efforts to Remove the Disloyal Heightens Unease Across His Administration |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/22/us/politics/trump-disloyalty-turnover.html |work=The New York Times |date=February 22, 2020|quote=}}</ref> He began as a [[body man]] and [[personal aide]] to the president but was dismissed by [[White House Chief of Staff]] [[John F. Kelly]] in March 2018 after failing a security clearance background check, which discovered he was under investigation by the [[United States Department of Homeland Security|Department of Homeland Security]] due to issues related to gambling.<ref name="theatlantic.com">https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/11/trump-johnny-mcentee-january-6-betrayal/620646/</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.cnn.com/2018/03/13/politics/john-mcentee-white-house-security-clearance/index.html|title=Longtime Trump aide fired over financial crime investigation | CNN Politics|first1=Kaitlan|last1=Collins|authorlink1=Kaitlan Collins|first2=Jeremy|last2=Diamond|authorlink2=Jeremy Diamond|first3=Jeff|last3=Zeleny|authorlink3=Jeff Zeleny|date=March 13, 2018|website=CNN|access-date=November 9, 2021|archive-date=February 18, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190218130327/https://www.cnn.com/2018/03/13/politics/john-mcentee-white-house-security-clearance/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="Wisckol" /><ref>{{cite web |last=Wisckol |first=Martin |date=January 23, 2017 |accessdate=February 8, 2017 |title=Trump Appointments as of 1/19 |url=http://www.washington.edu/federalrelations/2017/01/23/7059/ |website=washington.edu |publisher=[[University of Washington]] |archive-date=November 6, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211106212052/https://www.washington.edu/federalrelations/2017/01/23/7059/ |url-status=live }}</ref><ref name="Dayton">{{cite web |last1=Dayton |first1=Kels |title=Former UConn quarterback Johnny 'Trick Shot' McEntee hired to Trump security team |url-status=dead |url=http://sportzedge.com/2017/01/04/former-uconn-quarterback-johnny-trick-shot-mcentee-hired-to-trump-security-team/ |date=January 4, 2017 |accessdate=February 8, 2017 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20170827234759/http://sportzedge.com/2017/01/04/former-uconn-quarterback-johnny-trick-shot-mcentee-hired-to-trump-security-team/ |archive-date=2017-08-27 |work= SportzEdge.com | publisher= [[WTNH]]}}</ref>

After Kelly was dismissed in December 2018, [[Donald Trump]] rehired McEntee and named him Director of the [[White House Presidential Personnel Office]] in February 2020.<ref name="atlantic">{{Cite web|last=Karl|first=Jonathan D.|authorlink=Jonathan Karl|date=2021-11-09|title=The Man Who Made January 6 Possible|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/11/trump-johnny-mcentee-january-6-betrayal/620646/|access-date=2021-11-09|work=[[The Atlantic]]|language=en|archive-date=2021-11-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211109210706/https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/11/trump-johnny-mcentee-january-6-betrayal/620646/|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name = Tenpas /><ref name = Return2WHb>{{cite web|url=https://www.axios.com/johnny-mcentee-white-house-d1c29eee-8b0a-4c4d-8ba4-9355f3c27f4f.html|title=Ex-Trump aide John McEntee to lead White House office of personnel|last=Treene|first=Alayna|website=[[Axios.com]]|date=13 February 2020|access-date=February 13, 2020|archive-date=16 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211016033727/https://www.axios.com/johnny-mcentee-white-house-d1c29eee-8b0a-4c4d-8ba4-9355f3c27f4f.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name = Return2WHc>{{cite news|url=https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/482959-trumps-former-personal-assistant-to-oversee-white-house-personnel|title=Trump's former personal assistant to oversee White House personnel office|last=Conradis|first=Brandon|date=2020-02-13|website=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|accessdate=February 13, 2020|archive-date=2020-12-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201224053826/https://thehill.com/homenews/administration/482959-trumps-former-personal-assistant-to-oversee-white-house-personnel|url-status=live}}</ref> After leaving the [[White House]], McEntee founded [[The Right Stuff (app)|The Right Stuff]], a dating app for conservatives, which he leads as CEO. Through his promotion of the app on TikTok and Instagram, McEntee has become a social media user, having amassed millions of followers to his social media handle "@DateRightStuff".<ref name="rollingstone.com">https://www.rollingstone.com/politics/politics-features/john-mcentee-poised-role-trump-administration-1235021174/</ref><ref>https://www.tiktok.com/@daterightstuff?lang=en</ref>{{primary source inline|date=June 2024}}<ref>https://www.instagram.com/daterightstuff/?hl=en</ref>{{primary source inline|date=June 2024}}

== Early life and education ==
McEntee was raised in a [[Catholic Church|Roman Catholic]] family in [[Fullerton, California]].<ref name="PoliticoPlayed"/> His father is John D. McEntee, a producer and manager who books celebrities for private and corporate functions, as well as for resorts including the [[MGM Resorts International|MGM Resorts]], [[Caesars Palace]], and [[The Venetian Las Vegas|Venetian]] Properties.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.ocregister.com/2012/05/25/entertainment-producer-donates-big-act-to-church-fest/|title=Entertainment producer donates big act to church fest|date=May 25, 2012|work=[[Orange County Register]]|via=ocregister.com|access-date=January 13, 2018|language=en-US|archive-date=April 11, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210411013207/https://www.ocregister.com/2012/05/25/entertainment-producer-donates-big-act-to-church-fest/|url-status=live}}</ref> He first attended St. Angela Merici Parish School in [[Brea, California]], and then attended [[Servite High School]] in [[Anaheim, California|Anaheim]], where he played quarterback on the varsity football team.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.maxpreps.com/athlete/john-mcentee/WJSq8PTvEeKZ5AAmVebBJg/default.htm|title=John McEntee's High School Timeline|work=MaxPreps.com|language=en-US|access-date=January 13, 2018|archive-date=July 15, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200715130156/https://www.maxpreps.com/athlete/john-mcentee/WJSq8PTvEeKZ5AAmVebBJg/default.htm|url-status=live}}</ref>

McEntee was a [[redshirt (college sports)|redshirt]] his first year at the [[University of Connecticut]], and completed his communications degree in the spring of his senior year.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/GPO-J6-TRANSCRIPT-CTRL0000060752/pdf/GPO-J6-TRANSCRIPT-CTRL0000060752.pdf|title=SELECT COMMITTEE TO INVESTIGATE THE JANUARY 6TH ATTACK ON THE U.S. CAPITOL, U.S. HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES, WASHINGTON, D.C. DEPOSITION OF: JOHN MCENTEE|website=govinfo.gov|date=March 28, 2022|access-date=May 31, 2023}}</ref> He played [[college football]] for the [[UConn Huskies football|Huskies]], but was used sparingly in his first two seasons.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://uconnhuskies.com/sports/football/roster/johnny-mcentee/2816|title=#18 JOHNNY MCENTEE|publisher=UConn Huskies|access-date=May 31, 2023}}</ref> McEntee would be named the starting quarterback during the [[2011 Connecticut Huskies football team|2011 season]], after a strong performance against [[2011 Buffalo Bulls football team|Buffalo]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/college-football/recap?gameId=312740041|title=Johnny McEntee should emerge as starting QB at UConn in coming weeks|work=The Middletown Press|first=Chip|last=Malafronte|date=September 25, 2011|access-date=May 31, 2023}}</ref> In the next game against [[2011 Western Michigan Broncos football team|Western Michigan]], he recorded his season and career-high, after throwing for 300 yards and four touchdowns.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.espn.com/college-football/recap?gameId=312740041|title=Alex Carder throws for 479 yards as Western Michigan knocks off UConn|work=ESPN|via=Associated Press|date=October 1, 2011|access-date=May 31, 2023}}</ref> McEntee lost the starting job to [[College transfer|transfer]] Chandler Whitmer in the [[2012 Connecticut Huskies football team|2012 season]], and dropped down the depth chart to third-string, making just three appearances for the Huskies.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.sports-reference.com/cfb/players/johnny-mcentee-1.html|title=Johnny McEntee College Sats, School, Draft, Gamelog, Splits|work=Sports-Reference.com|access-date=May 31, 2023}}</ref>

== Career ==
In 2015, McEntee worked as a production assistant for [[Fox News]], focusing on the channel's [[social media]] accounts.<ref name="PoliticoPlayed">{{cite news |url=https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/12/01/mcentee-qb-trump-inner-circle-215989 |title=The Trick-Shot QB Who Played His Way Into Trump's Inner Circle |work=[[Politico]] |access-date=2020-10-09 |first1=Nancy |last1=Cook |first2=Ben |last2=Strauss |date=2017-12-01 |archive-date=2021-10-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211005034341/https://www.politico.com/magazine/story/2017/12/01/mcentee-qb-trump-inner-circle-215989/ |url-status=live }}</ref> He successfully lobbied for a job on the [[Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign|Trump campaign]], joining as a volunteer in July of that year, later being promoted to a full-time position as trip director.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.rollcall.com/news/politics/rising-stars-2017-administration-staffers|title=Rising Stars 2017: Administration Staffers|work=[[Roll Call]]|date=April 20, 2017|access-date=January 13, 2018|archive-date=August 28, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828053559/http://www.rollcall.com/news/politics/rising-stars-2017-administration-staffers|url-status=live}}</ref> McEntee was responsible for executing the campaign's rallies while traveling with the candidate and coordinating the campaign's travel for all staff.{{Citation needed|date=April 2023}}

After [[Donald Trump]] won the [[2016 United States presidential election|2016 election]], McEntee was asked to join his staff as an aide, serving as his [[body man]].<ref name=Wisckol>{{Cite news|work=[[Orange County Register]]|first=Martin|last=Wisckol|title=Former Servite, UConn QB and YouTube star John McEntee picked as aide to Trump|date=January 5, 2017|accessdate=January 13, 2018|url=https://www.ocregister.com/2017/01/05/former-servite-uconn-qb-and-youtube-star-john-mcentee-picked-as-aide-to-trump/|archive-date=November 11, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201111214154/https://www.ocregister.com/2017/01/05/former-servite-uconn-qb-and-youtube-star-john-mcentee-picked-as-aide-to-trump/|url-status=live}}</ref> McEntee accompanied Trump on all trips, most notably the President's trip to [[2017 Riyadh summit|Saudi Arabia in May 2017]], where "Man in red tie" (McEntee) and "#Trump's_daughter" ([[Ivanka Trump]]) were the most trending hashtags in the country.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2017-05-20|title=Man in red tie and 'Ivanka bint' Trump are Saudi Arabia's most trending topics|url=https://www.arabnews.com/node/1102191/media|access-date=2021-06-21|website=Arab News|language=en|archive-date=2020-11-28|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128045837/https://www.arabnews.com/node/1102191/media|url-status=live}}</ref>

McEntee's service in the [[White House]] ended on March 13, 2018, when he was fired due to an "unspecified security issue" that was later revealed to be an issue related to gambling.<ref name="theatlantic.com"/><ref name= BenderNYT>{{cite news|last1=Bender|first1=Michael C.|last2=Ballhaus|first2=Rebecca|authorlink2=Rebecca Ballhaus|title=Trump's Personal Assistant Is Fired: John McEntee was escorted out of White House for unspecified security issue|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/trumps-personal-assistant-is-fired-1520945928|work=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=March 13, 2018|access-date=March 13, 2018|archive-date=October 11, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211011143215/https://www.wsj.com/articles/trumps-personal-assistant-is-fired-1520945928|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=NYT2020>{{cite news|work=[[The New York Times]]|last1=Shear|first1=Michael D.|last2=Haberman|first2=Maggie|authorlink2=Maggie Haberman|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/13/us/politics/trump-roger-stone.html|title=Trump Places Loyalists in Key Jobs Inside the White House While Raging Against Enemies Outside|date=February 13, 2020|accessdate=February 13, 2020|archive-date=February 13, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200213152119/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/13/us/politics/trump-roger-stone.html|url-status=live}}</ref>

McEntee was hired by Trump's [[Donald Trump 2020 presidential campaign|2020 reelection campaign]] as a senior adviser for campaign operations. In January 2020, McEntee returned to the White House, where he shared some of his former duties with Nick Luna, the Director of [[Oval Office Operations]].<ref name=Haberman-Dec2019>{{cite news|last=Haberman|first=Maggie|author-link=Maggie Haberman|date=2019-12-14|title=Ex-Trump Aide Is Expected to Return to White House|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/14/us/politics/john-mcentee-white-house.html|access-date=2020-10-08|issn=0362-4331|archive-date=2020-10-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201009154822/https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/14/us/politics/john-mcentee-white-house.html|url-status=live}}</ref> Shortly after his return, McEntee was then promoted to Director of the [[White House Presidential Personnel Office]],<ref name=Tenpas>{{Cite web|last=Tenpas|first=Kathryn Dunn|date=2020-10-07|title=Tracking turnover in the Trump administration|url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/tracking-turnover-in-the-trump-administration/|access-date=2020-10-09|website=brookings.edu|publisher=[[Brookings Institution]]|archive-date=2018-06-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180615011944/https://www.brookings.edu/research/tracking-turnover-in-the-trump-administration/|url-status=live}}</ref> the role overseeing the President's 4,000 appointments to the federal bureaucracy. McEntee reported directly to the President and continued to hold his role as Trump's bodyman concurrently. He was tasked with identifying and removing political appointees and career officials deemed insufficiently loyal to the administration, despite having no previous personnel or people management experience.<ref name=NYT2020 /><ref name=WaPo2020>{{cite news|title=Trump embarks on expansive search for disloyalty as administration-wide purge escalates|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/were-cleaning-it-out-trump-embarks-on-expansive-search-for-disloyalty-as-administration-wide-purge-escalates/2020/02/21/870e6c56-54c1-11ea-b119-4faabac6674f_story.html|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=2020-02-22|accessdate=2020-10-09|first1=Toluse|last1=Olorunnipa|authorlink1=Toluse Olorunnipa|first2=Ashley|last2=Parker|authorlink2=Ashley Parker|authorlink3=Josh Dawsey|first3=Josh|last3=Dawsey|archive-date=2020-02-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223064348/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/were-cleaning-it-out-trump-embarks-on-expansive-search-for-disloyalty-as-administration-wide-purge-escalates/2020/02/21/870e6c56-54c1-11ea-b119-4faabac6674f_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=CNN2020>{{cite news|date=2020-02-21|accessdate=2020-10-09|title=President's new personnel head tells agencies to look out for disloyal staffers|first1=Jeremy|last1=Diamond|authorlink1=Jeremy Diamond|first2=Jim|last2=Acosta|authorlink2=Jim Acosta|first3=Kaitlan|last3=Collins|authorlink3=Kaitlan Collins|first4=Kristen|last4=Holmes|url=https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/21/politics/john-mcentee-disloyal-white-house-staffers/index.html|publisher=CNN|archive-date=2020-02-23|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200223064924/https://www.cnn.com/2020/02/21/politics/john-mcentee-disloyal-white-house-staffers/index.html|url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-white-house-purge/2020/11/13/2af12c94-25ca-11eb-8672-c281c7a2c96e_story.html|title=In Trump's final days, a 30-year-old aide purges officials seen as insufficiently loyal|first1=Josh|last1=Dawsey|first2=Juliet|last2=Eilperin|first3=John|last3=Hudson|first4=Lisa|last4=Rein|accessdate=Jan 25, 2021|newspaper=The Washington Post|archive-date=November 28, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201128090111/https://www.washingtonpost.com/politics/trump-white-house-purge/2020/11/13/2af12c94-25ca-11eb-8672-c281c7a2c96e_story.html|url-status=live}}</ref> His reappointment was controversial given the circumstances of his dismissal.<ref name="Return2WHa">{{cite news|last=Relman|first=Eliza|title=Trump just put a 29-year-old fired over allegations of financial crimes in charge of all personnel decisions|website=[[Business Insider]]|url=https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-put-john-mcentee-fired-alleged-financial-crimes-personnel-office-2020-2|access-date=February 13, 2020|archive-date=December 10, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201210001909/https://www.businessinsider.com/trump-put-john-mcentee-fired-alleged-financial-crimes-personnel-office-2020-2|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=Return2WHb /><ref name=Return2WHc /><ref>{{Cite news|work=[[The New York Times]]|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/22/us/politics/trump-disloyalty-turnover.html|title=Trump's Efforts to Remove the Disloyal Heightens Unease Across His Administration|first=Peter|last=Baker|author-link=Peter Baker (journalist)|date=February 22, 2020|accessdate=2020-10-09|archive-date=2020-02-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200222190003/https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/22/us/politics/trump-disloyalty-turnover.html|url-status=live}}</ref> On November 9, 2021, McEntee was issued a subpoena to testify by the House [[United States House Select Committee on the January 6 Attack|January 6th Committee]].<ref name="White House Officials Subpoenaed">{{cite news |url=https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/09/jan-6-riot-house-panel-subpoenas-trump-white-house-officials-mcenany.html |title=Trump press secretary Kayleigh McEnany, Stephen Miller and other ex-White House officials subpoenaed in Jan. 6 House probe |work=[[CNBC]] |access-date=2021-11-09 |first1=Dan |last1=Managan |date=2021-11-09 |archive-date=2021-11-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211110082010/https://www.cnbc.com/2021/11/09/jan-6-riot-house-panel-subpoenas-trump-white-house-officials-mcenany.html |url-status=live }}</ref> On two occasions in 2022, he appeared before the committee in a taped deposition,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/politics/live-news/january-6-hearings-june-23|title=Jan. 6 committee holds fifth hearing|work=CNN|first1=Maureen|last1=Chowdhury|first2=Elise|last2=Hammond|first3=Adrienne|last3=Vogt|first4=Meg|last4=Wagner|date=June 23, 2022|access-date=May 31, 2023}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/01/20/politics/john-mcentee-trump-grand-jury/index.html|title=January 6 committee releases final report, says Trump should be barred from office|work=CNN|first1=Zachary|last1=Cohen|first2=Annie|last2=Grayer|first3=Jeremy|last3=Herb|first4=Tierney|last4=Sneed|first5=Devan|last5=Cole|first6=Geneva|last6=Sands|first7= Katelyn|last7=Polantz|first8=Hannah|last8=Rabinowitz|date=December 23, 2023|access-date=May 31, 2023}}</ref> before returning in person in January 2023.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://edition.cnn.com/2023/01/20/politics/john-mcentee-trump-grand-jury/index.html|title=Former Trump aide John McEntee appears before grand jury on Trump-related investigations|work=CNN|first1=Paula|last1=Reid|first2=Hannah|last2=Rabinowitz|first3=Casey|last3=Gannon|first4=Kristen|last4=Holmes|date=January 20, 2023|access-date=May 31, 2023}}</ref>

McEntee has developed a loyal following with the Republican Party base for his actions within the Trump Administration. Right wing media outlet Revolver News has described McEntee as "one of the very few who truly believed in and was willing to fight for the agenda Trump ran on in 2016." [[Breitbart News]] has gone into detail about how McEntee "fought back against the efforts of establishment Republicans and permanent bureaucrats to sabotage the Trump presidency". McEntee is often credited with purging the neocons from the senior ranks of the Pentagon and installing realist Christopher Miller as Acting Secretary of Defense and Colonel Douglas Macgregor as Senior Advisor to the Secretary. McEntee's subsequent attempt to engineer a military withdrawal from Afghanistan in order to fulfill Trump's campaign promise was thwarted by other officials, though McEntee was able to get the Pentagon to withdraw 700 troops from Somalia.<ref>https://revolver.news/2024/05/true-story-trump-official-conservative-dating-app-now-leading-a-movement/</ref><ref>https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2023/11/the-inside-story-of-how-trumps-body-guy-tried-to-order-a-massive-military-withdrawal</ref><ref>https://www.cnn.com/2020/12/04/politics/trump-somalia-troop-withdrawal/index.html</ref>

McEntee also used his position to take on big tech companies. In 2020, he appointed Adam Candeub to lead the National Telecommunications and Information Administration at the Department of Commerce. Candeub would go on to lead the effort to have the FCC use its rulemaking powers to stop social media censorship of conservatives.<ref>https://www.politico.com/news/2020/12/13/commerce-candeub-trump-doj-444931</ref> McEntee also withdrew the nomination of FCC Commissioner [[Michael O'Rielly]] after he criticized President Trump's Executive Order on combatting big tech censorship. McEntee replaced O'Rielly with Commissioner Nathan Simington.<ref>https://deadline.com/2020/08/donald-trump-fcc-michael-orielly-1203003221/</ref>

McEntee also sent a series of bullet points via text message to [[Mike Pence|Pence]]'s chief of staff to assert that [[Thomas Jefferson]] "Used His Position as VP to Win" the 1801 election, which McEntee claimed "proves that the VP has, at a minimum, a substantial discretion to address issues with the electoral process."<ref name="atlantic"/> In a piece about McEntee, journalist [[Jonathan Karl]] characterized the analysis as "absurd" because "Jefferson didn't discard electoral votes, as Trump wanted Pence to do. He accepted electoral votes from a state that nobody had questioned he had won."<ref>{{cite news |last1=Karl |first1=Jonathan D. |title=The Man Who Made January 6 Possible |work=[[The Atlantic]] |date=November 9, 2021|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2021/11/trump-johnny-mcentee-january-6-betrayal/620646/}}</ref>

In 2021, McEntee met with [[Peter Thiel]] to pitch him on several tech startup ideas, one of which was the idea for a conservative dating app called [[The Right Stuff (app)|The Right Stuff]]. Thiel agreed to fund The Right Stuff and subsequently made a seed round investment of $1.5 million. The app launched on September 30, 2022.<ref name="right stuff">{{cite web | url=https://www.foxbusiness.com/lifestyle/non-woke-dating-site-backed-peter-thiel-launching-soon | title=Non-woke dating site, backed by Peter Thiel, launching soon | website=[[Fox Business]] | date=31 August 2022 | access-date=29 September 2022 | archive-date=3 October 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003175601/https://www.foxbusiness.com/lifestyle/non-woke-dating-site-backed-peter-thiel-launching-soon | url-status=live }}</ref>

In May 2023, it was announced that McEntee was joining [[The Heritage Foundation]]'s [[Project 2025]] as a senior advisor.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://thehill.com/homenews/campaign/3984096-ex-trump-aide-john-mcentee-joins-heritage-operation-as-senior-adviser/|title=Ex-Trump aide John McEntee joins Heritage operation as senior adviser|work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|first=Brett|last=Samuels|date=May 2, 2023|access-date=May 31, 2023}}</ref> Described by the New York Times as "one of Trump's most trusted aides", McEntee's association with Project 2025 serves as the main link between the Heritage Foundation and former President Trump. The New York Times has reported that his role includes working as "part of a team searching for potential lawyers" for Trump's next Administration.<ref>https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/01/us/politics/trump-2025-potential-lawyers.html</ref>

ABC News correspondent [[Jonathan Karl]] wrote in November 2023 that in the closing weeks of the Trump presidency McEntee worked with [[Douglas Macgregor]] to draft a brief document ordering swift withdrawal of U.S. military forces from Afghanistan and Somalia. The president signed it and it was forwarded to [[Kash Patel]] at the Pentagon without any review by the legal, military or national security apparatus, nor it being recorded by Derek Lyons, the White House staff secretary responsible for filing and transmitting official presidential orders. After acting defense secretary [[Christopher C. Miller|Christopher Miller]] and Joint Chiefs chairman [[Mark Milley]] went to the White House to inquire about the order, it was rescinded.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Karl |first1=Jonathan |title="You're Telling Me That Thing Is Forged?": The Inside Story of How Trump's "Body Guy" Tried and Failed to Order a Massive Military Withdrawal |url=https://www.vanityfair.com/news/2023/11/the-inside-story-of-how-trumps-body-guy-tried-to-order-a-massive-military-withdrawal |work=[[Vanity Fair (magazine)|Vanity Fair]] |date=November 10, 2023}}</ref>

==In popular culture==
In 2011, while he was a college football player, McEntee appeared in a viral [[YouTube]] video that featured him throwing football trickshots.<ref name="Dayton" /><ref name="PoliticoPlayed" /> The video was later featured on [[CNN]].<ref>{{Citation|publisher= CNN|title= Johnny McEntee's football trick shots|date= February 10, 2011|url= https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxIBcIbd9ck|accessdate= January 13, 2018|via= YouTube|archive-date= November 28, 2020|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201128192443/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mxIBcIbd9ck|url-status= live}}</ref>

In May 2024 he posted a satirical video to [[TikTok]] claiming that he deliberately gives homeless people movie prop currency hoping they will be arrested for using [[counterfeit money]] when they try to use it. McEntee wrote in the caption of the video "Just a joke. Everyone calm down".<ref>{{Cite web |date=2024-05-13 |title=Critics Slam Ex-Trump WH Aide's 'Deeply Evil' Homeless Claim: 'This Is Who They Are' |url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/john-mcentee-trump-aide-homeless-fake-money-video_n_66418e1de4b0f83029a0b23b |access-date=2024-05-13 |website=HuffPost |language=en}}</ref>

McEntee has become popular on TikTok and Instagram Reels through his account @DateRightStuff where he posts satirical videos to promote his dating app, The Right Stuff. Outlets have noted that given McEntee's relationship with former President Trump and his involvement with Project 2025, Trump could end up appointing a "TikToker" to one of the most powerful positions in government if he wins again.<ref>https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/politics/2023/06/08/john-mcentee-help-staff-gop-administration-2025/70247952007/</ref><ref name="rollingstone.com"/>

McEntee has made several media appearances where he defends TikTok from Republican efforts to ban the platform. He has ridiculed Republicans as "such nerds" for their attacks against TikTok and said the real reason TikTok is getting banned is because it's information the "uniparty" in Washington can't control. McEntee has debated multiple TV hosts on whether TikTok should be banned, pointing out that TikTok has satisfied concerns about data security and rebutting false claims about the Chinese government pushing content on TikTok's algorithm.<ref>https://www.businessinsider.com/tik-tok-ban-republicans-trump-john-mcentee-right-stuff-dating-2023-4</ref><ref>https://www.foxbusiness.com/video/6351420644112</ref><ref>https://www.cnbc.com/video/2024/04/09/the-tiktok-bill-is-new-censorship-power-for-the-government-says-the-right-stuffs-john-mcentee.html</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Connecticut Huskies quarterback navbox}}
{{Trump Administration personnel}}
{{Trump Executive Office}}
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{{DEFAULTSORT:McEntee, John}}
[[Category:1990 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American football quarterbacks]]
[[Category:American Roman Catholics]]
[[Category:Players of American football from Fullerton, California]]
[[Category:Trump administration personnel]]
[[Category:UConn Huskies football players]]

Bay City Rollers

2024-06-11T03:25:51Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Sexual abuse allegations */duplicate links

{{Short description|Scottish pop rock band}}
{{for|the self-titled album|Bay City Rollers (album)}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Bay City Rollers
| image = BayCityRollers1976RobBogaerts.jpg
| landscape = yes
| caption = Bay City Rollers in the Netherlands in 1976
| alias = The Saxons, The Rollers, The New Rollers
| origin = [[Edinburgh]], Scotland
| genre = {{Hlist|[[Pop music|Pop]]<ref name="Brown2010">{{cite book|author=Ian Brown|title=From Tartan to Tartanry: Scottish Culture, History and Myth: Scottish Culture, History and Myth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=giGrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|date=26 November 2010|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=978-0-7486-4449-0|pages=201–}}</ref>|[[glam rock]]<ref name="Johnson2016">{{cite book|author=Mark Johnson|title=Seditious Theology: Punk and the Ministry of Jesus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbfeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13|date=1 April 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-05785-7|pages=13–}}</ref>|[[pop rock]]<ref name="pr">{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/bay-city-rollers-mn0000151979/biography|title=Bay City Rollers - Biography & History - AllMusic|publisher=[[AllMusic]]|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>}}
| years_active = 1964–1981, 1982–1987, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016, 2018–present
| label = [[Bell Records (UK)|Bell]], [[Arista Records|Arista]], [[Epic Records|Epic]]
| associated_acts = [[Pilot (Scottish band)|Pilot]]
| website = [https://www.thebaycityrollers.co.uk Bay City Rollers]
| current_members = * [[Stuart Wood (musician)|Stuart "Woody" Wood]]
* Ian Thomson
* Mikey Smith
* Jamie McGrory
* John McLaughlin
| past_members = * Neil Porteous
* Gregory Ellison
* Mike Ellison
* Dave Pettigrew
* [[Les McKeown]]
* [[Alan Longmuir]]
* [[Derek Longmuir]]
* [[Eric Faulkner]]
* Ian Mitchell
* [[Pat McGlynn]]
* Gordon Clark
* Keith Norman
* [[David Paton]]
* Alan Dunn
* Eric Manclark
* [[Billy Lyall]]
* Ray Weston
* Neil Henderson
* Archie Marr
* John Devine
* George Spencer
* Duncan Faure
* Marcus Cordock
}}

The '''Bay City Rollers''' are a Scottish [[pop rock]] band known for their worldwide [[teen idol]] popularity in the 1970s. They have been called the "[[tartan]] teen sensations from Edinburgh" and are one of many acts heralded as the "biggest group since [[the Beatles]]".<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums">{{cite book
| first= David
| last= Roberts
| year= 2006
| title= [[British Hit Singles & Albums]]
| edition= 19th
| publisher= [[Guinness World Records Limited]]
| location= [[London]]
| isbn= 1-904994-10-5
| page= 45}}</ref>

The group's line-up had many changes over the years, but the classic roster during its peak in popularity included guitarists [[Eric Faulkner]] and [[Stuart Wood (musician)|Stuart Wood]], singer [[Les McKeown]], bassist [[Alan Longmuir]] and drummer [[Derek Longmuir]]. The current line-up (since 2018) includes original guitarist Stuart "Woody" Wood, singer Ian Thomson, bassist Mikey Smith, keyboardist/singer John McLaughlin and drummer Jamie McGrory.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thebaycityrollers.co.uk|title=BAY CITY ROLLERS – OFFICIAL WEBSITE|website=baycityrollers.co.uk|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>

==History==
===Early days and formation: 1964–1973===
In 1964, a trio called the Ambassadors was formed in Edinburgh, Scotland, by 16-year-old [[Alan Longmuir]] on acoustic guitar, his younger brother [[Derek Longmuir]] on drums, and their older cousin Neil Porteous on acoustic guitar. The group never performed publicly under this name,<ref name=Spence2016>{{cite book |last1=Spence |first1=Simon |title=When The Screaming Stops: The Dark History of the Bay City Rollers |date=2016 |publisher=[[Omnibus Press]] |isbn=9781783237050 |pages=33–35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=66A2DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT33}}</ref> just a family wedding where they covered "[[Wake Up Little Susie]]". They changed their name to the Saxons, and Derek invited a friend from school, Gordon "Nobby" Clark, to be the lead singer. Porteous moved from acoustic to electric guitar, and Alan Longmuir followed suit by changing to electric bass.<ref name=Coy2005>Coy, W. (2005), ''Bay City Babylon: The Unbelievable But True Story of the Bay City Rollers'', pp 12–13. Hats Off Books, {{ISBN|978-1587364631}}</ref> The Saxons played occasional dance hall concerts while the band members completed their schooling or worked during the day (Alan apprenticed as a plumber). Porteous left the band in July 1965, with new guitarist Dave Pettigrew filling the spot after answering an advertisement placed by the band in an Edinburgh newspaper. Pettigrew was more advanced musically than the others, and pushed the band to improve. Their repertoire included American R&B/pop songs such as "[[Please Mr. Postman]]" and "[[Heat Wave (Martha and the Vandellas song)|Heat Wave]]". They played at least one gig at the Gonk Club as the Deadbeats, but they discovered a conflict: Another band was playing locally as Rock Bottom and the Deadbeats.<ref name=Spence2016/>

While taking a technical class at Napier College, Alan met fellow plumbing student Gregory Ellison, who joined the Saxons on electric guitar, with Pettigrew shifting to keyboards. Gregory's older brother Mike joined as a second lead singer, allowing more complex harmonies, especially useful for the Motown songs they liked to perform. The band convinced [[Tam Paton]], a former [[big band]] leader<ref>{{cite web|last=Finney|first=Ritchie|title=Tam Paton Spills The Heinz Baked Beans!|url=http://www.spencemusic.co.uk/bilbomusic/articles/Tam/spilledbeans.htm|work=Bilbo Baggins Home Page|publisher=Morley Enterprises|access-date=31 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910180745/http://www.spencemusic.co.uk/bilbomusic/articles/Tam/spilledbeans.htm|archive-date=10 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> and influential local band and club manager, to audition them at the Longmuirs' house. Paton booked them for a Thursday night at his club, the Palais, then assigned them to open for the Hipple People at Top Storey. More gigs followed.<ref name=Spence2016/>

More successful now, the Saxons moved out of the Longmuirs' back room to practice in Hermiston at a church. They played a couple of contemporary [[The Kinks|Kinks]] numbers but favored American songs, including a new one: "[[See See Rider|C.C. Rider]]" by [[Mitch Ryder]] and the Detroit Wheels. Desiring a better name for the band, they settled on "Rollers", but needed a more powerful American-sounding term in front of that. Derek Longmuir threw a dart at a map of the United States, landing first on Arkansas. This did not meet anyone's approval, so a second dart was thrown. It landed near [[Bay City, Michigan]]. The band agreed on the name, the Bay City Rollers.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography">{{cite book
| first= Martin C.
| last= Strong
| year= 2000
| title= The Great Rock Discography
| edition= 5th
| publisher= [[Mojo Books]]
| location= Edinburgh
| pages= 2–3
| isbn= 1-84195-017-3}}</ref> Short-term members from this period included bassist [[David Paton]] (from 1969 to 1970) and keyboardist [[Billy Lyall]] (1969–71), who went on to be founding members of another Edinburgh band [[Pilot (Scottish band)|Pilot]].

After signing with [[Bell Records (UK)|Bell Records]], the band's first hit was "[[Keep on Dancing (The Gentrys song)|Keep on Dancing]]" (UK No. 9, 1971), a cover of a 1965 hit by [[the Gentrys]].<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/><ref name="Guinness Rockopedia">{{cite book
| first= David
| last= Roberts
| year= 1998
| title= Guinness Rockopedia
| edition= 1st
| publisher= Guinness Publishing Ltd.
| location= London
| page= [https://archive.org/details/guinnessrockoped0000unse/page/30 30]
| isbn= 0-85112-072-5
| url-access= registration
| url= https://archive.org/details/guinnessrockoped0000unse/page/30
}}</ref> Upon this release's success, they made appearances on [[BBC One]]'s ''[[Top of the Pops]]''.

Several non-charting singles were released over the following two years. This period saw the addition of long-term member guitarist [[Eric Faulkner]]. In mid-1973, they narrowly missed the [[UK Singles Chart]] with their fourth single, "[[Saturday Night (Bay City Rollers song)|Saturday Night]]". By the end of 1973, Clark had become disillusioned with the band's musical direction and decided to leave just when his recording of "[[Remember (Sha-La-La-La)]]" climbed the charts to No. 6. He was replaced as lead singer by [[Les McKeown]]. A couple of months later, in early 1974, what became known as the classic line-up<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> was completed; guitarist John Devine was replaced by Stuart "Woody" Wood.

In 1987, Les McKeown was a guest on [[Jonathan Ross]]'s chat show where he told Ross that The Bay City Rollers did not perform on the first four singles.

===Breakthrough: 1974–1975===
In late 1973, McKeown recorded lead vocals on "Remember (Sha-La-La-La)", and a lead-in to a series of UK chart hits. 16-year-old Stuart Wood completed the "classic five" line-up in February 1974, a week after the band had debuted the "Remember" single on ''Top of the Pops.'' (John Devine had mimed the piano part). By early 1975, the band was well on the way to achieving global success. The "classic five" line-up consisted of: Alan Longmuir, Derek Longmuir, Stuart "Woody" Wood, Eric Faulkner and Les McKeown.

Beginning with "Remember" (UK No. 6), the Rollers' popularity exploded, and they released a string of hits on the UK chart. Following in succession were "[[Shang-a-Lang (song)|Shang-a-Lang]]" (UK No. 2), "[[Summerlove Sensation]]" (UK No. 3), and "All of Me Loves All of You" (UK No. 4).<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/>

By early 1975, they were one of the biggest-selling acts in the UK. The successful 1975 UK tour prompted newspaper headlines about the rise of "Rollermania"<ref name="Guinness Rockopedia"/> (alluding to [[Beatlemania]] a decade before). The Rollers were the subject of a 20-week UK television series, ''[[Shang-a-Lang (TV series)|Shang-a-Lang]]''.

A cover of [[The Four Seasons (band)|the Four Seasons]]' "[[Bye, Bye, Baby (Baby Goodbye)|Bye, Bye, Baby]]" stayed at No. 1 in the UK for six weeks in March and April 1975, selling nearly a million copies and becoming the biggest seller of the year. The subsequent single, "[[Give a Little Love (Bay City Rollers song)|Give a Little Love]]" topped the charts in July 1975, achieving their second No. 1 hit.<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/><ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> Two albums were produced during this period: ''[[Once Upon a Star]]'' (1975) and ''[[Wouldn't You Like It?]]'' (1975). Faulkner and Wood undertook the majority of the songwriting duties.

By this time, Bay City Rollers fans had a completely distinctive style of dress, featuring calf-length [[tartan]] trousers and tartan [[scarf|scarves]].<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/>

English singer-songwriter [[Nick Lowe]] wrote a "jaundiced" (in Lowe's words)<ref name=canada_interview>{{cite web|url=http://www.canada.com/story.html?id=9342a121-86f6-4403-8943-223081679e68 |title=Q and A with Nick Lowe |website=Canada.com |date=6 October 2007 |access-date=24 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501050558/http://www.canada.com/story.html?id=9342a121-86f6-4403-8943-223081679e68 |archive-date=1 May 2014}}</ref> paean to the band titled "Bay City Rollers We Love You". The track was "carefully sculpted" to be poor enough to get Lowe out of a recording contract with United Artists. The strategy backfired. UA issued the record as by the Tartan Horde,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nicklowedisc.tripod.com/stiff/stiff.html |title=NICK LOWE DISCOGRAPHY – PART 1 |website=Nicklowedisc.tripod.com |access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> which was the name given to Rollers fans in England, and it became a substantial hit in Japan.<ref name=canada_interview /> Lowe was obliged to record a follow-up song called "Rollers Show", which did not meet with the same commercial success. This follow-up song was included on the U.S. release of Lowe's first album ''[[Jesus of Cool|Pure Pop for Now People]]''.

===World impact: 1976===
[[File:Bay City Rollers 1978.jpg|thumb|right|The Bay City Rollers achieved international success during the 1970s.]]
As the group's popularity swelled to superstardom in the UK, a concerted effort was made by [[Arista Records]] (the record company that evolved from Bell) to launch the Rollers in North America. The new Arista head [[Clive Davis]] was instrumental in grooming and overseeing the project. His work paid off, as in late 1975 the Rollers reached No. 1 on the US [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] with "[[Saturday Night (Bay City Rollers song)|Saturday Night]]". "Saturday Night" had missed the UK chart completely two years earlier.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> The Rollers gave the track their American debut, via a satellite-link performance on ''[[Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell|Saturday Night Live, with Howard Cosell]]''. In Canada, it fared equally well, hitting No. 1 on the ''[[RPM (magazine)|RPM]]'' national singles chart on 10 January 1976.<ref name="Canada">{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.6474a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015035031/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.6474a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The ''[[Bay City Rollers (album)|Bay City Rollers]]'' (1975) album (North American release only) hit No. 1 in the same chart on 7 February.<ref name="Canada"/>

A second North American hit came with "Money Honey", written by Faulkner and Wood, which hit No. 9 in the US. In Canada, it fared better, following its predecessor to the top, giving them their second No. 1 in the ''RPM'' national singles chart on 13 March 1976.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4101a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Item Display – RPM – Library and Archives Canada |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015035341/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4101a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The North America/Japan release album ''[[Rock n' Roll Love Letter]]'' (1976) jumped from No. 25 to the top position in a single week in Canada. This deposed their own ''[[Bay City Rollers (album)|Bay City Rollers]]'' (1975) at No. 1 on the national chart, on 27 March 1976,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4087a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Item Display – RPM – Library and Archives Canada |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020031139/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4087a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, it only managed to achieve the No. 31 spot on the U.S. ''Billboard'' chart.

They were also extremely popular in Australia. One example of their popularity was put into the book about ''[[Countdown (Australian TV series)|Countdown]]'' – the Australian TV music show which ran from 1974 to 1987. Their ''Countdown'' appearance in October 1976 coincided with a [[Solar eclipse of October 23, 1976|total eclipse]] of the sun. Director [[Ted Emery]] recalled:<ref>Wilmoth, Peter – ''Glad All Over – The Countdown Years 1974–1987'' McPhee Gribble/[[Penguin Books]], 1993. p. 149</ref>

{{blockquote|(there)... were thousands of kids done up in tartan pants that didn't reach the top of their shoes, constantly bashing on the [[plexiglas]] doors. They would do anything...to get into that television studio. There's 200 kids bashing on the door and a total eclipse of the sun occurred. I'd never seen one. On this day we all stopped in the studio and the Rollers went up on the roof. We stood out there and watched the flowers close up and all the automatic street lighting come on. It was chilling, the most fantastic thing you'd ever see. Downstairs the kids never turned around, staring into the plexiglas waiting to see the Rollers come out of the studio, go down the corridor and into the canteen. (They) never noticed the total eclipse of the sun.}}

Alan Longmuir had left the group by early 1976, due to both the pressures of the band's success and feeling discomfort at being a member of a teen band whilst in his late twenties.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> He was replaced for seven months by 17-year-old Ian Mitchell from Northern Ireland; he was the first band member born outside Edinburgh.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> With Mitchell, the group released an album titled ''[[Dedication (Bay City Rollers album)|Dedication]]'' (1976), and hit the charts with a cover version of the [[Dusty Springfield]] song "[[I Only Want to Be with You#Bay City Rollers version|I Only Want to Be with You]]. " The song reached US No. 12, as well as "Yesterday's Hero" (featuring live material from a 1976 personal appearance in Toronto's [[Nathan Phillips Square]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=des89c-lkRI | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202022510/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=des89c-lkRI| archive-date=2017-02-02 | url-status=dead|title=Youtube.com |publisher=[[YouTube]] |date=15 June 2009 |access-date=16 July 2011}}</ref> and "Dedication".

===1977–1979===
[[File:Bay City Rollers -yhtyeen rumpali Derek Longmuir on saapunut hotelli Hesperian edustalle - G35573 (hkm.HKMS000005-km0000nhk4).jpg|thumb|right|Drummer [[Derek Longmuir]] in Helsinki, 1978]]
As the Rollers' popularity waned, the shuffling of personnel continued; Mitchell quit the band. He was replaced by guitarist [[Pat McGlynn]]. Further struggles involved the direction of their sound, as the members wished to pursue more sophisticated styles. They settled on [[David Bowie]]'s producer, [[Harry Maslin]], and in August 1977 released ''[[It's a Game (Bay City Rollers album)|It's a Game]]'' as a four-piece group, comprising McKeown, Wood, Faulkner and Derek Longmuir. The ''It's a Game'' tour was recorded in 1977 at Japan's [[Nippon Budokan|Budokan Hall]], and was later released in 2001 as ''Rollerworld: Live at the Budokan 1977''.

On the tour, they covered "It's a Game", an unsuccessful 1973 single by [[String Driven Thing]], to give them their final UK Top 20 hit (No. 16 in May 1977). Oddly enough, this single provided them with their highest-charting German hit, reaching No. 4 in the same year.<ref>''Starke Zeiten'', Hit-Bilanz, 1988 BMG-Ariola 258850</ref> The follow-up "[[You Made Me Believe in Magic]]" made No. 34 in July in the UK and No. 10 in the U.S., and this single was their final major success.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/>

The Bay City Rollers were on ''[[The Krofft Superstar Hour]]'', later named the ''Bay City Rollers Show'', an hour-long show that aired from September 9, 1978, to January 27, 1979. During this time, the classic line-up released their last album together, [[Strangers in the Wind]], which charted only in Australia, (#61) Japan, (#5) and the USA (#128).

===New singer, new name===
At the end of 1978, the band had split with McKeown, then fired manager Tam Paton shortly after, and decided to continue in a more [[New wave music|new wave]], rock-oriented sound. Their name was now The Rollers. South African-born [[Duncan Faure]] joined the band as new lead vocalist, guitarist and songwriter. With Faure, the line-up produced three albums: ''Elevator'' (1979), ''Voxx'' (1980) and ''Ricochet'' (1981).<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> Following the expiry of the band's Arista contract, none of the releases sold as well as expected, and they stopped touring by late 1981.

''The A.V. Club'' compared ''Ricochet'' to the pop/new wave style of [[The Cars]] and recommended the album be "rescued from obscurity".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.avclub.com/read-this-this-bay-city-rollers-lp-should-be-rescued-f-1798250379|title=Read This: This Bay City Rollers LP should be rescued from obscurity|first=Joe|last=Blevins|website=News.avcluv.com|date=8 August 2016 |access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>

===1980s–present===
During the 1980s and 1990s, there were a few short tours. Seven past members played Japan in 1982, and again in 1983. A reunion album, ''Breakout'', was released in Japan and Australia in 1985, and added drummer George Spencer. ''Breakout'' was written primarily by McKeown and McGlynn with minor contributions from Faulkner, Wood, and Mitchell.

In the late 1980s, a version of the band called the New Rollers was formed featuring Faulkner on lead vocals, Karen Prosser on vocals, Jason Medvec on guitar, Andy Boakes on bass, and Mark Roberts on drums. The band toured extensively throughout the US and Canada as well as tours of the UK and Australia. This group also released an independent four-song EP titled ''Party Harty''.

In 1990, Wood and Alan Longmuir joined with Faulkner to tour under the Bay City Rollers name and issued several CDs of re-recordings of the old Roller tunes.

In 1996, the classic line-up reunited and performed "Saturday Night" on a Japanese television show to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Rollermania.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a5N_g6qckk8 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/a5N_g6qckk8| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|title=Bay city rollers in Japan 1998|access-date=14 August 2021|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i1LSUu1XrJ4 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/i1LSUu1XrJ4| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|title=Bay City Rollers (in Japan 1996) - SATURDAY Night -|access-date=14 August 2021|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The classic line-up (minus Derek Longmuir)<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2000/mar/24/3|title = Former Bay City Roller escapes jail on child porn charges|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|last = Longmuir|first = Derek}}</ref> performed a one-off New Year's Eve millennium concert, the last official Bay City Rollers concert (1999–2000) in the shadow of Edinburgh Castle in Scotland. Interest was rekindled in the UK by various television documentaries about the group; and the television-advertised compilation ''Very Best of the Bay City Rollers'' entered the [[UK Albums Chart]] on release in 2004 at No. 11.<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/>

During the late 2000s, Ian Mitchell led his own Bay City Rollers band, which included lead vocalist [[Kyle Vincent]]. Mitchell was the only ex-Roller involved.

On 22 September 2015, the Bay City Rollers, including McKeown, Wood, and Alan Longmuir, announced they were reforming and would play a show at the Glasgow Barrowlands on 20 December.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/entertainment/music/music-news/bay-city-rollers-back-scots-6492914|title=Bay City Rollers are back: Watch our video as pop icons announce reunion|first=John|last=Dingwall|date=22 September 2015|website=Dailyrecord.co.uk|access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-34323112|title=Bay City Rollers announce reunion|date=22 September 2015|access-date=14 August 2021|website=Bbc.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/showbiz/celebrity-news/bay-city-rollers-are-back-rollermania-kicks-off-as-band-announce-reunion-and-world-tour-for-2016-a2953271.html|title=Bay City Rollers announce reunion and world tour for 2016|first=Emma|last=Powell|date=22 September 2015|website=Standard.co.uk|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> Eric Faulkner was unable to contribute because of health concerns, almost dying in February 2015 after contracting viral encephalitis.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BomADwAAQBAJ&q=faulkner+encephalitis+eric&pg=PT253|title=I Ran With The Gang: My Life In and Out of the Bay City Rollers|last1=Longmuir|first1=Alan|last2=Knight|first2=Martin|date=2018-11-14|publisher=Luath Press Ltd|isbn=9781912387212|language=en}}</ref> The band released one new single, "Boomerang", and discussed plans for a new album. The reunion continued into 2016 before Wood ended the reunited line-up on 9 July 2016 because no shows were being booked for the so-called reunion. After the 2015 Christmas shows Les was booking shows only for himself and his band during 2016 (except T In The Park) which caused the reunion to end.<ref name="billboard.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7431227/bay-city-rollers-stuart-woody-wood-guitarist-announces-departure-from-band-watch-video-of-final/|title=Bay City Rollers Guitarist Announces Departure From Band; Watch Final Performances|website=Billboard.com|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> Plans for a new album and various tours that were hoped to take place in 2017 never materialised.<ref name="billboard.com"/><ref name="dailyrecord.co.uk">{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/bay-city-rollers-singer-les-20712204|title=Bay City Roller Les McKeown says he'll never work with Stuart 'Woody' Wood|first=Rick|last=Fulton|date=24 October 2019|newspaper=[[Daily Record (Scotland)|Daily Record]]|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> Prior to the reunion and after the end of the tour, McKeown continued to tour as "Les McKeown's Bay City Rollers".

On 27 February 2018, Wood announced that a "new generation" Bay City Rollers would be performing in Tokyo, Japan in June of the same year. The band comprises Wood on guitar, Ian Thomson on lead vocals and guitar, Marcus Cordock on bass (replaced by Mikey Smith in 2023), and Jamie McGrory on drums.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://japantoday.com/category/entertainment/New-generation-Bay-City-Rollers-to-perform-2-nights-in-Tokyo|title=New generation Bay City Rollers to perform 2 nights in Tokyo|website=Japantoday.com|date=9 March 2018 |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref>

Bassist Alan Longmuir died on 2 July 2018 after falling ill while on holiday with his wife in Mexico.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-44679446|title=Bay City Roller Alan Longmuir dies|date=2 July 2018|website=Bbc.com|access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref> His autobiography ''I Ran with the Gang: My Life in and Out of The Bay City Rollers'' was published posthumously in November 2018; the book was written with [[Martin Knight (author)|Martin Knight]]. In his book, Alan Longmuir mentioned his hope for McKeown and Wood to put aside their differences and reunite one more time.<ref name="glasgowtimes.co.uk">{{Cite news|url=https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/17988024.bay-city-rollers-stars-quash-rumours-reunion/|title=Bay City Rollers stars quash rumours of reunion|newspaper=[[Glasgow Times]]|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> In 2019, after rumors related to Alan Longmuir's wishes, both McKeown and Wood denied any chance of another reunion and did not want to work with each other,<ref name="glasgowtimes.co.uk"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/ex-bay-city-rollers-members-tell-fans-they-can-forget-about-future-reunion-818330|title=Ex-Bay City Rollers members tell fans they can 'forget' about future reunion|website=Edinburghnews.scotsman.com|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> though McKeown did mention his desire to work with Faulkner.<ref name="dailyrecord.co.uk"/>

After both McKeown's and Wood's bands were sidelined by the coronavirus pandemic, McKeown mentioned in August 2020 that he would be willing to reunite with Wood again with more planning.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/must-read/exclusive-edinburghs-les-mckeown-reflects-life-international-pop-star-lockdown-and-his-hope-another-bay-city-rollers-reunion-2929616|title=EXCLUSIVE: Edinburgh's Les McKeown reflects on in lockdown and his hope of another Bay City Rollers' reunion|website=Edinburghnews.scotsman.com|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref>

On 1 September 2020, Ian Mitchell died at the age of 62 after suffering from throat cancer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-54001874|title=Bay City Rollers member Ian Mitchell dies|date=2 September 2020|website=Bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

On 20 April 2021, Les McKeown died aged 65.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aitchison|first=Jack|date=2021-04-22|title=Bay City Rollers star Les McKeown dead aged 65 as family pay tribute|url=https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/19252534.bay-city-rollers-star-les-mckeown-dead-aged-65/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-22|website=Heraldscotland.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422153644/https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/19252534.bay-city-rollers-star-les-mckeown-dead-aged-65/ |archive-date=22 April 2021 }}</ref>

For the period between 9 March and 10 December 2023, however, a total of 11 concerts and appearances at festivals were planned again with the line-up of Ian Thomson, Stuart Wood, Marcus Cordock and Jamie McGrory, nine of them in the UK and one each in Denmark and Germany. 5 concerts have been announced for 2024, all in the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.baycityrollers.co.uk/tourdates|title=Bay City Rollers | Tour Dates 2018|access-date=12 February 2024}}</ref>

==Financial disputes==
{{update section|date=January 2020}}
According to the BBC, the Bay City Rollers sold 120 million records.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-34323112|title=Bay City Rollers announce reunion |work=[[BBC News]] |date=22 September 2015 |access-date=22 September 2015}}</ref>

In March 2007, six former members of the group (Faure plus the "classic line-up") announced a lawsuit against [[Arista Records]] in hopes of claiming what they described as "tens of millions of dollars" of unpaid royalties. Gordon "Nobby" Clark threatened to sue the other band members if their lawsuit was successful, stating that he was the creative force behind the band's success, even though he left the group in 1973, before the bulk of their fame and fortune began.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328133604/http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=1019&id=437372007|url-status=dead|title=Scottish News – The Scotsman|archive-date=28 March 2007|website=Scotsman.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070517033253/http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=1019&id=449172007|url-status=dead|title=Scottish News – The Scotsman|archive-date=17 May 2007|website=Scotsman.com}}</ref>

In September 2010, Clark, Ian Mitchell and Pat McGlynn filed a complaint in the courts in the United States against the six members (Faure plus the "classic line-up") over being excluded from the case against Arista records. Clark, Mitchell and McGlynn were seeking to have their rights determined and were seeking financial damages against the other Bay City Rollers for alleged breach of contract. In 2013, a judge in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against the three due to the statute of frauds, which establishes that certain agreements must be in writing under certain conditions, and the appellate judge's ruling stated: "A claim for unjust enrichment must be based on the value of plaintiffs' contribution to the joint effort of the band at the time it made the relevant records, not on the income stream resulting from a revival over thirty years later."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr-esq/three-members-bay-city-rollers-617514 | title=Three Ex-Members of Bay City Rollers Denied in Royalty Collection Attempt | website=Hollywoodreporter.com | date=29 August 2013 | access-date=17 September 2013 | author=Gardner, Eriq}}</ref>

In March 2011, a New York judge determined that the Bay City Rollers could move forward with their four-year-old lawsuit against Arista Records. Arista denied responsibility for the majority of the royalties, citing a New York statute of limitations. The statute limits plaintiffs from recovering damages post six years in contract disputes, which therefore would negate the Rollers' claims for royalties incurred before 2001. However, because Arista had continued to promise the Bay City Rollers their royalties in writing, the judge ruled that the statute was not applicable.<ref>{{cite web|author=Mickie |url=http://mickieszoo.blogspot.com/2011/06/bay-city-rollers-to-continue-suit.html |title=Mickie's Zoo: Bay City Rollers to continue suit against Arista Records |website=Mickieszoo.blogspot.com |date=1 June 2011 |access-date=16 July 2011}}</ref>

After almost a decade, the legal battle came to an end with an out-of-court settlement in 2016. Arista Records' parent company [[Sony Music]] is believed to have paid $3.5 million, with each band member receiving £70,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/bay-city-rollers-legal-battle-reaches-end-road-865600|title=Bay City Rollers legal battle reaches end of the road|website=Scotsman.com|language=en|access-date=2020-04-16}}</ref>

== Sexual abuse allegations ==
Members of the Bay City Rollers have accused former manager [[Tam Paton]] of sexual abuse. In 2003, McGlynn accused former Bay City Rollers manager Tam Paton of trying to [[rape]] him in a hotel room in 1977.<ref name="scotsman1">{{citation |date=22 August 2007 |title=Former Rollers manager Paton cleared of rape claim |periodical=[[The Scotsman]] |url=http://news.scotsman.com/baycityrollers/Former-Rollers-manager-Paton-cleared.3319561.jp|accessdate=10 April 2009 |location=Edinburgh |first=Rhiannon |last=Edward}}</ref> However, the police decided there was insufficient evidence to prosecute Paton. Paton had previous arrests for sexual misconduct with underage boys.<ref name="scotsman.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/news/tam-paton-bedroom-bulldozed-after-seedy-history-1-3216828|title=Tam Paton bedroom bulldozed after 'seedy' history|website=Edinburghnews.scotsman.com|accessdate=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726111903/https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/news/tam-paton-bedroom-bulldozed-after-seedy-history-1-3216828|archive-date=26 July 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2009, McKeown accused Paton of raping him.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McEwen |first=Alan |date=2016-10-17 |title=Bay City Rollers pervert Tam Paton urged band to have sex with paedophile DJ |url=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/bay-city-rollers-gordon-clark-9059841 |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=Daily Record |language=en}}</ref> In the 2023 documentary ''Secrets of the Bay City Rollers,'' potential band member Gert Magnus claimed that Paton offered him a place in the band in exchange for sex.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Latif |first=Leila |date=2023-06-29 |title=Secrets of the Bay City Rollers review – one of the most disturbing accounts of abuse imaginable |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2023/jun/29/secrets-of-the-bay-city-rollers-review-one-of-the-most-disturbing-accounts-of-abuse-imaginable |access-date=2023-06-30 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

==Members==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''Current members'''
* [[Stuart Wood (musician)|Stuart "Woody" Wood]] – backing and occasional lead vocals, rhythm and lead guitars, keyboards, bass, mandolin (1974–1981, 1982–1985, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016, 2018–present)
* Ian Thomson – lead vocals, guitar (2018–present)
* Jamie McGrory – drums (2018–present)
* Mikey Smith – bass, vocals (2023–present)
* John McLaughlin - Keyboards, vocals (2023-present)

{{col-2}}
'''Former members'''
* [[Alan Longmuir]] – backing and occasional lead vocals, bass, rhythm guitar, piano, accordion (1964–1976, 1978–1981, 1982–1983, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016; died 2018)
* [[Derek Longmuir]] – drums, percussion (1964–1981, 1982–1983, 1996)
* Neil Porteous – guitar (1964–1965)
* Gordon "Nobby" Clark – lead vocals (1965–1973)
* Dave Pettigrew – guitar, keyboards (1965–1968)
* Gregory Ellison – guitar (1966–1968)
* Mike Ellison – vocals (1966)
* Keith Norman – keyboards (1967–1969)
* [[David Paton]] – guitar (1968–1970)
* Alan Dunn – keyboards (1969)
* [[Billy Lyall]] – keyboards (1969–1971; died 1989)
* Eric Manclark – guitar (1970–1971)
* Neil Henderson – guitar (1970–1972)
* Archie Marr – keyboards (1971–1972)
* John Devine – guitar (1972–1974)
* [[Eric Faulkner]] – backing and occasional lead vocals, lead and rhythm guitars, violin, mandolin, bass (1972–1981, 1982–1985, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000)
* [[Les McKeown]] – lead vocals (1973–1978, 1982–1985, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016; died 2021)
* Ian Mitchell – backing and occasional lead vocals, rhythm guitar, bass (1976, 1982–1985; died 2020)
* [[Pat McGlynn]] – rhythm guitar, bass (1976–1977, 1982–1985)
* Duncan Faure – vocals, guitar, keyboards (1978–1981)
* George Spencer – drums (1985)
* Marcus Cordock – bass (2018–2023)
{{col-end}}

In later years, but before McKeown's death, there were usually at least two or three bands featuring one former BCR member touring as The Bay City Rollers or some variation of the name. These were most recently held by Wood and McKeown (before McKeown's death), and Wood's most recent band is still active and currently the only group touring as the Bay City Rollers.

===Timeline===
{{#tag:timeline|
ImageSize = width:900 height:auto barincrement:20
PlotArea = left:110 bottom:75 top:05 right:10
Alignbars = justify
DateFormat = mm/dd/yyyy
Period = from:01/01/1964 till:{{#time:m/d/Y}}
TimeAxis = orientation:horizontal format:yyyy

Colors =
id:vocals value:red legend:Vocals
id:lead value:teal legend:Lead_guitar
id:rhythm value:brightgreen legend:Rhythm_guitar
id:keys value:purple legend:Keyboards
id:bass value:blue legend:Bass
id:drums value:orange legend:Drums
id:Lines value:black legend:Studio_album

Legend = position:bottom columns:1
ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1964
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1964

BarData =
bar:NobbyC text:"Gordon 'Nobby' Clark"
bar:MikeE text:"Mike Ellison"
bar:Les text:"Les McKeown"
bar:DuncanF text:"Duncan Faure"
bar:IanT text:"Ian Thomson"
bar:NeilP text:"Neil Porteous"
bar:DaveP text:"Dave Pettigrew"
bar:GregoryE text:"Gregory Ellison"
bar:Eric text:"Eric Faulkner"
bar:JohnD text:"John Devine"
bar:Woody text:"Stuart 'Woody' Wood"
bar:IanM text:"Ian Mitchell"
bar:PatM text:"Pat McGlynn"
bar:BillyL text:"Billy Lyall"
bar:JohnM text:"John McLaughlin"
bar:Alan text:"Alan Longmuir"
bar:DavidP text:"David Paton"
bar:Marcus text:"Marcus Cordock"
bar:Mikey text:"Mikey Smith"
bar:DerekL text:"Derek Longmuir"
bar:GeorgeS text:"George Spencer"
bar:Jamie text:"Jamie McGrory"

PlotData=
width:11 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4)

bar:DerekL from:01/01/1964 till:11/20/1981 color:drums
bar:DerekL from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:drums
bar:DerekL from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:drums

bar:Alan from:01/01/1964 till:01/01/1969 color:bass
bar:Alan from:01/01/1964 till:06/01/1965 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:01/01/1964 till:06/01/1965 color:vocals width:3
bar:Alan from:06/01/1965 till:02/15/1974 color:keys width:3
bar:Alan from:01/01/1969 till:12/31/1970 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:12/31/1970 till:02/01/1976 color:bass
bar:Alan from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:rhythm width:5
bar:Alan from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:vocals width:3
bar:Alan from:07/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:07/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:07/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:bass width:5
bar:Alan from:08/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:vocals width:3
bar:Alan from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:bass width:7
bar:Alan from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:keys width:3
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:bass
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:rhythm width:5
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:vocals width:3
bar:Alan from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:bass width:5
bar:Alan from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals width:3
bar:Alan from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bass width:5
bar:Alan from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals width:3
bar:Alan from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:bass
bar:Alan from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:vocals width:3

bar:Eric from:06/01/1972 till:11/20/1981 color:lead
bar:Eric from:02/15/1974 till:11/20/1981 color:vocals width:3
bar:Eric from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:lead
bar:Eric from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:bass width:3
bar:Eric from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:vocals
bar:Eric from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:lead width:3
bar:Eric from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:bass
bar:Eric from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:lead width:7
bar:Eric from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals width:3
bar:Eric from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bass
bar:Eric from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:lead width:7
bar:Eric from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals width:3

bar:Les from:11/01/1973 till:11/01/1978 color:vocals
bar:Les from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:vocals
bar:Les from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals
bar:Les from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals
bar:Les from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:vocals
bar:Les from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:rhythm width:3

bar:Woody from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:rhythm
bar:Woody from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:bass width:5
bar:Woody from:02/15/1974 till:11/20/1981 color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:02/15/1974 till:11/20/1981 color:vocals width:3
bar:Woody from:02/01/1976 till:11/20/1981 color:bass
bar:Woody from:02/01/1976 till:11/20/1981 color:rhythm width:5
bar:Woody from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:bass
bar:Woody from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:rhythm width:7
bar:Woody from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:lead width:5
bar:Woody from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:keys width:3
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:rhythm
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:bass width:5
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:vocals width:3
bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:lead
bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:bass width:5
bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals width:3
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:lead
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bass width:5
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals width:3
bar:Woody from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:lead
bar:Woody from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:vocals width:3
bar:Woody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:rhythm
bar:Woody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:vocals width:3

bar:IanM from:02/01/1976 till:08/01/1976 color:rhythm
bar:IanM from:02/01/1976 till:08/01/1976 color:bass width:7
bar:IanM from:02/01/1976 till:08/01/1976 color:vocals width:3
bar:IanM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:rhythm
bar:IanM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:bass width:3

bar:PatM from:08/01/1976 till:08/01/1977 color:rhythm
bar:PatM from:08/01/1976 till:08/01/1977 color:bass width:3
bar:PatM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:rhythm
bar:PatM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:bass width:3

bar:NobbyC from:06/01/1965 till:11/01/1973 color:vocals
bar:NeilP from:01/01/1964 till:07/31/1965 color:lead
bar:NeilP from:01/01/1964 till:07/31/1965 color:rhythm width:3
bar:MikeE from:01/01/1966 till:01/01/1967 color:vocals
bar:DuncanF from:11/01/1978 till:11/20/1981 color:vocals
bar:DuncanF from:11/01/1978 till:11/20/1981 color:rhythm width:3
bar:DuncanF from:11/01/1978 till:11/20/1981 color:keys width:7
bar:GeorgeS from:01/01/1984 till:12/31/1985 color:drums
bar:DavidP from:01/01/1969 till:12/31/1970 color:bass
bar:BillyL from:01/01/1969 till:12/31/1971 color:keys
bar:GregoryE from:06/01/1966 till:06/01/1972 color:lead
bar:DaveP from:07/31/1965 till:06/01/1966 color:lead
bar:DaveP from:07/31/1965 till:03/01/1974 color:rhythm width:3
bar:DaveP from:06/01/1966 till:03/01/1974 color:keys
bar:JohnD from:10/01/1973 till:02/15/1974 color:rhythm
bar:IanT from:01/01/2018 till:end color:vocals
bar:IanT from:01/01/2018 till:end color:lead width:3
bar:Marcus from:01/01/2018 till:01/01/2023 color:bass
bar:Marcus from:01/01/2018 till:01/01/2023 color:vocals width:3
bar:Jamie from:01/01/2018 till:end color:drums
bar:Mikey from:01/01/2023 till:end color:bass
bar:Mikey from:01/01/2023 till:end color:vocals width:3
bar:JohnM from:08/30/2023 till:end color:keys
bar:JohnM from:08/30/2023 till:end color:vocals width:3

LineData =
layer:back color:black
at:09/01/1974
at:05/01/1975
at:12/01/1975
at:03/01/1976
at:09/01/1976
at:07/01/1977
at:01/01/1978
at:01/01/1979
at:01/01/1980
at:01/01/1981
at:01/01/1985
at:12/01/2015
}}

==Discography==
{{main|Bay City Rollers discography}}
'''Studio albums'''

* ''[[Rollin' (Bay City Rollers album)|Rollin']]'' (1974)
* ''[[Once Upon a Star]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Bay City Rollers (album)|Bay City Rollers]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Wouldn't You Like It?]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Rock n' Roll Love Letter]]'' (1976)
* ''[[Dedication (Bay City Rollers album)|Dedication]]'' (1976)
* ''[[It's a Game (Bay City Rollers album)|It's a Game]]'' (1977)
* ''[[Strangers in the Wind]]'' (1978)
* ''[[Elevator (The Rollers album)|Elevator]]'' (1979)
* ''[[Voxx (album)|Voxx]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Ricochet (Bay City Rollers album)|Ricochet]]'' (1981)
* ''Breakout '85'' (1985)
* ''A Christmas Shang-A-Lang'' (2015)

'''Christmas Single 2021'''

* Rollin' Into Christmas

'''EP 2023'''
* Brand New Day (Brand New Day - Sunshine On Leith - Money Honey)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Brigitte Tast, Hans-Jürgen Tast: ''Wie weit ist vorbei? Ein Konzert, eine Party und Meldungen aus der ganzen Welt''. Kulleraugen – Visuelle Kommunikation Nr. 48, Schellerten 2016, {{ISBN|978-3-88842-048-1}}.

==External links==
* {{Discogs artist|Bay City Rollers}}
* {{IMDb name|id=1163873}}
* {{IMDb name|id=9382430}} as Les McKeown's 70's Bay City Rollers

{{Bay City Rollers}}
{{Pilot}}{{Scottish musicians}}{{UK best-selling singles (by year)}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Bay City Rollers| ]]
[[Category:1964 establishments in Scotland]]
[[Category:2020 disestablishments in Scotland]]
[[Category:Musical groups established in 1966]]
[[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1987]]
[[Category:Scottish pop music groups]]
[[Category:Scottish pop rock music groups]]
[[Category:Scottish glam rock groups]]
[[Category:Musical groups from Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2015]]
[[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2020]]
[[Category:Bell Records artists]]
[[Category:Arista Records artists]]
[[Category:Epic Records artists]]

Bay City Rollers

2024-06-11T03:24:50Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Breakthrough: 1974–1975 */

{{Short description|Scottish pop rock band}}
{{for|the self-titled album|Bay City Rollers (album)}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Bay City Rollers
| image = BayCityRollers1976RobBogaerts.jpg
| landscape = yes
| caption = Bay City Rollers in the Netherlands in 1976
| alias = The Saxons, The Rollers, The New Rollers
| origin = [[Edinburgh]], Scotland
| genre = {{Hlist|[[Pop music|Pop]]<ref name="Brown2010">{{cite book|author=Ian Brown|title=From Tartan to Tartanry: Scottish Culture, History and Myth: Scottish Culture, History and Myth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=giGrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|date=26 November 2010|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=978-0-7486-4449-0|pages=201–}}</ref>|[[glam rock]]<ref name="Johnson2016">{{cite book|author=Mark Johnson|title=Seditious Theology: Punk and the Ministry of Jesus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbfeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13|date=1 April 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-05785-7|pages=13–}}</ref>|[[pop rock]]<ref name="pr">{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/bay-city-rollers-mn0000151979/biography|title=Bay City Rollers - Biography & History - AllMusic|publisher=[[AllMusic]]|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>}}
| years_active = 1964–1981, 1982–1987, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016, 2018–present
| label = [[Bell Records (UK)|Bell]], [[Arista Records|Arista]], [[Epic Records|Epic]]
| associated_acts = [[Pilot (Scottish band)|Pilot]]
| website = [https://www.thebaycityrollers.co.uk Bay City Rollers]
| current_members = * [[Stuart Wood (musician)|Stuart "Woody" Wood]]
* Ian Thomson
* Mikey Smith
* Jamie McGrory
* John McLaughlin
| past_members = * Neil Porteous
* Gregory Ellison
* Mike Ellison
* Dave Pettigrew
* [[Les McKeown]]
* [[Alan Longmuir]]
* [[Derek Longmuir]]
* [[Eric Faulkner]]
* Ian Mitchell
* [[Pat McGlynn]]
* Gordon Clark
* Keith Norman
* [[David Paton]]
* Alan Dunn
* Eric Manclark
* [[Billy Lyall]]
* Ray Weston
* Neil Henderson
* Archie Marr
* John Devine
* George Spencer
* Duncan Faure
* Marcus Cordock
}}

The '''Bay City Rollers''' are a Scottish [[pop rock]] band known for their worldwide [[teen idol]] popularity in the 1970s. They have been called the "[[tartan]] teen sensations from Edinburgh" and are one of many acts heralded as the "biggest group since [[the Beatles]]".<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums">{{cite book
| first= David
| last= Roberts
| year= 2006
| title= [[British Hit Singles & Albums]]
| edition= 19th
| publisher= [[Guinness World Records Limited]]
| location= [[London]]
| isbn= 1-904994-10-5
| page= 45}}</ref>

The group's line-up had many changes over the years, but the classic roster during its peak in popularity included guitarists [[Eric Faulkner]] and [[Stuart Wood (musician)|Stuart Wood]], singer [[Les McKeown]], bassist [[Alan Longmuir]] and drummer [[Derek Longmuir]]. The current line-up (since 2018) includes original guitarist Stuart "Woody" Wood, singer Ian Thomson, bassist Mikey Smith, keyboardist/singer John McLaughlin and drummer Jamie McGrory.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thebaycityrollers.co.uk|title=BAY CITY ROLLERS – OFFICIAL WEBSITE|website=baycityrollers.co.uk|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>

==History==
===Early days and formation: 1964–1973===
In 1964, a trio called the Ambassadors was formed in Edinburgh, Scotland, by 16-year-old [[Alan Longmuir]] on acoustic guitar, his younger brother [[Derek Longmuir]] on drums, and their older cousin Neil Porteous on acoustic guitar. The group never performed publicly under this name,<ref name=Spence2016>{{cite book |last1=Spence |first1=Simon |title=When The Screaming Stops: The Dark History of the Bay City Rollers |date=2016 |publisher=[[Omnibus Press]] |isbn=9781783237050 |pages=33–35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=66A2DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT33}}</ref> just a family wedding where they covered "[[Wake Up Little Susie]]". They changed their name to the Saxons, and Derek invited a friend from school, Gordon "Nobby" Clark, to be the lead singer. Porteous moved from acoustic to electric guitar, and Alan Longmuir followed suit by changing to electric bass.<ref name=Coy2005>Coy, W. (2005), ''Bay City Babylon: The Unbelievable But True Story of the Bay City Rollers'', pp 12–13. Hats Off Books, {{ISBN|978-1587364631}}</ref> The Saxons played occasional dance hall concerts while the band members completed their schooling or worked during the day (Alan apprenticed as a plumber). Porteous left the band in July 1965, with new guitarist Dave Pettigrew filling the spot after answering an advertisement placed by the band in an Edinburgh newspaper. Pettigrew was more advanced musically than the others, and pushed the band to improve. Their repertoire included American R&B/pop songs such as "[[Please Mr. Postman]]" and "[[Heat Wave (Martha and the Vandellas song)|Heat Wave]]". They played at least one gig at the Gonk Club as the Deadbeats, but they discovered a conflict: Another band was playing locally as Rock Bottom and the Deadbeats.<ref name=Spence2016/>

While taking a technical class at Napier College, Alan met fellow plumbing student Gregory Ellison, who joined the Saxons on electric guitar, with Pettigrew shifting to keyboards. Gregory's older brother Mike joined as a second lead singer, allowing more complex harmonies, especially useful for the Motown songs they liked to perform. The band convinced [[Tam Paton]], a former [[big band]] leader<ref>{{cite web|last=Finney|first=Ritchie|title=Tam Paton Spills The Heinz Baked Beans!|url=http://www.spencemusic.co.uk/bilbomusic/articles/Tam/spilledbeans.htm|work=Bilbo Baggins Home Page|publisher=Morley Enterprises|access-date=31 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910180745/http://www.spencemusic.co.uk/bilbomusic/articles/Tam/spilledbeans.htm|archive-date=10 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> and influential local band and club manager, to audition them at the Longmuirs' house. Paton booked them for a Thursday night at his club, the Palais, then assigned them to open for the Hipple People at Top Storey. More gigs followed.<ref name=Spence2016/>

More successful now, the Saxons moved out of the Longmuirs' back room to practice in Hermiston at a church. They played a couple of contemporary [[The Kinks|Kinks]] numbers but favored American songs, including a new one: "[[See See Rider|C.C. Rider]]" by [[Mitch Ryder]] and the Detroit Wheels. Desiring a better name for the band, they settled on "Rollers", but needed a more powerful American-sounding term in front of that. Derek Longmuir threw a dart at a map of the United States, landing first on Arkansas. This did not meet anyone's approval, so a second dart was thrown. It landed near [[Bay City, Michigan]]. The band agreed on the name, the Bay City Rollers.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography">{{cite book
| first= Martin C.
| last= Strong
| year= 2000
| title= The Great Rock Discography
| edition= 5th
| publisher= [[Mojo Books]]
| location= Edinburgh
| pages= 2–3
| isbn= 1-84195-017-3}}</ref> Short-term members from this period included bassist [[David Paton]] (from 1969 to 1970) and keyboardist [[Billy Lyall]] (1969–71), who went on to be founding members of another Edinburgh band [[Pilot (Scottish band)|Pilot]].

After signing with [[Bell Records (UK)|Bell Records]], the band's first hit was "[[Keep on Dancing (The Gentrys song)|Keep on Dancing]]" (UK No. 9, 1971), a cover of a 1965 hit by [[the Gentrys]].<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/><ref name="Guinness Rockopedia">{{cite book
| first= David
| last= Roberts
| year= 1998
| title= Guinness Rockopedia
| edition= 1st
| publisher= Guinness Publishing Ltd.
| location= London
| page= [https://archive.org/details/guinnessrockoped0000unse/page/30 30]
| isbn= 0-85112-072-5
| url-access= registration
| url= https://archive.org/details/guinnessrockoped0000unse/page/30
}}</ref> Upon this release's success, they made appearances on [[BBC One]]'s ''[[Top of the Pops]]''.

Several non-charting singles were released over the following two years. This period saw the addition of long-term member guitarist [[Eric Faulkner]]. In mid-1973, they narrowly missed the [[UK Singles Chart]] with their fourth single, "[[Saturday Night (Bay City Rollers song)|Saturday Night]]". By the end of 1973, Clark had become disillusioned with the band's musical direction and decided to leave just when his recording of "[[Remember (Sha-La-La-La)]]" climbed the charts to No. 6. He was replaced as lead singer by [[Les McKeown]]. A couple of months later, in early 1974, what became known as the classic line-up<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> was completed; guitarist John Devine was replaced by Stuart "Woody" Wood.

In 1987, Les McKeown was a guest on [[Jonathan Ross]]'s chat show where he told Ross that The Bay City Rollers did not perform on the first four singles.

===Breakthrough: 1974–1975===
In late 1973, McKeown recorded lead vocals on "Remember (Sha-La-La-La)", and a lead-in to a series of UK chart hits. 16-year-old Stuart Wood completed the "classic five" line-up in February 1974, a week after the band had debuted the "Remember" single on ''Top of the Pops.'' (John Devine had mimed the piano part). By early 1975, the band was well on the way to achieving global success. The "classic five" line-up consisted of: Alan Longmuir, Derek Longmuir, Stuart "Woody" Wood, Eric Faulkner and Les McKeown.

Beginning with "Remember" (UK No. 6), the Rollers' popularity exploded, and they released a string of hits on the UK chart. Following in succession were "[[Shang-a-Lang (song)|Shang-a-Lang]]" (UK No. 2), "[[Summerlove Sensation]]" (UK No. 3), and "All of Me Loves All of You" (UK No. 4).<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/>

By early 1975, they were one of the biggest-selling acts in the UK. The successful 1975 UK tour prompted newspaper headlines about the rise of "Rollermania"<ref name="Guinness Rockopedia"/> (alluding to [[Beatlemania]] a decade before). The Rollers were the subject of a 20-week UK television series, ''[[Shang-a-Lang (TV series)|Shang-a-Lang]]''.

A cover of [[The Four Seasons (band)|the Four Seasons]]' "[[Bye, Bye, Baby (Baby Goodbye)|Bye, Bye, Baby]]" stayed at No. 1 in the UK for six weeks in March and April 1975, selling nearly a million copies and becoming the biggest seller of the year. The subsequent single, "[[Give a Little Love (Bay City Rollers song)|Give a Little Love]]" topped the charts in July 1975, achieving their second No. 1 hit.<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/><ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> Two albums were produced during this period: ''[[Once Upon a Star]]'' (1975) and ''[[Wouldn't You Like It?]]'' (1975). Faulkner and Wood undertook the majority of the songwriting duties.

By this time, Bay City Rollers fans had a completely distinctive style of dress, featuring calf-length [[tartan]] trousers and tartan [[scarf|scarves]].<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/>

English singer-songwriter [[Nick Lowe]] wrote a "jaundiced" (in Lowe's words)<ref name=canada_interview>{{cite web|url=http://www.canada.com/story.html?id=9342a121-86f6-4403-8943-223081679e68 |title=Q and A with Nick Lowe |website=Canada.com |date=6 October 2007 |access-date=24 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501050558/http://www.canada.com/story.html?id=9342a121-86f6-4403-8943-223081679e68 |archive-date=1 May 2014}}</ref> paean to the band titled "Bay City Rollers We Love You". The track was "carefully sculpted" to be poor enough to get Lowe out of a recording contract with United Artists. The strategy backfired. UA issued the record as by the Tartan Horde,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nicklowedisc.tripod.com/stiff/stiff.html |title=NICK LOWE DISCOGRAPHY – PART 1 |website=Nicklowedisc.tripod.com |access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> which was the name given to Rollers fans in England, and it became a substantial hit in Japan.<ref name=canada_interview /> Lowe was obliged to record a follow-up song called "Rollers Show", which did not meet with the same commercial success. This follow-up song was included on the U.S. release of Lowe's first album ''[[Jesus of Cool|Pure Pop for Now People]]''.

===World impact: 1976===
[[File:Bay City Rollers 1978.jpg|thumb|right|The Bay City Rollers achieved international success during the 1970s.]]
As the group's popularity swelled to superstardom in the UK, a concerted effort was made by [[Arista Records]] (the record company that evolved from Bell) to launch the Rollers in North America. The new Arista head [[Clive Davis]] was instrumental in grooming and overseeing the project. His work paid off, as in late 1975 the Rollers reached No. 1 on the US [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] with "[[Saturday Night (Bay City Rollers song)|Saturday Night]]". "Saturday Night" had missed the UK chart completely two years earlier.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> The Rollers gave the track their American debut, via a satellite-link performance on ''[[Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell|Saturday Night Live, with Howard Cosell]]''. In Canada, it fared equally well, hitting No. 1 on the ''[[RPM (magazine)|RPM]]'' national singles chart on 10 January 1976.<ref name="Canada">{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.6474a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015035031/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.6474a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The ''[[Bay City Rollers (album)|Bay City Rollers]]'' (1975) album (North American release only) hit No. 1 in the same chart on 7 February.<ref name="Canada"/>

A second North American hit came with "Money Honey", written by Faulkner and Wood, which hit No. 9 in the US. In Canada, it fared better, following its predecessor to the top, giving them their second No. 1 in the ''RPM'' national singles chart on 13 March 1976.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4101a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Item Display – RPM – Library and Archives Canada |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015035341/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4101a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The North America/Japan release album ''[[Rock n' Roll Love Letter]]'' (1976) jumped from No. 25 to the top position in a single week in Canada. This deposed their own ''[[Bay City Rollers (album)|Bay City Rollers]]'' (1975) at No. 1 on the national chart, on 27 March 1976,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4087a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Item Display – RPM – Library and Archives Canada |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020031139/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4087a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, it only managed to achieve the No. 31 spot on the U.S. ''Billboard'' chart.

They were also extremely popular in Australia. One example of their popularity was put into the book about ''[[Countdown (Australian TV series)|Countdown]]'' – the Australian TV music show which ran from 1974 to 1987. Their ''Countdown'' appearance in October 1976 coincided with a [[Solar eclipse of October 23, 1976|total eclipse]] of the sun. Director [[Ted Emery]] recalled:<ref>Wilmoth, Peter – ''Glad All Over – The Countdown Years 1974–1987'' McPhee Gribble/[[Penguin Books]], 1993. p. 149</ref>

{{blockquote|(there)... were thousands of kids done up in tartan pants that didn't reach the top of their shoes, constantly bashing on the [[plexiglas]] doors. They would do anything...to get into that television studio. There's 200 kids bashing on the door and a total eclipse of the sun occurred. I'd never seen one. On this day we all stopped in the studio and the Rollers went up on the roof. We stood out there and watched the flowers close up and all the automatic street lighting come on. It was chilling, the most fantastic thing you'd ever see. Downstairs the kids never turned around, staring into the plexiglas waiting to see the Rollers come out of the studio, go down the corridor and into the canteen. (They) never noticed the total eclipse of the sun.}}

Alan Longmuir had left the group by early 1976, due to both the pressures of the band's success and feeling discomfort at being a member of a teen band whilst in his late twenties.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> He was replaced for seven months by 17-year-old Ian Mitchell from Northern Ireland; he was the first band member born outside Edinburgh.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> With Mitchell, the group released an album titled ''[[Dedication (Bay City Rollers album)|Dedication]]'' (1976), and hit the charts with a cover version of the [[Dusty Springfield]] song "[[I Only Want to Be with You#Bay City Rollers version|I Only Want to Be with You]]. " The song reached US No. 12, as well as "Yesterday's Hero" (featuring live material from a 1976 personal appearance in Toronto's [[Nathan Phillips Square]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=des89c-lkRI | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202022510/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=des89c-lkRI| archive-date=2017-02-02 | url-status=dead|title=Youtube.com |publisher=[[YouTube]] |date=15 June 2009 |access-date=16 July 2011}}</ref> and "Dedication".

===1977–1979===
[[File:Bay City Rollers -yhtyeen rumpali Derek Longmuir on saapunut hotelli Hesperian edustalle - G35573 (hkm.HKMS000005-km0000nhk4).jpg|thumb|right|Drummer [[Derek Longmuir]] in Helsinki, 1978]]
As the Rollers' popularity waned, the shuffling of personnel continued; Mitchell quit the band. He was replaced by guitarist [[Pat McGlynn]]. Further struggles involved the direction of their sound, as the members wished to pursue more sophisticated styles. They settled on [[David Bowie]]'s producer, [[Harry Maslin]], and in August 1977 released ''[[It's a Game (Bay City Rollers album)|It's a Game]]'' as a four-piece group, comprising McKeown, Wood, Faulkner and Derek Longmuir. The ''It's a Game'' tour was recorded in 1977 at Japan's [[Nippon Budokan|Budokan Hall]], and was later released in 2001 as ''Rollerworld: Live at the Budokan 1977''.

On the tour, they covered "It's a Game", an unsuccessful 1973 single by [[String Driven Thing]], to give them their final UK Top 20 hit (No. 16 in May 1977). Oddly enough, this single provided them with their highest-charting German hit, reaching No. 4 in the same year.<ref>''Starke Zeiten'', Hit-Bilanz, 1988 BMG-Ariola 258850</ref> The follow-up "[[You Made Me Believe in Magic]]" made No. 34 in July in the UK and No. 10 in the U.S., and this single was their final major success.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/>

The Bay City Rollers were on ''[[The Krofft Superstar Hour]]'', later named the ''Bay City Rollers Show'', an hour-long show that aired from September 9, 1978, to January 27, 1979. During this time, the classic line-up released their last album together, [[Strangers in the Wind]], which charted only in Australia, (#61) Japan, (#5) and the USA (#128).

===New singer, new name===
At the end of 1978, the band had split with McKeown, then fired manager Tam Paton shortly after, and decided to continue in a more [[New wave music|new wave]], rock-oriented sound. Their name was now The Rollers. South African-born [[Duncan Faure]] joined the band as new lead vocalist, guitarist and songwriter. With Faure, the line-up produced three albums: ''Elevator'' (1979), ''Voxx'' (1980) and ''Ricochet'' (1981).<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> Following the expiry of the band's Arista contract, none of the releases sold as well as expected, and they stopped touring by late 1981.

''The A.V. Club'' compared ''Ricochet'' to the pop/new wave style of [[The Cars]] and recommended the album be "rescued from obscurity".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.avclub.com/read-this-this-bay-city-rollers-lp-should-be-rescued-f-1798250379|title=Read This: This Bay City Rollers LP should be rescued from obscurity|first=Joe|last=Blevins|website=News.avcluv.com|date=8 August 2016 |access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>

===1980s–present===
During the 1980s and 1990s, there were a few short tours. Seven past members played Japan in 1982, and again in 1983. A reunion album, ''Breakout'', was released in Japan and Australia in 1985, and added drummer George Spencer. ''Breakout'' was written primarily by McKeown and McGlynn with minor contributions from Faulkner, Wood, and Mitchell.

In the late 1980s, a version of the band called the New Rollers was formed featuring Faulkner on lead vocals, Karen Prosser on vocals, Jason Medvec on guitar, Andy Boakes on bass, and Mark Roberts on drums. The band toured extensively throughout the US and Canada as well as tours of the UK and Australia. This group also released an independent four-song EP titled ''Party Harty''.

In 1990, Wood and Alan Longmuir joined with Faulkner to tour under the Bay City Rollers name and issued several CDs of re-recordings of the old Roller tunes.

In 1996, the classic line-up reunited and performed "Saturday Night" on a Japanese television show to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Rollermania.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a5N_g6qckk8 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/a5N_g6qckk8| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|title=Bay city rollers in Japan 1998|access-date=14 August 2021|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i1LSUu1XrJ4 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/i1LSUu1XrJ4| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|title=Bay City Rollers (in Japan 1996) - SATURDAY Night -|access-date=14 August 2021|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The classic line-up (minus Derek Longmuir)<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2000/mar/24/3|title = Former Bay City Roller escapes jail on child porn charges|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|last = Longmuir|first = Derek}}</ref> performed a one-off New Year's Eve millennium concert, the last official Bay City Rollers concert (1999–2000) in the shadow of Edinburgh Castle in Scotland. Interest was rekindled in the UK by various television documentaries about the group; and the television-advertised compilation ''Very Best of the Bay City Rollers'' entered the [[UK Albums Chart]] on release in 2004 at No. 11.<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/>

During the late 2000s, Ian Mitchell led his own Bay City Rollers band, which included lead vocalist [[Kyle Vincent]]. Mitchell was the only ex-Roller involved.

On 22 September 2015, the Bay City Rollers, including McKeown, Wood, and Alan Longmuir, announced they were reforming and would play a show at the Glasgow Barrowlands on 20 December.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/entertainment/music/music-news/bay-city-rollers-back-scots-6492914|title=Bay City Rollers are back: Watch our video as pop icons announce reunion|first=John|last=Dingwall|date=22 September 2015|website=Dailyrecord.co.uk|access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-34323112|title=Bay City Rollers announce reunion|date=22 September 2015|access-date=14 August 2021|website=Bbc.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/showbiz/celebrity-news/bay-city-rollers-are-back-rollermania-kicks-off-as-band-announce-reunion-and-world-tour-for-2016-a2953271.html|title=Bay City Rollers announce reunion and world tour for 2016|first=Emma|last=Powell|date=22 September 2015|website=Standard.co.uk|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> Eric Faulkner was unable to contribute because of health concerns, almost dying in February 2015 after contracting viral encephalitis.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BomADwAAQBAJ&q=faulkner+encephalitis+eric&pg=PT253|title=I Ran With The Gang: My Life In and Out of the Bay City Rollers|last1=Longmuir|first1=Alan|last2=Knight|first2=Martin|date=2018-11-14|publisher=Luath Press Ltd|isbn=9781912387212|language=en}}</ref> The band released one new single, "Boomerang", and discussed plans for a new album. The reunion continued into 2016 before Wood ended the reunited line-up on 9 July 2016 because no shows were being booked for the so-called reunion. After the 2015 Christmas shows Les was booking shows only for himself and his band during 2016 (except T In The Park) which caused the reunion to end.<ref name="billboard.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7431227/bay-city-rollers-stuart-woody-wood-guitarist-announces-departure-from-band-watch-video-of-final/|title=Bay City Rollers Guitarist Announces Departure From Band; Watch Final Performances|website=Billboard.com|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> Plans for a new album and various tours that were hoped to take place in 2017 never materialised.<ref name="billboard.com"/><ref name="dailyrecord.co.uk">{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/bay-city-rollers-singer-les-20712204|title=Bay City Roller Les McKeown says he'll never work with Stuart 'Woody' Wood|first=Rick|last=Fulton|date=24 October 2019|newspaper=[[Daily Record (Scotland)|Daily Record]]|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> Prior to the reunion and after the end of the tour, McKeown continued to tour as "Les McKeown's Bay City Rollers".

On 27 February 2018, Wood announced that a "new generation" Bay City Rollers would be performing in Tokyo, Japan in June of the same year. The band comprises Wood on guitar, Ian Thomson on lead vocals and guitar, Marcus Cordock on bass (replaced by Mikey Smith in 2023), and Jamie McGrory on drums.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://japantoday.com/category/entertainment/New-generation-Bay-City-Rollers-to-perform-2-nights-in-Tokyo|title=New generation Bay City Rollers to perform 2 nights in Tokyo|website=Japantoday.com|date=9 March 2018 |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref>

Bassist Alan Longmuir died on 2 July 2018 after falling ill while on holiday with his wife in Mexico.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-44679446|title=Bay City Roller Alan Longmuir dies|date=2 July 2018|website=Bbc.com|access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref> His autobiography ''I Ran with the Gang: My Life in and Out of The Bay City Rollers'' was published posthumously in November 2018; the book was written with [[Martin Knight (author)|Martin Knight]]. In his book, Alan Longmuir mentioned his hope for McKeown and Wood to put aside their differences and reunite one more time.<ref name="glasgowtimes.co.uk">{{Cite news|url=https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/17988024.bay-city-rollers-stars-quash-rumours-reunion/|title=Bay City Rollers stars quash rumours of reunion|newspaper=[[Glasgow Times]]|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> In 2019, after rumors related to Alan Longmuir's wishes, both McKeown and Wood denied any chance of another reunion and did not want to work with each other,<ref name="glasgowtimes.co.uk"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/ex-bay-city-rollers-members-tell-fans-they-can-forget-about-future-reunion-818330|title=Ex-Bay City Rollers members tell fans they can 'forget' about future reunion|website=Edinburghnews.scotsman.com|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> though McKeown did mention his desire to work with Faulkner.<ref name="dailyrecord.co.uk"/>

After both McKeown's and Wood's bands were sidelined by the coronavirus pandemic, McKeown mentioned in August 2020 that he would be willing to reunite with Wood again with more planning.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/must-read/exclusive-edinburghs-les-mckeown-reflects-life-international-pop-star-lockdown-and-his-hope-another-bay-city-rollers-reunion-2929616|title=EXCLUSIVE: Edinburgh's Les McKeown reflects on in lockdown and his hope of another Bay City Rollers' reunion|website=Edinburghnews.scotsman.com|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref>

On 1 September 2020, Ian Mitchell died at the age of 62 after suffering from throat cancer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-54001874|title=Bay City Rollers member Ian Mitchell dies|date=2 September 2020|website=Bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

On 20 April 2021, Les McKeown died aged 65.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aitchison|first=Jack|date=2021-04-22|title=Bay City Rollers star Les McKeown dead aged 65 as family pay tribute|url=https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/19252534.bay-city-rollers-star-les-mckeown-dead-aged-65/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-22|website=Heraldscotland.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422153644/https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/19252534.bay-city-rollers-star-les-mckeown-dead-aged-65/ |archive-date=22 April 2021 }}</ref>

For the period between 9 March and 10 December 2023, however, a total of 11 concerts and appearances at festivals were planned again with the line-up of Ian Thomson, Stuart Wood, Marcus Cordock and Jamie McGrory, nine of them in the UK and one each in Denmark and Germany. 5 concerts have been announced for 2024, all in the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.baycityrollers.co.uk/tourdates|title=Bay City Rollers | Tour Dates 2018|access-date=12 February 2024}}</ref>

==Financial disputes==
{{update section|date=January 2020}}
According to the BBC, the Bay City Rollers sold 120 million records.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-34323112|title=Bay City Rollers announce reunion |work=[[BBC News]] |date=22 September 2015 |access-date=22 September 2015}}</ref>

In March 2007, six former members of the group (Faure plus the "classic line-up") announced a lawsuit against [[Arista Records]] in hopes of claiming what they described as "tens of millions of dollars" of unpaid royalties. Gordon "Nobby" Clark threatened to sue the other band members if their lawsuit was successful, stating that he was the creative force behind the band's success, even though he left the group in 1973, before the bulk of their fame and fortune began.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328133604/http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=1019&id=437372007|url-status=dead|title=Scottish News – The Scotsman|archive-date=28 March 2007|website=Scotsman.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070517033253/http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=1019&id=449172007|url-status=dead|title=Scottish News – The Scotsman|archive-date=17 May 2007|website=Scotsman.com}}</ref>

In September 2010, Clark, Ian Mitchell and Pat McGlynn filed a complaint in the courts in the United States against the six members (Faure plus the "classic line-up") over being excluded from the case against Arista records. Clark, Mitchell and McGlynn were seeking to have their rights determined and were seeking financial damages against the other Bay City Rollers for alleged breach of contract. In 2013, a judge in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against the three due to the statute of frauds, which establishes that certain agreements must be in writing under certain conditions, and the appellate judge's ruling stated: "A claim for unjust enrichment must be based on the value of plaintiffs' contribution to the joint effort of the band at the time it made the relevant records, not on the income stream resulting from a revival over thirty years later."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr-esq/three-members-bay-city-rollers-617514 | title=Three Ex-Members of Bay City Rollers Denied in Royalty Collection Attempt | website=Hollywoodreporter.com | date=29 August 2013 | access-date=17 September 2013 | author=Gardner, Eriq}}</ref>

In March 2011, a New York judge determined that the Bay City Rollers could move forward with their four-year-old lawsuit against Arista Records. Arista denied responsibility for the majority of the royalties, citing a New York statute of limitations. The statute limits plaintiffs from recovering damages post six years in contract disputes, which therefore would negate the Rollers' claims for royalties incurred before 2001. However, because Arista had continued to promise the Bay City Rollers their royalties in writing, the judge ruled that the statute was not applicable.<ref>{{cite web|author=Mickie |url=http://mickieszoo.blogspot.com/2011/06/bay-city-rollers-to-continue-suit.html |title=Mickie's Zoo: Bay City Rollers to continue suit against Arista Records |website=Mickieszoo.blogspot.com |date=1 June 2011 |access-date=16 July 2011}}</ref>

After almost a decade, the legal battle came to an end with an out-of-court settlement in 2016. Arista Records' parent company [[Sony Music]] is believed to have paid $3.5 million, with each band member receiving £70,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/bay-city-rollers-legal-battle-reaches-end-road-865600|title=Bay City Rollers legal battle reaches end of the road|website=Scotsman.com|language=en|access-date=2020-04-16}}</ref>

== Sexual abuse allegations ==
Members of the Bay City Rollers have accused former manager [[Tam Paton]] of sexual abuse. In 2003, McGlynn accused former Bay City Rollers manager [[Tam Paton]] of trying to [[rape]] him in a hotel room in 1977.<ref name="scotsman1">{{citation |date=22 August 2007 |title=Former Rollers manager Paton cleared of rape claim |periodical=[[The Scotsman]] |url=http://news.scotsman.com/baycityrollers/Former-Rollers-manager-Paton-cleared.3319561.jp|accessdate=10 April 2009 |location=Edinburgh |first=Rhiannon |last=Edward}}</ref> However, the police decided there was insufficient evidence to prosecute Paton. Paton had previous arrests for sexual misconduct with underage boys.<ref name="scotsman.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/news/tam-paton-bedroom-bulldozed-after-seedy-history-1-3216828|title=Tam Paton bedroom bulldozed after 'seedy' history|website=Edinburghnews.scotsman.com|accessdate=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726111903/https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/news/tam-paton-bedroom-bulldozed-after-seedy-history-1-3216828|archive-date=26 July 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2009, McKeown accused Paton of raping him.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McEwen |first=Alan |date=2016-10-17 |title=Bay City Rollers pervert Tam Paton urged band to have sex with paedophile DJ |url=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/bay-city-rollers-gordon-clark-9059841 |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=Daily Record |language=en}}</ref> In the 2023 documentary ''Secrets of the Bay City Rollers,'' potential band member Gert Magnus claimed that Paton offered him a place in the band in exchange for sex.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Latif |first=Leila |date=2023-06-29 |title=Secrets of the Bay City Rollers review – one of the most disturbing accounts of abuse imaginable |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2023/jun/29/secrets-of-the-bay-city-rollers-review-one-of-the-most-disturbing-accounts-of-abuse-imaginable |access-date=2023-06-30 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

==Members==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''Current members'''
* [[Stuart Wood (musician)|Stuart "Woody" Wood]] – backing and occasional lead vocals, rhythm and lead guitars, keyboards, bass, mandolin (1974–1981, 1982–1985, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016, 2018–present)
* Ian Thomson – lead vocals, guitar (2018–present)
* Jamie McGrory – drums (2018–present)
* Mikey Smith – bass, vocals (2023–present)
* John McLaughlin - Keyboards, vocals (2023-present)

{{col-2}}
'''Former members'''
* [[Alan Longmuir]] – backing and occasional lead vocals, bass, rhythm guitar, piano, accordion (1964–1976, 1978–1981, 1982–1983, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016; died 2018)
* [[Derek Longmuir]] – drums, percussion (1964–1981, 1982–1983, 1996)
* Neil Porteous – guitar (1964–1965)
* Gordon "Nobby" Clark – lead vocals (1965–1973)
* Dave Pettigrew – guitar, keyboards (1965–1968)
* Gregory Ellison – guitar (1966–1968)
* Mike Ellison – vocals (1966)
* Keith Norman – keyboards (1967–1969)
* [[David Paton]] – guitar (1968–1970)
* Alan Dunn – keyboards (1969)
* [[Billy Lyall]] – keyboards (1969–1971; died 1989)
* Eric Manclark – guitar (1970–1971)
* Neil Henderson – guitar (1970–1972)
* Archie Marr – keyboards (1971–1972)
* John Devine – guitar (1972–1974)
* [[Eric Faulkner]] – backing and occasional lead vocals, lead and rhythm guitars, violin, mandolin, bass (1972–1981, 1982–1985, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000)
* [[Les McKeown]] – lead vocals (1973–1978, 1982–1985, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016; died 2021)
* Ian Mitchell – backing and occasional lead vocals, rhythm guitar, bass (1976, 1982–1985; died 2020)
* [[Pat McGlynn]] – rhythm guitar, bass (1976–1977, 1982–1985)
* Duncan Faure – vocals, guitar, keyboards (1978–1981)
* George Spencer – drums (1985)
* Marcus Cordock – bass (2018–2023)
{{col-end}}

In later years, but before McKeown's death, there were usually at least two or three bands featuring one former BCR member touring as The Bay City Rollers or some variation of the name. These were most recently held by Wood and McKeown (before McKeown's death), and Wood's most recent band is still active and currently the only group touring as the Bay City Rollers.

===Timeline===
{{#tag:timeline|
ImageSize = width:900 height:auto barincrement:20
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Alignbars = justify
DateFormat = mm/dd/yyyy
Period = from:01/01/1964 till:{{#time:m/d/Y}}
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Colors =
id:vocals value:red legend:Vocals
id:lead value:teal legend:Lead_guitar
id:rhythm value:brightgreen legend:Rhythm_guitar
id:keys value:purple legend:Keyboards
id:bass value:blue legend:Bass
id:drums value:orange legend:Drums
id:Lines value:black legend:Studio_album

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ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1964
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1964

BarData =
bar:NobbyC text:"Gordon 'Nobby' Clark"
bar:MikeE text:"Mike Ellison"
bar:Les text:"Les McKeown"
bar:DuncanF text:"Duncan Faure"
bar:IanT text:"Ian Thomson"
bar:NeilP text:"Neil Porteous"
bar:DaveP text:"Dave Pettigrew"
bar:GregoryE text:"Gregory Ellison"
bar:Eric text:"Eric Faulkner"
bar:JohnD text:"John Devine"
bar:Woody text:"Stuart 'Woody' Wood"
bar:IanM text:"Ian Mitchell"
bar:PatM text:"Pat McGlynn"
bar:BillyL text:"Billy Lyall"
bar:JohnM text:"John McLaughlin"
bar:Alan text:"Alan Longmuir"
bar:DavidP text:"David Paton"
bar:Marcus text:"Marcus Cordock"
bar:Mikey text:"Mikey Smith"
bar:DerekL text:"Derek Longmuir"
bar:GeorgeS text:"George Spencer"
bar:Jamie text:"Jamie McGrory"

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bar:Alan from:01/01/1964 till:06/01/1965 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:01/01/1964 till:06/01/1965 color:vocals width:3
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bar:Alan from:01/01/1969 till:12/31/1970 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:12/31/1970 till:02/01/1976 color:bass
bar:Alan from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:keys width:7
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bar:Alan from:07/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:07/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:07/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:bass width:5
bar:Alan from:08/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:vocals width:3
bar:Alan from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:bass width:7
bar:Alan from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:keys width:3
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:bass
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:rhythm width:5
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:vocals width:3
bar:Alan from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:rhythm
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bar:Alan from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bass width:5
bar:Alan from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals width:3
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bar:Eric from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:vocals
bar:Eric from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:lead width:3
bar:Eric from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:bass
bar:Eric from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:lead width:7
bar:Eric from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals width:3
bar:Eric from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bass
bar:Eric from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:lead width:7
bar:Eric from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals width:3

bar:Les from:11/01/1973 till:11/01/1978 color:vocals
bar:Les from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:vocals
bar:Les from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals
bar:Les from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals
bar:Les from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:vocals
bar:Les from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:rhythm width:3

bar:Woody from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:rhythm
bar:Woody from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:bass width:5
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bar:Woody from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:lead width:5
bar:Woody from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:keys width:3
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:rhythm
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:bass width:5
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:vocals width:3
bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:lead
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bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:bass width:5
bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals width:3
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:lead
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bass width:5
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bar:Woody from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:lead
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bar:Woody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:rhythm
bar:Woody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:vocals width:3

bar:IanM from:02/01/1976 till:08/01/1976 color:rhythm
bar:IanM from:02/01/1976 till:08/01/1976 color:bass width:7
bar:IanM from:02/01/1976 till:08/01/1976 color:vocals width:3
bar:IanM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:rhythm
bar:IanM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:bass width:3

bar:PatM from:08/01/1976 till:08/01/1977 color:rhythm
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bar:PatM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:rhythm
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bar:NobbyC from:06/01/1965 till:11/01/1973 color:vocals
bar:NeilP from:01/01/1964 till:07/31/1965 color:lead
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bar:MikeE from:01/01/1966 till:01/01/1967 color:vocals
bar:DuncanF from:11/01/1978 till:11/20/1981 color:vocals
bar:DuncanF from:11/01/1978 till:11/20/1981 color:rhythm width:3
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bar:DaveP from:07/31/1965 till:06/01/1966 color:lead
bar:DaveP from:07/31/1965 till:03/01/1974 color:rhythm width:3
bar:DaveP from:06/01/1966 till:03/01/1974 color:keys
bar:JohnD from:10/01/1973 till:02/15/1974 color:rhythm
bar:IanT from:01/01/2018 till:end color:vocals
bar:IanT from:01/01/2018 till:end color:lead width:3
bar:Marcus from:01/01/2018 till:01/01/2023 color:bass
bar:Marcus from:01/01/2018 till:01/01/2023 color:vocals width:3
bar:Jamie from:01/01/2018 till:end color:drums
bar:Mikey from:01/01/2023 till:end color:bass
bar:Mikey from:01/01/2023 till:end color:vocals width:3
bar:JohnM from:08/30/2023 till:end color:keys
bar:JohnM from:08/30/2023 till:end color:vocals width:3

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at:09/01/1974
at:05/01/1975
at:12/01/1975
at:03/01/1976
at:09/01/1976
at:07/01/1977
at:01/01/1978
at:01/01/1979
at:01/01/1980
at:01/01/1981
at:01/01/1985
at:12/01/2015
}}

==Discography==
{{main|Bay City Rollers discography}}
'''Studio albums'''

* ''[[Rollin' (Bay City Rollers album)|Rollin']]'' (1974)
* ''[[Once Upon a Star]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Bay City Rollers (album)|Bay City Rollers]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Wouldn't You Like It?]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Rock n' Roll Love Letter]]'' (1976)
* ''[[Dedication (Bay City Rollers album)|Dedication]]'' (1976)
* ''[[It's a Game (Bay City Rollers album)|It's a Game]]'' (1977)
* ''[[Strangers in the Wind]]'' (1978)
* ''[[Elevator (The Rollers album)|Elevator]]'' (1979)
* ''[[Voxx (album)|Voxx]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Ricochet (Bay City Rollers album)|Ricochet]]'' (1981)
* ''Breakout '85'' (1985)
* ''A Christmas Shang-A-Lang'' (2015)

'''Christmas Single 2021'''

* Rollin' Into Christmas

'''EP 2023'''
* Brand New Day (Brand New Day - Sunshine On Leith - Money Honey)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Brigitte Tast, Hans-Jürgen Tast: ''Wie weit ist vorbei? Ein Konzert, eine Party und Meldungen aus der ganzen Welt''. Kulleraugen – Visuelle Kommunikation Nr. 48, Schellerten 2016, {{ISBN|978-3-88842-048-1}}.

==External links==
* {{Discogs artist|Bay City Rollers}}
* {{IMDb name|id=1163873}}
* {{IMDb name|id=9382430}} as Les McKeown's 70's Bay City Rollers

{{Bay City Rollers}}
{{Pilot}}{{Scottish musicians}}{{UK best-selling singles (by year)}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Bay City Rollers| ]]
[[Category:1964 establishments in Scotland]]
[[Category:2020 disestablishments in Scotland]]
[[Category:Musical groups established in 1966]]
[[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1987]]
[[Category:Scottish pop music groups]]
[[Category:Scottish pop rock music groups]]
[[Category:Scottish glam rock groups]]
[[Category:Musical groups from Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2015]]
[[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2020]]
[[Category:Bell Records artists]]
[[Category:Arista Records artists]]
[[Category:Epic Records artists]]

Bay City Rollers

2024-06-11T03:24:14Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Breakthrough: 1974–1975 */duplicative links

{{Short description|Scottish pop rock band}}
{{for|the self-titled album|Bay City Rollers (album)}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Bay City Rollers
| image = BayCityRollers1976RobBogaerts.jpg
| landscape = yes
| caption = Bay City Rollers in the Netherlands in 1976
| alias = The Saxons, The Rollers, The New Rollers
| origin = [[Edinburgh]], Scotland
| genre = {{Hlist|[[Pop music|Pop]]<ref name="Brown2010">{{cite book|author=Ian Brown|title=From Tartan to Tartanry: Scottish Culture, History and Myth: Scottish Culture, History and Myth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=giGrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|date=26 November 2010|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=978-0-7486-4449-0|pages=201–}}</ref>|[[glam rock]]<ref name="Johnson2016">{{cite book|author=Mark Johnson|title=Seditious Theology: Punk and the Ministry of Jesus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbfeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13|date=1 April 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-05785-7|pages=13–}}</ref>|[[pop rock]]<ref name="pr">{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/bay-city-rollers-mn0000151979/biography|title=Bay City Rollers - Biography & History - AllMusic|publisher=[[AllMusic]]|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>}}
| years_active = 1964–1981, 1982–1987, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016, 2018–present
| label = [[Bell Records (UK)|Bell]], [[Arista Records|Arista]], [[Epic Records|Epic]]
| associated_acts = [[Pilot (Scottish band)|Pilot]]
| website = [https://www.thebaycityrollers.co.uk Bay City Rollers]
| current_members = * [[Stuart Wood (musician)|Stuart "Woody" Wood]]
* Ian Thomson
* Mikey Smith
* Jamie McGrory
* John McLaughlin
| past_members = * Neil Porteous
* Gregory Ellison
* Mike Ellison
* Dave Pettigrew
* [[Les McKeown]]
* [[Alan Longmuir]]
* [[Derek Longmuir]]
* [[Eric Faulkner]]
* Ian Mitchell
* [[Pat McGlynn]]
* Gordon Clark
* Keith Norman
* [[David Paton]]
* Alan Dunn
* Eric Manclark
* [[Billy Lyall]]
* Ray Weston
* Neil Henderson
* Archie Marr
* John Devine
* George Spencer
* Duncan Faure
* Marcus Cordock
}}

The '''Bay City Rollers''' are a Scottish [[pop rock]] band known for their worldwide [[teen idol]] popularity in the 1970s. They have been called the "[[tartan]] teen sensations from Edinburgh" and are one of many acts heralded as the "biggest group since [[the Beatles]]".<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums">{{cite book
| first= David
| last= Roberts
| year= 2006
| title= [[British Hit Singles & Albums]]
| edition= 19th
| publisher= [[Guinness World Records Limited]]
| location= [[London]]
| isbn= 1-904994-10-5
| page= 45}}</ref>

The group's line-up had many changes over the years, but the classic roster during its peak in popularity included guitarists [[Eric Faulkner]] and [[Stuart Wood (musician)|Stuart Wood]], singer [[Les McKeown]], bassist [[Alan Longmuir]] and drummer [[Derek Longmuir]]. The current line-up (since 2018) includes original guitarist Stuart "Woody" Wood, singer Ian Thomson, bassist Mikey Smith, keyboardist/singer John McLaughlin and drummer Jamie McGrory.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thebaycityrollers.co.uk|title=BAY CITY ROLLERS – OFFICIAL WEBSITE|website=baycityrollers.co.uk|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>

==History==
===Early days and formation: 1964–1973===
In 1964, a trio called the Ambassadors was formed in Edinburgh, Scotland, by 16-year-old [[Alan Longmuir]] on acoustic guitar, his younger brother [[Derek Longmuir]] on drums, and their older cousin Neil Porteous on acoustic guitar. The group never performed publicly under this name,<ref name=Spence2016>{{cite book |last1=Spence |first1=Simon |title=When The Screaming Stops: The Dark History of the Bay City Rollers |date=2016 |publisher=[[Omnibus Press]] |isbn=9781783237050 |pages=33–35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=66A2DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT33}}</ref> just a family wedding where they covered "[[Wake Up Little Susie]]". They changed their name to the Saxons, and Derek invited a friend from school, Gordon "Nobby" Clark, to be the lead singer. Porteous moved from acoustic to electric guitar, and Alan Longmuir followed suit by changing to electric bass.<ref name=Coy2005>Coy, W. (2005), ''Bay City Babylon: The Unbelievable But True Story of the Bay City Rollers'', pp 12–13. Hats Off Books, {{ISBN|978-1587364631}}</ref> The Saxons played occasional dance hall concerts while the band members completed their schooling or worked during the day (Alan apprenticed as a plumber). Porteous left the band in July 1965, with new guitarist Dave Pettigrew filling the spot after answering an advertisement placed by the band in an Edinburgh newspaper. Pettigrew was more advanced musically than the others, and pushed the band to improve. Their repertoire included American R&B/pop songs such as "[[Please Mr. Postman]]" and "[[Heat Wave (Martha and the Vandellas song)|Heat Wave]]". They played at least one gig at the Gonk Club as the Deadbeats, but they discovered a conflict: Another band was playing locally as Rock Bottom and the Deadbeats.<ref name=Spence2016/>

While taking a technical class at Napier College, Alan met fellow plumbing student Gregory Ellison, who joined the Saxons on electric guitar, with Pettigrew shifting to keyboards. Gregory's older brother Mike joined as a second lead singer, allowing more complex harmonies, especially useful for the Motown songs they liked to perform. The band convinced [[Tam Paton]], a former [[big band]] leader<ref>{{cite web|last=Finney|first=Ritchie|title=Tam Paton Spills The Heinz Baked Beans!|url=http://www.spencemusic.co.uk/bilbomusic/articles/Tam/spilledbeans.htm|work=Bilbo Baggins Home Page|publisher=Morley Enterprises|access-date=31 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910180745/http://www.spencemusic.co.uk/bilbomusic/articles/Tam/spilledbeans.htm|archive-date=10 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> and influential local band and club manager, to audition them at the Longmuirs' house. Paton booked them for a Thursday night at his club, the Palais, then assigned them to open for the Hipple People at Top Storey. More gigs followed.<ref name=Spence2016/>

More successful now, the Saxons moved out of the Longmuirs' back room to practice in Hermiston at a church. They played a couple of contemporary [[The Kinks|Kinks]] numbers but favored American songs, including a new one: "[[See See Rider|C.C. Rider]]" by [[Mitch Ryder]] and the Detroit Wheels. Desiring a better name for the band, they settled on "Rollers", but needed a more powerful American-sounding term in front of that. Derek Longmuir threw a dart at a map of the United States, landing first on Arkansas. This did not meet anyone's approval, so a second dart was thrown. It landed near [[Bay City, Michigan]]. The band agreed on the name, the Bay City Rollers.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography">{{cite book
| first= Martin C.
| last= Strong
| year= 2000
| title= The Great Rock Discography
| edition= 5th
| publisher= [[Mojo Books]]
| location= Edinburgh
| pages= 2–3
| isbn= 1-84195-017-3}}</ref> Short-term members from this period included bassist [[David Paton]] (from 1969 to 1970) and keyboardist [[Billy Lyall]] (1969–71), who went on to be founding members of another Edinburgh band [[Pilot (Scottish band)|Pilot]].

After signing with [[Bell Records (UK)|Bell Records]], the band's first hit was "[[Keep on Dancing (The Gentrys song)|Keep on Dancing]]" (UK No. 9, 1971), a cover of a 1965 hit by [[the Gentrys]].<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/><ref name="Guinness Rockopedia">{{cite book
| first= David
| last= Roberts
| year= 1998
| title= Guinness Rockopedia
| edition= 1st
| publisher= Guinness Publishing Ltd.
| location= London
| page= [https://archive.org/details/guinnessrockoped0000unse/page/30 30]
| isbn= 0-85112-072-5
| url-access= registration
| url= https://archive.org/details/guinnessrockoped0000unse/page/30
}}</ref> Upon this release's success, they made appearances on [[BBC One]]'s ''[[Top of the Pops]]''.

Several non-charting singles were released over the following two years. This period saw the addition of long-term member guitarist [[Eric Faulkner]]. In mid-1973, they narrowly missed the [[UK Singles Chart]] with their fourth single, "[[Saturday Night (Bay City Rollers song)|Saturday Night]]". By the end of 1973, Clark had become disillusioned with the band's musical direction and decided to leave just when his recording of "[[Remember (Sha-La-La-La)]]" climbed the charts to No. 6. He was replaced as lead singer by [[Les McKeown]]. A couple of months later, in early 1974, what became known as the classic line-up<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> was completed; guitarist John Devine was replaced by Stuart "Woody" Wood.

In 1987, Les McKeown was a guest on [[Jonathan Ross]]'s chat show where he told Ross that The Bay City Rollers did not perform on the first four singles.

===Breakthrough: 1974–1975===
In late 1973, McKeown recorded lead vocals on "Remember (Sha-La-La-La)", and a lead-in to a series of UK chart hits. 16-year-old Stuart Wood completed the "classic five" line-up in February 1974, a week after the band had debuted the "Remember" single on ''[[Top of the Pops]].'' (John Devine had mimed the piano part). By early 1975, the band was well on the way to achieving global success. The "classic five" line-up consisted of: Alan Longmuir, Derek Longmuir, Stuart "Woody" Wood, Eric Faulkner and Les McKeown.

Beginning with "Remember" (UK No. 6), the Rollers' popularity exploded, and they released a string of hits on the UK chart. Following in succession were "[[Shang-a-Lang (song)|Shang-a-Lang]]" (UK No. 2), "[[Summerlove Sensation]]" (UK No. 3), and "All of Me Loves All of You" (UK No. 4).<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/>

By early 1975, they were one of the biggest-selling acts in the UK. The successful 1975 UK tour prompted newspaper headlines about the rise of "Rollermania"<ref name="Guinness Rockopedia"/> (alluding to [[Beatlemania]] a decade before). The Rollers were the subject of a 20-week UK television series, ''[[Shang-a-Lang (TV series)|Shang-a-Lang]]''.

A cover of [[The Four Seasons (band)|the Four Seasons]]' "[[Bye, Bye, Baby (Baby Goodbye)|Bye, Bye, Baby]]" stayed at No. 1 in the UK for six weeks in March and April 1975, selling nearly a million copies and becoming the biggest seller of the year. The subsequent single, "[[Give a Little Love (Bay City Rollers song)|Give a Little Love]]" topped the charts in July 1975, achieving their second No. 1 hit.<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/><ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> Two albums were produced during this period: ''[[Once Upon a Star]]'' (1975) and ''[[Wouldn't You Like It?]]'' (1975). Faulkner and Wood undertook the majority of the songwriting duties.

By this time, Bay City Rollers fans had a completely distinctive style of dress, featuring calf-length [[tartan]] trousers and tartan [[scarf|scarves]].<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/>

English singer-songwriter [[Nick Lowe]] wrote a "jaundiced" (in Lowe's words)<ref name=canada_interview>{{cite web|url=http://www.canada.com/story.html?id=9342a121-86f6-4403-8943-223081679e68 |title=Q and A with Nick Lowe |website=Canada.com |date=6 October 2007 |access-date=24 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501050558/http://www.canada.com/story.html?id=9342a121-86f6-4403-8943-223081679e68 |archive-date=1 May 2014}}</ref> paean to the band titled "Bay City Rollers We Love You". The track was "carefully sculpted" to be poor enough to get Lowe out of a recording contract with United Artists. The strategy backfired. UA issued the record as by the Tartan Horde,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nicklowedisc.tripod.com/stiff/stiff.html |title=NICK LOWE DISCOGRAPHY – PART 1 |website=Nicklowedisc.tripod.com |access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> which was the name given to Rollers fans in England, and it became a substantial hit in Japan.<ref name=canada_interview /> Lowe was obliged to record a follow-up song called "Rollers Show", which did not meet with the same commercial success. This follow-up song was included on the U.S. release of Lowe's first album ''[[Jesus of Cool|Pure Pop for Now People]]''.

===World impact: 1976===
[[File:Bay City Rollers 1978.jpg|thumb|right|The Bay City Rollers achieved international success during the 1970s.]]
As the group's popularity swelled to superstardom in the UK, a concerted effort was made by [[Arista Records]] (the record company that evolved from Bell) to launch the Rollers in North America. The new Arista head [[Clive Davis]] was instrumental in grooming and overseeing the project. His work paid off, as in late 1975 the Rollers reached No. 1 on the US [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] with "[[Saturday Night (Bay City Rollers song)|Saturday Night]]". "Saturday Night" had missed the UK chart completely two years earlier.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> The Rollers gave the track their American debut, via a satellite-link performance on ''[[Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell|Saturday Night Live, with Howard Cosell]]''. In Canada, it fared equally well, hitting No. 1 on the ''[[RPM (magazine)|RPM]]'' national singles chart on 10 January 1976.<ref name="Canada">{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.6474a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015035031/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.6474a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The ''[[Bay City Rollers (album)|Bay City Rollers]]'' (1975) album (North American release only) hit No. 1 in the same chart on 7 February.<ref name="Canada"/>

A second North American hit came with "Money Honey", written by Faulkner and Wood, which hit No. 9 in the US. In Canada, it fared better, following its predecessor to the top, giving them their second No. 1 in the ''RPM'' national singles chart on 13 March 1976.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4101a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Item Display – RPM – Library and Archives Canada |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015035341/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4101a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The North America/Japan release album ''[[Rock n' Roll Love Letter]]'' (1976) jumped from No. 25 to the top position in a single week in Canada. This deposed their own ''[[Bay City Rollers (album)|Bay City Rollers]]'' (1975) at No. 1 on the national chart, on 27 March 1976,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4087a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Item Display – RPM – Library and Archives Canada |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020031139/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4087a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, it only managed to achieve the No. 31 spot on the U.S. ''Billboard'' chart.

They were also extremely popular in Australia. One example of their popularity was put into the book about ''[[Countdown (Australian TV series)|Countdown]]'' – the Australian TV music show which ran from 1974 to 1987. Their ''Countdown'' appearance in October 1976 coincided with a [[Solar eclipse of October 23, 1976|total eclipse]] of the sun. Director [[Ted Emery]] recalled:<ref>Wilmoth, Peter – ''Glad All Over – The Countdown Years 1974–1987'' McPhee Gribble/[[Penguin Books]], 1993. p. 149</ref>

{{blockquote|(there)... were thousands of kids done up in tartan pants that didn't reach the top of their shoes, constantly bashing on the [[plexiglas]] doors. They would do anything...to get into that television studio. There's 200 kids bashing on the door and a total eclipse of the sun occurred. I'd never seen one. On this day we all stopped in the studio and the Rollers went up on the roof. We stood out there and watched the flowers close up and all the automatic street lighting come on. It was chilling, the most fantastic thing you'd ever see. Downstairs the kids never turned around, staring into the plexiglas waiting to see the Rollers come out of the studio, go down the corridor and into the canteen. (They) never noticed the total eclipse of the sun.}}

Alan Longmuir had left the group by early 1976, due to both the pressures of the band's success and feeling discomfort at being a member of a teen band whilst in his late twenties.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> He was replaced for seven months by 17-year-old Ian Mitchell from Northern Ireland; he was the first band member born outside Edinburgh.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> With Mitchell, the group released an album titled ''[[Dedication (Bay City Rollers album)|Dedication]]'' (1976), and hit the charts with a cover version of the [[Dusty Springfield]] song "[[I Only Want to Be with You#Bay City Rollers version|I Only Want to Be with You]]. " The song reached US No. 12, as well as "Yesterday's Hero" (featuring live material from a 1976 personal appearance in Toronto's [[Nathan Phillips Square]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=des89c-lkRI | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202022510/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=des89c-lkRI| archive-date=2017-02-02 | url-status=dead|title=Youtube.com |publisher=[[YouTube]] |date=15 June 2009 |access-date=16 July 2011}}</ref> and "Dedication".

===1977–1979===
[[File:Bay City Rollers -yhtyeen rumpali Derek Longmuir on saapunut hotelli Hesperian edustalle - G35573 (hkm.HKMS000005-km0000nhk4).jpg|thumb|right|Drummer [[Derek Longmuir]] in Helsinki, 1978]]
As the Rollers' popularity waned, the shuffling of personnel continued; Mitchell quit the band. He was replaced by guitarist [[Pat McGlynn]]. Further struggles involved the direction of their sound, as the members wished to pursue more sophisticated styles. They settled on [[David Bowie]]'s producer, [[Harry Maslin]], and in August 1977 released ''[[It's a Game (Bay City Rollers album)|It's a Game]]'' as a four-piece group, comprising McKeown, Wood, Faulkner and Derek Longmuir. The ''It's a Game'' tour was recorded in 1977 at Japan's [[Nippon Budokan|Budokan Hall]], and was later released in 2001 as ''Rollerworld: Live at the Budokan 1977''.

On the tour, they covered "It's a Game", an unsuccessful 1973 single by [[String Driven Thing]], to give them their final UK Top 20 hit (No. 16 in May 1977). Oddly enough, this single provided them with their highest-charting German hit, reaching No. 4 in the same year.<ref>''Starke Zeiten'', Hit-Bilanz, 1988 BMG-Ariola 258850</ref> The follow-up "[[You Made Me Believe in Magic]]" made No. 34 in July in the UK and No. 10 in the U.S., and this single was their final major success.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/>

The Bay City Rollers were on ''[[The Krofft Superstar Hour]]'', later named the ''Bay City Rollers Show'', an hour-long show that aired from September 9, 1978, to January 27, 1979. During this time, the classic line-up released their last album together, [[Strangers in the Wind]], which charted only in Australia, (#61) Japan, (#5) and the USA (#128).

===New singer, new name===
At the end of 1978, the band had split with McKeown, then fired manager Tam Paton shortly after, and decided to continue in a more [[New wave music|new wave]], rock-oriented sound. Their name was now The Rollers. South African-born [[Duncan Faure]] joined the band as new lead vocalist, guitarist and songwriter. With Faure, the line-up produced three albums: ''Elevator'' (1979), ''Voxx'' (1980) and ''Ricochet'' (1981).<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> Following the expiry of the band's Arista contract, none of the releases sold as well as expected, and they stopped touring by late 1981.

''The A.V. Club'' compared ''Ricochet'' to the pop/new wave style of [[The Cars]] and recommended the album be "rescued from obscurity".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.avclub.com/read-this-this-bay-city-rollers-lp-should-be-rescued-f-1798250379|title=Read This: This Bay City Rollers LP should be rescued from obscurity|first=Joe|last=Blevins|website=News.avcluv.com|date=8 August 2016 |access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>

===1980s–present===
During the 1980s and 1990s, there were a few short tours. Seven past members played Japan in 1982, and again in 1983. A reunion album, ''Breakout'', was released in Japan and Australia in 1985, and added drummer George Spencer. ''Breakout'' was written primarily by McKeown and McGlynn with minor contributions from Faulkner, Wood, and Mitchell.

In the late 1980s, a version of the band called the New Rollers was formed featuring Faulkner on lead vocals, Karen Prosser on vocals, Jason Medvec on guitar, Andy Boakes on bass, and Mark Roberts on drums. The band toured extensively throughout the US and Canada as well as tours of the UK and Australia. This group also released an independent four-song EP titled ''Party Harty''.

In 1990, Wood and Alan Longmuir joined with Faulkner to tour under the Bay City Rollers name and issued several CDs of re-recordings of the old Roller tunes.

In 1996, the classic line-up reunited and performed "Saturday Night" on a Japanese television show to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Rollermania.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a5N_g6qckk8 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/a5N_g6qckk8| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|title=Bay city rollers in Japan 1998|access-date=14 August 2021|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i1LSUu1XrJ4 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/i1LSUu1XrJ4| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|title=Bay City Rollers (in Japan 1996) - SATURDAY Night -|access-date=14 August 2021|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The classic line-up (minus Derek Longmuir)<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2000/mar/24/3|title = Former Bay City Roller escapes jail on child porn charges|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|last = Longmuir|first = Derek}}</ref> performed a one-off New Year's Eve millennium concert, the last official Bay City Rollers concert (1999–2000) in the shadow of Edinburgh Castle in Scotland. Interest was rekindled in the UK by various television documentaries about the group; and the television-advertised compilation ''Very Best of the Bay City Rollers'' entered the [[UK Albums Chart]] on release in 2004 at No. 11.<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/>

During the late 2000s, Ian Mitchell led his own Bay City Rollers band, which included lead vocalist [[Kyle Vincent]]. Mitchell was the only ex-Roller involved.

On 22 September 2015, the Bay City Rollers, including McKeown, Wood, and Alan Longmuir, announced they were reforming and would play a show at the Glasgow Barrowlands on 20 December.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/entertainment/music/music-news/bay-city-rollers-back-scots-6492914|title=Bay City Rollers are back: Watch our video as pop icons announce reunion|first=John|last=Dingwall|date=22 September 2015|website=Dailyrecord.co.uk|access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-34323112|title=Bay City Rollers announce reunion|date=22 September 2015|access-date=14 August 2021|website=Bbc.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/showbiz/celebrity-news/bay-city-rollers-are-back-rollermania-kicks-off-as-band-announce-reunion-and-world-tour-for-2016-a2953271.html|title=Bay City Rollers announce reunion and world tour for 2016|first=Emma|last=Powell|date=22 September 2015|website=Standard.co.uk|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> Eric Faulkner was unable to contribute because of health concerns, almost dying in February 2015 after contracting viral encephalitis.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BomADwAAQBAJ&q=faulkner+encephalitis+eric&pg=PT253|title=I Ran With The Gang: My Life In and Out of the Bay City Rollers|last1=Longmuir|first1=Alan|last2=Knight|first2=Martin|date=2018-11-14|publisher=Luath Press Ltd|isbn=9781912387212|language=en}}</ref> The band released one new single, "Boomerang", and discussed plans for a new album. The reunion continued into 2016 before Wood ended the reunited line-up on 9 July 2016 because no shows were being booked for the so-called reunion. After the 2015 Christmas shows Les was booking shows only for himself and his band during 2016 (except T In The Park) which caused the reunion to end.<ref name="billboard.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7431227/bay-city-rollers-stuart-woody-wood-guitarist-announces-departure-from-band-watch-video-of-final/|title=Bay City Rollers Guitarist Announces Departure From Band; Watch Final Performances|website=Billboard.com|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> Plans for a new album and various tours that were hoped to take place in 2017 never materialised.<ref name="billboard.com"/><ref name="dailyrecord.co.uk">{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/bay-city-rollers-singer-les-20712204|title=Bay City Roller Les McKeown says he'll never work with Stuart 'Woody' Wood|first=Rick|last=Fulton|date=24 October 2019|newspaper=[[Daily Record (Scotland)|Daily Record]]|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> Prior to the reunion and after the end of the tour, McKeown continued to tour as "Les McKeown's Bay City Rollers".

On 27 February 2018, Wood announced that a "new generation" Bay City Rollers would be performing in Tokyo, Japan in June of the same year. The band comprises Wood on guitar, Ian Thomson on lead vocals and guitar, Marcus Cordock on bass (replaced by Mikey Smith in 2023), and Jamie McGrory on drums.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://japantoday.com/category/entertainment/New-generation-Bay-City-Rollers-to-perform-2-nights-in-Tokyo|title=New generation Bay City Rollers to perform 2 nights in Tokyo|website=Japantoday.com|date=9 March 2018 |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref>

Bassist Alan Longmuir died on 2 July 2018 after falling ill while on holiday with his wife in Mexico.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-44679446|title=Bay City Roller Alan Longmuir dies|date=2 July 2018|website=Bbc.com|access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref> His autobiography ''I Ran with the Gang: My Life in and Out of The Bay City Rollers'' was published posthumously in November 2018; the book was written with [[Martin Knight (author)|Martin Knight]]. In his book, Alan Longmuir mentioned his hope for McKeown and Wood to put aside their differences and reunite one more time.<ref name="glasgowtimes.co.uk">{{Cite news|url=https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/17988024.bay-city-rollers-stars-quash-rumours-reunion/|title=Bay City Rollers stars quash rumours of reunion|newspaper=[[Glasgow Times]]|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> In 2019, after rumors related to Alan Longmuir's wishes, both McKeown and Wood denied any chance of another reunion and did not want to work with each other,<ref name="glasgowtimes.co.uk"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/ex-bay-city-rollers-members-tell-fans-they-can-forget-about-future-reunion-818330|title=Ex-Bay City Rollers members tell fans they can 'forget' about future reunion|website=Edinburghnews.scotsman.com|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> though McKeown did mention his desire to work with Faulkner.<ref name="dailyrecord.co.uk"/>

After both McKeown's and Wood's bands were sidelined by the coronavirus pandemic, McKeown mentioned in August 2020 that he would be willing to reunite with Wood again with more planning.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/must-read/exclusive-edinburghs-les-mckeown-reflects-life-international-pop-star-lockdown-and-his-hope-another-bay-city-rollers-reunion-2929616|title=EXCLUSIVE: Edinburgh's Les McKeown reflects on in lockdown and his hope of another Bay City Rollers' reunion|website=Edinburghnews.scotsman.com|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref>

On 1 September 2020, Ian Mitchell died at the age of 62 after suffering from throat cancer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-54001874|title=Bay City Rollers member Ian Mitchell dies|date=2 September 2020|website=Bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

On 20 April 2021, Les McKeown died aged 65.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aitchison|first=Jack|date=2021-04-22|title=Bay City Rollers star Les McKeown dead aged 65 as family pay tribute|url=https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/19252534.bay-city-rollers-star-les-mckeown-dead-aged-65/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-22|website=Heraldscotland.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422153644/https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/19252534.bay-city-rollers-star-les-mckeown-dead-aged-65/ |archive-date=22 April 2021 }}</ref>

For the period between 9 March and 10 December 2023, however, a total of 11 concerts and appearances at festivals were planned again with the line-up of Ian Thomson, Stuart Wood, Marcus Cordock and Jamie McGrory, nine of them in the UK and one each in Denmark and Germany. 5 concerts have been announced for 2024, all in the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.baycityrollers.co.uk/tourdates|title=Bay City Rollers | Tour Dates 2018|access-date=12 February 2024}}</ref>

==Financial disputes==
{{update section|date=January 2020}}
According to the BBC, the Bay City Rollers sold 120 million records.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-34323112|title=Bay City Rollers announce reunion |work=[[BBC News]] |date=22 September 2015 |access-date=22 September 2015}}</ref>

In March 2007, six former members of the group (Faure plus the "classic line-up") announced a lawsuit against [[Arista Records]] in hopes of claiming what they described as "tens of millions of dollars" of unpaid royalties. Gordon "Nobby" Clark threatened to sue the other band members if their lawsuit was successful, stating that he was the creative force behind the band's success, even though he left the group in 1973, before the bulk of their fame and fortune began.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328133604/http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=1019&id=437372007|url-status=dead|title=Scottish News – The Scotsman|archive-date=28 March 2007|website=Scotsman.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070517033253/http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=1019&id=449172007|url-status=dead|title=Scottish News – The Scotsman|archive-date=17 May 2007|website=Scotsman.com}}</ref>

In September 2010, Clark, Ian Mitchell and Pat McGlynn filed a complaint in the courts in the United States against the six members (Faure plus the "classic line-up") over being excluded from the case against Arista records. Clark, Mitchell and McGlynn were seeking to have their rights determined and were seeking financial damages against the other Bay City Rollers for alleged breach of contract. In 2013, a judge in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against the three due to the statute of frauds, which establishes that certain agreements must be in writing under certain conditions, and the appellate judge's ruling stated: "A claim for unjust enrichment must be based on the value of plaintiffs' contribution to the joint effort of the band at the time it made the relevant records, not on the income stream resulting from a revival over thirty years later."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr-esq/three-members-bay-city-rollers-617514 | title=Three Ex-Members of Bay City Rollers Denied in Royalty Collection Attempt | website=Hollywoodreporter.com | date=29 August 2013 | access-date=17 September 2013 | author=Gardner, Eriq}}</ref>

In March 2011, a New York judge determined that the Bay City Rollers could move forward with their four-year-old lawsuit against Arista Records. Arista denied responsibility for the majority of the royalties, citing a New York statute of limitations. The statute limits plaintiffs from recovering damages post six years in contract disputes, which therefore would negate the Rollers' claims for royalties incurred before 2001. However, because Arista had continued to promise the Bay City Rollers their royalties in writing, the judge ruled that the statute was not applicable.<ref>{{cite web|author=Mickie |url=http://mickieszoo.blogspot.com/2011/06/bay-city-rollers-to-continue-suit.html |title=Mickie's Zoo: Bay City Rollers to continue suit against Arista Records |website=Mickieszoo.blogspot.com |date=1 June 2011 |access-date=16 July 2011}}</ref>

After almost a decade, the legal battle came to an end with an out-of-court settlement in 2016. Arista Records' parent company [[Sony Music]] is believed to have paid $3.5 million, with each band member receiving £70,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/bay-city-rollers-legal-battle-reaches-end-road-865600|title=Bay City Rollers legal battle reaches end of the road|website=Scotsman.com|language=en|access-date=2020-04-16}}</ref>

== Sexual abuse allegations ==
Members of the Bay City Rollers have accused former manager [[Tam Paton]] of sexual abuse. In 2003, McGlynn accused former Bay City Rollers manager [[Tam Paton]] of trying to [[rape]] him in a hotel room in 1977.<ref name="scotsman1">{{citation |date=22 August 2007 |title=Former Rollers manager Paton cleared of rape claim |periodical=[[The Scotsman]] |url=http://news.scotsman.com/baycityrollers/Former-Rollers-manager-Paton-cleared.3319561.jp|accessdate=10 April 2009 |location=Edinburgh |first=Rhiannon |last=Edward}}</ref> However, the police decided there was insufficient evidence to prosecute Paton. Paton had previous arrests for sexual misconduct with underage boys.<ref name="scotsman.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/news/tam-paton-bedroom-bulldozed-after-seedy-history-1-3216828|title=Tam Paton bedroom bulldozed after 'seedy' history|website=Edinburghnews.scotsman.com|accessdate=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726111903/https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/news/tam-paton-bedroom-bulldozed-after-seedy-history-1-3216828|archive-date=26 July 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2009, McKeown accused Paton of raping him.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McEwen |first=Alan |date=2016-10-17 |title=Bay City Rollers pervert Tam Paton urged band to have sex with paedophile DJ |url=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/bay-city-rollers-gordon-clark-9059841 |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=Daily Record |language=en}}</ref> In the 2023 documentary ''Secrets of the Bay City Rollers,'' potential band member Gert Magnus claimed that Paton offered him a place in the band in exchange for sex.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Latif |first=Leila |date=2023-06-29 |title=Secrets of the Bay City Rollers review – one of the most disturbing accounts of abuse imaginable |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2023/jun/29/secrets-of-the-bay-city-rollers-review-one-of-the-most-disturbing-accounts-of-abuse-imaginable |access-date=2023-06-30 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

==Members==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''Current members'''
* [[Stuart Wood (musician)|Stuart "Woody" Wood]] – backing and occasional lead vocals, rhythm and lead guitars, keyboards, bass, mandolin (1974–1981, 1982–1985, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016, 2018–present)
* Ian Thomson – lead vocals, guitar (2018–present)
* Jamie McGrory – drums (2018–present)
* Mikey Smith – bass, vocals (2023–present)
* John McLaughlin - Keyboards, vocals (2023-present)

{{col-2}}
'''Former members'''
* [[Alan Longmuir]] – backing and occasional lead vocals, bass, rhythm guitar, piano, accordion (1964–1976, 1978–1981, 1982–1983, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016; died 2018)
* [[Derek Longmuir]] – drums, percussion (1964–1981, 1982–1983, 1996)
* Neil Porteous – guitar (1964–1965)
* Gordon "Nobby" Clark – lead vocals (1965–1973)
* Dave Pettigrew – guitar, keyboards (1965–1968)
* Gregory Ellison – guitar (1966–1968)
* Mike Ellison – vocals (1966)
* Keith Norman – keyboards (1967–1969)
* [[David Paton]] – guitar (1968–1970)
* Alan Dunn – keyboards (1969)
* [[Billy Lyall]] – keyboards (1969–1971; died 1989)
* Eric Manclark – guitar (1970–1971)
* Neil Henderson – guitar (1970–1972)
* Archie Marr – keyboards (1971–1972)
* John Devine – guitar (1972–1974)
* [[Eric Faulkner]] – backing and occasional lead vocals, lead and rhythm guitars, violin, mandolin, bass (1972–1981, 1982–1985, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000)
* [[Les McKeown]] – lead vocals (1973–1978, 1982–1985, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016; died 2021)
* Ian Mitchell – backing and occasional lead vocals, rhythm guitar, bass (1976, 1982–1985; died 2020)
* [[Pat McGlynn]] – rhythm guitar, bass (1976–1977, 1982–1985)
* Duncan Faure – vocals, guitar, keyboards (1978–1981)
* George Spencer – drums (1985)
* Marcus Cordock – bass (2018–2023)
{{col-end}}

In later years, but before McKeown's death, there were usually at least two or three bands featuring one former BCR member touring as The Bay City Rollers or some variation of the name. These were most recently held by Wood and McKeown (before McKeown's death), and Wood's most recent band is still active and currently the only group touring as the Bay City Rollers.

===Timeline===
{{#tag:timeline|
ImageSize = width:900 height:auto barincrement:20
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Alignbars = justify
DateFormat = mm/dd/yyyy
Period = from:01/01/1964 till:{{#time:m/d/Y}}
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Colors =
id:vocals value:red legend:Vocals
id:lead value:teal legend:Lead_guitar
id:rhythm value:brightgreen legend:Rhythm_guitar
id:keys value:purple legend:Keyboards
id:bass value:blue legend:Bass
id:drums value:orange legend:Drums
id:Lines value:black legend:Studio_album

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ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1964
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1964

BarData =
bar:NobbyC text:"Gordon 'Nobby' Clark"
bar:MikeE text:"Mike Ellison"
bar:Les text:"Les McKeown"
bar:DuncanF text:"Duncan Faure"
bar:IanT text:"Ian Thomson"
bar:NeilP text:"Neil Porteous"
bar:DaveP text:"Dave Pettigrew"
bar:GregoryE text:"Gregory Ellison"
bar:Eric text:"Eric Faulkner"
bar:JohnD text:"John Devine"
bar:Woody text:"Stuart 'Woody' Wood"
bar:IanM text:"Ian Mitchell"
bar:PatM text:"Pat McGlynn"
bar:BillyL text:"Billy Lyall"
bar:JohnM text:"John McLaughlin"
bar:Alan text:"Alan Longmuir"
bar:DavidP text:"David Paton"
bar:Marcus text:"Marcus Cordock"
bar:Mikey text:"Mikey Smith"
bar:DerekL text:"Derek Longmuir"
bar:GeorgeS text:"George Spencer"
bar:Jamie text:"Jamie McGrory"

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bar:Alan from:01/01/1964 till:06/01/1965 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:01/01/1964 till:06/01/1965 color:vocals width:3
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bar:Alan from:01/01/1969 till:12/31/1970 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:12/31/1970 till:02/01/1976 color:bass
bar:Alan from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:keys width:7
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bar:Alan from:07/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:07/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:07/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:bass width:5
bar:Alan from:08/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:vocals width:3
bar:Alan from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:bass width:7
bar:Alan from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:keys width:3
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:bass
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:rhythm width:5
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:vocals width:3
bar:Alan from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:rhythm
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bar:Alan from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bass width:5
bar:Alan from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals width:3
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bar:Eric from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:vocals
bar:Eric from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:lead width:3
bar:Eric from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:bass
bar:Eric from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:lead width:7
bar:Eric from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals width:3
bar:Eric from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bass
bar:Eric from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:lead width:7
bar:Eric from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals width:3

bar:Les from:11/01/1973 till:11/01/1978 color:vocals
bar:Les from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:vocals
bar:Les from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals
bar:Les from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals
bar:Les from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:vocals
bar:Les from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:rhythm width:3

bar:Woody from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:rhythm
bar:Woody from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:bass width:5
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bar:Woody from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:lead width:5
bar:Woody from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:keys width:3
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:rhythm
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:bass width:5
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:vocals width:3
bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:lead
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bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:bass width:5
bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals width:3
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:lead
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bass width:5
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bar:Woody from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:lead
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bar:Woody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:rhythm
bar:Woody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:vocals width:3

bar:IanM from:02/01/1976 till:08/01/1976 color:rhythm
bar:IanM from:02/01/1976 till:08/01/1976 color:bass width:7
bar:IanM from:02/01/1976 till:08/01/1976 color:vocals width:3
bar:IanM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:rhythm
bar:IanM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:bass width:3

bar:PatM from:08/01/1976 till:08/01/1977 color:rhythm
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bar:PatM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:rhythm
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bar:NobbyC from:06/01/1965 till:11/01/1973 color:vocals
bar:NeilP from:01/01/1964 till:07/31/1965 color:lead
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bar:MikeE from:01/01/1966 till:01/01/1967 color:vocals
bar:DuncanF from:11/01/1978 till:11/20/1981 color:vocals
bar:DuncanF from:11/01/1978 till:11/20/1981 color:rhythm width:3
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bar:DaveP from:07/31/1965 till:06/01/1966 color:lead
bar:DaveP from:07/31/1965 till:03/01/1974 color:rhythm width:3
bar:DaveP from:06/01/1966 till:03/01/1974 color:keys
bar:JohnD from:10/01/1973 till:02/15/1974 color:rhythm
bar:IanT from:01/01/2018 till:end color:vocals
bar:IanT from:01/01/2018 till:end color:lead width:3
bar:Marcus from:01/01/2018 till:01/01/2023 color:bass
bar:Marcus from:01/01/2018 till:01/01/2023 color:vocals width:3
bar:Jamie from:01/01/2018 till:end color:drums
bar:Mikey from:01/01/2023 till:end color:bass
bar:Mikey from:01/01/2023 till:end color:vocals width:3
bar:JohnM from:08/30/2023 till:end color:keys
bar:JohnM from:08/30/2023 till:end color:vocals width:3

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at:09/01/1974
at:05/01/1975
at:12/01/1975
at:03/01/1976
at:09/01/1976
at:07/01/1977
at:01/01/1978
at:01/01/1979
at:01/01/1980
at:01/01/1981
at:01/01/1985
at:12/01/2015
}}

==Discography==
{{main|Bay City Rollers discography}}
'''Studio albums'''

* ''[[Rollin' (Bay City Rollers album)|Rollin']]'' (1974)
* ''[[Once Upon a Star]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Bay City Rollers (album)|Bay City Rollers]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Wouldn't You Like It?]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Rock n' Roll Love Letter]]'' (1976)
* ''[[Dedication (Bay City Rollers album)|Dedication]]'' (1976)
* ''[[It's a Game (Bay City Rollers album)|It's a Game]]'' (1977)
* ''[[Strangers in the Wind]]'' (1978)
* ''[[Elevator (The Rollers album)|Elevator]]'' (1979)
* ''[[Voxx (album)|Voxx]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Ricochet (Bay City Rollers album)|Ricochet]]'' (1981)
* ''Breakout '85'' (1985)
* ''A Christmas Shang-A-Lang'' (2015)

'''Christmas Single 2021'''

* Rollin' Into Christmas

'''EP 2023'''
* Brand New Day (Brand New Day - Sunshine On Leith - Money Honey)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Brigitte Tast, Hans-Jürgen Tast: ''Wie weit ist vorbei? Ein Konzert, eine Party und Meldungen aus der ganzen Welt''. Kulleraugen – Visuelle Kommunikation Nr. 48, Schellerten 2016, {{ISBN|978-3-88842-048-1}}.

==External links==
* {{Discogs artist|Bay City Rollers}}
* {{IMDb name|id=1163873}}
* {{IMDb name|id=9382430}} as Les McKeown's 70's Bay City Rollers

{{Bay City Rollers}}
{{Pilot}}{{Scottish musicians}}{{UK best-selling singles (by year)}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Bay City Rollers| ]]
[[Category:1964 establishments in Scotland]]
[[Category:2020 disestablishments in Scotland]]
[[Category:Musical groups established in 1966]]
[[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1987]]
[[Category:Scottish pop music groups]]
[[Category:Scottish pop rock music groups]]
[[Category:Scottish glam rock groups]]
[[Category:Musical groups from Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2015]]
[[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2020]]
[[Category:Bell Records artists]]
[[Category:Arista Records artists]]
[[Category:Epic Records artists]]

Bay City Rollers

2024-06-11T03:23:38Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Breakthrough: 1974–1975 */duplicate links

{{Short description|Scottish pop rock band}}
{{for|the self-titled album|Bay City Rollers (album)}}
{{Use British English|date=May 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2020}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Bay City Rollers
| image = BayCityRollers1976RobBogaerts.jpg
| landscape = yes
| caption = Bay City Rollers in the Netherlands in 1976
| alias = The Saxons, The Rollers, The New Rollers
| origin = [[Edinburgh]], Scotland
| genre = {{Hlist|[[Pop music|Pop]]<ref name="Brown2010">{{cite book|author=Ian Brown|title=From Tartan to Tartanry: Scottish Culture, History and Myth: Scottish Culture, History and Myth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=giGrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA201|date=26 November 2010|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=978-0-7486-4449-0|pages=201–}}</ref>|[[glam rock]]<ref name="Johnson2016">{{cite book|author=Mark Johnson|title=Seditious Theology: Punk and the Ministry of Jesus|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbfeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA13|date=1 April 2016|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-317-05785-7|pages=13–}}</ref>|[[pop rock]]<ref name="pr">{{cite web|url=https://www.allmusic.com/artist/bay-city-rollers-mn0000151979/biography|title=Bay City Rollers - Biography & History - AllMusic|publisher=[[AllMusic]]|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>}}
| years_active = 1964–1981, 1982–1987, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016, 2018–present
| label = [[Bell Records (UK)|Bell]], [[Arista Records|Arista]], [[Epic Records|Epic]]
| associated_acts = [[Pilot (Scottish band)|Pilot]]
| website = [https://www.thebaycityrollers.co.uk Bay City Rollers]
| current_members = * [[Stuart Wood (musician)|Stuart "Woody" Wood]]
* Ian Thomson
* Mikey Smith
* Jamie McGrory
* John McLaughlin
| past_members = * Neil Porteous
* Gregory Ellison
* Mike Ellison
* Dave Pettigrew
* [[Les McKeown]]
* [[Alan Longmuir]]
* [[Derek Longmuir]]
* [[Eric Faulkner]]
* Ian Mitchell
* [[Pat McGlynn]]
* Gordon Clark
* Keith Norman
* [[David Paton]]
* Alan Dunn
* Eric Manclark
* [[Billy Lyall]]
* Ray Weston
* Neil Henderson
* Archie Marr
* John Devine
* George Spencer
* Duncan Faure
* Marcus Cordock
}}

The '''Bay City Rollers''' are a Scottish [[pop rock]] band known for their worldwide [[teen idol]] popularity in the 1970s. They have been called the "[[tartan]] teen sensations from Edinburgh" and are one of many acts heralded as the "biggest group since [[the Beatles]]".<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums">{{cite book
| first= David
| last= Roberts
| year= 2006
| title= [[British Hit Singles & Albums]]
| edition= 19th
| publisher= [[Guinness World Records Limited]]
| location= [[London]]
| isbn= 1-904994-10-5
| page= 45}}</ref>

The group's line-up had many changes over the years, but the classic roster during its peak in popularity included guitarists [[Eric Faulkner]] and [[Stuart Wood (musician)|Stuart Wood]], singer [[Les McKeown]], bassist [[Alan Longmuir]] and drummer [[Derek Longmuir]]. The current line-up (since 2018) includes original guitarist Stuart "Woody" Wood, singer Ian Thomson, bassist Mikey Smith, keyboardist/singer John McLaughlin and drummer Jamie McGrory.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thebaycityrollers.co.uk|title=BAY CITY ROLLERS – OFFICIAL WEBSITE|website=baycityrollers.co.uk|access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>

==History==
===Early days and formation: 1964–1973===
In 1964, a trio called the Ambassadors was formed in Edinburgh, Scotland, by 16-year-old [[Alan Longmuir]] on acoustic guitar, his younger brother [[Derek Longmuir]] on drums, and their older cousin Neil Porteous on acoustic guitar. The group never performed publicly under this name,<ref name=Spence2016>{{cite book |last1=Spence |first1=Simon |title=When The Screaming Stops: The Dark History of the Bay City Rollers |date=2016 |publisher=[[Omnibus Press]] |isbn=9781783237050 |pages=33–35 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=66A2DQAAQBAJ&pg=PT33}}</ref> just a family wedding where they covered "[[Wake Up Little Susie]]". They changed their name to the Saxons, and Derek invited a friend from school, Gordon "Nobby" Clark, to be the lead singer. Porteous moved from acoustic to electric guitar, and Alan Longmuir followed suit by changing to electric bass.<ref name=Coy2005>Coy, W. (2005), ''Bay City Babylon: The Unbelievable But True Story of the Bay City Rollers'', pp 12–13. Hats Off Books, {{ISBN|978-1587364631}}</ref> The Saxons played occasional dance hall concerts while the band members completed their schooling or worked during the day (Alan apprenticed as a plumber). Porteous left the band in July 1965, with new guitarist Dave Pettigrew filling the spot after answering an advertisement placed by the band in an Edinburgh newspaper. Pettigrew was more advanced musically than the others, and pushed the band to improve. Their repertoire included American R&B/pop songs such as "[[Please Mr. Postman]]" and "[[Heat Wave (Martha and the Vandellas song)|Heat Wave]]". They played at least one gig at the Gonk Club as the Deadbeats, but they discovered a conflict: Another band was playing locally as Rock Bottom and the Deadbeats.<ref name=Spence2016/>

While taking a technical class at Napier College, Alan met fellow plumbing student Gregory Ellison, who joined the Saxons on electric guitar, with Pettigrew shifting to keyboards. Gregory's older brother Mike joined as a second lead singer, allowing more complex harmonies, especially useful for the Motown songs they liked to perform. The band convinced [[Tam Paton]], a former [[big band]] leader<ref>{{cite web|last=Finney|first=Ritchie|title=Tam Paton Spills The Heinz Baked Beans!|url=http://www.spencemusic.co.uk/bilbomusic/articles/Tam/spilledbeans.htm|work=Bilbo Baggins Home Page|publisher=Morley Enterprises|access-date=31 May 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160910180745/http://www.spencemusic.co.uk/bilbomusic/articles/Tam/spilledbeans.htm|archive-date=10 September 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref> and influential local band and club manager, to audition them at the Longmuirs' house. Paton booked them for a Thursday night at his club, the Palais, then assigned them to open for the Hipple People at Top Storey. More gigs followed.<ref name=Spence2016/>

More successful now, the Saxons moved out of the Longmuirs' back room to practice in Hermiston at a church. They played a couple of contemporary [[The Kinks|Kinks]] numbers but favored American songs, including a new one: "[[See See Rider|C.C. Rider]]" by [[Mitch Ryder]] and the Detroit Wheels. Desiring a better name for the band, they settled on "Rollers", but needed a more powerful American-sounding term in front of that. Derek Longmuir threw a dart at a map of the United States, landing first on Arkansas. This did not meet anyone's approval, so a second dart was thrown. It landed near [[Bay City, Michigan]]. The band agreed on the name, the Bay City Rollers.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography">{{cite book
| first= Martin C.
| last= Strong
| year= 2000
| title= The Great Rock Discography
| edition= 5th
| publisher= [[Mojo Books]]
| location= Edinburgh
| pages= 2–3
| isbn= 1-84195-017-3}}</ref> Short-term members from this period included bassist [[David Paton]] (from 1969 to 1970) and keyboardist [[Billy Lyall]] (1969–71), who went on to be founding members of another Edinburgh band [[Pilot (Scottish band)|Pilot]].

After signing with [[Bell Records (UK)|Bell Records]], the band's first hit was "[[Keep on Dancing (The Gentrys song)|Keep on Dancing]]" (UK No. 9, 1971), a cover of a 1965 hit by [[the Gentrys]].<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/><ref name="Guinness Rockopedia">{{cite book
| first= David
| last= Roberts
| year= 1998
| title= Guinness Rockopedia
| edition= 1st
| publisher= Guinness Publishing Ltd.
| location= London
| page= [https://archive.org/details/guinnessrockoped0000unse/page/30 30]
| isbn= 0-85112-072-5
| url-access= registration
| url= https://archive.org/details/guinnessrockoped0000unse/page/30
}}</ref> Upon this release's success, they made appearances on [[BBC One]]'s ''[[Top of the Pops]]''.

Several non-charting singles were released over the following two years. This period saw the addition of long-term member guitarist [[Eric Faulkner]]. In mid-1973, they narrowly missed the [[UK Singles Chart]] with their fourth single, "[[Saturday Night (Bay City Rollers song)|Saturday Night]]". By the end of 1973, Clark had become disillusioned with the band's musical direction and decided to leave just when his recording of "[[Remember (Sha-La-La-La)]]" climbed the charts to No. 6. He was replaced as lead singer by [[Les McKeown]]. A couple of months later, in early 1974, what became known as the classic line-up<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> was completed; guitarist John Devine was replaced by Stuart "Woody" Wood.

In 1987, Les McKeown was a guest on [[Jonathan Ross]]'s chat show where he told Ross that The Bay City Rollers did not perform on the first four singles.

===Breakthrough: 1974–1975===
In late 1973, McKeown recorded lead vocals on "[[Remember (Sha-La-La-La)]]", and a lead-in to a series of UK chart hits. 16-year-old Stuart Wood completed the "classic five" line-up in February 1974, a week after the band had debuted the "Remember" single on ''[[Top of the Pops]].'' (John Devine had mimed the piano part). By early 1975, the band was well on the way to achieving global success. The "classic five" line-up consisted of: Alan Longmuir, Derek Longmuir, Stuart "Woody" Wood, Eric Faulkner and Les McKeown.

Beginning with "Remember" (UK No. 6), the Rollers' popularity exploded, and they released a string of hits on the UK chart. Following in succession were "[[Shang-a-Lang (song)|Shang-a-Lang]]" (UK No. 2), "[[Summerlove Sensation]]" (UK No. 3), and "All of Me Loves All of You" (UK No. 4).<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/>

By early 1975, they were one of the biggest-selling acts in the UK. The successful 1975 UK tour prompted newspaper headlines about the rise of "Rollermania"<ref name="Guinness Rockopedia"/> (alluding to [[Beatlemania]] a decade before). The Rollers were the subject of a 20-week UK television series, ''[[Shang-a-Lang (TV series)|Shang-a-Lang]]''.

A cover of [[The Four Seasons (band)|the Four Seasons]]' "[[Bye, Bye, Baby (Baby Goodbye)|Bye, Bye, Baby]]" stayed at No. 1 in the UK for six weeks in March and April 1975, selling nearly a million copies and becoming the biggest seller of the year. The subsequent single, "[[Give a Little Love (Bay City Rollers song)|Give a Little Love]]" topped the charts in July 1975, achieving their second No. 1 hit.<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/><ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> Two albums were produced during this period: ''[[Once Upon a Star]]'' (1975) and ''[[Wouldn't You Like It?]]'' (1975). Faulkner and Wood undertook the majority of the songwriting duties.

By this time, Bay City Rollers fans had a completely distinctive style of dress, featuring calf-length [[tartan]] trousers and tartan [[scarf|scarves]].<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/>

English singer-songwriter [[Nick Lowe]] wrote a "jaundiced" (in Lowe's words)<ref name=canada_interview>{{cite web|url=http://www.canada.com/story.html?id=9342a121-86f6-4403-8943-223081679e68 |title=Q and A with Nick Lowe |website=Canada.com |date=6 October 2007 |access-date=24 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140501050558/http://www.canada.com/story.html?id=9342a121-86f6-4403-8943-223081679e68 |archive-date=1 May 2014}}</ref> paean to the band titled "Bay City Rollers We Love You". The track was "carefully sculpted" to be poor enough to get Lowe out of a recording contract with United Artists. The strategy backfired. UA issued the record as by the Tartan Horde,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nicklowedisc.tripod.com/stiff/stiff.html |title=NICK LOWE DISCOGRAPHY – PART 1 |website=Nicklowedisc.tripod.com |access-date=24 April 2014}}</ref> which was the name given to Rollers fans in England, and it became a substantial hit in Japan.<ref name=canada_interview /> Lowe was obliged to record a follow-up song called "Rollers Show", which did not meet with the same commercial success. This follow-up song was included on the U.S. release of Lowe's first album ''[[Jesus of Cool|Pure Pop for Now People]]''.

===World impact: 1976===
[[File:Bay City Rollers 1978.jpg|thumb|right|The Bay City Rollers achieved international success during the 1970s.]]
As the group's popularity swelled to superstardom in the UK, a concerted effort was made by [[Arista Records]] (the record company that evolved from Bell) to launch the Rollers in North America. The new Arista head [[Clive Davis]] was instrumental in grooming and overseeing the project. His work paid off, as in late 1975 the Rollers reached No. 1 on the US [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] with "[[Saturday Night (Bay City Rollers song)|Saturday Night]]". "Saturday Night" had missed the UK chart completely two years earlier.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> The Rollers gave the track their American debut, via a satellite-link performance on ''[[Saturday Night Live with Howard Cosell|Saturday Night Live, with Howard Cosell]]''. In Canada, it fared equally well, hitting No. 1 on the ''[[RPM (magazine)|RPM]]'' national singles chart on 10 January 1976.<ref name="Canada">{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.6474a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015035031/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.6474a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> The ''[[Bay City Rollers (album)|Bay City Rollers]]'' (1975) album (North American release only) hit No. 1 in the same chart on 7 February.<ref name="Canada"/>

A second North American hit came with "Money Honey", written by Faulkner and Wood, which hit No. 9 in the US. In Canada, it fared better, following its predecessor to the top, giving them their second No. 1 in the ''RPM'' national singles chart on 13 March 1976.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4101a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Item Display – RPM – Library and Archives Canada |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121015035341/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4101a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |archive-date=15 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref>

The North America/Japan release album ''[[Rock n' Roll Love Letter]]'' (1976) jumped from No. 25 to the top position in a single week in Canada. This deposed their own ''[[Bay City Rollers (album)|Bay City Rollers]]'' (1975) at No. 1 on the national chart, on 27 March 1976,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4087a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |title=Item Display – RPM – Library and Archives Canada |website=Collectionscanada.gc.ca |access-date=16 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020031139/http://www.collectionscanada.gc.ca/rpm/028020-119.01-e.php?brws_s=1&file_num=nlc008388.4087a&type=1&interval=24&PHPSESSID=kjerdnvbvl3a8p4jfufutrc7u6 |archive-date=20 October 2012 |url-status=dead}}</ref> However, it only managed to achieve the No. 31 spot on the U.S. ''Billboard'' chart.

They were also extremely popular in Australia. One example of their popularity was put into the book about ''[[Countdown (Australian TV series)|Countdown]]'' – the Australian TV music show which ran from 1974 to 1987. Their ''Countdown'' appearance in October 1976 coincided with a [[Solar eclipse of October 23, 1976|total eclipse]] of the sun. Director [[Ted Emery]] recalled:<ref>Wilmoth, Peter – ''Glad All Over – The Countdown Years 1974–1987'' McPhee Gribble/[[Penguin Books]], 1993. p. 149</ref>

{{blockquote|(there)... were thousands of kids done up in tartan pants that didn't reach the top of their shoes, constantly bashing on the [[plexiglas]] doors. They would do anything...to get into that television studio. There's 200 kids bashing on the door and a total eclipse of the sun occurred. I'd never seen one. On this day we all stopped in the studio and the Rollers went up on the roof. We stood out there and watched the flowers close up and all the automatic street lighting come on. It was chilling, the most fantastic thing you'd ever see. Downstairs the kids never turned around, staring into the plexiglas waiting to see the Rollers come out of the studio, go down the corridor and into the canteen. (They) never noticed the total eclipse of the sun.}}

Alan Longmuir had left the group by early 1976, due to both the pressures of the band's success and feeling discomfort at being a member of a teen band whilst in his late twenties.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> He was replaced for seven months by 17-year-old Ian Mitchell from Northern Ireland; he was the first band member born outside Edinburgh.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> With Mitchell, the group released an album titled ''[[Dedication (Bay City Rollers album)|Dedication]]'' (1976), and hit the charts with a cover version of the [[Dusty Springfield]] song "[[I Only Want to Be with You#Bay City Rollers version|I Only Want to Be with You]]. " The song reached US No. 12, as well as "Yesterday's Hero" (featuring live material from a 1976 personal appearance in Toronto's [[Nathan Phillips Square]]),<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=des89c-lkRI | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170202022510/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=des89c-lkRI| archive-date=2017-02-02 | url-status=dead|title=Youtube.com |publisher=[[YouTube]] |date=15 June 2009 |access-date=16 July 2011}}</ref> and "Dedication".

===1977–1979===
[[File:Bay City Rollers -yhtyeen rumpali Derek Longmuir on saapunut hotelli Hesperian edustalle - G35573 (hkm.HKMS000005-km0000nhk4).jpg|thumb|right|Drummer [[Derek Longmuir]] in Helsinki, 1978]]
As the Rollers' popularity waned, the shuffling of personnel continued; Mitchell quit the band. He was replaced by guitarist [[Pat McGlynn]]. Further struggles involved the direction of their sound, as the members wished to pursue more sophisticated styles. They settled on [[David Bowie]]'s producer, [[Harry Maslin]], and in August 1977 released ''[[It's a Game (Bay City Rollers album)|It's a Game]]'' as a four-piece group, comprising McKeown, Wood, Faulkner and Derek Longmuir. The ''It's a Game'' tour was recorded in 1977 at Japan's [[Nippon Budokan|Budokan Hall]], and was later released in 2001 as ''Rollerworld: Live at the Budokan 1977''.

On the tour, they covered "It's a Game", an unsuccessful 1973 single by [[String Driven Thing]], to give them their final UK Top 20 hit (No. 16 in May 1977). Oddly enough, this single provided them with their highest-charting German hit, reaching No. 4 in the same year.<ref>''Starke Zeiten'', Hit-Bilanz, 1988 BMG-Ariola 258850</ref> The follow-up "[[You Made Me Believe in Magic]]" made No. 34 in July in the UK and No. 10 in the U.S., and this single was their final major success.<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/>

The Bay City Rollers were on ''[[The Krofft Superstar Hour]]'', later named the ''Bay City Rollers Show'', an hour-long show that aired from September 9, 1978, to January 27, 1979. During this time, the classic line-up released their last album together, [[Strangers in the Wind]], which charted only in Australia, (#61) Japan, (#5) and the USA (#128).

===New singer, new name===
At the end of 1978, the band had split with McKeown, then fired manager Tam Paton shortly after, and decided to continue in a more [[New wave music|new wave]], rock-oriented sound. Their name was now The Rollers. South African-born [[Duncan Faure]] joined the band as new lead vocalist, guitarist and songwriter. With Faure, the line-up produced three albums: ''Elevator'' (1979), ''Voxx'' (1980) and ''Ricochet'' (1981).<ref name="The Great Rock Discography"/> Following the expiry of the band's Arista contract, none of the releases sold as well as expected, and they stopped touring by late 1981.

''The A.V. Club'' compared ''Ricochet'' to the pop/new wave style of [[The Cars]] and recommended the album be "rescued from obscurity".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://news.avclub.com/read-this-this-bay-city-rollers-lp-should-be-rescued-f-1798250379|title=Read This: This Bay City Rollers LP should be rescued from obscurity|first=Joe|last=Blevins|website=News.avcluv.com|date=8 August 2016 |access-date=27 October 2018}}</ref>

===1980s–present===
During the 1980s and 1990s, there were a few short tours. Seven past members played Japan in 1982, and again in 1983. A reunion album, ''Breakout'', was released in Japan and Australia in 1985, and added drummer George Spencer. ''Breakout'' was written primarily by McKeown and McGlynn with minor contributions from Faulkner, Wood, and Mitchell.

In the late 1980s, a version of the band called the New Rollers was formed featuring Faulkner on lead vocals, Karen Prosser on vocals, Jason Medvec on guitar, Andy Boakes on bass, and Mark Roberts on drums. The band toured extensively throughout the US and Canada as well as tours of the UK and Australia. This group also released an independent four-song EP titled ''Party Harty''.

In 1990, Wood and Alan Longmuir joined with Faulkner to tour under the Bay City Rollers name and issued several CDs of re-recordings of the old Roller tunes.

In 1996, the classic line-up reunited and performed "Saturday Night" on a Japanese television show to celebrate the 20th anniversary of Rollermania.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a5N_g6qckk8 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/a5N_g6qckk8| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|title=Bay city rollers in Japan 1998|access-date=14 August 2021|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i1LSUu1XrJ4 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211211/i1LSUu1XrJ4| archive-date=2021-12-11 |url-status=live|title=Bay City Rollers (in Japan 1996) - SATURDAY Night -|access-date=14 August 2021|publisher=[[YouTube]]}}{{cbignore}}</ref>

The classic line-up (minus Derek Longmuir)<ref>{{Cite news|url = https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2000/mar/24/3|title = Former Bay City Roller escapes jail on child porn charges|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|last = Longmuir|first = Derek}}</ref> performed a one-off New Year's Eve millennium concert, the last official Bay City Rollers concert (1999–2000) in the shadow of Edinburgh Castle in Scotland. Interest was rekindled in the UK by various television documentaries about the group; and the television-advertised compilation ''Very Best of the Bay City Rollers'' entered the [[UK Albums Chart]] on release in 2004 at No. 11.<ref name="British Hit Singles & Albums"/>

During the late 2000s, Ian Mitchell led his own Bay City Rollers band, which included lead vocalist [[Kyle Vincent]]. Mitchell was the only ex-Roller involved.

On 22 September 2015, the Bay City Rollers, including McKeown, Wood, and Alan Longmuir, announced they were reforming and would play a show at the Glasgow Barrowlands on 20 December.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/entertainment/music/music-news/bay-city-rollers-back-scots-6492914|title=Bay City Rollers are back: Watch our video as pop icons announce reunion|first=John|last=Dingwall|date=22 September 2015|website=Dailyrecord.co.uk|access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-34323112|title=Bay City Rollers announce reunion|date=22 September 2015|access-date=14 August 2021|website=Bbc.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.standard.co.uk/showbiz/celebrity-news/bay-city-rollers-are-back-rollermania-kicks-off-as-band-announce-reunion-and-world-tour-for-2016-a2953271.html|title=Bay City Rollers announce reunion and world tour for 2016|first=Emma|last=Powell|date=22 September 2015|website=Standard.co.uk|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> Eric Faulkner was unable to contribute because of health concerns, almost dying in February 2015 after contracting viral encephalitis.<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BomADwAAQBAJ&q=faulkner+encephalitis+eric&pg=PT253|title=I Ran With The Gang: My Life In and Out of the Bay City Rollers|last1=Longmuir|first1=Alan|last2=Knight|first2=Martin|date=2018-11-14|publisher=Luath Press Ltd|isbn=9781912387212|language=en}}</ref> The band released one new single, "Boomerang", and discussed plans for a new album. The reunion continued into 2016 before Wood ended the reunited line-up on 9 July 2016 because no shows were being booked for the so-called reunion. After the 2015 Christmas shows Les was booking shows only for himself and his band during 2016 (except T In The Park) which caused the reunion to end.<ref name="billboard.com">{{Cite web|url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/news/7431227/bay-city-rollers-stuart-woody-wood-guitarist-announces-departure-from-band-watch-video-of-final/|title=Bay City Rollers Guitarist Announces Departure From Band; Watch Final Performances|website=Billboard.com|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> Plans for a new album and various tours that were hoped to take place in 2017 never materialised.<ref name="billboard.com"/><ref name="dailyrecord.co.uk">{{Cite news|url=https://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/bay-city-rollers-singer-les-20712204|title=Bay City Roller Les McKeown says he'll never work with Stuart 'Woody' Wood|first=Rick|last=Fulton|date=24 October 2019|newspaper=[[Daily Record (Scotland)|Daily Record]]|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> Prior to the reunion and after the end of the tour, McKeown continued to tour as "Les McKeown's Bay City Rollers".

On 27 February 2018, Wood announced that a "new generation" Bay City Rollers would be performing in Tokyo, Japan in June of the same year. The band comprises Wood on guitar, Ian Thomson on lead vocals and guitar, Marcus Cordock on bass (replaced by Mikey Smith in 2023), and Jamie McGrory on drums.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://japantoday.com/category/entertainment/New-generation-Bay-City-Rollers-to-perform-2-nights-in-Tokyo|title=New generation Bay City Rollers to perform 2 nights in Tokyo|website=Japantoday.com|date=9 March 2018 |access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref>

Bassist Alan Longmuir died on 2 July 2018 after falling ill while on holiday with his wife in Mexico.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-scotland-44679446|title=Bay City Roller Alan Longmuir dies|date=2 July 2018|website=Bbc.com|access-date=17 October 2019}}</ref> His autobiography ''I Ran with the Gang: My Life in and Out of The Bay City Rollers'' was published posthumously in November 2018; the book was written with [[Martin Knight (author)|Martin Knight]]. In his book, Alan Longmuir mentioned his hope for McKeown and Wood to put aside their differences and reunite one more time.<ref name="glasgowtimes.co.uk">{{Cite news|url=https://www.glasgowtimes.co.uk/news/17988024.bay-city-rollers-stars-quash-rumours-reunion/|title=Bay City Rollers stars quash rumours of reunion|newspaper=[[Glasgow Times]]|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> In 2019, after rumors related to Alan Longmuir's wishes, both McKeown and Wood denied any chance of another reunion and did not want to work with each other,<ref name="glasgowtimes.co.uk"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/ex-bay-city-rollers-members-tell-fans-they-can-forget-about-future-reunion-818330|title=Ex-Bay City Rollers members tell fans they can 'forget' about future reunion|website=Edinburghnews.scotsman.com|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref> though McKeown did mention his desire to work with Faulkner.<ref name="dailyrecord.co.uk"/>

After both McKeown's and Wood's bands were sidelined by the coronavirus pandemic, McKeown mentioned in August 2020 that he would be willing to reunite with Wood again with more planning.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/must-read/exclusive-edinburghs-les-mckeown-reflects-life-international-pop-star-lockdown-and-his-hope-another-bay-city-rollers-reunion-2929616|title=EXCLUSIVE: Edinburgh's Les McKeown reflects on in lockdown and his hope of another Bay City Rollers' reunion|website=Edinburghnews.scotsman.com|access-date=14 August 2021}}</ref>

On 1 September 2020, Ian Mitchell died at the age of 62 after suffering from throat cancer.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/entertainment-arts-54001874|title=Bay City Rollers member Ian Mitchell dies|date=2 September 2020|website=Bbc.co.uk}}</ref>

On 20 April 2021, Les McKeown died aged 65.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Aitchison|first=Jack|date=2021-04-22|title=Bay City Rollers star Les McKeown dead aged 65 as family pay tribute|url=https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/19252534.bay-city-rollers-star-les-mckeown-dead-aged-65/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-04-22|website=Heraldscotland.com|language=en|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210422153644/https://www.heraldscotland.com/news/19252534.bay-city-rollers-star-les-mckeown-dead-aged-65/ |archive-date=22 April 2021 }}</ref>

For the period between 9 March and 10 December 2023, however, a total of 11 concerts and appearances at festivals were planned again with the line-up of Ian Thomson, Stuart Wood, Marcus Cordock and Jamie McGrory, nine of them in the UK and one each in Denmark and Germany. 5 concerts have been announced for 2024, all in the UK.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.baycityrollers.co.uk/tourdates|title=Bay City Rollers | Tour Dates 2018|access-date=12 February 2024}}</ref>

==Financial disputes==
{{update section|date=January 2020}}
According to the BBC, the Bay City Rollers sold 120 million records.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/entertainment-arts-34323112|title=Bay City Rollers announce reunion |work=[[BBC News]] |date=22 September 2015 |access-date=22 September 2015}}</ref>

In March 2007, six former members of the group (Faure plus the "classic line-up") announced a lawsuit against [[Arista Records]] in hopes of claiming what they described as "tens of millions of dollars" of unpaid royalties. Gordon "Nobby" Clark threatened to sue the other band members if their lawsuit was successful, stating that he was the creative force behind the band's success, even though he left the group in 1973, before the bulk of their fame and fortune began.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070328133604/http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=1019&id=437372007|url-status=dead|title=Scottish News – The Scotsman|archive-date=28 March 2007|website=Scotsman.com}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/news|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070517033253/http://news.scotsman.com/topics.cfm?tid=1019&id=449172007|url-status=dead|title=Scottish News – The Scotsman|archive-date=17 May 2007|website=Scotsman.com}}</ref>

In September 2010, Clark, Ian Mitchell and Pat McGlynn filed a complaint in the courts in the United States against the six members (Faure plus the "classic line-up") over being excluded from the case against Arista records. Clark, Mitchell and McGlynn were seeking to have their rights determined and were seeking financial damages against the other Bay City Rollers for alleged breach of contract. In 2013, a judge in the United States Circuit Court of Appeals ruled against the three due to the statute of frauds, which establishes that certain agreements must be in writing under certain conditions, and the appellate judge's ruling stated: "A claim for unjust enrichment must be based on the value of plaintiffs' contribution to the joint effort of the band at the time it made the relevant records, not on the income stream resulting from a revival over thirty years later."<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/thr-esq/three-members-bay-city-rollers-617514 | title=Three Ex-Members of Bay City Rollers Denied in Royalty Collection Attempt | website=Hollywoodreporter.com | date=29 August 2013 | access-date=17 September 2013 | author=Gardner, Eriq}}</ref>

In March 2011, a New York judge determined that the Bay City Rollers could move forward with their four-year-old lawsuit against Arista Records. Arista denied responsibility for the majority of the royalties, citing a New York statute of limitations. The statute limits plaintiffs from recovering damages post six years in contract disputes, which therefore would negate the Rollers' claims for royalties incurred before 2001. However, because Arista had continued to promise the Bay City Rollers their royalties in writing, the judge ruled that the statute was not applicable.<ref>{{cite web|author=Mickie |url=http://mickieszoo.blogspot.com/2011/06/bay-city-rollers-to-continue-suit.html |title=Mickie's Zoo: Bay City Rollers to continue suit against Arista Records |website=Mickieszoo.blogspot.com |date=1 June 2011 |access-date=16 July 2011}}</ref>

After almost a decade, the legal battle came to an end with an out-of-court settlement in 2016. Arista Records' parent company [[Sony Music]] is believed to have paid $3.5 million, with each band member receiving £70,000.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.scotsman.com/whats-on/arts-and-entertainment/bay-city-rollers-legal-battle-reaches-end-road-865600|title=Bay City Rollers legal battle reaches end of the road|website=Scotsman.com|language=en|access-date=2020-04-16}}</ref>

== Sexual abuse allegations ==
Members of the Bay City Rollers have accused former manager [[Tam Paton]] of sexual abuse. In 2003, McGlynn accused former Bay City Rollers manager [[Tam Paton]] of trying to [[rape]] him in a hotel room in 1977.<ref name="scotsman1">{{citation |date=22 August 2007 |title=Former Rollers manager Paton cleared of rape claim |periodical=[[The Scotsman]] |url=http://news.scotsman.com/baycityrollers/Former-Rollers-manager-Paton-cleared.3319561.jp|accessdate=10 April 2009 |location=Edinburgh |first=Rhiannon |last=Edward}}</ref> However, the police decided there was insufficient evidence to prosecute Paton. Paton had previous arrests for sexual misconduct with underage boys.<ref name="scotsman.com">{{cite web|url=http://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/news/tam-paton-bedroom-bulldozed-after-seedy-history-1-3216828|title=Tam Paton bedroom bulldozed after 'seedy' history|website=Edinburghnews.scotsman.com|accessdate=1 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190726111903/https://www.edinburghnews.scotsman.com/news/tam-paton-bedroom-bulldozed-after-seedy-history-1-3216828|archive-date=26 July 2019|url-status=dead}}</ref> In 2009, McKeown accused Paton of raping him.<ref>{{Cite web |last=McEwen |first=Alan |date=2016-10-17 |title=Bay City Rollers pervert Tam Paton urged band to have sex with paedophile DJ |url=http://www.dailyrecord.co.uk/news/scottish-news/bay-city-rollers-gordon-clark-9059841 |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=Daily Record |language=en}}</ref> In the 2023 documentary ''Secrets of the Bay City Rollers,'' potential band member Gert Magnus claimed that Paton offered him a place in the band in exchange for sex.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Latif |first=Leila |date=2023-06-29 |title=Secrets of the Bay City Rollers review – one of the most disturbing accounts of abuse imaginable |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2023/jun/29/secrets-of-the-bay-city-rollers-review-one-of-the-most-disturbing-accounts-of-abuse-imaginable |access-date=2023-06-30 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

==Members==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
'''Current members'''
* [[Stuart Wood (musician)|Stuart "Woody" Wood]] – backing and occasional lead vocals, rhythm and lead guitars, keyboards, bass, mandolin (1974–1981, 1982–1985, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016, 2018–present)
* Ian Thomson – lead vocals, guitar (2018–present)
* Jamie McGrory – drums (2018–present)
* Mikey Smith – bass, vocals (2023–present)
* John McLaughlin - Keyboards, vocals (2023-present)

{{col-2}}
'''Former members'''
* [[Alan Longmuir]] – backing and occasional lead vocals, bass, rhythm guitar, piano, accordion (1964–1976, 1978–1981, 1982–1983, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016; died 2018)
* [[Derek Longmuir]] – drums, percussion (1964–1981, 1982–1983, 1996)
* Neil Porteous – guitar (1964–1965)
* Gordon "Nobby" Clark – lead vocals (1965–1973)
* Dave Pettigrew – guitar, keyboards (1965–1968)
* Gregory Ellison – guitar (1966–1968)
* Mike Ellison – vocals (1966)
* Keith Norman – keyboards (1967–1969)
* [[David Paton]] – guitar (1968–1970)
* Alan Dunn – keyboards (1969)
* [[Billy Lyall]] – keyboards (1969–1971; died 1989)
* Eric Manclark – guitar (1970–1971)
* Neil Henderson – guitar (1970–1972)
* Archie Marr – keyboards (1971–1972)
* John Devine – guitar (1972–1974)
* [[Eric Faulkner]] – backing and occasional lead vocals, lead and rhythm guitars, violin, mandolin, bass (1972–1981, 1982–1985, 1990, 1996, 1999–2000)
* [[Les McKeown]] – lead vocals (1973–1978, 1982–1985, 1996, 1999–2000, 2015–2016; died 2021)
* Ian Mitchell – backing and occasional lead vocals, rhythm guitar, bass (1976, 1982–1985; died 2020)
* [[Pat McGlynn]] – rhythm guitar, bass (1976–1977, 1982–1985)
* Duncan Faure – vocals, guitar, keyboards (1978–1981)
* George Spencer – drums (1985)
* Marcus Cordock – bass (2018–2023)
{{col-end}}

In later years, but before McKeown's death, there were usually at least two or three bands featuring one former BCR member touring as The Bay City Rollers or some variation of the name. These were most recently held by Wood and McKeown (before McKeown's death), and Wood's most recent band is still active and currently the only group touring as the Bay City Rollers.

===Timeline===
{{#tag:timeline|
ImageSize = width:900 height:auto barincrement:20
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Alignbars = justify
DateFormat = mm/dd/yyyy
Period = from:01/01/1964 till:{{#time:m/d/Y}}
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Colors =
id:vocals value:red legend:Vocals
id:lead value:teal legend:Lead_guitar
id:rhythm value:brightgreen legend:Rhythm_guitar
id:keys value:purple legend:Keyboards
id:bass value:blue legend:Bass
id:drums value:orange legend:Drums
id:Lines value:black legend:Studio_album

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ScaleMajor = unit:year increment:5 start:1964
ScaleMinor = unit:year increment:1 start:1964

BarData =
bar:NobbyC text:"Gordon 'Nobby' Clark"
bar:MikeE text:"Mike Ellison"
bar:Les text:"Les McKeown"
bar:DuncanF text:"Duncan Faure"
bar:IanT text:"Ian Thomson"
bar:NeilP text:"Neil Porteous"
bar:DaveP text:"Dave Pettigrew"
bar:GregoryE text:"Gregory Ellison"
bar:Eric text:"Eric Faulkner"
bar:JohnD text:"John Devine"
bar:Woody text:"Stuart 'Woody' Wood"
bar:IanM text:"Ian Mitchell"
bar:PatM text:"Pat McGlynn"
bar:BillyL text:"Billy Lyall"
bar:JohnM text:"John McLaughlin"
bar:Alan text:"Alan Longmuir"
bar:DavidP text:"David Paton"
bar:Marcus text:"Marcus Cordock"
bar:Mikey text:"Mikey Smith"
bar:DerekL text:"Derek Longmuir"
bar:GeorgeS text:"George Spencer"
bar:Jamie text:"Jamie McGrory"

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bar:Alan from:01/01/1964 till:06/01/1965 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:01/01/1964 till:06/01/1965 color:vocals width:3
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bar:Alan from:01/01/1969 till:12/31/1970 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:12/31/1970 till:02/01/1976 color:bass
bar:Alan from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:keys width:7
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bar:Alan from:07/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:07/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:07/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:bass width:5
bar:Alan from:08/01/1977 till:11/20/1981 color:vocals width:3
bar:Alan from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:rhythm
bar:Alan from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:bass width:7
bar:Alan from:04/01/1982 till:12/01/1983 color:keys width:3
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:bass
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:keys width:7
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:rhythm width:5
bar:Alan from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:vocals width:3
bar:Alan from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:rhythm
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bar:Alan from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bass width:5
bar:Alan from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals width:3
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bar:Eric from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:vocals
bar:Eric from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:lead width:3
bar:Eric from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:bass
bar:Eric from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:lead width:7
bar:Eric from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals width:3
bar:Eric from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bass
bar:Eric from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:lead width:7
bar:Eric from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals width:3

bar:Les from:11/01/1973 till:11/01/1978 color:vocals
bar:Les from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:vocals
bar:Les from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals
bar:Les from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:vocals
bar:Les from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:vocals
bar:Les from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:rhythm width:3

bar:Woody from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:rhythm
bar:Woody from:02/15/1974 till:02/01/1976 color:bass width:5
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bar:Woody from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:lead width:5
bar:Woody from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:keys width:3
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:rhythm
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:bass width:5
bar:Woody from:01/01/1990 till:01/01/1991 color:vocals width:3
bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:lead
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bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:bass width:5
bar:Woody from:01/01/1996 till:01/01/1997 color:vocals width:3
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:lead
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:12/01/1999 till:01/01/2000 color:bass width:5
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bar:Woody from:01/01/2015 till:01/01/2017 color:lead
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bar:Woody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:rhythm
bar:Woody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:keys width:7
bar:Woody from:01/01/2018 till:end color:vocals width:3

bar:IanM from:02/01/1976 till:08/01/1976 color:rhythm
bar:IanM from:02/01/1976 till:08/01/1976 color:bass width:7
bar:IanM from:02/01/1976 till:08/01/1976 color:vocals width:3
bar:IanM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:rhythm
bar:IanM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:bass width:3

bar:PatM from:08/01/1976 till:08/01/1977 color:rhythm
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bar:PatM from:04/01/1982 till:12/31/1985 color:rhythm
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bar:NobbyC from:06/01/1965 till:11/01/1973 color:vocals
bar:NeilP from:01/01/1964 till:07/31/1965 color:lead
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bar:MikeE from:01/01/1966 till:01/01/1967 color:vocals
bar:DuncanF from:11/01/1978 till:11/20/1981 color:vocals
bar:DuncanF from:11/01/1978 till:11/20/1981 color:rhythm width:3
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bar:DaveP from:07/31/1965 till:06/01/1966 color:lead
bar:DaveP from:07/31/1965 till:03/01/1974 color:rhythm width:3
bar:DaveP from:06/01/1966 till:03/01/1974 color:keys
bar:JohnD from:10/01/1973 till:02/15/1974 color:rhythm
bar:IanT from:01/01/2018 till:end color:vocals
bar:IanT from:01/01/2018 till:end color:lead width:3
bar:Marcus from:01/01/2018 till:01/01/2023 color:bass
bar:Marcus from:01/01/2018 till:01/01/2023 color:vocals width:3
bar:Jamie from:01/01/2018 till:end color:drums
bar:Mikey from:01/01/2023 till:end color:bass
bar:Mikey from:01/01/2023 till:end color:vocals width:3
bar:JohnM from:08/30/2023 till:end color:keys
bar:JohnM from:08/30/2023 till:end color:vocals width:3

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at:09/01/1974
at:05/01/1975
at:12/01/1975
at:03/01/1976
at:09/01/1976
at:07/01/1977
at:01/01/1978
at:01/01/1979
at:01/01/1980
at:01/01/1981
at:01/01/1985
at:12/01/2015
}}

==Discography==
{{main|Bay City Rollers discography}}
'''Studio albums'''

* ''[[Rollin' (Bay City Rollers album)|Rollin']]'' (1974)
* ''[[Once Upon a Star]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Bay City Rollers (album)|Bay City Rollers]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Wouldn't You Like It?]]'' (1975)
* ''[[Rock n' Roll Love Letter]]'' (1976)
* ''[[Dedication (Bay City Rollers album)|Dedication]]'' (1976)
* ''[[It's a Game (Bay City Rollers album)|It's a Game]]'' (1977)
* ''[[Strangers in the Wind]]'' (1978)
* ''[[Elevator (The Rollers album)|Elevator]]'' (1979)
* ''[[Voxx (album)|Voxx]]'' (1980)
* ''[[Ricochet (Bay City Rollers album)|Ricochet]]'' (1981)
* ''Breakout '85'' (1985)
* ''A Christmas Shang-A-Lang'' (2015)

'''Christmas Single 2021'''

* Rollin' Into Christmas

'''EP 2023'''
* Brand New Day (Brand New Day - Sunshine On Leith - Money Honey)

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
* Brigitte Tast, Hans-Jürgen Tast: ''Wie weit ist vorbei? Ein Konzert, eine Party und Meldungen aus der ganzen Welt''. Kulleraugen – Visuelle Kommunikation Nr. 48, Schellerten 2016, {{ISBN|978-3-88842-048-1}}.

==External links==
* {{Discogs artist|Bay City Rollers}}
* {{IMDb name|id=1163873}}
* {{IMDb name|id=9382430}} as Les McKeown's 70's Bay City Rollers

{{Bay City Rollers}}
{{Pilot}}{{Scottish musicians}}{{UK best-selling singles (by year)}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Bay City Rollers| ]]
[[Category:1964 establishments in Scotland]]
[[Category:2020 disestablishments in Scotland]]
[[Category:Musical groups established in 1966]]
[[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1987]]
[[Category:Scottish pop music groups]]
[[Category:Scottish pop rock music groups]]
[[Category:Scottish glam rock groups]]
[[Category:Musical groups from Edinburgh]]
[[Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2015]]
[[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 2020]]
[[Category:Bell Records artists]]
[[Category:Arista Records artists]]
[[Category:Epic Records artists]]

Charley Hull

2024-06-01T20:53:25Z

ExtravagAunt: Undid revision 1226789496 by 2603:8080:1400:1C76:8D46:FA00:2CBB:C82A (talk)

{{short description|English professional golfer}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2013}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2013}}
{{Infobox golfer
| name = Charley Hull
| image = 2013 Women's British Open – Charley Hull (6).jpg
| image_size = 250px
| caption = Hull at the [[2013 Women's British Open]]
| fullname = Charley Esmee Hull
| nickname =
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1996|3|20|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Kettering]], [[Northamptonshire]], England
| death_date = 
| death_place =
| height = {{height|ft=5|in=6}}
| weight =
| nationality = {{ENG}}
| residence =
| spouse = {{marriage|Ozzie Smith|2019|2021|reason=divorced}} 
| partner =
| children =
| college =
| yearpro = 2013
| retired = 
| tour = [[Ladies European Tour]] [[LPGA Tour]]
| extour = 
| prowins = 6
| lpgawins = 2
| letwins = 3
| jlpgawins = 
| klpgawins = 
| lagtwins = 
| alpgwins = 
| futwins = 
| otherwins = 1
| majorwins = 
| nabisco = T2: [[2016 ANA Inspiration|2016]]
| lpga = T6: [[2018 KPMG Women's PGA Championship|2018]]
| wusopen = T2: [[2023 U.S. Women's Open|2023]]
| wbritopen = 2nd: [[2023 Women's British Open|2023]]
| evian = T3: [[2022 Evian Championship|2022]]
| wghofid = 
| wghofyear = 
| award1 = [[LET Rookie of the Year]]
| year1 = 2013
| award2 = Best International Newcomer, [[Sports Journalists' Association|SJA]] British Sports Awards
| year2 = 2013
| award3 = [[LET Order of Merit|Ladies European Tour Order of Merit]]
| year3 = 2014
| awardssection = 
| award4 = [[LET Player of the Year|Ladies European Tour Player of the Year]]
| year4 = 2014
}}
'''Charley Esmee Hull''' (born 20 March 1996) is an English [[professional golfer]] who has achieved success both on the [[Ladies European Tour]] and the [[LPGA Tour]], winning honours as Rookie of the Year, becoming the youngest competitor to participate in the international [[Solheim Cup]] matches and becoming a champion on the European circuit in 2014 before the age of 18. In 2016, she won the prestigious [[2016 CME Group Tour Championship|CME Group Tour Championship]], the season-ending event of the LPGA Tour.

==Early life==
Hull was first introduced to golf aged two, and began playing with her father at Kettering Golf Club. She left school aged 13 to be home schooled, and started playing in amateur tournaments.<ref name=GuardBOpen>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2013/jul/23/charley-hull-womens-british-open |title=Teenager Charley Hull blazing a trail to the top of the women's game |newspaper=The Guardian |first=Ewan |last=Murray |date=23 July 2013 |accessdate=29 July 2013}}</ref>

==Amateur career==
Hull came to public attention aged 9, when she won a significant 18-hole handicap event against adults with a score of 28 stableford points from a handicap of 26 <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.lgu.org/EZ/lgu/lgu/lgu_files/HPGF05_pressrelease.pdf |title=Turnberry hurricane rocks Ladies golfing world}}</ref> at [[Turnberry (golf course)|Turnberry]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/golf/23437187 |title=Charley Hull: 'Golf is my job – I'm pretty good at it' |work=BBC Sport |date=24 July 2013 |accessdate=29 July 2013}}</ref> Aged 10 she played alongside [[Morgan Pressel]] in the British Open Pro-Am.<ref name=NGMag/> Hull then won several amateur events in the United States and Great Britain and has ranked in the top-10 of the [[World Amateur Golf Ranking]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.randa.org/en/WAGR/Ranking/Player.aspx?playerid=2689&ismens=False |title=Charley Hull biography |publisher=[[World Amateur Golf Ranking]] |accessdate=14 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120930012332/http://www.randa.org/en/WAGR/Ranking/Player.aspx?playerid=2689&ismens=False |archive-date=30 September 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> reaching a high of number three in the world.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ladieseuropeantour.com/player_profile.php?id=64051|title=Hull, Charley: Ladies European Tour Player Profile|publisher=Ladies European Tour|accessdate=28 December 2013}}</ref>

Hull played on the Great Britain and Ireland [[Curtis Cup]] team in 2012. She lost her [[Four-ball golf|fourball]]s and [[foursomes]] matches on the first two days but won her singles match on the final day as the GB&I team beat the United States team 10½–9½.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://info.lgu.org/tic/tmscores.cgi?tourn=CC12~params=P*5ESC05~alphaorder=n~natorder=n~cardlink=Y~~season=2012~style=00~groupties=Y~pr=Y~textout=N~bordersize=1~fontsize=*~winfocus=Y~ |title=The 37th Curtis Cup Matches |publisher=Ladies Golf Union |accessdate=14 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141104013436/http://info.lgu.org/tic/tmscores.cgi?tourn=CC12~params%3DP%2A5ESC05~alphaorder%3Dn~natorder%3Dn~cardlink%3DY~~season%3D2012~style%3D00~groupties%3DY~pr%3DY~textout%3DN~bordersize%3D1~fontsize%3D%2A~winfocus%3DY~ |archive-date=4 November 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> She had initially been removed from the team in a dispute with the [[Ladies Golf Union]] over a mandatory training session that conflicted with the [[Kraft Nabisco Championship]],<ref name=NGMag>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.northamptonshiregolfmag.co.uk/#/charley-hull-interview/4562007696 |title=Exclusive: Charley Hull Interview |magazine=Northamptonshire Golf Magazine |accessdate=29 July 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130811050455/http://www.northamptonshiregolfmag.co.uk/#/charley-hull-interview/4562007696#/charley-hull-interview/4562007696 |archive-date=11 August 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> a [[Women's major golf championships|major championship]] on the [[LPGA Tour]], to which Hull had been invited.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/golf/18210741 |title=Charley Hull not fazed by Curtis Cup test |date=25 May 2012 |work=BBC Sport |accessdate=13 September 2012 |archive-date=19 April 2013 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130419200122/http://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/golf/18210741 |url-status=dead }}</ref> The LGU re-instated Hull to the team and Hull finished tied for 38th at the Kraft Nabisco Championship.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.express.co.uk/posts/view/324554/Charley-Hull-wins-cup-reprieve |title=Charley Hull Wins Cup Reprieve |first=Neil |last=Squires |date=5 June 2012 |newspaper=Daily Express |accessdate=13 September 2012}}</ref>

Hull also competed in the [[2012 Women's British Open]], where she was tied for third after the first round.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/golf/19589329|title=Women's British Open: Charley Hull cards first-round 71 on debut |date=13 September 2012 |work=BBC Sport |accessdate=13 September 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2012/sep/13/womens-british-open-golf-hoylake |title=Women's British Open: English amateur Charley Hull makes early move |date=13 September 2012 |newspaper=The Guardian |accessdate=13 September 2012}}</ref>

==Professional career==
===2013===
Hull turned professional on 1 January 2013.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ladieseuropeantour.com/player_profile.php?id=64051|title=Hull, Charley: Ladies European Tour Player Profile|publisher=Ladies European Tour|accessdate=28 December 2013}}</ref> She made her professional debut in March 2013<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/golf/22797453|title=Charley Hull says she 'belongs' in professional golf |date=6 June 2013 |work=BBC Sport |accessdate=25 July 2013}}</ref> and reeled off five consecutive second-place finishes on the [[Ladies European Tour]]: [[Lalla Meryem Cup]], [[South African Women's Open]], [[Turkish Airlines Ladies Open]], [[Deloitte Ladies Open]] and a playoff loss at the [[UniCredit Ladies German Open]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.letscoring.com/orderofmerit/player/200148 |title=Hull, Charley: Ladies European Tour Player Performance |publisher=Ladies European Tour |accessdate=28 December 2013}}</ref>

With five additional top-ten finishes on the Ladies European Tour, she finished sixth on the tour's Order of Merit with earnings of just under €135,995 in fifteen official events.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.letscoring.com/orderofmerit/2013|title=2013 Ladies European Tour Order of Merit Final Standings|date=9 December 2013|publisher=Ladies European Tour|accessdate=28 December 2013|archive-date=8 February 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140208035342/http://www.letscoring.com/orderofmerit/2013|url-status=dead}}</ref> With her strong debut on the tour, Hull was awarded the 2013 [[LET Rookie of the Year]] award<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ladieseuropeantour.com/main_article.php?id=68240&pid=1001 |title=Hull Earns Rookie of the Year Award |date=7 December 2013 |publisher=Ladies European Tour |accessdate=28 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131231001953/http://www.ladieseuropeantour.com/main_article.php?id=68240&pid=1001 |archive-date=31 December 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> and was voted the Best International Newcomer by the [[Sports Journalists' Association]] and presented with the Peter Wilson Trophy at the SJA British Sports Awards<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ladieseuropeantour.com/main_article.php?id=68252&pid=1001 |title=Charley Hull Receives Sports Journalists' Association Best International Newcomer Award |date=12 December 2013 |publisher=Ladies European Tour |accessdate=28 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131230233442/http://www.ladieseuropeantour.com/main_article.php?id=68252&pid=1001 |archive-date=30 December 2013 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}}</ref> Hull was also on the shortlist for the BBC's Young Sports Personality of the Year, losing to 16-year-old swimmer [[Josef Craig]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.com/sport/0/sports-personality/25184105 |title=Young Sports Personality: Trio on 2013 BBC award shortlist revealed |date=12 December 2013 |work=BBC Sport |accessdate=28 December 2013}}</ref>

In August 2013, Hull was selected by European [[Solheim Cup]] captain [[Liselotte Neumann]] to compete in the [[2013 Solheim Cup]], the youngest person ever to play in the tournament.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.espn.com/espnw/news-commentary/story/_/id/9556607/espnw-lexi-thompson-youngest-ever-us-solheim-team |title=Lexi Thompson youngest ever for U.S. |work=ESPN |first=Melissa |last=Isaacson |date=August 10, 2013}}</ref> The team was the first European Solheim squad to win on U.S. soil, with a final score of 18–10. Hull contributed 2 points, including a 5 & 4 singles win over [[Paula Creamer]]. Neumann later praised Hull's performance.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/golf/23752981 |title=Solheim Cup: Charley Hull is a 'special girl' - Liselotte Neumann |work=BBC Sport |date=19 August 2013 |accessdate=19 August 2013}}</ref>

===2014===
On 16 March 2014, four days shy of her 18th birthday, Hull won her first professional title at the [[Lalla Meryem Cup]] in Morocco. Having a five shot deficit to the overnight leader, [[Gwladys Nocera]], Hull scored a bogey-free round of 62 (−9) to finish level with Nocera and force a playoff. Hull birdied the first sudden-death hole to secure the victory.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.letscoring.com/leaderboard/68212 |title=2014 Lalla Meryem Cup leaderboard |publisher=Ladies European Tour |date=16 March 2014 |accessdate=16 March 2014}}</ref> She ended the [[2014 Ladies European Tour|2014 season]] by becoming the youngest player to win the Ladies European Tour Order of Merit.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.golf-monthly.co.uk/news/tour-news/charley-hull-wins-let-order-merit-62881 |title=Charley Hull wins LET Order of Merit |magazine=Golf Monthly |first=Nick |last=Bonfield |date=15 December 2014 |access-date=13 October 2020}}</ref>

===2015===
During 2015, Hull played on both the Ladies European Tour and on the [[LPGA Tour]], where she improved her priority ranking such that she was able to play full time on that tour.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://golfweek.usatoday.com/2015/07/08/charley-hull-lpga-tour-golf-england-us-womens-open/ |title=Charley Hull takes on LPGA with veteran's game but teen's spirit |website=Golfweek |publisher=USA Today |date=8 July 2015 |access-date=13 October 2020}}</ref> Since then, she has played predominantly on the LPGA Tour.

===2016===
In 2016, she had five top-ten finishes and won for the first time on the tour at the season ending [[2016 CME Group Tour Championship|CME Group Tour Championship]],<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/golf/38046531 |title=Charley Hull wins the CME Group Tour Championship for first LPGA title |website=BBC Sport |date=20 November 2016 |access-date=13 October 2020}}</ref> which lifted her to fourth place in the final Race to the CME Globe points standings.<ref name=lpgabio>{{cite web |url=https://www.lpga.com/players/charley-hull/98215/bio |title=Bio – Charley Hull |publisher=LPGA Tour |access-date=13 October 2020}}</ref>

===2019===
On 12 January 2019, Hull won the [[Fatima Bint Mubarak Ladies Open]] at the Saadiyat Beach Golf Club in [[Abu Dhabi]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://worldwide.golf/tour-news/charley-hull-conquers-the-fatima-bint-mubarak-ladies-open |title=Charley Hull conquers the Fatima Bint Mubarak Ladies Open |date=12 January 2019 |website=Worldwide Golf |access-date=13 January 2019}}</ref>

===2020===
In June 2020, during a suspension of all the major golf tours due to the [[COVID-19 pandemic]], Hull won the opening event of the [[Rose Ladies Series]] in the United Kingdom, and in early August, finished second in the final event to top the series standings ahead of [[Georgia Hall]].<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.nationalclubgolfer.com/news/justin-rose-ladies-series/ |title=Hull wins Rose Ladies Series after Grand Final cancelled due to wildfire |date=8 August 2020 |website=National Club Golfer |first=Alex |last=Perry}}</ref> After the tours had resumed, in late August she missed the halfway cut at the [[2020 Women's British Open|AIG Women's Open]], the first major of the year. In September, she tested positive for COVID-19 during pre-tournament testing for the [[2020 ANA Inspiration|ANA Inspiration]] and was forced to withdraw from the year's second major.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.golfchannel.com/news/charley-hull-out-ana-inspiration-after-testing-positive-covid-19 |title=Charley Hull out of ANA Inspiration after testing positive for COVID-19 |work=Golf Channel |first=Ryan |last=Lavner |date=September 8, 2020 |access-date=September 9, 2020}}</ref> In October, she finished in a tie for 7th place in the [[2020 Women's PGA Championship|Women's PGA Championship]].<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/golf/54502816 |title=Kim Sei-young claims first major at Women's PGA Championship |work=BBC Sport |date=11 October 2020 |access-date=12 October 2020}}</ref>

===2023===
In the first round of the [[Aramco Team Series]] in [[London]] on 14 July 2023, she carded a five-under-par 68, tying [[Nelly Korda]], firing 10 birdies and a quintuple-bogey 10 on the par-5 sixth hole at the [[Centurion Club]]. She shot 38 on the front nine, contrasted to 30 on the back nine.<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://www.si.com/golf/news/charley-hull-scorecard-aramco-team-series-quintuple-bogey-10-birdies |title=LPGA's Charley Hull Went Ridiculously Low After Carding a 10 on a Hole |first=Gabrielle |last=Herzig |magazine=Sports Illustrated |date=July 14, 2023 |accessdate=July 17, 2023}}</ref> She finished the tournament in second place at 212 (−7), four shots behind Korda's 208 (−11).<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.sportskeeda.com/golf/news-nelly-korda-wins-third-let-title-aramco-team-series-london-final-leaderboard-prize-money-explored |title=Nelly Korda wins her third LET title in the Aramco Team Series in London; Final leaderboard and prize money explored |first=Ankita |last=Yadav |publisher=sportskeeda |date=July 17, 2023}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Hull's mother and her maternal grandparents are Polish. She has two half-sisters, one from each parent.<ref name=kraftiview>{{cite web |url=http://www.lpga.com/golf/news/2012/3/kraft-nabisco-championship-first-round-notes-and-interviews.aspx#charley |title=2012 Kraft Nabisco Championship, First round notes and interviews |date=29 March 2012 |publisher=LPGA |accessdate=8 August 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.letaccess.com/news_article_print.php?id=2412&pid=1001 |title=A Quick 18 with Charley Hull |date=14 December 2012 |publisher=LET Access Series |accessdate=8 August 2013}}</ref>

Based at [[Woburn Golf Club]], Hull spends her winters with her family based in Florida.<ref name=GuardBOpen/>

Hull has publicly spoken out against single-sex golf clubs.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/0/golf/23420158 |title=Charley Hull says single-sex golf clubs are 'stupid' |first=Neil |last=Johnston |date=23 July 2013 |work=BBC Sport |accessdate=25 July 2013}}</ref> When asked by the [[BBC]] if she had experienced discrimination on the course, she recounted that when she was seven years old she defeated a 17-year-old boy and he swore at her after the match.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/schoolreport/25185655|title=YSPOTY 2013 nominees: Charley Hull Q&A|date=4 December 2013 |work=BBC Sport |accessdate=28 December 2013}}</ref>

Hull married Ozzie Smith, a [[mixed martial arts]] fighter, in her hometown on the 21 September 2019.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.northantstelegraph.co.uk/news/people/wedding-bells-for-burton-latimer-golf-supremo-charley-1-9080331 |title=Wedding Bells for Charley |date=21 September 2019 |newspaper=Northants Telegraph |accessdate=21 September 2019}}</ref>

==Amateur wins==
*2011 Ione D Jones/Doherty Championship,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.randa.org/en/WAGR/Events/Event%20detail.aspx?event=2175&isMens=False |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415195134/http://www.randa.org/en/WAGR/Events/Event%20detail.aspx?event=2175&isMens=False |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2013 |title=2011 Ione D Jones/Doherty Championship |publisher=World Amateur Golf Ranking |accessdate=14 September 2012 }}</ref> [[Welsh Ladies Open Stroke Play Championship]],<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.randa.org/en/WAGR/Events/Event%20detail.aspx?event=2500&isMens=False |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130415164614/http://www.randa.org/en/WAGR/Events/Event%20detail.aspx?event=2500&isMens=False |url-status=dead |archive-date=15 April 2013 |title=2011 Welsh Open Stroke Play |publisher=World Amateur Golf Ranking |accessdate=14 September 2012 }}</ref> [[English Women's Open Amateur Stroke Play Championship]]<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.randa.org/en/WAGR/Events/Event%20detail.aspx?event=2956&isMens=False |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130416070836/http://www.randa.org/en/WAGR/Events/Event%20detail.aspx?event=2956&isMens=False |url-status=dead |archive-date=16 April 2013 |title=2011 English Open Stroke Play |publisher=World Amateur Golf Ranking |accessdate=14 September 2012 }}</ref>
*2012 Harder Hall Invitational<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.randa.org/en/WAGR/Events/Event%20detail.aspx?event=3469&isMens=False |title=2012 Harder Hall Invitational |publisher=World Amateur Golf Ranking |accessdate=14 September 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120423054948/http://www.randa.org/en/WAGR/Events/Event%20detail.aspx?event=3469&ismens=False |archive-date=23 April 2012 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

==Professional wins (6)==
===LPGA Tour wins (2)===
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
! Legend
|- style="background:#e5d1cb;"
|Major championships (0)
|-
|Other LPGA Tour (2)
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
!No.
!Date
!Tournament
!Winning score
!To par
!Margin of victory
!Runner-up
!Winner's share ([[United States dollar|$]])
|-
|align=center|1
|align=right|20 Nov [[2016 LPGA Tour|2016]]
|[[2016 CME Group Tour Championship|CME Group Tour Championship]]
|align=right|67-70-66-66=269
|align=center|−19
|2 strokes
|{{flagicon|KOR}} [[Ryu So-yeon]]
|align=right|500,000
|-
|align=center|2
|align=right|2 Oct [[2022 LPGA Tour|2022]]
|[[Volunteers of America Classic]]
|67-64-71-64=266
|align=center|−18
|1 stroke
|{{flagicon|CHN}} [[Lin Xiyu]]
|align=right|255,000
|-
|}

'''LPGA Tour playoff record (0–1)'''
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
!No.!!Year!!Tournament!!Opponent(s)!!Result
|-style="background:#F5DEB3;"
|align=center|1
|2023
|[[Kroger Queen City Championship]]
|{{flagicon|AUS}} [[Minjee Lee]]
|Lost to birdie on second extra hole
|}

===Ladies European Tour wins (3)===
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:95%;"
!No.
!Date
!Tournament
!Winning score
!To par
!Margin of victory
!Runner-up
!Winner's share ([[Euro|€]])
|-
|align=center|1
|align=right|16 Mar [[2014 Ladies European Tour|2014]]
|[[Lalla Meryem Cup]]
|align=right|68-71-68-62=269
|align=center|−15
|Playoff
|{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Gwladys Nocera]]
|align=center|67,500
|-
|align=center|2
|align=right|12 Jan [[2019 Ladies European Tour|2019]]
|[[Fatima Bint Mubarak Ladies Open]]
|align=right|67-72-69=208
|align=center|−8
|1 stroke
|{{flagicon|NOR}} [[Marianne Skarpnord]]
|align=center|38,115
|-
|align=center|3
|align=right|16 Oct [[2021 Ladies European Tour|2021]]
|[[Aramco Team Series – New York]]
|align=right|69-70-65=204
|align=center|−12
|1 stroke
|{{flagicon|USA}} [[Nelly Korda]]
|align=center|25,864
|}

'''LET playoff record (1–3)'''
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:90%;"
|-
!No.!!Year!!Tournament!!Opponent!!Result
|-style="background:#F2C1D1;"
|align=center|1
|2013
|[[UniCredit Ladies German Open]]
|{{flagicon|ESP}} [[Carlota Ciganda]]
|Lost to birdie on first extra hole
|- style="background:#d0f0c0;"
|align=center|2
|2014
|[[Lalla Meryem Cup]]
|{{flagicon|FRA}} [[Gwladys Nocera]]
|Won with birdie on first extra hole
|-style="background:#F2C1D1;"
|align=center|3
|2014
|[[Ladies German Open]]
|{{flagicon|SCO}} [[Kylie Walker]]
|Lost to par on first extra hole
|-style="background:#F2C1D1;"
|align=center|4
|2022
|[[Aramco Team Series - Jeddah]]
|{{flagicon|GER}} [[Chiara Noja]]
|Lost to birdie on second extra hole
|}

===Other wins (1)===
*2020 [[Rose Ladies Series|Rose Ladies Series – Event 1]]<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/sport/golf/53100309 |title=Charley Hull wins first Rose Ladies Series event at Brockenhurst Manor Golf Club |first=Peter |last=Scrivener |date=18 June 2020 |work=[[BBC Sport]]}}</ref>

==Results in LPGA majors==
''Results not in chronological order.''
{| cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" border="1" style="font-size: 95%; border: #aaa solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center;"
|- style="background:#eeeeee;"
! Tournament !! 2012 !! 2013 !! 2014 !! 2015 !! 2016 !! 2017 !! 2018 !! 2019 !! 2020
|-
|align=left|[[Chevron Championship]]
|T38
|style="background:#eeeeee;"|
|style="background:yellow;"|T7
|T26
|style="background:yellow;"|T2
|T14
|style="background:yellow;"|T6
|T12
|style="background:#eeeeee;"|{{efn|Forced to withdraw prior to the start of the tournament after testing positive for COVID-19.}}
|-
|-
|align=left|[[Women's PGA Championship]]
|style="background:#eeeeee;"|
|style="background:#eeeeee;"|
|style="background:#eeeeee;"|
|T26
|16
|CUT
|style="background:yellow;"|T6
|CUT
|style="background:yellow;"|T7
|-
|align=left|[[U.S. Women's Open]]
|style="background:#eeeeee;"|
|style="background:#eeeeee;"|
|style="background:#eeeeee;"|
|T42
|CUT
|T21
|style="background:yellow;"|T10
|T16
|T30
|-
|align=left|[[The Evian Championship]]{{efn|The Evian Championship was added as a major on the LPGA Tour in 2013.}}
|style="background:#eeeeee;" colspan=1|
|CUT
|T47
|T38
|T52
|T32
|T22
|T30
|style="background:#eeeeee;"|NT
|-
|align=left|[[Women's British Open]]
|CUT
|CUT
|T12
|T31
|T17
|T16
|CUT
|T24
|CUT
|}
{| cellpadding="3" cellspacing="0" border="1" style="font-size: 95%; border: #aaa solid 1px; border-collapse: collapse;text-align:center;"
|- style="background:#eeeeee;"
! Tournament !! 2021 !! 2022 !! 2023 !! 2024
|-
|align=left|[[Chevron Championship]]
|T14
|T25
|CUT
|T23
|-
|align=left|[[The Evian Championship]]
|T25
|style="background:yellow;"|T3
|CUT
|
|-
|align=left|[[Women's PGA Championship]]
|T21
|CUT
|CUT
|
|-
|align=left|[[U.S. Women's Open]]
|CUT
|T20
|style="background:yellow;"|T2
|
|-
|align=left|[[Women's British Open]]
|CUT
|T22
|style="background:yellow;"|2
|
|}{{notelist}}

{{legend|yellow|Top 10}}
{{legend|#eeeeee|Did not play}}
CUT = Missed the half-way cut 
NT = No tournament 
T = tied

===Summary===
{| class=wikitable style=text-align:center
!Tournament !! Wins !! 2nd !! 3rd !! Top-5 !! Top-10 !! Top-25 !! Events !! Cuts made
|-
|align=left|[[Chevron Championship]] || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 3 || 9 || 11 || 10
|-
|align=left|[[U.S. Women's Open]] || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 2 || 5 || 9 || 7
|-
|align=left|[[Women's PGA Championship]] || 0 || 0 || 0 || 0 || 2 || 4 || 9 || 5
|-
|align=left|[[The Evian Championship]] || 0 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 1 || 3 || 10 || 8
|-
|align=left|[[Women's British Open]] || 0 || 1 || 0 || 1 || 1 || 6 || 12 || 7
|-
!Totals !! 0 !! 3 !! 1 !! 4 !! 9 !! 27 !! 51 !! 37
|}
*Most consecutive cuts made – 10 (2014 ANA – 2016 Women's PGA)
*Longest streak of top-10s – 3 (2018 ANA – 2018 Women's PGA)

==LPGA Tour career summary==
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
! Year !! Tournaments played !! Cuts made* !! Wins !! 2nds !! 3rds !! Top 10s !! Best finish !! Earnings ([[United States dollar|$]]) !! Money list rank !! Scoring average !! Scoring rank
|-
|[[2012 LPGA Tour|2012]]
|2
||1
|0
|0
|0
|0
|T38
|align=right|n/a
|n/a
|73.33
|n/a
|-
|[[2013 LPGA Tour|2013]]
||4
||2
|0
|0
|0
|0
|T17
|align=right|n/a
|n/a
|71.83
|n/a
|-
|[[2014 LPGA Tour|2014]]
||10
||7
|0
|0
|1
|2
|T3
|align=right|n/a
|n/a
|71.68
|n/a
|-
|[[2015 LPGA Tour|2015]]
|14
|13
|0
|0
|0
|3
|4
|align="right"|359,929
|48
|71.43
|32
|-
|[[2016 LPGA Tour|2016]]
|22
|19
|1
|1
|0
|5
|1
|align="right"|1,114,360
|15
|70.60
|18
|-
|[[2017 LPGA Tour|2017]]
|22
|18
|0
|0
|0
|3
|T6
|align=right|442,942
|46
|71.10
|43
|-
|[[2018 LPGA Tour|2018]]
|24
|22
|0
|1
|1
|6
|2
|align=right|869,012
|19
|70.28
|16
|-
|[[2019 LPGA Tour|2019]]
|22
|17
|0
|1
|0
|2
|2
|align=right|885,961
|19
|71.39
|58
|-
|[[2020 LPGA Tour|2020]]
|8
|6
|0
|0
|0
|2
|T6
|align=right|281,594
|40
|71.36
|31
|-
|[[2021 LPGA Tour|2021]]
|19
|17
|0
|0
|0
|2
|5
|align=right|392,308
|55
|70.73
|35
|-
|[[2022 LPGA Tour|2022]]
|18
|13
|1
|0
|1
|5
|1
|align=right|1,084,968
|21
|70.15
|16
|-
|[[2023 LPGA Tour|2023]]
|18 
|14 
|0 
|4 
|0 
|5 
|2 
|align=right|2,395,650 
|6 
|70.30 
|15 
|-
!Totals^
!167 (2015) 
!139 (2015) 
!2 
!7 
!3 
!33 
!1 
!align=right|7,826,724 
!42 
! 
! 
|}

^ official as of 2023 season<ref>{{cite web |access-date=13 December 2023 |title=Charley Hull stats |publisher=LPGA |url=http://www.lpga.com/players/charley-hull/98215/stats}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |access-date=13 December 2023 |title=Charley Hull results |publisher=LPGA |url=http://www.lpga.com/players/charley-hull/98215/results}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.lpga.com/statistics/money/career-money |title=Career Money |publisher=LPGA |access-date=13 December 2023}}</ref> 
<nowiki>*</nowiki> Includes matchplay and other tournaments without a cut.

==World ranking==
Position in [[Women's World Golf Rankings]] at the end of each calendar year.

{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size: 95%;"
! Year !! Ranking !! Source
|-
| 2012 || 352 || <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rolexrankings.com/en/rankings/2012-12-31 |title=Women's World Golf Rankings |date=December 31, 2012}}</ref>
|-
| 2013 || 99 || <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rolexrankings.com/en/rankings/2013-12-30 |title=Women's World Golf Rankings |date=December 30, 2013}}</ref>
|-
| 2014 || 38 || <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rolexrankings.com/en/rankings/2014-12-29 |title=Women's World Golf Rankings |date=December 29, 2014}}</ref>
|-
| 2015 || 41 || <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rolexrankings.com/en/rankings/2015-12-28 |title=Women's World Golf Rankings |date=December 28, 2015}}</ref>
|-
| 2016 || 16 || <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rolexrankings.com/en/rankings/2016-12-26 |title=Women's World Golf Rankings |date=December 26, 2016}}</ref>
|-
| 2017 || 28 || <ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rolexrankings.com/en/rankings/2017-12-25 |title=Women's World Golf Rankings |date=December 25, 2017}}</ref>
|-
| 2018 || 24 || <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rolexrankings.com/rankings/2018-12-31 |title=Women's World Golf Rankings |date=December 31, 2018}}</ref>
|-
| 2019 || 26 || <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rolexrankings.com/rankings/2019-12-30 |title=Women's World Golf Rankings |date=December 30, 2019}}</ref>
|-
| 2020 || 34 || <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rolexrankings.com/rankings/2020-12-28 |title=Women's World Golf Rankings |date=December 28, 2020}}</ref>
|-
| 2021 || 33 || <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rolexrankings.com/rankings/2021-12-27 |title=Women's World Golf Rankings |date=December 27, 2021}}</ref>
|-
| 2022 || 17 || <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rolexrankings.com/rankings/2022-12-26 |title=Women's World Golf Rankings |date=December 26, 2022}}</ref>
|-
| 2023 || 8 || <ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.rolexrankings.com/rankings/2023-12-25 |title=Women's World Golf Rankings |date=December 25, 2023}}</ref>
|}

==Team appearances==
'''Amateur'''
*[[European Ladies' Team Championship]] (representing England): [[2011 European Ladies' Team Championship|2011]]
*[[Junior Vagliano Trophy]]: (representing Great Britain & Ireland): 2011
*[[Junior Solheim Cup]] (representing Europe): 2011
*[[European Girls' Team Championship]] (representing the England): 2012<ref>{{cite web |title=European Girls' Team Championship – European Golf Association |url=http://www.ega-golf.ch/page/european-girls-team-championship |accessdate=8 February 2023}}</ref>
*[[Curtis Cup]] (representing Great Britain & Ireland): [[2012 Curtis Cup|2012]] (winners)
*[[Espirito Santo Trophy]] (representing England): [[2012 Espirito Santo Trophy|2012]]

'''Professional'''
*[[Solheim Cup]] (representing Europe): [[2013 Solheim Cup|2013]] (winners), [[2015 Solheim Cup|2015]], [[2017 Solheim Cup|2017]], [[2019 Solheim Cup|2019]] (winners), [[2021 Solheim Cup|2021]] (winners), [[2023 Solheim Cup|2023]] (tie, cup retained)
*[[International Crown]] (representing England): [[2016 International Crown|2016]], [[2018 International Crown|2018]]

===Solheim Cup record===
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center; font-size: 95%;"
! Year !! Total matches !! Total W–L–H !! Singles W–L–H !! Foursomes W–L–H !! Fourballs W–L–H !! Points won !! Points %
|-
|Career
|22
|'''''12–7–3'''''
|'''''2–3–1'''''
|'''''5–2–1'''''
|'''''5–2–1'''''
|13.5
|61.3
|-
|[[2013 Solheim Cup|2013]]
|3
|'''''2–1–0'''''
|'''''1–0–0''''' def. [[Paula Creamer|P. Creamer]] 5&4
|'''''0–0–0'''''
|'''''1–1–0''''' lost w/ [[Catriona Matthew|C. Matthew]] 2&1 won w/ [[Jodi Ewart Shadoff|J. Ewart Shadoff]] 2 up
|2
|66.7
|-
|[[2015 Solheim Cup|2015]]
|5
|'''''4–1–0'''''
|'''''0–1–0''''' lost to [[Cristie Kerr|C. Kerr]] 3&2
|'''''2–0–0''''' won w/ [[Melissa Reid|M. Reid]] 2&1 won w/ [[Suzann Pettersen|S. Pettersen]] 1 up
|'''''2–0–0''''' won w/ [[Gwladys Nocera|G. Nocera]] 3&2 won w/ S. Pettersen 2 up
|4
|80.0
|-
|[[2017 Solheim Cup|2017]]
|3
|'''''1–1–1'''''
|'''''1–0–0''''' def. [[Brittany Lang|B.Lang]] 1 up
|'''''0–0–1''''' halved w/ [[Melissa Reid|M. Reid]]
|'''''0–1–0''''' lost w/ [[Georgia Hall|G.Hall]] 2&1
|1.5
|50.0
|-
|[[2019 Solheim Cup|2019]]
|4
|'''''2–0–2'''''
|'''''0–0–1''''' halved w/ [[Megan Khang|M. Khang]]
|'''''2–0–0''''' won w/ [[Azahara Muñoz|A. Muñoz]] 2&1 won w/ A. Muñoz 4&3
|'''''0–0–1''''' halved w/ A. Muñoz
|3
|75.0
|-
|[[2021 Solheim Cup|2021]]
|4
|'''''2–2–0'''''
|'''''0–1–0''''' lost to [[Jessica Korda|J. Korda]] 3&1
|'''''1–1–0''''' won w/ [[Emily Kristine Pedersen|E. Pedersen]] 1 up lost w/ E. Pedersen 2&1
|'''''1–0–0''''' won w/ E. Pedersen 3&2
|2
|50.0
|-
|[[2023 Solheim Cup|2023]]
|3
|'''''1–2–0'''''
|'''''0–1–0''''' lost to [[Danielle Kang|D. Kang]] 4&2
|'''''0–1–0''''' lost w/ [[Emily Kristine Pedersen|E. Pedersen]] 5&4
|'''''1–0–0''''' won w/ [[Leona Maguire|L. Maguire]] 4&3
|1
|33.3
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commonscat|Charley Hull|Charley Hull}}
*{{LadiesEuroTour player|200148}}
*{{LPGA player|charley-hull/98215}}
*{{WWGR|4469}}

{{Navboxes
|title=Charley Hull at the [[Solheim Cup]]
|list=
{{2013 European Solheim Cup team}}
{{2015 European Solheim Cup team}}
{{2017 European Solheim Cup team}}
{{2019 European Solheim Cup team}}
{{2021 European Solheim Cup team}}
{{2023 European Solheim Cup team}}
}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hull, Charley}}
[[Category:English female golfers]]
[[Category:Ladies European Tour golfers]]
[[Category:LPGA Tour golfers]]
[[Category:Solheim Cup competitors for Europe]]
[[Category:Olympic golfers for Great Britain]]
[[Category:Golfers at the 2016 Summer Olympics]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Kettering]]
[[Category:English people of Polish descent]]
[[Category:1996 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]

1923 Irish hunger strikes

2024-05-29T02:31:58Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Women hunger strikers */

{{Short description|1923 Hunger strike}}
In October 1923 '''mass hunger strikes''' were undertaken by [[Irish republican]] prisoners protesting the continuation of their [[internment]] without trial. The [[Irish Civil War]] had ended six months earlier yet the newly formed Provisional Government of the [[Irish Free State]] was slow in releasing the thousands of Irish republican prisoners opposed to the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]].<ref>Glennon, Kieran, (2013), ''From Pogrom to Civil War'', Mercer Press, Cork, pg. 223, ISBN 9781781171462</ref>

==Background==

In the 20th-century, 22 Irish republicans died while on [[hunger strike]]. In the early part of 20th century hunger strikes were adopted as a protest of last resort by Irish republican prisoners. In the period between 1913 and 1922 there had been a dozen hunger strikes in Ireland<ref name=Healey>{{cite journal|last=Healy|first= James|title=The Civil War Hunger-Strike: October 1923.|journal= Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review|volume=71|number= 283|date= 1982 |pages= 213–226 |jstor=30090444}}</ref> with several Irish republicans dying on hunger strike and many more suffering health complications at later dates. [[Thomas Ashe]] died as a result of forced feedings on 25 September 1917 in [[Mountjoy Prison]]. He was arrested after making a speech in County Longford and was charged with "causing disaffection" among the people. After the death of Ashe the remaining striking prisoners were granted political status and ended that hunger strike.<ref>Thorne, Kathleen, (2016), ''Echoes of Their Footsteps, The Quest for Irish Freedom 1913-1922'', Volume I, Generation Organization, Newberg, OR, pg 34, ISBN 978-0-9633565-8-1</ref>[[File:Released Belfast hunger strikers May 1920.jpg|thumb|Released Belfast Hunger Strikers May 1920]]

=== Mountjoy Hunger Strike of 1920 ===
A highly publicized hunger strike began on Easter Monday, 5 April 1920, when thirty-six men went on hunger strike protesting their internment without charges/trials and demanding release or political prisoner status. Eventually there were 101 men participating in the strike which brought much media attention to the hunger strikers. At that time this was the largest hunger strike in Irish history. After large demonstrations (estimates range from 5,000 to 10,000) and a general strike throughout Dublin the government released the prisoners (14 April 1920).<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Keeffe |first=Helene |date=6 April 2020 |title=A Shocking Weapon': Hunger Strikes and the War of Independence |url=https://www.rte.ie/history/hunger-strikes/2020/0226/1117713-hunger-strikes-and-the-war-of-independence/ |work=RTE |location=Dublin |access-date=22 October 2021}}</ref> [[Peadar Clancy]] and [[Frank Gallagher (author)|Frank Gallagher]] led the Mountjoy hunger strikers and refused all concessions from the prison authorities. After a 14 day strike, Clancy was able to successfully negotiate the release of all hunger strikers being detained in Mountjoy.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Farrell |first=Padraic |author-link= |date= |title=Who's Who in the Irish War of Independence and Civil War 1916-1923 |url= |location=Dublin |publisher=Lilliput Press |page=16-17 |isbn=1-874675-85-6}}</ref> On 3 May 1920 the special powers (searching of individuals/property and internment) given to the military were cancelled (see [[Defence of the Realm Act 1914]]). Those powers were quickly returned to the military in the [[Restoration of Order in Ireland Act 1920]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Townsend |first=Charles |author-link= |date=1975 |title=The British Campaign in Ireland 1919-1921 |url= |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=49 & 76 |isbn=019821863X}}</ref>

=== Cork Hunger Strike of 1920 ===
{{see also|1920 Cork hunger strike}} On 13 August 1920 seventy-eight Irish republican prisoners went on hunger strike in [[Cork County Gaol]] demanding a general, immediate and unconditional release.<ref>{{cite news |last=Doherty |first=Gabriel |date=22 March 2022 |title=Hunger strike dealt profound blow to crown |url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/munster/arid-40840304.html |work=Irish Examiner |location= |access-date=31 July 2022}}</ref> Notables in the group included [[Terence MacSwiney]] the [[Lord Mayor]] of Cork and [[Liam Lynch (Irish republican)|Liam Lynch]], [[Irish Republican Army]] Commandant, Cork No 2 Brigade. A week into the hunger strike, all but 11 of the hunger strikers were released or deported to prisons in England.

During the course of the strike three fully observed work stoppages took place in Cork. These work stoppages were organised by the city’s Civic and Labour Council allowing workers to attend masses for the hunger strikers. On 12 November 1920 (after 94 days) the men were directed to come off the strike by [[Arthur Griffith]]. Griffith said that they had ‘sufficiently proved their devotion and fidelity, and that they should now, as they were prepared to die for Ireland, prepare again to live for her.’<ref>Doherty, pg 1</ref>

When the hunger strike was called off the remaining nine strikers required hospitalization and all died relatively young.<ref>Thorne, Vol I, pg148</ref> This strike resulted in three death from starvation: MacSwiney (d. 25 October 1920) in [[Brixton Prison]], London (he had been transferred there from Cork Gaol) and two men died in Cork Gaol - [[Michael Fitzgerald (Irish republican)|Michael Fitzgerald]] (d.17 October 1920) and [[Joe Murphy (Irish republican)|Joe Murphy]] (d. 25 October 1920).<ref>Thorne, Vol I, pgs 127 & 136</ref>

==End of the Irish Civil War==

In the spring of 1923 it became evident to the anti [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] Irish Republican Army (IRA) that they could not win the Irish Civil War. On 20 April 1923 [[Frank Aiken]] assumed the leadership position ([[Chief of Staff]]) of the anti-treaty IRA. He ordered a cessation of military operations on 30 April and his ceasefire order to 'dump arms' on 24 May 1923 effectively ended the Irish Civil War. Aiken wrote "We took up arms to free our country and we'll keep them until we see an honourable way of reaching our objective without arms."<ref>Lewis, Matthew, (2014) ''Frank Aiken's War: The Irish Revolution, 1916-1923'', University College Dublin Press, p. 197.</ref> With no decisive battle or formal surrender by the anti- treaty IRA, Republicans continued to be rounded up and interned by the [[Irish Free State Army]].<ref>Thorne, Kathleen, (2014), ''Echoes of Their Footsteps, The Irish Civil War 1922-1924'', Volume II, Generation Organization, Newberg, OR, p. 285, ISBN 978-0-692-245-13-2</ref> The civil war was now ended, but the Irish Free State still had to deal with at least 12,000 anti treaty men and women in prison.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://hungerstrikes.org/forgotten_strikes.html|title=The 1923 IRA Hunger Strike|website=hungerstrikes.org}}</ref> The Free State government did not issue a general amnesty to the IRA internees until the following year (1924), leaving many republican prisoners interned long after the ending of the war.

[[File:Remember the Hunger Strikers Glasnevin Cemetery Dublin.JPG|thumb|Hunger Strikers Memorial Glasnevin Cemetery Dublin]]

==1923 independent and mass hunger strikes==

In early 1923 hunger strikes were not an official policy of the IRA and were not directed by its General Headquarters. Instead, each hunger striker made an individual decision to strike.<ref>Collins, Lorcan, (2019), ''Irelands War of Independence 1919-1921'', The O'Brien Press, Dublin, pg 152 ISBN 978-1-84717-950-0</ref> Several individual and large scale hunger strikes occurred in 1923.

=== Women hunger strikers ===
In February 1923, 50 women members of [[Cumann na mBan]] (an Irish republican women's paramilitary organization formed in Dublin in 1914) went on hunger strike for 34 days over the arrest and imprisonment without trial of Irish republican prisoners. Members included [[Maire Comerford]], [[Mary MacSwiney]], [[Sheila Humphreys]] and [[Lily O'Brennan]]. That strike resulted in the release of the women hunger-strikers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stairnaheireann.net/2016/10/13/1923-a-mass-hunger-strike-is-launched-by-424-republican-prisoners-in-mountjoy-gaol-in-protest-at-their-continued-detention-after-the-wars-end/|title=1923 – A mass Hunger Strike is launched|first=Stair na|last=hÉireann|date=13 October 2016|website=Stair na hÉireann | History of Ireland}}</ref> In March 1923, 97 women went on hunger strike in [[Kilmainham Gaol]] after all of their privileges had been denied without explanation (that hunger strike ended later in the month with the restoration of privileges).<ref>McCoole, Sinéad, (2003), ''No Ordinary Women: Irish Female Activists in the Revolutionary Years, 1900–1923'', The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, p. 117</ref> Annie (Nan) Hogan of Cumann na mBan died at the age of 24 after being released from prison (September 1923) "in a very emaciated state" due to her participation in hunger strikes in Kilmainham and the [[House of Industry (Dublin)|North Dublin Union]] jails.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bourke |first=Martin |author-link= |date= |title=Annie (Nan) Hogan An Unsung Heroine |url=https://www.clarelibrary.ie/eolas/library/Nan_Hogan_Booklet.pdf |location= |publisher=Clare County Council |page=18 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>Thorne, Volume II, pg 232</ref> Hogan was a native of County Clare and was arrested for assisting a group of republicans in an escape attempt from Limerick Jail.<ref>McCoole, pg 121</ref> [[Constance Markievicz]] was a leader of Sinn Fein, revolutionary, opposed the Anglo Irish treaty and was the first woman to be elected to the British parliament (she refused to take her seat). She was arrested several times and in November 1923, went on hunger strike until all Irish Republican women prisoners were released - just prior to Christmas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dib.ie/biography/markievicz-constance-georgine-a5452|last=Pašeta|first=Senia|title=''Markievicz, Constance Georgine''|website=[[Dictionary of Irish Biography]]|date=2009|publisher=Royal Irish Academy|access-date=4 February 2023}}</ref> During this time members of Cumann na mBan maintained a constant protest outside of the gates to Mountjoy Prison.<ref>{{cite book |last=McCarthy |first=Cal |author-link= |date=2007 |title=Cumann Na mBan and the Irish Revolution |url= |location=Cork |publisher=The Collins Press |page= 214.|isbn=978-1-905172146}}</ref>

=== Mass hunger strikes ===
By October 1923, there were approximately 5,000 Irish republicans on strike.<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.anphoblacht.com/contents/4096|title=Remembering the Past: Post-Civil War hunger-strikes | An Phoblacht|website=www.anphoblacht.com}}, 15 October 1998 Edition, accessed 3 September 2021</ref> In October 1923, the new Irish Government hinted that all prisoners would be released by Christmas (many of the prisoners had been held for over a year).<ref>McCoole, p. 135</ref>

The largest hunger strike in Irish history started at midnight on 14 October 1923<ref>Gaughan, Anthony, (1977), ''Austin Stack : Portrait of a Separatist'', Kingdom Books, pg 238, ISBN 978-0-9506015-0-2</ref> in Mountjoy Prison. Irish Civil War internees were led by [[Peadar O'Donnell]] who asked the IRA General Headquarters (GHQ) to pass a message to the other prisons and camps advising them of their intentions to begin a hunger strike.<ref>O’Donnell, Peadar (1932), ''The Gates Flew Open'', Jonathan Cape Ltd, London, Library of Congress HV9650.D7 O3, pg 194.</ref> Multiple hunger strikes began soon after receiving the message from the GHQ.

The mass hunger strikes of October/November 1923 saw several thousand of the Irish republican prisoners on hunger strikes in Irish prisons/internment camps across Ireland, protesting the continuation of internment without charge/trial, demanding immediate release or status as political prisoners. Previously, the Irish Free State government had passed a motion outlawing the release of prisoners on hunger strike.<ref>http://www.hungerstrikes.org/forgotten_strikes.html"The Forgotten Hunger Strikes". hungerstrikes.org. 1 March 1996. Retrieved 29 August 2021</ref> In Dublin thousands of protesters kept vigil outside the prisons, often singing or reciting prayers.<ref>O'Donnell, pg. 202.</ref>

Estimates on the number of prisoners participating in the mass hunger strikes of 1923 range from 2000 to 8000.<ref>Healy, pg. 214.</ref> One estimate states that by 24 October 1923 approximately 7000 men were on hunger strike: 3900 in the [[Curragh Camp]] (Tintown & Hare Park Internment Camp), 1700 in Newbridge Prison, 462 in Mountjoy Prison, 70 in [[Cork City Gaol]], 350 in Kilkenny Prison, 200 in [[Dundalk Gaol]], 711 in [[Gormanston Camp|Gormanstown Internment Camp]] , 263 on the Prison Ship [[HMS Argenta|Argenta]] in Belfast Lough.<ref>Thorne, Vol II, pg 234.</ref>

The protest lasted 41 days and spread to at least ten other prisons/internment camps. By late October many strikers had come off of the hunger strike after being promised release. On 12 November 1923 the hunger strike was called off in Cork jail.<ref>MacEoin, Uinseann, (1997), ''The IRA in the Twilight Years 1923-1948'', Argenta Publications, Dublin, pg 86.</ref> After a sixteen-day hunger strike, all women prisoners being held in the North Dublin Union were released (17 November 1923).<ref>Thorne, Volume II, pg 245</ref> At the end of the hunger strike many men had been fasting for more than 34 days.<ref>Macardle, Dorothy (1938), ''The Irish Republic'', Victor Gollancz Ltd, London, Pg 867</ref>

=== 1923 Irish hunger strike deaths ===
On 10 June 1923 Dan Downey died in the Curragh Camp due to the effects of an earlier hunger-strike.<ref>Thorne, Volume II, pg 223</ref> [[Joseph Whitty]] (aged 19) went on an independent hunger strike and died as a result on 2 August 1923 (also in the Curragh Camp). Whitty was the first of three IRA men to die while on hunger strike in 1923. Several deaths occurred due to starvation near the end of the 41 day hunger strike: [[Denny Barry]] from [[County Cork]], died 20 November 1923) in Mountjoy Prison, [[Andy O'Sullivan (Irish Republican)|Andy O'Sullivan]], from [[County Cavan]], died 23 November 1923, also in Mountjoy Prison. On 24 December 1923 Joe Lacey (the brother of IRA Officer [[Dinny Lacey]]) died at the Curragh Camp (the hunger strike had been called off in November 1923 but Lacey died as a result of his weakened condition).<ref>Durney, James (2003) ''The Civil War in Kildare'', Mercier Press, Cork, pg 165</ref>

== End of strike/release of internees==

The protest was called off on 23 November 1923 by leadership in the prisons/camps – [[Thomas Derrig]] in Kilmainham Gaol, [[Michael Kilroy]], Frank Gallagher and [[Peadar O'Donnell]] in Mountjoy.<ref>Deasy, Liam (1998), ''Brother Against Brother'', Mercier Press, Cork pg 86.</ref> On that date there were still 176 men on hunger strike, some for 41 days and others for 34 days.<ref>Healy, pg 221.</ref> Messages were sent from Kilmainham Gaol to each prison stating that all internees would end the strike together.<ref>O'Donnell, pg 224.</ref> The day after the end of the strike (24 November 1923) more than 500 prisoners were released from prisons across Ireland.<ref>Thorne, Vol II, pg 251.</ref>

With the end of the mass hunger strikes many men were released within a month, on the condition that they sign an oath of loyalty to the newly established Irish Free State. Prisoner leader Peadar O’Donnell expressed his feelings on the required signature: "...they demanded that each one sign a form that he would accept the rule of the new garrison in Ireland."<ref>O'Donnell, pg 220.</ref> Although many of the internees were released in November 1923, five or six hundred remained incarcerated into late December.<ref>Andrews, C.S., (2001), ''Dublin Made Me'', Lilliput Press Dublin, pg 303</ref> In June 1924 one hundred and twenty detainees were released from different prisons leaving three hundred still incarcerated.<ref>MacEoin, pg 104</ref> [[Ernie O'Malley]] - the assistant chief of staff of the Anti-Treaty IRA during the Irish Civil War was released from the Curragh, along with [[Seán Russell]], on 17 July 1924, well over a year after the end of hostilities.<ref>Richard English and Cormac O'Malley (ed.) (1991), ''Prisoners: the Civil War Letters of Ernie O'Malley'', Poolbeg Press, Dublin, pp 36</ref> It was not until January 1926 that the last republican prisoners were released from [[Derry Gaol]] in [[Northern Ireland]].<ref>Thorne, Volume II, pg 285</ref>

== Aftermath of the 1923 hunger strikes ==

Although the fighting was mostly over, the bitterness of the Irish Civil War continued. As late as 1924, there were "...constant raids on victims homes in an effort to eradicate the last vestige of resistance."<ref>Murphy, Jeremiah, (1998), ''When Youth Was Mine'', Mentor Press, Dublin, pg. 282.</ref> Many men and women who had been on protracted hunger strikes never fully recovered from their ordeal and died an early death. Because of the preferential employment policies of the Free State government, many Anti-Treaty Irish republicans emigrated from Ireland.<ref>Thorne, Volume II, pg 286</ref>

Later in the 20th-century Irish republicans continued to use hunger strikes as the protest of last resort: [[Tony D'Arcy]] (d. 16 April 1940 after a 52-day Hunger-strike), [[Jack McNeela]] (d. 19 April 1940 after 55 days on hunger strike), [[Seán McCaughey]] (d.11 May 1946 after 23 days on hunger strike), [[Michael Gaughan (Irish republican)|Michael Gaughan]] (d. 3 June 1974 after 55 days on hunger strike/forced feedings) and [[Frank Stagg (Irish republican)|Frank Stagg]] (d. 12 February 1976 after 62 days on hunger strike) in [[Wakefield Prison]], England. In October/November 1980, seven Irish republican prisoners participated in a hunger strike in [[HM Prison Maze]] in Northern Ireland which ended after 53 days.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cain.ulster.ac.uk/events/hstrike/chronology.htm | title= ''The Hunger Strike of 1981 - A Chronology of Main Events'' |last=Melaugh |first=Martin |author-link= |publisher=Cain Web Service |date=8 February 2021 |website=Conflict and Politics in Northern Ireland |access-date=28 October 2021}}</ref> Ten Irish republicans died during the [[1981 Irish hunger strike]] (March - October 1981).

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:1923 in Ireland]]
[[Category:Irish republicanism]]
[[Category:Hunger strikes| ]]
[[Category:History of Ireland (1801–1923)]]

1923 Irish hunger strikes

2024-05-29T02:29:37Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Cork Hunger Strike of 1920 */

{{Short description|1923 Hunger strike}}
In October 1923 '''mass hunger strikes''' were undertaken by [[Irish republican]] prisoners protesting the continuation of their [[internment]] without trial. The [[Irish Civil War]] had ended six months earlier yet the newly formed Provisional Government of the [[Irish Free State]] was slow in releasing the thousands of Irish republican prisoners opposed to the [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]].<ref>Glennon, Kieran, (2013), ''From Pogrom to Civil War'', Mercer Press, Cork, pg. 223, ISBN 9781781171462</ref>

==Background==

In the 20th-century, 22 Irish republicans died while on [[hunger strike]]. In the early part of 20th century hunger strikes were adopted as a protest of last resort by Irish republican prisoners. In the period between 1913 and 1922 there had been a dozen hunger strikes in Ireland<ref name=Healey>{{cite journal|last=Healy|first= James|title=The Civil War Hunger-Strike: October 1923.|journal= Studies: An Irish Quarterly Review|volume=71|number= 283|date= 1982 |pages= 213–226 |jstor=30090444}}</ref> with several Irish republicans dying on hunger strike and many more suffering health complications at later dates. [[Thomas Ashe]] died as a result of forced feedings on 25 September 1917 in [[Mountjoy Prison]]. He was arrested after making a speech in County Longford and was charged with "causing disaffection" among the people. After the death of Ashe the remaining striking prisoners were granted political status and ended that hunger strike.<ref>Thorne, Kathleen, (2016), ''Echoes of Their Footsteps, The Quest for Irish Freedom 1913-1922'', Volume I, Generation Organization, Newberg, OR, pg 34, ISBN 978-0-9633565-8-1</ref>[[File:Released Belfast hunger strikers May 1920.jpg|thumb|Released Belfast Hunger Strikers May 1920]]

=== Mountjoy Hunger Strike of 1920 ===
A highly publicized hunger strike began on Easter Monday, 5 April 1920, when thirty-six men went on hunger strike protesting their internment without charges/trials and demanding release or political prisoner status. Eventually there were 101 men participating in the strike which brought much media attention to the hunger strikers. At that time this was the largest hunger strike in Irish history. After large demonstrations (estimates range from 5,000 to 10,000) and a general strike throughout Dublin the government released the prisoners (14 April 1920).<ref>{{cite news |last=O'Keeffe |first=Helene |date=6 April 2020 |title=A Shocking Weapon': Hunger Strikes and the War of Independence |url=https://www.rte.ie/history/hunger-strikes/2020/0226/1117713-hunger-strikes-and-the-war-of-independence/ |work=RTE |location=Dublin |access-date=22 October 2021}}</ref> [[Peadar Clancy]] and [[Frank Gallagher (author)|Frank Gallagher]] led the Mountjoy hunger strikers and refused all concessions from the prison authorities. After a 14 day strike, Clancy was able to successfully negotiate the release of all hunger strikers being detained in Mountjoy.<ref>{{cite book |last=O'Farrell |first=Padraic |author-link= |date= |title=Who's Who in the Irish War of Independence and Civil War 1916-1923 |url= |location=Dublin |publisher=Lilliput Press |page=16-17 |isbn=1-874675-85-6}}</ref> On 3 May 1920 the special powers (searching of individuals/property and internment) given to the military were cancelled (see [[Defence of the Realm Act 1914]]). Those powers were quickly returned to the military in the [[Restoration of Order in Ireland Act 1920]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Townsend |first=Charles |author-link= |date=1975 |title=The British Campaign in Ireland 1919-1921 |url= |location= |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=49 & 76 |isbn=019821863X}}</ref>

=== Cork Hunger Strike of 1920 ===
{{see also|1920 Cork hunger strike}} On 13 August 1920 seventy-eight Irish republican prisoners went on hunger strike in [[Cork County Gaol]] demanding a general, immediate and unconditional release.<ref>{{cite news |last=Doherty |first=Gabriel |date=22 March 2022 |title=Hunger strike dealt profound blow to crown |url=https://www.irishexaminer.com/news/munster/arid-40840304.html |work=Irish Examiner |location= |access-date=31 July 2022}}</ref> Notables in the group included [[Terence MacSwiney]] the [[Lord Mayor]] of Cork and [[Liam Lynch (Irish republican)|Liam Lynch]], [[Irish Republican Army]] Commandant, Cork No 2 Brigade. A week into the hunger strike, all but 11 of the hunger strikers were released or deported to prisons in England.

During the course of the strike three fully observed work stoppages took place in Cork. These work stoppages were organised by the city’s Civic and Labour Council allowing workers to attend masses for the hunger strikers. On 12 November 1920 (after 94 days) the men were directed to come off the strike by [[Arthur Griffith]]. Griffith said that they had ‘sufficiently proved their devotion and fidelity, and that they should now, as they were prepared to die for Ireland, prepare again to live for her.’<ref>Doherty, pg 1</ref>

When the hunger strike was called off the remaining nine strikers required hospitalization and all died relatively young.<ref>Thorne, Vol I, pg148</ref> This strike resulted in three death from starvation: MacSwiney (d. 25 October 1920) in [[Brixton Prison]], London (he had been transferred there from Cork Gaol) and two men died in Cork Gaol - [[Michael Fitzgerald (Irish republican)|Michael Fitzgerald]] (d.17 October 1920) and [[Joe Murphy (Irish republican)|Joe Murphy]] (d. 25 October 1920).<ref>Thorne, Vol I, pgs 127 & 136</ref>

==End of the Irish Civil War==

In the spring of 1923 it became evident to the anti [[Anglo-Irish Treaty]] Irish Republican Army (IRA) that they could not win the Irish Civil War. On 20 April 1923 [[Frank Aiken]] assumed the leadership position ([[Chief of Staff]]) of the anti-treaty IRA. He ordered a cessation of military operations on 30 April and his ceasefire order to 'dump arms' on 24 May 1923 effectively ended the Irish Civil War. Aiken wrote "We took up arms to free our country and we'll keep them until we see an honourable way of reaching our objective without arms."<ref>Lewis, Matthew, (2014) ''Frank Aiken's War: The Irish Revolution, 1916-1923'', University College Dublin Press, p. 197.</ref> With no decisive battle or formal surrender by the anti- treaty IRA, Republicans continued to be rounded up and interned by the [[Irish Free State Army]].<ref>Thorne, Kathleen, (2014), ''Echoes of Their Footsteps, The Irish Civil War 1922-1924'', Volume II, Generation Organization, Newberg, OR, p. 285, ISBN 978-0-692-245-13-2</ref> The civil war was now ended, but the Irish Free State still had to deal with at least 12,000 anti treaty men and women in prison.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=http://hungerstrikes.org/forgotten_strikes.html|title=The 1923 IRA Hunger Strike|website=hungerstrikes.org}}</ref> The Free State government did not issue a general amnesty to the IRA internees until the following year (1924), leaving many republican prisoners interned long after the ending of the war.

[[File:Remember the Hunger Strikers Glasnevin Cemetery Dublin.JPG|thumb|Hunger Strikers Memorial Glasnevin Cemetery Dublin]]

==1923 independent and mass hunger strikes==

In early 1923 hunger strikes were not an official policy of the IRA and were not directed by its General Headquarters. Instead, each hunger striker made an individual decision to strike.<ref>Collins, Lorcan, (2019), ''Irelands War of Independence 1919-1921'', The O'Brien Press, Dublin, pg 152 ISBN 978-1-84717-950-0</ref> Several individual and large scale hunger strikes occurred in 1923.

=== Women hunger strikers ===
In February 1923, 50 women members of [[Cumann na mBan]] (an Irish republican women's paramilitary organization formed in Dublin in 1914) went on hunger strike for 34 days over the arrest and imprisonment without trial of Irish republican prisoners. Members included [[Maire Comerford]], [[Mary MacSwiney]], [[Sheila Humphreys]] and [[Lily O'Brennan]]. That strike resulted in the release of the women hunger-strikers.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://stairnaheireann.net/2016/10/13/1923-a-mass-hunger-strike-is-launched-by-424-republican-prisoners-in-mountjoy-gaol-in-protest-at-their-continued-detention-after-the-wars-end/|title=1923 – A mass Hunger Strike is launched|first=Stair na|last=hÉireann|date=13 October 2016|website=Stair na hÉireann | History of Ireland}}</ref> In March 1923, 97 women went on hunger strike in [[Kilmainham Gaol]] after all of their privileges had been denied without explanation (that hunger strike ended later in the month with the restoration of privileges).<ref>McCoole, Sinéad, (2003), ''No Ordinary Women: Irish Female Activists in the Revolutionary Years, 1900–1923'', The University of Wisconsin Press, Madison, WI, p. 117</ref> Annie (Nan) Hogan of Cumann na mBan died at the age of 24 after being released from prison (September 1923) "in a very emaciated state" due to her participation in hunger strikes in Kilmainham and the [[House of Industry (Dublin)|North Dublin Union]] jails.<ref>{{cite book |last=Bourke |first=Martin |author-link= |date= |title=Annie (Nan) Hogan An Unsung Heroine |url=https://www.clarelibrary.ie/eolas/library/Nan_Hogan_Booklet.pdf |location= |publisher=Clare County Council |page=18 |isbn=}}</ref><ref>Thorne, Volume II, pg 232</ref> Hogan was a native of County Clare and was arrested for assisting a group of republicans in an escape attempt from Limerick Jail.<ref>McCoole, pg 121</ref> [[Constance Markievicz]] was a leader of Sinn Fein, revolutionary, opposed the Anglo Irish treaty and was the first woman to be elected to the British parliament (she refused to take her seat). She was arrested several times and (in November 1923) went on hunger strike until all Irish Republican women prisoners were released - just prior to Christmas.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.dib.ie/biography/markievicz-constance-georgine-a5452|last=Pašeta|first=Senia|title=''Markievicz, Constance Georgine''|website=[[Dictionary of Irish Biography]]|date=2009|publisher=Royal Irish Academy|access-date=4 February 2023}}</ref> During this time members of Cumann na mBan maintained a constant protest outside of the gates to Mountjoy Prison.<ref>{{cite book |last=McCarthy |first=Cal |author-link= |date=2007 |title=Cumann Na mBan and the Irish Revolution |url= |location=Cork |publisher=The Collins Press |page= 214.|isbn=978-1-905172146}}</ref>

=== Mass hunger strikes ===
By October 1923, there were approximately 5,000 Irish republicans on strike.<ref name="auto"/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.anphoblacht.com/contents/4096|title=Remembering the Past: Post-Civil War hunger-strikes | An Phoblacht|website=www.anphoblacht.com}}, 15 October 1998 Edition, accessed 3 September 2021</ref> In October 1923, the new Irish Government hinted that all prisoners would be released by Christmas (many of the prisoners had been held for over a year).<ref>McCoole, p. 135</ref>

The largest hunger strike in Irish history started at midnight on 14 October 1923<ref>Gaughan, Anthony, (1977), ''Austin Stack : Portrait of a Separatist'', Kingdom Books, pg 238, ISBN 978-0-9506015-0-2</ref> in Mountjoy Prison. Irish Civil War internees were led by [[Peadar O'Donnell]] who asked the IRA General Headquarters (GHQ) to pass a message to the other prisons and camps advising them of their intentions to begin a hunger strike.<ref>O’Donnell, Peadar (1932), ''The Gates Flew Open'', Jonathan Cape Ltd, London, Library of Congress HV9650.D7 O3, pg 194.</ref> Multiple hunger strikes began soon after receiving the message from the GHQ.

The mass hunger strikes of October/November 1923 saw several thousand of the Irish republican prisoners on hunger strikes in Irish prisons/internment camps across Ireland, protesting the continuation of internment without charge/trial, demanding immediate release or status as political prisoners. Previously, the Irish Free State government had passed a motion outlawing the release of prisoners on hunger strike.<ref>http://www.hungerstrikes.org/forgotten_strikes.html"The Forgotten Hunger Strikes". hungerstrikes.org. 1 March 1996. Retrieved 29 August 2021</ref> In Dublin thousands of protesters kept vigil outside the prisons, often singing or reciting prayers.<ref>O'Donnell, pg. 202.</ref>

Estimates on the number of prisoners participating in the mass hunger strikes of 1923 range from 2000 to 8000.<ref>Healy, pg. 214.</ref> One estimate states that by 24 October 1923 approximately 7000 men were on hunger strike: 3900 in the [[Curragh Camp]] (Tintown & Hare Park Internment Camp), 1700 in Newbridge Prison, 462 in Mountjoy Prison, 70 in [[Cork City Gaol]], 350 in Kilkenny Prison, 200 in [[Dundalk Gaol]], 711 in [[Gormanston Camp|Gormanstown Internment Camp]] , 263 on the Prison Ship [[HMS Argenta|Argenta]] in Belfast Lough.<ref>Thorne, Vol II, pg 234.</ref>

The protest lasted 41 days and spread to at least ten other prisons/internment camps. By late October many strikers had come off of the hunger strike after being promised release. On 12 November 1923 the hunger strike was called off in Cork jail.<ref>MacEoin, Uinseann, (1997), ''The IRA in the Twilight Years 1923-1948'', Argenta Publications, Dublin, pg 86.</ref> After a sixteen-day hunger strike, all women prisoners being held in the North Dublin Union were released (17 November 1923).<ref>Thorne, Volume II, pg 245</ref> At the end of the hunger strike many men had been fasting for more than 34 days.<ref>Macardle, Dorothy (1938), ''The Irish Republic'', Victor Gollancz Ltd, London, Pg 867</ref>

=== 1923 Irish hunger strike deaths ===
On 10 June 1923 Dan Downey died in the Curragh Camp due to the effects of an earlier hunger-strike.<ref>Thorne, Volume II, pg 223</ref> [[Joseph Whitty]] (aged 19) went on an independent hunger strike and died as a result on 2 August 1923 (also in the Curragh Camp). Whitty was the first of three IRA men to die while on hunger strike in 1923. Several deaths occurred due to starvation near the end of the 41 day hunger strike: [[Denny Barry]] from [[County Cork]], died 20 November 1923) in Mountjoy Prison, [[Andy O'Sullivan (Irish Republican)|Andy O'Sullivan]], from [[County Cavan]], died 23 November 1923, also in Mountjoy Prison. On 24 December 1923 Joe Lacey (the brother of IRA Officer [[Dinny Lacey]]) died at the Curragh Camp (the hunger strike had been called off in November 1923 but Lacey died as a result of his weakened condition).<ref>Durney, James (2003) ''The Civil War in Kildare'', Mercier Press, Cork, pg 165</ref>

== End of strike/release of internees==

The protest was called off on 23 November 1923 by leadership in the prisons/camps – [[Thomas Derrig]] in Kilmainham Gaol, [[Michael Kilroy]], Frank Gallagher and [[Peadar O'Donnell]] in Mountjoy.<ref>Deasy, Liam (1998), ''Brother Against Brother'', Mercier Press, Cork pg 86.</ref> On that date there were still 176 men on hunger strike, some for 41 days and others for 34 days.<ref>Healy, pg 221.</ref> Messages were sent from Kilmainham Gaol to each prison stating that all internees would end the strike together.<ref>O'Donnell, pg 224.</ref> The day after the end of the strike (24 November 1923) more than 500 prisoners were released from prisons across Ireland.<ref>Thorne, Vol II, pg 251.</ref>

With the end of the mass hunger strikes many men were released within a month, on the condition that they sign an oath of loyalty to the newly established Irish Free State. Prisoner leader Peadar O’Donnell expressed his feelings on the required signature: "...they demanded that each one sign a form that he would accept the rule of the new garrison in Ireland."<ref>O'Donnell, pg 220.</ref> Although many of the internees were released in November 1923, five or six hundred remained incarcerated into late December.<ref>Andrews, C.S., (2001), ''Dublin Made Me'', Lilliput Press Dublin, pg 303</ref> In June 1924 one hundred and twenty detainees were released from different prisons leaving three hundred still incarcerated.<ref>MacEoin, pg 104</ref> [[Ernie O'Malley]] - the assistant chief of staff of the Anti-Treaty IRA during the Irish Civil War was released from the Curragh, along with [[Seán Russell]], on 17 July 1924, well over a year after the end of hostilities.<ref>Richard English and Cormac O'Malley (ed.) (1991), ''Prisoners: the Civil War Letters of Ernie O'Malley'', Poolbeg Press, Dublin, pp 36</ref> It was not until January 1926 that the last republican prisoners were released from [[Derry Gaol]] in [[Northern Ireland]].<ref>Thorne, Volume II, pg 285</ref>

== Aftermath of the 1923 hunger strikes ==

Although the fighting was mostly over, the bitterness of the Irish Civil War continued. As late as 1924, there were "...constant raids on victims homes in an effort to eradicate the last vestige of resistance."<ref>Murphy, Jeremiah, (1998), ''When Youth Was Mine'', Mentor Press, Dublin, pg. 282.</ref> Many men and women who had been on protracted hunger strikes never fully recovered from their ordeal and died an early death. Because of the preferential employment policies of the Free State government, many Anti-Treaty Irish republicans emigrated from Ireland.<ref>Thorne, Volume II, pg 286</ref>

Later in the 20th-century Irish republicans continued to use hunger strikes as the protest of last resort: [[Tony D'Arcy]] (d. 16 April 1940 after a 52-day Hunger-strike), [[Jack McNeela]] (d. 19 April 1940 after 55 days on hunger strike), [[Seán McCaughey]] (d.11 May 1946 after 23 days on hunger strike), [[Michael Gaughan (Irish republican)|Michael Gaughan]] (d. 3 June 1974 after 55 days on hunger strike/forced feedings) and [[Frank Stagg (Irish republican)|Frank Stagg]] (d. 12 February 1976 after 62 days on hunger strike) in [[Wakefield Prison]], England. In October/November 1980, seven Irish republican prisoners participated in a hunger strike in [[HM Prison Maze]] in Northern Ireland which ended after 53 days.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://cain.ulster.ac.uk/events/hstrike/chronology.htm | title= ''The Hunger Strike of 1981 - A Chronology of Main Events'' |last=Melaugh |first=Martin |author-link= |publisher=Cain Web Service |date=8 February 2021 |website=Conflict and Politics in Northern Ireland |access-date=28 October 2021}}</ref> Ten Irish republicans died during the [[1981 Irish hunger strike]] (March - October 1981).

== References ==

{{reflist}}

[[Category:1923 in Ireland]]
[[Category:Irish republicanism]]
[[Category:Hunger strikes| ]]
[[Category:History of Ireland (1801–1923)]]

Barry Buzan

2024-05-26T14:53:09Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Personal life */typo

{{Short description|British professor of international relations}}
{{Multiple issues|
{{autobiography|date=July 2017}}
{{BLP primary sources|date=January 2011}}
{{BLP sources|date=June 2020}}
}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=April 2017}}

{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific-prefix =
| name = Barry Buzan
| image = Barry Buzan 2019 on panel.png
| caption = Buzan in 2019 on a panel at the University of London
| birth_name = Barry Gordon Buzan
| birth_date = {{birth date and age|1946|4|28|df=y}}
| residence = [[London]], England
| nationality = British
| spouse = Deborah Skinner
| relatives = [[B. F. Skinner]] (father-in-law)
}}

'''Barry Gordon Buzan''', FBA, FAcSS (born 28 April 1946) is a British political scientist. He is an Emeritus Professor of International Relations at the [[London School of Economics]] and a honorary professor at the [[University of Copenhagen]] and [[Jilin University]]. Until 2012 he was [[Montague Burton Professor of International Relations]] at the LSE. Buzan sketched the [[Regional Security Complex Theory]] and is therefore together with [[Ole Wæver]] a central figure of the [[The Copenhagen School (international relations)|Copenhagen School]].

== Career ==
From 1988 to 2002 he was Project Director at the [[Copenhagen Peace Research Institute]] (COPRI). From 1995 to 2002 he was research Professor of International Studies at the [[University of Westminster]], and before that Professor of International Studies at the [[University of Warwick]]. During 1993 he was visiting professor at the [[International University of Japan]], and in 1997–8 he was Olof Palme Visiting Professor in Sweden.

He was Chairman of the [[British International Studies Association]] 1988–90, Vice-President of the (North American) [[International Studies Association]] 1993–4, and founding Secretary of the International Studies Coordinating Committee 1994–8. From 1999 to 2011 he was the general coordinator of a project to reconvene the [[English school of international relations theory]], and from 2004 to 2008 he was editor of the ''[[European Journal of International Relations]]''. In 1998 he was elected a fellow of the [[British Academy]], and in 2001 he was elected to the [[Academy of Learned Societies for the Social Sciences]].

== Research interests ==
Buzan defines his interests as:

#the conceptual and regional aspects of [[international security]];
#international history, and the evolution of the international system since prehistory;
#international relations theory, particularly [[Neorealism in international relations|structural realism]];
#international society, and the '[[English school of international relations theory|English School]]' approach to International Relations.

Buzan was a major contributor to the [[Copenhagen School (international relations)|Copenhagen School]] of political thought, connecting the concept of [[Securitization (international relations)|securitization]] to the [[regional security complex theory]].<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Tüysüzoğlu |first1=Göktürk |s2cid=153425855 |title=How Demand for Security Influence the Shaping of Foreign Policy: Using the Theory of Securitisation to Understand Armenia–Iran Relations |journal=[[Journal of Eurasian Studies]] |date=July 2014 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=192–201 |doi=10.1016/j.euras.2014.05.008|doi-access=free }}</ref>

Buzan's 1983 text ''[[People, States and Fear]]'' had a significant impact on criticism of the prevailing state-centric views of the international system.<ref name=":05">{{Cite book |last=Meng |first=Wenting |title=Developmental Peace: Theorizing China's Approach to International Peacebuilding |date=2024 |publisher=[[Columbia University Press]] |isbn=9783838219073 |series=Ibidem |pages=14}}</ref> Buzan contended that understandings of [[national security]] should be broadened to address systemic concerns involving individuals, states, and the entire international system.<ref name=":05" /> In this view, economic, social, and environmental factors of security should be considered in addition to political and military aspects of security.<ref name=":05"/>

== Personal life ==
Buzan was born in London, but his family emigrated to Canada in 1954. He holds the citizenships of the [[United Kingdom]] and [[Canada]]. Buzan is a graduate of the [[University of British Columbia]] (1968) where he started an uncompleted master programme. He received his doctorate at the London School of Economics (1973). He describes his political views as ''social democratic'' and his religious views as ''extreme [[secularist]]''.<ref name="Facebook">{{Facebook|barry.buzan}}</ref>

Buzan's wife, Deborah Skinner, is an artist and youngest daughter of psychologist [[B. F. Skinner]].<ref name="Deborah Skinner">{{cite web |url=http://horsesbyskinner.com/about.asp |title=About |last=Skinner |first=Deborah |work=Horses by Skinner |accessdate=4 September 2014 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150216181418/http://horsesbyskinner.com/about.asp |archivedate=16 February 2015 }}</ref><ref name="Guardian">{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/education/2004/mar/12/highereducation.uk|title=I was not a lab rat|last=Buzan|first=Deborah Skinner|date=12 March 2004|work=[[The Guardian]]|accessdate=4 September 2014}}</ref> They have no children. His brother was author [[Tony Buzan]], with whom he co-authored ''The Mind Map Book''.<ref>{{cite web |title=Press yRelease: Internationally renowned best-selling author of mind- and memory- improvement books, Inventor of Mind Map |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/pressoffice/bbcworldwide/worldwidestories/pressreleases/2003/03_march/buzan_may.shtml |publisher=BBC Press Office |date=March 4, 2003}}</ref>

==Works==
*''Seabed politics'' (1976)
*''A Sea of Troubles? :Sources of dispute in the new ocean regime'' (1978)
*''[https://archive.org/details/peoplestatesfear0002buza People, States and Fear]'' (1983)
*''An Introduction to Strategic Studies: Military Technology and International Relations '' (1987)
*''[https://archive.org/details/europeansecurity00barr The European security order recast : scenarios for the Post-Cold War Era]'' (1990) with Morten Kelstrup; Pierre Lemaitre; Elzbieta Tromer; Ole Waever
*''The Logic of Anarchy: Neorealism to Structural Realism'' (1993) with Charles Jones and Richard Little
*''[[Security: A New Framework for Analysis]]'' (1997) with [[Ole Waever]], [[Jaap De Wilde]]
*''The Arms Dynamic in World Politics'' (1998) with [[Eric Herring]]
*''Anticipating the future: Twenty Millennia of Human Progress'' (1998) with Gerald Segal
*''The Mind Map Book'' (2000) with Tony Buzan
*''International Systems in World History: Remaking the Study of International Relations'' (2000) with Richard Little
*''[[Regions and Powers: The Structure of International Security]]'' (2003) with [[Ole Waever]]
*''The United States and the Great Powers: World Politics in the Twenty-First Century'' (2004)

*''From International to World Society? English School Theory and the Social Structure of Globalisation'' (2004)
*''The Evolution of International Security Studies'' (2009) with Lene Hansen.
*''Non-Western International Relations Theory: Perspectives on and beyond Asia'' (2010) editor with [[Amitav Acharya]].
*''An Introduction to the English School of International Relations: The Societal Approach'' (2014).
*''[https://archive.org/details/globaltransforma0000buza The Global Transformation: History, Modernity and the Making of International Relations]'' (2015) with George Lawson
*''Global International Society: A New Framework for Analysis'' (2018) with Laust Schouenborg
*''The Making of Global International Relations: Origins and Evolution of IR at its Centenary'' (2019) with Amitav Acharya
*''Rethinking Sino-Japanese Alienation: History Problems and Historical Opportunities'' (2020) with Evelyn Goh
*''Re-imagining International Relations: World Orders in the Thought and Practice of Indian, Chinese, and Islamic Civilizations'' (2021) with Amitav Acharya
*''Making Global Society: A Study of humankind across Three Eras'' (2023)

==Awards==
Buzan won the [[American Society of International Law]]'s 1982 Francis Deak Prize for his article ''Navigating by Consensus: Developments in the Technique at the United Nations Conference on the Law of the Sea''.<ref>{{cite journal |title=The Francis Deak Prize |journal=The American Journal of International Law |date=1982 |volume=76 |issue=3 |pages=610 |doi=10.1017/S0002930000212359 |jstor=2200792 |s2cid=246004031 |issn=0002-9300}}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

{{Copenhagen School of Security Studies}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Buzan, Barry}}
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:British political scientists]]
[[Category:British international relations scholars]]
[[Category:Academics of the London School of Economics]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Warwick]]
[[Category:Academics of the University of Westminster]]
[[Category:Constructivist international relations scholars]]
[[Category:Political realists]]
[[Category:Fellows of the British Academy]]
[[Category:1946 births]]
[[Category:Copenhagen School (security studies)]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Copenhagen]]
[[Category:Academic staff of Jilin University]]
[[Category:Alumni of the London School of Economics]]

Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo

2024-04-02T13:58:10Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Cause */typo

{{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}}
{{Infobox medical condition (new)
| name = Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo
| image = Balance Disorder Illustration A.png
| caption = Exterior of [[Bony labyrinth|labyrinth]] of the [[inner ear]].
| field = [[Otorhinolaryngology]]
| symptoms = Repeated periods of a [[vertigo (medical)|spinning sensation]] with movement<ref name=Bh2008/>
| complications =
| onset = Age from 50s to 70s<ref name=Dick2014/>
| duration = Episodes less than a minute<ref name=NIH2015/>
| types =
| causes =
| risks = Older age, minor head injury<ref name=NIH2015/>
| diagnosis = Positive [[Dix–Hallpike test]] after other possible causes have been ruled out<ref name=Bh2008/>
| differential = [[Labyrinthitis]], [[Ménière's disease]], [[stroke]], [[vestibular migraine]]<ref name=NIH2015/><ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Ferri FF |title=Ferri's Clinical Advisor 2017 E-Book: 5 Books in 1|date=2016|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-44838-3|page=170|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rRhCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA170|language=en|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170908154120/https://books.google.ca/books?id=rRhCDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA170|archive-date=2017-09-08}}</ref>
| prevention =
| treatment = [[Epley maneuver]] or [[Brandt–Daroff exercises]]<ref name=NIH2015/><ref name=Cochrane2014/>
| medication =
| prognosis = Resolves in days to months<ref name=NORD2020/>
| frequency = 2.4% affected at some point<ref name=Bh2008/>
| deaths =
}}


'''Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo''' ('''BPPV''') is a disorder arising from a problem in the [[inner ear]].<ref name=NIH2015>{{cite web|title=Balance Disorders|url=https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/balance-disorders|date=August 10, 2015|website=National Institute for Deafness and Other Communication Disorders (NIDCD)|access-date=25 July 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160727230246/https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/balance-disorders|archive-date=27 July 2016}}</ref> Symptoms are repeated, brief periods of [[vertigo (medical)|vertigo]] with movement, characterized by a spinning sensation upon changes in the position of the head.<ref name=Bh2008>{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhattacharyya N, Baugh RF, Orvidas L, Barrs D, Bronston LJ, Cass S, Chalian AA, Desmond AL, Earll JM, Fife TD, Fuller DC, Judge JO, Mann NR, Rosenfeld RM, Schuring LT, Steiner RW, Whitney SL, Haidari J | title = Clinical practice guideline: benign paroxysmal positional vertigo | journal = Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery | volume = 139 | issue = 5 Suppl 4 | pages = S47–S81 | date = November 2008 | pmid = 18973840 | doi = 10.1016/j.otohns.2008.08.022 | s2cid = 16175316 }}
* {{lay source |template=cite press release|url= http://eurekalert.org/pub_releases/2008-11/aaoo-edr102808.php |title = ENT doctors release national guideline on treatment for common cause of dizziness |date = November 1, 2008|website = EurekAlert.org }}</ref> This can occur with turning in bed or changing position.<ref name=NIH2015/> Each episode of vertigo typically lasts less than one minute.<ref name=NIH2015/> [[Nausea]] is commonly associated.<ref name=PMH2014/> BPPV is one of the most common causes of vertigo.<ref name=Bh2008/><ref name=Dick2014>{{cite book| vauthors = Dickson G |title=Primary Care ENT, An Issue of Primary Care: Clinics in Office Practice, Volume 41, Issue 1 of The Clinics: Internal Medicine|date=2014|publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences|isbn=978-0-323-28717-3|page=115|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JczaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA115|access-date=25 July 2016|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160815220701/https://books.google.ca/books?id=JczaAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA115|archive-date=15 August 2016}}</ref><ref name="Update on benign paroxysmal positio">{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim HJ, Park J, Kim JS | title = Update on benign paroxysmal positional vertigo | journal = Journal of Neurology | volume = 268 | issue = 5 | pages = 1995–2000 | date = May 2021 | pmid = 33231724 | pmc = 7684151 | doi = 10.1007/s00415-020-10314-7 }}</ref>


BPPV is a type of [[balance disorder]] along with [[labyrinthitis]] and [[Ménière's disease]].<ref name=NIH2015/> It can result from a [[head injury]] or simply occur among those who are older.<ref name=NIH2015/> Often, a specific cause is not identified.<ref name=NIH2015/> When found, the underlying mechanism typically involves a small calcified [[otolith]] moving around loose in the inner ear.<ref name=NIH2015/> Diagnosis is typically made when the [[Dix–Hallpike test]] results in [[nystagmus]] (a specific movement pattern of the eyes) and other possible causes have been ruled out.<ref name=Bh2008/> In typical cases, [[medical imaging]] is not needed.<ref name=Bh2008/>


BPPV is easily treated with a number of simple movements such as the [[Epley maneuver]] or [[#Repositioning maneuvers|Half Somersault Maneuver]] (in case of diagonal/rotational nystagmus), the Lempert maneuver (in case of horizontal nystagmus), the deep head hanging maneuver (in case of vertical nystagmus) or sometimes the less effective [[Brandt–Daroff exercises]].<ref name=NIH2015/><ref name="Cochrane2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hilton MP, Pinder DK | title = The Epley (canalith repositioning) manoeuvre for benign paroxysmal positional vertigo | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | issue = 12 | pages = CD003162 | date = December 2014 | pmid = 25485940 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD003162.pub3 }}</ref> Medications, including [[antihistamine]]s such as [[meclizine]],<ref name=AHFS2019>{{cite web |title=Meclizine Hydrochloride Monograph for Professionals |url=https://www.drugs.com/monograph/meclizine-hydrochloride.html |website=Drugs.com |publisher=American Society of Health-System Pharmacists |access-date=22 March 2019 |language=en}}</ref> may be used to help with [[nausea]].<ref name=PMH2014/> There is tentative evidence that [[betahistine]] may help with vertigo, but its use is not generally needed.<ref name=Bh2008/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Murdin L, Hussain K, Schilder AG | title = Betahistine for symptoms of vertigo | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2016 | issue = 6 | pages = CD010696 | date = June 2016 | pmid = 27327415 | pmc = 7388750 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD010696.pub2 }}</ref> BPPV is not a serious medical condition,<ref name=PMH2014/> but may present serious risks of injury through falling or other spatial disorientation-induced accidents.

When untreated, it might resolve in days to months;<ref name=NORD2020>{{cite web |title=Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo |url=https://rarediseases.org/rare-diseases/benign-paroxysmal-positional-vertigo/ |website=NORD (National Organization for Rare Disorders) |access-date=19 January 2020}}</ref> however, it may recur in some people.<ref name=PMH2014>{{cite web|title=Positional vertigo: Overview|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0072680/|website=PubMed Health|access-date=25 July 2016|language=en|date=30 January 2014}}</ref> One can needlessly suffer from BPPV for years despite there being a simple and very effective cure. Short-term self-resolution of BPPV is unlikely because the effective cure maneuvers induce strong vertigo which the patient will naturally resist and not accidentally perform.


The first medical description of the condition occurred in 1921 by [[Róbert Bárány]].<ref>{{cite book| vauthors = Daroff RB |title=Bradley's neurology in clinical practice.|date=2012|publisher=Elsevier Saunders|location=Philadelphia, PA|isbn=978-1-4557-2807-7|edition=6th|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mpnaPQd_fZsC&pg=PT3022|chapter=Chapter 37|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161221002531/https://books.google.ca/books?id=mpnaPQd_fZsC&pg=PT3022|archive-date=2016-12-21}}</ref> Approximately 2.4% of people are affected at some point in time.<ref name=Bh2008/> Among those who live until their 80s, 10% have been affected.<ref name=Dick2014/> BPPV affects females twice as often as males.<ref name=PMH2014/> Onset is typically in people between the ages of 50 and 70.<ref name=Dick2014/>
{{TOC limit|3}}

==Signs and symptoms==
{{more citations needed|section|date=October 2020}}

Symptoms:
* [[Paroxysmal]]—appears suddenly, and in episodes of short duration: lasts only seconds to minutes
* Positional—is induced by a change in position, even slight
* [[Vertigo]]—a spinning dizziness, which must have a rotational component
* Torsional [[nystagmus]]—a diagnostic symptom where the top of the eye rotates toward the affected ear in a beating or twitching fashion, which has a latency and can be fatigued (vertigo should lessen with deliberate repetition of the provoking maneuver): nystagmus should only last for 30 seconds to one minute
* [[Pre-syncope]]—(feeling faint) or [[Syncope (medicine)|syncope]] (fainting) is unusual, but possible
* Visual disturbance—due to associated [[pathologic nystagmus|nystagmus]], making it difficult to read or see during an attack
* [[Nausea]]—is often associated
* [[Emesis|Vomiting]]—is common, depending on the strength of vertigo itself and the causes for this illness

Many people will report a history of vertigo as a result of fast head movements. Many are also capable of describing the exact head movements that provoke their vertigo. Purely horizontal nystagmus and symptoms of vertigo lasting more than one minute can also indicate BPPV occurring in the horizontal semicircular canal.

The spinning sensation experienced from BPPV is usually triggered by movement of the head, will have a sudden onset, and can last anywhere from a few seconds to several minutes. The most common movements people report triggering a spinning sensation are tilting their heads upward in order to look at something and when rolling over in bed.<ref name="PubMed Health">{{cite encyclopedia | veditors = Zieve D, Schwartz S | date = August 2011 |title=Benign positional vertigo | encyclopedia = A.D.A.M. Medical Encyclopedia | publisher = PubMed Health, U.S. National Library of Medicine |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002393/ |access-date=16 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026034330/http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmedhealth/PMH0002393/ |archive-date=26 October 2013 }}</ref>

People with BPPV do not experience other neurological deficits such as [[numbness]] or [[weakness]]. If those symptoms are present, a more serious etiology, such as posterior circulation [[stroke]] or ischemia, must be considered.

The most significant symptom is nystagmus as it is essential to determine the kind of nystagmus ( horizontal, vertical, or diagonal ) to select the correct cure maneuver.

==Cause==
Within the [[labyrinth (inner ear)|labyrinth]] of the [[inner ear]] lie collections of calcium crystals known as [[otolith|otoconia or otoliths]]. In people with BPPV, the otoconia are dislodged from their usual position within the [[Utricle (ear)|utricle]], and over time, migrate into one of the three [[semicircular canals]] (the [[posterior canal]] is most commonly affected due to its anatomical position). When the head is reoriented relative to gravity, the gravity-dependent movement of the heavier otoconial debris (colloquially "ear rocks") within the affected semicircular canal causes abnormal (pathological) [[endolymph]] fluid displacement and a resultant sensation of [[vertigo (medical)|vertigo]]. This more common condition is known as ''canalithiasis''.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hall SF, Ruby RR, McClure JA | title = The mechanics of benign paroxysmal vertigo | journal = The Journal of Otolaryngology | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 151–158 | date = April 1979 | pmid = 430582 | url = https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/430582 }}</ref><ref name=":0">{{cite journal | vauthors = Parnes LS, Agrawal SK, Atlas J | title = Diagnosis and management of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) | journal = CMAJ | volume = 169 | issue = 7 | pages = 681–693 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 14517129 | pmc = 202288 }}</ref> There is a direct link between the kind of nystagmus and which of the three semicircular canals is affected. With horizontal nystagmus (left-right eye movement) the horizontal (also called lateral) canal is affected, with vertical nystagmus (up-down eye movement) the superior (also called anterior) canal is affected, and with diagonal nystagmus (diagonal or rotational eye movement) the posterior canal is affected. Diagonal eye movement is easily confused with horizontal movement. This is important since it might result in selecting a wrong and thus ineffective cure maneuver.

In rare cases, the crystals themselves can adhere to a semicircular canal [[Ampullary cupula|cupula]], rendering it heavier than the surrounding endolymph. Upon reorientation of the head relative to gravity, the cupula is weighted down by the dense particles, thereby inducing an immediate and sustained excitation of semicircular canal [[afferent nerve]]s. This condition is termed ''cupulolithiasis''.<ref name=":0" /><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schuknecht HF | title = Cupulolithiasis | journal = Archives of Otolaryngology | volume = 90 | issue = 6 | pages = 765–778 | date = December 1969 | pmid = 5353084 | doi = 10.1001/archotol.1969.00770030767020 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Schuknecht HF, Ruby RR | title = Cupulolithiasis | journal = Advances in Oto-Rhino-Laryngology | volume = 20 | pages = 434–443 | date = 1973-10-19 | pmid = 4710517 | doi = 10.1159/000393114 | isbn = 978-3-8055-1338-8 }}</ref>

There is evidence in the dental literature that malleting of an [[osteotome]] during closed [[sinus lift|sinus floor elevation]], otherwise known as ''osteotome sinus elevation'' or ''lift'', transmits percussive and vibratory forces capable of detaching otoliths from their normal location and thereby leading to the symptoms of BPPV.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Sammartino G, Mariniello M, Scaravilli MS | title = Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo following closed sinus floor elevation procedure: mallet osteotomes vs. screwable osteotomes. A triple blind randomized controlled trial | journal = Clinical Oral Implants Research | volume = 22 | issue = 6 | pages = 669–672 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21054553 | doi = 10.1111/j.1600-0501.2010.01998.x }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim MS, Lee JK, Chang BS, Um HS | title = Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo as a complication of sinus floor elevation | journal = Journal of Periodontal & Implant Science | volume = 40 | issue = 2 | pages = 86–89 | date = April 2010 | pmid = 20498765 | pmc = 2872812 | doi = 10.5051/jpis.2010.40.2.86 }}</ref>

BPPV can be triggered by any action that stimulates the posterior semi-circular canal including:{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
* Looking up or down
* Following [[head injury]]
* Sudden head movement
* Rolling over in bed
* Tilting the head

BPPV may be made worse by any number of modifiers which may vary among individuals:{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}
* Changes in [[barometer|barometric pressure]] – people may feel increased symptoms up to two days before rain or snow
* [[Sleep deprivation|Lack of sleep]] (required amounts of [[sleep]] may vary widely)
* [[Stress (biology)|Stress]]

An episode of BPPV may be triggered by dehydration, such as that caused by [[diarrhea]]{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}.

BPPV is one of the most common vestibular disorders in people presenting with dizziness; a [[migraine]] is implicated in idiopathic cases. Proposed mechanisms linking the two are genetic factors and vascular damage to the labyrinth.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Lempert T, Neuhauser H | title = Epidemiology of vertigo, migraine and vestibular migraine | journal = Journal of Neurology | volume = 256 | issue = 3 | pages = 333–338 | date = March 2009 | pmid = 19225823 | doi = 10.1007/s00415-009-0149-2 | s2cid = 27402289 | url = http://edoc.rki.de/oa/articles/resZpxiuwPYk/PDF/25oih53z9aAfA.pdf }}</ref>

Although BPPV can occur at any age, it is most often seen in people older than the age of 60.<ref name="MayoClinic">{{cite web |author=Mayo Clinic Staff |title=Benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) |website=[[Mayo Clinic]] |date=July 10, 2012 |url=http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/vertigo/basics/definition/con-20028216 |access-date=16 April 2014 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416191733/http://www.mayoclinic.org/diseases-conditions/vertigo/basics/definition/con-20028216 |archive-date=16 April 2014 }}</ref> Besides aging, there are no major risk factors known for BPPV, although previous episodes of head trauma, preexisting disorders, or the inner ear infection [[labyrinthitis]], may predispose to the future development of BPPV.<ref name="PubMed Health" /><ref name="Update on benign paroxysmal positio"/><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Baloh RW, Honrubia V, Jacobson K | title = Benign positional vertigo: clinical and oculographic features in 240 cases | journal = Neurology | volume = 37 | issue = 3 | pages = 371–378 | date = March 1987 | pmid = 3822129 | doi = 10.1212/WNL.37.3.371 | s2cid = 1610861 }}</ref>

== Mechanism ==
The inside of the ear is composed of an organ called the [[labyrinth (inner ear)|vestibular labyrinth]]. The vestibular labyrinth includes three [[semicircular canal]]s, which contain fluids and fine hairlike sensors that act as a monitor to the rotations of the head. Other important structures in the inner ear includes the [[otolith]] organs, the utricle and saccule, that contain calcium carbonate crystals(otoconia) that are sensitive to gravity.

The crystals may dislodge from the utricle (an otolith organ) and settle within the semicircular canals. When there is motion, the displaced otoconia shift within the endolymph of semicircular canals, causing an unbalanced (with respect to the opposite ear) stimulus, causing symptoms of BPPV.<ref>{{Cite book | vauthors = Palmeri R, Kumar A | chapter = Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo |date = December 2022 | title = StatPearls [Internet] | location = Treasure Island (FL) | publisher = StatPearls Publishing | pmid = 29261987 | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK470308/ }}</ref>

==Diagnosis==
The condition is diagnosed by the person's history, and by performing the [[Dix–Hallpike test]] or the roll test, or both.<ref name=Schubert>{{cite book | vauthors = Schubert MC |chapter=Vestibular Disorders |chapter-url={{Google books|Vs6FDwAAQBAJ|page=918|plainurl=yes}} |pages=918–49 | veditors = O'Sullivan SB, Schmitz TJ, Fulk GD |title=Physical Rehabilitation |edition=7th |isbn=978-0-8036-9464-4 |date=2019-01-25 |publisher=F.A. Davis }}</ref><ref name=Korres>{{cite journal | vauthors = Korres SG, Balatsouras DG | title = Diagnostic, pathophysiologic, and therapeutic aspects of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo | journal = Otolaryngology–Head and Neck Surgery | volume = 131 | issue = 4 | pages = 438–444 | date = October 2004 | pmid = 15467614 | doi = 10.1016/j.otohns.2004.02.046 | s2cid = 28018301 }}</ref> The patient can also be asked to induce vertigo by performing a movement that the patient knows to induce vertigo. The eyes of the patient can then easily be observed for which kind (horizontal, vertical, or diagonal) of nystagmus is present, to determine which semicircular canal (horizontal, superior, or posterior) is affected.

The Dix–Hallpike test is a common test performed by examiners to determine whether the posterior semicircular canal is involved.<ref name=Korres/> It involves a reorientation of the head to align the posterior semicircular canal (at its entrance to the [[Osseous ampullae|ampulla]]) with the direction of gravity. This test will reproduce [[vertigo]] and [[nystagmus]] characteristic of posterior canal BPPV.<ref name=Schubert/>

When performing the Dix–Hallpike test, people are lowered quickly to a [[supine position]], with the neck extended by the person performing the maneuver. For some people, this maneuver may not be indicated, and a modification may be needed that also targets the [[posterior semicircular canal]]. Such people include those who are too anxious about eliciting the uncomfortable symptoms of vertigo, and those who may not have the range of motion necessary to comfortably be in a supine position. The modification involves the person moving from a seated position to side-lying ''without'' their head extending off the examination table, such as with Dix–Hallpike. The head is rotated 45 degrees away from the side being tested, and the eyes are examined for nystagmus. A positive test is indicated by the patient report of a reproduction of vertigo and clinician observation of nystagmus. Both the Dix–Hallpike and the side-lying testing position have yielded similar results, and as such the side-lying position can be used if the Dix–Hallpike cannot be performed easily.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Cohen HS | title = Side-lying as an alternative to the Dix-Hallpike test of the posterior canal | journal = Otology & Neurotology | volume = 25 | issue = 2 | pages = 130–134 | date = March 2004 | pmid = 15021771 | doi = 10.1097/00129492-200403000-00008 | s2cid = 12649245 }}</ref>

The roll test can determine whether the [[horizontal semicircular canal]] is involved.<ref name=Schubert/> The roll test requires the person to be in a supine position with their head in 30° of cervical flexion. Then the examiner quickly rotates the head 90° to the left side, and checks for vertigo and nystagmus. This is followed by gently bringing the head back to the starting position. The examiner then quickly rotates the head 90° to the right side and checks again for vertigo and nystagmus.<ref name=Schubert/> In this roll test, the person may experience vertigo and nystagmus on both sides, but rotating toward the affected side will trigger a more intense vertigo. Similarly, when the head is rotated toward the affected side, the nystagmus will beat toward the ground and be more intense.<ref name=Korres/>

As mentioned above, both the Dix–Hallpike and roll test provoke the signs and symptoms in subjects with archetypal BPPV. The signs and symptoms people with BPPV experience are typically a short-lived vertigo and observed nystagmus. In some people, although rarely, vertigo can persist for years. Assessment of BPPV is best done by a medical [[health professional]] skilled in the management of dizziness disorders, commonly a [[physiotherapist]], [[audiologist]], or other [[physician]].{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}

The nystagmus associated with BPPV has several important characteristics that differentiate it from other types of nystagmus.
* Latency of onset: there is a 5–10 second delay prior to onset of nystagmus
* Nystagmus lasts for 5–60 seconds
* Positional: the nystagmus occurs only in certain positions
* Repeated stimulation, including via Dix–Hallpike maneuvers, cause the nystagmus to fatigue or disappear temporarily
* Rotatory/torsional component is present, or (in the case of lateral canal involvement) the nystagmus beats in either a geotropic (toward the ground) or ageotropic (away from the ground) fashion
* Visual fixation suppresses nystagmus due to BPPV

Although rare, disorders of the central nervous system can sometimes present as BPPV. A practitioner should be aware that if a person whose symptoms are consistent with BPPV, but does not show improvement or resolution after undergoing different particle repositioning maneuvers — detailed in the Treatment section below — need to have a detailed neurological assessment and imaging performed to help identify the pathological condition.<ref name=Bh2008/>

=== Differential diagnosis ===
[[Vertigo (medical)|Vertigo]], a distinct process sometimes confused with the broader term, [[dizziness]], accounts for about six million clinic visits in the United States every year; between 17 and 42% of these people are eventually diagnosed with BPPV.<ref name=Bh2008/>
Other causes of vertigo include:
* [[Motion sickness]]/motion intolerance: a disjunction between visual stimulation, vestibular stimulation, and/or [[proprioception]]
* Visual exposure to nearby moving objects (examples of [[Optokinetic reflex|optokinetic]] stimuli include passing cars and falling snow)
* Other diseases: ([[labyrinthitis]], [[Ménière's disease]], and [[migraine]],<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = Buchholz D | title = Heal Your Headache | location = New York | publisher = Workman Publishing | date = 2002 | pages = 74–75 | isbn = 978-0-7611-2566-2 }}</ref> etc.)

==Treatment==

===Repositioning maneuvers===
A number of maneuvers have been found to be effective including [[Otolith|Canalith]] Repositioning Procedures (CRP) such as the [[Epley maneuver]], the Half Somersault Maneuver (HSM), the Semont maneuver, and to a lesser degree the non-CRP [[#Brandt–Daroff exercises|Brandt–Daroff exercises]].<ref name="Cochrane2014"/><ref name="HSMComparedToEM">{{cite journal | vauthors = Foster CA, Ponnapan A, Zaccaro K, Strong D | title = A comparison of two home exercises for benign positional vertigo: Half somersault versus Epley Maneuver. | journal = Audiology and Neurotology Extra | date = December 2012 | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | pages = 16–23 | doi = 10.1159/000337947 |s2cid=8441692 }}</ref> Both the Epley and the Semont maneuvers are equally effective.<ref name=Cochrane2014/><ref name="Gold_PC-BPPV">{{cite web |url= https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ark:/87278/s6tt80ns |title=Posterior Canal - BPPV: Epley and Semont maneuvers| vauthors = Gold D |website=Neuro-Ophthalmology Virtual Education Library (NOVEL): Daniel Gold Collection|publisher=Spencer S. Eccles Health Sciences Library|access-date=9 September 2019|ref=Gold_PC-BPPV}}</ref> The HSM can have better long-term success than the Epley, is more comfortable to experience, and has less risk of causing subsequent horizontal canal BPPV (H-BPPV).<ref name="HSMComparedToEM"/><ref name="EfficacyHSMToEM">{{cite journal | vauthors = Khaftari MD, Ahadi M, Maarefvand M, Jalaei B | title = The Efficacy of the Half Somersault Maneuver in Comparison to the Epley Maneuver in Patients with Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo | journal = The Journal of International Advanced Otology | volume = 17 | issue = 5 | pages = 417–421 | date = September 2021 | pmid = 34617892 | pmc = 8975417 | doi = 10.5152/iao.2021.9072 }}</ref>

None of these maneuvers addresses the presence of the particles ([[Otolith|otoconia]]); rather it changes their location. The maneuvers aim to move these particles from some locations in the inner ear that cause symptoms such as vertigo and reposition them to where they do not cause these problems.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}} These maneuvers are easily performed at home and online resources are available to patients.<ref name="epley">{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9SLm76jQg3g |title=The Epley Maneuver | via = [[YouTube]] | work = Fauquier ENT }}</ref><ref name="lempert">{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mwTmM6uF5yA |title=The Lempert Maneuver| via = [[YouTube]] | work = Fauquier ENT }}</ref><ref name="deephead">{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qw1QciZWfP0 |title=The Deep Head Hanging Maneuver | via = [[YouTube]] | work = Fauquier ENT }}</ref><ref name="HSMComparedToEM"/>

The Epley maneuver is popular because it is designed to address posterior canal BPPV (PC-BPPV), which is caused by particles in the posterior semicircular canal, the most common cause of BPPV.<ref name="SelfTreatPCBPPV">{{cite journal | vauthors = Gan Z, Zhou S, Yang H, He F, Wei D, Bai Y, Wang Y, Wang Y, Fu W, Han J | title = Self-Treatment of Posterior Canal Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo: A Preliminary Study | journal = Frontiers in Medicine | volume = 8 | pages = 654637 | date = April 29, 2021 | pmid = 33996859 | pmc = 8116577 | doi = 10.3389/fmed.2021.654637 | doi-access = free }}</ref> This might give the wrong impression that PC-BPPV is the only kind of BPPV. Misdiagnosing which semicircular canal is affected, typically by confusing horizontal and diagonal nystagmus, or simply ignoring the identification of the affected canal, and then using the wrong treatment maneuver, regularly results in no cure.

Using the appropriate maneuver for the affected canal is essential. The maneuvers may be uncomfortable for the patient as they might induce strong vertigo and the patient might then resist performing them. Though some treatments, such as the Epley, are much more uncomfortable than others, such as the HSM.<ref name="HSMComparedToEM"/> If the maneuver is not uncomfortable then it is possible the wrong maneuver has been selected by a misdiagnosis of the affected semicircular canal.

All the maneuvers consist of a series of steps in which the head is held in a specific position, typically for 30 to 60 seconds until any nystagmus stops. Movement from one position to the position of the next step has to be done fluently to give the particles enough momentum to move. A position has to be held until any nystagmus has completely resided, which indicates that the particles have stopped moving, before one proceeds to the next step.

====Epley maneuver====
{{main|Epley maneuver}}
The Epley maneuver<ref name="epley" /> employs [[gravity]] to move the [[calcium]] crystal build-up from the posterior semicircular canal (resulting in diagonal nystagmus) that causes the condition.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = von Brevern M, Seelig T, Radtke A, Tiel-Wilck K, Neuhauser H, Lempert T | title = Short-term efficacy of Epley's manoeuvre: a double-blind randomised trial | journal = Journal of Neurology, Neurosurgery, and Psychiatry | volume = 77 | issue = 8 | pages = 980–982 | date = August 2006 | pmid = 16549410 | pmc = 2077628 | doi = 10.1136/jnnp.2005.085894 }}</ref> This maneuver can be performed during a clinic visit by health professionals, or taught to people to perform at home, or both.<ref name=Home2004/> Postural restriction after the Epley maneuver increases its effect somewhat.<ref name="pmid22513962">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hunt WT, Zimmermann EF, Hilton MP | title = Modifications of the Epley (canalith repositioning) manoeuvre for posterior canal benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) | journal = The Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews | volume = 2012 | issue = 4 | pages = CD008675 | date = April 2012 | pmid = 22513962 | pmc = 6885068 | doi = 10.1002/14651858.CD008675.pub2 }}</ref>

When practiced at home, the Epley maneuver is more effective than the Semont maneuver. An effective repositioning treatment for posterior canal BPPV is the therapist-performed Epley combined with home-practiced Epley maneuvers.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Helminski JO, Zee DS, Janssen I, Hain TC | title = Effectiveness of particle repositioning maneuvers in the treatment of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo: a systematic review | journal = Physical Therapy | volume = 90 | issue = 5 | pages = 663–678 | date = May 2010 | pmid = 20338918 | doi = 10.2522/ptj.20090071 | doi-access = free }}</ref> Although follow-up by using home-practiced HSM instead of Epley has better long-term success, with less discomfort, and less risk of causing subsequent horizontal canal BPPV (H-BPPV).<ref name="HSMComparedToEM"/> Devices such as the [[DizzyFIX]] can help users conduct the Epley maneuver at home, and are available for the treatment of BPPV.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Beyea JA, Wong E, Bromwich M, Weston WW, Fung K | title = Evaluation of a particle repositioning maneuver Web-based teaching module | journal = The Laryngoscope | volume = 118 | issue = 1 | pages = 175–180 | date = January 2008 | pmid = 18251035 | doi = 10.1097/MLG.0b013e31814b290d | s2cid = 39015590 }}</ref>

====Half Somersault Maneuver====
The Half Somersault Maneuver (HSM) is a patient-performed alternative to the Epley for posterior canal BPPV (PC-BPPV) <ref name="HSMComparedToEM"/> <ref>{{cite web|title=This Semi Somersault Cures Dizziness|url=https://www.bottomlineinc.com/health/wellness/semi-somersault-cures-dizziness|date=March 22, 2016|website=Bottom Line|access-date=16 March 2024}}</ref> Like the Epley, it uses gravity to move the calcium crystal build-up from the posterior semicircular canal that causes the condition. Compared to the Epley, HSM has better long-term success, with less discomfort, and less risk of causing subsequent horizontal canal BPPV (H-BPPV).<ref name="HSMComparedToEM"/>

====Lempert maneuver or Roll maneuver====
For the [[horizontal semicircular canal|lateral (horizontal) canal]], resulting in horizontal nystagmus, the Lempert maneuver<ref name="lempert" /> has been used for productive results. It is unusual for the lateral canal to respond to the canalith repositioning procedure used for the posterior canal BPPV. Treatment is therefore geared toward moving the canalith from the lateral canal into the vestibule.<ref name="HegemannPalla2010">{{cite journal | vauthors = Hegemann SC, Palla A | title = New methods for diagnosis and treatment of vestibular diseases | journal = F1000 Medicine Reports | volume = 2 | pages = 60 | date = August 2010 | pmid = 21173877 | pmc = 2990630 | doi = 10.3410/M2-60 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

The roll maneuver or its variations are used, and involve rolling the person 360 degrees in a series of steps to reposition the particles.<ref name=Bh2008/><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://collections.lib.utah.edu/ark:/87278/s6kd56mc|title=Horizontal Canal - BPPV: BBQ Roll to treat the right side| vauthors = Gold D |website=Neuro-Ophthalmology Virtual Education Library (NOVEL): Daniel Gold Collection. Spencer S. Eccles Health Sciences Library.|access-date=20 November 2019}}</ref> This maneuver is generally performed by a trained [[clinician]] who begins seated at the head of the examination table with the person supine<ref name=Hornibrook>{{cite journal | vauthors = Hornibrook J | title = Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo (BPPV): History, Pathophysiology, Office Treatment and Future Directions | journal = International Journal of Otolaryngology | volume = 2011 | pages = 835671 | year = 2011 | pmid = 21808648 | pmc = 3144715 | doi = 10.1155/2011/835671 | doi-access = free }}</ref> There are four stages, each a minute apart, and at the third position the horizontal canal is oriented in a vertical position with the person's neck flexed and on forearm and elbows.<ref name=Hornibrook /> When all four stages are completed, the head roll test is repeated, and if negative, treatment ceases.<ref name=Hornibrook />

====Deep head hanging maneuver====
For the superior ( also called anterior ) semicircular canal, resulting in vertical nystagmus, the Deep head hanging maneuver<ref name="deephead" /> is used. The patient lays down on their back on a bed with their head overhanging the bed.
In the first step the head is turned as backward (hanging) as possible. In the following step, the patient remains lying but lifts their head with the chin close to the chest. In the last step, the patient sits upright with the head in the normal position. Before going to the next step, one has to wait until the nystagmus fully resides ( typical 30 to 60 seconds ) and progression from one step to the next has to happen in a fluid movement.

====Semont maneuver====
The Semont maneuver has a cure rate of 90.3%.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Chen Y, Zhuang J, Zhang L, Li Y, Jin Z, Zhao Z, Zhao Y, Zhou H | title = Short-term efficacy of Semont maneuver for benign paroxysmal positional vertigo: a double-blind randomized trial | journal = Otology & Neurotology | volume = 33 | issue = 7 | pages = 1127–1130 | date = September 2012 | pmid = 22892804 | doi = 10.1097/mao.0b013e31826352ca | s2cid = 32993812 }}</ref> It is performed as follows:
# The person is seated on a treatment table with their legs hanging off the side of the table. The therapist then turns the person's head 45 degrees toward the unaffected side.
# The therapist then quickly tilts the person so they are lying on the affected side. The head position is maintained, so their head is turned up 45 degrees. This position is maintained for 3 minutes. The purpose is to allow the debris to move to the apex of the semicircular duct.
# The person is then quickly moved so they are lying on the unaffected side with their head in the same position (now facing downward 45 degrees). This position is also held for 3 minutes. The purpose of this position is to allow the debris to move toward the exit of the semicircular duct.
# Finally, the person is slowly brought back to an upright seated position. The debris should then fall into the utricle of the canal and the symptoms of vertigo should decrease or end completely.

Some people will only need one treatment, but others may need multiple treatments, depending on the severity of their BPPV. In the Semont maneuver, as with the Epley maneuver, people are able to achieve canalith repositioning by themselves.<ref name=Home2004>{{cite journal | vauthors = Radtke A, von Brevern M, Tiel-Wilck K, Mainz-Perchalla A, Neuhauser H, Lempert T | title = Self-treatment of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo: Semont maneuver vs Epley procedure | journal = Neurology | volume = 63 | issue = 1 | pages = 150–152 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15249626 | doi = 10.1212/01.WNL.0000130250.62842.C9 | doi-access = free }}</ref>

====Brandt–Daroff exercises====
The Brandt–Daroff exercises may be prescribed by the clinician as a home treatment method, usually in conjunction with particle-repositioning maneuvers or in lieu of the particle-repositioning maneuver. The exercise is a form of habituation exercise, designed to allow the person to become accustomed to the position that causes the [[vertigo]] symptoms. The Brandt–Daroff exercises are performed in a similar fashion to the Semont maneuver; however, as the person rolls onto the unaffected side, the head is rotated toward the affected side.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Vesely DL, Chiou S, Douglass MA, McCormick MT, Rodriguez-Paz G, Schocken DD | title = Atrial natriuretic peptides negatively and positively modulate circulating endothelin in humans | journal = Metabolism | volume = 45 | issue = 3 | pages = 315–319 | date = March 1996 | pmid = 8606637 | doi = 10.1016/S0026-0495(96)90284-X }}</ref> The exercise is typically performed 3 times a day with 5–10 repetitions each time, until symptoms of vertigo have resolved for at least 2 days.<ref name=Schubert />

===Medications===
Medical treatment with anti-vertigo medications may be considered in acute, severe exacerbation of BPPV, but in most cases are not indicated. These primarily include drugs of the [[antihistamine]] and [[anticholinergic]] class, such as [[meclizine]]<ref name=AHFS2019/> and [[hyoscine butylbromide]] (scopolamine), respectively. The medical management of vestibular syndromes has become increasingly popular over the last decade, and numerous novel drug therapies (including existing drugs with new indications) have emerged for the treatment of vertigo/dizziness syndromes. These drugs vary considerably in their mechanisms of action, with many of them being receptor- or ion channel-specific. Among them are [[betahistine]] or [[dexamethasone]]/[[gentamicin]] for the treatment of [[Ménière's disease]], [[carbamazepine]]/[[oxcarbazepine]] for the treatment of paroxysmal [[dysarthria]] and [[ataxia]] in [[multiple sclerosis]], [[metoprolol]]/[[topiramate]] or [[valproic acid]]/[[tricyclic antidepressant]] for the treatment of vestibular [[migraine]], and [[4-aminopyridine]] for the treatment of episodic ataxia type 2 and both downbeat and upbeat [[nystagmus]].<ref name=meds>{{cite journal | vauthors = Huppert D, Strupp M, Mückter H, Brandt T | title = Which medication do I need to manage dizzy patients? | journal = Acta Oto-Laryngologica | volume = 131 | issue = 3 | pages = 228–241 | date = March 2011 | pmid = 21142898 | doi = 10.3109/00016489.2010.531052 | s2cid = 32591311 }}</ref> [[Calcium channel blocker]]s such as [[verapamil]] may also be of value.<ref>{{cite journal |pmid=3377379 |journal=Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences |date=March 1988 |volume=522 |issue=1 |pages=690–697 |doi=10.1111/j.1749-6632.1988.tb33414.x |title=Calcium entry blockers in the treatment of vertigo |vauthors=Olesen J|bibcode=1988NYASA.522..690O |s2cid=19481952 }}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |vauthors=Olesen J |title=Calcium antagonists in migraine and vertigo: Possible mechanisms of action and review of clinical trials |journal=European Neurology |date=1990 |volume=30 |issue=Suppl. 2 |pages=31–34 |doi=10.1159/000117189 |pmid=2180716}}</ref><ref>[https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30989371/ Kaya-I et al. Can verapamil be effective in controlling vertigo and headache attacks in vestibular migraine accompanied with Meniere's disease? A preliminary study. J Neurol. 2019 Sep;266(Suppl 1):62-64. doi: 10.1007/s00415-019-09309-w. Epub 2019 Apr 15.]</ref> These drug therapies offer symptomatic treatment, and do not affect the disease process or resolution rate. Medications may be used to suppress symptoms during the positioning maneuvers if the person's symptoms are severe and intolerable. More dose-specific studies are required, however, in order to determine the most-effective drug(s) for both acute symptom relief and long-term remission of the condition.<ref name=meds />

===Surgery===
Surgical treatments, such as a semi-circular canal occlusion, exist for severe and persistent cases that fail vestibular rehabilitation (including particle repositioning and habituation therapy). As they carry the same risks as any neurosurgical procedure, they are reserved as last resorts.{{citation needed|date=September 2022}}

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{refbegin}}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Parnes LS, Agrawal SK, Atlas J | title = Diagnosis and management of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo (BPPV) | journal = CMAJ | volume = 169 | issue = 7 | pages = 681–693 | date = September 2003 | pmid = 14517129 | pmc = 202288 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Huppert D, Strupp M, Mückter H, Brandt T | title = Which medication do I need to manage dizzy patients? | journal = Acta Oto-Laryngologica | volume = 131 | issue = 3 | pages = 228–241 | date = March 2011 | pmid = 21142898 | doi = 10.3109/00016489.2010.531052 | s2cid = 32591311 }}
* {{cite journal | vauthors = Solomon D | title = Benign Paroxysmal Positional Vertigo | journal = Current Treatment Options in Neurology | volume = 2 | issue = 5 | pages = 417–428 | date = September 2000 | pmid = 11096767 | doi = 10.1007/s11940-000-0040-z | s2cid = 45763227 }}
* {{cite journal |title=Videos |journal=Neurology|url=http://www.neurology.org/content/63/1/150/suppl/DC1|date=2018-12-30}} in {{cite journal | vauthors = Radtke A, von Brevern M, Tiel-Wilck K, Mainz-Perchalla A, Neuhauser H, Lempert T | title = Self-treatment of benign paroxysmal positional vertigo: Semont maneuver vs Epley procedure | journal = Neurology | volume = 63 | issue = 1 | pages = 150–152 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15249626 | doi = 10.1212/01.WNL.0000130250.62842.C9 | doi-access = free }}
{{refend}}

== External links ==
{{Medical resources
| DiseasesDB = 1344
| ICD10 = {{ICD10|H|81|1|h|80}}
| ICD9 = {{ICD9|386.11}}
| ICDO =
| OMIM = 193007
| MedlinePlus = 001420
| eMedicineSubj = ent
| eMedicineTopic = 761
| eMedicine_mult = {{eMedicine2|emerg|57}} {{eMedicine2|neuro|411}}
| MeshID = D014717
}}

{{Hearing and balance}}

[[Category:Diseases of inner ear]]
[[Category:Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate]]
[[Category:Wikipedia neurology articles ready to translate]]

Augustus Le Plongeon

2024-03-29T17:43:21Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Travels in Peru */removed non-additive links

{{Short description|British photographer and archaeologist (1825–1908)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}

{{Infobox writer 
| name = Augustus Le Plongeon
| image = Augustus-le-plongeon-photo.jpeg
| caption = Photograph by [[Alice Dixon Le Plongeon]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1825|5|4|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Island of Jersey]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1908|12|13|1825|5|4|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Brooklyn, New York]], U.S.
| occupation = [[Antiquarian]] and amateur [[archaeologist]]
| nationality = British-American
| subject = [[Maya civilization]], [[Atlantis]]
| spouse = [[Alice Dixon Le Plongeon]]
}}

'''Augustus Henry Julian Le Plongeon'''<ref>[https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt3z09r80d/ Le Plongeon (Augustus and Alice Dixon) Papers]</ref> (4 May 1825 – 13 December 1908) was a British-American archeologist and photographer who studied the [[pre-Columbian]] ruins of America, particularly those of the [[Maya civilization]] on the northern [[Yucatán Peninsula]]. While his writings contain many notions that were not well received by his contemporaries and were later disproven, Le Plongeon left a lasting legacy in his photographs documenting the ancient ruins. He was one of the earliest proponents of [[Mayanism]].

== Early life and careers ==
Le Plongeon was born on the island of [[Jersey]] on 4 May 1825.<ref name="Desmond-2011">Desmond (2011)</ref> At 19, he sailed to South America and shipwrecked off the coast of [[Chile]]. While there he settled in [[Valparaíso|Valparaiso]] and taught mathematics, drawing, and languages at a local college. In 1849 he sailed to San Francisco during the [[California gold rush]] to work as a [[Surveyor (surveying)|surveyor]], and also apprenticed to become a doctor of medicine. One of his accomplishments as a surveyor included drawing a plan for the layout of the town of [[Marysville, California]] in the [[California Central Valley|Central Valley]] in 1851. Augustus was paid for his services as a surveyor with land deeds. He profited from the sale of these plots and this income would fund the majority of his archeological expeditions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=A Dream of Maya|last=Desmond, Lawrence |author2=Messenger, Phyllis|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=1988|isbn=0-8263-1000-1|location=Albuquerque}}</ref>

Le Plongeon traveled to England and saw a demonstration for new photographic processes at [[The Great Exhibition]]. He then stayed in England to study photography under [[William Fox Talbot]].<ref name=":0" /> Augustus wanted to test these methods in tropical climates so he spent time traveling to St. Thomas, Virgin Islands as well as Mexico, Australia, China, and the Pacific Islands. He returned to San Francisco to open a [[daguerreotype]] portrait studio on Clay Street. In 1862, he traveled to Lima, Peru and opened another photography studio and an "electro-hydropathic" medical clinic based on an early form of alternative medicine.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://archives2.getty.edu:8082/xtf/view?docId=ead/2004.M.18/2004.M.18.xml;chunk.id=ref15;brand=default|title=Finding Aid for Augustus and Alice Dixon Le Plongeon Papers|last=Guynn|first=Beth Ann|publisher=Getty Research Institute}}</ref>

== Travels in Peru ==
Le Plongeon pioneered the use of photography as a tool for his studies. He began using the wet [[collodion]] glass-plate [[negative (photography)|negative]] process he used for studio portraits to record his explorations. He traveled extensively all over Peru for eight years visiting and photographing ancient ruins, including [[Tiwanaku|Tiahuanaco]]. Augustus also joined a number of [[E. G. Squier]]'s expeditions and took photographs out in the field. Le Plongeon was influenced by the work of [[Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg]], [[John Lloyd Stephens]], and [[Frederick Catherwood]]. These works, in combination with his own explorations in Peru, led Le Plongeon to believe that civilization had its origins in the New World.<ref name=":0" />

While in Peru Augustus became interested in the causes of earthquakes. He was able to observe the [[1868 Arica earthquake]] and he studied the resulting damage and interviewed people about what they experienced.<ref name=":0" /> During this time Le Plongeon began to speak out against abuses by Jesuit priests and the Catholic Church in Peru. He published two anti-Jesuit books, ''La religion de Jesus comparada con las ensenanzas de la Iglesia'' (1867), and ''Los Jesuitas y el Peru'' (1869).<ref name=":1" />

In 1870, he left Peru and traveled back once again to San Francisco where he gave a number of illustrated lectures at the [[California Academy of Sciences]] on Peruvian archaeology and the causes of earthquakes. His travels then continued on to New York City, and by 1871 he was at the British Museum in London studying [[Mesoamerica]]n manuscripts.<ref name=":0" /><nowiki/>

== Alice Dixon Le Plongeon ==
[[File:Alice Dixon LePlongeon Portrait.jpeg|thumb|Portrait of Alice Dixon, taken by her husband, Augustus]]

While in London he met [[Alice Dixon Le Plongeon|Alice Dixon]], the woman with whom he would collaborate for the rest of his life. Alice was born in London in 1851. Her father, Henry Dixon, was recognized in the late nineteenth century for his contribution to the development of [[panchromatic]] photography, and for his photos of London architecture taken for the [[Society for Photographing Relics of Old London]]. Alice learned the techniques of photography from her father and worked as an assistant in his studio. After meeting Augustus, she became interested in ancient American civilizations and studied John L. Stephen's ''Incidents of Travel in Yucatan.'' She agreed to accompany Augustus on an archaeology expedition to study Maya ruins in Mexico. The pair left for New York to finalize preparations for the trip. They married in New York before traveling to Mexico in 1873.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Yucatan Through Her Eyes: Alice Dixon Le Plongeon, Writer & Expeditionary Photographer|last=Desmond|first=Lawrence|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8263-4595-0|location=Albuquerque}}</ref>

== Travels in Yucatán ==
In 1873, the Le Plongeons traveled to Yucatán to study ancient Maya sites. Their goal was to explore the possibility of links between the Maya and the civilizations of ancient Egypt and Atlantis. Their first stop was in [[Mérida, Yucatán|Mérida]] and they stayed there while Alice recovered from [[yellow fever]]. During her recuperation, the couple made connections with local scholars and both Augustus and Alice learned to speak [[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatec Maya.]]<ref name=":2" /> After Alice had recovered, the Le Plongeons made a short excursion to [[Uxmal]].

The Le Plongeons were in Yucatán during the [[Caste War of Yucatán|Caste War]], a conflict between the Maya, called the Chan Santa Cruz, and the army of Yucatán. When they traveled to Chichen Itza in 1875, they were accompanied by a military escort. When they arrived at the site, local Maya men were hired to clear the vegetation and help with excavations.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Yucatan Through Her Eyes|last=Desmond|first=Lawrence|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=2009|location=Albuquerque}}</ref>

The Le Plongeons were some of the first people to photograph and study Chichen Itza. Their photographic work was methodical and systematic, and they took hundreds of [[stereoscopy|3-D photos]]. They documented entire Maya buildings, such as the "Governor's Palace" at [[Uxmal]], in overlapping photos by placing the camera on a tall tripod or scaffold to correct for perspective and then processed the plates in the unlit rooms of Maya buildings. In addition to entire facades of buildings, they also photographed small [[artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]], and architectural details such as [[bas-relief]]s, [[Maya script|Maya hieroglyphic]] inscriptions, and [[sculpture]]s. They excavated buildings, drew maps and copied murals, and made molds of bas-reliefs.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Chac Mool1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chacmool]] statue from the [[Chichen Itza]] site]]
At [[Chichen Itza]] they excavated a structure known as the Platform of the Eagles and Jaguars and unearthed a large statue or altar figurine. They coined the name "Chaacmol" (later "[[Chac Mool]]" or ''chacmool'') for it. Although their derivation of the name is known now to have had no association with figures of this type, the name has remained in general use among later archaeologists. This statue would later be used as a demonstration of [[Toltec]] influences at the site, with other examples found at the Toltec capital, [[Tula (Mesoamerican site)|Tula]]. They also documented their excavation of the Platform of Venus with photos as well as plan and cross-section drawings.

From 1873 to 1884, the Le Plongeons visited and photographed other Maya sites such as [[Izamal]], [[Isla Mujeres]], [[Cozumel]], [[Cancún]], and [[Ake]], and traveled to [[Belize]] (British Honduras). During this time they made a few trips back to New York to attempt to sell bas-relief molds to museums, give lectures, and solicit financial backing for their studies.<ref name=":2" />
{{-}}

== Theories ==
By the 1880s, while most [[Mayanist]]s accepted that the Maya civilization postdated [[Ancient Egypt]], Le Plongeon stood by his theories. He cited his years of fieldwork and studies of archival sources, and challenged those he considered "armchair" archaeologists to debate the issues. However, as evidence mounted against [[cultural diffusion]], Le Plongeon became marginalized and his theories fell further outside the growing mainstream of Maya archaeology.<ref name="Desmond-2011" />

Le Plongeon insisted that the symbols of [[Freemasonry]] could be traced to the ancient Maya and that the ancient knowledge had come to ancient Egypt from the ancient Maya by way of Atlantis. He and Alice constructed an imaginative "history," with the Maya sites in Yucatán being the cradle of [[civilization]], with civilization then traveling east first to [[Atlantis]] and later to [[Ancient Egypt]]. The Le Plongeons named kings and queens of these dynasties and said that various artworks were portraits of such ancient royalty (such as the famous [[Chacmool]], which the couple excavated at Chichén Itzá). The Le Plongeons reconstructed a detailed but fanciful story of [[Queen Moo]] and Prince Coh (also known as "Chac Mool") in which Prince Coh's death resulted in the erection of monuments in his honor (similar to the commemoration of [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]] by [[Queen Victoria]]).<ref name=":0" />

== Works ==

* ''Vestiges of the Mayas'' (New York, 1881)
* ''Sacred Mysteries Among the Mayas and the Quiches, 11,500 Years Ago'' (New York, 1886)

== Later career and legacy ==
While most of Le Plongeon's contemporaries dismissed his theories, individuals such as [[Ignatius L. Donnelly]] and [[Helena Blavatsky]] drew upon Le Plongeon's research for their own theories. Augustus spent the remainder of his life in [[Brooklyn, New York]], writing about the connections between Maya and Egypt and defending himself against detractors. Augustus le Plongeon died in Brooklyn in 1908 at the age of eighty-three; Alice followed in 1910 at the age of fifty-nine.{{citation needed|date= November 2022}}

A collection of the works of the Le Plongeons currently resides at the [[Getty Center|Getty Research Institute]] in [[Los Angeles]]. The archive contains original records covering their travels from the 1860s through the early 1900s, including diaries, unpublished scholarly manuscripts and notes, correspondence, and extensive photographic documentation of ancient architecture and sculpture, city views, and ethnographic studies.{{citation needed|date= November 2022}}

Le Plongeon was elected a member of the [[American Antiquarian Society]] in 1878.<ref>[http://www.americanantiquarian.org/memberlistl American Antiquarian Society Members Directory]</ref>

==See also==
[[Naacal]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite book |title=A Dream of Maya: Augustus and Alice Le Plongeon in Nineteenth Century Yucatan |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |year=1988 |isbn=0-8263-1000-1|location=Albuquerque, NM |author=Desmond, Lawrence |author2=Phyllis Messenger}}
* Desmond, LG (1999). 'Augustus Le Plongeon. A fall from archaeological grace', in AB Kehoe & MB Emmerichs (edd.), ''Assembling the Past: Studies in the Professionalization of Archaeology'', Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 81–90. {{ISBN|0-8263-1939-4}}.
*[http://archaeoplanet.wordpress.com/2011/11/14/a-critique-of-the-wikipedia-augustus-le-plongeon-article/ Desmond, LG (2011). 'A Critique of the Wikipedia Augustus Le Plongeon article' at archaeoplanet.wordpress.com]
Desmond, Lawrence G. (2009) Yucatan through her eyes: Alice Dixon Le Plongeon, writer and expeditionary photographer. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

== External links ==
*{{commons category-inline}}
*[[hdl:10020/cifa2004m18|Augustus and Alice Dixon Le Plongeon papers, 1763–1937, bulk 1860–1910]]. Research Library at the [[Getty Research Institute]]. Los Angeles, California.
*[[hdl:10020/cifa2013m12|Lawrence Gustave Desmond papers relating to Augustus and Alice Le Plongeon]]. Research Library at the [[Getty Research Institute]]. Los Angeles, California.
*[http://academic.reed.edu/uxmal/contents.html Le Plongeon photographs of Uxmal]
*{{Gutenberg author | id=34112| name=Augustus Le Plongeon}}
*{{Internet Archive author |sname=Augustus Le Plongeon}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Le Plongeon, Augustus}}
[[Category:1825 births]]
[[Category:1908 deaths]]
[[Category:Mayanists]]
[[Category:Atlantis proponents]]
[[Category:Jersey academics]]
[[Category:Victorian writers]]
[[Category:19th-century British writers]]
[[Category:19th-century Mesoamericanists]]
[[Category:British Mesoamericanists]]
[[Category:New Age writers]]
[[Category:Pseudoarchaeologists]]
[[Category:Pseudohistorians]]
[[Category:Members of the American Antiquarian Society]]

Augustus Le Plongeon

2024-03-29T17:42:11Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Early life and careers */removed non-additive links

{{Short description|British photographer and archaeologist (1825–1908)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}

{{Infobox writer 
| name = Augustus Le Plongeon
| image = Augustus-le-plongeon-photo.jpeg
| caption = Photograph by [[Alice Dixon Le Plongeon]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1825|5|4|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Island of Jersey]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1908|12|13|1825|5|4|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Brooklyn, New York]], U.S.
| occupation = [[Antiquarian]] and amateur [[archaeologist]]
| nationality = British-American
| subject = [[Maya civilization]], [[Atlantis]]
| spouse = [[Alice Dixon Le Plongeon]]
}}

'''Augustus Henry Julian Le Plongeon'''<ref>[https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt3z09r80d/ Le Plongeon (Augustus and Alice Dixon) Papers]</ref> (4 May 1825 – 13 December 1908) was a British-American archeologist and photographer who studied the [[pre-Columbian]] ruins of America, particularly those of the [[Maya civilization]] on the northern [[Yucatán Peninsula]]. While his writings contain many notions that were not well received by his contemporaries and were later disproven, Le Plongeon left a lasting legacy in his photographs documenting the ancient ruins. He was one of the earliest proponents of [[Mayanism]].

== Early life and careers ==
Le Plongeon was born on the island of [[Jersey]] on 4 May 1825.<ref name="Desmond-2011">Desmond (2011)</ref> At 19, he sailed to South America and shipwrecked off the coast of [[Chile]]. While there he settled in [[Valparaíso|Valparaiso]] and taught mathematics, drawing, and languages at a local college. In 1849 he sailed to San Francisco during the [[California gold rush]] to work as a [[Surveyor (surveying)|surveyor]], and also apprenticed to become a doctor of medicine. One of his accomplishments as a surveyor included drawing a plan for the layout of the town of [[Marysville, California]] in the [[California Central Valley|Central Valley]] in 1851. Augustus was paid for his services as a surveyor with land deeds. He profited from the sale of these plots and this income would fund the majority of his archeological expeditions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=A Dream of Maya|last=Desmond, Lawrence |author2=Messenger, Phyllis|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=1988|isbn=0-8263-1000-1|location=Albuquerque}}</ref>

Le Plongeon traveled to England and saw a demonstration for new photographic processes at [[The Great Exhibition]]. He then stayed in England to study photography under [[William Fox Talbot]].<ref name=":0" /> Augustus wanted to test these methods in tropical climates so he spent time traveling to St. Thomas, Virgin Islands as well as Mexico, Australia, China, and the Pacific Islands. He returned to San Francisco to open a [[daguerreotype]] portrait studio on Clay Street. In 1862, he traveled to Lima, Peru and opened another photography studio and an "electro-hydropathic" medical clinic based on an early form of alternative medicine.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://archives2.getty.edu:8082/xtf/view?docId=ead/2004.M.18/2004.M.18.xml;chunk.id=ref15;brand=default|title=Finding Aid for Augustus and Alice Dixon Le Plongeon Papers|last=Guynn|first=Beth Ann|publisher=Getty Research Institute}}</ref>

== Travels in Peru ==
Le Plongeon pioneered the use of photography as a tool for his studies. He began using the wet [[collodion]] glass-plate [[negative (photography)|negative]] process he used for studio portraits to record his explorations. He traveled extensively all over Peru for eight years visiting and photographing ancient ruins, including [[Tiwanaku|Tiahuanaco]]. Augustus also joined a number of [[E. G. Squier]]'s expeditions and took photographs out in the field. Le Plongeon was influenced by the work of [[Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg]], [[John Lloyd Stephens]], and [[Frederick Catherwood]]. These works, in combination with his own explorations in Peru, led Le Plongeon to believe that civilization had its origins in the New World.<ref name=":0" />

While in Peru Augustus became interested in the causes of earthquakes. He was able to observe the [[1868 Arica earthquake]] and he studied the resulting damage and interviewed people about what they experienced.<ref name=":0" /> During this time Le Plongeon began to speak out against abuses by Jesuit priests and the Catholic Church in Peru. He published two anti-Jesuit books, ''La religion de Jesus comparada con las ensenanzas de la Iglesia'' (1867), and ''Los Jesuitas y el Peru'' (1869).<ref name=":1" />

In 1870, he left Peru and traveled back once again to San Francisco where he gave a number of illustrated lectures at the [[California Academy of Sciences]] on Peruvian archaeology and the causes of earthquakes. His travels then continued on to [[New York City|New York]], and by 1871 he was at the [[British Museum]] in London studying [[Mesoamerica]]n [[manuscript]]s.<ref name=":0" /><nowiki/>

== Alice Dixon Le Plongeon ==
[[File:Alice Dixon LePlongeon Portrait.jpeg|thumb|Portrait of Alice Dixon, taken by her husband, Augustus]]

While in London he met [[Alice Dixon Le Plongeon|Alice Dixon]], the woman with whom he would collaborate for the rest of his life. Alice was born in London in 1851. Her father, Henry Dixon, was recognized in the late nineteenth century for his contribution to the development of [[panchromatic]] photography, and for his photos of London architecture taken for the [[Society for Photographing Relics of Old London]]. Alice learned the techniques of photography from her father and worked as an assistant in his studio. After meeting Augustus, she became interested in ancient American civilizations and studied John L. Stephen's ''Incidents of Travel in Yucatan.'' She agreed to accompany Augustus on an archaeology expedition to study Maya ruins in Mexico. The pair left for New York to finalize preparations for the trip. They married in New York before traveling to Mexico in 1873.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Yucatan Through Her Eyes: Alice Dixon Le Plongeon, Writer & Expeditionary Photographer|last=Desmond|first=Lawrence|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8263-4595-0|location=Albuquerque}}</ref>

== Travels in Yucatán ==
In 1873, the Le Plongeons traveled to Yucatán to study ancient Maya sites. Their goal was to explore the possibility of links between the Maya and the civilizations of ancient Egypt and Atlantis. Their first stop was in [[Mérida, Yucatán|Mérida]] and they stayed there while Alice recovered from [[yellow fever]]. During her recuperation, the couple made connections with local scholars and both Augustus and Alice learned to speak [[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatec Maya.]]<ref name=":2" /> After Alice had recovered, the Le Plongeons made a short excursion to [[Uxmal]].

The Le Plongeons were in Yucatán during the [[Caste War of Yucatán|Caste War]], a conflict between the Maya, called the Chan Santa Cruz, and the army of Yucatán. When they traveled to Chichen Itza in 1875, they were accompanied by a military escort. When they arrived at the site, local Maya men were hired to clear the vegetation and help with excavations.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Yucatan Through Her Eyes|last=Desmond|first=Lawrence|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=2009|location=Albuquerque}}</ref>

The Le Plongeons were some of the first people to photograph and study Chichen Itza. Their photographic work was methodical and systematic, and they took hundreds of [[stereoscopy|3-D photos]]. They documented entire Maya buildings, such as the "Governor's Palace" at [[Uxmal]], in overlapping photos by placing the camera on a tall tripod or scaffold to correct for perspective and then processed the plates in the unlit rooms of Maya buildings. In addition to entire facades of buildings, they also photographed small [[artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]], and architectural details such as [[bas-relief]]s, [[Maya script|Maya hieroglyphic]] inscriptions, and [[sculpture]]s. They excavated buildings, drew maps and copied murals, and made molds of bas-reliefs.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Chac Mool1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chacmool]] statue from the [[Chichen Itza]] site]]
At [[Chichen Itza]] they excavated a structure known as the Platform of the Eagles and Jaguars and unearthed a large statue or altar figurine. They coined the name "Chaacmol" (later "[[Chac Mool]]" or ''chacmool'') for it. Although their derivation of the name is known now to have had no association with figures of this type, the name has remained in general use among later archaeologists. This statue would later be used as a demonstration of [[Toltec]] influences at the site, with other examples found at the Toltec capital, [[Tula (Mesoamerican site)|Tula]]. They also documented their excavation of the Platform of Venus with photos as well as plan and cross-section drawings.

From 1873 to 1884, the Le Plongeons visited and photographed other Maya sites such as [[Izamal]], [[Isla Mujeres]], [[Cozumel]], [[Cancún]], and [[Ake]], and traveled to [[Belize]] (British Honduras). During this time they made a few trips back to New York to attempt to sell bas-relief molds to museums, give lectures, and solicit financial backing for their studies.<ref name=":2" />
{{-}}

== Theories ==
By the 1880s, while most [[Mayanist]]s accepted that the Maya civilization postdated [[Ancient Egypt]], Le Plongeon stood by his theories. He cited his years of fieldwork and studies of archival sources, and challenged those he considered "armchair" archaeologists to debate the issues. However, as evidence mounted against [[cultural diffusion]], Le Plongeon became marginalized and his theories fell further outside the growing mainstream of Maya archaeology.<ref name="Desmond-2011" />

Le Plongeon insisted that the symbols of [[Freemasonry]] could be traced to the ancient Maya and that the ancient knowledge had come to ancient Egypt from the ancient Maya by way of Atlantis. He and Alice constructed an imaginative "history," with the Maya sites in Yucatán being the cradle of [[civilization]], with civilization then traveling east first to [[Atlantis]] and later to [[Ancient Egypt]]. The Le Plongeons named kings and queens of these dynasties and said that various artworks were portraits of such ancient royalty (such as the famous [[Chacmool]], which the couple excavated at Chichén Itzá). The Le Plongeons reconstructed a detailed but fanciful story of [[Queen Moo]] and Prince Coh (also known as "Chac Mool") in which Prince Coh's death resulted in the erection of monuments in his honor (similar to the commemoration of [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]] by [[Queen Victoria]]).<ref name=":0" />

== Works ==

* ''Vestiges of the Mayas'' (New York, 1881)
* ''Sacred Mysteries Among the Mayas and the Quiches, 11,500 Years Ago'' (New York, 1886)

== Later career and legacy ==
While most of Le Plongeon's contemporaries dismissed his theories, individuals such as [[Ignatius L. Donnelly]] and [[Helena Blavatsky]] drew upon Le Plongeon's research for their own theories. Augustus spent the remainder of his life in [[Brooklyn, New York]], writing about the connections between Maya and Egypt and defending himself against detractors. Augustus le Plongeon died in Brooklyn in 1908 at the age of eighty-three; Alice followed in 1910 at the age of fifty-nine.{{citation needed|date= November 2022}}

A collection of the works of the Le Plongeons currently resides at the [[Getty Center|Getty Research Institute]] in [[Los Angeles]]. The archive contains original records covering their travels from the 1860s through the early 1900s, including diaries, unpublished scholarly manuscripts and notes, correspondence, and extensive photographic documentation of ancient architecture and sculpture, city views, and ethnographic studies.{{citation needed|date= November 2022}}

Le Plongeon was elected a member of the [[American Antiquarian Society]] in 1878.<ref>[http://www.americanantiquarian.org/memberlistl American Antiquarian Society Members Directory]</ref>

==See also==
[[Naacal]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite book |title=A Dream of Maya: Augustus and Alice Le Plongeon in Nineteenth Century Yucatan |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |year=1988 |isbn=0-8263-1000-1|location=Albuquerque, NM |author=Desmond, Lawrence |author2=Phyllis Messenger}}
* Desmond, LG (1999). 'Augustus Le Plongeon. A fall from archaeological grace', in AB Kehoe & MB Emmerichs (edd.), ''Assembling the Past: Studies in the Professionalization of Archaeology'', Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 81–90. {{ISBN|0-8263-1939-4}}.
*[http://archaeoplanet.wordpress.com/2011/11/14/a-critique-of-the-wikipedia-augustus-le-plongeon-article/ Desmond, LG (2011). 'A Critique of the Wikipedia Augustus Le Plongeon article' at archaeoplanet.wordpress.com]
Desmond, Lawrence G. (2009) Yucatan through her eyes: Alice Dixon Le Plongeon, writer and expeditionary photographer. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

== External links ==
*{{commons category-inline}}
*[[hdl:10020/cifa2004m18|Augustus and Alice Dixon Le Plongeon papers, 1763–1937, bulk 1860–1910]]. Research Library at the [[Getty Research Institute]]. Los Angeles, California.
*[[hdl:10020/cifa2013m12|Lawrence Gustave Desmond papers relating to Augustus and Alice Le Plongeon]]. Research Library at the [[Getty Research Institute]]. Los Angeles, California.
*[http://academic.reed.edu/uxmal/contents.html Le Plongeon photographs of Uxmal]
*{{Gutenberg author | id=34112| name=Augustus Le Plongeon}}
*{{Internet Archive author |sname=Augustus Le Plongeon}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Le Plongeon, Augustus}}
[[Category:1825 births]]
[[Category:1908 deaths]]
[[Category:Mayanists]]
[[Category:Atlantis proponents]]
[[Category:Jersey academics]]
[[Category:Victorian writers]]
[[Category:19th-century British writers]]
[[Category:19th-century Mesoamericanists]]
[[Category:British Mesoamericanists]]
[[Category:New Age writers]]
[[Category:Pseudoarchaeologists]]
[[Category:Pseudohistorians]]
[[Category:Members of the American Antiquarian Society]]

Augustus Le Plongeon

2024-03-29T17:40:16Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Alice Dixon Le Plongeon */duplicative links

{{Short description|British photographer and archaeologist (1825–1908)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2022}}

{{Infobox writer 
| name = Augustus Le Plongeon
| image = Augustus-le-plongeon-photo.jpeg
| caption = Photograph by [[Alice Dixon Le Plongeon]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1825|5|4|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Island of Jersey]]
| death_date = {{death date and age|1908|12|13|1825|5|4|df=y}}
| death_place = [[Brooklyn, New York]], U.S.
| occupation = [[Antiquarian]] and amateur [[archaeologist]]
| nationality = British-American
| subject = [[Maya civilization]], [[Atlantis]]
| spouse = [[Alice Dixon Le Plongeon]]
}}

'''Augustus Henry Julian Le Plongeon'''<ref>[https://oac.cdlib.org/findaid/ark:/13030/kt3z09r80d/ Le Plongeon (Augustus and Alice Dixon) Papers]</ref> (4 May 1825 – 13 December 1908) was a British-American archeologist and photographer who studied the [[pre-Columbian]] ruins of America, particularly those of the [[Maya civilization]] on the northern [[Yucatán Peninsula]]. While his writings contain many notions that were not well received by his contemporaries and were later disproven, Le Plongeon left a lasting legacy in his photographs documenting the ancient ruins. He was one of the earliest proponents of [[Mayanism]].

== Early life and careers ==
Le Plongeon was born on the island of [[Jersey]] on 4 May 1825.<ref name="Desmond-2011">Desmond (2011)</ref> At 19, he sailed to South America and shipwrecked off the coast of [[Chile]]. While there he settled in [[Valparaíso|Valparaiso]] and taught mathematics, drawing, and languages at a local college. In 1849 he sailed to [[San Francisco, California|San Francisco]] during the [[California gold rush]] to work as a [[Surveyor (surveying)|surveyor]], and also apprenticed to become a doctor of medicine. One of his accomplishments as a surveyor included drawing a plan for the layout of the town of [[Marysville, California]] in the [[California Central Valley|Central Valley]] in 1851. Augustus was paid for his services as a surveyor with land deeds. He profited from the sale of these plots and this income would fund the majority of his archeological expeditions.<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title=A Dream of Maya|last=Desmond, Lawrence |author2=Messenger, Phyllis|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=1988|isbn=0-8263-1000-1|location=Albuquerque}}</ref>

Le Plongeon traveled to England and saw a demonstration for new photographic processes at [[The Great Exhibition]]. He then stayed in England to study photography under [[William Fox Talbot]].<ref name=":0" /> Augustus wanted to test these methods in tropical climates so he spent time traveling to St. Thomas, Virgin Islands as well as Mexico, Australia, China, and the Pacific Islands. He returned to San Francisco to open a [[daguerreotype]] portrait studio on Clay Street. In 1862, he traveled to [[Lima, Peru]] and opened another photography studio and an "electro-hydropathic" medical clinic based on an early form of alternative medicine.<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url=http://archives2.getty.edu:8082/xtf/view?docId=ead/2004.M.18/2004.M.18.xml;chunk.id=ref15;brand=default|title=Finding Aid for Augustus and Alice Dixon Le Plongeon Papers|last=Guynn|first=Beth Ann|publisher=Getty Research Institute}}</ref>

== Travels in Peru ==
Le Plongeon pioneered the use of photography as a tool for his studies. He began using the wet [[collodion]] glass-plate [[negative (photography)|negative]] process he used for studio portraits to record his explorations. He traveled extensively all over Peru for eight years visiting and photographing ancient ruins, including [[Tiwanaku|Tiahuanaco]]. Augustus also joined a number of [[E. G. Squier]]'s expeditions and took photographs out in the field. Le Plongeon was influenced by the work of [[Charles Étienne Brasseur de Bourbourg]], [[John Lloyd Stephens]], and [[Frederick Catherwood]]. These works, in combination with his own explorations in Peru, led Le Plongeon to believe that civilization had its origins in the New World.<ref name=":0" />

While in Peru Augustus became interested in the causes of earthquakes. He was able to observe the [[1868 Arica earthquake]] and he studied the resulting damage and interviewed people about what they experienced.<ref name=":0" /> During this time Le Plongeon began to speak out against abuses by Jesuit priests and the Catholic Church in Peru. He published two anti-Jesuit books, ''La religion de Jesus comparada con las ensenanzas de la Iglesia'' (1867), and ''Los Jesuitas y el Peru'' (1869).<ref name=":1" />

In 1870, he left Peru and traveled back once again to San Francisco where he gave a number of illustrated lectures at the [[California Academy of Sciences]] on Peruvian archaeology and the causes of earthquakes. His travels then continued on to [[New York City|New York]], and by 1871 he was at the [[British Museum]] in London studying [[Mesoamerica]]n [[manuscript]]s.<ref name=":0" /><nowiki/>

== Alice Dixon Le Plongeon ==
[[File:Alice Dixon LePlongeon Portrait.jpeg|thumb|Portrait of Alice Dixon, taken by her husband, Augustus]]

While in London he met [[Alice Dixon Le Plongeon|Alice Dixon]], the woman with whom he would collaborate for the rest of his life. Alice was born in London in 1851. Her father, Henry Dixon, was recognized in the late nineteenth century for his contribution to the development of [[panchromatic]] photography, and for his photos of London architecture taken for the [[Society for Photographing Relics of Old London]]. Alice learned the techniques of photography from her father and worked as an assistant in his studio. After meeting Augustus, she became interested in ancient American civilizations and studied John L. Stephen's ''Incidents of Travel in Yucatan.'' She agreed to accompany Augustus on an archaeology expedition to study Maya ruins in Mexico. The pair left for New York to finalize preparations for the trip. They married in New York before traveling to Mexico in 1873.<ref name=":2">{{Cite book|title=Yucatan Through Her Eyes: Alice Dixon Le Plongeon, Writer & Expeditionary Photographer|last=Desmond|first=Lawrence|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8263-4595-0|location=Albuquerque}}</ref>

== Travels in Yucatán ==
In 1873, the Le Plongeons traveled to Yucatán to study ancient Maya sites. Their goal was to explore the possibility of links between the Maya and the civilizations of ancient Egypt and Atlantis. Their first stop was in [[Mérida, Yucatán|Mérida]] and they stayed there while Alice recovered from [[yellow fever]]. During her recuperation, the couple made connections with local scholars and both Augustus and Alice learned to speak [[Yucatec Maya language|Yucatec Maya.]]<ref name=":2" /> After Alice had recovered, the Le Plongeons made a short excursion to [[Uxmal]].

The Le Plongeons were in Yucatán during the [[Caste War of Yucatán|Caste War]], a conflict between the Maya, called the Chan Santa Cruz, and the army of Yucatán. When they traveled to Chichen Itza in 1875, they were accompanied by a military escort. When they arrived at the site, local Maya men were hired to clear the vegetation and help with excavations.<ref>{{Cite book|title=Yucatan Through Her Eyes|last=Desmond|first=Lawrence|publisher=University of New Mexico Press|year=2009|location=Albuquerque}}</ref>

The Le Plongeons were some of the first people to photograph and study Chichen Itza. Their photographic work was methodical and systematic, and they took hundreds of [[stereoscopy|3-D photos]]. They documented entire Maya buildings, such as the "Governor's Palace" at [[Uxmal]], in overlapping photos by placing the camera on a tall tripod or scaffold to correct for perspective and then processed the plates in the unlit rooms of Maya buildings. In addition to entire facades of buildings, they also photographed small [[artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]], and architectural details such as [[bas-relief]]s, [[Maya script|Maya hieroglyphic]] inscriptions, and [[sculpture]]s. They excavated buildings, drew maps and copied murals, and made molds of bas-reliefs.<ref name=":0" />

[[File:Chac Mool1.jpg|thumb|left|[[Chacmool]] statue from the [[Chichen Itza]] site]]
At [[Chichen Itza]] they excavated a structure known as the Platform of the Eagles and Jaguars and unearthed a large statue or altar figurine. They coined the name "Chaacmol" (later "[[Chac Mool]]" or ''chacmool'') for it. Although their derivation of the name is known now to have had no association with figures of this type, the name has remained in general use among later archaeologists. This statue would later be used as a demonstration of [[Toltec]] influences at the site, with other examples found at the Toltec capital, [[Tula (Mesoamerican site)|Tula]]. They also documented their excavation of the Platform of Venus with photos as well as plan and cross-section drawings.

From 1873 to 1884, the Le Plongeons visited and photographed other Maya sites such as [[Izamal]], [[Isla Mujeres]], [[Cozumel]], [[Cancún]], and [[Ake]], and traveled to [[Belize]] (British Honduras). During this time they made a few trips back to New York to attempt to sell bas-relief molds to museums, give lectures, and solicit financial backing for their studies.<ref name=":2" />
{{-}}

== Theories ==
By the 1880s, while most [[Mayanist]]s accepted that the Maya civilization postdated [[Ancient Egypt]], Le Plongeon stood by his theories. He cited his years of fieldwork and studies of archival sources, and challenged those he considered "armchair" archaeologists to debate the issues. However, as evidence mounted against [[cultural diffusion]], Le Plongeon became marginalized and his theories fell further outside the growing mainstream of Maya archaeology.<ref name="Desmond-2011" />

Le Plongeon insisted that the symbols of [[Freemasonry]] could be traced to the ancient Maya and that the ancient knowledge had come to ancient Egypt from the ancient Maya by way of Atlantis. He and Alice constructed an imaginative "history," with the Maya sites in Yucatán being the cradle of [[civilization]], with civilization then traveling east first to [[Atlantis]] and later to [[Ancient Egypt]]. The Le Plongeons named kings and queens of these dynasties and said that various artworks were portraits of such ancient royalty (such as the famous [[Chacmool]], which the couple excavated at Chichén Itzá). The Le Plongeons reconstructed a detailed but fanciful story of [[Queen Moo]] and Prince Coh (also known as "Chac Mool") in which Prince Coh's death resulted in the erection of monuments in his honor (similar to the commemoration of [[Albert, Prince Consort|Prince Albert]] by [[Queen Victoria]]).<ref name=":0" />

== Works ==

* ''Vestiges of the Mayas'' (New York, 1881)
* ''Sacred Mysteries Among the Mayas and the Quiches, 11,500 Years Ago'' (New York, 1886)

== Later career and legacy ==
While most of Le Plongeon's contemporaries dismissed his theories, individuals such as [[Ignatius L. Donnelly]] and [[Helena Blavatsky]] drew upon Le Plongeon's research for their own theories. Augustus spent the remainder of his life in [[Brooklyn, New York]], writing about the connections between Maya and Egypt and defending himself against detractors. Augustus le Plongeon died in Brooklyn in 1908 at the age of eighty-three; Alice followed in 1910 at the age of fifty-nine.{{citation needed|date= November 2022}}

A collection of the works of the Le Plongeons currently resides at the [[Getty Center|Getty Research Institute]] in [[Los Angeles]]. The archive contains original records covering their travels from the 1860s through the early 1900s, including diaries, unpublished scholarly manuscripts and notes, correspondence, and extensive photographic documentation of ancient architecture and sculpture, city views, and ethnographic studies.{{citation needed|date= November 2022}}

Le Plongeon was elected a member of the [[American Antiquarian Society]] in 1878.<ref>[http://www.americanantiquarian.org/memberlistl American Antiquarian Society Members Directory]</ref>

==See also==
[[Naacal]]

==Footnotes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
*{{cite book |title=A Dream of Maya: Augustus and Alice Le Plongeon in Nineteenth Century Yucatan |publisher=University of New Mexico Press |year=1988 |isbn=0-8263-1000-1|location=Albuquerque, NM |author=Desmond, Lawrence |author2=Phyllis Messenger}}
* Desmond, LG (1999). 'Augustus Le Plongeon. A fall from archaeological grace', in AB Kehoe & MB Emmerichs (edd.), ''Assembling the Past: Studies in the Professionalization of Archaeology'', Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, pp. 81–90. {{ISBN|0-8263-1939-4}}.
*[http://archaeoplanet.wordpress.com/2011/11/14/a-critique-of-the-wikipedia-augustus-le-plongeon-article/ Desmond, LG (2011). 'A Critique of the Wikipedia Augustus Le Plongeon article' at archaeoplanet.wordpress.com]
Desmond, Lawrence G. (2009) Yucatan through her eyes: Alice Dixon Le Plongeon, writer and expeditionary photographer. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press.

== External links ==
*{{commons category-inline}}
*[[hdl:10020/cifa2004m18|Augustus and Alice Dixon Le Plongeon papers, 1763–1937, bulk 1860–1910]]. Research Library at the [[Getty Research Institute]]. Los Angeles, California.
*[[hdl:10020/cifa2013m12|Lawrence Gustave Desmond papers relating to Augustus and Alice Le Plongeon]]. Research Library at the [[Getty Research Institute]]. Los Angeles, California.
*[http://academic.reed.edu/uxmal/contents.html Le Plongeon photographs of Uxmal]
*{{Gutenberg author | id=34112| name=Augustus Le Plongeon}}
*{{Internet Archive author |sname=Augustus Le Plongeon}}

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Item number

2024-03-18T09:50:29Z

ExtravagAunt: typo

{{short description|Musical performance in Indian cinema}}
{{Use Indian English|date=August 2021}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}}
[[File:12 Nathalia Department - Flickr - rgvzoomin.jpg|thumb|Actress [[Nathalia Kaur]] performing an item number in the film ''[[Department (film)|Department]]'' (2012)]]

In [[Cinema of India|Indian cinema]], an '''item number''' or '''special song''' is a musical number inserted into a film that may or may not have any relevance to the plot. The term is commonly used within Indian films ([[Malayalam cinema|Malayalam]], [[Telugu cinema|Telugu]], [[Tamil cinema|Tamil]], [[Hindi cinema|Hindi]], [[Kannada cinema|Kannada]], [[Punjabi cinema|Punjabi]], and [[Cinema of West Bengal|Bengali]] cinema) and to a lesser extent within Pakistani films ([[Cinema of Pakistan|Urdu]], [[Lollywood|Punjabi]] and [[Pashto cinema|Pashto]] cinema) to describe a catchy, upbeat, often provocative dance sequence for a song performed in a movie.<ref name="Definition">[http://www.cylive.com/viewContent.do?id=351&vt=pub Journals : Item number defined] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080407174943/http://www.cylive.com/viewContent.do?id=351&vt=pub |date=7 April 2008 }}</ref> The main aim of an item number is to entertain movie-goers and to lend support to the [[Film promotion|marketability]] of the film by being featured in [[movie trailer|trailers]].<ref name="Dictionary">{{cite book |last=Barrett |first=Grant |title=The official dictionary of unofficial English: a crunk omnibus for thrillionaires and bampots for the Ecozoic Age |url=https://archive.org/details/officialdictiona00barr_548 |url-access=limited |publisher=McGraw-Hill Professional |isbn=0-07-145804-2 |year=2006 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/officialdictiona00barr_548/page/n225 189], 190}}</ref> They are favoured by filmmakers as they afford the opportunity to pick potential hit songs from the stocks, since they do not add to the continuity of the plot.<ref name="Communalism">{{cite book |last=Morey |first=Peter |title=Alternative Indias: writing, nation and communalism |url=https://archive.org/details/alternativeindia00more |url-access=limited |year=2005 |publisher=Rodopi |isbn=90-420-1927-1 |page=[https://archive.org/details/alternativeindia00more/page/n259 221], 178 |author2=Alex Tickell |editor=Peter Morey and Alex Tickell}}</ref> It is thus a vehicle for commercial success that ensures repeat viewing.<ref name="Globalization">{{cite book |last=Bhattacharya Mehta |first=Rini |title=Bollywood and Globalization: Indian Popular Cinema, Nation, and Diaspora |year=2010 |publisher=Anthem Press |isbn=978-1-84331-833-0 |page=42 |author2=Rajeshwari Pandharipande}}</ref>

An actress, singer, or dancer, especially someone who is poised to become a [[Movie star|star]], who appears in an item number is known as an '''item girl'''. While there are '''item boys'''<ref name="Dictionary"/> as well, women are more commonly featured in item numbers than men.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Gera Roy |first=Anjali |title=The Body of New Asian Dance Music |year=2009 |ssrn=1471101 |publisher=SSRN |doi=10.2139/ssrn.1471101 |journal=Asia Research Institute Working Paper No. 122}}</ref><ref name=GhoshTOI>{{cite news |last=Ghosh |first=Biswadeep |title=Biggest item numbers ever! |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-12-15/news-and-interviews/28231300_1_songs-numbers-film-lovers |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120523183903/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-12-15/news-and-interviews/28231300_1_songs-numbers-film-lovers |url-status=dead |archive-date=23 May 2012 |access-date=25 April 2011 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=15 December 2010}}</ref>

In [[filmi]] [[Mumbai]] slang, the term ''item'' means a "sexy woman",<ref name="Communalism"/> thus the original sense of "item number" is a highly sensualized song with racy, dirty imagery and suggestive lyrics.<ref>{{cite news |last1=Towheed Feroze |title=Hypocrisy of the reel and the real |url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/op-ed/2014/sep/29/hypocrisy-reel-and-real |access-date=15 May 2015 |newspaper=Dhaka Tribune |date=29 September 2014 |archive-date=9 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109133005/http://www.dhakatribune.com/op-ed/2014/sep/29/hypocrisy-reel-and-real |url-status=live }}</ref>

==History==
===1930s{{ndash}}1970s===
Up to the 1970s, Hindi cinema often relied on a female "vamp" character – usually playing the role of a [[cabaret]] dancer, ''[[tawaif]]''/prostitute/[[courtesan]], or male gangster's moll – to provide musical entertainment deemed more risqué. While film heroines also sang and danced, it was the vamp who wore more revealing clothes, smoked, drank, and sang sexually suggestive lyrics.<ref name="Communalism"/> The vamp was portrayed as immodest rather than evil, and her dance performances were sexualized by male producers. The trend was started by [[Cuckoo Moray|Cuckoo]] in films like ''[[Awaara]]'' (1951), ''[[Aan]]'' (1952) and ''Shabistan'' (1951).<ref name="filmonomics">{{cite web |url=http://www.pixelonomics.com/bollywood-item-numbers-monica-to-munni/ |title=Bollywood item numbers: from Monica to Munni |year=2010 |access-date=16 November 2010 |archive-date=22 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190722184028/http://www.pixelonomics.com/bollywood-item-numbers-monica-to-munni/ |url-status=dead}}</ref>

Item numbers had been featured in Bollywood from as early as the 1930s. [[Madame Azurie|Azoorie]] in the 1930s often performed item numbers; [[Cuckoo Moray|Cuckoo]] was the next popular item dancer in the late 40s. Her banner year was 1949 when she was featured in over 17 films performing dances. Actress and classical dancer [[Vyjayanthimala]] was the one that introduced the classical dance number in Hindi films with her debut film ''[[Bahar (film)|Bahar]]'' (1951). The mixture of classical plus contemporary was popularized by Vyjayanthimala in films such as [[Devdas (1955 film)|''Devdas'']] (1955), [[Amrapali (film)|''Amrapali'']] (1966), ''[[Madhumati]]'' (1958), [[Sadhna (1958 film)|''Sadhna'']] (1958), [[Sunghursh]] (1968) etc.

In the early 50s, [[Cuckoo Moray|Cuckoo]] introduced the Anglo-Burmese [[Helen (actress)|Helen]] as a chorus girl. In time Helen would come to be the most popular vamp of the late-50s, 60s and 70s,<ref name="Global Bollywood">{{cite book |last=Anandam P |first=Kavoori |title=Global Bollywood |year=2008 |publisher=NYU Press |isbn=978-0-8147-4799-5 |page=187}}</ref> having had performed in scores of item numbers including such popular songs as "[[Mera Naam Chin Chin Choo]]" from the film ''[[Howrah Bridge (film)|Howrah Bridge]]'' (1958), "[[Piya Tu Ab To Aaja]]" from ''[[Caravan (1971 film)|Caravan]]'' (1971), "Mehbooba Mehbooba" from ''[[Sholay]]'' (1975) and "Yeh Mera Dil" from ''[[Don (1978 film)|Don]] '' (1978) (the song's tune was used in [[Don't Phunk with My Heart]]), "O Haseena Zulfon Wali" from [[Teesri Manzil]] and "[[Aa Jaane Jaan]]" from [[Intaqam]]. In films like ''[[Gunga Jumna]]'' and ''[[Zindagi (1964 film)|Zindagi]]'' the actress performed semi-classical Indian dances in songs like "Tora man bada paapi" and "Ghungarwa mora chham chham baaje". A ''[[desi]]'' bar number, "Mungda" from ''[[Inkaar (1977 film)|Inkaar]]'' was also immensely popular. In addition to her skillful dancing, her anglicised looks too helped further the vamp image.<ref name="revamp">{{cite news |last=Mukherjee |first=Madhurita |title=Revamping Bollywood's sexy vamps |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2003-02-03/news-interviews/27281535_1_cinema-special-appearance-shamita-shetty |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121103220911/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2003-02-03/news-interviews/27281535_1_cinema-special-appearance-shamita-shetty |url-status=dead |archive-date=3 November 2012 |access-date=12 November 2010 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=3 February 2003}}</ref> Helen's dominance pushed other vying item number dancers like Madhumati, [[Bela Bose]], [[Laxmi Chhaya]], Jeevankala, [[Aruna Irani]], Sheela R. and Sujata Bakshi into the background and less prestigious and low budget b-movies.

In the early part of the 1970s actresses [[Jayshree T.]], [[Bindu (actress)|Bindu]], [[Aruna Irani]] and [[Padma Khanna]] entered into what was Helen's monopoly. Another noted feature of this era was the "tribal and ''banjara''" item numbers such as the one in ''[[Shalimar (1978 film)|Shalimar]]''. Such songs provided the necessary settings for the lead couple's love to bloom.<ref name="bourgeois">{{cite book |last=Deshpande |first=Anirudh |title=Class, Power And Consciousness In Indian Cinema And Television |year=2009 |publisher=Primus Books |isbn=978-81-908918-2-0 |page=49}}</ref>

===1980s{{ndash}}1990s===

[[Silk Smitha]] was part of several successful Item [[Dance|dance numbers]] in the 1980s Indian films.<ref>{{Cite web |last=K |first=Janani |date=2 December 2020 |title=Who was Silk Smitha? |url=https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/who-was-silk-smitha-1745997-2020-12-02 |access-date=26 July 2021 |website=India Today |language=en |archive-date=26 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210726064246/https://www.indiatoday.in/movies/regional-cinema/story/who-was-silk-smitha-1745997-2020-12-02 |url-status=live }}</ref> Around the 1980s the vamp and the heroine merged into one figure and the lead actress had begun to perform the bolder numbers. The craze for "tribal and ''banjara''" item numbers were soon gave way to slick choreography.<ref name="bourgeois"/> In the late 1990s, with the proliferation of film songs based television shows, film producers had come to realise that an exceptional way to entice audiences into theaters was by spending excessively on the visualization of songs. Hence regardless of the theme and plot, an elaborate song and dance routine involving spectacularly lavish sets, costumes, special effects, extras and dancers would invariably be featured in a film. It was asserted that this contributed highly to the film's "repeat value".<ref name="Ganti">{{cite book |last=Ganti |first=Tejaswini |title=Bollywood: a guidebook to popular Hindi cinema |year=2004 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=0-415-28853-3 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bollywoodguidebo0000gant/page/86 86, 167] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/bollywoodguidebo0000gant/page/86}}</ref>

[[Madhuri Dixit]] is often considered to be the pioneer of the modern trend. In the late 1980s, the song "Ek Do Teen" was added to the movie ''[[Tezaab]]'' as an afterthought, but it transformed Dixit and made her a superstar.<ref name="Ganti"/> Her partnership with choreographer [[Saroj Khan]] has resulted in numerous hits including the controversial "Choli ke peeche kya hai" and "Dhak Dhak" (''[[Beta (film)|Beta]]'').<ref name="saroj khan">{{cite news |last=Bhattacharya |first=Roshmila |title=Our heart goes ''dhak dhak'' again |url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Our-hearts-go-dhak-dhak-again/Article1-629156.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101127023112/http://www.hindustantimes.com/Our-hearts-go-dhak-dhak-again/Article1-629156.aspx |url-status=dead |archive-date=27 November 2010 |access-date=29 November 2010 |newspaper=Hindustan Times |date=21 November 2010}}</ref> Soon after the release of the film ''[[Khal Nayak]]'', there were press reports stating that people were seeing the film again and again but only for the song "Choli Ke Peeche Kya Hai" that featured Dixit.<ref name="Ganti"/>

Although there have been many songs that fit the descriptions of item numbers in the early and mid-1990s, the term itself was coined when [[Shilpa Shetty]] danced for "Main Aai Hoon UP Bihar Lootne" in the movie ''[[Shool]]''. This is perhaps the first time the media actually referred to Shetty as an "item girl" and the scene as an "item number".<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UdySdhZAvh4&feature=feedu |url-status=dead |title=Latest Bollywood News — Top 5 Trends That Gripped Bollywood |via=YouTube |access-date=8 November 2011 |archive-date=11 January 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160111073548/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UdySdhZAvh4&feature=feedu}}</ref>

===2000s===
Since 2000, many top Hindi film stars now do item numbers, and many new women entering Bollywood find item numbers a more amenable shortcut to success, as opposed to more traditional roles with no guarantee of eventual stardom.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} Former item girls in pop songs outside films, [[Rakhi Sawant]] and [[Meghna Naidu]], for example, are now in demand and very popular. Today, they are even being given lead roles in movies.{{as of?|date=May 2012}} As of 2007, [[Mallika Sherawat]] had become the most expensive item girl, charging Rs. 15 million (roughly US$375,000) for the song "Mehbooba O Mehbooba" in ''[[Aap Ka Suroor - The Real Love Story]]''.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} Another example is actress [[Urmila Matondkar]], one of the most successful item girls during that time.{{Original research inline|date=May 2011}} She was featured in "[[Chamma Chamma]]" in the 1998 film ''[[China Gate (1998 film)|China Gate]]'' and "Tandoori Nights" in the 2008 film ''[[Karzzzz (film)|Karzzzz]]''. [[Baz Luhrmann]]'s 2001 film musical, ''[[Moulin Rouge!]]'' used a westernized version of this song.

[[Malaika Arora]] and [[Yana Gupta]] are "official" item number dancers and have said in interviews that they don't want to act in movies since they already earn more than enough money just by doing one item number as opposed to full-on roles.{{Citation needed|date=May 2011}}

[[Abhishek Bachchan]] became the first "item boy" with his performance in ''[[Rakht]]''; [[Shah Rukh Khan|Shahrukh Khan]] performed an item number of sorts during the opening credits of ''[[Kaal (2005 film)|Kaal]]'' but later had an item number in a truer sense of the word with "Dard-e-disco" in ''[[Om Shanti Om]]'', where he was shot in a more typical "item girl" manner, with Khan wearing minimal clothing (though this number did have a connection, albeit tenuous, with the plot of the film). In ''[[Krazzy 4]]'', [[Hrithik Roshan]] has an item number during the end credits. [[Ranbir Kapoor]] made his debut in an item number in ''[[Chillar Party]]'' (2011); drawing inspiration from his father Rishi Kapoor's [[Qawwali]] song "[[Parda Hai Parda (song)|Parda Hai Parda]]" from ''[[Amar Akbar Anthony]]''. In 2005 and 2006 actress [[Bipasha Basu]] gave blockbuster hit numbers like No Entry and Beedi Jalaile.

In the 2007 [[Telugu film]] ''[[Desamuduru]]'', the song "Attaantode Ittaantode" featuring [[Allu Arjun]] and [[Rambha (actress)|Rambha]] became a chartbuster. In the 2007 film ''[[Om Shanti Om]]'', the song "Deewangi Deewangi" had guest appearances by over [[Om Shanti Om#Cast|30 Bollywood stars]]. In 2008, the makers of ''[[Rab Ne Bana Di Jodi]]'' featured [[Kajol]], [[Bipasha Basu]], [[Lara Dutta]], [[Priety Zinta]], and [[Rani Mukerji]] playing five leading ladies opposite [[Shah Rukh Khan|Shahrukh Khan]] in the song "Phir Milenge Chalte Chalte".

===2010s===
In 2010, [[Katrina Kaif]] featured in "[[Sheila Ki Jawani]]" from ''[[Tees Maar Khan (2010 film)|Tees Maar Khan]]'', and [[Malaika Arora]] featured in "[[Munni Badnaam Hui]]" from ''[[Dabangg]]''.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/slide-show-1-top-item-numbers-of-2010/20101209.htm |title=The Hottest Item Numbers of 2010 |publisher=Rediff.com |date=9 December 2010 |access-date=6 July 2012 |archive-date=27 June 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150627033353/http://www.rediff.com/movies/report/slide-show-1-top-item-numbers-of-2010/20101209.htm |url-status=live }}</ref> Parallels were drawn between Katrina and Malaika, as well as between the item numbers, in what was popularly known as the "Munni vs Sheila" debate.<ref>{{cite news |last=Nagpaul-D'Souza |first=Dipti |title=Munni vs Sheila: The way of the 'Item Bomb' |url=http://www.indianexpress.com/news/munni-vs-sheila-the-way-of-the-item-bomb/729468/1 |access-date=22 December 2011 |newspaper=The Indian Express |date=26 December 2010 |archive-date=31 December 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231063743/http://www.indianexpress.com/news/munni-vs-sheila-the-way-of-the-item-bomb/729468/1 |url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Wangoo |first=Anupama |title=Sheila steals Munni's thunder |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-12-26/chandigarh/28217169_1_munni-badnaam-hui-malaika-arora-jawani |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120701180033/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-12-26/chandigarh/28217169_1_munni-badnaam-hui-malaika-arora-jawani |url-status=dead |archive-date=1 July 2012 |access-date=22 December 2011 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |date=26 December 2011}}</ref> The songs became so popular, that, soon, more films began incorporating item numbers, and with more top stars now wanting to do them.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-forthcoming-item-numbers/20120626.htm |title=PIX: SIZZLING item numbers coming up! |publisher=Rediff.com |date=26 June 2012 |access-date=6 July 2012 |archive-date=6 July 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120706062616/http://www.rediff.com/movies/slide-show/slide-show-1-forthcoming-item-numbers/20120626.htm |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2012, [[Katrina Kaif]] again featured in an item number "[[Chikni Chameli]]" sung by [[Shreya Ghoshal]] which became a huge hit.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-12-21/news-interviews/30538652_1_chikni-chameli-song-marathi-music |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130924053654/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-12-21/news-interviews/30538652_1_chikni-chameli-song-marathi-music |url-status=dead |archive-date=24 September 2013 |newspaper=[[The Times of India]] |title=Chikni Chameli sets Kombdi's popularity soaring}}</ref> In 2013, [[Deepika Padukone]] had some success item dancing, performing songs like "Party On My Mind" and "Lovely". [[Priyanka Chopra]] did many songs such as " [[Priyanka Chopra|Babli Badmaash]]", "Pinky", and an appearance in Sanjay Leela Bhansali's [[Goliyon Ki Raasleela Ram-Leela]] song "[[Ram Chahe Leela]]", of which became a blockbuster upon release. [[Mahi Gill]], [[Sonakshi Sinha]], and [[Jacqueline Fernandez]] made their debut with "Don't Touch My Body", "Govinda Govinda" and "Jadu Ki Jappi" respectively.

[[Indian-Canadian]] actress [[Sunny Leone]] performed her first item dance with "''Laila''" from the 2013 film "[[Shootout at Wadala]]", followed up with ''[[Baby Doll (Kanika Kapoor song)|Baby Doll]]'' from [[Ragini MMS 2]]. In 2016, popular Telugu film actress [[Kajal Agarwal]] appeared in an item number "''Pakka Local''" for the film ''[[Janatha Garage]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |last=India |first=The Hans |date=23 July 2018 |title=Kajal says no to item number? |url=https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Cinema/2018-07-23/Kajal-says-no-to-item-number/400329 |access-date=9 June 2023 |website=thehansindia.com |language=en |archive-date=9 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609184320/https://www.thehansindia.com/posts/index/Cinema/2018-07-23/Kajal-says-no-to-item-number/400329 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2017, Sunny Leone featured in the hit item number "Laila Main Laila" starring [[Shah Rukh Khan]] in the film ''[[Raees (2017 film)|Raees]]''. It is a recreation of the song "Laila O Laila" from the 1980 film ''[[Qurbani (film)|Qurbani]]'', which featured actress [[Zeenat Aman]] with [[Feroz Khan (actor)|Feroz Khan]] in the original musical number.<ref>{{cite news |title=Zeenat Aman reveals the story behind original Laila Oh Laila song |url=https://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-zeenat-aman-reveals-the-story-behind-original-laila-oh-laila-song-2282919 |access-date=29 April 2019 |work=[[DNA India]] |date=15 December 2016 |archive-date=18 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161218144600/http://www.dnaindia.com/entertainment/report-zeenat-aman-reveals-the-story-behind-original-laila-oh-laila-song-2282919 |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2017, [[Anglo-Indian]] actress [[Amanda Rosario]] featured in the item number "Sarkar"<ref>{{Citation |last=R-Vision India |title=Sarkar {{!}} Udanchhoo {{!}} Amanda Rosario {{!}} Rani Hazarika {{!}} Latest Bollywood Item Hindi Song |date=1 December 2017 |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I2aS1OFT790 |access-date=14 December 2017 |archive-date=11 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200711165515/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I2aS1OFT790 |url-status=live }}</ref> sung by [[Rani Hazarika (singer)|Rani Hazarika]] from the movie ''[[Udanchhoo]]''.

In 2018, [[Pooja Hegde]] featured in the hit item number "Jigelu Rani" from the film ''[[Rangasthalam]]''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/pooja-hegde-lands-a-special-song-in-rangasthalam-117100500310_1.html |title=Pooja Hegde lands a special song in 'Rangasthalam' |website=Business Standard |date=5 October 2017 |access-date=7 December 2021 |archive-date=29 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200129062318/https://www.business-standard.com/article/news-ians/pooja-hegde-lands-a-special-song-in-rangasthalam-117100500310_1.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The song was trending on [[YouTube]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=29 March 2018 |title=Pooja Hegde sizzles as Jigelu Rani |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/music/pooja-hegde-sizzles-as-jigelu-rani/articleshow/63518299.cms |access-date=20 April 2022 |website=[[The Times of India]] |archive-date=22 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522055131/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/telugu/music/pooja-hegde-sizzles-as-jigelu-rani/articleshow/63518299.cms |url-status=live }}</ref> [[Moroccan Canadians|Moroccan-Canadian]] dancer-actress [[Nora Fatehi]] also featured in the item song "[[Dilbar (song)|Dilbar]]" which has become one of the most popular [[Bollywood music]] videos of all time.<ref>{{cite news |title=Nora Fatehi rejects reports of signing up Mahira Khan's 'Superstar' |url=https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/462437-nora-fatehi-of-dilbar-fame-to-dance-in-mahira-khans-superstar |access-date=28 April 2019 |work=[[The News International]] |date=24 April 2019 |archive-date=26 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190426104557/https://www.thenews.com.pk/latest/462437-nora-fatehi-of-dilbar-fame-to-dance-in-mahira-khans-superstar |url-status=live }}</ref> It is a recreation of an item number of the same name from ''[[Sirf Tum]]'' (1999), which was composed by [[Nadeem–Shravan]] and featured [[Sushmita Sen]] as an item girl. The re-created version by [[Tanishk Bagchi]] features [[Middle-Eastern music]]al sounds.<ref>{{cite news |title=Shaken, Not Stirred |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/shaken-not-stirred-bollywood-playback-singers-old-classic-music-remakes-5294719/ |access-date=29 April 2019 |work=[[The Indian Express]] |date=7 August 2018 |language=en-IN |archive-date=6 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190506032109/https://indianexpress.com/article/entertainment/music/shaken-not-stirred-bollywood-playback-singers-old-classic-music-remakes-5294719/ |url-status=live }}</ref> In the music video, Nora Fatehi performs [[belly dancing]], an [[Arabic dance]] style that was previously featured in a number of popular Bollywood item numbers, performed by actresses such as [[Helen (actress)|Helen]] in "Mehbooba O Mehbooba" from ''[[Sholay]]'' (1975), [[Zeenat Aman]] in "Raqqasa Mera Naam" from ''[[The Great Gambler]]'' (1979), [[Mallika Sherawat]] in "Mayya Mayya" from ''[[Guru (2007 film)|Guru]]'' (2007), and [[Rani Mukerji]] in "Aga Bai" from ''[[Aiyyaa]]'' (2012).<ref>{{cite news |last1=Rajguru |first1=Sumit |title=International Dance Day 2019: Top 5 belly dance numbers in Bollywood you can't miss |url=https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/bollywood/280419/international-dance-day-2019-top-5-belly-dance-numbers-in-bollywood-y.html |access-date=29 April 2019 |work=[[Deccan Chronicle]] |date=29 April 2019 |archive-date=29 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190429043111/https://www.deccanchronicle.com/entertainment/bollywood/280419/international-dance-day-2019-top-5-belly-dance-numbers-in-bollywood-y.html |url-status=live }}</ref> The international success of "Dilbar" inspired an [[Arabic]]-language version, also featuring Nora Fatehi. "Dilbar" is popular across Southern Asia and the [[Arab world]], with all versions of the song having received more than 1{{nbsp}}billion views on YouTube.<ref>{{cite web |title=Dilbar |url=https://www.youtube.com/user/tseries/search?query=Dilbar |access-date=18 April 2019 |via=YouTube |publisher=[[T-Series (company)|T-Series]] |archive-date=20 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190420201841/https://www.youtube.com/user/tseries/search?query=Dilbar |url-status=live }}</ref>

TV and Bollywood Actress [[Mouni Roy]] made her debut by "Nachna Aunda Nahi". The "Gali Gali" track from the Kannada film [[K.G.F: Chapter 1]], sung by [[Neha Kakkar]], which featured Mouni Roy also, was a huge hit.

=== 2020s ===
In 2022, the "[[Oo Antava Oo Oo Antava (song)|Oo Antava Oo Oo Antava]]" track sung by Indravathi Chauhan from the [[Telugu language|Telugu]] language film ''[[Pushpa: The Rise]]'', which featured [[Samantha Ruth Prabhu]], was a huge nationwide hit, despite the song being dubbed in all languages including [[Tamil language|Tamil]], [[Hindi]], [[Malayalam]] and [[Kannada]]. In 2023, [[Sayyesha]] featured in an item number "Raawadi" from the Tamil film ''[[Pathu Thala]]''.<ref>{{Cite news |date=25 March 2023 |title='Raawadi' video song: Sayyesha amazes fans with her dance moves in this 'Pathu Thala' item number |work=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/raawadi-video-song-sayyesha-amazes-fans-with-her-dance-moves-in-this-pathu-thala-item-number/articleshow/98996891.cms?from=mdr |access-date=9 June 2023 |issn=0971-8257 |archive-date=9 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230609194312/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/entertainment/tamil/movies/news/raawadi-video-song-sayyesha-amazes-fans-with-her-dance-moves-in-this-pathu-thala-item-number/articleshow/98996891.cms?from=mdr |url-status=live }}</ref>

==Impact==
On 21 July 2005, Indian parliament passed a bill to ban [[dance bar]]s in [[Maharashtra]]. Criticizing the bill and supporting the dancers, [[Flavia Agnes]] said that bar dancing cannot be termed as vulgar, what they are doing is an imitation of what item girls are doing in films, they work there out of their own choice.<ref name="Mumbai bar">{{cite web |last=Agnes |first=Flavia |title=Hypocritical Morality: Mumbai's Ban on Bar Dancers |url=http://www.manushi-india.org/pdfs_issues/PDF%20Files%20149/Flavia%20Agnes.pdf |publisher=Manushi |access-date=10 November 2010 |archive-date=21 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721105921/http://www.manushi-india.org/pdfs_issues/PDF%20Files%20149/Flavia%20Agnes.pdf |url-status=live }}</ref>

As one writer put it, "On paper, item numbers form the perfect formula for female sexual empowerment. In reality, they mostly result in the most blatant objectification. Camera angles zoom in over gyrating hips and linger over bare waists as blatantly as the eyes of the ogling men with no subtlety. The gaze in these dance numbers presents itself as vaguely voyeuristic, at best. There is a very deliberate implication present; that the item girl is not only inviting the leers and jeers, but she is also enjoying them."<ref>{{cite web |last1=Waseem |first1=Anum |title=Bollywood item numbers are more dangerous than we think |url=https://thetempest.co/2018/09/13/entertainment/are-bollywood-item-numbers-selling-danger/ |website=The Tempest |access-date=6 July 2020 |date=13 September 2018 |archive-date=4 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200804032013/https://thetempest.co/2018/09/13/entertainment/are-bollywood-item-numbers-selling-danger/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In 2013, the [[Central Board of Film Certification]] issued a resolution declaring that item songs will now be rated as adult content and will not be allowed to be shown on television channels.<ref>{{cite web |last=Sinha |first=Amitabh |title='Item songs' to be barred from TV |url=http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/item-songs-to-be-barred-from-tv/1071182/ |access-date=10 February 2013 |archive-date=13 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160513020158/http://archive.indianexpress.com/news/item-songs-to-be-barred-from-tv/1071182/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* [http://www.behindwoods.com/tamil-movies-slide-shows/movie-1/item/item-numbers.html History of Item Girls in Tamil Cinema]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Item Number}}
[[Category:Film industry in India]]
[[Category:Hindi cinema]]
[[Category:Indian songs]]
[[Category:Culture of India]]
[[Category:Telugu cinema]]

Ali Reza Pahlavi (born 1966)

2024-03-07T16:25:14Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Death */

{{Short description|Iranian prince (1966–2011)}}
{{About|the son of [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]|his uncle of the same name|Ali Reza Pahlavi (born 1922)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image =
| caption =
| title =
| spouse =
| spouse-type =
| issue = Iryana Leila Pahlavi
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1966|4|28}}
| birth_place = [[Tehran]], [[Pahlavi Iran|Imperial State of Iran]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|2011|1|4|1966|4|28}}
| death_place = [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| house = [[Pahlavi dynasty|Pahlavi]]
| father = [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]
| mother = [[Farah Pahlavi|Farah Diba]]
}}

'''Ali Reza Pahlavi''' ({{lang-fa|علیرضا پهلوی}}; 28 April 1966 – 4 January 2011) was a member of the [[Pahlavi dynasty|Pahlavi imperial family]] of the [[Pahlavi dynasty|Imperial State of Iran]]. He was the younger son of [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], the former Shah of Iran<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ugWP-IPW5yAC&q=Prince+Ali+Reza+Pahlavi Yearbook of the Encyclopedia Americana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603121131/https://books.google.com/books?id=ugWP-IPW5yAC&q=Prince+Ali+Reza+Pahlavi&dq=Prince+Ali+Reza+Pahlavi&lr=&cd=5 |date=3 June 2016 }} - Page 37</ref> and his third wife [[Farah Pahlavi|Farah Diba]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wy5XAAAAMAAJ |title=The Middle East and North Africa |publisher=Europa Publications |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-905118-11-6 |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215201413/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wy5XAAAAMAAJ |archive-date=15 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> He was second in [[order of succession]] to the Iranian throne before the [[Iranian Revolution]].

== Biography ==
[[File:AliRezaPahlavi.jpg|thumb|left|Prince Ali Reza in 1976]]
Ali Reza Pahlavi was born on 28 April 1966.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=5G8KAAAAIAAJ&q=Prince+Ali+Reza+Pahlavi The Statesman's year-book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521143044/https://books.google.com/books?id=5G8KAAAAIAAJ&q=Prince+Ali+Reza+Pahlavi&dq=Prince+Ali+Reza+Pahlavi&lr=&cd=8 |date=21 May 2016 }}, Volume 110 - Page 1046</ref><ref name="google1">{{Cite web |last=Scott |first=Marcia |date=4 January 2011 |title=AFP: Son of Iran shah commits suicide in US: family |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5isIRLO9nOsEaIKMGw-fCyF_5TGnQ?docId=CNG.4844c10793df1183202908033c62a66e.7c1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107131537/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5isIRLO9nOsEaIKMGw-fCyF_5TGnQ?docId=CNG.4844c10793df1183202908033c62a66e.7c1 |archive-date=7 January 2011 |accessdate=8 February 2011}}</ref> He attended the [[Niavaran Palace]] primary school in Iran<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ali Reza Pahlavi |url=http://www.farahpahlavi.org/alireza.html |url-status=dead |publisher=farahpahlavi.org |accessdate=25 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726051242/http://www.farahpahlavi.org/alireza.html |archivedate=26 July 2011}}</ref> but left Iran alongside his family shortly before the Iranian revolution. He moved to the [[United States|U.S.]] where he attended [[Saint David's School (New York City)|Saint David's School]] in New York City and Mt Greylock Regional High School in Williamstown, Massachusetts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ali Reza Pahlavi |url=http://www.farahpahlavi.org/alireza.html |url-status=dead |publisher=Farah Pahlavi |accessdate=9 January 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110207111628/http://www.farahpahlavi.org/alireza.html |archivedate=7 February 2011}}</ref> Pahlavi received a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] degree from [[Princeton University]], an [[Master of Arts|MA]] degree from [[Columbia University]],<ref>[http://www.fozoolemahaleh.com/2011/01/05/در-گذشت-شاهزاده-علی-رضا-پهلوی ضایعه در گذشت شاهزاده گرامی میهنمان علی رضا پهلوی] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222093859/http://www.fozoolemahaleh.com/2011/01/05/%D8%AF%D8%B1-%DA%AF%D8%B0%D8%B4%D8%AA-%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87-%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C-%D8%B1%D8%B6%D8%A7-%D9%BE%D9%87%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C |date=22 December 2018 }},</ref> and was studying at [[Harvard University]] as a [[PhD student]] in ancient Iranian studies and [[philology]] at the time of his death.<ref name="google1" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 January 2011 |title=News / International: Son of former Iranian shah found dead in Boston |work=The Hindu |location=Chennai, India |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article1034537.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026125619/http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article1034537.ece |archive-date=26 October 2012 |accessdate=8 February 2011}}</ref>

He was engaged in 2001 to Sarah Tabatabai, but it seems that the relationship ended some time afterwards.<ref>[https://www.welt.de/print-welt/article487599/Ein_Herz_und_keine_Krone.html "Ein Herz und keine Krone"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009205302/http://www.welt.de/print-welt/article487599/Ein_Herz_und_keine_Krone.html |date=9 October 2008 }}. ''Die Welt''. 16 November 2001.</ref> From 2007 to 2011 he was in a relationship with Dr. Raha Didevar, to whom he became engaged in 2010.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://dopcabliss.weebly.com/reza-pahlavi.html | title=Reza Pahlavi }}</ref> Their daughter, Iryana Leila Pahlavi was born in 2011. He was once voted one of the "world's most eligible princes."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Steven Hoffer |date=4 January 2011 |title=Prince Ali Reza Pahlavi Commits Suicide: 5 Facts About the Shah of Iran's Son |url=http://www.aolnews.com/2011/01/04/prince-ali-reza-pahlavi-commits-suicide-5-facts-about-the-shah/ |url-status=dead |publisher=Aolnews.com |accessdate=8 February 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208004625/http://www.aolnews.com/2011/01/04/prince-ali-reza-pahlavi-commits-suicide-5-facts-about-the-shah/ |archivedate=8 February 2011}}</ref>

== Death ==
After a long period of depression, on 4 January 2011 Pahlavi died in his apartment in the [[South End, Boston]], (141 West Newton Street)<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=akrUDwAAQBAJ&dq=pahlavi++141+West+Newton+Street&pg=PA47 | title=My Shadow is My Skin: Voices from the Iranian Diaspora | isbn=9781477320273 | last1=Whitney | first1=Katherine | last2=Emery | first2=Leila | date=16 March 2020 | publisher=University of Texas Press }}</ref> from a self-inflicted gunshot wound.<ref name="HuffPost">{{Cite news |date=4 January 2011 |title=Alireza Pahlavi Suicide: Iran Shah's Son Killed Himself In Boston, Says Brother |work=HuffPost |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/04/alireza-pahlavi-suicide-i_n_804347.html |url-status=bot: unknown |accessdate=4 September 2016 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107103341/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/04/alireza-pahlavi-suicide-i_n_804347.html |archivedate=7 January 2011}}</ref>

[[Mahnaz Afkhami]], the former Iranian Minister of Women's Affairs of the Shah's government, told the [[BBC World Service]] that Pahlavi and his family being forced into exile in 1979 was very "traumatic" for him and that he had experienced a "loss of identity" in exile.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 January 2011 |title=Shah of Iran's younger son kills himself in US |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-12115006 |url-status=live |accessdate=5 January 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110105090115/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-12115006 |archivedate=5 January 2011}}</ref> Ali Reza's sister, [[Leila Pahlavi]] also had died by suicide, in June 2001. Close family friends say that Ali Reza became very depressed after the death of his sister to whom he was very close.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 January 2011 |title=Former shah of Iran's youngest son dead in apparent suicide |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/05/AR2011010506156.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113031403/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/05/AR2011010506156.html |archive-date=13 November 2012 |accessdate=7 January 2011}}</ref> He was survived by his mother, Farah Pahlavi, his older brother Reza, his sister Farahnaz, half-sister Shahnaz<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 January 2011 |title=Son of former shah of Iran commits suicide |work=CNN |url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/US/01/04/shah.son.suicide/index.html |url-status=live |accessdate=4 September 2016 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106083341/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-01-04/us/shah.son.suicide_1_shah-mohammed-reza-pahlavi-suicide?_s=PM%3AUS |archivedate=6 January 2011}}</ref> and daughter Iryana Leila Pahlavi, who was born to his partner Raha Didevar after his death.<ref name="Announcement of Birth">{{Cite web |title=Announcement of Birth |url=http://en.rezapahlavi.org/2011/08/05/announcement-of-birth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417154943/http://en.rezapahlavi.org/2011/08/05/announcement-of-birth/ |archive-date=17 April 2017 |website=Reza Pahlavi website |accessdate=16 April 2017}}</ref>

His brother [[Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran|Reza Pahlavi]] said that his wish was to be cremated and for his ashes to be scattered in the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 January 2011 |title=Dead son of Iran's last Shah to be cremated |url=http://www.euronews.net/2011/01/06/dead-son-of-irans-last-shah-to-be-cremated/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312103024/http://www.euronews.net/2011/01/06/dead-son-of-irans-last-shah-to-be-cremated/ |archive-date=12 March 2011 |website=Euronews |accessdate=8 February 2011}}</ref>

On 23 January 2011, an official memorial was held in The Music Center at Strathmore in Bethesda, Maryland.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Memorial Ceremony For Prince Alireza Pahlavi |url=http://www.rezapahlavi.org/details_article.php?english&article=490 |url-status=dead |website=Reza Pahlavi website |accessdate=13 January 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110116000254/http://www.rezapahlavi.org/details_article.php?english&article=490 |archivedate=16 January 2011}}</ref> The memorial was attended by the former Iranian imperial family and thousands of Iranians.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 January 2011 |title=Thousands attend memorial services for Alireza Pahlavi in Maryland |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/11/jan/1246.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922035812/http://www.payvand.com/news/11/jan/1246.html |archive-date=22 September 2018 |website=Payvand |accessdate=7 January 2011}}</ref>

== Ancestry ==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. '''Prince Ali Reza Pahlavi of Iran'''
|2= 2. [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran]]
|3= 3. [[Farah Pahlavi|Farah Diba]]
|4= 4. [[Reza Shah|Shah Reza Pahlavi of Iran]]
|5= 5. [[Tadj ol-Molouk of Iran|Tadj ol-Molouk]]
|6= 6. Sohrab Diba
|7= 7. [[Farideh Ghotbi]]
|8= 8. Abbas Ali Khan
|9= 9. Noush-Afarin Ayromlou
|10= 10. [[Teymūr Khan Ayromlou]]
|11= 11. Zahra Khanum
|12= 12. Mehdi Diba
|16= 16. Murad Ali Khan
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Ali-Reza Pahlavi}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-12115006 Shah's Son Killed himself BBC]
* [http://www.pahlavi.org/ Pahlavi Dynasty's Website]
* [http://www.farahpahlavi.org/ Empress Farah Pahlavi Official Web Site]
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293359/Iran/32185/The-Pahlavi-dynasty-1925-79 Britannica Online - Pahlavi Dynasty]
* [http://www.aryamehr.org/aryamehreng.htm Devoted to Aryamehr]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pahlavi, Ali Reza}}
[[Category:People of Pahlavi Iran|Ali Reza]]
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:2011 deaths]]
[[Category:Columbia University alumni]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:Iranian royalty]]
[[Category:Sons of emperors]]
[[Category:Iranian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Royalty from Tehran]]
[[Category:Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]
[[Category:Princeton University alumni]]
[[Category:Suicides by firearm in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Exiles of the Iranian Revolution in the United States]]
[[Category:Exiled royalty]]
[[Category:Zoroastrian studies scholars]]
[[Category:Mazandarani people]]
[[Category:2011 suicides]]

Ali Reza Pahlavi (born 1966)

2024-03-07T16:24:33Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Death */typo

{{Short description|Iranian prince (1966–2011)}}
{{About|the son of [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]|his uncle of the same name|Ali Reza Pahlavi (born 1922)}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2021}}
{{Infobox royalty
| image =
| caption =
| title =
| spouse =
| spouse-type =
| issue = Iryana Leila Pahlavi
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1966|4|28}}
| birth_place = [[Tehran]], [[Pahlavi Iran|Imperial State of Iran]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=y|2011|1|4|1966|4|28}}
| death_place = [[Boston]], [[Massachusetts]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| house = [[Pahlavi dynasty|Pahlavi]]
| father = [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]
| mother = [[Farah Pahlavi|Farah Diba]]
}}

'''Ali Reza Pahlavi''' ({{lang-fa|علیرضا پهلوی}}; 28 April 1966 – 4 January 2011) was a member of the [[Pahlavi dynasty|Pahlavi imperial family]] of the [[Pahlavi dynasty|Imperial State of Iran]]. He was the younger son of [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]], the former Shah of Iran<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=ugWP-IPW5yAC&q=Prince+Ali+Reza+Pahlavi Yearbook of the Encyclopedia Americana] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160603121131/https://books.google.com/books?id=ugWP-IPW5yAC&q=Prince+Ali+Reza+Pahlavi&dq=Prince+Ali+Reza+Pahlavi&lr=&cd=5 |date=3 June 2016 }} - Page 37</ref> and his third wife [[Farah Pahlavi|Farah Diba]].<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wy5XAAAAMAAJ |title=The Middle East and North Africa |publisher=Europa Publications |year=1977 |isbn=978-0-905118-11-6 |access-date=11 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191215201413/https://books.google.com/books?id=Wy5XAAAAMAAJ |archive-date=15 December 2019 |url-status=live}}</ref> He was second in [[order of succession]] to the Iranian throne before the [[Iranian Revolution]].

== Biography ==
[[File:AliRezaPahlavi.jpg|thumb|left|Prince Ali Reza in 1976]]
Ali Reza Pahlavi was born on 28 April 1966.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=5G8KAAAAIAAJ&q=Prince+Ali+Reza+Pahlavi The Statesman's year-book] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521143044/https://books.google.com/books?id=5G8KAAAAIAAJ&q=Prince+Ali+Reza+Pahlavi&dq=Prince+Ali+Reza+Pahlavi&lr=&cd=8 |date=21 May 2016 }}, Volume 110 - Page 1046</ref><ref name="google1">{{Cite web |last=Scott |first=Marcia |date=4 January 2011 |title=AFP: Son of Iran shah commits suicide in US: family |url=https://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5isIRLO9nOsEaIKMGw-fCyF_5TGnQ?docId=CNG.4844c10793df1183202908033c62a66e.7c1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107131537/http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5isIRLO9nOsEaIKMGw-fCyF_5TGnQ?docId=CNG.4844c10793df1183202908033c62a66e.7c1 |archive-date=7 January 2011 |accessdate=8 February 2011}}</ref> He attended the [[Niavaran Palace]] primary school in Iran<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ali Reza Pahlavi |url=http://www.farahpahlavi.org/alireza.html |url-status=dead |publisher=farahpahlavi.org |accessdate=25 August 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110726051242/http://www.farahpahlavi.org/alireza.html |archivedate=26 July 2011}}</ref> but left Iran alongside his family shortly before the Iranian revolution. He moved to the [[United States|U.S.]] where he attended [[Saint David's School (New York City)|Saint David's School]] in New York City and Mt Greylock Regional High School in Williamstown, Massachusetts.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Ali Reza Pahlavi |url=http://www.farahpahlavi.org/alireza.html |url-status=dead |publisher=Farah Pahlavi |accessdate=9 January 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110207111628/http://www.farahpahlavi.org/alireza.html |archivedate=7 February 2011}}</ref> Pahlavi received a [[Bachelor of Arts|BA]] degree from [[Princeton University]], an [[Master of Arts|MA]] degree from [[Columbia University]],<ref>[http://www.fozoolemahaleh.com/2011/01/05/در-گذشت-شاهزاده-علی-رضا-پهلوی ضایعه در گذشت شاهزاده گرامی میهنمان علی رضا پهلوی] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181222093859/http://www.fozoolemahaleh.com/2011/01/05/%D8%AF%D8%B1-%DA%AF%D8%B0%D8%B4%D8%AA-%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%87%D8%B2%D8%A7%D8%AF%D9%87-%D8%B9%D9%84%DB%8C-%D8%B1%D8%B6%D8%A7-%D9%BE%D9%87%D9%84%D9%88%DB%8C |date=22 December 2018 }},</ref> and was studying at [[Harvard University]] as a [[PhD student]] in ancient Iranian studies and [[philology]] at the time of his death.<ref name="google1" /><ref>{{Cite news |date=5 January 2011 |title=News / International: Son of former Iranian shah found dead in Boston |work=The Hindu |location=Chennai, India |url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article1034537.ece |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121026125619/http://www.thehindu.com/news/international/article1034537.ece |archive-date=26 October 2012 |accessdate=8 February 2011}}</ref>

He was engaged in 2001 to Sarah Tabatabai, but it seems that the relationship ended some time afterwards.<ref>[https://www.welt.de/print-welt/article487599/Ein_Herz_und_keine_Krone.html "Ein Herz und keine Krone"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081009205302/http://www.welt.de/print-welt/article487599/Ein_Herz_und_keine_Krone.html |date=9 October 2008 }}. ''Die Welt''. 16 November 2001.</ref> From 2007 to 2011 he was in a relationship with Dr. Raha Didevar, to whom he became engaged in 2010.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://dopcabliss.weebly.com/reza-pahlavi.html | title=Reza Pahlavi }}</ref> Their daughter, Iryana Leila Pahlavi was born in 2011. He was once voted one of the "world's most eligible princes."<ref>{{Cite web |last=Steven Hoffer |date=4 January 2011 |title=Prince Ali Reza Pahlavi Commits Suicide: 5 Facts About the Shah of Iran's Son |url=http://www.aolnews.com/2011/01/04/prince-ali-reza-pahlavi-commits-suicide-5-facts-about-the-shah/ |url-status=dead |publisher=Aolnews.com |accessdate=8 February 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110208004625/http://www.aolnews.com/2011/01/04/prince-ali-reza-pahlavi-commits-suicide-5-facts-about-the-shah/ |archivedate=8 February 2011}}</ref>

== Death ==
After a long period of depression, on 4 January 2011 Pahlavi died in his apartment in the [[South End, Boston]], (141 West Newton Street)<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=akrUDwAAQBAJ&dq=pahlavi++141+West+Newton+Street&pg=PA47 | title=My Shadow is My Skin: Voices from the Iranian Diaspora | isbn=9781477320273 | last1=Whitney | first1=Katherine | last2=Emery | first2=Leila | date=16 March 2020 | publisher=University of Texas Press }}</ref> from a self-inflicted gunshot wound.<ref name="HuffPost">{{Cite news |date=4 January 2011 |title=Alireza Pahlavi Suicide: Iran Shah's Son Killed Himself In Boston, Says Brother |work=HuffPost |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/04/alireza-pahlavi-suicide-i_n_804347.html |url-status=bot: unknown |accessdate=4 September 2016 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110107103341/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/01/04/alireza-pahlavi-suicide-i_n_804347.html |archivedate=7 January 2011}}</ref>

[[Mahnaz Afkhami]], the former Iranian Minister of Women's Affairs of the Shah's government, told the [[BBC World Service]] that Pahlavi and his family being forced into exile in 1979 was very "traumatic" for him and that he had experienced a "loss of identity" in exile.<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 January 2011 |title=Shah of Iran's younger son kills himself in US |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-12115006 |url-status=live |accessdate=5 January 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110105090115/http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-12115006 |archivedate=5 January 2011}}</ref> Ali Reza's sister, [[Leila Pahlavi]] also had died by suicide in June 2001. Close family friends say that Ali Reza became very depressed after the death of his sister to whom he was very close.<ref>{{Cite news |date=7 January 2011 |title=Former shah of Iran's youngest son dead in apparent suicide |newspaper=The Washington Post |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/05/AR2011010506156.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121113031403/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2011/01/05/AR2011010506156.html |archive-date=13 November 2012 |accessdate=7 January 2011}}</ref> He was survived by his mother, Farah Pahlavi, his older brother Reza, his sister Farahnaz, half-sister Shahnaz<ref>{{Cite news |date=5 January 2011 |title=Son of former shah of Iran commits suicide |work=CNN |url=http://www.cnn.com/2011/US/01/04/shah.son.suicide/index.html |url-status=live |accessdate=4 September 2016 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110106083341/http://articles.cnn.com/2011-01-04/us/shah.son.suicide_1_shah-mohammed-reza-pahlavi-suicide?_s=PM%3AUS |archivedate=6 January 2011}}</ref> and daughter Iryana Leila Pahlavi, who was born to his partner Raha Didevar after his death.<ref name="Announcement of Birth">{{Cite web |title=Announcement of Birth |url=http://en.rezapahlavi.org/2011/08/05/announcement-of-birth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170417154943/http://en.rezapahlavi.org/2011/08/05/announcement-of-birth/ |archive-date=17 April 2017 |website=Reza Pahlavi website |accessdate=16 April 2017}}</ref>

His brother [[Reza Pahlavi, Crown Prince of Iran|Reza Pahlavi]] said that his wish was to be cremated and for his ashes to be scattered in the [[Caspian Sea]].<ref>{{Cite web |date=4 January 2011 |title=Dead son of Iran's last Shah to be cremated |url=http://www.euronews.net/2011/01/06/dead-son-of-irans-last-shah-to-be-cremated/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110312103024/http://www.euronews.net/2011/01/06/dead-son-of-irans-last-shah-to-be-cremated/ |archive-date=12 March 2011 |website=Euronews |accessdate=8 February 2011}}</ref>

On 23 January 2011, an official memorial was held in The Music Center at Strathmore in Bethesda, Maryland.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Memorial Ceremony For Prince Alireza Pahlavi |url=http://www.rezapahlavi.org/details_article.php?english&article=490 |url-status=dead |website=Reza Pahlavi website |accessdate=13 January 2011 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110116000254/http://www.rezapahlavi.org/details_article.php?english&article=490 |archivedate=16 January 2011}}</ref> The memorial was attended by the former Iranian imperial family and thousands of Iranians.<ref>{{Cite web |date=25 January 2011 |title=Thousands attend memorial services for Alireza Pahlavi in Maryland |url=http://www.payvand.com/news/11/jan/1246.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180922035812/http://www.payvand.com/news/11/jan/1246.html |archive-date=22 September 2018 |website=Payvand |accessdate=7 January 2011}}</ref>

== Ancestry ==
{{ahnentafel
|collapsed=yes |align=center
|boxstyle_1=background-color: #fcc;
|boxstyle_2=background-color: #fb9;
|boxstyle_3=background-color: #ffc;
|boxstyle_4=background-color: #bfc;
|boxstyle_5=background-color: #9fe;
|1= 1. '''Prince Ali Reza Pahlavi of Iran'''
|2= 2. [[Mohammad Reza Pahlavi|Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi of Iran]]
|3= 3. [[Farah Pahlavi|Farah Diba]]
|4= 4. [[Reza Shah|Shah Reza Pahlavi of Iran]]
|5= 5. [[Tadj ol-Molouk of Iran|Tadj ol-Molouk]]
|6= 6. Sohrab Diba
|7= 7. [[Farideh Ghotbi]]
|8= 8. Abbas Ali Khan
|9= 9. Noush-Afarin Ayromlou
|10= 10. [[Teymūr Khan Ayromlou]]
|11= 11. Zahra Khanum
|12= 12. Mehdi Diba
|16= 16. Murad Ali Khan
}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Ali-Reza Pahlavi}}
* [https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-us-canada-12115006 Shah's Son Killed himself BBC]
* [http://www.pahlavi.org/ Pahlavi Dynasty's Website]
* [http://www.farahpahlavi.org/ Empress Farah Pahlavi Official Web Site]
* [http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/293359/Iran/32185/The-Pahlavi-dynasty-1925-79 Britannica Online - Pahlavi Dynasty]
* [http://www.aryamehr.org/aryamehreng.htm Devoted to Aryamehr]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pahlavi, Ali Reza}}
[[Category:People of Pahlavi Iran|Ali Reza]]
[[Category:1966 births]]
[[Category:2011 deaths]]
[[Category:Columbia University alumni]]
[[Category:Harvard University alumni]]
[[Category:Iranian royalty]]
[[Category:Sons of emperors]]
[[Category:Iranian emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:Royalty from Tehran]]
[[Category:Mohammad Reza Pahlavi]]
[[Category:Princeton University alumni]]
[[Category:Suicides by firearm in Massachusetts]]
[[Category:Exiles of the Iranian Revolution in the United States]]
[[Category:Exiled royalty]]
[[Category:Zoroastrian studies scholars]]
[[Category:Mazandarani people]]
[[Category:2011 suicides]]

Group for the Study of Reactive Motion

2024-03-04T05:13:51Z

ExtravagAunt: /* References */standardize section name

{{Short description|Early Soviet rocket research bureau}}
{{Infobox institute
| name = Group for the Study of Reactive Motion "GIRD"
| logo =
| image = File:GIRD.jpg
| caption = Members of the Group for the Study of Reactive Motion. 1931. Left to right: standing I.P. Fortikov, Yu A Pobedonostsev, Zabotin; sitting: A. Levitsky, Nadezhda Sumarokova, [[Sergei Korolev]], [[Boris Cheranovsky]], [[Friedrich Zander]]
| type =
| mission = research and development
| motto =
| established = [[1931]]
| former names =
| founder = [[Friedrich Zander|Fredrich Tsander]]
| dissolved = in 1933 became RNII
| location = [[USSR]], [[Moscow]], [[Leningrad]] and other locations
| key_people = [[Sergey Korolev]]
| focus = [[Liquid-propellant rocket]]s
| turnover =
| operating profit =
| net profit =
| number of employees =
| parent = [[Osoaviakhim]]
| subsidiaries =
| auditor =
| own funds =
| debt =
| website =
}}
{{Soviet space program sidebar}}
The Moscow-based '''Group for the Study of Reactive Motion''' (also 'Group for the Investigation of Reactive Engines and Reactive Flight' and 'Jet Propulsion Study Group') ({{lang-ru|Группа изучения реактивного движения, Gruppa izucheniya reaktivnogo dvizheniya}}, better known for its Russian abbreviation {{lang|ru|ГИРД}}, '''GIRD''') was a Soviet research bureau founded in 1931 to study various aspects of [[rocket]]ry. GIRD launched the first Soviet [[Liquid-propellant rocket|liquid propellant rocket]] in August 1933. In November 1933 it was incorporated into the [[Reactive Scientific Research Institute]] ({{lang|ru|Реактивный научно-исследовательский институт}}, {{lang|ru-Latn|Reaktivnyy nauchno-issledovatel’skiy institut}}, РНИИ, RNII).

==History==
[[File:Sadovo-Spasskaya Street 19 k2 2007-10 1191847159.JPG|thumb|Building in Moscow where in basement was first location of GIRD]]
The inspiration for establishing the organisation came from [[Friedrich Zander|Fredrich Tsander]], a scientist, inventor, and romantic who dreamed of space travel.{{sfn|Chertok|2005|p=165 Vol 1}} Tsander had begun to consider rocket-powered interplanetary flight as early as 1907 and was one of the founding members of the Society for the Study of Interplanetary Communication in 1924. In September 1931 Tsander formed the Moscow-based 'Group for the Study of Reactive Motion',{{sfn|Chertok|2005|p=165 Vol 1}} better known by its Russian acronym “GIRD”.{{sfn|Siddiqi|2000|p=4}} Initial funding was provided by [[Osoaviakhim]] however it was insufficient to cover production costs. In April 1932 Tsander began working full time for GIRD, however most other personnel worked at night or in their spare time. The personnel jokingly referred to GIRD as “Gruppa inzhenerov, rabotayushchaya darom” (group of engineers working for nothing).<ref name='Tsander'>{{cite book |last1=Tsander |first1=F. A. |title=Problems of Flight by Jet Propulsion-Interplanetary Flights (Translated from Russian) |date=1964 |publisher=Israel Program for Scientific Translations |pages=32, 38–39, 58–59 |url=https://epizodyspace.ru/bibl/inostr-yazyki/nasa/tsander_problems.pdf |access-date=13 June 2022}}</ref>

Local GIRDs also developed in other cities, particularly Leningrad, but also in Kharkiv, Baku, Tiflis, Arkhangelsk, Novocherkassk and Bryansk.{{sfn|Siddiqi|2000|p=4}}

A key contributor to GIRD came from a young aircraft engineer [[Sergey Korolev]], who would later become the de facto head of the Soviet space programme.{{sfn|Siddiqi|2000|p=4}} In 1930 while working as a lead engineer on the [[Tupolev TB-3]] heavy bomber he became interested in the possibilities of liquid-fueled rocket engines to propel airplanes. This led to contact with Tsander, and sparked his interest in space exploration and rocketry.{{sfn|Siddiqi|2000|p=4}}

In May 1932, Sergey Korolev replaced the ailing Tsander as the head of GIRD. At this time the group was organized as four brigades to further optimise their efforts, as follows:<ref name="Koroleva">{{cite web |last1=Koroleva |first1=Natalya Sergeevna |title=GIRD: organization and structure 1931 |url=http://www.famhist.ru/famhist/korol/000fcb81.htm |website=Family History (in Russian) |access-date=14 June 2022}}</ref>{{sfn|Siddiqi|2000|p=6}}
* 1st brigade: Head Tsander (rocket engines).
* 2nd brigade: head [[Mikhail Tikhonravov]] (rockets / missiles).
* 3rd brigade: head Yuriy Pobedonostsev (direct-precision air-jet engines and gas-dynamic test units).
* 4th brigade: head Korolev (rocket planes and cruise missiles).

Under Korolev's leadership GIRD began to attract additional funding from the [[Workers' and Peasants' Red Army|Red Army]]'s Directorate of Military Inventions, which enabled GIRD to obtain better equipment and pay personnel, which by 1933 totaled approximately 60 personnel.{{sfn|Chertok|2005|p=166 Vol 1}}{{sfn|Siddiqi|2000|p=6}}

Tsander died unexpectedly from an illness on March 28, 1933, and his engineer, [[Leonid Konstantinovich Korneev]], became the new leader of his Brigade. An exact copy of the GIRD-X can be found on Tsander's headstone in Kislovodsk.{{sfn|Siddiqi|2000|p=6}}

===OR-1 and OR-2 engines===
[[FILE:Jet engine 1933.jpg|thumb|Demonstration installation of jet engine, 1933.]]

Tsander had begun work on the OR-1 experimental engine in 1929 while working at the Central Institute for Aircraft Motor Construction;<ref name="Tsander" /> this subsequently became GIRD Project 01. It ran on compressed air and gasoline and Tsander used it to investigate high-energy fuels including powdered metals mixed with gasoline. The chamber was cooled regeneratively by air entering at the nozzle end and also by water circulating through a coil.

Project 02, the OR-2 engine, was designed for Korolev's RP-1 rocket-powered glider. It burned oxygen and gasoline, and its nozzle was made from heat-resistant graphite. The engine was later modified to burn alcohol, which generated less heat than gasoline, and its thrust was increased. After cooling the engine walls, the compressed oxygen entered the top end of the chamber in a swirling pattern. Fuel was injected through an atomizer at the center, to create efficient mixing and combustion.

===GIRD-9 rocket===
[[File:Ракета 09 и 10.jpg|thumb|Rocket 09 (left) and 10 (GIRD-09 and GIRD-X). Museum of Cosmonautics and Rocket Technology; St. Petersburg.]]
[[Mikhail Klavdievich Tikhonravov]], who would later supervise the design of [[Sputnik I]] and the [[Luna programme]], headed GIRD's 2nd Brigade, was responsible for the first [[Hybrid-propellant rocket]] launch, the GIRD-9, on 17 August 1933, which reached an altitude of {{convert|400|m|ft}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=GIRD (Gruppa Isutcheniya Reaktivnovo Dvisheniya) |url=http://weebau.com/rock_rus/gird.htm |website=WEEBAU |access-date=26 July 2022}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last1=Okninski |first1=Adam |title=Hybrid rocket propulsion technology for space transportation revisited - propellant solutions and challenges |journal=FirePhysChem |date=December 2021 |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=260–271 |doi=10.1016/j.fpc.2021.11.015 |bibcode=2021FPhCh...1..260O |s2cid=244899773 |doi-access=free }}</ref>

===GIRD-X rocket===
In January 1933 Tsander began development of the GIRD-X rocket (Note: "X" is the Roman numeral 10). It was originally to use a metallic propellant, but after various metals had been tested without success it was designed without a metallic propellant, and was powered by the Project 10 engine which was first bench tested in March 1933. This design burned liquid oxygen and gasoline and was one of the first engines to be regeneratively cooled by the liquid oxygen, which flowed around the inner wall of the combustion chamber before entering it. Problems with burn-through during testing prompted a switch from gasoline to less energetic alcohol. The final missile, {{convert|2.2|m|ft}} long by {{convert|140|mm|in}} in diameter, had a mass of {{convert|30|kg|lb}}, and it was anticipated that it could carry a {{convert|2|kg|lb}} payload to an altitude of {{convert|5.5|km|mi}}.<ref name=Albrecht>{{cite book | last = Albrecht | first = Ulrich | title = The Soviet Armaments Industry | publisher = Routledge | date = 1993 | pages = 74–75 | isbn = 3-7186-5313-3}}</ref> The GIRD X rocket was launched on 25 November 1933 and flew to a height of 80 meters.<ref name="Tsander" />

===Project 05===
Tikhonravov was also responsible for the Project 05 rocket in a joint effort with the Gas Dynamics Lab (GDL) in Leningrad. Project 05 used the ORM-50 engine developed by [[Valentin Glushko]], which was fuelled by [[nitric acid]] and [[kerosene]] with its nozzle [[Regenerative cooling (rocket)|regeneratively cooled]] by the flow of acid. First tested in November 1933, the ORM-50 predated [[Eugen Sänger]]'s regeneratively cooled engine, which was not tested in [[Austria]] until May 1934. The 05 rocket contained four long tanks, enclosed in a body with a four-lobed cross section. It was never completed, but its design formed the basis of the later [[Aviavnito]] rocket, powered by Leonid Dushkin's 12-K engine and fueled by liquid oxygen and alcohol, which was first launched in 1936 and achieved an altitude of {{convert|3000|m|abbr=on}} in 1937.

==RNII==
By 1931 there were two Soviet organisations focusing on rocket technology; GIRD and the [[Leningrad]] based [[Gas Dynamics Laboratory]] (GDL). Informal contact between the two group were maintained and discussions began of a merger, which was supported by the Deputy People's Commissar for the Army and Navy, Marshall [[Mikhail Tukhachevsky]]. This resulted in a memorandum to the effect that GIRD and GDL should be combined, and the result was the [[Reactive Scientific Research Institute]] (RNII), founded on 21 September 1933.{{sfn|Baker|Zak|2013|p=6}}{{sfn|Siddiqi|2000|p=7}}

== Lunar craters named after GIRD personnel ==
For their contribution to spaceflight the following GIRD personnel have craters on the far side of the Moon named after them; [[Sergei Pavlovich Korolev|S. P. Korolev]], [[Friedrich Zander|F. A. Tsander]] and [[Mikhail Tikhonravov]]. In 1962 the names [[Gas Dynamics Laboratory|GDL]], GIRD and RNII were assigned to crater chains on the far side of the Moon.<ref name="hron">[http://www.astronaut.ru/bookcase/books/glushko/text/07.htm Brief chronology of rocket engine building in the USSR]</ref>

==See also==
* [[Gas Dynamics Laboratory]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

== Sources cited ==

* {{cite book |last1=Baker |first1=David |last2=Zak |first2=Anatoly |title=Race for Space 1: Dawn of the Space Age |date=9 September 2013 |publisher=RHK |url=https://books.apple.com/au/book/race-for-space-1-dawn-of-the-space-age/id634833085 |access-date=20 May 2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=Chertok |first1=Boris |title=Rockets and People Volumes 1-4 |date=2005 |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration |url=https://www.nasa.gov/connect/ebooks/rockets_people_vol1_detail.html |access-date=29 May 2022}}
* {{cite book |last1=Siddiqi |first1=Asif |title=Challenge to Apollo : the Soviet Union and the space race, 1945-1974 |date=2000 |publisher=National Aeronautics and Space Administration, NASA History Div. |location=Washington, D.C |url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4408pt1.pdf |access-date=22 May 2022}}

==External links==
*[http://www.mentallandscape.com/S_GIRD.htm Group for the Study of Jet Propulsion]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20090105073609/http://www.astronautix.com/lvs/gird09.htm Information on rocket Gird-09]
*[http://www.scienceandsociety.co.uk/results.asp?image=10308774 Model of a Gird-09 rocket]

{{coord|55.7692|N|37.6461|E|source:wikidata|display=title}}

{{authority control}}

[[Category:Early rocketry]]
[[Category:Rocket propulsion]]
[[Category:Research institutes in the Soviet Union]]

Seppuku

2024-03-02T21:34:20Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Religious and social context */

{{short description|Form of Japanese ritual suicide by disembowelment}}
{{redirect2|Harakiri|Hara-kiri}}
{{use American English|date=January 2022}}
{{Italic title|reason=[[:Category:Japanese words and phrases]]}}
[[File:Seppuku.jpg|thumb|Staged seppuku with ritual attire and [[Kaishakunin|kaishaku]], 1897 |261x261px]]

{{Infobox chinese
|title=''Seppuku''
|pic=Seppuku (Chinese characters).svg
|piccap="Seppuku" in ''[[kanji]]''
|picupright=0.35
|kanji=切腹
|romaji=Seppuku
|hiragana=せっぷく
|katakana=セップク
}}
{{Nihongo3|'cutting [the] belly'|切腹|'''Seppuku'''}}, also called '''harakiri''' ({{lang|ja|腹切り}}, {{lit|abdomen/belly cutting}}, a native Japanese [[Kanji#Kun'yomi (native reading)|kun reading]]), is a form of Japanese ritualistic [[suicide]] by [[disembowelment]]. It was originally reserved for [[samurai]] in their [[Bushido|code of honour]], but was also practised by other Japanese people during the [[Shōwa era]]<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Kosaka |first=Masataka |date=1990 |title=The Showa Era (1926-1989) |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/20025315 |journal=Daedalus |volume=119 |issue=3 |pages=27–47 |jstor=20025315 |issn=0011-5266}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Crime and Criminal Policy in Japan From 1926 to 1988: Analysis and Evaluatoin of the Show Era |url=https://www.ojp.gov/ncjrs/virtual-library/abstracts/crime-and-criminal-policy-japan-1926-1988-analysis-and-evaluation |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=www.ojp.gov}}</ref> (particularly officers near the end of [[World War II]]) to restore honour for themselves or for their families.<ref>{{Cite magazine|last=Rothman|first=Lily|date=June 22, 2015|title=The Gory Way Japanese Generals Ended Their Battle on Okinawa|url=https://time.com/3918248/okinawa-ended-1945-history/|access-date=2020-11-28|magazine=Time}}</ref><ref>Frank, ''Downfall'' pp 319–320</ref><ref>Fuller, ''Hirohito's Samurai''</ref>

As a samurai practice, ''seppuku'' was used voluntarily by samurai to die with honour rather than fall into the hands of their enemies (and likely be tortured), as a form of [[Capital punishment in Japan|capital punishment]] for samurai who had committed serious offences, or performed because they had brought shame to themselves.<ref name=":1">{{Cite journal |last=Ravina |first=Mark J. |date=2010 |title=The Apocryphal Suicide of Saigō Takamori: Samurai, "Seppuku", and the Politics of Legend |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/40929189 |journal=The Journal of Asian Studies |volume=69 |issue=3 |pages=691–721 |doi=10.1017/S0021911810001518 |issn=0021-9118 |jstor=40929189 |s2cid=155001706}}</ref> The ceremonial disembowelment, which is usually part of a more elaborate ritual and performed in front of spectators, consists of plunging a short blade, traditionally a ''[[tantō]]'', into the belly and drawing the blade from left to right, slicing the belly open.<ref name="samuraiweapons">{{cite web |url=http://www.samurai-weapons.net/samurai-history/the-deadly-ritual-of-seppuku |title=The Deadly Ritual of Seppuku |access-date=2010-03-28 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130112145122/http://www.samurai-weapons.net/samurai-history/the-deadly-ritual-of-seppuku |archive-date=2013-01-12 }}</ref> If the cut is deep enough, it can sever the [[abdominal aorta]], causing death by rapid [[exsanguination]].{{CN|date=January 2023}}

The first recorded act of ''seppuku'' was performed by [[Minamoto no Yorimasa]] during the [[Battle of Uji (1180)|Battle of Uji]] in 1180.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Turnbull |first=Stephan R. |title=The Samurai: A Military History |publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers|MacMillan Publishing Co.]] |place=New York |year=1977 |page=[https://archive.org/details/samuraiinvasionj0000turn/page/47 47] |isbn=0-304-35948-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/samuraiinvasionj0000turn/page/47 }}</ref> ''Seppuku'' was used by warriors to avoid falling into enemy hands and to attenuate shame and avoid possible torture.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Andrews |first=Evan |title=What is Seppuku? |url=https://www.history.com/news/what-is-seppuku |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=HISTORY |date=23 August 2018 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Seppuku {{!}} Definition, History, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/seppuku |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}</ref> Samurai could also be ordered by their ''[[Daimyo|daimyō]]'' ([[feudalism|feudal]] lords) to carry out ''seppuku''. Later, disgraced warriors were sometimes allowed to carry out ''seppuku'' rather than be executed in the normal manner.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The responsibility of the Emperor - Joi Ito's Web |url=https://joi.ito.com/weblog/2005/11/12/the-responsibil.html |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=joi.ito.com |language=en}}</ref> The most common form of ''seppuku'' for men was composed of cutting open the abdomen, followed by extending the neck for an assistant to sever the [[spinal cord]]. It was the assistant's job to [[Decapitation|decapitate]] the samurai in one swing; otherwise, it would bring great shame to the assistant and his family. Those who did not belong to the samurai caste were never ordered or expected to carry out ''seppuku''. Samurai could generally only carry out the act with permission.

Sometimes a ''daimyō'' was called upon to perform ''seppuku'' as the basis of a peace agreement. This weakened the defeated clan so that resistance effectively ceased. [[Toyotomi Hideyoshi]] used an enemy's suicide in this way on several occasions, the most dramatic of which effectively ended a dynasty of ''daimyōs''. When the [[Later Hōjō clan|Hōjō Clan]] were [[Siege of Odawara (1590)|defeated at Odawara]] in 1590, Hideyoshi insisted on the suicide of the retired ''daimyō'' [[Hōjō Ujimasa]] and the exile of his son [[Hōjō Ujinao|Ujinao]]; with this act of suicide, the most powerful ''daimyō'' family in eastern Japan was completely defeated.

==Etymology==
[[File:Seppuku-2.jpg|thumb|right|280x280px|Samurai about to perform seppuku]]
The term ''seppuku'' is derived from the two [[Sino-Japanese vocabulary|Sino-Japanese]] roots ''setsu'' {{lang|zh|切}} ("to cut", from [[Middle Chinese]] ''tset''; compare [[Standard Chinese|Mandarin]] ''qiē'' and [[Cantonese]] ''chit'') and ''fuku'' {{lang|zh|腹}} ("belly", from MC ''pjuwk''; compare Mandarin ''fù'' and Cantonese ''fūk'').

It is also known as '''''harakiri''''' ({{lang|ja|腹切り}}, "cutting the stomach";<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/seppuku | title=The Free Dictionary | access-date=10 November 2013}}</ref> often misspelled or mispronounced "hiri-kiri" or "hari-kari" by American English speakers).<ref name="Garner2009">{{cite book|author=Bryan Garner|title=Garner's Modern American Usage|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVcJqKs1isUC&pg=PA410|year=2009|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=United States|isbn=978-0-19-538275-4|page=410}}</ref> ''Harakiri'' is written with the same kanji as ''seppuku'', but in reverse order with an [[okurigana]]. In Japanese, the more formal ''seppuku'', a Chinese ''[[on'yomi]]'' reading, is typically used in writing, while ''harakiri'', a native ''[[kun'yomi]]'' reading, is used in speech. As Ross notes,

<blockquote>It is commonly pointed out that hara-kiri is a [[vulgarism]], but this is a misunderstanding. Hara-kiri is a Japanese reading or ''Kun-yomi'' of the characters; as it became customary to prefer Chinese readings in official announcements, only the term seppuku was ever used in writing. So hara-kiri is a spoken term, but only to commoners and seppuku a written term, but spoken amongst higher classes for the same act.<ref>Ross, Christopher. ''Mishima's Sword'', p.68.</ref></blockquote>

While ''harakiri'' refers to the act of disemboweling oneself, ''seppuku'' refers to the ritual and usually would involve decapitation after the act as a sign of mercy.<ref name=":1" />

The practice of performing ''seppuku'' at the death of one's master, known as '''''oibara''''' (追腹 or 追い腹, the kun'yomi or Japanese reading) or '''''tsuifuku''''' (追腹, the on'yomi or Chinese reading), follows a similar ritual.

The word {{nihongo|''jigai''|自害}} means "suicide" in Japanese. The modern word for suicide is {{nihongo|''jisatsu''|自殺}}; related words include {{nihongo|''jiketsu''|自決}}, {{nihongo|''jijin''|自尽}} and {{nihongo|''jijin''|自刃}}.<ref>{{cite web |title=じがい 1 0 【自害 |url=http://dictionary.goo.ne.jp/leaf/jn2/94273/m0u/%E8%87%AA%E5%AE%B3/ |work=goo 辞書}}</ref> In some popular western texts, such as martial arts magazines, the term is associated with the suicide of samurai wives.<ref name="Hosey 1980 47">{{cite book|first=Timothy|last=Hosey|title=Black Belt: Samurai Women|date=December 1980|page=47}}</ref> The term was introduced into English by [[Lafcadio Hearn]] in his ''Japan: An Attempt at Interpretation'',<ref name="Hearn 2005 318">{{cite book|first=Lafcadio|last=Hearn|author-link=Lafcadio Hearn|title=Japan: An Attempt at Interpretation|orig-year=First published 1923|year=2005|page=318}}</ref> an understanding which has since been translated into Japanese.<ref name="Tsukishima 1984 48">{{cite book|first=Kenzo|last=Tsukishima|title=ラフカディオ・ハーンの日本観: その正しい理解への試み|trans-title=Lafcadio Hearn's Japan: An Attempt at Interpretation|year=1984|page=48}}</ref> Joshua S. Mostow notes that Hearn misunderstood the term ''jigai'' to be the female equivalent of ''seppuku''.<ref name="Mostow 2006 190">{{cite book |last=Mostow |first=Joshua S. |title=A Vision of the Orient: Texts, Intertexts, and Contexts of Madame Butterfly, Chapter: Iron Butterfly Cio-Cio-San and Japanese Imperialism |year=2006 |editor-last=Wisenthal |editor-first=J. L. |page=190}}</ref> Mostow's context is analysis of [[Giacomo Puccini]]'s ''[[Madame Butterfly]]'' and the original Cio-Cio San story by [[John Luther Long]]. Though both Long's story and Puccini's opera predate Hearn's use of the term ''jigai'', the term has been used in relation to western [[Japonisme]], which is the influence of Japanese culture on the western arts.<ref>{{cite book |last=Rij |first=Jan Van |title=Madame Butterfly: Japonisme, Puccini, and the Search for the Real Cho-Cho-San |year=2001 |page=71}}</ref>

==Ritual==
[[File:Wakisashi-sepukku-p1000699.jpg|thumb|right|A ''[[tantō]]'' prepared for ''seppuku'']]The practice of seppuku was not standardized until the 17th century. In the 12th and 13th centuries, such as with the seppuku of Minamoto no Yorimasa, the practice of a ''[[kaishakunin]]'' had not yet emerged; thus, the rite was considered far more painful. The defining characteristic was plunging either the ''[[tachi]]'' (longsword), ''[[wakizashi]]'' (shortsword) or ''tantō'' (knife) into the gut and slicing the abdomen horizontally. In the absence of a ''kaishakunin'', the samurai would then remove the blade and stab himself in the throat, or fall onto the blade from a standing position with it positioned against his heart.
During the [[Edo period]] (1600–1867), carrying out seppuku came to involve an elaborate, detailed ritual. This was usually performed in front of spectators if it was planned, as opposed to one performed on a battlefield. A samurai was bathed in cold water (to prevent excessive bleeding), dressed in a white [[kimono]] called the {{nihongo||[[:ja:白装束|白装束]]|shiro-shōzoku}}, and served his favorite foods for a [[last meal]]. When he had finished, the knife and cloth were placed on a ''[[sanbo]]'' and given to the warrior. Dressed ceremonially, with his sword placed in front of him and sometimes seated on special clothes, the warrior would prepare for death by writing a [[death poem]]. He would probably consume a ceremonial drink of [[sake]] and would also give his attendant a cup meant for sake.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Gately|first1=Iain|title=Drink: A Cultural History of Alcohol|date=2009|publisher=[[Gotham Books]]|location=New York|isbn=978-1-59240-464-3|page=103}}</ref><ref>{{Google books|sBWasQSsb-UC|Samurai Fighting Arts: The Spirit and the Practice|page=48|keywords=shini-shōzoku|text=|plainurl=}}</ref>

With his selected ''kaishakunin'' standing by, he would open his kimono, take up his ''[[tantō]]''{{snd}}held by the blade with a cloth wrapped around so that it would not cut his hand and cause him to lose his grip{{snd}}and plunge it into his abdomen, making a left-to-right cut. The ''kaishakunin'' would then perform ''kaishaku,'' a cut in which the warrior was partially decapitated. The maneuver should be done in the manners of ''dakikubi'' (lit. "embraced head"), in which a slight band of flesh is left attaching the head to the body so that the head can dangle in front as if embraced. Because of the precision necessary for such a maneuver, the kaishakunin was a skilled swordsman. The principal and the kaishakunin agreed in advance when the latter was to make his cut. Usually, dakikubi would occur as soon as the dagger was plunged into the abdomen.

Over time, the process became so highly ritualized that as soon as the samurai reached for his blade, the kaishakunin would strike. Eventually, even the blade became unnecessary and the samurai could reach for something symbolic like a fan, and this alone would trigger the killing stroke from his kaishakunin. A fan was likely used when the samurai was too old to use a blade or in situations where it was too dangerous to give him a weapon.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Fusé |first1=Toyomasa |year=1979 |title=Suicide and culture in Japan: A study of seppuku as an institutionalized form of suicide |journal=[[Social Psychiatry and Psychiatric Epidemiology]] |volume=15 |issue=2 |pages=57–63 |doi=10.1007/BF00578069 |s2cid=25585787 |ref=seppuku}}</ref>

This elaborate ritual evolved after seppuku had ceased being mainly a battlefield or wartime practice and became a [[#As capital punishment|para-judicial institution]]. The kaishakunin was usually, but not always, a friend. If a defeated warrior had fought honourably and well, an opponent who wanted to salute his bravery would volunteer to act as his kaishakunin.

In the ''[[Hagakure]],'' [[Yamamoto Tsunetomo]] wrote:

{{blockquote|From ages past it has been considered an ill-omen by samurai to be requested as ''kaishaku''. The reason for this is that one gains no fame even if the job is well done. Further, if one should blunder, it becomes a lifetime disgrace.

In the practice of past times, there were instances when the head flew off. It was said that it was best to cut leaving a little skin remaining so that it did not fly off in the direction of the verifying officials.|author=|title=|source=}}

A specialized form of seppuku in feudal times was known as ''kanshi'' (諫死, "remonstration death/death of understanding"), in which a retainer would commit suicide in protest of a lord's decision. The retainer would make one deep, horizontal cut into his abdomen, then quickly bandage the wound. After this, the person would then appear before his lord, give a speech in which he announced the protest of the lord's action, then reveal his mortal wound. This is not to be confused with ''funshi'' (憤死, indignation death), which is any suicide made to protest or state dissatisfaction.{{citation needed|date=June 2022}}

Some samurai chose to perform a considerably more taxing form of ''seppuku'' known as ''jūmonji giri'' (十文字切り, "cross-shaped cut"), in which there is no ''kaishakunin'' to put a quick end to the samurai's suffering. It involves a second and more painful vertical cut on the belly. A samurai performing ''jūmonji giri'' was expected to bear his suffering quietly until he bled to death, passing away with his hands over his face.<ref>{{cite web|url = http://www.win.net/ratsnest/archive-articles21/fog0000000384.html| title = The Fine Art of Seppuku|date=19 July 2002|access-date=31 March 2014}}</ref>

==Female ritual suicide==
Female ritual suicide (incorrectly referred to in some English sources as '''jigai'''), was practiced by the wives of samurai who have performed ''seppuku'' or brought dishonour.<ref name=Turnbull /><ref name=AJFMP_Jigai>{{cite journal|last1=Maiese|first1=Aniello|last2=Gitto|first2=Lorenzo|last3=dell'Aquila|first3=Massimiliano|last4=Bolino|first4=Giorgio|title=A peculiar case of suicide enacted through the ancient Japanese ritual of Jigai|journal=[[The American Journal of Forensic Medicine and Pathology]]|date=March 2014|volume=35|issue=1|pages=8–10|doi=10.1097/PAF.0000000000000070|pmid=24457577}}</ref>

Some women belonging to samurai families died by suicide by cutting the arteries of the neck with one stroke, using a knife such as a ''tantō'' or ''[[Kaiken (dagger)|kaiken]]''. The main purpose was to achieve a quick and certain death in order to avoid capture. Before dying by suicide, a woman would often tie her knees together so her body would be found in a "dignified" pose, despite the convulsions of death. Invading armies would often enter homes to find the lady of the house seated alone, facing away from the door. On approaching her, they would find that she had ended her life long before they reached her.{{citation needed|date=October 2014}}[[File:Femme-47-ronin-seppuku-p1000701.jpg|thumb|The wife of Onodera Junai, one of the [[Forty-seven Ronin]], prepares for her suicide; note the legs tied together, a feature of female seppuku to ensure a decent posture in death]]

===History===
[[Stephen Turnbull (historian)|Stephen R. Turnbull]] provides extensive evidence for the practice of female ritual suicide, notably of samurai wives, in pre-modern Japan. One of the largest mass suicides was the 25 April 1185 final defeat of [[Taira no Tomomori]].<ref name=Turnbull>{{cite book|first=Stephen R.|last=Turnbull|author-link=Stephen Turnbull (historian)|title=The Samurai: A Military History|year=1996|page=72}}</ref> The wife of Onodera Junai, one of the [[Forty-seven Ronin]], is a notable example of a wife following ''seppuku'' of a samurai husband.<ref>{{cite book|first=Mary Ritter|last=Beard|title=The Force of Women in Japanese History|url=https://archive.org/details/forceofwomeninja00bear|url-access=registration|year=1953|page=[https://archive.org/details/forceofwomeninja00bear/page/100 100]|publisher=Washington, Public Affairs Press}}</ref> A large number of honour suicides marked the defeat of the Aizu clan in the [[Boshin War]] of 1869, leading into the [[Meiji era]]. For example, in the family of [[Saigō Tanomo]], who survived, a total of twenty-two female honour suicides are recorded among one extended family.<ref>{{cite book|first=Stephen|last=Turnbull|title=The Samurai Swordsman: Master of War|year=2008|page=156}}</ref>

===Religious and social context===
Voluntary death by drowning was a common form of ritual or honour suicide.{{cn}} The religious context of thirty-three {{lang|ja-latn|[[Jōdo Shinshū]]|italic=no}} adherents at the funeral of Abbot Jitsunyo in 1525 was faith in [[Amitābha|Amida Buddha]] and belief in rebirth in his [[Pure land]], but male ''seppuku'' did not have a specifically religious context.<ref>{{cite book|first=Mark L.|last=Blum|title=Collective Suicide at the Funeral of Jitsunyo|chapter=Death and the Afterlife in Japanese Buddhism|editor1-link=Jacqueline Stone|editor1-first=Jacqueline Ilyse|editor1-last=Stone|editor2-first=Mariko Namba|editor2-last=Walter|year=2008|page=164}}</ref> By way of contrast, the religious beliefs of [[Hosokawa Gracia]], the Christian wife of ''daimyō'' [[Hosokawa Tadaoki]], prevented her from dying by suicide.<ref>{{cite book|first=Stephen|last=Turnbull|title=Samurai Women 1184–1877|year=2012}}</ref>

==As capital punishment==
While voluntary seppuku is the best known form,<ref name=":1" /> in practice, the most common form of seppuku was '''obligatory seppuku''', used as a form of [[capital punishment]] for disgraced samurai, especially for those who committed a serious offense such as rape, robbery, corruption, unprovoked murder or treason.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Pierre|first=Joseph M|date=2015-03-22|title=Culturally sanctioned suicide: Euthanasia, seppuku, and terrorist martyrdom|journal=World Journal of Psychiatry|volume=5|issue=1|pages=4–14|doi=10.5498/wjp.v5.i1.4|issn=2220-3206|pmc=4369548|pmid=25815251 |doi-access=free }}</ref> The samurai were generally told of their offense in full and given a set time for them to commit seppuku, usually before sunset on a given day. On occasion, if the sentenced individuals were uncooperative, seppuku could be carried out by an executioner, or more often, the actual execution was carried out solely by decapitation while retaining only the trappings of seppuku; even the ''tantō'' laid out in front of the uncooperative offender could be replaced with a fan (to prevent uncooperative offenders from using the ''tantō'' as a weapon against the observers or the executioner). This form of involuntary ''seppuku'' was considered shameful and undignified.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal |title=Suicide and culture in Japan: A study of seppuku as an institutionalized form of suicide |url=https://link.springer.com/epdf/10.1007/BF00578069?sharing_token=FRfANMpsNurPevT7QNnwHfe4RwlQNchNByi7wbcMAY72wmvVHlkcxdmrOEUTDz624Ub9ViUQ2ohEpXQRjQFGJwH5qF6cPVIf5rLbTZSYqqj5n6Agv7qyL5gmZqBEebjYREkY0OM7Li4JwLyk2BcMXw%3D%3D |access-date=2022-03-22 |journal=Social Psychiatry| year=1980 | doi=10.1007/BF00578069 | last1=Fus | first1=Toyomasa | volume=15 | issue=2 | pages=57–63 | s2cid=25585787 }}</ref> Unlike voluntary ''seppuku'', ''seppuku'' carried out as capital punishment by executioners did not necessarily absolve or pardon the offender's family of the crime. Depending on the severity of the crime, all or part of the property of the condemned could be confiscated, and [[kin punishment|the family would be punished]] by being stripped of rank, sold into long-term servitude, or executed.

''Seppuku'' was considered the most honourable capital punishment apportioned to samurai. {{Nihongo|2=斬首|3=Zanshu}} and {{Nihongo|2=晒し首|3=sarashikubi}}, decapitation followed by a display of the head, was considered harsher and was reserved for samurai who committed greater crimes. The harshest punishments, usually involving death by torturous methods like {{Nihongo|2=釜茹で|3=kamayude}}, [[death by boiling]], were reserved for commoner offenders.

Forced ''seppuku'' came to be known as "conferred death" over time as it was used for punishment of criminal samurai.<ref name=":0" />

==Recorded events==
[[File:Oishi Yoshio Gishi Seppuku No Zu Painting.png|thumb|300px|[[Ōishi Yoshio]] was sentenced to commit seppuku in 1703]]
On February 15, 1868, eleven French sailors of the ''[[FS Dupleix (1861)|Dupleix]]'' [[Sakai incident|entered the town of Sakai]] without official permission. Their presence caused panic among the residents. Security forces were dispatched to turn the sailors back to their ship, but a fight broke out and the sailors were shot dead. Upon the protest of the French representative, financial compensation was paid, and those responsible were sentenced to death. Captain [[Abel-Nicolas Bergasse du Petit-Thouars]] was present to observe the execution. As each samurai committed ritual disembowelment, the violent act shocked the captain, and he requested a pardon, as a result of which nine of the samurai were spared. This incident was dramatized in a famous short story, "Sakai Jiken", by [[Mori Ōgai]].

In the 1860s, the British Ambassador to Japan, [[Algernon Bertram Freeman-Mitford, 1st Baron Redesdale|Algernon Freeman-Mitford (Lord Redesdale)]], lived within sight of [[Sengaku-ji]] where the Forty-seven Ronin are buried. In his book ''Tales of Old Japan'', he describes a man who had come to the graves to kill himself:

{{blockquote|I will add one anecdote to show the sanctity which is attached to the graves of the Forty-seven. In the month of September 1868, a certain man came to pray before the grave of Oishi Chikara. Having finished his prayers, he deliberately performed hara-kiri, and, the belly wound not being mortal, dispatched himself by cutting his throat. Upon his person were found papers setting forth that, being a [[Ronin]] and without means of earning a living, he had petitioned to be allowed to enter the clan of the Prince of [[Choshiu]], which he looked upon as the noblest clan in the realm; his petition having been refused, nothing remained for him but to die, for to be a Ronin was hateful to him, and he would serve no other master than the Prince of Choshiu: what more fitting place could he find in which to put an end to his life than the graveyard of these Braves? This happened at about two hundred yards' distance from my house, and when I saw the spot an hour or two later, the ground was all bespattered with blood, and disturbed by the death-struggles of the man.}}

Mitford also describes his friend's eyewitness account of a ''seppuku'':

[[File:Hara-kiri_by_Crepon_1867.png|thumb|right|300px|Illustration titled ''Harakiri: Condemnation of a nobleman to suicide.'' drawing by L. Crépon adapted from a Japanese painting, 1867]]{{blockquote|There are many stories on record of extraordinary heroism being displayed in the harakiri. The case of a young fellow, only twenty years old, of the Choshiu clan, which was told me the other day by an eye-witness, deserves mention as a marvellous instance of determination. Not content with giving himself the one necessary cut, he slashed himself thrice horizontally and twice vertically. Then he stabbed himself in the throat until the dirk protruded on the other side, with its sharp edge to the front; setting his teeth in one supreme effort, he drove the knife forward with both hands through his throat, and fell dead.}}During the [[Meiji Restoration]], the [[Tokugawa shogunate|Tokugawa shogun's]] aide performed seppuku:

{{blockquote|One more story and I have done. During the revolution, when the [[taikun|Taikun (Supreme Commander)]], beaten on every side, fled ignominiously to [[Edo|Yedo]], he is said to have determined to fight no more, but to yield everything. A member of his second council went to him and said, "Sir, the only way for you now to retrieve the honor of the family of Tokugawa is to disembowel yourself; and to prove to you that I am sincere and disinterested in what I say, I am here ready to disembowel myself with you." The Taikun flew into a great rage, saying that he would listen to no such nonsense, and left the room. His faithful retainer, to prove his honesty, retired to another part of the castle, and solemnly performed the harakiri.}}{{citation needed|reason=This is a direct quote, but there is no identification of what text or speech is being quoted or what was the original language. |date=January 2022}}

In his book ''Tales of Old Japan'', Mitford describes witnessing a hara-kiri:<ref>[https://archive.today/20121206013612/http://www.munseys.com/disktwo/tajadex.htm ''Tales of Old Japan''] by Algernon Bertram Freeman-Mitford</ref>
<blockquote>As a corollary to the above elaborate statement of the ceremonies proper to be observed at the harakiri, I may here describe an instance of such an execution which I was sent officially to witness. The condemned man was Taki Zenzaburo, an officer of the Prince of [[Bizen Province|Bizen]], who gave the order to fire upon the foreign settlement at [[Hyōgo Prefecture|Hyōgo]] in the month of February 1868,{{snd}}an [[Kobe Incident|attack]] to which I have alluded in the preamble to the story of the Eta Maiden and the [[Hatamoto]]. Up to that time no foreigner had witnessed such an execution, which was rather looked upon as a traveler's fable.

The ceremony, which was ordered by the [[Emperor of Japan|Mikado]] (Emperor) himself, took place at 10:30 at night in the temple of Seifukuji, the headquarters of the [[Satsuma Province|Satsuma]] troops at Hiogo. A witness was sent from each of the foreign legations. We were seven foreigners in all. After another profound obeisance, Taki Zenzaburo, in a voice which betrayed just so much emotion and hesitation as might be expected from a man who is making a painful confession, but with no sign of either in his face or manner, spoke as follows:

{{blockquote|I, and I alone, unwarrantably gave the order to fire on the foreigners at [[Kobe, Hyogo|Kobe]], and again as they tried to escape. For this crime I disembowel myself, and I beg you who are present to do me the {{Not a typo|honour}} of witnessing the act.}}

Bowing once more, the speaker allowed his upper garments to slip down to his girdle, and remained naked to the waist. Carefully, according to custom, he tucked his sleeves under his knees to prevent himself from falling backwards; for a noble Japanese gentleman should die falling forwards. Deliberately, with a steady hand, he took the dirk that lay before him; he looked at it wistfully, almost affectionately; for a moment he seemed to collect his thoughts for the last time, and then stabbing himself deeply below the waist on the left-hand side, he drew the dirk slowly across to the right side, and, turning it in the wound, gave a slight cut upwards. During this sickeningly painful operation he never moved a muscle of his face. When he drew out the dirk, he leaned forward and stretched out his neck; an expression of pain for the first time crossed his face, but he uttered no sound. At that moment the ''kaishaku'', who, still crouching by his side, had been keenly watching his every movement, sprang to his feet, poised his sword for a second in the air; there was a flash, a heavy, ugly thud, a crashing fall; with one blow the head had been severed from the body.

A dead silence followed, broken only by the hideous noise of the blood throbbing out of the inert heap before us, which but a moment before had been a brave and chivalrous man. It was horrible.

The ''kaishaku'' made a low bow, wiped his sword with a piece of rice paper which he had ready for the purpose, and retired from the raised floor; and the stained dirk was solemnly borne away, a bloody proof of the execution. The two representatives of the Mikado then left their places, and, crossing over to where the foreign witnesses sat, called us to witness that the sentence of death upon Taki Zenzaburo had been faithfully carried out. The ceremony being at an end, we left the temple. The ceremony, to which the place and the hour gave an additional solemnity, was characterized throughout by that extreme dignity and punctiliousness which are the distinctive marks of the proceedings of Japanese gentlemen of rank; and it is important to note this fact, because it carries with it the conviction that the dead man was indeed the officer who had committed the crime, and no substitute. While profoundly impressed by the terrible scene it was impossible at the same time not to be filled with admiration of the firm and manly bearing of the sufferer, and of the nerve with which the ''kaishaku'' performed his last duty to his master.</blockquote>

==In modern Japan==
Seppuku as judicial punishment was abolished in 1873, shortly after the [[Meiji Restoration]], but voluntary seppuku did not completely die out.<ref name=":5">{{Cite news |last=Wudunn |first=Sheryl |date=1999-03-24 |title=Manager Commits Hara-Kiri to Fight Corporate Restructuring |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/03/24/world/manager-commits-hara-kiri-to-fight-corporate-restructuring.html |access-date=2022-12-27 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Reitman |first=Valerie |date=1999-03-24 |title=Japanese Worker Kills Himself Near Company President's Office |url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1999-mar-24-mn-20472-story.html |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref> Dozens of people are known to have committed seppuku since then,<ref>{{Cite web |date=1999-03-24 |title=Corporate warrior commits hara-kiri |url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/1999/mar/24/jonathanwatts |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=the Guardian |language=en}}</ref><ref name=":5" /><ref>{{Cite news |title=Former Bridgestone Manager Stabs Himself in Front of Firm's President |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/SB92221343039231819 |access-date=2022-12-27 |newspaper=Wall Street Journal |date=24 March 1999 |language=en-US}}</ref> including [[Nogi Maresuke|General Nogi Maresuke]] and his wife on the death of [[Emperor Meiji]] in 1912, and numerous soldiers and civilians who chose to die rather than surrender at the end of [[World War II]]. The practice had been widely praised in army propaganda, which featured a soldier captured by the Chinese in the [[Shanghai Incident]] (1932) who returned to the site of his capture to perform seppuku.<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hoyt |first1=Edwin P. |title=Japan's War: The Great Pacific Conflict |date=2001 |publisher=Cooper Square Press |isbn=978-0815411185|pages=100–101 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QQq_AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA158}}</ref> In 1944, [[Hideyoshi Obata]], a [[Lieutenant General]] in the [[Imperial Japanese Army]], committed seppuku in [[Yigo, Guam]] following the Allied victory over the Japanese in the [[Second Battle of Guam]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Igarashi |first1=Yoshikuni |title=Homecomings: The Belated Return of Japan's Lost Soldiers |date=2016 |publisher=Columbia University Press |isbn=978-0231177702 |page=152}}</ref> Obata was posthumously promoted to the rank of general. Many other high-ranking military officials of Imperial Japan would go on to commit seppuku toward the latter half of World War II in 1944 and 1945,<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Porter |first=Patrick |date=2010 |title=Paper Bullets: American Psywar in the Pacific, 1944–1945 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26070823 |journal=War in History |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=479–511 |doi=10.1177/0968344510376465 |jstor=26070823 |s2cid=145484317 |issn=0968-3445}}</ref> as the tide of the war turned against the Japanese, and it became clear that a Japanese victory of the war was not achievable.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Timeline: Last Days of Imperial Japan |url=https://www.cfr.org/timeline/last-days-imperial-japan |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=Council on Foreign Relations |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Researching Japanese War Crimes - Introductory Essats |url=https://www.archives.gov/files/iwg/japanese-war-crimes/introductory-essays.pdf}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Japan's Surrender and Aftermath |url=http://public1.nhhcaws.local/browse-by-topic/wars-conflicts-and-operations/world-war-ii/1945/victory-in-pacific.html |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=public1.nhhcaws.local |language=en-US }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In 1970, author [[Yukio Mishima]]<ref>{{Cite news |last=Williams |first=John |date=2020-05-21 |title=An Absurdist Noir Novel Shows Yukio Mishima's Lighter Side |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2020/05/21/books/review-life-for-sale-yukio-mishima.html |access-date=2022-12-27 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> and one of his followers performed public seppuku at the [[Japan Self-Defense Forces]] headquarters following an unsuccessful attempt to incite the armed forces to stage a [[coup d'état]].<ref name=":2">{{Cite news |last=Muramatsu |first=Takeshi |date=1971-04-16 |title=Death as Precept |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/04/16/archives/death-as-precept.html |access-date=2022-12-27 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news |last=Lebra |first=Joyce |date=1970-11-28 |title=Eyewitness: Mishima |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1970/11/28/archives/eyewitness-mishima.html |access-date=2022-12-27 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> Mishima performed seppuku in the office of General Kanetoshi Mashita.<ref name=":3" /><ref name=":4">{{Cite news |date=1993-03-13 |title=Opinion {{!}} Enigmatic Japanese Writer Remembered |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1993/03/13/opinion/l-enigmatic-japanese-writer-remembered-145293.html |access-date=2022-12-27 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref> His kaishakunin, a 25-year-old man named [[Masakatsu Morita]], tried three times to ritually behead Mishima but failed, and his head was finally severed by [[Hiroyasu Koga]], a former [[kendo]] champion.<ref name=":4" /> Morita then attempted to perform seppuku himself,<ref name=":4" /> but when his own cuts were too shallow to be fatal, he gave the signal and was beheaded by Koga.<ref>{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uSTuGYNB-S8C&pg=PT287 |title=Ha!: a self-murder mystery |first=Gordon |last=Sheppard |page=269 |publisher=McGill-Queen's University Press |year=2003 |isbn=0-7735-2345-6}} ''excerpt from'' {{cite book |title=The Life and Death of Yukio Mishima |first=Henry Scott |last=Stokes |publisher=[[Cooper Square Press]] |year=2000 |isbn=0-8154-1074-3}}</ref><ref name=":2" /><ref name=":3" />

==Notable cases==
List of notable ''seppuku'' cases in chronological order.
{{Div col}}
* [[Minamoto no Tametomo]] (1170)
* [[Minamoto no Yorimasa]] (1180)
* [[Minamoto no Yoshitsune]] (1189)
* [[Hōjō Takatoki]] (1333)
* [[Ashikaga Mochiuji]] (1439)
* [[Azai Nagamasa]] (1573)
* [[Oda Nobunaga]] (1582)
* [[Takeda Katsuyori]] (1582)
* [[Shibata Katsuie]] (1583)
* [[Sassa Narimasa]] (1588)
* [[Hōjō Ujimasa]] (1590)
* [[Sen no Rikyū]] (1591)
* [[Toyotomi Hidetsugu]] (1595)
* [[Torii Mototada]] (1600)
* [[Tokugawa Tadanaga]] (1634)
* Forty-six of the [[Forty-seven rōnin|Forty-seven ''rōnin'']] (1703)
* [[Watanabe Kazan]] (1841)
* [[Tanaka Shinbei]] (1863)
* [[Takechi Hanpeita]] (1865)
* [[Yamanami Keisuke]] (1865)
* [[Byakkotai]] (group of samurai youths) (1868)
* [[Saigō Takamori]] (1877)
* [[Emilio Salgari]] (1911)
* [[Nogi Maresuke]] and Nogi Shizuko (1912)
* [[Chujiro Hayashi]] (1940)
* [[Seigō Nakano]] (1943)
* [[Yoshitsugu Saitō]] (1944)
* [[Hideyoshi Obata]] (1944)
* [[Kunio Nakagawa]] (1944)
* [[Mitsuru Ushijima]] (1945)
* [[Isamu Chō]] (1945)
* [[Korechika Anami]] (1945)
* [[Takijirō Ōnishi]] (1945)
* [[Chikahiko Koizumi]] (1945)
* [[Yukio Mishima]] (1970)
* [[Masakatsu Morita]] (1970)
* [[Isao Inokuma]] (2001)
{{Div col end}}

==In popular culture==
[[File:Keppler_Credit_Mobilier_Hari-Kari.png|thumb|300px|In [[Joseph Keppler]]'s cartoon published in [[Frank Leslie's Illustrated Newspaper]] on March 8, 1873, [[Uncle Sam]] is shown directing U.S. Senators implicated in the [[Crédit Mobilier scandal|Crédit Mobilier Scandal]] to commit harakiri, clearly showing that by that time the general American public was already familiar with the Japanese ritual and its social implications.]]The expected honour suicide of the samurai wife is frequently referenced in Japanese literature and film, such as in ''Taiko'' by Eiji Yoshikawa, ''[[Humanity and Paper Balloons]]'',<ref>{{cite book|first1=Alastair|last1=Phillips|first2=Julian|last2=Stringer|title=Japanese Cinema: Texts And Contexts|year=2007|page=57}}</ref> and ''[[Rashomon (film)|Rashomon]]''.<ref>{{cite book|first=Orit|last=Kamir|title=Framed: Women in Law and Film|year=2005|page=64}}</ref> ''Seppuku'' is referenced and described multiple times in the 1975 [[James Clavell]] novel, ''[[Shōgun (novel)|Shōgun]]''; its subsequent 1980 miniseries ''[[Shōgun (1980 miniseries)|Shōgun]]'' brought the term and the concept to mainstream Western attention. It was staged by the young protagonist in the 1971 dark American comedy ''[[Harold and Maude]]''.

In [[Puccini]]'s 1904 opera ''[[Madame Butterfly]]'', wronged child-bride Cio-Cio-san commits seppuku in the final moments of the opera, after hearing that the father of her child—although he has finally returned to Japan, much to her initial delight—had in the meantime married an American lady and has come to take her child away from her.

Throughout the novels depicting the 30th century and onward ''[[Battletech]]'' universe, members of House Kurita—who are based on feudal Japanese culture, despite the futuristic setting—frequently atone for their failures by performing seppuku.

In the 2003 film ''[[The Last Samurai]]'', the act of seppuku is depicted twice. The defeated Imperial officer General Hasegawa commits seppuku, while his enemy Katsumoto ([[Ken Watanabe]]) acts as kaishakunin and decapitates him. Later, the mortally wounded samurai leader Katsumoto performs seppuku with former US Army Captain Nathan Algren's help. This is also depicted ''en masse'' in the film ''[[47 Ronin (2013 film)|47 Ronin]]'' starring Keanu Reeves when the 47 ronin are punished for disobeying the shogun's orders by avenging their master.<ref>[https://www.imdb.com/title/tt1335975/?ref_=nv_sr_1 47 Ronin]</ref> In the 2011 film ''[[My Way (2011 film)|My Way]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wizard2.sbs.do.kr/w3/template/tp1_review_detail.jsp?vVodId=V0000311936&vProgId=1000126&vMenuId=1002036&vVodCnt1=00021&vVodCnt2=00|title=다시보기 : SBS 스페셜|website=wizard2.sbs.co.kr|language=ko|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304192934/http://wizard2.sbs.co.kr/w3/template/tp1_review_detail.jsp?vVodId=V0000311936&vProgId=1000126&vMenuId=1002036&vVodCnt1=00021&vVodCnt2=00|archive-date=March 4, 2016|url-status=live|access-date=June 6, 2016}}</ref> an Imperial Japanese colonel is ordered to commit ''seppuku'' by his superiors after ordering a retreat from an oil field overrun by Russian and Mongolian troops in the 1939 [[Battles of Khalkhin Gol|Battle of Khalkin Gol]].

In the video game ''[[Mortal Kombat: Deception]]'', a finisher known as the "Hara-Kiri" allows the defeated character to kill themselves in a brutal fashion before the victor can perform a [[Fatality (Mortal Kombat)|Fatality]] on them. Only one of the characters, Kenshi, actually performs harakiri.

In Season 15 Episode 12 of ''[[Law & Order: Special Victims Unit]]'', titled "Jersey Breakdown", a [[Japanophilia|Japanophile]] New Jersey judge with a large samurai sword collection commits harakiri when he realizes that the police are onto him for raping a 12-year-old Japanese girl in a Jersey nightclub.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt3409880/?ref_=ttep_ep12 |title="Law & Order: Special Victims Unit" Jersey Breakdown (TV Episode 2014) |website=[[IMDb]] |access-date=7 May 2019}}</ref>

Seppuku is depicted in season 1, episode 5, of the [[Amazon Prime Video]] TV series ''[[The Man in the High Castle (TV series)|The Man in the High Castle]]'' (2015). In this dystopian alternate history, the Japanese Imperial Force controls the [[West Coast of the United States|West Coast]] of the United States after a Nazi victory against the [[Allies of World War II|Allies]] in World War Two. During the episode, the Japanese [[crown prince]] makes an official visit to San Francisco but is shot during a public address. The captain of the Imperial Guard commits ''seppuku'' because of his failure of ensuring the prince's security. The head of the [[Kempeitai|Kenpeitai]], Chief Inspector Takeshi Kido, states he will do the same if the assassin is not apprehended.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2019-11-12|title=The Man in the High Castle Season 1 Episode 5: The New Normal Recap|url=https://metawitches.com/2019/11/12/the-man-in-the-high-castle-season-1-episode-5-the-new-normal-recap/|access-date=2021-04-27|website=Metawitches|language=en}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In the 2014 [[dark fantasy]] action [[Role-playing video game|role-playing]] video game ''[[Dark Souls II]]'', the [[Boss (video games)|boss]] Sir Alonne performs seppuku if the player defeats him within three minutes or if the player takes no damage, to retain his honour as a samurai. in the 2015 re-release ''Scholar of the First Sin'', this only occurs if the player takes no damage whatsoever.

In Chapter 25, "Ryoma", of the ''Conquest'' route of the 2015 [[Tactical role-playing game|tactical role-playing]] video game ''[[Fire Emblem Fates]]'', Hoshidan high prince Ryoma takes his own life by committing seppuku, for both honour and to spare Corrin the grief of killing him, telling them "I'm counting on you" before dying.<ref>{{Cite video game|title=[[Fire Emblem Fates]]|developer=[[Intelligent Systems]]|publisher=[[Nintendo]]|platform=Nintendo 3DS|version=Conquest|date=February 19, 2016|quote='''Ryoma''': I'm counting on you.|level=Chapter 25: Ryoma}}</ref>

In the 2017 [[Revival (television)|revival]] and final season of the animated series ''[[Samurai Jack]]'', the eponymous protagonist, distressed over his many failures to accomplish his quest as told in [[List of Samurai Jack episodes|prior seasons]], is then informed by a haunting samurai spirit that he has acted dishonourably by allowing many people to suffer and die from his failures, and must perform seppuku to atone for them.<ref>{{cite episode|title=XCVII|series=Samurai Jack|network=Adult Swim|airdate=2017-04-22}}</ref>

In the 2022 [[dark fantasy]] action role-playing video game ''[[Elden Ring]]'',<ref>{{Cite news |last=Park |first=Gene |date=April 13, 2022 |title=The success of 'Elden Ring' had nothing to do with the pandemic |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/video-games/2022/04/13/elden-ring-nyt-pandemic/ |newspaper=The Washington Post}}</ref> the player can receive the ability "Seppuku", which has the player stab themselves through the stomach and then pull the blade out, coating it in blood to increase its damage.<ref>{{Cite web |title=How to find the Seppuku Ash of War in Elden Ring |url=https://www.msn.com/en-us/news/technology/how-to-find-the-seppuku-ash-of-war-in-elden-ring/ar-AAV0Lqp |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=MSN |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Wo Man Die Elden Ring Asche Des Krieges Seppuku Findet |url=https://www.ggrecon.com/de/guides/elden-ring-asche-des-krieges-seppuku/ |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=www.ggrecon.com |language=de}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Stewart |first=Jared |date=2022-05-04 |title=Elden Ring: How to Get the Seppuku Ash Of War |url=https://gamerant.com/elden-ring-seppuku-ash-of-war-get-location-where/ |access-date=2022-12-27 |website=Game Rant |language=en-US}}</ref>

In the Amazon Prime TV show [[The Forgotten Army - Azaadi Ke Liye]], an Imperial Japanese Army [[Major (rank)|Major]] dies by Seppuku after the failure of his company against the British forces in Burma.

==See also==
{{Portal|Japan}}
{{div col}}
* ''[[Harakiri (1962 film)|Harakiri]]'' – film by [[Masaki Kobayashi]]
* [[Japanese funeral]]
* [[Jauhar]], [[Rajput]] honour suicide by self-immolation
* [[Junshi]] – following the lord in death
* [[Kamikaze]], Japanese suicide bombers
* [[Puputan]], Indonesian ritual suicide
* [[Shame society]]
* [[Suicide in Japan]]
* [[Kotatsu]] - wooden table used in Japan often with a heat source underneath
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

== Further reading ==
{{Suicide sidebar}}
* {{cite book
| title = Seppuku: A History of Samurai Suicide
| last = Rankin
| first = Andrew
| publisher = Kodansha International
| year = 2011
| isbn = 978-4770031426
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/seppukuhistoryof0000rank
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Hagakure: The Book of the Samurai
| publisher = Charles E. Tuttle
| others=William Scott Wilson (trans.)
| year = 1979
| isbn = 1-84483-594-4
| author = Yamamoto Tsunetomo
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Hara-Kiri: Japanese Ritual Suicide
| last = Seward
| first = Jack
| publisher = Charles E. Tuttle
| year = 1968
| isbn = 0-8048-0231-9
| author-link = Jack Seward
}}
* {{cite book
| title = Mishima's Sword: Travels in Search of a Samurai Legend
| last = Ross
| first = Christoper
| publisher = Da Capo Press
| year = 2006
| isbn = 978-0-306-81513-3
| url-access = registration
| url = https://archive.org/details/mishimasswordtra0000ross_l7t5
}}
* [http://kyushu.com/gleaner/editorspick/seppuku.shtml Seppuku] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080915045135/http://kyushu.com/gleaner/editorspick/seppuku.shtml |date=2008-09-15 }} – A Practical Guide (tongue-in-cheek)
* {{cite web|url=http://www.habri.co.uk/PerspectiveHfd_1_6.html#suicide |title=Japanese Society and Culture in Perspective: 6. Suicide, the Dark Shadow |last=Brinckmann |first=Hans |date=2006-07-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070110222904/http://www.habri.co.uk/PerspectiveHfd_1_6.html#dropouts |archive-date=January 10, 2007 }}
* {{cite journal
|last = Freeman-Mitford
|first = Algernon Bertram
|year = 1871
|title = An Account of the Hara-Kiri
|url = http://www.munseys.com/disktwo/tajadex.htm
|archive-url = https://archive.today/20121206013612/http://www.munseys.com/disktwo/tajadex.htm
|url-status = dead
|archive-date = 2012-12-06
|journal = Tales of Old Japan
}}
* {{cite web
| url = http://www.win.net/ratsnest/archive-articles21/fog0000000384.html
| title = The Fine Art of Seppuku
}}
* [http://www.zuihoden.com/ Zuihoden] – The mausoleum of [[Date Masamune]]{{snd}}When he died, twenty of his followers killed themselves to serve him in the next life. They lay in state at Zuihoden
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20070313256140/http://turandot.ish-lyon.cnrs.fr/Artworks.php?ID=168 Seppuku and "cruel punishments" at the end of Tokugawa Shogunate]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20051117145055/http://www.uni-erfurt.de/ostasiatische_geschichte/texte/japan/dokumente/17/tokugawa_legislation/index_files/buke_shohatto_1663.html Tokugawa Shogunate edict banning Junshi (Following one's lord in death)] From the Buke Sho Hatto (1663) –
:"That the custom of following a master in death is wrong and unprofitable is a caution which has been at times given of old; but, owing to the fact that it has not actually been prohibited, the number of those who cut their belly to follow their lord on his decease has become very great. For the future, to those retainers who may be animated by such an idea, their respective lords should intimate, constantly and in very strong terms, their disapproval of the custom. If, notwithstanding this warning, any instance of the practice should occur, it will be deemed that the deceased lord was to blame for unreadiness. Henceforward, moreover, his son and successor will be held to be blameworthy for incompetence, as not having prevented the suicides."
* {{cite journal
| last = Fuse
| first = Toyomasa
| year = 1980
| title = Suicide and Culture in Japan: a study of seppuku as an institutionalized form of suicide
| journal = Social Psychiatry
| volume = 15
| issue = 2
| pages = 57–63
| doi = 10.1007/BF00578069
| s2cid = 25585787
}}

==External links==
* {{Commons category-inline|Seppuku}}
* {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Hara-kiri |short=x}}

{{Authority control}}
{{Capital punishment}}
{{Suicide navbox}}

[[Category:Suicide by seppuku]]
[[Category:Japanese culture]]
[[Category:Japanese words and phrases]]

Self-immolation of Aaron Bushnell

2024-03-02T06:49:54Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Event */fixed typo

{{Short description|2024 death protesting Israel's invasion of Gaza}}
{{pp-extended|small=yes}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=February 2024}}
{{Infobox event
| partof = the [[Israel–Hamas war protests in the United States]]
| date = {{nowrap|{{start date|2024|02|25}}}}
| image = Self-immolation of Aaron Bushnell.png
| image_upright = 0.9
| caption = Bushnell on fire in front of the [[Embassy of Israel, Washington, D.C.|Israeli embassy]]
| Location = [[Washington, D.C.]], United States
| coordinates = {{coord|38|56|32.9|N|77|04|04.4|W|region:US_type:event_scale:1000|display=inline,title}}
| type = [[Self-immolation]]
| motive = Opposition to [[United States support for Israel in the Israel–Hamas war|United States support for]] the [[Allegations of genocide in the 2023 Israeli attack on Gaza|perceived Palestinian genocide]]
| deaths = Aaron Bushnell
}}

On February 25, 2024, '''Aaron Bushnell''', a 25-year-old serviceman of the [[United States Air Force]], [[self-immolation|died after setting himself on fire]] outside the front gate of the [[Embassy of Israel, Washington, D.C.|Embassy of Israel in Washington, D.C.]] Immediately prior to the [[Live streaming|live-streamed]] act, Bushnell said that he was protesting against "what people have been experiencing in [[Palestine (region)|Palestine]] at the hands of their [[Zionism as settler colonialism|colonizers]]" and declared that he "will no longer be [[Complicity in genocide|complicit]] in [[Allegations of genocide in the 2023 Israeli attack on Gaza|genocide]]", after which he doused himself with a flammable liquid and set himself on fire.<ref>{{cite magazine |last=Assi |first=Seraj |title=Aaron Bushnell Refused to Be Silent on the Horrors in Gaza |magazine=[[Jacobin (magazine)|Jacobin]] |url=https://jacobin.com/2024/02/aaron-bushnell-self-immolation-israel-embassy-gaza |date=February 26, 2024 |access-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226214246/https://jacobin.com/2024/02/aaron-bushnell-self-immolation-israel-embassy-gaza |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref> As he burned, Bushnell repeatedly shouted "[[Israeli-occupied territories|Free Palestine!]]" while one [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]] officer pointed a gun at him and two others attempted to extinguish him.<ref name=nyt>{{cite news |last=Kavi |first=Aishvarya |date=February 25, 2024 |title=A man set himself on fire outside the Israeli Embassy in Washington, the police said. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/25/world/middleeast/israel-embassy-man-on-fire.html |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[The New York Times]] |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=February 25, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225234815/https://www.nytimes.com/2024/02/25/world/middleeast/israel-embassy-man-on-fire.html |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name=time/><ref name=WaPo1/><ref name="Factcheck">{{cite news |last=Norton |first=Tom |title=Fact Check: Did Israeli guard point gun toward Aaron Bushnell's body? |url=https://www.newsweek.com/fact-check-did-israeli-guard-point-gun-aaron-bushnell-1873678 |access-date=1 March 2024 |work=Newsweek |date=27 February 2024 |archive-date=March 1, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240301011706/https://www.newsweek.com/fact-check-did-israeli-guard-point-gun-aaron-bushnell-1873678 |url-status=live }}</ref>

The act was [[Live streaming|live-streamed]] on [[Twitch (service)|Twitch]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Pitofsky |first=Marina |last2=Ortiz |first2=Jorge L. |last3=Nguyen |first3=Thao |name-list-style=and |date=February 25, 2024 |title=Air Force member in critical condition after setting himself on fire outside Israeli embassy in Washington |url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/02/25/fire-man-israeli-embassy-washington-police/72740035007/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226081955/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/nation/2024/02/25/fire-man-israeli-embassy-washington-police/72740035007/ |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |access-date=February 25, 2024 |work=[[USA Today]]}}</ref> The [[Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia|Metropolitan Police Department]] responded to assist the [[United States Secret Service]] after Bushnell set himself on fire, and he was transported to a local hospital in critical condition.<ref name=":2">{{cite news |date=February 25, 2024 |title=Who is Aaron Bushnell, US Air Force member sets himself on fire outside Israeli Embassy in Washington |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/who-is-aaron-bushnell-us-air-force-member-sets-himself-on-fire-outside-israeli-embassy-in-washington/articleshow/107994857.cms |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[The Economic Times]] |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226053107/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/defence/who-is-aaron-bushnell-us-air-force-member-sets-himself-on-fire-outside-israeli-embassy-in-washington/articleshow/107994857.cms |url-status=live}}</ref> He was declared dead in the evening.<ref name="newsweek death report"/><ref name=wapodeath>{{cite news |last=Davies |first=Emily |last2=Hermann |first2=Peter |last3=Lamothe |first3=Dan |last4=Allam |first4=Hannah |date=February 26, 2024 |title=Airman dies after setting himself on fire outside Israeli Embassy in D.C. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2024/02/26/israeli-embassy-airman-fire-death-gaza/ |access-date=February 26, 2024 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20240227050205/https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2024/02/26/israeli-embassy-airman-fire-death-gaza/ |archive-date=February 27, 2024 |url-status=live }}</ref> Bushnell's act was the second self-immolation protesting against the [[United States support for Israel in the Israel–Hamas war|United States' support for Israel in its recent engagements in Gaza]], which have killed over 30,000 Palestinians and resulted in a [[Gaza humanitarian crisis (2023-present)|major humanitarian crisis]], at an Israeli diplomatic station in the United States; another protestor set herself on fire at the country's [[Atlanta]] consulate in December 2023.<ref name=nyt /><ref name="aljazeera 2024 0228 podcast"/>

== Background ==
===Bushnell's upbringing and views===
Bushnell grew up in [[Orleans, Massachusetts]], in the isolated [[Christianity|Christian]] [[Community of Jesus]] compound.<ref>{{cite news |last=Simons |first=Raoul |date=February 27, 2024 |title=US airman who killed himself outside Israeli Embassy was anarchist from religious sect |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2024/02/27/us-airman-aaron-bushnell-israeli-embassy-washington-church/ |access-date=February 27, 2024 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |issn=0307-1235 |archive-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227144206/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2024/02/27/us-airman-aaron-bushnell-israeli-embassy-washington-church/ |url-status=live}}</ref> He started his career with the [[United States Air Force]] (USAF) in May 2020, having done Basic & Technical Training. He was trained as a Client Systems Technician, having been educated in [[Computer security|cybersecurity]]. He later worked as a USAF [[DevOps]] engineer in [[San Antonio|San Antonio, Texas]], and was pursuing an undergraduate degree in software engineering from [[Southern New Hampshire University]].<ref name=":2" /><ref name="time">{{cite magazine |last=Guzman |first=Chad de |date=February 25, 2024|title=U.S. Air Force Member Sets Self on Fire Outside Israel's Embassy in D.C. to Protest War in Gaza |url=https://time.com/6821425/israel-embassy-air-force-protest-fire-self-immolation-aaron-bushnell-latest-updates/ |access-date=February 26, 2024 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226053631/https://time.com/6821425/israel-embassy-air-force-protest-fire-self-immolation-aaron-bushnell-latest-updates/ |url-status=live}}</ref> A friend of Bushnell by the name of Lupe Barboza in an interview with ''[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]]'' commented that Bushnell was religious and [[anti-imperialistic]],<ref name="aljazeera 2024 0228 podcast">{{Citation |url=https://omny.fm/shows/the-take/an-extreme-act-why-aaron-bushnell-self-immolated-f |title='An extreme act': Why Aaron Bushnell self-immolated for Gaza |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |date=February 28, 2024 |access-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228075600/https://omny.fm/shows/the-take/an-extreme-act-why-aaron-bushnell-self-immolated-f |url-status=live}}</ref> but she did not think that Bushnell was mentally ill.<ref name="aljezeera bushnell friend">{{Citation |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2QZfXjHcNpA |title=US man self-immolates in protest of Gaza funding, spurring nationwide vigils and ceasefire calls |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |date=February 28, 2024 |access-date=February 28, 2024 |via=[[YouTube]] |archive-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228075055/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2QZfXjHcNpA |url-status=live}}</ref> Other friends noted that Bushnell's contract with the military was to expire in May and that, following the police [[murder of George Floyd]], Bushnell became more open in his objections with the military.<ref>{{cite web |last=Stieb |first=Matt |date=2024-02-28 |title=What We Know About the Man Who Self-Immolated in Front of the Israeli Embassy |url=https://nymag.com/intelligencer/article/aaron-bushnell-self-immolation-what-we-know.html |access-date=2024-02-28 |website=[[New York (magazine)|Intelligencer]] |archive-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228191705/https://nymag.com/intelligencer/article/aaron-bushnell-self-immolation-what-we-know.html |url-status=live }}</ref> A [[Reddit]] account attributed to Bushnell denounced Israel as a "settler colonialist [[Israel and apartheid|apartheid state]]" and posted a comment stating that there are no Israeli "civilians" who are not involved in the oppression of Palestine.<ref>{{cite news |last=Mazurov |first=Nikita |title=Aaron Bushnell, Who Self-Immolated for Palestine, Had Grown Deeply Disillusioned With the Military |url=https://theintercept.com/2024/02/28/aaron-bushnell-reddit-fire-protest-israel-palestine/ |access-date=29 February 2024 |work=[[The Intercept]] |date=28 February 2024 |archive-date=February 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229211132/https://theintercept.com/2024/02/28/aaron-bushnell-reddit-fire-protest-israel-palestine/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== December 2023 Atlanta self-immolation ===
Bushnell was not the first person in the US to use self-immolation to protest against Israel over the Palestinian humanitarian crisis.<ref name="aljazeera 2024 0228 podcast2">{{Citation |title='An extreme act': Why Aaron Bushnell self-immolated for Gaza |date=February 28, 2024 |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |url=https://omny.fm/shows/the-take/an-extreme-act-why-aaron-bushnell-self-immolated-f |access-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228075600/https://omny.fm/shows/the-take/an-extreme-act-why-aaron-bushnell-self-immolated-f |archive-date=February 28, 2024 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="time 2024 0226 history">{{cite magazine |last=Burga |first=Solcyré |last2=Shah |first2=Simmone |date=February 26, 2024 |title=The History of Self-Immolation as Political Protest |url=https://time.com/6835364/self-immolation-history-israel-hamas-war/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226234516/https://time.com/6835364/self-immolation-history-israel-hamas-war/ |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |access-date=February 27, 2024 |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]}}</ref> On December 1, 2023, an individual, whose identity was not revealed by Atlanta authorities, protested via self-immolation outside the Israeli consulate in [[Atlanta|Atlanta, Georgia]], which resulted in the protester having critical injuries.<ref>{{cite news |date=December 2, 2023 |title=Protester critically injured after setting self on fire outside Israeli consulate in Atlanta |url=https://apnews.com/article/israeli-consulate-self-immolation-atlanta-protester-8f17dd72592f86797a45cda9b60605a5 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227001110/https://apnews.com/article/israeli-consulate-self-immolation-atlanta-protester-8f17dd72592f86797a45cda9b60605a5 |archive-date=February 27, 2024 |access-date=February 27, 2024 |work=[[Associated Press]]}}</ref>

== Event ==
[[File:Israeli Embassy Washington DC 3221.JPG|thumb|right|Front gate of the Embassy of Israel, where Bushnell set himself on fire.]]

Bushnell created a will before self-immolating, which left instructions for his savings to be donated to the [[Palestine Children's Relief Fund]] and that his cat be left with a neighbor after his death.<ref>{{cite news |last=Kim |first=Juliana |title=U.S. airman dies after setting himself on fire outside the Israeli Embassy |url=https://www.npr.org/2024/02/25/1233810136/fire-man-israeli-embassy-washington |access-date=February 27, 2024 |work=[[NPR]] |date=February 26, 2024 |archive-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227003604/https://www.npr.org/2024/02/25/1233810136/fire-man-israeli-embassy-washington |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Lawrence |first=Quil |title=What we know about the airman who immolated himself in front of the Israeli Embassy |url=https://www.npr.org/2024/02/26/1234005058/what-we-know-about-the-airman-who-immolated-himself-in-front-of-the-israeli-emba |access-date=February 28, 2024 |work=[[NPR]] |date=February 26, 2024 |archive-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228031508/https://www.npr.org/2024/02/26/1234005058/what-we-know-about-the-airman-who-immolated-himself-in-front-of-the-israeli-emba |url-status=live}}</ref> He sent a message to media outlets before his planned self-immolation, where he wrote "Today, I am planning to engage in an extreme act of protest against the genocide of the [[Palestinians|Palestinian people]]".<ref name="time"/> On the morning of the day of his self-immolation, he posted a message: "Many of us like to ask ourselves, 'What would I do if I was alive during [[slavery]]? Or the [[Jim Crow laws|Jim Crow]] South? Or [[apartheid]]? What would I do if my country was committing genocide?' The answer is, you're doing it. Right now."<ref name="apart1">{{cite web |last=Rahman |first=Khaleda |date=2024-02-26 |title=Aaron Bushnell's Facebook reveals final message before self-immolation |url=https://www.newsweek.com/aaron-bushnell-final-message-fire-israeli-embassy-washington-dc-1873242 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226101737/https://www.newsweek.com/aaron-bushnell-final-message-fire-israeli-embassy-washington-dc-1873242 |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=Newsweek}}</ref><ref name="apart2">{{cite web |last=Kube |first=Courtney |last2=Lenthang |first2=Marlene |last3=Siemaszko |first3=Corky |date=2024-02-27 |title=U.S. Air Force member who set himself on fire outside Israeli Embassy in D.C. has died |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/us-air-force-member-set-fire-israeli-embassy-dc-died-rcna140455 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226220147/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/us-air-force-member-set-fire-israeli-embassy-dc-died-rcna140455 |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |access-date=2024-03-01 |website=NBC News}}</ref>

{{Quote box|bgcolor=#E0E6F8|width=24em|quote="Many of us like to ask ourselves, 'What would I do if I was alive during [[slavery]]? Or the [[Jim Crow laws|Jim Crow]] South? Or [[apartheid]]? What would I do if my country was committing genocide?' The answer is, you're doing it. Right now."|source={{mdash}}Aaron Bushnell on the morning of the day of his self-immolation<ref name="apart1"/><ref name="apart1"/>}}

On February 25, 2024, at approximately 12:58 p.m. local time,<ref name="time"/> Bushnell, dressed in [[military fatigues]],<ref name="nbc-1">{{cite news |last=Kube |first=Courtney |last2=Lenthang |first2=Marlene |last3=Siemaszko |first3=Corky |title=U.S. Air Force member who set himself on fire outside Israeli Embassy in D.C. has died |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/us-air-force-member-set-fire-israeli-embassy-dc-died-rcna140455 |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[NBC News]] |date=February 26, 2024 |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226220147/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/us-news/us-air-force-member-set-fire-israeli-embassy-dc-died-rcna140455 |url-status=live}}</ref> approached the [[Embassy of Israel, Washington, D.C.|Israeli Embassy in Washington, D.C.]], intending to immolate himself as an act of protest against the [[Israel–Hamas war|war in Gaza]]. He had also created a Twitch account<ref name="time"/> under the name "LillyAnarKitty" with a [[Flag of Palestine|Palestinian flag]] as his profile banner with the caption "Free Palestine".<ref>{{cite news |last=Nieto |first=Phillip |date=February 25, 2024 |title=Air Force Service Member Sets Himself On Fire Outside Israeli Embassy |url=https://www.mediaite.com/news/air-force-service-member-sets-himself-on-fire-outside-israeli-embassy/ |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[Mediaite]] |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226033225/https://www.mediaite.com/news/air-force-service-member-sets-himself-on-fire-outside-israeli-embassy/ |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |title="This Is What Our Ruling Class Has Decided Will Be Normal" On Aaron Bushnell's Action in Solidarity with Gaza |date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[CrimethInc]] |url=https://crimethinc.com/2024/02/26/this-is-what-our-ruling-class-has-decided-will-be-normal-on-aaron-bushnells-action-in-solidarity-with-gaza |access-date=February 27, 2024 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227041331/https://crimethinc.com/2024/02/26/this-is-what-our-ruling-class-has-decided-will-be-normal-on-aaron-bushnells-action-in-solidarity-with-gaza |archive-date=February 27, 2024}}</ref> While live-streaming, he walked towards the embassy and said,

{{Quote|text=I am an active duty member of the United States Air Force. And I will no longer be complicit to genocide. I am about to engage in an extreme act of protest. But compared to what people have been experiencing in Palestine at the hands of their colonizers—it's not extreme at all. This is what our ruling class has decided will be normal.<ref>{{cite news |last=Siddiqui |first=Usaid |last2=Osgood |first2=Brian |title=Israel failed to comply with ICJ genocide orders in Gaza: Rights groups |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/2/26/israels-war-on-gaza-live-man-made-disaster-as-israel-blocks-food-aid |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226003706/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/2/26/israels-war-on-gaza-live-man-made-disaster-as-israel-blocks-food-aid |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Seligman |first=Lara |last2=Berg |first2=Matt |title=Air Force member dies after setting himself on fire outside Israeli Embassy |url=https://www.politico.com/news/2024/02/26/air-force-member-fire-death-israeli-embassy-00143269 |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[Politico]] |date=February 26, 2024 |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226142536/https://www.politico.com/news/2024/02/26/air-force-member-fire-death-israeli-embassy-00143269 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="time" />}}

Outside the embassy, Bushnell placed his camera down, positioned himself in front of the gates,<ref>{{cite news |last=Smith |first=Mataeo |title=US Airman who set himself on fire outside Israeli embassy pictured as he dies |url=https://www.themirror.com/news/us-news/airman-aaron-bushnell-who-set-360043 |access-date=February 27, 2024 |work=The Mirror US |date=February 27, 2024 |archive-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227024252/https://www.themirror.com/news/us-news/airman-aaron-bushnell-who-set-360043 |url-status=live}}</ref> and poured a flammable liquid over himself. A security officer approached Bushnell, asking if he needed help, but was ignored.<ref name="time" />

After igniting himself, Bushnell repeatedly shouted "Free Palestine!" as he was burning, and eventually collapsed to the ground.<ref name="time"/><ref name="WaPo1">{{cite news |last=Davies |first=Emily |last2=Rempfer |first2=Kyle |last3=Lamothe |first3=Dan |name-list-style=and |date=February 25, 2024 |title=Active-duty airman sets himself on fire outside D.C.'s Israeli Embassy |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2024/02/25/dc-israeli-embassy-man-fire/ |archive-url=https://archive.is/w9lvg |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |access-date=February 26, 2024 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |quote=shows him referring to his service in the U.S. armed forces and shouting "Free Palestine" as he burned.}}</ref><ref name=AJ1>{{cite news |title=US airman sets himself on fire outside Israel embassy to protest 'genocide' |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/2/26/us-airman-sets-self-on-fire-in-protest-over-israels-genocide-in-gaza |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |date=February 26, 2024 |quote=He then lit himself on fire while yelling "Free Palestine!" until he fell to the ground. |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226051913/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/2/26/us-airman-sets-self-on-fire-in-protest-over-israels-genocide-in-gaza |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Diver |first=Tony |last2=Hamblin |first2=Andrea |name-list-style=and |date=February 26, 2024 |title=US military officer sets himself on fire outside Israeli embassy |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/us/news/2024/02/26/israel-embassy-washington-gaza-free-palestine-air-force/ |archive-url=https://archive.is/i3xZg |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |quote=standing outside the embassy wearing a military uniform and shouting "Free Palestine" as he burned.}}</ref> The security officer radioed in for assistance. A police officer approached the scene, aimed a gun at Bushnell off-camera, and ordered him to "get on the ground" multiple times while another officer yelled "I don't need guns, I need fire extinguishers!"<ref name="newsweek">{{cite news |last=Rahman |first=Khaleda |date=February 26, 2024 |title=Who is Aaron Bushnell? US airman sets himself on fire by Israeli embassy |url=https://www.newsweek.com/who-aaron-bushnell-us-airman-fire-israeli-embassy-washington-dc-palestine-1873212 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226101737/https://www.newsweek.com/aaron-bushnell-final-message-fire-israeli-embassy-washington-dc-1873242 |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[Newsweek]]}}</ref>
Multiple officers responded to the scene and used [[fire extinguisher]]s on Bushnell. He was transported to a local hospital by the [[District of Columbia Fire and Emergency Medical Services Department|DC Fire & EMS]]. About 7 hours after his self-immolation, Bushnell was declared dead at the age of 25 from his [[Burn|burn injuries]] at 8:06 pm local time.<ref name="wapo">{{cite news |last=Davies |first=Emily |last2=Hermann |first2=Peter |date=February 26, 2024 |title=Airman dies after setting himself on fire outside Israeli Embassy in D.C. |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/dc-md-va/2024/02/26/israeli-embassy-airman-fire-death-gaza/ |access-date=February 26, 2024 |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Kika |first=Thomas |date=February 27, 2024 |title=Aaron Bushnell GoFundMe Account Taken Down |url=https://www.newsweek.com/aaron-bushnell-gofundme-taken-down-1874031 |work=[[Newsweek]] |access-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228035251/https://www.newsweek.com/aaron-bushnell-gofundme-taken-down-1874031 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal|url=https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/aaron-bushnells-act-of-political-despair|title=Aaron Bushnell's Act of Political Despair|journal=New Yorker|date=February 28, 2024|last=Gessen|first=Masha|access-date=February 29, 2024|archive-date=February 29, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229052444/https://www.newyorker.com/news/our-columnists/aaron-bushnells-act-of-political-despair|url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="newsweek death report"/>

== Investigation ==
The [[United States Secret Service|Secret Service]], [[Metropolitan Police Department of the District of Columbia|Metropolitan Police Department]], and the [[Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives]] announced they would investigate the incident.<ref name="time" /> The Metropolitan Police refused to confirm the authenticity of the livestream, and the US Air Force cited family notification policies while refusing to speak initially on the situation. A bomb disposal unit was dispatched to investigate concerns of a suspicious vehicle that could have been connected to Bushnell. The area was later declared safe after nothing hazardous was discovered.<ref name=":0">{{cite news|last=Geoghegan |first=Tom |last2=Epstein |first2=Kayla |last3=Wendling |first3=Mike |date=February 26, 2024 |title=Aaron Bushnell: US airman dies after setting himself on fire outside Israeli embassy in Washington |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-68405119 |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[BBC News]] |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226132710/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-68405119 |url-status=live}}</ref>

A public incident report given to reporters by the Metropolitan Police Department states that Bushnell was "exhibiting signs of [[mental distress]]"—namely that he had "doused himself with an unidentified liquid and set himself on fire"—before the Secret Service could reach him.<ref name="newsweek death report">{{cite news |last=Norton |first=Tom |date=February 26, 2024 |title=Aaron Bushnell death report reveals police call about 'mental distress' |url=https://www.newsweek.com/aaron-bushnell-death-report-reveals-police-call-about-mental-distress-1873386 |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[Newsweek]] |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226163709/https://www.newsweek.com/aaron-bushnell-death-report-reveals-police-call-about-mental-distress-1873386 |url-status=live}}</ref> A spokesperson for the Israeli embassy reported that no staff members were injured in the incident.<ref name=":0"/><ref>{{cite news |last=Samuels |first=Ben |date=February 26, 2024 |title=U.S. Soldier Fatally Set Himself on Fire Outside Israeli Embassy in Protest of American Support of Gaza War |url=https://www.haaretz.com/us-news/2024-02-26/ty-article/.premium/u-s-soldier-fatally-set-himself-on-fire-outside-israeli-embassy-in-protest-of-gaza-war/0000018d-e603-d972-a5bf-ef07ea920000 |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[Haaretz]] |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226164131/https://www.haaretz.com/us-news/2024-02-26/ty-article/.premium/u-s-soldier-fatally-set-himself-on-fire-outside-israeli-embassy-in-protest-of-gaza-war/0000018d-e603-d972-a5bf-ef07ea920000 |url-status=live}}</ref>

== Reactions ==

=== Domestic ===
When responding to the question by the [[Associated Press]] on whether "Bushnell's self-immolation might indicate that there is a deeper issue" with US military personnel being concerned about how weapons are used, Pentagon Press Secretary [[Patrick S. Ryder]] reaffirmed US support for Israel's operations.<ref>{{cite news |title=Pentagon reaffirms support for Israel after US airman's self-immolation |date=February 26, 2024 |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/2/26/israels-war-on-gaza-live-man-made-disaster-as-israel-blocks-food-aid?update=2734608 |access-date=February 27, 2024 |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |archive-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227012503/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/2/26/israels-war-on-gaza-live-man-made-disaster-as-israel-blocks-food-aid?update=2734608 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="forbes pentagon response">{{Citation |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=voMfxQ-w1C4 |title=Pentagon Responds Following US Airman's Death After He Set Himself On Fire Outside Israeli Embassy |work=[[Forbes]] |date=February 27, 2024 |access-date=February 27, 2024 |via=[[YouTube]] |archive-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227123206/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=voMfxQ-w1C4 |url-status=live}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Pentagon Press Secretary Air Force Maj. Gen. Pat Ryder Holds a Press Briefing |url=https://www.defense.gov/News/Transcripts/Transcript/Article/3687510/pentagon-press-secretary-air-force-maj-gen-pat-ryder-holds-a-press-briefing/ |website=[[United States Department of Defense]] |access-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228000800/https://www.defense.gov/News/Transcripts/Transcript/Article/3687510/pentagon-press-secretary-air-force-maj-gen-pat-ryder-holds-a-press-briefing/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Following his self-immolation, Bushnell's actions were praised by activists such as [[Aya Hijazi]] and [[Dyab Abou Jahjah]], as well as United States [[Green Party of the United States|Green Party]] candidate [[Jill Stein]] and independent candidate [[Cornel West]]. Senator [[Bernie Sanders]] stated that, "It's obviously a terrible tragedy, but I think it speaks to the depths of despair that so many people are feeling now about the horrific humanitarian disaster taking place in Gaza, and I share those deep concerns."<ref>{{cite news |last=Zurick |first=Maura |last2=Rouhandeh |first2=Alex J. |date=February 26, 2024 |title=Bernie Sanders breaks silence on Aaron Bushnell self-immolation |url=https://www.newsweek.com/bernie-sanders-breaks-silence-aaron-bushnell-self-immolation-1873586 |access-date=February 27, 2024 |work=[[Newsweek]] |archive-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227185623/https://www.newsweek.com/bernie-sanders-breaks-silence-aaron-bushnell-self-immolation-1873586 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Some on social media viewed his act as heroic and [[sacrificial]]; others considered Bushnell to have resorted to extreme measures by ending his own life.<ref>{{cite news |last=Stanton |first=Andrew |title=Aaron Bushnell called a "hero" for pro-Palestinian self-immolation |url=https://www.newsweek.com/aaron-bushnell-called-hero-pro-palestinian-self-immolation-1873454 |access-date=February 26, 2024 |work=[[Newsweek]] |date=February 26, 2024 |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226180657/https://www.newsweek.com/aaron-bushnell-called-hero-pro-palestinian-self-immolation-1873454 |url-status=live}}</ref> Many who identified themselves as service members made [[Black comedy|gallows humor]] based comments, such as calling him "the Airman a la Flambé", while speaking about Bushnell online. Others were critical of Bushnell's commanding officers, believing they could have helped sway him from his actions.<ref>{{cite news |last=Cole |first=Myke |date=2024-02-28 |title="Where Was His Leadership?" |url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2024/02/aaron-bushnell-air-force-service-response-immolation.html |access-date=2024-02-29 |work=Slate |issn=1091-2339 |archive-date=February 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229161507/https://slate.com/human-interest/2024/02/aaron-bushnell-air-force-service-response-immolation.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

On February 26, 2024, a [[Candlelight vigil|vigil]] in his memory was held in front of the Israeli embassy. It was attended by 100 people.<ref>{{cite news |date=February 26, 2024 |title=Vigil for Aaron Bushnell held outside Israeli embassy in DC |work=[[Middle East Eye]] |url=https://www.middleeasteye.net/live-blog/live-blog-update/vigil-aaron-bushnell-held-outside-israeli-embassy-dc?nid=344816&topic=Israel-Palestine%2520war&fid=503761 |access-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227143232/https://www.middleeasteye.net/live-blog/live-blog-update/vigil-aaron-bushnell-held-outside-israeli-embassy-dc?nid=344816&topic=Israel-Palestine%2520war&fid=503761 |url-status=live}}</ref> Additional vigils were held in other American cities, some organized by the anti-war group [[Code Pink]].<ref>{{cite news |last=Anderson |first=Brooke |date=February 27, 2024 |title=Vigils held across US for airman Aaron Bushnell who self-immolated against genocide in Gaza |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/vigils-held-aaron-bushnell-who-self-immolated-gaza |work=[[The New Arab]] |access-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-date=February 27, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227143207/https://www.newarab.com/news/vigils-held-aaron-bushnell-who-self-immolated-gaza |url-status=live}}</ref> On February 28, 2024, a vigil was held outside of the [[Edith Green – Wendell Wyatt Federal Building|Wyatt Federal Building]] in [[Portland, Oregon]] by advocacy group [[About Face: Veterans Against the War]], in which multiple veterans lined up and took turns burning their military clothing in front of a banner reading "Veterans say: Free Palestine! Remember Aaron Bushnell".<ref>{{cite news |title=Veterans Burn Their Uniforms at Vigil for US Airman Aaron Bushnell |url=https://uk.news.yahoo.com/veterans-burn-uniforms-vigil-us-123204314.html |access-date=29 February 2024 |work=[[Storyful]] |agency=[[Yahoo News]] |date=29 February 2024 |archive-date=February 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229165611/https://uk.news.yahoo.com/veterans-burn-uniforms-vigil-us-123204314.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

=== International ===
[[File:Self-immolation of Thich Quang Duc and Aaron Bushnell cartoon by Latuff (2024).jpg|upright=0.8|thumb|right|alt=Cartoon by Carlos Latuff comparing Bushnell to Thích Quảng Đức|Cartoon by Brazilian political cartoonist [[Carlos Latuff]] comparing Bushnell to [[Thích Quảng Đức]]]]
{{Expand section|with=reactions from within Israel and among other sectors of Palestinian society|date=February 2024}}

[[Hamas]] praised the act and expressed "heartfelt condolences" to the friends and family of Bushnell, announcing in a statement on [[Telegram (software)|Telegram]] that "he immortalised his name as a defender of human values and the oppression of the suffering Palestinian people because of the American administration and its unjust policies" while describing him as a "heroic pilot".<ref>{{cite news |date=February 27, 2024 |title=Hamas blames US for death of 'heroic' airman Aaron Bushnell |url=https://www.newarab.com/news/hamas-blames-us-death-heroic-airman-aaron-bushnell |access-date=February 27, 2024 |work=[[The New Arab]] |archive-date=February 27, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240227143229/https://www.newarab.com/news/hamas-blames-us-death-heroic-airman-aaron-bushnell |url-status=live}}</ref><ref name="nbc-1"/> The [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] released a statement honoring Bushnell, describing the act as "the highest sacrifice".<ref>{{cite news |last=Zhang |first=Sharon |date=February 26, 2024 |title=US Airman Aaron Bushnell Self-Immolates in Front of Israeli Embassy, Yelling "Free Palestine" |url=https://truthout.org/articles/us-airman-self-immolates-in-front-of-israeli-embassy-yelling-free-palestine/ |access-date=February 27, 2024 |work=[[Truthout]] |archive-date=February 26, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240226233724/https://truthout.org/articles/us-airman-self-immolates-in-front-of-israeli-embassy-yelling-free-palestine/ |url-status=live}}</ref>

Iran's Supreme Leader [[Ali Khamenei|Ayatollah Khamenei]] highlighted Bushnell's actions in two Twitter statements that were posted a few hours apart. The first called out the "West's disgraceful antihuman policies with regard to the genocide in Gaza" while the other indicated the genocide in Gaza was too much for "that young person who was brought up in the Western culture."<ref>{{cite web |date=2024-02-29 |title=Iran's Khamenei: Western culture and Gaza 'genocide' killed Aaron Bushnell |url=https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/iran-news/article-789523 |access-date=2024-02-29 |website=The Jerusalem Post |archive-date=February 29, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229162009/https://www.jpost.com/middle-east/iran-news/article-789523 |url-status=live }}</ref>

== Media coverage ==
{{seealso|Media coverage of the Israel–Hamas war}}
The coverage of Bushnell's self-immolation by mainstream media outlets drew criticism for attempting to "discredit" and "dilute" Bushnell's motive of protesting against Palestinian genocide. In an ''Al Jazeera'' column, Belén Fernández gave an example of ''[[The New York Times]]'' which mentioned nothing about Bushnell's motive in the title of their report and implied that Bushnell might be mentally ill by providing contact information for a mental health provider at the end of the ''Times'' article about Bushnell.<ref>{{Citation |url=https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/opinions/2024/2/26/suicide-vs-genocide-rest-in-power-aaron-bushnell |title=Suicide vs genocide: Rest in power, Aaron Bushnell |work=[[Al Jazeera English|Al Jazeera]] |first=Belén |last=Fernández |date=February 26, 2024 |access-date=February 29, 2024 |archive-date=February 28, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240228234650/https://www.aljazeera.com/amp/opinions/2024/2/26/suicide-vs-genocide-rest-in-power-aaron-bushnell |url-status=live }}</ref> ''[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]'' pointed out that the ''Times'' was treating Bushnell asymmetrically compared to their coverage of [[Irina Slavina (journalist)|Irina Slavina]], a Russian journalist who died protesting by self-immolation against the Russian government in 2020. The ''Times'' article about Slavina included the phrase "blaming government" in the title.<ref>{{Citation|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDyHZf25GuE|title=HERO? Aaron Bushnell MEMORIALIZED By Left Over Self-Immolation For 'FREE PALESTINE': RISING|work=[[The Hill (newspaper)|The Hill]]|date=2024-02-28|access-date=February 29, 2024|via=YouTube|archive-date=February 29, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240229012755/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDyHZf25GuE|url-status=live}}</ref>

==Misinformation==
Shortly following Bushnell's death, a fabricated screenshot circulated on social media showing a [[Reddit]] account operated by Bushnell making the comment "Palestine will be free when all the jews are dead." On February 28, 2024, [[fact-checking]] website [[Snopes]] determined this screenshot to be a hoax.<ref>{{cite news |last=Izzo |first=Jack |title=Is Antisemitic Post Attributed to Israel-Hamas War Protester Aaron Bushnell Real? |url=https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/aaron-bushnell-antisemitic-posts/ |access-date=29 February 2024 |work=[[Snopes]] |date=28 February 2024 |archive-date=March 1, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240301162157/https://www.snopes.com/fact-check/aaron-bushnell-antisemitic-posts/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

Commentary claimed that an individual seen on video pointing a gun at Bushnell was an Israeli guard; the individual was instead a [[United States Secret Service]] uniformed member, who was allegedly trying to ensure the safety of two others who were attempting to extinguish Bushnell.<ref name="Factcheck" />

== See also ==
* [[Israel–Hamas war protests in the United States]]
* [[List of political self-immolations]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* {{commons-category inline}}

{{Israel–Hamas war}}
{{Israel–United States relations}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bushnell, Aaron}}
[[Category:2024 deaths]]
[[Category:2024 suicides]]
[[Category:2024 in Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:21st-century history of the United States Air Force]]
[[Category:Anti-Israeli sentiment]]
[[Category:Anti-Zionism in the United States]]
[[Category:February 2024 events in the United States]]
[[Category:Deaths by person in Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:Filmed suicides]]
[[Category:Filmed deaths in the United States]]
[[Category:Suicides in Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:Suicides by self-immolation in the United States]]
[[Category:Israel–Hamas war protests in the United States]]
[[Category:American military personnel who died by suicide]]
[[Category:2024 protests]]
[[Category:Anti-war protests in the United States]]
[[Category:Protests in Washington, D.C.]]
[[Category:Israel–United States relations]]
[[Category:Activists for Palestinian solidarity]]

Michele Tafoya

2024-02-07T01:32:15Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Politics */

{{Short description|American sportscaster}}
{{use mdy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Michele Tafoya
| image = WAS at PHI Jan 2021 D50 4773 (50804581278) (cropped).jpg
| image_size =
| caption = Tafoya in 2021
| birth_date = {{birth based on age as of date |53|2018|01|12}}<ref name=Artful/>
| alma_mater = [[University of California, Berkeley]] [[University of Southern California]]
| occupation = Sportscaster
| years_active = 1993–2022
| spouse = Mark Vandersall
| children = 2
| awards = Five-time [[Sports Emmy Award]] winner
}}

'''Michele Tafoya''' (born 1964/1965)<ref name=Artful/> is a freelance reporter and retired sports broadcaster and advisor. She hosts the podcast ''Sideline Sanity''. From 2011 to 2022, she was a reporter for [[NBC Sports]], primarily as a [[sideline reporter]] for ''[[NBC Sunday Night Football]]''. She currently works as a conservative political advisor and makes television appearances on talk shows discussing the state of American politics and culture.

==Early life==
Tafoya is the daughter of Wilma (née Conley) and Orlando Tafoya.<ref name=Artful/><ref name=Jacobs>{{Cite news|first=Melissa |last= Jacobs |authorlink= |title= Super Bowl 52 Q&A: NBC's Michele Tafoya |newspaper=thefootballgirl.com|date= January 31, 2018|url= https://thefootballgirl.com/super-bowl-52-qa-nbcs-michele-tafoya/ |quote=‘I’m a Hispanic and I’m a female and look at how great this is for me.’ I say, “’I’m Michele Tafoya. My mom is Wilma, My dad was Orlando. I have a brother and three sisters.}}</ref> She is of [[Hispanic Americans|Hispanic]] descent.<ref name=Jacobs/> She has one brother and three sisters.<ref name=Jacobs/> She attended [[Mira Costa High School]] in [[Manhattan Beach, California]].<ref name="MCHSalumni">{{Cite web|url=https://miracostaalumni.com/hall-of-fame/|title=Hall Of Fame |date=October 11, 2019 |publisher= Mira Costa High School Alumni|access-date=2020-01-22}}</ref> She received a [[Bachelor of Arts]] degree in mass communications from the [[University of California, Berkeley]] in 1988, and a [[master's degree]] in business administration from the [[University of Southern California]] in 1991.<ref name="NBC-Sports-bio">{{cite web |url=http://nbcsportsgrouppressbox.com/bio/michele-tafoya/ |title=Michele Tafoya |publisher=NBC Sports |access-date=February 13, 2014}}</ref>

==Career==
Tafoya worked as a host and reporter for [[KFAN-AM]] in [[Minneapolis]], primarily for [[Minnesota Vikings]] and [[University of Minnesota]] women's basketball broadcasts. She worked for WAQS (now [[WFNZ (AM)|WFNZ]]) in [[Charlotte, North Carolina|Charlotte]], where she went by the name '''Mickey Conley'''.<ref name="CharlotteObserver-20040504">{{cite news |last=Washburn |first=Mark |title=Tafoya lands 'MNF' sideline role |page=2C |newspaper=Charlotte Observer |date=May 4, 2004 |url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=CO&s_site=charlotte&p_multi=CO&p_theme=realcities&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=102623DADFECB83C&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM |access-date=February 13, 2014}}</ref> Conley is her mother's maiden name.<ref name=Artful>{{Cite news|first=Kate |last=Nelson |authorlink= |title= An Uncensored Interview with Michele Tafoya |newspaper=Artful Living|date=January 12, 2018 |url=https://artfulliving.com/michele-tafoya-gets-real/ |quote=The 53-year-old California native has called the Twin Cities home for nearly a quarter of a century, ever since a job at KFAN sports radio brought her to the frozen tundra....“Conley” happened because they didn’t think Tafoya was going to work well; they thought it was too ethnic. So I used my mom’s maiden name.}}</ref>

Tafoya also worked for the [[Midwest Sports Channel]], serving as a [[Minnesota Timberwolves]] host and sideline reporter, as well as a play-by-play commentator for women's Big Ten basketball and [[volleyball]].{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} Tafoya then spent three years at [[WCCO-TV]] in Minneapolis as a sports anchor and reporter.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===CBS Sports===
Tafoya joined CBS Sports in September 1994 as a reporter and host for the CBS Television Network's sports anthology show ''[[CBS Sports Spectacular]]'' and [[College Basketball on CBS|college basketball]] coverage. She served as a host of ''At The Half'' and as a reporter for [[College Football on CBS|college football]] games. She made her on-air debut at the [[1994 U.S. Open (tennis)|1994 U.S. Open Tennis Championships]].<ref name="HeavyBio">{{cite web|last1=Doody|first1=Ben|title=Michele Tafoya: 5 Fast Facts You Need to Know|url=http://heavy.com/sports/2014/09/michele-tafoya-age-height-husband-kids-bio-hot/|publisher=[[Heavy (website)|Heavy]]|access-date=February 12, 2017|date= September 4, 2014|quote=...worked as a WNBA commentator on Lifetime from 1997-99}}</ref>

In 1997, The American Women in Radio and Television honored Tafoya with a [[Gracie Awards|Gracie Award]] for "Outstanding Achievement by an Individual On-Air TV Personality" for her play-by-play calling of [[Women's National Basketball Association|WNBA]] games on [[Lifetime Television]].<ref name="HeavyBio"/> Tafoya served as a reporter for the network's coverage of the [[NFL on CBS|NFL]], college football—including the [[1998 Orange Bowl|1998 National Championship Orange Bowl]]—and was late-night co-host with [[Al Trautwig]] of the [[1998 Winter Olympics]] in [[Nagano (city)|Nagano]].{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} In addition to her diverse assignments, Tafoya hosted CBS's [[NCAA Men's Division I Basketball Championship|NCAA Tournament]] selection show, [[Goodwill Games]] and the [[U.S. Open (tennis)|U.S Open Tennis Championships]] coverage. She left CBS at the end of 1999, after five years with the network.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===ABC Sports and ESPN===
Tafoya joined [[ESPN]] and [[ESPN on ABC|ABC Sports]] in January 2000, working as a [[sideline reporter]] for ABC Sports' [[NFL on ABC|''Monday Night Football'']] during the [[2004 NFL season]] and the [[2005 NFL season]] before the program shifted to ESPN; she worked the sideline for ''[[ESPN Monday Night Football]]'' beginning in [[2006 NFL season|2006]]. Tafoya was a co-host for the ''[[Mike Tirico]] Show'' on ESPN radio. She helped ABC in its coverage of [[Super Bowl XL]] in Detroit as a sideline reporter with [[Suzy Kolber]].{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

She was loaned to [[NBC Sports]] for the [[2000 Sydney Olympics]] as a Reporter for [[Gymnastics at the 2000 Summer Olympics|Rhythmic Gymnastics]] and as the play-by-play woman for [[Softball at the 2000 Summer Olympics|softball]].

On October 10, 2003, Tafoya poured beer over two fans beneath her luxury box at the Metrodome during a University of Minnesota versus [[University of Michigan]] game. Tafoya admitted to losing her composure and said she was embarrassed over the incident. She also issued a public apology.<ref name="BeerPour">{{cite news|last1=Hoffman|first1=Bill|title=REPORTER'S PRETTY POUR SHOWING|url=https://nypost.com/2003/10/17/reporters-pretty-pour-showing/|access-date=12 February 2017|work=The New York Post|date=17 October 2003|quote=I am so regretful, I can't even tell you.}}</ref><ref>{{cite news| url=http://articles.latimes.com/2003/nov/03/sports/sp-briefing3 | work=Los Angeles Times | first=John | last=Weyler | date=2003-11-03 | title=She Quickly Brought Matters to a Head}}</ref>

Tafoya formerly worked at [[National Basketball Association|NBA]] games on [[NBA on ABC|ABC]] and [[NBA on ESPN|ESPN]]. On October 21, 2008, she announced she would be resigning from her duties as head NBA sideline reporter.<ref name="StarTrib1">{{cite news|last=Zulgad |first=Judd |title=Tafoya gives up NBA duties |work=Timberwolves |publisher=[[Star Tribune]] |date=2008-10-21 |url=http://www.startribune.com/sports/wolves/31813654.html |access-date=2008-10-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081024125627/http://www.startribune.com/sports/wolves/31813654.html |archive-date=2008-10-24 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

Tafoya's other previous roles included a stint as the men's and women's NCAA basketball play-by-play and studio host and as a [[College Football on ESPN|college football]] and [[College Basketball on ESPN|basketball]] sideline reporter. She also has served as a substitute host on ''[[Pardon the Interruption]]'' and as a panelist on ''[[The Sports Reporters]] II''. Her other ESPN assignments have included calling [[WNBA on ESPN|WNBA]] games as well as hosting [[skiing]] telecasts and working on ESPN's college basketball selection shows as a reporter. She also was a correspondent for ''[[SportsCenter]]'' and ''[[Outside the Lines]]''.

In 2006, the Davie-Brown Index ranked Tafoya among the most likable TV sports personalities, including Biggest Trend-Setter.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}} At the end of the 2010-2011 NFL season, she left ESPN for NBC Sports.{{citation needed|date=January 2021}}

===Return to WCCO===
Tafoya was announced as the new evening [[drive time]] [[talk radio]] host for [[WCCO-AM]] on April 19, 2009.<ref name="wcco2009">Gustafson, Amy Carlson - [https://www.twincities.com/2009/04/19/michele-tafoya-gets-wcco-am-drive-time-slot/ Michele Tafoya gets WCCO-AM drive-time slot]. TwinCities.com Pioneer Press, April 19, 2009</ref> Her show began on June 1, 2009, where she teamed with afternoon host and lead-in [[Don Shelby]] on the schedule from 3-3:30 p.m., with Tafoya taking over from 3:30-6 p.m.<ref name="wcco2009" /> Her hosting ended on Friday, January 27, 2012.<ref name="wcco2012">[https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/michele-tafoya-ending-show-on-wcco-radio/ Michele Tafoya Ending Show On WCCO Radio]. CBS News, January 24, 2012</ref> She made the decision ahead of her schedule becoming busier with the Super Bowl and London Olympics.<ref name="wcco2012"/>

===KQRS Radio===
Tafoya joined "The KQ Morning Show" on [[KQRS-FM]] as co-host with long-time KQ morning personality [[Tom Barnard]] on September 8, 2016.<ref name="kqrs">Venta, Lance - [https://radioinsight.com/headlines/185055/michelle-tafoya-exits-kqrs-morning-show/ Michelle Tafoya Exits KQRS Morning Show]. Radio Insight, March 9, 2020</ref> She left the KQRS morning show in March 2020.<ref name="kqrs"/> The team dynamics were well received.<ref>[https://www.cbsnews.com/minnesota/news/tafoya-barnard-kqrs/ Tafoya & Barnard Proving To Be Electric Pairing For KQRS]. CBS News, November 21, 2016</ref>

===NBC Sports===
[[File:WAS at PHI Jan 2021 D50 4769 (50804581393).jpg|thumb|Michele Tafoya as sideline reporter for [[NBC Sports]] in January 2021]]
On May 4, 2011, Tafoya was announced as the new sideline reporter for ''[[NBC Sunday Night Football]]'', replacing [[Andrea Kremer]] and rejoining former co-worker and announcer [[Al Michaels]].<ref name="TVbyNumbers">{{cite web|title=Michele Tafoya Joins "Sunday Night Football" As Sideline Reporter|url=http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/network-press-releases/michele-tafoya-joins-sunday-night-football-as-sideline-reporter/91503/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170213163941/http://tvbythenumbers.zap2it.com/network-press-releases/michele-tafoya-joins-sunday-night-football-as-sideline-reporter/91503/|url-status=dead|archive-date=13 February 2017|website=TV By the Numbers|access-date=February 12, 2017|date= May 4, 2011}}</ref> Tafoya has also covered [[Swimming at the Summer Olympics|swimming]] during the [[Summer Olympics]] for [[NBC Olympic broadcasts|NBC]].

Andrew Marchand of the ''[[New York Post]]'' reported that Tafoya would leave ''Sunday Night Football'' following the [[2021 NFL season|2021 season]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Marchand|first=Andrew|date=2021-12-14|title=Michele Tafoya done with sideline reporting after this NFL season|url=https://nypost.com/2021/12/14/michele-tafoya-done-with-sideline-reporting-after-nfl-season/|access-date=2021-12-15|website=New York Post|language=en-US}}</ref> On January 11, 2022, NBC confirmed in a press release that Tafoya would depart the network, with [[Super Bowl LVI]] as her final assignment, to pursue other opportunities.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Young|first=Ryan|date=2022-01-11|title=Michele Tafoya leaving NBC's 'Sunday Night Football' after Super Bowl LVI|url=https://sports.yahoo.com/michele-tafoya-leaving-nbc-sunday-night-football-after-super-bowl-012054810.html|access-date=2022-01-12|website=Yahoo! Sports|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Politics ===
On February 14, 2022, a day after her departure from NBC Sports, [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] Minnesota gubernatorial candidate [[Kendall Qualls]] announced Tafoya would be joining his campaign as co-chair.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Justin|first=Neal|date=February 14, 2022|title=Michele Tafoya signs off from final Super Bowl with little fanfare, jumps into politics|url=https://www.startribune.com/michele-tafoya-signs-off-from-her-final-super-bowl-with-little-fanfare-kendall-qualls/600146501/|access-date=2022-02-15|website=Star Tribune}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Tafoya had three pregnancies of four children end in miscarriage before carrying her son to term.<ref name="auto">{{Cite web|url=https://liverampup.com/entertainment/after-four-miscarriages-michele-tafoya-got-pregnant-mother-s-sacrifice-her-baby-married-life-husband.html|title=After Four Miscarriages, Michele Tafoya got Pregnant at the age of 40: Mother's Sacrifice for Her Baby: Married life, Husband|website=LIVERAMPUP|date=April 30, 2019 |accessdate=April 6, 2023}}</ref> She and her husband, Mark Vandersall, have a natural son and an adopted daughter.<ref name="auto"/><ref name="StarTrib1" /> The family lives in [[Edina, Minnesota]].<ref name="StarTrib1" /> In 2007, she told WCCO-TV that she had been struggling with an eating disorder since she was a child.<ref name="eatingdisorder">{{cite news|title=Michele Tafoya's Struggle with Eating Disorders |work=News |publisher=[[WCCO-TV]] |date=2007-11-16 |url=http://wcco.com/health/michele.tofoya.eating.2.569502.html |access-date=2009-06-07 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081203220152/http://wcco.com/health/michele.tofoya.eating.2.569502.html |archive-date=December 3, 2008 }}</ref>

Tafoya describes herself as a "[[pro-choice]] conservative with libertarian leanings".<ref name="Michele Tafoya on working 200th NFL game">{{cite news | title = Michele Tafoya on Working 200th NFL Game | work = SI.com | publisher= [[Time Inc.]] | date = 2015-12-07 | url =https://www.si.com/more-sports/2015/12/06/media-circus-michelle-tafoya-sunday-night-football-lorne-rubenstein | access-date = 2015-12-07}}</ref>

==Career timeline==
*1998: [[1998 Winter Olympics|Winter Olympics]] Late-Night Host<ref name=autogenerated1>{{Cite web|url=https://espnpressroom.com/us/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705094754/http://www.espnmediazone.com/bios/Talent/Tafoya_Michele.htm|url-status=dead|title=ESPN Press Room|archivedate=July 5, 2008|website=ESPN Press Room U.S.|access-date=April 6, 2023}}</ref>
* 1994–1997 & 1999 ''[[College Basketball on CBS|NCAA on CBS]]'' Sideline Reporter<ref name=autogenerated1 />
*1998: ''[[NFL on CBS]]'' Sideline Reporter<ref name=autogenerated1 />
*1999: ''[[SEC on CBS]]'' Sideline Reporter
*2000–2003: ''[[ESPN College Football]]'' sideline reporter
*2002–2003: ''[[Monday Night Countdown]]'' reporter
*2004–2010: ''[[Monday Night Football]]'' Sideline Reporter<ref name=autogenerated1 />
*2002–2008: ''[[NBA on ABC]]'' and ''[[NBA on ESPN]]'' Sideline Reporter<ref name=autogenerated1 />
*2009–2012: [[WCCO Radio]] Afternoon Drive Host
*2011–2021: ''[[NBC Sunday Night Football]]'' Sideline Reporter<ref name=autogenerated1 />
*2016–2020: ''[[KQRS-FM|KQRS]]'' Morning Show Co-host<ref name=autogenerated1 />
*2022–present: Left ''NBC'' to become a freelance reporter

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{IMDb name|1650208}}
*{{Facebook|MicheleTafoyaNBC/}}

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David Bailey

2024-01-29T04:55:34Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Professional career */

{{short description|British photographer}}
{{other people||David Bailey (disambiguation)}}
{{Use British English|date=December 2011}}
{{Infobox person
| name = David Bailey
| honorific_suffix = {{postnom|country=GBR|size=100|CBE}}
| image = David Bailey at East End exhibition opening.jpg
|caption=Bailey in 2012
| birth_name = David Royston Bailey
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1938|1|2|df=y}}
| birth_place = [[Leytonstone]], Essex, England
| occupation = Photographer
| years_active = 1959–present
| spouse = {{plainlist|
* {{marriage|Rosemary Bramble |1960|1964|end=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Catherine Deneuve]] |1965|1972|end=divorced}}
* {{marriage|[[Marie Helvin]] |1975|1985|end=divorced}}
* {{marriage|Catherine Dyer |1986}}
}}
| children= 3
| notable_works = ''Box of Pin-ups'' (1964); ''Goodbye Baby & Amen: a Saraband for the Sixties (1969)''; ''Another Image: Papua New Guinea'' (1975), ''David Bailey: Birth of the Cool, 1957-1969'' (1999)
}}
'''David Royston Bailey''' {{postnom|country=GBR|size=100%|CBE}} (born 2 January 1938) is an English photographer and director, most widely known for his fashion photography and portraiture, and role in shaping the image of the [[Swinging Sixties]].

== Early life ==
David Bailey was born at [[Whipps Cross University Hospital]], [[Leytonstone]],<ref>{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rySr84jox_AC&pg=PA96 |title=The Houghton Mifflin Dictionary of Biography |date=15 July 2003 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=9780618252107 |page=96 |access-date=10 April 2012}}</ref> to Herbert Bailey, a tailor's cutter, and his wife Gladys, a machinist. From the age of three he lived in [[East Ham]].<ref name="Indy">"[http://education.independent.co.uk/careers_advice/article347059.ece Passed/Failed: An education in the life of David Bailey, photographer] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060926021441/http://education.independent.co.uk/careers_advice/article347059.ece |date=26 September 2006 }}", ''[[The Independent]]''.</ref>

Bailey developed a love of natural history, and this led him into photography. As he had undiagnosed [[dyslexia]],<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |date=2016-01-02 |title=David Bailey was a scowling, socially mobile rude boy |url=http://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/profiles/david-bailey-introduced-us-to-the-concept-of-the-portrait-photographer-as-style-arbiter-and-sex-god-a6788881.html |access-date=2020-04-15 |website=The Independent |language=en}}</ref> he experienced problems at school. He attended a private school, ''Clark's College'' in [[Ilford]], where he says they taught him less than the more basic council school. As well as dyslexia he also has the motor skill disorder dyspraxia ([[developmental coordination disorder]]).<ref name=":0" />

In one school year, he claims he only attended 33 times.<ref name=Indy/> He left school on his fifteenth birthday, to become a copy boy at the [[Fleet Street]] offices of the ''[[Yorkshire Post]]''. He raced through a series of dead end jobs, before his call up for [[National Service]] in 1956, serving with the [[Royal Air Force]] in Singapore in 1957. The appropriation of his trumpet forced him to consider other creative outlets, and he bought a [[Rolleiflex]] camera.

He was [[Demobilization|demobbed]] in August 1958, and determined to pursue a career in photography, he bought a [[Canon (company)|Canon]] rangefinder camera. Unable to obtain a place at the [[London College of Printing]] because of his school record, he became a second assistant to [[David Ollins]], in Charlotte Mews. He earned £3 10s (£3.50) a week, and acted as studio dogsbody. He was delighted to be called to an interview with photographer [[John French (photographer)|John French]].{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}

==Professional career==
[[Image:krays.jpg|thumb|180px|right|One of Bailey's images of London gangsters [[Kray twins|Ronnie and Reggie Kray]]]]
In 1959, Bailey became a photographic assistant at the John French studio, and in May 1960, he was a photographer for [[John Cole (photographer)|John Cole]]'s Studio Five, before being contracted as a fashion photographer for British ''[[Vogue (British magazine)|Vogue]]'' magazine later that year.<ref name="Levy">{{Cite book |last=Levy |first=Shawn |title=Ready, Steady, Go!: The Smashing Rise and Giddy Fall of Swinging London |publisher=Doubleday |year=2002 |isbn=0-385-49857-8 |location=New York |pages=16–18 |author-link=Shawn Levy (writer)}}</ref> He also undertook a large amount of freelance work.<ref name="bbc">"[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/arts/1390510.stm David Bailey: Godfather of Cool]", BBC.</ref>

Along with [[Terence Donovan (photographer)|Terence Donovan]] and [[Brian Duffy (photographer)|Brian Duffy]], Bailey captured and helped create the '[[Swinging London]]' of the 1960s: a culture of fashion and celebrity chic. The three photographers socialised with actors, musicians and [[Royal family|royalty]], and found themselves elevated to celebrity status. Together, they were the first real celebrity photographers, named by [[Norman Parkinson]] "the Black Trinity".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Pittman |first=Joanna |date=20 August 2009 |title=David Bailey:still snapping away at 71 |work=The Times |location=London |url=http://women.timesonline.co.uk/tol/life_and_style/women/fashion/article6802180.ece |access-date=20 August 2009}}</ref>

The film ''[[Blowup]]'' (1966), directed by [[Michelangelo Antonioni]], depicts the life of a London fashion photographer who is played by [[David Hemmings]], whose character was inspired by Bailey.<ref>[http://pdngallery.com/legends/bailey/intro.shtml PDN Legends Online: David Bailey] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922201517/http://pdngallery.com/legends/bailey/intro.shtml |date=22 September 2013 }}. Retrieved 15 November 2013.</ref> The "Swinging London" scene was aptly reflected in his ''Box of Pin-Ups'' (1964): a box of poster-prints of 1960s celebrities including [[Terence Stamp]], [[The Beatles]], [[Mick Jagger]], [[Jean Shrimpton]], [[P. J. Proby]], [[Cecil Beaton]], [[Rudolf Nureyev]] and [[East End of London|East End]] gangsters, the [[Kray twins]]. The ''Box'' was an unusual and unique commercial release. It reflected the changing status of the photographer that one could sell a collection of prints in this way. Strong objection to the presence of the Krays by fellow photographer, [[Lord Snowdon]], was the major reason no American edition of the "Box" was released, and that a second British edition was not issued. The record sale for a copy of 'Box of Pin-Ups' is reported as "north of £20,000".<ref>{{Cite news |last=Petkanas |first=Christopher |date=24 January 2011 |title=Photographer Who Broke Molds |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/01/25/arts/25iht-photog25.html |access-date=24 January 2011}}</ref>

At ''Vogue'' Bailey was shooting covers within months, and, at the height of his productivity, he shot 800 pages of ''Vogue'' editorial in one year.<ref name="Ellison">{{Cite news |last=Ellison |first=Jo |date=July 2010 |title=Rogue's Gallery |work=British Vogue}}</ref> [[Penelope Tree]], a former girlfriend, described him as "the king lion on the Savannah: incredibly attractive, with a dangerous vibe. He was the electricity, the brightest, most powerful, most talented, most energetic force at the magazine".<ref name="Ellison" />

American ''Vogue''{{'}}s creative director [[Grace Coddington]], then a model herself, said "It was the Sixties, it was a raving time, and Bailey was unbelievably good-looking. He was everything that you wanted him to be – like the Beatles but accessible – and when he went on the market everyone went in. We were all killing ourselves to be his model, although he hooked up with [[Jean Shrimpton]] pretty quickly".<ref name="Ellison" />

Of model Jean Shrimpton, Bailey said: {{blockquote|She was magic and the camera loved her too. In a way she was the cheapest model in the world – you only needed to shoot half a roll of film and then you had it. She had the knack of having her hand in the right place, she knew where the light was, she was just a natural.<ref name=bbc/>}}

Since 1966, Bailey has also directed several television commercials and [[television documentary|documentaries]]. From 1968 to 1971 he directed and produced TV documentaries titled ''Beaton, Warhol'' and ''Visconti''. As well as fashion photography, Bailey photographed album sleeve art for musicians including [[The Rolling Stones]] and [[Marianne Faithfull]].

Bailey was hired in 1970 by [[Island Records]]' [[Chris Blackwell]] to shoot publicity photos of [[Cat Stevens]] for his upcoming album ''[[Tea for the Tillerman]]''. Stevens, who is now known as [[Yusuf Islam]] maintains that he disliked having his photo on the cover of his albums, as had previously been the case, although he allowed Bailey's photographs to be placed on the inner sleeve of the album.<ref name="Cat Stevens pin-ups">{{Cite web |last1=Islam |first1=Yusuf |last2=Alun Davies |year=1970 |title=A conversation with Yusuf Islam & Alun Davies |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zn53iV88SNo |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140925101941/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Zn53iV88SNo&app=desktop |archive-date=25 September 2014 |access-date=26 July 2015 |website=Interview (upon the anniversary of Island Records) of Stevens and Davies |via=YouTube |location=UK}}</ref>

In 1972, rock singer [[Alice Cooper]] was photographed by Bailey for ''Vogue'' magazine, almost naked apart from a snake. Cooper used Bailey the following year to shoot for the group's chart topping ''[[Billion Dollar Babies]]'' album. The shoot included a baby wearing shocking eye makeup and, supposedly, one billion dollars in cash requiring the shoot to be under armed guard. In 1976, Bailey published ''[[Ritz Newspaper]]'' together with David Litchfield. In 1985, Bailey was photographing stars at the [[Live Aid]] concert at Wembley Stadium. As he recalled later: "The atmosphere on the day was great. At one point I got a tap on my shoulder and spun round. Suddenly there was a big tongue down my throat! It was [[Freddie Mercury]]."<ref>{{Cite news |last=Wilkinson |first=Carl |date=17 October 2004 |title=Live aid in their own words |work=The Observer |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/music/2004/oct/17/popandrock5 |access-date=3 April 2013}}</ref>

In 1992, Bailey directed the BBC drama ''Who Dealt?'' starring [[Juliet Stevenson]], story by Ring Lardner. In 1995 he directed and wrote the South Bank Film ''The Lady is a Tramp'' featuring his wife Catherine Bailey. In 1998 he directed a documentary with Ginger Television Production, ''Models Close Up'', commissioned by Channel 4 Television.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 November 2006 |title=Biography: David Bailey |url=http://www.cnn.com/2006/TRAVEL/11/02/london.biog/ |access-date=1 September 2018 |publisher=CNN}}</ref>

In 2012, the BBC made a film of the story of his 1962 New York photoshoot with [[Jean Shrimpton]], entitled ''[[We'll Take Manhattan (2012 film)|We'll Take Manhattan]]'', starring [[Aneurin Barnard]] as Bailey.{{citation needed|date=May 2020}}

In October 2013, Bailey took part in Art Wars at the [[Saatchi Gallery]] curated by [[Ben Moore (curator)|Ben Moore]].<ref name="ash-telegraph">{{Cite news |last=Ash |first=Laurien |date=2 October 2013 |title=Damien Hirst and David Bailey don their Stormtrooper helmets for 'Art Wars' |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/photography/10350188/Damien-Hirst-and-David-Bailey-don-their-Stormtrooper-helmets-for-Art-Wars.html |access-date=12 January 2017}}</ref> The artist was issued with a stormtrooper helmet, which he transformed into a work of art.<ref name="ash-telegraph" /> Proceeds went to the Missing Tom Fund set up by Ben Moore to find his brother Tom who has been missing for over ten years.<ref name="ash-telegraph" /> The work was also shown on the Regents Park platform as part of [[Art Below]] Regents Park.<ref>{{Cite web |title=Info |url=http://www.artbelow.org.uk/artbelow/artists/benmoore |access-date=12 January 2017 |publisher=Art Below}}</ref>

In October 2020 Bailey's memoir ''Look Again'' in co-operation with author James Fox was published by Macmillan Books, a review on his life and work.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Sturges |first=Fiona |date=2020-10-29 |title=Look Again by David Bailey review – no reflection, no regret |language=en-GB |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2020/oct/29/look-again-by-david-bailey-review-no-reflection-no-regret |access-date=2020-11-01 |issn=0261-3077}}</ref>

== Fashion ==
Bailey began working with fashion brand [[Jaeger (clothing)|Jaeger]] in the late 1950s when [[Jean Muir]] landed the role of designer. After working alongside other fashion photographers such as the late [[Norman Parkinson]], Bailey was officially commissioned by ''[[Vogue (magazine)|Vogue]]'' in 1962.<ref>{{Cite web |title=David Bailey |url=http://www.vogue.co.uk/person/david-bailey |access-date=9 December 2015 |website=Vogue UK}}</ref>

His first shoot in New York City was of young model [[Jean Shrimpton]], who wore a range of Jaeger and [[Susan Small (fashion)|Susan Small]] clothing, including a camel suit with a green blouse and a suede coat worn with kitten heels. The shoot was titled 'Young Idea Goes West'.

After 53 years Bailey returned to Jaeger to shoot their AW15 campaign.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Campaign: AW15 |url=http://www.jaeger.co.uk/mens/jaeger-journal/aw15_the_campaign_mw_wk24.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151007051631/http://www.jaeger.co.uk/mens/jaeger-journal/aw15_the_campaign_mw_wk24.html |archive-date=7 October 2015 |website=Jaeger |df=dmy-all}}</ref> As menswear subject; James Penfold modelled tailored tweed blazers and a camel coat. Also on the shoot was model, philanthropist and film director [[Elisa Sednaoui]] along with ''GQ'' magazine's most stylish male 2003, Martin Gardner.

[[File:David Bailey - Flickr - nick step (1).jpg|thumb|right|180px|Bailey in 2011]]

==Awards==
* 2001: [[Commander of the Order of the British Empire]], as part of [[2001 Birthday Honours|2001]] [[Queen's Birthday Honours]].<ref name="LG 16 June 2001">{{London Gazette|issue=56237|date=16 June 2001|pages=7–8 |supp=y }}</ref>
* 2005: Centenary Medal and Honorary Fellowship (HonFRPS), [[Royal Photographic Society]].<ref>{{Cite web |title=Royal Photographic Society's Centenary Award |url=http://www.rps.org/annual-awards/Centenary-Medal |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121201070248/http://www.rps.org/annual-awards/Centenary-Medal |archive-date=1 December 2012 |access-date=13 August 2012}}</ref>
* 2016: Lifetime Achievement award, Infinity Awards, [[International Center of Photography]], New York.<ref>{{Cite web |date=3 February 2016 |title=Infinity Awards |url=http://www.icp.org/infinity-awards |access-date=3 February 2016 |publisher=[[International Center of Photography]]}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |last=Durón |first=Maximilíano |date=3 February 2016 |title=ICP Gives 2016 Infinity Awards to Walid Raad, Zanele Muholi, David Bailey, More |url=http://www.artnews.com/2016/02/03/icp-gives-2016-infinity-awards-to-walid-raad-zanele-muholi-david-bailey-more/ |access-date=3 February 2016 |website=[[ARTnews]]}}</ref>

==Painting and sculpture==
Bailey paints and sculpts. Some of his sculptures were shown in London in 2010,<ref name="guard">{{Cite news |last=Stuart |first=Jeffries |date=26 August 2010 |title=Out of his skulls |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2010/aug/25/david-bailey}}</ref> and paintings and mixed media works were shown in October 2011.

==TV appearances==
In the 1970s Bailey lost some equipment in a robbery and replaced it with the new [[Olympus OM system]]
equipment which was substantially smaller and lighter than contemporary competitors' equipment. He then appeared in advertising promoting the [[Olympus OM-1]] 35 mm [[single lens reflex]] camera. He subsequently appeared in a series of UK TV commercials for the [[Olympus Trip 35|Olympus Trip]] camera.<ref>{{Cite web |date=12 July 2015 |title=1970s Olympus Trip 35 Commercials Starring British Photographer David Bailey |url=https://petapixel.com/2015/07/12/1970s-olympus-trip-35-commercials-starring-british-photographer-david-bailey/}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=September 2018}}

==Personal life==
Bailey has been married four times: in 1960 to Rosemary Bramble; in 1965 to the actress [[Catherine Deneuve]] (divorced 1972); in 1975 to American fashion model and writer [[Marie Helvin]]; and in 1986 to the model Catherine Dyer (born 20 July 1961), to whom he remains married. He is a long-time vegetarian and refrains from drinking alcohol.{{citation needed|date=May 2022}} Bailey is an art-lover with a long-held passion for the works of [[Picasso]]. His company address is in London; his wife and their photographer son Fenton Fox Bailey are directors.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK Company Search |url=https://companycheck.co.uk/director/902871344/MR-DAVID-ROYSTON-BAILEY |access-date=20 October 2015}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |title=Fenton Fox BAILEY - Personal Appointments (free information from Companies House) |url=https://find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk/officers/tAyEA612mQhTEF6ip_Ke2mXdmKw/appointments |access-date=2020-11-01 |website=find-and-update.company-information.service.gov.uk |language=en}}</ref> The family maintain a home on Dartmoor, near Plymouth.<ref>{{Cite web |title=UK Electoral Roll |url=http://www.searchelectoralroll.co.uk |access-date=20 October 2015}}</ref>

Bailey was diagnosed with [[vascular dementia]] in about 2018, but continued to work, and said in 2021 that it was not affecting his work although he only had three months' memory.<ref>{{Cite news |last=Otte |first=Jedidajah |date=11 September 2021 |title=Photographer David Bailey reveals he has vascular dementia |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2021/sep/11/photographer-david-bailey-reveals-he-has-vascular-dementia}}</ref>

==Books==
{{Div col}}
* ''Box of Pin-Ups'', 1964
* ''Goodbye Baby & Amen'', 1969, 2017
* ''Warhol'', 1974
* ''Beady Minces'', 1974
* ''Papua New Guinea'', 1975
* ''Mixed Moments'', 1976
* ''Trouble and Strife'', 1980
* ''Mrs. David Bailey'', 1980
* ''Bailey NW1'', 1982
* ''Black & White Memories'', 1983
* ''Nudes 1981–1984'', 1984
* ''Imagine'', 1985
* ''If We Shadows'', 1992
* ''The Lady is a Tramp'', 1995
* ''Rock & Roll Heroes'', 1997
* ''Archive One'', 1999 (also titled ''The Birth of the Cool'' for USA)
* ''Chasing Rainbows'', 2001
* ''Art of Violence'', Kate Kray & David Bailey, 2003 (also titled ''Diamond Geezers'')
* ''Bailey/Rankin Down Under'', 2003
* ''Archive Two: Locations'', 2003
* ''Bailey's Democracy'', 2005
* ''Havana'', 2006
* ''NY JS DB 62'', 2007
* ''Pictures That Mark Can Do'', 2007
* ''Is That So Kid'', 2008
* ''David Bailey: 8 Minutes: Hirst & Bailey'', 2009 With [[Damien Hirst]]
* ''EYE'', 2009
* ''Flowers, Skulls, Contacts'', 2010
* ''British Heroes in Afghanistan'', 2010
* ''Bailey's East End'' (Steidl, 2014) 3 vols.<ref>Briefly reviewed in the 21 November 2014 issue of ''[[New Statesman]]'', p.47.</ref>
* ''The David Bailey SUMO'', 2019
* "Look Again", 2020{{Div col end}}

==Exhibitions==
{{BLP sources section|date=July 2014}}
{{external media | width = 210px | float = right | video1 = {{YouTube|fcDq9spvy08|Susie Bubble visits Bailey's Stardust}}, [[The Art Fund|TheArtFundUK]]
}}
* National Portrait Gallery 1971
* One Man Retrospective Victoria & Albert Museum 1983
* International Center of Photography (ICP) NY 1984
* Curator "Shots of Style" Victoria & Albert Museum 1985
* Pictures of Sudan for Band Aid at The Institute for Contemporary Arts (ICA) *1985
* Auction at Sotheby's for Live Aid Concert for Band Aid 1985
* Bailey Now! Royal Photographic Society in Bath 1989
* Numerous Exhibitions at Hamiltons Gallery, London. 1989 to now
* Fahey Klein Gallery, Los Angeles 1990
* Camerawork Photogallerie, Berlin. 1997
* Carla Sozzani. Milan. 1997
* A Gallery for Fine Photography, New Orleans. 1998
* Touring exhibition "Birth of the Cool" 1957–1969 & contemporary work
* Barbican Art Gallery, London – 1999
* National Museum of Film, Photography & Television, Bradford. 1999–2000
* Moderna Museet, Stockholm, Sweden. 2000
* City Art Museum, Helsinki, Finland 2000
* Modern Art Museum, The Dean Gallery, National Galleries of Scotland, Edinburgh 2001
* Proud Gallery London Bailey /Rankin Down Under
* Gagosian Gallery. Joint with Damien Hirst "14 Stations of the Cross" 2004
* Gagosian Gallery. Artists by David Bailey. 2004
* Democracy. Faggionato Fine Arts 2005
* Havana. Faggionato Fine Arts 2006
* Pop Art Gagosian London 2007
* Galeria Hilario Galguera Mexico 2007
* National Portrait Gallery – Beatles to Bowie 2009
* Bonhams, London. Pure Sixties Pure Bailey 2010
* Pangolin London. Sculpture + 2010
* The Stockdale Effect, [[Paul Stolper Gallery]], London 2010
* ''David Bailey's East End.'' Compressor House, London, 2012.<ref>[http://createlondon.org/events/david-baileys-east-end.html Exhibition notice] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120731135731/http://createlondon.org/events/david-baileys-east-end.html |date=31 July 2012 }}, Create London. Retrieved 28 July 2012.</ref>
* David Bailey's ''East End Faces'' London February/May 2013<ref>{{Cite news |date=21 February 2013 |title=East End Faces, William Morris Gallery |work=The Daily Telegraph |location=London |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/culturepicturegalleries/9885836/David-Baileys-East-End-Faces.html}}</ref>
* ''Bailey's Stardust'', National Portrait Gallery, London 2014<ref name="stardust">{{Cite news |last=Brown |first=Mark |date=5 September 2013 |title=Unseen pictures to feature in David Bailey show at National Portrait Gallery |work=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2013/sep/05/unseen-pictures-david-bailey-national-portrait-gallery |access-date=30 January 2014}}</ref>
* ''Bailey's Stardust'', National Gallery, Edinburgh 2015
* ''David Bailey Stardust'', PAC – Padiglione di Arte Contemporanea, Milano (Italy) 2015

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
* {{IMDb name}}
* {{FMD photographer}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20071113020758/http://lizwalker.net/davidbailey.html Liz Walker interviews David Bailey, September 1990]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20060427010908/http://easyweb.easynet.co.uk/~karlpeter/zeugma/inters/bailey.htm Text of 1994 interview.]
* [http://www.pdngallery.com/legends/bailey/intro.shtml 2000 interview (text and video)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130922201517/http://pdngallery.com/legends/bailey/intro.shtml |date=22 September 2013 }}
* [http://edition.cnn.com/2006/TRAVEL/11/02/london.qa/ 2006 CNN interview (text and video)]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20101020140331/http://www.vogue.co.uk/magazine/archive/default.aspx/Search,Photographer/Photographer,David%20Bailey/PageNumber,1 David Bailey British Vogue Covers Archive]
* Francis Hodgson, "[http://francishodgson.com/2012/07/05/david-bailey-still-troubling-after-all-these-years/ David Bailey: Still troubling after all these years]"

{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2020}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Bailey, David}}
[[Category:1938 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Commanders of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:Photographers from London]]
[[Category:Fashion photographers]]
[[Category:People from East Ham]]
[[Category:British portrait photographers]]
[[Category:English photographers]]
[[Category:People with dyslexia]]
[[Category:Photographers with disabilities]]
[[Category:People with vascular dementia]]
[[Category:English people with disabilities]]
[[Category:British artists with disabilities]]

Actifed

2024-01-21T16:50:41Z

ExtravagAunt: /* 2006 U.S. formula change */added fact about phenylephrine efficacy

{{short description|Drug}}
'''Actifed''' is a [[registered trademark]] for a combination [[antihistamine]] and [[nasal decongestant]] medication used for [[common cold|cold]] and [[allergy]] symptoms. Actifed was developed in 1958 by Burroughs Wellcome & Company (now part of [[GSK plc|GlaxoSmithKline]]), later [[Haleon]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.gsk.com/about/history-noflash.htm |title=Our history - About GlaxoSmithKline |access-date=2006-12-31 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110608203248/http://www.gsk.com/about/history-noflash.htm |archive-date=2011-06-08 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==2006 U.S. formula change==

The original formula for Actifed contained [[pseudoephedrine]] hydrochloride 60 mg as the nasal decongestant and [[triprolidine]] hydrochloride 2.5 mg as the antihistamine. However, in response to widespread laws requiring products containing pseudoephedrine to be kept behind the pharmacy counter, Pfizer changed Actifed's U.S. formula in late 2006 to contain [[phenylephrine]] HCl 10 mg as the nasal decongestant and [[chlorpheniramine]] maleate 4 mg as the antihistamine before the product was reacquired by GSK.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.pfizerch.com/faq.aspx?brand=35#FAQ1461 |title=FAQ |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071027090000/http://www.pfizerch.com/faq.aspx?brand=35 |archivedate=October 27, 2007 |work=pfizerch.com}}</ref> Many users of the old formula have complained that the new formula is not as effective at relieving their symptoms. In 2023, a [[Food and Drug Administration]] panel concluded that phenylephrine was ineffective as a nasal decongestant when taken orally.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Christensen |first=Jen |date=2023-09-12 |title=Popular OTC medicines for colds and allergies don't work, FDA panel says |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/09/12/health/phenylephrine-tablets-ineffective-fda-panel-says/index.html |access-date=2023-10-08 |website=CNN |language=en}}</ref> Other brands available behind the counter that use the old formula include '''Genac''' and '''Aprodine'''. The American pharmacy chain [[Walgreens]] produced a house-brand version of Actifed, '''Wal-Act''', which used the original pseudoephedrine/triprolidine formula.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.walgreens.com/store/c/walgreens-wal-act-cold-%26-allergy-medicine-tablets/ID=prod6012402-product |title=Walgreens Wal-Act Cold & Allergy Medicine Tablets}}</ref> In 2021 Walgreens changed the name from '''Wal-Act''' to '''Cold & Allergy D''', the pseudoephedrine/triprolidine formula remains the same <ref>{{cite web |url=https://dailymed.nlm.nih.gov/dailymed/fda/fdaDrugXsl.cfm?setid=eb4326b9-4642-4d78-916f-e5d13353d1b4&type=display |title=COLD AND ALLERGY D}}</ref>

In the UK, Germany, and Italy the formulation remained unchanged. The product is available [[Over-the-counter]] as a pack of 12 tablets produced by McNeil. Each tablet contains [[Triprolidine hydrochloride]] 2.5 mg and [[Pseudoephedrine hydrochloride]] 60 mg. Since 2012, Actifed is no longer available in Thailand. Actifed as well as all drugs with pseudoephedrine are now strictly controlled under Thailand's narcotics control law so it was withdrawn from the market.

In Germany, the product is marketed under the registered trademark '''RhinoPRONT'''.<ref>[https://apotheken-umschau.de/Medikamente/Beipackzettel/RHINOPRONT-Kombi-Tabletten-7387611.html Details] of German product</ref>

==Apollo missions==

Actifed was included in the standard medical kit aboard the [[United States]] [[Apollo mission]]s, and was used during [[Apollo 7]] and [[Apollo 12]] when crew members developed head cold symptoms.<ref>[https://history.nasa.gov/SP-368/s2ch1.htm SP-368 Biomedical Results of Apollo], NASA</ref> When Actifed was made available over-the-counter, former astronauts from the Apollo missions appeared in commercials promoting the product.<ref>[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=olz6c0NZn7I YouTube video of astronauts' advertisement]</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://www.drugs.com/actifed.html More information on drugs.com]
*[http://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cder/drugsatfda/index.cfm?fuseaction=Search.DrugDetails FDA information on Actifed]

{{Haleon}}
[[Category:Haleon]]
[[Category:Combination drugs]]
[[Category:H1 receptor antagonists]]

Mary Jo Buttafuoco

2024-01-10T16:50:45Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Early life */

{{short description|American author and motivational speaker|bot=PearBOT 5}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=September 2017}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Mary Jo Buttafuoco
| image =
| caption =
| birth_name = Mary Jo Connery<ref>{{cite news |title=Ex Scoffs at Buttafuoco-Fisher 'Train Wreck' |url=https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/story?id=3185377 |accessdate=17 October 2018 |work=ABC News |date=21 May 2007 |language=en}}</ref>
|birth_date = {{birth date and age|1955|5|15|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[United States]]
| death_date =
| death_place =
| occupation = Author, motivational speaker
| spouse = {{unbulleted list|{{marriage|[[Joey Buttafuoco]]|1977|2003|reason=divorced}}|{{marriage|Stu Tendler|2012|2018|reason=his death}}}}
| children = 2
}}

'''Mary Jo Buttafuoco''' (née '''Connery'''; born May 15, 1955)<ref name="World News">{{cite news |title=Mary Jo Buttafuoco |url=https://wn.com/mary_jo_buttafuoco |accessdate=17 October 2018 |work=Staff |publisher=World News |date=16 Aug 2018 |language=en}}</ref> is an American author and [[motivational speaker]]. In 1992, she was shot in the face by [[Amy Fisher]], a teenager with whom her husband had an affair.

==Early life==
Buttafuoco met her husband Joey while studying in high school. They got married shortly thereafter. After getting married, she worked at a bank. In 1986, she and her husband moved to [[Nassau County, New York|Nassau County]].<ref name="World News"/>

==Shooting==
On May 19, 1992, Buttafuoco was shot in the face by Amy Fisher, who at the time was having an affair with Buttafuoco's then husband Joey.<ref name="BuffaloNews">{{cite news|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-22504795.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140611120125/http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-22504795.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=June 11, 2014|title=Rape Charges Denied at Buttafuoco Hearing|last=Milton|first=Pat|date=April 15, 1993|newspaper=The Buffalo News|accessdate=November 19, 2012}}</ref> Fisher had come to the Buttafuocos' house to confront Buttafuoco about Joey, with whom she had been having an affair since July 1991 after Fisher brought her vehicle to Buttafuoco's [[Automobile repair shop|auto body shop]] in [[Baldwin, Nassau County, New York]].<ref name=":2" /> When Buttafuoco answered the door, Fisher—posing as her own (fictitious) sister Ann Marie—offered, as proof of the affair, a T-shirt that Joey had given her with the logo of his auto body shop on it. This confrontation escalated when Buttafuoco demanded that Fisher leave. She turned to go into the house and call Joey when Fisher shot her in the face with a .25 caliber semiautomatic pistol. Once Buttafuoco regained consciousness, she identified Fisher as her assailant from the t-shirt Fisher had shown her before the shooting.<ref name=":2" /> Buttafuoco was left [[Deafness|deafened]] in one ear and her face partially [[Paralysis|paralyzed]].

==Aftermath==
Fisher was sentenced to five to 15 years in prison. She served seven years and was granted parole in May 1999.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url=http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/notorious_murders/young/amy_fisher/index.html|title=Amy Fisher, The Long Island Lolita who tried to murder Mary Jo Buttafuoco - Crime Library on truTV.com|date=2008-12-02|access-date=2017-10-16|url-status=bot: unknown|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202011908/http://www.trutv.com/library/crime/notorious_murders/young/amy_fisher/index.html|archive-date=December 2, 2008|df=mdy-all}}</ref> Joey Buttafuoco pleaded guilty to one count of [[statutory rape]] and served four months in jail.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://crime.about.com/library/blbuttafuoco.htm|title=Joey Buttafuoco – Celebrity Mug Shot|work=Charles Montaldo|accessdate=July 24, 2006|archive-date=July 21, 2011|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721030149/http://crime.about.com/library/blbuttafuoco.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> Buttafuoco and her husband later moved to [[Southern California]].<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.oprah.com/oprahshow/Ultimate-Betrayals | title=Ultimate Betrayals | publisher=Oprah.com | accessdate=18 April 2015}}</ref> She stayed defensively loyal to her husband for several years.<ref name=":0">{{Cite journal|last=Hughes|first=Kathleen|date=July 2009|title=Getting It through My Thick Skull: Why I Stayed, What I Learned, and What Millions of People Involved with Sociopaths Need to Know|url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&AN=43448845&site=ehost-live|journal=Booklist|volume=105|issue=21|pages=4|url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}}</ref> She even defended him when he was arrested in 1995 for sexual solicitation in [[Los Angeles]].<ref>{{Cite magazine|url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=mth&AN=102873073&site=ehost-live|title=Why the 'Long Island Lolita' Couldn't Break Up the Buttafuocos|last=Latson|first=Jennifer|date=22 May 2015|magazine=Time|access-date=25 August 2017|url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}}</ref> During this time, Buttafuoco consistently blamed others, such as Fisher, instead of her husband.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Kuntzman|first=Gersh|date=March 1998|title=Wives of Publicly Humiliated Men|url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=f5h&AN=298343&site=ehost-live|journal=Cosmopolitan|volume=224|issue=3|pages=288|url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}}</ref> She eventually filed divorce papers in [[Ventura County]] Superior Court on February 3, 2003.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/life/2003-05-06-buttafuoco-divorce_x.htm|title=Joey Buttafuoco, wife getting divorce|work=AP|accessdate=July 24, 2006|date=May 6, 2003}}</ref>

In 2006, Buttafuoco underwent a facial reanimation procedure with facial plastic surgeon [[Babak Azizzadeh]], involving static facial suspension, face lift, and eye lift procedures. These surgeries restored balance and gave her back her ability to smile. Next was surgery to widen the [[ear canal]], which improved her hearing and prevented future infections. She also underwent physical therapy to strengthen her facial muscles, which she explained in an appearance on ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ultimate Betrayals|work=[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]|url=http://www.oprah.com/oprahshow/Ultimate-Betrayals}}</ref> Buttafuoco is still paralyzed on one side of her face and deaf in one ear.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://people.com/crime/nearly-25-years-after-being-shot-by-amy-fisher-mary-jo-buttafuoco-calls-ex-husband-a-sociopath/|title=Nearly 25 Years After Being Shot by Amy Fisher, Mary Jo Buttafuoco Calls Ex-Husband a 'Sociopath'|last=Helling|first=Steve|date=2016-11-18|work=PEOPLE.com|access-date=2017-08-25|language=en-US}}</ref>

==Career==
Sixteen years after the incident, Buttafuoco wrote a book telling her story, ''Getting It Through My Thick Skull: Why I Stayed, What I Learned, and What Millions of People Involved with Sociopaths Need to Know''. She was inspired to write the book after her son referred to her ex-husband as a [[Antisocial personality disorder|sociopath]]. Not knowing what the word meant, she looked it up and had a realization which led to her going public with her story. The title of the book comes from a saying her mother often used with her, "when are you going to get it through your thick skull?"<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bwh&AN=43420372&site=ehost-live|title=American Love Triangle|last=Roberts|first=Robin|date=27 July 2009|work=Good Morning America|access-date=25 August 2017|url-access=subscription |via=EBSCOhost}}</ref> The memoir describes her life, not just focusing on her shooting.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.publishersweekly.com/9780757313721|title=Nonfiction Book Review: Getting It Through My Thick Skull: Why I Stayed, What I Learned, and What Millions of People Involved with Sociopaths Need to Know|work=Publishers Weekly|access-date=2017-08-25|language=en}}</ref> She describes how she felt manipulated to stay with a person who was a sociopath.<ref name=":1" /> ''[[Booklist]]'' called the book, which was published in July 2009, "strangely compelling," and said that "Readers will want to know – why ''did'' she stay with him?"<ref name=":0" />

Buttafuoco has used her story to raise awareness of [[Facial nerve paralysis|facial paralysis]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://ktla.com/2016/10/11/mary-jo-buttafuoco-speaks-out-to-raise-awareness-for-facial-paralysis/|title=Mary Jo Buttafuoco Speaks Out to Raise Awareness for Facial Paralysis|last=McDade|first=Mary Beth|date=2016-10-11|website=KTLA|access-date=2017-08-25}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Buttafuoco has two children: Paul Buttafuoco<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://abcnews.go.com/GMA/Books/story?id=8164896&page=1/|title=READ EXCERPT: 'Getting It Through My Thick Skull,' by Mary Jo Buttafuoco|date=2009-07-27|website=ABC News|access-date=2017-10-16}}</ref> and Jessica Buttafuoco.<ref>{{Citation|last=OWN|title=Exclusive: Mary Jo Buttafuoco's Daughter Speaks Out {{!}} Where Are They Now {{!}} Oprah Winfrey Network|date=2012-10-10|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Pdmuo2kbglg|accessdate=2017-10-16}}</ref> In 2012, Buttafuoco married Stu Tendler in [[Las Vegas]]. Tendler died from cancer in 2018.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.nydailynews.com/entertainment/gossip/mary-jo-buttafuoco-remarries-20-years-shot-face-ex-hubby-teen-lover-article-1.1028801|title=Mary Jo Buttafuoco remarries in Las Vegas|last1=Chen|first1=Joyce|date=26 February 2012|work=NY Daily News|access-date=2017-08-25|last2=Feiden|first2=Douglas|language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
* {{imdb name|0125252}}
* [http://blog.hcibooks.com Mary Jo Buttafuoco's memoir]
* [http://www.oprah.com/oprahshow/Mary-Jo-Speaks Mary Jo Buttafuoco's appearance] on ''[[The Oprah Winfrey Show]]''

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Buttafuoco, Mary Jo}}
[[Category:1955 births]]
[[Category:21st-century American writers]]
[[Category:21st-century American women writers]]
[[Category:American shooting survivors]]
[[Category:American victims of crime]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:Writers from New York (state)]]

Cozonac

2023-12-25T20:15:43Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Origins */

{{short description|Sweet leavened bread, traditional to Romania and Bulgaria}}
{{more citations needed|date=March 2013}}
{{Infobox prepared food
| name = Cozonac
| image = Cozonac-cu-nuca-103.jpg
| image_size = 220px
| caption = Romanian ''cozonac'' with raisins and walnut filling
| alternate_name = {{lang-bg|козунак|kozunak}}
| region = Romania, Bulgaria, North Macedonia, Serbia, Moldova
| creator =
| course = [[Dessert]]
| type = Yeast cake<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Oxford Companion to Food|last=Davidson|first=Alan|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=9780199677337|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RL6LAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA687|page=687}}</ref>
| served =
| main_ingredient = [[Wheat flour]], [[butter]], [[milk]],[[Egg (food)|eggs]],[[sugar]],[[Baker's yeast|yeast]], raisins, citrus peel, flavorings like vanilla or rum
| variations = Poppy seed, walnut
| calories =
| other =
}}

'''''Cozonac''''' ({{IPA-ro|kozoˈnak|lang}}) or '''''Kozunak''''' ({{lang-bg|козунак}} {{IPA-bg|kozuˈnak|}}) is a sweet yeast dough that can be used to make different traditional holiday breads and cakes. Often mixed with raisins, it can be baked as a loaf or rolled out with fillings like poppy seed or walnuts.<ref>{{cite book|last1=Roufs|first1=Timothy G.|last2=Roufs|first2=Kathleen Smyth|title=Sweet Treats around the World: An Encyclopedia of Food and Culture|date=2014|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, California|pages=283}}</ref> It is common throughout Southeastern Europe, [[Romania]], [[Bulgaria]] and [[Serbia]], [[North Macedonia]], [[Greece]], etc. Rich in eggs, milk and butter, it is usually prepared for [[Easter]] in Romania, Serbia, Bulgaria, and in Romania and Moldova it is also traditional for [[Good Friday]]. The name comes from the [[Bulgarian language|Bulgarian]] word for hair-коса/kosa, or {{lang-el|κοσωνάκι|translit=kosōnáki}}, a diminutive form of {{lang-el|κοσώνα|label=none|translit=kosṓna}}.<ref>[https://dexonline.ro/definitie/cozonac Cozonac etymology]</ref>

Cozonac was the sweet chosen to represent Romania in the [[Café Europe]] initiative of the Austrian presidency of the [[European Union]], on [[Europe Day]] 2006.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.cafeeurope.at/coffee-sweets/ |title=Coffee and Sweets |access-date=2012-03-05 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140207073611/http://www.cafeeurope.at/coffee-sweets/ |archive-date=2014-02-07 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

==Origins==

In [[Great Britain]], the first recipe of "cozonac" appears in a cookbook in 1718, with the recommendation to be baked in long and narrow forms, a recommendation that remains valid nowadays. A similar Italian dessert, Panettone, whose recipe was shared and adapted in Eastern Europe following the Roman occupation, is often mentioned as a starting point for the cozonac.

Romanians added cocoa, rum, walnuts and [[Turkish delight]] to the composition, thus creating an original version of the dish, which was not to be missed from any Easter or Christmas table for hundreds of years and is widely recognised as a traditional dessert.<ref>Nastas, J. and Chiper, V. (2019) ‘Originea, evoluția și specificul alimentelor tradiționale românești. Studiu de caz: zona etnografică – Prutul de Jos’, Probleme ale ştiinţelor socioumanistice şi modernizării învăţământului, 3(21). Available at: https://ibn.idsi.md/vizualizare_articol/91781 (Accessed: 19 November 2022).
</ref>

Today, this dessert with a long history is prepared mainly in southeastern European countries, especially in North Macedonia, Romania, Moldova and Bulgaria, where it is considered a traditional food.<ref>{{in lang|ro}} [http://revistaflacara.ro/istoria-cozonacului/ "Istoria cozonacului"], ''Revista Flacăra'', December 10, 2010</ref>

==Ingredients and preparation==
[[File:Козињак 1.jpg|right|thumb|Braided cozonac with raisins]]
''Cozonac'' is a sweet bread, into which [[milk]], [[Baker's yeast|yeast]], [[Egg (food)|eggs]], [[sugar]], [[butter]], and other ingredients are mixed together and allowed to rise before baking. In Bulgaria, the ''kozunak'' is prepared by adding lemon zest to the dough mixture, just as the Romanian version.

In North Macedonia, the Macedonians for Easter traditionally bake a sweet bread called with sultanas and raisins in the shape of a girl's plated hair, a braid. That is why the name of this traditional Easter bread is derived from the Bulgarian word for hair-коса/kosa. There is also the straw plated mat Macedonians in the past used to lay on the ground to sleep upon called Rogozina or Ruguzina.

In Romania, the recipes for trimmings differ rather significantly between regions. The dough is essentially similar throughout the country; a plain sweet bread made from [[Wheat flour|flour]], eggs, milk, butter, sugar and salt. Depending on the region, one may add to it any of the following: [[raisin]]s, grated [[Orange (fruit)|orange]] or [[lemon]] zest, [[walnut]]s or [[hazelnut]]s, and [[vanilla]] or [[rum]] flavor. Cozonac may be sprinkled with [[poppy seed]]s on top. Other styles dictate the use of a filling, usually a ground walnut mixture with ground poppy seeds, cocoa powder, rum essence, or raisins. The dough is rolled flat with a pin, the filling is spread and the whole is rolled back into a shape vaguely resembling a pinwheel. In the baked product, the filling forms a swirl adding to the character of the bread.

==Similar breads==
Cozonac is a sweet, egg-enriched bread, which is rooted in the cuisines of [[Western Asia|Western]] and [[Central Asia]].<ref>''Толковìй словарь живаго великорусскаго язîка'', Dal' V.I., IAS, 1869</ref> Examples of similar breads from other cultures include ''badnji kruh'' in [[Croatian cuisine]], ''folar de páscoa'' in [[Portuguese cuisine]], [[brioche]] in French cuisine, [[kulich]] in Russian cuisine, [[panettone]] in Italian cuisine, [[hot cross bun]] in English cuisine, [[challah]] in Jewish cuisine, or [[stollen]] in German cuisine. Such rich brioche-like breads are also traditional in other countries, such as Hungary and the Czech Republic.

==See also==
* [[List of sweet breads]]
* [[Panettone]]
* [[Fruitcake]]
* [[Raisin bread]]
* [[Pain aux raisins]]
* [[Pască]]
* [[Tsoureki]]

==Notes and references==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|Cozonac}}
* [https://gastroart.ro/2017/04/14/cozonacul-si-pasca-o-istorie-cateva-etimologii-si-mai-multe-retete/ Cozonac old recipes and more]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120413095614/http://culinare.tv/cozonac-pufos-cu-umplutura-de-nuca Cozonac with walnut]
* [http://www.reteteculinare.ro/carte_de_bucate/dulciuri/cozonac-pufos-2458/ Cozonac]
* [http://gourmandine.ro/retete-aluaturi-dulci/cozonac-rosenkrantz/ Cozonac Rosenkrantz]
* [https://adygio.com/cozonac-cu-cacao-dungat-reteta-video/ Cozonac with cocoa] ( ro [https://adygio.com/cozonac-cu-cacao-dungat-reteta-video/ cozonac cu cacao])

{{Cuisine of Bulgaria}}
{{Cuisine of Romania}}
{{Christmas}}

[[Category:Easter bread]]
[[Category:Bulgarian cuisine]]
[[Category:Macedonian cuisine]]
[[Category:Moldovan cuisine]]
[[Category:Romanian breads]]
[[Category:Christmas in Romania]]
[[Category:Sweet breads]]
[[Category:Christmas cakes]]
[[Category:Yeast cakes]]

The Roosevelt New Orleans

2023-12-14T15:02:06Z

ExtravagAunt: /* The Fairmont New Orleans */capitalization

{{Infobox hotel
| hotel_name = The Roosevelt New Orleans, A Waldorf Astoria Hotel
| logo =
| logo_width =
| image = CardTheGrunewaldNewOr.jpg
| image_width =
| caption = Circa 1910s
| location = [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]]
| address = 130 Roosevelt Way, New Orleans, LA 70112
| coordinates =
| opening_date = 1893
| developer = Louis Grunewald
| architect = Toledano & Wogan
| hotel_chain = [[Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts|Waldorf Astoria]]
| operator = [[Hilton Worldwide]]
| cost =
| owner = First Class Hotels
| number_of_rooms = 504
| number_of_suites = 125
| number_of_restaurants= 3
| floor_area =
| floors = 14
| height = {{convert|211|ft|abbr=on}}
| parking = Valet
| website = [http://waldorfastoria3.hilton.com/en/hotels/louisiana/the-roosevelt-new-orleans-a-waldorf-astoria-hotel-MSYRHWA/index.html The Roosevelt New Orleans website]
| footnotes =
}}

'''The Roosevelt New Orleans''' in [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]], is a 504-room hotel owned by AVR Realty Company and Dimension Development and managed by [[Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts]]. The hotel was originally built by Louis Grunewald, a German immigrant, and opened in 1893 as "The Hotel Grunewald."

== Hotel Grunewald ==
[[Image:thecave.jpg|right|thumb|A postcard of The Cave in the Grunewald Hotel circa 1908]]The original hotel building was six stories tall and faced Baronne Street, encompassing street numbers 123 through 135. It was built after Grunewald's Music Hall was destroyed by fire in 1862. The building housed 200 rooms and opened in December 1893 to be ready for the 1894 [[New Orleans Mardi Gras]] season.<ref>The Roosevelt Review, December 1965, page 10</ref> The decision to build a hotel proved to be very sound as the other major hotel in the city, the [[St. Charles Hotel, New Orleans|St. Charles Hotel]], was destroyed by fire soon after the Grunewald opened.

== Grunewald Annex ==
[[File:The Forest Grill at the Hotel Grunewald.jpg|thumb|left|The Forest Grill at the Hotel Grunewald]]
As early as 1900, Grunewald began plans and eventually construction of an 'Annex' tower on the University Place side of the block. The cost of the new tower was reportedly $2.5 million and was considered one of the finest in the country. The new tower was 14 stories tall and had 400 rooms. Its grand opening was at Midnight, January 1, 1908. This expansion was designed by the architectural firm, Toledano & Wogan.<ref>http://seaa.tulane.edu/sites/all/themes/Howard_Tilton/docs/finding_aids/Toledano,%20Wogan,%20and%20Bernard%20Office%20Records.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> Louis Grunewald's son Theodore became the Director and Manager of the Hotel. The lobby of the Annex featured a large Italian Marble staircase which reached an overlooking mezzanine level of the hotel. The Annex Tower allowed the addition of several entertainment and dining facilities. Among the new options were the Forest Grill, The Lounge, The Fountain Grill and the most famous, The Cave. The Cave was designed to mimic a cavern complete with waterfalls, stalactites, glass topped tables and statues of gnomes and nymphs. Revues similar to the [[Ziegfeld Follies]] were presented on a nightly basis.

In 1915, Theodore Grunewald became the sole owner of the hotel when his father died. He retained ownership of the hotel until early 1923 when, on his doctor's advice, he sold all of his business interests.

== The first Roosevelt era ==
In 1923, Theodore Grunewald sold the hotel to a business group headed by Joseph, Felix, and Luca Vacarro. Immediately after the purchase the new owners put forth plans to tear down the original hotel building, build a new tower the same height as the Annex, and redesign the interior of the Annex. The Vacarro group spent $500,000 in the redesign alone, mainly redecorating and updating designs. The hotel was officially renamed the Roosevelt Hotel on October 31, 1923, in honor of President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], whose efforts building the [[Panama Canal]] had been tremendous for the city of [[New Orleans]], financially. A ceremony was held in the Romanesque Room (now known as the Blue Room) to commemorate the name change.

On October 1, 1925, the new Baronne Street tower was opened. It was 16 stories tall and once again gave the hotel space to add even more amenities. The new tower added a barber shop, a coffee shop, and stores which faced the street. By the end of 1925, the Romanesque Room became the Venetian Room and was known as a premiere [[jazz]] venue. The hotel began a tradition of decorating its block-long lobby for Christmas. The tradition continues to this day and has become a local icon of the holiday season.

In 1933, the Hotel was operated by [[Niagara Falls, New York|Niagara Falls]] businessman [[Frank A. Dudley]] and the [[United Hotels Company]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Receivers Name for Hotel Firm|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1933/11/18/105819885.pdf|accessdate=14 October 2015|work=The New York Times|date=November 18, 1933}}</ref> until a group named the New Orleans Roosevelt Corporation began an effort to acquire the hotel from the Vacarro Group. The group was headed by [[Seymour Weiss]] who had started his career at the hotel as the barber shop manager. He was later promoted to the Head of Publicity and Conventions, Associate Manager, Assistant Manager, and eventually General Manager of the hotel. In 1931, he became the Vice President and Managing Director. The sale of the hotel to Weiss's group was finalized on December 12, 1934.

After the purchase by Weiss, major changes and upgrades began throughout the hotel. The marble staircase in the lobby was removed and a ceiling was installed. This allowed the hotel to create more meeting space on the mezzanine level. The Grand Ballroom that was created at this was the largest meeting room in the city. All of the hotel's guest rooms were completely refurbished, and the Tip Top Club on the 12th floor was converted into guest suites. The Venetian Room was closed and remodeled. On December 31, 1935, the Blue Room opened and was, for decades, the premiere music venue in the city. The performers in the earlier years of the Blue Room included [[Glenn Miller]], [[Tommy Dorsey]], [[Sammy Kaye]], and [[Guy Lombardo]]. On August 1, 1938, the Main Bar (now named the Sazerac Bar) opened. Its [[mahogany]] bar, walnut-paneled walls, and [[Paul Ninas]] [[mural]]s are still a focal point of the hotel. On September 1, 1938, the Fountain Lounge opened.

Weiss was a confidant of Louisiana Governor and later U.S. Senator [[Huey P. Long]]. During the 1930s, when he was a [[U.S. Senator]], Long used a 12th-floor suite at the hotel as his Louisiana headquarters and effective New Orleans residence.<ref>Theodore P. Mahne, [http://www.nola.com/news/?/base/news-2/1246426230237080.xml&coll=1 "The Legend of Huey P. Long"] in ''Times-Picayune'', 1 July 2009, Saint Tammany Edition, pp. A1, A8.</ref> He was known to imbibe [[Ramos gin fizz]]es in the Main Bar and even had Sam Guarino, the head bartender, flown up to the New Yorker Hotel in New York City to teach the staff how to make them. His 'Deduct Box' was believed to be kept at the hotel. The 'Deduct Box' was where Long held all of the "contributions" from state employees and supporters. The box has never been found; a replica now stands in the lobby.

In 1949, Weiss purchased the rights to use the name "Sazerac Bar" from the [[Sazerac Company]]. The bar had previously been on [[Exchange Place, New Orleans|Exchange Place]] before [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]] and at 300 [[Carondelet Street]] afterward. He renovated a store front on Baronne Street which had previously held a wine-and-spirits store and opened the Sazerac Bar on September 26, 1949. As a sign of his marketing genius, Weiss announced through the news media that the new bar would abolish the previous 'men-only' house rule and admit women. Women from around the city flocked to the venue, and the event became known as Storming the Sazerac. The anniversary is celebrated every year at the hotel with vintage costumes and libations.

In 1954, the Shell Building was completed on Common Street, and Weiss negotiated to lease seven floors. The addition of this space allowed the hotel to increase to 900 rooms and to build the International Room, which could accommodate as many as 2,200 guests for one event. The International Room connected on the second floor with the other meeting rooms on the mezzanine level. With the increase in meeting space, a brand new banquet kitchen was built in 1955 on the same level. The kitchen to this day services all meetings and events in the hotel.

In 1959, the decision was made to close the Sazerac Bar on Baronne Street and transfer the name to the Main Bar. It is still named the Sazerac Bar today.

In 1964 [[Arthur Hailey]] resided at the hotel for two months. He went on to use it as the basis for his best selling novel [[Hotel (Hailey novel)|''Hotel'']] (1965).

As Weiss grew older, he sought out a buyer for the hotel. The Swig family, owners of the [[Fairmont San Francisco]] became the new owners in 1965.

== The Fairmont New Orleans ==
The Roosevelt was acquired by Benjamin and Richard Swig on November 19, 1965.<ref>The Roosevelt Review, December 1965, page 9</ref> In an effort to ease the transition, the Swigs first changed the name to the Fairmont-Roosevelt and then eventually to the Fairmont New Orleans. The Swigs began to modernize the hotel over the years. The initial renovations cost $1.5 million and were mainly in the look and design of the hotel. Updates to the Blue Room, both entrances and Dining Rooms were made. Carpet was added in the lobby. The Fountain Lounge was renamed the Rendezvous Lounge.

In the following years the Rendezvous Lounge was closed and renovated. The space was renamed the Sazerac Restaurant to tie it in with the bar. The restaurant featured waiters in black tie and tableside preparations. The Sazerac Bar was updated with carpeting and modern furniture and new lighting. One of the store fronts on Baronne Street that originally housed the coffee shop became Bailey's. Bailey's was the hotel's casual dining room and was open 24 hours a day. The restaurant had the unique reputation of having quality upscale food at any hour of the night. It was very popular with its proximity to the theaters in the city. Another extensive renovation occurred in the late 1990s with all of the guest rooms being renovated.

The Fairmont New Orleans was damaged during [[Hurricane Katrina]] August, 2005 and closed indefinitely. While some repair work was done, work was suspended in an incomplete state in March 2007 after preliminary estimates of the damage were revealed to have been greatly underestimated.<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2007-03-14-new-orleans-fairmont_N.htm Restoration work suspended at historic New Orleans hotel], March 2007.</ref>

== The second Roosevelt era ==
[[File:Lobby of the Roosevelt Hotel, New Orleans 2022.jpg|right|thumb|The lobby of the Roosevelt New Orleans]]
[[File:RooseveltMysteryLadyClockJuly09.JPG|thumb|right|Monumental conical pendulum clock by [[Eugène Farcot]], sculpture by [[Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse]], 1867. Acquired after the last renovation.]]
On August 24, 2007, Sam Friedman, a son of the late [[Louisiana State Legislature|Louisiana State Senator]] [[Sylvan Friedman]] of [[Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana|Natchitoches Parish]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.myneworleans.com/Louisiana-Life/July-August-2009/Roosevelt-Returns/|title=Paul F. Stahls, Jr., "Roosevelt Returns: This downtown New Orleans hotel has a long and colorful past -- and future", July–August 2009|publisher=myneworleans.com|accessdate=September 9, 2009}}</ref> of Dimension Development Company from Natchitoches, Louisiana, announced the purchase of the Fairmont Hotel by First Class Hotels for $17 million from the owners, Roosevelt Ventures, LLC. Also announced was the plan to spend $100 million to convert the hotel to one of Hilton's premium hotels in their Waldorf Astoria Collection chain.

The entire hotel was completely renovated with modern systems. The design of the hotel was a nod to the grand days of the hotel in the 1930s and 1940s. The lobby was restored to the look of that period. The carpeting in the lobby was removed and original floor was repaired. The Sazerac Bar was restored to its look of the 1940s. The space that housed Bailey's was renovated and now houses Domenica Restaurant. The other store front on Baronne Street was converted into the Roosevelt Emporium, the hotel's gift shop. The rooftop tennis courts that the Fairmont had were removed and a brand new pool deck was constructed with shower facilities, a bar and kitchen.

The new owners remodeled the hotel and selected [[Waldorf Astoria Hotels and Resorts]] to manage the property. On reopening of the hotel in 2009, the owners reverted the name of the hotel to the "Roosevelt" title it had held from 1923 to 1965.<ref>Theodore P. Mahne, "Grand old hotel holds happy memories" in ''Times-Picayune'', 1 July 2009, Saint Tammany Edition, p. A8 (web version = [http://www.nola.com/entertainment/index.ssf/2009/06/former_employee_recalls_the_gl.html "Former employee recalls the glory days of the Roosevelt Hotel").]</ref> The Roosevelt Hotel reopened to the public at 3:00 PM on July 1, 2009 with a ribbon cutting in the main lobby by the ownership group represented by Alan Rose, Sam Friedman, Jack Guenther, Neil Freeman, and Lod Cook.

The current hotel holds 504 guest rooms of which 125 are suites. The total meeting space is over {{convert|68000|sqft}} with multiple rooms across three floors of the hotel.

The Roosevelt underwent a renovation to each of its 23 ballrooms and meeting spaces in 2018, and a renovation of the rooftop pool and guest rooms in 2019.

==See also==
* [[List of tallest buildings in New Orleans]]
* [[List of tallest buildings in Louisiana]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
* ''[[Milwaukee Journal]]'', March 18, 1906

{{Commons category|Roosevelt Hotel, New Orleans}}

{{Buildings in New Orleans timeline}}

{{coord|29.9539|-90.0716|type:landmark_region:US-LA|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roosevelt Hotel New Orleans, The}}
[[Category:German-American culture in Louisiana]]
[[Category:Hotels in New Orleans]]
[[Category:Hilton Hotels & Resorts hotels]]
[[Category:Hotels established in 1893]]
[[Category:United Hotels Company of America]]
[[Category:1893 establishments in Louisiana]]

The Roosevelt New Orleans

2023-12-14T15:01:18Z

ExtravagAunt: /* The second Roosevelt era */capitalization

{{Infobox hotel
| hotel_name = The Roosevelt New Orleans, A Waldorf Astoria Hotel
| logo =
| logo_width =
| image = CardTheGrunewaldNewOr.jpg
| image_width =
| caption = Circa 1910s
| location = [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]]
| address = 130 Roosevelt Way, New Orleans, LA 70112
| coordinates =
| opening_date = 1893
| developer = Louis Grunewald
| architect = Toledano & Wogan
| hotel_chain = [[Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts|Waldorf Astoria]]
| operator = [[Hilton Worldwide]]
| cost =
| owner = First Class Hotels
| number_of_rooms = 504
| number_of_suites = 125
| number_of_restaurants= 3
| floor_area =
| floors = 14
| height = {{convert|211|ft|abbr=on}}
| parking = Valet
| website = [http://waldorfastoria3.hilton.com/en/hotels/louisiana/the-roosevelt-new-orleans-a-waldorf-astoria-hotel-MSYRHWA/index.html The Roosevelt New Orleans website]
| footnotes =
}}

'''The Roosevelt New Orleans''' in [[New Orleans]], [[Louisiana]], is a 504-room hotel owned by AVR Realty Company and Dimension Development and managed by [[Waldorf Astoria Hotels & Resorts]]. The hotel was originally built by Louis Grunewald, a German immigrant, and opened in 1893 as "The Hotel Grunewald."

== Hotel Grunewald ==
[[Image:thecave.jpg|right|thumb|A postcard of The Cave in the Grunewald Hotel circa 1908]]The original hotel building was six stories tall and faced Baronne Street, encompassing street numbers 123 through 135. It was built after Grunewald's Music Hall was destroyed by fire in 1862. The building housed 200 rooms and opened in December 1893 to be ready for the 1894 [[New Orleans Mardi Gras]] season.<ref>The Roosevelt Review, December 1965, page 10</ref> The decision to build a hotel proved to be very sound as the other major hotel in the city, the [[St. Charles Hotel, New Orleans|St. Charles Hotel]], was destroyed by fire soon after the Grunewald opened.

== Grunewald Annex ==
[[File:The Forest Grill at the Hotel Grunewald.jpg|thumb|left|The Forest Grill at the Hotel Grunewald]]
As early as 1900, Grunewald began plans and eventually construction of an 'Annex' tower on the University Place side of the block. The cost of the new tower was reportedly $2.5 million and was considered one of the finest in the country. The new tower was 14 stories tall and had 400 rooms. Its grand opening was at Midnight, January 1, 1908. This expansion was designed by the architectural firm, Toledano & Wogan.<ref>http://seaa.tulane.edu/sites/all/themes/Howard_Tilton/docs/finding_aids/Toledano,%20Wogan,%20and%20Bernard%20Office%20Records.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> Louis Grunewald's son Theodore became the Director and Manager of the Hotel. The lobby of the Annex featured a large Italian Marble staircase which reached an overlooking mezzanine level of the hotel. The Annex Tower allowed the addition of several entertainment and dining facilities. Among the new options were the Forest Grill, The Lounge, The Fountain Grill and the most famous, The Cave. The Cave was designed to mimic a cavern complete with waterfalls, stalactites, glass topped tables and statues of gnomes and nymphs. Revues similar to the [[Ziegfeld Follies]] were presented on a nightly basis.

In 1915, Theodore Grunewald became the sole owner of the hotel when his father died. He retained ownership of the hotel until early 1923 when, on his doctor's advice, he sold all of his business interests.

== The first Roosevelt era ==
In 1923, Theodore Grunewald sold the hotel to a business group headed by Joseph, Felix, and Luca Vacarro. Immediately after the purchase the new owners put forth plans to tear down the original hotel building, build a new tower the same height as the Annex, and redesign the interior of the Annex. The Vacarro group spent $500,000 in the redesign alone, mainly redecorating and updating designs. The hotel was officially renamed the Roosevelt Hotel on October 31, 1923, in honor of President [[Theodore Roosevelt]], whose efforts building the [[Panama Canal]] had been tremendous for the city of [[New Orleans]], financially. A ceremony was held in the Romanesque Room (now known as the Blue Room) to commemorate the name change.

On October 1, 1925, the new Baronne Street tower was opened. It was 16 stories tall and once again gave the hotel space to add even more amenities. The new tower added a barber shop, a coffee shop, and stores which faced the street. By the end of 1925, the Romanesque Room became the Venetian Room and was known as a premiere [[jazz]] venue. The hotel began a tradition of decorating its block-long lobby for Christmas. The tradition continues to this day and has become a local icon of the holiday season.

In 1933, the Hotel was operated by [[Niagara Falls, New York|Niagara Falls]] businessman [[Frank A. Dudley]] and the [[United Hotels Company]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Receivers Name for Hotel Firm|url=https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1933/11/18/105819885.pdf|accessdate=14 October 2015|work=The New York Times|date=November 18, 1933}}</ref> until a group named the New Orleans Roosevelt Corporation began an effort to acquire the hotel from the Vacarro Group. The group was headed by [[Seymour Weiss]] who had started his career at the hotel as the barber shop manager. He was later promoted to the Head of Publicity and Conventions, Associate Manager, Assistant Manager, and eventually General Manager of the hotel. In 1931, he became the Vice President and Managing Director. The sale of the hotel to Weiss's group was finalized on December 12, 1934.

After the purchase by Weiss, major changes and upgrades began throughout the hotel. The marble staircase in the lobby was removed and a ceiling was installed. This allowed the hotel to create more meeting space on the mezzanine level. The Grand Ballroom that was created at this was the largest meeting room in the city. All of the hotel's guest rooms were completely refurbished, and the Tip Top Club on the 12th floor was converted into guest suites. The Venetian Room was closed and remodeled. On December 31, 1935, the Blue Room opened and was, for decades, the premiere music venue in the city. The performers in the earlier years of the Blue Room included [[Glenn Miller]], [[Tommy Dorsey]], [[Sammy Kaye]], and [[Guy Lombardo]]. On August 1, 1938, the Main Bar (now named the Sazerac Bar) opened. Its [[mahogany]] bar, walnut-paneled walls, and [[Paul Ninas]] [[mural]]s are still a focal point of the hotel. On September 1, 1938, the Fountain Lounge opened.

Weiss was a confidant of Louisiana Governor and later U.S. Senator [[Huey P. Long]]. During the 1930s, when he was a [[U.S. Senator]], Long used a 12th-floor suite at the hotel as his Louisiana headquarters and effective New Orleans residence.<ref>Theodore P. Mahne, [http://www.nola.com/news/?/base/news-2/1246426230237080.xml&coll=1 "The Legend of Huey P. Long"] in ''Times-Picayune'', 1 July 2009, Saint Tammany Edition, pp. A1, A8.</ref> He was known to imbibe [[Ramos gin fizz]]es in the Main Bar and even had Sam Guarino, the head bartender, flown up to the New Yorker Hotel in New York City to teach the staff how to make them. His 'Deduct Box' was believed to be kept at the hotel. The 'Deduct Box' was where Long held all of the "contributions" from state employees and supporters. The box has never been found; a replica now stands in the lobby.

In 1949, Weiss purchased the rights to use the name "Sazerac Bar" from the [[Sazerac Company]]. The bar had previously been on [[Exchange Place, New Orleans|Exchange Place]] before [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]] and at 300 [[Carondelet Street]] afterward. He renovated a store front on Baronne Street which had previously held a wine-and-spirits store and opened the Sazerac Bar on September 26, 1949. As a sign of his marketing genius, Weiss announced through the news media that the new bar would abolish the previous 'men-only' house rule and admit women. Women from around the city flocked to the venue, and the event became known as Storming the Sazerac. The anniversary is celebrated every year at the hotel with vintage costumes and libations.

In 1954, the Shell Building was completed on Common Street, and Weiss negotiated to lease seven floors. The addition of this space allowed the hotel to increase to 900 rooms and to build the International Room, which could accommodate as many as 2,200 guests for one event. The International Room connected on the second floor with the other meeting rooms on the mezzanine level. With the increase in meeting space, a brand new banquet kitchen was built in 1955 on the same level. The kitchen to this day services all meetings and events in the hotel.

In 1959, the decision was made to close the Sazerac Bar on Baronne Street and transfer the name to the Main Bar. It is still named the Sazerac Bar today.

In 1964 [[Arthur Hailey]] resided at the hotel for two months. He went on to use it as the basis for his best selling novel [[Hotel (Hailey novel)|''Hotel'']] (1965).

As Weiss grew older, he sought out a buyer for the hotel. The Swig family, owners of the [[Fairmont San Francisco]] became the new owners in 1965.

== The Fairmont New Orleans ==
The Roosevelt was acquired by Benjamin and Richard Swig on November 19, 1965.<ref>The Roosevelt Review, December 1965, page 9</ref> In an effort to ease the transition, the Swigs first changed the name to the Fairmont-Roosevelt and then eventually to the Fairmont New Orleans. The Swigs began to modernize the hotel over the years. The initial renovations cost $1.5 million and were mainly in the look and design of the hotel. Updates to the Blue Room, both entrances and Dining Rooms were made. Carpet was added in the lobby. The Fountain Lounge was renamed the Rendezvous Lounge.

In the following years the Rendezvous lounge was closed and renovated. The space was renamed the Sazerac Restaurant to tie it in with the bar. The restaurant featured Black Tie waiters and tableside preparations. The Sazerac Bar was updated with carpeting and modern furniture and new lighting. One of the store fronts on Baronne Street that originally housed the coffee shop became Bailey's. Bailey's was the hotel's casual dining room and was open 24 hours a day. The restaurant had the unique reputation of having quality upscale food at any hour of the night. It was very popular with its proximity to the theaters in the city. Another extensive renovation occurred in the late 1990s with all of the guest rooms being renovated.

The Fairmont New Orleans was damaged during [[Hurricane Katrina]] August, 2005 and closed indefinitely. While some repair work was done, work was suspended in an incomplete state in March 2007 after preliminary estimates of the damage were revealed to have been greatly underestimated.<ref>[https://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2007-03-14-new-orleans-fairmont_N.htm Restoration work suspended at historic New Orleans hotel], March 2007.</ref>

== The second Roosevelt era ==
[[File:Lobby of the Roosevelt Hotel, New Orleans 2022.jpg|right|thumb|The lobby of the Roosevelt New Orleans]]
[[File:RooseveltMysteryLadyClockJuly09.JPG|thumb|right|Monumental conical pendulum clock by [[Eugène Farcot]], sculpture by [[Albert-Ernest Carrier-Belleuse]], 1867. Acquired after the last renovation.]]
On August 24, 2007, Sam Friedman, a son of the late [[Louisiana State Legislature|Louisiana State Senator]] [[Sylvan Friedman]] of [[Natchitoches Parish, Louisiana|Natchitoches Parish]],<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.myneworleans.com/Louisiana-Life/July-August-2009/Roosevelt-Returns/|title=Paul F. Stahls, Jr., "Roosevelt Returns: This downtown New Orleans hotel has a long and colorful past -- and future", July–August 2009|publisher=myneworleans.com|accessdate=September 9, 2009}}</ref> of Dimension Development Company from Natchitoches, Louisiana, announced the purchase of the Fairmont Hotel by First Class Hotels for $17 million from the owners, Roosevelt Ventures, LLC. Also announced was the plan to spend $100 million to convert the hotel to one of Hilton's premium hotels in their Waldorf Astoria Collection chain.

The entire hotel was completely renovated with modern systems. The design of the hotel was a nod to the grand days of the hotel in the 1930s and 1940s. The lobby was restored to the look of that period. The carpeting in the lobby was removed and original floor was repaired. The Sazerac Bar was restored to its look of the 1940s. The space that housed Bailey's was renovated and now houses Domenica Restaurant. The other store front on Baronne Street was converted into the Roosevelt Emporium, the hotel's gift shop. The rooftop tennis courts that the Fairmont had were removed and a brand new pool deck was constructed with shower facilities, a bar and kitchen.

The new owners remodeled the hotel and selected [[Waldorf Astoria Hotels and Resorts]] to manage the property. On reopening of the hotel in 2009, the owners reverted the name of the hotel to the "Roosevelt" title it had held from 1923 to 1965.<ref>Theodore P. Mahne, "Grand old hotel holds happy memories" in ''Times-Picayune'', 1 July 2009, Saint Tammany Edition, p. A8 (web version = [http://www.nola.com/entertainment/index.ssf/2009/06/former_employee_recalls_the_gl.html "Former employee recalls the glory days of the Roosevelt Hotel").]</ref> The Roosevelt Hotel reopened to the public at 3:00 PM on July 1, 2009 with a ribbon cutting in the main lobby by the ownership group represented by Alan Rose, Sam Friedman, Jack Guenther, Neil Freeman, and Lod Cook.

The current hotel holds 504 guest rooms of which 125 are suites. The total meeting space is over {{convert|68000|sqft}} with multiple rooms across three floors of the hotel.

The Roosevelt underwent a renovation to each of its 23 ballrooms and meeting spaces in 2018, and a renovation of the rooftop pool and guest rooms in 2019.

==See also==
* [[List of tallest buildings in New Orleans]]
* [[List of tallest buildings in Louisiana]]

==References==
{{Reflist|2}}
* ''[[Milwaukee Journal]]'', March 18, 1906

{{Commons category|Roosevelt Hotel, New Orleans}}

{{Buildings in New Orleans timeline}}

{{coord|29.9539|-90.0716|type:landmark_region:US-LA|display=title}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Roosevelt Hotel New Orleans, The}}
[[Category:German-American culture in Louisiana]]
[[Category:Hotels in New Orleans]]
[[Category:Hilton Hotels & Resorts hotels]]
[[Category:Hotels established in 1893]]
[[Category:United Hotels Company of America]]
[[Category:1893 establishments in Louisiana]]

Lewis J. Selznick

2023-12-06T05:39:33Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Biography */duplicative link

{{short description|American businessman}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Lewis J. Selznick
| image = Lewis-J-Selznick-1916.jpg
| image_size =
| birth_name = Lewis Zeleznick
| birth_date = {{birth date|1869|5|2}} or 1870
| death_date = {{death date|1933|1|25}} (aged 62 or 63)
| birth_place = [[Anyksciai]], [[Kovno Governorate]], [[Russian Empire]]
| death_place = Los Angeles, [[California]]
| spouse = {{marriage|Florence Sachs|1896}}
| children =[[Myron Selznick]] [[David O. Selznick]]
| yearsactive = 1913–1923
| occupation = [[Film producer|Motion picture producer]] and distributor
| awards = '''[[Walk of Fame]] - Motion Picture''' [[Hollywood Blvd|6412 Hollywood Blvd]]
}}

'''Lewis J. Selznick''' (May 2, 1870 or 1869<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ancestry.com/search/?name=Lewis_Selzick&birth=1869&birth_x=0-0-0 |title=Ancestry.com |last=Possible birth year |website=[[Ancestry.com]]}}</ref> – January 25, 1933) was an American [[Film producer|producer]] in the early years of the [[film industry]]. After initial involvement with [[World Film]] at [[Fort Lee, New Jersey]], he established [[Selznick Pictures]] in California.

==Biography==
Selznick was born in 1870 in [[Anyksciai]],<ref name="Thomson" /> [[Kovno Governorate]], [[Russian Empire]] (now in [[Lithuania]]),<ref name="Lambert"/> to Ida (Ringer) and Joseph Zeleznick of a poor [[Jews|Jewish]] family. Later in his life he claimed that he was born in [[Kyiv]] (now in [[Ukraine]]).<ref name="Lambert">{{cite book |title=GWTW: The Making of Gone With the Wind |last=Lambert |first=Gavin |author-link=Gavin Lambert |year=1976 |orig-year=1973 |publisher=[[Bantam Books]] |edition=mass market paperback |location=New York |pages=2–7}}</ref>

Selznick arrived in the United States in 1888 and became a naturalized citizen on September 29, 1894.<ref name="Thomson">{{cite book |last=Thomson |first=David |author-link=David Thomson (film critic) |date=1992 |title=Showman: The Life of David O. Selznick |location=New York |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |isbn=0-394-56833-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/showmanlifeofdav00thom}}</ref>{{Rp|5}} He settled in [[Pittsburgh]] and built up a successful jewelry retail business. In 1896,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ancestry.com/search/categories/34/?name=Lewis_Seleznick&birth=1871&birth_x=2-0-0&name_x=1_1 |title=Ancestry.com |last=Marriage date |website=[[Ancestry.com]]}}</ref> he married Florence "Flossie" Sachs.<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|6–7}} They had three sons: Howard Selznick (1897–1980), who suffered some undiagnosed mental disability;<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|7}} [[Myron Selznick]] (1898–1944), who worked as a producer and studio executive before establishing a [[talent agency]]; and [[David O. Selznick]] (1902–1965), a Hollywood filmmaker who produced ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' (1939). A daughter, Ruth, was born in 1904 but died before the age of one.<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|8}}

Retaining his jewelry stores in the Pittsburgh area, Selznick moved his family to [[Brooklyn]] in 1903.<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|8–9}} He opened a large jewelry store,<ref name="Lambert" /> the Knickerbocker, at Sixth Avenue and 23rd Street in [[Manhattan]], but by 1907 he had left the business. The family surname changed from Seleznick to Selznick sometime in 1908 or 1909. During this period, the family resided at 530 44th Street, a 1908 limestone/brownstone-clad [[Renaissance Revival]] row house in Brooklyn's [[Sunset Park, Brooklyn|Sunset Park]] district.<ref>http://s-media.nyc.gov/agencies/lpc/lp/2625.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> In the year 1910 or 1911, the family moved to Manhattan, where Selznick worked as a patent promoter and sold electrical supplies.<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|10–11}}

Through an old acquaintance from Pittsburgh, Selznick became involved with the [[Universal Studios|Universal Film Manufacturing Company]] in 1913<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|13}} but was soon dismissed by [[Carl Laemmle]].<ref name=Photoplay/> In February 1914,<ref name="NYT Profit Sharing">{{cite news |date=December 14, 1914 |title=Profit Sharing for Movies |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D05E1DE153AE633A25757C1A9649D946596D6CF |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=December 12, 2015}}</ref> he and Chicago [[Spiegel (catalog)|mail-order magnate]] [[Arthur Spiegel]] organized the [[World Film Company|World Film Corporation]],<ref name="NYT Obit">{{cite news |date=January 26, 1933 |title=L. J. Selznick Dies; A Film Pioneer |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D00E0DC1738E333A25755C2A9679C946294D6CF |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2015-12-12}}</ref> a distributor of independently produced films<ref name="Katz">{{cite book |last=Katz |first=Ephraim |author-link=Ephraim Katz |title=The Film Encyclopedia |publisher=HarperPerennial |location=New York |year=1998 |edition=3rd |page=1237 |isbn=0-06-273492-X}}</ref> located in [[Fort Lee, New Jersey]],<ref>{{citation |last=Koszarski |first=Richard |title=Fort Lee: The Film Town |location=Rome |publisher=John Libbey Publishing -CIC srl |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5w0r8YKan04C&q=Fort+Lee:+the+film+town+Door+Richard+Koszarski |isbn=0-86196-653-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Studios and Films |publisher=Fort Lee Film Commission |url=http://www.fortleefilm.org/studios.html |access-date=May 30, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020130551/http://fortleefilm.org/studios.html |archive-date=2018-10-20 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Fort Lee Film Commission |title=Fort Lee Birthplace of the Motion Picture Industry |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ViR3b72xkK0C&q=Fort+Lee+Birthplace+of+the+Motion+Picture+Industry |isbn=0-7385-4501-5}}</ref> with general offices in New York City.<ref name="NYT Profit Sharing"/> Company directors included [[Jules Brulatour]], Briton N. Busch (secretary and treasurer), Van Horn Ely (president), [[Lee Shubert]], and Selznick (vice president and general manager). Film historian [[David Thomson (film critic)|David Thomson]] describes World Film as "a loose gathering of companies and interests engaged in producing films, with a nationwide system of exchanges and theaters where they could be shown". Within a year the company showed a profit of $329,000<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|15}} — more than $7.7 million today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl?cost1=329%2C000.00&year1=1915&year2=2015 |title=Bureau of Labor Statistics CPI Inflation Calculator |publisher=[[United States Department of Labor]] |access-date=December 12, 2015}}</ref>

Selznick had been dabbling in theatrical production, and his company put popular plays on film.<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|15}} World Films releases in 1915 included ''Old Dutch'' featuring [[Lew Fields]], ''[[The Boss (1915 film)|The Boss]]'' starring [[Alice Brady]] and [[Holbrook Blinn]], ''[[Trilby (1915 film)|Trilby]]'' starring [[Wilton Lackaye]] and Clara Kimball Young, and ''[[Wildfire (1915 film)|Wildfire]]'' starring [[Lillian Russell]] and [[Lionel Barrymore]].<ref name="NYT Obit"/>

Selznick's company soon merged with the [[Peerless Pictures]] Studios and the [[Shubert Brothers]]' Shubert Pictures Co., and became very successful, in 1915 hiring [[Sidney Olcott]] away from [[Kalem Studios]] plus the French director [[Maurice Tourneur]] away from the American arm of the giant, [[Pathé]]. By 1916, personality conflicts with his partners saw him ousted from the firm by the board of directors.<ref name=Photoplay>{{cite news |last=Ramsaye |first=Terry |author-link=Terry Ramsaye |title=The Romantic History of the Motion Picture |url=https://archive.org/stream/pho28chic#page/n122/mode/1up |work=[[Photoplay]] |date=January 1925 |pages=119–124}}</ref>

Selznick took with him World Film Corporation's biggest star, [[Clara Kimball Young]], and became president and general manager of the newly formed Clara Kimball Young Film Corporation. Selznick and Young began a much-publicized affair, which resulted in her husband [[James Young (director)|James Young]] divorcing her.

He then launched the film career of [[Nazimova]] with her first film ''[[War Brides (1916 film)|War Brides]]'', which was a success.<ref name=Photoplay/>

Selznick's business practices such as special preview functions, putting his name up in lights, signing stars for big salaries, upset others in the industry<ref name=Variety>{{cite news |url=https://archive.org/stream/variety109-1933-01#page/n283/mode/1up |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |title=Lewis J. Selznick |date=January 31, 1933 |page=2}}</ref> and [[Adolph Zukor]] purportedly offered him a salary of $5,000 a week for life to go to China and stay there.<ref name=Photoplay/> He later invented an advance deposit system whereby his productions were financed by selling the rights to exhibitors.<ref name=Photoplay/>

Although he had annoyed other film industry people, he had a friendship with [[Marcus Loew]] who helped him with loans. Following [[Norma Talmadge]]'s marriage to [[Joseph Schenck]], the booking manager for the [[Loews Cineplex Entertainment|Loew circuit]], Talmadge signed for Selznick and the first film of hers he distributed, ''Panthea'', set her on the road to becoming a star. Talmadge's sister [[Constance Talmadge|Constance]] also signed for Selznick.<ref name=Photoplay/>

In 1917, Zukor acquired a 50% interest in Selznick's Select Pictures; however, this led to Selznick's name no longer appearing in lights or on the screen. Constance Talmadge then asked for his name to be removed from her pictures.<ref name=Photoplay/>

Following this, Selznick's son Myron signed [[Olive Thomas]] in December 1918, and put the Selznick name up in lights again. Selznick then bought out Zukor to take control of Select Pictures again.<ref name=Photoplay/>

Selznick continued in film on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] until 1920 when he moved to Hollywood, where he teamed up with Zukor and [[Jesse L. Lasky]]. However, within a few years his company, Lewis J. Selznick Productions, Inc., began to lose stars;<ref name=Photoplay/> Selznick experienced severe financial difficulties, and went bankrupt in 1925. He re-entered the industry the following year, and managed [[Associated Exhibitors]]<ref name=Variety/> before retiring from the film business.

Selznick died at his home in Los Angeles on January 25, 1933, from a heart attack,<ref name=Variety/> with his wife and sons at his bedside.<ref name="NYT Obit"/> He is interred at [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|Forest Lawn Memorial Cemetery]] in Glendale, California.

==Legacy==
For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Lewis J. Selznick was inducted into the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] on February 8, 1960. His star is located at 6412 Hollywood Blvd.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.walkoffame.com/lewis-j-selznick |title=Lewis J. Selznick |website=[[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] |publisher=Hollywood Chamber of Commerce |access-date=2015-12-11}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="180">
File:War-Brides-1916.jpg|Poster for ''[[War Brides (1916 film)|War Brides]]'' (1916)
File:By Right of Purchase (1918) - Ad 1.jpg|Advertisement for ''[[By Right of Purchase]]'' (1918)
File:The Spite Bride (1919) - 1.jpg|[[Robert Ellis (actor, born 1892)|Robert Ellis]] and [[Olive Thomas]] in ''The Spite Bride'' (1919)
File:Country-Cousin-1919.jpg|Poster for ''The Country Cousin'' (1919)
File:Upstairs and Down (1919) - 3.jpg|Olive Thomas in ''[[Upstairs and Down]]'' (1919)
File:The Woman God Sent 1920.jpg|Lobby card for ''The Woman God Sent'' (1920)
File:Everybody's-Sweetheart-1920-LC-1.jpg|Lobby card for ''[[Everybody's Sweetheart (1920 film)|Everybody's Sweetheart]]'' (1920)
File:Miracle-of-Manhattan-1921.jpg|Poster for ''The Miracle of Manhattan'' (1921)
File:Lobbygow-1923.jpg|Poster for ''Lobbygow'' (1923)
File:Rupert-of-Hentzau-1923-LC-1.jpg|Lobby card for ''Rupert of Hentzau'' (1923)
File:Your Girl and Mine ad 1.jpg|''[[Your Girl and Mine]]'' advertisement in 1914
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*{{IMDb name|id=0783681}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Selznick, Lewis J.}}
[[Category:19th-century births]]
[[Category:1933 deaths]]
[[Category:American film producers]]
[[Category:American film studio executives]]
[[Category:American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States]]
[[Category:Ukrainian Jews]]
[[Category:Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)]]

Lewis J. Selznick

2023-12-06T05:38:44Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Biography */added link

{{short description|American businessman}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Lewis J. Selznick
| image = Lewis-J-Selznick-1916.jpg
| image_size =
| birth_name = Lewis Zeleznick
| birth_date = {{birth date|1869|5|2}} or 1870
| death_date = {{death date|1933|1|25}} (aged 62 or 63)
| birth_place = [[Anyksciai]], [[Kovno Governorate]], [[Russian Empire]]
| death_place = Los Angeles, [[California]]
| spouse = {{marriage|Florence Sachs|1896}}
| children =[[Myron Selznick]] [[David O. Selznick]]
| yearsactive = 1913–1923
| occupation = [[Film producer|Motion picture producer]] and distributor
| awards = '''[[Walk of Fame]] - Motion Picture''' [[Hollywood Blvd|6412 Hollywood Blvd]]
}}

'''Lewis J. Selznick''' (May 2, 1870 or 1869<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ancestry.com/search/?name=Lewis_Selzick&birth=1869&birth_x=0-0-0 |title=Ancestry.com |last=Possible birth year |website=[[Ancestry.com]]}}</ref> – January 25, 1933) was an American [[Film producer|producer]] in the early years of the [[film industry]]. After initial involvement with [[World Film]] at [[Fort Lee, New Jersey]], he established [[Selznick Pictures]] in California.

==Biography==
Selznick was born in 1870 in [[Anyksciai]],<ref name="Thomson" /> [[Kovno Governorate]], [[Russian Empire]] (now in [[Lithuania]]),<ref name="Lambert"/> to Ida (Ringer) and Joseph Zeleznick of a poor [[Jews|Jewish]] family. Later in his life he claimed that he was born in [[Kyiv]] (now in [[Ukraine]]).<ref name="Lambert">{{cite book |title=GWTW: The Making of Gone With the Wind |last=Lambert |first=Gavin |author-link=Gavin Lambert |year=1976 |orig-year=1973 |publisher=[[Bantam Books]] |edition=mass market paperback |location=New York |pages=2–7}}</ref>

Selznick arrived in the United States in 1888 and became a naturalized citizen on September 29, 1894.<ref name="Thomson">{{cite book |last=Thomson |first=David |author-link=David Thomson (film critic) |date=1992 |title=Showman: The Life of David O. Selznick |location=New York |publisher=[[Alfred A. Knopf]] |isbn=0-394-56833-8 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/showmanlifeofdav00thom}}</ref>{{Rp|5}} He settled in [[Pittsburgh]] and built up a successful jewelry retail business. In 1896,<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.ancestry.com/search/categories/34/?name=Lewis_Seleznick&birth=1871&birth_x=2-0-0&name_x=1_1 |title=Ancestry.com |last=Marriage date |website=[[Ancestry.com]]}}</ref> he married Florence "Flossie" Sachs.<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|6–7}} They had three sons: Howard Selznick (1897–1980), who suffered some undiagnosed mental disability;<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|7}} [[Myron Selznick]] (1898–1944), who worked as a producer and studio executive before establishing a [[talent agency]]; and [[David O. Selznick]] (1902–1965), a Hollywood filmmaker who produced ''[[Gone with the Wind (film)|Gone with the Wind]]'' (1939). A daughter, Ruth, was born in 1904 but died before the age of one.<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|8}}

Retaining his jewelry stores in the Pittsburgh area, Selznick moved his family to [[Brooklyn]] in 1903.<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|8–9}} He opened a large jewelry store,<ref name="Lambert" /> the Knickerbocker, at Sixth Avenue and 23rd Street in [[Manhattan]], but by 1907 he had left the business. The family surname changed from Seleznick to Selznick sometime in 1908 or 1909. During this period, the family resided at 530 44th Street, a 1908 limestone/brownstone-clad [[Renaissance Revival]] row house in Brooklyn's [[Sunset Park, Brooklyn|Sunset Park]] district.<ref>http://s-media.nyc.gov/agencies/lpc/lp/2625.pdf {{Bare URL PDF|date=March 2022}}</ref> In the year 1910 or 1911, the family moved to Manhattan, where Selznick worked as a patent promoter and sold electrical supplies.<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|10–11}}

Through an old acquaintance from Pittsburgh, Selznick became involved with the [[Universal Studios|Universal Film Manufacturing Company]] in 1913<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|13}} but was soon dismissed by [[Carl Laemmle]].<ref name=Photoplay/> In February 1914,<ref name="NYT Profit Sharing">{{cite news |date=December 14, 1914 |title=Profit Sharing for Movies |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D05E1DE153AE633A25757C1A9649D946596D6CF |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |access-date=December 12, 2015}}</ref> he and Chicago [[Spiegel (catalog)|mail-order magnate]] [[Arthur Spiegel]] organized the [[World Film Company|World Film Corporation]],<ref name="NYT Obit">{{cite news |date=January 26, 1933 |title=L. J. Selznick Dies; A Film Pioneer |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/abstract.html?res=9D00E0DC1738E333A25755C2A9679C946294D6CF |newspaper=The New York Times |access-date=2015-12-12}}</ref> a distributor of independently produced films<ref name="Katz">{{cite book |last=Katz |first=Ephraim |author-link=Ephraim Katz |title=The Film Encyclopedia |publisher=HarperPerennial |location=New York |year=1998 |edition=3rd |page=1237 |isbn=0-06-273492-X}}</ref> located in [[Fort Lee, New Jersey]],<ref>{{citation |last=Koszarski |first=Richard |title=Fort Lee: The Film Town |location=Rome |publisher=John Libbey Publishing -CIC srl |year=2004 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5w0r8YKan04C&q=Fort+Lee:+the+film+town+Door+Richard+Koszarski |isbn=0-86196-653-8}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Studios and Films |publisher=Fort Lee Film Commission |url=http://www.fortleefilm.org/studios.html |access-date=May 30, 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181020130551/http://fortleefilm.org/studios.html |archive-date=2018-10-20 |url-status=dead}}</ref><ref>{{citation |last=Fort Lee Film Commission |title=Fort Lee Birthplace of the Motion Picture Industry |publisher=Arcadia Publishing |year=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ViR3b72xkK0C&q=Fort+Lee+Birthplace+of+the+Motion+Picture+Industry |isbn=0-7385-4501-5}}</ref> with general offices in New York City.<ref name="NYT Profit Sharing"/> Company directors included [[Jules Brulatour]], Briton N. Busch (secretary and treasurer), Van Horn Ely (president), [[Lee Shubert]], and Selznick (vice president and general manager). Film historian [[David Thomson (film critic)|David Thomson]] describes World Film as "a loose gathering of companies and interests engaged in producing films, with a nationwide system of exchanges and theaters where they could be shown". Within a year the company showed a profit of $329,000<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|15}} — more than $7.7 million today.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://data.bls.gov/cgi-bin/cpicalc.pl?cost1=329%2C000.00&year1=1915&year2=2015 |title=Bureau of Labor Statistics CPI Inflation Calculator |publisher=[[United States Department of Labor]] |access-date=December 12, 2015}}</ref>

Selznick had been dabbling in theatrical production, and his company put popular plays on film.<ref name="Thomson"/>{{Rp|15}} World Films releases in 1915 included ''Old Dutch'' featuring [[Lew Fields]], ''[[The Boss (1915 film)|The Boss]]'' starring [[Alice Brady]] and [[Holbrook Blinn]], ''[[Trilby (1915 film)|Trilby]]'' starring [[Wilton Lackaye]] and [[Clara Kimball Young]], and ''[[Wildfire (1915 film)|Wildfire]]'' starring [[Lillian Russell]] and [[Lionel Barrymore]].<ref name="NYT Obit"/>

Selznick's company soon merged with the [[Peerless Pictures]] Studios and the [[Shubert Brothers]]' Shubert Pictures Co., and became very successful, in 1915 hiring [[Sidney Olcott]] away from [[Kalem Studios]] plus the French director [[Maurice Tourneur]] away from the American arm of the giant, [[Pathé]]. By 1916, personality conflicts with his partners saw him ousted from the firm by the board of directors.<ref name=Photoplay>{{cite news |last=Ramsaye |first=Terry |author-link=Terry Ramsaye |title=The Romantic History of the Motion Picture |url=https://archive.org/stream/pho28chic#page/n122/mode/1up |work=[[Photoplay]] |date=January 1925 |pages=119–124}}</ref>

Selznick took with him World Film Corporation's biggest star, [[Clara Kimball Young]], and became president and general manager of the newly formed Clara Kimball Young Film Corporation. Selznick and Young began a much-publicized affair, which resulted in her husband [[James Young (director)|James Young]] divorcing her.

He then launched the film career of [[Nazimova]] with her first film ''[[War Brides (1916 film)|War Brides]]'', which was a success.<ref name=Photoplay/>

Selznick's business practices such as special preview functions, putting his name up in lights, signing stars for big salaries, upset others in the industry<ref name=Variety>{{cite news |url=https://archive.org/stream/variety109-1933-01#page/n283/mode/1up |work=[[Variety (magazine)|Variety]] |title=Lewis J. Selznick |date=January 31, 1933 |page=2}}</ref> and [[Adolph Zukor]] purportedly offered him a salary of $5,000 a week for life to go to China and stay there.<ref name=Photoplay/> He later invented an advance deposit system whereby his productions were financed by selling the rights to exhibitors.<ref name=Photoplay/>

Although he had annoyed other film industry people, he had a friendship with [[Marcus Loew]] who helped him with loans. Following [[Norma Talmadge]]'s marriage to [[Joseph Schenck]], the booking manager for the [[Loews Cineplex Entertainment|Loew circuit]], Talmadge signed for Selznick and the first film of hers he distributed, ''Panthea'', set her on the road to becoming a star. Talmadge's sister [[Constance Talmadge|Constance]] also signed for Selznick.<ref name=Photoplay/>

In 1917, Zukor acquired a 50% interest in Selznick's Select Pictures; however, this led to Selznick's name no longer appearing in lights or on the screen. Constance Talmadge then asked for his name to be removed from her pictures.<ref name=Photoplay/>

Following this, Selznick's son Myron signed [[Olive Thomas]] in December 1918, and put the Selznick name up in lights again. Selznick then bought out Zukor to take control of Select Pictures again.<ref name=Photoplay/>

Selznick continued in film on the [[East Coast of the United States|East Coast]] until 1920 when he moved to Hollywood, where he teamed up with Zukor and [[Jesse L. Lasky]]. However, within a few years his company, Lewis J. Selznick Productions, Inc., began to lose stars;<ref name=Photoplay/> Selznick experienced severe financial difficulties, and went bankrupt in 1925. He re-entered the industry the following year, and managed [[Associated Exhibitors]]<ref name=Variety/> before retiring from the film business.

Selznick died at his home in Los Angeles on January 25, 1933, from a heart attack,<ref name=Variety/> with his wife and sons at his bedside.<ref name="NYT Obit"/> He is interred at [[Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)|Forest Lawn Memorial Cemetery]] in Glendale, California.

==Legacy==
For his contribution to the motion picture industry, Lewis J. Selznick was inducted into the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] on February 8, 1960. His star is located at 6412 Hollywood Blvd.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.walkoffame.com/lewis-j-selznick |title=Lewis J. Selznick |website=[[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] |publisher=Hollywood Chamber of Commerce |access-date=2015-12-11}}</ref>

<gallery mode="packed" heights="180">
File:War-Brides-1916.jpg|Poster for ''[[War Brides (1916 film)|War Brides]]'' (1916)
File:By Right of Purchase (1918) - Ad 1.jpg|Advertisement for ''[[By Right of Purchase]]'' (1918)
File:The Spite Bride (1919) - 1.jpg|[[Robert Ellis (actor, born 1892)|Robert Ellis]] and [[Olive Thomas]] in ''The Spite Bride'' (1919)
File:Country-Cousin-1919.jpg|Poster for ''The Country Cousin'' (1919)
File:Upstairs and Down (1919) - 3.jpg|Olive Thomas in ''[[Upstairs and Down]]'' (1919)
File:The Woman God Sent 1920.jpg|Lobby card for ''The Woman God Sent'' (1920)
File:Everybody's-Sweetheart-1920-LC-1.jpg|Lobby card for ''[[Everybody's Sweetheart (1920 film)|Everybody's Sweetheart]]'' (1920)
File:Miracle-of-Manhattan-1921.jpg|Poster for ''The Miracle of Manhattan'' (1921)
File:Lobbygow-1923.jpg|Poster for ''Lobbygow'' (1923)
File:Rupert-of-Hentzau-1923-LC-1.jpg|Lobby card for ''Rupert of Hentzau'' (1923)
File:Your Girl and Mine ad 1.jpg|''[[Your Girl and Mine]]'' advertisement in 1914
</gallery>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category}}
*{{IMDb name|id=0783681}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Selznick, Lewis J.}}
[[Category:19th-century births]]
[[Category:1933 deaths]]
[[Category:American film producers]]
[[Category:American film studio executives]]
[[Category:American people of Ukrainian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:Emigrants from the Russian Empire to the United States]]
[[Category:Ukrainian Jews]]
[[Category:Burials at Forest Lawn Memorial Park (Glendale)]]

Ernest E. Evans

2023-11-16T13:20:01Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Namesake */

{{Short description|United States Navy Medal of Honor recipient}}
{{more citations needed|date=May 2019}}
{{use mdy dates|date=January 2021}}
{{Infobox military person
| name = Ernest Edwin Evans
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1908|8|13}}
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1944|10|25|1908|8|13}}
| birth_place = [[Pawnee, Oklahoma]]
| death_place = off [[Samar]], [[Philippines|Philippine Islands]]
| placeofburial = remains not recovered; listed on the Walls of the Missing, Manila American Cemetery
| placeofburial_label = Place of burial
| image = LCdr. Commander Ernest E. Evans, U.S. Navy, at the commissioning ceremonies of USS Johnston (DD-557) at Seattle, Washington (USA), on 27 October 1943 (NH 63499) (cropped).jpg
| caption = Evans in 1943
| nickname = "Big Chief"<ref name="USNA Virtual Memorial Hall" />
| allegiance = United States
| branch = [[United States Navy]]
| serviceyears = 1931–1944
| rank = [[Commander]]
| commands = {{USS|Alden|DD-211|6}} {{USS|Johnston|DD-557|6}}
| unit =
| battles = [[World War II]] 
* [[Battle off Samar]]{{KIA}}
| awards = [[Medal of Honor]] [[Bronze Star]] [[Philippine Liberation Medal]]
| laterwork =
}}

'''Ernest Edwin Evans''' (August 13, 1908 – October 25, 1944) was an officer of the [[United States Navy]] who [[Posthumous recognition|posthumously]] received the [[Medal of Honor]] for his actions during the [[Battle off Samar]] in [[World War II]].

==Biography==
Evans, of [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] ancestry (half [[Cherokee]] and one quarter [[Creek people|Creek]]),<ref name="USNA Virtual Memorial Hall">{{cite web|access-date=June 24, 2020 |url=https://usnamemorialhall.org/index.php/ERNEST_E._EVANS,_CDR,_USN |title=Ernest E. Evans, CDR, USN |website= U.S. Naval Academy Virtual Memorial Hall}}</ref> was born in [[Pawnee, Oklahoma]] and graduated from Muskogee Central High School. After one year of enlisted service in the Navy, he was appointed to the [[United States Naval Academy]], entering as a Midshipman on June 29, 1927. He graduated from the academy in 1931.<ref name=NHHC-Evans>{{cite web |author= Navy Department Library |date= May 6, 2020 |title= Ernest Edwin Evans, 13 August 1908 – 25 October 1944 |department= Modern Biographical Files |publisher= [[Naval History and Heritage Command]] |url= https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/library/research-guides/modern-biographical-files-ndl/modern-bios-e/evans-ernest-edwin.html |access-date= July 21, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210419172354/https://www.history.navy.mil/content/history/nhhc/research/library/research-guides/modern-biographical-files-ndl/modern-bios-e/evans-ernest-edwin.html |archive-date= April 19, 2021 |url-status= live}}</ref>

On August 9, 1941, Evans was assigned to the [[destroyer]] {{USS|Alden|DD-211|2}}, and was serving on her in the [[East Indies]] when the Japanese attacked [[Pearl Harbor]] on December 7 of that year. He became commanding officer of ''Alden'' on March 14, 1942, and held that position until July 7, 1943. While serving on ''Alden'', he participated in operations in and around Australia, [[New Guinea]] and the [[Dutch East Indies]].

[[File:LCdr. Commander Ernest E. Evans, U.S. Navy, at the commissioning ceremonies of USS Johnston (DD-557) at Seattle, Washington (USA), on 27 October 1943 (NH 63499).jpg|thumb|Evans at the commissioning ceremony of the destroyer USS ''Johnston'', Seattle, 1943]]

In mid-1943, Evans was ordered to duty in charge of fitting out the {{sclass|Fletcher|destroyer|2}} {{USS|Johnston|DD-557|2}} at the [[Seattle-Tacoma Shipbuilding Corporation]] in [[Seattle, Washington]]. Commander Evans assumed command of ''Johnston'' at her commissioning on October 27, 1943, declaring to the assembled crew, "this is going to be a fighting ship. I intend to go in harm's way, and anyone who doesn't want to go along had better get off right now".<ref name=NHHC-Johnston>{{cite web |author= Navy Department Library |date= March 31, 2021 |title= Notable Ships: Johnston (DD-557) |publisher= [[Naval History and Heritage Command]] |url= https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/ships/modern-ships/johnston.html |access-date= July 21, 2021 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20210419174005/https://www.history.navy.mil/browse-by-topic/ships/modern-ships/johnston.html |archive-date= April 19, 2021 |url-status= live}}</ref> He was awarded the [[Bronze Star Medal|Bronze Star]] for meritorious achievement in sinking the [[Japanese submarine I-176]] on May 16, 1944.<ref name=NHHC-Evans />

==Battle off Samar==
{{main|Battle off Samar}}

In the [[Battle off Samar]], a part of the [[Battle of Leyte Gulf]], Evans led ''Johnston'' until it was sunk on October 25, 1944, by a Japanese force that was vastly superior in number, firepower, and armor. ''Johnston'', together with the destroyers {{USS|Hoel|DD-533|2}} and {{USS|Heermann|DD-532|2}}, four [[destroyer escort]]s and six [[escort aircraft carrier|escort carrier]]s (CVEs), formed the [[task force|task unit]] 77.4.3, known as Taffy 3. This group, together with planes from Taffy 2 (TU 77.4.2), ultimately forced a Japanese battlegroup consisting of 4 [[battleship]]s, 6 [[heavy cruiser]]s, 2 [[light cruiser]]s and 11 [[destroyer]]s to abort its original mission to attack the landing beaches at [[Leyte]] under the command of General [[Douglas MacArthur]], and retreat. The famous battle has become known as "[[The Last Stand of the Tin Can Sailors]]", after the [[The Last Stand of the Tin Can Sailors|2004 book]] of the same title.

When the Japanese fleet was first sighted, Evans did not hesitate. After laying a smoke screen to help hide the escort carriers from enemy gunfire, he ordered his helm hard to port and he led his destroyer out of the task unit's circular antiaircraft disposition in favor of charging the enemy alone to make a torpedo attack. Some claim that Evans told his crew over the ship's intercom: "A large Japanese fleet has been contacted. They are fifteen miles away and headed in our direction. They are believed to have four battleships, eight cruisers, and a number of destroyers. This will be a fight against overwhelming odds from which survival cannot be expected. We will do what damage we can." However, contemporaneous sources credit the latter part of this dramatic announcement to lieutenant commander [[Robert W. Copeland]] of {{USS|Samuel B. Roberts|DE-413|2}}, who charged in with Evans on a subsequent torpedo attack.<ref>According to the action report of {{USS|Samuel B. Roberts|DE-413}}, "The crew were informed over the loudspeaker system at the beginning of the action, of the Commanding Officer's estimate of the situation, that is, a fight against overwhelming odds from which survival could not be expected, during which time we would do what damage we could. In the face of this knowledge, the men zealously manned their stations wherever they might be, and fought and worked with such calmness, courage, and efficiency that no higher honor could be conceived than to command such a group of men." USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413), "Combined Action Report, Surface Engagement off Samar, Philippine Islands, and Report of Loss of USS Samuel B. Roberts (DE-413), on 25 October 1944," November 20, 1944, Serial X001, page 14.</ref>

The fate of ''Johnston''{{'}}s captain was never conclusively established, and remains the subject of continuing conjecture among the ship's survivors. Some say that he was hit by Japanese naval shellfire; others that he was able to jump into a damaged motor [[whaleboat]]. What is known is that he was seriously wounded during the battle; that he lived long enough to give the order to abandon ship; and that he was not among those rescued. Evans was [[Posthumous recognition|posthumously]] awarded the [[Medal of Honor]] for his material contribution to the decisive victory won in [[Battle of Leyte Gulf|Leyte Gulf]], and shared in the [[Presidential Unit Citation (US)|Presidential Unit Citation]] awarded his group for this action in which he was killed.<ref name=NHHC-Evans />

==Namesake==
In 1955, the [[destroyer escort]] {{USS|Evans|DE-1023}} was named in Evans' honor.<ref name=DANFS>{{cite DANFS |title= Evans III (DE-1023) |url= https://www.history.navy.mil/research/histories/ship-histories/danfs/e/evans-iii.html |access-date= January 5, 2021 |date= July 8, 2015}}</ref> It was decommissioned in 1968, and no active ship carries the name of ''Evans'' or ''Johnston'', although a number of active ships have been named for ''Samuel B. Roberts'' and her crew. On November 12, 2013, a petition was started to name a ship after Evans.<ref name="We The People petition">{{cite web |url= http://wh.gov/lBqUJ |archive-url= https://archive.today/20131112180011/http://wh.gov/lBqUJ |title= Designate a future Arleigh-Burke class destroyer to be named USS Evans for Medal of Honor recipient Ernest E. Evans. |url-status= dead |archive-date= November 12, 2013 }}</ref>

On May 23, 2013, the [[Naval Station Newport]], [[Newport, Rhode Island]], Surface Warfare Officers School's [[virtual reality|virtual]] [[simulator]] for [[shiphandling]] training was dedicated as the ''Evans Full Mission-2 Simulator'' in Evans' honor.<ref>{{cite news|last=Edward A. Sherman Publishing Co.|title=SWOS simulator renamed after heroic destroyerman|newspaper=Newport Navalog|date=June 7, 2013|page=9}}</ref>

On Nov. 15, 2023, [[United_States_Secretary_of_the_Navy|U.S. Secretary of the Navy]] [[Carlos_Del_Toro|Carlos Del Toro]] announced another ship would be named after Evans.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.dvidshub.net/news/457917/secnav-names-ship-after-world-war-ii-hero-medal-honor-recipient-ernest-e-evans |title=SECNAV Names Ship After World War II Hero, Medal of Honor Recipient Ernest E. Evans}}</ref> The ship, to be known as DDG-141, will be an [[Arleigh Burke-class destroyer]].

==Awards==
{| style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Medal of Honor ribbon.svg|width=106|alt=A light blue ribbon with five white five pointed stars}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=service-star|ribbon=Bronze Star ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=Purple Heart ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=award-star|ribbon=United States Navy Presidential Unit Citation ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=1|type=service-star|ribbon=American Defense Service Medal ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=service-star|ribbon=American_Campaign_Medal_ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|-
|{{Ribbon devices|number=8|type=service-star|ribbon=Asiatic-Pacific Campaign ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=0|type=service-star|ribbon=World War II Victory Medal ribbon.svg|width=106}}
|{{Ribbon devices|number=1|type=service-star|ribbon=Phliber rib.svg|width=106}}
|}
{| class="wikitable" style="margin:1em auto; text-align:center;"
|-
|[[Medal of Honor]]
|[[Bronze Star Medal]]
|[[Purple Heart]]
|-
|[[Presidential Unit Citation (United States)|Presidential Unit Citation]]
|[[American Defense Service Medal]]
|[[American Campaign Medal]]
|-
|[[Asiatic-Pacific Campaign Medal]]
|[[World War II Victory Medal (United States)|World War II Victory Medal]]
|[[Philippine Liberation Medal]]
|}

===Medal of Honor citation===
[[File:NavyMedalofHonor.jpg|90px|right|Medal of Honor]]

<blockquote>For conspicuous gallantry and intrepidity at the risk of his life above and beyond the call of duty as commanding officer of the U.S.S. ''Johnston'' in action against major units of the enemy Japanese fleet during the battle off Samar on 25 October 1944. The first to lay a smokescreen and to open fire as an enemy task force, vastly superior in number, firepower and armor, rapidly approached. Comdr. Evans gallantly diverted the powerful blasts of hostile guns from the lightly armed and armored carriers under his protection, launching the first torpedo attack when the ''Johnston'' came under straddling Japanese shellfire. Undaunted by damage sustained under the terrific volume of fire, he unhesitatingly joined others of his group to provide fire support during subsequent torpedo attacks against the Japanese and, outshooting and outmaneuvering the enemy as he consistently interposed his vessel between the hostile fleet units and our carriers despite the crippling loss of engine power and communications with steering aft, shifted command to the fantail, shouted steering orders through an open hatch to men turning the rudder by hand and battled furiously until the ''Johnston'', burning and shuddering from a mortal blow, lay dead in the water after 3 hours of fierce combat. Seriously wounded early in the engagement, Comdr. Evans, by his indomitable courage and brilliant professional skill, aided materially in turning back the enemy during a critical phase of the action. His valiant fighting spirit throughout this historic battle will venture as an inspiration to all who served with him.<ref name="USNA Virtual Memorial Hall" /></blockquote>

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography|World War II}}
*[[List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II#E|List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War II]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==References==
:{{DANFS}}
*{{cite book |last= Hornfischer |first= James D. |title= The Last Stand of the Tin Can Sailors |publisher= Bantam Books |date= 2004 |isbn= 0-553-80257-7}}
*{{cite book |last= Thomas |first= Evan |title= Sea of Thunder: Four Commanders and the Last Great Naval Campaign, 1941–1945 |publisher= Simon & Schuster |date= 2006 |isbn= 0-7432-5221-7}}

===Audio/visual media===
*''Lost Evidence of the Pacific: The Battle of Leyte Gulf''. History Channel. TV. No writer given.
*''Dogfights: Death of the Japanese Navy''. History Channel. TV. No writer given.

==External links==
*{{Find a Grave|8108825|work=Claim to Fame: Medal of Honor recipients|access-date=2007-10-28}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Evans, Ernest}}
[[Category:1908 births]]
[[Category:1940s missing person cases]]
[[Category:1944 deaths]]
[[Category:Battle of Leyte Gulf]]
[[Category:Captains who went down with the ship]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Oklahoma]]
[[Category:Missing person cases in the Philippines]]
[[Category:Native American United States military personnel]]
[[Category:People from Pawnee, Oklahoma]]
[[Category:People lost at sea]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Navy Cross (United States)]]
[[Category:United States Naval Academy alumni]]
[[Category:United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients]]
[[Category:United States Navy officers]]
[[Category:United States Navy personnel killed in World War II]]
[[Category:World War II recipients of the Medal of Honor]]

Ben Sherman

2023-11-16T06:24:50Z

ExtravagAunt: /* History */

{{Short description|British clothing brand}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2019}}
{{Use British English|date=September 2019}}
{{Infobox company
| name = Ben Sherman Group Limited
| logo = Ben_Sherman_logos.gif
| revenue = US$256,200,000 (Oxford Industries Annual Report 2016)
| image =
| image_caption = Ben Sherman's logo, pre- and post-2011
| foundation = 1963 in [[Brighton]], England
| founder = Ben Sherman (born Arthur Benjamin Sugarman)
| key_people =
| products = [[Mod (subculture)|Mod]], [[Casuals (subculture)|casual]] clothing
| parent = [[Marquee Brands]]
}}
[[File:50 Carnaby Street.JPG|thumb|A Ben Sherman shop in Carnaby Street, London]]
'''Ben Sherman''' is a British clothing brand selling shirts, sweaters, suits, outerwear, shoes and accessories predominantly for men. Ben Sherman designs sometimes feature the [[Royal Air Force]] [[roundel]] which is often called the [[Mod (subculture)|mod]] target. In its beginnings in the 1960s, the company made its mark with fashionable short sleeved, button-down collared shirts.

==History==
The company was founded in 1963 by Arthur Benjamin Sugarman (1925–1987),<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-07-20|title=Ben Sherman sold to Marquee Brands|url=http://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/jul/20/ben-sherman-sold-marquee-brands-us-private-equity-firm|access-date=2022-02-21|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref> the son of a [[Judaism|Jewish]] salesman,<ref>{{Cite web|title=BBC Radio 4 - Best of Today, The Jewish tailors behind Mick Jagger and Jimi Hendrix|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p03pqg6c|access-date=2022-02-21|website=BBC|language=en-GB}}</ref> born in [[Brighton]]. He emigrated to the [[United States]] in 1946, via [[Canada]], where he later became a [[Naturalization|naturalised US citizen]]. He married the daughter of a [[California]]n clothes producer and later returned to Brighton, where he established a shirt factory at 21 Bedford Square in 1963.<ref name="BHN-41093">{{cite news |url=http://www.brightonandhovenews.org/2015/07/22/first-ben-sherman-factory-to-be-converted-into-flat/41093 |title=First Ben Sherman factory to be converted into flat |last=Wadsworth |first=Jo |date=22 July 2015 |publisher=Brighton & Hove News |access-date=23 July 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180124201104/http://www.brightonandhovenews.org/2015/07/22/first-ben-sherman-factory-to-be-converted-into-flat/41093/ |archive-date=24 January 2018 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Sugarman had realised that early 1960s London-based modern jazz fans were eagerly buying the Oxford-collared American button-down shirt brands such as [[Brooks Brothers]], Arrow, and [[C. F. Hathaway Company|Hathaway]], that were worn by visiting American jazz artists including [[Miles Davis]], [[Dizzy Gillespie]], and Canadian jazz artist [[Oscar Peterson]]. At the time, these were only available from official importers who had, in effect, cornered this market. He decided to produce a version of these shirts, along with a collection of the colourful, resort-wear vacation clothes that were growing in popularity, in both the U.S. and Mediterranean Europe.

[[Mod (subculture)|Mods]] embraced the brand, especially as Sugarman was using higher-quality materials and stitching detail than the imported shirts.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ayling|first=Kim|date=2018-10-02|title=Driving Through The Past: Ben Sherman|url=https://brightonjournal.co.uk/driving-through-the-past-ben-sherman/|access-date=2022-02-21|website=Brighton Journal|language=en-GB}}</ref>

The Ben Sherman Originals label was created, and by 1965, the company had opened a small office on the upper floors of an office-block in a [[London]] backstreet. This acted as the showroom for their shirt and beachwear collections. The first Ben Sherman store was opened on Brighton's Duke Street in 1967.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ayling|first=Kim|date=2018-10-02|title=Driving Through The Past: Ben Sherman|url=https://brightonjournal.co.uk/driving-through-the-past-ben-sherman/|access-date=2022-02-21|website=Brighton Journal|language=en-GB}}</ref>

Ben Sherman remained popular in the late 70s and early 80s as acts including [[The Jam]], [[The Specials]] and [[Madness (band)|Madness]] helped the brand appeal to the mod revival and [[rude boy]] movements.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-07-20|title=Ben Sherman sold to Marquee Brands|url=http://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/jul/20/ben-sherman-sold-marquee-brands-us-private-equity-firm|access-date=2022-02-21|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref>

In later years Benjamin Sugarman sold his business in 1975 and retired to [[Australia]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ayling|first=Kim|date=2018-10-02|title=Driving Through The Past: Ben Sherman|url=https://brightonjournal.co.uk/driving-through-the-past-ben-sherman/|access-date=2022-02-21|website=Brighton Journal|language=en-GB}}</ref> The company passed through a number of hands in the following years. In 1993, British investor [[3i]] backed a [[management buyout]] of Ben Sherman Limited from Northern Ireland-based Dunkeld fashion group, then in [[receivership]], for £4 million which resulted in the creation of the Sherman Cooper Group.<ref>{{Cite news|last=Davey|first=Jenny|title=3i collars £46m as US firm buys Ben Sherman|newspaper=[[The Times]] |language=en|url=https://www.thetimes.co.uk/article/3i-collars-pound46m-as-us-firm-buys-ben-sherman-tp3qftnl9g3|access-date=2022-02-21|issn=0140-0460}}</ref>

In 2000, 3i financed a second management-buyout that created Ben Sherman PLC. In mid-2004, [[Oxford Industries|Oxford Industries Inc.]] of Atlanta purchased the Ben Sherman brand for £80 million (then US $146 million) from 3i and Irish venture capital company Enterprise Equity.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-07-20|title=Ben Sherman sold to Marquee Brands|url=http://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/jul/20/ben-sherman-sold-marquee-brands-us-private-equity-firm|access-date=2022-02-21|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref>

In October 2009, Ben Sherman opened a store at 39 [[Savile Row]].<ref>{{Cite web|last=Ryan|first=John|date=2009-10-17|title=Ben Sherman, Savile Row, London|url=https://www.drapersonline.com/companies/ben-sherman-savile-row-london|access-date=2022-02-21|website=Drapers|language=en}}</ref>

Oxford Industries Inc. completed the sale of Ben Sherman to Marquee Brands, controlled by the US investment group [[Neuberger Berman]] for £41m in 2015.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2015-07-20|title=Ben Sherman sold to Marquee Brands|url=http://www.theguardian.com/business/2015/jul/20/ben-sherman-sold-marquee-brands-us-private-equity-firm|access-date=2022-02-21|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref> In turn, UK operations were licensed out to The Baird Group (BMB Clothing).<ref>{{cite web |last1=Man |first1=Pui-Guan |title=Ben Sherman ramps up UK operations in growth strategy |url=https://www.drapersonline.com/news/ben-sherman-ramps-up-uk-operations-in-growth-strategy |website=Drapers |access-date=16 August 2022 |language=en |date=3 October 2017}}</ref>

At the 2021 Tokyo Olympics, Team GB’s opening ceremony outfits were designed by Ben Sherman creative director Mark Williams.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-17|title=Stylish athletes to make Tokyo the most fashionable Olympics yet|url=http://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2021/jul/17/stylish-athletes-to-make-tokyo-the-most-fashionable-olympics-yet|access-date=2022-02-21|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref> Drawing on the Mod heritage of the brand, athletes wore civilian Harrington jackets and button-down shirts.<ref>{{Cite web|date=2021-07-17|title=Stylish athletes to make Tokyo the most fashionable Olympics yet|url=http://www.theguardian.com/fashion/2021/jul/17/stylish-athletes-to-make-tokyo-the-most-fashionable-olympics-yet|access-date=2022-02-21|website=the Guardian|language=en}}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Ben Sherman}}{{Official website|http://www.bensherman.com}}

{{mods}}

[[Category:British brands]]
[[Category:Shoe companies of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Clothing brands of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:Clothing companies established in 1963]]
[[Category:English brands]]
[[Category:Clothing companies of England]]
[[Category:Clothing retailers of England]]
[[Category:1963 establishments in England]]
[[Category:1960s fashion]]
[[Category:1970s fashion]]
[[Category:1980s fashion]]

The Pogues

2023-11-16T06:16:06Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Mainstream success and break-up: 1987–1996 */duplicative links

{{Short description|Anglo-Irish punk band}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2022}}
{{EngvarB|date=January 2022}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = The Pogues
| alias = Pogue Mahone (1982–1984)
| image = The Pogues 1.jpg
| caption = The Pogues performing in 2006
| background = group_or_band
| origin = London, England
| genre = {{Flatlist|
*[[Celtic punk]]
*[[folk punk]]}}
| discography = [[The Pogues discography]]
| label = {{hlist|[[Stiff Records|Stiff]]|[[Island Records|Island]]|Pogue Mahone|[[Chameleon Records|Chameleon]]}}
| years_active = 1982–1996, 2001–2014
| website = {{URL|pogues.com/}}
| past_members = [[Shane MacGowan]] [[Spider Stacy]] [[Jem Finer]] [[Darryl Hunt (musician)|Darryl Hunt]] Andrew Ranken [[James Fearnley]] [[Terry Woods]] [[Cait O'Riordan]] [[Philip Chevron]] [[Joe Strummer]] Dave Coulter [[James McNally (musician)|James McNally]] Jamie Clarke
}}

'''The Pogues''' were an English  and Irish{{refn|group=nb|While often labelled as variously "Anglo-Irish", "Hiberno-English" or simply "Irish", amongst others,<ref>{{cite web | last=McAuliffe | first=Colm | title=Jem Finer of the Pogues: a millennium in music | website=Britain's Current Affairs & Politics Magazine | date=20 October 2015 | url=https://www.newstatesman.com/culture/observations/2015/10/jem-finer-pogues-millennium-music | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=30 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030201531/https://www.newstatesman.com/culture/observations/2015/10/jem-finer-pogues-millennium-music | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite magazine | title=Beyond 'Eileen,' Ted Leo Lays Out Why Dexys Midnight Runners Are Worth Your Time | magazine=Billboard | date=15 March 2019 | url=https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/rock/8502740/ted-leo-dexys-midnight-runners-irish-music | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=26 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190526192949/https://www.billboard.com/articles/columns/rock/8502740/ted-leo-dexys-midnight-runners-irish-music | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=O’Hagan | first=Sean | title=Bruised, bloody but unbowed: the songs of Shane MacGowan will outlast us all | website=The Guardian | date=14 January 2018 | url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/jan/14/shane-macgowan-60-musical-legacy-pogues | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=30 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030172532/https://www.theguardian.com/music/2018/jan/14/shane-macgowan-60-musical-legacy-pogues | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Beresford | first=Jack | title=Christmas has come early this year with The Pogues limited edition whiskey | website=The Irish Post | date=30 October 2019 | url=https://www.irishpost.com/news/irish-distillery-pays-tribute-pogues-limited-edition-single-malt-whiskey-173286 | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=30 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030203033/https://www.irishpost.com/news/irish-distillery-pays-tribute-pogues-limited-edition-single-malt-whiskey-173286 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=The Pogues' Shane MacGowan's mother dies in car crash | website=ITV News | date=2 January 2017 | url=https://www.itv.com/news/update/2017-01-02/the-pogues-shane-macgowans-mother-dies-in-car-crash/ | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=30 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030201531/https://www.itv.com/news/update/2017-01-02/the-pogues-shane-macgowans-mother-dies-in-car-crash/ | url-status=live }}</ref> the band has described itself as "all English" in interviews<ref>{{cite web | title=The Reformation of That Irish Band From England: The Pogues | website=The Pogues | url=http://www.pogues.com/Print/MusicMonitor/MM_2005october.html | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=22 November 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201122133710/http://www.pogues.com/Print/MusicMonitor/MM_2005october.html | url-status=live }}</ref> and band members such as [[Jem Finer]] and [[Philip Chevron]], once the band's only Irish-born member, objected<ref>{{cite book | last=Clerk | first=C. | title=Kiss My Arse: The Story of the Pogues | publisher=Music Sales | year=2009 | isbn=978-0-85712-019-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ykHWqIjBw68C | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=1 October 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001231557/https://books.google.com/books?id=ykHWqIjBw68C | url-status=live }}</ref> to the "Irish" label to describe the band;<ref>{{cite web | title=The Medusa Fora Pogues.com | website=Pogues.com | date=15 October 2010 | url=http://www.pogues.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=1&t=5742&start=15#p177942 | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=7 December 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191207164554/http://www.pogues.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=1&t=5742&start=15#p177942 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite news | title=Irish and proud? | newspaper=The Irish Times | date=21 March 2013 | url=https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/music/irish-and-proud-1.561893 | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=13 August 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200813172403/https://www.irishtimes.com/culture/music/irish-and-proud-1.561893 | url-status=live }}</ref> [[James Fearnley]] refers to the band as "for the most part English".<ref>{{cite book | last=Fearnley | first=J. | title=Here Comes Everybody: The Story of the Pogues | publisher=Faber & Faber | year=2012 | isbn=978-0-571-25540-5 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wZA2AAAAQBAJ | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=1 October 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001231610/https://books.google.com/books?id=wZA2AAAAQBAJ | url-status=live }}</ref> The band has faced accusations of [[Plastic Paddy|cultural appropriation]] or insensitivity as an English band playing traditionally Irish music.<ref>{{cite web | last=Ruggiero | first=Bob | title=Pogues Accordionist Squeezes Out Anarchic Band's Story | website=Houston Press | date=17 June 2014 | url=https://www.houstonpress.com/music/pogues-accordionist-squeezes-out-anarchic-bands-story-6758438 | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=30 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030181530/https://www.houstonpress.com/music/pogues-accordionist-squeezes-out-anarchic-bands-story-6758438 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | title=English Heart | website=IMRO | date=8 April 2011 | url=https://www.imro.ie/news/irish-blood-english-heart/ | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=30 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030201531/https://www.imro.ie/news/irish-blood-english-heart/ | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | last=Morra | first=I. | title=Britishness, Popular Music, and National Identity: The Making of Modern Britain | publisher=Taylor & Francis | series=Routledge Studies in Popular Music | year=2013 | isbn=978-1-135-04895-2 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gUzhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 | access-date=30 October 2019 | page=106 | archive-date=1 October 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001231627/https://books.google.com/books?id=gUzhAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA106 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Hesse | first=Josiah M. | title=Five worst American bands playing Irish music | website=[[Denver Westword]] | date=16 March 2012 | url=https://www.westword.com/music/five-worst-american-bands-playing-irish-music-5693613 | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=30 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030215709/https://www.westword.com/music/five-worst-american-bands-playing-irish-music-5693613 | url-status=live }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last=Power | first=Ed | title=Celebrating St Patrick's Day? Don't do it with the Pogues ... | website=The Guardian | date=17 March 2010 | url=http://www.theguardian.com/music/musicblog/2010/mar/17/st-patricks-day-pogues | access-date=30 October 2019 | archive-date=30 October 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191030201540/https://www.theguardian.com/music/musicblog/2010/mar/17/st-patricks-day-pogues | url-status=live }}</ref> With the departure of [[Shane MacGowan]] in 1996, [[Darryl Hunt (musician)|Darryl Hunt]] explained that, with the loss of the band's only founding member with Irish heritage, the Pogues "respected [...] everybody's culture" and took "energy and ideas" from Irish music as well as elsewhere.<ref>{{cite news |last=Regan |first=Michael |date=28 April 1996 |title=Back On Track With Their English Style of Irish Insolence |url=http://www.pogues.com/Print/PogueMahone/SWTimesPM.html |work=Suburban & Wayne Times |access-date=30 October 2019 |archive-date=9 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200809073703/http://www.pogues.com/Print/PogueMahone/SWTimesPM.html |url-status=live }}</ref>}} [[Celtic punk]] band fronted by [[Shane MacGowan]] and others, founded in [[King's Cross, London]] in 1982,<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.metroactive.com/bohemian/10.04.06/pogues-0640.html |title= Music & Nightlife | Music Preview | The Pogues |publisher= Metroactive.com |access-date= 14 July 2011 |archive-date= 19 January 2012 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120119162612/http://www.metroactive.com/bohemian/10.04.06/pogues-0640.html |url-status= live }}</ref> as "Pogue Mahone" – the [[anglicisation]] of the [[Irish language|Irish Gaelic]] ''póg mo thóin'', meaning "kiss my arse".<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/r2music/documentaries/pogues.shtml |title= Radio 2 – Documentaries – Pogue Mahone: The Story of the Pogues |publisher= BBC |access-date= 14 July 2011 |archive-date= 10 November 2011 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20111110003811/http://www.bbc.co.uk/radio2/r2music/documentaries/pogues.shtml |url-status= live }}</ref> The band reached international prominence in the 1980s and early 1990s, recording several hit albums and singles. MacGowan left the band in 1991 owing to drinking problems, but the band continued – first with [[Joe Strummer]] and then with [[Spider Stacy]] on vocals – before breaking up in 1996.<ref name="RS">{{cite magazine |url= https://www.rollingstone.com/music/artists/the-pogues |title= The Pogues |magazine= [[Rolling Stone]] |access-date= 11 November 2013 |archive-date= 12 October 2013 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20131012010257/http://www.rollingstone.com/music/artists/the-pogues |url-status= live }}</ref> The Pogues re-formed in late 2001, and played regularly across the UK and Ireland and on the US East Coast, until dissolving again in 2014. The group did not record any new material during this second incarnation.

Their politically tinged music was informed by MacGowan and Stacy's [[Punk rock|punk]] backgrounds,<ref name="allmusic1">[{{AllMusic|class= artist|id= p5157|pure_url= yes}} allmusic (((The Pogues > Biography)))]</ref> yet used traditional Irish instruments such as the [[tin whistle]], [[banjo]], [[cittern]], [[mandolin]] and [[accordion]].

== Band history ==
=== Pre-Pogues years: 1977–1982 ===
The future members of the Pogues first met when MacGowan (vocals), Peter "Spider" Stacy ([[tin whistle]]), and [[Jem Finer]] ([[banjo]]) were together in an occasional band called The [[Millwall]] Chainsaws in the late 1970s after MacGowan and Stacy met in the toilets at a [[Ramones]] gig at [[Roundhouse (venue)|The Roundhouse]] in London in 1977.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/christmas2007/story/0,,2230870,00.html#article_continue | work=The Guardian | location=London | title=He might be a drunk and a bum but he still has that most precious of musical things – a unique and special legacy | first=Sam | last=Jones | date=21 December 2007 | access-date=25 May 2010 | archive-date=24 July 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080724195135/http://www.guardian.co.uk/christmas2007/story/0,,2230870,00.html#article_continue | url-status=live }}</ref> MacGowan was already with [[The Nips]], though when they broke up in 1980 he concentrated more on Stacy's Millwall Chainsaws, who changed their name to The New Republicans.{{Citation needed|date=June 2020}}

=== Early years: 1982–1986 ===
{{listen|filename=The_Pogues_-_Haunted.ogg|title="Haunted" |description=Sample of Cáit O'Riordan singing "Haunted" with the Pogues.| format=[[Ogg]]}}

In 1982, [[James Fearnley]] ([[accordion]]), who had been a guitarist with The Nips, joined MacGowan, Stacy, and Finer, forming the band, then known as Pogue Mahone. The new group played their first gig at [[Monto Water Rats|The Pindar of Wakefield]] on 4 October 1982.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.pogues.com/PastPogues/SMacGowan/SMacGowan.html |title=Shane MacGowan |publisher=Pogues.com |date=25 December 1957 |access-date=14 July 2011 |archive-date=5 May 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120505080923/http://pogues.com/PastPogues/SMacGowan/SMacGowan.html |url-status=live }}</ref>

By their show on Friday 29 October 1982 at [[100 Club]] in London, [[Cait O'Riordan]] (bass) and Andrew Ranken (drums) had already joined the band.<ref name="setlist.fm The Pogues 100 Club October 29 1982 ">{{cite web |url=https://www.setlist.fm/setlist/the-pogues/1982/100-club-london-england-bbc399a.html |title=The Pogues Setlist on Oct 29 1982 at 100 Club, London, England |date= December 2022 |website=setlist.fm |accessdate= 25 December 2022}}</ref> The Pogues appeared on Thursday 3 November 1983 at Gossips in Dean Street Soho with Trash Trash Trash and The Stingrays.

The band played London pubs and clubs,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shanemacgowan.de/Pogues_Story/Heart.jpg |title=Newspaper cutting : Mahone Is Where The Heart Is! |publisher=Shanemcgowan.de |access-date=19 May 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924101049/http://www.shanemacgowan.de/Pogues_Story/Heart.jpg |url-status=live }}</ref> and released a single, "[[Dark Streets of London]]",<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.shanemacgowan.de/Pogues_Story/Mahone.jpg |title=Poster : Pogue Mahone : Debut Single on Sale Here |publisher=Shanemcgowan.de |access-date=19 May 2014 |archive-date=24 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924101051/http://www.shanemacgowan.de/Pogues_Story/Mahone.jpg |url-status=live }}</ref> on their own, self-named label, gaining a small reputation – especially for their live performances, and national airplay on [[BBC Radio 1]]. They came to the attention of the media and [[Stiff Records]] when they opened for The Clash on their 1984 tour.<ref name="RS"/> Shortening their name to The Pogues (partly due to BBC censorship following complaints from Gaelic speakers in Scotland) they released their first album, ''[[Red Roses for Me]]'', on Stiff Records that October.

The band gained more attention when the UK Channel 4's influential music show ''[[The Tube (TV series)|The Tube]]'' made a video of their version of "[[Waxie's Dargle]]" for the show. The performance, featuring Spider Stacy repeatedly smashing himself over the head with a beer tray, became a favourite with the viewers, but Stiff Records refused to release it as a single, feeling it was too late for it to help ''Red Roses for Me''. Nevertheless, it remained a favourite request for the show for many years.

With the aid of producer [[Elvis Costello]], they recorded the follow-up, ''[[Rum Sodomy & the Lash]]'', in 1985 during which time guitarist [[Philip Chevron]] joined. The album title is a famous comment falsely attributed to [[Winston Churchill]] who was supposedly describing the "true" traditions of the British [[Royal Navy]].<ref name="winch">{{cite web
|title=Quotes Falsely Attributed
|url=http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/myths/myths/quotes-falsely-attributed-to-him
|publisher=The Churchill Centre
|access-date=21 December 2009
|archive-date=29 December 2014
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141229181112/http://www.winstonchurchill.org/learn/myths/myths/quotes-falsely-attributed-to-him
|url-status=live
}}</ref> The album cover featured ''[[The Raft of the Medusa]]'', with the faces of the characters in [[Théodore Géricault]]'s painting replaced with those of the band members. The album shows the band moving away from covers to original material. Shane MacGowan came into his own as a songwriter with this disc, offering up poetic storytelling, such as "[[Serglige Con Culainn|The Sick Bed of Cúchulainn]]" and "The Old Main Drag", as well as definitive interpretations of [[Ewan MacColl]]'s "[[Dirty Old Town]]" and [[Eric Bogle]]'s "[[And the Band Played Waltzing Matilda]]" (this had previously been covered by Shane's fellow punk contemporaries [[Skids (band)|Skids]] in 1981).

The band failed to take advantage of the momentum created by the strong artistic and commercial success of their second album. They first refused to record another album (offering up the four-track EP ''[[Poguetry in Motion]]'' instead); O'Riordan married Costello and left the band, to be replaced by bassist [[Darryl Hunt (musician)|Darryl Hunt]], formerly of [[Plummet Airlines]] and Pride of the Cross; and they added a multi-instrumentalist in [[Terry Woods]], formerly of [[Steeleye Span]]. Looming over the band at this period (as throughout their entire career) was the increasingly erratic behaviour of their vocalist and principal songwriter, Shane MacGowan. Their record label, [[Stiff Records]], went bankrupt soon after the 1987 release of the single "The Irish Rover" (with [[The Dubliners]]). Members of the band, including O'Riordan, acted in [[Alex Cox]]'s ''[[Straight to Hell (film)|Straight to Hell]]'', and five songs by the band were included on the film's [[Straight to Hell (soundtrack)|soundtrack]] album.

=== Mainstream success and break-up: 1987–1996 ===
The band remained stable enough to record ''[[If I Should Fall from Grace with God]]'' with its Christmas hit duet with [[Kirsty MacColl]] "[[Fairytale of New York]]". "Fairytale of New York" was released as a single in 1987 and reached No. 1 in the Irish charts and No. 2 in the British charts over Christmas (the time of peak sales). The song has become a festive classic in the UK and Ireland over the years, and was voted the best Christmas song of all time three years running in 2004,<ref>[[BBC News]], 16 December 2004. ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4101207.stm Pogues track wins Christmas poll] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071219180018/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/music/4101207.stm |date=19 December 2007 }}''. Retrieved 17 November 2005.</ref> 2005,<ref>BBC News, 15 December 2005. ''[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4533030.stm Fairytale still the festive pick] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071213010822/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/entertainment/4533030.stm |date=13 December 2007 }}''. Retrieved 19 December 2005.</ref> and 2006 in polls by music channel [[VH1 UK]], despite not achieving [[Christmas Number One]] when it was released. It was also voted as the 27th greatest song never to reach UK#1 in another VH1 poll, and also voted as the 84th greatest song of all time by [[BBC Radio 2]] listeners in the "Sold on Song" top 100 poll. In 2007 the record was briefly censored by the BBC because of the word "faggot" being deemed potentially offensive to homosexual people. Following protests from listeners, including the mother of Kirsty MacColl, the censorship was lifted.

In 1989, the band released ''[[Peace and Love (The Pogues album)|Peace and Love]]'', a jazzier record featuring six tracks written by MacGowan, as well as eight tracks written by band members [[Jem Finer]], [[Terry Woods]], Andrew Ranken, and [[Philip Chevron]]. As [[Mark Deming]] wrote in [[AllMusic]], "It does make clear that MacGowan was hardly the only talented songwriter in the band -- though the fact that the set's most memorable songs were written by others did not bode well for the group's future."<ref>{{cite web|author=Mark Deming |url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/peace-and-love-mw0000199195 |title=Peace and Love - The Pogues|website=AllMusic |accessdate=August 2, 2023}}</ref>

The band was at the peak of its commercial success, with both albums making the top 5 in the UK (numbers 3 and 5 respectively), but MacGowan was increasingly unreliable. He failed to turn up for the opening dates of their 1988 tour of America, and prevented the band from promoting their 1990 album ''[[Hell's Ditch]]'', so in 1991 the band sacked him following a chaotic live performance at the WOMAD Festival held in Japan<ref>{{Citation |title=The Pogues Womad festival Rinkou Park Yokohama Japan 30 aug 1991 Shanes last gig |url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TDCNqI0tv08 |access-date=2023-08-10 |language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Balls |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xWCKzQEACAAJ |title=A Furious Devotion: The Life of Shane MacGowan |date=2021 |publisher=Omnibus Press |isbn=978-1-78760-108-6 |language=en}}</ref>.<ref name="allmusic1"/> Vocal duties were for a time handled by [[Joe Strummer]]. Spider Stacy took over permanently after Strummer left in the winter of 1991. After Strummer's departure, the remaining seven Pogues recorded in 1993 ''[[Waiting for Herb]]'', which contained the band's third and final top twenty single, "Tuesday Morning", which became their best-selling single internationally. Terry Woods and James Fearnley then left the band and were replaced by David Coulter and James McNally respectively. Within months of their departures, ill health forced Phil Chevron to leave the band; he was replaced by his former guitar technician, Jamie Clarke. This line-up recorded the band's seventh and final studio album, ''[[Pogue Mahone (album)|Pogue Mahone]]''. The album was a commercial failure, and, following Jem Finer's decision to leave the band in 1996, the remaining members decided it was time to call it quits. According to Shane MacGowan, among the reasons of the break-up was disagreement concerning the political orientation of his songs, the band not wanting to sing too obvious pro-[[Irish Republicanism|Republican]] songs<ref>[http://www.shanemacgowan.com/articles/irishworld.shtml Interview] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091015215316/http://www.shanemacgowan.com/articles/irishworld.shtml |date=15 October 2009 }} from ''The Irish World'', 21 November 1997, Tonya Henderson.</ref> – though some of their previous songs were already politically engaged: for instance, ''Streams of Whiskey'' is about the poet and [[Irish Republican Army|IRA]] member [[Brendan Behan]]. Soon after the break-up Shane MacGowan recorded a song titled ''Paddy Public Enemy Number One'' as a tribute to the Republican leader [[Dominic McGlinchey]], a former leader of the [[Irish National Liberation Army|INLA]] killed a few years before.

=== Post-breakup ===
After the Pogues's break-up, the three remaining long-term members (Spider Stacy, Andrew Ranken and Darryl Hunt) played together briefly as The Vendettas. They played mainly new Stacy-penned tracks, though Darryl Hunt also contributed songs, and the band's live set included a few Pogues songs. First Ranken then Hunt left the band, the latter going on to become singer/songwriter in an indie band called Bish, whose self-titled debut album was released in 2001. Ranken has gone on to play with a number of other bands, including Kippers, The Municipal Waterboard and, most recently, The Mysterious Wheels. In addition to The Vendettas, who Stacy freely admits lost all attraction when the Pogues reformed, Spider continued to write and record music with various bands, including the James Walbourne, [[Filthy Thieving Bastards]], [[Dropkick Murphys]] and [[Astral Social Club]].

Shane MacGowan founded [[Shane MacGowan and The Popes]] in 1992. They released two studio albums and broke up in 2006 once The Pogues' reunion had become official.<ref>{{Cite book |last=Balls |first=Richard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xWCKzQEACAAJ |title=A Furious Devotion: The Life of Shane MacGowan |date=2021 |publisher=Omnibus Press |isbn=978-1-78760-108-6 |pages=378 |language=en}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=December 2019}} His autobiography ''[[A Drink With Shane MacGowan]]'', co-written with his journalist girlfriend Victoria Mary Clarke, was released in 2001. Jem Finer went into experimental music, playing a big part in a project known as "[[Longplayer]]", a piece of music designed to play continuously for 1,000 years without repeating itself. In 2005, Finer released the album ''Bum Steer'' with DB Bob (as DM Bob and Country Jem). James Fearnley moved to the United States shortly before leaving the Pogues. He was a member of The Low And Sweet Orchestra and later the Cranky George Trio. Philip Chevron reformed his former band The Radiators, which briefly included former Pogue Cait O'Riordan. Terry Woods formed The Bucks with Ron Kavana, releasing the album ''Dancin' To The Ceili Band'' in 1994. Later, he formed The Woods Band, releasing the album ''Music From The Four Corners of Hell'' in 2002.

=== Reunion: 2001–2014 ===
[[File:PoguesLiveBrixton-12-21-2004.jpg|thumb|The Pogues in Brixton, 2004]]
The band, including MacGowan, re-formed for a Christmas tour in 2001 and performed nine shows in the UK and Ireland in December 2004. In 2002 [[Q (magazine)|''Q'' magazine]] named the Pogues one of the "50 Bands To See Before You Die". In July 2005, the band – again including MacGowan – played at the annual Guilfest festival in Guildford before flying out to Japan where they played three dates. Japan is the last place they all played together before MacGowan was originally sacked in 1991, and they have a strong following there. They played a date in Spain in early September. The reunited Pogues played dates in the UK with support from the [[Dropkick Murphys]] in late 2005, and re-released their 1987 Christmas classic "Fairytale of New York" on 19 December, which went straight in at No. 3 in the UK Singles charts on Christmas Day 2005, showing the song's enduring popularity. On 22 December 2005 the [[BBC]] broadcast a live performance (recorded the previous week) on the [[Jonathan Ross (television presenter)|Jonathan Ross]] Christmas show with [[Katie Melua]] filling in for the late [[Kirsty MacColl]], the first time the band had played the song live on television. The following week they performed live on the popular music show ''[[CD:UK]]''.

Shane MacGowan wrote a blog for ''[[The Guardian]]'' in 2006, detailing his thoughts on the current tour.<ref>{{cite news | title = Shane MacGowan | author = Shane MacGowan | url = https://www.theguardian.com/profile/shanemacgowan/ | work = Guardian Unlimited | access-date = 7 December 2019 | location = London | archive-date = 7 December 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20191207165233/https://www.theguardian.com/profile/shanemacgowan | url-status = live }}</ref>
[[File:The Pogues 2.jpg|thumb|The Pogues with Shane MacGowan, 11 October 2006 in San Diego]]
The band was awarded the lifetime achievement award at the annual [[Meteor Ireland Music Awards]] in February 2006. In March 2006, the band played their first US dates with Shane in over 15 years. The band played a series of sold-out concerts in Washington, D.C., [[Atlantic City, New Jersey|Atlantic City]], [[Boston]], and New York. Later they played a series of highly acclaimed and sold-out gigs during mid-October 2006 in San Francisco, [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]], and Los Angeles, and toured [[Glasgow]], Manchester, [[Birmingham]], London, [[Dublin]], and [[Nottingham]] in mid-December 2006. They began a second US tour in March 2007, once again to coincide (and conclude) with a [[Roseland Ballroom]] New York City show on [[Saint Patrick's Day]]. 2007 has proved to be the most prolific year of touring since the reunion. A tour of the west coast of America and eleven dates in the UK in December complement the headlining festival appearances made in the summer across Europe (Sweden, Belgium and Spain). They continue to be in huge demand, often selling out very large venues, despite criticism of selling out, and claims that arenas and festivals do not suit the band's sound.
[[File:The Pogues in De Melkweg in Amsterdam, August 1 2010.JPG|right|thumb|The Pogues on 1 August 2010 in [[Amsterdam]]]]
[[File:Pogues Munich 2011.jpg|thumb|The Pogues 2011 in [[Munich]], [[Philip Chevron]], [[James Fearnley]], Andrew Ranken, [[Shane MacGowan]], Darryl Hunt, Spider Stacy, [[Jem Finer]] not on photo [[Terry Woods]]]]
Guitarist Phil Chevron has stated there were no plans to record new music or release a new album. Chevron said that one way to keep enjoying what they were doing was to avoid making a new album, although he did say that there still is a possibility in the future for new music, but certainly not in the near future. Terry Woods has commented that MacGowan has been writing, and most of it sounds good. In 2008 the band released a box set ''Just Look Them Straight in the Eye and Say....POGUE MAHONE!!'', which included rare studio outtakes and previously unreleased material.<ref name="pitchfork">{{cite web|url=http://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/12003-just-look-them-straight-in-the-eye-and-saypoguemahone/|title=Pitchfork: The Pogues: Just Look Them Straight in the Eye and Say...Poguemahone!!|last=Deusner|first=Stephen|date=15 July 2008|publisher=Pitchfork Media|access-date=2 April 2009|archive-date=10 April 2009|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090410141540/http://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/12003-just-look-them-straight-in-the-eye-and-saypoguemahone/|url-status=live}}</ref>

The band received mixed reviews of their performances though they continued to pull the crowds. Reviewing a March 2008 concert, ''[[The Washington Post]]'' described MacGowan as "puffy and paunchy," but said the singer "still has a banshee wail to beat [[Howard Dean]]'s, and the singer's abrasive growl is all a band this marvelous needs to give its amphetamine-spiked take on Irish folk a focal point". The reviewer continued: "The set started off shaky, MacGowan singing of 'goin' where streams of whiskey are flowin,' and looking like he'd arrived there already. He grew more lucid and powerful as the evening gathered steam, through two hours and 26 songs, mostly from the Pogues' first three (and best) albums".<ref>{{cite news | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/10/AR2008031002990_2.html | newspaper=The Washington Post | title=Performing Arts | date=11 March 2008 | access-date=25 May 2010 | archive-date=12 October 2008 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081012203345/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/03/10/AR2008031002990_2.html | url-status=live }}</ref> In December 2010 the Pogues (with support from [[Crowns (band)|Crowns]]) played what was billed as a farewell UK Christmas tour.

In March 2011, the Pogues played a six-city/ten-show sold out US tour titled "A Parting Glass with The Pogues" visiting Chicago, Detroit, [[Baltimore]], Washington, D.C., [[Boston]], and New York City (in that order), with only the last three cities getting more than one show. Stacy said "I think we are basically pretty certain this is the last tour of this type we'll be doing in the States. There might be the odd sort of one-off here and there. We're not saying this is absolutely, definitely the end".<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.live4ever.uk.com/2011/02/the-pogues-upcoming-us-tour-will-be-their-last/ |title=The Pogues' Upcoming US Tour 'Will Be Their Last' | Live4ever |publisher=Live4ever.uk.com |date=28 February 2011 |access-date=14 July 2011 |archive-date=9 October 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111009022328/http://www.live4ever.uk.com/2011/02/the-pogues-upcoming-us-tour-will-be-their-last/ |url-status=live }}</ref>

In August 2012, the Pogues embarked on a 30th Anniversary Summer 2012 8-city European Tour scheduled from 4 August 2012 at the Stockton Weekender Festival in [[Stockton-on-Tees]], UK to 11 & 12 September 2012 at [[L'Olympia]], Paris, two shows filmed and recorded for a live album and DVD released on 19 November 2012.

In March 2013, the Pogues released ''30:30: The Essential Collection'', a 2-disc set featuring 30 songs along with eleven videos. In October 2013, the Pogues released a box set titled ''Pogues 30'' containing remastered versions of all of their studio albums plus a previously unreleased live album featuring Joe Strummer at the London Forum in December 1991.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://pogues.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=1&t=16733&p=215133#p215133 |title=The Medusa Fora • View topic – POGUES 30 / STRUMMER/POGUES |publisher=Pogues.com |access-date=20 May 2014 |archive-date=13 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131013234536/http://pogues.com/forum/viewtopic.php?f=1&t=16733&p=215133#p215133 |url-status=live }}</ref>

Guitarist [[Philip Chevron]] died on 8 October 2013 in Dublin, Ireland from oesophageal cancer, aged 56.<ref>{{cite web | title=Pogues guitarist Philip Chevron dies following long battle with cancer | website=The Independent | date=8 October 2013 | url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/pogues-guitarist-philip-chevron-dies-following-long-battle-with-cancer-8867252.html | access-date=11 January 2020 | archive-date=11 January 2020 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200111154754/https://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/music/news/pogues-guitarist-philip-chevron-dies-following-long-battle-with-cancer-8867252.html | url-status=live }}</ref>

In December 2013, the Pogues went on a four-date UK Christmas tour, followed by a few shows during spring and summer 2014.{{refn|group=nb|on 31 May 2014 at the Rock in Idro Festival (Arena Joe Strummer) in Bologna, Italy; on 14 June 2014 at [[Thetford Forest]] (High Lodge), Suffolk, England, UK; on 26 June 2014 at Bristol Harbour, Bristol, England, UK; on 5 July 2014 at the [[British Summer Time (concerts)|British Summer Time]] Festival (Hyde Park), London, England, UK; on 27 July 2014 at the Fuji Rock Festival (Naeba Ski Resort), Niigata, Japan; on 9 July 2014 at the "Fête du bruit dans Landerneau" Festival, Landerneau, Brittany, France.}} The Pogues' last performance on British soil occurred on 5 July 2014 at the [[British Summer Time (concerts)|British Summer Time festival]] in [[London]]'s [[Hyde Park, London|Hyde Park]].<ref name="anglotopia.net Shane MacGowan new teeth">{{cite web |url=http://www.anglotopia.net/british-entertainment/brit-tv/shane-macgowan-shows-off-new-teeth-calls-quits-pogues/ |title=Shane MacGowan shows off his new teeth; calls it quits with the Pogues. (by Derek) |date=29 December 2015 |website=anglotopia.net |access-date=5 March 2016 }}</ref> The Pogues' last ever performance (to date) occurred on 9 August 2014 during the "Fête du bruit dans Landerneau" festival in [[Landerneau]], [[Brittany]], [[France]].

About his future with the Pogues, in a 24 December 2015 interview with Vice Magazine,<ref name="vice.com Shane MacGowan interview 24 December 2015">{{cite web |url=https://www.vice.com/read/an-interview-with-shane-macgowan |title='I Don't Like Christmas, It's Gross': An Interview with Shane MacGowan (by Leonie Cooper) |date=24 December 2015 |website=[[Vice (magazine)|Vice Magazine]] |access-date=5 March 2016 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304082212/http://www.vice.com/read/an-interview-with-shane-macgowan |url-status=live }}</ref> when the interviewer asked whether the band were still active, Shane MacGowan said: "We're not, no", saying that, since their 2001 reunion happened, "I went back with [The] Pogues and we grew to hate each other all over again", adding, "I don't hate the band at all – they're friends. I like them a lot. We were friends for years before we joined the band. We just got a bit sick of each other. We're friends as long as we don't tour together. I've done a hell of a lot of touring. I've had enough of it".<ref name="anglotopia.net Shane MacGowan new teeth"/>

Long-time Pogues bassist Darryl Hunt died in London on 8 August 2022, at the age of 72.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/uk/shane-macgowan-twitter-celtic-hampshire-england-b2141646.html | title=The Pogues' bass player Darryl Hunt dies aged 72 | website=[[Independent.co.uk]] | date=9 August 2022 }}</ref>

== Members ==
* [[Spider Stacy]] – vocals, [[tin whistle]] (1982–1996, 2001–2014)
* [[Jem Finer]] – [[banjo]], [[mandola]], saxophone, [[hurdy-gurdy]], guitar, vocals (1982–1996, 2001–2014)
* [[James Fearnley]] – [[accordion]], [[mandolin]], piano, guitar (1982–1993, 2001–2014)
* [[Shane MacGowan]] – vocals, guitar, [[banjo]], [[bodhrán]] (1982–1991, 2001–2014)
* Andrew Ranken – [[drum set|drums]], percussion, harmonica, vocals (1982–1996, 2001–2014)
* [[Darryl Hunt (musician)|Darryl Hunt]] – bass (1986–1996, 2001–2014; died 2022)
* [[Terry Woods]] – [[mandolin]], [[cittern]], [[concertina]], guitar, vocals (1986–1993, 2001–2014)
* [[Cait O'Riordan]] – bass, vocals (1982–1986, 2004)
* [[Philip Chevron]] – guitar, vocals, mandolin, banjo (1985–1994, 2001–2013; his death)
* [[Joe Strummer]] – vocals, guitar (1991–1992; also replaced an ailing Phil Chevron for a US tour in 1987; died 2002)
* Dave Coulter – mandolin, violin, ukulele, percussion (1993–1996)
* [[James McNally (musician)|James McNally]] – accordion, whistles, percussion (1993–1996)
* Jamie Clarke – guitar, vocals (1994–1996)

=== Timeline ===
{{#tag:timeline|
ImageSize = width:800 height:auto barincrement:20
PlotArea = left:95 bottom:115 top:0 right:10
Alignbars = justify
DateFormat = dd/mm/yyyy
Period = from:01/08/1982 till:09/09/2014
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ScaleMinor = increment:1 start:1983

Colors =
id:voc value:red legend:Vocals
id:g value:green legend:Guitar
id:bj value:teal legend:Banjo
id:man value:limegreen legend:Mandolin/mandola
id:vio value:drabgreen legend:Violin
id:pia value:purple legend:Piano
id:acc value:lightpurple legend:Accordian/concertina
id:tw value:skyblue legend:Tin_whistle
id:b value:blue legend:Bass
id:dr value:orange legend:Drums,_percussion,_harmonica
id:sx value:tan2 legend:Saxophone
id:studio value:black legend:Studio release

LineData =
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color:studio
at:01/10/1984
at:01/08/1985
at:01/01/1988
at:01/07/1989
at:06/11/1990
at:01/09/1993
at:27/02/1996

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bar:macgowan text:"Shane MacGowan"
bar:strummer text:"Joe Strummer"
bar:stacy text:"Spider Stacy"
bar:chevron text:"Philip Chevron"
bar:clarke text:"Jamie Clarke"
bar:finer text:"Jem Finer"
bar:woods text:"Terry Woods"
bar:coulter text:"Dave Coulter"
bar:fearnley text:"James Fearnley"
bar:mcnally text:"James McNally"
bar:o'riordan text:"Cait O'Riordan"
bar:hunt text:"Darryl Hunt"
bar:ranken text:"Andrew Ranken"

PlotData=
width:15 textcolor:black align:left anchor:from shift:(10,-4)
bar:macgowan from:01/08/1982 till:15/11/1991 color:voc
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bar:o'riordan from:01/07/2004 till:31/12/2004 color:voc
bar:hunt from:01/09/1986 till:01/06/1996 color:b
bar:hunt from:01/12/2001 till:09/09/2014 color:b
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bar:ranken from:01/01/1989 till:31/12/1989 color:voc width:3
bar:ranken from:01/03/1992 till:01/06/1996 color:voc width:3
bar:ranken from:01/12/2001 till:09/09/2014 color:dr
bar:ranken from:01/12/2001 till:09/09/2014 color:voc width:3
bar:chevron from:01/01/1985 till:01/06/1994 color:g
bar:chevron from:01/01/1989 till:01/06/1994 color:voc width:3
bar:chevron from:01/12/2001 till:08/10/2013 color:g
bar:chevron from:01/12/2001 till:31/12/2011 color:voc width:3
bar:clarke from:01/06/1994 till:01/06/1996 color:g
bar:clarke from:01/06/1994 till:01/06/1996 color:voc width:3
bar:woods from:01/09/1985 till:31/12/1993 color:man
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bar:woods from:01/09/1985 till:31/12/1993 color:g width:7
bar:woods from:01/09/1985 till:31/12/1993 color:voc width:3
bar:woods from:01/12/2001 till:09/09/2014 color:man
bar:woods from:01/12/2001 till:09/09/2014 color:acc width:9
bar:woods from:01/12/2001 till:09/09/2014 color:g width:7
bar:woods from:01/12/2001 till:09/09/2014 color:voc width:3
bar:coulter from:01/01/1994 till:01/06/1996 color:man
bar:coulter from:01/01/1994 till:01/06/1996 color:vio width:3
}}

== Discography ==
{{Main|The Pogues discography}}
* ''[[Red Roses for Me]]'' (1984)
* ''[[Rum Sodomy & the Lash]]'' (1985)
* ''[[If I Should Fall from Grace with God]]'' (1988)
* ''[[Peace and Love (The Pogues album)|Peace and Love]]'' (1989)
* ''[[Hell's Ditch]]'' (1990)
* ''[[Waiting for Herb]]'' (1993)
* ''[[Pogue Mahone]]'' (1996)

==Notes==
{{Reflist|group=nb}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{official website|www.pogues.com|The Pogues}} – official site
* {{discogs artist|The Pogues}}
* {{imdb name|0688290}}
* {{official website|http://www.shanemacgowan.com|Shane MacGowan}} – official site
* [https://www.theguardian.com/music/2004/nov/26/3 The Pogues] article in ''[[The Guardian]]''

{{The Pogues}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Pogues, The}}
[[Category:The Pogues| ]]
[[Category:Celtic punk groups]]
[[Category:Folk punk groups]]
[[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1996]]
[[Category:Musical groups established in 1982]]
[[Category:Musical groups from London]]
[[Category:Musical groups reestablished in 2001]]
[[Category:1982 establishments in England]]
[[Category:2014 disestablishments in England]]
[[Category:Stiff Records artists]]
[[Category:Island Records artists]]

Giuseppe Antonio Borgese

2023-11-10T04:43:39Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Biography */attempt to do chronological order of events & update to english language sentence structure

{{expand Italian|date=October 2018}}
'''Giuseppe Antonio Borgese''' (12 November 1882 – 4 December 1952) was an Italian [[writer]], [[journalist]], [[Literary criticism|literary critic]], [[Germanist]], [[poet]], [[playwright]] and academic naturalized American.

==Biography==
Borgese was born in [[Polizzi Generosa]], near [[Palermo]] ([[Sicily]]). During the academic year 1899-1900, under pressure from his father who wanted him a lawyer, he enrolled in the Faculty of Law of the [[University of Palermo]]. In 1900 he moved to [[Florence]] where, at the Institute of Higher Studies, he follows the courses of Girolamo Vitelli, [[Pio Rajna]], [[Pasquale Villari]], Achille Coen and [[Guido Mazzoni (poet)|Guido Mazzoni]]. He graduated in literature at the University of Florence in 1903. From his marriage with the writer Maria Freschi two children were born Leonardo (1904) and Giovanna (1911).

In his early years he founded several literary reviews, including the [[Gabriele D'Annunzio|Dannunzian]] ''[[Hermes (magazine)|Hermes]]'' (1904), and worked for newspapers such as ''[[Corriere della Sera]]'', ''[[La Stampa]]'' and ''[[Il Mattino]]''. He also contributed to the ''[[Leonardo (Italian magazine)|Leonardo]]'' magazine.<ref>{{cite journal|author=Walter L. Adamson|title=Modernism and Fascism: The Politics of Culture in Italy, 1903-1922|journal=The American Historical Review|date=April 1990|volume=95|issue=2|page=361|doi=10.1086/ahr/95.2.359 |url=https://doi.org/10.1086/ahr/95.2.359}}</ref>

He taught German literature and [[aesthetics]] at the universities of [[Turin]], [[Rome]] and [[Milan]] until 1931 when, due to his opposition of the [[Fascist]] regime, he was forced to move to the United States. Here he declared himself a political exile and became an American citizen in 1938.<ref>{{cite news|date=1938-04-12|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1938/04/12/archives/exile-becoming-a-citizen-prof-borgese-at-chicago-says-italy-has.html|work=The New York Times|title=Exile Becoming A Citizen; Prof. Borgese at Chicago Says Italy 'Has Given Me Up'|access-date=2022-05-29}}</ref> When the Italian-American antifascist [[Mazzini Society]] was founded in 1939, Borgese joined it. He was the William Allan Neilson Professor at Smith College from 1932 to 1935. He was professor in the Universities of Chicago and California until the end of World War II, making friends with [[Thomas Mann]] and marrying his youngest daughter [[Elisabeth Mann-Borgese|Elisabeth]] with whom he had two daughters, Angelica and Dominica.

He returned to Milan in 1945.

After the war, Giuseppe and his wife were involved with the writing of a draft constitution for a federal [[world government]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.lib.uchicago.edu/e/scrc/findingaids/view.php?eadid=ICU.SPCL.WMWFG|title=Guide to the World Movement for World Federal Government Records 1947-1951|website=www.lib.uchicago.edu|accessdate=Sep 3, 2020}}</ref>

Borgese died in [[Fiesole]] in 1952.

==Works==
{{div col}}
''' Poetry '''
* ''La canzone paziente'' (1910)
* ''Le Poesie'' (1922)
* ''Poesie 1922-1952'' (1952)

'''Novels'''
* ''[[Rubè]]'' (1921)
* ''I vivi e i morti'' (1923)

'''Short stories'''
* ''La città sconosciuta'' (1925)
* ''La tragedia di Mayerling'' (1925)
* ''Le belle'' (1927)
* ''Il sole non è tramontato'' (1929)
* ''Tempesta nel nulla'' (1931)
* ''Il pellegrino appassionato'' (1933)
* ''La Siracusana'' (1950)
* ''Le novelle'' (2 volumes, 1950)

'''Theatre'''
* ''L'Arciduca'' (1924)
* ''Lazzaro'' (1925)

'''Literature and aesthetics'''
* ''Gabriele D'Annunzio'' (1909)
*''Mefistofele. Con un discorso sulla personalità di Goethe'' (1911)
*''La vita e il libro'' (3 volumes, 1910-1913)
*''Studi di letterature moderne'' (1915)
*''Resurrezione'' (1922)
*''Tempo di edificare'' (1923)
*''Ottocento europeo'' (1927)
*''Il senso della letteratura italiana'' (1931)
*''Poetica dell'unità. Cinque saggi'' (1934)
*''Problemi di estetica e storia della critica'' (1952)

'''Journalism and essays'''
*''La nuova Germania'' (1909)
*''Italia e Germania'' (1915)
*''Guerra di redenzione'' (1915)
*''La guerra delle idee'' (1916)
*''L'Italia e la nuova alleanza'' (1937)
*''L'Alto Adige contro l'Italia'' (1921)
*[https://archive.org/download/in.ernet.dli.2015.156760/2015.156760.Goliath-The-March-Of-Fascism.pdf ''Goliath, the March of Fascism''] (1937)
*''Disegno preliminare di costituzione mondiale'' (1949)

'''Voyages'''
*''Autunno a Costantinopoli'' (1929)
*''Giro lungo per la primavera'' (1930)
*''Escursioni in terre nuove'' (1931)
*''Atlante americano'' (1936)
{{div col end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==Further reading==
*{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of Italian Literary Studies: A-J|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=69ey6Z-05fMC&pg=PA298|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-1-57958-390-3|pages=295–298}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Borgese, Giuseppe Antonio}}
[[Category:1882 births]]
[[Category:1952 deaths]]
[[Category:World federalist activists]]
[[Category:People from Polizzi Generosa]]
[[Category:Italian defectors]]
[[Category:Italian literary critics]]
[[Category:Italian male poets]]
[[Category:Writers from Sicily]]
[[Category:Italian male journalists]]
[[Category:University of Florence alumni]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the University of Turin]]
[[Category:Academic staff of the Sapienza University of Rome]]
[[Category:20th-century Italian poets]]
[[Category:20th-century Italian male writers]]
[[Category:20th-century Italian journalists]]
[[Category:Italian magazine founders]]
[[Category:Italian emigrants to the United States]]

Jean Ross

2023-11-10T01:42:22Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Eve of the Spanish Civil War */duplicative links that don’t add more than than the inline link

{{short description|British writer, political activist, and film critic (1911–1973)}}
{{for|the Canadian physician and politician|Jean Auguste Ross}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jean Ross
| image = {{CSS image crop|Image=Jean ross.jpg|bSize=340|cWidth=200|cHeight=200|oTop=25|oLeft=65|Location=center}}
| caption = Ross in c.1931
| birth_name = Jean Iris Ross
| birth_date = {{birth date|1911|05|07|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Alexandria]], Egypt{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1973|04|27|1911|05|07|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Richmond, London|Richmond]], [[Surrey]], England
| partner = {{List collapsed|title=''See list''|1={{plain list|
* [[Eric Maschwitz]]{{sfn|Brown|2016}}
* [[Peter van Eyck]]{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}}
* [[John Cornford]]
* [[Claud Cockburn]]{{efn|name=Deed Poll}} }}}}
| children = [[Sarah Caudwell]]{{sfn|Stasio|2000}}
| relatives = [[Olivia Wilde]]{{sfn|Mosley|2003|p=120}} (step-granddaughter)
| occupation = Film critic, writer, singer
| employer = ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'' (film critic) ''[[Daily Express]]'' (war correspondent)
}}

'''Jean Iris Ross Cockburn'''{{efn|name=Deed Poll}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|oʊ|b|ər|n}} {{respell|KOH|bərn}}; 7 May 1911 – 27 April 1973) was a [[British people|British]] [[journalist]], political activist, and [[Film criticism|film critic]].{{sfnm|Williams|1996|1p=265|Whaley|1969|2p=44|Jardine|2014}} During the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–39), she was a [[war correspondent]] for the ''[[Daily Express]]'' and is alleged to have been a [[press agent]] for [[Joseph Stalin]]'s [[Comintern]].{{sfnm|Williams|1996|1p=265|Whaley|1969|2p=44|Fyrth|1999}} A skilled writer, Ross worked as a film critic for the ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'' and her criticisms of early [[Cinema of the Soviet Union|Soviet cinema]] were later described by scholars as ingenious works of "[[Marxist dialectic|dialectical sophistry]]".{{efn|name=Peter Porcupine|Ross wrote many articles using the alias [[Peter Porcupine]].{{sfn|Hogenkamp|1986|p=119}}}}{{sfn|Hutchings|2008|p=122}} Throughout her life, she wrote political criticism, [[anti-fascist]] polemics, and socialist manifestos for a number of disparate organisations such as the British Workers' Film and Photo League.{{sfn|Forbes|2011|pp=206–19}} She was a devout [[Stalinist]] and a lifelong member of the [[Communist Party of Great Britain]].{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=100–101|Croft|1989|2p=156|Firchow|2008|3p=120}}

During her itinerant youth in the [[Weimar Republic]], Ross was a cabaret singer and aspiring film actress in Berlin. Her escapades inspired the heroine in [[Christopher Isherwood]]'s 1937 [[novella]] ''[[Sally Bowles]]'' which was later collected in ''[[Goodbye to Berlin]]'',{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}}<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Isherwood's Sally Bowles was based on Jean Ross, a spunky British woman whom he met during his Berlin days with [[W. H. Auden]] and [[Stephen Spender]]".</ref> a work cited by literary critics as deftly capturing the hedonistic nihilism of the [[Weimar culture|Weimar era]] and later adapted into the stage musical ''[[Cabaret (musical)|Cabaret]]''.<ref name="Grossman">{{harvnb|Grossman|2010}}: ''[[The Berlin Stories]]'' "form one coherent snapshot of a lost world, the antic, cosmopolitan Berlin of the 1930s, where jolly expatriates dance faster and faster, as if that would save them from the creeping rise of Nazism".</ref> In the 1937 novella, Sally is a British [[flapper]] who moonlights as a chanteuse during the twilight of the [[Jazz Age]]. After a series of failed romances, she becomes pregnant and has an [[abortion]] facilitated by the novella's narrator.<ref name="Sally Abortion"/> Isherwood based many of the novella's details upon actual events in Ross' life, including her abortion.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}}{{sfnm|Lehmann|1987|1pp=28–9|Gallagher|2014}} Fearing a [[libel suit]], Isherwood delayed publication of the work until given Ross' explicit permission.<ref name="Libel Suit"/>{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Lehmann|1987|2p=29}}

For the remainder of her life, Ross believed the public association of herself with the naïve and apolitical character of Bowles occluded her lifelong work as a professional writer and political activist.{{sfnm|Croft|1989|1p=156|Firchow|2008|2p=120}} Her daughter [[Sarah Caudwell]], who shared this belief, later wrote a newspaper article in an attempt to correct the historical record and to dispel misconceptions about Ross.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} According to Caudwell, "in the transformations of the novel for stage and cinema the characterisation of Sally has become progressively cruder and less subtle and the stories about 'the original' correspondingly more high-coloured".{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}

In addition to inspiring the character Sally Bowles,{{sfn|Garebian|2011|p=4}} Ross is credited by the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'' and other sources as the muse for lyricist [[Eric Maschwitz]]'s jazz standard "[[These Foolish Things (Remind Me of You)]]", one of the 20th century's most enduring love songs.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Brown|2016}} Although Maschwitz's estranged wife [[Hermione Gingold]] later claimed the song was written for herself or actor [[Anna May Wong]],{{sfn|Gingold|1989|p=54}} Maschwitz contradicted these claims.{{sfn|Maschwitz|1957|pp=77–79}} Instead, Maschwitz cited memories of a "young love",{{sfn|Maschwitz|1957|pp=77–79}} and most scholars posit Maschwitz's youthful affair with Ross inspired the song.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Brown|2016}}

== Early life and education ==
[[File:Bridge Street, Leatherhead (geograph 2099800).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|After spending her childhood in the [[History of Egypt under the British|British protectorate of Egypt]], Ross was educated at [[Leatherhead|Leatherhead Court]], [[Surrey]].]]

Jean Ross was raised in luxury at Maison Ballassiano in the [[History of Egypt under the British|British protectorate]] of [[Alexandria, Egypt]],{{sfnm|Garebian|2011|1pp=6–7|Parker|2005|2p=206|Isherwood|2012b|3loc=Glossary|3p=796}} She was the eldest daughter of Charles Ross (1880–1938), a Scottish cotton classifier for the [[Bank of Egypt]] and brought up with her four siblings in a staunchly liberal, anti-[[Conservative Party (UK)|Tory]] household.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}{{sfnm|Parker|2005|1p=206|Isherwood|2012b|2loc=Glossary|2p=796}}

Ross was educated in England at [[Leatherhead|Leatherhead Court]], [[Surrey]].{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} As an unusually intelligent pupil who had completed the [[sixth form]] curricula by the age of 16, she was profoundly bored and loathed school.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} She became openly rebellious when informed she must remain at school for another year to repeat her already completed coursework.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} To gain her freedom, she feigned a teenage pregnancy and was summoned to appear before the school's stern headmistress:

{{Quote|Jean remembered standing by the fireplace, feeling the cold marble under her hand while she debated 'for the longest thirty seconds of my life' whether to tell the truth, which would have condemned her to remaining at the school, or lie and suffer the consequences.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}}}}

She falsely insisted to the headmistress that she was pregnant and the Leatherhead Court schoolmasters sequestered the teenager in a nearby [[sanatorium|insane asylum]] until a relative arrived and retrieved her.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} When they discovered the pregnancy was feigned, Ross was formally expelled.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} Exasperated by her defiant behaviour, her parents sent her abroad to Pensionnat Mistral, an elite Swiss [[finishing school]] in [[Neuchâtel]].{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Ross, however, was either expelled or fled the school.{{sfn|Frost|2013}}

Using a trust stipend provided by her grandfather Charles Caudwell, who was an affluent industrialist and landowner,{{sfn|Parker|2004}} the teenage Ross returned to England and enrolled in the [[Royal Academy of Dramatic Art]] (RADA), London.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} After diligently applying herself in her first year, she won a coveted acting prize that gave her the opportunity to play the lead role in any production of her choice.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} When she selected the difficult role of [[Phèdre|Phaedra]], she was informed her youth precluded such a tragic role because she lacked the requisite life experience.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Hurt by this refusal, Ross left the academy after one year to pursue a film career.{{sfn|Frost|2013}}

In 1930, at nineteen years of age, Ross and fellow Egyptian-born Hungarian actor [[Marika Rökk]] obtained cinematic roles portraying a harem ''[[houri]]'' in director [[Monty Banks]]' ''[[Why Sailors Leave Home]]'', an [[Sound film|early sound comedy]] that was filmed in London.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=207}} Ross's dark complexion and partial fluency in Arabic were deemed suitable for the role.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=207}} Disappointed with their small roles, she and Rökk heard rumours about ample job opportunities for aspiring actors in the [[Weimar Republic|Weimar Republic of Germany]] and set off with great expectations for Central Europe.{{sfn|Parker|2005|pp=205, 207}}

== Weimar Berlin ==
{{Annotated image|image=Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-P062899, Berlin, Tanzkabarett im Europahaus.jpg|image-width=250|image-left=0|image-top=-20|width=240|height=200|float=right|caption=Ross was a singer at many of the [[Weimar culture|Weimar-era cabarets]] in Berlin.|Link=Weimar culture}}

Ross's excursion to Central Europe proved less successful than she had hoped. Unable to find acting work, she worked as a nightclub singer in Weimar Germany, ostensibly in [[lesbian bar]]s and second-rate cabarets.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=205}} When not singing or modelling,{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=207}} she often visited the offices of the [[UFA GmbH]], a German motion picture production company, in the hopes of gaining small film roles. By late 1931,{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=88–89}} she obtained a job as a dancer in theatre director [[Max Reinhardt]]'s production of [[Jacques Offenbach|Offenbach]]'s ''{{Lang|fr|opéra [[fantastique]]}}'' ''[[Tales of Hoffmann]]'',{{sfnm|Sutherland|2005|1p=122|Spender|1977}} and played Anitra in Reinhardt's production of ''[[Peer Gynt]]''.{{sfnm|Caudwell|1986|1pp=28–29|Gilbert|2011|Cockburn|2001}}

Reinhardt's much-anticipated production of ''Tales of Hoffmann'' premiered on 28 November 1931.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=88–89}} The production was reputedly one of the last great triumphs of the Berlin theatre scene prior to the [[Nazi Party]]'s gradual ascent. Ross and a male dancer appeared together as an amorous couple in the stage background, and were visible only in silhouette during the Venetian palace sequence of the second act.{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=88–89|Isherwood|2012b|2p=386}} Later, Ross said she and the male performer had capitalised on this opportunity for sexual intimacy in full view of the unsuspecting audience.{{efn|name=Hoffmann|In 1986, many years after Ross' death, her daughter Sarah Caudwell disputed Isherwood's claims of Ross' sexual exhibitionism in Reinhardt's ''[[Tales of Hoffmann]]''.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} Acquaintance [[Gerald Hamilton]] and others, however, said Ross was known for her sexual exhibitionism, including entertaining guests in the nude.{{sfn|Hamilton|1969|p=44}}}}{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=88–89}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|2012b|p=386}}: Ross "claimed that she and her fellow extra used to fuck {{sic}} every single night on stage during the party at Giulietta's Venetian palace in the second act of [[The Tales of Hermann|Hoffmans ''Erzählungen'']]".</ref>

=== Meeting Isherwood ===
By late 1931, Ross had moved to [[Schöneberg|Schöneberg, Berlin]], where she shared modest lodgings in Fräulein Meta Thurau's flat at [[Nollendorfplatz|Nollendorfstraße 17]] with English writer [[Christopher Isherwood]], whom she had met in October 1930 or early 1931.{{efn|name=Fraulein Meta Thurau|Isherwood said Fräulein Meta Thurau "was tremendously intrigued by her [Ross'] looks and mannerisms, her makeup, her style of dressing, and above all, her stories about her love affairs. But she didn't altogether like Jean. For Jean was untidy and inconsiderate; she made a lot of extra work for her landladies. She expected room service and sometimes would order people around in an imperious tone, with her English upper-class rudeness".{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}: "Jean moved into a room in the Nollendorfstrasse flat after she met Christopher, early in 1931".</ref>{{sfnm|Isherwood|2012b|1loc=Glossary|1p=796|Hamilton|1969|2p=44|Izzo|2005|3p=163|Lehmann|1987|4p=18}} Isherwood, who was an apprentice novelist, was politically ambivalent about the rise of fascism and had moved to Berlin in order to avail himself of boy prostitutes and to enjoy the city's orgiastic [[Jazz Age]] cabarets.<ref>{{harvnb|Moss|1979}}: Isherwood frequented "the boy-bars in Berlin in the late years of the Weimar Republic.... [He] discovered a world utterly different from the repressive English one he disliked, and with it, the excitements of sex and new subject matter."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|loc=Chapter 1|ps=: "To Christopher, Berlin meant Boys... Christopher was suffering from an inhibition, then not unusual among upper-class homosexuals; he couldn't relax sexually with a member of his own class or nation. He needed a working-class foreigner. He had become clearly aware of this when he went to Germany in May 1928."}}</ref> At their first meeting, Ross monopolised the conversation and recounted her latest sexual conquests.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} At one point, she reached into her handbag and produced a [[Diaphragm (birth control)|diaphragm]], which she waved in the face of a startled Isherwood.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} The two soon became intimate friends.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=207}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}: "In real life, Jean and Christopher had a relationship which was asexual but more truly intimate than the relationships between Sally and her various partners in the novel, the plays and the films".</ref>

Although Ross' relations with Isherwood were not always amicable,{{efn|name=Acrimony with Isherwood|Isherwood wrote in his 1976 memoir that both he and Ross were selfish and often quarrelled.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=63}} [[Stephen Spender]] likewise implied relations between Isherwood and Ross were often acrimonious, and Isherwood referred to Ross as "a bitch" for snidely claiming he might one day "write something really great, like [[Noël Coward]]".{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=122}}}} she soon joined [[Auden Group|Isherwood's social circle]] alongside more politically-aware poets [[W.H. Auden]] and [[Stephen Spender]].{{sfn|Izzo|2005|p=144}}<ref>{{harvnb|Spender|1966|p=122}}. In his autobiography ''World Within World'', Spender described Ross as she appeared in 1931: "Her clothes dishevelled, her eyes large onyxes fringed by eyelashes like enamelled wire, in a face of carved ivory".</ref> Subsequently, Ross was the only woman in this circle of gay male writers, who mythologised her in their respective memoirs.{{sfn|Izzo|2005|p=144}} Among Isherwood's acquaintances, Ross was regarded as a sexual [[libertine]] who was devoid of inhibitions and had no qualms about entertaining visitors to their flat while nude or about discussing her sexual relations.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=88–89}}<ref>{{harvnb|Hamilton|1969|pp=44–45}}: "I always remember my first meeting with Jean Ross... When I called with my usual punctuality exactly at twelve o'clock, I was told that Miss Ross was in her bath. However a gay voice rang out down the passes — 'Is that you, Gerald? Come and talk to me, darling, while I'm having my bath' ... I felt rather startled at this warm invitation to sit down in the bathroom while a lady I had only met the night before was performing her ablutions. However, I went into the bathroom".</ref>{{sfnm|Garebian|2011|1pp=6–7|Isherwood|1976|2p=63}} A contemporary portrait of the 19-year-old Ross appears in Isherwood's ''[[Goodbye to Berlin]]'' when the narrator first encounters the "divinely decadent" Sally Bowles:<ref name="Divinely Decadent">{{harvnb|Garebian|2011|p=30}}: "Sally seems satisfied to be divinely decadent..."</ref><ref name="Divine Decadence">{{harvnb|Mizejewski|1992|p=4}}: "The Sally character herself is this century's darling of divine decadence, an odd measure of how dear to us is this fiction of the 'shocking' British/American vamp in Weimar Berlin."</ref>

{{Quote|I noticed that her fingernails were painted emerald green, a colour unfortunately chosen, for it called attention to her hands, which were much stained by cigarette smoking and as dirty as a little girl's. She was dark ... Her face was long and thin, powdered dead white. She had very large brown eyes which should have been darker, to match her hair and the pencil she used for her eyebrows.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012a|p=24}}}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-P049500, Berlin, Aufmarsch der SA in Spandau.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|A parade of [[Brownshirts]] in [[Weimar Republic|Weimar Berlin]] in 1932. By the time Ross and Isherwood departed that same year, such parades were a regular occurrence.]]

Isherwood further described the youthful Ross as having a physical resemblance to [[Merle Oberon]] but said her face naturally had a sardonic humour akin to that of comedian [[Beatrice Lillie]].{{sfn|Day|Isherwood|1974}} Their ramshackle flat at Nollendorfstraße 17 was in a working-class district near the centre of Weimar Berlin's radical enclaves, subversive activity, and gay nightlife.{{sfnm|1a1=Day|1a2=Isherwood|1y=1974|2a1=Doyle|2y=2013}} By day, Ross was a fashion model for popular magazines,{{sfn|Frost|2013}} and by night, she was a [[Bohemian style|bohemian]] chanteuse singing in the nearby cabarets located along the [[Kurfürstendamm]] avenue, an [[Red-light district|entertainment-vice district]] that was selected for future destruction by [[Joseph Goebbels]] in his 1928 journal.{{sfn|Farina|2013|p=79}}<ref>{{harvnb|Lehmann|1987|p=18}}: "Jean Ross, whom [Isherwood] had met in Berlin as one of his fellow-lodgers in the Nollendorfstrasse for a time, when she was earning her living as a (not very remarkable) singer in a second-rate cabaret".</ref> These cabarets would be closed by the [[Brownshirts]] when the [[Nazi seizure of power|Nazi Party seized power]] in early 1933.{{sfn|Farina|2013|p=79}} Isherwood visited these nightclubs to hear Ross sing; he later described her voice as poor but nonetheless effective:{{sfn|Lehmann|1987|p=18}}

{{Quote|She had a surprisingly deep, husky voice. She sang badly,{{efn|name=Ross' voice|[[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]] notes that Ross "claimed that Isherwood 'grossly underrated' her singing abilities, but her family agreed that this was one aspect of Sally Bowles that Isherwood got absolutely right".{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}}}} without any expression, her hands hanging down at her sides—yet her performance was, in its own way, effective because of her startling appearance and her air of not caring a curse of what people thought of her.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012a|p=27}}}}

Due to her acquaintance with Isherwood, Ross would later become immortalised as "a bittersweet English [[Wiktionary:Hoyden|hoyden]]" named [[Sally Bowles]] in Isherwood's 1937 eponymous [[novella]] and his 1939 book ''[[Goodbye to Berlin]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Lehmann|1987|p=18}}: "Jean Ross ... She had not yet been immortalized as Sally Bowles ..."</ref>{{sfnm|Garebian|2011|1pp=6–7|Bell|1973}} While in Isherwood's company, Ross was introduced to the visiting [[Paul Bowles]], a bisexual American writer who would later gain acclaim for his [[post-colonial]] novel ''[[The Sheltering Sky]]''.{{sfnm|Garebian|2011|1pp=6–7|Vidal|1976}} This meeting between Ross and Paul Bowles made an impression upon Isherwood, who later used Bowles' surname for the character Sally Bowles, whom he based upon Ross.{{sfn|Vidal|1976}}<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Isherwood himself admitted that he named the character of [Sally Bowles] for Paul Bowles, whose 'looks' he liked".</ref> Isherwood said Ross was "more essentially British than Sally; she grumbled like a true Englishwoman, with her 'grin-and-bear-it' grin. And she was tougher".{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}}

=== Abortion incident ===
[[File:Peter van Eyck in Five Graves to Cairo (1943) trailer.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|link=Peter van Eyck|Actor [[Peter van Eyck]] in ''[[Five Graves to Cairo]]'' (1943). The 1931 relationship between van Eyck and Ross—and Ross' subsequent abortion—became the basis of Isherwood's 1937 novella ''Sally Bowles''.]]

Although Isherwood sometimes had sex with women,{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=10–11}} Ross—unlike the fictional character Sally—never tried to seduce Isherwood,<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}: "Jean never tried to seduce him [Isherwood]. But I remember a rainy, depressing afternoon when she remarked, 'What a pity we can't make love, there's nothing else to do,' and he agreed that it was and there wasn't".</ref> although they were forced to share a bed whenever their flat became overcrowded with visiting revelers.{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}: "On at least one occasion, because of some financial or housing emergency, they [Isherwood and Ross] shared a bed without the least embarrassment. Jean knew Otto and Christopher's other sex mates but showed no desire to share them, although he wouldn't have really minded".</ref> Instead, Isherwood settled into a same-sex relationship with a young, working-class, German man named Heinz Neddermeyer,{{sfnm|Izzo|2005|1p=6|Vidal|1976}} while Ross entered into a variety of heterosexual liaisons, including one with the tall, blond, musician Götz von Eick,{{sfnm|Thomson|2005|Parker|2005|2p=220}} who later became an actor under the stage name [[Peter van Eyck]] and future star of [[Henri-Georges Clouzot]]'s ''[[The Wages of Fear]]''.{{sfnm|Frost|2013|Gallagher|2014|Thomson|2005}} Although some biographers identified van Eyck as Jewish,{{efn|name=Peter van Eyck|Critic [[David Thomson (film critic)|David Thomson]] and writer [[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]] assert that [[Peter van Eyck]] was [[Jewish]].{{sfnm|Parker|2005|1p=220|Thomson|2005}} Others contend van Eyck was a [[Pomerania]]n aristocrat.{{sfnm|1a1=Bergfelder|1y=2007|1p=47|2a1=Bock|2a2=Bergfelder|2y=2009|2pp=495–496}} The character of Klaus Linke in Isherwood's ''Goodbye to Berlin'' is based upon van Eyck.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}}}}{{sfnm|Thomson|2005|Parker|2005|2p=220}} others posit van Eyck was the wealthy scion of [[Prussia]]n landowners in [[Pomerania]].{{sfn|Bergfelder|2007|p=47}} As a Pomeranian aristocrat, he was expected by his family to embark upon a military career but he became interested in jazz as a young man and pursued musical studies in Berlin.{{sfnm|1a1=Bergfelder|1y=2007|1p=47|2a1=Bock|2a2=Bergfelder|2y=2009|2pp=495–496}}

When the 19-year-old van Eyck met Ross, he often moonlighted as a jazz pianist in Berlin cabarets. Either during their brief relationship or soon after their separation, Ross realised she was pregnant.{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=244–245|Gallagher|2014|Thomson|2005}} As a personal favour to Ross, Isherwood pretended to be her heterosexual impregnator to facilitate an abortion procedure.{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=244–245|Spender|1966|2p=127|Spender|1974|3pp=138–139}} Ross nearly died as a result of the abortion procedure due to the carelessness of the doctor.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}} Following the procedure, Isherwood visited an ailing Ross in a Berlin hospital. Wrongly assuming the shy gay author to be her heterosexual partner, the hospital staff despised him for callously forcing Ross to undergo a near-fatal abortion. These tragicomic events later inspired Isherwood to write his 1937 novella ''Sally Bowles'' and serves as its narrative climax.{{sfnm|Lehmann|1987|1pp=28–9|Gallagher|2014}}<ref name="Sally Abortion">{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "The abortion is a turning point in the narrator's relationship with Sally and also in his relationship to Berlin and to his writing".</ref>

=== Departure from Germany ===
While Ross recovered from the botched abortion procedure, the political situation [[Adolf Hitler's rise to power|rapidly deteriorated]] in Weimar Germany as the incipient [[Nazi Party]] continued to grow stronger day by day.{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=129}} By 1932, Weimar Germany was in the trough of an economic depression, with millions of persons unemployed.{{sfn|Spender|1977}} Nearly every German they encountered "was poor, living from hand to mouth on little money".{{sfn|Crossman|1949|p=233}} Berlin residents experienced "poverty, unemployment, political demonstrations and street fighting between the forces of the extreme left and the extreme right".{{sfn|Spender|1977}}

As the political climate deteriorated, Ross, Isherwood, Spender, and others realised they must leave Germany.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=254}} "There was a sensation of doom to be felt in the Berlin streets", Spender recalled.{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=129}} In the [[July 1932 German federal election|July 1932 elections]], the Nazis achieved a plurality in the [[Reichstag (Weimar Republic)|Reichstag]] and, by August that year, Ross departed Germany and returned to southern England.{{efn|name=England|Attempting to streamline events in a 1977 interview, Isherwood inaccurately said Ross went from Germany to Spain to join the Spanish Civil War.{{sfn|The New York Times|1977}} This is incorrect.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=95}} After leaving Berlin, Ross returned to England and then went to Spain.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=95}}}}{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=95}} Despite Ross leaving Germany, Isherwood chose to remain due to his close attachment to Heinz Neddermeyer. However, after [[Adolf Hitler]]'s ascension as [[Chancellor of Germany]] on 30 January 1933, Isherwood realised that staying any longer in Germany would be perilous.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}} He commented to a friend: "Adolf, with his rectangular black moustache, has come to stay and brought all his friends.... Nazis are to be enrolled as 'auxiliary police,' which means that one must now not only be murdered but that it is illegal to offer any resistance."{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}} Two weeks after Hitler passed the [[Enabling Act of 1933|Enabling Act]] which cemented his power, Isherwood fled Germany and returned to England on 5 April 1933.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker|2005|p=221}}: "Isherwood recognized that he could not remain in Berlin much longer and on April 5, the day measures were brought in to ban Jews from the teaching professions and the Civil Service, he arrived back in London, bringing with him many of his possessions."</ref>

Ultimately, the increasing prevalence of xenophobic Nazism in the country would preclude Ross and Isherwood from returning to their beloved Berlin.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Many of the Berlin cabaret denizens whom Ross and Isherwood befriended would later flee abroad or die in [[concentration camp|labour camps]].{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=164–166|Farina|2013|2p=74–81}}<ref>{{harvnb|Parker|2005|p=614}}: "It was probably during the Berlin trip that Isherwood learned that the Nazis eventually caught up with his other companion on his 1933 journey to Greece, Erwin Hansen, who had died in a concentration camp".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=297}}: "Heinz [Neddermeyer] might easily have been sentenced to an indefinite term in a concentration camp, as many homosexuals were ... Like the Jews, homosexuals were often put into 'liquidation' units, in which they were given less food and more work than other prisoners. Thus, thousands of them died".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1962|p=61}}: There were "people in danger of their lives, travelling with false papers and in fear of being caught and sent to a concentration camp or simply killed outright. It is only in the past few weeks that I have fully grasped the fact that such a situation really exists—not in a newspaper or a novel—but here where I have been living".</ref>

== Activities in London ==
{{Quote box|align=right|width=40%|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quoted=1|fontsize=100% | quote = There is nothing in his [Isherwood's] portrait of Sally [Bowles] to suggest that she might have any genuine ability as an actress, still less as a writer. My mother [Jean Ross], on the other hand, was at least talented enough as an actress to be cast as Anitra in Max Reinhardt's production of ''Peer Gynt'' and competent enough as a writer to earn her living, not long afterwards, as a scenario-writer and journalist.|author=—[[Sarah Caudwell]]|source = "Reply to Berlin", October 1986{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}}}

=== Joining the Communist Party ===
{{further|Claud Cockburn|Communist Party of Great Britain}}

After her return to southern England, Ross resided at [[Cheyne Walk]] in [[Chelsea, London]], and continued to fraternise with Isherwood and his circle of friends.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=95}} She also began to associate with left-wing political activists "who were humorous but dedicated, sexually permissive but politically dogmatic".<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=149}}: "Jean was now beginning to shed her Sally Bowles persona. Her way of expressing herself already showed the influence of her new London friends—left-wingers who were humorous but dedicated, sexually permissive but politically dogmatic".</ref> During this period, she met [[Claud Cockburn]], an Anglo-Scots journalist and the second cousin, once removed, of novelists [[Alec Waugh]] and [[Evelyn Waugh]].{{sfn|Mosley|2003|p=120}}

They met at the [[Hotel Café Royal|Café Royal]].{{efn|name=Ross and Cockburn Meeting|[[Gerald Hamilton]] hypothesised Ross and Cockburn were acquaintances as far back as Berlin in 1930.<ref>{{harvnb|Hamilton|1969|pp=44–45}}: [[Gerald Hamilton]] said [[Claud Cockburn]] visited the flat shared by Isherwood and Ross in Berlin: "Oddly enough it was not true, as Christopher wrote in ''Mr Norris Changes Trains'', that I ever lived in the famous pension immortalised by him. But I was a frequent visitor there. I always remember my first meeting with Jean Ross, who in Christopher's ''Berlin Stories'', became the famous Sally Bowles ... I think Claud Cockburn also honoured this pension with his somewhat untidy presence".</ref> Other sources contradict this statement and say Ross and Cockburn did not meet until after Ross moved back to London.{{sfn|Parker|2005|pp=270–271}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|2012b|p=447}}: The editor notes "Ross and Cockburn were in Berlin at the same time, but did not meet until after she moved back to London".</ref>}}{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=270}} Purportedly, one evening, Cockburn handed Ross a cheque but perhaps having second thoughts, he telephoned the next morning to warn her the cheque would bounce.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=271}} Despite this "portent of unreliability" and "the fact that Cockburn had already been married to [[Hope Hale Davis|an American woman]] whom he left when she became pregnant", Ross began an affair with Cockburn.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=271}} On a subsequent evening, Cockburn expounded [[Marxist economic theory]] to Ross all night until the early morning hours. Cockburn later said he persuaded Ross to become a left-wing journalist and secured her employment at the ''[[Morning Star (British newspaper)#The Daily Worker (1930–1966)|Daily Worker]]''.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Frost|2013}}

Due to Cockburn's influence, Ross joined the [[Communist Party of Great Britain]] (CPGB) during the tenure of General Secretary [[Harry Pollitt]].{{sfn|Parker|2004}} She became an active and devoted Party member for the remainder of her life.{{sfn|Croft|1989|p=156}} Meanwhile, she continued her career as an aspiring thespian, appearing in theatrical productions at the [[Gate Theatre Studio]] that were directed by [[Peter Godfrey (director)|Peter Godfrey]] and, in need of money, she modelled the latest Paris fashions by French designer [[Jean Patou]] in ''[[Tatler]]'' magazine.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} It is possible, although unlikely,{{efn|name=Rumba|Isherwood states in ''[[Christopher and His Kind]]'' that Ross never travelled to the United States during her lifetime.<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=84}}: "Jean never did go to America."</ref> As such, she could not have filmed ''[[Rumba (1935 film)|Rumba]]'' (1935) in Hollywood. She is perhaps wrongly credited as having a role in the film.}} she obtained a bit role as a chorus girl in [[Paramount Studios]]' musical drama film ''[[Rumba (1935 film)|Rumba]]''.{{sfn|Internet Movie Database}}

=== Isherwood and Viertel ===
[[File:Christopher Isherwood en route to China, 1938. (7893554712) (cropped1).jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[Christopher Isherwood]] in 1938. Ross arranged for Isherwood to be hired by director [[Berthold Viertel]] and launched his screenwriting career.]]

While in England, Ross' connections to the British film industry proved crucial to Isherwood's future career.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=148–149}} Ross had spent only around eighteen months in Berlin between 1932 and 1933 but became fluent enough in German to allow her to obtain work as a bilingual scenarist with Austro-German directors [[Cinema of Germany#1933–1945 Nazi Germany|who had fled]] the Nazi regime.{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=44}} One of these Austrian directors was [[Berthold Viertel]], who became Ross' friend.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=150}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|pp=148–149}}: "One morning in the middle of October ... Christopher got a telephone call from Jean Ross ... 'Chris darling, I've just met this absolutely marvelous man [Berthold Viertel]. He's simply brilliant. I adore him ... No, you swine—we most certainly do not! He's ''old''—at least sixty, I should think. I mean, I adore his mind ... You see, he's an Austrian, only he's a director in Hollywood. He's come here to direct a film ... And, darling, this is what's so marvelous—he wants you to write it!"</ref>

At the time, translators were sorely needed in the film industry to facilitate productions headed by Austro-German directors who were now working in the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=271}} Ross, who was aware Isherwood was living in poverty, persuaded Viertel to hire him as a translator.<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=170}}: "Berthold Viertel ... This Viennese dramatist, stage and screen director met Isherwood in 1933 through Jean Ross, who knew that Viertel needed a screenwriter for his film ''[[Little Friend (film)|Little Friend]]''".</ref> As repayment for this favour, Ross asked Isherwood to promise to give half of his first week's salary from the job to her.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=148–149}} After obtaining the job, Isherwood either reneged upon or forgot this agreement with Ross,<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=150}}: "I can't remember if Christopher kept his promise to give [Jean] her half of his first week's salary".</ref> and this incident may have contributed to the souring of their friendship.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=148–150}} Viertel and Isherwood soon collaborated upon a film that would become ''[[Little Friend (film)|Little Friend]]'' (1934); this collaboration launched Isherwood's long career as a screenwriter in Hollywood.{{sfn|Parker|2005|pp=270–271}}

During 1933, Isherwood composed the nucleus of a story about Ross' abortion in Berlin that would later become his 1937 novella ''Sally Bowles''.{{sfn|Fryer|1977|p=160}} Dissatisfied with its structure and quality, Isherwood rewrote the manuscript during subsequent years,{{sfn|Fryer|1977|p=162}} and he eventually sent the manuscript to editor [[John Lehmann]] to be published in ''[[New Writing]]'', a new literary periodical.{{sfnm|Izzo|2005|1p=144|Lehmann|1987|2p=27}} When Isherwood informed Lehmann his story was based on factual events, the editor became worried about the story's climax because it draws upon Ross' abortion.{{sfnm|Izzo|2005|1p=144|Lehmann|1987|2pp=28–9}} Lehmann feared Ross would file a libel suit against Isherwood and himself if the story was published.{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=50}}<ref name="Libel Suit">{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Isherwood's publisher was nervous about the abortion episode and encouraged him to drop it".</ref>

Anxious to avoid a libel suit, Isherwood implored Ross to give him permission to publish the story.{{sfn|Johnstone|1975|p=33}} Ross' reluctance delayed the publication of the manuscript.{{sfn|Johnstone|1975|p=33}} Because abortion was a controversial topic in 1930s England and carried the penalty of life imprisonment,{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=51}} Ross feared Isherwood's thinly-disguised story recounting her lifestyle and abortion in Berlin would further strain her difficult relationship with her status-conscious family.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=245}}

To prevail upon Ross to give consent for the novella's publication, Isherwood said he was in the direst financial circumstances. Ross, who herself was often impoverished, sympathised with any friend in a similar situation.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} As a personal favour to Isherwood, she yielded her objections to the publication of ''Sally Bowles'',{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Lehmann|1987|2p=29}} which was then published by [[Hogarth Press]].{{sfn|Lehmann|1987|pp=28–9}} Following the tremendous success of the novella, Ross regretted this decision and believed it permanently harmed her reputation.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} Now deeply committed to the socialist cause, Ross noticed Isherwood's story undermined her standing "among those comrades who realised she was the model for Sally Bowles".{{sfn|Fryer|1977|p=164}}

=== Workers' League, and embezzlement ===
Around 1934 and 1935, Ross wrote a manifesto for the short-lived British Workers' Film and Photo League (BWFPL) and served as its General Secretary.{{sfn|Forbes|2011|pp=206–19}} Much like its communist-backed [[Workers Film and Photo League (USA)|US counterpart]], the BWFPL's main objective was to launch a [[Culture war|cultural counter-offensive]] to the "[[Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]]" and "nauseating" films produced in capitalist societies such as the United States and the United Kingdom.{{sfnm|Doherty|1999|1pp=48–49|Chisholm|1992|2pp=110–114}} The organisation sought to take anti-capitalist "revolutionary films to workers organisations throughout the country".{{sfnm|Doherty|1999|1pp=48–49|Chisholm|1992|2pp=110–114}} Despite its limited personnel and modest funds, the League produced [[newsreel]]s, taught seminars on working-class film criticism, organised protests against "reactionary pictures", and screened the latest blockbusters of [[Soviet Russia]] to cadres of like-minded [[Cinephilia|cineastes]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1992|pp=110–114}} The BWFPL frequently screened such motion pictures as ''[[Storm over Asia (1928 film)|Storm over Asia]]'' (1928),{{sfn|Doherty|1999|pp=48–49}} ''[[October: Ten Days That Shook the World|Ten Days That Shook the World]]'' (1928), ''[[Road to Life (1931 film)|Road to Life]]'' (1931), and ''[[The Blue Express|China Express]]'' (1929).{{sfn|Chisholm|1992|pp=110–114}}

During Ross' tenure as General Secretary, the BWFLP was closely tied to the [[Friends of the Soviet Union]], to which it often sublet its office space. After her resignation as the League's Secretary, Ross continued to serve as a League member and helped produce the short film ''Defence of Britain'' in March 1936.{{sfn|Ryan|1986|p=325}} Drawing upon her family's resources, Ross personally donated a considerable sum to the fledgling organisation in February 1936.{{sfn|Ryan|1986|p=314}} Another League member named Ivan Seruya, however, embezzled the majority of Ross' donation to finance his own private venture International Sound Films.{{sfn|Ryan|1986|p=314}} This incident and the subsequent dearth of organisational funds reportedly contributed to the League's lack of progress and to its demise in 1938.{{sfn|Ryan|1986|p=314}}

=== Film criticism for the ''Daily Worker'' ===
[[File:Веселые ребята.jpg|thumb|right|link=Jolly Fellows|Ross' film criticism focused primarily on early [[Soviet cinema]]. Her reviews for those films, such as ''[[Jolly Fellows|Jazz Comedy]]'' (pictured above), have been praised decades after her death.{{sfn|Hutchings|2008|p=122}}]]

Between 1935 and 1936, Ross worked as a film critic for the Communist newspaper ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'' using the alias Peter Porcupine,{{sfn|Hogenkamp|1986|p=119}}{{sfnm|Williams|1996|1p=265|Gilbert|2011|Fyrth|1999}} which she presumably adopted as a homage to radical English [[pamphleteer]] [[William Cobbett]], who had used the same pseudonym.{{sfn|Hogenkamp|1986|p=119}} Ross' interest in film criticism purportedly began in Berlin when she often attended the cinema with Isherwood, Auden, and Spender.{{sfn|Spender|1977}} According to Spender, their quartet of friends collectively viewed such films as [[Robert Wiene]]'s ''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'', [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'', and [[Josef von Sternberg]]'s ''[[The Blue Angel]]''. They were particularly fond of "heroic proletarian films" such as [[G.W. Pabst]]'s ''[[Kameradschaft|Comradeship]]'' as well as "Russian films in which photography created poetic images of labour and industry", which is exemplified in ''[[Ten Days That Shook the World]]'' and ''[[The Battleship Potemkin]]''.{{sfnm|Spender|1977|Crossman|1949|2p=242}} Fellow critic [[Dwight Macdonald]] described this period as spanning the Golden Age and Iron Age of Soviet cinema:{{efn|name=Iron Age|The 1930–1932 period of Soviet cinema and subsequent years were dubbed by film critics as its "Iron Age". This was an era in which state policy "laid waste to the once-flourishing cinema industry as effectively as it [[Holodomor|laid waste]] to the fertile Ukrainian farmlands".{{sfn|MacDonald|1969|pp=192–198}}}}

{{Quote|Those were the years when one went to the 'little' movie houses which showed Russian films as one might visit a cathedral or museum—reverently, expectantly. One joined a congregation of avant-garde [[Intelligentsia|illuminati]], sharing an exhilarating consciousness of experiencing a new art form—many, including myself, felt it was the great modern art. In the darkened auditorium, one came into contact with the twentieth century.{{sfn|MacDonald|1969|pp=192–198}}}}

In her film criticism, Ross insisted "the workers in the Soviet Union [had] introduced to the world" new variations of this art form with "the electrifying strength and vitality and freedom of a victorious working class".{{sfn|Hutchings|2008|p=122}} Her reviews of early Soviet cinema were later described by scholars as "ingenious piece[s] of dialectical sophistry".{{sfn|Hutchings|2008|p=122}}

=== Eve of the Spanish Civil War ===
[[File:John Cornford January 1936.jpg|thumb|right|link=John Cornford|[[John Cornford]] in 1936, eleven months prior to his death]]

In mid-September 1936, while the [[Spanish Civil War]] was in its first year, Ross purportedly met English poet and communist [[John Cornford]] at the Horseshoes pub in England while in the company of his friend [[John Sommerfield]].{{efn|name=Ross and Cornford}}<ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|2015}}: "[Sommerfield] went off to fight for the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, serving in a machine-gun unit and losing his friend and fellow writer John Cornford to the conflict. On his return to England, Sommerfield found that he had been reported dead, his obituary appearing in two newspapers. ''Volunteer In Spain'' appeared in 1937 and was dedicated to Cornford".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=86}}: "I had been with [John Cornford] when they [Ross and Cornford] first met, very soon after he'd come back from Spain".</ref> As the first English volunteer to enlist against [[Francisco Franco]]'s forces, Cornford had just returned from the [[Aragon front]], where he had served with the [[POUM]] militia near [[Saragossa]], and fought in the early battles near [[Perdiguera]] and [[Huesca]].{{sfnm|Cornford|1986|1loc=Chronology|1p=9–10|Cornford|1986|2loc=Introduction by Galassi|2p=11}} Cornford then returned to England from [[Barcelona]] to recruit volunteers to combat the fascists in Spain.{{sfnm|Cornford|1986|1loc=Chronology|1p=9–10|Sommerfield|1977|2p=86}}

Following the initial meeting between Ross and Cornford,{{efn|name=Cornford Meeting|[[John Sommerfield]] recalled Ross meeting Cornford in his autobiographical memoir ''The Imprinted'' based upon his personal experiences in the 1930s. He described her as "a dark, slim girl, stylishly dressed, not like most of the girls we used to meet".{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=86}} She spoke in a well-mannered style and "gave out a sort of high class sexiness that made you feel there was something special about her, that she was a prize".{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|pp=86–87, 140}}}} a near brawl occurred at the pub when an [[National Corporate Party|ex-fascist volunteer]] who had been in the [[Irish Brigade (Spanish Civil War)|Irish Brigade]] was present and almost came to blows with Cornford over the subject of the war.{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=87}} After leaving the pub, Cornford and Ross went for dinner to [[Bertorelli]]'s on [[Charlotte Street]] in [[Fitzrovia]], central London,{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=93}} where Ross impressed Cornford with her knowledge of ongoing political matters in Spain, as well as between England and Germany.{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=87–88}} By the end of the evening, Cornford and Ross began a romance.{{sfn|Croft|1989|p=156}}<ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=87}}: "Jean was, for all practical purposes, alone with John, talking to him in a low, amorous murmur about some new scandalous bit of Foreign Office subservience to Hitler, while, at the same time, gently stroking his thighs. When we left the restaurant she ... linked arms with John and walked off with him".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=86}}: "Most of John [Cornford]'s girls had been unsuitable; and Jean [Ross] had been extra unsuitable".</ref>

Cornford possibly moved into Ross' apartment in the ensuing weeks while he recruited volunteers to return ''en masse'' with him to Spain.<ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=93}}: "After John had walked down Charlotte Street with Jean, he disappeared for several weeks. Then I had a letter, saying he'd moved in with Jean, and would I come round for a meal. 'She's a good cook, too,' he wrote. I liked that 'too'.</ref> While living with Ross, Cornford published his first book of poems and worked on a translation of ''[[Lysistrata]]''.{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=93}}<ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=94}}. Visiting them, Sommerfield wrote he was struck by the love Ross had for Cornford: "She seemed positively besotted, watching him all the time, eating him up with her eyes".</ref> If such a relationship occurred,{{efn|name=Ross and Cornford|The relations between Ross and John Cornford appear in John Sommerfield's autobiographical 1977 work ''The Imprinted''.{{sfnm|Croft|1989|1p=156|Sommerfield|1977|2pp=86–87, 140}} This work is a memoir with facts and fiction interwoven.{{sfn|Whitehead|2013}} Sommerfield was an intimate friend of Cornford and fought in the [[Spanish Civil War]] alongside him.{{sfnm|Sommerfield|2015|Baxell|2001|2p=126}}}} this brief union was not to last due to their mutual commitment to fighting [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] in Spain.

== War correspondent ==
{{Quote box|align=right|width=40%|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quoted=1|fontsize=100%| quote = [Ross] may well, at 19, have been less informed about politics than Isherwood, five or six years older; but, when the Spanish war came and the fascists were bombing Madrid, it was she, not Isherwood, who was there to report it.|author =—[[Sarah Caudwell]]|source = "Reply to Berlin", October 1986{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}}}

=== Arrival in Republican Spain===
In September 1936, Ross travelled to war-torn Spain either in the company of Claud Cockburn or separately.{{efn|name=Arrival in Spain|Isherwood biographer [[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]] said Ross was "on holiday with [Claud] Cockburn in Spain when the civil war broke out" and that they "stayed there as reporters".{{sfn|Parker|2004}}}} At this point, Cornford had returned to Spain with 21 British volunteers to fight the fascists and had become the ''de facto'' representative of the British contingent in the [[International Brigades]].{{sfnm|Cornford|1986|1loc=Chronology|1p=9–10|Cornford|1986|2loc=Introduction by Galassi|2p=11}} He served with a [[Machine gun|mitrailleuse]] unit, and fought in the [[Battle of Madrid]] in November and December 1936. During the subsequent battle for [[University City of Madrid]], he was wounded by a stray anti-aircraft shell.{{sfn|Cornford|1986|loc=Chronology|p=9–10}} Despite his injuries, he then served with the English-speaking volunteers of the [[XIV International Brigade|Marseillaise Brigade]] and was killed in action at [[Lopera]] near [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] on 27 or 28 December.{{sfnm|Haycock|2013|1pp=143–4|Cornford|1986|2loc=Chronology|2p=9–10}}

Upon hearing of Cornford's death, Ross was devastated and may have attempted to kill herself with an overdose of sleeping pills.{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=94}} Decades later, she would confide to her acquaintance John Sommerfield during a personal conversation that Cornford "was the only man I ever loved".{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=95}} The death of Cornford and other friends in the service of the doomed Republican cause likely solidified Ross' anti-fascist sentiments,{{efn|name=Ross' Marxism}}{{sfn|Day|Isherwood|1974}} and she remained in [[Republican Spain]] throughout the prolonged conflict as a [[war correspondent]] for the ''[[Daily Express]]''.{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=44}}

=== Journalist and propagandist ===
{{further|May Days}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|align=right|image1=ErnestHemingway.jpg|width1=150|alt1=A black and white photo of Ernest Hemingway seated at a typewriter|image2=Arthur Koestler (1969).jpg|width2=150|alt2=A black and white image of Arthur Koestler in 1969|footer=In Madrid, Ross worked alongside other journalists such as [[Ernest Hemingway]] (''first''). She worked in the ''Espagne News-Agency'' with Communist writer [[Arthur Koestler]] (''second''). While in Spain, Ross' companion was Richard Mowrer, the step-son of Hemingway's first wife [[Hadley Richardson]].{{sfn|Mora|1939|pp=294, 307}}{{sfn|The New York Times|1971}}}}

Throughout the Spanish Civil War, Ross worked for the London branch office of the ''Espagne News-Agency'' ("Spanish News Agency").{{sfn|Whaley|1969|p=44}} During Ross' tenure in the organisation, the ''Espagne News-Agency'' was accused by journalist [[George Orwell]] of being a [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] apparatus that disseminated [[Communist propaganda|false propaganda]] to undermine anti-Stalinist factions on the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Republican side]] of the Spanish Civil War.{{efn|name=Orwell|According to [[George Orwell]], the ''Espagne News-Agency'' published false stories about [[Anti-Stalinist left|anti-Stalinist anarchists]] who had been secretly executed by the [[NKVD]] in Spain.{{sfn|Orwell|2013|p=168}} For example, the agency falsely reported that [[Andrés Nin Pérez|Andrés Nin]]—who had been tortured and executed by the NKVD—had escaped to a fascist sanctuary.{{sfnm|1a1=Preston|1a2=Mackenzie|1y=1996|1p=267|2a1=Orwell|2y=2013|2p=168}}}}{{sfn|Orwell|2013|p=168}} In particular, during the [[Barcelona May Days]], when [[POUM|anarchist factions]] on the Republican side were annihilated by Stalinist-backed troops, the ''Espagne News-Agency'' and the ''Daily Worker'' published false claims saying the anarchists had been planning a coup and were secretly allied with the fascists and thus justified their extermination.{{sfn|Orwell|2013|pp=168, 236–238}}

All of the agency's staff—including Ross—were loyal operatives of the [[Comintern]] apparatus,{{sfn|Whaley|1969|p=44}} the international Communist organization that sought to create a worldwide Soviet republic.{{sfn|MacLean|2014|p=178}} Ross' fellow Comintern propagandists included Hungarian journalist [[Arthur Koestler]],{{sfn|Koestler|1954|pp=210, 335–336, 368}} Willy Forrest, Mildred Bennett of the ''Moscow Daily News'', and Claud Cockburn.{{efn|name=Cockburn Alias|Using the alias Frank Pitcairn, [[Claud Cockburn]] reported on the Spanish Civil War for the ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'' and became its Foreign Editor. He became a key figure in the British Communist Party and the Comintern of Western Europe.{{sfn|National Archives|1940}}}}{{sfnm|Whaley|1969|1p=44|Mora|1939|2p=306}}

Ross and Cockburn became closer as the civil war progressed. By this time, Cockburn was a prominent member of the British Communist Party.{{sfn|National Archives|1940}} Within five years, he would become a leader of the Comintern in Western Europe.{{sfn|National Archives|1940}} While covering the Spanish Civil War for the ''Daily Worker'' in 1936, Cockburn had joined the elite [[Fifth Regiment]] of the left-wing ''Republicanos'' battling the right-wing ''Nacionales'' and, when not fighting, he gave sympathetic coverage to the Communist Party.{{efn|name=Orwell and Cockburn|[[George Orwell]] criticized Claud Cockburn in ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' (1938).{{sfnm|Bounds|2009|1p=136|Orwell|2013|2p=236–238}} Orwell accused him of being under the control of [[Stalin]] and was critical of the way Cockburn reported the [[Barcelona May Days]].{{sfn|Orwell|2013|p=236–238}} Cockburn was a close friend of [[Mikhail Koltsov]], the foreign editor of ''[[Pravda]]'' and a [[the Kremlin|Kremlin]] operative.{{sfnm|McSmith|2015|1p=217|Bounds|2009|2p=136}}}}{{sfn|Moynihan|2012}}

[[File:People of Madrid seek refuge in the metro during the Francoist bombings.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|Ross spent much of her time as a journalist reporting from besieged Madrid under constant bombardment by Franco's forces. Many of Madrid's inhabitants sought shelter in the subway in order to escape the bombs.]]

While Cockburn fought with the Fifth Regiment, Ross served as a war correspondent for the ''[[Daily Express]]''.{{sfn|Gilbert|2011}} When Cockburn was at the front lines, Ross ghost-wrote his columns for him, "imitating his style and filing it at the ''Daily Worker'' under his name while continuing to send her own reports to the ''Express''".{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Ross was embedded with Republican defenders in Madrid.

Among the other foreign correspondents in besieged Madrid were [[Herbert Matthews]] of ''[[The New York Times]]'',{{sfn|Cowles|1941|p=19}} [[Ernest Hemingway]] of the [[North American Newspaper Alliance]],{{sfn|Cowles|1941|p=30}} [[Henry Tilton Gorrell]] of [[United Press International]],{{sfn|Cowles|1941|p=19}} and [[Martha Gellhorn]] of ''Collier's'',{{sfn|Cowles|1941|p=19}} as well as [[Josephine Herbst]]. Ross and other foreign correspondents often dined together in the ruined basement of Gran Via, the sole restaurant open in besieged Madrid during its relentless bombardment by fascist troops. Armed loyal sentries heavily guarded the basement restaurant and no-one was permitted entry without a press pass.{{sfn|Cowles|1941|loc=Chapter 3: The Press}}

=== Reporting on the Southern Front ===
{{further|Bombing of Jaén}}

In early 1937, as the civil war progressed, Ross, her friend Richard Mowrer of ''[[The Chicago Daily News]]''—the step-son of Ernest Hemingway's first wife [[Hadley Richardson]]{{efn|name=Richard Mowrer|Richard Mowrer was the son of [[Paul Mowrer]], the first journalist to be awarded the [[Pulitzer Prize for Correspondence]] in 1929. After her divorce from Ernest Hemingway, [[Hadley Richardson]] married Paul Mowrer and became the step-mother to his son Richard. Ernest's son [[Jack Hemingway]] was Richard's step-brother.{{sfn|The New York Times|1971}}}}—and their guide Constancia de la Mora travelled to [[Andalusia]] to report on the southern front.<ref>{{harvnb|Mora|1939|pp=294, 307}}: "Mowrer and I and Jean Ross, a clever and charming Englishwoman working at that time for the Government news agency in Paris and London, started off in an automobile for the southern front".</ref> Ross and Mowrer investigated and reported upon war-time conditions in [[Alicante]], [[Málaga]], and [[Jaén, Spain|Jaén]].{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=307}} A week before Ross' arrival, Jaén had been [[Bombing of Jaén|bombed]] by a squadron of German [[Junkers 52]] aircraft.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=307}} Amid the rubble, Ross reported on the death toll and interviewed survivors including mothers whose children had died in the bombardment.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=308}} She then proceeded to [[Andújar]] where, amid the ongoing battle and machine-gun fire, she interviewed Colonel José Morales, a commander of the southern armies.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=310}}

Following her interview with Morales, the convoy in which Ross was travelling faced recurrent enemy fire and later, during the evening, was bombed by a fascist air patrol.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=310}} De la Mora recalled this bombing as one of the daily perils Ross and other pro-Republican journalists endured to report news from the front lines:
{{Quote|In the dusk, I saw Mowrer and Jean Ross running down the road. I began to run. The sound of the planes, the low roar of the motors, filled my ears and head and heart and throat. I ran faster and faster ... Suddenly the whole mountain exploded with a noise so hideous, so vast, that the ear was not shaped to comprehend it. The ground where I lay trembled I felt it move against my body. The sound began to diminish ... Jean Ross and Mowrer came down the road. We made jokes.{{sfn|Mora|1939|pp=313–314}}}}

During her time in Andújar, Ross endured nine aerial bombardments by German Junkers and survived each despite the lack of [[air raid shelter]]s.{{sfn|Mora|1939|pp=314–315}} Recalling these events, Mora described Ross as a fearless reporter who had seemingly resigned herself to death and looked "as natural as possible" when the bombs fell.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=315}} Her friends noted Ross "had a comforting air of calmness about her".{{sfn|Henderson|2018|loc=Chapter: Jean}} Following her reporting in Andújar, Ross continued to report from the fronts at [[Córdoba offensive|Córdoba]] and [[Extremadura]].{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=315}} She continued reporting on the progress of the war, often from the front lines of the Republican forces, for the next year.

=== Fall of Madrid and return to England ===
{{CSS image crop|Image=Claud Cockburn.jpg|bSize=600|cWidth=200|cHeight=180|oTop=100|oLeft=80|Location=right|Description=Claud Cockburn with whom Ross had a child, [[Sarah Caudwell]]. In August 1939, three months after their daughter's birth, Cockburn deserted Ross and the child.{{sfn|Parker|2004}}}}

In late 1938, while pregnant with Cockburn's child,{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}} Ross witnessed the final months of the [[Siege of Madrid]] and endured aerial bombardment by Francoist forces.{{sfn|Day|Isherwood|1974}} By the time the besieged city fell to the [[Francoist Spain|Nationalist armies]] on 28 March 1939, Ross had escaped to England. Her wartime experiences, especially the atrocities she witnessed and the friends she lost in combat, solidified her lifelong commitment to [[Antifascist|anti-fascist resistance]].{{efn|name=Ross' Marxism|In a 1974 interview with [[James Day (journalist)|James Day]], Isherwood said Ross' commitment to Marxism occurred after her sojourn in Berlin and was "the one subject on which she was a bit boring because she echoed the [Stalinist] party line".{{sfn|Day|Isherwood|1974}}}}

Sixty days after the fall of Madrid, Ross gave birth to a daughter by Claud Cockburn. The child, [[Sarah Caudwell]], who was born on 27 May 1939, was the only offspring of their union.{{sfnm|Firchow|2008|1p=120|Stasio|2000}} Some sources say Ross did not marry Cockburn due to her political beliefs about [[Women's liberation|women's emancipation]],{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}} but under British law, Cockburn still was married to his first wife [[Hope Hale Davis]]; he could not marry Ross at that time without committing bigamy.{{efn|name=Deed Poll|Contrary to sources such as Linda Mizejewski,{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=44}} Ross and Cockburn never married because Cockburn was uncertain whether his divorce from Davis was valid in England.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Isherwood|2012b|2loc=Glossary|2p=796}} Whether Ross knew Cockburn was still married to Davis is unknown. Several months before her daughter's birth, Ross filed a [[deed poll]] that changed her surname to Cockburn, see {{London Gazette|issue=34604|page=1518|date=3 March 1939}}}} Whether Ross knew Cockburn was still legally married to Davis is unknown. Several months before her daughter's birth, Ross filed a [[deed poll]] in which she changed her surname to Cockburn.<ref name="London Gazette">{{London Gazette|issue=34604|page=1518|date=3 March 1939}}</ref>

In 1938 or 1939, Cockburn entered into a clandestine relationship with [[Patricia Cockburn|Patricia Arbuthnot]].{{sfn|Parker|2004}} In August 1939, Cockburn "walked out" on Ross and their newly-born child to live with Arbuthnot.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Cockburn later omitted all mention of Ross from his memoirs.<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|2012b|p=447}}. Isherwood wrote in his diary; "I admire the first part of Claud Cockburn's autobiography very much. But ... I can't find the faintest allusion to Jean Ross".</ref> Following her abandonment by Cockburn, Ross did not have another recorded male partner. She later told an acquaintance "having a man around was like having a crocodile in the bath".{{sfn|Henderson|2018|loc=Chapter: Jean}}

== Later life and death ==
=== Second World War and post-war years ===
[[File:Jean Ross 1940s.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Ross circa the 1940s.]]

Shortly before the outbreak of the [[Second World War]], Ross, her daughter Sarah, and her widowed mother Clara Caudwell moved to [[Hertfordshire]].{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Ross became friends with Isherwood's old acquaintance [[Edward Upward]] and his wife Hilda Percival, both of whom were socialist in outlook. Upward later met Olive Mangeot through their attendance of [[Communist Party]] meetings and the two began an extramarital affair.{{sfn|Izzo|2005|p=97}} Olive, whom Isherwood depicted as Marvey Scriven in ''[[The Memorial]]'' and as Madame Cheuret in ''Lions and Shadows'', eventually separated from her husband Andre Mangeot and lived in the London suburbs at Gunter Grove, [[Barnet London Borough Council|Barnet]], where she invited Ross and her daughter Sarah to live with her.{{sfnm|Parker|2005|1p=270|Izzo|2005|2p=97|Izzo|2001|3p=89}}

For many years, Ross and Sarah lived as Olive's boarders in modest circumstances in Gunter Grove.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Izzo|2005|2p=97}} Much like Ross, Mangeot had been an apolitical bohemian in her youth and transformed with age into a devout [[Stalinist]] who sold the ''Daily Worker'' and was an active member of various left-wing circles.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=100–101}} According to Isherwood, Mangeot, Ross, and their social circle refused to consort with [[Trotskyite]]s or other communist schismatics who had strayed from the Stalinist party line.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=100–101}}

=== Parenthood, and socialist activities ===
For the remainder of her adult life, Ross devoted herself to advancing the ideology of socialism and raising her daughter Sarah.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} To obtain the most advantageous education available for Sarah, Ross moved to Scotland. In 1960, they moved to [[Barnes, London]], for Sarah to attend Oxford University.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} They lived with Jean's invalid sister Margaret "Peggy" Ross, a sculptor and painter who trained at the [[Liverpool School of Art]].{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|loc=Glossary|p=796}} At this point, Ross acted as a caretaker for both Peggy—who had severe arthritis affecting her mobility—and her ailing mother Clara, who had suffered a debilitating stroke.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|pp=66–67}} Under Ross' tutelage, Sarah became one of the first women to join the [[Oxford Union]] as a student and to speak in the Oxford Union's Debating Chamber.{{sfn|Stasio|2000}} She went on to teach law at Oxford and became a senior executive at [[Lloyds Bank (historic)|Lloyds Bank]], and later a celebrated author of detective novels.{{sfnm|Stasio|2000|Isherwood|2012b|2loc=Glossary|2p=796}}

While Sarah was at Oxford, Ross continued to engage in political activities including [[Anti-nuclear movement|protesting nuclear weapons]], [[South Africa under apartheid|boycotting apartheid South Africa]], and opposing the [[Vietnam War]].{{sfnm|Mizejewski|1992|1p=44|Caudwell|1986|2pp=28–29|Henderson|2018|3loc=Chapter: Jean}} Even in later life, she continued to sell copies of the ''Daily Worker'' to neighbouring houses and to raise awareness of ongoing political campaigns.{{sfn|Frost|2013}} Acquaintances who met Ross during the later decades of her life noted various hardships and impoverished economic circumstances had taken their toll on her. By this time, she had few clothes and very little money.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Sommerfield said:
{{Quote|She seemed burned out ... with bruise marks under her eyes and lines of discontent round her mouth; her once beautiful black hair looked dead, and she wore too much make-up, carelessly applied. Only her voice was the same, a rapid, confiding drawl full of italics. She was still using the slang and political cliches of her youth, and trying to shock with a freedom of speech that now was taken for granted".{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=94}}}}

Ross and writer Isherwood met a final time shortly before her death. In a diary entry for 24 April 1970,{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|pp=66–67}} Isherwood recounted their final reunion in London:

{{Quote|I had lunch with Jean Ross and her daughter Sarah [Caudwell], and three of their friends at a little restaurant in Chancery Lane. Jean looks old but still rather beautiful and she is very lively and active and mentally on the spot—and as political as ever ... Seeing Jean [again] made me happy; I think if I lived here I'd see a lot of her that is—if I could do so without being involved in her communism.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|pp=66–67}}}}

On 27 April 1973,{{sfn|Jardine|2014}} Ross died at her home in [[Richmond, London|Richmond, Surrey]], aged 61, from cervical cancer.{{sfnm|Gilbert|2011|Jardine|2014|Frost|2013}} She was cremated at East Sheen.{{sfn|Parker|2004}}

== Dislike of ''Sally Bowles'' and ''Cabaret'' ==
[[File:Liza Minnelli Cabaret 1972 crop 2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Liza Minnelli]] as Sally Bowles in the 1972 film ''[[Cabaret (1972 film)|Cabaret]]''. Ross disliked how the stylish, beret-wearing character of Sally Bowles was transmogrified into a "vulgar [[Vamp (woman)|vamp]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Cockburn|2001}}: "Jean Ross was a gentle, cultivated and very beautiful woman, not a bit like the vulgar vamp displayed by Lisa Minelli".</ref>]]

According to Ross' daughter [[Sarah Caudwell]], her mother detested her popular identification with the vacuous character [[Sally Bowles]]. She believed the character's political indifference more closely resembled Isherwood or his hedonistic friends,{{sfnm|Firchow|2008|1p=120|Cockburn|2001}} many of whom "fluttered around town exclaiming how sexy the [[Sturmabteilung|storm troopers]] looked in their uniforms".{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=124–125|Doyle|2013}} Ross' opinion of Isherwood's beliefs is partly confirmed by Isherwood's biographer [[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]], who wrote Isherwood was "the least political" of [[Auden Group|W. H. Auden's social circle]] in Weimar Berlin,{{sfn|Allen|2004}} and Auden noted the young Isherwood "held no [political] opinions whatever about anything".{{sfn|Allen|2004}}

According to Caudwell,{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} Ross further disliked the Sally Bowles character, which offended her feminist convictions. Isherwood's fictionalised depiction of Ross uses a [[Madonna–whore complex|literary convention]] that necessitated "a woman must be either virtuous (in the sexual sense) or a tart.{{efn|name=Tart|Although Caudwell said Isherwood depicted Sally as a [[Prostitution|tart]], Isherwood emphatically denied this interpretation.{{sfn|Van Druten|1983|p=6}} In a letter to [[John Van Druten]], Isherwood wrote Sally "is a little girl who has listened to what the grown-ups had said about tarts, and who was trying to copy those things".{{sfn|Van Druten|1983|p=6}}}} So Sally, who is plainly not virtuous, must be a tart to depend for a living on providing sexual pleasure". Such a submissive gender role would have "seemed to [Ross] the ultimate denial of freedom and emancipation."{{sfn|Cockburn|2001}}

Above all, Ross resented Isherwood's 1937 novella ''Sally Bowles''{{'s}} depiction of Ross expressing [[anti-Semitic]] bigotry.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Sally's attractiveness is also diminished by two anti-Semitic remarks she makes, which are omitted in all the postwar adaptations".</ref> In the 1937 story, Bowles laments having sex with an "awful old Jew" to obtain money.<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|2012a|p=33}}: "This job at the Lady Windermere only lasts another week. I got it through a man I met at the Eden Bar. But he's gone off to Vienna now. I must ring up the Ufa people again, I suppose. And then there's an awful old Jew who takes me out sometimes. He's always promising to get me a contract; but he only wants to sleep with me, the old swine."</ref> Caudwell said such racial bigotry "would have been as alien to my mother's vocabulary as a sentence in Swahili; she had no more deeply rooted passion than a loathing of racialism and so, from the outset, of fascism." Due to her unyielding dislike of fascism, Ross was incensed Isherwood had depicted her as thoughtlessly allied in her beliefs "with the [racist] attitudes which led to Dachau and Auschwitz".{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} In the early 21st century, some writers have argued the anti-Semitic remarks in ''Sally Bowles'' are a reflection of Isherwood's own much-documented prejudices.{{efn|name=Isherwood Bigotry|In an article for ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', writer [[Gore Vidal]] notes Isherwood's inordinate preoccupation with racial matters.{{sfn|Vidal|1976}} In contrast to Isherwood, Ross was noted in her later years for her commitment to racial equality.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}}}{{sfn|Hensher|2005}} In Peter Parker's biography, he states: "Isherwood is revealed as being fairly anti-Semitic to a degree that required some emendations of the Berlin novels when they were republished after the war".{{sfn|Hensher|2005}}

{{Quote box|align=left|width=40%|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quoted=1|fontsize=100%| quote = [Ross] never liked ''Goodbye to Berlin'', nor felt any sense of identity with the character of Sally Bowles ... She never cared enough, however, to be moved to any public rebuttal. She did from time to time settle down conscientiously to write a letter, intending to explain to Isherwood the ways in which she thought he had misunderstood her; but it seldom progressed beyond 'Dear Christopher ...' It was interrupted, no doubt, by more urgent things: meetings about Vietnam, petitions against nuclear weapons, making my supper, hearing my French verbs. It was in Isherwood's life, not hers, that Sally Bowles remained a significant figure.|author = —[[Sarah Caudwell]]|source ="Reply to Berlin", October 1986{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}}}

Isherwood never publicly confirmed Ross was his model for Sally Bowles until after her death. Other mutual acquaintances were less discreet. Ross said her former partner Claud Cockburn had leaked to his friends in the press she had inspired the character.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|p=70}} In 1951, poet [[Stephen Spender]] in his autobiography ''World Within World'' publicly confirmed Bowles was based on a real person,{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=122}} and he also confirmed the novella's abortion incident is factual.{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=127}} Later, [[Gerald Hamilton]], the inspiration for Isherwood's character Mr Norris, identified Ross as Sally Bowles due to a public feud with Cockburn.{{efn|name=Hamilton-Cockburn Feud|In a 1954 newspaper column, journalist [[Claud Cockburn]] publicly outed [[Gerald Hamilton]] as the basis for Mr Norris in Isherwood's stories.{{sfn|Hamilton|1969|pp=37, 126–127}} Hamilton may have retaliated by identifying Ross—Cockburn's former partner and the mother of his child—as the basis for Sally Bowles.{{sfn|Hamilton|1969|pp=37, 126–127}} Ross believed Cockburn had initially revealed her identity to the press.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|p=70}}}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1969|p=44}} Consequently, when ''[[Cabaret (musical)|Cabaret]]'' garnered acclaim in the late 1960s, journalists—particularly those from the ''[[Daily Mail]]''—tracked down Ross and hounded her with intrusive questions.{{sfn|Friedrich|1995|p=307}}

Ross refused to discuss her sexual misadventures in Weimar Berlin with journalists. Caudwell said the journalists' relentless questions "were invariably a disappointment on both sides: the journalists always wanted to talk about sex" while Ross "wanted to talk about politics".{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} Ross noted reporters often claimed to seek knowledge "about Berlin in the Thirties" but they did not wish "to know about the unemployment or the poverty or the Nazis marching through the streets—all they want to know is how many men I went to bed with".{{sfnm|Caudwell|1986|1pp=28–29|Frost|2013}} Ross became angered when the reporters ascribed her many sexual affairs to her feminist beliefs: "They asked if I was a feminist. Well, of course I am, darling. But they don't think that feminism is about sex, do they? It's about economics".{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}

Ross steadfastly declined invitations to watch ''Cabaret'' or any related adaptations.{{sfnm|Bletchly|2013|1p=26|Isherwood|2012b|2p=70}} Her ambivalence towards the popular success of ''Cabaret'' was not unique among Isherwood's acquaintances: Stephen Spender said ''Cabaret'' glossed over Weimar Berlin's crushing poverty, and he later noted there was "not a single meal or club in the movie ''Cabaret'' that Christopher and I could have afforded".{{sfn|Spender|1977}} Both Spender and Ross often said Isherwood's stories glamourised and distorted the harsh realities of life in 1930s Berlin.{{sfn|Spender|1977}} According to Ross, Isherwood's "story was quite, quite different from what really happened".{{sfn|Johnstone|1975|pp=33–34}} She nonetheless conceded the accuracy of the depiction of their social group of British expatriates as pleasure-seeking libertines: "We were all utterly against the bourgeois standards of our parents' generation. That's what took us to [Weimar-era] Berlin. The climate was freer there".{{sfn|Johnstone|1975|pp=33–34}}

== Portrayals and legacy ==
=== Isherwood canon ===
{{further|Sally Bowles|I Am a Camera|Cabaret (musical)}}
{{CSS image crop | Image = Julie Harris as Sally Bowles.jpg | bSize = 550 | cWidth = 180 | cHeight = 170 | oTop = 100 | oLeft = 130 | Location = left | Description = [[Julie Harris]] as [[Sally Bowles]]}}

Sally Bowles, the fictional character inspired by Jean Ross, has been portrayed by a number of actors; [[Julie Harris (American actress)|Julie Harris]] in ''[[I Am a Camera]]'', the 1951 adaptation of ''Goodbye to Berlin'' and the 1955 [[I Am a Camera (film)|film adaptation of the same name]]; [[Jill Haworth]] in the original 1966 Broadway production of ''[[Cabaret (musical)|Cabaret]]''; [[Judi Dench]] in the original 1968 West-End stage version of ''Cabaret''; [[Liza Minnelli]] in [[Bob Fosse]]'s [[Cabaret (1972 film)|1972 film adaptation of the musical]], and [[Natasha Richardson]] in the 1998 Broadway revival of ''Cabaret''.{{sfn|Bletchly|2013|p=26}}

In 1979, critic [[Howard Moss]] noted the resilience of the Sally Bowles character: "It is almost fifty years since Sally Bowles shared the recipe for a Prairie oyster with Herr Issyvoo in a vain attempt to cure a hangover" and yet the character in subsequent permutations lives on "from story to play to movie to musical to movie-musical".{{sfn|Moss|1979}} Moss ascribed the character's continuing appeal to the aura of sophisticated innocence that pervades Isherwood's depiction of the character and of Weimar Berlin in which "the unseemly and the ugly" are either de-emphasised or made to appear genial to the spectator.{{sfn|Moss|1979}}

According to critic Ingrid Norton, Sally Bowles later inspired Holly Golightly in [[Truman Capote]]'s novella ''[[Breakfast at Tiffany's (novella)|Breakfast at Tiffany's]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Truman Capote's Holly Golightly ... the latter of whom is a tribute to Isherwood and his Sally Bowles ... "</ref>{{sfn|Norton|2010}} Norton has said Isherwood's Bowles was the key model for Capote's Golightly character,{{sfn|Norton|2010}} and that both scenes and dialogue in Capote's 1958 novella have direct equivalencies in Isherwood's 1937 work.{{sfn|Norton|2010}} Capote, who admired Isherwood's novels, had befriended Isherwood in New York in the late 1940s.{{sfn|Clarke|1988|loc=Chapter 19}}

=== ''Christopher and His Kind'' (2011) ===
{{main|Christopher and His Kind (film)}}
[[File:Imogen Poots Comic-Con 2011.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.6|[[Imogen Poots]] portrayed Ross in ''[[Christopher and His Kind (film)|Christopher and His Kind]]'' (2011).]]

In 2011, British actor [[Imogen Poots]] portrayed Jean Ross in ''[[Christopher and His Kind (film)|Christopher and His Kind]]'', in which she starred opposite [[Matt Smith (actor)|Matt Smith]] as Christopher Isherwood.{{sfn|Wollaston|2011}} For her performance, Poots attempted to show Ross' personality as "convincingly fragile beneath layers of attitude" but did not wish to depict Ross as a talented singer.{{sfn|Harvey|2011}} Poots said if "Jean had been that good,{{efn|name=Ross' voice}} she wouldn't have been wasting her time hanging around with Isherwood in the cabarets of the Weimar Republic, she would have been on her way, perhaps, to the life she dreamed of in Hollywood".{{sfn|Harvey|2011}}

=== These Foolish Things ===
{{Main|These Foolish Things (Remind Me of You)}}

As well as inspiring Sally Bowles,{{sfn|Garebian|2011|p=4}} Ross has been credited as the inspiration for one of the 20th century's most-enduring popular songs, "[[These Foolish Things (Remind Me of You)]]".{{sfn|Frost|2013}} Although its composer [[Eric Maschwitz]]'s wife [[Hermione Gingold]] said her autobiography the song was written for either herself or actor [[Anna May Wong]],{{sfn|Gingold|1989|p=54}} Maschwitz's own autobiography contradicts that of Gingold.{{sfn|Maschwitz|1957|pp=77–79}} Maschwitz cites "fleeting memories of [a] young love" as the inspiration for the song,{{sfn|Maschwitz|1957|pp=77–79}} and most sources—including the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]''—say cabaret singer Ross, with whom Maschwitz had a youthful romantic liaison, was the muse for the song.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Brown|2016}}
{{-}}

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{notelist|30em}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist|30em}}

=== Works cited ===
==== Print sources ====
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Baxell |first=Richard |title=The British Battalion of the International Brigades in the Spanish Civil War 1936-1939 |url=http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1661/1/U165986.pdf |publisher=[[London School of Economics and Political Science]] |type=PhD |page=126 |date=21 December 2001 |access-date=7 March 2020}}
* {{cite book |last=Bergfelder |first=Tim |chapter=The Passenger: Ambivalences of National Identity and Masculinity in the Star Persona of Peter van Eyck |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUQ6Yd0NhowC&pg=PA47 |title=Framing the Fifties: Cinema in a Divided Germany |editor1-last=Davidson |editor1-first=John E. |editor2-last=Hake |editor2-first=Sabine |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |location=New York City |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84545-204-9|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite news |last=Bletchly |first=Rachael |title=Their True Characters: Real people who inspired fictional, TV and film heroes and heroines |url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/indiana-jones-miss-piggy-real-1797341 |url-status=dead |work=[[Daily Mirror]] |location=London |date=2 April 2013 |page=26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405011346/http://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/indiana-jones-miss-piggy-real-1797341 |archive-date=5 April 2013 |quote=She's been played by big names such as [[Judi Dench]], [[Julie Harris]], [[Teri Hatcher]] and [[Brooke Shields]]. But [[Liza Minnelli]]'s Oscar-winning performance as the underground club singer is seen by Cabaret fans as the definitive [[Sally Bowles]]. In fact author [[Christopher Isherwood]] based his character on Jean Ross, an English woman he met while living in decadent Berlin in the early 1930s. Jean generously allowed him to publish the book in 1937 – despite it featuring the then-scandalous fact she'd had an abortion. Isherwood never confirmed she had inspired Sally until after her death in 1973, while Jean, a political radical, never wanted publicity. She was traced by reporters when [''[[I Am a Camera]]''] was first staged in [1951], but declined all invitations to see the show. A family friend said: 'Jean was a wonderful woman, warm and gentle in demeanour. She couldn't have been more unlike the rather tinny character portrayed in Sally Bowles. She was extremely intelligent, politically alert and vital. She probably found the portrait painted by Christopher Isherwood rather irritating.'}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Bock |editor1-first=Hans-Michael |editor2-last=Bergfelder |editor2-first=Tim |title=The Concise Cinegraph: Encyclopaedia of German Cinema |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Z4kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA495 |publisher=Berghahn Books |location=New York City |date=1 September 2009 |pages=495–496 |isbn=978-1-57181-655-9|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Bounds |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Bounds |title=Orwell and Marxism: The Political and Cultural Thinking of George Orwell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yAQ8BQAAQBAJ |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |location=London |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-85773-282-8|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Caudwell |first=Sarah |author-link=Sarah Caudwell |title=Reply to Berlin |magazine=[[New Statesman]] |location=London |date=3 October 1986 |pages=28–29}}
* {{cite journal |last=Chisholm |first=Brad |title=Film and Photo League Exhibition Strategies |url=https://www.ejumpcut.org/archive/onlinessays/JC37folder/30sLeftExhibition.html |journal=[[Jump Cut (journal)|Jump Cut: A Review of Contemporary Media]] |date=July 1992 |pages=110–114 |access-date=19 April 2019}}
* {{cite book |last=Clarke |first=Gerald |author-link=Gerald Clarke (author) |title=Capote: A Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=521YPwAACAAJ |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=1988 |isbn=0-671-22811-0 |access-date=18 November 2018|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Cornford |first=John |author-link=John Cornford |editor-last=Galassi |editor-first=Jonathan |editor-link=Jonathan Galassi |title=Collected Writings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zvAEAQAAIAAJ |publisher=[[Carcanet Press]] |location=New York City |orig-year=1976 |date=1 January 1986 |isbn=9780856356520|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Cowles|first=Virginia|author-link=Virginia Cowles|title=Looking for Trouble: Memoirs of a Hearst Correspondent in Loyalist Spain|publisher=[[Harper & Brothers]]|location=New York City & London|year=1941|isbn=978-0-571-27091-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VpUyAQAAIAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Croft|first=Andy|author-link=Andy Croft|editor1-last=Shaw|editor1-first=Christopher|editor2-last=Chase|editor2-first=Malcolm|date=December 1989|title=The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia|chapter=Forward to the 1930s: The Literary Politics of Anamnesis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNNRAQAAIAAJ|publisher=[[Manchester University Press]]|location=Manchester|page=156|isbn=0-7190-2875-2|via=Google Books|quote=This side of Jean Ross' life is mentioned in John Sommerfield's ''The Imprinted'' (1977), where she appears as 'Jean Reynolds.' In this novel, she has been immortalised as Lucy Rivers in a novel by [[L.P. Davies]] titled ''A Woman of the Thirties''. 'I realized that ''A Woman of the Thirties'' had been a misfortune for her; she had been fixed by the book, turned into a fictional character whose story ended in 1939.' She has an affair in ''The Imprinted'' with 'John Rackstraw' (based on [[John Cornford]], a young Cambridge Communist with whom Sommerfield fought in Spain).}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Crossman|editor-first=Richard|editor-link=Richard Crossman|title=The God That Failed|publisher=[[Harper & Brothers]]|location=New York|year=1949|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.185523/|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=Doherty|first=Thomas|title=Pre-Code Hollywood: Sex, Immorality, and Insurrection in America Cinema 1930–1934|pages=[https://archive.org/details/precodehollywood0000dohe/page/48 48]–49|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|year=1999|url=https://archive.org/details/precodehollywood0000dohe|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-231-11094-5|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=Van Druten|first=John|author-link=John Van Druten|title=I Am a Camera: A Play in Three Acts|location=United Kingdom|publisher=Dramatists Play Service|year=1983|isbn=9780822205456|url=https://archive.org/details/iamcameraplayint0000vand|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=Farina|first=William|author-link=William Farina|title=The German Cabaret Legacy in American Popular Music|location=London|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|chapter=Christopher Isherwood, Reporting from Berlin|page=79|year=2013|isbn=978-0-7864-6863-8|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YdUiL1XHZKkC&q=joseph+goebbels&pg=PA79|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Forbes|first=Duncan|editor-last=Ribalta|editor-first=Jorge|title=The Worker Photography Movement (1926–1939)|article=The Worker Photography Movement in Britain, 1934–1939|year=2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ceCGZwEACAAJ|location=Madrid, Spain|publisher=T.F. Editores, S.L.C. / Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía|pages=206–19|isbn=978-84-92441-38-9|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Firchow|first=Peter Edgerly|author-link=Peter Edgerly Firchow|title=Strange Meetings: Anglo-German Literary Encounters from 1910 to 1960|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=[[Catholic University of America Press]]|page=120|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8132-1533-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WoEQ70IzMtgC&pg=PA120|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Friedrich|first=Otto|author-link=Otto Friedrich|title=Before the Deluge: A Portrait of Berlin in the 1920s|year=1995|location=New York City|publisher=[[Harper Perennial]]|chapter=Heads Will Roll|edition=1st|isbn=0-13-221150-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K6u0eLY4FooC|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Fryer|first=Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan Fryer|title=Isherwood: A Biography|location=Garden City, New York|publisher=[[Doubleday & Company]]|year=1977|isbn=0-385-12608-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eY4nAQAAMAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Garebian |first=Keith |title=The Making of Cabaret |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PuD3p2IGW5oC&q=Jean%20Ross&pg=PA6 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-973250-0|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Gingold |first=Hermione |author-link=Hermione Gingold |title=How to Grow Old Disgracefully |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9oyPGwAACAAJ |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |location=New York City |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-575-04477-7|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Gerald |author-link=Gerald Hamilton |title=The Way It Was With Me |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HhUYAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Leslie Frewin |location=London |year=1969 |isbn=978-0-09-096560-1|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Haycock|first=David Boyd|author-link=David Boyd Haycock|title=I Am Spain: The Spanish Civil War and the Foreigners Who Went to Fight Fascism |publisher=Old Street|location=[[Brecon]]|year=2013|isbn=978-1-908699-10-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I9ZCMgEACAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Henderson|first=Maragret|title=Granny's Stories|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8tdVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT104|year=2018|chapter=Jean|isbn=978-1-5245-9356-8|publisher=BookVenture Publishing|location=[[Ishpeming, Michigan]]|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Hogenkamp|first=Bert|title=Deadly Parallels: Film and The Left in Britain, 1929–1939|url=https://archive.org/details/deadlyparallelsf00hoge|url-access=registration|year=1986|publisher=[[Lawrence & Wishart|Lawrence and Wishart]]|isbn=978-0-85315-912-4|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Hutchings|editor-first=Stephen|title=Russia and its Other(s) on Film: Screening Intercultural Dialogue|location=New York City|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|page=122|year=2008|isbn=978-1-281-97598-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOqGDAAAQBAJ&q=porcupine&pg=PA122|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Isherwood|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Isherwood|title=Christopher and His Kind: A Memoir, 1929–1939|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0IOAQAAMAAJ|publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]]|location=[[New York City|New York]]|date=1976|isbn=978-0374-53522-3|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Isherwood|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Isherwood|title=Down There on a Visit|location=New York City|publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]]|year=1962|isbn=978-0-8166-3367-8|url=https://archive.org/details/downthereonvisit0000unse|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive|author-mask=10}}
* {{cite book|last=Isherwood|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Isherwood|title=Goodbye to Berlin|year=2012a|orig-year=1939|publisher=[[New Directions Publishing|New Directions]]|location=New York City|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PStG5AItN2IC|isbn=978-0-8112-2024-8|via=Google Books|author-mask=10}}
* {{cite book|last=Isherwood|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Isherwood|editor-last=Bucknell|editor-first=Katherine|editor-link=Katherine Bucknell|title=Liberation: Diaries, Vol. 3: 1970–1983|location=New York City|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|year=2012b|isbn=978-0-06-208474-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5Jbx9NeDV4C&pg=PP1|via=Google Books|author-mask=10}}
* {{cite book|last=Izzo|first=David Garrett|title=Christopher Isherwood: His Era, His Gang, and the Legacy of the Truly Strong Man|location=Columbia, South Carolina|publisher=[[University of South Carolina Press]]|year=2001|isbn=978-1-57003-403-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mPkBlBCmfbsC|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Izzo|first=David Garrett|title=Christopher Isherwood Encyclopedia|location=London|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|pages=97, 144|year=2005|isbn=0-7864-1519-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhAkCQAAQBAJ&q=jean+ross&pg=PA144|via=Google Books|author-mask=8}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Johnstone|first=Iain|author-link=Iain Johnstone|title=The Real Sally Bowles|magazine=[[Folio (magazine)|Folio]]|pages=33–34|date=Autumn 1975|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=[[American University]]}}
* {{cite book|last=Koestler|first=Arthur|author-link=Arthur Koestler|title=The Invisible Writing: Being the Second Volume of Arrow in the Blue|year=1954|publisher=[[Macmillan Company]]|location=New York City|pages=210, 335–336, 368|isbn=0-8128-6218-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v0JHAAAAYAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Lehmann|first=John|author-link=John Lehmann|title=Christopher Isherwood: A Personal Memoir|location=New York City|publisher=[[Henry Holt and Company]]|year=1987|isbn=0-8050-1029-7|url=https://archive.org/details/christopherisher00lehm_0|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=MacDonald|first=Dwight|author-link=Dwight Macdonald|title=On Movies|year=1969|chapter=Soviet Cinema, 1930–1940, A History|location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey|publisher=[[Prentice Hall]]|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dwightmacdonaldo0000macd/page/192 192]–198|edition=2nd|isbn=0-13-221150-5|url=https://archive.org/details/dwightmacdonaldo0000macd|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=MacLean|first=Rory|author-link=Rory MacLean|title=Berlin: Portrait of a City Through the Centuries|publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]]|location=New York City|year=2014|isbn=978-1-250-05240-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zaRzAwAAQBAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Maschwitz|first=Eric|author-link=Eric Maschwitz|title=No Chip on My Shoulder|publisher =[[Barrie & Jenkins|Herbert Jenkins]]|location=London| year = 1957 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vp5AAAAAIAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=McSmith|first=Andy|author-link=Andy McSmith|title=Fear and the Muse Kept Watch: The Russian Masters—from Akhmatova and Pasternak to Shostakovich and Eisenstein—Under Stalin|publisher=[[The New Press]]|year=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mbvoBgAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1-59558-056-6|location=London|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Mizejewski|first=Linda|title=Divine Decadence: Fascism, Female Spectacle, and the Makings of Sally Bowles|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1992|isbn=0-691-07896-3|url=https://archive.org/details/divinedecadencef0000mize|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=Mora|first=Constancia de la|title=In Place of Splendor: The Autobiography of a Spanish Woman|publisher=[[Harcourt Brace|Harcourt, Brace and Company]]|location=New York City|year=1939|pages=294, 306–315|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-N8bAAAAMAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Mosley|editor-first=Charles|editor-link=Charles Mosley (genealogist)|title=Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage, 107th edition, 3 volumes|year=2003|publisher=Genealogical Books|location=Wilmington, Delaware|volume=1|page=120|isbn=978-0-9711966-2-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rg11SQAACAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Orwell|first=George|author-link=George Orwell|title=Homage to Catalonia|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|orig-year=1938|year=2013|pages=168, 236–250|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X2iWNAEACAAJ|isbn=978-0-141-39302-5|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book | last = Parker | first = Peter | author-link = Peter Parker (author) | title = Isherwood: A Life Revealed | year = 2005 | orig-year = 2004 | publisher = [[Picador]] | location = London | isbn = 978-0-330-32826-5 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CdF2UXFgcFcC|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last1=Preston|first1=Paul|author-link1=Paul Preston|last2=Mackenzie|first2=Ann|title=The Republic Besieged: Civil War in Spain 1936–1939|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OSEqR1G40HwC|year=1996|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=978-0-7486-0861-4|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Sommerfield|first=John|author-link=John Sommerfield|title=The Imprinted: Recollections of Then, Now, and Later On|location=London|publisher=London Magazine Editions|year=1977|isbn=978-0-904388-26-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7IAIAQAAIAAJ|via=Google Books}} Although an autobiographical work disguised as a novel, John Sommerfield's ''The Imprinted'' draws upon factual relationships and events that occurred among British socialist enclaves in the 1930s. As such, Sommerfield's friendship with Ross and Cornford is likely factual, although any relationship between Ross and Cornford is unconfirmed.
* {{cite news|last=Spender|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Spender|title=On Being a Ghost in Isherwood's Berlin|magazine=[[Mademoiselle (magazine)|Mademoiselle]]|issue=79|date=September 1974|pages=138–139}}
* {{cite book|last=Spender|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Spender|title=World Within World: The Autobiography of Stephen Spender|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9OW3Ke7WKBMC|location=Berkeley, California|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|year=1966|orig-year=1951|isbn=978-0-679-64045-5|via=Google Books|author-mask=8}}
* {{cite book|last=Sutherland|first=John|author-link=John Sutherland (author)|title=Stephen Spender: A Literary Life|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/stephenspenderli00suth/page/122 122]|year=2005|isbn=0-19-517816-5|url=https://archive.org/details/stephenspenderli00suth|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=Williams|first=Keith|title=British Writers and the Media, 1930–45|location=London|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers Ltd]]|pages=265|year=1996|isbn=0-333-63896-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5oGuCwAAQBAJ&q=jean+ross+peter+porcupine&pg=PA265|via=Google Books}}
{{refend}}

==== Online sources ====
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{cite news|last=Allen|first=Brooke|title=Isherwood: The Uses of Narcissism|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=19 December 2004|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/19/books/review/isherwood-the-uses-of-narcissism.html|quote=The real Isherwood, though not without many sympathetic qualities, was petty, selfish and supremely egotistical. The least political of the so-called Auden group, Isherwood was always guided by his personal motivations rather than by abstract ideas.}}
* {{cite news|last=Bell|first=Arthur|author-link=Arthur Bell (journalist)|title=Christopher Isherwood: No Parades|newspaper=The New York Times|page=412|date=25 March 1973|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/03/25/archives/christopher-isherwood-no-parades.html}}
* {{cite news|title=Book Ends|newspaper=The New York Times|date=6 March 1977|page=309|access-date=18 June 2018|quote=[Christopher Isherwood] found no irony in the post‐Berlin life of Jean Ross, the woman who was the model for the hedonistic Sally Bowles: 'A beautiful woman. She left Berlin to go to Spain during the Civil War. She died recently still a Communist.'|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/03/06/archives/book-ends.html|ref={{harvid|The New York Times|1977}}}}
* {{cite news|last=Brown|first=Helen|title=Muse, The Witham, Barnard Castle|newspaper=[[The Northern Echo]]|date=18 February 2016|access-date=18 November 2018|url=https://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/news/14287071.muse-the-witham-barnard-castle/}}
* {{cite web|last=Cockburn|first=Alexander|author-link=Alexander Cockburn|title=Alexander Cockburn Reminisces About His Father's Second Wife Jean Ross|date=22 February 2001|website=[[CounterPunch|CounterPunch: America's Best Newsletter]]|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.counterpunch.org/rudyart.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010303095937/http://www.counterpunch.org/rudyart.html|archive-date=3 March 2001}}
* {{cite episode|last1=Day|first1=James|author-link1=James Day (journalist)|last2=Isherwood|first2=Christopher|author-link2=Christopher Isherwood|title=Christopher Isherwood on Day at Night, with James Day|transcript=Episode Information|transcript-url=https://www.cuny.tv/show/dayatnight/PR1012147|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kx09mDenhKU|access-date=18 June 2018|series=Day at Night|series-link=Day at Night|network=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] (PBS)|station=[[CUNY TV]]|date=25 April 1974|season=2|number=32|language=en}}
* {{cite news|last=Doyle|first=Rachel|title=Looking for Christopher Isherwood's Berlin|newspaper=The New York Times|page=TR10|date=12 April 2013|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/14/travel/looking-for-christopher-isherwoods-berlin.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Frost|first=Peter|title=Jean Ross: The Real Sally Bowles|newspaper=[[Morning Star (British newspaper)|Morning Star]]|date=31 December 2013|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/a-52c7-Jean-Ross-the-real-Sally-Bowles}} Frost's article is more or less a summary of the Oxford National Biography article by [[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]].
* {{cite news|last=Fyrth|first=Jim|title=Obituary: Bill Carritt|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=25 May 1999|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/1999/may/24/guardianobituaries1}}
* {{cite web|last=Gallagher|first=Paul|title=Life is a Cabaret: Christopher Isherwood on the real Sally Bowles, Berlin, writing and W. H. Auden|website=Dangerous Minds|publisher=Presented by [[Richard Metzger]]|date=3 April 2014|access-date=2 October 2019|url=https://dangerousminds.net/comments/life_is_a_cabaret_christopher_isherwood_on_the_real_sally_bowles_berlin}}
* {{cite news|last=Gilbert|first=Gerard|title=Christopher Isherwood: A Singular Talent Laid Bare|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|location=London|date=8 March 2011|access-date=18 June 2018|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/features/christopher-isherwood-a-singular-talent-laid-bare-2235123.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Grossman|first=Lev|author-link=Lev Grossman|title=All-Time 100 Novels: The Berlin Stories|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=6 January 2010|access-date=18 June 2017|url=https://entertainment.time.com/2005/10/16/all-time-100-novels/slide/the-berlin-stories-1946-by-christopher-isherwood/}}
* {{cite news|last=Harvey|first=Chris|title=Christopher and His Kind, BBC Two, Review|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=18 March 2011|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8391758/Christopher-and-His-Kind-BBC-Two-review.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Hensher|first=Philip|author-link=Philip Hensher|title=Christopher and His Kind|url=http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/15th-may-2004/56/christopher-and-his-kind|date=15 May 2005|newspaper=[[The Spectator]]|access-date=18 November 2018}}
* {{cite web|last=Jardine|first=Jon|title=Cabaret Berlin: Jean Ross|date=24 April 2014|website=Cabaret Berlin: Exploring the Entertainment of the Weimar Era|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.cabaret-berlin.com/?p=1038|quote=Isherwood returned to the United States and three years later, on April 27th 1973, Jean died of cervical cancer at her home in Barnes, south-west London. She was cremated at [[Mortlake Crematorium]] on May 4th 1973.}}
* {{cite web|title=John Sommerfield|website=London Books|url=http://www.london-books.co.uk/authors/johnsommerfield.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617221521/http://www.london-books.co.uk/authors/johnsommerfield.html|date=June 2015|access-date=7 March 2020|archive-date=17 June 2015|url-status=live|quote=[John Sommerfield] went off to fight for the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, serving in a machine-gun unit and losing his friend and fellow writer John Cornford to the conflict. On his return to England, Sommerfield found that he had been reported dead, his obituary appearing in two newspapers. ''Volunteer In Spain'' appeared in 1937 and was dedicated to Cornford, but he felt that he had been rushed in writing it, despite mainly positive coverage.|ref={{harvid|Sommerfield|2015}}}}
* {{cite news|last=Moynihan|first=Colin|title=Alexander Cockburn, Acerbic Writer and Critic, Dies at 71|newspaper=The New York Times|page=B8|date=22 July 2012|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/23/nyregion/alexander-cockburn-left-wing-writer-dies-at-71.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Moss|first=Howard|author-link=Howard Moss|title=Christopher Isherwood: Man and Work|newspaper=The New York Times|date=3 June 1979|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1979/06/03/archives/christopher-isherwood-man-and-work-isherwood.html}}
* {{cite web|title=National Archives: Francis Claud Cockburn – Security File|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C11190900|date=1 January 1940|website=The National Archives|access-date=29 May 2019|quote="Francis Claud Cockburn, alias Frank Pitcairn: British. In 1933 Cockburn a former ''Times'' journalist, started his own political publication ''The Week'' which gained a reputation for having inside sources of information. In 1936, under the name 'Frank Pitcairn', he reported on the Spanish Civil War for the ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'', later becoming its Foreign Editor. In 1939 he was a leading British Communist Party member and was said to be a leader of the Comintern in Western Europe. Throughout the Second World War he remained an active Communist".|ref={{harvid|National Archives|1940}}}}
* {{cite web|last=Norton|first=Ingrid|title=Year with Short Novels: Breakfast at Sally Bowles|publisher=[[Open Letters Monthly]]|date=1 July 2010|access-date=2 July 2018|url=https://www.openlettersmonthly.com/short-novels-breakfast-at-sally-bowles/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407054257/https://www.openlettersmonthly.com/short-novels-breakfast-at-sally-bowles/|archive-date=7 April 2018|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite news|title=Paul Scott Mowrer Dies of 83; Won Pulitzer as Correspondent|work=The New York Times|date=7 April 1971|page=46|access-date=7 October 2020|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/04/07/archives/paul-scott-mowrer-dies-ats3-won-puhtzer-ascorrespondent.html|ref={{harvid|The New York Times|1971}}|url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite ODNB|last=Parker|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Parker (author)|title=Ross, Jean Iris (1911–1973)|date=September 2004|url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/74425|access-date=18 June 2017|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/74425|url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite web|title=Rumba (1935)|website=[[Internet Movie Database]]|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0026956/|postscript=. As Ross purportedly never travelled to the United States during her lifetime, it is possible that Ross was erroneously credited as having a small role in this film.|ref={{harvid|Internet Movie Database}}}}
* {{cite journal|last=Ryan|first=Trevor|title=Labour and Media in Britain 1929–1939: A Study of the Attitudes of the Labour Movement Towards the New Media, Film and Radio, and Of Its Attempts to Use them For Political Purposes|volume=2|pages=314, 325|date=March 1986|journal=School of History|publisher=[[University of Leeds]]|url=http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/726/2/uk_bl_ethos_409747_vol2.pdf}}
* {{cite news|last=Spender|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Spender|title=Life Wasn't a Cabaret|newspaper=The New York Times|page=198|date=30 October 1977|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/10/30/archives/life-wasnt-a-cabaret-on-a-visit-to-the-berlin-festival-stephen.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Stasio|first=Marilyn|author-link=Marilyn Stasio|title=Sarah Caudwell, 60, Lawyer and Author of Mystery Novels|newspaper=The New York Times|date=6 February 2000|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/06/nyregion/sarah-caudwell-60-lawyer-and-author-of-mystery-novels.html|quote=[[Sarah Caudwell]] was born May 27, 1939.}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Thomson|first=David|author-link=David Thomson (film critic)|title=The Observer as Hero|date=21 March 2005|access-date=2 October 2019|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/68111/the-observer-hero|magazine=[[The New Republic]]|location=New York City}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Vidal|first=Gore|author-link=Gore Vidal|title=Art, Sex and Isherwood|magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]]|date=9 December 1976|location=New York City|access-date=18 June 2018|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1976/12/09/art-sex-and-isherwood/}}
* {{cite report|last=Whaley|first=Barton|date=September 1969|title=Guerrillas in the Spanish Civil War|url=http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/703755.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212052637/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/703755.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 February 2017|periodical=[[Center for International Studies]]|institution=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]|location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]|page=44|access-date=18 November 2018|others=Sponsored by the [[DARPA|Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA)]]}}
* {{cite web|last=Whitehead|first=Andrew|title=John Sommerfield|website=AndrewWhitehead.Net|url=https://www.andrewwhitehead.net/john-sommerfield.html|date=August 2013|access-date=7 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801061951/https://www.andrewwhitehead.net/john-sommerfield.html|archive-date=1 August 2013|url-status=live|quote=John Sommerfield described ''The Imprinted'' as semi-fictional memoirs. It draws loosely on his own life—the dissolute, disputatious political and literary circles in which he mixed; political activism in London; fighting in Spain... Much of the action concerns a commission to make a radio documentary about... John Cornford, then being pressured to amend the script and take out some of the politics, and battling against these injunctions.}}
* {{cite news|last=Wollaston|first=Sam|title=Review: Christopher and His Kind <nowiki>|</nowiki> Civilization: Is the West History?|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=20 March 2011|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2011/mar/20/christopher-and-his-kind-review}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|2642181|Jean Ross}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110623141530/http://www.counterpunch.org/rudyart.html Jean Ross – CounterPunch Profile] counterpunch.org; accessed 8 July 2014.
* [https://www.oxforddnb.com/templates/article.jsp?articleid=74425 Jean Ross – Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Profile], oxforddnb.com; accessed 8 July 2014.

{{Isherwood}}

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{{DEFAULTSORT:Ross, Jean}}
[[Category:1911 births]]
[[Category:1973 deaths]]
[[Category:English people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:People from Alexandria]]
[[Category:British communists]]
[[Category:British expatriates in Germany]]
[[Category:British women singers]]
[[Category:British writers]]
[[Category:British film critics]]
[[Category:British women film critics]]
[[Category:Deaths from cervical cancer]]
[[Category:Nightclub performers]]
[[Category:20th-century English singers]]
[[Category:20th-century English women singers]]
[[Category:People associated with RADA]]
[[Category:British socialist feminists]]
[[Category:Deaths from cancer in England]]
[[Category:British expatriates in Egypt]]

Jean Ross

2023-11-10T01:41:05Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Fall of Madrid and return to England */removed duplicative links

{{short description|British writer, political activist, and film critic (1911–1973)}}
{{for|the Canadian physician and politician|Jean Auguste Ross}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jean Ross
| image = {{CSS image crop|Image=Jean ross.jpg|bSize=340|cWidth=200|cHeight=200|oTop=25|oLeft=65|Location=center}}
| caption = Ross in c.1931
| birth_name = Jean Iris Ross
| birth_date = {{birth date|1911|05|07|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Alexandria]], Egypt{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1973|04|27|1911|05|07|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Richmond, London|Richmond]], [[Surrey]], England
| partner = {{List collapsed|title=''See list''|1={{plain list|
* [[Eric Maschwitz]]{{sfn|Brown|2016}}
* [[Peter van Eyck]]{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}}
* [[John Cornford]]
* [[Claud Cockburn]]{{efn|name=Deed Poll}} }}}}
| children = [[Sarah Caudwell]]{{sfn|Stasio|2000}}
| relatives = [[Olivia Wilde]]{{sfn|Mosley|2003|p=120}} (step-granddaughter)
| occupation = Film critic, writer, singer
| employer = ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'' (film critic) ''[[Daily Express]]'' (war correspondent)
}}

'''Jean Iris Ross Cockburn'''{{efn|name=Deed Poll}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|oʊ|b|ər|n}} {{respell|KOH|bərn}}; 7 May 1911 – 27 April 1973) was a [[British people|British]] [[journalist]], political activist, and [[Film criticism|film critic]].{{sfnm|Williams|1996|1p=265|Whaley|1969|2p=44|Jardine|2014}} During the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–39), she was a [[war correspondent]] for the ''[[Daily Express]]'' and is alleged to have been a [[press agent]] for [[Joseph Stalin]]'s [[Comintern]].{{sfnm|Williams|1996|1p=265|Whaley|1969|2p=44|Fyrth|1999}} A skilled writer, Ross worked as a film critic for the ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'' and her criticisms of early [[Cinema of the Soviet Union|Soviet cinema]] were later described by scholars as ingenious works of "[[Marxist dialectic|dialectical sophistry]]".{{efn|name=Peter Porcupine|Ross wrote many articles using the alias [[Peter Porcupine]].{{sfn|Hogenkamp|1986|p=119}}}}{{sfn|Hutchings|2008|p=122}} Throughout her life, she wrote political criticism, [[anti-fascist]] polemics, and socialist manifestos for a number of disparate organisations such as the British Workers' Film and Photo League.{{sfn|Forbes|2011|pp=206–19}} She was a devout [[Stalinist]] and a lifelong member of the [[Communist Party of Great Britain]].{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=100–101|Croft|1989|2p=156|Firchow|2008|3p=120}}

During her itinerant youth in the [[Weimar Republic]], Ross was a cabaret singer and aspiring film actress in Berlin. Her escapades inspired the heroine in [[Christopher Isherwood]]'s 1937 [[novella]] ''[[Sally Bowles]]'' which was later collected in ''[[Goodbye to Berlin]]'',{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}}<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Isherwood's Sally Bowles was based on Jean Ross, a spunky British woman whom he met during his Berlin days with [[W. H. Auden]] and [[Stephen Spender]]".</ref> a work cited by literary critics as deftly capturing the hedonistic nihilism of the [[Weimar culture|Weimar era]] and later adapted into the stage musical ''[[Cabaret (musical)|Cabaret]]''.<ref name="Grossman">{{harvnb|Grossman|2010}}: ''[[The Berlin Stories]]'' "form one coherent snapshot of a lost world, the antic, cosmopolitan Berlin of the 1930s, where jolly expatriates dance faster and faster, as if that would save them from the creeping rise of Nazism".</ref> In the 1937 novella, Sally is a British [[flapper]] who moonlights as a chanteuse during the twilight of the [[Jazz Age]]. After a series of failed romances, she becomes pregnant and has an [[abortion]] facilitated by the novella's narrator.<ref name="Sally Abortion"/> Isherwood based many of the novella's details upon actual events in Ross' life, including her abortion.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}}{{sfnm|Lehmann|1987|1pp=28–9|Gallagher|2014}} Fearing a [[libel suit]], Isherwood delayed publication of the work until given Ross' explicit permission.<ref name="Libel Suit"/>{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Lehmann|1987|2p=29}}

For the remainder of her life, Ross believed the public association of herself with the naïve and apolitical character of Bowles occluded her lifelong work as a professional writer and political activist.{{sfnm|Croft|1989|1p=156|Firchow|2008|2p=120}} Her daughter [[Sarah Caudwell]], who shared this belief, later wrote a newspaper article in an attempt to correct the historical record and to dispel misconceptions about Ross.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} According to Caudwell, "in the transformations of the novel for stage and cinema the characterisation of Sally has become progressively cruder and less subtle and the stories about 'the original' correspondingly more high-coloured".{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}

In addition to inspiring the character Sally Bowles,{{sfn|Garebian|2011|p=4}} Ross is credited by the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'' and other sources as the muse for lyricist [[Eric Maschwitz]]'s jazz standard "[[These Foolish Things (Remind Me of You)]]", one of the 20th century's most enduring love songs.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Brown|2016}} Although Maschwitz's estranged wife [[Hermione Gingold]] later claimed the song was written for herself or actor [[Anna May Wong]],{{sfn|Gingold|1989|p=54}} Maschwitz contradicted these claims.{{sfn|Maschwitz|1957|pp=77–79}} Instead, Maschwitz cited memories of a "young love",{{sfn|Maschwitz|1957|pp=77–79}} and most scholars posit Maschwitz's youthful affair with Ross inspired the song.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Brown|2016}}

== Early life and education ==
[[File:Bridge Street, Leatherhead (geograph 2099800).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|After spending her childhood in the [[History of Egypt under the British|British protectorate of Egypt]], Ross was educated at [[Leatherhead|Leatherhead Court]], [[Surrey]].]]

Jean Ross was raised in luxury at Maison Ballassiano in the [[History of Egypt under the British|British protectorate]] of [[Alexandria, Egypt]],{{sfnm|Garebian|2011|1pp=6–7|Parker|2005|2p=206|Isherwood|2012b|3loc=Glossary|3p=796}} She was the eldest daughter of Charles Ross (1880–1938), a Scottish cotton classifier for the [[Bank of Egypt]] and brought up with her four siblings in a staunchly liberal, anti-[[Conservative Party (UK)|Tory]] household.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}{{sfnm|Parker|2005|1p=206|Isherwood|2012b|2loc=Glossary|2p=796}}

Ross was educated in England at [[Leatherhead|Leatherhead Court]], [[Surrey]].{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} As an unusually intelligent pupil who had completed the [[sixth form]] curricula by the age of 16, she was profoundly bored and loathed school.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} She became openly rebellious when informed she must remain at school for another year to repeat her already completed coursework.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} To gain her freedom, she feigned a teenage pregnancy and was summoned to appear before the school's stern headmistress:

{{Quote|Jean remembered standing by the fireplace, feeling the cold marble under her hand while she debated 'for the longest thirty seconds of my life' whether to tell the truth, which would have condemned her to remaining at the school, or lie and suffer the consequences.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}}}}

She falsely insisted to the headmistress that she was pregnant and the Leatherhead Court schoolmasters sequestered the teenager in a nearby [[sanatorium|insane asylum]] until a relative arrived and retrieved her.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} When they discovered the pregnancy was feigned, Ross was formally expelled.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} Exasperated by her defiant behaviour, her parents sent her abroad to Pensionnat Mistral, an elite Swiss [[finishing school]] in [[Neuchâtel]].{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Ross, however, was either expelled or fled the school.{{sfn|Frost|2013}}

Using a trust stipend provided by her grandfather Charles Caudwell, who was an affluent industrialist and landowner,{{sfn|Parker|2004}} the teenage Ross returned to England and enrolled in the [[Royal Academy of Dramatic Art]] (RADA), London.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} After diligently applying herself in her first year, she won a coveted acting prize that gave her the opportunity to play the lead role in any production of her choice.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} When she selected the difficult role of [[Phèdre|Phaedra]], she was informed her youth precluded such a tragic role because she lacked the requisite life experience.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Hurt by this refusal, Ross left the academy after one year to pursue a film career.{{sfn|Frost|2013}}

In 1930, at nineteen years of age, Ross and fellow Egyptian-born Hungarian actor [[Marika Rökk]] obtained cinematic roles portraying a harem ''[[houri]]'' in director [[Monty Banks]]' ''[[Why Sailors Leave Home]]'', an [[Sound film|early sound comedy]] that was filmed in London.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=207}} Ross's dark complexion and partial fluency in Arabic were deemed suitable for the role.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=207}} Disappointed with their small roles, she and Rökk heard rumours about ample job opportunities for aspiring actors in the [[Weimar Republic|Weimar Republic of Germany]] and set off with great expectations for Central Europe.{{sfn|Parker|2005|pp=205, 207}}

== Weimar Berlin ==
{{Annotated image|image=Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-P062899, Berlin, Tanzkabarett im Europahaus.jpg|image-width=250|image-left=0|image-top=-20|width=240|height=200|float=right|caption=Ross was a singer at many of the [[Weimar culture|Weimar-era cabarets]] in Berlin.|Link=Weimar culture}}

Ross's excursion to Central Europe proved less successful than she had hoped. Unable to find acting work, she worked as a nightclub singer in Weimar Germany, ostensibly in [[lesbian bar]]s and second-rate cabarets.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=205}} When not singing or modelling,{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=207}} she often visited the offices of the [[UFA GmbH]], a German motion picture production company, in the hopes of gaining small film roles. By late 1931,{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=88–89}} she obtained a job as a dancer in theatre director [[Max Reinhardt]]'s production of [[Jacques Offenbach|Offenbach]]'s ''{{Lang|fr|opéra [[fantastique]]}}'' ''[[Tales of Hoffmann]]'',{{sfnm|Sutherland|2005|1p=122|Spender|1977}} and played Anitra in Reinhardt's production of ''[[Peer Gynt]]''.{{sfnm|Caudwell|1986|1pp=28–29|Gilbert|2011|Cockburn|2001}}

Reinhardt's much-anticipated production of ''Tales of Hoffmann'' premiered on 28 November 1931.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=88–89}} The production was reputedly one of the last great triumphs of the Berlin theatre scene prior to the [[Nazi Party]]'s gradual ascent. Ross and a male dancer appeared together as an amorous couple in the stage background, and were visible only in silhouette during the Venetian palace sequence of the second act.{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=88–89|Isherwood|2012b|2p=386}} Later, Ross said she and the male performer had capitalised on this opportunity for sexual intimacy in full view of the unsuspecting audience.{{efn|name=Hoffmann|In 1986, many years after Ross' death, her daughter Sarah Caudwell disputed Isherwood's claims of Ross' sexual exhibitionism in Reinhardt's ''[[Tales of Hoffmann]]''.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} Acquaintance [[Gerald Hamilton]] and others, however, said Ross was known for her sexual exhibitionism, including entertaining guests in the nude.{{sfn|Hamilton|1969|p=44}}}}{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=88–89}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|2012b|p=386}}: Ross "claimed that she and her fellow extra used to fuck {{sic}} every single night on stage during the party at Giulietta's Venetian palace in the second act of [[The Tales of Hermann|Hoffmans ''Erzählungen'']]".</ref>

=== Meeting Isherwood ===
By late 1931, Ross had moved to [[Schöneberg|Schöneberg, Berlin]], where she shared modest lodgings in Fräulein Meta Thurau's flat at [[Nollendorfplatz|Nollendorfstraße 17]] with English writer [[Christopher Isherwood]], whom she had met in October 1930 or early 1931.{{efn|name=Fraulein Meta Thurau|Isherwood said Fräulein Meta Thurau "was tremendously intrigued by her [Ross'] looks and mannerisms, her makeup, her style of dressing, and above all, her stories about her love affairs. But she didn't altogether like Jean. For Jean was untidy and inconsiderate; she made a lot of extra work for her landladies. She expected room service and sometimes would order people around in an imperious tone, with her English upper-class rudeness".{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}: "Jean moved into a room in the Nollendorfstrasse flat after she met Christopher, early in 1931".</ref>{{sfnm|Isherwood|2012b|1loc=Glossary|1p=796|Hamilton|1969|2p=44|Izzo|2005|3p=163|Lehmann|1987|4p=18}} Isherwood, who was an apprentice novelist, was politically ambivalent about the rise of fascism and had moved to Berlin in order to avail himself of boy prostitutes and to enjoy the city's orgiastic [[Jazz Age]] cabarets.<ref>{{harvnb|Moss|1979}}: Isherwood frequented "the boy-bars in Berlin in the late years of the Weimar Republic.... [He] discovered a world utterly different from the repressive English one he disliked, and with it, the excitements of sex and new subject matter."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|loc=Chapter 1|ps=: "To Christopher, Berlin meant Boys... Christopher was suffering from an inhibition, then not unusual among upper-class homosexuals; he couldn't relax sexually with a member of his own class or nation. He needed a working-class foreigner. He had become clearly aware of this when he went to Germany in May 1928."}}</ref> At their first meeting, Ross monopolised the conversation and recounted her latest sexual conquests.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} At one point, she reached into her handbag and produced a [[Diaphragm (birth control)|diaphragm]], which she waved in the face of a startled Isherwood.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} The two soon became intimate friends.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=207}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}: "In real life, Jean and Christopher had a relationship which was asexual but more truly intimate than the relationships between Sally and her various partners in the novel, the plays and the films".</ref>

Although Ross' relations with Isherwood were not always amicable,{{efn|name=Acrimony with Isherwood|Isherwood wrote in his 1976 memoir that both he and Ross were selfish and often quarrelled.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=63}} [[Stephen Spender]] likewise implied relations between Isherwood and Ross were often acrimonious, and Isherwood referred to Ross as "a bitch" for snidely claiming he might one day "write something really great, like [[Noël Coward]]".{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=122}}}} she soon joined [[Auden Group|Isherwood's social circle]] alongside more politically-aware poets [[W.H. Auden]] and [[Stephen Spender]].{{sfn|Izzo|2005|p=144}}<ref>{{harvnb|Spender|1966|p=122}}. In his autobiography ''World Within World'', Spender described Ross as she appeared in 1931: "Her clothes dishevelled, her eyes large onyxes fringed by eyelashes like enamelled wire, in a face of carved ivory".</ref> Subsequently, Ross was the only woman in this circle of gay male writers, who mythologised her in their respective memoirs.{{sfn|Izzo|2005|p=144}} Among Isherwood's acquaintances, Ross was regarded as a sexual [[libertine]] who was devoid of inhibitions and had no qualms about entertaining visitors to their flat while nude or about discussing her sexual relations.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=88–89}}<ref>{{harvnb|Hamilton|1969|pp=44–45}}: "I always remember my first meeting with Jean Ross... When I called with my usual punctuality exactly at twelve o'clock, I was told that Miss Ross was in her bath. However a gay voice rang out down the passes — 'Is that you, Gerald? Come and talk to me, darling, while I'm having my bath' ... I felt rather startled at this warm invitation to sit down in the bathroom while a lady I had only met the night before was performing her ablutions. However, I went into the bathroom".</ref>{{sfnm|Garebian|2011|1pp=6–7|Isherwood|1976|2p=63}} A contemporary portrait of the 19-year-old Ross appears in Isherwood's ''[[Goodbye to Berlin]]'' when the narrator first encounters the "divinely decadent" Sally Bowles:<ref name="Divinely Decadent">{{harvnb|Garebian|2011|p=30}}: "Sally seems satisfied to be divinely decadent..."</ref><ref name="Divine Decadence">{{harvnb|Mizejewski|1992|p=4}}: "The Sally character herself is this century's darling of divine decadence, an odd measure of how dear to us is this fiction of the 'shocking' British/American vamp in Weimar Berlin."</ref>

{{Quote|I noticed that her fingernails were painted emerald green, a colour unfortunately chosen, for it called attention to her hands, which were much stained by cigarette smoking and as dirty as a little girl's. She was dark ... Her face was long and thin, powdered dead white. She had very large brown eyes which should have been darker, to match her hair and the pencil she used for her eyebrows.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012a|p=24}}}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-P049500, Berlin, Aufmarsch der SA in Spandau.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|A parade of [[Brownshirts]] in [[Weimar Republic|Weimar Berlin]] in 1932. By the time Ross and Isherwood departed that same year, such parades were a regular occurrence.]]

Isherwood further described the youthful Ross as having a physical resemblance to [[Merle Oberon]] but said her face naturally had a sardonic humour akin to that of comedian [[Beatrice Lillie]].{{sfn|Day|Isherwood|1974}} Their ramshackle flat at Nollendorfstraße 17 was in a working-class district near the centre of Weimar Berlin's radical enclaves, subversive activity, and gay nightlife.{{sfnm|1a1=Day|1a2=Isherwood|1y=1974|2a1=Doyle|2y=2013}} By day, Ross was a fashion model for popular magazines,{{sfn|Frost|2013}} and by night, she was a [[Bohemian style|bohemian]] chanteuse singing in the nearby cabarets located along the [[Kurfürstendamm]] avenue, an [[Red-light district|entertainment-vice district]] that was selected for future destruction by [[Joseph Goebbels]] in his 1928 journal.{{sfn|Farina|2013|p=79}}<ref>{{harvnb|Lehmann|1987|p=18}}: "Jean Ross, whom [Isherwood] had met in Berlin as one of his fellow-lodgers in the Nollendorfstrasse for a time, when she was earning her living as a (not very remarkable) singer in a second-rate cabaret".</ref> These cabarets would be closed by the [[Brownshirts]] when the [[Nazi seizure of power|Nazi Party seized power]] in early 1933.{{sfn|Farina|2013|p=79}} Isherwood visited these nightclubs to hear Ross sing; he later described her voice as poor but nonetheless effective:{{sfn|Lehmann|1987|p=18}}

{{Quote|She had a surprisingly deep, husky voice. She sang badly,{{efn|name=Ross' voice|[[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]] notes that Ross "claimed that Isherwood 'grossly underrated' her singing abilities, but her family agreed that this was one aspect of Sally Bowles that Isherwood got absolutely right".{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}}}} without any expression, her hands hanging down at her sides—yet her performance was, in its own way, effective because of her startling appearance and her air of not caring a curse of what people thought of her.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012a|p=27}}}}

Due to her acquaintance with Isherwood, Ross would later become immortalised as "a bittersweet English [[Wiktionary:Hoyden|hoyden]]" named [[Sally Bowles]] in Isherwood's 1937 eponymous [[novella]] and his 1939 book ''[[Goodbye to Berlin]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Lehmann|1987|p=18}}: "Jean Ross ... She had not yet been immortalized as Sally Bowles ..."</ref>{{sfnm|Garebian|2011|1pp=6–7|Bell|1973}} While in Isherwood's company, Ross was introduced to the visiting [[Paul Bowles]], a bisexual American writer who would later gain acclaim for his [[post-colonial]] novel ''[[The Sheltering Sky]]''.{{sfnm|Garebian|2011|1pp=6–7|Vidal|1976}} This meeting between Ross and Paul Bowles made an impression upon Isherwood, who later used Bowles' surname for the character Sally Bowles, whom he based upon Ross.{{sfn|Vidal|1976}}<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Isherwood himself admitted that he named the character of [Sally Bowles] for Paul Bowles, whose 'looks' he liked".</ref> Isherwood said Ross was "more essentially British than Sally; she grumbled like a true Englishwoman, with her 'grin-and-bear-it' grin. And she was tougher".{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}}

=== Abortion incident ===
[[File:Peter van Eyck in Five Graves to Cairo (1943) trailer.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|link=Peter van Eyck|Actor [[Peter van Eyck]] in ''[[Five Graves to Cairo]]'' (1943). The 1931 relationship between van Eyck and Ross—and Ross' subsequent abortion—became the basis of Isherwood's 1937 novella ''Sally Bowles''.]]

Although Isherwood sometimes had sex with women,{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=10–11}} Ross—unlike the fictional character Sally—never tried to seduce Isherwood,<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}: "Jean never tried to seduce him [Isherwood]. But I remember a rainy, depressing afternoon when she remarked, 'What a pity we can't make love, there's nothing else to do,' and he agreed that it was and there wasn't".</ref> although they were forced to share a bed whenever their flat became overcrowded with visiting revelers.{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}: "On at least one occasion, because of some financial or housing emergency, they [Isherwood and Ross] shared a bed without the least embarrassment. Jean knew Otto and Christopher's other sex mates but showed no desire to share them, although he wouldn't have really minded".</ref> Instead, Isherwood settled into a same-sex relationship with a young, working-class, German man named Heinz Neddermeyer,{{sfnm|Izzo|2005|1p=6|Vidal|1976}} while Ross entered into a variety of heterosexual liaisons, including one with the tall, blond, musician Götz von Eick,{{sfnm|Thomson|2005|Parker|2005|2p=220}} who later became an actor under the stage name [[Peter van Eyck]] and future star of [[Henri-Georges Clouzot]]'s ''[[The Wages of Fear]]''.{{sfnm|Frost|2013|Gallagher|2014|Thomson|2005}} Although some biographers identified van Eyck as Jewish,{{efn|name=Peter van Eyck|Critic [[David Thomson (film critic)|David Thomson]] and writer [[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]] assert that [[Peter van Eyck]] was [[Jewish]].{{sfnm|Parker|2005|1p=220|Thomson|2005}} Others contend van Eyck was a [[Pomerania]]n aristocrat.{{sfnm|1a1=Bergfelder|1y=2007|1p=47|2a1=Bock|2a2=Bergfelder|2y=2009|2pp=495–496}} The character of Klaus Linke in Isherwood's ''Goodbye to Berlin'' is based upon van Eyck.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}}}}{{sfnm|Thomson|2005|Parker|2005|2p=220}} others posit van Eyck was the wealthy scion of [[Prussia]]n landowners in [[Pomerania]].{{sfn|Bergfelder|2007|p=47}} As a Pomeranian aristocrat, he was expected by his family to embark upon a military career but he became interested in jazz as a young man and pursued musical studies in Berlin.{{sfnm|1a1=Bergfelder|1y=2007|1p=47|2a1=Bock|2a2=Bergfelder|2y=2009|2pp=495–496}}

When the 19-year-old van Eyck met Ross, he often moonlighted as a jazz pianist in Berlin cabarets. Either during their brief relationship or soon after their separation, Ross realised she was pregnant.{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=244–245|Gallagher|2014|Thomson|2005}} As a personal favour to Ross, Isherwood pretended to be her heterosexual impregnator to facilitate an abortion procedure.{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=244–245|Spender|1966|2p=127|Spender|1974|3pp=138–139}} Ross nearly died as a result of the abortion procedure due to the carelessness of the doctor.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}} Following the procedure, Isherwood visited an ailing Ross in a Berlin hospital. Wrongly assuming the shy gay author to be her heterosexual partner, the hospital staff despised him for callously forcing Ross to undergo a near-fatal abortion. These tragicomic events later inspired Isherwood to write his 1937 novella ''Sally Bowles'' and serves as its narrative climax.{{sfnm|Lehmann|1987|1pp=28–9|Gallagher|2014}}<ref name="Sally Abortion">{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "The abortion is a turning point in the narrator's relationship with Sally and also in his relationship to Berlin and to his writing".</ref>

=== Departure from Germany ===
While Ross recovered from the botched abortion procedure, the political situation [[Adolf Hitler's rise to power|rapidly deteriorated]] in Weimar Germany as the incipient [[Nazi Party]] continued to grow stronger day by day.{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=129}} By 1932, Weimar Germany was in the trough of an economic depression, with millions of persons unemployed.{{sfn|Spender|1977}} Nearly every German they encountered "was poor, living from hand to mouth on little money".{{sfn|Crossman|1949|p=233}} Berlin residents experienced "poverty, unemployment, political demonstrations and street fighting between the forces of the extreme left and the extreme right".{{sfn|Spender|1977}}

As the political climate deteriorated, Ross, Isherwood, Spender, and others realised they must leave Germany.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=254}} "There was a sensation of doom to be felt in the Berlin streets", Spender recalled.{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=129}} In the [[July 1932 German federal election|July 1932 elections]], the Nazis achieved a plurality in the [[Reichstag (Weimar Republic)|Reichstag]] and, by August that year, Ross departed Germany and returned to southern England.{{efn|name=England|Attempting to streamline events in a 1977 interview, Isherwood inaccurately said Ross went from Germany to Spain to join the Spanish Civil War.{{sfn|The New York Times|1977}} This is incorrect.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=95}} After leaving Berlin, Ross returned to England and then went to Spain.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=95}}}}{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=95}} Despite Ross leaving Germany, Isherwood chose to remain due to his close attachment to Heinz Neddermeyer. However, after [[Adolf Hitler]]'s ascension as [[Chancellor of Germany]] on 30 January 1933, Isherwood realised that staying any longer in Germany would be perilous.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}} He commented to a friend: "Adolf, with his rectangular black moustache, has come to stay and brought all his friends.... Nazis are to be enrolled as 'auxiliary police,' which means that one must now not only be murdered but that it is illegal to offer any resistance."{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}} Two weeks after Hitler passed the [[Enabling Act of 1933|Enabling Act]] which cemented his power, Isherwood fled Germany and returned to England on 5 April 1933.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker|2005|p=221}}: "Isherwood recognized that he could not remain in Berlin much longer and on April 5, the day measures were brought in to ban Jews from the teaching professions and the Civil Service, he arrived back in London, bringing with him many of his possessions."</ref>

Ultimately, the increasing prevalence of xenophobic Nazism in the country would preclude Ross and Isherwood from returning to their beloved Berlin.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Many of the Berlin cabaret denizens whom Ross and Isherwood befriended would later flee abroad or die in [[concentration camp|labour camps]].{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=164–166|Farina|2013|2p=74–81}}<ref>{{harvnb|Parker|2005|p=614}}: "It was probably during the Berlin trip that Isherwood learned that the Nazis eventually caught up with his other companion on his 1933 journey to Greece, Erwin Hansen, who had died in a concentration camp".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=297}}: "Heinz [Neddermeyer] might easily have been sentenced to an indefinite term in a concentration camp, as many homosexuals were ... Like the Jews, homosexuals were often put into 'liquidation' units, in which they were given less food and more work than other prisoners. Thus, thousands of them died".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1962|p=61}}: There were "people in danger of their lives, travelling with false papers and in fear of being caught and sent to a concentration camp or simply killed outright. It is only in the past few weeks that I have fully grasped the fact that such a situation really exists—not in a newspaper or a novel—but here where I have been living".</ref>

== Activities in London ==
{{Quote box|align=right|width=40%|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quoted=1|fontsize=100% | quote = There is nothing in his [Isherwood's] portrait of Sally [Bowles] to suggest that she might have any genuine ability as an actress, still less as a writer. My mother [Jean Ross], on the other hand, was at least talented enough as an actress to be cast as Anitra in Max Reinhardt's production of ''Peer Gynt'' and competent enough as a writer to earn her living, not long afterwards, as a scenario-writer and journalist.|author=—[[Sarah Caudwell]]|source = "Reply to Berlin", October 1986{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}}}

=== Joining the Communist Party ===
{{further|Claud Cockburn|Communist Party of Great Britain}}

After her return to southern England, Ross resided at [[Cheyne Walk]] in [[Chelsea, London]], and continued to fraternise with Isherwood and his circle of friends.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=95}} She also began to associate with left-wing political activists "who were humorous but dedicated, sexually permissive but politically dogmatic".<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=149}}: "Jean was now beginning to shed her Sally Bowles persona. Her way of expressing herself already showed the influence of her new London friends—left-wingers who were humorous but dedicated, sexually permissive but politically dogmatic".</ref> During this period, she met [[Claud Cockburn]], an Anglo-Scots journalist and the second cousin, once removed, of novelists [[Alec Waugh]] and [[Evelyn Waugh]].{{sfn|Mosley|2003|p=120}}

They met at the [[Hotel Café Royal|Café Royal]].{{efn|name=Ross and Cockburn Meeting|[[Gerald Hamilton]] hypothesised Ross and Cockburn were acquaintances as far back as Berlin in 1930.<ref>{{harvnb|Hamilton|1969|pp=44–45}}: [[Gerald Hamilton]] said [[Claud Cockburn]] visited the flat shared by Isherwood and Ross in Berlin: "Oddly enough it was not true, as Christopher wrote in ''Mr Norris Changes Trains'', that I ever lived in the famous pension immortalised by him. But I was a frequent visitor there. I always remember my first meeting with Jean Ross, who in Christopher's ''Berlin Stories'', became the famous Sally Bowles ... I think Claud Cockburn also honoured this pension with his somewhat untidy presence".</ref> Other sources contradict this statement and say Ross and Cockburn did not meet until after Ross moved back to London.{{sfn|Parker|2005|pp=270–271}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|2012b|p=447}}: The editor notes "Ross and Cockburn were in Berlin at the same time, but did not meet until after she moved back to London".</ref>}}{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=270}} Purportedly, one evening, Cockburn handed Ross a cheque but perhaps having second thoughts, he telephoned the next morning to warn her the cheque would bounce.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=271}} Despite this "portent of unreliability" and "the fact that Cockburn had already been married to [[Hope Hale Davis|an American woman]] whom he left when she became pregnant", Ross began an affair with Cockburn.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=271}} On a subsequent evening, Cockburn expounded [[Marxist economic theory]] to Ross all night until the early morning hours. Cockburn later said he persuaded Ross to become a left-wing journalist and secured her employment at the ''[[Morning Star (British newspaper)#The Daily Worker (1930–1966)|Daily Worker]]''.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Frost|2013}}

Due to Cockburn's influence, Ross joined the [[Communist Party of Great Britain]] (CPGB) during the tenure of General Secretary [[Harry Pollitt]].{{sfn|Parker|2004}} She became an active and devoted Party member for the remainder of her life.{{sfn|Croft|1989|p=156}} Meanwhile, she continued her career as an aspiring thespian, appearing in theatrical productions at the [[Gate Theatre Studio]] that were directed by [[Peter Godfrey (director)|Peter Godfrey]] and, in need of money, she modelled the latest Paris fashions by French designer [[Jean Patou]] in ''[[Tatler]]'' magazine.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} It is possible, although unlikely,{{efn|name=Rumba|Isherwood states in ''[[Christopher and His Kind]]'' that Ross never travelled to the United States during her lifetime.<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=84}}: "Jean never did go to America."</ref> As such, she could not have filmed ''[[Rumba (1935 film)|Rumba]]'' (1935) in Hollywood. She is perhaps wrongly credited as having a role in the film.}} she obtained a bit role as a chorus girl in [[Paramount Studios]]' musical drama film ''[[Rumba (1935 film)|Rumba]]''.{{sfn|Internet Movie Database}}

=== Isherwood and Viertel ===
[[File:Christopher Isherwood en route to China, 1938. (7893554712) (cropped1).jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[Christopher Isherwood]] in 1938. Ross arranged for Isherwood to be hired by director [[Berthold Viertel]] and launched his screenwriting career.]]

While in England, Ross' connections to the British film industry proved crucial to Isherwood's future career.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=148–149}} Ross had spent only around eighteen months in Berlin between 1932 and 1933 but became fluent enough in German to allow her to obtain work as a bilingual scenarist with Austro-German directors [[Cinema of Germany#1933–1945 Nazi Germany|who had fled]] the Nazi regime.{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=44}} One of these Austrian directors was [[Berthold Viertel]], who became Ross' friend.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=150}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|pp=148–149}}: "One morning in the middle of October ... Christopher got a telephone call from Jean Ross ... 'Chris darling, I've just met this absolutely marvelous man [Berthold Viertel]. He's simply brilliant. I adore him ... No, you swine—we most certainly do not! He's ''old''—at least sixty, I should think. I mean, I adore his mind ... You see, he's an Austrian, only he's a director in Hollywood. He's come here to direct a film ... And, darling, this is what's so marvelous—he wants you to write it!"</ref>

At the time, translators were sorely needed in the film industry to facilitate productions headed by Austro-German directors who were now working in the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=271}} Ross, who was aware Isherwood was living in poverty, persuaded Viertel to hire him as a translator.<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=170}}: "Berthold Viertel ... This Viennese dramatist, stage and screen director met Isherwood in 1933 through Jean Ross, who knew that Viertel needed a screenwriter for his film ''[[Little Friend (film)|Little Friend]]''".</ref> As repayment for this favour, Ross asked Isherwood to promise to give half of his first week's salary from the job to her.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=148–149}} After obtaining the job, Isherwood either reneged upon or forgot this agreement with Ross,<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=150}}: "I can't remember if Christopher kept his promise to give [Jean] her half of his first week's salary".</ref> and this incident may have contributed to the souring of their friendship.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=148–150}} Viertel and Isherwood soon collaborated upon a film that would become ''[[Little Friend (film)|Little Friend]]'' (1934); this collaboration launched Isherwood's long career as a screenwriter in Hollywood.{{sfn|Parker|2005|pp=270–271}}

During 1933, Isherwood composed the nucleus of a story about Ross' abortion in Berlin that would later become his 1937 novella ''Sally Bowles''.{{sfn|Fryer|1977|p=160}} Dissatisfied with its structure and quality, Isherwood rewrote the manuscript during subsequent years,{{sfn|Fryer|1977|p=162}} and he eventually sent the manuscript to editor [[John Lehmann]] to be published in ''[[New Writing]]'', a new literary periodical.{{sfnm|Izzo|2005|1p=144|Lehmann|1987|2p=27}} When Isherwood informed Lehmann his story was based on factual events, the editor became worried about the story's climax because it draws upon Ross' abortion.{{sfnm|Izzo|2005|1p=144|Lehmann|1987|2pp=28–9}} Lehmann feared Ross would file a libel suit against Isherwood and himself if the story was published.{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=50}}<ref name="Libel Suit">{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Isherwood's publisher was nervous about the abortion episode and encouraged him to drop it".</ref>

Anxious to avoid a libel suit, Isherwood implored Ross to give him permission to publish the story.{{sfn|Johnstone|1975|p=33}} Ross' reluctance delayed the publication of the manuscript.{{sfn|Johnstone|1975|p=33}} Because abortion was a controversial topic in 1930s England and carried the penalty of life imprisonment,{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=51}} Ross feared Isherwood's thinly-disguised story recounting her lifestyle and abortion in Berlin would further strain her difficult relationship with her status-conscious family.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=245}}

To prevail upon Ross to give consent for the novella's publication, Isherwood said he was in the direst financial circumstances. Ross, who herself was often impoverished, sympathised with any friend in a similar situation.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} As a personal favour to Isherwood, she yielded her objections to the publication of ''Sally Bowles'',{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Lehmann|1987|2p=29}} which was then published by [[Hogarth Press]].{{sfn|Lehmann|1987|pp=28–9}} Following the tremendous success of the novella, Ross regretted this decision and believed it permanently harmed her reputation.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} Now deeply committed to the socialist cause, Ross noticed Isherwood's story undermined her standing "among those comrades who realised she was the model for Sally Bowles".{{sfn|Fryer|1977|p=164}}

=== Workers' League, and embezzlement ===
Around 1934 and 1935, Ross wrote a manifesto for the short-lived British Workers' Film and Photo League (BWFPL) and served as its General Secretary.{{sfn|Forbes|2011|pp=206–19}} Much like its communist-backed [[Workers Film and Photo League (USA)|US counterpart]], the BWFPL's main objective was to launch a [[Culture war|cultural counter-offensive]] to the "[[Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]]" and "nauseating" films produced in capitalist societies such as the United States and the United Kingdom.{{sfnm|Doherty|1999|1pp=48–49|Chisholm|1992|2pp=110–114}} The organisation sought to take anti-capitalist "revolutionary films to workers organisations throughout the country".{{sfnm|Doherty|1999|1pp=48–49|Chisholm|1992|2pp=110–114}} Despite its limited personnel and modest funds, the League produced [[newsreel]]s, taught seminars on working-class film criticism, organised protests against "reactionary pictures", and screened the latest blockbusters of [[Soviet Russia]] to cadres of like-minded [[Cinephilia|cineastes]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1992|pp=110–114}} The BWFPL frequently screened such motion pictures as ''[[Storm over Asia (1928 film)|Storm over Asia]]'' (1928),{{sfn|Doherty|1999|pp=48–49}} ''[[October: Ten Days That Shook the World|Ten Days That Shook the World]]'' (1928), ''[[Road to Life (1931 film)|Road to Life]]'' (1931), and ''[[The Blue Express|China Express]]'' (1929).{{sfn|Chisholm|1992|pp=110–114}}

During Ross' tenure as General Secretary, the BWFLP was closely tied to the [[Friends of the Soviet Union]], to which it often sublet its office space. After her resignation as the League's Secretary, Ross continued to serve as a League member and helped produce the short film ''Defence of Britain'' in March 1936.{{sfn|Ryan|1986|p=325}} Drawing upon her family's resources, Ross personally donated a considerable sum to the fledgling organisation in February 1936.{{sfn|Ryan|1986|p=314}} Another League member named Ivan Seruya, however, embezzled the majority of Ross' donation to finance his own private venture International Sound Films.{{sfn|Ryan|1986|p=314}} This incident and the subsequent dearth of organisational funds reportedly contributed to the League's lack of progress and to its demise in 1938.{{sfn|Ryan|1986|p=314}}

=== Film criticism for the ''Daily Worker'' ===
[[File:Веселые ребята.jpg|thumb|right|link=Jolly Fellows|Ross' film criticism focused primarily on early [[Soviet cinema]]. Her reviews for those films, such as ''[[Jolly Fellows|Jazz Comedy]]'' (pictured above), have been praised decades after her death.{{sfn|Hutchings|2008|p=122}}]]

Between 1935 and 1936, Ross worked as a film critic for the Communist newspaper ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'' using the alias Peter Porcupine,{{sfn|Hogenkamp|1986|p=119}}{{sfnm|Williams|1996|1p=265|Gilbert|2011|Fyrth|1999}} which she presumably adopted as a homage to radical English [[pamphleteer]] [[William Cobbett]], who had used the same pseudonym.{{sfn|Hogenkamp|1986|p=119}} Ross' interest in film criticism purportedly began in Berlin when she often attended the cinema with Isherwood, Auden, and Spender.{{sfn|Spender|1977}} According to Spender, their quartet of friends collectively viewed such films as [[Robert Wiene]]'s ''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'', [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'', and [[Josef von Sternberg]]'s ''[[The Blue Angel]]''. They were particularly fond of "heroic proletarian films" such as [[G.W. Pabst]]'s ''[[Kameradschaft|Comradeship]]'' as well as "Russian films in which photography created poetic images of labour and industry", which is exemplified in ''[[Ten Days That Shook the World]]'' and ''[[The Battleship Potemkin]]''.{{sfnm|Spender|1977|Crossman|1949|2p=242}} Fellow critic [[Dwight Macdonald]] described this period as spanning the Golden Age and Iron Age of Soviet cinema:{{efn|name=Iron Age|The 1930–1932 period of Soviet cinema and subsequent years were dubbed by film critics as its "Iron Age". This was an era in which state policy "laid waste to the once-flourishing cinema industry as effectively as it [[Holodomor|laid waste]] to the fertile Ukrainian farmlands".{{sfn|MacDonald|1969|pp=192–198}}}}

{{Quote|Those were the years when one went to the 'little' movie houses which showed Russian films as one might visit a cathedral or museum—reverently, expectantly. One joined a congregation of avant-garde [[Intelligentsia|illuminati]], sharing an exhilarating consciousness of experiencing a new art form—many, including myself, felt it was the great modern art. In the darkened auditorium, one came into contact with the twentieth century.{{sfn|MacDonald|1969|pp=192–198}}}}

In her film criticism, Ross insisted "the workers in the Soviet Union [had] introduced to the world" new variations of this art form with "the electrifying strength and vitality and freedom of a victorious working class".{{sfn|Hutchings|2008|p=122}} Her reviews of early Soviet cinema were later described by scholars as "ingenious piece[s] of dialectical sophistry".{{sfn|Hutchings|2008|p=122}}

=== Eve of the Spanish Civil War ===
{{further|John Cornford}}
[[File:John Cornford January 1936.jpg|thumb|right|link=John Cornford|[[John Cornford]] in 1936, eleven months prior to his death]]

In mid-September 1936, while the [[Spanish Civil War]] was in its first year, Ross purportedly met English poet and communist [[John Cornford]] at the Horseshoes pub in England while in the company of his friend [[John Sommerfield]].{{efn|name=Ross and Cornford}}<ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|2015}}: "[Sommerfield] went off to fight for the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, serving in a machine-gun unit and losing his friend and fellow writer John Cornford to the conflict. On his return to England, Sommerfield found that he had been reported dead, his obituary appearing in two newspapers. ''Volunteer In Spain'' appeared in 1937 and was dedicated to Cornford".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=86}}: "I had been with [John Cornford] when they [Ross and Cornford] first met, very soon after he'd come back from Spain".</ref> As the first English volunteer to enlist against [[Francisco Franco]]'s forces, Cornford had just returned from the [[Aragon front]], where he had served with the [[POUM]] militia near [[Saragossa]], and fought in the early battles near [[Perdiguera]] and [[Huesca]].{{sfnm|Cornford|1986|1loc=Chronology|1p=9–10|Cornford|1986|2loc=Introduction by Galassi|2p=11}} Cornford then returned to England from [[Barcelona]] to recruit volunteers to combat the fascists in Spain.{{sfnm|Cornford|1986|1loc=Chronology|1p=9–10|Sommerfield|1977|2p=86}}

Following the initial meeting between Ross and Cornford,{{efn|name=Cornford Meeting|[[John Sommerfield]] recalled Ross meeting Cornford in his autobiographical memoir ''The Imprinted'' based upon his personal experiences in the 1930s. He described her as "a dark, slim girl, stylishly dressed, not like most of the girls we used to meet".{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=86}} She spoke in a well-mannered style and "gave out a sort of high class sexiness that made you feel there was something special about her, that she was a prize".{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|pp=86–87, 140}}}} a near brawl occurred at the pub when an [[National Corporate Party|ex-fascist volunteer]] who had been in the [[Irish Brigade (Spanish Civil War)|Irish Brigade]] was present and almost came to blows with Cornford over the subject of the war.{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=87}} After leaving the pub, Cornford and Ross went for dinner to [[Bertorelli]]'s on [[Charlotte Street]] in [[Fitzrovia]], central London,{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=93}} where Ross impressed Cornford with her knowledge of ongoing political matters in Spain, as well as between England and Germany.{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=87–88}} By the end of the evening, Cornford and Ross began a romance.{{sfn|Croft|1989|p=156}}<ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=87}}: "Jean was, for all practical purposes, alone with John, talking to him in a low, amorous murmur about some new scandalous bit of Foreign Office subservience to Hitler, while, at the same time, gently stroking his thighs. When we left the restaurant she ... linked arms with John and walked off with him".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=86}}: "Most of John [Cornford]'s girls had been unsuitable; and Jean [Ross] had been extra unsuitable".</ref>

Cornford possibly moved into Ross' apartment in the ensuing weeks while he recruited volunteers to return ''en masse'' with him to Spain.<ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=93}}: "After John had walked down Charlotte Street with Jean, he disappeared for several weeks. Then I had a letter, saying he'd moved in with Jean, and would I come round for a meal. 'She's a good cook, too,' he wrote. I liked that 'too'.</ref> While living with Ross, Cornford published his first book of poems and worked on a translation of ''[[Lysistrata]]''.{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=93}}<ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=94}}. Visiting them, Sommerfield wrote he was struck by the love Ross had for Cornford: "She seemed positively besotted, watching him all the time, eating him up with her eyes".</ref> If such a relationship occurred,{{efn|name=Ross and Cornford|The relations between Ross and John Cornford appear in John Sommerfield's autobiographical 1977 work ''The Imprinted''.{{sfnm|Croft|1989|1p=156|Sommerfield|1977|2pp=86–87, 140}} This work is a memoir with facts and fiction interwoven.{{sfn|Whitehead|2013}} Sommerfield was an intimate friend of Cornford and fought in the [[Spanish Civil War]] alongside him.{{sfnm|Sommerfield|2015|Baxell|2001|2p=126}}}} this brief union was not to last due to their mutual commitment to fighting [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] in Spain.

== War correspondent ==
{{Quote box|align=right|width=40%|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quoted=1|fontsize=100%| quote = [Ross] may well, at 19, have been less informed about politics than Isherwood, five or six years older; but, when the Spanish war came and the fascists were bombing Madrid, it was she, not Isherwood, who was there to report it.|author =—[[Sarah Caudwell]]|source = "Reply to Berlin", October 1986{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}}}

=== Arrival in Republican Spain===
In September 1936, Ross travelled to war-torn Spain either in the company of Claud Cockburn or separately.{{efn|name=Arrival in Spain|Isherwood biographer [[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]] said Ross was "on holiday with [Claud] Cockburn in Spain when the civil war broke out" and that they "stayed there as reporters".{{sfn|Parker|2004}}}} At this point, Cornford had returned to Spain with 21 British volunteers to fight the fascists and had become the ''de facto'' representative of the British contingent in the [[International Brigades]].{{sfnm|Cornford|1986|1loc=Chronology|1p=9–10|Cornford|1986|2loc=Introduction by Galassi|2p=11}} He served with a [[Machine gun|mitrailleuse]] unit, and fought in the [[Battle of Madrid]] in November and December 1936. During the subsequent battle for [[University City of Madrid]], he was wounded by a stray anti-aircraft shell.{{sfn|Cornford|1986|loc=Chronology|p=9–10}} Despite his injuries, he then served with the English-speaking volunteers of the [[XIV International Brigade|Marseillaise Brigade]] and was killed in action at [[Lopera]] near [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] on 27 or 28 December.{{sfnm|Haycock|2013|1pp=143–4|Cornford|1986|2loc=Chronology|2p=9–10}}

Upon hearing of Cornford's death, Ross was devastated and may have attempted to kill herself with an overdose of sleeping pills.{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=94}} Decades later, she would confide to her acquaintance John Sommerfield during a personal conversation that Cornford "was the only man I ever loved".{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=95}} The death of Cornford and other friends in the service of the doomed Republican cause likely solidified Ross' anti-fascist sentiments,{{efn|name=Ross' Marxism}}{{sfn|Day|Isherwood|1974}} and she remained in [[Republican Spain]] throughout the prolonged conflict as a [[war correspondent]] for the ''[[Daily Express]]''.{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=44}}

=== Journalist and propagandist ===
{{further|May Days}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|align=right|image1=ErnestHemingway.jpg|width1=150|alt1=A black and white photo of Ernest Hemingway seated at a typewriter|image2=Arthur Koestler (1969).jpg|width2=150|alt2=A black and white image of Arthur Koestler in 1969|footer=In Madrid, Ross worked alongside other journalists such as [[Ernest Hemingway]] (''first''). She worked in the ''Espagne News-Agency'' with Communist writer [[Arthur Koestler]] (''second''). While in Spain, Ross' companion was Richard Mowrer, the step-son of Hemingway's first wife [[Hadley Richardson]].{{sfn|Mora|1939|pp=294, 307}}{{sfn|The New York Times|1971}}}}

Throughout the Spanish Civil War, Ross worked for the London branch office of the ''Espagne News-Agency'' ("Spanish News Agency").{{sfn|Whaley|1969|p=44}} During Ross' tenure in the organisation, the ''Espagne News-Agency'' was accused by journalist [[George Orwell]] of being a [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] apparatus that disseminated [[Communist propaganda|false propaganda]] to undermine anti-Stalinist factions on the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Republican side]] of the Spanish Civil War.{{efn|name=Orwell|According to [[George Orwell]], the ''Espagne News-Agency'' published false stories about [[Anti-Stalinist left|anti-Stalinist anarchists]] who had been secretly executed by the [[NKVD]] in Spain.{{sfn|Orwell|2013|p=168}} For example, the agency falsely reported that [[Andrés Nin Pérez|Andrés Nin]]—who had been tortured and executed by the NKVD—had escaped to a fascist sanctuary.{{sfnm|1a1=Preston|1a2=Mackenzie|1y=1996|1p=267|2a1=Orwell|2y=2013|2p=168}}}}{{sfn|Orwell|2013|p=168}} In particular, during the [[Barcelona May Days]], when [[POUM|anarchist factions]] on the Republican side were annihilated by Stalinist-backed troops, the ''Espagne News-Agency'' and the ''Daily Worker'' published false claims saying the anarchists had been planning a coup and were secretly allied with the fascists and thus justified their extermination.{{sfn|Orwell|2013|pp=168, 236–238}}

All of the agency's staff—including Ross—were loyal operatives of the [[Comintern]] apparatus,{{sfn|Whaley|1969|p=44}} the international Communist organization that sought to create a worldwide Soviet republic.{{sfn|MacLean|2014|p=178}} Ross' fellow Comintern propagandists included Hungarian journalist [[Arthur Koestler]],{{sfn|Koestler|1954|pp=210, 335–336, 368}} Willy Forrest, Mildred Bennett of the ''Moscow Daily News'', and Claud Cockburn.{{efn|name=Cockburn Alias|Using the alias Frank Pitcairn, [[Claud Cockburn]] reported on the Spanish Civil War for the ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'' and became its Foreign Editor. He became a key figure in the British Communist Party and the Comintern of Western Europe.{{sfn|National Archives|1940}}}}{{sfnm|Whaley|1969|1p=44|Mora|1939|2p=306}}

Ross and Cockburn became closer as the civil war progressed. By this time, Cockburn was a prominent member of the British Communist Party.{{sfn|National Archives|1940}} Within five years, he would become a leader of the Comintern in Western Europe.{{sfn|National Archives|1940}} While covering the Spanish Civil War for the ''Daily Worker'' in 1936, Cockburn had joined the elite [[Fifth Regiment]] of the left-wing ''Republicanos'' battling the right-wing ''Nacionales'' and, when not fighting, he gave sympathetic coverage to the Communist Party.{{efn|name=Orwell and Cockburn|[[George Orwell]] criticized Claud Cockburn in ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' (1938).{{sfnm|Bounds|2009|1p=136|Orwell|2013|2p=236–238}} Orwell accused him of being under the control of [[Stalin]] and was critical of the way Cockburn reported the [[Barcelona May Days]].{{sfn|Orwell|2013|p=236–238}} Cockburn was a close friend of [[Mikhail Koltsov]], the foreign editor of ''[[Pravda]]'' and a [[the Kremlin|Kremlin]] operative.{{sfnm|McSmith|2015|1p=217|Bounds|2009|2p=136}}}}{{sfn|Moynihan|2012}}

[[File:People of Madrid seek refuge in the metro during the Francoist bombings.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|Ross spent much of her time as a journalist reporting from besieged Madrid under constant bombardment by Franco's forces. Many of Madrid's inhabitants sought shelter in the subway in order to escape the bombs.]]

While Cockburn fought with the Fifth Regiment, Ross served as a war correspondent for the ''[[Daily Express]]''.{{sfn|Gilbert|2011}} When Cockburn was at the front lines, Ross ghost-wrote his columns for him, "imitating his style and filing it at the ''Daily Worker'' under his name while continuing to send her own reports to the ''Express''".{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Ross was embedded with Republican defenders in Madrid.

Among the other foreign correspondents in besieged Madrid were [[Herbert Matthews]] of ''[[The New York Times]]'',{{sfn|Cowles|1941|p=19}} [[Ernest Hemingway]] of the [[North American Newspaper Alliance]],{{sfn|Cowles|1941|p=30}} [[Henry Tilton Gorrell]] of [[United Press International]],{{sfn|Cowles|1941|p=19}} and [[Martha Gellhorn]] of ''Collier's'',{{sfn|Cowles|1941|p=19}} as well as [[Josephine Herbst]]. Ross and other foreign correspondents often dined together in the ruined basement of Gran Via, the sole restaurant open in besieged Madrid during its relentless bombardment by fascist troops. Armed loyal sentries heavily guarded the basement restaurant and no-one was permitted entry without a press pass.{{sfn|Cowles|1941|loc=Chapter 3: The Press}}

=== Reporting on the Southern Front ===
{{further|Bombing of Jaén}}

In early 1937, as the civil war progressed, Ross, her friend Richard Mowrer of ''[[The Chicago Daily News]]''—the step-son of Ernest Hemingway's first wife [[Hadley Richardson]]{{efn|name=Richard Mowrer|Richard Mowrer was the son of [[Paul Mowrer]], the first journalist to be awarded the [[Pulitzer Prize for Correspondence]] in 1929. After her divorce from Ernest Hemingway, [[Hadley Richardson]] married Paul Mowrer and became the step-mother to his son Richard. Ernest's son [[Jack Hemingway]] was Richard's step-brother.{{sfn|The New York Times|1971}}}}—and their guide Constancia de la Mora travelled to [[Andalusia]] to report on the southern front.<ref>{{harvnb|Mora|1939|pp=294, 307}}: "Mowrer and I and Jean Ross, a clever and charming Englishwoman working at that time for the Government news agency in Paris and London, started off in an automobile for the southern front".</ref> Ross and Mowrer investigated and reported upon war-time conditions in [[Alicante]], [[Málaga]], and [[Jaén, Spain|Jaén]].{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=307}} A week before Ross' arrival, Jaén had been [[Bombing of Jaén|bombed]] by a squadron of German [[Junkers 52]] aircraft.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=307}} Amid the rubble, Ross reported on the death toll and interviewed survivors including mothers whose children had died in the bombardment.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=308}} She then proceeded to [[Andújar]] where, amid the ongoing battle and machine-gun fire, she interviewed Colonel José Morales, a commander of the southern armies.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=310}}

Following her interview with Morales, the convoy in which Ross was travelling faced recurrent enemy fire and later, during the evening, was bombed by a fascist air patrol.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=310}} De la Mora recalled this bombing as one of the daily perils Ross and other pro-Republican journalists endured to report news from the front lines:
{{Quote|In the dusk, I saw Mowrer and Jean Ross running down the road. I began to run. The sound of the planes, the low roar of the motors, filled my ears and head and heart and throat. I ran faster and faster ... Suddenly the whole mountain exploded with a noise so hideous, so vast, that the ear was not shaped to comprehend it. The ground where I lay trembled I felt it move against my body. The sound began to diminish ... Jean Ross and Mowrer came down the road. We made jokes.{{sfn|Mora|1939|pp=313–314}}}}

During her time in Andújar, Ross endured nine aerial bombardments by German Junkers and survived each despite the lack of [[air raid shelter]]s.{{sfn|Mora|1939|pp=314–315}} Recalling these events, Mora described Ross as a fearless reporter who had seemingly resigned herself to death and looked "as natural as possible" when the bombs fell.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=315}} Her friends noted Ross "had a comforting air of calmness about her".{{sfn|Henderson|2018|loc=Chapter: Jean}} Following her reporting in Andújar, Ross continued to report from the fronts at [[Córdoba offensive|Córdoba]] and [[Extremadura]].{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=315}} She continued reporting on the progress of the war, often from the front lines of the Republican forces, for the next year.

=== Fall of Madrid and return to England ===
{{CSS image crop|Image=Claud Cockburn.jpg|bSize=600|cWidth=200|cHeight=180|oTop=100|oLeft=80|Location=right|Description=Claud Cockburn with whom Ross had a child, [[Sarah Caudwell]]. In August 1939, three months after their daughter's birth, Cockburn deserted Ross and the child.{{sfn|Parker|2004}}}}

In late 1938, while pregnant with Cockburn's child,{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}} Ross witnessed the final months of the [[Siege of Madrid]] and endured aerial bombardment by Francoist forces.{{sfn|Day|Isherwood|1974}} By the time the besieged city fell to the [[Francoist Spain|Nationalist armies]] on 28 March 1939, Ross had escaped to England. Her wartime experiences, especially the atrocities she witnessed and the friends she lost in combat, solidified her lifelong commitment to [[Antifascist|anti-fascist resistance]].{{efn|name=Ross' Marxism|In a 1974 interview with [[James Day (journalist)|James Day]], Isherwood said Ross' commitment to Marxism occurred after her sojourn in Berlin and was "the one subject on which she was a bit boring because she echoed the [Stalinist] party line".{{sfn|Day|Isherwood|1974}}}}

Sixty days after the fall of Madrid, Ross gave birth to a daughter by Claud Cockburn. The child, [[Sarah Caudwell]], who was born on 27 May 1939, was the only offspring of their union.{{sfnm|Firchow|2008|1p=120|Stasio|2000}} Some sources say Ross did not marry Cockburn due to her political beliefs about [[Women's liberation|women's emancipation]],{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}} but under British law, Cockburn still was married to his first wife [[Hope Hale Davis]]; he could not marry Ross at that time without committing bigamy.{{efn|name=Deed Poll|Contrary to sources such as Linda Mizejewski,{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=44}} Ross and Cockburn never married because Cockburn was uncertain whether his divorce from Davis was valid in England.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Isherwood|2012b|2loc=Glossary|2p=796}} Whether Ross knew Cockburn was still married to Davis is unknown. Several months before her daughter's birth, Ross filed a [[deed poll]] that changed her surname to Cockburn, see {{London Gazette|issue=34604|page=1518|date=3 March 1939}}}} Whether Ross knew Cockburn was still legally married to Davis is unknown. Several months before her daughter's birth, Ross filed a [[deed poll]] in which she changed her surname to Cockburn.<ref name="London Gazette">{{London Gazette|issue=34604|page=1518|date=3 March 1939}}</ref>

In 1938 or 1939, Cockburn entered into a clandestine relationship with [[Patricia Cockburn|Patricia Arbuthnot]].{{sfn|Parker|2004}} In August 1939, Cockburn "walked out" on Ross and their newly-born child to live with Arbuthnot.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Cockburn later omitted all mention of Ross from his memoirs.<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|2012b|p=447}}. Isherwood wrote in his diary; "I admire the first part of Claud Cockburn's autobiography very much. But ... I can't find the faintest allusion to Jean Ross".</ref> Following her abandonment by Cockburn, Ross did not have another recorded male partner. She later told an acquaintance "having a man around was like having a crocodile in the bath".{{sfn|Henderson|2018|loc=Chapter: Jean}}

== Later life and death ==
=== Second World War and post-war years ===
[[File:Jean Ross 1940s.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Ross circa the 1940s.]]

Shortly before the outbreak of the [[Second World War]], Ross, her daughter Sarah, and her widowed mother Clara Caudwell moved to [[Hertfordshire]].{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Ross became friends with Isherwood's old acquaintance [[Edward Upward]] and his wife Hilda Percival, both of whom were socialist in outlook. Upward later met Olive Mangeot through their attendance of [[Communist Party]] meetings and the two began an extramarital affair.{{sfn|Izzo|2005|p=97}} Olive, whom Isherwood depicted as Marvey Scriven in ''[[The Memorial]]'' and as Madame Cheuret in ''Lions and Shadows'', eventually separated from her husband Andre Mangeot and lived in the London suburbs at Gunter Grove, [[Barnet London Borough Council|Barnet]], where she invited Ross and her daughter Sarah to live with her.{{sfnm|Parker|2005|1p=270|Izzo|2005|2p=97|Izzo|2001|3p=89}}

For many years, Ross and Sarah lived as Olive's boarders in modest circumstances in Gunter Grove.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Izzo|2005|2p=97}} Much like Ross, Mangeot had been an apolitical bohemian in her youth and transformed with age into a devout [[Stalinist]] who sold the ''Daily Worker'' and was an active member of various left-wing circles.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=100–101}} According to Isherwood, Mangeot, Ross, and their social circle refused to consort with [[Trotskyite]]s or other communist schismatics who had strayed from the Stalinist party line.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=100–101}}

=== Parenthood, and socialist activities ===
For the remainder of her adult life, Ross devoted herself to advancing the ideology of socialism and raising her daughter Sarah.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} To obtain the most advantageous education available for Sarah, Ross moved to Scotland. In 1960, they moved to [[Barnes, London]], for Sarah to attend Oxford University.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} They lived with Jean's invalid sister Margaret "Peggy" Ross, a sculptor and painter who trained at the [[Liverpool School of Art]].{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|loc=Glossary|p=796}} At this point, Ross acted as a caretaker for both Peggy—who had severe arthritis affecting her mobility—and her ailing mother Clara, who had suffered a debilitating stroke.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|pp=66–67}} Under Ross' tutelage, Sarah became one of the first women to join the [[Oxford Union]] as a student and to speak in the Oxford Union's Debating Chamber.{{sfn|Stasio|2000}} She went on to teach law at Oxford and became a senior executive at [[Lloyds Bank (historic)|Lloyds Bank]], and later a celebrated author of detective novels.{{sfnm|Stasio|2000|Isherwood|2012b|2loc=Glossary|2p=796}}

While Sarah was at Oxford, Ross continued to engage in political activities including [[Anti-nuclear movement|protesting nuclear weapons]], [[South Africa under apartheid|boycotting apartheid South Africa]], and opposing the [[Vietnam War]].{{sfnm|Mizejewski|1992|1p=44|Caudwell|1986|2pp=28–29|Henderson|2018|3loc=Chapter: Jean}} Even in later life, she continued to sell copies of the ''Daily Worker'' to neighbouring houses and to raise awareness of ongoing political campaigns.{{sfn|Frost|2013}} Acquaintances who met Ross during the later decades of her life noted various hardships and impoverished economic circumstances had taken their toll on her. By this time, she had few clothes and very little money.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Sommerfield said:
{{Quote|She seemed burned out ... with bruise marks under her eyes and lines of discontent round her mouth; her once beautiful black hair looked dead, and she wore too much make-up, carelessly applied. Only her voice was the same, a rapid, confiding drawl full of italics. She was still using the slang and political cliches of her youth, and trying to shock with a freedom of speech that now was taken for granted".{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=94}}}}

Ross and writer Isherwood met a final time shortly before her death. In a diary entry for 24 April 1970,{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|pp=66–67}} Isherwood recounted their final reunion in London:

{{Quote|I had lunch with Jean Ross and her daughter Sarah [Caudwell], and three of their friends at a little restaurant in Chancery Lane. Jean looks old but still rather beautiful and she is very lively and active and mentally on the spot—and as political as ever ... Seeing Jean [again] made me happy; I think if I lived here I'd see a lot of her that is—if I could do so without being involved in her communism.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|pp=66–67}}}}

On 27 April 1973,{{sfn|Jardine|2014}} Ross died at her home in [[Richmond, London|Richmond, Surrey]], aged 61, from cervical cancer.{{sfnm|Gilbert|2011|Jardine|2014|Frost|2013}} She was cremated at East Sheen.{{sfn|Parker|2004}}

== Dislike of ''Sally Bowles'' and ''Cabaret'' ==
[[File:Liza Minnelli Cabaret 1972 crop 2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Liza Minnelli]] as Sally Bowles in the 1972 film ''[[Cabaret (1972 film)|Cabaret]]''. Ross disliked how the stylish, beret-wearing character of Sally Bowles was transmogrified into a "vulgar [[Vamp (woman)|vamp]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Cockburn|2001}}: "Jean Ross was a gentle, cultivated and very beautiful woman, not a bit like the vulgar vamp displayed by Lisa Minelli".</ref>]]

According to Ross' daughter [[Sarah Caudwell]], her mother detested her popular identification with the vacuous character [[Sally Bowles]]. She believed the character's political indifference more closely resembled Isherwood or his hedonistic friends,{{sfnm|Firchow|2008|1p=120|Cockburn|2001}} many of whom "fluttered around town exclaiming how sexy the [[Sturmabteilung|storm troopers]] looked in their uniforms".{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=124–125|Doyle|2013}} Ross' opinion of Isherwood's beliefs is partly confirmed by Isherwood's biographer [[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]], who wrote Isherwood was "the least political" of [[Auden Group|W. H. Auden's social circle]] in Weimar Berlin,{{sfn|Allen|2004}} and Auden noted the young Isherwood "held no [political] opinions whatever about anything".{{sfn|Allen|2004}}

According to Caudwell,{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} Ross further disliked the Sally Bowles character, which offended her feminist convictions. Isherwood's fictionalised depiction of Ross uses a [[Madonna–whore complex|literary convention]] that necessitated "a woman must be either virtuous (in the sexual sense) or a tart.{{efn|name=Tart|Although Caudwell said Isherwood depicted Sally as a [[Prostitution|tart]], Isherwood emphatically denied this interpretation.{{sfn|Van Druten|1983|p=6}} In a letter to [[John Van Druten]], Isherwood wrote Sally "is a little girl who has listened to what the grown-ups had said about tarts, and who was trying to copy those things".{{sfn|Van Druten|1983|p=6}}}} So Sally, who is plainly not virtuous, must be a tart to depend for a living on providing sexual pleasure". Such a submissive gender role would have "seemed to [Ross] the ultimate denial of freedom and emancipation."{{sfn|Cockburn|2001}}

Above all, Ross resented Isherwood's 1937 novella ''Sally Bowles''{{'s}} depiction of Ross expressing [[anti-Semitic]] bigotry.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Sally's attractiveness is also diminished by two anti-Semitic remarks she makes, which are omitted in all the postwar adaptations".</ref> In the 1937 story, Bowles laments having sex with an "awful old Jew" to obtain money.<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|2012a|p=33}}: "This job at the Lady Windermere only lasts another week. I got it through a man I met at the Eden Bar. But he's gone off to Vienna now. I must ring up the Ufa people again, I suppose. And then there's an awful old Jew who takes me out sometimes. He's always promising to get me a contract; but he only wants to sleep with me, the old swine."</ref> Caudwell said such racial bigotry "would have been as alien to my mother's vocabulary as a sentence in Swahili; she had no more deeply rooted passion than a loathing of racialism and so, from the outset, of fascism." Due to her unyielding dislike of fascism, Ross was incensed Isherwood had depicted her as thoughtlessly allied in her beliefs "with the [racist] attitudes which led to Dachau and Auschwitz".{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} In the early 21st century, some writers have argued the anti-Semitic remarks in ''Sally Bowles'' are a reflection of Isherwood's own much-documented prejudices.{{efn|name=Isherwood Bigotry|In an article for ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', writer [[Gore Vidal]] notes Isherwood's inordinate preoccupation with racial matters.{{sfn|Vidal|1976}} In contrast to Isherwood, Ross was noted in her later years for her commitment to racial equality.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}}}{{sfn|Hensher|2005}} In Peter Parker's biography, he states: "Isherwood is revealed as being fairly anti-Semitic to a degree that required some emendations of the Berlin novels when they were republished after the war".{{sfn|Hensher|2005}}

{{Quote box|align=left|width=40%|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quoted=1|fontsize=100%| quote = [Ross] never liked ''Goodbye to Berlin'', nor felt any sense of identity with the character of Sally Bowles ... She never cared enough, however, to be moved to any public rebuttal. She did from time to time settle down conscientiously to write a letter, intending to explain to Isherwood the ways in which she thought he had misunderstood her; but it seldom progressed beyond 'Dear Christopher ...' It was interrupted, no doubt, by more urgent things: meetings about Vietnam, petitions against nuclear weapons, making my supper, hearing my French verbs. It was in Isherwood's life, not hers, that Sally Bowles remained a significant figure.|author = —[[Sarah Caudwell]]|source ="Reply to Berlin", October 1986{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}}}

Isherwood never publicly confirmed Ross was his model for Sally Bowles until after her death. Other mutual acquaintances were less discreet. Ross said her former partner Claud Cockburn had leaked to his friends in the press she had inspired the character.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|p=70}} In 1951, poet [[Stephen Spender]] in his autobiography ''World Within World'' publicly confirmed Bowles was based on a real person,{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=122}} and he also confirmed the novella's abortion incident is factual.{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=127}} Later, [[Gerald Hamilton]], the inspiration for Isherwood's character Mr Norris, identified Ross as Sally Bowles due to a public feud with Cockburn.{{efn|name=Hamilton-Cockburn Feud|In a 1954 newspaper column, journalist [[Claud Cockburn]] publicly outed [[Gerald Hamilton]] as the basis for Mr Norris in Isherwood's stories.{{sfn|Hamilton|1969|pp=37, 126–127}} Hamilton may have retaliated by identifying Ross—Cockburn's former partner and the mother of his child—as the basis for Sally Bowles.{{sfn|Hamilton|1969|pp=37, 126–127}} Ross believed Cockburn had initially revealed her identity to the press.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|p=70}}}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1969|p=44}} Consequently, when ''[[Cabaret (musical)|Cabaret]]'' garnered acclaim in the late 1960s, journalists—particularly those from the ''[[Daily Mail]]''—tracked down Ross and hounded her with intrusive questions.{{sfn|Friedrich|1995|p=307}}

Ross refused to discuss her sexual misadventures in Weimar Berlin with journalists. Caudwell said the journalists' relentless questions "were invariably a disappointment on both sides: the journalists always wanted to talk about sex" while Ross "wanted to talk about politics".{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} Ross noted reporters often claimed to seek knowledge "about Berlin in the Thirties" but they did not wish "to know about the unemployment or the poverty or the Nazis marching through the streets—all they want to know is how many men I went to bed with".{{sfnm|Caudwell|1986|1pp=28–29|Frost|2013}} Ross became angered when the reporters ascribed her many sexual affairs to her feminist beliefs: "They asked if I was a feminist. Well, of course I am, darling. But they don't think that feminism is about sex, do they? It's about economics".{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}

Ross steadfastly declined invitations to watch ''Cabaret'' or any related adaptations.{{sfnm|Bletchly|2013|1p=26|Isherwood|2012b|2p=70}} Her ambivalence towards the popular success of ''Cabaret'' was not unique among Isherwood's acquaintances: Stephen Spender said ''Cabaret'' glossed over Weimar Berlin's crushing poverty, and he later noted there was "not a single meal or club in the movie ''Cabaret'' that Christopher and I could have afforded".{{sfn|Spender|1977}} Both Spender and Ross often said Isherwood's stories glamourised and distorted the harsh realities of life in 1930s Berlin.{{sfn|Spender|1977}} According to Ross, Isherwood's "story was quite, quite different from what really happened".{{sfn|Johnstone|1975|pp=33–34}} She nonetheless conceded the accuracy of the depiction of their social group of British expatriates as pleasure-seeking libertines: "We were all utterly against the bourgeois standards of our parents' generation. That's what took us to [Weimar-era] Berlin. The climate was freer there".{{sfn|Johnstone|1975|pp=33–34}}

== Portrayals and legacy ==
=== Isherwood canon ===
{{further|Sally Bowles|I Am a Camera|Cabaret (musical)}}
{{CSS image crop | Image = Julie Harris as Sally Bowles.jpg | bSize = 550 | cWidth = 180 | cHeight = 170 | oTop = 100 | oLeft = 130 | Location = left | Description = [[Julie Harris]] as [[Sally Bowles]]}}

Sally Bowles, the fictional character inspired by Jean Ross, has been portrayed by a number of actors; [[Julie Harris (American actress)|Julie Harris]] in ''[[I Am a Camera]]'', the 1951 adaptation of ''Goodbye to Berlin'' and the 1955 [[I Am a Camera (film)|film adaptation of the same name]]; [[Jill Haworth]] in the original 1966 Broadway production of ''[[Cabaret (musical)|Cabaret]]''; [[Judi Dench]] in the original 1968 West-End stage version of ''Cabaret''; [[Liza Minnelli]] in [[Bob Fosse]]'s [[Cabaret (1972 film)|1972 film adaptation of the musical]], and [[Natasha Richardson]] in the 1998 Broadway revival of ''Cabaret''.{{sfn|Bletchly|2013|p=26}}

In 1979, critic [[Howard Moss]] noted the resilience of the Sally Bowles character: "It is almost fifty years since Sally Bowles shared the recipe for a Prairie oyster with Herr Issyvoo in a vain attempt to cure a hangover" and yet the character in subsequent permutations lives on "from story to play to movie to musical to movie-musical".{{sfn|Moss|1979}} Moss ascribed the character's continuing appeal to the aura of sophisticated innocence that pervades Isherwood's depiction of the character and of Weimar Berlin in which "the unseemly and the ugly" are either de-emphasised or made to appear genial to the spectator.{{sfn|Moss|1979}}

According to critic Ingrid Norton, Sally Bowles later inspired Holly Golightly in [[Truman Capote]]'s novella ''[[Breakfast at Tiffany's (novella)|Breakfast at Tiffany's]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Truman Capote's Holly Golightly ... the latter of whom is a tribute to Isherwood and his Sally Bowles ... "</ref>{{sfn|Norton|2010}} Norton has said Isherwood's Bowles was the key model for Capote's Golightly character,{{sfn|Norton|2010}} and that both scenes and dialogue in Capote's 1958 novella have direct equivalencies in Isherwood's 1937 work.{{sfn|Norton|2010}} Capote, who admired Isherwood's novels, had befriended Isherwood in New York in the late 1940s.{{sfn|Clarke|1988|loc=Chapter 19}}

=== ''Christopher and His Kind'' (2011) ===
{{main|Christopher and His Kind (film)}}
[[File:Imogen Poots Comic-Con 2011.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.6|[[Imogen Poots]] portrayed Ross in ''[[Christopher and His Kind (film)|Christopher and His Kind]]'' (2011).]]

In 2011, British actor [[Imogen Poots]] portrayed Jean Ross in ''[[Christopher and His Kind (film)|Christopher and His Kind]]'', in which she starred opposite [[Matt Smith (actor)|Matt Smith]] as Christopher Isherwood.{{sfn|Wollaston|2011}} For her performance, Poots attempted to show Ross' personality as "convincingly fragile beneath layers of attitude" but did not wish to depict Ross as a talented singer.{{sfn|Harvey|2011}} Poots said if "Jean had been that good,{{efn|name=Ross' voice}} she wouldn't have been wasting her time hanging around with Isherwood in the cabarets of the Weimar Republic, she would have been on her way, perhaps, to the life she dreamed of in Hollywood".{{sfn|Harvey|2011}}

=== These Foolish Things ===
{{Main|These Foolish Things (Remind Me of You)}}

As well as inspiring Sally Bowles,{{sfn|Garebian|2011|p=4}} Ross has been credited as the inspiration for one of the 20th century's most-enduring popular songs, "[[These Foolish Things (Remind Me of You)]]".{{sfn|Frost|2013}} Although its composer [[Eric Maschwitz]]'s wife [[Hermione Gingold]] said her autobiography the song was written for either herself or actor [[Anna May Wong]],{{sfn|Gingold|1989|p=54}} Maschwitz's own autobiography contradicts that of Gingold.{{sfn|Maschwitz|1957|pp=77–79}} Maschwitz cites "fleeting memories of [a] young love" as the inspiration for the song,{{sfn|Maschwitz|1957|pp=77–79}} and most sources—including the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]''—say cabaret singer Ross, with whom Maschwitz had a youthful romantic liaison, was the muse for the song.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Brown|2016}}
{{-}}

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{notelist|30em}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist|30em}}

=== Works cited ===
==== Print sources ====
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Baxell |first=Richard |title=The British Battalion of the International Brigades in the Spanish Civil War 1936-1939 |url=http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1661/1/U165986.pdf |publisher=[[London School of Economics and Political Science]] |type=PhD |page=126 |date=21 December 2001 |access-date=7 March 2020}}
* {{cite book |last=Bergfelder |first=Tim |chapter=The Passenger: Ambivalences of National Identity and Masculinity in the Star Persona of Peter van Eyck |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUQ6Yd0NhowC&pg=PA47 |title=Framing the Fifties: Cinema in a Divided Germany |editor1-last=Davidson |editor1-first=John E. |editor2-last=Hake |editor2-first=Sabine |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |location=New York City |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84545-204-9|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite news |last=Bletchly |first=Rachael |title=Their True Characters: Real people who inspired fictional, TV and film heroes and heroines |url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/indiana-jones-miss-piggy-real-1797341 |url-status=dead |work=[[Daily Mirror]] |location=London |date=2 April 2013 |page=26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405011346/http://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/indiana-jones-miss-piggy-real-1797341 |archive-date=5 April 2013 |quote=She's been played by big names such as [[Judi Dench]], [[Julie Harris]], [[Teri Hatcher]] and [[Brooke Shields]]. But [[Liza Minnelli]]'s Oscar-winning performance as the underground club singer is seen by Cabaret fans as the definitive [[Sally Bowles]]. In fact author [[Christopher Isherwood]] based his character on Jean Ross, an English woman he met while living in decadent Berlin in the early 1930s. Jean generously allowed him to publish the book in 1937 – despite it featuring the then-scandalous fact she'd had an abortion. Isherwood never confirmed she had inspired Sally until after her death in 1973, while Jean, a political radical, never wanted publicity. She was traced by reporters when [''[[I Am a Camera]]''] was first staged in [1951], but declined all invitations to see the show. A family friend said: 'Jean was a wonderful woman, warm and gentle in demeanour. She couldn't have been more unlike the rather tinny character portrayed in Sally Bowles. She was extremely intelligent, politically alert and vital. She probably found the portrait painted by Christopher Isherwood rather irritating.'}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Bock |editor1-first=Hans-Michael |editor2-last=Bergfelder |editor2-first=Tim |title=The Concise Cinegraph: Encyclopaedia of German Cinema |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_Z4kDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA495 |publisher=Berghahn Books |location=New York City |date=1 September 2009 |pages=495–496 |isbn=978-1-57181-655-9|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Bounds |first=Philip |author-link=Philip Bounds |title=Orwell and Marxism: The Political and Cultural Thinking of George Orwell |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yAQ8BQAAQBAJ |publisher=[[I.B. Tauris]] |location=London |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-85773-282-8|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite magazine |last=Caudwell |first=Sarah |author-link=Sarah Caudwell |title=Reply to Berlin |magazine=[[New Statesman]] |location=London |date=3 October 1986 |pages=28–29}}
* {{cite journal |last=Chisholm |first=Brad |title=Film and Photo League Exhibition Strategies |url=https://www.ejumpcut.org/archive/onlinessays/JC37folder/30sLeftExhibition.html |journal=[[Jump Cut (journal)|Jump Cut: A Review of Contemporary Media]] |date=July 1992 |pages=110–114 |access-date=19 April 2019}}
* {{cite book |last=Clarke |first=Gerald |author-link=Gerald Clarke (author) |title=Capote: A Biography |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=521YPwAACAAJ |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |year=1988 |isbn=0-671-22811-0 |access-date=18 November 2018|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Cornford |first=John |author-link=John Cornford |editor-last=Galassi |editor-first=Jonathan |editor-link=Jonathan Galassi |title=Collected Writings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zvAEAQAAIAAJ |publisher=[[Carcanet Press]] |location=New York City |orig-year=1976 |date=1 January 1986 |isbn=9780856356520|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Cowles|first=Virginia|author-link=Virginia Cowles|title=Looking for Trouble: Memoirs of a Hearst Correspondent in Loyalist Spain|publisher=[[Harper & Brothers]]|location=New York City & London|year=1941|isbn=978-0-571-27091-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VpUyAQAAIAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Croft|first=Andy|author-link=Andy Croft|editor1-last=Shaw|editor1-first=Christopher|editor2-last=Chase|editor2-first=Malcolm|date=December 1989|title=The Imagined Past: History and Nostalgia|chapter=Forward to the 1930s: The Literary Politics of Anamnesis|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vNNRAQAAIAAJ|publisher=[[Manchester University Press]]|location=Manchester|page=156|isbn=0-7190-2875-2|via=Google Books|quote=This side of Jean Ross' life is mentioned in John Sommerfield's ''The Imprinted'' (1977), where she appears as 'Jean Reynolds.' In this novel, she has been immortalised as Lucy Rivers in a novel by [[L.P. Davies]] titled ''A Woman of the Thirties''. 'I realized that ''A Woman of the Thirties'' had been a misfortune for her; she had been fixed by the book, turned into a fictional character whose story ended in 1939.' She has an affair in ''The Imprinted'' with 'John Rackstraw' (based on [[John Cornford]], a young Cambridge Communist with whom Sommerfield fought in Spain).}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Crossman|editor-first=Richard|editor-link=Richard Crossman|title=The God That Failed|publisher=[[Harper & Brothers]]|location=New York|year=1949|url=https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.185523/|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=Doherty|first=Thomas|title=Pre-Code Hollywood: Sex, Immorality, and Insurrection in America Cinema 1930–1934|pages=[https://archive.org/details/precodehollywood0000dohe/page/48 48]–49|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]]|year=1999|url=https://archive.org/details/precodehollywood0000dohe|url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-231-11094-5|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=Van Druten|first=John|author-link=John Van Druten|title=I Am a Camera: A Play in Three Acts|location=United Kingdom|publisher=Dramatists Play Service|year=1983|isbn=9780822205456|url=https://archive.org/details/iamcameraplayint0000vand|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=Farina|first=William|author-link=William Farina|title=The German Cabaret Legacy in American Popular Music|location=London|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|chapter=Christopher Isherwood, Reporting from Berlin|page=79|year=2013|isbn=978-0-7864-6863-8|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YdUiL1XHZKkC&q=joseph+goebbels&pg=PA79|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Forbes|first=Duncan|editor-last=Ribalta|editor-first=Jorge|title=The Worker Photography Movement (1926–1939)|article=The Worker Photography Movement in Britain, 1934–1939|year=2011|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ceCGZwEACAAJ|location=Madrid, Spain|publisher=T.F. Editores, S.L.C. / Museo Nacional Centro de Arte Reina Sofía|pages=206–19|isbn=978-84-92441-38-9|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Firchow|first=Peter Edgerly|author-link=Peter Edgerly Firchow|title=Strange Meetings: Anglo-German Literary Encounters from 1910 to 1960|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=[[Catholic University of America Press]]|page=120|year=2008|isbn=978-0-8132-1533-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WoEQ70IzMtgC&pg=PA120|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Friedrich|first=Otto|author-link=Otto Friedrich|title=Before the Deluge: A Portrait of Berlin in the 1920s|year=1995|location=New York City|publisher=[[Harper Perennial]]|chapter=Heads Will Roll|edition=1st|isbn=0-13-221150-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=K6u0eLY4FooC|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Fryer|first=Jonathan|author-link=Jonathan Fryer|title=Isherwood: A Biography|location=Garden City, New York|publisher=[[Doubleday & Company]]|year=1977|isbn=0-385-12608-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eY4nAQAAMAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Garebian |first=Keith |title=The Making of Cabaret |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PuD3p2IGW5oC&q=Jean%20Ross&pg=PA6 |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |location=Oxford |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-19-973250-0|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Gingold |first=Hermione |author-link=Hermione Gingold |title=How to Grow Old Disgracefully |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9oyPGwAACAAJ |publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]] |location=New York City |year=1989 |isbn=978-0-575-04477-7|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book |last=Hamilton |first=Gerald |author-link=Gerald Hamilton |title=The Way It Was With Me |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HhUYAAAAMAAJ |publisher=Leslie Frewin |location=London |year=1969 |isbn=978-0-09-096560-1|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Haycock|first=David Boyd|author-link=David Boyd Haycock|title=I Am Spain: The Spanish Civil War and the Foreigners Who Went to Fight Fascism |publisher=Old Street|location=[[Brecon]]|year=2013|isbn=978-1-908699-10-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I9ZCMgEACAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Henderson|first=Maragret|title=Granny's Stories|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8tdVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT104|year=2018|chapter=Jean|isbn=978-1-5245-9356-8|publisher=BookVenture Publishing|location=[[Ishpeming, Michigan]]|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Hogenkamp|first=Bert|title=Deadly Parallels: Film and The Left in Britain, 1929–1939|url=https://archive.org/details/deadlyparallelsf00hoge|url-access=registration|year=1986|publisher=[[Lawrence & Wishart|Lawrence and Wishart]]|isbn=978-0-85315-912-4|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Hutchings|editor-first=Stephen|title=Russia and its Other(s) on Film: Screening Intercultural Dialogue|location=New York City|publisher=[[Palgrave Macmillan]]|page=122|year=2008|isbn=978-1-281-97598-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UOqGDAAAQBAJ&q=porcupine&pg=PA122|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Isherwood|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Isherwood|title=Christopher and His Kind: A Memoir, 1929–1939|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0IOAQAAMAAJ|publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]]|location=[[New York City|New York]]|date=1976|isbn=978-0374-53522-3|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Isherwood|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Isherwood|title=Down There on a Visit|location=New York City|publisher=[[Simon and Schuster]]|year=1962|isbn=978-0-8166-3367-8|url=https://archive.org/details/downthereonvisit0000unse|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive|author-mask=10}}
* {{cite book|last=Isherwood|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Isherwood|title=Goodbye to Berlin|year=2012a|orig-year=1939|publisher=[[New Directions Publishing|New Directions]]|location=New York City|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PStG5AItN2IC|isbn=978-0-8112-2024-8|via=Google Books|author-mask=10}}
* {{cite book|last=Isherwood|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Isherwood|editor-last=Bucknell|editor-first=Katherine|editor-link=Katherine Bucknell|title=Liberation: Diaries, Vol. 3: 1970–1983|location=New York City|publisher=[[HarperCollins]]|year=2012b|isbn=978-0-06-208474-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=q5Jbx9NeDV4C&pg=PP1|via=Google Books|author-mask=10}}
* {{cite book|last=Izzo|first=David Garrett|title=Christopher Isherwood: His Era, His Gang, and the Legacy of the Truly Strong Man|location=Columbia, South Carolina|publisher=[[University of South Carolina Press]]|year=2001|isbn=978-1-57003-403-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mPkBlBCmfbsC|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Izzo|first=David Garrett|title=Christopher Isherwood Encyclopedia|location=London|publisher=[[McFarland & Company]]|pages=97, 144|year=2005|isbn=0-7864-1519-3|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vhAkCQAAQBAJ&q=jean+ross&pg=PA144|via=Google Books|author-mask=8}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Johnstone|first=Iain|author-link=Iain Johnstone|title=The Real Sally Bowles|magazine=[[Folio (magazine)|Folio]]|pages=33–34|date=Autumn 1975|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=[[American University]]}}
* {{cite book|last=Koestler|first=Arthur|author-link=Arthur Koestler|title=The Invisible Writing: Being the Second Volume of Arrow in the Blue|year=1954|publisher=[[Macmillan Company]]|location=New York City|pages=210, 335–336, 368|isbn=0-8128-6218-X|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v0JHAAAAYAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Lehmann|first=John|author-link=John Lehmann|title=Christopher Isherwood: A Personal Memoir|location=New York City|publisher=[[Henry Holt and Company]]|year=1987|isbn=0-8050-1029-7|url=https://archive.org/details/christopherisher00lehm_0|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=MacDonald|first=Dwight|author-link=Dwight Macdonald|title=On Movies|year=1969|chapter=Soviet Cinema, 1930–1940, A History|location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey|publisher=[[Prentice Hall]]|pages=[https://archive.org/details/dwightmacdonaldo0000macd/page/192 192]–198|edition=2nd|isbn=0-13-221150-5|url=https://archive.org/details/dwightmacdonaldo0000macd|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=MacLean|first=Rory|author-link=Rory MacLean|title=Berlin: Portrait of a City Through the Centuries|publisher=[[St. Martin's Press]]|location=New York City|year=2014|isbn=978-1-250-05240-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zaRzAwAAQBAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Maschwitz|first=Eric|author-link=Eric Maschwitz|title=No Chip on My Shoulder|publisher =[[Barrie & Jenkins|Herbert Jenkins]]|location=London| year = 1957 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=vp5AAAAAIAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=McSmith|first=Andy|author-link=Andy McSmith|title=Fear and the Muse Kept Watch: The Russian Masters—from Akhmatova and Pasternak to Shostakovich and Eisenstein—Under Stalin|publisher=[[The New Press]]|year=2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mbvoBgAAQBAJ|isbn=978-1-59558-056-6|location=London|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Mizejewski|first=Linda|title=Divine Decadence: Fascism, Female Spectacle, and the Makings of Sally Bowles|location=Princeton, NJ|publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]|year=1992|isbn=0-691-07896-3|url=https://archive.org/details/divinedecadencef0000mize|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=Mora|first=Constancia de la|title=In Place of Splendor: The Autobiography of a Spanish Woman|publisher=[[Harcourt Brace|Harcourt, Brace and Company]]|location=New York City|year=1939|pages=294, 306–315|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-N8bAAAAMAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|editor-last=Mosley|editor-first=Charles|editor-link=Charles Mosley (genealogist)|title=Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage, 107th edition, 3 volumes|year=2003|publisher=Genealogical Books|location=Wilmington, Delaware|volume=1|page=120|isbn=978-0-9711966-2-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rg11SQAACAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Orwell|first=George|author-link=George Orwell|title=Homage to Catalonia|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|orig-year=1938|year=2013|pages=168, 236–250|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X2iWNAEACAAJ|isbn=978-0-141-39302-5|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book | last = Parker | first = Peter | author-link = Peter Parker (author) | title = Isherwood: A Life Revealed | year = 2005 | orig-year = 2004 | publisher = [[Picador]] | location = London | isbn = 978-0-330-32826-5 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CdF2UXFgcFcC|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last1=Preston|first1=Paul|author-link1=Paul Preston|last2=Mackenzie|first2=Ann|title=The Republic Besieged: Civil War in Spain 1936–1939|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OSEqR1G40HwC|year=1996|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=978-0-7486-0861-4|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Sommerfield|first=John|author-link=John Sommerfield|title=The Imprinted: Recollections of Then, Now, and Later On|location=London|publisher=London Magazine Editions|year=1977|isbn=978-0-904388-26-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7IAIAQAAIAAJ|via=Google Books}} Although an autobiographical work disguised as a novel, John Sommerfield's ''The Imprinted'' draws upon factual relationships and events that occurred among British socialist enclaves in the 1930s. As such, Sommerfield's friendship with Ross and Cornford is likely factual, although any relationship between Ross and Cornford is unconfirmed.
* {{cite news|last=Spender|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Spender|title=On Being a Ghost in Isherwood's Berlin|magazine=[[Mademoiselle (magazine)|Mademoiselle]]|issue=79|date=September 1974|pages=138–139}}
* {{cite book|last=Spender|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Spender|title=World Within World: The Autobiography of Stephen Spender|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9OW3Ke7WKBMC|location=Berkeley, California|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|year=1966|orig-year=1951|isbn=978-0-679-64045-5|via=Google Books|author-mask=8}}
* {{cite book|last=Sutherland|first=John|author-link=John Sutherland (author)|title=Stephen Spender: A Literary Life|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/stephenspenderli00suth/page/122 122]|year=2005|isbn=0-19-517816-5|url=https://archive.org/details/stephenspenderli00suth|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=Williams|first=Keith|title=British Writers and the Media, 1930–45|location=London|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers Ltd]]|pages=265|year=1996|isbn=0-333-63896-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5oGuCwAAQBAJ&q=jean+ross+peter+porcupine&pg=PA265|via=Google Books}}
{{refend}}

==== Online sources ====
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{cite news|last=Allen|first=Brooke|title=Isherwood: The Uses of Narcissism|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=19 December 2004|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/19/books/review/isherwood-the-uses-of-narcissism.html|quote=The real Isherwood, though not without many sympathetic qualities, was petty, selfish and supremely egotistical. The least political of the so-called Auden group, Isherwood was always guided by his personal motivations rather than by abstract ideas.}}
* {{cite news|last=Bell|first=Arthur|author-link=Arthur Bell (journalist)|title=Christopher Isherwood: No Parades|newspaper=The New York Times|page=412|date=25 March 1973|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/03/25/archives/christopher-isherwood-no-parades.html}}
* {{cite news|title=Book Ends|newspaper=The New York Times|date=6 March 1977|page=309|access-date=18 June 2018|quote=[Christopher Isherwood] found no irony in the post‐Berlin life of Jean Ross, the woman who was the model for the hedonistic Sally Bowles: 'A beautiful woman. She left Berlin to go to Spain during the Civil War. She died recently still a Communist.'|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/03/06/archives/book-ends.html|ref={{harvid|The New York Times|1977}}}}
* {{cite news|last=Brown|first=Helen|title=Muse, The Witham, Barnard Castle|newspaper=[[The Northern Echo]]|date=18 February 2016|access-date=18 November 2018|url=https://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/news/14287071.muse-the-witham-barnard-castle/}}
* {{cite web|last=Cockburn|first=Alexander|author-link=Alexander Cockburn|title=Alexander Cockburn Reminisces About His Father's Second Wife Jean Ross|date=22 February 2001|website=[[CounterPunch|CounterPunch: America's Best Newsletter]]|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.counterpunch.org/rudyart.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010303095937/http://www.counterpunch.org/rudyart.html|archive-date=3 March 2001}}
* {{cite episode|last1=Day|first1=James|author-link1=James Day (journalist)|last2=Isherwood|first2=Christopher|author-link2=Christopher Isherwood|title=Christopher Isherwood on Day at Night, with James Day|transcript=Episode Information|transcript-url=https://www.cuny.tv/show/dayatnight/PR1012147|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kx09mDenhKU|access-date=18 June 2018|series=Day at Night|series-link=Day at Night|network=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] (PBS)|station=[[CUNY TV]]|date=25 April 1974|season=2|number=32|language=en}}
* {{cite news|last=Doyle|first=Rachel|title=Looking for Christopher Isherwood's Berlin|newspaper=The New York Times|page=TR10|date=12 April 2013|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/14/travel/looking-for-christopher-isherwoods-berlin.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Frost|first=Peter|title=Jean Ross: The Real Sally Bowles|newspaper=[[Morning Star (British newspaper)|Morning Star]]|date=31 December 2013|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/a-52c7-Jean-Ross-the-real-Sally-Bowles}} Frost's article is more or less a summary of the Oxford National Biography article by [[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]].
* {{cite news|last=Fyrth|first=Jim|title=Obituary: Bill Carritt|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=25 May 1999|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/1999/may/24/guardianobituaries1}}
* {{cite web|last=Gallagher|first=Paul|title=Life is a Cabaret: Christopher Isherwood on the real Sally Bowles, Berlin, writing and W. H. Auden|website=Dangerous Minds|publisher=Presented by [[Richard Metzger]]|date=3 April 2014|access-date=2 October 2019|url=https://dangerousminds.net/comments/life_is_a_cabaret_christopher_isherwood_on_the_real_sally_bowles_berlin}}
* {{cite news|last=Gilbert|first=Gerard|title=Christopher Isherwood: A Singular Talent Laid Bare|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|location=London|date=8 March 2011|access-date=18 June 2018|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/features/christopher-isherwood-a-singular-talent-laid-bare-2235123.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Grossman|first=Lev|author-link=Lev Grossman|title=All-Time 100 Novels: The Berlin Stories|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=6 January 2010|access-date=18 June 2017|url=https://entertainment.time.com/2005/10/16/all-time-100-novels/slide/the-berlin-stories-1946-by-christopher-isherwood/}}
* {{cite news|last=Harvey|first=Chris|title=Christopher and His Kind, BBC Two, Review|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=18 March 2011|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8391758/Christopher-and-His-Kind-BBC-Two-review.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Hensher|first=Philip|author-link=Philip Hensher|title=Christopher and His Kind|url=http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/15th-may-2004/56/christopher-and-his-kind|date=15 May 2005|newspaper=[[The Spectator]]|access-date=18 November 2018}}
* {{cite web|last=Jardine|first=Jon|title=Cabaret Berlin: Jean Ross|date=24 April 2014|website=Cabaret Berlin: Exploring the Entertainment of the Weimar Era|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.cabaret-berlin.com/?p=1038|quote=Isherwood returned to the United States and three years later, on April 27th 1973, Jean died of cervical cancer at her home in Barnes, south-west London. She was cremated at [[Mortlake Crematorium]] on May 4th 1973.}}
* {{cite web|title=John Sommerfield|website=London Books|url=http://www.london-books.co.uk/authors/johnsommerfield.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617221521/http://www.london-books.co.uk/authors/johnsommerfield.html|date=June 2015|access-date=7 March 2020|archive-date=17 June 2015|url-status=live|quote=[John Sommerfield] went off to fight for the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, serving in a machine-gun unit and losing his friend and fellow writer John Cornford to the conflict. On his return to England, Sommerfield found that he had been reported dead, his obituary appearing in two newspapers. ''Volunteer In Spain'' appeared in 1937 and was dedicated to Cornford, but he felt that he had been rushed in writing it, despite mainly positive coverage.|ref={{harvid|Sommerfield|2015}}}}
* {{cite news|last=Moynihan|first=Colin|title=Alexander Cockburn, Acerbic Writer and Critic, Dies at 71|newspaper=The New York Times|page=B8|date=22 July 2012|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/23/nyregion/alexander-cockburn-left-wing-writer-dies-at-71.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Moss|first=Howard|author-link=Howard Moss|title=Christopher Isherwood: Man and Work|newspaper=The New York Times|date=3 June 1979|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1979/06/03/archives/christopher-isherwood-man-and-work-isherwood.html}}
* {{cite web|title=National Archives: Francis Claud Cockburn – Security File|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C11190900|date=1 January 1940|website=The National Archives|access-date=29 May 2019|quote="Francis Claud Cockburn, alias Frank Pitcairn: British. In 1933 Cockburn a former ''Times'' journalist, started his own political publication ''The Week'' which gained a reputation for having inside sources of information. In 1936, under the name 'Frank Pitcairn', he reported on the Spanish Civil War for the ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'', later becoming its Foreign Editor. In 1939 he was a leading British Communist Party member and was said to be a leader of the Comintern in Western Europe. Throughout the Second World War he remained an active Communist".|ref={{harvid|National Archives|1940}}}}
* {{cite web|last=Norton|first=Ingrid|title=Year with Short Novels: Breakfast at Sally Bowles|publisher=[[Open Letters Monthly]]|date=1 July 2010|access-date=2 July 2018|url=https://www.openlettersmonthly.com/short-novels-breakfast-at-sally-bowles/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407054257/https://www.openlettersmonthly.com/short-novels-breakfast-at-sally-bowles/|archive-date=7 April 2018|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite news|title=Paul Scott Mowrer Dies of 83; Won Pulitzer as Correspondent|work=The New York Times|date=7 April 1971|page=46|access-date=7 October 2020|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/04/07/archives/paul-scott-mowrer-dies-ats3-won-puhtzer-ascorrespondent.html|ref={{harvid|The New York Times|1971}}|url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite ODNB|last=Parker|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Parker (author)|title=Ross, Jean Iris (1911–1973)|date=September 2004|url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/74425|access-date=18 June 2017|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/74425|url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite web|title=Rumba (1935)|website=[[Internet Movie Database]]|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0026956/|postscript=. As Ross purportedly never travelled to the United States during her lifetime, it is possible that Ross was erroneously credited as having a small role in this film.|ref={{harvid|Internet Movie Database}}}}
* {{cite journal|last=Ryan|first=Trevor|title=Labour and Media in Britain 1929–1939: A Study of the Attitudes of the Labour Movement Towards the New Media, Film and Radio, and Of Its Attempts to Use them For Political Purposes|volume=2|pages=314, 325|date=March 1986|journal=School of History|publisher=[[University of Leeds]]|url=http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/726/2/uk_bl_ethos_409747_vol2.pdf}}
* {{cite news|last=Spender|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Spender|title=Life Wasn't a Cabaret|newspaper=The New York Times|page=198|date=30 October 1977|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/10/30/archives/life-wasnt-a-cabaret-on-a-visit-to-the-berlin-festival-stephen.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Stasio|first=Marilyn|author-link=Marilyn Stasio|title=Sarah Caudwell, 60, Lawyer and Author of Mystery Novels|newspaper=The New York Times|date=6 February 2000|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/06/nyregion/sarah-caudwell-60-lawyer-and-author-of-mystery-novels.html|quote=[[Sarah Caudwell]] was born May 27, 1939.}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Thomson|first=David|author-link=David Thomson (film critic)|title=The Observer as Hero|date=21 March 2005|access-date=2 October 2019|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/68111/the-observer-hero|magazine=[[The New Republic]]|location=New York City}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Vidal|first=Gore|author-link=Gore Vidal|title=Art, Sex and Isherwood|magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]]|date=9 December 1976|location=New York City|access-date=18 June 2018|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1976/12/09/art-sex-and-isherwood/}}
* {{cite report|last=Whaley|first=Barton|date=September 1969|title=Guerrillas in the Spanish Civil War|url=http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/703755.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212052637/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/703755.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 February 2017|periodical=[[Center for International Studies]]|institution=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]|location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]|page=44|access-date=18 November 2018|others=Sponsored by the [[DARPA|Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA)]]}}
* {{cite web|last=Whitehead|first=Andrew|title=John Sommerfield|website=AndrewWhitehead.Net|url=https://www.andrewwhitehead.net/john-sommerfield.html|date=August 2013|access-date=7 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801061951/https://www.andrewwhitehead.net/john-sommerfield.html|archive-date=1 August 2013|url-status=live|quote=John Sommerfield described ''The Imprinted'' as semi-fictional memoirs. It draws loosely on his own life—the dissolute, disputatious political and literary circles in which he mixed; political activism in London; fighting in Spain... Much of the action concerns a commission to make a radio documentary about... John Cornford, then being pressured to amend the script and take out some of the politics, and battling against these injunctions.}}
* {{cite news|last=Wollaston|first=Sam|title=Review: Christopher and His Kind <nowiki>|</nowiki> Civilization: Is the West History?|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=20 March 2011|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2011/mar/20/christopher-and-his-kind-review}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|2642181|Jean Ross}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110623141530/http://www.counterpunch.org/rudyart.html Jean Ross – CounterPunch Profile] counterpunch.org; accessed 8 July 2014.
* [https://www.oxforddnb.com/templates/article.jsp?articleid=74425 Jean Ross – Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Profile], oxforddnb.com; accessed 8 July 2014.

{{Isherwood}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ross, Jean}}
[[Category:1911 births]]
[[Category:1973 deaths]]
[[Category:English people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:People from Alexandria]]
[[Category:British communists]]
[[Category:British expatriates in Germany]]
[[Category:British women singers]]
[[Category:British writers]]
[[Category:British film critics]]
[[Category:British women film critics]]
[[Category:Deaths from cervical cancer]]
[[Category:Nightclub performers]]
[[Category:20th-century English singers]]
[[Category:20th-century English women singers]]
[[Category:People associated with RADA]]
[[Category:British socialist feminists]]
[[Category:Deaths from cancer in England]]
[[Category:British expatriates in Egypt]]

Jean Ross

2023-11-10T01:39:28Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Journalist and propagandist */removed duplicative hyperlinks

{{short description|British writer, political activist, and film critic (1911–1973)}}
{{for|the Canadian physician and politician|Jean Auguste Ross}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2014}}
{{Infobox person
| name = Jean Ross
| image = {{CSS image crop|Image=Jean ross.jpg|bSize=340|cWidth=200|cHeight=200|oTop=25|oLeft=65|Location=center}}
| caption = Ross in c.1931
| birth_name = Jean Iris Ross
| birth_date = {{birth date|1911|05|07|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Alexandria]], Egypt{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}}
| death_date = {{death date and age|1973|04|27|1911|05|07|df=yes}}
| death_place = [[Richmond, London|Richmond]], [[Surrey]], England
| partner = {{List collapsed|title=''See list''|1={{plain list|
* [[Eric Maschwitz]]{{sfn|Brown|2016}}
* [[Peter van Eyck]]{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}}
* [[John Cornford]]
* [[Claud Cockburn]]{{efn|name=Deed Poll}} }}}}
| children = [[Sarah Caudwell]]{{sfn|Stasio|2000}}
| relatives = [[Olivia Wilde]]{{sfn|Mosley|2003|p=120}} (step-granddaughter)
| occupation = Film critic, writer, singer
| employer = ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'' (film critic) ''[[Daily Express]]'' (war correspondent)
}}

'''Jean Iris Ross Cockburn'''{{efn|name=Deed Poll}} ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|k|oʊ|b|ər|n}} {{respell|KOH|bərn}}; 7 May 1911 – 27 April 1973) was a [[British people|British]] [[journalist]], political activist, and [[Film criticism|film critic]].{{sfnm|Williams|1996|1p=265|Whaley|1969|2p=44|Jardine|2014}} During the [[Spanish Civil War]] (1936–39), she was a [[war correspondent]] for the ''[[Daily Express]]'' and is alleged to have been a [[press agent]] for [[Joseph Stalin]]'s [[Comintern]].{{sfnm|Williams|1996|1p=265|Whaley|1969|2p=44|Fyrth|1999}} A skilled writer, Ross worked as a film critic for the ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'' and her criticisms of early [[Cinema of the Soviet Union|Soviet cinema]] were later described by scholars as ingenious works of "[[Marxist dialectic|dialectical sophistry]]".{{efn|name=Peter Porcupine|Ross wrote many articles using the alias [[Peter Porcupine]].{{sfn|Hogenkamp|1986|p=119}}}}{{sfn|Hutchings|2008|p=122}} Throughout her life, she wrote political criticism, [[anti-fascist]] polemics, and socialist manifestos for a number of disparate organisations such as the British Workers' Film and Photo League.{{sfn|Forbes|2011|pp=206–19}} She was a devout [[Stalinist]] and a lifelong member of the [[Communist Party of Great Britain]].{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=100–101|Croft|1989|2p=156|Firchow|2008|3p=120}}

During her itinerant youth in the [[Weimar Republic]], Ross was a cabaret singer and aspiring film actress in Berlin. Her escapades inspired the heroine in [[Christopher Isherwood]]'s 1937 [[novella]] ''[[Sally Bowles]]'' which was later collected in ''[[Goodbye to Berlin]]'',{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}}<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Isherwood's Sally Bowles was based on Jean Ross, a spunky British woman whom he met during his Berlin days with [[W. H. Auden]] and [[Stephen Spender]]".</ref> a work cited by literary critics as deftly capturing the hedonistic nihilism of the [[Weimar culture|Weimar era]] and later adapted into the stage musical ''[[Cabaret (musical)|Cabaret]]''.<ref name="Grossman">{{harvnb|Grossman|2010}}: ''[[The Berlin Stories]]'' "form one coherent snapshot of a lost world, the antic, cosmopolitan Berlin of the 1930s, where jolly expatriates dance faster and faster, as if that would save them from the creeping rise of Nazism".</ref> In the 1937 novella, Sally is a British [[flapper]] who moonlights as a chanteuse during the twilight of the [[Jazz Age]]. After a series of failed romances, she becomes pregnant and has an [[abortion]] facilitated by the novella's narrator.<ref name="Sally Abortion"/> Isherwood based many of the novella's details upon actual events in Ross' life, including her abortion.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}}{{sfnm|Lehmann|1987|1pp=28–9|Gallagher|2014}} Fearing a [[libel suit]], Isherwood delayed publication of the work until given Ross' explicit permission.<ref name="Libel Suit"/>{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Lehmann|1987|2p=29}}

For the remainder of her life, Ross believed the public association of herself with the naïve and apolitical character of Bowles occluded her lifelong work as a professional writer and political activist.{{sfnm|Croft|1989|1p=156|Firchow|2008|2p=120}} Her daughter [[Sarah Caudwell]], who shared this belief, later wrote a newspaper article in an attempt to correct the historical record and to dispel misconceptions about Ross.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} According to Caudwell, "in the transformations of the novel for stage and cinema the characterisation of Sally has become progressively cruder and less subtle and the stories about 'the original' correspondingly more high-coloured".{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}

In addition to inspiring the character Sally Bowles,{{sfn|Garebian|2011|p=4}} Ross is credited by the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]'' and other sources as the muse for lyricist [[Eric Maschwitz]]'s jazz standard "[[These Foolish Things (Remind Me of You)]]", one of the 20th century's most enduring love songs.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Brown|2016}} Although Maschwitz's estranged wife [[Hermione Gingold]] later claimed the song was written for herself or actor [[Anna May Wong]],{{sfn|Gingold|1989|p=54}} Maschwitz contradicted these claims.{{sfn|Maschwitz|1957|pp=77–79}} Instead, Maschwitz cited memories of a "young love",{{sfn|Maschwitz|1957|pp=77–79}} and most scholars posit Maschwitz's youthful affair with Ross inspired the song.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Brown|2016}}

== Early life and education ==
[[File:Bridge Street, Leatherhead (geograph 2099800).jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|After spending her childhood in the [[History of Egypt under the British|British protectorate of Egypt]], Ross was educated at [[Leatherhead|Leatherhead Court]], [[Surrey]].]]

Jean Ross was raised in luxury at Maison Ballassiano in the [[History of Egypt under the British|British protectorate]] of [[Alexandria, Egypt]],{{sfnm|Garebian|2011|1pp=6–7|Parker|2005|2p=206|Isherwood|2012b|3loc=Glossary|3p=796}} She was the eldest daughter of Charles Ross (1880–1938), a Scottish cotton classifier for the [[Bank of Egypt]] and brought up with her four siblings in a staunchly liberal, anti-[[Conservative Party (UK)|Tory]] household.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}{{sfnm|Parker|2005|1p=206|Isherwood|2012b|2loc=Glossary|2p=796}}

Ross was educated in England at [[Leatherhead|Leatherhead Court]], [[Surrey]].{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} As an unusually intelligent pupil who had completed the [[sixth form]] curricula by the age of 16, she was profoundly bored and loathed school.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} She became openly rebellious when informed she must remain at school for another year to repeat her already completed coursework.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} To gain her freedom, she feigned a teenage pregnancy and was summoned to appear before the school's stern headmistress:

{{Quote|Jean remembered standing by the fireplace, feeling the cold marble under her hand while she debated 'for the longest thirty seconds of my life' whether to tell the truth, which would have condemned her to remaining at the school, or lie and suffer the consequences.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}}}}

She falsely insisted to the headmistress that she was pregnant and the Leatherhead Court schoolmasters sequestered the teenager in a nearby [[sanatorium|insane asylum]] until a relative arrived and retrieved her.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} When they discovered the pregnancy was feigned, Ross was formally expelled.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} Exasperated by her defiant behaviour, her parents sent her abroad to Pensionnat Mistral, an elite Swiss [[finishing school]] in [[Neuchâtel]].{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Ross, however, was either expelled or fled the school.{{sfn|Frost|2013}}

Using a trust stipend provided by her grandfather Charles Caudwell, who was an affluent industrialist and landowner,{{sfn|Parker|2004}} the teenage Ross returned to England and enrolled in the [[Royal Academy of Dramatic Art]] (RADA), London.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} After diligently applying herself in her first year, she won a coveted acting prize that gave her the opportunity to play the lead role in any production of her choice.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} When she selected the difficult role of [[Phèdre|Phaedra]], she was informed her youth precluded such a tragic role because she lacked the requisite life experience.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Hurt by this refusal, Ross left the academy after one year to pursue a film career.{{sfn|Frost|2013}}

In 1930, at nineteen years of age, Ross and fellow Egyptian-born Hungarian actor [[Marika Rökk]] obtained cinematic roles portraying a harem ''[[houri]]'' in director [[Monty Banks]]' ''[[Why Sailors Leave Home]]'', an [[Sound film|early sound comedy]] that was filmed in London.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=207}} Ross's dark complexion and partial fluency in Arabic were deemed suitable for the role.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=207}} Disappointed with their small roles, she and Rökk heard rumours about ample job opportunities for aspiring actors in the [[Weimar Republic|Weimar Republic of Germany]] and set off with great expectations for Central Europe.{{sfn|Parker|2005|pp=205, 207}}

== Weimar Berlin ==
{{Annotated image|image=Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-P062899, Berlin, Tanzkabarett im Europahaus.jpg|image-width=250|image-left=0|image-top=-20|width=240|height=200|float=right|caption=Ross was a singer at many of the [[Weimar culture|Weimar-era cabarets]] in Berlin.|Link=Weimar culture}}

Ross's excursion to Central Europe proved less successful than she had hoped. Unable to find acting work, she worked as a nightclub singer in Weimar Germany, ostensibly in [[lesbian bar]]s and second-rate cabarets.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=205}} When not singing or modelling,{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=207}} she often visited the offices of the [[UFA GmbH]], a German motion picture production company, in the hopes of gaining small film roles. By late 1931,{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=88–89}} she obtained a job as a dancer in theatre director [[Max Reinhardt]]'s production of [[Jacques Offenbach|Offenbach]]'s ''{{Lang|fr|opéra [[fantastique]]}}'' ''[[Tales of Hoffmann]]'',{{sfnm|Sutherland|2005|1p=122|Spender|1977}} and played Anitra in Reinhardt's production of ''[[Peer Gynt]]''.{{sfnm|Caudwell|1986|1pp=28–29|Gilbert|2011|Cockburn|2001}}

Reinhardt's much-anticipated production of ''Tales of Hoffmann'' premiered on 28 November 1931.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=88–89}} The production was reputedly one of the last great triumphs of the Berlin theatre scene prior to the [[Nazi Party]]'s gradual ascent. Ross and a male dancer appeared together as an amorous couple in the stage background, and were visible only in silhouette during the Venetian palace sequence of the second act.{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=88–89|Isherwood|2012b|2p=386}} Later, Ross said she and the male performer had capitalised on this opportunity for sexual intimacy in full view of the unsuspecting audience.{{efn|name=Hoffmann|In 1986, many years after Ross' death, her daughter Sarah Caudwell disputed Isherwood's claims of Ross' sexual exhibitionism in Reinhardt's ''[[Tales of Hoffmann]]''.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} Acquaintance [[Gerald Hamilton]] and others, however, said Ross was known for her sexual exhibitionism, including entertaining guests in the nude.{{sfn|Hamilton|1969|p=44}}}}{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=88–89}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|2012b|p=386}}: Ross "claimed that she and her fellow extra used to fuck {{sic}} every single night on stage during the party at Giulietta's Venetian palace in the second act of [[The Tales of Hermann|Hoffmans ''Erzählungen'']]".</ref>

=== Meeting Isherwood ===
By late 1931, Ross had moved to [[Schöneberg|Schöneberg, Berlin]], where she shared modest lodgings in Fräulein Meta Thurau's flat at [[Nollendorfplatz|Nollendorfstraße 17]] with English writer [[Christopher Isherwood]], whom she had met in October 1930 or early 1931.{{efn|name=Fraulein Meta Thurau|Isherwood said Fräulein Meta Thurau "was tremendously intrigued by her [Ross'] looks and mannerisms, her makeup, her style of dressing, and above all, her stories about her love affairs. But she didn't altogether like Jean. For Jean was untidy and inconsiderate; she made a lot of extra work for her landladies. She expected room service and sometimes would order people around in an imperious tone, with her English upper-class rudeness".{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}: "Jean moved into a room in the Nollendorfstrasse flat after she met Christopher, early in 1931".</ref>{{sfnm|Isherwood|2012b|1loc=Glossary|1p=796|Hamilton|1969|2p=44|Izzo|2005|3p=163|Lehmann|1987|4p=18}} Isherwood, who was an apprentice novelist, was politically ambivalent about the rise of fascism and had moved to Berlin in order to avail himself of boy prostitutes and to enjoy the city's orgiastic [[Jazz Age]] cabarets.<ref>{{harvnb|Moss|1979}}: Isherwood frequented "the boy-bars in Berlin in the late years of the Weimar Republic.... [He] discovered a world utterly different from the repressive English one he disliked, and with it, the excitements of sex and new subject matter."</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|loc=Chapter 1|ps=: "To Christopher, Berlin meant Boys... Christopher was suffering from an inhibition, then not unusual among upper-class homosexuals; he couldn't relax sexually with a member of his own class or nation. He needed a working-class foreigner. He had become clearly aware of this when he went to Germany in May 1928."}}</ref> At their first meeting, Ross monopolised the conversation and recounted her latest sexual conquests.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} At one point, she reached into her handbag and produced a [[Diaphragm (birth control)|diaphragm]], which she waved in the face of a startled Isherwood.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=206}} The two soon became intimate friends.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=207}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}: "In real life, Jean and Christopher had a relationship which was asexual but more truly intimate than the relationships between Sally and her various partners in the novel, the plays and the films".</ref>

Although Ross' relations with Isherwood were not always amicable,{{efn|name=Acrimony with Isherwood|Isherwood wrote in his 1976 memoir that both he and Ross were selfish and often quarrelled.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=63}} [[Stephen Spender]] likewise implied relations between Isherwood and Ross were often acrimonious, and Isherwood referred to Ross as "a bitch" for snidely claiming he might one day "write something really great, like [[Noël Coward]]".{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=122}}}} she soon joined [[Auden Group|Isherwood's social circle]] alongside more politically-aware poets [[W.H. Auden]] and [[Stephen Spender]].{{sfn|Izzo|2005|p=144}}<ref>{{harvnb|Spender|1966|p=122}}. In his autobiography ''World Within World'', Spender described Ross as she appeared in 1931: "Her clothes dishevelled, her eyes large onyxes fringed by eyelashes like enamelled wire, in a face of carved ivory".</ref> Subsequently, Ross was the only woman in this circle of gay male writers, who mythologised her in their respective memoirs.{{sfn|Izzo|2005|p=144}} Among Isherwood's acquaintances, Ross was regarded as a sexual [[libertine]] who was devoid of inhibitions and had no qualms about entertaining visitors to their flat while nude or about discussing her sexual relations.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=88–89}}<ref>{{harvnb|Hamilton|1969|pp=44–45}}: "I always remember my first meeting with Jean Ross... When I called with my usual punctuality exactly at twelve o'clock, I was told that Miss Ross was in her bath. However a gay voice rang out down the passes — 'Is that you, Gerald? Come and talk to me, darling, while I'm having my bath' ... I felt rather startled at this warm invitation to sit down in the bathroom while a lady I had only met the night before was performing her ablutions. However, I went into the bathroom".</ref>{{sfnm|Garebian|2011|1pp=6–7|Isherwood|1976|2p=63}} A contemporary portrait of the 19-year-old Ross appears in Isherwood's ''[[Goodbye to Berlin]]'' when the narrator first encounters the "divinely decadent" Sally Bowles:<ref name="Divinely Decadent">{{harvnb|Garebian|2011|p=30}}: "Sally seems satisfied to be divinely decadent..."</ref><ref name="Divine Decadence">{{harvnb|Mizejewski|1992|p=4}}: "The Sally character herself is this century's darling of divine decadence, an odd measure of how dear to us is this fiction of the 'shocking' British/American vamp in Weimar Berlin."</ref>

{{Quote|I noticed that her fingernails were painted emerald green, a colour unfortunately chosen, for it called attention to her hands, which were much stained by cigarette smoking and as dirty as a little girl's. She was dark ... Her face was long and thin, powdered dead white. She had very large brown eyes which should have been darker, to match her hair and the pencil she used for her eyebrows.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012a|p=24}}}}

[[File:Bundesarchiv B 145 Bild-P049500, Berlin, Aufmarsch der SA in Spandau.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.4|A parade of [[Brownshirts]] in [[Weimar Republic|Weimar Berlin]] in 1932. By the time Ross and Isherwood departed that same year, such parades were a regular occurrence.]]

Isherwood further described the youthful Ross as having a physical resemblance to [[Merle Oberon]] but said her face naturally had a sardonic humour akin to that of comedian [[Beatrice Lillie]].{{sfn|Day|Isherwood|1974}} Their ramshackle flat at Nollendorfstraße 17 was in a working-class district near the centre of Weimar Berlin's radical enclaves, subversive activity, and gay nightlife.{{sfnm|1a1=Day|1a2=Isherwood|1y=1974|2a1=Doyle|2y=2013}} By day, Ross was a fashion model for popular magazines,{{sfn|Frost|2013}} and by night, she was a [[Bohemian style|bohemian]] chanteuse singing in the nearby cabarets located along the [[Kurfürstendamm]] avenue, an [[Red-light district|entertainment-vice district]] that was selected for future destruction by [[Joseph Goebbels]] in his 1928 journal.{{sfn|Farina|2013|p=79}}<ref>{{harvnb|Lehmann|1987|p=18}}: "Jean Ross, whom [Isherwood] had met in Berlin as one of his fellow-lodgers in the Nollendorfstrasse for a time, when she was earning her living as a (not very remarkable) singer in a second-rate cabaret".</ref> These cabarets would be closed by the [[Brownshirts]] when the [[Nazi seizure of power|Nazi Party seized power]] in early 1933.{{sfn|Farina|2013|p=79}} Isherwood visited these nightclubs to hear Ross sing; he later described her voice as poor but nonetheless effective:{{sfn|Lehmann|1987|p=18}}

{{Quote|She had a surprisingly deep, husky voice. She sang badly,{{efn|name=Ross' voice|[[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]] notes that Ross "claimed that Isherwood 'grossly underrated' her singing abilities, but her family agreed that this was one aspect of Sally Bowles that Isherwood got absolutely right".{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}}}} without any expression, her hands hanging down at her sides—yet her performance was, in its own way, effective because of her startling appearance and her air of not caring a curse of what people thought of her.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012a|p=27}}}}

Due to her acquaintance with Isherwood, Ross would later become immortalised as "a bittersweet English [[Wiktionary:Hoyden|hoyden]]" named [[Sally Bowles]] in Isherwood's 1937 eponymous [[novella]] and his 1939 book ''[[Goodbye to Berlin]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Lehmann|1987|p=18}}: "Jean Ross ... She had not yet been immortalized as Sally Bowles ..."</ref>{{sfnm|Garebian|2011|1pp=6–7|Bell|1973}} While in Isherwood's company, Ross was introduced to the visiting [[Paul Bowles]], a bisexual American writer who would later gain acclaim for his [[post-colonial]] novel ''[[The Sheltering Sky]]''.{{sfnm|Garebian|2011|1pp=6–7|Vidal|1976}} This meeting between Ross and Paul Bowles made an impression upon Isherwood, who later used Bowles' surname for the character Sally Bowles, whom he based upon Ross.{{sfn|Vidal|1976}}<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Isherwood himself admitted that he named the character of [Sally Bowles] for Paul Bowles, whose 'looks' he liked".</ref> Isherwood said Ross was "more essentially British than Sally; she grumbled like a true Englishwoman, with her 'grin-and-bear-it' grin. And she was tougher".{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}}

=== Abortion incident ===
[[File:Peter van Eyck in Five Graves to Cairo (1943) trailer.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.1|link=Peter van Eyck|Actor [[Peter van Eyck]] in ''[[Five Graves to Cairo]]'' (1943). The 1931 relationship between van Eyck and Ross—and Ross' subsequent abortion—became the basis of Isherwood's 1937 novella ''Sally Bowles''.]]

Although Isherwood sometimes had sex with women,{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=10–11}} Ross—unlike the fictional character Sally—never tried to seduce Isherwood,<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}: "Jean never tried to seduce him [Isherwood]. But I remember a rainy, depressing afternoon when she remarked, 'What a pity we can't make love, there's nothing else to do,' and he agreed that it was and there wasn't".</ref> although they were forced to share a bed whenever their flat became overcrowded with visiting revelers.{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=63}}: "On at least one occasion, because of some financial or housing emergency, they [Isherwood and Ross] shared a bed without the least embarrassment. Jean knew Otto and Christopher's other sex mates but showed no desire to share them, although he wouldn't have really minded".</ref> Instead, Isherwood settled into a same-sex relationship with a young, working-class, German man named Heinz Neddermeyer,{{sfnm|Izzo|2005|1p=6|Vidal|1976}} while Ross entered into a variety of heterosexual liaisons, including one with the tall, blond, musician Götz von Eick,{{sfnm|Thomson|2005|Parker|2005|2p=220}} who later became an actor under the stage name [[Peter van Eyck]] and future star of [[Henri-Georges Clouzot]]'s ''[[The Wages of Fear]]''.{{sfnm|Frost|2013|Gallagher|2014|Thomson|2005}} Although some biographers identified van Eyck as Jewish,{{efn|name=Peter van Eyck|Critic [[David Thomson (film critic)|David Thomson]] and writer [[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]] assert that [[Peter van Eyck]] was [[Jewish]].{{sfnm|Parker|2005|1p=220|Thomson|2005}} Others contend van Eyck was a [[Pomerania]]n aristocrat.{{sfnm|1a1=Bergfelder|1y=2007|1p=47|2a1=Bock|2a2=Bergfelder|2y=2009|2pp=495–496}} The character of Klaus Linke in Isherwood's ''Goodbye to Berlin'' is based upon van Eyck.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}}}}{{sfnm|Thomson|2005|Parker|2005|2p=220}} others posit van Eyck was the wealthy scion of [[Prussia]]n landowners in [[Pomerania]].{{sfn|Bergfelder|2007|p=47}} As a Pomeranian aristocrat, he was expected by his family to embark upon a military career but he became interested in jazz as a young man and pursued musical studies in Berlin.{{sfnm|1a1=Bergfelder|1y=2007|1p=47|2a1=Bock|2a2=Bergfelder|2y=2009|2pp=495–496}}

When the 19-year-old van Eyck met Ross, he often moonlighted as a jazz pianist in Berlin cabarets. Either during their brief relationship or soon after their separation, Ross realised she was pregnant.{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=244–245|Gallagher|2014|Thomson|2005}} As a personal favour to Ross, Isherwood pretended to be her heterosexual impregnator to facilitate an abortion procedure.{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=244–245|Spender|1966|2p=127|Spender|1974|3pp=138–139}} Ross nearly died as a result of the abortion procedure due to the carelessness of the doctor.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}} Following the procedure, Isherwood visited an ailing Ross in a Berlin hospital. Wrongly assuming the shy gay author to be her heterosexual partner, the hospital staff despised him for callously forcing Ross to undergo a near-fatal abortion. These tragicomic events later inspired Isherwood to write his 1937 novella ''Sally Bowles'' and serves as its narrative climax.{{sfnm|Lehmann|1987|1pp=28–9|Gallagher|2014}}<ref name="Sally Abortion">{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "The abortion is a turning point in the narrator's relationship with Sally and also in his relationship to Berlin and to his writing".</ref>

=== Departure from Germany ===
While Ross recovered from the botched abortion procedure, the political situation [[Adolf Hitler's rise to power|rapidly deteriorated]] in Weimar Germany as the incipient [[Nazi Party]] continued to grow stronger day by day.{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=129}} By 1932, Weimar Germany was in the trough of an economic depression, with millions of persons unemployed.{{sfn|Spender|1977}} Nearly every German they encountered "was poor, living from hand to mouth on little money".{{sfn|Crossman|1949|p=233}} Berlin residents experienced "poverty, unemployment, political demonstrations and street fighting between the forces of the extreme left and the extreme right".{{sfn|Spender|1977}}

As the political climate deteriorated, Ross, Isherwood, Spender, and others realised they must leave Germany.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=254}} "There was a sensation of doom to be felt in the Berlin streets", Spender recalled.{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=129}} In the [[July 1932 German federal election|July 1932 elections]], the Nazis achieved a plurality in the [[Reichstag (Weimar Republic)|Reichstag]] and, by August that year, Ross departed Germany and returned to southern England.{{efn|name=England|Attempting to streamline events in a 1977 interview, Isherwood inaccurately said Ross went from Germany to Spain to join the Spanish Civil War.{{sfn|The New York Times|1977}} This is incorrect.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=95}} After leaving Berlin, Ross returned to England and then went to Spain.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=95}}}}{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=95}} Despite Ross leaving Germany, Isherwood chose to remain due to his close attachment to Heinz Neddermeyer. However, after [[Adolf Hitler]]'s ascension as [[Chancellor of Germany]] on 30 January 1933, Isherwood realised that staying any longer in Germany would be perilous.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}} He commented to a friend: "Adolf, with his rectangular black moustache, has come to stay and brought all his friends.... Nazis are to be enrolled as 'auxiliary police,' which means that one must now not only be murdered but that it is illegal to offer any resistance."{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=220}} Two weeks after Hitler passed the [[Enabling Act of 1933|Enabling Act]] which cemented his power, Isherwood fled Germany and returned to England on 5 April 1933.<ref>{{harvnb|Parker|2005|p=221}}: "Isherwood recognized that he could not remain in Berlin much longer and on April 5, the day measures were brought in to ban Jews from the teaching professions and the Civil Service, he arrived back in London, bringing with him many of his possessions."</ref>

Ultimately, the increasing prevalence of xenophobic Nazism in the country would preclude Ross and Isherwood from returning to their beloved Berlin.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Many of the Berlin cabaret denizens whom Ross and Isherwood befriended would later flee abroad or die in [[concentration camp|labour camps]].{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=164–166|Farina|2013|2p=74–81}}<ref>{{harvnb|Parker|2005|p=614}}: "It was probably during the Berlin trip that Isherwood learned that the Nazis eventually caught up with his other companion on his 1933 journey to Greece, Erwin Hansen, who had died in a concentration camp".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=297}}: "Heinz [Neddermeyer] might easily have been sentenced to an indefinite term in a concentration camp, as many homosexuals were ... Like the Jews, homosexuals were often put into 'liquidation' units, in which they were given less food and more work than other prisoners. Thus, thousands of them died".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1962|p=61}}: There were "people in danger of their lives, travelling with false papers and in fear of being caught and sent to a concentration camp or simply killed outright. It is only in the past few weeks that I have fully grasped the fact that such a situation really exists—not in a newspaper or a novel—but here where I have been living".</ref>

== Activities in London ==
{{Quote box|align=right|width=40%|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quoted=1|fontsize=100% | quote = There is nothing in his [Isherwood's] portrait of Sally [Bowles] to suggest that she might have any genuine ability as an actress, still less as a writer. My mother [Jean Ross], on the other hand, was at least talented enough as an actress to be cast as Anitra in Max Reinhardt's production of ''Peer Gynt'' and competent enough as a writer to earn her living, not long afterwards, as a scenario-writer and journalist.|author=—[[Sarah Caudwell]]|source = "Reply to Berlin", October 1986{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}}}

=== Joining the Communist Party ===
{{further|Claud Cockburn|Communist Party of Great Britain}}

After her return to southern England, Ross resided at [[Cheyne Walk]] in [[Chelsea, London]], and continued to fraternise with Isherwood and his circle of friends.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=95}} She also began to associate with left-wing political activists "who were humorous but dedicated, sexually permissive but politically dogmatic".<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=149}}: "Jean was now beginning to shed her Sally Bowles persona. Her way of expressing herself already showed the influence of her new London friends—left-wingers who were humorous but dedicated, sexually permissive but politically dogmatic".</ref> During this period, she met [[Claud Cockburn]], an Anglo-Scots journalist and the second cousin, once removed, of novelists [[Alec Waugh]] and [[Evelyn Waugh]].{{sfn|Mosley|2003|p=120}}

They met at the [[Hotel Café Royal|Café Royal]].{{efn|name=Ross and Cockburn Meeting|[[Gerald Hamilton]] hypothesised Ross and Cockburn were acquaintances as far back as Berlin in 1930.<ref>{{harvnb|Hamilton|1969|pp=44–45}}: [[Gerald Hamilton]] said [[Claud Cockburn]] visited the flat shared by Isherwood and Ross in Berlin: "Oddly enough it was not true, as Christopher wrote in ''Mr Norris Changes Trains'', that I ever lived in the famous pension immortalised by him. But I was a frequent visitor there. I always remember my first meeting with Jean Ross, who in Christopher's ''Berlin Stories'', became the famous Sally Bowles ... I think Claud Cockburn also honoured this pension with his somewhat untidy presence".</ref> Other sources contradict this statement and say Ross and Cockburn did not meet until after Ross moved back to London.{{sfn|Parker|2005|pp=270–271}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|2012b|p=447}}: The editor notes "Ross and Cockburn were in Berlin at the same time, but did not meet until after she moved back to London".</ref>}}{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=270}} Purportedly, one evening, Cockburn handed Ross a cheque but perhaps having second thoughts, he telephoned the next morning to warn her the cheque would bounce.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=271}} Despite this "portent of unreliability" and "the fact that Cockburn had already been married to [[Hope Hale Davis|an American woman]] whom he left when she became pregnant", Ross began an affair with Cockburn.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=271}} On a subsequent evening, Cockburn expounded [[Marxist economic theory]] to Ross all night until the early morning hours. Cockburn later said he persuaded Ross to become a left-wing journalist and secured her employment at the ''[[Morning Star (British newspaper)#The Daily Worker (1930–1966)|Daily Worker]]''.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Frost|2013}}

Due to Cockburn's influence, Ross joined the [[Communist Party of Great Britain]] (CPGB) during the tenure of General Secretary [[Harry Pollitt]].{{sfn|Parker|2004}} She became an active and devoted Party member for the remainder of her life.{{sfn|Croft|1989|p=156}} Meanwhile, she continued her career as an aspiring thespian, appearing in theatrical productions at the [[Gate Theatre Studio]] that were directed by [[Peter Godfrey (director)|Peter Godfrey]] and, in need of money, she modelled the latest Paris fashions by French designer [[Jean Patou]] in ''[[Tatler]]'' magazine.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} It is possible, although unlikely,{{efn|name=Rumba|Isherwood states in ''[[Christopher and His Kind]]'' that Ross never travelled to the United States during her lifetime.<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=84}}: "Jean never did go to America."</ref> As such, she could not have filmed ''[[Rumba (1935 film)|Rumba]]'' (1935) in Hollywood. She is perhaps wrongly credited as having a role in the film.}} she obtained a bit role as a chorus girl in [[Paramount Studios]]' musical drama film ''[[Rumba (1935 film)|Rumba]]''.{{sfn|Internet Movie Database}}

=== Isherwood and Viertel ===
[[File:Christopher Isherwood en route to China, 1938. (7893554712) (cropped1).jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|[[Christopher Isherwood]] in 1938. Ross arranged for Isherwood to be hired by director [[Berthold Viertel]] and launched his screenwriting career.]]

While in England, Ross' connections to the British film industry proved crucial to Isherwood's future career.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=148–149}} Ross had spent only around eighteen months in Berlin between 1932 and 1933 but became fluent enough in German to allow her to obtain work as a bilingual scenarist with Austro-German directors [[Cinema of Germany#1933–1945 Nazi Germany|who had fled]] the Nazi regime.{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=44}} One of these Austrian directors was [[Berthold Viertel]], who became Ross' friend.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=150}}<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|pp=148–149}}: "One morning in the middle of October ... Christopher got a telephone call from Jean Ross ... 'Chris darling, I've just met this absolutely marvelous man [Berthold Viertel]. He's simply brilliant. I adore him ... No, you swine—we most certainly do not! He's ''old''—at least sixty, I should think. I mean, I adore his mind ... You see, he's an Austrian, only he's a director in Hollywood. He's come here to direct a film ... And, darling, this is what's so marvelous—he wants you to write it!"</ref>

At the time, translators were sorely needed in the film industry to facilitate productions headed by Austro-German directors who were now working in the United Kingdom.{{sfn|Parker|2005|p=271}} Ross, who was aware Isherwood was living in poverty, persuaded Viertel to hire him as a translator.<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=170}}: "Berthold Viertel ... This Viennese dramatist, stage and screen director met Isherwood in 1933 through Jean Ross, who knew that Viertel needed a screenwriter for his film ''[[Little Friend (film)|Little Friend]]''".</ref> As repayment for this favour, Ross asked Isherwood to promise to give half of his first week's salary from the job to her.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=148–149}} After obtaining the job, Isherwood either reneged upon or forgot this agreement with Ross,<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|1976|p=150}}: "I can't remember if Christopher kept his promise to give [Jean] her half of his first week's salary".</ref> and this incident may have contributed to the souring of their friendship.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=148–150}} Viertel and Isherwood soon collaborated upon a film that would become ''[[Little Friend (film)|Little Friend]]'' (1934); this collaboration launched Isherwood's long career as a screenwriter in Hollywood.{{sfn|Parker|2005|pp=270–271}}

During 1933, Isherwood composed the nucleus of a story about Ross' abortion in Berlin that would later become his 1937 novella ''Sally Bowles''.{{sfn|Fryer|1977|p=160}} Dissatisfied with its structure and quality, Isherwood rewrote the manuscript during subsequent years,{{sfn|Fryer|1977|p=162}} and he eventually sent the manuscript to editor [[John Lehmann]] to be published in ''[[New Writing]]'', a new literary periodical.{{sfnm|Izzo|2005|1p=144|Lehmann|1987|2p=27}} When Isherwood informed Lehmann his story was based on factual events, the editor became worried about the story's climax because it draws upon Ross' abortion.{{sfnm|Izzo|2005|1p=144|Lehmann|1987|2pp=28–9}} Lehmann feared Ross would file a libel suit against Isherwood and himself if the story was published.{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=50}}<ref name="Libel Suit">{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Isherwood's publisher was nervous about the abortion episode and encouraged him to drop it".</ref>

Anxious to avoid a libel suit, Isherwood implored Ross to give him permission to publish the story.{{sfn|Johnstone|1975|p=33}} Ross' reluctance delayed the publication of the manuscript.{{sfn|Johnstone|1975|p=33}} Because abortion was a controversial topic in 1930s England and carried the penalty of life imprisonment,{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=51}} Ross feared Isherwood's thinly-disguised story recounting her lifestyle and abortion in Berlin would further strain her difficult relationship with her status-conscious family.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|p=245}}

To prevail upon Ross to give consent for the novella's publication, Isherwood said he was in the direst financial circumstances. Ross, who herself was often impoverished, sympathised with any friend in a similar situation.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} As a personal favour to Isherwood, she yielded her objections to the publication of ''Sally Bowles'',{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Lehmann|1987|2p=29}} which was then published by [[Hogarth Press]].{{sfn|Lehmann|1987|pp=28–9}} Following the tremendous success of the novella, Ross regretted this decision and believed it permanently harmed her reputation.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} Now deeply committed to the socialist cause, Ross noticed Isherwood's story undermined her standing "among those comrades who realised she was the model for Sally Bowles".{{sfn|Fryer|1977|p=164}}

=== Workers' League, and embezzlement ===
Around 1934 and 1935, Ross wrote a manifesto for the short-lived British Workers' Film and Photo League (BWFPL) and served as its General Secretary.{{sfn|Forbes|2011|pp=206–19}} Much like its communist-backed [[Workers Film and Photo League (USA)|US counterpart]], the BWFPL's main objective was to launch a [[Culture war|cultural counter-offensive]] to the "[[Bourgeoisie|bourgeois]]" and "nauseating" films produced in capitalist societies such as the United States and the United Kingdom.{{sfnm|Doherty|1999|1pp=48–49|Chisholm|1992|2pp=110–114}} The organisation sought to take anti-capitalist "revolutionary films to workers organisations throughout the country".{{sfnm|Doherty|1999|1pp=48–49|Chisholm|1992|2pp=110–114}} Despite its limited personnel and modest funds, the League produced [[newsreel]]s, taught seminars on working-class film criticism, organised protests against "reactionary pictures", and screened the latest blockbusters of [[Soviet Russia]] to cadres of like-minded [[Cinephilia|cineastes]].{{sfn|Chisholm|1992|pp=110–114}} The BWFPL frequently screened such motion pictures as ''[[Storm over Asia (1928 film)|Storm over Asia]]'' (1928),{{sfn|Doherty|1999|pp=48–49}} ''[[October: Ten Days That Shook the World|Ten Days That Shook the World]]'' (1928), ''[[Road to Life (1931 film)|Road to Life]]'' (1931), and ''[[The Blue Express|China Express]]'' (1929).{{sfn|Chisholm|1992|pp=110–114}}

During Ross' tenure as General Secretary, the BWFLP was closely tied to the [[Friends of the Soviet Union]], to which it often sublet its office space. After her resignation as the League's Secretary, Ross continued to serve as a League member and helped produce the short film ''Defence of Britain'' in March 1936.{{sfn|Ryan|1986|p=325}} Drawing upon her family's resources, Ross personally donated a considerable sum to the fledgling organisation in February 1936.{{sfn|Ryan|1986|p=314}} Another League member named Ivan Seruya, however, embezzled the majority of Ross' donation to finance his own private venture International Sound Films.{{sfn|Ryan|1986|p=314}} This incident and the subsequent dearth of organisational funds reportedly contributed to the League's lack of progress and to its demise in 1938.{{sfn|Ryan|1986|p=314}}

=== Film criticism for the ''Daily Worker'' ===
[[File:Веселые ребята.jpg|thumb|right|link=Jolly Fellows|Ross' film criticism focused primarily on early [[Soviet cinema]]. Her reviews for those films, such as ''[[Jolly Fellows|Jazz Comedy]]'' (pictured above), have been praised decades after her death.{{sfn|Hutchings|2008|p=122}}]]

Between 1935 and 1936, Ross worked as a film critic for the Communist newspaper ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'' using the alias Peter Porcupine,{{sfn|Hogenkamp|1986|p=119}}{{sfnm|Williams|1996|1p=265|Gilbert|2011|Fyrth|1999}} which she presumably adopted as a homage to radical English [[pamphleteer]] [[William Cobbett]], who had used the same pseudonym.{{sfn|Hogenkamp|1986|p=119}} Ross' interest in film criticism purportedly began in Berlin when she often attended the cinema with Isherwood, Auden, and Spender.{{sfn|Spender|1977}} According to Spender, their quartet of friends collectively viewed such films as [[Robert Wiene]]'s ''[[The Cabinet of Dr. Caligari]]'', [[Fritz Lang]]'s ''[[Metropolis (1927 film)|Metropolis]]'', and [[Josef von Sternberg]]'s ''[[The Blue Angel]]''. They were particularly fond of "heroic proletarian films" such as [[G.W. Pabst]]'s ''[[Kameradschaft|Comradeship]]'' as well as "Russian films in which photography created poetic images of labour and industry", which is exemplified in ''[[Ten Days That Shook the World]]'' and ''[[The Battleship Potemkin]]''.{{sfnm|Spender|1977|Crossman|1949|2p=242}} Fellow critic [[Dwight Macdonald]] described this period as spanning the Golden Age and Iron Age of Soviet cinema:{{efn|name=Iron Age|The 1930–1932 period of Soviet cinema and subsequent years were dubbed by film critics as its "Iron Age". This was an era in which state policy "laid waste to the once-flourishing cinema industry as effectively as it [[Holodomor|laid waste]] to the fertile Ukrainian farmlands".{{sfn|MacDonald|1969|pp=192–198}}}}

{{Quote|Those were the years when one went to the 'little' movie houses which showed Russian films as one might visit a cathedral or museum—reverently, expectantly. One joined a congregation of avant-garde [[Intelligentsia|illuminati]], sharing an exhilarating consciousness of experiencing a new art form—many, including myself, felt it was the great modern art. In the darkened auditorium, one came into contact with the twentieth century.{{sfn|MacDonald|1969|pp=192–198}}}}

In her film criticism, Ross insisted "the workers in the Soviet Union [had] introduced to the world" new variations of this art form with "the electrifying strength and vitality and freedom of a victorious working class".{{sfn|Hutchings|2008|p=122}} Her reviews of early Soviet cinema were later described by scholars as "ingenious piece[s] of dialectical sophistry".{{sfn|Hutchings|2008|p=122}}

=== Eve of the Spanish Civil War ===
{{further|John Cornford}}
[[File:John Cornford January 1936.jpg|thumb|right|link=John Cornford|[[John Cornford]] in 1936, eleven months prior to his death]]

In mid-September 1936, while the [[Spanish Civil War]] was in its first year, Ross purportedly met English poet and communist [[John Cornford]] at the Horseshoes pub in England while in the company of his friend [[John Sommerfield]].{{efn|name=Ross and Cornford}}<ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|2015}}: "[Sommerfield] went off to fight for the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, serving in a machine-gun unit and losing his friend and fellow writer John Cornford to the conflict. On his return to England, Sommerfield found that he had been reported dead, his obituary appearing in two newspapers. ''Volunteer In Spain'' appeared in 1937 and was dedicated to Cornford".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=86}}: "I had been with [John Cornford] when they [Ross and Cornford] first met, very soon after he'd come back from Spain".</ref> As the first English volunteer to enlist against [[Francisco Franco]]'s forces, Cornford had just returned from the [[Aragon front]], where he had served with the [[POUM]] militia near [[Saragossa]], and fought in the early battles near [[Perdiguera]] and [[Huesca]].{{sfnm|Cornford|1986|1loc=Chronology|1p=9–10|Cornford|1986|2loc=Introduction by Galassi|2p=11}} Cornford then returned to England from [[Barcelona]] to recruit volunteers to combat the fascists in Spain.{{sfnm|Cornford|1986|1loc=Chronology|1p=9–10|Sommerfield|1977|2p=86}}

Following the initial meeting between Ross and Cornford,{{efn|name=Cornford Meeting|[[John Sommerfield]] recalled Ross meeting Cornford in his autobiographical memoir ''The Imprinted'' based upon his personal experiences in the 1930s. He described her as "a dark, slim girl, stylishly dressed, not like most of the girls we used to meet".{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=86}} She spoke in a well-mannered style and "gave out a sort of high class sexiness that made you feel there was something special about her, that she was a prize".{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|pp=86–87, 140}}}} a near brawl occurred at the pub when an [[National Corporate Party|ex-fascist volunteer]] who had been in the [[Irish Brigade (Spanish Civil War)|Irish Brigade]] was present and almost came to blows with Cornford over the subject of the war.{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=87}} After leaving the pub, Cornford and Ross went for dinner to [[Bertorelli]]'s on [[Charlotte Street]] in [[Fitzrovia]], central London,{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=93}} where Ross impressed Cornford with her knowledge of ongoing political matters in Spain, as well as between England and Germany.{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=87–88}} By the end of the evening, Cornford and Ross began a romance.{{sfn|Croft|1989|p=156}}<ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=87}}: "Jean was, for all practical purposes, alone with John, talking to him in a low, amorous murmur about some new scandalous bit of Foreign Office subservience to Hitler, while, at the same time, gently stroking his thighs. When we left the restaurant she ... linked arms with John and walked off with him".</ref><ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=86}}: "Most of John [Cornford]'s girls had been unsuitable; and Jean [Ross] had been extra unsuitable".</ref>

Cornford possibly moved into Ross' apartment in the ensuing weeks while he recruited volunteers to return ''en masse'' with him to Spain.<ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=93}}: "After John had walked down Charlotte Street with Jean, he disappeared for several weeks. Then I had a letter, saying he'd moved in with Jean, and would I come round for a meal. 'She's a good cook, too,' he wrote. I liked that 'too'.</ref> While living with Ross, Cornford published his first book of poems and worked on a translation of ''[[Lysistrata]]''.{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=93}}<ref>{{harvnb|Sommerfield|1977|p=94}}. Visiting them, Sommerfield wrote he was struck by the love Ross had for Cornford: "She seemed positively besotted, watching him all the time, eating him up with her eyes".</ref> If such a relationship occurred,{{efn|name=Ross and Cornford|The relations between Ross and John Cornford appear in John Sommerfield's autobiographical 1977 work ''The Imprinted''.{{sfnm|Croft|1989|1p=156|Sommerfield|1977|2pp=86–87, 140}} This work is a memoir with facts and fiction interwoven.{{sfn|Whitehead|2013}} Sommerfield was an intimate friend of Cornford and fought in the [[Spanish Civil War]] alongside him.{{sfnm|Sommerfield|2015|Baxell|2001|2p=126}}}} this brief union was not to last due to their mutual commitment to fighting [[Francisco Franco|Franco]] in Spain.

== War correspondent ==
{{Quote box|align=right|width=40%|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quoted=1|fontsize=100%| quote = [Ross] may well, at 19, have been less informed about politics than Isherwood, five or six years older; but, when the Spanish war came and the fascists were bombing Madrid, it was she, not Isherwood, who was there to report it.|author =—[[Sarah Caudwell]]|source = "Reply to Berlin", October 1986{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}}}

=== Arrival in Republican Spain===
In September 1936, Ross travelled to war-torn Spain either in the company of Claud Cockburn or separately.{{efn|name=Arrival in Spain|Isherwood biographer [[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]] said Ross was "on holiday with [Claud] Cockburn in Spain when the civil war broke out" and that they "stayed there as reporters".{{sfn|Parker|2004}}}} At this point, Cornford had returned to Spain with 21 British volunteers to fight the fascists and had become the ''de facto'' representative of the British contingent in the [[International Brigades]].{{sfnm|Cornford|1986|1loc=Chronology|1p=9–10|Cornford|1986|2loc=Introduction by Galassi|2p=11}} He served with a [[Machine gun|mitrailleuse]] unit, and fought in the [[Battle of Madrid]] in November and December 1936. During the subsequent battle for [[University City of Madrid]], he was wounded by a stray anti-aircraft shell.{{sfn|Cornford|1986|loc=Chronology|p=9–10}} Despite his injuries, he then served with the English-speaking volunteers of the [[XIV International Brigade|Marseillaise Brigade]] and was killed in action at [[Lopera]] near [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]] on 27 or 28 December.{{sfnm|Haycock|2013|1pp=143–4|Cornford|1986|2loc=Chronology|2p=9–10}}

Upon hearing of Cornford's death, Ross was devastated and may have attempted to kill herself with an overdose of sleeping pills.{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=94}} Decades later, she would confide to her acquaintance John Sommerfield during a personal conversation that Cornford "was the only man I ever loved".{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=95}} The death of Cornford and other friends in the service of the doomed Republican cause likely solidified Ross' anti-fascist sentiments,{{efn|name=Ross' Marxism}}{{sfn|Day|Isherwood|1974}} and she remained in [[Republican Spain]] throughout the prolonged conflict as a [[war correspondent]] for the ''[[Daily Express]]''.{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=44}}

=== Journalist and propagandist ===
{{further|May Days}}
{{multiple image|perrow=2|total_width=300|align=right|image1=ErnestHemingway.jpg|width1=150|alt1=A black and white photo of Ernest Hemingway seated at a typewriter|image2=Arthur Koestler (1969).jpg|width2=150|alt2=A black and white image of Arthur Koestler in 1969|footer=In Madrid, Ross worked alongside other journalists such as [[Ernest Hemingway]] (''first''). She worked in the ''Espagne News-Agency'' with Communist writer [[Arthur Koestler]] (''second''). While in Spain, Ross' companion was Richard Mowrer, the step-son of Hemingway's first wife [[Hadley Richardson]].{{sfn|Mora|1939|pp=294, 307}}{{sfn|The New York Times|1971}}}}

Throughout the Spanish Civil War, Ross worked for the London branch office of the ''Espagne News-Agency'' ("Spanish News Agency").{{sfn|Whaley|1969|p=44}} During Ross' tenure in the organisation, the ''Espagne News-Agency'' was accused by journalist [[George Orwell]] of being a [[Stalinism|Stalinist]] apparatus that disseminated [[Communist propaganda|false propaganda]] to undermine anti-Stalinist factions on the [[Republican faction (Spanish Civil War)|Republican side]] of the Spanish Civil War.{{efn|name=Orwell|According to [[George Orwell]], the ''Espagne News-Agency'' published false stories about [[Anti-Stalinist left|anti-Stalinist anarchists]] who had been secretly executed by the [[NKVD]] in Spain.{{sfn|Orwell|2013|p=168}} For example, the agency falsely reported that [[Andrés Nin Pérez|Andrés Nin]]—who had been tortured and executed by the NKVD—had escaped to a fascist sanctuary.{{sfnm|1a1=Preston|1a2=Mackenzie|1y=1996|1p=267|2a1=Orwell|2y=2013|2p=168}}}}{{sfn|Orwell|2013|p=168}} In particular, during the [[Barcelona May Days]], when [[POUM|anarchist factions]] on the Republican side were annihilated by Stalinist-backed troops, the ''Espagne News-Agency'' and the ''Daily Worker'' published false claims saying the anarchists had been planning a coup and were secretly allied with the fascists and thus justified their extermination.{{sfn|Orwell|2013|pp=168, 236–238}}

All of the agency's staff—including Ross—were loyal operatives of the [[Comintern]] apparatus,{{sfn|Whaley|1969|p=44}} the international Communist organization that sought to create a worldwide Soviet republic.{{sfn|MacLean|2014|p=178}} Ross' fellow Comintern propagandists included Hungarian journalist [[Arthur Koestler]],{{sfn|Koestler|1954|pp=210, 335–336, 368}} Willy Forrest, Mildred Bennett of the ''Moscow Daily News'', and Claud Cockburn.{{efn|name=Cockburn Alias|Using the alias Frank Pitcairn, [[Claud Cockburn]] reported on the Spanish Civil War for the ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'' and became its Foreign Editor. He became a key figure in the British Communist Party and the Comintern of Western Europe.{{sfn|National Archives|1940}}}}{{sfnm|Whaley|1969|1p=44|Mora|1939|2p=306}}

Ross and Cockburn became closer as the civil war progressed. By this time, Cockburn was a prominent member of the British Communist Party.{{sfn|National Archives|1940}} Within five years, he would become a leader of the Comintern in Western Europe.{{sfn|National Archives|1940}} While covering the Spanish Civil War for the ''Daily Worker'' in 1936, Cockburn had joined the elite [[Fifth Regiment]] of the left-wing ''Republicanos'' battling the right-wing ''Nacionales'' and, when not fighting, he gave sympathetic coverage to the Communist Party.{{efn|name=Orwell and Cockburn|[[George Orwell]] criticized Claud Cockburn in ''[[Homage to Catalonia]]'' (1938).{{sfnm|Bounds|2009|1p=136|Orwell|2013|2p=236–238}} Orwell accused him of being under the control of [[Stalin]] and was critical of the way Cockburn reported the [[Barcelona May Days]].{{sfn|Orwell|2013|p=236–238}} Cockburn was a close friend of [[Mikhail Koltsov]], the foreign editor of ''[[Pravda]]'' and a [[the Kremlin|Kremlin]] operative.{{sfnm|McSmith|2015|1p=217|Bounds|2009|2p=136}}}}{{sfn|Moynihan|2012}}

[[File:People of Madrid seek refuge in the metro during the Francoist bombings.jpg|thumb|left|upright=1.3|Ross spent much of her time as a journalist reporting from besieged Madrid under constant bombardment by Franco's forces. Many of Madrid's inhabitants sought shelter in the subway in order to escape the bombs.]]

While Cockburn fought with the Fifth Regiment, Ross served as a war correspondent for the ''[[Daily Express]]''.{{sfn|Gilbert|2011}} When Cockburn was at the front lines, Ross ghost-wrote his columns for him, "imitating his style and filing it at the ''Daily Worker'' under his name while continuing to send her own reports to the ''Express''".{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Ross was embedded with Republican defenders in Madrid.

Among the other foreign correspondents in besieged Madrid were [[Herbert Matthews]] of ''[[The New York Times]]'',{{sfn|Cowles|1941|p=19}} [[Ernest Hemingway]] of the [[North American Newspaper Alliance]],{{sfn|Cowles|1941|p=30}} [[Henry Tilton Gorrell]] of [[United Press International]],{{sfn|Cowles|1941|p=19}} and [[Martha Gellhorn]] of ''Collier's'',{{sfn|Cowles|1941|p=19}} as well as [[Josephine Herbst]]. Ross and other foreign correspondents often dined together in the ruined basement of Gran Via, the sole restaurant open in besieged Madrid during its relentless bombardment by fascist troops. Armed loyal sentries heavily guarded the basement restaurant and no-one was permitted entry without a press pass.{{sfn|Cowles|1941|loc=Chapter 3: The Press}}

=== Reporting on the Southern Front ===
{{further|Bombing of Jaén}}

In early 1937, as the civil war progressed, Ross, her friend Richard Mowrer of ''[[The Chicago Daily News]]''—the step-son of Ernest Hemingway's first wife [[Hadley Richardson]]{{efn|name=Richard Mowrer|Richard Mowrer was the son of [[Paul Mowrer]], the first journalist to be awarded the [[Pulitzer Prize for Correspondence]] in 1929. After her divorce from Ernest Hemingway, [[Hadley Richardson]] married Paul Mowrer and became the step-mother to his son Richard. Ernest's son [[Jack Hemingway]] was Richard's step-brother.{{sfn|The New York Times|1971}}}}—and their guide Constancia de la Mora travelled to [[Andalusia]] to report on the southern front.<ref>{{harvnb|Mora|1939|pp=294, 307}}: "Mowrer and I and Jean Ross, a clever and charming Englishwoman working at that time for the Government news agency in Paris and London, started off in an automobile for the southern front".</ref> Ross and Mowrer investigated and reported upon war-time conditions in [[Alicante]], [[Málaga]], and [[Jaén, Spain|Jaén]].{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=307}} A week before Ross' arrival, Jaén had been [[Bombing of Jaén|bombed]] by a squadron of German [[Junkers 52]] aircraft.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=307}} Amid the rubble, Ross reported on the death toll and interviewed survivors including mothers whose children had died in the bombardment.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=308}} She then proceeded to [[Andújar]] where, amid the ongoing battle and machine-gun fire, she interviewed Colonel José Morales, a commander of the southern armies.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=310}}

Following her interview with Morales, the convoy in which Ross was travelling faced recurrent enemy fire and later, during the evening, was bombed by a fascist air patrol.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=310}} De la Mora recalled this bombing as one of the daily perils Ross and other pro-Republican journalists endured to report news from the front lines:
{{Quote|In the dusk, I saw Mowrer and Jean Ross running down the road. I began to run. The sound of the planes, the low roar of the motors, filled my ears and head and heart and throat. I ran faster and faster ... Suddenly the whole mountain exploded with a noise so hideous, so vast, that the ear was not shaped to comprehend it. The ground where I lay trembled I felt it move against my body. The sound began to diminish ... Jean Ross and Mowrer came down the road. We made jokes.{{sfn|Mora|1939|pp=313–314}}}}

During her time in Andújar, Ross endured nine aerial bombardments by German Junkers and survived each despite the lack of [[air raid shelter]]s.{{sfn|Mora|1939|pp=314–315}} Recalling these events, Mora described Ross as a fearless reporter who had seemingly resigned herself to death and looked "as natural as possible" when the bombs fell.{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=315}} Her friends noted Ross "had a comforting air of calmness about her".{{sfn|Henderson|2018|loc=Chapter: Jean}} Following her reporting in Andújar, Ross continued to report from the fronts at [[Córdoba offensive|Córdoba]] and [[Extremadura]].{{sfn|Mora|1939|p=315}} She continued reporting on the progress of the war, often from the front lines of the Republican forces, for the next year.

=== Fall of Madrid and return to England ===
{{CSS image crop|Image=Claud Cockburn.jpg|bSize=600|cWidth=200|cHeight=180|oTop=100|oLeft=80|Location=right|Description=[[Claud Cockburn]] with whom Ross had a child, [[Sarah Caudwell]]. In August 1939, three months after their daughter's birth, Cockburn deserted Ross and the child.{{sfn|Parker|2004}}}}

In late 1938, while pregnant with Cockburn's child,{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}} Ross witnessed the final months of the [[Siege of Madrid]] and endured aerial bombardment by Francoist forces.{{sfn|Day|Isherwood|1974}} By the time the besieged city fell to the [[Francoist Spain|Nationalist armies]] on 28 March 1939, Ross had escaped to England. Her wartime experiences, especially the atrocities she witnessed and the friends she lost in combat, solidified her lifelong commitment to [[Antifascist|anti-fascist resistance]].{{efn|name=Ross' Marxism|In a 1974 interview with [[James Day (journalist)|James Day]], Isherwood said Ross' commitment to Marxism occurred after her sojourn in Berlin and was "the one subject on which she was a bit boring because she echoed the [Stalinist] party line".{{sfn|Day|Isherwood|1974}}}}

Sixty days after the fall of Madrid, Ross gave birth to a daughter by Claud Cockburn. The child, [[Sarah Caudwell]], who was born on 27 May 1939, was the only offspring of their union.{{sfnm|Firchow|2008|1p=120|Stasio|2000}} Some sources say Ross did not marry Cockburn due to her political beliefs about [[Women's liberation|women's emancipation]],{{sfn|Garebian|2011|pp=6–7}} but under British law, Cockburn still was married to his first wife [[Hope Hale Davis]]; he could not marry Ross at that time without committing bigamy.{{efn|name=Deed Poll|Contrary to sources such as Linda Mizejewski,{{sfn|Mizejewski|1992|p=44}} Ross and Cockburn never married because Cockburn was uncertain whether his divorce from Davis was valid in England.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Isherwood|2012b|2loc=Glossary|2p=796}} Whether Ross knew Cockburn was still married to Davis is unknown. Several months before her daughter's birth, Ross filed a [[deed poll]] that changed her surname to Cockburn, see {{London Gazette|issue=34604|page=1518|date=3 March 1939}}}} Whether Ross knew Cockburn was still legally married to Davis is unknown. Several months before her daughter's birth, Ross filed a [[deed poll]] in which she changed her surname to Cockburn.<ref name="London Gazette">{{London Gazette|issue=34604|page=1518|date=3 March 1939}}</ref>

In 1938 or 1939, Cockburn entered into a clandestine relationship with [[Patricia Cockburn|Patricia Arbuthnot]].{{sfn|Parker|2004}} In August 1939, Cockburn "walked out" on Ross and their newly-born child to live with Arbuthnot.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Cockburn later omitted all mention of Ross from his memoirs.<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|2012b|p=447}}. Isherwood wrote in his diary; "I admire the first part of Claud Cockburn's autobiography very much. But ... I can't find the faintest allusion to Jean Ross".</ref> Following her abandonment by Cockburn, Ross did not have another recorded male partner. She later told an acquaintance "having a man around was like having a crocodile in the bath".{{sfn|Henderson|2018|loc=Chapter: Jean}}

== Later life and death ==
=== Second World War and post-war years ===
[[File:Jean Ross 1940s.jpg|thumb|left|upright=0.8|Ross circa the 1940s.]]

Shortly before the outbreak of the [[Second World War]], Ross, her daughter Sarah, and her widowed mother Clara Caudwell moved to [[Hertfordshire]].{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Ross became friends with Isherwood's old acquaintance [[Edward Upward]] and his wife Hilda Percival, both of whom were socialist in outlook. Upward later met Olive Mangeot through their attendance of [[Communist Party]] meetings and the two began an extramarital affair.{{sfn|Izzo|2005|p=97}} Olive, whom Isherwood depicted as Marvey Scriven in ''[[The Memorial]]'' and as Madame Cheuret in ''Lions and Shadows'', eventually separated from her husband Andre Mangeot and lived in the London suburbs at Gunter Grove, [[Barnet London Borough Council|Barnet]], where she invited Ross and her daughter Sarah to live with her.{{sfnm|Parker|2005|1p=270|Izzo|2005|2p=97|Izzo|2001|3p=89}}

For many years, Ross and Sarah lived as Olive's boarders in modest circumstances in Gunter Grove.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Izzo|2005|2p=97}} Much like Ross, Mangeot had been an apolitical bohemian in her youth and transformed with age into a devout [[Stalinist]] who sold the ''Daily Worker'' and was an active member of various left-wing circles.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=100–101}} According to Isherwood, Mangeot, Ross, and their social circle refused to consort with [[Trotskyite]]s or other communist schismatics who had strayed from the Stalinist party line.{{sfn|Isherwood|1976|pp=100–101}}

=== Parenthood, and socialist activities ===
For the remainder of her adult life, Ross devoted herself to advancing the ideology of socialism and raising her daughter Sarah.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} To obtain the most advantageous education available for Sarah, Ross moved to Scotland. In 1960, they moved to [[Barnes, London]], for Sarah to attend Oxford University.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} They lived with Jean's invalid sister Margaret "Peggy" Ross, a sculptor and painter who trained at the [[Liverpool School of Art]].{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|loc=Glossary|p=796}} At this point, Ross acted as a caretaker for both Peggy—who had severe arthritis affecting her mobility—and her ailing mother Clara, who had suffered a debilitating stroke.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|pp=66–67}} Under Ross' tutelage, Sarah became one of the first women to join the [[Oxford Union]] as a student and to speak in the Oxford Union's Debating Chamber.{{sfn|Stasio|2000}} She went on to teach law at Oxford and became a senior executive at [[Lloyds Bank (historic)|Lloyds Bank]], and later a celebrated author of detective novels.{{sfnm|Stasio|2000|Isherwood|2012b|2loc=Glossary|2p=796}}

While Sarah was at Oxford, Ross continued to engage in political activities including [[Anti-nuclear movement|protesting nuclear weapons]], [[South Africa under apartheid|boycotting apartheid South Africa]], and opposing the [[Vietnam War]].{{sfnm|Mizejewski|1992|1p=44|Caudwell|1986|2pp=28–29|Henderson|2018|3loc=Chapter: Jean}} Even in later life, she continued to sell copies of the ''Daily Worker'' to neighbouring houses and to raise awareness of ongoing political campaigns.{{sfn|Frost|2013}} Acquaintances who met Ross during the later decades of her life noted various hardships and impoverished economic circumstances had taken their toll on her. By this time, she had few clothes and very little money.{{sfn|Parker|2004}} Sommerfield said:
{{Quote|She seemed burned out ... with bruise marks under her eyes and lines of discontent round her mouth; her once beautiful black hair looked dead, and she wore too much make-up, carelessly applied. Only her voice was the same, a rapid, confiding drawl full of italics. She was still using the slang and political cliches of her youth, and trying to shock with a freedom of speech that now was taken for granted".{{sfn|Sommerfield|1977|p=94}}}}

Ross and writer Isherwood met a final time shortly before her death. In a diary entry for 24 April 1970,{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|pp=66–67}} Isherwood recounted their final reunion in London:

{{Quote|I had lunch with Jean Ross and her daughter Sarah [Caudwell], and three of their friends at a little restaurant in Chancery Lane. Jean looks old but still rather beautiful and she is very lively and active and mentally on the spot—and as political as ever ... Seeing Jean [again] made me happy; I think if I lived here I'd see a lot of her that is—if I could do so without being involved in her communism.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|pp=66–67}}}}

On 27 April 1973,{{sfn|Jardine|2014}} Ross died at her home in [[Richmond, London|Richmond, Surrey]], aged 61, from cervical cancer.{{sfnm|Gilbert|2011|Jardine|2014|Frost|2013}} She was cremated at East Sheen.{{sfn|Parker|2004}}

== Dislike of ''Sally Bowles'' and ''Cabaret'' ==
[[File:Liza Minnelli Cabaret 1972 crop 2.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Liza Minnelli]] as Sally Bowles in the 1972 film ''[[Cabaret (1972 film)|Cabaret]]''. Ross disliked how the stylish, beret-wearing character of Sally Bowles was transmogrified into a "vulgar [[Vamp (woman)|vamp]]".<ref>{{harvnb|Cockburn|2001}}: "Jean Ross was a gentle, cultivated and very beautiful woman, not a bit like the vulgar vamp displayed by Lisa Minelli".</ref>]]

According to Ross' daughter [[Sarah Caudwell]], her mother detested her popular identification with the vacuous character [[Sally Bowles]]. She believed the character's political indifference more closely resembled Isherwood or his hedonistic friends,{{sfnm|Firchow|2008|1p=120|Cockburn|2001}} many of whom "fluttered around town exclaiming how sexy the [[Sturmabteilung|storm troopers]] looked in their uniforms".{{sfnm|Isherwood|1976|1pp=124–125|Doyle|2013}} Ross' opinion of Isherwood's beliefs is partly confirmed by Isherwood's biographer [[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]], who wrote Isherwood was "the least political" of [[Auden Group|W. H. Auden's social circle]] in Weimar Berlin,{{sfn|Allen|2004}} and Auden noted the young Isherwood "held no [political] opinions whatever about anything".{{sfn|Allen|2004}}

According to Caudwell,{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} Ross further disliked the Sally Bowles character, which offended her feminist convictions. Isherwood's fictionalised depiction of Ross uses a [[Madonna–whore complex|literary convention]] that necessitated "a woman must be either virtuous (in the sexual sense) or a tart.{{efn|name=Tart|Although Caudwell said Isherwood depicted Sally as a [[Prostitution|tart]], Isherwood emphatically denied this interpretation.{{sfn|Van Druten|1983|p=6}} In a letter to [[John Van Druten]], Isherwood wrote Sally "is a little girl who has listened to what the grown-ups had said about tarts, and who was trying to copy those things".{{sfn|Van Druten|1983|p=6}}}} So Sally, who is plainly not virtuous, must be a tart to depend for a living on providing sexual pleasure". Such a submissive gender role would have "seemed to [Ross] the ultimate denial of freedom and emancipation."{{sfn|Cockburn|2001}}

Above all, Ross resented Isherwood's 1937 novella ''Sally Bowles''{{'s}} depiction of Ross expressing [[anti-Semitic]] bigotry.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Sally's attractiveness is also diminished by two anti-Semitic remarks she makes, which are omitted in all the postwar adaptations".</ref> In the 1937 story, Bowles laments having sex with an "awful old Jew" to obtain money.<ref>{{harvnb|Isherwood|2012a|p=33}}: "This job at the Lady Windermere only lasts another week. I got it through a man I met at the Eden Bar. But he's gone off to Vienna now. I must ring up the Ufa people again, I suppose. And then there's an awful old Jew who takes me out sometimes. He's always promising to get me a contract; but he only wants to sleep with me, the old swine."</ref> Caudwell said such racial bigotry "would have been as alien to my mother's vocabulary as a sentence in Swahili; she had no more deeply rooted passion than a loathing of racialism and so, from the outset, of fascism." Due to her unyielding dislike of fascism, Ross was incensed Isherwood had depicted her as thoughtlessly allied in her beliefs "with the [racist] attitudes which led to Dachau and Auschwitz".{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} In the early 21st century, some writers have argued the anti-Semitic remarks in ''Sally Bowles'' are a reflection of Isherwood's own much-documented prejudices.{{efn|name=Isherwood Bigotry|In an article for ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', writer [[Gore Vidal]] notes Isherwood's inordinate preoccupation with racial matters.{{sfn|Vidal|1976}} In contrast to Isherwood, Ross was noted in her later years for her commitment to racial equality.{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}}}{{sfn|Hensher|2005}} In Peter Parker's biography, he states: "Isherwood is revealed as being fairly anti-Semitic to a degree that required some emendations of the Berlin novels when they were republished after the war".{{sfn|Hensher|2005}}

{{Quote box|align=left|width=40%|bgcolor=#c6dbf7|quoted=1|fontsize=100%| quote = [Ross] never liked ''Goodbye to Berlin'', nor felt any sense of identity with the character of Sally Bowles ... She never cared enough, however, to be moved to any public rebuttal. She did from time to time settle down conscientiously to write a letter, intending to explain to Isherwood the ways in which she thought he had misunderstood her; but it seldom progressed beyond 'Dear Christopher ...' It was interrupted, no doubt, by more urgent things: meetings about Vietnam, petitions against nuclear weapons, making my supper, hearing my French verbs. It was in Isherwood's life, not hers, that Sally Bowles remained a significant figure.|author = —[[Sarah Caudwell]]|source ="Reply to Berlin", October 1986{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}}}

Isherwood never publicly confirmed Ross was his model for Sally Bowles until after her death. Other mutual acquaintances were less discreet. Ross said her former partner Claud Cockburn had leaked to his friends in the press she had inspired the character.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|p=70}} In 1951, poet [[Stephen Spender]] in his autobiography ''World Within World'' publicly confirmed Bowles was based on a real person,{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=122}} and he also confirmed the novella's abortion incident is factual.{{sfn|Spender|1966|p=127}} Later, [[Gerald Hamilton]], the inspiration for Isherwood's character Mr Norris, identified Ross as Sally Bowles due to a public feud with Cockburn.{{efn|name=Hamilton-Cockburn Feud|In a 1954 newspaper column, journalist [[Claud Cockburn]] publicly outed [[Gerald Hamilton]] as the basis for Mr Norris in Isherwood's stories.{{sfn|Hamilton|1969|pp=37, 126–127}} Hamilton may have retaliated by identifying Ross—Cockburn's former partner and the mother of his child—as the basis for Sally Bowles.{{sfn|Hamilton|1969|pp=37, 126–127}} Ross believed Cockburn had initially revealed her identity to the press.{{sfn|Isherwood|2012b|p=70}}}}{{sfn|Hamilton|1969|p=44}} Consequently, when ''[[Cabaret (musical)|Cabaret]]'' garnered acclaim in the late 1960s, journalists—particularly those from the ''[[Daily Mail]]''—tracked down Ross and hounded her with intrusive questions.{{sfn|Friedrich|1995|p=307}}

Ross refused to discuss her sexual misadventures in Weimar Berlin with journalists. Caudwell said the journalists' relentless questions "were invariably a disappointment on both sides: the journalists always wanted to talk about sex" while Ross "wanted to talk about politics".{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}} Ross noted reporters often claimed to seek knowledge "about Berlin in the Thirties" but they did not wish "to know about the unemployment or the poverty or the Nazis marching through the streets—all they want to know is how many men I went to bed with".{{sfnm|Caudwell|1986|1pp=28–29|Frost|2013}} Ross became angered when the reporters ascribed her many sexual affairs to her feminist beliefs: "They asked if I was a feminist. Well, of course I am, darling. But they don't think that feminism is about sex, do they? It's about economics".{{sfn|Caudwell|1986|pp=28–29}}

Ross steadfastly declined invitations to watch ''Cabaret'' or any related adaptations.{{sfnm|Bletchly|2013|1p=26|Isherwood|2012b|2p=70}} Her ambivalence towards the popular success of ''Cabaret'' was not unique among Isherwood's acquaintances: Stephen Spender said ''Cabaret'' glossed over Weimar Berlin's crushing poverty, and he later noted there was "not a single meal or club in the movie ''Cabaret'' that Christopher and I could have afforded".{{sfn|Spender|1977}} Both Spender and Ross often said Isherwood's stories glamourised and distorted the harsh realities of life in 1930s Berlin.{{sfn|Spender|1977}} According to Ross, Isherwood's "story was quite, quite different from what really happened".{{sfn|Johnstone|1975|pp=33–34}} She nonetheless conceded the accuracy of the depiction of their social group of British expatriates as pleasure-seeking libertines: "We were all utterly against the bourgeois standards of our parents' generation. That's what took us to [Weimar-era] Berlin. The climate was freer there".{{sfn|Johnstone|1975|pp=33–34}}

== Portrayals and legacy ==
=== Isherwood canon ===
{{further|Sally Bowles|I Am a Camera|Cabaret (musical)}}
{{CSS image crop | Image = Julie Harris as Sally Bowles.jpg | bSize = 550 | cWidth = 180 | cHeight = 170 | oTop = 100 | oLeft = 130 | Location = left | Description = [[Julie Harris]] as [[Sally Bowles]]}}

Sally Bowles, the fictional character inspired by Jean Ross, has been portrayed by a number of actors; [[Julie Harris (American actress)|Julie Harris]] in ''[[I Am a Camera]]'', the 1951 adaptation of ''Goodbye to Berlin'' and the 1955 [[I Am a Camera (film)|film adaptation of the same name]]; [[Jill Haworth]] in the original 1966 Broadway production of ''[[Cabaret (musical)|Cabaret]]''; [[Judi Dench]] in the original 1968 West-End stage version of ''Cabaret''; [[Liza Minnelli]] in [[Bob Fosse]]'s [[Cabaret (1972 film)|1972 film adaptation of the musical]], and [[Natasha Richardson]] in the 1998 Broadway revival of ''Cabaret''.{{sfn|Bletchly|2013|p=26}}

In 1979, critic [[Howard Moss]] noted the resilience of the Sally Bowles character: "It is almost fifty years since Sally Bowles shared the recipe for a Prairie oyster with Herr Issyvoo in a vain attempt to cure a hangover" and yet the character in subsequent permutations lives on "from story to play to movie to musical to movie-musical".{{sfn|Moss|1979}} Moss ascribed the character's continuing appeal to the aura of sophisticated innocence that pervades Isherwood's depiction of the character and of Weimar Berlin in which "the unseemly and the ugly" are either de-emphasised or made to appear genial to the spectator.{{sfn|Moss|1979}}

According to critic Ingrid Norton, Sally Bowles later inspired Holly Golightly in [[Truman Capote]]'s novella ''[[Breakfast at Tiffany's (novella)|Breakfast at Tiffany's]]''.<ref>{{harvnb|Izzo|2005|p=144}}: "Truman Capote's Holly Golightly ... the latter of whom is a tribute to Isherwood and his Sally Bowles ... "</ref>{{sfn|Norton|2010}} Norton has said Isherwood's Bowles was the key model for Capote's Golightly character,{{sfn|Norton|2010}} and that both scenes and dialogue in Capote's 1958 novella have direct equivalencies in Isherwood's 1937 work.{{sfn|Norton|2010}} Capote, who admired Isherwood's novels, had befriended Isherwood in New York in the late 1940s.{{sfn|Clarke|1988|loc=Chapter 19}}

=== ''Christopher and His Kind'' (2011) ===
{{main|Christopher and His Kind (film)}}
[[File:Imogen Poots Comic-Con 2011.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.6|[[Imogen Poots]] portrayed Ross in ''[[Christopher and His Kind (film)|Christopher and His Kind]]'' (2011).]]

In 2011, British actor [[Imogen Poots]] portrayed Jean Ross in ''[[Christopher and His Kind (film)|Christopher and His Kind]]'', in which she starred opposite [[Matt Smith (actor)|Matt Smith]] as Christopher Isherwood.{{sfn|Wollaston|2011}} For her performance, Poots attempted to show Ross' personality as "convincingly fragile beneath layers of attitude" but did not wish to depict Ross as a talented singer.{{sfn|Harvey|2011}} Poots said if "Jean had been that good,{{efn|name=Ross' voice}} she wouldn't have been wasting her time hanging around with Isherwood in the cabarets of the Weimar Republic, she would have been on her way, perhaps, to the life she dreamed of in Hollywood".{{sfn|Harvey|2011}}

=== These Foolish Things ===
{{Main|These Foolish Things (Remind Me of You)}}

As well as inspiring Sally Bowles,{{sfn|Garebian|2011|p=4}} Ross has been credited as the inspiration for one of the 20th century's most-enduring popular songs, "[[These Foolish Things (Remind Me of You)]]".{{sfn|Frost|2013}} Although its composer [[Eric Maschwitz]]'s wife [[Hermione Gingold]] said her autobiography the song was written for either herself or actor [[Anna May Wong]],{{sfn|Gingold|1989|p=54}} Maschwitz's own autobiography contradicts that of Gingold.{{sfn|Maschwitz|1957|pp=77–79}} Maschwitz cites "fleeting memories of [a] young love" as the inspiration for the song,{{sfn|Maschwitz|1957|pp=77–79}} and most sources—including the ''[[Oxford Dictionary of National Biography]]''—say cabaret singer Ross, with whom Maschwitz had a youthful romantic liaison, was the muse for the song.{{sfnm|Parker|2004|Brown|2016}}
{{-}}

== References ==
=== Notes ===
{{notelist|30em}}

=== Citations ===
{{reflist|30em}}

=== Works cited ===
==== Print sources ====
{{refbegin|30em|indent=yes}}
* {{cite thesis |last=Baxell |first=Richard |title=The British Battalion of the International Brigades in the Spanish Civil War 1936-1939 |url=http://etheses.lse.ac.uk/1661/1/U165986.pdf |publisher=[[London School of Economics and Political Science]] |type=PhD |page=126 |date=21 December 2001 |access-date=7 March 2020}}
* {{cite book |last=Bergfelder |first=Tim |chapter=The Passenger: Ambivalences of National Identity and Masculinity in the Star Persona of Peter van Eyck |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oUQ6Yd0NhowC&pg=PA47 |title=Framing the Fifties: Cinema in a Divided Germany |editor1-last=Davidson |editor1-first=John E. |editor2-last=Hake |editor2-first=Sabine |publisher=[[Berghahn Books]] |location=New York City |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-84545-204-9|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite news |last=Bletchly |first=Rachael |title=Their True Characters: Real people who inspired fictional, TV and film heroes and heroines |url=http://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/indiana-jones-miss-piggy-real-1797341 |url-status=dead |work=[[Daily Mirror]] |location=London |date=2 April 2013 |page=26 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130405011346/http://www.mirror.co.uk/tv/tv-news/indiana-jones-miss-piggy-real-1797341 |archive-date=5 April 2013 |quote=She's been played by big names such as [[Judi Dench]], [[Julie Harris]], [[Teri Hatcher]] and [[Brooke Shields]]. But [[Liza Minnelli]]'s Oscar-winning performance as the underground club singer is seen by Cabaret fans as the definitive [[Sally Bowles]]. In fact author [[Christopher Isherwood]] based his character on Jean Ross, an English woman he met while living in decadent Berlin in the early 1930s. Jean generously allowed him to publish the book in 1937 – despite it featuring the then-scandalous fact she'd had an abortion. Isherwood never confirmed she had inspired Sally until after her death in 1973, while Jean, a political radical, never wanted publicity. She was traced by reporters when [''[[I Am a Camera]]''] was first staged in [1951], but declined all invitations to see the show. A family friend said: 'Jean was a wonderful woman, warm and gentle in demeanour. She couldn't have been more unlike the rather tinny character portrayed in Sally Bowles. She was extremely intelligent, politically alert and vital. She probably found the portrait painted by Christopher Isherwood rather irritating.'}}
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* {{cite book|last=Isherwood|first=Christopher|author-link=Christopher Isherwood|title=Christopher and His Kind: A Memoir, 1929–1939|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n0IOAQAAMAAJ|publisher=[[Farrar, Straus and Giroux]]|location=[[New York City|New York]]|date=1976|isbn=978-0374-53522-3|via=Google Books}}
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* {{cite book|editor-last=Mosley|editor-first=Charles|editor-link=Charles Mosley (genealogist)|title=Burke's Peerage, Baronetage & Knightage, 107th edition, 3 volumes|year=2003|publisher=Genealogical Books|location=Wilmington, Delaware|volume=1|page=120|isbn=978-0-9711966-2-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rg11SQAACAAJ|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Orwell|first=George|author-link=George Orwell|title=Homage to Catalonia|publisher=[[Penguin Books]]|orig-year=1938|year=2013|pages=168, 236–250|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X2iWNAEACAAJ|isbn=978-0-141-39302-5|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book | last = Parker | first = Peter | author-link = Peter Parker (author) | title = Isherwood: A Life Revealed | year = 2005 | orig-year = 2004 | publisher = [[Picador]] | location = London | isbn = 978-0-330-32826-5 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=CdF2UXFgcFcC|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last1=Preston|first1=Paul|author-link1=Paul Preston|last2=Mackenzie|first2=Ann|title=The Republic Besieged: Civil War in Spain 1936–1939|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OSEqR1G40HwC|year=1996|publisher=[[Edinburgh University Press]]|isbn=978-0-7486-0861-4|via=Google Books}}
* {{cite book|last=Sommerfield|first=John|author-link=John Sommerfield|title=The Imprinted: Recollections of Then, Now, and Later On|location=London|publisher=London Magazine Editions|year=1977|isbn=978-0-904388-26-8|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7IAIAQAAIAAJ|via=Google Books}} Although an autobiographical work disguised as a novel, John Sommerfield's ''The Imprinted'' draws upon factual relationships and events that occurred among British socialist enclaves in the 1930s. As such, Sommerfield's friendship with Ross and Cornford is likely factual, although any relationship between Ross and Cornford is unconfirmed.
* {{cite news|last=Spender|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Spender|title=On Being a Ghost in Isherwood's Berlin|magazine=[[Mademoiselle (magazine)|Mademoiselle]]|issue=79|date=September 1974|pages=138–139}}
* {{cite book|last=Spender|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Spender|title=World Within World: The Autobiography of Stephen Spender|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9OW3Ke7WKBMC|location=Berkeley, California|publisher=[[University of California Press]]|year=1966|orig-year=1951|isbn=978-0-679-64045-5|via=Google Books|author-mask=8}}
* {{cite book|last=Sutherland|first=John|author-link=John Sutherland (author)|title=Stephen Spender: A Literary Life|location=Oxford|publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|page=[https://archive.org/details/stephenspenderli00suth/page/122 122]|year=2005|isbn=0-19-517816-5|url=https://archive.org/details/stephenspenderli00suth|url-access=registration|via=Internet Archive}}
* {{cite book|last=Williams|first=Keith|title=British Writers and the Media, 1930–45|location=London|publisher=[[Macmillan Publishers Ltd]]|pages=265|year=1996|isbn=0-333-63896-4|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5oGuCwAAQBAJ&q=jean+ross+peter+porcupine&pg=PA265|via=Google Books}}
{{refend}}

==== Online sources ====
{{refbegin|indent=yes|30em}}
* {{cite news|last=Allen|first=Brooke|title=Isherwood: The Uses of Narcissism|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|date=19 December 2004|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2004/12/19/books/review/isherwood-the-uses-of-narcissism.html|quote=The real Isherwood, though not without many sympathetic qualities, was petty, selfish and supremely egotistical. The least political of the so-called Auden group, Isherwood was always guided by his personal motivations rather than by abstract ideas.}}
* {{cite news|last=Bell|first=Arthur|author-link=Arthur Bell (journalist)|title=Christopher Isherwood: No Parades|newspaper=The New York Times|page=412|date=25 March 1973|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1973/03/25/archives/christopher-isherwood-no-parades.html}}
* {{cite news|title=Book Ends|newspaper=The New York Times|date=6 March 1977|page=309|access-date=18 June 2018|quote=[Christopher Isherwood] found no irony in the post‐Berlin life of Jean Ross, the woman who was the model for the hedonistic Sally Bowles: 'A beautiful woman. She left Berlin to go to Spain during the Civil War. She died recently still a Communist.'|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/03/06/archives/book-ends.html|ref={{harvid|The New York Times|1977}}}}
* {{cite news|last=Brown|first=Helen|title=Muse, The Witham, Barnard Castle|newspaper=[[The Northern Echo]]|date=18 February 2016|access-date=18 November 2018|url=https://www.thenorthernecho.co.uk/news/14287071.muse-the-witham-barnard-castle/}}
* {{cite web|last=Cockburn|first=Alexander|author-link=Alexander Cockburn|title=Alexander Cockburn Reminisces About His Father's Second Wife Jean Ross|date=22 February 2001|website=[[CounterPunch|CounterPunch: America's Best Newsletter]]|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.counterpunch.org/rudyart.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010303095937/http://www.counterpunch.org/rudyart.html|archive-date=3 March 2001}}
* {{cite episode|last1=Day|first1=James|author-link1=James Day (journalist)|last2=Isherwood|first2=Christopher|author-link2=Christopher Isherwood|title=Christopher Isherwood on Day at Night, with James Day|transcript=Episode Information|transcript-url=https://www.cuny.tv/show/dayatnight/PR1012147|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kx09mDenhKU|access-date=18 June 2018|series=Day at Night|series-link=Day at Night|network=[[Public Broadcasting Service]] (PBS)|station=[[CUNY TV]]|date=25 April 1974|season=2|number=32|language=en}}
* {{cite news|last=Doyle|first=Rachel|title=Looking for Christopher Isherwood's Berlin|newspaper=The New York Times|page=TR10|date=12 April 2013|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2013/04/14/travel/looking-for-christopher-isherwoods-berlin.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Frost|first=Peter|title=Jean Ross: The Real Sally Bowles|newspaper=[[Morning Star (British newspaper)|Morning Star]]|date=31 December 2013|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.morningstaronline.co.uk/a-52c7-Jean-Ross-the-real-Sally-Bowles}} Frost's article is more or less a summary of the Oxford National Biography article by [[Peter Parker (author)|Peter Parker]].
* {{cite news|last=Fyrth|first=Jim|title=Obituary: Bill Carritt|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=25 May 1999|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.theguardian.com/news/1999/may/24/guardianobituaries1}}
* {{cite web|last=Gallagher|first=Paul|title=Life is a Cabaret: Christopher Isherwood on the real Sally Bowles, Berlin, writing and W. H. Auden|website=Dangerous Minds|publisher=Presented by [[Richard Metzger]]|date=3 April 2014|access-date=2 October 2019|url=https://dangerousminds.net/comments/life_is_a_cabaret_christopher_isherwood_on_the_real_sally_bowles_berlin}}
* {{cite news|last=Gilbert|first=Gerard|title=Christopher Isherwood: A Singular Talent Laid Bare|newspaper=[[The Independent]]|location=London|date=8 March 2011|access-date=18 June 2018|url=http://www.independent.co.uk/arts-entertainment/tv/features/christopher-isherwood-a-singular-talent-laid-bare-2235123.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Grossman|first=Lev|author-link=Lev Grossman|title=All-Time 100 Novels: The Berlin Stories|magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]]|date=6 January 2010|access-date=18 June 2017|url=https://entertainment.time.com/2005/10/16/all-time-100-novels/slide/the-berlin-stories-1946-by-christopher-isherwood/}}
* {{cite news|last=Harvey|first=Chris|title=Christopher and His Kind, BBC Two, Review|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=18 March 2011|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/culture/tvandradio/8391758/Christopher-and-His-Kind-BBC-Two-review.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Hensher|first=Philip|author-link=Philip Hensher|title=Christopher and His Kind|url=http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/15th-may-2004/56/christopher-and-his-kind|date=15 May 2005|newspaper=[[The Spectator]]|access-date=18 November 2018}}
* {{cite web|last=Jardine|first=Jon|title=Cabaret Berlin: Jean Ross|date=24 April 2014|website=Cabaret Berlin: Exploring the Entertainment of the Weimar Era|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.cabaret-berlin.com/?p=1038|quote=Isherwood returned to the United States and three years later, on April 27th 1973, Jean died of cervical cancer at her home in Barnes, south-west London. She was cremated at [[Mortlake Crematorium]] on May 4th 1973.}}
* {{cite web|title=John Sommerfield|website=London Books|url=http://www.london-books.co.uk/authors/johnsommerfield.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150617221521/http://www.london-books.co.uk/authors/johnsommerfield.html|date=June 2015|access-date=7 March 2020|archive-date=17 June 2015|url-status=live|quote=[John Sommerfield] went off to fight for the Republicans in the Spanish Civil War, serving in a machine-gun unit and losing his friend and fellow writer John Cornford to the conflict. On his return to England, Sommerfield found that he had been reported dead, his obituary appearing in two newspapers. ''Volunteer In Spain'' appeared in 1937 and was dedicated to Cornford, but he felt that he had been rushed in writing it, despite mainly positive coverage.|ref={{harvid|Sommerfield|2015}}}}
* {{cite news|last=Moynihan|first=Colin|title=Alexander Cockburn, Acerbic Writer and Critic, Dies at 71|newspaper=The New York Times|page=B8|date=22 July 2012|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/07/23/nyregion/alexander-cockburn-left-wing-writer-dies-at-71.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Moss|first=Howard|author-link=Howard Moss|title=Christopher Isherwood: Man and Work|newspaper=The New York Times|date=3 June 1979|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1979/06/03/archives/christopher-isherwood-man-and-work-isherwood.html}}
* {{cite web|title=National Archives: Francis Claud Cockburn – Security File|url=https://discovery.nationalarchives.gov.uk/details/r/C11190900|date=1 January 1940|website=The National Archives|access-date=29 May 2019|quote="Francis Claud Cockburn, alias Frank Pitcairn: British. In 1933 Cockburn a former ''Times'' journalist, started his own political publication ''The Week'' which gained a reputation for having inside sources of information. In 1936, under the name 'Frank Pitcairn', he reported on the Spanish Civil War for the ''[[Daily Worker (UK)|Daily Worker]]'', later becoming its Foreign Editor. In 1939 he was a leading British Communist Party member and was said to be a leader of the Comintern in Western Europe. Throughout the Second World War he remained an active Communist".|ref={{harvid|National Archives|1940}}}}
* {{cite web|last=Norton|first=Ingrid|title=Year with Short Novels: Breakfast at Sally Bowles|publisher=[[Open Letters Monthly]]|date=1 July 2010|access-date=2 July 2018|url=https://www.openlettersmonthly.com/short-novels-breakfast-at-sally-bowles/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180407054257/https://www.openlettersmonthly.com/short-novels-breakfast-at-sally-bowles/|archive-date=7 April 2018|url-status=dead}}
* {{cite news|title=Paul Scott Mowrer Dies of 83; Won Pulitzer as Correspondent|work=The New York Times|date=7 April 1971|page=46|access-date=7 October 2020|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/04/07/archives/paul-scott-mowrer-dies-ats3-won-puhtzer-ascorrespondent.html|ref={{harvid|The New York Times|1971}}|url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite ODNB|last=Parker|first=Peter|authorlink=Peter Parker (author)|title=Ross, Jean Iris (1911–1973)|date=September 2004|url=https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/article/74425|access-date=18 June 2017|doi=10.1093/ref:odnb/74425|url-access=subscription}}
* {{cite web|title=Rumba (1935)|website=[[Internet Movie Database]]|url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt0026956/|postscript=. As Ross purportedly never travelled to the United States during her lifetime, it is possible that Ross was erroneously credited as having a small role in this film.|ref={{harvid|Internet Movie Database}}}}
* {{cite journal|last=Ryan|first=Trevor|title=Labour and Media in Britain 1929–1939: A Study of the Attitudes of the Labour Movement Towards the New Media, Film and Radio, and Of Its Attempts to Use them For Political Purposes|volume=2|pages=314, 325|date=March 1986|journal=School of History|publisher=[[University of Leeds]]|url=http://etheses.whiterose.ac.uk/726/2/uk_bl_ethos_409747_vol2.pdf}}
* {{cite news|last=Spender|first=Stephen|author-link=Stephen Spender|title=Life Wasn't a Cabaret|newspaper=The New York Times|page=198|date=30 October 1977|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/1977/10/30/archives/life-wasnt-a-cabaret-on-a-visit-to-the-berlin-festival-stephen.html}}
* {{cite news|last=Stasio|first=Marilyn|author-link=Marilyn Stasio|title=Sarah Caudwell, 60, Lawyer and Author of Mystery Novels|newspaper=The New York Times|date=6 February 2000|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/02/06/nyregion/sarah-caudwell-60-lawyer-and-author-of-mystery-novels.html|quote=[[Sarah Caudwell]] was born May 27, 1939.}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Thomson|first=David|author-link=David Thomson (film critic)|title=The Observer as Hero|date=21 March 2005|access-date=2 October 2019|url=https://newrepublic.com/article/68111/the-observer-hero|magazine=[[The New Republic]]|location=New York City}}
* {{cite magazine|last=Vidal|first=Gore|author-link=Gore Vidal|title=Art, Sex and Isherwood|magazine=[[The New York Review of Books]]|date=9 December 1976|location=New York City|access-date=18 June 2018|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/1976/12/09/art-sex-and-isherwood/}}
* {{cite report|last=Whaley|first=Barton|date=September 1969|title=Guerrillas in the Spanish Civil War|url=http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/703755.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170212052637/http://www.dtic.mil/dtic/tr/fulltext/u2/703755.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=12 February 2017|periodical=[[Center for International Studies]]|institution=[[Massachusetts Institute of Technology]]|location=[[Cambridge, Massachusetts]]|page=44|access-date=18 November 2018|others=Sponsored by the [[DARPA|Defense Advanced Research Project Agency (DARPA)]]}}
* {{cite web|last=Whitehead|first=Andrew|title=John Sommerfield|website=AndrewWhitehead.Net|url=https://www.andrewwhitehead.net/john-sommerfield.html|date=August 2013|access-date=7 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130801061951/https://www.andrewwhitehead.net/john-sommerfield.html|archive-date=1 August 2013|url-status=live|quote=John Sommerfield described ''The Imprinted'' as semi-fictional memoirs. It draws loosely on his own life—the dissolute, disputatious political and literary circles in which he mixed; political activism in London; fighting in Spain... Much of the action concerns a commission to make a radio documentary about... John Cornford, then being pressured to amend the script and take out some of the politics, and battling against these injunctions.}}
* {{cite news|last=Wollaston|first=Sam|title=Review: Christopher and His Kind <nowiki>|</nowiki> Civilization: Is the West History?|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=20 March 2011|access-date=18 June 2018|url=https://www.theguardian.com/tv-and-radio/2011/mar/20/christopher-and-his-kind-review}}
{{Refend}}

== External links ==
* {{IMDb name|2642181|Jean Ross}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20110623141530/http://www.counterpunch.org/rudyart.html Jean Ross – CounterPunch Profile] counterpunch.org; accessed 8 July 2014.
* [https://www.oxforddnb.com/templates/article.jsp?articleid=74425 Jean Ross – Oxford Dictionary of National Biography Profile], oxforddnb.com; accessed 8 July 2014.

{{Isherwood}}

{{authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ross, Jean}}
[[Category:1911 births]]
[[Category:1973 deaths]]
[[Category:English people of Scottish descent]]
[[Category:People from Alexandria]]
[[Category:British communists]]
[[Category:British expatriates in Germany]]
[[Category:British women singers]]
[[Category:British writers]]
[[Category:British film critics]]
[[Category:British women film critics]]
[[Category:Deaths from cervical cancer]]
[[Category:Nightclub performers]]
[[Category:20th-century English singers]]
[[Category:20th-century English women singers]]
[[Category:People associated with RADA]]
[[Category:British socialist feminists]]
[[Category:Deaths from cancer in England]]
[[Category:British expatriates in Egypt]]

Stephen Vincent Benét

2023-11-06T22:01:59Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Death and legacy */

{{Short description|Poet, short story writer, novelist (1898–1943)}}
{{Distinguish|Stephen Vincent Benét (general)|Vincent Bennett}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Stephen Vincent Benét
| image = Stephen Vincent Benét Yale College BA 1919.jpg
| alt =he
| caption = Benét at [[Yale College]] in 1919
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{Birth date|1898|7|22|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[Fountain Hill, Pennsylvania]], U.S.
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1943|3|13|1898|7|22|mf=y}}
| death_place = [[New York City]], U.S.
| occupation = Writer
| education =
| alma_mater = [[Yale University]] ([[Bachelor of Arts|B.A.]])
| period = 20th century
| genre = Poetry, short story, novel
| subject =
| movement =
| notableworks = ''[[John Brown's Body (poem)|John Brown's Body]]'' (1929) ''[[The Devil and Daniel Webster (short story)|The Devil and Daniel Webster]]'' (1936) ''[[By the Waters of Babylon]]'' (1937) ''[[Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (film)|Seven Brides for Seven Brothers]]'' (1954) (adapted from Benét's story ''The Sobbin' Women'')
| spouse = {{marriage|Rosemary Carr|1921}}
| children = Thomas, Stephanie, and Rachel
| relatives = [[William Rose Benét]] (brother) [[Laura Benét]] (sister)
| influences =
| influenced =
| awards = [[Pulitzer Prize for Poetry]] (1929) O. Henry Award (1937) [[Pulitzer Prize for Poetry]] (1944, posthumous)
| signature =
}}

'''Stephen Vincent Benét''' ({{IPAc-en|b|ə|ˈ|n|eɪ}} {{respell|bə|NAY}}; July 22, 1898 – March 13, 1943) was an American poet, [[short story]] writer, and novelist. He wrote a book-length [[narrative poem]] of the [[American Civil War]], ''[[John Brown's Body (poem)|John Brown's Body]]'' (1928), for which he received the [[Pulitzer Prize for Poetry]], and for the short stories "[[The Devil and Daniel Webster (short story)|The Devil and Daniel Webster]]" (1936) and "[[By the Waters of Babylon]]" (1937). In 2009, [[Library of America]] selected his story "The King of the Cats" (1929) for inclusion in its two-century retrospective of ''American Fantastic Tales'', edited by [[Peter Straub]].

==Life and career==
===Early life===
Benét was born on July 22, 1898, in [[Fountain Hill, Pennsylvania]], in the [[Lehigh Valley]] region of eastern [[Pennsylvania]]<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.hmdb.org/m.asp?m=79675|title=Stephen Vincent Benét|website=www.hmdb.org|accessdate= 27 August 2021}} While some references state that Benet was born in [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania]], he was actually born in the adjacent borough of Fountain Hill.</ref> to James Walker Benét, a colonel in the United States Army. His [[Stephen Vincent Benet (Army General)|grandfather and namesake]] led the Army Ordnance Corps from 1874 to 1891 as a brigadier general and served in the [[American Civil War|Civil War]]. His paternal uncle Laurence Vincent Benét was an ensign in the [[United States Navy]] during the [[Spanish–American War]] and later manufactured the French [[Hotchkiss M1909 Benét–Mercié machine gun|Hotchkiss machine gun]].<ref>{{cite magazine |title=Milestones, May 31, 1948 |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798722,00.html |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=May 31, 1948 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091014174044/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798722,00.html |archive-date=October 14, 2009}}</ref>

Around the age of ten, Benét was sent to the Hitchcock Military Academy. He graduated from Summerville Academy at the top of his class in [[Augusta, Georgia]], and from [[Yale University]], where he was "the power behind the ''[[Yale Literary Magazine|Yale Lit]]''", according to [[Thornton Wilder]], a fellow member of the [[Elizabethan Club]]. He also edited<ref>{{cite web |title=Stephen Vincent Benét |work=Obituary Record of Graduates of Yale University Deceased during the Year 1942–1943 |location=New Haven |publisher=Yale University |date=January 1, 1944 |page=123 |url=http://mssa.library.yale.edu/obituary_record/1925_1952/1942-43.pdf}}</ref> and contributed light verse to the campus humor magazine ''[[The Yale Record]]''.<ref>Bronson, Francis W., Thomas Caldecott Chubb, and Cyril Hume, eds. (1922) ''The Yale Record Book of Verse: 1872–1922''. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 16–17, 24, 42–43, 50–51, 67–68, 82–83.</ref> His first book was published when he was aged 17 and he was awarded an M.A. in English upon submission of his third volume of poetry in lieu of a thesis.<ref>''The New Encyclopædia Britannica,'' Vol. 12, Micropaedia, 15th edition, Encyclopædia Britannica Inc. c. 1989</ref> He was also a part-time contributor to ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine in its early years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.trivia-library.com/c/history-of-time-magazine-part-1.htm|title=History of Time Magazine Part 1|website=www.trivia-library.com}}</ref>

In 1920-21, Benét went to France on a Yale traveling fellowship, where he met Rosemary Carr; the couple married in Chicago in November 1921.<ref>{{cite web |website=[[Poetry Foundation]] |title=Stephen Vincent Benét |url=https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poets/stephen-vincent-benet |first=John |last=Griffith|date=15 December 2022 }}</ref> Carr was also a writer and poet, and they collaborated on some works. In 1926, he received a [[Guggenheim Fellowship]] award and while living in Paris, wrote ''John Brown's Body''.<ref name="Parini 2004 p. 164">{{cite book | last=Parini | first=J. | title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of American Literature | series= Oxford reference library | year=2004 | isbn=978-0-19-515653-9 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nMhMAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA164 | access-date=August 6, 2019 | page=164}}</ref>

===Man of letters===
{{Rquote|right|They came here, they toiled here, they suffered many pains, they lived here, they died here, they left singing names.|Used by the Menorcan Cultural Society to honor their Minorcan ancestors who fled [[Andrew Turnbull (colonist)|Andrew Turnbull's]] failed [[New Smyrna, Florida]], colony and found sanctuary in [[St. Augustine, Florida]] (though Benét actually wrote those lines in a poem about the French pioneers of America).}}

Benét helped solidify the place of the [[Yale Series of Younger Poets|Yale Series of Younger Poets Competition]] and [[Yale University Press]] during his decade-long judgeship of the competition.<ref>Bradley, George. ''The Yale Younger Poets Anthology'', [[Yale University Press]], New Haven and London, pp. 23–53</ref> He published the first volumes of [[James Agee]], [[Muriel Rukeyser]], [[Jeremy Ingalls]], and [[Margaret Walker]]. He was elected a Member of the [[American Academy of Arts and Letters]] in 1929,<ref name="arts_Sear">{{Cite web |title=Search Results for "Stephen Vincent Benet" – American Academy of Arts and Letters |work=[[American Academy of Arts and Letters]] |access-date=May 21, 2019 |url= https://artsandletters.org/?s=Stephen+Vincent+Benet&restype=all |quote=Member: Stephen Vincent Benet – Regular / Year Elected: 1929 / b. 1898 / d. 1943 / Gold Medal in Literature 1943 }}</ref> and Fellow of the [[American Academy of Arts and Sciences]] in 1931.<ref name=AAAS>{{cite web|title=Book of Members, 1780–2010: Chapter B|url=http://www.amacad.org/publications/BookofMembers/ChapterB.pdf|publisher=American Academy of Arts and Sciences|access-date=22 April 2011}}</ref>
{{quote box | align = right | width = 22em | salign = right
| quote = <poem>
Out of John Brown's strong sinews the tall skyscrapers grow,
Out of his heart the chanting buildings rise,
Rivet and girder, motor and dynamo,
Pillar of smoke by day and fire by night,
The steel-faced cities reaching at the skies,
The whole enormous and rotating cage
Hung with hard jewels of electric light,
Smoky with sorrow, black with splendor, dyed
Whiter than damask for a crystal bride
With metal suns, the engine-handed Age,
The genie we have raised to rule the earth,
Obsequious to our will
But servant-master still,
The tireless serf already half a god --
</poem>
| source = —Stephen Vincent Benét, "[[John Brown's Body (poem)|John Brown's Body]]" (1928)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks07/0700461.txt|title=''John Brown's Body''|publisher=Project Gutenberg Australia|access-date=5 March 2021}}</ref>}}
Benét won the [[O. Henry Award]] on three occasions: for his short stories ''An End to Dreams'' in 1932, ''[[The Devil and Daniel Webster]]'' in 1937, and ''Freedom's a Hard-Bought Thing'' in 1940.

His fantasy short story "[[The Devil and Daniel Webster]]" inspired several unauthorized dramatizations by other writers after its initial publication which prompted Benét to adapt his own work for the stage.<ref name="MLA">{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=soYHkRcq0r4C&dq=%22The+Devil+and+Daniel+Webster%22+%22Douglas+Moore%22&pg=PA420|title=Douglas Moore: A Bio-bibliography|first=Jerry L.|last=McBride|year=2011|pages=24–28|isbn=9780895796660|publisher=[[Music Library Association]]}}</ref> Benét approached composer [[Douglas Moore]] to create an opera of the work with Benét serving as librettist in 1937.<ref name="MLA"/> ''[[The Devil and Daniel Webster (opera)|The Devil and Daniel Webster: An Opera in One Act]]'' (New York: [[Farrar & Rinehart]], 1939) premiered on [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] in 1939.<ref name="MLA"/> That work was created from 1937 through 1939, and its libretto served as the basis for a 1938 play adaptation of the work by Benét (''The Devil and Daniel Webster: A Play in One Act'', New York: Dramatists Play Service, 1938).<ref name="MLA"/> The play in turn was used as the source for a screenplay adaptation co-penned by Benét which was originally released as ''[[The Devil and Daniel Webster (film)|All That Money Can Buy]]'' (1941).<ref name="MLA"/>

Benét also wrote the sequel "Daniel Webster and the Sea Serpent", in which Daniel Webster encounters [[Leviathan]].

===Death and legacy===
[[File:Evergreen Cemetery, Stephen Vincent Benét.jpg|thumb|upright=1.1|Benét's gravesite at Evergreen Cemetery in [[Stonington, Connecticut]]]]
Benét died of a [[heart attack]] in [[New York City]] on March 13, 1943, at age 44.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/bios/Benet__Stephen_Vincent.html|title=Stephen Vincent Benét|author=Weicksel, Amanda|year=2001|work=Literary and Cultural Heritage Map of Pennsylvania|publisher=Pennsylvania Center for the Book, Penn State University|access-date=May 24, 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100611124143/http://www.pabook.libraries.psu.edu/palitmap/bios/Benet__Stephen_Vincent.html|archive-date=June 11, 2010}}</ref> He was buried in Evergreen Cemetery in [[Stonington, Connecticut]], where he had owned the historic [[Amos Palmer House]]. On April 17, 1943, [[NBC Radio Network|NBC Radio]] broadcast a special tribute to his life and works which included a performance by [[Helen Hayes]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.helenhayes.com/about/radio5.html |title=Radio |website=The Official Web Site of Helen Hayes |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304121826/http://www.helenhayes.com/about/radio5.html |archive-date=March 4, 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://fultonhistory.com/Newspaper%2018/New%20York%20NY%20PM%20%20Daily/New%20York%20NY%20PM%20Daily%201943/New%20York%20NY%20PM%20Daily%201943%20-%201953.pdf |title=Heard and Overheard |location=New York |newspaper=[[PM (newspaper)|PM]] |date=April 19, 1943 |page=22 |first=Judy |last=Dupuy}}</ref> He was awarded a posthumous [[Pulitzer Prize]] in 1944 for ''Western Star'', an unfinished narrative poem on the settling of the United States.

Benét adapted the Roman myth of [[The Rape of the Sabine Women|the rape of the Sabine Women]] into the story "The Sobbin' Women". That story was adapted as the musical film ''[[Seven Brides for Seven Brothers]]'' (1954), then as a [[Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (musical)|stage musical]] (1978) and then [[Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (TV series)|TV series]] (1982). His play ''John Brown's Body'' was staged on Broadway in 1953 in a three-person dramatic reading featuring [[Tyrone Power]], [[Judith Anderson]], and [[Raymond Massey]], directed by [[Charles Laughton]]. The book was included in ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]'' magazine's list of the 100 outstanding books of 1924–44.<ref>Canby, Henry Seidel. "The 100 Outstanding Books of 1924–1944". ''Life Magazine'', 14 August 1944. Chosen in collaboration with the magazine's editors.</ref>

[[Dee Brown (writer)|Dee Brown's]] ''[[Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee]]'' takes its title from the final phrase of Benét's poem "American Names". The full quotation appears at the beginning of Brown's book:
<poem>I shall not be there
I shall rise and pass
Bury my heart at Wounded Knee.</poem>

==Selected works==
* ''Five Men and Pompey, a series of dramatic portraits'', Poetry, 1915
* ''The Drug-Shop, or, Endymion in Edmonstoun'' (Yale University Prize Poem), 1917<ref>{{cite book|title=The Drug-shop, Or Endymion in Edmonstoun|author=Stephen Vincent Benét, Nathan Wallach|year=1917|publisher=Yale University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eyMWGQAACAAJ}}</ref>
* ''Young Adventure: A book of Poems'', 1918
* ''Heavens and Earth'', 1920
* ''The Beginnings of Wisdom: A Novel'', 1921
* ''Young People's Pride: A Novel'', 1922
* ''Jean Huguenot: A Novel'', 1923
* ''The Ballad of William Sycamore: A Poem'', 1923
* ''King David: A two-hundred-line ballad in six parts'', 1923
* ''Nerves'', 1924 (A play, with [[John C. Farrar]])
* ''That Awful Mrs. Eaton'', 1924 (A play, with John C. Farrar)
* ''Tiger Joy: A Book of Poems'', 1925
* ''The Mountain Whippoorwill: How Hill-Billy Jim Won the Great Fiddler's Prize: A Poem.'', 1925
* ''[[The Bat (play)|The Bat]]'', 1926 (ghostwritten novelization of the play by [[Mary Roberts Rinehart]] and [[Avery Hopwood]])
* ''Spanish Bayonet'', 1926<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archive.org/details/spanishbayonet00ben|title=Spanish bayonet|first=Stephen Vincent|last=Benét|date=May 14, 1926|publisher=New York, George H. Doran Co|via=Internet Archive}}</ref>
* ''[[John Brown's Body (poem)|John Brown's Body]]'', 1928
* ''The Barefoot Saint: A Short Story'', 1929
* ''The Litter of Rose Leaves: A Short Story'', 1930
* ''[[Abraham Lincoln (1930 film)|Abraham Lincoln]]'', 1930 (screenplay with Gerrit Lloyd)
* ''Ballads and Poems'', 1915–1930, 1931
* ''A Book of Americans'', 1933 (with Rosemary Carr Benét, his wife)
* ''James Shore's Daughter: A Novel'', 1934
* ''The Burning City'', 1936 (includes 'Litany for Dictatorships')
* ''The Magic of Poetry and the Poet's Art'', 1936
* ''[[The Devil and Daniel Webster]]'', 1936
* ''[[By the Waters of Babylon]]'', 1937
* ''The Headless Horseman: one-act play'', 1937
* ''Thirteen O'Clock'', 1937
* ''We Aren't Superstitious'', 1937 (Essay on the Salem Witch Trials)
* ''Johnny Pye and the Fool Killer: A Short Story'', 1938
* ''Tales Before Midnight: Collection of Short Stories'', 1939
* ''The Ballad of the Duke's Mercy'', 1939
* ''[[The Devil and Daniel Webster (opera)|The Devil and Daniel Webster]]'', 1939 (opera libretto with [[Douglas Moore]])
* ''A Song of Three Soldiers'', 1940
* ''Elementals'', 1940–41 (broadcast)
* ''Freedom's Hard-Bought Thing'', 1941 (broadcast)
* ''Listen to the People'', 1941
* ''A Summons to the Free'', 1941
* ''William Riley and the Fates'', 1941
* ''[[Cheers for Miss Bishop]]'', 1941 (screenplay with Adelaide Heilbron, Sheridan Gibney)
* ''[[The Devil and Daniel Webster (film)|The Devil and Daniel Webster]]'', 1941 (screenplay with [[Dan Totheroh]])
* ''Selected Works'', 1942 (2 vols.) {{oclc|22177930}}
* ''Short Stories'', 1942
* ''Nightmare at Noon: Short Poem'', 1942 (in The Treasury Star Parade, ed. by William A. Bacher)
* ''[[A Child Is Born (radio play)|A Child is Born]]'', 1942 (broadcast)
* ''They Burned the Books'', 1942 {{oclc|925056}}
* ''They Burned the Books'', 1942 (broadcast)

'''These works were published [[List of works published posthumously|posthumously]]:'''
* ''Western Star'', 1943 (unfinished)
* ''Twenty Five Short Stories'', 1943
* ''America'', 1944
* ''O'Halloran's Luck and Other Short Stories'', 1944
* ''We Stand United'', 1945 (radio scripts)
* ''The Bishop's Beggar'', 1946
* ''The Last Circle'', 1946
* ''Selected Stories'', 1947
* ''From the Earth to the Moon'', 1958

==References==
{{Reflist}}

===Sources===
* {{cite book |last=Bleiler |first=Everett |author-link=E. F. Bleiler |title=The Checklist of Fantastic Literature |location=Chicago |publisher=Shasta Publishers |pages=46–47 |year=1948}}
* {{cite book |last=Fenton |first=Charles A. |title=Stephen Vincent Benét: The Life and Times of an American Man of Letters, 1898–1943 |orig-year=1958 |year=1978 |publisher=Greenwood Press |location=Westport, Conn. |isbn=0-313-20200-1}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{commons category}}
{{Wikisource author}}
* {{Gutenberg author |id=174|name=Stephen Vincent Benét}}
* {{FadedPage|id=Benét, Stephen Vincent|name=Stephen Vincent Benét|author=yes}}
* [http://gutenberg.net.au/plusfifty-a-m.html#benet Works by Stephen Vincent Benét] at [[Project Gutenberg Australia]]
* [http://www.miracostahigh.org/ourpages/users/jwesterberg/documents/English%205-6/Benet.pdf "We Aren't Superstitious"], an essay by Stephen Vincent Benét
* {{Internet Archive author |sname=Stephen Vincent Benét |sopt=t}}
* {{Librivox author |id=3008}}
* [[wikilivres:Stephen Vincent Benét|Works by Stephen Vincent Benét]] (public domain in Canada)
* {{ISFDB name|id=762|name=Stephen Vincent Benét}}
* {{LCAuth|n50007691|Stephen Vincent Benét|169|}}
* [[hdl:10079/fa/beinecke.svbenet|Stephen Vincent Benét and Rosemary Benét Papers]] at Yale Collection of American Literature, Beinecke Rare Book and Manuscript Library

{{PulitzerPrize PoetryAuthors 1922–1950}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Benet, Stephen Vincent}}
[[Category:1898 births]]
[[Category:1943 deaths]]
[[Category:20th-century American journalists]]
[[Category:20th-century American male writers]]
[[Category:20th-century American non-fiction writers]]
[[Category:20th-century American novelists]]
[[Category:20th-century American poets]]
[[Category:20th-century American short story writers]]
[[Category:American fantasy writers]]
[[Category:American male journalists]]
[[Category:American male novelists]]
[[Category:American male short story writers]]
[[Category:American opera librettists]]
[[Category:American people of Catalan descent]]
[[Category:Fellows of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences]]
[[Category:Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters]]
[[Category:Poets from Pennsylvania]]
[[Category:O. Henry Award winners]]
[[Category:Pulitzer Prize for Poetry winners]]
[[Category:The Yale Record alumni]]

Godfrey Meynell

2023-10-18T03:49:27Z

ExtravagAunt: removed redundancy

{{Short description|Recipient of the Victoria Cross}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2022}}
{{Infobox military person
|name= Godfrey Meynell
|image=
|caption=
|birth_date= {{birth date|1904|05|30|df=yes}}
|death_date= {{death date and age|1935|09|29|1904|05|30|df=yes}}
|birth_place= [[Meynell Langley]], [[Derbyshire]]
|death_place=[[Khyber Pass]], India
|placeofburial= Guides Chapel, [[Mardan]]
|nickname=
|allegiance= United Kingdom
|branch= [[British Indian Army]]
|serviceyears= 1926–1935
|rank= [[Captain (land and air)|Captain]]
|unit= [[12th Frontier Force Regiment]]
|commands=
|battles=[[1935 Mohmand Campaign]]
|awards= [[Victoria Cross]] [[Military Cross]]
|laterwork=
|relations= [[Godfrey Meynell MBE]] (son) Godfrey Meynell (Grandson) [[Clare B Dimyon MBE]] (grand-daughter) [[Hugo Anthony Meynell]] (son)
}}
'''Godfrey Meynell''' [[Victoria Cross|VC]], [[Military Cross|MC]] (20 May 1904<ref>Godfrey Meynell MBE eldest son on 9 July 2021 via granddaughter Clare B Dimyon MBE</ref> – 29 September 1935) was a [[British Indian Army]] officer and an English recipient of the [[Victoria Cross]], the highest and most prestigious award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and [[Commonwealth of Nations|Commonwealth]] forces.

==Early life and education==
Meynell was the son of an army officer who was also named Godfrey Meynell, by his wife Edith Violet Cammell. He won a scholarship to [[Eton College]]. He was commended to [[Cyril Connolly]] when he arrived there as a boy with character. After an initial amount of bullying, (from Godfrey to Cecil) <ref>Godfrey Meynell MBE eldest son on 9 July 2021 via granddaughter Clare B Dimyon MBE</ref> the two became firm friends as described in ''[[Enemies of Promise]]''.<ref>Cyril Connolly ''Enemies of Promise'' Routledge & Kegan Paul 1938</ref>

==Military career==
Meynell had graduated 13th at Sandhurst before he volunteered for the [[British Indian Army]]. He was awarded the [[Military Cross]] in 1933 for his work in [[Chitral]].<ref>[http://www.london-gazette.co.uk/issues/33976/pages/5863 London Gazette]</ref>

===Victoria Cross===
Meynell was thirty-one years old, and a [[Captain (land and air)|captain]] in the 5th Battalion ([[Corps of Guides (British India)|Queen Victoria's Own Corps of Guides]]), [[12th Frontier Force Regiment]] during the [[1935 Mohmand Campaign]] in [[British India]]. Captain Meynell married "Jill", Sophia Patricia (Jill) Lowis, at the Guides Chapel in Mardan on 31 January 1933; both were speakers of Urdu. Their eldest son Godfrey was born on 20 July 1934.

On 29 September 1935 at [[Mohmand]], in the Nahaqi Pass within the [[Khyber Pass]] on the [[North-West Frontier Province (1901–1955)|North West Frontier]], in the final phase of an attack, Captain Meynell, seeking information on the most forward troops, found them involved in a struggle against an enemy vastly superior in numbers. He at once took command, and with two [[Lewis gun]]s and about thirty men, maintained a heavy and accurate fire on the advancing enemy, whose overwhelming numbers nevertheless succeeded in reaching the position and putting the Lewis guns out of action. In the hand-to-hand struggle which ensued, Captain Meynell was mortally wounded, but the heavy casualties inflicted on the enemy prevented them from exploiting their success.<ref>{{London Gazette|issue= 34235|date=29 October 1920|page=8291 }}</ref>
Regimental records suggest that when the bodies of his men were mutilated by the enemy (as was their custom), Captain Meynell sought to defend those bodies even as he himself was dying.

His body is laid to rest at the Guides Chapel in [[Mardan]], near [[Peshawar]] in the North West Frontier Province (of what is now Pakistan), where he and his wife were married.
According to shipping records, his widow returned to England with their eldest son accompanied by her twin brother (and his brother officer) "Jack" (Ross Henry) Lowis and they arrived in England after a 10 day sea journey at the end of October, within one month of Godfrey Meynell VC MC's death.<ref>shipping records record details to be added Clare B Dimyon MBE</ref>

Three months after he was killed, news of the award of the VC arrived at Meynell Langley on 24 December 1935. Three months later their 2nd son, [[Hugo Anthony Meynell]], was born on 24 March 1936 and less than three months later his widow received the VC at a ceremony at Buckingham Palace on 14 July 1936, the only one to be handed out by Edward VIII.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Meynell, Godfrey}}
[[Category:1904 births]]
[[Category:1935 deaths]]
[[Category:People educated at Eton College]]
[[Category:British recipients of the Victoria Cross]]
[[Category:British Indian Army officers]]
[[Category:British Indian Army personnel killed in action]]
[[Category:People from Amber Valley]]
[[Category:Graduates of the Royal Military College, Sandhurst]]
[[Category:Corps of Guides (India) officers]]
[[Category:British military personnel of the Second Mohmand Campaign]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Derbyshire]]
[[Category:British people in colonial India]]

Christy Martin (boxer)

2023-09-19T23:06:21Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Attempted murder */

{{short description|American boxer}}
{{Infobox boxer
|name= Christy Martin
|image= Martin 2023.jpg
|caption= Martin at amateur boxing event in 2023
|realname=Christy Renea Salters<ref name="BoxRec">{{cite web| title=Christy Martin |url=http://boxrec.com/list_bouts.php?human_id=15494&cat=boxer |publisher=[[BoxRec]] |accessdate=May 21, 2010}}</ref>
|nationality=
|nickname=The Coal Miner's Daughter<ref name="BoxRec"/>
|height=5 ft 4+1/2 in<ref name="BoxRec"/>
|reach = 64 in<ref name="BoxRec"/>
|weight={{plainlist|
*[[Light middleweight]]
*[[Middleweight]]
*[[Super middleweight]]
}}
|birth_date={{birth date|1968|6|12|mf=yes}}<ref name="BoxRec"/>
|birth_place=[[Mullens, West Virginia]], U.S.<ref name="Women Athletes"/>
|style=[[Orthodox stance|Orthodox]]<ref name="BoxRec"/>
|total=59
|wins=49
|KO=31
|losses=7
|draws=3
}}
'''Christy Renea Martin''' ({{nee|'''Salters'''}}; born June 12, 1968) is an American former [[professional boxer]]. Competing from 1989 to 2012, she held the [[World Boxing Council|WBC]] female [[super welterweight]] title in 2009. In 2010, Martin was stabbed and shot by her husband. He was subsequently found guilty of attempted second-degree murder and sentenced to 25 years in prison. Martin was the first female boxer elected to the [[Nevada Boxing Hall of Fame]] in 2016, and was also elected to the [[International Boxing Hall of Fame]] in 2020, which was the first year that women were on the ballot.

==Early life==
Martin was born Christy Renea Salters on June 12, 1968, in [[Mullens, West Virginia]].<ref name=":0">{{Cite web |title=Christy Martin |url=http://www.ibhof.com/pages/about/inductees/women_modern/martin.html |access-date=2022-08-30 |website=International Boxing Hall of Fame}}</ref><ref name="Women Athletes">Outstanding Women Athletes: Who they are and how they influenced sports, Janet Woolum [https://books.google.com/books?id=DWmCWO6SpsYC&dq=Christy+martin+boxer&pg=PA181]</ref><ref name="wban.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.wban.org/biog/cmartin.htm|title=Women's Boxing: Christy Martin Biography|publisher=|access-date=2009-06-30|archive-date=2010-07-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100708030857/http://www.wban.org/biog/cmartin.htm|url-status=dead}}</ref> and attended [[Mullens High School]].<ref>{{cite web |title=BOXER WEARS LIPSTICK, AND SHE IS A WINNER |url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/news/os-xpm-1994-01-29-9401290077-story.html |website=OrlandoSentinel.com |date=29 January 1994 |accessdate=4 August 2020}}</ref>

She played various sports as a child including [[Little League Baseball|Little League baseball]] and all-state basketball. She attended [[Concord University|Concord College]] in [[Athens, West Virginia]], on a basketball scholarship and earned a [[Bachelor of Science|B.S.]] in education.<ref name="Women Athletes"/><ref name="wban.org"/>

==Career==
Martin is said to be “the most successful and prominent female boxer in the United States” and the person who “legitimized” women’s participation in the sport of boxing.<ref name="Women Athletes"/> She began her career fighting in “Toughwoman” contests and won three consecutive titles. She then began training with boxing coach, Jim Martin, who became her husband in 1991.<ref name="Women Athletes"/>

Martin started her professional boxing career at the age of 21 with a six-round draw with [[Angela Buchanan (boxer)|Angela Buchanan]] in 1989. She had her first training under the direction of Charlie Sensabaugh of Daniels West Virginia. Martin won a rematch with Buchanan one month later with a second round [[knockout]]. [[Andrea DeShong]] then beat Martin in a five-round decision. Martin then had nineteen consecutive wins, including two against [[Jamie Whitcomb]] and [[Suzanne Riccio-Major]] as well as a rubber match win against Buchanan. On October 15, 1993, Martin defeated [[Beverly Szymansky]]. Martin won by knocking out Szymansky in three rounds. In her first title defense, she fought to a draw against debutante [[Laura Serrano]] in [[Las Vegas Valley|Las Vegas]].<ref name="wban.org"/>

Martin defended her title six more times, including a rematch with Szymansky, a fourth fight with Buchanan and defenses versus [[Melinda Robinson]] and [[Sue Chase]], winning all of them, before [[Christy Martin vs. Deirdre Gogarty|the fight that many credit for putting women's boxing on the sports fans' radar]] took place: On March 16, 1996, she and [[Deirdre Gogarty]] fought what many consider a great fight, in front of [[Showtime (TV network)|Showtime]] cameras. Martin got the decision, and after that bout, she began to gain more celebrity, even appearing on the cover of ''[[Sports Illustrated]]'' once shortly afterwards.<ref name="wban.org"/> (Specifically, on April 15, 1996, Martin became the first female boxer to appear on the cover of ''Sports Illustrated'';<ref name=":Martin12">{{Cite news |last=Tumin |first=Remy |date=August 17, 2022 |title=Famous, But Not Free |work=[[New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/17/sports/fame-boxing-christy-martin.html |access-date=2022-10-05}}</ref> the headline read, "The Lady Is a Champ".<ref>{{cite web |title=Christy Martin, Boxing Sports Illustrated Cover by Sports Illustrated |url=https://sicovers.com/featured/christy-martin-boxing-april-15-1996-sports-illustrated-cover.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220803012043/https://sicovers.com/featured/christy-martin-boxing-april-15-1996-sports-illustrated-cover.html |archive-date=August 3, 2022 |access-date=August 3, 2022}}</ref>)

Martin made a special guest appearance on the television show ''[[Roseanne]]'' in season 9, episode 6, "Pampered to a Pulp".

Martin won her next eight bouts including wins against Robinson, DeShong, [[Marcela Acuña]] and [[Isra Girgrah]]. Martin lost her title in a 10-round decision loss to [[Sumya Anani]] in 1998. Martin then won her next nine fights including wins against [[Belinda Laracuente]], [[Sabrina Hall]] and [[Kathy Collins]]. Martin won her next two fights by ten-round decisions against [[Lisa Holeywine]] and [[Mia St. John]].<ref name="wban.org"/>

In 2003 Martin fought [[Laila Ali]] and lost by a knockout in the fourth round.<ref name="wban.org"/>

Martin's next fight in 2005 was a second-round knockout against [[Lana Alexander]] in Lula, Mississippi.<ref name="wban.org"/>

In 2005 a fight with [[Lucia Rijker]], titled "Million Dollar Lady", was canceled because Rijker ruptured her Achilles during training.

On September 16, 2005, in [[Albuquerque, New Mexico]], Martin lost a 10-round unanimous decision to [[Holly Holm]]. Martin was beaten by the 23-year-old southpaw, with all three judges scoring for Holm.<ref name="wban.org"/>

Martin holds a record of 49 wins, 7 losses and 3 draws with 31 wins by knockout.<ref name="wban.org"/> She is a frequent visitor of the [[International Boxing Hall Of Fame]] annual induction ceremonies, and an avid autograph signer. She has fought on the undercard of boxers [[Mike Tyson]], [[Evander Holyfield]], [[Félix Trinidad]] and [[Julio César Chávez]].

Martin was promoted by [[Don King (boxing promoter)|Don King]], and was the first woman to sign with him.<ref>{{Cite magazine |last=Feldman |first=Jacob |title=Where Are They Now: Former boxer Christy Martin |url=https://www.si.com/boxing/2016/07/01/christy-martin-boxer-career-shooting-domestic-violence |access-date=2022-08-30 |magazine=Sports Illustrated |date=July 2016 |language=en-us}}</ref><ref name="wban.org" /> He signed Martin in October 1993 following her third-round knockout win against [[Beverly Szymanski]].<ref name="Don:3">{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Malissa |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_ErHAwAAQBAJ&dq=Christy+Martin+Deirdre+Gogarty+bout+play+by+play&pg=PA192 |title=A History of Women's Boxing |date=2014-06-05 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-4422-2995-2 |pages=194–209 |language=en |access-date=September 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910191728/https://books.google.com/books?id=_ErHAwAAQBAJ&dq=Christy+Martin+Deirdre+Gogarty+bout+play+by+play&pg=PA192 |archive-date=September 10, 2022 |url-status=live}}</ref>

Martin was nicknamed ''The Coal Miner's Daughter'' in reference to her father's occupation.<ref name=":0" />

Martin announced on January 19, 2011, that she would be fighting again in hopes of her 50th career win on the undercard of the [[Ricardo Mayorga]] vs [[Miguel Cotto]] Fight at the MGM Grand Hotel in Las Vegas, Nevada, on March 12, 2011, against Dakota Stone in a rematch of their 2009 Fight.<ref name="aol.com">{{cite web|url=http://boxing.fanhouse.com/2011/01/19/christy-martin-rematches-dakota-stone-on-march-12|title=Sports News & latest headlines from AOL|work=AOL.com|access-date=2011-01-25|archive-date=2011-01-24|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110124024604/http://boxing.fanhouse.com/2011/01/19/christy-martin-rematches-dakota-stone-on-march-12/|url-status=dead}}</ref> The fight was postponed due to a rib injury to Martin. The rescheduled rematch took place June 4, 2011, at Staples Center in Los Angeles on the [[Julio César Chávez Jr.|Julio Cesar Chavez Jr.]] vs [[Sebastian Zbik]] undercard. Dakota Stone prevailed by TKO with :51 left as Martin broke her right hand in 9 places on a punch in the 4th round and could not continue.

In 2016, she became the first female boxer inducted into the [[Nevada Boxing Hall of Fame]]. That same year, ''Sports Illustrated'' reported that she was working 2 jobs, as a substitute teacher and helping military veterans find work, and that she was dealing with the after effects of her career, including dealing with lack of stamina and double vision.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thenewstribune.com/sports/article64804002.html|title=Nevada Boxing Hall of Fame to induct 11, including 1st woman|work=thenewstribune|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160309080420/http://www.thenewstribune.com/sports/article64804002.html|archivedate=2016-03-09}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://boxingjunkie.U.S.today.com/2016/03/08/first-female-voted-into-nevada-boxing-hall-of-fame/|title=First female voted into Nevada Boxing Hall of Fame|work=Boxingjunkie}}{{Dead link|date=September 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/sports/os-christy-martin-george-diaz-0805-20160804-column.html|title=Christy Martin finally stands alone as boxing Hall of Famer|first=George|last=Diaz|website=orlandosentinel.com|date=4 August 2016 }}</ref> In 2020 she was inducted into the [[International Boxing Hall of Fame]]; she was elected to it in 2019, the first year that women were on the ballot.<ref>{{Cite web |last=Schilken |first=Chuck |date=2019-12-04 |title=Christy Martin and Bernard Hopkins headline Boxing Hall of Fame class |url=https://www.latimes.com/sports/story/2019-12-04/boxing-hall-of-fame |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=Los Angeles Times |language=en-US}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=Tumin |first=Remy |date=2022-08-18 |title=Famous, but Not Free |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/08/17/sports/fame-boxing-christy-martin.html |access-date=2022-08-29 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref>

==Professional boxing record==
{{BoxingRecordSummary
|draws=3
|ko-wins=32
|ko-losses=2
|dec-wins=17
|dec-losses=5
}}
{|class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|-
!{{abbr|No.|Number}}
!Result
!Record
!Opponent
!Type
!Round, time
!Date
!Location
!Notes
|-
|59
|{{no2}}Loss
|49–7–3
|align=left|[[Mia St. John]]
|UD
|10
|Aug 14, 2012
|align=left|{{small|[[Friant, California]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|58
|{{no2}}Loss
|49–6–3
|align=left|Dakota Stone
|TKO
|6 (6)
|[[Julio César Chávez Jr. vs. Sebastian Zbik|Jun 4, 2011]]
|align=left|{{small|[[Los Angeles, California]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|57
|{{yes2}}Win
|49–5–3
|align=left|Dakota Stone
|MD
|10
|Sep 9, 2009
|align=left|{{small|[[Syracuse, New York]], U.S.}}
|align=left|{{small|Won vacant [[List of WBC female world champions#Super welterweight|WBC female super welterweight title]]}}
|-
|56
|{{yes2}}Win
|48–5–3
|align=left|Cimberly Harris
|SD
|6
|Aug 1, 2009
|align=left|{{small|[[Huntington, West Virginia]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|55
|{{draw}}Draw
|47–5–3
|align=left|[[Valerie Mahfood]]
|MD
|8
|Jul 18, 2008
|align=left|{{small|[[Houston, Texas]], U.S.}}
|align=left|{{small|For vacant [[World Boxing Council|WBC]]–[[North American Boxing Federation|NABF]] female [[middleweight]] title}}
|-
|54
|{{yes2}}Win
|47–5–2
|align=left|[[Amy Yuratovac]]
|UD
|2 (6)
|Jun 2, 2007
|align=left|{{small|[[Lake Charles, Louisiana]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|53
|{{no2}}Loss
|46–5–2
|align=left|Angelica Martinez
|{{abbr|SD|Split decision}}
|10
|Oct 6, 2006
|align=left|{{small|[[Worley, Idaho]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|52
|{{no2}}Loss
|46–4–2
|align=left|[[Holly Holm]]
|UD
|10
|Sep 16, 2005
|align=left|{{small|[[Albuquerque, New Mexico]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|51
|{{yes2}}Win
|46–3–2
|align=left|Lana Alexander
|KO
|2 (6)
|Apr 30, 2005
|align=left|{{small|[[Lula, Mississippi]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|50
|{{no2}}Loss
|45–3–2
|align=left|[[Laila Ali]]
|KO
|4 (10)
|Aug 23, 2003
|align=left|{{small|[[Biloxi, Mississippi]], U.S.}}
|align=left|{{small|For IBA female [[super middleweight]] title}}
|-
|49
|{{yes2}}Win
|45–2–2
|align=left|[[Mia St. John]]
|UD
|10
|Dec 6, 2002
|align=left|{{small|[[Pontiac, Michigan]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|48
|{{yes2}}Win
|44–2–2
|align=left|Lisa Holewyne
|UD
|10
|Nov 17, 2001
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|47
|{{yes2}}Win
|43–2–2
|align=left|Kathy Collins
|MD
|10
|May 12, 2001
|align=left|{{small|New York City, New York, U.S.}}
|
|-
|46
|{{yes2}}Win
|42–2–2
|align=left|Jeanne Martinez
|UD
|10
|[[Evander Holyfield vs. John Ruiz II|Mar 3, 2001]]
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|45
|{{yes2}}Win
|41–2–2
|align=left|Sabrina Hall
|KO
|1 (8)
|Dec 2, 2000
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|44
|{{yes2}}Win
|40–2–2
|align=left|Dianna Lewis
|UD
|10
|[[Evander Holyfield vs. John Ruiz|Aug 12, 2000]]
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|43
|{{yes2}}Win
|39–2–2
|align=left|[[Belinda Laracuente]]
|MD
|8
|Mar 3, 2000
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|42
|{{yes2}}Win
|38–2–2
|align=left|Daniella Somers
|TKO
|5 (10)
|Oct 2, 1999
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|41
|{{yes2}}Win
|37–2–2
|align=left|Jovette Jackson
|TKO
|1
|Apr 24, 1999
|align=left|{{small|[[Washington, D.C.]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|40
|{{no2}}Loss
|36–2–2
|align=left|[[Sumya Anani]]
|MD
|10
|Dec 18, 1998
|align=left|{{small|[[Fort Lauderdale, Florida]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|39
|{{yes2}}Win
|36–1–2
|align=left|Christine Robinson
|TKO
|5 (6)
|Sep 19, 1998
|align=left|{{small|[[Atlanta, Georgia]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|38
|{{yes2}}Win
|35–1–2
|align=left|Cheryl Nance
|TKO
|9 (10)
|Aug 29, 1998
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|37
|{{yes2}}Win
|34–1–2
|align=left|[[Marcela Acuña]]
|UD
|10
|Dec 5, 1997
|align=left|{{small|[[Pompano Beach, Florida]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|36
|{{yes2}}Win
|33–1–2
|align=left|[[Isra Girgrah]]
|UD
|8
|Aug 23, 1997
|align=left|{{small|[[New York City, New York]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|35
|{{yes2}}Win
|32–1–2
|align=left|[[Andrea DeShong]]
|TKO
|7 (8)
|[[Evander Holyfield vs. Mike Tyson II|Jun 28, 1997]]
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|34
|{{yes2}}Win
|31–1–2
|align=left|Bethany Payne
|TKO
|1 (6)
|[[Mike Tyson vs. Evander Holyfield|Nov 9, 1996]]
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|33
|{{yes2}}Win
|30–1–2
|align=left|Melinda Robinson
|KO
|4
|Sep 7, 1996
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|32
|{{yes2}}Win
|29–1–2
|align=left|[[Deirdre Gogarty]]
|UD
|6
|[[Frank Bruno vs. Mike Tyson II|Mar 16, 1996]]
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|31
|{{yes2}}Win
|28–1–2
|align=left|Del Pettis
|TKO
|1
|Feb 24, 1996
|align=left|{{small|[[Richmond, Virginia]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|30
|{{yes2}}Win
|27–1–2
|align=left|Sue Chase
|TKO
|3 (6)
|Feb 10, 1996
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|29
|{{yes2}}Win
|26–1–2
|align=left|Melinda Robinson
|UD
|6
|Jan 13, 1996
|align=left|{{small|[[Miami, Florida]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|28
|{{yes2}}Win
|25–1–2
|align=left|Erica Schmidlin
|TKO
|1
|Dec 16, 1995
|align=left|{{small|[[Philadelphia, Pennsylvania]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|27
|{{yes2}}Win
|24–1–2
|align=left|Angela Buchanan
|TKO
|2 (6)
|Aug 12, 1995
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|26
|{{yes2}}Win
|23–1–2
|align=left|Beverly Szymanski
|KO
|4 (6)
|Apr 1, 1995
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|25
|{{yes2}}Win
|22–1–2
|align=left|Chris Kreuz
|TKO
|4 (6)
|Sep 12, 1994
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|24
|{{draw}}Draw
|21–1–2
|align=left|[[Laura Serrano]]
|UD
|6
|May 7, 1994
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|23
|{{yes2}}Win
|21–1–1
|align=left|Sonja Donlevy
|TKO
|1
|Mar 4, 1994
|align=left|{{small|Las Vegas, Nevada, U.S.}}
|
|-
|22
|{{yes2}}Win
|20–1–1
|align=left|Susie Melton
|TKO
|1 (6)
|Jan 29, 1994
|align=left|{{small|[[Las Vegas, Nevada]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|21
|{{yes2}}Win
|19–1–1
|align=left|Beverly Szymanski
|KO
|3
|Oct 15, 1993
|align=left|{{small|[[Auburn Hills, Michigan]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|20
|{{yes2}}Win
|18–1–1
|align=left|Rebecca Kirkland
|TKO
|1 (6)
|Aug 27, 1993
|align=left|{{small|Punta Gorda, Florida, U.S.}}
|
|-
|19
|{{yes2}}Win
|17–1–1
|align=left|Deborah Cruickshank
|KO
|1 (4)
|May 28, 1993
|align=left|{{small|[[Punta Gorda, Florida]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|18
|{{yes2}}Win
|16–1–1
|align=left|Susie Hughes
|TKO
|1
|Jan 29, 1993
|align=left|{{small|[[Columbia, South Carolina]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|17
|{{yes2}}Win
|15–1–1
|align=left|Angela Buchanan
|TKO
|1
|Nov 14, 1992
|align=left|{{small|[[Greenville, South Carolina]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|16
|{{yes2}}Win
|14–1–1
|align=left|Tracy Gordon
|TKO
|1
|Sep 5, 1992
|align=left|{{small|[[Daytona Beach, Florida]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|15
|{{yes2}}Win
|13–1–1
|align=left|Stacey Prestage
|UD
|8
|May 30, 1992
|align=left|{{small|Daytona Beach, Florida, U.S.}}
|
|-
|14
|{{yes2}}Win
|12–1–1
|align=left|Jackie Thomas
|TKO
|3 (8)
|Jan 25, 1992
|align=left|{{small|Daytona Beach, Florida, U.S.}}
|
|-
|13
|{{yes2}}Win
|11–1–1
|align=left|Rose Noble
|TKO
|1
|Jan 11, 1992
|align=left|{{small|[[Grundy, Virginia]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|12
|{{yes2}}Win
|10–1–1
|align=left|Shannon Davenport
|TKO
|2
|Sep 10, 1991
|align=left|{{small|[[Princeton, West Virginia]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|11
|{{yes2}}Win
|9–1–1
|align=left|Rhonda Hefflin
|KO
|1
|May 25, 1991
|align=left|{{small|Tennessee, U.S.}}
|
|-
|10
|{{yes2}}Win
|8–1–1
|align=left|Pat Watts
|TKO
|1
|Mar 16, 1991
|align=left|{{small|[[Chattanooga, Tennessee]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|9
|{{yes2}}Win
|7–1–1
|align=left|[[Suzanne Riccio-Major|Suzanne Riccio]]
|PTS
|5
|Feb 25, 1991
|align=left|{{small|Bristol, Tennessee, U.S.}}
|
|-
|8
|{{yes2}}Win
|6–1–1
|align=left|Jamie Whitcomb
|TKO
|2 (5)
|Jan 12, 1991
|align=left|{{small|Bristol, Tennessee, U.S.}}
|
|-
|7
|{{yes2}}Win
|5–1–1
|align=left|Lisa Holpp
|TKO
|1
|Oct 27, 1990
|align=left|{{small|Bristol, Tennessee, U.S.}}
|
|-
|6
|{{yes2}}Win
|4–1–1
|align=left|Jamie Whitcomb
|PTS
|6
|Sep 22, 1990
|align=left|{{small|[[Johnson City, Tennessee]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|5
|{{yes2}}Win
|3–1–1
|align=left|[[Andrea DeShong]]
|PTS
|5
|Apr 21, 1990
|align=left|{{small|Bristol, Tennessee, U.S.}}
|
|-
|4
|{{no2}}Loss
|2–1–1
|align=left|[[Andrea DeShong]]
|{{abbr|MD|Majority decision}}
|5
|Nov 4, 1989
|align=left|{{small|Bristol, Tennessee, U.S.}}
|
|-
|3
|{{yes2}}Win
|2–0–1
|align=left|Tammy Jones
|{{abbr|TKO|Technical knockout}}
|1
|Oct 21, 1989
|align=left|{{small|Bristol, Tennessee, U.S.}}
|
|-
|2
|{{yes2}}Win
|1–0–1
|align=left|Angela Buchanan
|{{abbr|KO|Knockout}}
|2
|Sep 30, 1989
|align=left|{{small|[[Durham, North Carolina]], U.S.}}
|
|-
|1
|{{draw}}Draw
|0–0–1
|align=left|Angela Buchanan
|{{abbr|PTS|Points decision}}
|5
|Sep 9, 1989
|align=left|{{small|[[Bristol, Tennessee]], U.S.}}
|
|}

==Attempted murder==
On November 23, 2010, Christy Martin was stabbed several times and shot at least once in her torso and left for dead by her husband, 66-year-old James V. Martin. The attack reportedly occurred after an argument in their [[Apopka, Florida|Apopka]] home.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSTRE6AO0IO20101125|title=Female boxer Christy Martin hospitalized after attack |publisher=reuters.com |date=2010-11-25 |accessdate=2010-11-25}}</ref> She survived the attack. On November 30, James Martin was arrested and taken to [[Orlando Regional Medical Center]] after he stabbed himself.<ref name="orlando">{{cite news |first=Bianca |last=Prieto |url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2010-11-30/news/os-christy-martin-latest-20101130_1_deputies-track-christy-martin-stab-wounds |title=Deputies track down, arrest Christy Martin's husband |newspaper=[[Orlando Sentinel]] |date=November 30, 2010 |accessdate=December 1, 2010 }}</ref> He was booked in Orange County Jail and charged with attempted first degree murder and aggravated battery with a deadly weapon.<ref name="inmate">{{cite web |url=http://apps.ocfl.net/bailbond/Default.asp |title=Current Inmate Database - James V. Martin |publisher=Orange County Inmate Records |accessdate=December 1, 2010 }}</ref>

In April 2012, James Martin was found guilty of attempted second-degree murder.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.clickorlando.com/news/Jury-finds-pro-boxer-Christy-Martin-s-ex-husband-guilty-of-attempted-murder/-/1637132/12142584/-/bjk2h8/-/index.html|title=Boxer Christy Martin's ex guilty of attempted murder|newspaper=Orlando Sentinel|date=April 27, 2012|accessdate=December 23, 2012|archive-date=January 1, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140101160720/http://www.clickorlando.com/news/Jury-finds-pro-boxer-Christy-Martin-s-ex-husband-guilty-of-attempted-murder/-/1637132/12142584/-/bjk2h8/-/index.html|url-status=dead}}</ref>
He was sentenced two months later to 25 years in prison. He is currently serving his sentence at [[Graceville Correctional Facility]] in [[Graceville, Florida]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.dc.state.fl.us/offenderSearch/detail.aspx?Page=Detail&DCNumber=X78664&TypeSearch=AI|title = Inmate Population Information Detail}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.orlandosentinel.com/2012-06-26/news/os-james-martin-sentenced-christy-martin-20120626_1_christy-martin-james-jim-martin-boxer|title=James Martin gets 25 years for trying to kill boxer Christy Martin|newspaper=Orlando Sentinel|date=June 26, 2012|accessdate=December 23, 2012}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Martin married former ring rival [[Lisa Holewyne]] on November 25, 2017.<ref name="lvrj">{{cite news |url=http://www.lvrj.com/news/boxer-tells-of-her-attack-to-draw-attention-to-domestic-violence-122766598.html |title=Boxer tells of her attack to draw attention to domestic violence |first=Jane Ann |last=Morrison |work=[[Las Vegas Review-Journal]] |date=28 May 2011 |accessdate=13 January 2012}}</ref> Martin is the CEO of Christy Martin Promotions, a boxing promotion company that has promoted many events in North Carolina since 2016 and will be promoting boxing events in Jacksonville, Florida and in other Southern United States cities.{{when|date=July 2023}}{{cn|date=July 2023}}

==Legacy==
In 2021, Netflix released ''[[Untold: Deal with the Devil]]'', a documentary chronicling Martin’s career and personal life.<ref>{{Citation |title=Untold: Deal with the Devil (2021) - IMDb |url=https://www.imdb.com/title/tt15085794/ |language=en-US |access-date=2022-05-17}}</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20110129083236/http://christymartin.net/ Official website]
*[https://web.archive.org/web/20111005064804/http://sports.rightpundits.com/?p=5500%2F Christy Martin Female Boxer Biography]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Martin, Christy Renea}}
[[Category:1968 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:American shooting survivors]]
[[Category:American women boxers]]
[[Category:Concord University alumni]]
[[Category:Lesbian sportswomen]]
[[Category:American LGBT sportspeople]]
[[Category:LGBT people from West Virginia]]
[[Category:People from Apopka, Florida]]
[[Category:Sportspeople from Orange County, Florida]]
[[Category:People from Mullens, West Virginia]]
[[Category:Boxers from Florida]]
[[Category:Boxers from West Virginia]]
[[Category:LGBT boxers]]
[[Category:Light-middleweight boxers]]
[[Category:21st-century American LGBT people]]
[[Category:21st-century American sportswomen]]
[[Category:20th-century American sportswomen]]
[[Category:20th-century American LGBT people]]

Osmond Ingram

2023-08-06T21:42:20Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Legacy */

{{Short description|United States Navy Medal of Honor recipient}}
{{Infobox military person
|name='''Osmond Kelly Ingram'''
|birth_date= {{Birth date|1887|8|4}}
|death_date= {{Death date and age|1917|10|15|1887|8|4}}
|image=OsmondIngram.jpg
|nickname=
|birth_place=[[Oneonta, Alabama]], U.S.
|death_place={{USS|Cassin|DD-43|6}}, [[Celtic Sea]], off Ireland
|placeofburial=
|placeofburial_label= Place of burial
|allegiance= [[United States of America]]
|branch={{Naval|United States|navy-1864}}
|serviceyears=1903–1917
|rank=[[Gunner's mate]] [[Petty officer first class|first class]]
|unit={{USS|Cassin|DD-43|6}}
|commands=
|battles= [[World War I]]
* [[Naval warfare of World War I|Naval campaign]]
** [[Atlantic U-boat Campaign (World War I)|Atlantic U-boat Campaign]]
*** [[Action of 15 October 1917]] {{KIA}}
|awards=[[Medal of Honor]]
|relations=
|laterwork=
}}
'''Osmond Kelly Ingram''' (August 4, 1887 – October 15, 1917) was a sailor in the [[United States Navy]] during [[World War I]] who received the [[Medal of Honor]] posthumously.

==Biography==
Born to Robert L. Ingram and his wife Naomi Elizabeth Lea in [[Oneonta, Alabama]], Ingram entered the Navy November 24, 1903. His ship, {{USS|Cassin|DD-43|6}}, was [[Action of 15 October 1917|attacked]] by the [[Imperial German Navy|German]] [[submarine]] [[SM U-61|''U-61'']] off [[Ireland]] on October 15, 1917. Gunner's Mate First Class Ingram spotted the approaching torpedo, realized it would strike close by the ship's depth charges, thus dooming the ship, and rushed to jettison the ammunition. He was blown overboard when the torpedo struck, thus becoming the United States' Navy's first enlisted man killed in action in World War I<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.history.navy.mil/photos/pers-us/uspers-i/o-ingram.htm |title=Gunner's Mate First Class Osmond K. Ingram, USN, (1887-1917) |author= |date=20 November 2007 |publisher=Naval Historical Center |access-date=23 February 2012}}</ref> as he attempted to save his ship and shipmates. He posthumously received the [[Medal of Honor]] for his actions on that day.

==Legacy==
The main flagpole and colors at the former [[Liberty Station|Naval Training Center, San Diego]] are named Ingram Plaza in his honor

{{USS|Osmond Ingram|DD-255}}, a {{Sclass|Clemson|destroyer}}, served in the United States Navy during World War II. ''Osmond Ingram'' was decommissioned at Philadelphia on January 8, 1946, and was struck from the [[Naval Vessel Register|Navy List]] on January 21, 1946. It was sold for scrapping to Hugo Neu June 17, 1946.

[[Kelly Ingram Park]] is also named in his honor. It is a {{convert|4|acre|adj=on}} park located in [[Birmingham, Alabama]].

[[File:GM1 O. K. Ingram aboard the USS Cassin (DD-43), 15 October 1917.jpg|thumb|GM1 O. K. Ingram aboard USS ''Cassin'' on October 15, 1917]]

There is a Veterans of Foreign Wars post named after him in Birmingham, Alabama.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://vfw668.org/di/vfw/v2/default.asp?pid=26965|title=About Us -|website=vfw668.org}}</ref>

==Medal of Honor citation==
Rank and organization: Gunner's Mate First Class, U.S. Navy. Born: August 4, 1887, Alabama. Accredited to. Alabama.

'''Citation:'''

<blockquote>For extraordinary heroism in the presence of the enemy on the occasion of the torpedoing of the Cassin, on 15 October 1917. While the Cassin was searching for the submarine, Ingram sighted the torpedo coming, and realizing that it might strike the ship aft in the vicinity of the depth charges, ran aft with the intention of releasing the depth charges before the torpedo could reach the Cassin. The torpedo struck the ship before he could accomplish his purpose and Ingram was killed by the explosion. The depth charges exploded immediately afterward. His life was sacrificed in an attempt to save the ship and his shipmates, as the damage to the ship would have been much less if he had been able to release the depth charges.<ref name=ACMH>{{Cite web
|publisher = [[United States Army Center of Military History]]
|title = Medal of Honor recipients - World War I
|work = Medal of Honor citations
|date = April 15, 2005
|url = http://www.history.army.mil/html/moh/worldwari.html
|access-date = 2007-04-26
|archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120210082841/https://history.army.mil/html/moh/worldwari.html
|archive-date= 2012-02-10
}}</ref></blockquote>

==See also==
{{Portal|Biography|World War I}}
*[[List of Medal of Honor recipients]]
*[[List of Medal of Honor recipients for World War I]]

==References==
:{{DANFS}}
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
*{{Find a Grave|11216512|work=Claim to Fame: Medal of Honor recipients|date=June 21, 2005|accessdate=September 6, 2010}}
*{{Hall of Valor|2504|accessdate=September 6, 2010}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ingram, Osmond Kelly}}
[[Category:1887 births]]
[[Category:1917 deaths]]
[[Category:United States Navy Medal of Honor recipients]]
[[Category:United States Navy sailors]]
[[Category:American military personnel killed in World War I]]
[[Category:People from Blount County, Alabama]]
[[Category:World War I recipients of the Medal of Honor]]
[[Category:Military personnel from Alabama]]

Birmingham–Southern Panthers football

2023-08-05T02:55:25Z

ExtravagAunt: /* History */

{{Infobox NCAA football school
| TeamName = Birmingham–Southern Panthers football
| Image = BSC Panthers logo.png
| ImageSize = 200
| FirstYear = 1918
| AthleticDirector = [[Kyndall Waters]]
| HeadCoach = Vacant
| HeadCoachYear =
| HCWins =
| HCLosses =
| Stadium = [[Panther Stadium (Birmingham–Southern)|General Krulak Stadium]]
| Location = Birmingham, Alabama
| StadCapacity = 1,600
| StadSurface = Artificial Turf
| Conference = [[Southern Athletic Association]]
| WebsiteName = bscsports.net
| WebsiteURL = http://www.bscsports.net
| ATWins = 166
| ATLosses = 156
| ATTies = 16
| BowlWins =
| BowlLosses =
| BowlTies =
| NatlTitles =
| ConfTitles =1
| Heismans =
| AllAmericans =
| FightSong =
| MascotDisplay = Panthers
| MarchingBand =
| PagFreeLabel =
| PagFreeValue =
}}
The '''Birmingham–Southern Panthers football team''' represents [[Birmingham–Southern College]] (BSC) in the NCAA [[Division III (NCAA)|Division III]], competing as part of the [[Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference]]. BSC plays its home games at the 1,600 seat [[Panther Stadium (Birmingham-Southern)|Panther Stadium]], which is located on-campus in [[Birmingham, Alabama|Birmingham]], [[Alabama]] and opened in November 2008. Although only fielding a team since the 2007 season, Birmingham–Southern previously fielded a team from the [[1918 college football season|1918 season]] that was later disbanded following the [[1939 college football season|1939 season]].<ref name="BSCRecords">[http://www.bscsports.net/Pdfs/football/2006/7/13/BSC%20Football.pdf Birmingham–Southern College Football 1918–1939]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} "All-Time Results (Game-by-Game Results & Yearly Records)," Birmingham–Southern College, 2006. Accessed 2009-01-01</ref>

==History==
Prior to the consolidation of Southern University and Birmingham College, each fielded football squads. Between 1904 and 1917, Birmingham College compiled a 19–32–4 record, and between 1909 and 1916 Southern University compiled a 3–16–11 record.<ref name="BSCRecords2">[http://www.bsc.edu/communications/southern/summer07/features.pdf Are you ready for some football?] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100620124707/http://www.bsc.edu/communications/southern/summer07/features.pdf |date=2010-06-20 }} "Southern Magazine" Birmingham–Southern College, 2007. p. 29 Accessed 2009-01-01</ref> Following the consolidation of the schools as Birmingham–Southern, the program compiled an overall record of 87–80–16 between 1918–39, winning [[Dixie Conference]] championships in 1932, 1934, and 1937.<ref name="BSCRecords2"/>

During this period, the Panthers played their home games at the [[Munger Bowl]], which was located on-campus and subsequently demolished in the 1960s to make way for campus expansion.<ref name="Stadium">[https://www.ncaa.org/wps/ncaa?ContentID=40759 Birmingham–Southern opens new home for football team]{{Dead link|date=May 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} "NCAA News" NCAA, November 11, 2008. Accessed 2009-01-01</ref> Additionally, Howard College, now [[Samford University]], was BSC's biggest rival with the annual contest being called the Magic City Classic and played in [[Rickwood Field]] before serving as the opening contest at [[Legion Field]] in 1929.<ref name="BSCRecords2"/> Following the 1939 season, football was disbanded with the school citing its overall costs and influence on the school.<ref name="BSCRecords2"/>

On May 26, 2006, the board of trustees announced that Birmingham–Southern would field a [[Division III (NCAA)|Division III]] football team to begin competition for the 2007 season.<ref name="May 27, 2006">{{cite news| last =Perrin| first =Mike| title =BSC opts for Division III College also will restore football, last played in '39| work =The Birmingham News| date =May 27, 2006}}</ref> By the following June, [[Joey Jones (American football)|Joey Jones]] was announced as the program's head coach,<ref name="June 19, 2006">{{cite news| last =Perrin| first =Mike| title =Coach moves on to next challenge: Choice of Joey Jones was a case of perfect timing| work =The Birmingham News| date =June 19, 2006}}</ref> and on September 6, 2007, BSC played their first football game after a 68-year hiatus, as the Panthers defeated the [[Mississippi College]] junior varsity 41–13 at Legion Field.<ref name="September 7, 2007">{{cite news| last =Melick| first =Ray| title =BSC takes the field, at long last After nearly 70 years, college once again playing football| work =The Birmingham News| date =September 7, 2007}}</ref> After a 3–7 first season, Jones would leave BSC to become the first head coach at [[South Alabama Jaguars football|South Alabama]], and in February 2008 [[Eddie Garfinkle]] was announced as the Panthers' head coach.<ref name="February 21, 2008">{{cite news
| last =Perrin| first =Mike| title =Panthers name Garfinkle coach: Former walk-on relates to players| work =The Birmingham News| date =February 21, 2008}}</ref> On October 24, 2016, it was announced that Garfinkle would not return after the 2016 season.

==Playoffs==
===NCAA Division III===
The Panthers have made one appearance in the NCAA Division III football playoffs. Their combined record is 1–1.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
{{CollegePrimaryHeader|team=Birmingham–Southern Panthers|Year|Round|Opponent|Result}}
|- align="center"
| [[2021 Stagg Bowl|2021]]
| First Round Second Round
| [[Huntingdon Hawks|Huntingdon]] [[Mary Hardin-Baylor Crusaders football|Mary Hardin-Baylor]]
| '''W, 24–14''' L, 7–42
|}

==Seasons==
{{CFB Yearly Record Start | type = team | team = | conf = | bowl = | poll = no}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Subhead
| name = Birmingham–Southern Panthers
| startyear = 1918
| conf = Independent
| endyear = 1920
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1918 college football season|1918]]
| name = Baby Haynes
| overall = 1–1
| conference = Independent
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1919 college football season|1919]]
| name = Charles H. Brown
| overall = 4–3
| conference = Independent
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1920 college football season|1920]]
| name = Charles H. Brown
| overall = 6–2
| conference = Independent
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Subtotal
| name = Independent
| overall = 11–6
| confrecord =
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Subhead
| name = Birmingham–Southern Panthers
| conf = [[Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association]]
| startyear = 1921
| endyear = 1931
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1921 college football season|1921]]
| name = Charles H. Brown
| overall = 4–4–1
| conference = SIAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1922 college football season|1922]]
| name = Charles H. Brown
| overall = 1–6–1
| conference = SIAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1923 college football season|1923]]
| name = Charles H. Brown
| overall = 1–5–2
| conference = SIAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1924 college football season|1924]]
| name = Harold Drew
| overall = 4–4–1
| conference = SIAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1925 college football season|1925]]
| name = Harold Drew
| overall = 7–3–1
| conference = SIAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1926 college football season|1926]]
| name = Harold Drew
| overall = 5–3–2
| conference = SIAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1927 college football season|1927]]
| name = Harold Drew
| overall = 3–6
| conference = SIAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1928 college football season|1928]]
| name = Jenks Gillem
| overall = 3–2–4
| conference = SIAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1929 college football season|1929]]
| name = Jenks Gillem
| overall = 4–4
| conference = SIAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1930 college football season|1930]]
| name = Jenks Gillem
| overall = 5–4
| conference = SIAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1931 college football season|1931]]
| name = Jenks Gillem
| overall = 3–4
| conference = SIAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Subtotal
| name = SIAA
| overall = 40–45–12
| confrecord =
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Subhead
| name = Birmingham–Southern Panthers
| conf = [[Dixie Conference]]
| startyear = 1932
| endyear = 1939
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship = conference
| year = [[1932 college football season|1932]]
| name = Jenks Gillem
| overall = 5–3
| conference = Dixie
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1933 college football season|1933]]
| name = Jenks Gillem
| overall = 3–3–3
| conference = Dixie
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship = conference
| year = [[1934 college football season|1934]]
| name = Jenks Gillem
| overall = 9–0
| conference = Dixie
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1935 college football season|1935]]
| name = Jenks Gillem
| overall = 2–6
| conference = Dixie
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1936 college football season|1936]]
| name = Jenks Gillem
| overall = 4–5
| conference = Dixie
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship = conference
| year = [[1937 college football season|1937]]
| name = Jenks Gillem
| overall = 6–2
| conference = Dixie
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1938 college football season|1938]]
| name = Jenks Gillem
| overall = 4–5
| conference = Dixie
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = [[1939 college football season|1939]]
| name = Jenks Gillem
| overall = 3–5–1
| conference = Dixie
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Subtotal
| name = Dixie Conference
| overall = 36–29–4
| confrecord =
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Subhead
| name = Birmingham–Southern Panthers
| conf = Did not field a team
| startyear = 1940
| endyear = 2006
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Subhead
| name = Birmingham–Southern Panthers
| conf = [[Southern Collegiate Athletic Conference]]
| startyear = 2007
| endyear = 2011
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2007
| name = Joey Jones
| overall = 3–7
| conference = SCAC
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2008
| name = Eddie Garfinkle
| overall = 3–7
| conference = SCAC
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2009
| name = Eddie Garfinkle
| overall = 4–6
| conference = SCAC
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2010
| name = Eddie Garfinkle
| overall = 6–4
| conference = SCAC
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2011
| name = Eddie Garfinkle
| overall = 7–2
| conference = SCAC
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Subtotal
| name = SCAC
| overall = 23–26
| confrecord =
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Subhead
| name = Birmingham–Southern Panthers
| conf = [[Southern Athletic Association]]
| startyear = 2012
| endyear =
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship = conference
| year = 2012
| name = Eddie Garfinkle
| overall = 7–3
| conference = SAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2013
| name = Eddie Garfinkle
| overall = 5–4
| conference = SAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2014
| name = Eddie Garfinkle
| overall = 3–7
| conference = SAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2015
| name = Eddie Garfinkle
| overall = 5–5
| conference = SAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2016
| name = Eddie Garfinkle
| overall = 1–9
| conference = SAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2017
| name = Tony Joe White
| overall = 3-7
| conference = SAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2018
| name = Tony Joe White
| overall = 6-4
| conference = SAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2019
| name = Tony Joe White
| overall = 7-3
| conference = SAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2020
| name = Tony Joe White
| overall = 2-2
| conference = SAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship = conference
| year = 2021
| name = Tony Joe White
| overall = 10-2
| conference = SAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Entry
| championship =
| year = 2022
| name = Tony Joe White
| overall = 7-3
| conference = SAA
| confstanding =
| bowlname =
| bowloutcome =
| bcsbowl =
| ranking = no
| ranking2 = no
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record Subtotal
| name = SAA
| overall = 56–49
| confrecord =
}}
{{CFB Yearly Record End
| overall = 166–156–16
| bowls =
| poll =
| polltype =
}}<ref name="BSCRecords"/>

==Head coaches==
{| border="0" width="100%"
| valign="top" |
{| cellpadding="1" border="1" cellspacing="0" width="80%"
!bgcolor="#000000"| Tenure
!bgcolor="#000000"| Coach
!bgcolor="#000000"| Years
!bgcolor="#000000"| Record
!bgcolor="#000000"| Pct.
|- align="center"
| 1918 || [[Baby Haynes]] || 1 || 1–1–0 || {{Winning percentage|1|1}}
|- align="center"
| 1919–1923 || [[Charles H. Brown (American football)|Charles H. Brown]] || 5 || 16–20–4 || {{Winning percentage|16|20|4}}
|- align="center"
| 1924–1927 || [[Harold Drew]] || 4 || 19–16–4 || {{Winning percentage|19|16|4}}
|- align="center"
| 1928–1939 || [[Jenks Gillem]] || 12 || 51–43–8 || {{Winning percentage|51|43|8}}
|- align="center"
| 2007 || [[Joey Jones (American football)|Joey Jones]] || 1 || 3–7 || {{Winning percentage|3|7}}
|- align="center"
| 2008–2016 || [[Eddie Garfinkle]] || 9 || 41–46 || {{Winning percentage|41|46}}
|- align="center"
| 2017–present || [[Tony Joe White (American football)|Tony Joe White]] || 5 || 28–18 || {{Winning percentage|28|18}}
|- align="center"
!bgcolor="#000000"| Totals
!bgcolor="#000000"| 6 coaches
!bgcolor="#000000"| 28
!bgcolor="#000000"| 125–121–16
!bgcolor="#000000"| {{Winning percentage|138|128|16}}
|-
|}
|-
|}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{Birmingham–Southern Panthers football navbox}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Birmingham-Southern Panthers Football}}
[[Category:Birmingham–Southern Panthers football| ]]
[[Category:American football teams established in 1918]]
[[Category:1918 establishments in Alabama]]

Wolf-Heinrich Graf von Helldorff

2023-07-26T13:32:40Z

ExtravagAunt: /* Nazi career */verb tense, removed repetitive clause

{{Short description|German police official and politician, SA-Obergruppenführer}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}}
{{Infobox officeholder
| honorific_prefix =
| name = Wolf-Heinrich Graf von Helldorff
| image = Wolf Heinrich Graf von Helldorf.jpg
| caption = Wolf-Heinrich Graf von Helldorff
| birth_date = {{birth date|df=yes|1896|10|14}}
| birth_place = [[Merseburg]], [[Province of Saxony]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]], [[German Empire]]
| residence =
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1944|8|15|1896|10|14}}
| death_place = [[Plötzensee Prison]], [[Berlin]], [[Nazi Germany]] {{Infobox criminal | child = yes | death_cause= [[Execution by hanging]]}}
| office = [[Ordnungspolizei|Berlin Police Chief]]
| term_start = 19 July 1935
| term_end = 24 July 1944
| predecessor = [[Magnus von Levetzow]]
| successor = [[Kurt Göhrum]]
| office2 = [[Potsdam]] Police President
| term_start2 = 25 March 1933
| term_end2 = 18 July 1935
| predecessor2 =
| successor2 = [[Wilhelm Ernst Graf von Wedel]]
| office3 = Member of the [[Reichstag (Nazi Germany)|Reichstag]]
| term_start3 = 12 November 1933
| term_end3 = 10 August 1944
| constituency3 =
| office4 =
| term_start4 =
| term_end4 =
| constituency4 =
| party = [[National Socialist Freedom Movement|NSFB]] (1924–1925) [[NSDAP]] (1925–1944)
| religion =
| occupation =
| majority =
| spouse =
| children = 
| allegiance = {{flag|German Empire}}
| branch = {{army|German Empire}}
| serviceyears = 1914–1919
| rank = [[Leutnant]]
| unit = Hussar Regiment 12
| commands =
| battles = [[World War I]]
| mawards = [[Iron Cross]], first and second class
| footnotes =
}}

'''Wolf-Heinrich Julius Otto Bernhard Fritz Hermann Ferdinand Graf von Helldorff''' (14 October 1896 – 15 August 1944) was an SA-''[[Obergruppenführer]]'', [[German police]] official and politician. He served as a member of the [[Landtag of Prussia]] during the [[Weimar Republic]], as a member of the ''[[Reichstag (Nazi Germany)|Reichstag]]'' for the [[Nazi Party]] from 1933, and as ''[[Ordnungspolizei]]'' Police President in [[Potsdam]] and in [[Berlin]]. From 1938 he became involved with the [[German resistance to Nazism|anti-Nazi resistance]], and was executed in 1944 for his role in the [[20th July plot]] to overthrow [[Adolf Hitler]]'s regime.

==Early life==
Helldorff was born in [[Merseburg]]. A noble landowner's son, Helldorff was educated by private tutors in his youth, and then graduated from the [[gymnasium (Germany)|gymnasium]] in [[Wernigerode]] in 1914. He volunteered for military service with the 12th Thuringian [[Hussars]] headquartered in [[Torgau]]. He served on both the [[Western Front (World War I)|western front]] and the [[Eastern front (World War I)|eastern front]] in the [[First World War]], attaining the rank of ''[[Leutnant]]'' and earning the [[Iron Cross]] first and second class. After the war, he was a member of the right-wing ''[[Freikorps]]'', seeing service with both the ''Freikorps'' Lutzow and Roßbach in 1919 and 1920. From 1920 to 1924 he was a member of the nationalist paramilitary organisation ''[[Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten|Stahlhelm]]''.{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| pp=535-536}}

He became a member of the [[National Socialist Freedom Movement]] (NSFB) in 1924, which served as a legal front for the [[National Socialist German Workers' Party]] (NSDAP), which had been banned after the [[Beer Hall Putsch]], and he also joined its paramilitary force, the ''[[Frontbann]]''. He was elected to the [[Landtag of Prussia]] in 1924 on the NSFB list, representing constituency 11 (''[[Regierungsbezirk]]'' Merseburg) until 1928.{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=536}}

==Nazi career==
Helldorf formally joined the [[Nazi Party]] on 1 August 1930 (membership number 325,408) and in January 1931 he joined the ''[[Sturmabteilung]]'' (SA). By July he became the leader of SA-''Gruppe'' Greater Berlin with the rank of SA-''[[Oberführer]]'' and, later that year, for all of [[province of Brandenburg|Brandenburg]]. The scope of his work expanded when he was also given responsibility for the leadership of the ''[[Schutzstaffel]]'' (SS) in Brandenburg. On Sep 12, 1931, von Helldorff organized<ref name=ushmm-1931/><ref>Dimitrov, G. (1934). The Reichstag Fire Trial: The Second Brown Book of the Hitler Terror. United Kingdom: Bodley. [https://books.google.com/books?id=aNk1AAAAIAAJ&q=riot p.214].</ref><ref>{{Cite news |last=TIMES |first=Special Cable to THE NEW YORK |date=1931-11-08 |title='NAZI' STORM LEADERS SENTENCED FOR RIOTS; Hitler's Legal Aide Defends Men Charged With Attacks on Jews, Denying Participation. |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1931/11/08/archives/nazi-storm-leaders-sentenced-for-riots-hitlers-legal-aide-defends.html |access-date=2022-12-30 |issn=0362-4331}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book |last=Loberg |first=Molly |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8VBSDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA263 |title=The Struggle for the Streets of Berlin: Politics, Consumption, and Urban Space, 1914–1945 |date=2018-03-29 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |page=263|isbn=978-1-108-28486-8 |language=en}}<blockquote>Officers hesitated to make arrests on Kurfürstendamm in 1935 because they had a new boss: Wolf-Heinrich von Helldorf. In his prior role as leader of the Berlin SA, Helldorf had instigated in September 1931 the very same kind of street violence that took place on Kurfürstendamm in July 1935. In 1931, he had faced criminal charges for his actions.</blockquote>
</ref> a riot at [[Kurfürstendamm]], where about a thousand men appeared from within the crowd on the streets and started attacking people who they thought were Jewish, beating them and screaming [[Antisemitism|anti-Jewish]] threats at them.<ref name=ushmm-1931>{{Cite web |title=The Rioter {{!}} 12 Years That Shook the World Podcast |url=https://www.ushmm.org/learn/podcasts-and-audio/12-years-that-shook-the-world/the-rioter |access-date=2022-12-29 |website=www.ushmm.org |language=en}}<blockquote>It’s Saturday night, September 12, 1931. Today is Rosh Hashanah— the Jewish New Year. In Berlin, people are out walking and socializing with friends on restaurant patios. Many have flocked to a popular boulevard they call Ku'damm, short for Kurfürstendamm. And just around the corner, Helldorff is ready to riot. He climbs into his open car, and starts driving down Ku’damm boulevard. Suddenly, his men — more rioters— appear out of nowhere...
Dr. Lindsay MacNeill:
About a thousand men basically appear from within the crowd on the streets and start attacking people.
Erin Harper:
That’s Dr. Lindsay MacNeill, a historian at the Museum.
Dr. Lindsay MacNeill:
They grab people who they think are Jewish. They scream at them and then they beat them. They scream things like “Germany awaken,” “Jews die.” So this is really violent and terrifying.</blockquote></ref>

In April 1932 Helldorff was returned to the Prussian Landtag as a member of the Nazi Party, this time representing constituency 3 (Potsdam II). In September 1932 he was promoted to SA-''[[Gruppenführer]]'' and made leader of SA-''Obergruppe'' I, commanding multiple SA ''Gruppe'' covering all northeast Germany.{{sfn|Miller|Schulz|2015|pp=536; 540}}

After the [[Nazi seizure of power]], Helldorff was made Police President of [[Potsdam]] on 25 March 1933. In November 1933, he was also elected to the ''[[Reichstag (Nazi Germany)|Reichstag]]''. He remained in Potsdam until being named Police President of Berlin on 19 July 1935. In December 1935, he was made a member of the Prussian Provincial Council (''Provinzialrat'').{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=541}}

In his new post, Helldorff was closely allied with [[Joseph Goebbels]], ''[[Gauleiter]]'' of Berlin and [[Reich Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda|Reich Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda]]. As chief of the Berlin police, Helldorff played an instrumental role in the harassment and plundering of Berlin's Jewish population in the early and the mid-1930s. In his diary entry of 19 June 1936, Goebbels commented: "Helldorff is now proceeding radically on the Jewish question ... many arrests ... We will free Berlin of Jews."{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=541}} Goebbels noted on 2 July 1938, that "Helldorff wants to construct a [[Jewish ghettos in Europe|Jewish ghetto]] in Berlin. The rich Jews will be required to fund its construction." Helldorff was the organizational brains behind the arson and looting of Berlin's synagogues and Jewish businesses in the ''[[November pogroms]]'' 1938.<ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7jE_8Uq7Go4C&q=helldorf+berlin+ghetto&pg=PA135 | title=Hitler: 1936-1945 Nemesis | access-date=22 February 2013 | author=Kershaw, Ian | year=2000 | page=135| isbn=9780393049947 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z6kxdwPow8sC&q=helldorf+berlin+ghetto&pg=PA134 | title=1938 : Hitler's Gamble | isbn=9780465022052 | access-date=22 February 2013| last1=MacDonogh | first1=Giles | date=10 May 2011 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | title=Die Tagebücher von Joseph Goebbels, Teil I Aufzeichnungen 1923-1941 | author=Fröhlich,Elke | quote=Helldorff (Polizeipräsident) will in Berlin ein Judenghetto errichten. Das sollen die reichen Juden selbst bezahlen. Das ist richtig. Ich unterstütze ihn dabei." (Fröhlich, I.3, S. 470)}}</ref> On 8 November 1938, the day that ''November pogroms'' began, he was quoted in ''[[The New York Times]]'' as saying: "as a result of a police activity in the last few weeks the entire Jewish population of Berlin had been disarmed".<ref>{{cite web|last=Tolischuswireless |first=Otto D. |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1938/11/09/archives/nazis-ask-reprisal-in-attack-on-envoy-press-links-shooting-in-paris.html?sq=Helldorf&scp=2&st=p |title=NAZIS ASK REPRISAL IN ATTACK ON ENVOY - Press Links Shooting in Paris to 'World Conspiracy' and Warns Jews of Retaliation MASS EXPULSIONS FEARED Berlin Police Head Announces 'Disarming' of Jews-Victim of Shots in Critical State New Fear Aroused Round-up in Vienna Diplomat's Condition Critical - Article - NYTimes.com |publisher=Select.nytimes.com |date=1938-11-09 |access-date=2013-04-22}}</ref>
On 9 November 1938, Helldorff was promoted to SA-''[[Obergruppenführer]]''. Though never officially a member of the SS, owing to his position as a Police President, he was authorized to wear the uniform of a ''General der Polizei'', (a rank equivalent to an ''Obergruppenführer'' in the SS.){{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=535}} Helldorff was additionally named as the Higher Police Leader of Greater Berlin in 1943.{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=547}} In this position, he commanded police who guarded deportation trains carrying German Jews.<ref>{{Cite web |title=The Rioter {{!}} 12 Years That Shook the World Podcast |url=https://www.ushmm.org/learn/podcasts-and-audio/12-years-that-shook-the-world/the-rioter |access-date=2023-03-22 |website=www.ushmm.org |language=en}}</ref>

==20 July plot==
{{main|20 July plot}}
It is asserted that Helldorff was in some form of communication with the military opposition to Hitler as early as 1938.<ref>Ted Harrison: ''"Alter Kämpfer" im Widerstand. Graf Helldorff, die NS-Bewegung und die Opposition gegen Hitler''. ''[[Vierteljahrshefte für Zeitgeschichte]]'' [http://www.ifz-muenchen.de/heftarchiv/1997_3.pdf 45(1997)] (PDF, 6,5 MB), p. 385-423.</ref> Goebbels certainly ensured that Helldorf took the blame for the November pogroms by declaring "the police act with an appearance of legality, the party provides spectators". The police took orders not to arrest or to treat too harshly rioters who beat up Jews.<ref>T.Thacker, ''Goebbels: Life and Death'', London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009</ref>

In contrast, [[Hans Gisevius]]'s book ''To the Bitter End'' described as Helldorff playing an important role in a circle of conspirators and anti-Nazis. On 20 July 1944, he was in communication with the coup d'état plotters attempting to assassinate the Führer. His planned role would be to keep the police from interfering with the military takeover and then to aid the new government.<ref>H. Gisevius, Part Two, section 3, "Too Late – 20 July 1944"</ref>

==Trial and execution==
For his involvement in the 20 July plot to assassinate Hitler at the [[Wolf's Lair]] in [[East Prussia]], Helldorff was arrested on 24 July and, under interrogation by the [[Gestapo]], confessed his role in the plot. Expelled from the Party on 8 August and from the ''Reichstag'' two days later, he was put on trial and condemned by [[Roland Freisler]] at the [[People's Court (Germany)|People's Court]] on 15 August. He was put to death at [[Plötzensee Prison]] that same day.{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=548}} So enraged was Hitler at Helldorff's participation in the plot that he insisted Helldorff be forced to watch his fellow conspirators being hanged before his own execution.<ref>{{cite book | title=Goebbels, Joseph: Die Tagebücher, Teil 2, Bd. 13, S. 245 | author=Fröhlich,Elke}}</ref>

==Personal indebtedness==
Helldorff was friends with the stage magician and psychic [[Erik Jan Hanussen]], who constantly lent him money for his debts. "The [[count]] was always in debt, and his private life was a wreck. He was separated from his wife and was on bad terms with his mother after welching on his promise to pay her rent. Sometimes he was behind in his own rent. On one occasion he 'forgot' to pay for a new [[Mercedes-Benz|Mercedes]]. And he was always late paying his personal tailor and the trainer he hired for his racehorse. There were other debts as well, all from a gambling habit Helldorff couldn't shake. Luckily, he could always count on a handout from Hanussen. All he had to do was sign an [[IOU]], which Hanussen would add to his growing pile of chits he kept safe in his apartment".<ref>Magida, Arthur J. 2011. The Nazi Seance: The Strange Story of the Jewish Psychic in Hitler's Circle. Palgrave Macmillan Books, pp. 3-4.</ref>

==Career summary==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* 2 August 1914 – Spring 1918: Service on Western and Eastern Fronts{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=535}}
* 1919: Service with [[Freikorps]] Lützow, involved in fighting against communist uprisings in Brunswick, Jena and Munich{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=535}}
* 1919–1920: Leader of ''Offiziers-Stoßtrupp'' in ''Freikorps Roßbach'', which participated in the [[Kapp Putsch]] of 13 March 1920{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=535}}
* 1919–1924: Member of ''[[Der Stahlhelm, Bund der Frontsoldaten|Der Stahlhelm]]''{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=536}}
* August 1924: Joined the ''[[Frontbann]]''{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=536}}
* 7 December 1924 – 3 March 1928: Member of the [[Landtag of Prussia]].{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=536}}
* 1 May 1925 – 22 September 1925: Commander of the ''Frontbann''{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=536}}
* 1 August 1930: Joined the [[NSDAP]], member number 325,408{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=536}}
* January 1931: Joined the ''[[Sturmabteilung]]'' (SA){{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=536}}
* 24 7 April 1932 – 14 October 1933: Member of the Landtag of Prussia.{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=540}}
* 25 March 1933 – 18 July 1935: Police President in Potsdam{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=541}}
* 2 November 1933 – 10 August 1944: Member of the ''[[Reichstag (Nazi Germany)|Reichstag]]''{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=541}}
* 19 July 1935 – 24 July 1944: Police President in Berlin{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=541}}
{{div end}}

==Awards and decorations==
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* 1939 Clasp to the [[Iron Cross]] 2nd Class and 1st Class{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=550}}
* 1914 [[Iron Cross]] 2nd Class and 1st Class{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=550}}
* [[Honour Chevron for the Old Guard]], 1934{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=550}}
* [[The Honour Cross of the World War 1914/1918]] with Swords, 1934{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=550}}
* [[Golden Party Badge]], 1938{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=550}}
* [[War Merit Cross]] 2nd Class with Swords and 1st Class with Swords{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=550}}
* [[Nazi Party Long Service Award]] in bronze and silver{{sfn| Miller| Schulz| 2015| p=550}}
{{div end}}

==Notes==

{{reflist}}

==References==
* {{cite book | last1 = Miller | first1 = Michael | last2 = Schulz| first2 = Andreas | title = Leaders of the Storm Troops Volume 1 | publisher = Helion & Company | location = England| year = 2015 | isbn = 978-1-909982-87-1 }}

==Further reading==
* Gisevius, Hans Bernd, ''To the Bitter End'', Translated from German by [[Richard and Clara Winston]], [[Houghton Mifflin]], Boston, 1947 Reprinted 2009.

==External links==
* {{ReichstagDB|119528789}}
* {{PM20|FID=pe/007507}}

{{Authority control}}

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