{{short description|Immigration patterns of different races of people of India}}
{{See also|Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2020}}
{{Use Indian English|date=March 2017}}
[[File:Spreading homo sapiens la.svg|thumb|upright=1.5|Successive dispersals of {{color box|#e8e22c}} ''[[Homo erectus]]'' (yellow), {{color box|#e4ca30}} ''[[Homo neanderthalensis]]'' (ochre) and {{color box|#e9252c}} ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' (red).]]
The '''peopling of India''' refers to the migration of ''[[Homo sapiens]]'' into the Indian subcontinent. [[Homo sapiens#Anatomical modernity|Anatomically modern humans]] settled India in multiple waves of [[Early human migrations|early migrations]], over tens of millennia.<ref>{{cite web |url= https://www.openthemagazine.com/article/books/migrant-nation |title=Migrant Nation }}</ref> The first migrants came with the Southern Coastal dispersal, ca. 65,000 years ago, whereafter complex migrations within south and southeast Asia took place. West Eurasian hunter-gatherers migrated to South Asia after the latest Ice Age, but before the onset of farming. Together with a minor number of ancient South Asian hunter-gatherers they formed the population of the Indus Valley Civilisation.

With the decline of the IVC, and the migration of [[Indo-European migrations|Indo-Europeans]], the IVC-people contributed to the formation of Ancestral North Indians ("ANI"), who were closely related to west Eurasians, and Ancestral South Asians ("ASI"), who were mainly descended from the ancient South Asian hunter-gatherers ("Ancient Ancestral South Asians" or "AASI"), who were distantly related to the [[Andamanese]]. These two ancestral populations mixed, while the migrations of the Munda people and the Tibeto-Burmese speaking people from [[East Asia]] also added new elements.

==First modern human settlers==
{{main|Recent African origin of modern humans}}
{{See also|Paleolithic|Paleolithic revolution}}

===Pre- or post-Toba===
The dating of the earliest successful migration modern humans out of Africa is a matter of dispute.{{sfn|Appenzeller|2012}} It may have pre- or post-dated the [[Toba catastrophe theory|Toba catastrophe]], a volcanic [[Supervolcano|super eruption]] that took place between 69,000 and 77,000 years ago at the site of present-day [[Lake Toba]]. According to Michael Petraglia, stone tools discovered below the layers of ash deposits in India at [[Jwalapuram]], Andhra Pradesh point to a pre-Toba dispersal. The population who created these tools is not known with certainty as no human remains were found.{{sfn|Appenzeller|2012}} An indication for post-Toba is [[Haplogroup L3 (mtDNA)|haplogroup L3]], that originated before the dispersal of humans out of Africa, and can be dated to 60,000–70,000 years ago, "suggesting that humanity left Africa a few thousand years after Toba."{{sfn|Appenzeller|2012}}

====Impact====
It has been hypothesized that the [[Toba catastrophe theory|Toba supereruption]] about 74,000 years ago destroyed much of India's central forests, covering it with a layer of volcanic ash, and may have brought humans worldwide to a state of near-extinction by suddenly plunging the planet into an ice-age that could have lasted for up to 1,800 years.<ref name="sciencedaily2009hds">{{cite journal | title=Supervolcano Eruption – In Sumatra – Deforested India 73,000 Years Ago | date=24 November 2009 | access-date=1 March 2011 | journal=ScienceDaily | url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/11/091123142739.htm | quote=''... new study provides "incontrovertible evidence" that the volcanic super-eruption of Toba on the island of Sumatra about 73,000 years ago deforested much of central India, some 3,000 miles from the epicenter ... initiating an "Instant Ice Age" that – according to evidence in ice cores taken in Greenland – lasted about 1,800 years ...''}}</ref> If true, this may "explain the apparent [[population bottleneck|bottleneck in human populations]] that geneticists believe occurred between 50,000 and 100,000 years ago" and the relative "lack of genetic diversity among humans alive today."<ref name="sciencedaily2009hds"/>

Since the Toba event is believed to have had such a harsh impact and "specifically blanketed the Indian subcontinent in a deep layer of ash," it was "difficult to see how India's first colonists could have survived this greatest of all disasters."<ref name="ref59movel">{{cite book | title=Out of Eden: the peopling of the world | first = Stephen | last = Oppenheimer Chaudhuri | publisher=Robinson | date = 2004 | isbn=978-1-84119-894-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H_zwAAAAMAAJ | quote=''... The Toba event specifically blanketed the Indian subcontinent in a deep layer of ash. It is difficult to see how India's first colonists could have survived this greatest of all disasters. So, we could predict a broad human extinction ...'' }}</ref> Therefore, it was believed that all humans previously present in India went extinct during, or shortly after, this event and these first Indians left "no trace of their DNA in present-day humans" – a theory seemingly backed by genetic studies.<ref name="ref67curug">{{cite book | title=The evolution and history of human populations in South Asia: Inter-disciplinary Studies in Archaeology, Biological Anthropology, Linguistics and Genetics | first1 = Michael D. | last1 = Petraglia | first2 = Bridget | last2 = Allchin | name-list-format = vanc | publisher=Springer, 2007 | isbn=978-1-4020-5561-4 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Qm9GfjNlnRwC | quote=... had H. sapiens colonized India before the eruption? The majority of genetic evidence seems to suggest that the initial colonization of India took place soon after the Toba event. It should be noted, however, that on the basis of this evidence, the hypothesis that modern human populations inhabited India before ~74ka and underwent extinction as a result of Toba cannot be ruled out. If population extinction occurred, there would be no trace of their DNA in present-day humans ...|date=22 May 2007 }}</ref>

====Pre-Toba tools====
Research published in 2009 by a team led by Michael Petraglia of the [[University of Oxford]] suggested that some humans may have survived the hypothesized catastrophe on the Indian mainland. Undertaking "[[Pompeii]]-like excavations" under the layer of Toba ash, the team discovered tools and human habitations from both before and after the eruption.<ref name="oxford2009jhs">{{cite web | title=New evidence shows populations survived the Toba super-eruption 74,000 years ago | publisher=University of Oxford | date=22 February 2009 | access-date=1 March 2011 | url=http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_releases_for_journalists/100222_1.html | quote=... Newly discovered archaeological sites in southern and northern India have revealed how people lived before and after the colossal Toba volcanic eruption 74,000 years ago. The international, multidisciplinary research team, led by Oxford University in collaboration with Indian institutions, has uncovered what it calls ‘Pompeii-like excavations’ beneath the Toba ash ... suggests that human populations were present in India prior to 74,000 years ago, or about 15,000 years earlier than expected based on some genetic clocks,’ said project director Dr Michael Petraglia ... | url-status=dead | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101230210026/http://www.ox.ac.uk/media/news_releases_for_journalists/100222_1.html | archive-date=30 December 2010 | df=dmy-all }}</ref> However, human fossils have not been found from this period, and nothing is known of the ethnicity of these early humans in India.<ref name="oxford2009jhs"/> Recent research also by Macauly et al. (2005){{sfn|Macauly|2005}}<ref name="Bradshaw-migration" /> and Posth et al. (2016),{{sfn|Posth|Renaud|Mittnik|Drucker|2016}} also argue for a post-Toba dispersal.<ref name="Bradshaw-migration">[http://www.bradshawfoundation.com/science-magazine.php Bradshaw Foundation, ''Human Migration'']</ref>
Early [[South Asian Stone Age|Stone Age]] hominin fossils have been found in the Narmada valley of Madhya Pradesh. Some have been dated to 200- 700,000 BP. It is uncertain what species they represent.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Kennedy KA, Sonakia A, Chiment J, Verma KK | title = Is the Narmada hominid an Indian Homo erectus? | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 86 | issue = 4 | pages = 475–96 | date = December 1991 | pmid = 1776655 | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.1330860404 }}</ref>

====Post-Toba Southern Coastal dispersal====
{{see|Southern Dispersal|Proto-Australoid}}
{{multiple image|caption_align=center|header_align=center
| align = right
| direction = vertical
| width = 200
| header = Migrations routes according to the [[Coastal Migration]] Model
| image1 = Peopling of eurasia.jpg
| alt1 =
| caption1 = Note the route of the mtDNA [[Haplogroup M (mtDNA)|Haplogroup M]] through the [[Indian subcontinent]], to [[Andaman Islands]] and [[Southeast Asia]].
| image2 = C=M130-Migration.jpg
| alt2 =
| caption2 = Note the route of the Y-DNA [[Haplogroup C-M130|Haplogroup C]] through the [[Indian subcontinent]] to [[Australia]].
| image3 = Haplogroup F (Y-DNA).PNG
| alt3 =
| caption3 = Y-DNA [[Haplogroup F (Y-DNA)|Haplogroup F]] and it's descendants.
}}
By some 70-50,000 years ago,<ref name="Hirst">{{cite web | url = http://archaeology.about.com/od/sterms/qt/southern_disper.htm | first = K. Kris | last = Hirst | name-list-format = vanc | title = Southern Dispersal Route – Early Modern Humans Leave Africa | work = About.com }}</ref>{{sfn|Posth|Renaud|Mittnik|Drucker|2016}}<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Karmin M, Saag L, Vicente M, Wilson Sayres MA, Järve M, Talas UG, Rootsi S, Ilumäe AM, Mägi R, Mitt M, Pagani L, Puurand T, Faltyskova Z, Clemente F, Cardona A, Metspalu E, Sahakyan H, Yunusbayev B, Hudjashov G, DeGiorgio M, Loogväli EL, Eichstaedt C, Eelmets M, Chaubey G, Tambets K, Litvinov S, Mormina M, Xue Y, Ayub Q, Zoraqi G, Korneliussen TS, Akhatova F, Lachance J, Tishkoff S, Momynaliev K, Ricaut FX, Kusuma P, Razafindrazaka H, Pierron D, Cox MP, Sultana GN, Willerslev R, Muller C, Westaway M, Lambert D, Skaro V, Kovačevic L, Turdikulova S, Dalimova D, Khusainova R, Trofimova N, Akhmetova V, Khidiyatova I, Lichman DV, Isakova J, Pocheshkhova E, Sabitov Z, Barashkov NA, Nymadawa P, Mihailov E, Seng JW, Evseeva I, Migliano AB, Abdullah S, Andriadze G, Primorac D, Atramentova L, Utevska O, Yepiskoposyan L, Marjanovic D, Kushniarevich A, Behar DM, Gilissen C, Vissers L, Veltman JA, Balanovska E, Derenko M, Malyarchuk B, Metspalu A, Fedorova S, Eriksson A, Manica A, Mendez FL, Karafet TM, Veeramah KR, Bradman N, Hammer MF, Osipova LP, Balanovsky O, Khusnutdinova EK, Johnsen K, Remm M, Thomas MG, Tyler-Smith C, Underhill PA, Willerslev E, Nielsen R, Metspalu M, Villems R, Kivisild T | display-authors = 6 | title = A recent bottleneck of Y chromosome diversity coincides with a global change in culture | journal = Genome Research | volume = 25 | issue = 4 | pages = 459–66 | date = April 2015 | pmid = 25770088 | pmc = 4381518 | doi = 10.1101/gr.186684.114 }}</ref><ref name="ReferenceC">{{cite journal | vauthors = Haber M, Jones AL, Connell BA, Arciero E, Yang H, Thomas MG, Xue Y, Tyler-Smith C | display-authors = 6 | title = A Rare Deep-Rooting D0 African Y-Chromosomal Haplogroup and Its Implications for the Expansion of Modern Humans Out of Africa | journal = Genetics | volume = 212 | issue = 4 | pages = 1421–1428 | date = August 2019 | pmid = 31196864 | pmc = 6707464 | doi = 10.1534/genetics.119.302368 }}</ref> only a small group, possibly as few as 150 to 1,000 people, crossed the Red Sea.<ref>{{cite web |year=2008 |first=Gary |last=Stix | name-list-format = vanc |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=the-migration-history-of-humans|title=The Migration History of Humans: DNA Study Traces Human Origins Across the Continents|access-date=14 June 2011}}</ref> The group that crossed the Red Sea travelled along the coastal route around the coast of [[Arabia]] and [[Persia]] until reaching India, which appears to be the first major settling point.<ref name="pmid15339343">{{cite journal | vauthors = Metspalu M, Kivisild T, Metspalu E, Parik J, Hudjashov G, Kaldma K, Serk P, Karmin M, Behar DM, Gilbert MT, Endicott P, Mastana S, Papiha SS, Skorecki K, Torroni A, Villems R | display-authors = 6 | title = Most of the extant mtDNA boundaries in south and southwest Asia were likely shaped during the initial settlement of Eurasia by anatomically modern humans | journal = BMC Genetics | volume = 5 | issue = | pages = 26 | date = August 2004 | pmid = 15339343 | pmc = 516768 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2156-5-26 | ref = harv }}</ref> Geneticist [[Spencer Wells]] says that the early travellers followed the southern coastline of Asia, crossed about {{convert|250|km|0|abbr=out}} of sea, and colonized Australia by around 50,000 years ago. The [[Australian Aborigines|Aborigines of Australia]], Wells says, are the descendants of the first wave of migrations.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/7358868.stm |title= Human line 'nearly split in two' |publisher= BBC News |date= 24 April 2008 | access-date=31 December 2009 | first=Paul | last=Rincon | name-list-format = vanc }}</ref>

The oldest definitively identified Homo sapiens fossils yet found in South Asia are [[Balangoda Man|Balangoda man]]. Named for the location in Sri Lanka where they were discovered, they are at least 28,000 years old.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Deraniyagala|first=Siran U.| name-list-format = vanc |date=1 June 1989|title=Fossil Remains of 28,000-Year-Old Hominids from Sri Lanka|journal=Current Anthropology|volume=30|issue=3|pages=394–399|doi=10.1086/203757|issn=0011-3204}}</ref>

===AASI===
Narashimhan et al. (2018)
introduced the term AASI for these oldest human habitants, "Ancient Ancestral South Indian,"{{refn|group=note|ASI was synonyms to AASI before 2018.{{sfn|Narasimhan|2019}}}} which were related to the East Asian, Onge and Aboriginal Australian ancestors. It is deeply related to Andaman islanders.{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009|p=40}}<ref name=":1">{{cite journal | vauthors = Moorjani P, Thangaraj K, Patterson N, Lipson M, Loh PR, Govindaraj P, Berger B, Reich D, Singh L | display-authors = 6 | title = Genetic evidence for recent population mixture in India | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 93 | issue = 3 | pages = 422–38 | date = September 2013 | pmid = 23932107 | pmc = 3769933 | doi = 10.1016/j.ajhg.2013.07.006 }}</ref>{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}}{{sfn|Narasimhan|2019|p=9}} According to Narashimhan et al. (2019), "essentially all the ancestry of present-day eastern and southern Asians (prior to West Eurasian-related admixture in southern Asians) derives from a single eastward spread, which gave rise in a short span of time to the lineages leading to AASI, East Asians, Onge, and Australians."{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018}}

====Relation to Andaman Islanders====
{{see also|Andaman Islands|Andamanese people|Sentinelese people|Sentinelese language}}

Several genetic studies have found evidence of a distant common ancestry between native Andaman Islanders and the AASI/ASI ancestral component found in South Asians.{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009|p=40}} Modern South Asians have not been found to carry the paternal lineages common in the Andamanese, which has been suggested to indicate that certain paternal lineages may have become extinct in India, or that they may be very rare and have not yet been sampled.<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Endicott P, Gilbert MT, Stringer C, Lalueza-Fox C, Willerslev E, Hansen AJ, Cooper A | title = The genetic origins of the Andaman Islanders | language = English | journal = American Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 72 | issue = 1 | pages = 178–84 | date = January 2003 | pmid = 12478481 | pmc = 378623 | doi = 10.1086/345487 }}</ref> Chaubey and Endicott (2013) further noted that "Overall, the Andamanese are more closely related to Southeast Asians than they are to present-day South Asians (as well as being closer to Southeast Asian Negritos and Melanesians)."<ref name="Chabey-Endicott2103">{{cite journal | vauthors = Chaubey G, Endicott P | title = The Andaman Islanders in a regional genetic context: reexamining the evidence for an early peopling of the archipelago from South Asia | journal = Human Biology | volume = 85 | issue = 1–3 | pages = 153–72 | year = 2013 | pmid = 24297224 | doi = 10.3378/027.085.0307 | url = https://digitalcommons.wayne.edu/humbiol/vol85/iss1/7 }}</ref>{{refn|group=note|Chaubey and Endicott (2013):<ref name="Chabey-Endicott2103" /> * "these estimates suggest that the Andamans were settled less than ~26 ka and that differentiation between the ancestors of the Onge and [[Great Andamanese]] commenced in the Terminal Pleistocene." (p.167) * "In conclusion, we find no support for the settlement of the Andaman Islands by a population descending from the initial out-of-Africa migration of humans, or their immediate descendants in South Asia. It is clear that, overall, the Onge are more closely related to Southeast Asians than they are to present-day South Asians." (p.167)}}

Shinde et al. 2019 found either Andamanese or East Siberian hunter-gatherers fit as proxy for AASI "due to shared ancestry deeply in time."{{sfn|Shinde|2019}} According to Yelmen et al. (2019) the native South Asian genetic component (ASI) is distinct from the Andamanese and not closely related, and that the Andamanese are thus an imperfect and imprecise proxy for ASI. According to Yelmen et al, the Andamanese component (represented by the Andamanese Onge) was not detected in the northern Indian [[Gujarati people|Gujarati]], and thus it is suggested that the South Indian tribal [[Paniya]] people (who are believed to be of largely ASI ancestry) would serve as a better proxy than the Andamanese (Onge) for the "native South Asian" component in modern South Asians.<ref>{{Cite journal|last=Yelmen|first=Burak|last2=Mondal|first2=Mayukh|last3=Marnetto|first3=Davide|last4=Pathak|first4=Ajai K.|last5=Montinaro|first5=Francesco|last6=Gallego Romero|first6=Irene|last7=Kivisild|first7=Toomas|last8=Metspalu|first8=Mait|last9=Pagani|first9=Luca|date=1 August 2019|title=Ancestry-Specific Analyses Reveal Differential Demographic Histories and Opposite Selective Pressures in Modern South Asian Populations|journal=Molecular Biology and Evolution|language=en|volume=36|issue=8|pages=1628–1642|doi=10.1093/molbev/msz037|pmid=30952160|pmc=6657728|issn=0737-4038}}</ref> According to Narashimhan et al. (2019), the "AASI" component in South Asians shares a common root with the Andamanese (as exemplified by the Onge as proxy) and is distantly related to the Onge (Andamanese), East Asians, and Aboriginal Australians (with those groups and the AASI sharing a deep ancestral split around the same time).{{sfn|Narasimhan|2019|p=9}}

====Relation to "Negritos"====
{{see also|Negrito|Andaman Islands|Andamanese people}}

The present-day Andamese are considered to be part of the "Negritos," several diverse ethnic groups who inhabit isolated parts of [[Austronesia]].<ref>Snow, Philip. ''The Star Raft: China's Encounter With Africa.'' Cornell Univ. Press, 1989 ({{ISBN|0801495830}})</ref> Based on their physical similarities, Negritos were once considered a single population of related people, but the appropriateness of using the label 'Negrito' to bundle together peoples of different [[ethnicity]] based on similarities in stature and complexion has been challenged.<ref name=Manickham-2009>{{cite book|last=Manickham|first=Sandra Khor|editor=Hägerdal, Hans|title=Responding to the West: Essays on Colonial Domination and Asian Agency|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Onr3-thtL2MC&pg=PA69|year=2009|publisher=Amsterdam University Press|isbn=978-90-8964-093-2|pages=69–79|chapter=Africans in Asia: The Discourse of 'Negritos' in Early Nineteenth-century Southeast Asia}}</ref> Recent research suggests that the Negritos include several separate groups, as well as demonstrating that they are not closely related to the Pygmies of Africa.<ref>S. Noerwidi, "Using Dental Metrical Analysis to Determine the Terminal Pleistocene and Holocene Population History of Java", in: Philip J. Piper, Hirofumi Matsumura, David Bulbeck (eds.), New Perspectives in Southeast Asian and Pacific Prehistory (2017), [https://books.google.ch/books?id=CDDFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA92 p. 92].</ref>

According to Vishwanathan et al. (2004), the typical "negrito" features could also have been developed by [[convergent evolution]].{{sfn|Vishwanathan|2004}} According to [[Gyaneshwer Chaubey]] and Endicott (2013), "At the current level of genetic resolution, however, there is no evidence of a single ancestral population for the different groups traditionally defined as 'negritos."<ref name="Chabey-Endicott2103" /> Basu et al. 2016 concluded that the Andamanese have a distinct ancestry and are not closely related to other South Asians, but are closer to Southeast Asian Negritos, indicating that South Asian peoples do not descend directly from "Negritos" as such.{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1594}}

===Sri Lankan Vedda===
{{see also|Vedda people}}

Groups ancestral to the modern [[Vedda people|Veddas]] were probably the earliest inhabitants of Sri Lanka. Their arrival is dated tentatively to about 40,000–35,000 years ago. They are genetically distinguishable from the other peoples of Sri Lanka, and they show a high degree of intra-group diversity. This is consistent with a long history of existing as small subgroups undergoing significant [[genetic drift]].<ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = Deraniyagala SU | title = Pre-and protohistoric settlement in Sri Lanka. | journal = XIII UISPP Congress Proceedings | date = September 1996 | volume = 5 | pages = 277–285 | url = http://www.lankalibrary.com/geo/dera1.html }}</ref><ref name="Ranaweera_2014">{{cite journal | vauthors = Ranaweera L, Kaewsutthi S, Win Tun A, Boonyarit H, Poolsuwan S, Lertrit P | title = Mitochondrial DNA history of Sri Lankan ethnic people: their relations within the island and with the Indian subcontinental populations | journal = Journal of Human Genetics | volume = 59 | issue = 1 | pages = 28–36 | date = January 2014 | pmid = 24196378 | doi = 10.1038/jhg.2013.112 }}</ref>

==Latest Glacial Maximum==
===Holocene===
{{Main|Holocene|Neolithic|Neolithic revolution}}

After the last [[Ice age|glacial maximum]], human populations started to grow and migrate. With the invention of agriculture, the so-called Neolithic revolution, larger numbers of people could be sustained. The use of metals (copper, bronze, iron) further changed human ways of life, giving an initial advance to early users, and aiding further migrations, and admixture.

According to Silva et al. (2017), multiple waves of migration from western Eurasia took place after the last Ice Age, both before and after the advent of farming in South Asia.{{sfn|da Silva|2017}} According to Narasimhan et al. (2019), people related to Iranian hunter-gatherers were present in South Asia before the advent of farming. They mixed with Ancestral Ancient South Asians (AASI) to form the Indus Valley population. With the decline of the IVC after 1900 BCE and the arrival of the Indo-Aryans, IVC-people mixed with incoming Indo-Aryans, forming the Ancestral North Indians (ANI). Other IVC-people mixed with AASI forming the Ancestral South Indians (ASI).{{sfn|Narasimhan|2019}}{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011}}{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013}}

These two ancestral groups mixed in India between 4,200 and 1,900 years ago (2200 BCE-100 CE), whereafter a shift to [[endogamy]] took place,{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013}} possibly by the enforcement of "social values and norms" during the Hindu [[Gupta empire|Gupta rule]].{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}} Reich et al. stated that “ANI ancestry ranges from 39-71% in India, and is higher in traditionally upper caste and Indo-European speakers”.{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}

Basu et al. (2016) note that mainland India harbors two additional distinct ancestral components which have contributed to the gene pools of the [[Indian subcontinent]],{{refn|group=note|Basu et al. (2016): "By sampling populations, especially the autochthonous tribal populations, which represent the geographical, ethnic, and linguistic diversity of India, we have inferred that at least four distinct ancestral components—not two, as estimated earlier have contributed to the gene pools of extant populations of mainland India."{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}}}} namely Ancestral Austro-Asiatic (AAA) and Ancestral Tibeto-Burman (ATB).{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}}

==West Eurasian ancestry==
{{See also|Dravidian peoples|Indus Valley Civilisation|Mehrgarh}}

===Pre-farming Iranian hunter-gatherers===
Narasimhan et al. (2019) and Shinde et al. (2019) conclude that west Eurasian ancestry was already present before the advent of farming in South Asia.{{sfn|da Silva|2017}}{{sfn|Narasimhan|2019}}

Metspalu et al. (2011) detected a genetic component in India, k5, which "distributed across the Indus Valley, Central Asia, and the Caucasus".{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|pp=734–735}} According to Metspalu et al. (2011), k5 "might represent the genetic vestige of the ANI", though they also note that the geographic cline of this component within India "is very weak, which is unexpected under the ASI-ANI model", explaining that the ASI-ANI model implies an ANI contribution which decreases toward southern India.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=739}} According to Metspalu et al. (2011), "regardless of where this component was from (the Caucasus, Near East, Indus Valley, or Central Asia), its spread to other regions must have occurred well before our detection limits at 12,500 years."{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=740}}

Speaking to Fountain Ink, Metspalu said, "the West Eurasian component in Indians appears to come from a population that diverged genetically from people actually living in Eurasia, and this separation happened at least 12,500 years ago."<ref group=web name=Perur />{{refn|group=note|Note that according to Jones et al. (2015), Caucasian Hunter Gatherers and "the ancestors of Neolithic farmers" split circa 25,000 years ago: "Caucasus hunter-gatherers (CHG) belong to a distinct ancient clade that split from western hunter-gatherers ~45 kya, shortly after the expansion of anatomically modern humans into Europe and from the ancestors of Neolithic farmers ~25 kya, around the Last Glacial Maximum. CHG genomes significantly contributed to the Yamnaya steppe herders who migrated into Europe B3,000 BC, supporting a formative Caucasus influence on this important Early Bronze age culture."{{sfn|Jones|2016}}}} Moorjani et al. (2013) refer to Metspalu (2011){{refn|group=note|The reference is to a "recent study", and gives Kivisild et al. (1999). Kivisild (1999) does not mention the number 12,500, nor does it explicitly make such a statement. What it does state is that western-Eurasian and Indian mtDNA lineages overlap in haplogroup U;{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1331}} that the split between the western-Eurasian and Indian U2 lineages appeared circa 53,000 ± 4,000 years before present;{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1331}} and that "despite their equally deep time depth, the Indian U2 has not penetrated western Eurasia, and the European U5 has almost not reached India."{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1332}} They further note that wester-Eurasian mtDNA lineages did spread in India at the time of the spread of agricultural crops from the fertile Crescent.{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|pp=1332–1333}} Metspalu et al. (2011) ''do'' refer to 12,500 years ago.{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=740}} Apparently, the reference to Kivisld (1999) is incorrect, and was not noticed by the authors.}} as "fail[ing] to find any evidence for shared ancestry between the ANI and groups in West Eurasia within the past 12,500 years".{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013|p=430}} CCMB researcher Thangaraj believes that "it was much longer ago", and that "the ANI came to India in a second wave of migration{{refn|group=note|After the initial settlement of India by the ASI.}} that happened perhaps 40,000 years ago."<ref group=web name=Perur>[https://genetics.med.harvard.edu/reich/Reich_Lab/Press_files/Fountain%20Ink%20-%20December%202013%20-%20Cover.pdf Srinath Perur (December 2013), ''The origins of Indians. What our genes are telling us.'', Fountain Ink] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304073824/http://genetics.med.harvard.edu/reich/Reich_Lab/Press_files/Fountain%20Ink%20-%20December%202013%20-%20Cover.pdf |date=4 March 2016 }}</ref>

===Possible migration of Iranian neolithic farmers===
According to Gallego Romero et al. (2011), their research on lactose tolerance in India suggests that "the west Eurasian genetic contribution identified by Reich et al. (2009) principally reflects gene flow from Iran and the Middle East."{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011|p=9}} Gallego Romero notes that Indians who are lactose-tolerant show a genetic pattern regarding this tolerance which is "characteristic of the common European mutation."<ref name="ScienceLife2011">{{cite journal | url = http://sciencelife.uchospitals.edu/2011/09/14/lactose-tolerance-in-the-indian-dairyland/ | first = Rob | last = Mitchum | name-list-format = vanc | title = Lactose Tolerance in the Indian Dairyland | work = ScienceLife | publisher = UChicago Medicine | date = 14 September 2011}}</ref> According to Romero, this suggests that "the most common lactose tolerance mutation made a two-way migration out of the Middle East less than 10,000 years ago. While the mutation spread across Europe, another explorer must have brought the mutation eastward to India – likely traveling along the coast of the Persian Gulf where other pockets of the same mutation have been found."<ref name="ScienceLife2011" />

Mehrgarh (7000 BCE to c. 2500 BCE), to the west of the [[Indus River]] valley,<ref>{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4882968.stm |title=Stone age man used dentist drill | work = BBC News | date = 6 April 2006 }}</ref> is a precursor of the Indus Valley Civilisation, whose inhabitants migrated into the Indus Valley and became the Indus Valley Civilisation.{{sfn|Parpola|2015|p=17}} It is one of the earliest sites with evidence of farming and herding in [[South Asia]].<ref>{{cite web | work = UNESCO World Heritage | date = 2004 | url = https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1876/ | title = Archaeological Site of Mehrgarh }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | last = Hirst | first = K. Kris | name-list-format = vanc | date = 2005 | url = http://archaeology.about.com/od/mterms/g/mehrgarh.htm | title = Mehrgarh | work = Guide to Archaeology }}</ref> According to Lukacs and Hemphill, while there is a strong continuity between the neolithic and [[chalcolithic]] (Copper Age) cultures of Mehrgarh, dental evidence shows that the chalcolithic population did not descend from the neolithic population of Mehrgarh,{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|p=114}} which "suggests moderate levels of gene flow."{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|p=114}} They further noted that "the direct lineal descendents of the Neolithic inhabitants of Mehrgarh are to be found to the south and the east of Mehrgarh, in northwestern India and the western edge of the Deccan plateau," with neolithic Mehrgarh showing greater affinity with chalcolithic [[Inamgaon]], south of Mehrgarh, than with chalcolithic Mehrgarh.{{sfn|Coningham|Young|2015|p=114}}

====Elamite-Dravidian hypothesis====
{{Main|Elamo-Dravidian languages}}

While the IVC has been linked to the early [[Dravidian peoples]], some scholars have suggested that their neolithic farmer predecessors may have migrated from the [[Zagros Mountains|Zagros mountains]] to northern South Asia some 10,000 years ago.<ref>https://www.ias.ac.in/article/fulltext/jgen/087/02/0175-0179</ref> According to David McAlpin, the Dravidian languages were brought to India by immigration into India from [[Elam]].<ref>{{cite book | vauthors = McAlpin D, Emeneau MB, Jacobsen Jr WH, Kuiper FB, Paper HH, Reiner E, Stopa R, Vallat F, Wescott RW | chapter = Elamite and Dravidian: Further Evidence of Relationship [and Comments and Reply]. | title = Current Anthropology | date = March 1975 | volume = 16 | issue = 1 | pages = 105–15 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book | vauthors = McAlpin DW | chapter = Linguistic prehistory: the Dravidian situation. | title = Aryan and Non-Aryan | date = 1979 | pages = 175–89 | publisher = Center for South and Southeast Asian Studies, University of Michigan | location = Ann Arbor}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal | vauthors = McAlpin DW | title = Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The evidence and its implications. | journal = Transactions of the American Philosophical Society | date = January 1981 | volume = 71 | issue = 3 | pages = 1–55 | doi = 10.2307/1006352 | jstor = 1006352 | url = https://semanticscholar.org/paper/897c74bc98e62cec162ddf7f75af4650c27147e1 }}</ref><ref name="kumar2004">{{cite book | title=Genetic Disorders of the Indian Subcontinent | first = Dhavendra | last = Kumar | name-list-format = vanc | publisher=Springer | year=2004 | access-date=25 November 2008 | isbn=978-1-4020-1215-0 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bpl0LXKj13QC | quote=... The analysis of two Y chromosome variants, Hgr9 and Hgr3 provides interesting data (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). Microsatellite variation of Hgr9 among Iranians, Pakistanis and Indians indicate an expansion of populations to around 9000 YBP in Iran and then to 6,000 YBP in India. This migration originated in what was historically termed Elam in south-west Iran to the Indus valley, and may have been associated with the spread of Dravidian languages from south-west Iran (Quintan-Murci et al., 2001). ...}}</ref> According to Renfrew and Cavalli-Sforza, proto-Dravidian was brought to India by farmers from the Iranian part of the Fertile Crescent,{{sfn|Cavalli-Sforza|1994|p=221-222}}<ref name="mukherjee2001" >{{cite journal | vauthors = Mukherjee N, Nebel A, Oppenheim A, Majumder PP | title = High-resolution analysis of Y-chromosomal polymorphisms reveals signatures of population movements from Central Asia and West Asia into India | journal = Journal of Genetics | volume = 80 | issue = 3 | pages = 125–35 | date = December 2001 | pmid = 11988631 | doi = 10.1007/bf02717908 | quote = ... More recently, about 15,000-10,000 years before present (ybp), when agriculture developed in the Fertile Crescent region that extends from Israel through northern Syria to western Iran, there was another eastward wave of human migration (Cavalli-Sforza et al., 1994; Renfrew 1987), a part of which also appears to have entered India. This wave has been postulated to have brought the Dravidian languages into India (Renfrew 1987). Subsequently, the Indo-European (Aryan) language family was introduced into India about 4,000 ybp ... }}</ref>{{sfn|Derenko|2013}}{{refn|group=note|Derenko: "The spread of these new technologies has been associated with the dispersal of Dravidian and Indo-European languages in southern Asia. It is hypothesized that the proto-Elamo-Dravidian language, most likely originated in the Elam province in southwestern Iran, spread eastwards with the movement of farmers to the Indus Valley and the Indian sub-continent."{{sfn|Derenko|2013}} Derenko refers to: * Renfrew (1987), ''Archaeology and Language: The Puzzle of Indo-European Origins'' * Renfrew (1996), ''Language families and the spread of farming.'' In: Harris DR, editor, ''The origins and spread of Agriculture and Pastoralism in Eurasia'', pp. 70–92 * Cavalli-Sforza, Menozzi, Piazza (1994), ''The History and Geography of Human Genes''.}} but more recently Heggerty and Renfrew (2014) noted that "McAlpin's analysis of the language data, and thus his claims, remain far from orthodoxy", adding that Fuller finds no relation of Dravidian language with other languages, and thus assumes it to be native to India.<ref name=Heggarty_Renfrew>{{cite book |last1=Heggarty |first1=Paul |last2=Renfrew |first2=Collin | name-list-format = vanc |year=2014|chapter=South and Island Southeast Asia; Languages|editor-last1=Renfrew|editor-first1=Colin|editor-last2=Bahn|editor-first2=Paul|title=The Cambridge World Prehistory|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vWbwAwAAQBAJ|publisher=Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Renfrew and Bahn conclude that several scenarios are compatible with the data, and that "the linguistic jury is still very much out."<ref name=Heggarty_Renfrew/>{{refn|group=note|The Elamite-hypothesis has drawn attention in the scholarly literature, but has never been fully accpeted: * According to Mikhail Andronov, Dravidian languages were brought to India at the beginning of the third millennium BCE.{{sfn|Andronov|2003|p=299}} * Kivisild et al. (1999) note that "a small fraction of the West Eurasian mtDNA lineages found in Indian populations can be ascribed to a relatively recent admixture."{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1331}} at ca. 9,300 ± 3,000 years before present,{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1333}} which coincides with "the arrival to India of cereals domesticated in the [[Fertile Crescent]]" and "lends credence to the suggested [[Elamo-Dravidian languages|linguistic connection]] between the Elamite and Dravidic populations."{{sfn|Kivisild et al.|1999|p=1333}} * According to Palanichamy et al. (2015), "The presence of mtDNA haplogroups (HV14 and U1a) and Y-chromosome haplogroup ([[Haplogroup L-M20|L1]]) in Dravidian populations indicates the spread of the Dravidian language into India from west Asia."{{sfnp|Palanichamy|2015|p=645}} According to Krishnamurti, Proto-Dravidian may have been spoken in the Indus civilization, suggesting a "tentative date of Proto-Dravidian around the early part of the third millennium."{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p=501}} Krishnamurti further states that South Dravidian I (including pre-Tamil) and South Dravidian II (including Pre-Telugu) split around the eleventh century BCE, with the other major branches splitting off at around the same time.{{sfn|Krishnamurti|2003|p=501-502}}}}

According to another study in 2016, evidence support that the neolithic farmers ancestry component forms the main ancestry of modern South Asians. These neolithic farmers migrated from the [[Fertile Crescent|fertile crescent]], most likely from a region near the [[Zagros Mountains|Zagros mountains]] in modern day Iran, to South Asia some 10,000 years ago.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2016/07/160714151201.htm|title=Prehistoric genomes from the world's first farmers in the Zagros mountains reveal different Neolithic ancestry for Europeans and South Asians|website=ScienceDaily|language=en|access-date=20 January 2020}}</ref>

==Indus Valley Civilisation==
Shinde et al. (2019) and Narasimhan et al. (2019), analysing remains from the Indus Valley civilisation (of parts of Bronze Age Northwest India and East Pakistan), conclude that the IVC-population was a mixture people related to Iranians and AASI:{{sfn|Narasimhan|2019}}
{{quote|"The only fitting two-way models were mixtures of a group related to herders from the western Zagros mountains of Iran and also to either Andamanese hunter-gatherers or East Siberian hunter-gatherers (the fact that the latter two populations both fit reflects that they have the same phylogenetic relationship to the non-West Eurasian-related component likely due to shared ancestry deeply in time)"{{sfn|Shinde|2019}}}}

According to Shinde et al. (2019) about 50-98% of the IVC-genome came from people related to early Iranian farmers, and from 2-50% of the IVC-genome came from native South Asian hunter-gatherers sharing a common ancestry with the Andamanese.{{sfn|Shinde|2019}} According to Narasimhan et al. (2019) found 45–82% Iranian farmer-related ancestry and 11–50% AASI (or Andamanese-related hunter-gatherer ancestry).{{sfn|Narasimhan|2019}} The analysed samples of both studies have little to none of the "Steppe ancestry" component associated with later Indo-European migrations into India. The authors found that the respective amounts of those ancestries varied significantly between individuals, and concluded that more samples are needed to get the full picture of Indian population history.{{sfn|Shinde|2019}}{{sfn|Narasimhan|2019}}

==Indo-Aryans==
[[File:IE expansion.png|thumb|right|Scheme of the theoretical Indo-European migrations, of which the Indo-Aryan migrations form a part, from c. 4000 to 1000 BCE according to the [[Kurgan hypothesis]]. * The magenta area corresponds to the assumed ''[[Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses|Urheimat]]'' ([[Samara culture]], [[Sredny Stog culture]]) and the subsequent [[Yamna culture]]. * The red area corresponds to the area which may have been settled by Indo-European-speaking peoples up to c. 2500 BCE. * The orange area to 1000 BCE.{{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=30}}]]
{{Main|Indo-Aryan peoples|Indo-Aryan migration theory#genetics}}

In the second millennium BCE people from the [[Sintashta culture]]{{sfn|Anthony|2007|pp=408–411}}{{sfn|Kuz'mina|2007|p=222}} migrated through [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana Culture]] and into the northern [[Indian subcontinent]] (modern day [[India]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bangladesh]] and [[Nepal]]). The Indo-Aryan migrations started in approximately 1,800 BCE, after the invention of the [[Chariot|war chariot]], and also brought Indo-Aryan languages into the [[Levant]] and possibly [[Inner Asia]]. {{sfn|Beckwith|2009|p=33}}{{sfn|Witzel|2005|p=348}}{{refn|group=note|Pathak et al. (2018) concluded that the [[Indo-Aryan languages|Indo-Aryan]] speakers of [[Gangetic Plains]] and some [[Dravidian languages|Dravidian]] speakers in central India have significant [[Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya Early-Middle Bronze Age]] (Steppe_EMBA) ancestry. The "North-Western Indian and Pakistani" populations (PNWI) showed additionally significant Steppe_MLBA ancestry along with Yamnaya (Steppe_EMBA) ancestry. The study also suggested that the [[Ror|Rors]] could be used as a proxy for the ANI.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Villems|first1=Richard|last2=Pathak|first2=Ajay|date=December 2018|title=The Genetic Ancestry of Modern Indus Valley Populations from Northwest India|url=https://www.cell.com/ajhg/pdfExtended/S0002-9297(18)30398-7|journal=The American Journal of Human Genetics|volume=|pages=|via=|name-list-format=vanc}}</ref>}}

The [[Proto-Indo-Iranians]], from which the [[Indo-Aryans]] developed, are identified with the [[Sintashta culture]] (2100–1800 BCE),{{sfn|Anthony|2009|p=390 (fig. 15.9), 405–411}} and the [[Andronovo culture]],{{sfn|Anthony|2009|p=49}} which flourished ca. 1800–1400 BCE in the steppes around the [[Aral sea]], present-day Kazakhstan, Uzbekistan and Turkmenistan. The proto-Indo-Iranians were influenced by the [[Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex|Bactria-Margiana Culture]], south of the Andronovo culture, from which they borrowed their distinctive religious beliefs and practices. The Indo-Aryans split off around 1800–1600 BCE from the Iranians,{{sfn|Anthony|2007|p=408}} whereafter the Indo-Aryans migrated into the Levant and north-western India.

Lazaridis et al. (2016) notes that the demographic impact of steppe related populations on South Asia was substantial and forms the major component in northern India.{{sfnp|Lazaridis et al.|2016|pp=123}} Lazaridis et al.'s 2016 study estimates 6.5–50.2 % steppe related admixture in all modern South Asians with a majority found in most Indo-Aryan speaking groups.{{refn|Lazaridis et al. (2016) Supplementary Information, Table S9.1: "Kalash – 50.2 %, Tiwari Brahmins – 44.1 %, Gujarati (four samples) – 46.1 % to 27.5 %, Pathan – 44.6 %, Burusho – 42.5 %, Sindhi – 37.7 %, Punjabi – 32.6 %, Balochi – 32.4 %, Brahui – 30.2 %, Lodhi – 29.3 %, Bengali – 24.6 %, Vishwabhramin – 20.4 %, Makrani – 19.2 %, Mala – 18.4 %, Kusunda – 8.9 %, Kharia – 6.5 %."|group=note}}

==Post-IVC: ANI and ASI ancestral components in the Indian population==
A series of studies since 2009-2019 have shown that the [[Indian subcontinent]] harbours two major ancestral components,{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}{{sfn|Metspalu et al.|2011}}{{sfn|Moorjani et al.|2013}} formed in the 2nd milllennium BCE,{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018|p=15}} namely the ''Ancestral North Indians'' (ANI), which is broadly related to West Eurasians, and the ''Ancestral South Indians'' (ASI) which is clearly distinct from ANI.{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}{{sfn|Narasimhan|2019}}{{refn|group=note|Basu et al. (2016) discern four major ancestries in mainland India, namely ANI, ASI, Ancestral Austro-Asiatic tribals (AAA) and Ancestral Tibeto-Burman (ATB).{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1594}}}} ANI formed out of a mixture of "''Indus Periphery''-related groups" and migrants from the steppe, while ASI was formed out of "''Indus Periphery''-related groups" who moved south and mixed further with local hunter-gatherers.

ASI formed as mixture of "''Indus Periphery-related''" group who moved south and mixed further with AASI-related ancestry. "''Indus Periphery-related''" group did not carry steppe admixture and were instead mixture of Neolithic Iran-related ancestry and hypothesized AASI-related ancestry. According Narasimhan et al. 2018, the genetic makeup of the ASI population consisted of about 73% AASI and about 27% from Iranian-related peoples.{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018}}

ANI formed out of a mixture of "''Indus Periphery''-related groups" and migrants from Bronze age steppe.{{sfn|Narasimhan et al.|2018}} Lazaridis et al. (2016){{refn|group=note|According to Lazaridis et al. (2016) ANI-related ancestry in South Asians can be modeled as a mix of ancestry related to both early farmers of Iran and to people of the Bronze Age Eurasian steppe ([[Yamnaya culture|Yamnaya component]]).{{sfn|Lazaridis et al.|2016}}}} notes that the demographic impact of steppe related populations on South Asia was substantial, and forms the major component in northern India. According to the results, the [[Mala (caste)|Mala]], a south Indian [[Dalit]] population with minimal Ancestral North Indian (ANI) along the 'Indian Cline' have nevertheless ~ 18 % steppe-related ancestry, showing the strong influence of ANI ancestry in all populations of India. The [[Kalash people|Kalash]] of Pakistan are inferred to have ~ 50 % steppe-related ancestry, with the rest being of Iranian farmers ancestry.{{sfn|Lazaridis et al.|2016}}{{refn|group=note|Lazaridis et al. (2016) Supplementary Information, Table S9.1: "Kalash – 50.2 %, Tiwari Brahmins – 44.1 %, Gujarati (four samples) – 46.1 % to 27.5 %, Pathan – 44.6 %, Burusho – 42.5 %, Sindhi – 37.7 %, Punjabi – 32.6 %, Balochi – 32.4 %, Brahui – 30.2 %, Lodhi – 29.3 %, Bengali – 24.6 %, Vishwabhramin – 20.4 %, Makrani – 19.2 %, Mala – 18.4 %, Kusunda – 8.9 %, Kharia – 6.5 %."}} Reich et al. stated that “ANI ancestry ranges from 39-71% in India, and is higher in traditionally upper caste and Indo-Aryan speakers”.{{sfn|Reich et al.|2009}}

==Austroasiatic==
{{See also|Austroasiatic languages|Munda peoples|Khasi people}}

According to Ness, there are three broad theories on the origins of the Austroasiatic speakers, namely northeastern India, central or southern China, or southeast Asia.{{sfn|Ness|2014|p=265}} Multiple researches indicate that the Austroasiatic populations in India are derived from (mostly male dominated) migrations from southeast Asia during the Holocene.{{sfn|van Driem|2007}}{{sfn|Chaubey|2011}}<ref name="Riccio2011" />{{sfn|Zhang|2015}}{{sfn|Arunkumar|2015}}{{refn|group=note|name="ASI-AAA"|Nevertheless, according to Basu et al. (2016), the AAA were early settlers in India, related to the ASI: "The absence of significant resemblance with any of the neighboring populations is indicative of the ASI and the AAA being early settlers in India, possibly arriving on the “southern exit” wave out of Africa. Differentiation between the ASI and the AAA possibly took place after their arrival in India (ADMIXTURE analysis with K <nowiki>=</nowiki> 3 shows ASI plus AAA to be a single population in SI Appendix, Fig. S2).{{sfn|Basu et al.|2016|p=1598}}}} According to Van Driem (2007),
{{quote|...the mitochondrial picture indicates that the Munda maternal lineage derives from the earliest human settlers on the Subcontinent, whilst the predominant Y chromosome haplogroup argues for a Southeast Asian paternal homeland for Austroasiatic language communities in India.{{sfn|van Driem|2007|p=7}}}}

According to Chaubey et al. (2011), "AA speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from Southeast Asia, followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations."{{sfn|Chaubey|2011}}{{refn|group=note|See also: * {{cite web | work = Dienekes Anthropology Blog | url = http://dienekes.blogspot.nl/2010/10/origin-of-indian-austroasiatic-speakers.html | title = Origin of Indian Austroasiatic speakers | date = 27 October 2010 }} * {{cite web | first = Razib | last = Khan | name-list-format = vanc | year = 2010 | url = http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2010/10/sons-of-the-conquerers-the-story-of-india/#.UQfBCVQR-Sp | title = Sons of the conquerors: the story of India? }} * {{cite web | first = Razib | last = Khan | name-list-format = vanc | date = 2013 | url = http://blogs.discovermagazine.com/gnxp/2013/01/phylogenetics-implies-austro-asiatic-are-intrusive-to-india/ | title = Phylogenetics implies Austro-Asiatic are intrusive to India}} }} According to Zhang et al. (2015), Austroasiatic (male) migrations from southeast Asia into India took place after the lates Glacial maximum, circa 10,000 years ago.{{sfn|Zhang|2015}} According to Arunkumar et al. (2015), Y-chromosomal haplogroup O2a1-M95, which is typical for Austrosiatic speaking peoples, clearly decreases from Laos to east India, with "a serial decrease in expansion time from east to west," namely "5.7 ± 0.3 Kya in Laos, 5.2 ± 0.6 in Northeast India, and 4.3 ± 0.2 in East India." This suggests "a late Neolithic east to west spread of the lineage O2a1-M95 from Laos."{{sfn|Arunkumar|2015}}<ref>{{cite web | first = Miguel | last = Vilar | name-list-format = vanc | date = 2015 | url = http://voices.nationalgeographic.com/2015/04/21/genographic-southeast-asia/ | title = DNA Reveals Unknown Ancient Migration Into India | work = National Geographic }}</ref>

According to Riccio et al. (2011), the Munda people are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from southeast Asia.<ref name="Riccio2011">{{cite journal | vauthors = Riccio ME, Nunes JM, Rahal M, Kervaire B, Tiercy JM, Sanchez-Mazas A | title = The Austroasiatic Munda population from India and Its enigmatic origin: a HLA diversity study | journal = Human Biology | volume = 83 | issue = 3 | pages = 405–35 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21740156 | doi = 10.3378/027.083.0306 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | first1 = Alejandro | last1 = Gutman | first2 = Beatriz | last2 = Avanzati | name-list-format = vanc | work = The Language Gulper | url = http://www.languagesgulper.com/eng/Austroasiatic.html | title = Austroasiatic Languages }}</ref> According to Ness, the Khasi probably migrated into India in the first millennium BCE.{{sfn|Ness|2014|p=265}}

According to a genetic research (2015) including linguistic analyses, suggests an [[East Asia|East Asian]] origin for proto-Austroasiatic groups, which first migrated to Southeast Asia and later into India.{{sfn|Zhang|2015}}

==Tibeto-Burmese==
{{Main|Tibeto-Burman languages}}

According to Cordaux et al. (2004), the Tibeto-Burmans possibly came from the Himalayan and north-eastern borders of the subcontinent within the past 4,200 years.<ref name="cordaux2004">{{cite journal | vauthors = Cordaux R, Weiss G, Saha N, Stoneking M | title = The northeast Indian passageway: a barrier or corridor for human migrations? | journal = Molecular Biology and Evolution | volume = 21 | issue = 8 | pages = 1525–33 | date = August 2004 | pmid = 15128876 | doi = 10.1093/molbev/msh151 | url = http://mbe.oxfordjournals.org/cgi/content/abstract/21/8/1525 | access-date = 25 November 2008 | quote = ... Our coalescence analysis suggests that the expansion of Tibeto-Burman speakers to northeast India most likely took place within the past 4,200 years ... }}</ref>

A wide variety of Tibeto-Burman languages are spoken on the southern slopes of the Himalayas. Sizable groups that have been identified are the [[West Himalayish languages]] of [[Himachal Pradesh]] and western Nepal, the [[Tamangic languages]] of western Nepal, including [[Tamang language|Tamang]] with one million speakers, and the [[Kiranti languages]] of eastern Nepal. The remaining groups are small, with several isolates.

The [[Newar language]] (Nepal Bhasa) of central Nepal has a million speakers and a literature dating from the 12th century, and nearly a million people speak [[Magaric languages]], but the rest have small speech communities. Other isolates and small groups in Nepal are [[Dura language|Dura]], [[Raji–Raute languages|Raji–Raute]], [[Chepangic languages|Chepangic]] and [[Dhimal languages|Dhimalish]]. [[Lepcha language|Lepcha]] is spoken in an area from eastern Nepal to western Bhutan.{{sfnp|van Driem|2007|p=296}} Most of the languages of Bhutan are Bodish, but it also has three small isolates, [['Ole language|'Ole]] ("Black Mountain Monpa"), [[Lhokpu language|Lhokpu]] and [[Gongduk language|Gongduk]] and a larger community of speakers of [[Tshangla language|Tshangla]].{{sfnp|van Driem|2011}}

==Crossovers in languages and ethnicity==
{{See also|Adivasi}}

One complication in studying various population groups is that ethnic origins and linguistic affiliations in India match only inexactly: while the [[Kurukh people|Oraon]] [[adivasi]]s are classified as an "Austric" group, their language, called [[Kurukh language|Kurukh]], is Dravidian.<ref name="cummins1999">{{cite book | title=Bilingual Education | first1 = Jim | last1 = Cummins | first2 = David | last2 = Corson | name-list-format = vanc | year=1999 | access-date=25 November 2008 | isbn=978-0792348061 | publisher=Springer | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x1aw6j7xHpwC | quote=... over one million speakers each: Bhili (Indo-Aryan) 4.5 million; Santali (Austric) 4.2 m; Gondi (Dravidian) 2.0 m; and Kurukh (Dravidian) 1.3 million ...}}</ref> The Nicobarese are considered to be a Mongoloid group,<ref name="khongsdier2003">{{cite journal | vauthors = Khongsdier R, Mukherjee N | title = Growth and nutritional status of Khasi boys in Northeast India relating to exogamous marriages and socioeconomic classes | journal = American Journal of Physical Anthropology | volume = 122 | issue = 2 | pages = 162–70 | date = October 2003 | pmid = 12949836 | doi = 10.1002/ajpa.10305 | url = http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/104533560/abstract | access-date = 25 November 2008 | url-status = dead | quote = ... The Khasis are one of the Indo-Mongoloid tribes in Northeast India. They speak the Monkhmer language, which belongs to the Austro-Asiatic group (Das, 1978) ... | archive-url = https://archive.today/20130105170233/http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/104533560/abstract | archive-date = 5 January 2013 }}</ref><ref name="rath2006">{{cite book | title=Tribal Development in India: The Contemporary Debate | first = Govinda Chandra | last = Rath | name-list-format = vanc | year=2006 | access-date=25 November 2008 | isbn=978-0761934233 | publisher=SAGE | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BxDKhOnWwOsC | quote=... The Car Nicobarese are of Mongoloid stock ... The Nicobarese speak different languages of the Nicobarese group, which belongs to an Austro-Asiatic language sub-family ...}}</ref> and the [[Munda people|Munda]] and [[Santals]] [[Adivasi]] are "Austric" groups,<ref name="srivastava2007">{{cite journal | title=The Sacred Complex of Munda Tribe | first = Malini | last = Srivastava | name-list-format = vanc | journal=Anthropologist | volume = 9 | issue = 4 | pages = 327–330 | year=2007 | access-date=25 November 2008 | url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T-Anth/Anth-09-0-000-000-2007-Web/Anth-09-4-000-07-Abst-PDF/Anth-09-4-327-07-417-Srivastava-M/Anth-09-4-327-07-417-Srivastava-M-Tt.pdf | quote=... Racially, they are proto-australoid and speak Mundari dialect of Austro-Asiatic ...| doi = 10.1080/09720073.2007.11891020 }}</ref><ref name="chaudhuri1993">{{cite book | title=State Formation Among Tribals: A Quest for Santal Identity | vauthors = Chaudhuri AB | year=1993 | access-date=25 November 2008 | isbn=978-8121204224 | publisher=Gyan Publishing House | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rhMXAAAAIAAJ | quote=... The Santal is a large Proto-Australoid tribe found in West Bengal, northern Orissa, Bihar, Assam as also in Bangladesh ... The solidarity having been broken, the Santals are gradually adopting languages of the areas inhabited, like Oriya in Orissa, Hindi in Bihar and Bengali in West Bengal and Bangladesh ...}}</ref><ref name="culshaw1949">{{cite book | title=Tribal Heritage: A Study of the Santals | vauthors = Chaudhuri AB | year=1949 | access-date=25 November 2008 | publisher=Lutterworth Press | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PpFCAAAAIAAJ | quote=''... The Santals belong to his second "main race", the Proto-Australoid, which he considers arrived in India soon after the Negritos ...''}}</ref> but all four speak Austro-Asiatic languages.<ref name="khongsdier2003" /><ref name="rath2006" /><ref name="srivastava2007" /> The [[Bhil]]s and [[Gondi people|Gonds]] [[Adivasi]] are frequently classified as "Austric" groups,<ref name="shankarkumar2003">{{cite journal |title=A Correlative Study of HLA, Sickle Cell Gene and G6PD Deficiency with Splenomegaly and Malaria Incidence Among Bhils and Pawra Tribes from Dhadgon, Dhule, Maharastra | vauthors = Shankarkumar U |journal=Studies of Tribes and Tribals |volume=1 |issue=2 |pages=91–94 |date=2003 |access-date=25 November 2008 |url=http://www.krepublishers.com/02-Journals/T%20&%20T/T%20&%20T-01-0-000-000-2003-Web/T%20&%20T-01-2-091-174-2003-Abst-PDF/T%20&%20T-01-2-091-094-2003-Shankar/T%20&%20T-01-2-091-094-2003-Shankar.pdf |quote=... The Bhils are one of the largest tribes concentrated mainly in Western Madhya Pradesh, Rajasthan, Eastern Gujarat and Northern Maharastra. Racially they were classified as Gondids, Malids or Proto-Australoid, but their social history is still a mystery (Bhatia and Rao, 1986) ...| doi=10.1080/0972639X.2003.11886488 }}</ref> yet [[Bhil languages]] are [[Indo-European languages|Indo-European]] and the [[Gondi language]] is Dravidian.<ref name="cummins1999" />

== See also ==
{{col div|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Genetics and archaeogenetics of South Asia]]
* [[Early Indians]]
* [[Early human migrations]]
* [[Andamanese]]
* [[Irulas]]
* [[Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis]]
{{colend}}

== Notes ==
{{reflist|group=note|2}}

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

== Sources ==
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{{refend}}

;Web-sources
{{reflist|group=web}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Citation | last =Joseph | first =Tony | year =2018 | title =Early Indians: The Story of Our Ancestors and Where We Came From | publisher =Juggernaut|ref=none}}

== External links ==
;Overview
* Akhilesh Pillalamarri, ''Where Did Indians Come from'', [https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/unraveled-where-indians-come-from-part-1/ part1], [https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/where-indians-come-from-part-2-dravidians-and-aryans/ part 2], [https://thediplomat.com/2019/01/where-did-indians-come-from-part-3-what-is-caste/ part 3]

;Genetics
* Tony Joseph (16 June 2017), [http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/science/how-genetics-is-settling-the-aryan-migration-debate/article19090301.ece ''How genetics is settling the Aryan migration debate''], The Hindu
* Tony Joseph (2018), [https://www.thequint.com/voices/opinion/genomic-study-vedic-aryan-migration-dravidian-languages-sanskrit ''How We, The Indians, Came to Be''] (summary of Narasimhan (2018)
* Scroll.in, {{cite web|url=https://scroll.in/article/874102/aryan-migration-everything-you-need-to-know-about-the-new-study-on-indian-genetics|title=Aryan migration: Everything you need to know about the new study on Indian genetics}}, on Narasimhan (2018)
* The Economic Times (12 October 2019), [https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/news/science/steppe-migration-to-india-was-between-3500-4000-years-ago-david-reich/articleshow/71556277.cms?from=mdr Steppe migration to India was between 3500-4000 years ago: David Reich]

;Negritos
* [https://thepeoplingofindia.wordpress.com/tag/negrito/ thepeoplingofindia.wordpress.com, ''Negrito'']

[[Category:Indigenous peoples of South Asia]]
[[Category:History of South Asia]]
[[Category:Peopling of the world|India]]