Wikipedia - User contributions [en]

Talk:Hong dou tang

2017-02-20T08:35:58Z

Ityoppyawit: /* Split proposal */

{{WikiProjectBannerShell|1=
{{WikiProject Food and drink|class=Start|importance=mid}}
{{WikiProject China|class=start|importance=low}}
{{WikiProject Hong Kong|class=start|importance=low}}
{{WikiProject Japan|class=c|importance=mid|b1=n|food=y}}
{{WikiProject Korea|class=start|importance=low}}
{{WikiProject Vietnam|class=start|importance=low}}
{{WikiProject East Asia|class=start|importance=mid}}
}}
==Move proposal==
<div class="boilerplate metadata discussion-archived" style="background-color: #dedaca; margin: 2em 0 0 0; padding: 0 10px 0 10px; border: 1px solid #AAAAAA;">
:''The following discussion is archived. <span style="color:red">'''Please do not modify it.'''</span> Subsequent comments should be made in a new section.'' {{#if:{{{1|}}}|''A summary of the conclusions reached follows.''
::{{{1}}}
----}} 

Proposal: move page to [[Red bean soup]]. That way we can discuss red bean soups in China, Korea, and Japan in the same article without privileging any one name. [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 19:54, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

:'''Support''', for the same reasons. [[User:LDHan|LDHan]] 14:15, 11 April 2007 (UTC)
:'''Support''', I am making the move now via "Requested move". Looks like red bean soup is already a direct link to this page. Only an administrator can move it. We should use actual English name where available. [[User:Benjwong|Benjwong]] 03:04, 29 July 2007 (UTC)
:'''Request put in''', at [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Requested_moves#Uncontroversial_proposals this page]. [[User:Benjwong|Benjwong]] 03:10, 29 July 2007 (UTC)
:''The above discussion is preserved as an archive. <span style="color:red">'''Please do not modify it.'''</span> Subsequent comments should be made in a new section.''</div>

== Shiratamas ==

What are shiratamas? [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 20:25, 23 January 2007 (UTC)

:It refers to {{nihongo|''shiratama''|白玉}}, which is [[dango]] and be made from [[glutinous rice]] flour. But does the plural form need? --[[User:Nightshadow28|Nightshadow28]] 15:41, 4 July 2007 (UTC)

==Filled mochi?==
Are the mochi pieces filled, as in the filled balls of [[tangyuan]]? [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 22:01, 16 July 2007 (UTC)

:No. The dumpling or the ''mochi'' used for ''oshiruko'' is not filled with sweet bean paste. --[[User:Nightshadow28|Nightshadow28]] 15:55, 17 July 2007 (UTC)

When glutinous rice flour dumplings are used, are they round (spherical), like those of [[tangyuan]]? [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 17:18, 17 July 2007 (UTC)

== Box ==
Box needs romanization for Japanese name(s). [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 02:54, 31 July 2007 (UTC)

Box still needs romanization for Japanese name(s). [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 04:53, 4 August 2007 (UTC)

== Chinese Name ==

I thought 紅豆湯 is the more common chinese name for this. Doesnt 紅豆粥 usually have other beans or rice in them? And how to add 紅豆沙 on the template? I think it belongs on here too.[[User:Ian Kiu|Ian Kiu]] 04:28, 4 August 2007 (UTC)

:I believe you're exactly right. Would both be considered "red bean soup," using the English name, though? The use of rice should be mentioned in the article. But isn't [[wikt:湯|湯]] is a very clear soup, not a [[tong sui]], right? [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 04:33, 4 August 2007 (UTC)

:紅豆湯 is already there, under "alternate name." [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 04:34, 4 August 2007 (UTC)
For anyone curious there is no rice in "red bean congee". At least I personally have never seen it. [[User:Benjwong|Benjwong]] 16:36, 10 August 2007 (UTC)

== お汁粉 ==
Why was the first character of お汁粉 (the honorific "o," which is part of the name) just removed without comment? [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 20:32, 20 August 2007 (UTC)

:According to the guys at [[WP:JPN]], because it's a colloquial usage. It's usage is still noted in the body of the article, by the way. [[User:Bradford44|Bradford44]] 14:44, 21 August 2007 (UTC)

===Ochazuke===
OK, I'd like your input on the title of this article, then: [[Ochazuke]]. I proposed moving it to "Chazuke," as we don't have an article entitled [[O-sake]]. [[User:Badagnani|Badagnani]] 00:52, 22 August 2007 (UTC)
:Moved. ···[[User:Nihonjoe|<font color="green">日本穣</font>]]<sup>[[Help:Japanese|?]] · <small>[[User talk:Nihonjoe|Talk to Nihonjoe]]</sup></small> 01:00, 22 August 2007 (UTC)

== Comments Bagdanani wishes addressed ==

These were removed from the body of the article. They were commented out, and I'm moving them here so they can actually be addressed. ···[[User:Nihonjoe|<font color="green">日本穣</font>]]<sup>[[Help:Japanese|?]] · <small>[[User talk:Nihonjoe|Talk to Nihonjoe]]</sup></small> 02:10, 14 November 2007 (UTC)

===China===
If it's called "red bean congee," does it have rice in it? This should be mentioned.

What is sliced sugar?

===Vietnam===
Need name of the red bean soup there.

Australia
I live in Sydney and I have never been given red bean soup as a complimentary dessert. Perhaps that is because I am not Chinese - I think that is only partly the answer. I don't think it is common practice. I am given a bittermelon jelly dessert at one restaurant I frequent. Therefore I have added the word "sometimes" to this part of the entry. <span style="font-size: smaller;" class="autosigned">—Preceding [[Wikipedia:Signatures|unsigned]] comment added by [[Special:Contributions/121.223.222.208|121.223.222.208]] ([[User talk:121.223.222.208|talk]]) 05:29, 24 August 2009 (UTC)</span> 

== Korean sources ==

Please add Korean names to the books, I googled the authors, but didn't find the books listed in the article. [[User:Kf8|Kf8]] ([[User talk:Kf8|talk]]) 13:23, 11 May 2011 (UTC)

== Split proposal ==

I propose that this article be splitted into '''[[hóngdòutāng]]''', '''[[shiruko]]''', and '''[[patjuk]]'''.

* Chinese ''hóngdòutāng'' ({{lang|zh|红豆汤}}) is soup, while Japanese ''shiruko'' ({{lang|ja|汁粉}}) and Korean ''patjuk'' ({{lang|ko|팥죽}}) are porridge.
* Chinese ''hóngdòutāng'' and Japanese ''shiruko''/''zenzai'' are sweet, while Korean ''patjuk'' by default is not sweet and is boiled with rice (or noodles, in which case the name changes to ''pat-[[kal-guksu]]''). Sweet variety is called ''danpatjuk'' ("sweet ''patjuk''").
* There are at least three Japanese articles related to this English article ''azukigayu'' ([[:ja:小豆粥]]), ''shiruko'' ([[:ja:汁粉]]), and ''zenzai'' ([[:ja:ぜんざい]]).
** This article redirects to ''azukigayu'', which features an image of Korean ''patjuk'', so I guess they are similar food. They also share the Chinese character "粥", which means "porridge". Both not sweet, both boiled with rice.
** Korean ''danpatjuk'' and Japanese ''shiruko''/''zenzai'' are also similar. They are sweet desserts like Chinese ''hóngdòutāng''. (There seem to be confusion even among the Japanese when distinguishing ''shiruko'' and ''zenzai'', due to the regional (East-West) differences in both the food and the food names.)
--[[User:MaeveCosgrave|MaeveCosgrave]] ([[User talk:MaeveCosgrave|talk]]) 08:51, 16 February 2017 (UTC)

:What's the current arrangement of Wikidata items? [[User:Deryck Chan|Deryck]][[User talk:Deryck Chan| C.]] 12:14, 17 February 2017 (UTC)
::{{reply to|Deryck Chan}} There are {{Q|700643}} and {{Q|11270244}}. The latter has only Japanese ''[[:ja:ぜんざい|zenzai]]'' article linked to it.
::We don't make decisions on enwiki based on what Wikidata is doing. They are there to help ''us'', and their data structure should be modified based on how the various wikis have things set up, not the other way around. ···[[User:Nihonjoe|<font color="darkgreen">日本穣</font>]] · <small>[[Special:Contributions/Nihonjoe|<font color="blue">投稿</font>]] · [[User talk:Nihonjoe|Talk to Nihonjoe]] · [[WP:JA|<font color="maroon">Join WP Japan</font>]]!</small> 07:49, 18 February 2017 (UTC)
::There is also {{Q|20897543}}. ···[[User:Nihonjoe|<font color="darkgreen">日本穣</font>]] · <small>[[Special:Contributions/Nihonjoe|<font color="blue">投稿</font>]] · [[User talk:Nihonjoe|Talk to Nihonjoe]] · [[WP:JA|<font color="maroon">Join WP Japan</font>]]!</small> 07:54, 18 February 2017 (UTC)

:'''Keep this article as is'''. If respective articles are created, link them with [[Hyperlink|Wikilink]] or [[Template:Main article]] and if necessary, summarize the current description. That is the common practice in Wikipedia.―― [[User:Phoenix7777|Phoenix7777]] ([[User talk:Phoenix7777|talk]]) 08:41, 18 February 2017 (UTC)
:'''Oppose''': I think a split is a bad idea. One thing that en:WP should be doing is explaining the connections between things: in this case all of the referents (at least one each Chinese and Korean, and two Japanese) are actually basically the same "stuff" -- what you get by boiling and squashing the beans (variously ''aduki'' etc) and making them into a sweet slurp (which I (BrE) at least could not call "porridge"). Actually I think the article needs reconstructing so there is a general description of this commonality, followed by separate sections on the three national versions. To go in the opposite direction means that I might run across a reference to ''patjuk'', wonder what it was, and read the (entirely separate!) article on the Korean version without realising that it refers to (a variant of) ''shiruko''. (I happen to speak Japanese, because I live in Japan. Incidentally I find all this "Japanese people like this...", "Koreans do this that in the winter..." very patronising; liking ''shiruko'' has essentially nothing to do with nationality, everything to do with where you live.) [[User:Imaginatorium|Imaginatorium]] ([[User talk:Imaginatorium|talk]]) 14:29, 18 February 2017 (UTC)
::{{reply to|Imaginatorium}} ''Shiruko'' may be considered (a variant of) ''patjuk'' (more specifically, a variant of ''danpatjuk'') but is ''patjuk'' considered a variant of ''shiruko''? I'm a bit confused because there is an article named ''azukigayu'' in Japanese Wikipedia, which seems to referring to a dish similar to ''patjuk''. What is the relation between ''shiruko'' and ''azukigayu''? --[[User:MaeveCosgrave|MaeveCosgrave]] ([[User talk:MaeveCosgrave|talk]]) 07:33, 19 February 2017 (UTC)

:'''Support split''' / '''Different suggestion''' There are separate articles which are related through the "See also" section and the "infobox food" template's "similar dishes". Perhaps we can split the articles into [[Red bean soup]], [[Red bean porridge]], and [[Sweet red bean porridge]] to be neutral and cover ''patjuk'' and ''azukigayu'' together, and ''danpatjuk'' and ''shiruko'' together. I saw Chinese people referring to ''patjuk'' as ''hóngdòuzhōu''. And there is also a Chinese version of ''hóngdòuzhōu'', which is quite similar to ''patjuk''. Therefore [[Red bean soup]] can cover ''hóngdòutāng'', [[Red bean porridge]] can cover ''patjuk'', ''azukigayu'', and ''hóngdòuzhōu'', and [[Sweet red bean porridge]] can cover ''danpatjuk'', ''shiruko'', and ''zenzai''. --[[User:Ityoppyawit|Ityoppyawit]] ([[User talk:Ityoppyawit|talk]]) 08:35, 20 February 2017 (UTC)

Talk:Hong dou tang

2017-02-20T08:35:35Z

Ityoppyawit: /* Split proposal */

Chestnut

2017-02-20T07:30:26Z

Ityoppyawit:

{{about||other uses of "chestnut"|Chestnut (disambiguation)|other uses of "chinquapin" or "chinkapin"|Chinquapin (disambiguation)}}
{{taxobox
|name = Chestnut
|image = Châtaignier 120807 1.jpg
|image_caption = Sweet chestnut ''[[Castanea sativa]]''
|regnum = [[Plant]]ae
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]]
|ordo = [[Fagales]]
|familia = [[Fagaceae]]
|genus = '''''Castanea'''''
|genus authority = Mill.
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision = ''[[Castanea alnifolia]]*'' –<div align=right>bush chinkapin</div>
''[[Castanea crenata]]'' –<div align=right>Japanese/Korean chestnut</div>
''[[Castanea dentata]]'' –<div align=right>American chestnut</div>
''[[Castanea henryi]]'' –<div align=right>Henry's chestnut</div>
''[[Castanea mollissima]]'' –<div align=right>Chinese chestnut</div>
''[[Castanea ozarkensis]]'' –<div align=right>Ozark chinkapin</div>
''[[Castanea pumila]]'' –<div align=right>Allegheny chinkapin</div>
''[[Castanea sativa]]'' –<div align=right>Sweet chestnut</div>
''[[Castanea seguinii]]'' –<div align=right>Seguin's chestnut</div>
<nowiki>*</nowiki> treated as a synonym of ''Castanea pumila'' by many authors
|}}
The '''chestnut''' group is a [[genus]] ('''''Castanea''''') of eight or nine [[species]] of [[deciduous]] trees and [[shrub]]s in the beech family [[Fagaceae]], native to [[temperate climate|temperate]] regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

The name also refers to the edible [[nut (fruit)|nuts]] they produce.<ref name=foc>[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=105816 ''Castanea''] – Flora of China.</ref><ref name=fna>[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=105816 ''Castanea''] – Flora of [[Biome|North America]].</ref><ref name=fe>[http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Castanea&SPECIES_XREF=&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK= ''Castanea''] – Flora Europaea.</ref>

==Species==
Chestnuts belong to the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Fagaceae]], which also includes [[oak]]s and [[beech]]es. The four main species are commonly known as [[Castanea sativa|European]], [[Castanea mollissima|Chinese]], [[Castanea crenata|Japanese]], and [[Castanea dentata|American chestnut]]s, some species called '''chinkapin''' or '''chinquapin''':<ref name = laren58>[http://www.chestnutsaustralia.com.au/content/view/24/58/ Industry information] by David McLaren. From ''The Chestnut Growers Information Book'', Chestnut Australia Inc.</ref>
* '''European species''' sweet chestnut (''[[Castanea sativa]]'') (also called "Spanish chestnut" in the US) is the only European species of chestnut, though it was successfully introduced to the [[Himalayas]] and other temperate parts of [[Asia]]. Unrelated but externally similar species of [[Aesculus hippocastanum|horse chestnut]] are abundant around Europe.
* '''Asiatic species''' ''[[Castanea crenata]]'' (Japanese chestnut, Korean chestnut), ''[[Castanea mollissima]]'' (Chinese chestnut), ''[[Castanea davidii]]'' (China), ''[[Castanea henryi]]'' (Chinese chinkapin, also called Henry's chestnut – China) and ''[[Castanea seguinii]]'' (also called Seguin's chestnut – China)
* '''American species''' These include ''Castanea dentata'' ([[American chestnut]] – Eastern states), ''[[Castanea pumila]]'' (American- or [[Allegheny chinkapin]], also known as "dwarf chestnut" – Eastern states), ''Castanea alnifolia'' (Southern states), ''Castanea ashei'' (Southern states), ''Castanea floridana'' (Southern states) and ''Castanea paupispina'' (Southern states).<ref name = grocer>[http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/books/grocersencyclopedia/ency.html ''The Grocer's Encyclopedia – Encyclopedia of Foods and Beverages'']. By Artemas Ward. New York. 1911.</ref><ref name =" fao">[http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/AC645E/ac645e01.htm ''Postharvest Physiology and Pathology of Chestnuts'']. In ''Postharvest Handling and Storage of Chestnuts''. By Fabio Mencarelli. Food and Agriculture Organisation United Nations. November 2001.</ref>

Chestnuts should not be confused with [[Aesculus|horse chestnuts]] (genus ''[[Aesculus]]''), which are not related to ''Castanea'' and are named for producing nuts of similar appearance, but which are mildly poisonous to humans, nor should they be confused with [[Eleocharis dulcis|water chestnut]] (family [[Cyperaceae]]), which are also unrelated to ''Castanea'' and are tubers of similar taste from an aquatic herbaceous plant.<ref name = answers/><ref name = chestnutbrook/>
Other trees commonly mistaken for chestnut trees are the chestnut oak (''[[Quercus prinus]]'') and the American beech (''[[Fagus grandifolia]]''),<ref name=chestnuttree>[http://www.chestnuttree.net/ Chestnut Tree] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705113403/http://www.chestnuttree.net/ |date=July 5, 2008 }} in chestnuttree.net.</ref><ref name = nzcouncil/> both of which are also in Fagaceae.

==Etymology==
[[File:Japanese Chestnut01.jpg|thumb|Female chestnut flowers]]
[[File:Japanese Chestnut02.jpg|thumb|Male chestnut flowers]]
The name "chestnut" is derived from an earlier English term "chesten nut", which descends from the Old French word ''chastain'' (Modern French, ''châtaigne'').<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=chestnut Chestnut], Etymology Online</ref>

The name ''Castanea'' is probably derived from the old name for the sweet chestnut, either in [[Latin]]<ref name=rhs>''New RHS Dictionary of Gardening''. By A. Huxley ed. 1992. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5.</ref> or in [[Ancient Greek]]. Another possible source of the name is the town of Kastania in [[Thessaly]], Greece;<ref name = grocer/> more probable, though, is that the town took its name from the most common tree growing around it.<ref name = 2020site/> In the Mediterranean climate zone, chestnut trees are rarer in Greece because the chalky soil is not conducive to the tree's growth. Kastania is located on one of the relatively few sedimentary or siliceous outcrops. They grow so abundantly there, their presence would have determined the place's name.<ref name="Chestnuts">{{cite journal|last1=Fauve-Chamoux|first1=Antoinette|title=Chestnuts|journal=Cambridge World History of Food|date=2000|volume=1|url=http://www.omnilogos.com/2015/06/chestnuts.html}}</ref> Still others take the name as coming from the Greek name of ''Sardis glans'' (Sardis acorn) – [[Sardis]] being the capital of [[Lydia]], Asia Minor, from where the fruit had spread.<ref name= hagen>[https://books.google.com/books?id=g8YSB2K9d1oC&pg=PA51&lpg=PA51&dq=%22Sardis+glans%22&source=web&ots=bUf6jzvJE3&sig=b3EmJcSCMgL2wpy6DX2De9-3YLI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result The Meaning of Trees]. By Fred Hageneder, Chronicle Books – Nature. 2005.</ref>

The name is cited twice in the [[King James Version]] of the Bible. In one instance, Jacob puts peeled twigs in the water troughs to promote healthy offspring of his livestock.<ref name = veg>[http://www.vegparadise.com/highestperch211.html Vegetarians in Paradise].</ref> Although it may indicate another tree, it indicates the fruit was a local staple food in the early 17th century.<ref name = 2020site>[http://www.2020site.org/trees/chestnut.html Chestnut Tree].</ref>

These [[synonym]]s are or have been in use: ''Fagus castanea'' (used by Linnaeus in first edition of ''Species Plantarum'', 1753),<ref name = linnaeus>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/2476888 ''On the Name of the American Chestnut'']. By Geo. B. Sudworth. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 19, No. 5 (May 5, 1892), pp. 152–154 (article consists of 3 pages). Published by: Torrey Botanical Society.</ref> Sardian nut, Jupiter's nut, husked nut, and Spanish chestnut (U.S.).<ref name = botanical>[http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/c/cheswe59.html ''A Modern Herbal'']. By Mrs. M. Grieve.</ref>

==Description==
Chestnut trees are of moderate growth rate (for the Chinese chestnut tree) to fast-growing for American and European species.<ref name = botanical/> Their mature heights vary from the smallest species of chinkapins, often shrubby,<ref name=uniminnesota>[http://www.extension.umn.edu/yardandgarden/ygbriefs/h401chestnuts.html ''Chestnuts, Horse-Chestnuts, and Ohio Buckeyes''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916230008/http://www.extension.umn.edu/yardandgarden/ygbriefs/h401chestnuts.html |date=September 16, 2008 }}. In Yard and Garden Brief, Horticulture department at University of Minnesota.</ref> to the giant of past American forests, ''C. dentata'' that could reach {{nowrap|60 m}}. Between these extremes are found the Japanese chestnut (''C. crenata'') at {{nowrap|10 m}} average;{{refn|Some specimens can have greater bulk.<ref name="APS1">[http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/chestnut/images/figure4.htm American Phytopathological Society] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509091414/http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/chestnut/images/figure4.htm |date=May 9, 2008 }}</ref>|group="Note"}} followed by the Chinese chestnut (''C. mollissima'') at about {{nowrap|15 m}}, then the European chestnut (''C. sativa'') around {{nowrap|30 m}}.<ref name = nzcouncil>[http://www.nzcc.org.nz/factsheet.html Chestnuts worldwide and in New Zealand]. By the New Zealand Chestnut Council, 2000.</ref>

The Chinese and more so the Japanese chestnuts are both often multileadered and wide-spreading,<ref name = nzcouncil/> whereas European and especially American species tend to grow very erect when planted among others, with little tapering of their [[columnar]] [[Trunk (botany)|trunks]], which are firmly set and massive. When standing on their own, they spread on the sides and develop broad, rounded, dense [[Crown (botany)|crowns]] at maturity.<ref name = botanical/> The two latter's [[leaf|foliage]] has striking yellow autumn colouring.<ref name=harvard>[http://harvardforest.fas.harvard.edu/research/leaves/future.html Autumn Foliage Color:Past, Present, and Future.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513180502/http://harvardforest.fas.harvard.edu/research/leaves/future.html |date=May 13, 2008 }} Harvard University.</ref> [[Image:Sweet chestnut DSCF0160.JPG|thumb|left|Bark - sweet chestnut (''C. sativa'')]]

Its [[bark]] is smooth when young,<ref name = chattooga>[http://www.chattoogariver.org/index.php?req=chestnut&quart=W2002 The American Chestnut Tree]. By Samuel B. Detwiler. Reprinted from American Forestry, October, 1915. Chattooga Conservancy.</ref> of a vinous [[Maroon (color)|maroon]] or red-brown colour for the American chestnut,<ref name = 2020site/> grey for the European chestnut. With age, American species' bark becomes grey and darker, thick and deeply [[furrow]]ed; the furrows run longitudinally, and tend to twist around the trunk as the tree ages; it sometimes reminds one of a large cable with twisted strands.<ref name = botanical/>
[[Image:Chestnut flowers.jpg|thumb|''C. sativa'' male [[catkin]]s (pale buff) and female catkins (green, spiny, partly hidden by leaves)]]

The leaves are simple, [[ovate]] or [[lanceolate]], {{nowrap|10–30 cm}} long and {{nowrap|4–10 cm}} wide, with sharply pointed, widely spaced teeth, with shallow rounded [[Leaf#Margins (edge)|sinuates]] between.<ref name = answers>[http://www.answers.com/topic/chestnut Chestnut] in Answers.com.</ref>

The [[flower]]s follow the leaves, appearing in late spring or early summer<ref name = botanical/> or into July.<ref name= uniminnesota/> They are arranged in long [[catkin]]s of two kinds,<ref name= uniminnesota/> with both kinds being borne on every tree.<ref name = 2020site/> Some catkins are made of only male flowers, which mature first. Each flower has eight [[stamen]]s, or 10 to 12 for ''C. mollissima''.<ref name = tai>{{cite web|url=http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/udth/bin/fot1.exe/browse?bid=2&page=53|title=電子書台灣植物誌第二版 Flora of Taiwan, 2nd edition 2: 53 - Plants of Taiwan 台灣植物資訊整合查詢系統|work=ntu.edu.tw}}</ref> The ripe [[pollen]] carries a heavy, sweet odour<ref name= uniminnesota/> that some people find too sweet or unpleasant. Other catkins have these pollen-bearing flowers, but also carry near the [[twig]] from which these spring, small clusters of female or fruit-producing flowers. Two or three flowers together form a four-lobed prickly [[calybium]], which ultimately grows completely together to make the brown hull, or [[husk]], covering the fruits.<ref name = botanical/>[[Image:Chestnut03.jpg|thumb|Chestnuts can be found on the ground around trees]] Chestnut flowers are not self-compatible, so two trees are required for pollination. All ''Castanea'' species readily hybridize with each other.

The fruit is contained in a spiny (very sharp) [[Calybium and cupule|cupule]] {{nowrap|5–11 cm}} in diameter, also called "bur" or "[[burr (fruit)|burr]]".<ref name=cnr>[http://www.cnr.vt.edu/DENDRO/DENDROLOGY/syllabus/factsheet.cfm?ID=23 Chinese Chestnut] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014174650/http://www.cnr.vt.edu/DENDRO/DENDROLOGY/syllabus/factsheet.cfm?ID=23 |date=October 14, 2008 }}, College of Natural Resources, Department of Forestry, VirginiaTech.</ref> The burrs are often paired or clustered on the branch<ref name= uniminnesota/> and contain one to seven nuts according to the different [[species]], [[variety (botany)|varieties]], and [[cultivar]]s.<ref name=foc/><ref name=fna/><ref name=rushforth>''Trees of Britain and Europe''. By K. Rushforth. Collins. 1999. ISBN 0-00-220013-9.</ref><ref name=bean1>''Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles''. By W.J. Bean. 8th ed., vol. 1. John Murray. 1976. ISBN 0-7195-1790-7.</ref> Around the time the fruits reach maturity, the burrs turn yellow-brown and split open in two or four sections. They can remain on the tree longer than they hold the fruit, but more often achieve complete opening and release the fruits only after having fallen on the ground; opening is partly due to soil [[humidity]].<ref name=" fao"/>

The chestnut fruit has a pointed end with a small tuft at its tip (called "flame" in [[Italian language|Italian]]<ref name = fao/>), and at the other end, a [[:wikt:hilum|hilum]] – a pale brown attachment scar. In many varieties, the fruit is flattened on one or two sides. It has two skins. The first one is a hard, shiny, brown outer hull or [[husk]], called the pericarpus;<ref name = laren43>[http://www.chestnutsaustralia.com.au/content/view/18/43/ ''Chestnut Know-How'']. By David McLaren. Written for Chestnut Australia Inc. 1999.</ref> the industry calls this the "peel".<ref name = fao/> Underneath the pericarpus is another, thinner skin, called the pellicle or episperm.<ref name = laren43/> The pellicle closely adheres to the [[seed]] itself, following the grooves usually present at the surface of the fruit. These grooves are of variable sizes and depths according to the species and variety.

The fruit inside these shows two [[cotyledon]]s with a creamy-white flesh throughout,<ref name=chestnutbrook>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120320094600/http://www.chestnutbrook.com.au/what-are-chestnuts.html''What Are Chestnuts'']. Information page by a small Australian grower in [[Balingup, Western Australia]].</ref> except in some varieties which show only one cotyledon, and whose [[Integument#In botany|episperm]] is only slightly or not intruded at all. Usually, these varieties have only one large fruit per burr, well rounded (no flat face) and which is called "marron"<ref name = fao/> (''marron de Lyon'' in France, ''marron di Mugello'' in Italy, or ''paragon'').

Chestnut fruit have no epigeal dormancy and germinate right upon falling to the ground in the autumn, with the roots emerging from the seed right away and the leaves and stem the following spring. Because the seeds lack a coating or internal food supply, they lose viability soon after ripening and must be planted immediately.

The superior fruiting varieties among European chestnuts have good size, sweet taste, and easy-to-remove inner skins.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} American chestnuts are usually very small (around {{nowrap|5 g}}), but sweet-tasting with easy-to-remove pellicles. Some Japanese varieties have very large nuts (around {{nowrap|40 g}}), with typically difficult-to-remove pellicles. Chinese chestnut pellicles are usually easy to remove, and their sizes vary greatly according to the varieties, although usually smaller than the Japanese chestnut.<ref name = nzcouncil/>

==History==

===Europe===
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="float:right; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em"
|+ Top chestnut producing countries by years<br />(in metric tons)
!Rank
!Country
!2009
!2010
!2011
|-
| 1 || {{CHN}} || 1,550,000 || 1,620,000 || 1,700,000
|-
| 2 || {{TUR}} || 61,697 || 59,171 || 60,270
|-
| 3 || {{ITA}} || 50,872 || 48,810 || 57,493
|-
| 4 || {{KOR}} || 75,911 || 68,630 || 55,780
|-
| 5 || {{BOL}} || 53,577 || 53,577 || 53,577
|-
| 6 || {{GRC}} || 14,000 || 20,900 || 21,500
|-
| 7 || {{JPN}} || 21,700 || 23,500 || 19,100
|-
| 8 || {{PRT}} || 24,305 || 22,350 || 18,271
|-
| 9 || {{PRK}} || 10,201 || 9,628 || 11,000
|-
| 10 || {{ESP}} || 10,000 || 10,000 || 10,000
|- style="background:#ccc;"
| — || ''[[World]]'' || 1,890,179 || 1,954,623 || 2,022,831
|-
|colspan=5 | <center>''Source: [[FAO|UN Food & Agriculture Organization]]'' <ref>{{cite web|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx|publisher= [[FAO|UN Food & Agriculture Organization]]|title=Production of Chestnut by countries|year=2011|accessdate=2013-12-21}}</ref>
|}
The sweet chestnut was introduced into Europe from [[Sardis]], in [[Asia Minor]]; the fruit was then called the Sardian nut.<ref name = botanical/> It has been a staple food in southern Europe, Turkey, and southwestern and eastern Asia<ref name = chestnutbrook/><ref name=history>[http://www.hesge.ch/eil/Pages/AG/actualites/doc/Chataigner/TexteConedera2.pdf ''The cultivation of Castanea sativa (Mill.) in Europe, from its origin to its diffusion on a continental scale''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910104813/http://www.hesge.ch/eil/Pages/AG/actualites/doc/Chataigner/TexteConedera2.pdf |date=September 10, 2008 }}. By M. Conedera, P. Krebs, W. Tinner, M. Pradella and D. Torriani. Veget Hist Archaeobot (2004) 13:161–179. {{doi|10.1007/s00334-004-0038-7}}. This multidisciplinary study reconstructs the origin of chestnut cultivation and its spread throughout Europe in prehistoric times.</ref> for millennia, largely replacing cereals where these would not grow well, if at all, in mountainous Mediterranean areas.<ref name = Jalut>[http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/chestnuts.htm ''Les débuts de l'agriculture en France: Les défrichements'']. By Guy Jalut. 1976. In ''La Préhistoire Française'', Vol. 2: 180–5. Paris. Cited in ''The Cambridge World History of Food'' – Chestnuts, edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas.</ref> Evidence of its cultivation by man is found since around 2000 BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.botany.unibe.ch/paleo/publications/reprints/VegetHistArchaeobot_13_161.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-09-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080146/http://www.botany.unibe.ch/paleo/publications/reprints/VegetHistArchaeobot_13_161.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 |df= }}</ref> [[Alexander the Great]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] planted chestnut trees across Europe while on their various campaigns. A [[Ten Thousand (Greek)|Greek army]] is said to have survived their retreat from Asia Minor in 401–399 BC thanks to their stores of chestnuts.<ref name = peggy>[http://homecooking.about.com/od/foodhistory/a/chestnuthistory.htm Chestnut History] by Peggy Trowbridge Filippone. For Cooking resources, Food history, in About.com.</ref> Ancient Greeks, such as Dioscorides and Galen, wrote of chestnuts to comment on their medicinal properties—and of the flatulence induced by eating too much of it.<ref name="Chestnuts"/> To the early Christians, chestnuts symbolized [[chastity]].<ref name = veg/> Until the introduction of the [[potato]], whole forest-dwelling communities which had scarce access to [[wheat]] flour relied on chestnuts as their main source of [[carbohydrate]]s.<ref name = chestnutbrook/> In some parts of Italy, a cake made of chestnuts is used as a substitute for potatoes.<ref name = grocer/> In 1583, Charles Estienne and Jean Liébault wrote, "an infinity of people live on nothing else but (the chestnut)".<ref name = estienne>Charles Estienne and Jean Liébault. ''L'agriculture et maison rustique''. Paris.1583. Cited in ''The Cambridge World History of Food'' – Chestnuts, edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas.</ref> In 1802, an Italian [[agronomist]] said of Tuscany that "the fruit of the chestnut tree is practically the sole subsistence of our highlanders",<ref name = targioni>Targioni-Tozzetti 1802, Vol. 3: 154. Cited in ''The Cambridge World History of Food'' – Chestnuts.</ref> while in 1879 it was said that it almost exclusively fed whole populations for half the year, as "a temporary but complete substitution for cereals".<ref name = leplay>Les ouvriers européens. By Frédéric Le Play. 6 vols. Paris. 1879. Cited in ''The Cambridge World History of Food'' – Chestnuts, edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas.</ref>

[[Boundaries in landscape history|Boundary records]] compiled in the reign of [[John of England|John]] already showed the famous [[Tortworth|Tortworth Chestnut]] in South [[Gloucestershire]], as a landmark; and it was also known by the same name of [https://www.flickr.com/photos/48028479@N00/128320486/ "Great Chestnut of Tortworth"] in the days of [[Stephen of England|Stephen]]. This tree measured over {{convert|50|ft|m}} in circumference at {{convert|5|ft|m}} from the ground in 1720. The chestnut forests on [[Mount Etna]] contain many trees that are said to be even larger. Chestnut trees particularly flourish in the [[Mediterranean basin]].<ref name = botanical/> In 1584, the governor of [[Republic of Genoa|Genua]], which dominated [[Corsica]], ordered all the farmers and landowners to plant four trees yearly, among which a chestnut tree – plus [[olive]], [[Ficus carica|fig]] and [[mulberry]] trees (this assumedly lasted until the end of Genoese rule over Corsica in 1729). Many communities owe their origin and former richness to the ensuing chestnut woods.<ref name = terracorsa>[http://www.terracorsa.info/chestnut/chestnut.html The Chestnut Tree] in terracorsa.</ref> In France, the ''[[marron glacé]]'', a candied chestnut involving 16 different processes in a typically French cooking style, is always served at Christmas and New Year's time.<ref name = veg/> In [[Modena]], Italy, they are soaked in wine before roasting and serving,<ref name = veg/> and are also traditionally eaten on [[Nativity Fast#Coptic fast|Saint Simon's Day]] in [[Tuscany]].<ref name = peggy/> It is traditional to eat roasted chestnuts in Portugal on [[St. Martin's Day]].

Their popularity declined during the last few centuries, partly due to their reputation of "food for poor people".<ref name = valnet>''Traitement des maladies par les légumes, les fruits et les céréales''. By Dr Jean Valnet. Ed. Maloine s.a., 1977, pp. 213 to 216. First published in 1964. ISBN 2-224-00399-4. Translated in English as ''Organic garden medicine – The medical uses of vegetables, fruits and grains'', Ed. Erbonia Books Inc., New York.</ref> Many people did not want to take chestnut bread as "[[bread]]" because chestnut flour does not rise. Some slandered chestnut products in such words as the bread which "gives a sallow complexion" written in 1770,<ref name = buchoz>''Dictionnaire universel des plantes, arbres et arbustes de la France'': 126. By Pierre-Joseph Buc'hoz. Paris. 1770.</ref> or in 1841 "this kind of mortar which is called a soup".<ref name = thouin>''Voyage dans la Belgique, la Hollande et l'Italie (1796–1798)'': 173. By André Thouin. Paris. 1841.</ref> The last decades' worldwide renewal may have profited from the huge reforestation efforts started in the 1930s in the United States to establish varieties of ''C. sativa'' which may be resistant to chestnut blight, as well as to relieve the strain on cereal supplies.[[Image:2005chestnut.PNG|thumb|left|Chestnut output in 2005]]

The main region in Italy for chestnut production is the [[Mugello region]]; in 1996, the European Community granted the fruit Protected Geographic Indication (equivalent to the French Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée) status to the [http://www.firenzeturismo.it/en/prodotti-tipici-toscani/the-igp-mugello-sweet-chestnut.html Mugello sweet chestnut]. It is markedly sweet, peels easily, is not excessively floury or [[astringent]], and has notes of [[vanilla]], [[hazelnut]], and, more subtly, fresh bread. There is no unpleasant aroma, such as [[yeast]], [[fungus]], [[mold]] or paper, which sometimes occur with other chestnuts.<ref name=mugello>[http://www.firenzeturismo.it/en_EN/other-typical-products/the-igp-mugello-sweet-chestnut.html The IGP Mugello Sweet Chestnut.]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The main regions in France for chestnut production are the départements of [[Ardèche]], with the famous [http://comenius.tczew.pl/natHeritag.pdf "Châtaigne d'Ardèche" (A.O.C)], of the [[Var (department)|Var]], and of the [[Lyon]] region. France annually produces over 1,000 metric tons, but still imports about 8,000 metric tons, mainly from Italy.<ref name=candied>[http://pageperso.aol.fr/sophieherisse/MarronsGlaces.html Candied chestnuts (in French).]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In Portugal's archipelago of Madeira, chestnut liquor is a traditional beverage, and it is gaining popularity with the tourists and in continental Portugal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aportugueseaffair.com/portuguese-drinks/|title=The Portuguese Drinks You Need to Know • A Portuguese Affair|website=www.aportugueseaffair.com|access-date=2016-11-10}}</ref>

===Asia===
Always served as part of the New Year menu in Japan, chestnuts represent both success and hard times—mastery and strength.<ref name = veg/> The Japanese chestnut (''kuri'') was in cultivation before [[rice]]<ref name = tasteofjapan>[http://www.tasteofjapan.ru/eng/products/fruits/kuri.php Japanese Chestnut] in Japan House</ref> and the Chinese chestnut (''C. mollissima'') possibly for 2,000 to 6,000 years.<ref name = nzcouncil/>

During British colonial rule in the mid-1700s to 1947, the sweet chestnut ''(C. sativa)'' was widely introduced in the temperate parts of the [[Indian Subcontinent]], mainly in the lower-to-middle [[Himalayas]]. They are widely found in British-founded [[hill stations]] in northern [[India]], and to a lesser extent in [[Bhutan]] and [[Nepal]]. They are mainly used as an ornamental tree and are found in almost all British-founded botanical gardens and official governmental compounds (such as larger official residences) in temperate parts of the Indian Subcontinent.

China has about 300 chestnut [[cultivar]]s. Moreover, the [[Dandong chestnut]] (belonging to the Japanese chestnut ''C. crenata'') is a major [[cultivar]] in [[Liaoning|Liaoning Province]].<ref name = biodiv>[http://www.biodiv.gov.cn/images_biodiv/resources/economic-tree-en.htm Economic forest trees].</ref>

===North America===
[[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]] were eating the American chestnut species, mainly ''C. dentata'' and some others, long before European immigrants introduced their stock to America, and before the arrival of [[chestnut blight]].<ref name = peggy/> In some places, such as the [[Appalachian Mountains]], one-quarter of [[hardwood]]s were chestnuts. Mature trees often grew straight and branch-free for {{convert|50|ft|m}}, up to 100 feet, averaging up to 5 ft in diameter. For three centuries, most [[barn]]s and homes east of the [[Mississippi River]] were made from it.<ref name=salem>[http://www.salemboard.com/furniture/conservation.php American Chestnut Restoration]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Salem Board & Beam.</ref> In 1911, the food book ''[[The Grocer's Encyclopedia]]'' noted that a cannery in Holland included in its "vegetables-and-meat" ready-cooked combinations, a "chestnuts and sausages" casserole besides the more classic "beef and onions" and "green peas and veal". This celebrated the chestnut culture that would bring whole villages out in the woods for three weeks each autumn (and keep them busy all winter), and deplored the lack of food diversity in the United States's shop shelves.<ref name="grocer"/>

Soon after that, though, the American chestnuts were nearly wiped out by chestnut blight. The discovery of the blight fungus on some Asian chestnut trees planted on [[Long Island]], [[New York (state)|New York]], was made public in 1904. Within 40 years, the nearly four billion-strong American chestnut population in North America was devastated;<ref name="acfh">[http://www.acf.org/history.php The American Chestnut Foundation – Mission & History].</ref> only a few clumps of trees remained in Michigan, Wisconsin, [[California]] and the [[Pacific Northwest]].<ref name = peggy/> Due to disease, American chestnut wood almost disappeared from the market for decades, although quantities can still be obtained as [[reclaimed lumber]].<ref name=edlin>''Trees, Woods and Man''. By H.L. Edlin. New Naturalist. 1970. ISBN 0-00-213230-3.</ref> Today, they only survive as single trees separated from any others (very rare), and as [[living stump]]s, or "stools", with only a few growing enough [[shoot]]s to produce seeds shortly before dying. This is just enough to preserve the genetic material used to engineer an American chestnut tree with the minimal necessary genetic input from any of the disease-immune Asiatic species. Efforts started in the 1930s are still ongoing to repopulate the country with these trees, in [[Massachusetts]]<ref name= rhys>[http://www.wbur.org/news/2008/78764_20080718.asp ''The American Chestnut Returns'']. By Fred Thys, for WBUR news. July 18, 2008.</ref> and many places elsewhere in the United States.<ref name="acf">[http://www.acf.org/ American Chestnut Foundation].</ref> In the 1970s, geneticist [[Charles Burnham (geneticist)|Charles Burnham]] began back-breeding Asian chestnut into American chestnut populations to confer blight resistance with the minimum difference in genes.<ref name=Atlantic>{{cite journal|last1=Cummer|first1=Korby|title=A New Chestnut|journal=The Atlantic|date=June 2003|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2003/06/a-new-chestnut/302742/|accessdate=21 September 2015}}</ref> In the 1950s, the Dunstan chestnut was developed in Greensboro, N.C., and constitutes the majority of blight-free chestnuts produced in the United States annually.

Today, the nut's [[Supply and demand|demand outstrips supply]]. The United States imported 4,056 metric tons of European in-shell chestnuts worth $10 million in 2007.<ref name = geisler>[http://www.agmrc.org/agmrc/commodity/nuts/chestnuts/ Agricultural Marketing Resource Center: ''Chestnuts'']. By Malinda Geisler, content specialist, Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, Iowa State University. Revised May 2008.</ref> The U.S. chestnut industry is in its infancy, producing less than 1% of total world production. Since the mid-20th century, most of the US [[import]]s are from [[Southern Italy]], with the large, meaty, and richly flavored [[Sicilia]]n chestnuts being considered among the best quality for bulk sale and supermarket retail. Some imports come from Portugal and France. The next two largest sources of imports are China and [[South Korea]].<ref name = geisler/> The French [[variety (botany)|varieties]] of marrons are highly favoured and sold at high prices in [[gourmet]] shops.<ref name = veg/>

A study of the sector in 2005 found that US producers are mainly part-timers diversifying an existing agricultural business, or hobbyists.<ref name = umca>[http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/pubs/chestnutmarketreport.pdf University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry, 2005 – This report describes findings from a 2004 nationwide survey of the U.S. chestnut market.]</ref> Another recent study indicates that investment in a new plantation takes 13 years to break even, at least within the current Australian market.<ref name = laren60/> Starting a small-scale operation requires a relatively low initial investment; this is a factor in the small size of the present production operations, with half of them being within 3 to {{convert|10|acre|m2}}. Another predetermining factor in the small productivity of the sector is that most orchards have been created less than 10 years ago, so have young trees which are as now barely entering commercial production.<ref name = umca/> Assuming a {{convert|10|kg}} yield for a 10-year-old tree is a reliable conservative estimate, though some exceptional specimens of that age have yielded {{convert|100|kg}}.<ref name = laren60/> So, most producers earn less than $5,000 per year, with a third of the total not having sold anything so far.<ref name = umca/>

Moreover, the plantings have so far been mostly of Chinese species, but the products are not readily available.<ref name = umca/> The American Chestnut Foundation recommends waiting a little while more before large-scale planting.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} This is because it and its associates (the American Chestnut Cooperators' Foundation and many others from education, research and industry sectors contributing to the program) are at the last stages of developing a variety that is as close as possible to the American chestnut, while having incorporated the blight-resistant gene of the Asiatic species. Considering the additional advantage that chestnut trees can be easily grown organically,<ref name = umca/> and assuming the development of brands in the market, it has been asserted that, everything else being equal, home-grown products would reach higher prices than imports,{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} the high volume of which indicates a market with expanding prospects.<ref name = umca/> As of 2008, the price for chestnuts sold fresh in the shell ranges from $1.50 per pound ($3.30/kg) wholesale to about $5 per pound ($11/kg) retail, depending mainly on the size.<ref name = geisler/><ref name = umca/>

===Australia, New Zealand===
The [[Gold rush#Australian gold rushes|Australian gold rush]] of the 1850s and 1860s led to the first recorded plantings of European chestnut trees, brought in from Europe by the first settlers.<ref name = nzcouncil/> Along the years, most chestnut tree plantations were ''C. sativa'' stock, which is still the dominant species. Some of these are still standing today. Some trees in northern [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] are around 120 years old and up to 60 m tall. <br>Chestnuts grow well in [[South West (Western Australia)|southwest]] [[Western Australia]], which has cold winters and warm to hot summers.<ref name = chestnutbrook/> As of 2008, the country has just under 350 growers, annually producing around 1,200 metric tons of chestnuts, of which 80% come from northeast [[Victoria (Australia)#Geology and geography|Victoria]]. The produce is mostly sold to the domestic fresh fruit market. Chestnuts are now slowly gaining popularity in Australia. A considerable increase in production is expected in the next 10 years, due to the increase in commercial plantings during the last 15<ref name = laren58/> to 25 years.<ref name = chestnutbrook/> By far, the most common species in Australia is the European chestnut, but small numbers of the other species, as well as some [[hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] have been planted.<ref name = laren58/><br>The Japanese chestnut (''C. crenata'') does well in wet and humid weather and in hot summers (about 30 °C); and was introduced to New Zealand in the early 1900s, more so in the upper [[North Island]] region<ref name = nzcouncil/>

==Nutrition==
{{nutritional value|name=Chestnuts (raw,
peeled)|kJ=820 | fat=1.3 g | protein=1.6 g |
carbs=44 g | sugars=11 g | vitA_ug = 1 | vitC_mg=40.2 | vitB6_mg=0.352 | vitB12_ug=0 | thiamin_mg=0.144 | riboflavin_mg=0.016 | niacin_mg=1.102 | folate_ug=58 | sodium_mg=2 | potassium_mg = 484 |calcium_mg=19 | iron_mg=0.94 | phosphorus_mg=38 | magnesium_mg=30 | zinc_mg=0.49 | water=60.21 g | source_usda=1 | right=1}}

Chestnuts depart from the norm for [[Nut (fruit)|culinary nuts]] in that they have very little protein or fat, their calories coming chiefly from carbohydrates. Fresh chestnut fruits have about 180 [[calorie]]s<ref name = mugello/> (800 kJ) per 100 grams of edible parts, which is much lower than [[walnut]]s, [[almond]]s, other nuts and dried fruit (about 600 kcal/100 g).<ref name = mugello/> Chestnuts  contain very little fat, mostly unsaturated, and no [[gluten]].<ref name = nzcouncil/>

Their carbohydrate content compares with that of wheat<ref name = valnet/> and rice; chestnuts have twice as much [[starch]] as the potato on an as-is basis.<ref name = peggy/> In addition, chestnuts contain about 8% of various [[sugar]]s, mainly [[sucrose]], [[glucose]], [[fructose]], and, in a lesser amount, [[stachyose]] and [[raffinose]], which are fermented in the lower gut, producing gas.<ref name = fao/> In some areas, sweet chestnut trees are called "the bread tree".<ref name = mugello/><ref name = rockridgemarket>[http://rockridgemarkethall.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=123&Itemid=107 ''The Chestnut – Fruit of the Bread Tree'']. Rockridge Market Hall.</ref> When chestnuts are just starting to [[Ripening|ripen]], the fruit is mostly starch and is very firm under finger pressure from the high water content. As the chestnuts ripen, the starch is slowly converted into [[Sugar#Chemistry|sugars]], and moisture content also starts decreasing. Upon pressing the chestnut, a slight 'give' can be felt; the [[husk|hull]] is not so tense, and space occurs between it and the flesh of the fruit.<ref name = delmarvelous>[http://www.buychestnuts.com/trees.htm Delmarvelous nursery] (Chestnut Trees & Seed Nuts).</ref> 
They are the only "nuts" that contain [[vitamin C]], with about 40 mg per 100 g of raw product, which is about 65% of the U.S. [[recommended daily intake]]. The amount of vitamin C decreases by about 40% after heating. Fresh chestnuts contain about 52% water by weight, which evaporates relatively quickly during storage; they can lose as much as 1% of weight in one day at 20 °C (68 °F) and 70% [[relative humidity]].<ref name =" fao"/>

[[Tannin]] is contained in the bark<ref name= uphof>''Dictionary of Economic Plants''. By [[Johannes Cornelius Theodorus Uphof|J. C. Th. Uphof]]. Weinheim 1959. Cited in Plants For A Future.</ref><ref name= Rottsieper>''Vegetable Tannins''. By E.H.W. Rottsieper. The Forestal Land, Timber and Railways Co. Ltd. 1946. Cited in Plants For A Future.</ref> as well as in the wood, leaves, and seed [[husk]]s. The husks contain 10–13% tannin.<ref name= Rottsieper/>

==Cultivation, pests and diseases==
[[Image:Chestnuts02.jpg|right|thumb|Chestnuts]]

===Climate, seasonal germination cycle===
Chestnuts produce a better crop when subjected to chill temperatures during the [[dormancy|dormant]] period. [[Frost#Effect on plants|Frosts]] and snowfalls are beneficial rather than harmful to the trees.<ref name = chestnutbrook/><ref name=laren60>[http://www.chestnutsaustralia.com.au/content/view/25/60/ ''Chestnut production'']. By David McLaren. Written from ''The Chestnut Growers Information Book'', for Chestnut Australia Inc. 1999 for Chestnut Australia Inc. 1999.</ref> The dormant plant is very cold-hardy in Britain.<ref name=KenFern>Ken Fern. Notes from observations, tasting etc at ''Plants for a Future'' and on field trips. Cited in ''Plants for a Future''.</ref> Chestnut is [[Hardiness zone|hardy to zone 5]], which is 22 °C (39.6 °F) lower in average minimal temperature than [[London#Climate|London]] in [[Hardiness zone|zone 9]].<ref name=pfaf>[http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Castanea+sativa Castanea sativa – Mill.] in ''Plants for a Future''.</ref> But the young growth in spring, even on mature plants, is [[frost]]-tender;<ref name= KenFern/><ref name=pfaf/> [[bud]]-burst is later than most other fruit trees, so late frosts can be damaging to young buds.<ref name=laren60/>

Trees can be found at altitudes between 200 and 1000 metres above sea level;<ref name=laren60/> some mention between 300 and 750 m altitude,<ref name=lille>[http://www.univ-lille1.fr/pfeda/iaal/docs/iaal2002/crem/rapport/crememarron.pdf ''Étude d'un produit régional : La crème de marrons'']. By Sabrina Derouet, Flavie Dhellemmes, Lamia Hakam, Claire Lhaoucine and Maxime Vanhoutte. EPU Lille-USTL. 2003.</ref> while the famous [[Chestnut Tree of One Hundred Horses]] on [[Mount Etna]] stands at 1200 metres.<ref name=rushton>[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&entity=HistSciTech001201260012&isize=text The Chestnut tree of Mount Etna]. Detailed account of the tree, its state and its surroundings, written by Wm. Rushton on June 29, 1871.</ref> They can tolerate maritime exposure, although growth is reduced.<ref name=pfaf/>

Seeds [[germination|germinate]] in late winter or early spring,<ref name= KenFern/><ref name=pfaf/> but the life length is short. If kept moist, they can be stored in a cool place for a few months, but must be checked regularly for signs of germination.<ref name=pfaf/> Low temperature prolongs dormancy.<ref name=fao/> It is better to sow them as soon as ripe, either in [[cold frame]]s or [[seedbed]]s outdoors,<ref name= sheat>''Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers.'' By W. G. Sheat. MacMillan and Co 1948. Cited in ''Plants For A Future''.</ref> where they can be left ''in situ'' for 1 to 2 years before being planted in their permanent positions,<ref name=pfaf/> or in pots, where the plants can be put out into their permanent positions in summer or autumn. They must be protected from the cold in their first winter,<ref name= KenFern/> and also from [[mouse|mice]] and [[squirrel]]s.<ref name=pfaf/>

Chestnuts are considered self-sterile,<ref name=pfaf/><ref name = song>[http://www.songonline.ca/nuts/chestnut.htm Sweet Chestnut (''Castanea'' species)]. Society of Ontario Nut Growers.</ref> so at least two trees are needed for pollination.<ref name = delmarvelous/>

===Soil requirements===
''Castanea'' grows best in a soil with good [[Drainage system (agriculture)|drainage]] and adequate moisture.<ref name = laren60/><ref name = delmarvelous/> The tree prefers sloping, deep soils; it does not like shallow or heavy soils with impermeable, [[clay]] [[subsoil]]s.<ref name = laren60/> The Chinese chestnut prefers a fertile, well-drained soil, but it grows well in fairly dry, rocky, or poor soils.<ref name=Kentuckyforestry>[http://www.forestry.ky.gov/programs/reforestation/Tree+Species+Information.htm Kentucky Division of Forestry] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820025958/http://www.forestry.ky.gov/programs/reforestation/Tree+Species+Information.htm |date=August 20, 2008 }}.</ref>

Although ''Castanea'' can grow in very [[acid]] soil,<ref name=pfaf/> and while these soils are reasonably well tolerated, the preferred range is from pH 5.5-6.0.<ref name = laren60/> It does not grow well on [[Alkaline#Alkaline soil|alkaline soils]], such as [[chalk]],<ref name=rhs/><ref name=pfaf/> but thrives on soils such as those derived from [[granite]], [[sandstone]], or [[schist]].<ref name=rhs/> On alkaline soils, chestnut trees can be grown by [[grafting]] them onto [[oak]] rootstocks.<ref name=edlin/> <br> Recently cleared land is best avoided to help resist the [[root rot]], ''Armillaria mellia''.<ref name = laren60/>

===Sun exposure===
''Castanea'' likes a full sun position.<ref name = delmarvelous/> An experiment with ''C. dentata'' seedlings in Ohio confirmed the need for sun for optimal growth.<ref name= ohio>[http://abstracts.co.allenpress.com/pweb/esa2003/document/25264 Survival and growth in size and biomass of American Chestnut (''Castanea dentata'') seedlings under various silvicultural regimens in a mixed oak forest ecosystem.] By Corinne McCament and Brian McCarthy. Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. Paper presented on 6 August 2003 at the ESA 2003 Annual Meeting.</ref> The butt of the tree is sometimes painted with white paint to protect the tree from [[sunburn]] until it has developed enough [[Canopy (forest)|canopy]].<ref name = laren60/> <br> Wide spacing between the trees encourages low, broad [[crown (botany)|crowns]] with maximum exposure to sunshine to increase fruit production. Where chestnut trees touch, virtually no fruit is produced. Current [[orchard|industrial planting spacings]] can range from 7 x 7 m to 20 x 20 m. The closer plantings, which are more popular, mean quicker increases in short-term production, but heavy pruning or even tree removal is required later.<ref name = laren60/>

===Watering===
The optimum rainfall for chestnut trees is {{convert|800|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} or more, ideally in even distribution throughout the year. [[Mulch]]ing during summer is recommended. Rainfall below {{convert|700|mm|in|abbr=on}} per year needs be complemented with, for example, a [[drip irrigation]] system. This should water the soil at the outer half of the circle formed by the drip line<ref name = laren60/> to encourage root growth.

Independently from annual rainfall, it is recommended to water young trees at least during summer and early autumn.<ref name = laren60/> Once established, they resist [[drought]]s well.<ref name=rhs/><ref name=bean1/><ref name = Bown>''Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses''. By D. Bown. Dorling Kindersley, London. 1995 ISBN 0-7513-0203-1.</ref><ref name = chittendon>''RHS Dictionary of Plants plus Supplement''. By F. Chittendon. 1956 Oxford University Press 1951.</ref>

===Preservation===
As well as being consumed fresh, chestnuts can also be canned, pureed, or preserved in sugar or syrup (marrons glacés). Shelled and cooked nuts should be covered, refrigerated, and used within three to four days. Cooked chestnuts, either whole, chopped, or pureed, may be frozen in an airtight container and held up to 9 months. Because of their high water content, [[transpiration]] rates and consequent loss weight, the nuts react as fresh fruits (not as nuts). They should be kept cool at all times, including in shops when on display for sale.<ref name = laren60/> To preserve their freshness for a few months with no artificial refrigeration, the chestnuts can be soaked in cold water for about 20 hours immediately after [[harvest]], after which they are dried in the shade, then layered in dry sand.<ref name = valnet/> <br>Chestnuts behave similarly to seeds in that they produce very little [[Ethylene#Ethylene as a plant hormone|ethylene]], and their [[Plant respiration|respiration]] rate is low, varying between 5 and 20 mg/(kg·h) depending on the temperature.<ref name = fao/>

===Pests===

====Mammals and birds====
* The main threat to chestnut trees comes from [[grey squirrel]]s stripping its bark, from when the tree is about 8 years old and onwards through the life of the tree.<ref name = laren60/>
* [[Rabbit]]s and [[wallaby|wallabies]] can do great damage to young trees, which need guarding by some fence or by wrapping the tree trunk in sisal or other appropriate material. Deer and kangaroos can also be troublesome.<ref name = laren60/>
* Cattle and horses may require temporary fencing to prevent them from damaging fallen chestnuts at harvest time.<ref name = laren60/>
* The [[sulphur crested cockatoo]] can damage branches up to 10 mm in diameter by carrying out "beak maintenance" on young trees.<ref name = laren60/>
* [[Rosella]]s can also be troublesome at harvest time.<ref name = laren60/>

====Insects====

* The [[larva]]e of the polyfag moth (''[[Phytomyza horticola]]'')<ref name = plantdoctor>[http://plante-doktor.dk/insektrigeteng.htm Plantedoktoren]. A gallery of plant pests.</ref> species are among those who do most damage to [[shoot]]s and foliage.<ref name = szenti>[http://www.sarkpont.hu/webset32.cgi?Sarkpont@@EN@@21@@GOOGLEBOT ''The pest control of the Chestnut tree''] by Dr Péter Szentiványi. Chestnut – Agricultural Publisher. For Sarkpont Cc., Hungary.</ref>
* The most frequently occurring pests are the [[winter moth]] (''Operophtera brumata'') and the [[mottled umber moth]] (''Erannis defoliaria'').<ref name = szenti/>
* The [http://uk.ask.com/web?qsrc=167&o=41439048&l=dis&siteid=41439048&q=Attelabus+nitens+picture&dm=all oak roller weevil] ([[List of weevil (Curculionoidea) species recorded in Britain#Family Attelabidae|''Attelabus nitens'']]) causes relatively less damage by rolling up the leaves into a barrel shape to shelter its eggs and its developing larvae. The insects swarm from the end of April to mid-June, and damage the tree's flower buds during their feeding season.<ref name = szenti/>
* The [[larva]]e of the oak-leaf-mining moth, also called the tischerid moth (''[[Tischeria ekebladella]]''), digs white, see-through mines in chestnut leaves. It lays its eggs in the leaves between May and June. The larvae cause white spots in the leaves by chewing them from the inside.<ref name = szenti/>
* The oak [[aphid]] (''[[Myzocallis castanicola]]'') sucks on the apex of young [[shoot]]s and leaves. Native to Europe and North America, it is, for example, active in [[Hungary]]. Leaves do not roll up, but their feeding delays the growth of shoots and damages young [[Grafting|graft]]-shoot hosts. Commercial plantations and nurseries spray pesticides during the shoots' growth period to fight the damage.<ref name = szenti/> The chestnut [[mosaic virus]] is probably transmitted by ''Myzocallis castanicola'' aphids.<ref name = ctifl>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3010278 ''Chestnut mosaic virus : Transmission by the aphid Myzocallis castanicola on Chestnut tree'']. By J.-C. Desvignes and D. Cornaggia (CTIFL, Centre de Lanxade, La Force, France). In Phytoma, la défense des végétaux. 1996, no. 481, pp. 39–41 (6 ref.). {{ISSN|1164-6993}}.</ref>
* The chestnut weevil (''[[Curculio elephas]]'') most often damages the fruits. In Hungary, it swarms in chestnut [[orchard]]s around August 20, particularly strongly around noon and in sunny weather. The eggs are laid into the [[Calybium and cupule|cupule]]s or around the [[peduncle (botany)|peduncle]] joints. The larvae feed on the nuts and leave only nutchips and excrement within. While the chestnuts ripen, the larvae retreat into the ground after having chewed their way out of the nuts. The following July, they turn into [[pupa]]e. <br> The larvae of the chestnut weevil can only chew their way out of a fallen nut, so breeding occurs mostly where chestnuts lie on the ground for a sufficient length of time, or where the trees produce many small fruits which remain behind at the harvest. Timing the harvests to pick up the chestnuts as soon as they fall reduces the numbers of the [[overwinter]]ing larvae. Regular soil work is also unfavourable to its life habits. Small [[Grafting|grafts]] are sprayed with chemicals. A warm aerosol-based protection has been developed for older trees, by Sifter and Bürgés in 1971.<br>It is not recommended to plant chestnut orchards beside [[Quercus cerris|Turkey oak]] forests, because both trees are susceptible to the chestnut weevil (which also uses the Turkey oak acorn to develop), and the Turkey oak trees can pass it on to the chestnut trees.<ref name = szenti/>
* In Hungary, the most common moth threatening chestnut trees is the [[Tortricidae|acorn moth]] (''Laspeyreisa splendana'') and its subspecies. Its grayish-yellow larvae cause similar damage to that of the chestnut weevil, but they spin characteristic webs among the nutchips and larval excrement. This moth causes about 5–41% of the damage that occurs in western Hungary's plantations. Plantations need regular protection against these moths, the occurrence of which does not decrease.<ref name = szenti/>
* In New Zealand, the [[grass]] grub beetle eats the soft new-season foliage. They can entirely strip a young tree in the late spring, when they fly at dusk, often in huge numbers.<ref name = nzcouncil/>

===Diseases===
* [[Chestnut blight]] fungus (''Cryphonectria parasitica'') (formerly ''Endothia parasitica'') affects chestnut trees. The Eastern Asian species have coevolved with this disease and are moderately to very resistant to it, while the European and North American species, not having been exposed to it in the past, have little or no resistance.<ref name=rhs/> Early in the 20th century, chestnut blight destroyed about four billion American chestnut trees,<ref name="acfh"/> and reduced the most important tree throughout the East Coast to an insignificant presence. The American chinkapins are also very susceptible to chestnut blight. The European and West Asian chestnuts are susceptible, but less so than the American species.<ref name=rhs/> <br>The resistant species (particularly Japanese and Chinese chestnut, but also Seguin's chestnut and Henry's chestnut) have been used in breeding programs in the U.S. to create [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] with the American chestnut that are also disease-resistant.<ref name=rhs/> <br>The bark miner ''Spulerina simploniella'' (Lepidoptera: Gracilariidae) was found in intensively managed chestnut [[Coppicing|coppices]] in Greece, but not in orchards. The larvae (and the rain) may be agents in the spread of the disease. They mine under the thin periderm of young trees up to 10 years old, while the stem bark is still smooth. Rain during the pupation period (around the last week of May and first two weeks of June), and the actions of the larvae, may collude for [[Conidium|conidiospores]] to come into contact with the freshly exposed [[phloem]], and thus cause cankers.<ref name = nagref>[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118712634/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 ''The role of Spulerina simploniella in the spread of Chestnut blight'']. By S. Diamandis (NAGREF, Forest Research Institute, 570 06 Vassilika, Thessaloniki, Greece) and C. Perlerou. Received: 27.07.2004; accepted: 25.02.2005; editor: P. Raddi. {{doi|10.1111/j.1439-0329.2005.00413.x}}.</ref>
* Ink disease also appears in a number of other plants. The disease attacks the [[phloem]] tissue and the [[cambium (botany)|cambium]] of the [[root]]s and root collars about 10–20 cm above ground. Wet rot settles in as a result. It was named after the ink-black color of the [[tannic acid]] becoming ([[Redox|oxidized]]) after seeping out, but that symptom is not a characteristic of only that disease. The same ink-black color can appear following other types of [[Decomposition|decays]] and mechanical injuries that make liquids seep through; these liquids can also oxidize after contact with air. Moreover, with some phytophthoric diseases, no tannic acid is generated. With the ink disease, the leaves turn yellow and later fall off; the fruits remain small, and the nuts prematurely drop out of the burrs. These dry and remain on the trees throughout winter. In acute cases, root decay makes the trees dry out and wither away.<ref name = szenti/> It is caused by ''[[Phytophthora cambivora]]'' and ''[[Phytophthora cinnamomi]]''.<ref name="Robin">{{cite journal|last=Robin|first=Cécile |author2=Olivier Morel |author3=Anna-Maria Vettraino |author4=Charikleia Perlerou |author5=Stephanos Diamandis |author6=Andrea Vannini|date=1 May 2006|title=Genetic variation in susceptibility to Phytophthora Cambivora in European chestnut (Castanea sativa) |journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=226|issue=1–3|pages=199–207|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2006.01.035}}</ref>
* ''Phytophthora'' disease is the longest-known chestnut tree disease leading to tree death. Of the two main [[pathogen]]s for this disease, the one in European chestnuts is known since 1971 to be ''[[Phytophthora cambivora]]''. ''[[Phytophthora cinnamoni]]'' was discovered in chestnut trees in the United States in 1932. Both trigger similar symptoms. Since then, it has also been shown to occur in most European chestnut-growing countries. It is difficult to differentiate between the two pathogens. Chemicals seem of little effectiveness. Many countries impose strict [[Prophylaxis|prophylactic]] rules to prevent the spread of the disease.<ref name = szenti/>
* ''Melanconis modonia'' can infect trees through injuries and induce "bark death". It was first reported in Hungary by Hausz in 1972. The damage is of little consequence in older or stronger trees, but it affects sapling graftings in nurseries. ''Coryneum perniciosum'', one of the two [[conidium]]-like side forms of this fungus, occurs on all decayed, [[lignin|ligneous]] parts of a chestnut tree. The symptoms of infection on young smooth trunks is similar to that of the chestnut blight fungus ''Cryphonectria''. For this reason, it has persistently been wrongly thought of as the pathogen for ink disease. With ''Melanconis'', the bark sinks in and takes on brownish-red tones, with black lentil-like multicell conidium bodies and black cone-like [[Thylakoid|stromas]] breaking through the bark. But unlike with ''Cryphonectria'', there are no orange-colored fruiting bodies. Prevention primarily includes keeping the tree in good shape; some further protections against ''Cryphonectria'' also help prevent bark death caused by ''Melanconis''.<ref name = szenti/> *'''Chestnut mosaic virus''' is probably transmitted by the oak aphid ''Myzocallis castanicola''.<ref name="ctifl"/>
* [[Root rot]] is caused by the [[honey fungus]] ''Armillaria mellia''. When planting ''Castanea'', recently cleared land is best avoided to help resist this fungus.<ref name = laren60/> The disease is more prevalent on heavier and poorly drained soil types.<ref name = nzcouncil/>
* [[Leaf spot]] is the most common disease for chestnut trees (''Mycosphaerella maculiformis''). It is known as ''cylindrosporium'' leaf spot disease, after its summer [[conidium]] form ''Cylindrosporium castaneae''. The pathogens spend the winter in the white spots of the fallen leaves. At spring time, it reinfects the new leaves. In or near June, tiny white spots on the leaves appear, which grow and turn brown over time. At the end of the summer, the spots entirely cover the leaf, which turns yellow. In rainy and humid weather with large temperature fluctuation, the tree loses its leaves. If August is dry and warm, the infected leaves roll up, the arteries twist, and the dead leaves dry on the tree until defoliage. This recurs yearly, though the extent of the damage varies from year to year. Some species are more resistant than others.<ref name = szenti/>
* Oak mildew is among several foliage diseases of smaller significance for European chestnut growing. It infects the most trees (''Microsphaera alphitoides''). Younger trees suffer most; their shoots become short-jointed, growth is delayed, and they develop sensitivity to frostbite. In older trees, the fungus usually infects only the tip of the shoots. The pathogens hibernate in the shoots and infect the leaves from there. The fungus grows on the top of the leaves, with the appearance of a coating only in midsummer. The infected leaves' development slows down or stops, the distance between their [[Vascular tissue|vessels]] shrinks, and the vessels themselves become curly.<ref name = szenti/>
* In storage rot, breaking the tuft provides the most common entrance for fungal [[spore]]s during storage. ''Cyboria'', the most diffuse, turns the flesh black and spongy. Other fungi are known, such as ''Rhizopus'', ''Fusarium'', and ''Collectotrichum''.<ref name = fao/>

===Coppicing===
Most chestnut wood production is done by [[coppice]] systems, cut on a 12-year rotation to provide small timber which does not split as badly as large logs.<ref name=edlin/> In southern England (particularly in [[Kent]]), sweet chestnut has traditionally been grown as coppices, being recut every 10 years or so on rotation for poles used for firewood, [[fencing]] (fence posts and chestnut paling), and especially to support the strings up when [[hops]] are grown.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

===Sustainable forest management===
An excellent soil-enriching understory<ref name = botanical/> in [[pine]] forests,<ref name=rhs/><ref name= pfaf/>
[[sustainable forest management]] incorporates more mixed plantings of proven efficiency, as opposed to monosylviculture. A study presented in 1997 has evaluated positively the potential increase in productivity with mixed stands and plantations, compared to plots of only one species. The relative yield total values of the mixed plantings steadily increase with time. ''C. sativa'' responds well to competitive pressure from ''Pseudotsuga menziesii'', the latter also showing a higher productivity.<ref name =" salesmonteiro">[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6X-3VJRRSB-11&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=9938875c5feac45071595ecd5adf3b50 ''Dynamics of a broadleaved (Castanea sativa) conifer (Pseudotsuga menziesii) mixed stands in Northern Portugal'']. By Jaime F. Sales Luisa (Forest Department, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000 Vila Real, Portugal) and Maria do Loreto Monteiro (Forest Area, Escola Superior Agrária de Bragança, 5300 Bragança, Portugal). Forest Ecology and Management, Volume 107, Issues 1-3, 17 August 1998, pp. 183–190. Accepted 10 November 1997. Available online 15 January 1999. {{doi|10.1016/S0378-1127(97)00341-1}}.</ref> ''C. dentata'' seedlings in Ohio reforestation efforts are best achieved by planting them in places with little or no arboreous land cover, because of the need for light.<ref name= ohio/>

==Uses==
[[Image:Kestaneci chestnut vendor.jpg|right|thumb|A ''kestaneci'' or chestnut vendor in [[Istanbul]]]]
[[Image:Chestnuts roasted.jpg|right|thumb|Roasted chestnuts in [[Melbourne]], Australia]]

===Culinary===
[[File:Avignon marchand de marrons chauds à la Porte Saint-Michel Foire Saint-André.jpg|thumb|A hot chestnut seller in [[Avignon]], 1936]]
[[File:Castagne secche dried chestnut italy.JPG|thumb|Dried chestnut in the South of Italy]]

The fruit can be peeled and eaten raw, but it can be somewhat [[astringent]], especially if the pellicle is not removed.<ref name =unifi>[http://www3.unifi.it/ueresgen29/ds7.htm ''Description of European Chestnut'']. By F. Ferrini and F. P. Nicese. Horticulture Department – University of Florence – Italy.</ref>

Another method of eating the fruit involves roasting, which does not require peeling. Roasting requires scoring the fruit beforehand to prevent explosion of the fruit due to expansion. Once cooked, its texture is slightly similar to that of a baked potato, with a delicate, sweet, and nutty flavour.<ref name = chestnutbrook/><ref name = laren43/><ref name = cottage>[http://www.cottagesmallholder.com/?p=97 Sweet Chestnut Jam recipe. Storing Sweet Chestnuts], in ''The Cottage Smallholder''.</ref> This method of preparation is popular in many countries, where the scored chestnuts may be cooked mixed with a little sugar.

Chestnuts can be dried and milled into flour, which can then be used to prepare breads, [[cake]]s, [[Chestnut pie|pies]], [[pancake]]s, [[pasta]]s, [[polenta]]<ref name = grocer/> (known in Corsica as ''pulenda''), or used as thickener for [[stew]]s, [[soup]]s, and [[sauce]]s. [[Chestnut cake]] may be prepared using chestnut flour.<ref>{{cite book | last=Richardson | first=A. | last2=Young | first2=G. | title=The Wisdom of the Chinese Kitchen: Classic Family Recipes for Celebration and Healing | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-4391-4256-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rb7BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA134 | pages=134–135}}</ref> In Corsica, the flour is fried into [[doughnut]]-like [[fritter]]s called ''[[fritelli]]'' and made into ''[[necci]], [[pattoni]], [[castagnacci]],'' and ''[[cialdi]]''.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_7TPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA628&dq=fritelli+chestnut#v=onepage&q=fritelli%20chestnut&f=false Volume 14] 1880 Scribners monthly page 628</ref> The flour can be light beige like that from Castagniccia, or darker in other regions.<ref name="terracorsa"/> It is a good solution for long storage of a nutritious food.<ref name= uniminnesota/> Chestnut bread can stay fresh as long as two weeks.<ref name = grocer/>

The nuts can also be eaten candied, boiled, steamed, deep-fried, grilled, or roasted in sweet or savoury recipes.<ref name = grocer/> They can be used to stuff vegetables, poultry, fowl, and other edibles.<ref name = botanical/> They are available fresh, dried, ground, or canned (whole or in puree).

Candied chestnuts (whole chestnuts candied in sugar syrup, then iced<ref name = candied/>) are sold under the French name ''[[marrons glacés]]'' or Turkish name ''kestane şekeri'' ("sugared chestnuts"). They appeared in France in the 16th century. Towards the end of 19th century, [[Lyon]] went into a recession with the collapse of the textile market, [[History of silk#The silk industry in France|notably silk]]. Clément Faugier ingénieur des Ponts et Chaussées was looking for a way to revitalize the regional economy. In 1882 at [[Privas]], he invented the technology to make ''marrons glacés'' on an industrial scale (although a great number of the more than 20 necessary steps from harvest to the finished product are still accomplished manually).<ref name = botanical/> Chestnuts are picked in autumn, and candied from the start of the following summer for the ensuing Christmas. Thus, the ''marrons glacés'' eaten at Christmas are those picked the year before.<ref name = promo>[http://www.prochedevous-enligne.com/index.cgi?numero=110&type=article&pageid=846&archives=1 "C'est le mois – Les marrons glacés synonymes de fêtes de fin d'année"]. By Marie-Françoise Briand. Article in review n° 110. In French.</ref>

In [[Hungarian cuisine]], cooked chestnuts are [[purée]]d, mixed with sugar (and usually [[rum]]), forced through a [[Potato ricer|ricer]], and topped with [[whipped cream]] to make a dessert called ''gesztenyepüré'' (chestnut purée).<ref>[http://www.chew.hu/gesztenyepure/ Gesztenyepüré] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112143915/http://www.chew.hu/gesztenyepure/ |date=January 12, 2014 }} at Chew.hu</ref> In [[Swiss cuisine]], a similar dish made with [[kirsch]] and [[butter]] is called ''vermicelles''. A [[French cuisine|French]] version is known as "[[Mont Blanc (dessert)|Mont Blanc]]".

A fine granular sugar can be obtained from the fermentation of the juice,<ref name = grocer/><ref name = facciola>''Cornucopia – A Source Book of Edible Plants''. By S. Facciola. Kampong Publications, 1990. ISBN 0-9628087-0-9. Cited in Plants For A Future.</ref> as well as a beer; the roasted fruit provides a coffee substitute.<ref name="facciola"/> [[Antoine-Augustin Parmentier|Parmentier]], who among other things was a famous potato promoter, extracted [[sugar]] from chestnuts and sent a chestnut [[sugarloaf]] weighing several pounds to the [[University of Lyon|Academy of Lyon]].<ref name = parmentier>Antoine Parmentier. ''Traité de la châtaigne''. 1780. Bastia, Corsica. Cited in ''The Cambridge World History of Food'' – Chestnuts, edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas.</ref> The [[Continental System|continental blockade]] following shortly after (1806–1814) increased the research into developing chestnuts as a source of sugar, but Napoleon chose [[beet]]s instead.<ref name=kipple>[http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/chestnuts.htm ''The Cambridge World History of Food'' – Chestnuts]. Edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas.</ref>

Sweet chestnuts are not easy to peel when cold. One kilogram of untainted chestnuts yields about 700 g of shelled chestnuts.<ref name = laren43/>

===Animal fodder and litter===
Chestnuts are often added to animal [[fodder]]. A first soak in [[limewater]] removes their bitter flavour, then they are ground and mixed with the ordinary provender. Other methods of preparation are also used. It is given to horses and cattle in the Orient,<ref name = botanical/> and to pigs in England,<ref name = botanical/> France<ref name = valnet/> and other places. Sheep pop the chestnuts out with their hooves, when in pastures containing the trees. The leaves are not as prone to be insect-eaten as those of the oak, and are also used for fodder.<ref name = botanical/>

===Timber===
[[Image:Edelkastanie.jpg|thumb|Chestnut wood: Note the splitting at the top of the log.]]
Chestnut is of the same family as oak, and likewise its wood contains many tannins.<ref name = peggy/> This renders the wood very durable,<ref name = peggy/> gives it excellent natural outdoor resistance,<ref name = peggy/><ref name = calu>[http://www.calu.bangor.ac.uk/Technical%20leaflets/050401Chestnuts.pdf Sweet Chestnut production] in Farm Woodlands – CALU Technical Note ref: 050401. July 2006.</ref> and saves the need for other protection treatment. It also corrodes iron slowly, although copper, brass, or stainless metals are not affected.<ref name = calu/>

Chestnut timber is decorative. Light brown in color, it is sometimes confused with oak wood.<ref name = calu/> The two woods' textures are similar.<ref name = peggy/> When in a growing stage, with very little sap wood, a chestnut tree contains more timber of a durable quality than an oak of the same dimensions. Young chestnut wood has proved more durable than oak for woodwork that has to be partly in the ground, such as stakes and fences.<ref name = botanical/>

After most growth is achieved, older chestnut timber tends to split and warp when harvested. The timber becomes neither as hard nor as strong as oak.<ref name = botanical/><ref name = peggy/><ref name = calu/> The American chestnut ''C. dentata'' served as an important source of lumber, because that species has long, unbranched trunks.<ref name = answers/> In Britain, chestnut was formerly used indiscriminately with oak for the construction of houses, [[Millwork (building material)|millwork]], and household furniture.<ref name = botanical/> It grows so freely in Britain that it was long considered a truly native species, partly because the roof of [[Westminster Hall#Westminster Hall|Westminster Hall]] and the [[Parliament House, Edinburgh|Parliament House of Edinburgh]] were mistakenly thought to be constructed of chestnut wood. Chestnut wood, though, loses much of its durability when the tree is more than 50 years old, and despite the local chestnut's quick growth rate, the [[timber]] used for these two buildings is considerably larger than a 50-year-old chestnut's [[:wikt:girth|girth]]. It has been proven that the roofs of these buildings are actually [[Sessile Oak|Durmast oak]], which closely resembles chestnut in [[Wood grain|grain]] and color.<ref name = botanical/>

It is therefore uncommon to find large pieces of chestnut in building structures, but it has always been highly valued for small outdoor furniture pieces, fencing, [[Cladding (construction)|cladding]] ([[Roof shingle|shingles]]) for covering buildings,<ref name = calu/> and pit-props,<ref name = botanical/> for which durability is an important factor. In Italy, chestnut is also used to make [[barrel]]s used for aging [[balsamic vinegar]] and some alcoholic beverages, such as [[whisky]] or [[lambic beer]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Lambic and the spontaneous fermentation|url=http://www.cantillon.be/br/3_11|website=Cantillon.be|publisher=Cantillon|accessdate=2 June 2015}}</ref> Of note, the famous 18th-century "berles" in the French [[Cévennes]] are cupboards cut directly from the hollowed [[trunk (botany)|trunk]].<ref name=joyeuse>[http://www.pays-beaumedrobie.com/fr/musee-chataign/uk-accueil-chataigne.php Chestnut museum in the Beaumedrobie country – France]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Fuel===
Dry, chestnut firewood is best burned in a closed log-burner, because of its tendency to spit when on an open fire.<ref name = calu/>

===Wildlife===
The tree is noted for attracting wildlife. The nuts are an important food for [[jay]]s, [[pigeon]]s, [[wild boar]], deer, and [[squirrel]]s. 
American and Chinese chinquapins (''Castanea pumila'' and ''Castanea henryi'') have very small nuts that are an important source of food for wildlife.<ref name= answers/>

===Leather===
Chestnut wood is a useful source of natural tannin and was used for tanning leather before the introduction of synthetic tannins.<ref name=edlin/> On a 10% moisture basis, the bark contains 6.8% tannin and the wood 13.4%.<ref name= Rottsieper/> The bark imparts a dark colour to the tannin, and has a higher sugar content, which increases the percentage of soluble non-tans, or impurities, in the extract; so it was not employed in this use.<ref name = palimpsest>[http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/don/dt/dt0668.html Chestnut] in Search Conservation OnLine.</ref> Chestnut tannin is obtained by hot-water extraction of chipped wood. It is an ellagic tannin and its main constituents are identified by [[castalagin]] (14.2%) and vescalagin (16.2%).<ref name = hydrolyzable>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/app.30377/abstract ''Polymer structure of commercial hydrolyzable tannins by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry'']. By A. Pizzi, H. Pasch, K. Rode and S. Giovando. 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009.</ref><ref name = ellagitannins>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/app.10618/abstract?systemMessage=Wiley+Online+Library+will+be+disrupted+on+11+May+from+10%3A00-12%3A00+BST+%2805%3A00-07%3A00+EDT%29+for+essential+maintenance ''Considerations on the Macromolecular Structure of Chestnut Ellagitannins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry'']. H. Pasch and A. Pizzi. 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 85: 429–437, 2002.</ref><br>It has a naturally low pH value, relatively low salts content, and high acids content. This determines its astringency and its capability to fix raw hides. These properties make chestnut extract especially suitable for the tanning of heavy hides and to produce leather soles for high-quality shoes in particular. It is possible to obtain a leather with high yield in weight, which is compact, firm, flexible, and waterproof. Chestnut-tanned leathers are elastic, lightfast, resistant to traction and abrasion, and have warm colour.<ref name = Wilson >''The chemistry of leather manufacture.'' By J. A. Wilson (1929). American Chemical Society, Vol. I and II, second edition.</ref><ref name = McLaughlin >''The chemistry of leather manufacture.'' G. D. McLaughlin and E. R. Theis (1945). American Chemical Society.</ref>
Chestnut tannin is one of the pyrogallol class of tannins (also known as [[hydrolysable tannin]]). As it tends to give a brownish tone to the [[leather]], it is most often used in combination with [[Quebracho tannin|quebracho]], [[mimosa]], [[Caesalpinia spinosa|tara]], myrabolans, and [[Valonia oak|valonia]].<ref name = palimpsest/> <br> The wood seems to reach its highest tannin content after the trees reach 30 years old. The southern European chestnut wood usually contains at least 10 to 13% more tannin than chestnut trees in northern climates.

===Other uses===
Fabric can be starched with chestnut [[flour|meal]].<ref name = botanical/> Linen cloth can be whitened with chestnut meal.<ref name = botanical/> The leaves and the skins (husk and pellicle) of the fruits provide a hair shampoo.<ref name = valnet/><ref name = chiej>''Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants''. By R. Chiej. MacDonald 1984. ISBN 0-356-10541-5. Cited in Plants For A Future.</ref>

Hydrolysable chestnut tannins can be used for partial phenol substitution in [[Phenol formaldehyde resin|phenolic resin]] adhesives production<ref name = Spina >[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01694243.2012.697673?journalCode=tast20 ''Phenolic resin adhesives based on chestnut (''''Castanea sativa'''') hydrolysable tannins'']. By S. Spina, X. Zhou, C. Segovia, A. Pizzi, M. Romagnoli, S. Giovando, H. Pasch, K. Rode and L. Delmotte. Journal of adhesion science and technology Online First (2012). DOI: {{DOI|10.1179/2042645312Y.0000000020}}</ref> and also for direct use as resin.<ref name="Peña">[http://www.sc.ehu.es/iawcacik/Ikerkuntza/publicaciones/2009JThermAnalCal.pdf ''Mimosa and chestnut tannin extracts reacted with hexamine in solution'']. By C. Peña, K. De La Caba, A. Retegi, C. Ocando, J. Labidi and J. M. Echeverria. Mondragon. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, Volume 96, issue 2 (May 2009), p. 515–521.</ref>

Chestnut extracts were evaluated through several biochemical assays showing evident [[antioxidant]] properties.<ref name = Barreira >[https://bibliotecadigital.ipb.pt/bitstream/10198/741/1/Barreira%20et%20al.,%202008.%20Food%20chemistry,%20107,%201106-1113%20pdf.pdf ''Antioxidant activities of the extracts from chestnut flower, leaf, skins and fruit'']. By J. C. M. Barreira, I. C. F. R. Ferreira, M. B. P. P. Oliveira and J. A. Pereira. Food Chemistry 107 (2008) 1106–1113.</ref>

Chestnut buds have been [[List of Bach flower remedies|listed]] as one of the 38 substances used to prepare [[Bach flower remedies]],<ref name="Vohra2004">{{cite book|author=D. S. Vohra|title=Bach Flower Remedies: A Comprehensive Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=icG8onA0ys8C&pg=PR3|accessdate=2 September 2013|date=1 June 2004|publisher=B. Jain Publishers|isbn=978-81-7021-271-3|page=3}}</ref> a kind of [[alternative medicine]] promoted for its effect on health. However, according to [[Cancer Research UK]], "there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/flower-remedies
|title=Flower remedies
|publisher=[[Cancer Research UK]]
|accessdate=September 2013
}}</ref>

==Artistic references==
{{Prose|section|date=February 2015}}
{{refimprove section|date=May 2015}}
[[File:Flegel - Krammetsvögel und Maronen.jpg|right|240px|thumb| Still life with roasted chestnuts by [[Georg Flegel]]]]


* In the film [[novel adaptation|based on the novel]] by [[E. M. Forster]], ''[[Howards End (film)|Howards End]],'' Mrs. Ruth Wilcox ([[Vanessa Redgrave]]) tells of her childhood home, where superstitious farmers would place pigs' teeth in the bark of the chestnut trees and then chew on this bark to ease toothaches. In the novel, the tree is actually a [[Wych elm]].
* In George Orwell's ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four|1984]]'' the chestnut tree is used in poems recited throughout, referring to nature, modern life, and lies as in the saying: 'that old chestnut'.{{clarify||date=February 2015}}
* In [[Honoré de Balzac]]'s novel ''[[Le Père Goriot|Père Goriot]]'', [[Vautrin]] states that [[Eugène de Rastignac]]'s family is living off of chestnuts; this symbolism is used to represent how impoverished Eugene's family is.

==Notable chestnut trees==
* [[Chestnut Tree of One Hundred Horses]] on [[Mount Etna]], 57.9 m (190 ft) circumference in 1780, (64-meter circumference in 1883)<ref name = rushton/><ref name = nytimesetna>[https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9E02E0DA123BE033A25753C2A9679C94629FD7CF Chestnut tree on Mount Etna].</ref>
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/48028479@N00/128320486/ Tortworth Chestnut]. 15.8-meter (52 ft) circumference in 1776, when it was described as "the largest tree in England"<ref name=atf>[http://www.woodland-trust.org.uk/ancient-tree-forum/atfgallery/features.htm Ancient Tree Forum] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218170833/http://www.woodland-trust.org.uk/ancient-tree-forum/atfgallery/features.htm |date=December 18, 2008 }}. With the Woodland Trust.</ref>
* Sacred Chestnut of Istan, {{convert|46|ft|m|adj=on}} circumference, estimated to be between 800 and 1,000 years old.<ref name=istan>[http://www.istan.es/pagina.asp?cod=298&idioma=ing Sacred Chestnut of Istan] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616165133/http://www.istan.es/pagina.asp?cod=298&idioma=ing |date=June 16, 2013 }}.</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Food}}
* [[Chestnut cake]]
* [[Chestnut pie]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="Note"}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last=Philips |first=Roger |title=Trees of North America and Europe |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=0-394-50259-0 |year=1979 }}

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
{{Commons category|Castanea}}
* [http://www.acf.org/ The American Chestnut Foundation]
* [http://www.accf-online.org/ American Chestnut Cooperators Foundation]
* [http://www.ladolcevitacooking.com/chestnuts-nutritional-overview/ Nutritional overview of Chestnuts]
* {{cite web|last=Eichhorn|first=Markus|title=Chestnut Tree|url=http://www.test-tube.org.uk/trees/video_chestnut.htm|work=Test Tube|publisher=[[Brady Haran]] for the [[University of Nottingham]]|date=May 2012}}
* http://www.ohenrymag.com/the-nutty-professor/
{{Tannin source}}
{{Nuts}}
{{Woodworking}}

[[Category:Castanea| ]]
[[Category:Christmas food]]
[[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]]

Chestnut

2017-02-20T07:29:17Z

Ityoppyawit: /* Species */

{{about||other uses of "chestnut"|Chestnut (disambiguation)|other uses of "chinquapin" or "chinkapin"|Chinquapin (disambiguation)}}
{{taxobox
|name = Chestnut
|image = Châtaignier 120807 1.jpg
|image_caption = Sweet chestnut ''[[Castanea sativa]]''
|regnum = [[Plant]]ae
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]]
|ordo = [[Fagales]]
|familia = [[Fagaceae]]
|genus = '''''Castanea'''''
|genus authority = Mill.
|subdivision_ranks = Species
|subdivision = ''[[Castanea alnifolia]]*'' –<div align=right>bush chinkapin</div>
''[[Castanea crenata]]'' –<div align=right>Japanese chestnut</div>
''[[Castanea dentata]]'' –<div align=right>American chestnut</div>
''[[Castanea henryi]]'' –<div align=right>Henry's chestnut</div>
''[[Castanea mollissima]]'' –<div align=right>Chinese chestnut</div>
''[[Castanea ozarkensis]]'' –<div align=right>Ozark chinkapin</div>
''[[Castanea pumila]]'' –<div align=right>Allegheny chinkapin</div>
''[[Castanea sativa]]'' –<div align=right>Sweet chestnut</div>
''[[Castanea seguinii]]'' –<div align=right>Seguin's chestnut</div>
<nowiki>*</nowiki> treated as a synonym of ''Castanea pumila'' by many authors
|}}
The '''chestnut''' group is a [[genus]] ('''''Castanea''''') of eight or nine [[species]] of [[deciduous]] trees and [[shrub]]s in the beech family [[Fagaceae]], native to [[temperate climate|temperate]] regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

The name also refers to the edible [[nut (fruit)|nuts]] they produce.<ref name=foc>[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=105816 ''Castanea''] – Flora of China.</ref><ref name=fna>[http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=1&taxon_id=105816 ''Castanea''] – Flora of [[Biome|North America]].</ref><ref name=fe>[http://rbg-web2.rbge.org.uk/cgi-bin/nph-readbtree.pl/feout?FAMILY_XREF=&GENUS_XREF=Castanea&SPECIES_XREF=&TAXON_NAME_XREF=&RANK= ''Castanea''] – Flora Europaea.</ref>

==Species==
Chestnuts belong to the [[Family (biology)|family]] [[Fagaceae]], which also includes [[oak]]s and [[beech]]es. The four main species are commonly known as [[Castanea sativa|European]], [[Castanea mollissima|Chinese]], [[Castanea crenata|Japanese]], and [[Castanea dentata|American chestnut]]s, some species called '''chinkapin''' or '''chinquapin''':<ref name = laren58>[http://www.chestnutsaustralia.com.au/content/view/24/58/ Industry information] by David McLaren. From ''The Chestnut Growers Information Book'', Chestnut Australia Inc.</ref>
* '''European species''' sweet chestnut (''[[Castanea sativa]]'') (also called "Spanish chestnut" in the US) is the only European species of chestnut, though it was successfully introduced to the [[Himalayas]] and other temperate parts of [[Asia]]. Unrelated but externally similar species of [[Aesculus hippocastanum|horse chestnut]] are abundant around Europe.
* '''Asiatic species''' ''[[Castanea crenata]]'' (Japanese chestnut, Korean chestnut), ''[[Castanea mollissima]]'' (Chinese chestnut), ''[[Castanea davidii]]'' (China), ''[[Castanea henryi]]'' (Chinese chinkapin, also called Henry's chestnut – China) and ''[[Castanea seguinii]]'' (also called Seguin's chestnut – China)
* '''American species''' These include ''Castanea dentata'' ([[American chestnut]] – Eastern states), ''[[Castanea pumila]]'' (American- or [[Allegheny chinkapin]], also known as "dwarf chestnut" – Eastern states), ''Castanea alnifolia'' (Southern states), ''Castanea ashei'' (Southern states), ''Castanea floridana'' (Southern states) and ''Castanea paupispina'' (Southern states).<ref name = grocer>[http://digital.lib.msu.edu/projects/cookbooks/books/grocersencyclopedia/ency.html ''The Grocer's Encyclopedia – Encyclopedia of Foods and Beverages'']. By Artemas Ward. New York. 1911.</ref><ref name =" fao">[http://www.fao.org/docrep/006/AC645E/ac645e01.htm ''Postharvest Physiology and Pathology of Chestnuts'']. In ''Postharvest Handling and Storage of Chestnuts''. By Fabio Mencarelli. Food and Agriculture Organisation United Nations. November 2001.</ref>

Chestnuts should not be confused with [[Aesculus|horse chestnuts]] (genus ''[[Aesculus]]''), which are not related to ''Castanea'' and are named for producing nuts of similar appearance, but which are mildly poisonous to humans, nor should they be confused with [[Eleocharis dulcis|water chestnut]] (family [[Cyperaceae]]), which are also unrelated to ''Castanea'' and are tubers of similar taste from an aquatic herbaceous plant.<ref name = answers/><ref name = chestnutbrook/>
Other trees commonly mistaken for chestnut trees are the chestnut oak (''[[Quercus prinus]]'') and the American beech (''[[Fagus grandifolia]]''),<ref name=chestnuttree>[http://www.chestnuttree.net/ Chestnut Tree] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080705113403/http://www.chestnuttree.net/ |date=July 5, 2008 }} in chestnuttree.net.</ref><ref name = nzcouncil/> both of which are also in Fagaceae.

==Etymology==
[[File:Japanese Chestnut01.jpg|thumb|Female chestnut flowers]]
[[File:Japanese Chestnut02.jpg|thumb|Male chestnut flowers]]
The name "chestnut" is derived from an earlier English term "chesten nut", which descends from the Old French word ''chastain'' (Modern French, ''châtaigne'').<ref>[http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=chestnut Chestnut], Etymology Online</ref>

The name ''Castanea'' is probably derived from the old name for the sweet chestnut, either in [[Latin]]<ref name=rhs>''New RHS Dictionary of Gardening''. By A. Huxley ed. 1992. Macmillan ISBN 0-333-47494-5.</ref> or in [[Ancient Greek]]. Another possible source of the name is the town of Kastania in [[Thessaly]], Greece;<ref name = grocer/> more probable, though, is that the town took its name from the most common tree growing around it.<ref name = 2020site/> In the Mediterranean climate zone, chestnut trees are rarer in Greece because the chalky soil is not conducive to the tree's growth. Kastania is located on one of the relatively few sedimentary or siliceous outcrops. They grow so abundantly there, their presence would have determined the place's name.<ref name="Chestnuts">{{cite journal|last1=Fauve-Chamoux|first1=Antoinette|title=Chestnuts|journal=Cambridge World History of Food|date=2000|volume=1|url=http://www.omnilogos.com/2015/06/chestnuts.html}}</ref> Still others take the name as coming from the Greek name of ''Sardis glans'' (Sardis acorn) – [[Sardis]] being the capital of [[Lydia]], Asia Minor, from where the fruit had spread.<ref name= hagen>[https://books.google.com/books?id=g8YSB2K9d1oC&pg=PA51&lpg=PA51&dq=%22Sardis+glans%22&source=web&ots=bUf6jzvJE3&sig=b3EmJcSCMgL2wpy6DX2De9-3YLI&hl=en&sa=X&oi=book_result&resnum=2&ct=result The Meaning of Trees]. By Fred Hageneder, Chronicle Books – Nature. 2005.</ref>

The name is cited twice in the [[King James Version]] of the Bible. In one instance, Jacob puts peeled twigs in the water troughs to promote healthy offspring of his livestock.<ref name = veg>[http://www.vegparadise.com/highestperch211.html Vegetarians in Paradise].</ref> Although it may indicate another tree, it indicates the fruit was a local staple food in the early 17th century.<ref name = 2020site>[http://www.2020site.org/trees/chestnut.html Chestnut Tree].</ref>

These [[synonym]]s are or have been in use: ''Fagus castanea'' (used by Linnaeus in first edition of ''Species Plantarum'', 1753),<ref name = linnaeus>[http://www.jstor.org/pss/2476888 ''On the Name of the American Chestnut'']. By Geo. B. Sudworth. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club, Vol. 19, No. 5 (May 5, 1892), pp. 152–154 (article consists of 3 pages). Published by: Torrey Botanical Society.</ref> Sardian nut, Jupiter's nut, husked nut, and Spanish chestnut (U.S.).<ref name = botanical>[http://www.botanical.com/botanical/mgmh/c/cheswe59.html ''A Modern Herbal'']. By Mrs. M. Grieve.</ref>

==Description==
Chestnut trees are of moderate growth rate (for the Chinese chestnut tree) to fast-growing for American and European species.<ref name = botanical/> Their mature heights vary from the smallest species of chinkapins, often shrubby,<ref name=uniminnesota>[http://www.extension.umn.edu/yardandgarden/ygbriefs/h401chestnuts.html ''Chestnuts, Horse-Chestnuts, and Ohio Buckeyes''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080916230008/http://www.extension.umn.edu/yardandgarden/ygbriefs/h401chestnuts.html |date=September 16, 2008 }}. In Yard and Garden Brief, Horticulture department at University of Minnesota.</ref> to the giant of past American forests, ''C. dentata'' that could reach {{nowrap|60 m}}. Between these extremes are found the Japanese chestnut (''C. crenata'') at {{nowrap|10 m}} average;{{refn|Some specimens can have greater bulk.<ref name="APS1">[http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/chestnut/images/figure4.htm American Phytopathological Society] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080509091414/http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/chestnut/images/figure4.htm |date=May 9, 2008 }}</ref>|group="Note"}} followed by the Chinese chestnut (''C. mollissima'') at about {{nowrap|15 m}}, then the European chestnut (''C. sativa'') around {{nowrap|30 m}}.<ref name = nzcouncil>[http://www.nzcc.org.nz/factsheet.html Chestnuts worldwide and in New Zealand]. By the New Zealand Chestnut Council, 2000.</ref>

The Chinese and more so the Japanese chestnuts are both often multileadered and wide-spreading,<ref name = nzcouncil/> whereas European and especially American species tend to grow very erect when planted among others, with little tapering of their [[columnar]] [[Trunk (botany)|trunks]], which are firmly set and massive. When standing on their own, they spread on the sides and develop broad, rounded, dense [[Crown (botany)|crowns]] at maturity.<ref name = botanical/> The two latter's [[leaf|foliage]] has striking yellow autumn colouring.<ref name=harvard>[http://harvardforest.fas.harvard.edu/research/leaves/future.html Autumn Foliage Color:Past, Present, and Future.] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080513180502/http://harvardforest.fas.harvard.edu/research/leaves/future.html |date=May 13, 2008 }} Harvard University.</ref> [[Image:Sweet chestnut DSCF0160.JPG|thumb|left|Bark - sweet chestnut (''C. sativa'')]]

Its [[bark]] is smooth when young,<ref name = chattooga>[http://www.chattoogariver.org/index.php?req=chestnut&quart=W2002 The American Chestnut Tree]. By Samuel B. Detwiler. Reprinted from American Forestry, October, 1915. Chattooga Conservancy.</ref> of a vinous [[Maroon (color)|maroon]] or red-brown colour for the American chestnut,<ref name = 2020site/> grey for the European chestnut. With age, American species' bark becomes grey and darker, thick and deeply [[furrow]]ed; the furrows run longitudinally, and tend to twist around the trunk as the tree ages; it sometimes reminds one of a large cable with twisted strands.<ref name = botanical/>
[[Image:Chestnut flowers.jpg|thumb|''C. sativa'' male [[catkin]]s (pale buff) and female catkins (green, spiny, partly hidden by leaves)]]

The leaves are simple, [[ovate]] or [[lanceolate]], {{nowrap|10–30 cm}} long and {{nowrap|4–10 cm}} wide, with sharply pointed, widely spaced teeth, with shallow rounded [[Leaf#Margins (edge)|sinuates]] between.<ref name = answers>[http://www.answers.com/topic/chestnut Chestnut] in Answers.com.</ref>

The [[flower]]s follow the leaves, appearing in late spring or early summer<ref name = botanical/> or into July.<ref name= uniminnesota/> They are arranged in long [[catkin]]s of two kinds,<ref name= uniminnesota/> with both kinds being borne on every tree.<ref name = 2020site/> Some catkins are made of only male flowers, which mature first. Each flower has eight [[stamen]]s, or 10 to 12 for ''C. mollissima''.<ref name = tai>{{cite web|url=http://tai2.ntu.edu.tw/udth/bin/fot1.exe/browse?bid=2&page=53|title=電子書台灣植物誌第二版 Flora of Taiwan, 2nd edition 2: 53 - Plants of Taiwan 台灣植物資訊整合查詢系統|work=ntu.edu.tw}}</ref> The ripe [[pollen]] carries a heavy, sweet odour<ref name= uniminnesota/> that some people find too sweet or unpleasant. Other catkins have these pollen-bearing flowers, but also carry near the [[twig]] from which these spring, small clusters of female or fruit-producing flowers. Two or three flowers together form a four-lobed prickly [[calybium]], which ultimately grows completely together to make the brown hull, or [[husk]], covering the fruits.<ref name = botanical/>[[Image:Chestnut03.jpg|thumb|Chestnuts can be found on the ground around trees]] Chestnut flowers are not self-compatible, so two trees are required for pollination. All ''Castanea'' species readily hybridize with each other.

The fruit is contained in a spiny (very sharp) [[Calybium and cupule|cupule]] {{nowrap|5–11 cm}} in diameter, also called "bur" or "[[burr (fruit)|burr]]".<ref name=cnr>[http://www.cnr.vt.edu/DENDRO/DENDROLOGY/syllabus/factsheet.cfm?ID=23 Chinese Chestnut] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081014174650/http://www.cnr.vt.edu/DENDRO/DENDROLOGY/syllabus/factsheet.cfm?ID=23 |date=October 14, 2008 }}, College of Natural Resources, Department of Forestry, VirginiaTech.</ref> The burrs are often paired or clustered on the branch<ref name= uniminnesota/> and contain one to seven nuts according to the different [[species]], [[variety (botany)|varieties]], and [[cultivar]]s.<ref name=foc/><ref name=fna/><ref name=rushforth>''Trees of Britain and Europe''. By K. Rushforth. Collins. 1999. ISBN 0-00-220013-9.</ref><ref name=bean1>''Trees and Shrubs Hardy in the British Isles''. By W.J. Bean. 8th ed., vol. 1. John Murray. 1976. ISBN 0-7195-1790-7.</ref> Around the time the fruits reach maturity, the burrs turn yellow-brown and split open in two or four sections. They can remain on the tree longer than they hold the fruit, but more often achieve complete opening and release the fruits only after having fallen on the ground; opening is partly due to soil [[humidity]].<ref name=" fao"/>

The chestnut fruit has a pointed end with a small tuft at its tip (called "flame" in [[Italian language|Italian]]<ref name = fao/>), and at the other end, a [[:wikt:hilum|hilum]] – a pale brown attachment scar. In many varieties, the fruit is flattened on one or two sides. It has two skins. The first one is a hard, shiny, brown outer hull or [[husk]], called the pericarpus;<ref name = laren43>[http://www.chestnutsaustralia.com.au/content/view/18/43/ ''Chestnut Know-How'']. By David McLaren. Written for Chestnut Australia Inc. 1999.</ref> the industry calls this the "peel".<ref name = fao/> Underneath the pericarpus is another, thinner skin, called the pellicle or episperm.<ref name = laren43/> The pellicle closely adheres to the [[seed]] itself, following the grooves usually present at the surface of the fruit. These grooves are of variable sizes and depths according to the species and variety.

The fruit inside these shows two [[cotyledon]]s with a creamy-white flesh throughout,<ref name=chestnutbrook>[https://web.archive.org/web/20120320094600/http://www.chestnutbrook.com.au/what-are-chestnuts.html''What Are Chestnuts'']. Information page by a small Australian grower in [[Balingup, Western Australia]].</ref> except in some varieties which show only one cotyledon, and whose [[Integument#In botany|episperm]] is only slightly or not intruded at all. Usually, these varieties have only one large fruit per burr, well rounded (no flat face) and which is called "marron"<ref name = fao/> (''marron de Lyon'' in France, ''marron di Mugello'' in Italy, or ''paragon'').

Chestnut fruit have no epigeal dormancy and germinate right upon falling to the ground in the autumn, with the roots emerging from the seed right away and the leaves and stem the following spring. Because the seeds lack a coating or internal food supply, they lose viability soon after ripening and must be planted immediately.

The superior fruiting varieties among European chestnuts have good size, sweet taste, and easy-to-remove inner skins.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} American chestnuts are usually very small (around {{nowrap|5 g}}), but sweet-tasting with easy-to-remove pellicles. Some Japanese varieties have very large nuts (around {{nowrap|40 g}}), with typically difficult-to-remove pellicles. Chinese chestnut pellicles are usually easy to remove, and their sizes vary greatly according to the varieties, although usually smaller than the Japanese chestnut.<ref name = nzcouncil/>

==History==

===Europe===
{| class="sortable wikitable" style="float:right; margin: 0 0 0.5em 1em"
|+ Top chestnut producing countries by years<br />(in metric tons)
!Rank
!Country
!2009
!2010
!2011
|-
| 1 || {{CHN}} || 1,550,000 || 1,620,000 || 1,700,000
|-
| 2 || {{TUR}} || 61,697 || 59,171 || 60,270
|-
| 3 || {{ITA}} || 50,872 || 48,810 || 57,493
|-
| 4 || {{KOR}} || 75,911 || 68,630 || 55,780
|-
| 5 || {{BOL}} || 53,577 || 53,577 || 53,577
|-
| 6 || {{GRC}} || 14,000 || 20,900 || 21,500
|-
| 7 || {{JPN}} || 21,700 || 23,500 || 19,100
|-
| 8 || {{PRT}} || 24,305 || 22,350 || 18,271
|-
| 9 || {{PRK}} || 10,201 || 9,628 || 11,000
|-
| 10 || {{ESP}} || 10,000 || 10,000 || 10,000
|- style="background:#ccc;"
| — || ''[[World]]'' || 1,890,179 || 1,954,623 || 2,022,831
|-
|colspan=5 | <center>''Source: [[FAO|UN Food & Agriculture Organization]]'' <ref>{{cite web|url=http://faostat.fao.org/site/339/default.aspx|publisher= [[FAO|UN Food & Agriculture Organization]]|title=Production of Chestnut by countries|year=2011|accessdate=2013-12-21}}</ref>
|}
The sweet chestnut was introduced into Europe from [[Sardis]], in [[Asia Minor]]; the fruit was then called the Sardian nut.<ref name = botanical/> It has been a staple food in southern Europe, Turkey, and southwestern and eastern Asia<ref name = chestnutbrook/><ref name=history>[http://www.hesge.ch/eil/Pages/AG/actualites/doc/Chataigner/TexteConedera2.pdf ''The cultivation of Castanea sativa (Mill.) in Europe, from its origin to its diffusion on a continental scale''] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080910104813/http://www.hesge.ch/eil/Pages/AG/actualites/doc/Chataigner/TexteConedera2.pdf |date=September 10, 2008 }}. By M. Conedera, P. Krebs, W. Tinner, M. Pradella and D. Torriani. Veget Hist Archaeobot (2004) 13:161–179. {{doi|10.1007/s00334-004-0038-7}}. This multidisciplinary study reconstructs the origin of chestnut cultivation and its spread throughout Europe in prehistoric times.</ref> for millennia, largely replacing cereals where these would not grow well, if at all, in mountainous Mediterranean areas.<ref name = Jalut>[http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/chestnuts.htm ''Les débuts de l'agriculture en France: Les défrichements'']. By Guy Jalut. 1976. In ''La Préhistoire Française'', Vol. 2: 180–5. Paris. Cited in ''The Cambridge World History of Food'' – Chestnuts, edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas.</ref> Evidence of its cultivation by man is found since around 2000 BC.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.botany.unibe.ch/paleo/publications/reprints/VegetHistArchaeobot_13_161.pdf |title=Archived copy |accessdate=2012-09-13 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304080146/http://www.botany.unibe.ch/paleo/publications/reprints/VegetHistArchaeobot_13_161.pdf |archivedate=2016-03-04 |df= }}</ref> [[Alexander the Great]] and the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]] planted chestnut trees across Europe while on their various campaigns. A [[Ten Thousand (Greek)|Greek army]] is said to have survived their retreat from Asia Minor in 401–399 BC thanks to their stores of chestnuts.<ref name = peggy>[http://homecooking.about.com/od/foodhistory/a/chestnuthistory.htm Chestnut History] by Peggy Trowbridge Filippone. For Cooking resources, Food history, in About.com.</ref> Ancient Greeks, such as Dioscorides and Galen, wrote of chestnuts to comment on their medicinal properties—and of the flatulence induced by eating too much of it.<ref name="Chestnuts"/> To the early Christians, chestnuts symbolized [[chastity]].<ref name = veg/> Until the introduction of the [[potato]], whole forest-dwelling communities which had scarce access to [[wheat]] flour relied on chestnuts as their main source of [[carbohydrate]]s.<ref name = chestnutbrook/> In some parts of Italy, a cake made of chestnuts is used as a substitute for potatoes.<ref name = grocer/> In 1583, Charles Estienne and Jean Liébault wrote, "an infinity of people live on nothing else but (the chestnut)".<ref name = estienne>Charles Estienne and Jean Liébault. ''L'agriculture et maison rustique''. Paris.1583. Cited in ''The Cambridge World History of Food'' – Chestnuts, edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas.</ref> In 1802, an Italian [[agronomist]] said of Tuscany that "the fruit of the chestnut tree is practically the sole subsistence of our highlanders",<ref name = targioni>Targioni-Tozzetti 1802, Vol. 3: 154. Cited in ''The Cambridge World History of Food'' – Chestnuts.</ref> while in 1879 it was said that it almost exclusively fed whole populations for half the year, as "a temporary but complete substitution for cereals".<ref name = leplay>Les ouvriers européens. By Frédéric Le Play. 6 vols. Paris. 1879. Cited in ''The Cambridge World History of Food'' – Chestnuts, edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas.</ref>

[[Boundaries in landscape history|Boundary records]] compiled in the reign of [[John of England|John]] already showed the famous [[Tortworth|Tortworth Chestnut]] in South [[Gloucestershire]], as a landmark; and it was also known by the same name of [https://www.flickr.com/photos/48028479@N00/128320486/ "Great Chestnut of Tortworth"] in the days of [[Stephen of England|Stephen]]. This tree measured over {{convert|50|ft|m}} in circumference at {{convert|5|ft|m}} from the ground in 1720. The chestnut forests on [[Mount Etna]] contain many trees that are said to be even larger. Chestnut trees particularly flourish in the [[Mediterranean basin]].<ref name = botanical/> In 1584, the governor of [[Republic of Genoa|Genua]], which dominated [[Corsica]], ordered all the farmers and landowners to plant four trees yearly, among which a chestnut tree – plus [[olive]], [[Ficus carica|fig]] and [[mulberry]] trees (this assumedly lasted until the end of Genoese rule over Corsica in 1729). Many communities owe their origin and former richness to the ensuing chestnut woods.<ref name = terracorsa>[http://www.terracorsa.info/chestnut/chestnut.html The Chestnut Tree] in terracorsa.</ref> In France, the ''[[marron glacé]]'', a candied chestnut involving 16 different processes in a typically French cooking style, is always served at Christmas and New Year's time.<ref name = veg/> In [[Modena]], Italy, they are soaked in wine before roasting and serving,<ref name = veg/> and are also traditionally eaten on [[Nativity Fast#Coptic fast|Saint Simon's Day]] in [[Tuscany]].<ref name = peggy/> It is traditional to eat roasted chestnuts in Portugal on [[St. Martin's Day]].

Their popularity declined during the last few centuries, partly due to their reputation of "food for poor people".<ref name = valnet>''Traitement des maladies par les légumes, les fruits et les céréales''. By Dr Jean Valnet. Ed. Maloine s.a., 1977, pp. 213 to 216. First published in 1964. ISBN 2-224-00399-4. Translated in English as ''Organic garden medicine – The medical uses of vegetables, fruits and grains'', Ed. Erbonia Books Inc., New York.</ref> Many people did not want to take chestnut bread as "[[bread]]" because chestnut flour does not rise. Some slandered chestnut products in such words as the bread which "gives a sallow complexion" written in 1770,<ref name = buchoz>''Dictionnaire universel des plantes, arbres et arbustes de la France'': 126. By Pierre-Joseph Buc'hoz. Paris. 1770.</ref> or in 1841 "this kind of mortar which is called a soup".<ref name = thouin>''Voyage dans la Belgique, la Hollande et l'Italie (1796–1798)'': 173. By André Thouin. Paris. 1841.</ref> The last decades' worldwide renewal may have profited from the huge reforestation efforts started in the 1930s in the United States to establish varieties of ''C. sativa'' which may be resistant to chestnut blight, as well as to relieve the strain on cereal supplies.[[Image:2005chestnut.PNG|thumb|left|Chestnut output in 2005]]

The main region in Italy for chestnut production is the [[Mugello region]]; in 1996, the European Community granted the fruit Protected Geographic Indication (equivalent to the French Appellation d'Origine Contrôlée) status to the [http://www.firenzeturismo.it/en/prodotti-tipici-toscani/the-igp-mugello-sweet-chestnut.html Mugello sweet chestnut]. It is markedly sweet, peels easily, is not excessively floury or [[astringent]], and has notes of [[vanilla]], [[hazelnut]], and, more subtly, fresh bread. There is no unpleasant aroma, such as [[yeast]], [[fungus]], [[mold]] or paper, which sometimes occur with other chestnuts.<ref name=mugello>[http://www.firenzeturismo.it/en_EN/other-typical-products/the-igp-mugello-sweet-chestnut.html The IGP Mugello Sweet Chestnut.]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref> The main regions in France for chestnut production are the départements of [[Ardèche]], with the famous [http://comenius.tczew.pl/natHeritag.pdf "Châtaigne d'Ardèche" (A.O.C)], of the [[Var (department)|Var]], and of the [[Lyon]] region. France annually produces over 1,000 metric tons, but still imports about 8,000 metric tons, mainly from Italy.<ref name=candied>[http://pageperso.aol.fr/sophieherisse/MarronsGlaces.html Candied chestnuts (in French).]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

In Portugal's archipelago of Madeira, chestnut liquor is a traditional beverage, and it is gaining popularity with the tourists and in continental Portugal.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.aportugueseaffair.com/portuguese-drinks/|title=The Portuguese Drinks You Need to Know • A Portuguese Affair|website=www.aportugueseaffair.com|access-date=2016-11-10}}</ref>

===Asia===
Always served as part of the New Year menu in Japan, chestnuts represent both success and hard times—mastery and strength.<ref name = veg/> The Japanese chestnut (''kuri'') was in cultivation before [[rice]]<ref name = tasteofjapan>[http://www.tasteofjapan.ru/eng/products/fruits/kuri.php Japanese Chestnut] in Japan House</ref> and the Chinese chestnut (''C. mollissima'') possibly for 2,000 to 6,000 years.<ref name = nzcouncil/>

During British colonial rule in the mid-1700s to 1947, the sweet chestnut ''(C. sativa)'' was widely introduced in the temperate parts of the [[Indian Subcontinent]], mainly in the lower-to-middle [[Himalayas]]. They are widely found in British-founded [[hill stations]] in northern [[India]], and to a lesser extent in [[Bhutan]] and [[Nepal]]. They are mainly used as an ornamental tree and are found in almost all British-founded botanical gardens and official governmental compounds (such as larger official residences) in temperate parts of the Indian Subcontinent.

China has about 300 chestnut [[cultivar]]s. Moreover, the [[Dandong chestnut]] (belonging to the Japanese chestnut ''C. crenata'') is a major [[cultivar]] in [[Liaoning|Liaoning Province]].<ref name = biodiv>[http://www.biodiv.gov.cn/images_biodiv/resources/economic-tree-en.htm Economic forest trees].</ref>

===North America===
[[Native Americans in the United States|American Indians]] were eating the American chestnut species, mainly ''C. dentata'' and some others, long before European immigrants introduced their stock to America, and before the arrival of [[chestnut blight]].<ref name = peggy/> In some places, such as the [[Appalachian Mountains]], one-quarter of [[hardwood]]s were chestnuts. Mature trees often grew straight and branch-free for {{convert|50|ft|m}}, up to 100 feet, averaging up to 5 ft in diameter. For three centuries, most [[barn]]s and homes east of the [[Mississippi River]] were made from it.<ref name=salem>[http://www.salemboard.com/furniture/conservation.php American Chestnut Restoration]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}. Salem Board & Beam.</ref> In 1911, the food book ''[[The Grocer's Encyclopedia]]'' noted that a cannery in Holland included in its "vegetables-and-meat" ready-cooked combinations, a "chestnuts and sausages" casserole besides the more classic "beef and onions" and "green peas and veal". This celebrated the chestnut culture that would bring whole villages out in the woods for three weeks each autumn (and keep them busy all winter), and deplored the lack of food diversity in the United States's shop shelves.<ref name="grocer"/>

Soon after that, though, the American chestnuts were nearly wiped out by chestnut blight. The discovery of the blight fungus on some Asian chestnut trees planted on [[Long Island]], [[New York (state)|New York]], was made public in 1904. Within 40 years, the nearly four billion-strong American chestnut population in North America was devastated;<ref name="acfh">[http://www.acf.org/history.php The American Chestnut Foundation – Mission & History].</ref> only a few clumps of trees remained in Michigan, Wisconsin, [[California]] and the [[Pacific Northwest]].<ref name = peggy/> Due to disease, American chestnut wood almost disappeared from the market for decades, although quantities can still be obtained as [[reclaimed lumber]].<ref name=edlin>''Trees, Woods and Man''. By H.L. Edlin. New Naturalist. 1970. ISBN 0-00-213230-3.</ref> Today, they only survive as single trees separated from any others (very rare), and as [[living stump]]s, or "stools", with only a few growing enough [[shoot]]s to produce seeds shortly before dying. This is just enough to preserve the genetic material used to engineer an American chestnut tree with the minimal necessary genetic input from any of the disease-immune Asiatic species. Efforts started in the 1930s are still ongoing to repopulate the country with these trees, in [[Massachusetts]]<ref name= rhys>[http://www.wbur.org/news/2008/78764_20080718.asp ''The American Chestnut Returns'']. By Fred Thys, for WBUR news. July 18, 2008.</ref> and many places elsewhere in the United States.<ref name="acf">[http://www.acf.org/ American Chestnut Foundation].</ref> In the 1970s, geneticist [[Charles Burnham (geneticist)|Charles Burnham]] began back-breeding Asian chestnut into American chestnut populations to confer blight resistance with the minimum difference in genes.<ref name=Atlantic>{{cite journal|last1=Cummer|first1=Korby|title=A New Chestnut|journal=The Atlantic|date=June 2003|url=http://www.theatlantic.com/magazine/archive/2003/06/a-new-chestnut/302742/|accessdate=21 September 2015}}</ref> In the 1950s, the Dunstan chestnut was developed in Greensboro, N.C., and constitutes the majority of blight-free chestnuts produced in the United States annually.

Today, the nut's [[Supply and demand|demand outstrips supply]]. The United States imported 4,056 metric tons of European in-shell chestnuts worth $10 million in 2007.<ref name = geisler>[http://www.agmrc.org/agmrc/commodity/nuts/chestnuts/ Agricultural Marketing Resource Center: ''Chestnuts'']. By Malinda Geisler, content specialist, Agricultural Marketing Resource Center, Iowa State University. Revised May 2008.</ref> The U.S. chestnut industry is in its infancy, producing less than 1% of total world production. Since the mid-20th century, most of the US [[import]]s are from [[Southern Italy]], with the large, meaty, and richly flavored [[Sicilia]]n chestnuts being considered among the best quality for bulk sale and supermarket retail. Some imports come from Portugal and France. The next two largest sources of imports are China and [[South Korea]].<ref name = geisler/> The French [[variety (botany)|varieties]] of marrons are highly favoured and sold at high prices in [[gourmet]] shops.<ref name = veg/>

A study of the sector in 2005 found that US producers are mainly part-timers diversifying an existing agricultural business, or hobbyists.<ref name = umca>[http://www.centerforagroforestry.org/pubs/chestnutmarketreport.pdf University of Missouri Center for Agroforestry, 2005 – This report describes findings from a 2004 nationwide survey of the U.S. chestnut market.]</ref> Another recent study indicates that investment in a new plantation takes 13 years to break even, at least within the current Australian market.<ref name = laren60/> Starting a small-scale operation requires a relatively low initial investment; this is a factor in the small size of the present production operations, with half of them being within 3 to {{convert|10|acre|m2}}. Another predetermining factor in the small productivity of the sector is that most orchards have been created less than 10 years ago, so have young trees which are as now barely entering commercial production.<ref name = umca/> Assuming a {{convert|10|kg}} yield for a 10-year-old tree is a reliable conservative estimate, though some exceptional specimens of that age have yielded {{convert|100|kg}}.<ref name = laren60/> So, most producers earn less than $5,000 per year, with a third of the total not having sold anything so far.<ref name = umca/>

Moreover, the plantings have so far been mostly of Chinese species, but the products are not readily available.<ref name = umca/> The American Chestnut Foundation recommends waiting a little while more before large-scale planting.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}} This is because it and its associates (the American Chestnut Cooperators' Foundation and many others from education, research and industry sectors contributing to the program) are at the last stages of developing a variety that is as close as possible to the American chestnut, while having incorporated the blight-resistant gene of the Asiatic species. Considering the additional advantage that chestnut trees can be easily grown organically,<ref name = umca/> and assuming the development of brands in the market, it has been asserted that, everything else being equal, home-grown products would reach higher prices than imports,{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} the high volume of which indicates a market with expanding prospects.<ref name = umca/> As of 2008, the price for chestnuts sold fresh in the shell ranges from $1.50 per pound ($3.30/kg) wholesale to about $5 per pound ($11/kg) retail, depending mainly on the size.<ref name = geisler/><ref name = umca/>

===Australia, New Zealand===
The [[Gold rush#Australian gold rushes|Australian gold rush]] of the 1850s and 1860s led to the first recorded plantings of European chestnut trees, brought in from Europe by the first settlers.<ref name = nzcouncil/> Along the years, most chestnut tree plantations were ''C. sativa'' stock, which is still the dominant species. Some of these are still standing today. Some trees in northern [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] are around 120 years old and up to 60 m tall. <br>Chestnuts grow well in [[South West (Western Australia)|southwest]] [[Western Australia]], which has cold winters and warm to hot summers.<ref name = chestnutbrook/> As of 2008, the country has just under 350 growers, annually producing around 1,200 metric tons of chestnuts, of which 80% come from northeast [[Victoria (Australia)#Geology and geography|Victoria]]. The produce is mostly sold to the domestic fresh fruit market. Chestnuts are now slowly gaining popularity in Australia. A considerable increase in production is expected in the next 10 years, due to the increase in commercial plantings during the last 15<ref name = laren58/> to 25 years.<ref name = chestnutbrook/> By far, the most common species in Australia is the European chestnut, but small numbers of the other species, as well as some [[hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] have been planted.<ref name = laren58/><br>The Japanese chestnut (''C. crenata'') does well in wet and humid weather and in hot summers (about 30 °C); and was introduced to New Zealand in the early 1900s, more so in the upper [[North Island]] region<ref name = nzcouncil/>

==Nutrition==
{{nutritional value|name=Chestnuts (raw,
peeled)|kJ=820 | fat=1.3 g | protein=1.6 g |
carbs=44 g | sugars=11 g | vitA_ug = 1 | vitC_mg=40.2 | vitB6_mg=0.352 | vitB12_ug=0 | thiamin_mg=0.144 | riboflavin_mg=0.016 | niacin_mg=1.102 | folate_ug=58 | sodium_mg=2 | potassium_mg = 484 |calcium_mg=19 | iron_mg=0.94 | phosphorus_mg=38 | magnesium_mg=30 | zinc_mg=0.49 | water=60.21 g | source_usda=1 | right=1}}

Chestnuts depart from the norm for [[Nut (fruit)|culinary nuts]] in that they have very little protein or fat, their calories coming chiefly from carbohydrates. Fresh chestnut fruits have about 180 [[calorie]]s<ref name = mugello/> (800 kJ) per 100 grams of edible parts, which is much lower than [[walnut]]s, [[almond]]s, other nuts and dried fruit (about 600 kcal/100 g).<ref name = mugello/> Chestnuts  contain very little fat, mostly unsaturated, and no [[gluten]].<ref name = nzcouncil/>

Their carbohydrate content compares with that of wheat<ref name = valnet/> and rice; chestnuts have twice as much [[starch]] as the potato on an as-is basis.<ref name = peggy/> In addition, chestnuts contain about 8% of various [[sugar]]s, mainly [[sucrose]], [[glucose]], [[fructose]], and, in a lesser amount, [[stachyose]] and [[raffinose]], which are fermented in the lower gut, producing gas.<ref name = fao/> In some areas, sweet chestnut trees are called "the bread tree".<ref name = mugello/><ref name = rockridgemarket>[http://rockridgemarkethall.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=123&Itemid=107 ''The Chestnut – Fruit of the Bread Tree'']. Rockridge Market Hall.</ref> When chestnuts are just starting to [[Ripening|ripen]], the fruit is mostly starch and is very firm under finger pressure from the high water content. As the chestnuts ripen, the starch is slowly converted into [[Sugar#Chemistry|sugars]], and moisture content also starts decreasing. Upon pressing the chestnut, a slight 'give' can be felt; the [[husk|hull]] is not so tense, and space occurs between it and the flesh of the fruit.<ref name = delmarvelous>[http://www.buychestnuts.com/trees.htm Delmarvelous nursery] (Chestnut Trees & Seed Nuts).</ref> 
They are the only "nuts" that contain [[vitamin C]], with about 40 mg per 100 g of raw product, which is about 65% of the U.S. [[recommended daily intake]]. The amount of vitamin C decreases by about 40% after heating. Fresh chestnuts contain about 52% water by weight, which evaporates relatively quickly during storage; they can lose as much as 1% of weight in one day at 20 °C (68 °F) and 70% [[relative humidity]].<ref name =" fao"/>

[[Tannin]] is contained in the bark<ref name= uphof>''Dictionary of Economic Plants''. By [[Johannes Cornelius Theodorus Uphof|J. C. Th. Uphof]]. Weinheim 1959. Cited in Plants For A Future.</ref><ref name= Rottsieper>''Vegetable Tannins''. By E.H.W. Rottsieper. The Forestal Land, Timber and Railways Co. Ltd. 1946. Cited in Plants For A Future.</ref> as well as in the wood, leaves, and seed [[husk]]s. The husks contain 10–13% tannin.<ref name= Rottsieper/>

==Cultivation, pests and diseases==
[[Image:Chestnuts02.jpg|right|thumb|Chestnuts]]

===Climate, seasonal germination cycle===
Chestnuts produce a better crop when subjected to chill temperatures during the [[dormancy|dormant]] period. [[Frost#Effect on plants|Frosts]] and snowfalls are beneficial rather than harmful to the trees.<ref name = chestnutbrook/><ref name=laren60>[http://www.chestnutsaustralia.com.au/content/view/25/60/ ''Chestnut production'']. By David McLaren. Written from ''The Chestnut Growers Information Book'', for Chestnut Australia Inc. 1999 for Chestnut Australia Inc. 1999.</ref> The dormant plant is very cold-hardy in Britain.<ref name=KenFern>Ken Fern. Notes from observations, tasting etc at ''Plants for a Future'' and on field trips. Cited in ''Plants for a Future''.</ref> Chestnut is [[Hardiness zone|hardy to zone 5]], which is 22 °C (39.6 °F) lower in average minimal temperature than [[London#Climate|London]] in [[Hardiness zone|zone 9]].<ref name=pfaf>[http://www.pfaf.org/database/plants.php?Castanea+sativa Castanea sativa – Mill.] in ''Plants for a Future''.</ref> But the young growth in spring, even on mature plants, is [[frost]]-tender;<ref name= KenFern/><ref name=pfaf/> [[bud]]-burst is later than most other fruit trees, so late frosts can be damaging to young buds.<ref name=laren60/>

Trees can be found at altitudes between 200 and 1000 metres above sea level;<ref name=laren60/> some mention between 300 and 750 m altitude,<ref name=lille>[http://www.univ-lille1.fr/pfeda/iaal/docs/iaal2002/crem/rapport/crememarron.pdf ''Étude d'un produit régional : La crème de marrons'']. By Sabrina Derouet, Flavie Dhellemmes, Lamia Hakam, Claire Lhaoucine and Maxime Vanhoutte. EPU Lille-USTL. 2003.</ref> while the famous [[Chestnut Tree of One Hundred Horses]] on [[Mount Etna]] stands at 1200 metres.<ref name=rushton>[http://digicoll.library.wisc.edu/cgi-bin/HistSciTech/HistSciTech-idx?type=turn&entity=HistSciTech001201260012&isize=text The Chestnut tree of Mount Etna]. Detailed account of the tree, its state and its surroundings, written by Wm. Rushton on June 29, 1871.</ref> They can tolerate maritime exposure, although growth is reduced.<ref name=pfaf/>

Seeds [[germination|germinate]] in late winter or early spring,<ref name= KenFern/><ref name=pfaf/> but the life length is short. If kept moist, they can be stored in a cool place for a few months, but must be checked regularly for signs of germination.<ref name=pfaf/> Low temperature prolongs dormancy.<ref name=fao/> It is better to sow them as soon as ripe, either in [[cold frame]]s or [[seedbed]]s outdoors,<ref name= sheat>''Propagation of Trees, Shrubs and Conifers.'' By W. G. Sheat. MacMillan and Co 1948. Cited in ''Plants For A Future''.</ref> where they can be left ''in situ'' for 1 to 2 years before being planted in their permanent positions,<ref name=pfaf/> or in pots, where the plants can be put out into their permanent positions in summer or autumn. They must be protected from the cold in their first winter,<ref name= KenFern/> and also from [[mouse|mice]] and [[squirrel]]s.<ref name=pfaf/>

Chestnuts are considered self-sterile,<ref name=pfaf/><ref name = song>[http://www.songonline.ca/nuts/chestnut.htm Sweet Chestnut (''Castanea'' species)]. Society of Ontario Nut Growers.</ref> so at least two trees are needed for pollination.<ref name = delmarvelous/>

===Soil requirements===
''Castanea'' grows best in a soil with good [[Drainage system (agriculture)|drainage]] and adequate moisture.<ref name = laren60/><ref name = delmarvelous/> The tree prefers sloping, deep soils; it does not like shallow or heavy soils with impermeable, [[clay]] [[subsoil]]s.<ref name = laren60/> The Chinese chestnut prefers a fertile, well-drained soil, but it grows well in fairly dry, rocky, or poor soils.<ref name=Kentuckyforestry>[http://www.forestry.ky.gov/programs/reforestation/Tree+Species+Information.htm Kentucky Division of Forestry] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080820025958/http://www.forestry.ky.gov/programs/reforestation/Tree+Species+Information.htm |date=August 20, 2008 }}.</ref>

Although ''Castanea'' can grow in very [[acid]] soil,<ref name=pfaf/> and while these soils are reasonably well tolerated, the preferred range is from pH 5.5-6.0.<ref name = laren60/> It does not grow well on [[Alkaline#Alkaline soil|alkaline soils]], such as [[chalk]],<ref name=rhs/><ref name=pfaf/> but thrives on soils such as those derived from [[granite]], [[sandstone]], or [[schist]].<ref name=rhs/> On alkaline soils, chestnut trees can be grown by [[grafting]] them onto [[oak]] rootstocks.<ref name=edlin/> <br> Recently cleared land is best avoided to help resist the [[root rot]], ''Armillaria mellia''.<ref name = laren60/>

===Sun exposure===
''Castanea'' likes a full sun position.<ref name = delmarvelous/> An experiment with ''C. dentata'' seedlings in Ohio confirmed the need for sun for optimal growth.<ref name= ohio>[http://abstracts.co.allenpress.com/pweb/esa2003/document/25264 Survival and growth in size and biomass of American Chestnut (''Castanea dentata'') seedlings under various silvicultural regimens in a mixed oak forest ecosystem.] By Corinne McCament and Brian McCarthy. Ohio University, Athens, Ohio. Paper presented on 6 August 2003 at the ESA 2003 Annual Meeting.</ref> The butt of the tree is sometimes painted with white paint to protect the tree from [[sunburn]] until it has developed enough [[Canopy (forest)|canopy]].<ref name = laren60/> <br> Wide spacing between the trees encourages low, broad [[crown (botany)|crowns]] with maximum exposure to sunshine to increase fruit production. Where chestnut trees touch, virtually no fruit is produced. Current [[orchard|industrial planting spacings]] can range from 7 x 7 m to 20 x 20 m. The closer plantings, which are more popular, mean quicker increases in short-term production, but heavy pruning or even tree removal is required later.<ref name = laren60/>

===Watering===
The optimum rainfall for chestnut trees is {{convert|800|mm|in|0|abbr=on}} or more, ideally in even distribution throughout the year. [[Mulch]]ing during summer is recommended. Rainfall below {{convert|700|mm|in|abbr=on}} per year needs be complemented with, for example, a [[drip irrigation]] system. This should water the soil at the outer half of the circle formed by the drip line<ref name = laren60/> to encourage root growth.

Independently from annual rainfall, it is recommended to water young trees at least during summer and early autumn.<ref name = laren60/> Once established, they resist [[drought]]s well.<ref name=rhs/><ref name=bean1/><ref name = Bown>''Encyclopaedia of Herbs and their Uses''. By D. Bown. Dorling Kindersley, London. 1995 ISBN 0-7513-0203-1.</ref><ref name = chittendon>''RHS Dictionary of Plants plus Supplement''. By F. Chittendon. 1956 Oxford University Press 1951.</ref>

===Preservation===
As well as being consumed fresh, chestnuts can also be canned, pureed, or preserved in sugar or syrup (marrons glacés). Shelled and cooked nuts should be covered, refrigerated, and used within three to four days. Cooked chestnuts, either whole, chopped, or pureed, may be frozen in an airtight container and held up to 9 months. Because of their high water content, [[transpiration]] rates and consequent loss weight, the nuts react as fresh fruits (not as nuts). They should be kept cool at all times, including in shops when on display for sale.<ref name = laren60/> To preserve their freshness for a few months with no artificial refrigeration, the chestnuts can be soaked in cold water for about 20 hours immediately after [[harvest]], after which they are dried in the shade, then layered in dry sand.<ref name = valnet/> <br>Chestnuts behave similarly to seeds in that they produce very little [[Ethylene#Ethylene as a plant hormone|ethylene]], and their [[Plant respiration|respiration]] rate is low, varying between 5 and 20 mg/(kg·h) depending on the temperature.<ref name = fao/>

===Pests===

====Mammals and birds====
* The main threat to chestnut trees comes from [[grey squirrel]]s stripping its bark, from when the tree is about 8 years old and onwards through the life of the tree.<ref name = laren60/>
* [[Rabbit]]s and [[wallaby|wallabies]] can do great damage to young trees, which need guarding by some fence or by wrapping the tree trunk in sisal or other appropriate material. Deer and kangaroos can also be troublesome.<ref name = laren60/>
* Cattle and horses may require temporary fencing to prevent them from damaging fallen chestnuts at harvest time.<ref name = laren60/>
* The [[sulphur crested cockatoo]] can damage branches up to 10 mm in diameter by carrying out "beak maintenance" on young trees.<ref name = laren60/>
* [[Rosella]]s can also be troublesome at harvest time.<ref name = laren60/>

====Insects====

* The [[larva]]e of the polyfag moth (''[[Phytomyza horticola]]'')<ref name = plantdoctor>[http://plante-doktor.dk/insektrigeteng.htm Plantedoktoren]. A gallery of plant pests.</ref> species are among those who do most damage to [[shoot]]s and foliage.<ref name = szenti>[http://www.sarkpont.hu/webset32.cgi?Sarkpont@@EN@@21@@GOOGLEBOT ''The pest control of the Chestnut tree''] by Dr Péter Szentiványi. Chestnut – Agricultural Publisher. For Sarkpont Cc., Hungary.</ref>
* The most frequently occurring pests are the [[winter moth]] (''Operophtera brumata'') and the [[mottled umber moth]] (''Erannis defoliaria'').<ref name = szenti/>
* The [http://uk.ask.com/web?qsrc=167&o=41439048&l=dis&siteid=41439048&q=Attelabus+nitens+picture&dm=all oak roller weevil] ([[List of weevil (Curculionoidea) species recorded in Britain#Family Attelabidae|''Attelabus nitens'']]) causes relatively less damage by rolling up the leaves into a barrel shape to shelter its eggs and its developing larvae. The insects swarm from the end of April to mid-June, and damage the tree's flower buds during their feeding season.<ref name = szenti/>
* The [[larva]]e of the oak-leaf-mining moth, also called the tischerid moth (''[[Tischeria ekebladella]]''), digs white, see-through mines in chestnut leaves. It lays its eggs in the leaves between May and June. The larvae cause white spots in the leaves by chewing them from the inside.<ref name = szenti/>
* The oak [[aphid]] (''[[Myzocallis castanicola]]'') sucks on the apex of young [[shoot]]s and leaves. Native to Europe and North America, it is, for example, active in [[Hungary]]. Leaves do not roll up, but their feeding delays the growth of shoots and damages young [[Grafting|graft]]-shoot hosts. Commercial plantations and nurseries spray pesticides during the shoots' growth period to fight the damage.<ref name = szenti/> The chestnut [[mosaic virus]] is probably transmitted by ''Myzocallis castanicola'' aphids.<ref name = ctifl>[http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=afficheN&cpsidt=3010278 ''Chestnut mosaic virus : Transmission by the aphid Myzocallis castanicola on Chestnut tree'']. By J.-C. Desvignes and D. Cornaggia (CTIFL, Centre de Lanxade, La Force, France). In Phytoma, la défense des végétaux. 1996, no. 481, pp. 39–41 (6 ref.). {{ISSN|1164-6993}}.</ref>
* The chestnut weevil (''[[Curculio elephas]]'') most often damages the fruits. In Hungary, it swarms in chestnut [[orchard]]s around August 20, particularly strongly around noon and in sunny weather. The eggs are laid into the [[Calybium and cupule|cupule]]s or around the [[peduncle (botany)|peduncle]] joints. The larvae feed on the nuts and leave only nutchips and excrement within. While the chestnuts ripen, the larvae retreat into the ground after having chewed their way out of the nuts. The following July, they turn into [[pupa]]e. <br> The larvae of the chestnut weevil can only chew their way out of a fallen nut, so breeding occurs mostly where chestnuts lie on the ground for a sufficient length of time, or where the trees produce many small fruits which remain behind at the harvest. Timing the harvests to pick up the chestnuts as soon as they fall reduces the numbers of the [[overwinter]]ing larvae. Regular soil work is also unfavourable to its life habits. Small [[Grafting|grafts]] are sprayed with chemicals. A warm aerosol-based protection has been developed for older trees, by Sifter and Bürgés in 1971.<br>It is not recommended to plant chestnut orchards beside [[Quercus cerris|Turkey oak]] forests, because both trees are susceptible to the chestnut weevil (which also uses the Turkey oak acorn to develop), and the Turkey oak trees can pass it on to the chestnut trees.<ref name = szenti/>
* In Hungary, the most common moth threatening chestnut trees is the [[Tortricidae|acorn moth]] (''Laspeyreisa splendana'') and its subspecies. Its grayish-yellow larvae cause similar damage to that of the chestnut weevil, but they spin characteristic webs among the nutchips and larval excrement. This moth causes about 5–41% of the damage that occurs in western Hungary's plantations. Plantations need regular protection against these moths, the occurrence of which does not decrease.<ref name = szenti/>
* In New Zealand, the [[grass]] grub beetle eats the soft new-season foliage. They can entirely strip a young tree in the late spring, when they fly at dusk, often in huge numbers.<ref name = nzcouncil/>

===Diseases===
* [[Chestnut blight]] fungus (''Cryphonectria parasitica'') (formerly ''Endothia parasitica'') affects chestnut trees. The Eastern Asian species have coevolved with this disease and are moderately to very resistant to it, while the European and North American species, not having been exposed to it in the past, have little or no resistance.<ref name=rhs/> Early in the 20th century, chestnut blight destroyed about four billion American chestnut trees,<ref name="acfh"/> and reduced the most important tree throughout the East Coast to an insignificant presence. The American chinkapins are also very susceptible to chestnut blight. The European and West Asian chestnuts are susceptible, but less so than the American species.<ref name=rhs/> <br>The resistant species (particularly Japanese and Chinese chestnut, but also Seguin's chestnut and Henry's chestnut) have been used in breeding programs in the U.S. to create [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] with the American chestnut that are also disease-resistant.<ref name=rhs/> <br>The bark miner ''Spulerina simploniella'' (Lepidoptera: Gracilariidae) was found in intensively managed chestnut [[Coppicing|coppices]] in Greece, but not in orchards. The larvae (and the rain) may be agents in the spread of the disease. They mine under the thin periderm of young trees up to 10 years old, while the stem bark is still smooth. Rain during the pupation period (around the last week of May and first two weeks of June), and the actions of the larvae, may collude for [[Conidium|conidiospores]] to come into contact with the freshly exposed [[phloem]], and thus cause cankers.<ref name = nagref>[http://www3.interscience.wiley.com/journal/118712634/abstract?CRETRY=1&SRETRY=0 ''The role of Spulerina simploniella in the spread of Chestnut blight'']. By S. Diamandis (NAGREF, Forest Research Institute, 570 06 Vassilika, Thessaloniki, Greece) and C. Perlerou. Received: 27.07.2004; accepted: 25.02.2005; editor: P. Raddi. {{doi|10.1111/j.1439-0329.2005.00413.x}}.</ref>
* Ink disease also appears in a number of other plants. The disease attacks the [[phloem]] tissue and the [[cambium (botany)|cambium]] of the [[root]]s and root collars about 10–20 cm above ground. Wet rot settles in as a result. It was named after the ink-black color of the [[tannic acid]] becoming ([[Redox|oxidized]]) after seeping out, but that symptom is not a characteristic of only that disease. The same ink-black color can appear following other types of [[Decomposition|decays]] and mechanical injuries that make liquids seep through; these liquids can also oxidize after contact with air. Moreover, with some phytophthoric diseases, no tannic acid is generated. With the ink disease, the leaves turn yellow and later fall off; the fruits remain small, and the nuts prematurely drop out of the burrs. These dry and remain on the trees throughout winter. In acute cases, root decay makes the trees dry out and wither away.<ref name = szenti/> It is caused by ''[[Phytophthora cambivora]]'' and ''[[Phytophthora cinnamomi]]''.<ref name="Robin">{{cite journal|last=Robin|first=Cécile |author2=Olivier Morel |author3=Anna-Maria Vettraino |author4=Charikleia Perlerou |author5=Stephanos Diamandis |author6=Andrea Vannini|date=1 May 2006|title=Genetic variation in susceptibility to Phytophthora Cambivora in European chestnut (Castanea sativa) |journal=Forest Ecology and Management|volume=226|issue=1–3|pages=199–207|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2006.01.035}}</ref>
* ''Phytophthora'' disease is the longest-known chestnut tree disease leading to tree death. Of the two main [[pathogen]]s for this disease, the one in European chestnuts is known since 1971 to be ''[[Phytophthora cambivora]]''. ''[[Phytophthora cinnamoni]]'' was discovered in chestnut trees in the United States in 1932. Both trigger similar symptoms. Since then, it has also been shown to occur in most European chestnut-growing countries. It is difficult to differentiate between the two pathogens. Chemicals seem of little effectiveness. Many countries impose strict [[Prophylaxis|prophylactic]] rules to prevent the spread of the disease.<ref name = szenti/>
* ''Melanconis modonia'' can infect trees through injuries and induce "bark death". It was first reported in Hungary by Hausz in 1972. The damage is of little consequence in older or stronger trees, but it affects sapling graftings in nurseries. ''Coryneum perniciosum'', one of the two [[conidium]]-like side forms of this fungus, occurs on all decayed, [[lignin|ligneous]] parts of a chestnut tree. The symptoms of infection on young smooth trunks is similar to that of the chestnut blight fungus ''Cryphonectria''. For this reason, it has persistently been wrongly thought of as the pathogen for ink disease. With ''Melanconis'', the bark sinks in and takes on brownish-red tones, with black lentil-like multicell conidium bodies and black cone-like [[Thylakoid|stromas]] breaking through the bark. But unlike with ''Cryphonectria'', there are no orange-colored fruiting bodies. Prevention primarily includes keeping the tree in good shape; some further protections against ''Cryphonectria'' also help prevent bark death caused by ''Melanconis''.<ref name = szenti/> *'''Chestnut mosaic virus''' is probably transmitted by the oak aphid ''Myzocallis castanicola''.<ref name="ctifl"/>
* [[Root rot]] is caused by the [[honey fungus]] ''Armillaria mellia''. When planting ''Castanea'', recently cleared land is best avoided to help resist this fungus.<ref name = laren60/> The disease is more prevalent on heavier and poorly drained soil types.<ref name = nzcouncil/>
* [[Leaf spot]] is the most common disease for chestnut trees (''Mycosphaerella maculiformis''). It is known as ''cylindrosporium'' leaf spot disease, after its summer [[conidium]] form ''Cylindrosporium castaneae''. The pathogens spend the winter in the white spots of the fallen leaves. At spring time, it reinfects the new leaves. In or near June, tiny white spots on the leaves appear, which grow and turn brown over time. At the end of the summer, the spots entirely cover the leaf, which turns yellow. In rainy and humid weather with large temperature fluctuation, the tree loses its leaves. If August is dry and warm, the infected leaves roll up, the arteries twist, and the dead leaves dry on the tree until defoliage. This recurs yearly, though the extent of the damage varies from year to year. Some species are more resistant than others.<ref name = szenti/>
* Oak mildew is among several foliage diseases of smaller significance for European chestnut growing. It infects the most trees (''Microsphaera alphitoides''). Younger trees suffer most; their shoots become short-jointed, growth is delayed, and they develop sensitivity to frostbite. In older trees, the fungus usually infects only the tip of the shoots. The pathogens hibernate in the shoots and infect the leaves from there. The fungus grows on the top of the leaves, with the appearance of a coating only in midsummer. The infected leaves' development slows down or stops, the distance between their [[Vascular tissue|vessels]] shrinks, and the vessels themselves become curly.<ref name = szenti/>
* In storage rot, breaking the tuft provides the most common entrance for fungal [[spore]]s during storage. ''Cyboria'', the most diffuse, turns the flesh black and spongy. Other fungi are known, such as ''Rhizopus'', ''Fusarium'', and ''Collectotrichum''.<ref name = fao/>

===Coppicing===
Most chestnut wood production is done by [[coppice]] systems, cut on a 12-year rotation to provide small timber which does not split as badly as large logs.<ref name=edlin/> In southern England (particularly in [[Kent]]), sweet chestnut has traditionally been grown as coppices, being recut every 10 years or so on rotation for poles used for firewood, [[fencing]] (fence posts and chestnut paling), and especially to support the strings up when [[hops]] are grown.{{Citation needed|date=March 2009}}

===Sustainable forest management===
An excellent soil-enriching understory<ref name = botanical/> in [[pine]] forests,<ref name=rhs/><ref name= pfaf/>
[[sustainable forest management]] incorporates more mixed plantings of proven efficiency, as opposed to monosylviculture. A study presented in 1997 has evaluated positively the potential increase in productivity with mixed stands and plantations, compared to plots of only one species. The relative yield total values of the mixed plantings steadily increase with time. ''C. sativa'' responds well to competitive pressure from ''Pseudotsuga menziesii'', the latter also showing a higher productivity.<ref name =" salesmonteiro">[http://www.sciencedirect.com/science?_ob=ArticleURL&_udi=B6T6X-3VJRRSB-11&_user=10&_rdoc=1&_fmt=&_orig=search&_sort=d&view=c&_version=1&_urlVersion=0&_userid=10&md5=9938875c5feac45071595ecd5adf3b50 ''Dynamics of a broadleaved (Castanea sativa) conifer (Pseudotsuga menziesii) mixed stands in Northern Portugal'']. By Jaime F. Sales Luisa (Forest Department, Universidade de Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro, 5000 Vila Real, Portugal) and Maria do Loreto Monteiro (Forest Area, Escola Superior Agrária de Bragança, 5300 Bragança, Portugal). Forest Ecology and Management, Volume 107, Issues 1-3, 17 August 1998, pp. 183–190. Accepted 10 November 1997. Available online 15 January 1999. {{doi|10.1016/S0378-1127(97)00341-1}}.</ref> ''C. dentata'' seedlings in Ohio reforestation efforts are best achieved by planting them in places with little or no arboreous land cover, because of the need for light.<ref name= ohio/>

==Uses==
[[Image:Kestaneci chestnut vendor.jpg|right|thumb|A ''kestaneci'' or chestnut vendor in [[Istanbul]]]]
[[Image:Chestnuts roasted.jpg|right|thumb|Roasted chestnuts in [[Melbourne]], Australia]]

===Culinary===
[[File:Avignon marchand de marrons chauds à la Porte Saint-Michel Foire Saint-André.jpg|thumb|A hot chestnut seller in [[Avignon]], 1936]]
[[File:Castagne secche dried chestnut italy.JPG|thumb|Dried chestnut in the South of Italy]]

The fruit can be peeled and eaten raw, but it can be somewhat [[astringent]], especially if the pellicle is not removed.<ref name =unifi>[http://www3.unifi.it/ueresgen29/ds7.htm ''Description of European Chestnut'']. By F. Ferrini and F. P. Nicese. Horticulture Department – University of Florence – Italy.</ref>

Another method of eating the fruit involves roasting, which does not require peeling. Roasting requires scoring the fruit beforehand to prevent explosion of the fruit due to expansion. Once cooked, its texture is slightly similar to that of a baked potato, with a delicate, sweet, and nutty flavour.<ref name = chestnutbrook/><ref name = laren43/><ref name = cottage>[http://www.cottagesmallholder.com/?p=97 Sweet Chestnut Jam recipe. Storing Sweet Chestnuts], in ''The Cottage Smallholder''.</ref> This method of preparation is popular in many countries, where the scored chestnuts may be cooked mixed with a little sugar.

Chestnuts can be dried and milled into flour, which can then be used to prepare breads, [[cake]]s, [[Chestnut pie|pies]], [[pancake]]s, [[pasta]]s, [[polenta]]<ref name = grocer/> (known in Corsica as ''pulenda''), or used as thickener for [[stew]]s, [[soup]]s, and [[sauce]]s. [[Chestnut cake]] may be prepared using chestnut flour.<ref>{{cite book | last=Richardson | first=A. | last2=Young | first2=G. | title=The Wisdom of the Chinese Kitchen: Classic Family Recipes for Celebration and Healing | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=2014 | isbn=978-1-4391-4256-1 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rb7BAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA134 | pages=134–135}}</ref> In Corsica, the flour is fried into [[doughnut]]-like [[fritter]]s called ''[[fritelli]]'' and made into ''[[necci]], [[pattoni]], [[castagnacci]],'' and ''[[cialdi]]''.<ref>[https://books.google.com/books?id=_7TPAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA628&dq=fritelli+chestnut#v=onepage&q=fritelli%20chestnut&f=false Volume 14] 1880 Scribners monthly page 628</ref> The flour can be light beige like that from Castagniccia, or darker in other regions.<ref name="terracorsa"/> It is a good solution for long storage of a nutritious food.<ref name= uniminnesota/> Chestnut bread can stay fresh as long as two weeks.<ref name = grocer/>

The nuts can also be eaten candied, boiled, steamed, deep-fried, grilled, or roasted in sweet or savoury recipes.<ref name = grocer/> They can be used to stuff vegetables, poultry, fowl, and other edibles.<ref name = botanical/> They are available fresh, dried, ground, or canned (whole or in puree).

Candied chestnuts (whole chestnuts candied in sugar syrup, then iced<ref name = candied/>) are sold under the French name ''[[marrons glacés]]'' or Turkish name ''kestane şekeri'' ("sugared chestnuts"). They appeared in France in the 16th century. Towards the end of 19th century, [[Lyon]] went into a recession with the collapse of the textile market, [[History of silk#The silk industry in France|notably silk]]. Clément Faugier ingénieur des Ponts et Chaussées was looking for a way to revitalize the regional economy. In 1882 at [[Privas]], he invented the technology to make ''marrons glacés'' on an industrial scale (although a great number of the more than 20 necessary steps from harvest to the finished product are still accomplished manually).<ref name = botanical/> Chestnuts are picked in autumn, and candied from the start of the following summer for the ensuing Christmas. Thus, the ''marrons glacés'' eaten at Christmas are those picked the year before.<ref name = promo>[http://www.prochedevous-enligne.com/index.cgi?numero=110&type=article&pageid=846&archives=1 "C'est le mois – Les marrons glacés synonymes de fêtes de fin d'année"]. By Marie-Françoise Briand. Article in review n° 110. In French.</ref>

In [[Hungarian cuisine]], cooked chestnuts are [[purée]]d, mixed with sugar (and usually [[rum]]), forced through a [[Potato ricer|ricer]], and topped with [[whipped cream]] to make a dessert called ''gesztenyepüré'' (chestnut purée).<ref>[http://www.chew.hu/gesztenyepure/ Gesztenyepüré] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140112143915/http://www.chew.hu/gesztenyepure/ |date=January 12, 2014 }} at Chew.hu</ref> In [[Swiss cuisine]], a similar dish made with [[kirsch]] and [[butter]] is called ''vermicelles''. A [[French cuisine|French]] version is known as "[[Mont Blanc (dessert)|Mont Blanc]]".

A fine granular sugar can be obtained from the fermentation of the juice,<ref name = grocer/><ref name = facciola>''Cornucopia – A Source Book of Edible Plants''. By S. Facciola. Kampong Publications, 1990. ISBN 0-9628087-0-9. Cited in Plants For A Future.</ref> as well as a beer; the roasted fruit provides a coffee substitute.<ref name="facciola"/> [[Antoine-Augustin Parmentier|Parmentier]], who among other things was a famous potato promoter, extracted [[sugar]] from chestnuts and sent a chestnut [[sugarloaf]] weighing several pounds to the [[University of Lyon|Academy of Lyon]].<ref name = parmentier>Antoine Parmentier. ''Traité de la châtaigne''. 1780. Bastia, Corsica. Cited in ''The Cambridge World History of Food'' – Chestnuts, edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas.</ref> The [[Continental System|continental blockade]] following shortly after (1806–1814) increased the research into developing chestnuts as a source of sugar, but Napoleon chose [[beet]]s instead.<ref name=kipple>[http://www.cambridge.org/us/books/kiple/chestnuts.htm ''The Cambridge World History of Food'' – Chestnuts]. Edited by Kenneth F. Kipple and Kriemhild Connee Ornelas.</ref>

Sweet chestnuts are not easy to peel when cold. One kilogram of untainted chestnuts yields about 700 g of shelled chestnuts.<ref name = laren43/>

===Animal fodder and litter===
Chestnuts are often added to animal [[fodder]]. A first soak in [[limewater]] removes their bitter flavour, then they are ground and mixed with the ordinary provender. Other methods of preparation are also used. It is given to horses and cattle in the Orient,<ref name = botanical/> and to pigs in England,<ref name = botanical/> France<ref name = valnet/> and other places. Sheep pop the chestnuts out with their hooves, when in pastures containing the trees. The leaves are not as prone to be insect-eaten as those of the oak, and are also used for fodder.<ref name = botanical/>

===Timber===
[[Image:Edelkastanie.jpg|thumb|Chestnut wood: Note the splitting at the top of the log.]]
Chestnut is of the same family as oak, and likewise its wood contains many tannins.<ref name = peggy/> This renders the wood very durable,<ref name = peggy/> gives it excellent natural outdoor resistance,<ref name = peggy/><ref name = calu>[http://www.calu.bangor.ac.uk/Technical%20leaflets/050401Chestnuts.pdf Sweet Chestnut production] in Farm Woodlands – CALU Technical Note ref: 050401. July 2006.</ref> and saves the need for other protection treatment. It also corrodes iron slowly, although copper, brass, or stainless metals are not affected.<ref name = calu/>

Chestnut timber is decorative. Light brown in color, it is sometimes confused with oak wood.<ref name = calu/> The two woods' textures are similar.<ref name = peggy/> When in a growing stage, with very little sap wood, a chestnut tree contains more timber of a durable quality than an oak of the same dimensions. Young chestnut wood has proved more durable than oak for woodwork that has to be partly in the ground, such as stakes and fences.<ref name = botanical/>

After most growth is achieved, older chestnut timber tends to split and warp when harvested. The timber becomes neither as hard nor as strong as oak.<ref name = botanical/><ref name = peggy/><ref name = calu/> The American chestnut ''C. dentata'' served as an important source of lumber, because that species has long, unbranched trunks.<ref name = answers/> In Britain, chestnut was formerly used indiscriminately with oak for the construction of houses, [[Millwork (building material)|millwork]], and household furniture.<ref name = botanical/> It grows so freely in Britain that it was long considered a truly native species, partly because the roof of [[Westminster Hall#Westminster Hall|Westminster Hall]] and the [[Parliament House, Edinburgh|Parliament House of Edinburgh]] were mistakenly thought to be constructed of chestnut wood. Chestnut wood, though, loses much of its durability when the tree is more than 50 years old, and despite the local chestnut's quick growth rate, the [[timber]] used for these two buildings is considerably larger than a 50-year-old chestnut's [[:wikt:girth|girth]]. It has been proven that the roofs of these buildings are actually [[Sessile Oak|Durmast oak]], which closely resembles chestnut in [[Wood grain|grain]] and color.<ref name = botanical/>

It is therefore uncommon to find large pieces of chestnut in building structures, but it has always been highly valued for small outdoor furniture pieces, fencing, [[Cladding (construction)|cladding]] ([[Roof shingle|shingles]]) for covering buildings,<ref name = calu/> and pit-props,<ref name = botanical/> for which durability is an important factor. In Italy, chestnut is also used to make [[barrel]]s used for aging [[balsamic vinegar]] and some alcoholic beverages, such as [[whisky]] or [[lambic beer]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Lambic and the spontaneous fermentation|url=http://www.cantillon.be/br/3_11|website=Cantillon.be|publisher=Cantillon|accessdate=2 June 2015}}</ref> Of note, the famous 18th-century "berles" in the French [[Cévennes]] are cupboards cut directly from the hollowed [[trunk (botany)|trunk]].<ref name=joyeuse>[http://www.pays-beaumedrobie.com/fr/musee-chataign/uk-accueil-chataigne.php Chestnut museum in the Beaumedrobie country – France]{{dead link|date=November 2016 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}</ref>

===Fuel===
Dry, chestnut firewood is best burned in a closed log-burner, because of its tendency to spit when on an open fire.<ref name = calu/>

===Wildlife===
The tree is noted for attracting wildlife. The nuts are an important food for [[jay]]s, [[pigeon]]s, [[wild boar]], deer, and [[squirrel]]s. 
American and Chinese chinquapins (''Castanea pumila'' and ''Castanea henryi'') have very small nuts that are an important source of food for wildlife.<ref name= answers/>

===Leather===
Chestnut wood is a useful source of natural tannin and was used for tanning leather before the introduction of synthetic tannins.<ref name=edlin/> On a 10% moisture basis, the bark contains 6.8% tannin and the wood 13.4%.<ref name= Rottsieper/> The bark imparts a dark colour to the tannin, and has a higher sugar content, which increases the percentage of soluble non-tans, or impurities, in the extract; so it was not employed in this use.<ref name = palimpsest>[http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/don/dt/dt0668.html Chestnut] in Search Conservation OnLine.</ref> Chestnut tannin is obtained by hot-water extraction of chipped wood. It is an ellagic tannin and its main constituents are identified by [[castalagin]] (14.2%) and vescalagin (16.2%).<ref name = hydrolyzable>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/app.30377/abstract ''Polymer structure of commercial hydrolyzable tannins by matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time-of-flight mass spectrometry'']. By A. Pizzi, H. Pasch, K. Rode and S. Giovando. 2009 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci, 2009.</ref><ref name = ellagitannins>[http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/app.10618/abstract?systemMessage=Wiley+Online+Library+will+be+disrupted+on+11+May+from+10%3A00-12%3A00+BST+%2805%3A00-07%3A00+EDT%29+for+essential+maintenance ''Considerations on the Macromolecular Structure of Chestnut Ellagitannins by Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionization-Time-of-Flight Mass Spectrometry'']. H. Pasch and A. Pizzi. 2002 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Appl Polym Sci 85: 429–437, 2002.</ref><br>It has a naturally low pH value, relatively low salts content, and high acids content. This determines its astringency and its capability to fix raw hides. These properties make chestnut extract especially suitable for the tanning of heavy hides and to produce leather soles for high-quality shoes in particular. It is possible to obtain a leather with high yield in weight, which is compact, firm, flexible, and waterproof. Chestnut-tanned leathers are elastic, lightfast, resistant to traction and abrasion, and have warm colour.<ref name = Wilson >''The chemistry of leather manufacture.'' By J. A. Wilson (1929). American Chemical Society, Vol. I and II, second edition.</ref><ref name = McLaughlin >''The chemistry of leather manufacture.'' G. D. McLaughlin and E. R. Theis (1945). American Chemical Society.</ref>
Chestnut tannin is one of the pyrogallol class of tannins (also known as [[hydrolysable tannin]]). As it tends to give a brownish tone to the [[leather]], it is most often used in combination with [[Quebracho tannin|quebracho]], [[mimosa]], [[Caesalpinia spinosa|tara]], myrabolans, and [[Valonia oak|valonia]].<ref name = palimpsest/> <br> The wood seems to reach its highest tannin content after the trees reach 30 years old. The southern European chestnut wood usually contains at least 10 to 13% more tannin than chestnut trees in northern climates.

===Other uses===
Fabric can be starched with chestnut [[flour|meal]].<ref name = botanical/> Linen cloth can be whitened with chestnut meal.<ref name = botanical/> The leaves and the skins (husk and pellicle) of the fruits provide a hair shampoo.<ref name = valnet/><ref name = chiej>''Encyclopaedia of Medicinal Plants''. By R. Chiej. MacDonald 1984. ISBN 0-356-10541-5. Cited in Plants For A Future.</ref>

Hydrolysable chestnut tannins can be used for partial phenol substitution in [[Phenol formaldehyde resin|phenolic resin]] adhesives production<ref name = Spina >[http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01694243.2012.697673?journalCode=tast20 ''Phenolic resin adhesives based on chestnut (''''Castanea sativa'''') hydrolysable tannins'']. By S. Spina, X. Zhou, C. Segovia, A. Pizzi, M. Romagnoli, S. Giovando, H. Pasch, K. Rode and L. Delmotte. Journal of adhesion science and technology Online First (2012). DOI: {{DOI|10.1179/2042645312Y.0000000020}}</ref> and also for direct use as resin.<ref name="Peña">[http://www.sc.ehu.es/iawcacik/Ikerkuntza/publicaciones/2009JThermAnalCal.pdf ''Mimosa and chestnut tannin extracts reacted with hexamine in solution'']. By C. Peña, K. De La Caba, A. Retegi, C. Ocando, J. Labidi and J. M. Echeverria. Mondragon. Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry, Volume 96, issue 2 (May 2009), p. 515–521.</ref>

Chestnut extracts were evaluated through several biochemical assays showing evident [[antioxidant]] properties.<ref name = Barreira >[https://bibliotecadigital.ipb.pt/bitstream/10198/741/1/Barreira%20et%20al.,%202008.%20Food%20chemistry,%20107,%201106-1113%20pdf.pdf ''Antioxidant activities of the extracts from chestnut flower, leaf, skins and fruit'']. By J. C. M. Barreira, I. C. F. R. Ferreira, M. B. P. P. Oliveira and J. A. Pereira. Food Chemistry 107 (2008) 1106–1113.</ref>

Chestnut buds have been [[List of Bach flower remedies|listed]] as one of the 38 substances used to prepare [[Bach flower remedies]],<ref name="Vohra2004">{{cite book|author=D. S. Vohra|title=Bach Flower Remedies: A Comprehensive Study|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=icG8onA0ys8C&pg=PR3|accessdate=2 September 2013|date=1 June 2004|publisher=B. Jain Publishers|isbn=978-81-7021-271-3|page=3}}</ref> a kind of [[alternative medicine]] promoted for its effect on health. However, according to [[Cancer Research UK]], "there is no scientific evidence to prove that flower remedies can control, cure or prevent any type of disease, including cancer".<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.cancerresearchuk.org/cancer-help/about-cancer/treatment/complementary-alternative/therapies/flower-remedies
|title=Flower remedies
|publisher=[[Cancer Research UK]]
|accessdate=September 2013
}}</ref>

==Artistic references==
{{Prose|section|date=February 2015}}
{{refimprove section|date=May 2015}}
[[File:Flegel - Krammetsvögel und Maronen.jpg|right|240px|thumb| Still life with roasted chestnuts by [[Georg Flegel]]]]


* In the film [[novel adaptation|based on the novel]] by [[E. M. Forster]], ''[[Howards End (film)|Howards End]],'' Mrs. Ruth Wilcox ([[Vanessa Redgrave]]) tells of her childhood home, where superstitious farmers would place pigs' teeth in the bark of the chestnut trees and then chew on this bark to ease toothaches. In the novel, the tree is actually a [[Wych elm]].
* In George Orwell's ''[[Nineteen Eighty-Four|1984]]'' the chestnut tree is used in poems recited throughout, referring to nature, modern life, and lies as in the saying: 'that old chestnut'.{{clarify||date=February 2015}}
* In [[Honoré de Balzac]]'s novel ''[[Le Père Goriot|Père Goriot]]'', [[Vautrin]] states that [[Eugène de Rastignac]]'s family is living off of chestnuts; this symbolism is used to represent how impoverished Eugene's family is.

==Notable chestnut trees==
* [[Chestnut Tree of One Hundred Horses]] on [[Mount Etna]], 57.9 m (190 ft) circumference in 1780, (64-meter circumference in 1883)<ref name = rushton/><ref name = nytimesetna>[https://query.nytimes.com/mem/archive-free/pdf?res=9E02E0DA123BE033A25753C2A9679C94629FD7CF Chestnut tree on Mount Etna].</ref>
* [https://www.flickr.com/photos/48028479@N00/128320486/ Tortworth Chestnut]. 15.8-meter (52 ft) circumference in 1776, when it was described as "the largest tree in England"<ref name=atf>[http://www.woodland-trust.org.uk/ancient-tree-forum/atfgallery/features.htm Ancient Tree Forum] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081218170833/http://www.woodland-trust.org.uk/ancient-tree-forum/atfgallery/features.htm |date=December 18, 2008 }}. With the Woodland Trust.</ref>
* Sacred Chestnut of Istan, {{convert|46|ft|m|adj=on}} circumference, estimated to be between 800 and 1,000 years old.<ref name=istan>[http://www.istan.es/pagina.asp?cod=298&idioma=ing Sacred Chestnut of Istan] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130616165133/http://www.istan.es/pagina.asp?cod=298&idioma=ing |date=June 16, 2013 }}.</ref>

==See also==
{{portal|Food}}
* [[Chestnut cake]]
* [[Chestnut pie]]

==Notes==
{{reflist|group="Note"}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* {{Cite book |last=Philips |first=Roger |title=Trees of North America and Europe |publisher=Random House |location=New York |isbn=0-394-50259-0 |year=1979 }}

==External links==
{{wiktionary}}
{{Commons category|Castanea}}
* [http://www.acf.org/ The American Chestnut Foundation]
* [http://www.accf-online.org/ American Chestnut Cooperators Foundation]
* [http://www.ladolcevitacooking.com/chestnuts-nutritional-overview/ Nutritional overview of Chestnuts]
* {{cite web|last=Eichhorn|first=Markus|title=Chestnut Tree|url=http://www.test-tube.org.uk/trees/video_chestnut.htm|work=Test Tube|publisher=[[Brady Haran]] for the [[University of Nottingham]]|date=May 2012}}
* http://www.ohenrymag.com/the-nutty-professor/
{{Tannin source}}
{{Nuts}}
{{Woodworking}}

[[Category:Castanea| ]]
[[Category:Christmas food]]
[[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]]

Korean chestnut

2017-02-20T07:27:18Z

Ityoppyawit: ←Redirected page to Castanea crenata

#REDIRECT [[Castanea crenata]]

Castanea crenata

2017-02-20T07:26:51Z

Ityoppyawit:

{{italic title}}
{{taxobox
|name = ''Castanea crenata''
|image = Castanea crenata3.jpg
|regnum = [[Plant]]ae
|unranked_divisio = [[Angiosperms]]
|unranked_classis = [[Eudicots]]
|unranked_ordo = [[Rosids]]
|ordo = [[Fagales]]
|familia = [[Fagaceae]]
|genus = ''[[Chestnut|Castanea]]''
|species = '''''C. crenata'''''
|binomial = ''Castanea crenata''
|binomial_authority = [[Philipp Franz von Siebold|Siebold]] & [[Zucc.]]
|}}

'''''Castanea crenata''''', known as '''Korean chestnut''',<ref>{{Cite book|title=The Resilient Farm and Homestead: An Innovative Permaculture and Whole Systems Design Approach|last=Falk|first=Ben|publisher=[[Chelsea Green Publishing]]|year=2003|isbn=9781603584449|location=White River Junction, VT|pages=199|language=English|quote=Varieties of chestnuts that can be grown in zone 4, Northeastern United States are as follows:<br />''Crenata dentata'' (American Chestnut)<br />''Castanea dentata'' × ''mollissima'' (American/central Asian cross)<br />''Castanea mollissima'' (Chinese chestnut)*<br />''Castanea seguinii'' × ''mollissima'' (dwarf hybrid of two Asian species)<br />''Castanea crenata'' (Korean cestnut)<br />''Castanea pumila hybrida'' (single-trunked selection of the chinquapin)<br />''Castanea pumila'' (multiple-stemmed chinkapin)<br />''Castanea sativa'' × ''mollissima'' (central Asian/Chinese cross)}}</ref> '''Korean castanea''',<ref>{{Cite book|url=http://www.forest.go.kr/kna/special/download/English_Names_for_Korean_Native_Plants.pdf|title=English Names for Korean Native Plants|publisher=[[Korea National Arboretum]]|year=2015|isbn=978-89-97450-98-5|location=Pocheon|pages=401|access-date=22 December 2016|via=[[Korea Forest Service]]}}</ref> and '''Japanese chestnut''',<ref name=BSBI07>{{cite web|title=BSBI List 2007 |publisher=Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland |url=http://www.bsbi.org.uk/BSBIList2007.xls |format=xls |archive-url=http://www.webcitation.org/6VqJ46atN?url=http://www.bsbi.org.uk/BSBIList2007.xls |archive-date=2015-01-25 |accessdate=2014-10-17 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> is a species of [[chestnut]] originally native to [[Japan]] and [[South Korea]]. It is a small to medium-sized [[deciduous]] [[tree]] growing to 10–15 m tall. The [[leaf|leaves]] are similar to those of the [[sweet chestnut]], though usually a little smaller, 8–19 cm long and 3–5 cm broad. The [[flower]]s of both sexes are borne in 7–20 cm long, upright catkins, the male flowers in the upper part and female flowers in the lower part. They appear in summer, and by autumn, the female flowers develop into spiny [[Calybium and cupule|cupule]]s containing 3–7 brownish [[nut (fruit)|nuts]] that are shed during October.

==Cultivation and uses==
It is an important tree in Japan for its heavy production of sweet, edible [[Nut (fruit)|nut]]s. A number of [[cultivar]]s have been selected for large nut size. It is also widely cultivated in eastern [[China]] and [[Taiwan]].

It is resistant to [[chestnut blight]], and is of importance in [[North America]] in the development of disease-resistant [[Hybrid (biology)|hybrids]] with the highly susceptible [[American chestnut]].

Examples of European X Japanese Hybrid Cultivars<ref>[http://chestnuts.msu.edu/horticultural_care/cultivars_for_michigan Cultivars for Michigan] Retrieved 2015-6</ref> are:

* 'Colossal'
*‘Bouche de Betizac’
*‘Precoce Migoule’
*‘Labor Day’

==Gallery==
<gallery>
Image:Castanea crenata 1.jpg
Image:Castanea crenata 2.jpg
Image:Castanea crenata 3.jpg
Image:Korean chestnut (Castanea crenata).jpg
Image:Japanese Chestnut.jpg
</gallery>

==References==
{{reflist}}
* [http://www.apsnet.org/online/feature/chestnut/ American Phytopathological Society: chestnut breeding]

{{commons}}

[[Category:Castanea|crenata]]
[[Category:Edible nuts and seeds]]

Talk:Alaska pollock as food

2017-02-10T11:47:50Z

Ityoppyawit: /* Overlink reduction */

{{WikiProject Fishes|class=start|importance=low}}
{{WikiProject Fishing|class=start|importance=low}}
{{WikiProject Food and drink|class=start|importance=low}}

== Overlink reduction ==

{{ping|Ityoppyawit}} We seem to be in disagreement about how to edit [[Alaska pollock as food]], in particular the issue of following policy on [[WP:OVERLINK]]. You have re-instated a whole bunch of links that I had taken the time to remove in pursuit of my understanding of this policy. I won't do that again without having some discussion with you about what sort of treatment is appropriate, since there is an interpretation of the guidance of that policy which might permit linking items multiple times.

My main concern with this article is that the entries in the section labeled '''Dishes''' read too much like a menu or recipes, contrary to the policy of [[WP:NOTHOWTO]] #1. I personally found the list fascinating, but I have doubts about whether it is within policy to keep it.

The other point of disagreement is over the idea of "disambiguation". For instance, instead of linking to [[Korean radish]] multiple times, it might be better to simply write {{tq|mu (Korean radish)}} in all the places that currently come out looking like "radish" in blue, with just the first instance linked. [[User:jmcgnh|<b><span style="color:#248F7D">jmcgnh</span></b>]]<sup><small><b>[[User_talk:jmcgnh|<span style="color:#58D582">(talk)</span>]] [[Special:Contributions/jmcgnh|<span style="color:#8F7D24">(contribs)</span>]]</b></small></sup> 08:47, 10 February 2017 (UTC)

:{{reply to|Jmcgnh}} First of all, thank you for the copy-editing. I have just changed "<nowiki>[[Korean radish|radish]]</nowiki>" into "mu (radish)" as you suggested. I kept "<nowiki>[[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]</nowiki>" since at least two types of ''Allium'' is called "scallions" in Korean cuisine context alone. (They are ''[[Allium fistulosum|A. fistulosum]]'' and [[Allium × wakegi|''A.'' × ''wakegi'']].) --[[User:Ityoppyawit|Ityoppyawit]] ([[User talk:Ityoppyawit|talk]]) 11:47, 10 February 2017 (UTC)

Alaska pollock as food

2017-02-10T11:47:46Z

Ityoppyawit: /* Korea */

{{refimprove|date=February 2017|reason=large swathes of this article have no references at all}}

Compared with [[pollock]], [[Alaska pollock]] has a milder taste, whiter color and lower oil content.

High-quality, single-frozen whole Alaska pollock fillets may be layered into a block mold and deep-frozen to produce fish blocks that are used throughout [[Europe]] and [[North America]] as the raw material for high-quality breaded and battered fish products. Lower-quality, double-frozen fillets or minced trim pieces may also be frozen in block forms and used as raw material for lower-quality, low-cost breaded and battered [[Fish finger|fish sticks]] and portions.

Single-frozen Alaska pollock is the preferred raw material for ''[[surimi]]''; the most common use of surimi in the United States is [[imitation crabmeat]] (also known as [[crab stick]]s).{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

Alaska pollock is commonly used in the [[fast food]] industry, in products such as McDonald's [[Filet-O-Fish]] sandwich and (now-discontinued) Fish McBites,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/24/mcdonalds-fish-sustainable_n_2542502.html |title=McDonald's Sustainable Fish: All U.S. Locations To Serve MSC-Certified Seafood |last1=Tepper |first1=Rachel |date=24 January 2013 |website=[[Huffington Post]] |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> [[Arby's]] Classic Fish sandwich,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arbys.com/our-menu/fish/classic-fish |title=Classic Fish |author= |date=2014 |website=Arby's |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> [[Long John Silver's]] Baja Fish Taco,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ljsilvers.com/images/pdfs/LJS_Customer_Ingredient_List_July%202014.pdf |title=Ingredient Statements |author= |date=June 2014 |website=Long John Silver's |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> and [[Birds Eye]]'s Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdseye.co.uk/range/Products/Fish%20Fingers%20in%20Crispy%20Batter |title=Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter |author= |date=2014 |website=Birds Eye |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref>

== Korea ==
[[File:Hwangtae (Gadus chalcogrammus).jpg|thumb|drying ''hwangtae'' in winter]]
In [[Korea]], Alaska pollock is considered the "national fish".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/10/10/0200000000AKR20161010084800030.HTML|title=국민생선 명태가 돌아온다…세계최초 '완전양식' 성공|last=정|first=빛나|date=11 October 2016|newspaper=[[Yonhap]]|language=ko|trans-title=Return of the national fish: the first success in the world in completely controlled culture of Alaska pollock|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=http://www.viva100.com/main/view.php?key=20170105010001584|title=동태·북어·노가리, 겨울엔 황태·코다리로… '국민생선' 제철만났네|last=박|first=효주|date=6 January 2017|newspaper=Bridgenews|language=ko|trans-title=Dongtae, bugeo, and nogari; as hwangtae and kodari in winter... the "national fish" is in season|access-date=7 January 2016}}</ref> The Korean name of the fish, '''''myeongtae'''''({{Lang|ko|명태}}), has also spread to some neighbouring countries: It is called ''mintay''({{lang|ru|минтай}}) in [[Russia]], and its roe is called ''mentaiko''({{lang|ja|明太子}}) in [[Japan]] although the Japanese name for the fish itself is ''suketōdara''({{lang|ja|介党鱈}}).

In Korea, ''myeongtae'' is called by thirty-odd names including:<ref name=":3" />
* '''''saengtae'''''({{Lang|ko|생태}}) – fresh Alaska pollock
* '''''dongtae'''''({{Lang|ko|동태}}) – frozen Alaska pollock
* '''''bugeo'''''({{Lang|ko|북어}}) – dried Alaska pollock
* '''''hwangtae'''''({{Lang|ko|황태}}) – "yellow Alaska pollock", made by drying Alaska pollock during winter while undergoing repeated freeze-thaw cycles
* '''''nogari'''''({{Lang|ko|노가리}}) – young Alaska pollock
* '''''kodari'''''({{Lang|ko|코다리}}) – "nosed Alaska pollock", made by gutting young Alaska pollok and half-drying four to five of them on a rope tied through their "noses"

Koreans have been enjoying Alaska pollock since the [[Joseon]] era. One of the earliest mentions are from ''[[Seungjeongwon ilgi]]'' (Journal of the Royal Secretariat), where a 1652 entry stated: "The management administration should be strictly interrogated for bringing in pollock roe instead of cod roe."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=3009090|title=A hit abroad, pollock roe is rallying at home|last=Cha|first=Sang-eun|date=12 September 2015|newspaper=[[JoongAng Ilbo|Korea Joongang Daily]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Alaska pollock were the most commonly caught fish in Korea in 1940, when more than 270,000 [[tonne]]s were caught from the [[Sea of Japan|East Sea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0018416|title=명태|last=박|first=구병|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]|publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]|language=ko|trans-title=myeongtae|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> The current annual consumption of Alaska pollock in [[South Korea]] is estimated to be about 260,000 tonnes in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.seafoodnews.com/Story/1041694/South-Korea-Facing-Pollock-Shortage-Aims-to-Rebuild-Imports-and-Trade-Ties-to-Russia|title=South Korea Facing Pollock Shortage, Aims to Rebuild Imports and Trade Ties to Russia|last=Gergen|first=Eugene|date=21 November 2016|newspaper=SeafoodNews|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Nowadays, however, Alaska pollock consumption in South Korea relies heavily on imports from Russia, due to the rise in sea water temperatures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2012/01/144_103202.html|title=PyeongChang: birthplace of yellow dried pollack|last=Lee|first=Hyo-sik|date=19 January 2012|newspaper=[[The Korea Times]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref>

Every part of a ''myeongtae'' is used in [[Korean cuisine]].

'''Ingredients'''
* '''''bugeo daegari''''' – dried pollock head, used to make [[broth]]
* '''''bugeo daegari yuksu''''' – dried pollock head broth
* '''''bugeopo''''' – a type of [[jerky]], made by thinly slicing and seasoning dried pollok, then drying it again
* '''''changnan''''' – pollock intestine, used to make [[jeotgal]]
* '''''hwangtaepo''''' – a type of jerky, made by thinly slicing and seasoning yellow dried pollok, then drying it again
* '''''[[myeongnan]]''''' – pollock [[roe]], added in various dishes and used to make jeotgal
* '''''myeongtaepo''''' – a type of jerky, made by seasoning pollock with salt, then drying it

{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Bugeotguk (dried pollock soup).jpg
| caption1 = ''bugeotguk''
| image2 = Dongtae jjigae (pollock stew).jpg
| caption2 = ''dongtaejjigae''
| image3 = Myeongtaejeon (pan-fried pollock).jpg
| caption3 = ''myeongtaejeon''
| image4 = Myeongtae jorim (stewed pollock).jpg
| caption4 = ''myeongtaejorim''
}}
'''Dishes'''
* '''''bugeobopuragi''''' – literally "bugeo [[lint (material)|lint]]" made by grating well-dried ''bugeo'' and seasoning each third of the "lint" with black, white, and red seasonings respectively. Black seasoning is made with [[soy sauce]], [[sesame oil]], sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds; white seasoning with salt, sesame oil, sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds; red seasoning with [[gochutgaru]] (chili powder), salt, sesame oil, sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojangajji''''' – a type of [[jangajji]], pickling shredded ''bugeo''. The pickling sauce contains [[gochujang]] (chili paste), chopped [[yujacheong]] ([[yuja]] marmalade), honey, minced garlic, and ground ginger.
* '''''bugeojeok''''' – a type of [[jeok]], made by removing the head and tail of ''bugeo'', then remoisturizing it, seasoning it with soy sauce, sugar, sesame oil, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[cheongju]] (rice wine), minced garlic, ground ginger, ground black pepper, and toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojeon''''' – a type of [[Jeon (food)|jeon]], made by coating ''bugeo'' in flour, egg-washing it, and pan-frying in oil. The jeon is served with dipping sauce made with soy sauce, sugar, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, minced garlic, ground ginger, sesame oil, and toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojorim''''' – a type of [[jorim]], made by simmering ''bugeo'' chunks in jorim sauce, with deseeded and sliced green and red chili. Its sauce contains soy sauce, water, sugar, minced garlic, ground ginger, and chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s.
* '''''bugeotguk''''' – a type of [[guk]], made by wetting thinly sliced ''bugeo'' in cold water and draining it, stir-frying it with julienned [[Korean radish|mu]] (radish) in sesame oil, then pouring [[tteumul]] (water from the final rinsing of rice) and boiling, and finally adding diagonally sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s and beaten egg.
* '''''changnanjeot''''' – a type of jeotgal, made by washing fresh intestine of pollock with salted water, then salting it in a [[hangari]] for four to six months. Salted and drained intestines are washed, sliced, and seasoned with gochutgaru (chili powder), minced garlic, toasted sesame seeds, and chopped mu (radish).
* '''''dongtaejjigae''''' – a type of [[jjigae]], made by stir-frying ground beef seasoned with [[soup soy sauce]], pouring tteumul (water from the last washing of rice), adding doenjang (soybean paste), gochujang (chili paste), and gochutgaru (chili powder) and letting it boil for a while, then adding chunked ''dongtae'' and mu (radish), minced garlic, sliced onion and [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, and [[tofu]]. When served, the stew is topped with chopped [[Glebionis coronaria|chrysanthemum greens]] and red chili.
* '''''dongtaesundae''''' – a type of winter [[sundae (Korean food)|sundae]], made by salting Alaska pollock overnight, gutting the fish without slicing it by putting a hand through the mouth, and washing the inside carefully, before stuffing it with the ''sundae'' stuffing, and letting it freeze outside. The stuffing contains blanched, squeezed, and chopped [[napa cabbage]] leaves, blanched, drained, and chopped [[mung bean sprout]]s, boiled and minced pork, crumbled tofu, minced garlic, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[glutinous rice]] powder, doenjang (soybean paste), salt, and [[black pepper]].
* '''''hwangtaegui''''' – a type of [[gui (food)|gui]], made by remoisturizing ''hwangtae'', coating in soy sauce and sesame oil and grilling it, then coating it again with the mixture of gochujang (chili paste), gochutgaru (chili powder), soy sauce, [[maesilcheong]] (plum syrup), and minced garlic, and grilling it again. When served, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s and toasted sesame seeds are sprinkled on top.
* '''''hwangtaejjim''''' – a type of jorim, made by seasoning remoisturized ''hwangtae'' with gochutgaru (chili powder), minced garlic, salt, sesame oil, and sugar, then stewing the seasoned ''hwangtae'' in a pot along with ground ginger, sliced onions, carrots, [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[soybean sprout]]s, sliced [[Cheongyang chili pepper|Cheongyang chili]], and the spicy sauce made of gochutgaru, [[mullyeot]] (rice or corn syrup), water, ground black pepper, and ground fresh chili
* '''''hwangtaejuk''''' – a type of [[juk (food)|juk]], made by stir-frying soaked and drained [[Japonica rice|rice]] and glutinous rice in sesame oil, then adding thinly shredded remoisturized ''hwangtae'', water, and [[soup soy sauce]] to taste, and boiling it, and finally adding beaten egg and garnishing it with thinly sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s
* '''''kodarijorim''''' – a type of jorim, made by laying sliced mu (radish) on the bottom of a pot, putting in chunked ''kodari'' and the spicy sauce made of soy sauce, gochutgaru (chili powder), mullyeot (rice or corn syrup), (rice wine), minced garlic, ground ginger, sesame oil, and ground black pepper, then stewing it with sliced onions and [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s.
* '''''[[myeongnanjeot]]''''' – a type of jeotgal, made by washing intact skeins of pollock roe with salted water, then salting it in a [[sokuri]] (bamboo basket). The ratio of salt to roe ranges from less than 5:100 to more than 15:100. After 2-3 days, salted and drained roe is marinated for at least a day with fine [[Chili powder|gochutgaru]] (chili powder) and finely minced [[garlic]]. ''Myeongnanjeot'' is usually served with some drops of sesame oil.
* '''''myeongtaehoe''''' – a type of [[hoe (food)|hoe]], made by marinating sliced fresh raw ''myeongtae'' with similarly-sized mu (radish) in the mixture of salt, sugar, and vinegar, then draining them (squeezing in case of the radish pieces), and adding chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, minced garlic, sesame oil, toasted sesame seed powder, sliced [[Pyrus pyrifolia|pear]], gochutgaru (chili powder), and ground black pepper. ''Myeongtaehoe'' can also be used as the topping of [[naengmyeon]] (cold noodles).
* '''''myeongatejeon''''' – a type of jeon, made by removing the head an tail of ''myeongtae'' (either fresh ''saengtae'' or frozen ''dongtae''), gutting and boning it, finely mincing the flesh and mixing it with some other ingredients such as crumbled tofu or finely minced vegetables such as [[aehobak]], green chili, [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, or aubergine, then coating it with wheat flour or glutinous rice flour, egg-washing it, and pan-frying it in oil. Soy sauce mixed with vinegar is served with the jeon.
* '''''myeongtaesikhae''''' – a type of [[sikhae]], made by removing the head and gutting a ''myeongtae'', sprinkling some salt and drying it for two days, slicing it, mixing the sliced chunks with julienned, salted, and squeezed mu (radish), minced garlic, ground ginger, gochutgaru (chili powder), [[yeotgireum]] (powdered barley [[malt]]), and [[bap (food)|cooked rice]], then fermenting it for a week.
* '''''saengtaetang''''' – a type of [[guk|tang]], made by laying sliced mu (radish) in a pot, putting gutted and chunked ''saengtae'', debearded [[Venerupis philippinarum|Manila clam]]s, [[Styela clava|stalked sea squirt]]s, sliced fresh chili, sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, gochutgaru (chili powder), doenjang (soybean paste), [[soup soy sauce]], minced garlic, and ground black pepper, then adding [[kombu|kelp]]-[[Engraulis japonicus|anchovy]] broth. Sliced tofu, [[Glebionis coronaria|chrysanthemum greens]] and [[enoki mushroom]]s are added at serving time..

== Pollock roe ==
[[File:Alaska pollock roe Russia.jpg|thumb|181x181px|Canned Alaska pollock roe, served on crisp rye bread (Russia).]]
{{main|Pollock roe}}
Pollock roe is a popular culinary ingredient in Japan, Korea, and Russia. In Korea, the roe is traditionally called ''myeongnan''({{lang|ko|명란}}), and the salted roe is called ''myeongnanjeot''({{lang|ko|명란젓}}). The food was introduced to Japan after [[World War II]], and is called ''mentaiko''({{lang|ja|明太子}}) in Japanese. The milder, less spicy version is called ''tarako''({{lang|ja|鱈子}}) in Japan. In Russia, pollock roe is consumed as a sandwich spread. The product, resembling liquid paste due to the small size of eggs and oil added, is sold canned.

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Seafood]]

Alaska pollock as food

2017-02-10T07:40:04Z

Ityoppyawit: typo, missing left parenthesis

{{refimprove|date=February 2017|reason=large swathes of this article have no references at all}}

Compared with [[pollock]], [[Alaska pollock]] has a milder taste, whiter color and lower oil content.

High-quality, single-frozen whole Alaska pollock fillets may be layered into a block mold and deep-frozen to produce fish blocks that are used throughout [[Europe]] and [[North America]] as the raw material for high-quality breaded and battered fish products. Lower-quality, double-frozen fillets or minced trim pieces may also be frozen in block forms and used as raw material for lower-quality, low-cost breaded and battered [[Fish finger|fish sticks]] and portions.

Single-frozen Alaska pollock is the preferred raw material for ''[[surimi]]''; the most common use of surimi in the United States is [[imitation crabmeat]] (also known as [[crab stick]]s).{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

Alaska pollock is commonly used in the [[fast food]] industry, in products such as McDonald's [[Filet-O-Fish]] sandwich and (now-discontinued) Fish McBites,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/24/mcdonalds-fish-sustainable_n_2542502.html |title=McDonald's Sustainable Fish: All U.S. Locations To Serve MSC-Certified Seafood |last1=Tepper |first1=Rachel |date=24 January 2013 |website=[[Huffington Post]] |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> [[Arby's]] Classic Fish sandwich,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arbys.com/our-menu/fish/classic-fish |title=Classic Fish |author= |date=2014 |website=Arby's |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> [[Long John Silver's]] Baja Fish Taco,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ljsilvers.com/images/pdfs/LJS_Customer_Ingredient_List_July%202014.pdf |title=Ingredient Statements |author= |date=June 2014 |website=Long John Silver's |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> and [[Birds Eye]]'s Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdseye.co.uk/range/Products/Fish%20Fingers%20in%20Crispy%20Batter |title=Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter |author= |date=2014 |website=Birds Eye |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref>

== Korea ==
[[File:Hwangtae (Gadus chalcogrammus).jpg|thumb|drying ''hwangtae'' in winter]]
In [[Korea]], Alaska pollock is considered the "national fish".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/10/10/0200000000AKR20161010084800030.HTML|title=국민생선 명태가 돌아온다…세계최초 '완전양식' 성공|last=정|first=빛나|date=11 October 2016|newspaper=[[Yonhap]]|language=ko|trans-title=Return of the national fish: the first success in the world in completely controlled culture of Alaska pollock|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=http://www.viva100.com/main/view.php?key=20170105010001584|title=동태·북어·노가리, 겨울엔 황태·코다리로… '국민생선' 제철만났네|last=박|first=효주|date=6 January 2017|newspaper=Bridgenews|language=ko|trans-title=Dongtae, bugeo, and nogari; as hwangtae and kodari in winter... the "national fish" is in season|access-date=7 January 2016}}</ref> The Korean name of the fish, '''''myeongtae'''''({{Lang|ko|명태}}), has also spread to some neighbouring countries: It is called ''mintay''({{lang|ru|минтай}}) in [[Russia]], and its roe is called ''mentaiko''({{lang|ja|明太子}}) in [[Japan]] although the Japanese name for the fish itself is ''suketōdara''({{lang|ja|介党鱈}}).

In Korea, ''myeongtae'' is called by thirty-odd names including:<ref name=":3" />
* '''''saengtae'''''({{Lang|ko|생태}}) – fresh Alaska pollock
* '''''dongtae'''''({{Lang|ko|동태}}) – frozen Alaska pollock
* '''''bugeo'''''({{Lang|ko|북어}}) – dried Alaska pollock
* '''''hwangtae'''''({{Lang|ko|황태}}) – "yellow Alaska pollock", made by drying Alaska pollock during winter while undergoing repeated freeze-thaw cycles
* '''''nogari'''''({{Lang|ko|노가리}}) – young Alaska pollock
* '''''kodari'''''({{Lang|ko|코다리}}) – "nosed Alaska pollock", made by gutting young Alaska pollok and half-drying four to five of them on a rope tied through their "noses"

Koreans have been enjoying Alaska pollock since the [[Joseon]] era. One of the earliest mentions are from ''[[Seungjeongwon ilgi]]'' (Journal of the Royal Secretariat), where a 1652 entry stated: "The management administration should be strictly interrogated for bringing in pollock roe instead of cod roe."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=3009090|title=A hit abroad, pollock roe is rallying at home|last=Cha|first=Sang-eun|date=12 September 2015|newspaper=[[JoongAng Ilbo|Korea Joongang Daily]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Alaska pollock were the most commonly caught fish in Korea in 1940, when more than 270,000 [[tonne]]s were caught from the [[Sea of Japan|East Sea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0018416|title=명태|last=박|first=구병|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]|publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]|language=ko|trans-title=myeongtae|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> The current annual consumption of Alaska pollock in [[South Korea]] is estimated to be about 260,000 tonnes in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.seafoodnews.com/Story/1041694/South-Korea-Facing-Pollock-Shortage-Aims-to-Rebuild-Imports-and-Trade-Ties-to-Russia|title=South Korea Facing Pollock Shortage, Aims to Rebuild Imports and Trade Ties to Russia|last=Gergen|first=Eugene|date=21 November 2016|newspaper=SeafoodNews|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Nowadays, however, Alaska pollock consumption in South Korea relies heavily on imports from Russia, due to the rise in sea water temperatures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2012/01/144_103202.html|title=PyeongChang: birthplace of yellow dried pollack|last=Lee|first=Hyo-sik|date=19 January 2012|newspaper=[[The Korea Times]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref>

Every part of a ''myeongtae'' is used in [[Korean cuisine]].

'''Ingredients'''
* '''''bugeo daegari''''' – dried pollock head, used to make [[broth]]
* '''''bugeo daegari yuksu''''' – dried pollock head broth
* '''''bugeopo''''' – a type of [[jerky]], made by thinly slicing and seasoning dried pollok, then drying it again
* '''''changnan''''' – pollock intestine, used to make [[jeotgal]]
* '''''hwangtaepo''''' – a type of jerky, made by thinly slicing and seasoning yellow dried pollok, then drying it again
* '''''[[myeongnan]]''''' – pollock [[roe]], added in various dishes and used to make jeotgal
* '''''myeongtaepo''''' – a type of jerky, made by seasoning pollock with salt, then drying it

{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Bugeotguk (dried pollock soup).jpg
| caption1 = ''bugeotguk''
| image2 = Dongtae jjigae (pollock stew).jpg
| caption2 = ''dongtaejjigae''
| image3 = Myeongtaejeon (pan-fried pollock).jpg
| caption3 = ''myeongtaejeon''
| image4 = Myeongtae jorim (stewed pollock).jpg
| caption4 = ''myeongtaejorim''
}}
'''Dishes'''
* '''''bugeobopuragi''''' – literally "bugeo [[lint (material)|lint]]" made by grating well-dried ''bugeo'' and seasoning each third of the "lint" with black, white, and red seasonings respectively. Black seasoning is made with [[soy sauce]], [[sesame oil]], sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds; white seasoning with salt, sesame oil, sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds; red seasoning with [[gochutgaru]] (chili powder), salt, sesame oil, sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojangajji''''' – a type of [[jangajji]], pickling shredded ''bugeo''. The pickling sauce contains [[gochujang]] (chili paste), chopped [[yujacheong]] ([[yuja]] marmalade), honey, minced garlic, and ground ginger.
* '''''bugeojeok''''' – a type of [[jeok]], made by removing the head and tail of ''bugeo'', then remoisturizing it, seasoning it with soy sauce, sugar, sesame oil, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[cheongju]] (rice wine), minced garlic, ground ginger, ground black pepper, and toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojeon''''' – a type of [[Jeon (food)|jeon]], made by coating ''bugeo'' in flour, egg-washing it, and pan-frying in oil. The jeon is served with dipping sauce made with soy sauce, sugar, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, minced garlic, ground ginger, sesame oil, and toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojorim''''' – a type of [[jorim]], made by simmering ''bugeo'' chunks in jorim sauce, with deseeded and sliced green and red chili. Its sauce contains soy sauce, water, sugar, minced garlic, ground ginger, and chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s.
* '''''bugeotguk''''' – a type of [[guk]], made by wetting thinly sliced ''bugeo'' in cold water and draining it, stir-frying it with julienned [[Korean radish|radish]] in sesame oil, then pouring [[tteumul]] (water from the final rinsing of rice) and boiling, and finally adding diagonally sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s and beaten egg.
* '''''changnanjeot''''' – a type of jeotgal, made by washing fresh intestine of pollock with salted water, then salting it in a [[hangari]] for four to six months. Salted and drained intestines are washed, sliced, and seasoned with gochutgaru (chili powder), minced garlic, toasted sesame seeds, and chopped [[Korean radish|radish]].
* '''''dongtaejjigae''''' – a type of [[jjigae]], made by stir-frying ground beef seasoned with [[soup soy sauce]], pouring tteumul (water from the last washing of rice), adding doenjang (soybean paste), gochujang (chili paste), and gochutgaru (chili powder) and letting it boil for a while, then adding chunked ''dongtae'' and [[Korean radish|radish]], minced garlic, sliced onion and [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, and [[tofu]]. When served, the stew is topped with chopped [[Glebionis coronaria|chrysanthemum greens]] and red chili.
* '''''dongtaesundae''''' – a type of winter [[sundae (Korean food)|sundae]], made by salting Alaska pollock overnight, gutting the fish without slicing it by putting a hand through the mouth, and washing the inside carefully, before stuffing it with the ''sundae'' stuffing, and letting it freeze outside. The stuffing contains blanched, squeezed, and chopped [[napa cabbage]] leaves, blanched, drained, and chopped [[mung bean sprout]]s, boiled and minced pork, crumbled tofu, minced garlic, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[glutinous rice]] powder, doenjang (soybean paste), salt, and [[black pepper]].
* '''''hwangtaegui''''' – a type of [[gui (food)|gui]], made by remoisturizing ''hwangtae'', coating in soy sauce and sesame oil and grilling it, then coating it again with the mixture of gochujang (chili paste), gochutgaru (chili powder), soy sauce, [[maesilcheong]] (plum syrup), and minced garlic, and grilling it again. When served, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s and toasted sesame seeds are sprinkled on top.
* '''''hwangtaejjim''''' – a type of jorim, made by seasoning remoisturized ''hwangtae'' with gochutgaru (chili powder), minced garlic, salt, sesame oil, and sugar, then stewing the seasoned ''hwangtae'' in a pot along with ground ginger, sliced onions, carrots, [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[soybean sprout]]s, sliced [[Cheongyang chili pepper|Cheongyang chili]], and the spicy sauce made of gochutgaru, [[mullyeot]] (rice or corn syrup), water, ground black pepper, and ground fresh chili
* '''''hwangtaejuk''''' – a type of [[juk (food)|juk]], made by stir-frying soaked and drained [[Japonica rice|rice]] and glutinous rice in sesame oil, then adding thinly shredded remoisturized ''hwangtae'', water, and [[soup soy sauce]] to taste, and boiling it, and finally adding beaten egg and garnishing it with thinly sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s
* '''''kodarijorim''''' – a type of jorim, made by laying sliced [[Korean radish|radish]] on the bottom of a pot, putting in chunked ''kodari'' and the spicy sauce made of soy sauce, gochutgaru (chili powder), mullyeot (rice or corn syrup), (rice wine), minced garlic, ground ginger, sesame oil, and ground black pepper, then stewing it with sliced onions and [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s.
* '''''[[myeongnanjeot]]''''' – a type of jeotgal, made by washing intact skeins of pollock roe with salted water, then salting it in a [[sokuri]] (bamboo basket). The ratio of salt to roe ranges from less than 5:100 to more than 15:100. After 2-3 days, salted and drained roe is marinated for at least a day with fine [[Chili powder|gochutgaru]] (chili powder) and finely minced [[garlic]]. ''Myeongnanjeot'' is usually served with some drops of sesame oil.
* '''''myeongtaehoe''''' – a type of [[hoe (food)|hoe]], made by marinating sliced fresh raw ''myeongtae'' with similarly-sized [[Korean radish|radish]] in the mixture of salt, sugar, and vinegar, then draining them (squeezing in case of the radish pieces), and adding chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, minced garlic, sesame oil, toasted sesame seed powder, sliced [[Pyrus pyrifolia|pear]], gochutgaru (chili powder), and ground black pepper. ''Myeongtaehoe'' can also be used as the topping of [[naengmyeon]] (cold noodles).
* '''''myeongatejeon''''' – a type of jeon, made by removing the head an tail of ''myeongtae'' (either fresh ''saengtae'' or frozen ''dongtae''), gutting and boning it, finely mincing the flesh and mixing it with some other ingredients such as crumbled tofu or finely minced vegetables such as [[aehobak]], green chili, [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, or aubergine, then coating it with wheat flour or glutinous rice flour, egg-washing it, and pan-frying it in oil. Soy sauce mixed with vinegar is served with the jeon.
* '''''myeongtaesikhae''''' – a type of [[sikhae]], made by removing the head and gutting a ''myeongtae'', sprinkling some salt and drying it for two days, slicing it, mixing the sliced chunks with julienned, salted, and squeezed [[Korean radish|radish]], minced garlic, ground ginger, gochutgaru (chili powder), [[yeotgireum]] (powdered barley [[malt]]), and [[bap (food)|cooked rice]], then fermenting it for a week.
* '''''saengtaetang''''' – a type of [[guk|tang]], made by laying sliced [[Korean radish|radish]] in a pot, putting gutted and chunked ''saengtae'', debearded [[Venerupis philippinarum|Manila clam]]s, [[Styela clava|stalked sea squirt]]s, sliced fresh chili, sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, gochutgaru (chili powder), doenjang (soybean paste), [[soup soy sauce]], minced garlic, and ground black pepper, then adding [[kombu|kelp]]-[[Engraulis japonicus|anchovy]] broth. Sliced tofu, [[Glebionis coronaria|chrysanthemum greens]] and [[enoki mushroom]]s are added at serving time..

== Pollock roe ==
[[File:Alaska pollock roe Russia.jpg|thumb|181x181px|Canned Alaska pollock roe, served on crisp rye bread (Russia).]]
{{main|Pollock roe}}
Pollock roe is a popular culinary ingredient in Japan, Korea, and Russia. In Korea, the roe is traditionally called ''myeongnan''({{lang|ko|명란}}), and the salted roe is called ''myeongnanjeot''({{lang|ko|명란젓}}). The food was introduced to Japan after [[World War II]], and is called ''mentaiko''({{lang|ja|明太子}}) in Japanese. The milder, less spicy version is called ''tarako''({{lang|ja|鱈子}}) in Japan. In Russia, pollock roe is consumed as a sandwich spread. The product, resembling liquid paste due to the small size of eggs and oil added, is sold canned.

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Seafood]]

Alaska pollock as food

2017-02-10T07:29:25Z

Ityoppyawit: /* Korea */ juk

{{refimprove|date=February 2017|reason=large swathes of this article have no references at all}}

Compared with [[pollock]], [[Alaska pollock]] has a milder taste, whiter color and lower oil content.

High-quality, single-frozen whole Alaska pollock fillets may be layered into a block mold and deep-frozen to produce fish blocks that are used throughout [[Europe]] and [[North America]] as the raw material for high-quality breaded and battered fish products. Lower-quality, double-frozen fillets or minced trim pieces may also be frozen in block forms and used as raw material for lower-quality, low-cost breaded and battered [[Fish finger|fish sticks]] and portions.

Single-frozen Alaska pollock is the preferred raw material for ''[[surimi]]''; the most common use of surimi in the United States is [[imitation crabmeat]] (also known as [[crab stick]]s).{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

Alaska pollock is commonly used in the [[fast food]] industry, in products such as McDonald's [[Filet-O-Fish]] sandwich and (now-discontinued) Fish McBites,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/24/mcdonalds-fish-sustainable_n_2542502.html |title=McDonald's Sustainable Fish: All U.S. Locations To Serve MSC-Certified Seafood |last1=Tepper |first1=Rachel |date=24 January 2013 |website=[[Huffington Post]] |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> [[Arby's]] Classic Fish sandwich,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arbys.com/our-menu/fish/classic-fish |title=Classic Fish |author= |date=2014 |website=Arby's |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> [[Long John Silver's]] Baja Fish Taco,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ljsilvers.com/images/pdfs/LJS_Customer_Ingredient_List_July%202014.pdf |title=Ingredient Statements |author= |date=June 2014 |website=Long John Silver's |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> and [[Birds Eye]]'s Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdseye.co.uk/range/Products/Fish%20Fingers%20in%20Crispy%20Batter |title=Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter |author= |date=2014 |website=Birds Eye |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref>

== Korea ==
[[File:Hwangtae (Gadus chalcogrammus).jpg|thumb|drying ''hwangtae'' in winter]]
In [[Korea]], Alaska pollock is considered the "national fish".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/10/10/0200000000AKR20161010084800030.HTML|title=국민생선 명태가 돌아온다…세계최초 '완전양식' 성공|last=정|first=빛나|date=11 October 2016|newspaper=[[Yonhap]]|language=ko|trans-title=Return of the national fish: the first success in the world in completely controlled culture of Alaska pollock|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=http://www.viva100.com/main/view.php?key=20170105010001584|title=동태·북어·노가리, 겨울엔 황태·코다리로… '국민생선' 제철만났네|last=박|first=효주|date=6 January 2017|newspaper=Bridgenews|language=ko|trans-title=Dongtae, bugeo, and nogari; as hwangtae and kodari in winter... the "national fish" is in season|access-date=7 January 2016}}</ref> The Korean name of the fish, '''''myeongtae'''''({{Lang|ko|명태}}), has also spread to some neighbouring countries: It is called ''mintay''({{lang|ru|минтай}}) in [[Russia]], and its roe is called ''mentaiko''({{lang|ja|明太子}}) in [[Japan]] although the Japanese name for the fish itself is ''suketōdara''({{lang|ja|介党鱈}}).

In Korea, ''myeongtae'' is called by thirty-odd names including:<ref name=":3" />
* '''''saengtae'''''({{Lang|ko|생태}}) – fresh Alaska pollock
* '''''dongtae'''''({{Lang|ko|동태}}) – frozen Alaska pollock
* '''''bugeo'''''({{Lang|ko|북어}}) – dried Alaska pollock
* '''''hwangtae'''''({{Lang|ko|황태}}) – "yellow Alaska pollock", made by drying Alaska pollock during winter while undergoing repeated freeze-thaw cycles
* '''''nogari'''''({{Lang|ko|노가리}}) – young Alaska pollock
* '''''kodari'''''({{Lang|ko|코다리}}) – "nosed Alaska pollock", made by gutting young Alaska pollok and half-drying four to five of them on a rope tied through their "noses"

Koreans have been enjoying Alaska pollock since the [[Joseon]] era. One of the earliest mentions are from ''[[Seungjeongwon ilgi]]'' (Journal of the Royal Secretariat), where a 1652 entry stated: "The management administration should be strictly interrogated for bringing in pollock roe instead of cod roe."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=3009090|title=A hit abroad, pollock roe is rallying at home|last=Cha|first=Sang-eun|date=12 September 2015|newspaper=[[JoongAng Ilbo|Korea Joongang Daily]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Alaska pollock were the most commonly caught fish in Korea in 1940, when more than 270,000 [[tonne]]s were caught from the [[Sea of Japan|East Sea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0018416|title=명태|last=박|first=구병|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]|publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]|language=ko|trans-title=myeongtae|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> The current annual consumption of Alaska pollock in [[South Korea]] is estimated to be about 260,000 tonnes in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.seafoodnews.com/Story/1041694/South-Korea-Facing-Pollock-Shortage-Aims-to-Rebuild-Imports-and-Trade-Ties-to-Russia|title=South Korea Facing Pollock Shortage, Aims to Rebuild Imports and Trade Ties to Russia|last=Gergen|first=Eugene|date=21 November 2016|newspaper=SeafoodNews|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Nowadays, however, Alaska pollock consumption in South Korea relies heavily on imports from Russia, due to the rise in sea water temperatures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2012/01/144_103202.html|title=PyeongChang: birthplace of yellow dried pollack|last=Lee|first=Hyo-sik|date=19 January 2012|newspaper=[[The Korea Times]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref>

Every part of a ''myeongtae'' is used in [[Korean cuisine]].

'''Ingredients'''
* '''''bugeo daegari''''' – dried pollock head, used to make [[broth]]
* '''''bugeo daegari yuksu''''' – dried pollock head broth
* '''''bugeopo''''' – a type of [[jerky]], made by thinly slicing and seasoning dried pollok, then drying it again
* '''''changnan''''' – pollock intestine, used to make [[jeotgal]]
* '''''hwangtaepo''''' – a type of jerky, made by thinly slicing and seasoning yellow dried pollok, then drying it again
* '''''[[myeongnan]]''''' – pollock [[roe]], added in various dishes and used to make jeotgal
* '''''myeongtaepo''''' – a type of jerkey, made by seasoning pollock with salt, then drying it

{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Bugeotguk (dried pollock soup).jpg
| caption1 = ''bugeotguk''
| image2 = Dongtae jjigae (pollock stew).jpg
| caption2 = ''dongtaejjigae''
| image3 = Myeongtaejeon (pan-fried pollock).jpg
| caption3 = ''myeongtaejeon''
| image4 = Myeongtae jorim (stewed pollock).jpg
| caption4 = ''myeongtaejorim''
}}
'''Dishes'''
* '''''bugeobopuragi''''' – literally "bugeo [[lint (material)|lint]]" made by grating well-dried ''bugeo'' and seasoning each third of the "lint" with black, white, and red seasonings respectively. Black seasoning is made with [[soy sauce]], [[sesame oil]], sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds; white seasoning with salt, sesame oil, sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds; red seasoning with [[gochutgaru]] (chili powder), salt, sesame oil, sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojangajji''''' – a type of [[jangajji]], pickling shredded ''bugeo''. The pickling sauce contains [[gochujang]] (chili paste), chopped [[yujacheong]] ([[yuja]] marmalade), honey, minced garlic, and ground ginger.
* '''''bugeojeok''''' – a type of [[jeok]], made by removing the head and tail of ''bugeo'', then remoisturizing it, seasoning it with soy sauce, sugar, sesame oil, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[cheongju]] (rice wine), minced garlic, ground ginger, ground black pepper, and toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojeon''''' – a type of [[Jeon (food)|jeon]], made by coating ''bugeo'' in flour, egg-washing it, and pan-frying in oil. The jeon is served with dipping sauce made with soy sauce, sugar, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, minced garlic, ground ginger, sesame oil, and toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojorim''''' – a type of [[jorim]], made by simmering ''bugeo'' chunks in jorim sauce, with deseeded and sliced green and red chili. Its sauce contains soy sauce, water, sugar, minced garlic, ground ginger, and chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s.
* '''''bugeotguk''''' – a type of [[guk]], made by wetting thinly sliced ''bugeo'' in cold water and draining it, stir-frying it with julienned [[Korean radish|radish]] in sesame oil, then pouring [[tteumul]] (water from the final rinsing of rice) and boiling, and finally adding diagonally sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s and beaten egg.
* '''''changnanjeot''''' – a type of jeotgal, made by washing fresh intestine of pollock with salted water, then salting it in a [[hangari]] for four to six months. Salted and drained intestines are washed, sliced, and seasoned with gochutgaru (chili powder), minced garlic, toasted sesame seeds, and chopped [[Korean radish|radish]].
* '''''dongtaejjigae''''' – a type of [[jjigae]], made by stir-frying ground beef seasoned with [[soup soy sauce]], pouring tteumul (water from the last washing of rice), adding doenjang (soybean paste), gochujang (chili paste), and gochutgaru (chili powder) and letting it boil for a while, then adding chunked ''dongtae'' and [[Korean radish|radish]], minced garlic, sliced onion and [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, and [[tofu]]. When served, the stew is topped with chopped [[Glebionis coronaria|chrysanthemum greens]] and red chili.
* '''''dongtaesundae''''' – a type of winter [[sundae (Korean food)|sundae]], made by salting Alaska pollock overnight, gutting the fish without slicing it by putting a hand through the mouth, and washing the inside carefully, before stuffing it with the ''sundae'' stuffing, and letting it freeze outside. The stuffing contains blanched, squeezed, and chopped [[napa cabbage]] leaves, blanched, drained, and chopped [[mung bean sprout]]s, boiled and minced pork, crumbled tofu, minced garlic, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[glutinous rice]] powder, doenjang (soybean paste), salt, and [[black pepper]].
* '''''hwangtaegui''''' – a type of [[gui (food)|gui]], made by remoisturizing ''hwangtae'', coating in soy sauce and sesame oil and grilling it, then coating it again with the mixture of gochujang (chili paste), gochutgaru (chili powder), soy sauce, [[maesilcheong]] (plum syrup), and minced garlic, and grilling it again. When served, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s and toasted sesame seeds are sprinkled on top.
* '''''hwangtaejjim''''' – a type of jorim, made by seasoning remoisturized ''hwangtae'' with gochutgaru (chili powder), minced garlic, salt, sesame oil, and sugar, then stewing the seasoned ''hwangtae'' in a pot along with ground ginger, sliced onions, carrots, [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[soybean sprout]]s, sliced [[Cheongyang chili pepper|Cheongyang chili]], and the spicy sauce made of gochutgaru, [[mullyeot]] (rice or corn syrup), water, ground black pepper, and ground fresh chili
* '''''hwangtaejuk''''' – a type of [[juk (food)|juk]], made by stir-frying soaked and drained [[Japonica rice|rice]] and glutinous rice in sesame oil, then adding thinly shredded remoisturized ''hwangtae'', water, and [[soup soy sauce]] to taste, and boiling it, and finally adding beaten egg and garnishing it with thinly sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s
* '''''kodarijorim''''' – a type of jorim, made by laying sliced [[Korean radish|radish]] on the bottom of a pot, putting in chunked ''kodari'' and the spicy sauce made of soy sauce, gochutgaru (chili powder), mullyeot (rice or corn syrup), (rice wine), minced garlic, ground ginger, sesame oil, and ground black pepper, then stewing it with sliced onions and [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s.
* '''''[[myeongnanjeot]]''''' – a type of jeotgal, made by washing intact skeins of pollock roe with salted water, then salting it in a [[sokuri]] (bamboo basket). The ratio of salt to roe ranges from less than 5:100 to more than 15:100. After 2-3 days, salted and drained roe is marinated for at least a day with fine [[Chili powder|gochutgaru]] (chili powder) and finely minced [[garlic]]. ''Myeongnanjeot'' is usually served with some drops of sesame oil.
* '''''myeongtaehoe''''' – a type of [[hoe (food)|hoe]], made by marinating sliced fresh raw ''myeongtae'' with similarly-sized [[Korean radish|radish]] in the mixture of salt, sugar, and vinegar, then draining them (squeezing in case of the radish pieces), and adding chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, minced garlic, sesame oil, toasted sesame seed powder, sliced [[Pyrus pyrifolia|pear]], gochutgaru (chili powder), and ground black pepper. ''Myeongtaehoe'' can also be used as the topping of [[naengmyeon]] (cold noodles).
* '''''myeongatejeon''''' – a type of jeon, made by removing the head an tail of ''myeongtae'' (either fresh ''saengtae'' or frozen ''dongtae''), gutting and boning it, finely mincing the flesh and mixing it with some other ingredients such as crumbled tofu or finely minced vegetables such as [[aehobak]], green chili, [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, or aubergine, then coating it with wheat flour or glutinous rice flour, egg-washing it, and pan-frying it in oil. Soy sauce mixed with vinegar is served with the jeon.
* '''''myeongtaesikhae''''' – a type of [[sikhae]], made by removing the head and gutting a ''myeongtae'', sprinkling some salt and drying it for two days, slicing it, mixing the sliced chunks with julienned, salted, and squeezed [[Korean radish|radish]], minced garlic, ground ginger, gochutgaru (chili powder), [[yeotgireum]] (powdered barley [[malt]]), and [[bap (food)|cooked rice]], then fermenting it for a week.
* '''''saengtaetang''''' – a type of [[guk|tang]], made by laying sliced [[Korean radish|radish]] in a pot, putting gutted and chunked ''saengtae'', debearded [[Venerupis philippinarum|Manila clam]]s, [[Styela clava|stalked sea squirt]]s, sliced fresh chili, sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, gochutgaru chili powder), doenjang (soybean paste), [[soup soy sauce]], minced garlic, and ground black pepper, then adding [[kombu|kelp]]-[[Engraulis japonicus|anchovy]] broth. Sliced tofu, [[Glebionis coronaria|chrysanthemum greens]] and [[enoki mushroom]]s are added at serving time..

== Pollock roe ==
[[File:Alaska pollock roe Russia.jpg|thumb|181x181px|Canned Alaska pollock roe, served on crisp rye bread (Russia).]]
{{main|Pollock roe}}
Pollock roe is a popular culinary ingredient in Japan, Korea, and Russia. In Korea, the roe is traditionally called ''myeongnan''({{lang|ko|명란}}), and the salted roe is called ''myeongnanjeot''({{lang|ko|명란젓}}). The food was introduced to Japan after [[World War II]], and is called ''mentaiko''({{lang|ja|明太子}}) in Japanese. The milder, less spicy version is called ''tarako''({{lang|ja|鱈子}}) in Japan. In Russia, pollock roe is consumed as a sandwich spread. The product, resembling liquid paste due to the small size of eggs and oil added, is sold canned.

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Seafood]]

Alaska pollock as food

2017-02-10T07:28:26Z

Ityoppyawit: /* Korea */ sikhae

{{refimprove|date=February 2017|reason=large swathes of this article have no references at all}}

Compared with [[pollock]], [[Alaska pollock]] has a milder taste, whiter color and lower oil content.

High-quality, single-frozen whole Alaska pollock fillets may be layered into a block mold and deep-frozen to produce fish blocks that are used throughout [[Europe]] and [[North America]] as the raw material for high-quality breaded and battered fish products. Lower-quality, double-frozen fillets or minced trim pieces may also be frozen in block forms and used as raw material for lower-quality, low-cost breaded and battered [[Fish finger|fish sticks]] and portions.

Single-frozen Alaska pollock is the preferred raw material for ''[[surimi]]''; the most common use of surimi in the United States is [[imitation crabmeat]] (also known as [[crab stick]]s).{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

Alaska pollock is commonly used in the [[fast food]] industry, in products such as McDonald's [[Filet-O-Fish]] sandwich and (now-discontinued) Fish McBites,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/24/mcdonalds-fish-sustainable_n_2542502.html |title=McDonald's Sustainable Fish: All U.S. Locations To Serve MSC-Certified Seafood |last1=Tepper |first1=Rachel |date=24 January 2013 |website=[[Huffington Post]] |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> [[Arby's]] Classic Fish sandwich,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arbys.com/our-menu/fish/classic-fish |title=Classic Fish |author= |date=2014 |website=Arby's |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> [[Long John Silver's]] Baja Fish Taco,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ljsilvers.com/images/pdfs/LJS_Customer_Ingredient_List_July%202014.pdf |title=Ingredient Statements |author= |date=June 2014 |website=Long John Silver's |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> and [[Birds Eye]]'s Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdseye.co.uk/range/Products/Fish%20Fingers%20in%20Crispy%20Batter |title=Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter |author= |date=2014 |website=Birds Eye |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref>

== Korea ==
[[File:Hwangtae (Gadus chalcogrammus).jpg|thumb|drying ''hwangtae'' in winter]]
In [[Korea]], Alaska pollock is considered the "national fish".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/10/10/0200000000AKR20161010084800030.HTML|title=국민생선 명태가 돌아온다…세계최초 '완전양식' 성공|last=정|first=빛나|date=11 October 2016|newspaper=[[Yonhap]]|language=ko|trans-title=Return of the national fish: the first success in the world in completely controlled culture of Alaska pollock|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=http://www.viva100.com/main/view.php?key=20170105010001584|title=동태·북어·노가리, 겨울엔 황태·코다리로… '국민생선' 제철만났네|last=박|first=효주|date=6 January 2017|newspaper=Bridgenews|language=ko|trans-title=Dongtae, bugeo, and nogari; as hwangtae and kodari in winter... the "national fish" is in season|access-date=7 January 2016}}</ref> The Korean name of the fish, '''''myeongtae'''''({{Lang|ko|명태}}), has also spread to some neighbouring countries: It is called ''mintay''({{lang|ru|минтай}}) in [[Russia]], and its roe is called ''mentaiko''({{lang|ja|明太子}}) in [[Japan]] although the Japanese name for the fish itself is ''suketōdara''({{lang|ja|介党鱈}}).

In Korea, ''myeongtae'' is called by thirty-odd names including:<ref name=":3" />
* '''''saengtae'''''({{Lang|ko|생태}}) – fresh Alaska pollock
* '''''dongtae'''''({{Lang|ko|동태}}) – frozen Alaska pollock
* '''''bugeo'''''({{Lang|ko|북어}}) – dried Alaska pollock
* '''''hwangtae'''''({{Lang|ko|황태}}) – "yellow Alaska pollock", made by drying Alaska pollock during winter while undergoing repeated freeze-thaw cycles
* '''''nogari'''''({{Lang|ko|노가리}}) – young Alaska pollock
* '''''kodari'''''({{Lang|ko|코다리}}) – "nosed Alaska pollock", made by gutting young Alaska pollok and half-drying four to five of them on a rope tied through their "noses"

Koreans have been enjoying Alaska pollock since the [[Joseon]] era. One of the earliest mentions are from ''[[Seungjeongwon ilgi]]'' (Journal of the Royal Secretariat), where a 1652 entry stated: "The management administration should be strictly interrogated for bringing in pollock roe instead of cod roe."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=3009090|title=A hit abroad, pollock roe is rallying at home|last=Cha|first=Sang-eun|date=12 September 2015|newspaper=[[JoongAng Ilbo|Korea Joongang Daily]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Alaska pollock were the most commonly caught fish in Korea in 1940, when more than 270,000 [[tonne]]s were caught from the [[Sea of Japan|East Sea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0018416|title=명태|last=박|first=구병|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]|publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]|language=ko|trans-title=myeongtae|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> The current annual consumption of Alaska pollock in [[South Korea]] is estimated to be about 260,000 tonnes in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.seafoodnews.com/Story/1041694/South-Korea-Facing-Pollock-Shortage-Aims-to-Rebuild-Imports-and-Trade-Ties-to-Russia|title=South Korea Facing Pollock Shortage, Aims to Rebuild Imports and Trade Ties to Russia|last=Gergen|first=Eugene|date=21 November 2016|newspaper=SeafoodNews|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Nowadays, however, Alaska pollock consumption in South Korea relies heavily on imports from Russia, due to the rise in sea water temperatures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2012/01/144_103202.html|title=PyeongChang: birthplace of yellow dried pollack|last=Lee|first=Hyo-sik|date=19 January 2012|newspaper=[[The Korea Times]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref>

Every part of a ''myeongtae'' is used in [[Korean cuisine]].

'''Ingredients'''
* '''''bugeo daegari''''' – dried pollock head, used to make [[broth]]
* '''''bugeo daegari yuksu''''' – dried pollock head broth
* '''''bugeopo''''' – a type of [[jerky]], made by thinly slicing and seasoning dried pollok, then drying it again
* '''''changnan''''' – pollock intestine, used to make [[jeotgal]]
* '''''hwangtaepo''''' – a type of jerky, made by thinly slicing and seasoning yellow dried pollok, then drying it again
* '''''[[myeongnan]]''''' – pollock [[roe]], added in various dishes and used to make jeotgal
* '''''myeongtaepo''''' – a type of jerkey, made by seasoning pollock with salt, then drying it

{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Bugeotguk (dried pollock soup).jpg
| caption1 = ''bugeotguk''
| image2 = Dongtae jjigae (pollock stew).jpg
| caption2 = ''dongtaejjigae''
| image3 = Myeongtaejeon (pan-fried pollock).jpg
| caption3 = ''myeongtaejeon''
| image4 = Myeongtae jorim (stewed pollock).jpg
| caption4 = ''myeongtaejorim''
}}
'''Dishes'''
* '''''bugeobopuragi''''' – literally "bugeo [[lint (material)|lint]]" made by grating well-dried ''bugeo'' and seasoning each third of the "lint" with black, white, and red seasonings respectively. Black seasoning is made with [[soy sauce]], [[sesame oil]], sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds; white seasoning with salt, sesame oil, sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds; red seasoning with [[gochutgaru]] (chili powder), salt, sesame oil, sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojangajji''''' – a type of [[jangajji]], pickling shredded ''bugeo''. The pickling sauce contains [[gochujang]] (chili paste), chopped [[yujacheong]] ([[yuja]] marmalade), honey, minced garlic, and ground ginger.
* '''''bugeojeok''''' – a type of [[jeok]], made by removing the head and tail of ''bugeo'', then remoisturizing it, seasoning it with soy sauce, sugar, sesame oil, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[cheongju]] (rice wine), minced garlic, ground ginger, ground black pepper, and toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojeon''''' – a type of [[Jeon (food)|jeon]], made by coating ''bugeo'' in flour, egg-washing it, and pan-frying in oil. The jeon is served with dipping sauce made with soy sauce, sugar, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, minced garlic, ground ginger, sesame oil, and toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojorim''''' – a type of [[jorim]], made by simmering ''bugeo'' chunks in jorim sauce, with deseeded and sliced green and red chili. Its sauce contains soy sauce, water, sugar, minced garlic, ground ginger, and chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s.
* '''''bugeotguk''''' – a type of [[guk]], made by wetting thinly sliced ''bugeo'' in cold water and draining it, stir-frying it with julienned [[Korean radish|radish]] in sesame oil, then pouring [[tteumul]] (water from the final rinsing of rice) and boiling, and finally adding diagonally sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s and beaten egg.
* '''''changnanjeot''''' – a type of jeotgal, made by washing fresh intestine of pollock with salted water, then salting it in a [[hangari]] for four to six months. Salted and drained intestines are washed, sliced, and seasoned with gochutgaru (chili powder), minced garlic, toasted sesame seeds, and chopped [[Korean radish|radish]].
* '''''dongtaejjigae''''' – a type of [[jjigae]], made by stir-frying ground beef seasoned with [[soup soy sauce]], pouring tteumul (water from the last washing of rice), adding doenjang (soybean paste), gochujang (chili paste), and gochutgaru (chili powder) and letting it boil for a while, then adding chunked ''dongtae'' and [[Korean radish|radish]], minced garlic, sliced onion and [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, and [[tofu]]. When served, the stew is topped with chopped [[Glebionis coronaria|chrysanthemum greens]] and red chili.
* '''''dongtaesundae''''' – a type of winter [[sundae (Korean food)|sundae]], made by salting Alaska pollock overnight, gutting the fish without slicing it by putting a hand through the mouth, and washing the inside carefully, before stuffing it with the ''sundae'' stuffing, and letting it freeze outside. The stuffing contains blanched, squeezed, and chopped [[napa cabbage]] leaves, blanched, drained, and chopped [[mung bean sprout]]s, boiled and minced pork, crumbled tofu, minced garlic, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[glutinous rice]] powder, doenjang (soybean paste), salt, and [[black pepper]].
* '''''hwangtaegui''''' – a type of [[gui (food)|gui]], made by remoisturizing ''hwangtae'', coating in soy sauce and sesame oil and grilling it, then coating it again with the mixture of gochujang (chili paste), gochutgaru (chili powder), soy sauce, [[maesilcheong]] (plum syrup), and minced garlic, and grilling it again. When served, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s and toasted sesame seeds are sprinkled on top.
* '''''hwangtaejjim''''' – a type of jorim, made by seasoning remoisturized ''hwangtae'' with gochutgaru (chili powder), minced garlic, salt, sesame oil, and sugar, then stewing the seasoned ''hwangtae'' in a pot along with ground ginger, sliced onions, carrots, [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[soybean sprout]]s, sliced [[Cheongyang chili pepper|Cheongyang chili]], and the spicy sauce made of gochutgaru, [[mullyeot]] (rice or corn syrup), water, ground black pepper, and ground fresh chili
* '''''hwangtaejuk''''' – stir-frying soaked and drained [[Japonica rice|rice]] and glutinous rice in sesame oil, then adding thinly shredded remoisturized ''hwangtae'', water, and [[soup soy sauce]] to taste, and boiling it, and finally adding beaten egg and garnishing it with thinly sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s
* '''''kodarijorim''''' – a type of jorim, made by laying sliced [[Korean radish|radish]] on the bottom of a pot, putting in chunked ''kodari'' and the spicy sauce made of soy sauce, gochutgaru (chili powder), mullyeot (rice or corn syrup), (rice wine), minced garlic, ground ginger, sesame oil, and ground black pepper, then stewing it with sliced onions and [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s.
* '''''[[myeongnanjeot]]''''' – a type of jeotgal, made by washing intact skeins of pollock roe with salted water, then salting it in a [[sokuri]] (bamboo basket). The ratio of salt to roe ranges from less than 5:100 to more than 15:100. After 2-3 days, salted and drained roe is marinated for at least a day with fine [[Chili powder|gochutgaru]] (chili powder) and finely minced [[garlic]]. ''Myeongnanjeot'' is usually served with some drops of sesame oil.
* '''''myeongtaehoe''''' – a type of [[hoe (food)|hoe]], made by marinating sliced fresh raw ''myeongtae'' with similarly-sized [[Korean radish|radish]] in the mixture of salt, sugar, and vinegar, then draining them (squeezing in case of the radish pieces), and adding chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, minced garlic, sesame oil, toasted sesame seed powder, sliced [[Pyrus pyrifolia|pear]], gochutgaru (chili powder), and ground black pepper. ''Myeongtaehoe'' can also be used as the topping of [[naengmyeon]] (cold noodles).
* '''''myeongatejeon''''' – a type of jeon, made by removing the head an tail of ''myeongtae'' (either fresh ''saengtae'' or frozen ''dongtae''), gutting and boning it, finely mincing the flesh and mixing it with some other ingredients such as crumbled tofu or finely minced vegetables such as [[aehobak]], green chili, [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, or aubergine, then coating it with wheat flour or glutinous rice flour, egg-washing it, and pan-frying it in oil. Soy sauce mixed with vinegar is served with the jeon.
* '''''myeongtaesikhae''''' – a type of [[sikhae]], made by removing the head and gutting a ''myeongtae'', sprinkling some salt and drying it for two days, slicing it, mixing the sliced chunks with julienned, salted, and squeezed [[Korean radish|radish]], minced garlic, ground ginger, gochutgaru (chili powder), [[yeotgireum]] (powdered barley [[malt]]), and [[bap (food)|cooked rice]], then fermenting it for a week.
* '''''saengtaetang''''' – a type of [[guk|tang]], made by laying sliced [[Korean radish|radish]] in a pot, putting gutted and chunked ''saengtae'', debearded [[Venerupis philippinarum|Manila clam]]s, [[Styela clava|stalked sea squirt]]s, sliced fresh chili, sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, gochutgaru chili powder), doenjang (soybean paste), [[soup soy sauce]], minced garlic, and ground black pepper, then adding [[kombu|kelp]]-[[Engraulis japonicus|anchovy]] broth. Sliced tofu, [[Glebionis coronaria|chrysanthemum greens]] and [[enoki mushroom]]s are added at serving time..

== Pollock roe ==
[[File:Alaska pollock roe Russia.jpg|thumb|181x181px|Canned Alaska pollock roe, served on crisp rye bread (Russia).]]
{{main|Pollock roe}}
Pollock roe is a popular culinary ingredient in Japan, Korea, and Russia. In Korea, the roe is traditionally called ''myeongnan''({{lang|ko|명란}}), and the salted roe is called ''myeongnanjeot''({{lang|ko|명란젓}}). The food was introduced to Japan after [[World War II]], and is called ''mentaiko''({{lang|ja|明太子}}) in Japanese. The milder, less spicy version is called ''tarako''({{lang|ja|鱈子}}) in Japan. In Russia, pollock roe is consumed as a sandwich spread. The product, resembling liquid paste due to the small size of eggs and oil added, is sold canned.

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Seafood]]

Alaska pollock as food

2017-02-10T07:27:35Z

Ityoppyawit: disambiguation: scallions–Allium fistulosum, chrysanthemum greens–Glebionis coronaria, radish–Korean radish

{{refimprove|date=February 2017|reason=large swathes of this article have no references at all}}

Compared with [[pollock]], [[Alaska pollock]] has a milder taste, whiter color and lower oil content.

High-quality, single-frozen whole Alaska pollock fillets may be layered into a block mold and deep-frozen to produce fish blocks that are used throughout [[Europe]] and [[North America]] as the raw material for high-quality breaded and battered fish products. Lower-quality, double-frozen fillets or minced trim pieces may also be frozen in block forms and used as raw material for lower-quality, low-cost breaded and battered [[Fish finger|fish sticks]] and portions.

Single-frozen Alaska pollock is the preferred raw material for ''[[surimi]]''; the most common use of surimi in the United States is [[imitation crabmeat]] (also known as [[crab stick]]s).{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

Alaska pollock is commonly used in the [[fast food]] industry, in products such as McDonald's [[Filet-O-Fish]] sandwich and (now-discontinued) Fish McBites,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/24/mcdonalds-fish-sustainable_n_2542502.html |title=McDonald's Sustainable Fish: All U.S. Locations To Serve MSC-Certified Seafood |last1=Tepper |first1=Rachel |date=24 January 2013 |website=[[Huffington Post]] |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> [[Arby's]] Classic Fish sandwich,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arbys.com/our-menu/fish/classic-fish |title=Classic Fish |author= |date=2014 |website=Arby's |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> [[Long John Silver's]] Baja Fish Taco,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ljsilvers.com/images/pdfs/LJS_Customer_Ingredient_List_July%202014.pdf |title=Ingredient Statements |author= |date=June 2014 |website=Long John Silver's |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> and [[Birds Eye]]'s Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdseye.co.uk/range/Products/Fish%20Fingers%20in%20Crispy%20Batter |title=Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter |author= |date=2014 |website=Birds Eye |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref>

== Korea ==
[[File:Hwangtae (Gadus chalcogrammus).jpg|thumb|drying ''hwangtae'' in winter]]
In [[Korea]], Alaska pollock is considered the "national fish".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/10/10/0200000000AKR20161010084800030.HTML|title=국민생선 명태가 돌아온다…세계최초 '완전양식' 성공|last=정|first=빛나|date=11 October 2016|newspaper=[[Yonhap]]|language=ko|trans-title=Return of the national fish: the first success in the world in completely controlled culture of Alaska pollock|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=http://www.viva100.com/main/view.php?key=20170105010001584|title=동태·북어·노가리, 겨울엔 황태·코다리로… '국민생선' 제철만났네|last=박|first=효주|date=6 January 2017|newspaper=Bridgenews|language=ko|trans-title=Dongtae, bugeo, and nogari; as hwangtae and kodari in winter... the "national fish" is in season|access-date=7 January 2016}}</ref> The Korean name of the fish, '''''myeongtae'''''({{Lang|ko|명태}}), has also spread to some neighbouring countries: It is called ''mintay''({{lang|ru|минтай}}) in [[Russia]], and its roe is called ''mentaiko''({{lang|ja|明太子}}) in [[Japan]] although the Japanese name for the fish itself is ''suketōdara''({{lang|ja|介党鱈}}).

In Korea, ''myeongtae'' is called by thirty-odd names including:<ref name=":3" />
* '''''saengtae'''''({{Lang|ko|생태}}) – fresh Alaska pollock
* '''''dongtae'''''({{Lang|ko|동태}}) – frozen Alaska pollock
* '''''bugeo'''''({{Lang|ko|북어}}) – dried Alaska pollock
* '''''hwangtae'''''({{Lang|ko|황태}}) – "yellow Alaska pollock", made by drying Alaska pollock during winter while undergoing repeated freeze-thaw cycles
* '''''nogari'''''({{Lang|ko|노가리}}) – young Alaska pollock
* '''''kodari'''''({{Lang|ko|코다리}}) – "nosed Alaska pollock", made by gutting young Alaska pollok and half-drying four to five of them on a rope tied through their "noses"

Koreans have been enjoying Alaska pollock since the [[Joseon]] era. One of the earliest mentions are from ''[[Seungjeongwon ilgi]]'' (Journal of the Royal Secretariat), where a 1652 entry stated: "The management administration should be strictly interrogated for bringing in pollock roe instead of cod roe."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=3009090|title=A hit abroad, pollock roe is rallying at home|last=Cha|first=Sang-eun|date=12 September 2015|newspaper=[[JoongAng Ilbo|Korea Joongang Daily]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Alaska pollock were the most commonly caught fish in Korea in 1940, when more than 270,000 [[tonne]]s were caught from the [[Sea of Japan|East Sea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0018416|title=명태|last=박|first=구병|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]|publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]|language=ko|trans-title=myeongtae|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> The current annual consumption of Alaska pollock in [[South Korea]] is estimated to be about 260,000 tonnes in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.seafoodnews.com/Story/1041694/South-Korea-Facing-Pollock-Shortage-Aims-to-Rebuild-Imports-and-Trade-Ties-to-Russia|title=South Korea Facing Pollock Shortage, Aims to Rebuild Imports and Trade Ties to Russia|last=Gergen|first=Eugene|date=21 November 2016|newspaper=SeafoodNews|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Nowadays, however, Alaska pollock consumption in South Korea relies heavily on imports from Russia, due to the rise in sea water temperatures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2012/01/144_103202.html|title=PyeongChang: birthplace of yellow dried pollack|last=Lee|first=Hyo-sik|date=19 January 2012|newspaper=[[The Korea Times]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref>

Every part of a ''myeongtae'' is used in [[Korean cuisine]].

'''Ingredients'''
* '''''bugeo daegari''''' – dried pollock head, used to make [[broth]]
* '''''bugeo daegari yuksu''''' – dried pollock head broth
* '''''bugeopo''''' – a type of [[jerky]], made by thinly slicing and seasoning dried pollok, then drying it again
* '''''changnan''''' – pollock intestine, used to make [[jeotgal]]
* '''''hwangtaepo''''' – a type of jerky, made by thinly slicing and seasoning yellow dried pollok, then drying it again
* '''''[[myeongnan]]''''' – pollock [[roe]], added in various dishes and used to make jeotgal
* '''''myeongtaepo''''' – a type of jerkey, made by seasoning pollock with salt, then drying it

{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Bugeotguk (dried pollock soup).jpg
| caption1 = ''bugeotguk''
| image2 = Dongtae jjigae (pollock stew).jpg
| caption2 = ''dongtaejjigae''
| image3 = Myeongtaejeon (pan-fried pollock).jpg
| caption3 = ''myeongtaejeon''
| image4 = Myeongtae jorim (stewed pollock).jpg
| caption4 = ''myeongtaejorim''
}}
'''Dishes'''
* '''''bugeobopuragi''''' – literally "bugeo [[lint (material)|lint]]" made by grating well-dried ''bugeo'' and seasoning each third of the "lint" with black, white, and red seasonings respectively. Black seasoning is made with [[soy sauce]], [[sesame oil]], sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds; white seasoning with salt, sesame oil, sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds; red seasoning with [[gochutgaru]] (chili powder), salt, sesame oil, sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojangajji''''' – a type of [[jangajji]], pickling shredded ''bugeo''. The pickling sauce contains [[gochujang]] (chili paste), chopped [[yujacheong]] ([[yuja]] marmalade), honey, minced garlic, and ground ginger.
* '''''bugeojeok''''' – a type of [[jeok]], made by removing the head and tail of ''bugeo'', then remoisturizing it, seasoning it with soy sauce, sugar, sesame oil, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[cheongju]] (rice wine), minced garlic, ground ginger, ground black pepper, and toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojeon''''' – a type of [[Jeon (food)|jeon]], made by coating ''bugeo'' in flour, egg-washing it, and pan-frying in oil. The jeon is served with dipping sauce made with soy sauce, sugar, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, minced garlic, ground ginger, sesame oil, and toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojorim''''' – a type of [[jorim]], made by simmering ''bugeo'' chunks in jorim sauce, with deseeded and sliced green and red chili. Its sauce contains soy sauce, water, sugar, minced garlic, ground ginger, and chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s.
* '''''bugeotguk''''' – a type of [[guk]], made by wetting thinly sliced ''bugeo'' in cold water and draining it, stir-frying it with julienned [[Korean radish|radish]] in sesame oil, then pouring [[tteumul]] (water from the final rinsing of rice) and boiling, and finally adding diagonally sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s and beaten egg.
* '''''changnanjeot''''' – a type of jeotgal, made by washing fresh intestine of pollock with salted water, then salting it in a [[hangari]] for four to six months. Salted and drained intestines are washed, sliced, and seasoned with gochutgaru (chili powder), minced garlic, toasted sesame seeds, and chopped [[Korean radish|radish]].
* '''''dongtaejjigae''''' – a type of [[jjigae]], made by stir-frying ground beef seasoned with [[soup soy sauce]], pouring tteumul (water from the last washing of rice), adding doenjang (soybean paste), gochujang (chili paste), and gochutgaru (chili powder) and letting it boil for a while, then adding chunked ''dongtae'' and [[Korean radish|radish]], minced garlic, sliced onion and [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, and [[tofu]]. When served, the stew is topped with chopped [[Glebionis coronaria|chrysanthemum greens]] and red chili.
* '''''dongtaesundae''''' – a type of winter [[sundae (Korean food)|sundae]], made by salting Alaska pollock overnight, gutting the fish without slicing it by putting a hand through the mouth, and washing the inside carefully, before stuffing it with the ''sundae'' stuffing, and letting it freeze outside. The stuffing contains blanched, squeezed, and chopped [[napa cabbage]] leaves, blanched, drained, and chopped [[mung bean sprout]]s, boiled and minced pork, crumbled tofu, minced garlic, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[glutinous rice]] powder, doenjang (soybean paste), salt, and [[black pepper]].
* '''''hwangtaegui''''' – a type of [[gui (food)|gui]], made by remoisturizing ''hwangtae'', coating in soy sauce and sesame oil and grilling it, then coating it again with the mixture of gochujang (chili paste), gochutgaru (chili powder), soy sauce, [[maesilcheong]] (plum syrup), and minced garlic, and grilling it again. When served, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s and toasted sesame seeds are sprinkled on top.
* '''''hwangtaejjim''''' – a type of jorim, made by seasoning remoisturized ''hwangtae'' with gochutgaru (chili powder), minced garlic, salt, sesame oil, and sugar, then stewing the seasoned ''hwangtae'' in a pot along with ground ginger, sliced onions, carrots, [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[soybean sprout]]s, sliced [[Cheongyang chili pepper|Cheongyang chili]], and the spicy sauce made of gochutgaru, [[mullyeot]] (rice or corn syrup), water, ground black pepper, and ground fresh chili
* '''''hwangtaejuk''''' – stir-frying soaked and drained [[Japonica rice|rice]] and glutinous rice in sesame oil, then adding thinly shredded remoisturized ''hwangtae'', water, and [[soup soy sauce]] to taste, and boiling it, and finally adding beaten egg and garnishing it with thinly sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s
* '''''kodarijorim''''' – a type of jorim, made by laying sliced [[Korean radish|radish]] on the bottom of a pot, putting in chunked ''kodari'' and the spicy sauce made of soy sauce, gochutgaru (chili powder), mullyeot (rice or corn syrup), (rice wine), minced garlic, ground ginger, sesame oil, and ground black pepper, then stewing it with sliced onions and [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s.
* '''''[[myeongnanjeot]]''''' – a type of jeotgal, made by washing intact skeins of pollock roe with salted water, then salting it in a [[sokuri]] (bamboo basket). The ratio of salt to roe ranges from less than 5:100 to more than 15:100. After 2-3 days, salted and drained roe is marinated for at least a day with fine [[Chili powder|gochutgaru]] (chili powder) and finely minced [[garlic]]. ''Myeongnanjeot'' is usually served with some drops of sesame oil.
* '''''myeongtaehoe''''' – a type of [[hoe (food)|hoe]], made by marinating sliced fresh raw ''myeongtae'' with similarly-sized [[Korean radish|radish]] in the mixture of salt, sugar, and vinegar, then draining them (squeezing in case of the radish pieces), and adding chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, minced garlic, sesame oil, toasted sesame seed powder, sliced [[Pyrus pyrifolia|pear]], gochutgaru (chili powder), and ground black pepper. ''Myeongtaehoe'' can also be used as the topping of [[naengmyeon]] (cold noodles).
* '''''myeongatejeon''''' – a type of jeon, made by removing the head an tail of ''myeongtae'' (either fresh ''saengtae'' or frozen ''dongtae''), gutting and boning it, finely mincing the flesh and mixing it with some other ingredients such as crumbled tofu or finely minced vegetables such as [[aehobak]], green chili, [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, or aubergine, then coating it with wheat flour or glutinous rice flour, egg-washing it, and pan-frying it in oil. Soy sauce mixed with vinegar is served with the jeon.
* '''''myeongtaesikhae''''' – removing the head and gutting a ''myeongtae'', sprinkling some salt and drying it for two days, slicing it, mixing the sliced chunks with julienned, salted, and squeezed [[Korean radish|radish]], minced garlic, ground ginger, gochutgaru (chili powder), [[yeotgireum]] (powdered barley [[malt]]), and [[bap (food)|cooked rice]], then fermenting it for a week.
* '''''saengtaetang''''' – a type of [[guk|tang]], made by laying sliced [[Korean radish|radish]] in a pot, putting gutted and chunked ''saengtae'', debearded [[Venerupis philippinarum|Manila clam]]s, [[Styela clava|stalked sea squirt]]s, sliced fresh chili, sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, gochutgaru chili powder), doenjang (soybean paste), [[soup soy sauce]], minced garlic, and ground black pepper, then adding [[kombu|kelp]]-[[Engraulis japonicus|anchovy]] broth. Sliced tofu, [[Glebionis coronaria|chrysanthemum greens]] and [[enoki mushroom]]s are added at serving time..

== Pollock roe ==
[[File:Alaska pollock roe Russia.jpg|thumb|181x181px|Canned Alaska pollock roe, served on crisp rye bread (Russia).]]
{{main|Pollock roe}}
Pollock roe is a popular culinary ingredient in Japan, Korea, and Russia. In Korea, the roe is traditionally called ''myeongnan''({{lang|ko|명란}}), and the salted roe is called ''myeongnanjeot''({{lang|ko|명란젓}}). The food was introduced to Japan after [[World War II]], and is called ''mentaiko''({{lang|ja|明太子}}) in Japanese. The milder, less spicy version is called ''tarako''({{lang|ja|鱈子}}) in Japan. In Russia, pollock roe is consumed as a sandwich spread. The product, resembling liquid paste due to the small size of eggs and oil added, is sold canned.

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

[[Category:Seafood]]

Alaska pollock as food

2017-02-09T21:24:57Z

Ityoppyawit: Undid revision 764589959 by Elektra.of.argos (talk) "Insert non-formatted text here" can be put in "", not "<nowiki></nowiki>"

{{Copy edit|for=|date=February 2017}}

Compared with [[pollock]], [[Alaska pollock]] has a milder taste, whiter color and lower oil content.

High-quality, single-frozen whole [[Alaska pollock]] fillets may be layered into a block mold and deep-frozen to produce fish blocks that are used throughout [[Europe]] and [[North America]] as the raw material for high-quality breaded and battered fish products. Lower-quality, double-frozen fillets or minced trim pieces may also be frozen in block forms and used as raw material for lower-quality, low-cost breaded and battered [[Fish finger|fish sticks]] and portions.

Single-frozen [[Alaska pollock]] is considered to be the premier raw material for ''[[surimi]]''; the most common use of surimi in the United States is [[imitation crabmeat]] (also known as [[crab stick]]).{{citation needed|date=January 2013}}

[[Alaska pollock]] is commonly used in the [[fast food]] industry, in products such as McDonald's [[Filet-O-Fish]] sandwich and (now-discontinued) Fish McBites,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/01/24/mcdonalds-fish-sustainable_n_2542502.html |title=McDonald's Sustainable Fish: All U.S. Locations To Serve MSC-Certified Seafood |last1=Tepper |first1=Rachel |date=24 January 2013 |website=[[Huffington Post]] |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> [[Arby's]] Classic Fish sandwich,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://arbys.com/our-menu/fish/classic-fish |title=Classic Fish |author= |date=2014 |website=Arby's |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> [[Long John Silver's]] Baja Fish Taco,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ljsilvers.com/images/pdfs/LJS_Customer_Ingredient_List_July%202014.pdf |title=Ingredient Statements |author= |date=June 2014 |website=Long John Silver's |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref> and [[Birds Eye]]'s Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.birdseye.co.uk/range/Products/Fish%20Fingers%20in%20Crispy%20Batter |title=Fish Fingers in Crispy Batter |author= |date=2014 |website=Birds Eye |access-date=9 April 2015}}</ref>

== Korea ==
[[File:Hwangtae (Gadus chalcogrammus).jpg|thumb|drying ''hwangtae'' in winter]]
In [[Korea]], [[Alaska pollock]] is considered "national fish".<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.yonhapnews.co.kr/bulletin/2016/10/10/0200000000AKR20161010084800030.HTML|title=국민생선 명태가 돌아온다…세계최초 '완전양식' 성공|last=정|first=빛나|date=11 October 2016|newspaper=[[Yonhap]]|language=ko|trans-title=Return of the national fish: the first success in the world in completely controlled culture of [[Alaska pollock]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref><ref name=":3">{{Cite news|url=http://www.viva100.com/main/view.php?key=20170105010001584|title=동태·북어·노가리, 겨울엔 황태·코다리로… '국민생선' 제철만났네|last=박|first=효주|date=6 January 2017|newspaper=Bridgenews|language=ko|trans-title=Dongtae, bugeo, and nogari; as hwangtae and kodari in winter... the "national fish" is in season|access-date=7 January 2016}}</ref> The Korean name of the fish, '''''myeongtae'''''({{Lang|ko|명태}}), has also spread to some neighbouring countries: It is called ''mintay''({{lang|ru|минтай}}) in [[Russia]], and its roe is called ''mentaiko''({{lang|ja|明太子}}) in [[Japan]] although the Japanese name for the fish itself is ''suketōdara''({{lang|ja|介党鱈}}).

In Korea, ''myeongtae'' is called by thirty-odd names including:<ref name=":3" />
* '''''saengtae'''''({{Lang|ko|생태}}) – fresh [[Alaska pollock]]
* '''''dongtae'''''({{Lang|ko|동태}}) – frozen [[Alaska pollock]]
* '''''bugeo'''''({{Lang|ko|북어}}) – dried [[Alaska pollock]]
* '''''hwangtae'''''({{Lang|ko|황태}}) – "yellow [[Alaska pollock]]", made by drying [[Alaska pollock]]s during winter while undergoing freezing and unfreezing repeatedly
* '''''nogari'''''({{Lang|ko|노가리}}) – young [[Alaska pollock]]
* '''''kodari'''''({{Lang|ko|코다리}}) – "nosed [[Alaska pollock]]", made by degutting young Alaska polloks and half-drying four to five of them on a rope, with their "nose" tied
Koreans have been enjoying [[Alaska pollock]] since the [[Joseon]] era. One of the earliest mentions are from ''[[Seungjeongwon ilgi]]'' (Journal of the Royal Secretariat), where a 1652 entry stated: "The management administration should be strictly interrogated for bringing in pollock roe instead of cod roe."<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joins.com/news/article/Article.aspx?aid=3009090|title=A hit abroad, pollock roe is rallying at home|last=Cha|first=Sang-eun|date=12 September 2015|newspaper=[[JoongAng Ilbo|Korea Joongang Daily]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Alaska polloks were the most commonly caught fish in Korea in 1940, when more than 270,000 [[tonne]]s were caught from the [[Sea of Japan|East Sea]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0018416|title=명태|last=박|first=구병|website=[[Encyclopedia of Korean Culture]]|publisher=[[Academy of Korean Studies]]|language=ko|trans-title=myeongtae|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> It outnumbers the current annual consumption of [[Alaska pollock]] in [[South Korea]], estimated at about 260,000 [[tonne]]s in 2016.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.seafoodnews.com/Story/1041694/South-Korea-Facing-Pollock-Shortage-Aims-to-Rebuild-Imports-and-Trade-Ties-to-Russia|title=South Korea Facing Pollock Shortage, Aims to Rebuild Imports and Trade Ties to Russia|last=Gergen|first=Eugene|date=21 November 2016|newspaper=SeafoodNews|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref> Nowadays, however, [[Alaska pollock]] consumption in South Korea rely heavily on import from [[Russia]], due to rises in sea water temperatures.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.koreatimes.co.kr/www/news/art/2012/01/144_103202.html|title=PyeongChang: birthplace of yellow dried pollack|last=Lee|first=Hyo-sik|date=19 January 2012|newspaper=[[The Korea Times]]|access-date=10 January 2017}}</ref>

Every part of a ''myeongtae'' is used in [[Korean cuisine]].

'''Ingredients'''
* '''''bugeo daegari''''' – dried pollock head, used to make [[broth]]
* '''''bugeo daegari yuksu''''' – dried pollock head broth
* '''''bugeopo''''' – a type of [[jerkey]], made by thinly slicing and seasoning dried pollok, then drying it again
* '''''changnan''''' – pollock intestines, used to make [[jeotgal]]
* '''''hwangtaepo''''' – a type of [[jerkey]], made by thinly slicing and seasoning yellow dried pollok, then drying it again
* '''''[[myeongnan]]''''' – pollock [[roe]], added in various dishes and used to make [[jeotgal]]
* '''''myeongtaepo''''' – a type of [[jerkey]], made by seasoning pollock meat with salt, then drying it

{{multiple image
| direction = vertical
| image1 = Bugeotguk (dried pollock soup).jpg
| caption1 = ''bugeotguk''
| image2 = Dongtae jjigae (pollock stew).jpg
| caption2 = ''dongtaejjigae''
| image3 = Myeongtaejeon (pan-fried pollock).jpg
| caption3 = ''myeongtaejeon''
| image4 = Myeongtae jorim (stewed pollock).jpg
| caption4 = ''myeongtaejorim''
}}
'''Dishes'''
* '''''bugeobopuragi''''' – literally "bugeo [[lint (material)|lint]]" made by grating well-dried ''bugeo'' and seasoning each third of the "lint" with black, white, and red seasonings respectively. Black seasoning is made of [[soy sauce]], [[seasame oil]], sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds. White seasoning is mae of salt, sesame oil, sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds. Red seasoning is made of [[gochutgaru]] (chilli powder), salt, sesame oil, sugar, and ground toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojangajji''''' – a type of [[jangajji]], pickling shredded ''bugeo''. The pickling sauce can be made by mixing [[gochujang]] (chilli paste), chopped [[yujacheong]] ([[yuja]] marmalade), honey, minced garlic, and ground ginger.
* '''''bugeojeok''''' – a type of [[jeok]], made by removing the head and tail of ''bugeo'', then remoisturizing it, seasoning it with the mixture of soy sauce, sugar, sesame oil, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[cheongju]] (rice wine), minced garlic, ground ginger, ground black pepper, and toasted sesame seeds
* '''''bugeojeon''''' – a type of [[Jeon (food)|jeon]], made by coating ''bugeo'' in flour, egg-washing it, and pan-frying it in oil. The jeon is served with dipping sauce made by mixing soy sauce, sugar, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, minced garlic, ground ginger, sesame oil, and toasted sesame seeds.
* '''''bugeojorim''''' – a type of [[jorim]], made by simmering ''bugeo'' chunks in [[jorim]] sauce, with deseeded and sliced green and red chilli. The sauce can be made by mixing soy sauce, water, sugar, minced garlic, ground ginger, and chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s.
* '''''bugeotguk''''' – a type of [[guk]], made by wetting thinly sliced ''bugeo'' in cold water and draining it, stir-frying it with julienned [[Korean radish|radish]] in sesame oil, then pouring [[tteumul]] (water from the final rinsing of rice) and boiling, and finally adding diagonally sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s and bitten egg
* '''''changnanjeot''''' – a type of [[jeotgal]], made by washing fesh intestines of pollock with salted water, then salting it in a [[hangari]] for four to six months in a cool, shaded place. Salted and drained intestines are washed, sliced, and seasoned with [[gochutgaru]] (chilli powder), minced garlic, toasted sesame seeds, and chopped [[Korean radish|radish]]
* '''''dongtaejjigae''''' – a type of [[jjigae]], made by stir-frying ground beef seasoned with [[soup soy sauce]] in a big pot, pouring [[tteumul]] (water from the last washing of rice), adding [[doenjang]] (soybean paste), [[gochujang]] (chilli paste), and [[gochutgaru]] (chilli powder) and letting it boil for a while, then adding chunked ''dongtae'' and [[Korean radish|radish]], minced garlic, sliced onion and [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, and [[tofu]]. When served, the stew is topped with chopped [[Glebionis coronaria| chrysanthemum greens]] and red chilli.
* '''''dongtaesundae''''' – a type of winter [[sundae (Korean food)|sundae]], made by salting an [[Alaska pollock]] over night, gutting the fish without slicing it by putting a hand inside it through its mouth, and washing the inside carefully, before stuffing it with the ''sundae'' stuffing, and letting it freeze outside. The stuffing can be amse by mixing blanched, squeezed, and chopped [[napa cabbage]] leaves, blanched, drained, and chopped [[mung bean sprout]]s, boiled and minced pork, crumbled [[tofu]], minced garlic, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[glutinouse rice]] powder, [[doenjang]] (soybean paste), salt, and [[black pepper]].
* '''''hwangtaegui''''' – a type of [[gui (food)|gui]], made by remoisturizing ''hwangtae'', coating in soy sauce and sesame oil and grilling it, then coating it again with the mixture of [[gochujang]] (chilli paste), [[gochutgaru]] (chilli powder), [[soy sauce]], [[maesilcheong]] (plum syrup), and minced garlic, and grilling it again. When served, chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s and toasted sesame seeds are sprinkled on top.
* '''''hwangtaejjim''''' – a type of [[jorim]], made by seasoning remoisturized ''hwangtae'' with [[gochutgaru]] (chilli powder), minced garlic, salt, sesame oil, and sugar, then stewing the seasoned ''hwangtae'' in a pot along with ground ginger, sliced onions, carrots, [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[soybean sprout]]s, sliced [[Cheongyang chili pepper|Cheongyang chilli]], and the spicy sauce made of [[gochutgaru]], [[mullyeot]] (rice or corn syrup), water, ground black pepper, and ground fresh chilli
* '''''hwangtaejuk''''' – stir-frying soaked and drained [[Japonica rice|rice]] and [[glutinous rice]] in sesame oil, then adding thinly shredded remoisturized ''hwangtae'', water, and [[soup soy sauce]] to taste, and boiling it, and finally adding beaten egg and garnishing it with thinly sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s
* '''''kodarijorim''''' – a type of [[jorim]], made by laying sliced [[Korean radish|radish]] on the bottom of a pot, puting chunked ''kodari'' and the spicy sauce made of soy sauce, [[gochutgaru]] (chilli powder), [[mullyeot]] (rice or corn syrup), [[cheongju]] (rice wine), minced garlic, ground ginger, sesame oil, and ground black pepper, then stewing it with sliced onions and [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s
* '''''[[myeongnanjeot]]''''' – a type of [[jeotgal]], made by washing intact skeins of [[pollock roe]] with salted water, then salting it in a [[sokuri]] (bamboo basket). The ratio of salt to roe ranges from less than 5:100 to more than 15:100. After 2-3 days, salted and drained roe is marinated for at least a day with fine [[Chili powder|gochutgaru]] (chilli powder) and finely minced [[garlic]]. ''Myeongnanjeot'' is usually served with some drops of [[sesame oil]].
* '''''myeongtaehoe''''' – a type of [[hoe (food)|hoe]], made by marinating sliced fresh raw ''myeongtae'' with similarly-sized [[Korean radish|radish]] in the mixture of salt, sugar, and vinegar, then draining them (squeezing in case of the radish pieces), and adding chopped [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, minced garlic, sesame oil, toasted sesame seed powder, sliced [[Pyrus pyrifolia|pear]], [[gochutgaru]] (chilli powder), and ground black pepper. ''Myeongtaehoe'' can also be used as the topping of [[naengmyeon]] (cold noodles).
* '''''myeongatejeon''''' – a type of [[Jeon (food)|jeon]], made by removing the head an tail of ''myeongtae'' (either fresh ''saengtae'' or frozen ''dongtae''), gutting and boning it, finely mincing the flesh and mixing it with some other ingredients such as crumbled tofu or finely minced vegetables such as [[aehobak]], green chilli, [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, or aubergine, then coating it with wheat flour or glutinous rice flour, egg-washing it, and pan-frying it in oil. Soy sauce mixed with vinegar is served with the jeon.
* '''''myeongtaesikhae''''' – removing the head and gutting a ''myeongtae'', sprinkling some salt and drying it for two days, slicing it, mixing the sliced chunks with julienned, salted, and squeezed [[Korean radish|radish]], minced garlic, ground ginger, [[gochutgaru]] (chilli powder), [[yeotgireum]] (powdered barley [[malt]]), and [[bap (food)|cooked rice]], then fermenting it in a cool, shaded place for a week
* '''''saengtaetang''''' – a type of [[guk|tang]], made by laying sliced [[Korean radish|radish]] on a pot, putting gutted and chunked ''saengtae'', debearded [[Venerupis philippinarum|Manila clam]]s, [[Styela clava|stalked sea squirt]]s, sliced fresh chilli, sliced [[Allium fistulosum|scallion]]s, [[gochutgaru]] chilli powder), [[doenjang]] (soybean paste), [[soup soy sauce]], minced garlic, and ground black pepper, then pouring [[kombu|kelp]]-[[Engraulis japonicus|anchovy]] broth and boiling it. Sliced [[tofu]], [[Glebionis coronaria|crown daisy]] greens and [[enoki mushroom]]s are added before served.

== Pollock roe ==
[[File:Alaska pollock roe Russia.jpg|thumb|181x181px|Canned Alaska pollock roe, served on crisp rye bread (Russia).]]
{{main|Pollock roe}}
[[Pollock roe]] is a popular culinary ingredient in [[Japan]], [[Korea]], and [[Russia]]. In Korea, the roe is traditionally called ''myeongnan''({{lang|ko|명란}}), and the salted roe is called ''myeongnanjeot''({{lang|ko|명란젓}}). The food was introduced to Japan after [[World War II]], and is called ''mentaiko''({{lang|ja|明太子}}) in Japanese. The milder, less spicy version is called ''tarako''({{lang|ja|鱈子}}) in Japan. In Russia, pollock roe is consumed as a sandwich spread. The product, resembling liquid paste due to the small size of eggs and oil added, is sold canned.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

[[Category:Seafood]]

Kodari

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Ityoppyawit:

{{Redirect|Kodari|a culinary name of Alaska pollock|Alaska pollock as food}}
{{Infobox settlement


|official_name = Kodari
|other_name =
|native_name = कोदारी
|nickname =
|settlement_type = Village
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|pushpin_map = Nepal
|pushpin_label_position = bottom
|pushpin_mapsize = 300
|pushpin_map_caption = Location in Nepal

|subdivision_type = Country
|subdivision_name = [[Nepal]]
|subdivision_type1 = [[Zones of Nepal|Zone]]
|subdivision_name1 = [[Bagmati Zone]]
|subdivision_type2 = [[Districts of Nepal|District]]
|subdivision_name2 = [[Sindhupalchok District]]

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|longd= 85.9628
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'''Kodari''' is a [[Geography of Nepal#Border crossings with China|border crossing]] from Nepal into the [[Tibet Autonomous Region]]. Kodari is in [[Sindhupalchok District]], [[Bagmati Zone]]. The other side is the town [[Zhangmu]], Dram or Khasa, situated in [[Nyalam County]], [[Shigatse Prefecture]] of the [[Tibet]].

The 2015 earthquakes essentially closed the route due to numerous landslides and boulders coming down, damaging roads in Nepal and Tibet (China).<ref name="nepalitimes.atavist.com">[https://nepalitimes.atavist.com/bordering-on-helplessness]</ref> There was an evacuation and people have been slow to come back, and there is large reduction in trading.<ref name="nepalitimes.atavist.com"/>

==History==
In ancient times, it was the starting point of a trans-Himalayan caravan route. [[Lhasa Newar (trans-Himalayan traders)|Newar traders]] headed north from Kodari and after crossing Kuti pass turned east to continue their journey across the Tibetan Plateau to [[Lhasa]].
The construction of the {{convert|115|km}} Kathmandu-Kodari Road during the 1963-67 period. It was named [[Araniko Highway]] in Nepal and [[China National Highway 318]] beyond. As of 2011, Nepal is planning to expand it to six metalled lanes.<ref name=road>{{cite web| url = http://www.ipcs.org/article/india/kodari-road-implications-for-nepal-china-and-india-3500.html |title = Kodari Road – Implications for Nepal, China and Inda| publisher=Institute of Peace & Conflict Studies | accessdate = 2012-01-02 }}</ref>

China started building a railway in 2008 connecting Lhasa with [[Zhangmu]] on the Nepal-China border. It is an extension of the {{convert|1956|km}} [[Qinghai-Tibet Railway]].<ref name=road/><ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.atimes.com/atimes/South_Asia/JE15Df01.html |title = Nepal to get China rail link | publisher= Asia Times, 15 May 2008 | accessdate = 2012-01-02 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web| url = http://yolearnchinese.com/archives/new-railroads-in-tibet-open-up-economic-possibilities | title = New Railroads in Tibet open up economic opportunities | last = | first = | work = | publisher = Yo! Learn Chinese! 6 September 2009 | accessdate= 2012-04-13 }}</ref>

==Geography==
Kodari is located at an altitude of {{convert|2515|m}}.<ref>{{cite web| url = http://www.fallingrain.com/world/NP/00/Kodari.html|title = Kodari, Nepal Page | publisher=Fallingrain Genomics | accessdate = 2012-01-02 }}</ref>
Kodari is {{convert|114|km}} from Kathmandu. The height gain is from {{convert|1317|m}} to {{convert|2300|m}}. On a clear day, the Himalayan chain is visible on both sides of the road. From [[Zhangmu]] to [[Nyalam County|Nyalam]], a distance of {{convert|33|km}} the height gain is from {{convert|2300|m}} to {{convert|3750|m}}.<ref>{{cite book| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lB3C0qCxby8C&pg=PA88&lpg=PA88&dq=Kodari+altitude&source=bl&ots=5FJtJjrhn7&sig=Bq1_u-Kjon3vSp0gt5YovUeRNCc&hl=en&sa=X&ei=e1QGT9SdDo2rrAfcvpTqDw&sqi=2&ved=0CD8Q6AEwBA#v=onepage&q=Kodari%20altitude&f=false |title = The Mount Kailash trek: a trekker's and visitor's guide | publisher= Google Books | accessdate = 2012-01-02 }}</ref>

==Gallery==
<gallery>
File:NEPAL Route 2.JPG|The [[Araniko Highway]] in Kodari just before the [[Sino-Nepal Friendship Bridge]].
File:The Friendship Bridge connecting China with Nepal.jpg|The [[Sino-Nepal Friendship Bridge]] with Nepal on the left, and China on the right side of the [[Sun Kosi]] River.
File:TIB-grenze-koffertraeger.jpg|Women hard at work at the [[Sino-Nepal Friendship Bridge]] border crossing.
</gallery>

==External links==
* {{Wikivoyage-inline|Kodari}}
* {{Wikivoyage-inline|Dram}}

==References==
<references />

{{China–Nepal border crossings}}
{{Sindhulpalchok District}}
{{Kosi basin}}

[[Category:Populated places in Sindhupalchowk District]]

Nogari

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