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The Ghost of Tom Joad

2023-05-26T19:42:21Z

JanTurin: /* Weekly charts */

{{about|the album|the song|The Ghost of Tom Joad (song)}}
{{Infobox album
| name = The Ghost of Tom Joad
| type = studio
| artist = [[Bruce Springsteen]]
| cover = The Ghost of Tom Joad.jpg
| alt =
| released = November 21, 1995
| recorded = March–September 1995
| venue =
| studio = Thrill Hill Recording
| genre =
* [[Folk music|Folk]]
* [[folk rock]]
| length = 50:16
| label = [[Columbia Records|Columbia]]
| producer = Bruce Springsteen, [[Chuck Plotkin]]
| prev_title = [[Greatest Hits (Bruce Springsteen album)|Greatest Hits]]
| prev_year = 1995
| next_title = [[Blood Brothers (EP)|Blood Brothers]]
| next_year = 1996
| misc = {{Singles
| name = The Ghost of Tom Joad
| type = studio
| single1 = [[The Ghost of Tom Joad (song)|The Ghost of Tom Joad]]
| single1date = November 21, 1995
}}
}}
'''''The Ghost of Tom Joad''''' is the eleventh [[studio album]], and the second acoustic album, by American recording artist [[Bruce Springsteen]], released on November 21, 1995, by [[Columbia Records]]. It reached the top ten in two countries, and the top twenty in five more, including No. 11 in the United States, his first studio album to fail to reach the top ten in the US in over two decades. It won the [[Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Folk Album]].

== Composition ==
Springsteen wrote and recorded the album between March and September, 1995, at Thrill Hill West, his home studio in [[Los Angeles]], California. Following that year's studio reunion with the [[E Street Band]] and the release of ''[[Greatest Hits (Bruce Springsteen album)|Greatest Hits]]'', Springsteen's writing activity had increased significantly, resulting in this album, which consists of seven solo tracks and five band tracks.

Most tracks are backed by [[Classical guitar|acoustic guitar]] work and the lyrics are generally a somber reflection of life in the mid-1990s in [[United States|America]] and [[Mexico]].<ref name="Joad">Symynkywicz, Jeffery B. (2008). ''The Gospel According to Bruce Springsteen: Rock and Redemption, from Asbury Park to Magic.'' [[Westminster John Knox Press]]. {{ISBN|0-664-23169-1}}. p. 122.</ref> The character of Tom Joad entered the American consciousness in [[John Steinbeck]]’s 1939 Pulitzer Prize-winning novel, ''[[The Grapes of Wrath]]'', set against the economic hardships of the [[Great Depression]].<ref name="Joad" /> This spawned a [[The Grapes of Wrath (film)|film version]] starring [[Henry Fonda]], which in turn inspired folk singer [[Woody Guthrie]] to pen "The Ballad of Tom Joad".<ref name="Joad" />

Springsteen was also influenced by [[Dale Maharidge]] and [[Michael Williamson (photographer)|Michael Williamson]]'s 1985 study of homelessness, ''[[Journey to Nowhere: The Saga of the New Underclass]]''.<ref>{{cite news |title=Faces of the Forsaken |url=https://www.newspapers.com/clip/111396431/journey-to-nowheres-influence-on/ |newspaper=[[Hartford Courant]] |date=September 18, 1996 |page=45 |via=[[Newspapers.com]] |access-date=October 19, 2022}}</ref> The album's release was followed by Springsteen's solo acoustic [[Ghost of Tom Joad Tour]], which ran from 1995 to 1997 and took place in mostly small venues.<ref name="Joad" />

==Release==
''The Ghost of Tom Joad'' debuted at number eleven on the US [[Billboard 200|''Billboard'' 200]] chart, with 107,000 copies sold in its first week.<ref>{{Cite news| author = JERRY CROWE and ROBERT HILBURN | title =Something to Twist and Shout About : Pop music: Beatles' album sells more than 855,000 copies its first week--the third highest ever--and initial figures are believed to be a revenue record.| work = [[Los Angeles Times]] | date = November 30, 1995 | url = http://articles.latimes.com/1995-11-30/entertainment/ca-8866_1_sales-figures}}</ref> However, it broke a string of eight consecutive Top 5 studio albums in the United States for Springsteen.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.billboard.com/artist/298448/bruce-springsteen/chart?page=1&f=305 |title=Bruce Springsteen – Chart history |publisher=Billboard |access-date=2014-02-02}}</ref> The album won the [[39th Annual Grammy Awards|1997 Grammy Award]] for Best Contemporary Folk Album.

==Critical reception==

{{Album reviews
| rev1 = [[AllMusic]]
| rev1score = {{Rating|3|5}}<ref>{{cite web|last=Deming|first=Mark|url=http://www.allmusic.com/album/the-ghost-of-tom-joad-mw0000181768|title=The Ghost of Tom Joad – Bruce Springsteen|publisher=[[AllMusic]]|access-date=February 2, 2014}}</ref>
| rev2 = ''[[Entertainment Weekly]]''
| rev2score = B−<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Browne|first=David|author-link=David Browne (journalist)|url=https://ew.com/article/1995/11/24/ghost-tom-joad/|title=The Ghost of Tom Joad|magazine=[[Entertainment Weekly]]|date=November 24, 1995|access-date=February 2, 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180916130315/https://ew.com/article/1995/11/24/ghost-tom-joad/|archive-date=September 16, 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref>
| rev3 = ''[[The Guardian]]''
| rev3score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref>{{cite news|last=Sweeting|first=Adam|title=Bruce Springsteen: The Ghost of Tom Joad (Columbia)|work=[[The Guardian]]|date=November 24, 1995}}</ref>
| rev4 = ''[[Houston Chronicle]]''
| rev4score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref>{{cite news|last=Selvin|first=Joel|author-link=Joel Selvin|url=https://www.chron.com/entertainment/article/POP-CDS-Springsteen-the-Storyteller-3018731.php|title=Springsteen, the Storyteller|work=[[Houston Chronicle]]|date=November 19, 1995|access-date=May 12, 2020}}</ref>
| rev5 = ''[[Los Angeles Times]]''
| rev5score = {{Rating|4|4}}<ref>{{cite news|last=Hilburn|first=Robert|author-link=Robert Hilburn|url=https://www.latimes.com/archives/la-xpm-1995-11-19-ca-4777-story.html|title=The Return to Desolate Highway|work=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=November 19, 1995|access-date=May 12, 2020}}</ref>
| rev6 = ''[[NME]]''
| rev6score = 9/10<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Bruce Springsteen: The Ghost of Tom Joad|magazine=[[NME]]|date=November 18, 1995|page=46}}</ref>
| rev7 = ''[[Pitchfork (website)|Pitchfork]]''
| rev7score = 7.6/10<ref>{{cite web|last=Sodomsky|first=Sam|url=https://pitchfork.com/reviews/albums/bruce-springsteen-the-album-collection-vol-2-1987-1996/|title=Bruce Springsteen / The E Street Band: The Album Collection Vol. 2, 1987–1996|work=[[Pitchfork (website)|Pitchfork]]|date=May 19, 2018|access-date=May 12, 2020}}</ref>
| rev8 = ''[[Q (magazine)|Q]]''
| rev8score = {{Rating|4|5}}<ref>{{cite magazine|title=Bruce Springsteen: The Ghost of Tom Joad|magazine=[[Q (magazine)|Q]]|issue=162|date=March 2000|page=124}}</ref>
| rev9 = ''[[Rolling Stone]]''
| rev9score = {{Rating|3|5}}<ref name="rollingstone1">{{cite magazine|last=Gilmore|first=Mikal|author-link=Mikal Gilmore|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/music-album-reviews/the-ghost-of-tom-joad-248758|title=The Ghost Of Tom Joad|magazine=[[Rolling Stone]]|date=December 28, 1995|access-date=April 7, 2020}}</ref>
| rev10 = ''[[USA Today]]''
| rev10score = {{Rating|3.5|4}}<ref>{{cite news|last=Gundersen|first=Edna|author-link=Edna Gundersen|title=Springsteen's stark vision of 'Tom Joad'|work=[[USA Today]]|date=November 20, 1995}}</ref>
}}
''The Ghost of Tom Joad'' received mostly favorable reviews, but also drew some sharp criticism. [[Mikal Gilmore]] of ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' called it "Springsteen's best album in ten years," and considered it "among the bravest work that anyone has given us this decade."<ref name="rollingstone1" /> He characterised it as Springsteen's "first overtly social statement since [[Born in the U.S.A.]]", and as having "an obvious kinship with Spingsteen’s 1982 masterwork, ''[[Nebraska (album)|Nebraska]]''", the artist's first acoustic album. Bill Wyman of ''[[The Chicago Reader]]'' expressed disappointment that "Springsteen can be so literal that it's hard to appreciate some of the record's subtleties." He criticized the album for being "stolidly depoppified to ensure that no one will derive actual pleasure from it."<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.chicagoreader.com/chicago/bruce-springsteen/Content?oid=889127 |title=Theater Critic's Choice: Bruce Springsteen|author-link=Bill Wyman |last=Wyman |first=Bill |date=1995-11-30 |website=[[The Chicago Reader]] |language=en |access-date=2020-11-10}}</ref>

In ''The Village Voice''{{'}}s annual [[Pazz & Jop]] critics poll for the year's best albums, ''The Ghost of Tom Joad'' placed at No. 8.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.robertchristgau.com/xg/pnj/pjres95.php|title=The 1995 Pazz & Jop Critics Poll|newspaper=The Village Voice|date=February 20, 1996|access-date=November 10, 2020}}</ref> [[Robert Christgau]], the poll's creator, simultaneously commended and criticized the album for being "the most courageous and the most depressing of the year," pointing out that Springsteen was the only artist in the poll's Top 40 "to directly address the war on the poor (and, increasingly, what is called the middle class) that is now the political agenda of the industrialized world." He also took aim at what he said was Springsteen's choice "to muffle his songs, so that only those who really want to hear their despair will bother trying." Christgau lamented that the "tunes, arrangements, and mysteriously praised 'phrasing' aren’t just forbiddingly minimal — often they’re rather careless", and dubbed the album "a bore".<ref>{{cite news|last=Christgau|first=Robert|date=February 20, 1996|url=https://www.robertchristgau.com/xg/pnj/pj95.php|title=Lost in the Soundscape|newspaper=The Village Voice|access-date=November 10, 2020}}</ref>

==Track listing==
All songs are written by [[Bruce Springsteen]].
{{Track listing
| title1 = [[The Ghost of Tom Joad (song)|The Ghost of Tom Joad]]
| length1 = 4:23
| title2 = Straight Time
| length2 = 3:25
| title3 = Highway 29
| length3 = 3:39
| title4 = [[Youngstown (song)|Youngstown]]
| length4 = 3:52
| title5 = Sinaloa Cowboys
| length5 = 3:51
| title6 = The Line
| length6 = 5:14
| title7 = Balboa Park
| length7 = 3:19
| title8 = Dry Lightning
| length8 = 3:30
| title9 = [[The New Timer]]
| length9 = 5:45
| title10 = Across the Border
| length10 = 5:24
| title11 = Galveston Bay
| length11 = 5:04
| title12 = My Best Was Never Good Enough
| length12 = 2:00
}}

===Unreleased outtakes===
Twelve of the 22 songs recorded during the album's sessions made the final cut while "Dead Man Walkin'" was released on the soundtrack for the movie ''[[Dead Man Walking (soundtrack)|Dead Man Walking]]'' and later on ''[[The Essential Bruce Springsteen]]'' and "Brothers Under the Bridge" was released on ''[[Tracks (Bruce Springsteen album)|Tracks]]''. "I'm Turning Into Elvis" and "It's the Little Things That Count" remain unreleased; however, they were performed live while "Idiot's Delight" and "I'm Not Sleeping" were also performed live and along with "1945" and "Cheap Motel" were co-written with [[Joe Grushecky]], who recorded the four songs for his 1997 album ''Coming Home''.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://brucebase.wikispaces.com/The+Ghost+Of+Tom+Joad+-+Studio+Sessions |title=Brucebase - the Ghost of Tom Joad - Studio Sessions |access-date=2014-05-18 |archive-date=2015-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150213035818/http://brucebase.wikispaces.com/The+Ghost+Of+Tom+Joad+-+Studio+Sessions |url-status=dead }}</ref>
* "Cynthia"
* "Tiger Rose"
* "I'm Turning Into Elvis"
* "It's the Little Things That Count"
* "Idiot's Delight"
* "I'm Not Sleeping"
* "1945"
* "Cheap Motel"

==Personnel==
Credits as listed in the album liner notes.<ref>{{cite web |title=Bruce Springsteen – The Ghost Of Tom Joad |url=https://www.discogs.com/Bruce-Springsteen-The-Ghost-Of-Tom-Joad/release/10259783 |website=Discogs |access-date=10 July 2020}}</ref>

'''Musicians'''
* [[Bruce Springsteen]] – vocal (tracks 1-12), [[guitar]] (tracks 1-12), [[harmonica]] (tracks 1, 10), [[Keyboard instrument|keyboard]] (tracks 3, 5-7, 11, 12)
* [[Danny Federici]] – keyboard (tracks 1, 2, 8, 10), [[accordion]] (track 10)
*[[Chuck Plotkin]] – keyboard (track 4)
* [[Gary Mallaber]] – [[Drum kit|drums]] (tracks 1, 2, 4, 8, 10), percussion (tracks 2, 4)
* Marty Rifkin – [[pedal steel guitar]] (tracks 1, 2, 4, 10)
* [[Garry Tallent]] – [[Bass guitar|bass]] (tracks 1, 8)
* Jim Hanson – bass (tracks 2, 4)
*[[Jennifer Condos]] – bass (track 10)
* [[Soozie Tyrell]] – [[violin]] (tracks 2, 4, 8, 10), [[Backing vocalist|backing vocal]] (track 10)
* Lisa Lowell – backing vocal (track 10)
* [[Patti Scialfa]] – backing vocal (track 10)

'''Technical'''

* [[Bruce Springsteen|Bruce Sprinigsteen]], [[Chuck Plotkin]] – [[Record producer|production]]
* [[Toby Scott]] – [[Audio engineer|engineering]] and [[Mixing engineer|mixing]]
* Greg Goldman – engineering assistant
*Gary Myerberg – technical maintenance
*Shari Sutcliff – musician contracts
* Terry Magovern – research
* Sandra Choron – art direction
*Harry Choron – art production
* Eric Dinyer – cover art
* [[Pam Springsteen]] – interior photographs

==Charts==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

===Weekly charts===
{|class="wikitable sortable plainrowheaders" style="text-align:center"
|+Weekly chart performance for ''The Ghost of Tom Joad''
!Chart (1995–1996)
!Peak position
|-
{{Album chart|Australia|27|artist=Bruce Springsteen|album=The Ghost of Tom Joad|access-date=August 30, 2017|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Album chart|Austria|13|artist=Bruce Springsteen|album=The Ghost of Tom Joad|access-date=August 30, 2017|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Album chart|Flanders|14|artist=Bruce Springsteen|album=The Ghost of Tom Joad|access-date=August 30, 2017|rowheader=true}}
|-
!scope="row"|Danish Albums ([[Hitlisten]])<ref name="Listen">{{cite news |title=Listen – Danmarks Officielle Hitliste – Udarbejdet af AIM Nielsen for IFPI Danmark – Uge 47 |work=[[Ekstra Bladet]] |location=[[Copenhagen]] |language=da |date=November 26, 1995 }}</ref>
|1
|-
{{Album chart|Netherlands|17|artist=Bruce Springsteen|album=The Ghost of Tom Joad|access-date=August 30, 2017|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Album chart|Finland|7|artist=Bruce Springsteen|album=The Ghost of Tom Joad|access-date=August 30, 2017|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Album chart|Germany|22|artist=Bruce Springsteen|album=The Ghost of Tom Joad|id=2210|access-date=August 30, 2017|rowheader=true}}
|-
! scope="row"| Italian Albums ([[Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana|FIMI]])<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.fimi.it/top-of-the-music/history.kl#/history|title=History|language=it|publisher=[[Federazione Industria Musicale Italiana|FIMI]]|access-date=May 31, 2022}} Search "The Ghost of Tom Joad" as a "Titolo" then click "Classifiche".</ref>
| 1
|-
{{Album chart|New Zealand|47|artist=Bruce Springsteen|album=The Ghost of Tom Joad|access-date=August 30, 2017|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Album chart|Norway|4|artist=Bruce Springsteen|album=The Ghost of Tom Joad|access-date=August 30, 2017|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Album chart|Scotland|30|artist=Bruce Springsteen|album=The Ghost of Tom Joad|date=1995-11-25|access-date=August 30, 2017|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Album chart|Sweden|3|artist=Bruce Springsteen|album=The Ghost of Tom Joad|access-date=August 30, 2017|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Album chart|Switzerland|8|artist=Bruce Springsteen|album=The Ghost of Tom Joad|access-date=August 30, 2017|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Album chart|UK|16|artist=Bruce Springsteen|album=The Ghost of Tom Joad|access-date=August 30, 2017|rowheader=true}}
|-
{{Album chart|Billboard200|11|artist=Bruce Springsteen|access-date=September 18, 2013|rowheader=true}}
|}
{{col-2}}

===Year-end charts===
{|class="wikitable plainrowheaders"
|+Year-end chart performance for ''The Ghost of Tom Joad''
!Chart
!Position
|-
!scope="row"|German Albums (Offizielle Top 100, 1996)<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.offiziellecharts.de/charts/album-jahr/for-date-1996 |title=Top 100 Album-Jahrescharts|language=de |publisher=[[GfK Entertainment]]|access-date=September 8, 2016}}</ref>
|align="center"|85
|-
!scope="row"|UK Albums (OCC, 1995)<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.officialcharts.com/charts/end-of-year-artist-albums-chart/19951231/37502/|title=End of Year Album Chart Top 100 – 1995|publisher=Official Charts Company|access-date=April 13, 2021}}</ref>
|align="center"|90
|-
!scope="row"|US ''Billboard'' 200 (1996)<ref>{{cite magazine|url=https://www.billboard.com/charts/year-end/1996/top-billboard-200-albums|title=Top Billboard 200 Albums – Year-End 1996|magazine=Billboard|date=2 January 2013|access-date=April 13, 2021}}</ref>
|align="center"|132
|}
{{col-end}}

==Certifications and sales==
{{Certification Table Top|caption=Certifications and sales for ''The Ghost of Tom Joad''}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Australia|type=album|title=The Ghost of Tom Joad|artist=Bruce Springsteen|award=Gold|relyear=1995|certyear=2008|access-date=October 5, 2019}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Austria|type=album|title=The Ghost of Tom Joad|artist=Bruce Springsteen|award=Gold|relyear=1995|certyear=1997|access-date=October 5, 2019}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Brazil|type=album|title=The Ghost of Tom Joad|artist=Bruce Springsteen|award=Gold|relyear=1995|certyear=1995|access-date=October 5, 2019}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Canada|type=album|title=The Ghost of Tom Joad|artist=Bruce Springsteen|award=Gold|relyear=1995|certyear=1995|access-date=October 5, 2019}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=France|type=album|title=The Ghost of Tom Joad|artist=Bruce Springsteen|award=Gold|relyear=1995|certyear=1996|access-date=October 5, 2019}}
{{Certification Table Entry|type=album|title=The Ghost of Tom Joad|artist=Bruce Springsteen|relyear=1995|region=Italy|nocert=yes|salesamount=200,000|salesref=<ref>{{cite news|title=Springsteen a Sanremo con "furore"|newspaper=[[La Stampa]]|page=25|date=February 9, 1996|url=http://archivio.corriere.it/Archivio/interface/view.shtml#!/NDovZXMvaXQvcmNzZGF0aS9AMTI3MQ%3D%3D|language=it|quote=il suo nuovo album ha venduto in pochi mesi 200 mila copie, mentre i critici, nelannuade referendum del mensile musica e dischi.|access-date=March 5, 2021}}</ref>}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Norway|type=album|title=The Ghost of Tom Joad|artist=Bruce Springsteen|award=Gold|relyear=1995|certyear=1995|access-date=October 5, 2019}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Spain|artist=Bruce Springsteen|title=The Ghost of Tom Joad|award=Platinum|type=album|relyear=1995|certyear=1996|certref=<ref>{{cite book |last=Salaverrie |first=Fernando |date=September 2005 |url=http://www.mediafire.com/file/pd758fesp2w7i7f/Spanish+Certifications+for+1996-1999.pdf |title=Sólo éxitos: año a año, 1959–2002 |language=es |edition=1st |location=Madrid |publisher=[[Sociedad General de Autores y Editores|Fundación Autor/SGAE]] |page=942 |isbn=84-8048-639-2 |access-date=October 6, 2019}}</ref>}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=United Kingdom|type=album|title=The Ghost of Tom Joad|artist=Bruce Springsteen|award=Gold|certyear=1995|id=6952-3358-2|access-date=October 5, 2019}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=United States|type=album|title=Ghost of Tom Joad|artist=Bruce Springsteen|award=Gold|certyear=1996|relyear=1995|access-date=October 5, 2019}}
{{Certification Table Summary}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Europe|type=album|title=The Ghost of Tom Joad|artist=Bruce Springsteen|award=Platinum|certyear=1996|relyear=1995|access-date=October 5, 2019}}
{{Certification Table Bottom}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{Discogs master|type=album|27631|name=The Ghost of Tom Joad}}

{{Bruce Springsteen}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Ghost Of Tom Joad, The}}
[[Category:Bruce Springsteen albums]]
[[Category:1995 albums]]
[[Category:Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Folk Album]]
[[Category:Albums produced by Chuck Plotkin]]
[[Category:Columbia Records albums]]
[[Category:Albums produced by Toby Scott]]

Page and Plant

2022-08-15T06:18:46Z

JanTurin:

{{Short description|English rock band}}
{{EngvarB|date=September 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}
{{Infobox musical artist
| name = Page and Plant
| image = Page and Plant Mercury Press Photo, 1998.jpg
| caption = Page and Plant, 1998
| background = group_or_band
| origin = London, England
| genre = [[Hard rock]], [[folk rock]], [[symphonic rock]], [[world music]], [[blues rock]]
| years_active = 1994–1998, 2001
| label = [[Atlantic Records|Atlantic]], [[Fontana Records|Fontana]], [[Mercury Records|Mercury]]
| associated_acts = [[Led Zeppelin]], [[Nigel Eaton]], [[The Cure]], [[Lili Haydn]], [[Transglobal Underground]]
| past_members = [[Jimmy Page]] [[Robert Plant]] [[Charlie Jones (musician)|Charlie Jones]] [[Michael Lee (musician)|Michael Lee]]
}}

'''Page and Plant''' (also known as Jimmy Page & Robert Plant) were an English rock band active between 1994 and 1998. The group consisted of guitarist [[Jimmy Page]] and vocalist [[Robert Plant]] (both formerly of English rock band [[Led Zeppelin]]), accompanied by bassist [[Charlie Jones (musician)|Charlie Jones]] and drummer [[Michael Lee (musician)|Michael Lee]]. Formed in 1994 for an [[MTV Unplugged]] reunion, Page and Plant released the platinum-selling live album [[No Quarter: Jimmy Page and Robert Plant Unledded|''No Quarter'']], featuring both new material and middle eastern-influenced covers of classic Led Zeppelin songs. Following the success of the live album, they embarked on a world tour featuring a full orchestra.

In 1998, Page and Plant released ''[[Walking into Clarksdale]]'', comprising entirely new material and featuring the [[Grammy Awards|Grammy Award]]-winning single "[[Most High (song)|Most High]]". Following the album's release, they embarked on a second world tour before disbanding at the end of 1998. The band reunited for a final performance in 2001.

==History==
The initial plans for a reunion were made in 1993, with discussions between the two of collaborating emerging from casual small talk and then an invitation to perform on [[MTV Unplugged]]. Music producer [[Bill Curbishley]], who had been managing Plant since the 1980s and who assumed management of Page in 1994, was integral in the reuniting of Page and Plant. Despite failed attempts by others to reunite the pair, Curbishley was able to persuade the previously reluctant Plant into working with Page again.<ref name=lewispallett>Lewis, Dave and Pallett, Simon (1997) ''Led Zeppelin: The Concert File'', London: Omnibus Press. {{ISBN|0-7119-5307-4}}.</ref> In an interview he gave in 2004, Page recounted the background:

{{quote|I was going to play in Japan with [[David Coverdale|David]] [Coverdale], the only time we played live, and I had a call from Robert's management to pop in and see Robert in [[Boston]] on the way to LA to rehearse. Robert said, "I've been approached by MTV to do an Unplugged and I'd really like to do it with you," so I said, "Okay." It gave us a chance to revisit some numbers and use that same picture with a very, very different frame.<ref name="CSMurray">[[Charles Shaar Murray]], "The Guv'nors'", ''[[Mojo magazine|Mojo]]'', August 2004, p. 75.</ref>}}

Plant's recollection of the reunion was as follows:

{{quote|By that time I didn't feel like I was even a rock singer anymore ... Then I was approached by MTV to do an ''Unplugged'' session. But I knew that I couldn't be seen to be holding the flag for the Zeppelin legacy on TV. Then mysteriously Jimmy turned up at a gig I was playing in Boston and it was like those difficult last days of Led Zep had vanished. We had this understanding again without doing or saying anything. We talked about the MTV thing and decided to see where we could take it.<ref name=williamson>Nigel Williamson, "Good Times...Bad Times", ''[[Uncut (magazine)|Uncut]]'', May 2005, p. 64.</ref>}}

=== MTV Unplugged, ''No Quarter'', and Unledded World Tour (1994–1997) ===

Led Zeppelin's main songwriters reformed on 17 April 1994 as a part of the [[Alexis Korner]] Memorial Concert at [[Buxton]], England. On 25 and 26 August they taped performances in London, [[Wales]], and [[Morocco]] with [[Music of Egypt|Egyptian]] and [[Music of Morocco|Moroccan]] orchestration of several Led Zeppelin tunes along with four new songs. The performances aired on 12 October, and were so successful that the two coordinated a [[Concert tour|tour]] which kicked off in February 1995. The Unplugged performance was released as an album in November 1994 as ''[[No Quarter: Jimmy Page and Robert Plant Unledded]]''.

Page and Plant's touring line-up included [[Charlie Jones (musician)|Charlie Jones]] on bass and percussion, [[Michael Lee (musician)|Michael Lee]] on drums, plus [[Pearl Thompson]] (of [[The Cure]] fame, then credited as "Porl Thompson") on guitar and [[banjo]], [[Najma Akhtar]] providing backup vocals, Jim Sutherland on [[mandolin]] and [[bodhrán]], [[Nigel Eaton]] playing the [[hurdy-gurdy]], and [[Ed Shearmur]] adding Hammond organ with orchestral arrangements. Page spoke fondly of the lineup, stating:

{{quote|It was heroic to take something like that around the world, because it was using two orchestras: one Western, one Arab orchestra, with a hurdy-gurdy. It was great going around the world to turn people on to sounds they hadn't heard. It wasn't an easy thing to do, but it was worth it.<ref name = "CSMurray" />}}The band, joined by keyboardist Phil Andrews, recorded a cover of "Rude World" by Rainer Ptacek for the 1997 charity album ''The Inner Flame: A Tribute to Rainer Ptacek''.<ref>{{Cite book|last=Page|first=Jimmy|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1203144576|title=Jimmy Page: The Anthology|date=2020|publisher=Genesis Publications|isbn=978-1-905662-61-6|location=Guildford, Surrey, England|pages=349|oclc=1203144576}}</ref><ref>{{Citation|title=The Inner Flame: A Tribute to Rainer Ptacek - Various Artists {{!}} Songs, Reviews, Credits {{!}} AllMusic|url=https://www.allmusic.com/album/the-inner-flame-a-tribute-to-rainer-ptacek-mw0000022986|language=en|access-date=2022-01-02}}</ref>

=== ''Walking into Clarksdale'' and Walking into Everywhere World Tour (1998) ===
In 1998, Page and Plant entered the studio to record ''[[Walking into Clarksdale]]''. The album, recorded and mixed by engineer [[Steve Albini]], featured the single "Most High", which won the Grammy Award for [[Best Hard Rock Performance]]. ''Walking into Clarksdale'' was certified gold with over 500,000 copies sold. Despite the critical acclaim for "Most High", the album received mixed reviews from critics and was not as commercially successful as 1994's platinum-certified ''No Quarter''.<ref>{{Cite web|date=1 January 2009|title=RIAA.org Walking into Clarksdale – 4 May 1998|url=http://www.riaa.org/goldandplatinumdata.php?table=SEARCH_RESULTS|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100820142502/http://riaa.org//goldandplatinumdata.php?table=SEARCH_RESULTS|archive-date=20 August 2010}}</ref>
[[File:1998 Page Plant.jpg|thumb|Ticket stub from the 26 November 1998 Page and Plant tour date in Bordeaux]]
To promote ''Walking into Clarksdale'', Page and Plant embarked on a world tour consisting of 97 tour dates in North America and Europe.<ref>{{Cite web|title=Jimmy Page & Robert Plant's Concert & Tour History {{!}} Concert Archives|url=https://www.concertarchives.org/bands/jimmy-page-robert-plant|access-date=2021-12-06|website=www.concertarchives.org}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Archive-Chris-Nelson|title=Page & Plant Announce U.S. Tour|url=http://www.mtv.com/news/50151/page-plant-announce-us-tour/|access-date=2021-12-06|website=MTV News|language=en}}</ref> Their concert in [[Bucharest, Romania]] was professionally filmed and [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8n8duOW3F20 aired live] on MTV for the special "Live from the 10 Spot".<ref>{{Cite web|title=Page Plant: MTV Live On The 10 Spot|url=https://www.binged.com/streaming-premiere-dates/page-plant-mtv-live-on-the-10-spot-movie-streaming-online-watch/|access-date=2021-12-06|website=Binged|language=en-US}}</ref>

=== Dissolution and Final Performance (1998–2001) ===

After the 1998 supporting tour for ''Walking into Clarksdale'', Robert Plant left to focus on other projects, dissolving the reunion. The pair briefly reunited for a final performance in 2001 at the [[Montreux Jazz Festival]].

In a 2005 interview with [[Uncut (magazine)|''Uncut'']] magazine, Plant attributed his decision to dissatisfaction with the production on ''Walking Into Clarksdale'', along with a desire to "get back to playing clubs":
{{quote|We had some good songs [on ''Walking into Clarksdale''], but I wasn't sure about the production. I felt kind of marooned. We were still surrounded by the protective shield of who we were, and it meant we were playing big arenas around the world. And I realised once again there had to be another way... I knew I had to get back to playing clubs and remember what pulse was all about. To say goodbye to those large arenas that I played with Jimmy was a very purposeful move.<ref name =williamson/>}}

Page later revealed that he had written songs for a follow-up studio album, stating:

{{quote|There could have been a follow-up [to ''Walking into Clarksdale'']. I certainly had about a dozen numbers written for a third album. Robert heard them and said that some were really good, but he just wanted to go in another direction. That's fair enough.<ref name="Uncut09">"I first met Jimmy on Tolworth Broadway, holding a bag of exotic fish...", ''[[Uncut magazine|Uncut]]'', January 2009, p. 48.</ref>}}

==Members==
*[[Jimmy Page]] – [[acoustic guitar|acoustic]] and [[electric guitar]], [[mandolin]], production
*[[Robert Plant]] – [[vocals]], production
*[[Charlie Jones (musician)|Charlie Jones]] – [[bass guitar|bass]], [[percussion]]
*[[Michael Lee (musician)|Michael Lee]] – [[drum kit|drums]], percussion

;Additional personnel
*[[Pearl Thompson|Porl Thompson]] – guitar, [[banjo]]
*[[Nigel Eaton]] – [[hurdy-gurdy]]
*[[Ed Shearmur]] – [[arrangement|orchestral arrangements]], [[organ (music)|organ]]
*Lynton Naiff – string arrangements
*Jim Sutherland – mandolin, [[bodhran]]
*Tim Whelan – keyboards
*Phil Andrews – mixing, keyboards
*[[Martin Meissonnier]] – pre-production<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elsewhere.co.nz/absoluteelsewhere/1939/robert-plant-and-jimmy-page-interviewed-1994-only-the-song-remains/ |title=ROBERT PLANT AND JIMMY PAGE INTERVIEWED (1994): Only the song remains | Elsewhere by Graham Reid |website=Elsewhere.co.nz |date=2008-10-20 |access-date=2020-03-01}}</ref><ref>{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p3eGtD1fIh8C&pg=PA312 |title = Led Zeppelin: Le règne des seigneurs|isbn = 9782910196400|last1 = Vandersmissen|first1 = Jean-Marie|year = 2005}}</ref>
==Discography==
;Albums
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center;"
|-
! rowspan="2" style="width:30px;"| Year
! rowspan="2" style="width:200px;"| Album details
! colspan=10 | Peak chart positions
! rowspan="2" style="width:160px;"| [[Music recording sales certification|Certifications]] ([[List of music recording sales certifications|sales thresholds]])
|- style="font-size:smaller;"
!width="30"| [[Billboard 200|US]] <ref name="US">{{cite magazine
| url=http://www.billboard.com/
| title=Allmusic -> Jimmy Page -> Charts & Awards
| magazine=[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]
| access-date=2 January 2011}}</ref>
!width="30"| [[ARIA Charts|AUS]] <ref name="AUS">{{cite web
| url=http://www.australian-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Carlos+Santana
| title=Australian Chart
| publisher=Hung Medien
| access-date=2 January 2011}}</ref>
!width="30"| [[ARIA Charts|AUT]] <ref name="AUT">{{cite web
| url=http://austriancharts.at/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Carlos+Santana
| title=Austrian Chart
| publisher=Hung Medien
| access-date=2 January 2011}}</ref>
!width="30"| [[Syndicat National de l'Édition Phonographique|FRA]] <ref name="FRA">{{cite web
|url=http://lescharts.com/
|title=French Chart
|publisher=Hung Medien
|access-date=2 January 2011
|url-status=dead
|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121206200849/http://lescharts.com/
|archive-date=6 December 2012
|df=dmy
}}</ref>
!width="30"| [[MegaCharts|NLD]] <ref name="NLD">{{cite web
| url=http://dutchcharts.nl/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Carlos+Santana
| title=Dutch Album Chart
| publisher=GFK
| access-date=2 January 2011}}</ref>
!width="30"| [[Recording Industry Association of New Zealand|NZL]] <ref name="NZL">{{cite web
| url=https://charts.nz/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Carlos+Santana
| title=New Zealand Chart
| publisher=Hung Medien
| access-date=2 January 2011}}</ref>
!width="30"| [[VG-lista|NOR]] <ref name="NOR">{{cite web
| url=http://norwegiancharts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Carlos+Santana
| title=Norwegian Chart
| publisher=Hung Medien
| access-date=2 January 2011}}</ref>
!width="30"| [[Sverigetopplistan|SWE]] <ref name="SWE">{{cite web
| url=http://swedishcharts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Carlos+Santana
| title=Swedish Chart
| publisher=Hung Medien
| access-date=2 January 2011}}</ref>
!width="30"| [[Swiss Music Charts|SWI]] <ref name="SWI">{{cite web
| url=http://hitparade.ch/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Carlos+Santana
| title=Swiss Chart
| publisher=Hung Medien
| access-date=2 January 2011}}</ref>
!width="30"| [[UK Albums Chart|UK]] <ref name="UK">{{cite web
| url=http://www.theofficialcharts.com
| title=Artist Chart History - Jimmy Page
| publisher=OCC
| access-date=2 January 2011}}</ref>
|-
|style="text-align:left;"| 1994
|style="text-align:left;"| '''''[[No Quarter: Jimmy Page and Robert Plant Unledded|No Quarter]]'''''
* Released: 14 October 1994
* Label: Atlantic/[[Fontana Records|Fontana]]
* Format: CD
| 4
| 2
| 27
| —
| 33
| 13
| —
| 10
| 16
| 7
|
* [[RIAA|US]]: Platinum<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?content_selector=gold-platinum-searchable-database|title=RIAA No Quarter - 4 December 1994|publisher=[[Recording Industry Association of America|RIAA]]|access-date= 2015-09-06}}</ref>
* CAN 2× Platinum<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cria.ca/cert_db_search.php |title=CRIA No Quarter - 4 December 1994 |publisher=[[Canadian Recording Industry Association|CRIA]] |access-date=2009-01-19 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100501065534/http://www.cria.ca/cert_db_search.php |archive-date=1 May 2010 |df=dmy }}</ref>
* [[British Phonographic Industry|UK]]: Gold<ref name="BPI">{{cite web| url = http://www.bpi.co.uk/platinum/platinumright.asp?rq=search_plat&r_id=18719| title = BPI No Quarter certification - 1 February 1995| publisher = [[The BPI]]| access-date = 2009-01-19| df = dmy-all}}{{dead link|date=August 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}} </ref>
|-
|style="text-align:left;"| 1998
|style="text-align:left;"| '''''[[Walking into Clarksdale]]'''''
* Released: 21 April 1998
* Label: Atlantic/[[Mercury Records|Mercury]]
* Format: CD
| 8
| 16
| 33
| 5
| 56
| 11
| 13
| 17
| 31
| 3
|
* US: Gold<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riaa.com/goldandplatinumdata.php?content_selector=gold-platinum-searchable-database|title=RIAA Walking Into Clarksdale - 21 April 1998|publisher=[[Recording Industry Association of America|RIAA]]|access-date= 2015-09-06}}</ref>
|-

| colspan="23" style="font-size:8pt;"| "—" denotes releases that did not chart or was not released.
|}

;Contributions to compilations
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year !!Name
|-
|1997
|The Inner Flame: A Tribute to [[Rainer Ptacek]] (Song: "Rude World")
|-
|2001
|Good Rockin' Tonight - The Legacy Of [[Sun Records]] (Song: "[[My Bucket's Got a Hole in It]]")
|}

;Singles
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year !!Name
|-
| rowspan="4"|1994
|"[[Gallows Pole]]"
|-
|"[[The Battle of Evermore]]" (promo)
|-
|"[[Kashmir (song)|Kashmir]]" (released in France)
|-
|"[[Thank You (Led Zeppelin song)|Thank You]]" (released in The Netherlands)
|-
| rowspan="2"|1995
|"Wonderful One" (released in the US)
|-
|"[[Four Sticks]]" (promo)
|-
|1998
|"[[Most High (song)|Most High]]"
|-
|1998
|"[[Shining in the Light (song)|Shining in the Light]]"
|-
|1998
|"Sons of Freedom" (promo)
|}

;Videos
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!Year !!Name
|-
|1998
|Music Video for "Most High" (directed by [[Floria Sigismondi]])
|-
|2004
|[[No Quarter: Jimmy Page and Robert Plant Unledded#DVD release|No Quarter: Jimmy Page and Robert Plant Unledded]]
|}

==See also==
*[[Coverdale & Page|Coverdale–Page]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{Led Zeppelin}}
{{Jimmy Page}}
{{Robert Plant}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:English rock music groups]]
[[Category:Led Zeppelin]]
[[Category:Grammy Award winners]]
[[Category:Rock music duos]]
[[Category:Jimmy Page]]
[[Category:Robert Plant]]
[[Category:Musical groups established in 1994]]
[[Category:Musical groups disestablished in 1998]]
[[Category:Musical groups from London]]
[[Category:Mercury Records artists]]
[[Category:Atlantic Records artists]]
[[Category:Fontana Records artists]]
[[Category:Musical quartets]]
[[Category:English musical duos]]
[[Category:Male musical duos]]
[[Category:Songwriting teams]]

Air Algérie Flight 6289

2020-02-24T08:49:55Z

JanTurin: /* Timeline */

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2019}}
{{Cleanup|reason=a lot of info was directly copied and pasted from the investigation report and had to be deleted. If you wish to re-add said info, please revise the text.|date=December 2018}}
{{Infobox aircraft occurrence
| name = Air Algérie Flight 6289
| image = 7T-VEZ B737-2T4 Air Algerie FRA 29AUG99 (6136782090).jpg
| image_upright =
| image_size = 250
| alt =
| caption = 7T-VEZ, the aircraft involved in the accident, seen here on 29 August 1999
| occurrence_type = Accident
| date = {{start date|2003|03|06|df=y}}
| site = [[Aguenar – Hadj Bey Akhamok Airport]], [[Tamanrasset]], Algeria
| coordinates = {{Coord|22|47|N|5|31|E|type:event|display=inline,title}}
| aircraft_type = [[Boeing 737|Boeing 737-2T4]]
| aircraft_name = Monts du Daia
| operator = [[Air Algérie]]
| IATA = AH6289
| ICAO = DAH6289
| callsign = AIR ALGERIE 6289
| tail_number = 7T-VEZ
| origin = [[Aguenar – Hadj Bey Akhamok Airport]], [[Tamanrasset]], Algeria
| stopover = [[Noumérat – Moufdi Zakaria Airport]], [[Ghardaia]], Algeria
| stopover0 =
| last_stopover =
| destination = [[Houari Boumediene Airport]], [[Algiers]], Algeria
| occupants = 103
| passengers = 97
| crew = 6
| fatalities = 102
| injuries = 1
| missing =
| survivors = 1
| type = [[Engine failure on take-off]] aggravated by [[pilot error]]
}}

'''Air Algérie Flight 6289 (AH6289)''', was a [[Domestic flight|domestic passenger flight]] which crashed on 6 March 2003, at the [[Aguenar – Hadj Bey Akhamok Airport]] in [[Algeria]], killing all but one of the 103 people on board.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.bea.aero/docspa/2003/7t-z030306a/htm/7t-z030306a.html|title=7T-VEZ|website=www.bea.aero|publisher=[[Bureau d'Enquêtes et d'Analyses pour la Sécurité de l'Aviation Civile]]|access-date=2018-12-21}}</ref><ref name=":1">{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FB9lCQAAQBAJ|title=AIR CRASH INVESTIGATIONS - IN-FLIGHT ENGINE FAILURE - The Crash of Air Algérie Flight 6289|last=Collins|first=Pete|date=9 February 2015|publisher=Lulu.com|isbn=9781312904668|pages=11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 21, 22|language=en}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.ntsb.gov/news/press-releases/_layouts/ntsb.aviation/brief.aspx?ev_id=20030402X00424|title=DCA03RA029|last=|first=|date=|website=www.ntsb.gov|publisher=National Transportation Safety Board|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2018-12-21}}</ref>

Witnesses recalled that one of its engines exploded and caught fire just seconds after takeoff. The landing gear was still extended when this happened. It then rose sharply and stalled. The final report concluded that the cause of the crash was due to [[engine failure on take-off]].

The accident was the deadliest plane crash to occur on Algerian soil, until being surpassed by the [[2018 Algerian Air Force Il-76 crash|Algerian Air Force Il-76 crash]] in 2018. It was also Air Algérie's deadliest plane crash, until it was surpassed 11 years later by [[Air Algérie Flight 5017]], a [[McDonnel Douglas MD-83]] which crashed in [[Mali]] killing all 116 people on board.<ref name=":02">{{Cite web|url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=20030306-0|title=ASN Aircraft accident Boeing 737-2T4 7T-VEZ Tamanrasset Airport (TMR)|last=Ranter|first=Harro|website=aviation-safety.net|access-date=2017-04-09}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.cnn.com/2014/07/25/world/africa/air-algerie-crash/index.html|title=Air Algerie crash: 'Disintegrated' plane found in Mali - CNN.com|last=Karimi|first=Faith|date=|work=CNN|access-date=2017-04-09|last2=Smith-Spark|first2=Laura}}</ref>

== Background ==
{|class="wikitable sortable floatright" style="font-size:85%; text-align:left;
|-style="background:#ccccff;"
!rowspan=1|Nationality||colspan=1|Passengers||colspan=1|Crew||colspan=1|Total
|-valign=top
|Algeria||78||6||84
|-valign=top
|Canada||5||0||5
|-valign=top
|France||9||0||9
|-valign=top
|Germany||1||0||1
|-valign=top
|Japan||1||0||1
|-valign=top
|Netherlands||2||0||2
|-valign=top
|United Kingdom||1||0||1
|-valign=top
|'''Total'''||'''97'''||'''6'''||'''103'''
|}
Flight 6289 had been scheduled to land at [[Noumérat – Moufdi Zakaria Airport]]. The aircraft was a [[Boeing 737|Boeing 737-2T4]], named Monts du Daia,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KBmGpaD36cMC|title=Encyclopedia of African Airlines|last=Guttery|first=Ben R.|date=1 January 1998|publisher=Ben Guttery|isbn=9780786404957|pages=15|language=en}}</ref> and was equipped with two [[Pratt & Whitney JT8D|Pratt & Whitney JT8D-17A]] engines. The aircraft entered service on 9 December 1983, and flew for more than 40,000 hours before the crash.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> The unnamed male captain, aged 48, allegedly had 10,760 hours and 10 minutes of flight experience, including 1,087 hours and 46 minutes on the Boeing 737-200 as captain.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" /> Meanwhile, the unnamed female first officer, aged 44, allegedly had 5,219 hours and 10 minutes of flight experience, including 1,292 hours and 42 minutes on the Boeing 737-200.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

The first officer was the pilot flying (PF), while the captain was the pilot not flying (PNF). Both switched roles the moment the engine failure occurred.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

== Timeline ==
At about 14:08 [[Coordinated Universal Time|UTC]], [[Air traffic control|Air Traffic Control]] cleared the plane to taxi to Runway 02 and the plane left the gate.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

At 14:12, [[Air traffic control|Air Traffic Control]] cleared the plane to line up and take off on Runway 02.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

At 14:13, the plane took off, and the captain requested landing gear retraction. The request was immediately followed by a loud thumping noise recorded on the aircraft's Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR), apparently caused by the rupture of the left engine. The plane veered left, and the first officer let out a chain of exclamations.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

At 14:15, the captain told the first officer that he was taking over control of the aircraft and insisted she let go of the controls so that he could control the plane. The first officer then handed the controls over to the captain and offered to retract the landing gear. The captain did not respond. The first officer alerted air traffic control about the situation, saying "we have a small problem." The stick-shaker then activated and de-activated twice. The [[Ground proximity warning system]] then sounded a "don't sink" alarm and was followed by the stick-shaker activating a third time and continued operating until the (CVR) stopped recording. The GPWS then sounded a second "don't sink" alarm and the CVR stopped recording, along with the Flight Data Recorder (FDR). The aircraft was still airborne when the recordings ended. Without the landing gear being retracted, additional drag was apparently created and the plane began to lose speed at a high rate. Eventually, the plane stalled and crashed. Upon impact, fuel was spilled and ignited, causing the aircraft to burst into flames. It then skidded along the ground, striking the airport's perimeter fence, and crossing a road, before coming to a stop. Air traffic control immediately declared an emergency.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

==Aftermath==
96 of the 97 passengers and all of the six crew members perished, a total of 102 people. The [[List of sole survivors of airline accidents or incidents|sole survivor]] of the accident was 28-year-old Youcef Djillali, an Algerian soldier. He was seated in the last row with his seat belt unfastened (as indicated in his statement), and was ejected from the plane upon impact, escaping from the accident. Djillali was found in a coma with multiple injuries. However, he regained consciousness the next day. Doctors said that his injuries were not life-threatening.<ref name="Nouvel Obs">"[http://tempsreel.nouvelobs.com/actualites/20030306.OBS7827/?xtmc=algA_rienne_aps&xtcr=25 Tamanrasset : 102 mortsdont 6 Français]." [Tamanrasset: 102 dead including 6 French] {{in lang|fr}} ([https://web.archive.org/web/20140107210202/http://tempsreel.nouvelobs.com/monde/20030306.OBS7827/tamanrasset-102-morts-dont-6-francais.html?xtmc=algA_rienne_aps&xtcr=25 Archive]) ''[[Le Nouvel Observateur]]''. 11 March 2003. Retrieved on 31 December 2013. </ref>

== Investigation ==
{{Expand section|date=January 2019}}
The flight instruments and flight recorders were investigated in the BEA laboratory in Paris, France. The aircraft's engines were sent to Belgium for investigation. Investigators determined that the left engine's HP (high pressure) turbine had ruptured, damaging the LP (low pressure) turbine in the process. This caused a drop in power to the engine, though it did not shut down completely according to the flight recorders.<ref name=":0" /><ref name=":1" />

===Conclusion===
The final report was published with the following:
{{quote|"The accident was caused by the loss of an engine during a critical phase of flight, the non-retraction of the landing gear after the engine failure, and the Captain, the PNF, taking over control of the airplane before having clearly identified the problem.
The following factors probably contributed to the accident:
*the perfunctory flight preparation, which meant that the crew were not equipped to face the situation that occurred at a critical moment of the flight;
*the coincidence between the moment the failure occurred and the request to retract the landing gear;
*the speed of the event that left the crew little time to recover the situation;
*maintaining an inappropriate rate of climb, taking into account the failure of one engine;
*the absence of any teamwork after the engine failure, which led to a failure to detect and correct parameters related to the conduct of the flight (speed, rate of climb, configuration, etc.);
*the takeoff weight being close to the maximum with a high aerodrome altitude and high temperature;
*the rocky environment around the aerodrome, unsuitable for an emergency landing."}}<ref name="Nouvel Obs" />

==See also==
{{Portal|Aviation}}
* [[Centurion Air Cargo Flight 164]]
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft]]
* [[List of sole survivors of airline accidents or incidents]]
* [[LOT Polish Airlines Flight 7]]
* [[LOT Polish Airlines Flight 5055]]
* [[United Airlines Flight 232]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{ASN accident|id=20030306-0}}
*[[Ministry of Transport (Algeria)|Algerian Ministry of Transport]]
**[http://www.bea.aero/docspa/2003/7t-z030306a/htm/7t-z030306a.html Official Accident Report – HTML version] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120613020240/http://www.bea.aero/docspa/2003/7t-z030306a/htm/7t-z030306a.html Archive])
**[http://www.bea.aero/docspa/2003/7t-z030306a/pdf/7t-z030306a.pdf Official Accident Report – PDF version] ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120205223600/http://www.bea.aero/docspa/2003/7t-z030306a/pdf/7t-z030306a.pdf Archive])
**[http://www.bea.aero/docspa/2003/7t-z030306/htm/7t-z030306.html Official Accident Report info page] {{in lang|fr}} ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120615034241/http://www.bea.aero/docspa/2003/7t-z030306/htm/7t-z030306.html Archive]) – The French version is the original version
***[http://www.bea.aero/docspa/2003/7t-z030306/pdf/7t-z030306.pdf Full official report] {{in lang|fr}} ([https://web.archive.org/web/20120615034248/http://www.bea.aero/docspa/2003/7t-z030306/pdf/7t-z030306.pdf Archive])
{{Aviation incidents and accidents in 2003}}

 

{{DEFAULTSORT:Air Algérie Flight 6289}}
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by mechanical failure]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 2003]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in Algeria]]
[[Category:2003 in Algeria]]
[[Category:Accidents and incidents involving the Boeing 737 Original]]
[[Category:Air Algérie accidents and incidents]]
[[Category:March 2003 events in Africa]]

Martinair Flight 495

2020-02-20T20:10:00Z

JanTurin: /* Attention in the media */

{{Multiple issues|{{More citations needed|date=May 2008}}{{Cleanup|reason=must not sound directly translated|date=February 2019}}}}
{{Infobox aircraft occurrence
| image = McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30CF, Martinair Holland AN0374455.jpg
| image_size = 250
| alt =
| caption = The wreckage on the crash site
| occurrence_type = Accident
| date = {{start date|1992|12|21|df=y}}
| summary = [[Microburst]]-induced [[wind shear]] along with [[pilot error]]
| site = [[Faro Airport]], [[Faro, Portugal|Faro]], Portugal
| coordinates =
| aircraft_type = [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10|McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30]]
| aircraft_name =
| operator =
| tail_number = PH-MBN
| origin = {{nowrap|[[Amsterdam Schiphol Airport]]}}
| stopover =
| stopover0 =
| last_stopover =
| destination = [[Faro Airport]]
| passengers = 327
| crew = 13
| fatalities = 56
| injuries = 106
| ground_fatalities = 1<ref name=NLT080120/>
| survivors = 284
}}
'''Martinair Flight 495''' was a [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10]] operated by Dutch airline [[Martinair]], that crash-landed in severe weather conditions at [[Faro Airport]], [[Portugal]], on 21 December 1992. The aircraft carried 13 [[crew member]]s and 327 passengers, mainly holidaymakers from the [[Netherlands]]. 54 passengers and 2 crew members died<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19921221-0|title=21 Dec 1992 DC-10 accident entry|last=|first=|date=|website=aviation-Safety.net|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> and 106 of the other occupants were badly injured.

== Aircraft and crew ==
[[File:Martinair_DC-10-30CF_PH-MBN_FAO_1985.png|thumb|The ill-fated aircraft is seen here at [[Faro Airport]] in 1985.]]
The aircraft involved was a [[McDonnell Douglas DC-10|McDonnell Douglas DC-10-30CF]], registered ''PH-MBN'', which was built in 1975 wearing the serial number 46924.<ref name="airfleetsaircraft">[http://www.airfleets.net/ficheapp/plane-dc10-46924.htm airfleets.net – McDonnell Douglas DC-10 – MSN 46924 – PH-MBN] retrieved 2 July 2016</ref> It was named Anthony Ruys, after one of Martinair's former commissioners.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.aviacrash.nl/paginas/anthony%20ruys.htm|title=Martinair DC-10 verongelukt bij Faro (Portugal)|last=|first=|date=|website=aviacrash.nl|language=nl|trans-title=Martinair DC-10 crashed in Faro (Portugal)|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> It was delivered to [[Martinair]] on 26 November 1975. However, Martinair leased it out to three Asian airlines from October 1979 to September 1981. From then on until the accident, only disrupted by a short lease to [[World Airways]] in early 1992, it was solely operated by Martinair again, although it had been sold earlier that year to the Royal Netherlands Air Force for a planned conversion to [[KDC-10]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.airfleets.net/ficheapp/plane-dc10-46924.htm|title=airfleets.net – McDonnell Douglas DC-10 – MSN 46924 – PH-MBN|last=|first=|date=|website=www.airfleets.net|publisher=Airfleets aviation|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2 July 2016}}</ref>

The captain was 56-year-old H. W. van Staveren, who had been with Martinair since January 1968. He was a DC-10 flight instructor and had a total of 14,441 flight hours.

The first officer was 31-year-old R. J. H. Clemenkowff. He had been with Martinair for three years and had 2,288 flight hours, with 1,787 of them on the DC-10.

The flight engineer was 29-year-old G. W. Glans, who had been with Martinair for only eight months. However, he had worked with [[Canadian Airlines]] and [[Swissair]]. Glans had a total of 7,540 flight hours, including 1,700 hours on the DC-10.

== Description ==
=== Departure ===
On the morning of the accident, the plane was delayed at [[Amsterdam Airport Schiphol]] because of a faulty thrust-reverser. This was not fixed. Nevertheless, the plane took off to Faro at 7:30{{nbsp}}am. According to Martinair, the faulty thrust-reverser was not a contributing factor in the accident.

=== Crash ===
A large [[thunderstorm]] lay in the immediate vicinity of Faro airport, accompanied by heavy rain, [[windshear]] and [[low cloud]]. The control tower informed the crew of the thunderstorm activity, in addition stating that there was water on the runway. Following one unsuccessful attempt to land, the crew was executing a [[VHF omnidirectional range|VOR]]/[[Distance measuring equipment|DME]] procedure approach to runway 11 (now runway 10) when the aircraft flew through at least two [[microburst]]s. According to the Portuguese final accident report, firefighters saw an explosion coming from the aircraft 22 seconds before it crashed.

The aircraft landed with a vertical speed exceeding the manufacturer's design limits. Following this hard landing, the [[starboard]] main gear collapsed. The starboard wing fuel tank ruptured and the contents ignited. The DC-10 fuselage split in two, coming to rest with the front section lying on its side.

== Causes ==
There are different opinions about the causes of the air disaster.

=== According to the official investigation by the Portuguese aviation authorities ===
According to the Portuguese aviation authorities (DGAC), the causes of the air disaster were likely:<ref name=":0" />

* the high lowering speed in the last phase of the approach;
* the landing on the right landing gear, which exceeded the structural limitations of the aircraft;
* the transverse wind during the final approach and landing, before the landing was stronger than allowed for a landing on a flooded runway;
* the combination of both factors caused forces that were greater than the aircraft could handle.

The DGAC describes as additional factors:

* the instability of the approach;
* bringing it back too early and letting it be too low, probably because of the crew's actions;
* providing incorrect wind information by the approach control line;
* the absence of an approach light system;
* the incorrect assessment of the condition of the runway by the crew;
* the dropping of the autopilot just before the landing, whereby the aircraft was flown by hand in a critical phase of the landing;
* delaying the crew in increasing the ability;
* the decrease of the lift coefficient due to heavy rainfall.

=== According to the Dutch aviation authorities ===
The Dutch Office for the Investigation of Accidents and Incidents of the National Aviation Authority (RLD) indicated that the probable cause should be as follows:<ref name=":0" />

* a sudden and unexpected variation in wind direction and speed ([[windshear]]) in the last phase of the approach;
* then there was a high descent speed and extreme lateral displacement, which caused a hard landing on the right landing gear, which in combination with a considerable angular displacement exceeded the structural limitations of the aircraft.

According to the RLD, additional factors were:

* that the crew of flight MP495 did not expect the occurrence of windshear on the basis of the weather forecast and the weather;
* the premature reduction and reduction of engine power, most likely due to the action of the crew;
* the dropping of the autopilot just before the landing, whereby the aircraft was flown by hand in a critical phase of the landing.

=== 2011 research and lawsuits ===
On 14 February 2011, the ''[[Algemeen Dagblad]]'' reported among other things about a new investigation, which was carried out by researcher Harry Horlings at the request of relatives.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.avioconsult.com/downloads/Analyse%20Faro%20ongeval%20AvioConsult.pdf|title=Analyse van ongeval Martinair DC-10-30F MP495|last=|first=|date=|website=|publisher=AvioConsult|language=nl|trans-title=Martinair DC-10-30F MP495 accident analysis|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref> According to Horlings, there was no wind shear at the Faro disaster and the pilots had made serious mistakes.<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=http://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/2882/Oman/article/detail/1889812/2011/02/14/Echte-oorzaak-vliegramp-Faro-in-doofpot-gestopt.dhtml|title=Echte oorzaak vliegramp Faro in doofpot gestopt|last=|first=|date=14 February 2011|work=Algemeen Dagblad|access-date=|url-status=live|language=nl|trans-title=Real cause Faro disaster disguised}}</ref> According to Horlings, the data from the black box was incomplete in the Dutch report from 1993; the last seconds were missing.<ref>[http://nos.nl/artikel/218821-vliegramp-faro-door-fout-piloten.html Vliegramp Faro door fout piloten], ''NOS.nl'', 14 februari 2011</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nos.nl/l/218821|title=Vliegramp Faro door fout piloten|last=|first=|date=14 February 2011|website=nos.nl|language=nl|trans-title=Faro plane crash due to wrong pilots|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-12-21}}</ref> In the cover letter to the report of the American Aviation Service, in which the data from the black box were presented, it was indicated that the autopilot had been used incorrectly. The report also recommended improving the training of pilots.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://nos.nl/l/218936|title=Uitgebreid interview met Harry Horlings|last=|first=|date=14 February 2011|website=nos.nl|language=nl|trans-title=Extensive interview with Harry Horlings|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-12-21}}</ref>

The [[Dutch Safety Board]] stated that it was unable to respond because the Council had not been able to view and assess the report from researcher Horlings. Attorney Jan Willem Koeleman, who assisted some of the surviving relatives, announced that he would request Martinair to recognize liability and pay additional compensation.<ref name=":1" /> On 8 December 2012, Koeleman reported Martinair and the Dutch state to complain before the 21st of that month. After that date the case would be barred.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.telegraaf.nl/binnenland/21141880/__Aanklacht_om_ramp_Faro__.html|title=Aanklacht om ramp Faro|last=|first=|date=8 December 2012|work=De Telegraaf|access-date=|url-status=live|language=nl|trans-title=Indictment for disaster in Faro}}</ref>

The case against Martinair, which had meanwhile become part of [[KLM]], finally served on 13 January 2014 in Amsterdam.<ref name=":2">{{Cite news|url=http://www.ad.nl/ad/nl/1012/Nederland/article/detail/3576396/2014/01/13/Slachtoffers-Faro-ramp-gaan-strijd-aan.dhtml|title=Slachtoffers Faro-ramp gaan strijd aan|last=|first=|date=13 January 2014|work=Algemeen Dagblad|access-date=|url-status=live|language=nl|trans-title=Faro disaster victims are fighting}}</ref> On February 26, 2014, the court rendered judgment. She had ignored the new facts presented by the victims and ruled that additional damages were not necessary.<ref name="V20140226">{{cite web|url=https://www.usa-advocaten.nl/rechtbank-den-haag-nieuw-deskundigenonderzoek-in-de-faro-ramp/|title=Rechtbank Den Haag: nieuw deskundigenonderzoek in de Faro-ramp|last=|first=|date=26 February 2014|website=USA Advocaten|language=nl|trans-title=Court of The Hague: new expert investigation in the Faro disaster|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=}}</ref>

The case against the State of the Netherlands served on 20 January 2014 in The Hague.<ref name=":2" /> On the same day on which the District Court ruled in Amsterdam, 26 February 2014, a decision was also made here by means of an interlocutory judgment. Unlike the court in Amsterdam, the court in The Hague deemed further investigation necessary and wished to hear experts.<ref name="V20140226" />

In January 2020, the District Court of the Hague ruled that the Dutch state was partly responsible for the accident.<ref name=NLT080120>{{cite web |url=https://nltimes.nl/2020/01/08/dutch-state-partly-liable-1992-faro-plane-crash-court-rules |title=Dutch State partly liable in 1992 Faro plane crash, court rules |first=Janene |last=Pieters |publisher=NL Times |accessdate=8 January 2020}}</ref>

== Attention in the media ==
The air disaster at Faro happened a few months after the crash of El Al Flight 1862. Although the crash at Faro was deadlier, it received relatively little attention in the media. Survivors felt that too little was being listened to and their observations during the flight. They united as the "Anthony Ruys Foundation", named after the name of the aircraft. This foundation was dissolved in May 2011.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.vliegrampfaro.nl/over/anthony-ruys-stichting/|title=Anthony Ruys Stichting|last=|first=|date=|website=vliegrampfaro.nl|publisher=Vliegrampfaro|language=nl|trans-title=Anthony Ruys Foundation|url-status=live|archive-url=|archive-date=|access-date=2019-12-21}}</ref>

On 16 January 2016, the ''[[EenVandaag]]'' program paid attention to the disaster. In the broadcast, a former technical controller from Martinair stated that at the time, under great pressure, he had signed a form in which the replacement of a landing gear of the aircraft was postponed for the third time. Such a postponement could only be granted twice. Attorney Jan Willem Koeleman, who assisted victims and survivors, discovered that an archive of the Aviation Council should remain secret until January 2073. CDA member of parliament Pieter Omtzigt calls this "very inappropriate" and announced to the government to ask for clarification.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.telegraaf.nl/binnenland/25018142/___Toestel_Faro-ramp_vertrok_na_grote_druk___.html|title=Toestel Faro-ramp vertrok na grote druk|last=|first=|date=16 January 2016|work=De Telegraaf|access-date=|url-status=live|language=nl|trans-title=The Faro disaster aircraft left after great pressure}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[Bhoja Air Flight 213]]
* [[China Airlines Flight 642]]
* [[Delta Air Lines Flight 191]]
* [[Pan Am Flight 759]]
* [[USAir Flight 1016]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{commons category inline|Martinair Flight 495}}
*[[GPIAA]]:
**[http://www.vliegrampfaro.nl/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/Faro_MP495_accident-report-English.pdf Final report] – Non-official English translation provided by the [[Netherlands Aviation Safety Board]] ([https://www.webcitation.org/6DZQPMNcw?url=http://www.vliegrampfaro.nl/bijlagen/09001_ondezoeksrapport-Engels.pdf Archive])
**[http://www.gpiaa.gov.pt?cr=9589 Final report] {{in lang|pt}}
***[http://www.gpiaa.gov.pt/wwwbase/wwwinclude/ficheiro.aspx?tipo=0&id=9589&ambiente=WebSiteMenu Report document] ([https://www.webcitation.org/6IyVfYnZg?url=http://www.gpiaa.gov.pt/wwwbase/wwwinclude/ficheiro.aspx?tipo%3D0%26id%3D9589%26ambiente%3DWebSiteMenu Archive], [https://web.archive.org/web/20110930132146/http://www.gpiaa.gov.pt/tempfiles/20080218182343moptc.pdf Alt] [https://www.webcitation.org/6DZR3XB8Z?url=http://www.vliegrampfaro.nl/bijlagen/09002_onderzoeksrapport%20Portugees.pdf Alt #2]) – Original version
* [http://www.vliegrampfaro.nl/over/crash-martinair-flight-mp495-in-faro-portugal/ VliegrampFaro.nl] site mainly in Dutch, maintained by a survivor of the crash
{{Martinair}}
{{Aviation accidents and incidents in Portugal}}
{{Aviation incidents and accidents in 1992}}
{{coord missing|Portugal}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2014}}

{{Portal bar|Netherlands|Portugal|Aviation|1990s}}

[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by microbursts]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1992]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in Portugal]]
[[Category:Accidents and incidents involving the McDonnell Douglas DC-10]]
[[Category:Martinair accidents and incidents|495]]
[[Category:1992 in Portugal]]
[[Category:1992 meteorology]]
[[Category:December 1992 events in Europe]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by pilot error]]
[[Category:Aviation accident investigations with disputed causes]]

British Rail Class 374

2020-01-09T08:36:28Z

JanTurin: double link

{{short description|Eurostar high speed train}}
{{EngvarB|date=April 2014}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2014}}
{{Infobox EMU
| name = British Rail Class 374 Eurostar e320
| image = Eurostar Class 374 on HS1.jpg
| imagesize =
| interiorimage =
| interiorcaption =
| caption = A Eurostar Class 374 on [[High Speed 1]]
| background = #0047AB
| manufacturer = [[Siemens]]
| family = [[Siemens Velaro|Velaro]]
| yearconstruction = 2011–2018
| operator = [[Eurostar]]
| formation = 16 cars
| numberbuilt = 17 trainsets
| carbody = [[Aluminium]]
| service = 20 November 2015 - present
| weight =
| carlength = {{convert|25.7|m|ftin|frac=8}} (Leading) {{convert|24.2|m|ftin|frac=8}} (Trailing)
| width =
| capacity = 902 seats<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/news/europe/single-view/view/eurostar-orders-seven-more-e320s.html|title=Eurostar orders seven more e320s|work=[[Railway Gazette]]|publisher=[[DVV Media Group]]|date=2014-11-13 |access-date=2018-12-23 |df=dmy-all}}</ref>
| maxspeed = {{convert|320|km/h|mph|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}
| poweroutput = {{Convert|16|MW|abbr=on}}
| gauge = {{Track gauge|sg|allk=on}}
| powersupply =
| collectionmethod = [[Pantograph (rail)|Pantograph]]
| electricsystem = {{25 kV 50 Hz}} [[15 kV AC railway electrification|15 kV 16.7 Hz AC]] 3000 [[Volt|V]] [[Direct current|DC]] 1500 V DC [[Overhead line]]s
| uicclass = Bo′Bo′+2′2′+Bo′Bo′+2′2′ +2′2′+Bo′Bo′+2′2′+Bo′Bo′+Bo′Bo′+2′2′+Bo′Bo′+2′2′ +2′2′+Bo′Bo′+2′2′+Bo′Bo′
| trainlength = {{convert|400|m|ftin|frac=8}}
}}

The '''British Rail Class 374''', also branded as the '''Eurostar e320''', is a type of [[electric multiple unit]] passenger train used on [[Eurostar]] services through the [[Channel Tunnel]] to serve destinations beyond the core routes to [[Paris Gare du Nord|Paris]] and [[Brussels South railway station|Brussels]]. They began to run passenger services in November 2015.<ref>{{cite web|title=Eurostar Velaro e320 enters passenger service|url=http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/high-speed/eurostar-velaro-e320-enters-passenger-service.html|publisher=International Railway Journal|accessdate=13 January 2017}}</ref> The trains owned by [[Eurostar International Limited]] are sixteen-coach versions of the [[Siemens Velaro]], each train measures 400 metres long. The trains are designed to be compliant with the [[Technical Specifications for Interoperability]] (TSI) and the original order for ten sets was subsequently increased to seventeen sets in November 2014.<ref name="Eurostar-unveils">{{cite news |url= https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/road-and-rail-transport/11227836/Eurostar-unveils-new-200mph-Channel-Tunnel-train.html |title=Eurostar unveils new 200mph Channel Tunnel train |work= Daily Telegraph |location =London |date=13 November 2014 |accessdate=13 November 2014}}</ref>

Eurostar International's existing fleet of [[British Rail Class 373|Class 373 "Eurostar e300"]] trains, introduced in 1994 when the [[Channel Tunnel]] opened, cannot be used on the [[15 kV AC]] [[overhead line]] (OHLE) electrification system used in Germany, most cannot be used on the 1.5 kV DC overhead line (OHLE) electrification system used in the Netherlands and they do not have sufficient space to install ERTMS signalling. Consequently, Eurostar cannot run its Class 373 units on services to these countries, and the Class 374 was designed and built to help solve this problem, and enable Eurostar to run services to these locations. The Class 374 has replaced the majority of Class 373s as of June 2018, with most Class 373 trains being scrapped in the UK after these new trains were introduced into service.

When the trains operate in Great Britain, they can only run on [[High Speed 1]], which was built to a larger [[loading gauge]], because they are too large for the standard British loading gauge.

==Development==
[[File:Eurostar e320 at Kensington Gardens 105.jpg|thumb|left|Mock up on display in [[Kensington Gardens]] in London in 2010]]
[[Siemens Velaro]] high speed EMUs are derived from the [[ICE 3]] first used by [[Deutsche Bahn]] (DB) in 2000. Variants include DB Class 407, intended for international services including through the [[Channel Tunnel]].<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view/10/db-unveils-next-generation-ice.html |title=DB unveils next-generation ICE |work= Railway Gazette International |location =London |date=29 April 2010 |accessdate=15 April 2013}}</ref>

In 2009, [[Eurostar]] announced a £700m project to update its fleet, with approximately £550m for new trains able to operate away from the core London-Paris/Brussels network.<ref>{{cite news | url= http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/single-view/view//eurostar-considering-larger-fleet.html| title = Eurostar considering larger fleet?| work = Railway Gazette International |location=London | date =6 April 2009 | accessdate = 15 April 2013}}</ref> In October 2010, Eurostar announced that Siemens had been selected, with the Velaro platform to be used. The ''Velaro e320'', named because of plans to operate at {{convert|320|km/h|mph|sigfig=2|abbr=on}}, would be 16 cars long, to meet the Channel Tunnel safety specifications but would have distributed traction with the [[traction motor|traction equipment]] along the length of the train, not concentrated in [[power car]]s at each end.<ref name=rgi20101001>{{cite news |url= http://www.railwaygazette.com/nc/news/single-view/view/eurostar-picks-velaro-to-expand-fleet.html |title=Eurostar picks Velaro to expand fleet |work= Railway Gazette International |location =London |date=1 October 2010 |accessdate=2 October 2010}}</ref>

===Alstom litigation===
The nomination of Siemens saw it break into the French high-speed market, as all French and French subsidiary high-speed operators up to that point used TGV derivatives produced by [[Alstom]].<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/5696688c-cd4c-11df-ab20-00144feab49a.html?ftcamp=rss |title= Row breaks out over Eurostar train order |newspaper= Financial Times |location= London |last=Wright |first= Robert |date=1 October 2010 |accessdate=1 October 2010}}</ref> Alstom attempted legal action to prevent the contract, claiming that the Siemens sets would breach Channel Tunnel safety rules,<ref>{{cite news |title= Alstom heads for court over Eurostar trains |newspaper= Financial Times | location = London | url = http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/d9258852-db64-11df-ae99-00144feabdc0.html |first= Robert |last= Wright |date=19 October 2010}}</ref> but this was thrown out of court.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.railjournal.com/newsflash/alstom-fails-to-block-eurostar-contract.html |accessdate=30 October 2010 |title=Alstom fails to block Eurostar contract |work= International Railway Journal |date=30 October 2010 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20101101061536/http://www.railjournal.com/newsflash/alstom-fails-to-block-eurostar-contract.html |archivedate=1 November 2010 |location =London}}</ref> Alstom said that it would "pursue alternative legal options to uphold its position", and on 4 November 2010 it lodged a complaint with the [[European Commission]] over the tendering process, which then asked the British government for "clarification".<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/30191634-e843-11df-8995-00144feab49a.html#axzz14zoLF4h2|accessdate=11 November 2010 |title= Alstom lodges Eurostar complaint in Brussels |work= Financial Times |location=London |date= 4 November 2010}}</ref> Alstom then announced it had started legal action against Eurostar in the [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] in London.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/idUSLDE6AA1T720101111|accessdate=11 November 2010
|title=Alstom says Eurostar tender hearing in Oct 2011 |work= Reuters |date=11 November 2010 |first=Astrid |last=Wendlandt}}</ref>
In July 2011, the High Court rejected Alstom's claim that the tender process was "ineffective",<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/business/2011/jul/14/siemens-keeps-eurostar-order-from-alstom |accessdate=15 August 2012 |title=Siemens keeps €600m Eurostar order after Alstom legal challenge fails |work= The Guardian |location =London |date=15 July 2011 |page=29 |first=Dan |last=Milmo}}</ref> and in April 2012 Alstom said it would call off pending court actions against Eurostar.<ref>{{cite news |url= https://www.theguardian.com/business/2012/apr/02/eurostar-siemens |accessdate=15 August 2012 |title= Alstom drops Eurostar legal action after SNCF orders more trains |work= The Guardian |location =London |date=3 April 2012 |first=Gwyn |last=Topham}}</ref>

==Construction and delivery==
[[File:Paris Nord 2017 2.jpg|thumb|374004 at Gare du Nord in Paris|left]]
The trains were constructed at the Siemens plant at [[Krefeld]] in Germany,<ref name="Eurostar-unveils"/> with the first rolled out for testing at the [[Test and validation centre, Wegberg-Wildenrath|Wildenrath test circuit]] in early 2013<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.railengineer.uk/2013/10/31/new-eurostar-under-test/ | title=New Eurostar under test | accessdate=2016-02-08| author= Nigel Wordsworth | date=2013-10-13 | format= | work=RailEngineer | publisher= | quote= }}</ref> as Class 374, with the first unit bearing this [[UIC identification marking for tractive stock|UIC identification mark]].<ref name="new eurostar">{{cite journal |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |year=2013 |title=New Class 374 Eurostar on test |journal=Today's Railways |volume= |issue=134 |pages=15 |publisher=Platform 5 |doi= }}</ref> The intention was for the first unit to enter service in 2014, but the approval was delayed. As a consequence, Eurostar did receive its first unit in 2014 for presentation but operation could only start a year later.<ref>{{cite journal |last1= |first1= |last2= |first2= |year=2013 |title=New Eurostars delayed? |journal=Today's Railways |volume= |issue=137 |pages=15 |publisher=Platform 5 |doi= }}</ref>

At the presentation of the first train in London in November 2014, Eurostar announced that they had ordered 7 additional train sets, and that the first e320 service would be at the end of 2015.<ref name="globalrailnews-2014-11-13">{{cite web | url=http://www.globalrailnews.com/2014/11/13/eurostar-to-order-more-e320-high-speed-trains/ | title=Eurostar to order more e320 high-speed trains | accessdate=2016-02-08 | author= | authorlink= | coauthors= | date=2014-11-13 | format= | work=Rail News | publisher= | pages= | language= | quote= | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303095815/http://www.globalrailnews.com/2014/11/13/eurostar-to-order-more-e320-high-speed-trains/ | archive-date=3 March 2016 | url-status=dead }}</ref> By November 2014 nine of the 10 trains had been built and all 10 were scheduled to be delivered by April 2016.<ref name="globalrailnews-2014-11-13"/> The seven trains in the second order were all operational by March 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://press.siemens.com/global/en/feature/eurostar-e320-high-speed-trains-eurostar-international-limited| title=Eurostar e320 high-speed trains for Eurostar International Limited|date=2018-04-04 |website= |publisher=Siemens AG |access-date=2019-09-19 }}</ref><ref name="eurostar-faqs">{{cite web|url=http://www.eurostar4agents.com/whatsnew/newfleet/faq.htm|title=FAQs, THE OPERATIONAL SIDE|work=Eurostar4agents|publisher=[[Eurostar International Limited]]|language=en|accessdate=2016-01-25|url-status=dead|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125032934/http://www.eurostar4agents.com/whatsnew/newfleet/faq.htm|archivedate=25 January 2016|df=dmy-all}}</ref>

===Testing===
[[File:374009_Cab.jpg|thumb|The cab of a Class 374 at Paris Gare du Nord|right]]
By April 2013 testing had started at [[Siemens Mobility]]'s [[test and validation centre, Wegberg-Wildenrath]].{{Citation needed|date=February 2014}}

On 27 January 2014 set 4007+4008 was hauled across Belgium by B-Logistiks' [[TRAXX]] E 186 199,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.railvolution.net/railvolution/hors-doeuvres/first-eurostar-velaro-arrives-in-britain|date=28 January 2014|work=Railvolution|title=First Eurostar Velaro Arrives in Britain|accessdate=2 March 2014}}</ref> and on the night of 29/30 January 2014 was dragged by [[Eurotunnel Class 0001]] rescue locomotives via the [[Channel Tunnel]] and [[High Speed 1]] to [[Temple Mills Depot]] where it arrived at 01:41:30 on 30 January 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_EFQIjP8mZ8|title=6K74 Eurotunnel Boundry to Templemills Depot New Eurostar Delivery No 374 007 with 2 Krupps|author=Adam|work=YouTube|format=video|quote=New Eurostar Delivery. 374 007 with 2 Krupps|accessdate=21 March 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IMATfv3MVmE|title=2 Krupps Locos Drag The Brand New E320 Eurostar 4007/8 Through Ebbsfleet International – 30/1/14|author=Howard|work=YouTube|format=video|quote=0040 on the 30/1/14 … re-scheduled to run overnight in the same path the next day. Here are 2 Krupps locos dragging the brand new Velaro E320 Eurostar through Ebbsfleet International working 6K74 Eurotunnel Boundary – Temple Mills Depot. Unit numbers were 374007/008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.realtimetrains.co.uk/train/O65744/2014/01/29/advanced|title=629X 2332 Eurotunnel Boundary (Ctrl) to Temple Mills Recp|quote=Eurotunnel Boundary (Ctrl) WTT: 2332 Realtime: 2243 (49E); Temple Mills Recp WTT: 0150 Realtime: 0141½ (8E)|work=Realtime Trains|accessdate=2 March 2014|date=29 January 2014 }}</ref>

As of July to August 2014, tests were carried out on the [[LGV Nord]] line near Lille. The end of 2014 saw testing of one set on the [[LGV Est]] due to its higher line speed of 320 km/h.{{citation needed|date=January 2015}}

The French Railway Safety Board (EPSF) granted an authorisation to run the train in France on 16 October 2015; the approval for operating though the Channel Tunnel was granted on 19 November by the Intergovernmental Commission (IGC).<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/high-speed/eurostar-velaro-e320-enters-passenger-service.html| title=Eurostar Velaro e320 enters passenger service| accessdate=2016-02-08| author=Keith Barrow| date=2015-11-20| work=IRJ International Railway Journal| archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20160125083923/http://www.railjournal.com/index.php/high-speed/eurostar-velaro-e320-enters-passenger-service.html| archivedate=25 January 2016| url-status=dead| df=dmy-all}}</ref> At the beginning of January 2016 the Belgian authority SSICF authorized the operation in its country.<ref>{{ cite web |url=http://www.rtbf.be/info/economie/detail_les-nouveaux-trains-eurostar-autorises-a-circuler-en-belgique?id=9186823|title= Les nouveaux trains Eurostar autorisés à circuler en Belgique |author= Belga News |work=RTBF Info | publisher= [[RTBF]] | language=fr |date=2016-01-15 |accessdate=2016-01-25}}</ref>

==Operations==
[[File:2016-02 Eurostar trains.jpg|thumb|Class 374 alongside a [[British Rail Class 373|Class 373]] at London St Pancras]]
Eurostar intend to use the trains to expand its core operation between [[St Pancras railway station|London St Pancras International]], [[Gare du Nord|Paris Gare du Nord]] and [[Brussels-South railway station|Brussels Midi/Zuid]]. To meet the prospect of increased competition through the Channel Tunnel (primarily from DB), it intends to use them to expand its network to [[Amsterdam]], Frankfurt and [[Cologne]], and more destinations in France.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/5349aa20-9ad4-11e1-94d7-00144feabdc0.html#axzz1vMoegVJt |first=Mark|last=Odell|work=Financial Times |location =London |date=13 May 2012|title=Eurostar eyes expansion across Europe}}</ref> The first Class 374 set entered service in November 2015, ahead of the full launch of the new type; the receipt of the safety authorisation from the Intergovernmental Commission was received earlier than expected, allowing Eurostar to begin utilizing the type on a small number of services for in-service testing.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/high-speed/single-view/view/eurostar-e320-enters-service.html |title= Eurostar e320 enters service|author= |date=20 November 2015 |website=Railway Gazette |publisher= |accessdate=20 November 2015}}</ref> In September 2013, Eurostar announced that its new service between London and Amsterdam, intended to begin operation in December 2016, would be operated by the trains.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalrailnews.com/2013/09/27/eurostar-to-run-london-amsterdam-services-from-2016/ |title=Eurostar to run London-Amsterdam services from 2016 |author= |date=27 September 2013 |website=Global Rail News |publisher= |accessdate=1 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171001051917/https://www.globalrailnews.com/2013/09/27/eurostar-to-run-london-amsterdam-services-from-2016/ |archive-date=1 October 2017 |url-status=dead }}</ref> Since April 2018 the scheduled service to Amsterdam operates with two e320 trains per day.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.railwaygazette.com/uk/eurostar-to-expand-amsterdam-service-next-year/47413.article |title=Eurostar to expand Amsterdam service next year |date=2018-10-23 | work=Rail Business UK | publisher=Railway Gazette |accessdate=2019-09-19}}</ref>

In early 2018, the tracks and international platforms at [[Ashford_International_railway_station|Ashford International]] underwent a £10-million refurbishment to allow compatibility with Eurostar's e320 trains from 1 April 2018.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.railwaygazette.com/news/infrastructure/single-view/view/ashford-international-modified-for-use-by-eurostar-e320-trainsets.html# |title=Ashford International modified for use by Eurostar e320 trainsets |author= |date=19 January 2018 |website=Railway Gazette |publisher= |access-date=19 January 2018 |quote=}}</ref> On 3 April 2018, the Secretary of State for Transport [[Chris Grayling]] met the first e320 that called at the station after the works have been called "completed" by the local authority.<ref>{{cite web |url=https://www.networkrailmediacentre.co.uk/news/ashford-stations-international-future-looks-bright-as-first-modern-high-speed-train-calls-en-route-to-paris# |title=Ashford station’s international future looks bright as first modern high-speed train calls en-route to Paris [and Brussels]|author=Network Rail |date=3 April 2018 |accessdate=1 September 2018}}</ref> However, as of June 2019, no other e320 has been permitted to call at the station due to "power spikes" which damaged equipment of the new trains.<ref> {{cite web |author=Paul Francis|url=https://www.kentonline.co.uk/ashford/news/power-spike-prevents-trains-stopping-at-station-206311/ |title= New Eurostar trains not stopping at Ashford International due to 'power spike'|date=10 June 2019|website=KentOnline |publisher= |access-date=2019-09-19 |quote=}}</ref>

==Fleet details==
The carriages are numbered in half-sets of eight-vehicles as '''93 70 3740 ''NNN''-''N'' GB-EIL''', where 93 denotes high-speed EMU, 70 denotes Great Britain, 374 is the class, 40NN (sharing the 4 from the class 374) is the unit number followed by a single digit for each carriage counting from the driving car towards the centre, a check digit, GB for Great Britain and EIL for [[Eurostar International Limited]].

{| class="wikitable"
!Class
!Units
!align=left|Operator
!No. built
!Year built
!Cars per set
!align=left|Services operated
|-
|rowspan=3|'''Class 374'''
|'''4001–4020'''<ref group="uic">93 70 37'''40 021'''–8 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 022'''–6 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 023'''–4 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 024'''–2 GB-EIL,93 70 37'''40 025'''–9 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 026'''–7 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 027'''–5 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 028'''–3 GB-EIL plus 93 70 37'''40 018'''–4 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 017'''–6 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 016'''–8 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 015'''–0 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 014'''–3 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 013'''–5 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 012'''–7 GB-EIL, 93 70 37'''40 011'''–9 GB-EIL.</ref>
|rowspan=3|[[Eurostar]]
|align=center|10 (20 half-sets)
|align=center|2011–2013
|align=center rowspan="2"|16
|rowspan="2"|London-Paris/Brussels/Amsterdam<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.railmagazine.com/news/rail-features/it-s-a-knockout|title=It's a knockout!|date=2018-01-24|website=www.railmagazine.com|language=en|access-date=2018-06-14}}</ref>
|-
|'''4021–4034'''
|align=center|7 (14 half-sets)
|align=center|2016–2018
|}
{{refbegin}}
{{reflist|group="uic"}}
{{refend}}

Each set is formed of 16 coaches:
{| class="wikitable"
!rowspan=2 align=left|Coach
!rowspan=2 align=left|Description
!colspan=4|Seating
|-
!1st
!2nd
!Toilets
!Baby changing
|-
|1
|Standard Premier/Business Premier
|align=center|40
|align=center|-
|align=center|-
|align=center|-
|-
|2
|Standard Premier/Business Premier
|align=center|36
|align=center|-
|align=center|2
|align=center|1
|-
|3
|Standard Premier/Business Premier
|align=center|33+2
|align=center|-
|align=center|1(D)
|align=center|-
|-
|4
|Standard Class
|align=center|-
|align=center|76
|align=center|2
|align=center|1
|-
|5
|Standard Class
|align=center|-
|align=center|76
|align=center|2
|align=center|1
|-
|6
|Standard Class
|align=center|-
|align=center|76
|align=center|2
|align=center|1
|-
|7
|Standard Class
|align=center|-
|align=center|76
|align=center|2
|align=center|1
|-
|8
|Standard Class/Bar-Buffet
|align=center|-
|align=center|32
|align=center|2
|align=center|1
|-
|9
|Standard Class/Bar-Buffet
|align=center|-
|align=center|32
|align=center|2
|align=center|1
|-
|10
|Standard Class
|align=center|-
|align=center|76
|align=center|2
|align=center|1
|-
|11
|Standard Class
|align=center|-
|align=center|76
|align=center|2
|align=center|1
|-
|12
|Standard Class
|align=center|-
|align=center|76
|align=center|2
|align=center|1
|-
|13
|Standard Class
|align=center|-
|align=center|76
|align=center|2
|align=center|1
|-
|14
|Standard Premier/Business Premier
|align=center|33+2
|align=center|-
|align=center|1(D)
|align=center|-
|-
|15
|Standard Premier/Business Premier
|align=center|36
|align=center|-
|align=center|2
|align=center|1
|-
|16
|Standard Premier/Business Premier
|align=center|40
|align=center|-
|align=center|-
|align=center|-
|-
|}

==See also==
*[[Siemens Velaro]]
*[[British Rail Class 373]]
*[[Eurostar]]
*[[ICE 3]]

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
*{{commonscat-inline}}
*[http://www.mobility.siemens.com/mobility/global/sitecollectiondocuments/en/rail-solutions/high-speed-and-intercity-trains/velaro/velaro-e320-en.pdf Specification Sheet]
*[http://newtrains.eurostar.com/meet-our-trains Virtual visit of the Class 374 interior]

{{British Rail EMU}}
{{High-speed rail}}
{{Eurostar navbox}}
{{German ICE class}}

[[Category:High-speed trains of the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:British Rail electric multiple units|374]]
[[Category:Eurostar]]
[[Category:Passenger trains running at least at 300 km/h in commercial operations]]
[[Category:Siemens Velaro]]
[[Category:Siemens multiple units]]
[[Category:Train-related introductions in 2015]]

Viswanathan Anand

2019-12-11T12:06:33Z

JanTurin:

{{Use Indian English|date=January 2018}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2014}}
{{Indian name|Anand|Viswanathan}}
{{Infobox chess player
| name = Anand
| image = Viswanathan Anand (2016).jpeg
| image_size = 270px
| caption = Anand in 2016
| birthname = Vishwanathan Anand Rama<ref>I'm Anand. My father is Vishwanathan. At some point people assumed that this must be my first name and Anand must be my last name. It's common in the West. Vishwanathan was unpronounceable for them. Became Vishy. But my father is Vishwanathan Krishnamurthy. I am Anand Vishwanathan. Of course, my wife is Aruna Anand. So among the mysteries we have to explain to many people is, though we are married, why we don't share the same family name.[https://web.archive.org/web/20110514174615/http://www.indianexpress.com/storyOld.php?storyId=38320&pn]</ref>
| country = [[India]]
| birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1969|12|11|df=yes}}
| birth_place = [[Mayiladuthurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]]
| title = <nowiki>[[Grandfathrt (chess)|Grandfather] (1988)</nowiki>
| awards = [[Padma Vibhushan]], [[Padma Bhushan]] (2001), [[Padma Shri]]
| worldchampion = 2000–2002 (FIDE) 2007–2013
| rating =
| peakrating = 2817 (March 2011)
| ranking = No. 6 (February 2019)
| peakranking = No. 1 (April 2007)
| FideID = 5000017j

}}
'''Viswanathan''' "'''Vishy'''" '''Anand''' (born 11 December 1969) is an Indian [[chess]] grandmaster and a former [[World Chess Champion]]. He became the first [[Grandmaster (chess)|grandmaster]] from India in 1988.

Anand held the [[World Chess Championship#Split title (1993–2005)|FIDE World Chess Championship]] from 2000 to 2002, thus becoming the first Asian to do so. He became the [[World Chess Championship 2007|undisputed World Champion]] in 2007 and [[World Chess Championship 2008|defended his title]] against [[Vladimir Kramnik]] in 2008. He then defended his title in the [[World Chess Championship 2010]] against [[Veselin Topalov]] and in the [[World Chess Championship 2012]]<ref>[http://moscow2012.fide.com As of May, 2012 – Official FIDE World Championship 2012 site] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120531020848/http://moscow2012.fide.com/ |date=31 May 2012 }}. FIDE. Retrieved on 31 May 2012.</ref> against [[Boris Gelfand]]. In the [[World Chess Championship 2013]] he lost to challenger [[Magnus Carlsen]] and lost again to Carlsen in the [[World Chess Championship 2014]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.chessvibes.com/candidates%E2%80%99-r13-anand-draws-clinches-rematch-with-carlsen |title=Candidates' R13: Anand Draws, Clinches Rematch with Carlsen |access-date=14 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111220728/http://www.chessvibes.com/candidates%E2%80%99-r13-anand-draws-clinches-rematch-with-carlsen |archive-date=11 January 2015 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> He won the [[World Rapid Chess Championship]] in 2003 and 2017.

In April 2006 Anand became the fourth player in history to pass the 2800 [[Elo rating system|Elo mark]] on the [[FIDE]] rating list, after [[Garry Kasparov]], [[Vladimir Kramnik]] and [[Veselin Topalov]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chess-db.com/public/top100alltime.jsp|title=All time Top 100 Ranklist by Highest ELO Rating|website=chess-db.com|accessdate=18 July 2015}}</ref> He occupied the [[List of FIDE chess world number ones|number one position]] for 21 months, the 6th longest on record.

Anand was also the first recipient of the [[Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna]] Award in 1991–92, India's highest sporting honour. In 2007, he was awarded India's second highest civilian award, the [[Padma Vibhushan]], making him the first sportsperson to receive the award. He is also regarded as one of the greatest rapid players of all time.

==Early life==
Viswanathan Anand was born on 11 December 1969 at [[Mayiladuthurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]], India<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.chessbase.com/post/vishy-anand-che-is-like-acting- |title=Vishy Anand: 'Chess is like acting' |website=[[ChessBase]] |date= |accessdate=2014-12-01}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/story/viswanathan-anand-who-is-he/1/198415.html |title=Viswanathan Anand: Who is he? |website=[[India Today]] |date= |accessdate=2014-12-01}}</ref> where he grew up.<ref name="Anand Inspires mind champions">{{cite news| url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/12/22/stories/2007122256681900.htm |title=Sport : Anand inspires mind champions |work=The Hindu |date=22 December 2007 |accessdate=31 May 2010 |location=Chennai, India}}</ref> His father Krishnamurthy Viswanathan, a retired general manager of Southern Railways, had studied in [[Jamalpur, Bihar]], and his mother Sushila was a housewife, chess aficionado and an influential socialite.<ref>{{cite web|title=Super mom who shaped Anand's career no more|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Super-mom-who-shaped-Anands-career-no-more/articleshow/47450780.cms|work=[[The Times of India]] |first=Susan |last=Ninan |date=28 May 2015 |access-date=7 November 2018}}</ref>

Anand is the youngest of 3 children. He is 11 years younger than his sister and 13 years younger than his brother. His elder brother, Shivakumar, is a manager at [[Crompton Greaves]] in India and his elder sister, Anuradha, is a professor in the United States at the [[University of Michigan]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nilacharal.com/enter/celeb/vishy.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030817053646/http://www.nilacharal.com/enter/celeb/vishy.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=17 August 2003 |title=A Tamil entertainment ezine presenting interesting contents and useful services |website=Nilacharal |date=11 December 1969 |accessdate=31 May 2010}}</ref><ref>[http://www.the-south-asian.com/March2002/Chess-Vishwanathan_Anand1.htm ] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070822011817/http://www.the-south-asian.com/March2002/Chess-Vishwanathan_Anand1.htm |date=22 August 2007 }}</ref>

Anand learned chess from age six from his mother Sushila, but learned the intricacies of the game in [[Manila]] where he lived with his parents in 1978 up to the '80s while his father was contracted as a consultant by the Philippine National Railways.<ref name="interview">{{cite web|title=Long Story Short with Leslie Wilcox: Viswanathan Anand |url=https://www.pbshawaii.org/long-story-short-with-leslie-wilcox-viswanathan-anand/|website=[[PBS Hawai‘i]]}}</ref>

Anand was educated at [[Don Bosco Matriculation Higher Secondary School]],<ref>{{cite news|last=Muthalaly|first=Susan|title=Don Bosco 'boys' reminisce about their good old days|url=http://www.hindu.com/2007/05/25/stories/2007052502690200.htm|accessdate=1 June 2012|newspaper=[[The Hindu]]|date=25 May 2007|location=Chennai, India}}</ref> [[Egmore]], [[Chennai]] and holds a degree of [[Bachelor of Commerce]] from [[Loyola College, Chennai]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Vishwanathan Anand: The King of 64 Squares|url=http://news.in.msn.com/National/independenceday09/article.aspx?cp-documentid=3131565&page=2|website=[[MSN]] |accessdate=2 June 2012|date=12 August 2009}}</ref>

==Personal life==
Anand married Aruna in 1996 and has a son, Akhil, born on 9 April 2011, and will be named in the traditional patronymic way Anand Akhil.<ref>{{cite web|title=Aruna and Anand have a baby boy|url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/aruna-and-anand-have-a-baby-boy/9|website=ChessBase|date=14 April 2011}}</ref>

In August 2010, Anand joined the board of directors of [[Olympic Gold Quest]], a foundation for promoting and supporting India's elite sportspersons and potential young talent.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=6592 |title=Chess News – NYT: India swoons over its chess champ |website=ChessBase |accessdate=11 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/Vishwanathan-Anand-joins-Olympic-Gold-Quest/Article1-583158.aspx |title=Vishwanathan Anand joins Olympic Gold Quest |work=[[Hindustan Times]] |date=6 August 2010 |accessdate=11 November 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://sports.rediff.com/report/2010/aug/07/anand-joins-board-of-olympic-gold-quest.htm |title=Anand joins board of Olympic Gold Quest |website=[[Rediff.com]] |date=7 August 2010 |accessdate=11 November 2010}}</ref> On 24 December 2010, Anand was the guest of honour on the grounds of [[Gujarat University]], where 20,486 players created a new world record of simultaneous chess play at a single venue.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.indiavoice.info/2010/12/ahmedabad-in-guinness-for-new-chess.html |title=Anand at Ahmedabad for Chess world record |website=IndiaVoice |date=25 December 2010 |accessdate=25 December 2010}}</ref>

His hobbies are reading, swimming, and listening to music and chatting with Mano e.<ref name="interview" />

Anand has been regarded as an unassuming person with a reputation for refraining from political and psychological ploys and instead focusing on his game.<ref name="niceguy"/> This has made him a well-liked figure throughout the chess world for two decades, evidenced by the fact that [[Garry Kasparov]], Vladimir Kramnik, and [[Magnus Carlsen]], of whom the first two were rivals for the World Championship throughout Anand's career, each aided him in his preparations for the [[World Chess Championship 2010]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=6346 |title=Chess News – Anand in Playchess – the helpers in Sofia |accessdate=19 May 2010 |date=19 May 2010 |website=ChessBase}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-05-20/chess/28298541_1_vladimir-kramnik-anand-topalov-rustam-kasimdzhanov|title=Kasparov, Kramnik came to Viswanathan Anand's aid|date=20 May 2010|work=The Times of India |accessdate=21 October 2010}}</ref> Anand is sometimes known as the "Tiger of Madras".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/india/3282237/Chess-world-title-Viswanathan-Anand-beats-Vladimir-Kramnik.html |title=Chess world title: Viswanathan Anand beats Vladimir Kramnik |last=Moore |first=Matthew |date=30 October 2008 |work=[[The Daily Telegraph]] |accessdate=6 July 2010 |location=London}}</ref>

Anand was the only sportsperson to be invited for the dinner hosted by the Indian PM [[Manmohan Singh]] for US President [[Barack Obama]] on 7 November 2010.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rediff.com/news/report/obama-visit-pm-hosts-private-dinner-for-obamas/20101107.htm|title=Obamas meet India's high and mighty|date=8 November 2010|website=Rediff.com|accessdate=13 October 2011}}</ref>

Anand was denied an honorary doctorate from [[University of Hyderabad]] because of confusion over his citizenship status; however, later [[Kapil Sibal]], India's [[Minister of Human Resource Development (India)|Minister of Human Resource Development]] apologised and said "There is no issue on the matter as Anand has agreed to accept the degree at a convenient time depending on his availability".<ref>{{cite web|author= |url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/citizenship-row-sibal-apologises-to-anand/129498-5-23.html?from=tn |title=Citizenship row: Sibal apologises to Anand |website=Ibnlive.in.com |date=3 February 2010 |accessdate=11 November 2010}}</ref> According to ''The Hindu'', Anand finally declined to accept the doctorate.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thehindu.com/news/national/article591737.ece?homepage=true|title=Anand refuses to accept honorary doctorate|first=M. Rajeev, V.V.|last=Subrahmanyam|website=}}</ref>

==Endorsement==
Anand is sponsored by NIIT<ref>http://www.tnq.in/anand-niit.html</ref> and [[:ms:InstaForex|Instaforex]].<ref>https://www.instaforex.com/viswanathan_anand</ref>

==Early chess career==
Anand's rise in the Indian chess world was meteoric. National level success came early for him when he won the national sub-junior championship with a score of 9/9 points in 1983, at the age of fourteen. In 1984 Anand won the Asian Junior Championship in [[Coimbatore]] earning a [[Norm (chess)|norm]] for the title [[International Master]] (IM) in the process. Soon afterwards, he participated in the [[26th Chess Olympiad]], held in [[Thessaloniki]], where he made his debut in the Indian national team. Here Anand scored 7½ points from 11 games, gaining also his second IM norm.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/vishy-anand-a-passionate-portrait-part-three|title=Vishy Anand: a passionate portrait - part three|last=Priyadarshan Banjan|date=2015-02-19|website=Chess News|publisher=ChessBase|access-date=2019-11-03}}</ref> He became the youngest Indian to achieve the title of International Master, at the age of fifteen, in 1985 by winning the Asian Junior Championship for the second year in a row, this time in [[Hong Kong]].<ref>{{cite web|author1=Priyadarshan Banjan|title=Vishy Anand: a passionate portrait (2)|url=http://en.chessbase.com/post/vishy-anand-a-passionate-portrait-2|website=ChessBase|accessdate=9 November 2015|date=2014-12-27}}</ref> At the age of sixteen he became the [[Indian Chess Championship|national chess champion]]. He won that title two more times. He played games at [[blitz chess|blitz]] speed. In 1987, he became the first Indian to win the [[World Junior Chess Championship]]. In 1988, at the age of 18, he became India's first Grandmaster by winning the Shakti Finance International chess tournament held in [[Coimbatore]], India. He was awarded [[Padma Shri]] at the age of eighteen.

[[File:Viswanathan Anand 1992 Manila.jpg|thumb|Anand at the [[30th Chess Olympiad|Manila 1992 Olympiad]], age 22]]
In the [[World Chess Championship 1993]] cycle Anand qualified for his first [[Candidates Tournament]], winning his first match but narrowly losing his quarter-final match to 1990 runner-up [[Anatoly Karpov]].<ref>[http://www.mark-weeks.com/chess/9193$cix.htm World Chess Championship 1991–93 Candidates Matches]. Retrieved 15 April 2007.</ref>

In 1994–95 Anand and [[Gata Kamsky]] dominated the qualifying cycles for the rival [[FIDE]] and [[Professional Chess Association|PCA]] world championships. In the FIDE cycle ([[FIDE World Chess Championship 1996]]), Anand lost his quarter-final match to Kamsky after leading early.<ref>[http://www.mark-weeks.com/chess/9496fcix.htm 1994–96 FIDE Candidates Matches], Mark Weeks' Chess Pages</ref> Kamsky went on to lose the 1996 FIDE championship match against Karpov.

In the 1995 PCA cycle, Anand won matches against [[Oleg Romanishin]] and [[Michael Adams (chess player)|Michael Adams]] without a loss, then avenged his FIDE loss by defeating [[Gata Kamsky]] in the Candidates final.<ref>[http://www.mark-weeks.com/chess/9496pcix.htm World Chess Championship 1994–95 PCA Candidates Matches]. Retrieved 15 April 2007.</ref> In 1995, he played the [[PCA World Chess Championship 1995]] against Kasparov in New York City's [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]]. After an opening run of eight draws (which was a record for the opening of a world championship match until November 21, 2018), Anand won game nine with a powerful [[exchange sacrifice]], but then lost four of the next five. He lost the match 10½–7½.

In the 1998 FIDE cycle, the reigning champion Karpov was granted direct seeding by FIDE into the final against the winner of the seven-round single elimination Candidates tournament. The psychological and physical advantage gained by Karpov from this decision caused significant controversy, leading to the withdrawal of future World Champion Vladimir Kramnik from the candidates tournament. Anand won the candidates tournament, defeating [[Michael Adams (chess player)|Michael Adams]] in the final, and immediately faced a well-rested Karpov for the championship. Despite this tremendous disadvantage for Anand, which he described as being "brought in a coffin" to play Karpov,<ref name="niceguy">{{cite news|author=Hari Hara Nandanan |url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-05-15/chess/28317926_1_world-chess-championship-viswanathan-anand-international-master |title=Why this nice guy always wins |work=The Times of India |date=15 May 2010 |accessdate=11 November 2010}}</ref> the regular match ended 3–3, which led to a rapid playoff, which Karpov won 2–0. Karpov thus remained the FIDE champion.

===Other results===
Anand won three consecutive [[Advanced Chess]] tournaments in [[León, León|Leon]], Spain, after [[Garry Kasparov]] introduced this form of chess in 1998, and is widely recognised as the world's best Advanced Chess player, where humans may consult a computer to aid in their calculation of variations.

His game collection, ''My Best Games of Chess'', was published in the year 1998 and was updated in 2001.

Anand's tournament successes include the [[Corus chess tournament]] in 2006 (tied with Veselin Topalov), [[Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting|Dortmund]] in 2004, and [[Linares chess tournament|Linares]] in 2007 and 2008. He has won the annual event Monaco Amber [[Blindfold chess|Blindfold]] and [[Fast chess|Rapid Chess]] Championships in years 1994, 1997, 2003, 2005 and 2006. He is the first player to have won five titles of the Corus chess tournament, succeeded by Magnus Carlsen. He is also the only player to win the blind and rapid sections of the Amber tournament in the same year (twice: in 1997 and 2005). He is the first player to have achieved victories in each of the three big chess supertournaments: [[Corus chess tournament|Corus]] (1989, 1998, 2003, 2004, 2006), [[Linares chess tournament|Linares]] (1998, 2007, 2008), and [[Dortmund Sparkassen Chess Meeting|Dortmund]] (1996, 2000, 2004).

In 2007 he won the Grenkeleasing Rapid championship, which he won for the tenth time defeating Armenian GM [[Levon Aronian]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=4061|title=Mainz 2007 – Anand wins Rapid Final|last=Fischer|first=Johannes|date=20 August 2007|website=ChessBase|accessdate=13 October 2011}}</ref> Incidentally, just a few days before Aronian had defeated Anand in the [[Chess960]] final.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=4056|title=Mainz 2007 – Aronian wins Chess960 world championship|date=17 August 2007|website=ChessBase|accessdate=13 October 2011}}</ref>

In March 2007, Anand won the [[Linares chess tournament]] and it was widely believed that he would be ranked world No. 1 in the [[FIDE]] [[Elo rating]] list for April 2007. However, Anand was placed No. 2 in the initial list released because the Linares result was not included. FIDE subsequently announced that the Linares results would be included after all,<ref>[http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3768 ChessBase]. Retrieved 15 April 2007.</ref> making Anand number one in the April 2007 list.<ref>[http://ratings.fide.com/top.phtml?list=men Top 100 Players April 2007]. Retrieved 15 April 2007.</ref>

Anand won the Mainz 2008 Supertournament Championship by defeating rising star [[Magnus Carlsen]], earning his eleventh title in that event.<ref>Chessvine Article, [http://chessvine.com/archives/60-Vishy-Anand-and-Magnus-Carlsen.html "Vishy Anand and Magnus Carlsen"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708142605/http://chessvine.com/archives/60-Vishy-Anand-and-Magnus-Carlsen.html |date=8 July 2011 }}</ref>

==World Chess Championships==

===FIDE World Champion 2000===

{{Main|FIDE World Chess Championship 2000}}
After several near misses, Anand won the FIDE World Chess Championship in 2000 for the first time after defeating [[Alexei Shirov]] 3½–0½ in the final match held at [[Tehran]], thereby becoming the first Indian to win that title. Entering the tournament as the #1 overall seed, Anand defeated [[Alexander Khalifman]], the defending FIDE world champion, 3½–2½ in the quarterfinals and followed the win up with a semifinals victory over [[Michael Adams (chess player)|Michael Adams]] of England, 2½–1½. In addition to the title of FIDE world champion, Anand received a $528,000 cash prize.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.latimes.com/2000/dec/17/local/me-1357 |title=International Chess News |newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]] |date=17 December 2000 |accessdate=19 October 2016}}</ref> He finished the tournament with 8 wins and 12 draws.

He failed to defend the title in 2002, losing in the semifinals to [[Vassily Ivanchuk]]. The 2002 FIDE world championship was ultimately won by [[Ruslan Ponomariov]].
Anand tied for second with [[Peter Svidler]] in the [[FIDE World Chess Championship 2005]] with 8½ points out of 14 games, 1½ points behind the winner, [[Veselin Topalov]].

===World Champion 2007===
{{Main|World Chess Championship 2007}}

[[File:VAnand07.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Anand in 2007]]
In September 2007, Anand entered the FIDE World Championship Tournament in [[Mexico City]] as the world's top-ranked player. Playing in a double round-robin tournament, Anand scored victories over [[Levon Aronian]], [[Peter Leko]], and [[Peter Svidler]] to take the lead after five rounds. In the 13th round, Anand played a precise endgame to stave off a tough challenge from [[Alexander Grischuk]], and entered the final round needing only a draw against Leko to clinch the championship.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2007/09/30/crosswords/chess/30chess.html?_r=0 |title=New Chess Champion Dominates in Mexico |website=[[New York Times]] |date=30 September 2007 |accessdate=1 June 2012}}</ref> Following Anand's draw with Leko, he was named the undisputed World champion. He won the tournament with a final score of 9 out of 14 points, a full point ahead of joint second-place finishers [[Vladimir Kramnik]] and [[Boris Gelfand]].

In 2000, when Anand won the FIDE World Championship, there was also the rival "Classical" World Championship, held by Kramnik. By 2007, the world championship had been reunified, so Anand's victory in Mexico City made him undisputed World Chess Champion. He became the first undisputed champion to win the title in a tournament, rather than in matchplay, since [[Mikhail Botvinnik]] in 1948.

In October 2007, Anand said he liked the double round robin championship format (as used in the 2007 championship in Mexico City), and that the right of Kramnik to automatically challenge for the title was "ridiculous".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=4204 |title=Chess News – Anand in the news: Time, Sportstar and other stories |website=ChessBase |date=25 October 2007 |accessdate=1 June 2012}}</ref>

===World Champion of 2008===
{{Main|World Chess Championship 2008}}
{{AN chess|pos=secright}}
Anand convincingly defended the title against Kramnik in the World Chess Championship 2008 held 14–29 October in [[Bonn]], Germany. The winner was to be the first to score 6½ points in the twelve-game match.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.uep-chess.com/cms_english/index.php?option=com_content&task=blogsection&id=2&Itemid=25 |title=World Championship 2008 |date=30 October 2008 |website=Universal Event Promotion |accessdate=20 February 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090111150427/http://www.uep-chess.com/cms_english/index.php?option=com_content&task=blogsection&id=2&Itemid=25 |archive-date=11 January 2009 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> Anand won by scoring 6½ points in 11 games, having won three of the first six games (two with the black pieces).<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.rediff.com/sports/2008/oct/29anand.htm |title=Anand crowned World champion |date=29 October 2008 |website=Rediff.com |accessdate=29 October 2008}}</ref> After the tenth game, Anand led 6–4 and needed only a draw in either of the last two games to win the match. In the eleventh game, Kramnik played the [[Najdorf Variation]] of the [[Sicilian Defense]]. Once the players traded queens, Kramnik offered a draw after 24 moves since he had no winning chances in the [[chess endgame|endgame]].

{{Chess diagram
|tright
|
| | |rd| | |kd|rd|
| |pd| | |nd|pd| |pd
|pd| | | | | | |
| | | | | |pd| |
| | | | | | | |
| | | | |bd| | |
|pl|pl|pl| | |rl|pl|pl
| |kl|nl| | |bl| |rl
|Final position of the match
}}
:Anand (2783) vs. Kramnik (2772), Wch Bonn GER (11); 29 October 2008 (final game) 1.e4 c5 2.Nf3 d6 3.d4 cxd4 4.Nxd4 Nf6 5.Nc3 a6 6.Bg5 e6 7.f4 Qc7 8.Bxf6 gxf6 9.f5 Qc5 10.Qd3 Nc6 11.Nb3 Qe5 12.0-0-0 exf5 13.Qe3 Bg7 14.Rd5 Qe7 15.Qg3 Rg8 16.Qf4 fxe4 17.Nxe4 f5 18.Nxd6+ Kf8 19.Nxc8 Rxc8 20.Kb1 Qe1+ 21.Nc1 Ne7 22.Qd2 Qxd2 23.Rxd2 Bh6 24.Rf2 Be3 (diagram) {{nowrap|{{chessAN|½–½}}}}<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1511876 |title=Viswanathan Anand vs. Vladimir Kramnik (2008) |website=[[Chessgames.com]] }}</ref>

Responding to Anand's win, Garry Kasparov said "A great result for Anand and for chess. Vishy deserved the win in every way and I'm very happy for him. It will not be easy for the younger generation to push him aside... Anand out-prepared Kramnik completely. In this way it reminded me of my match with Kramnik in London 2000. Like I was then, Kramnik may have been very well prepared for this match, but we never saw it."<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.telegraphindia.com/1081031/jsp/sports/story_10040725.jsp |title=Garri: He deserved the win |work=[[The Telegraph (Calcutta)|The Telegraph]] |location=Kolkata, India |date=31 October 2008 |accessdate=31 May 2010}}</ref> In 2010 Anand donated his gold medal to the charitable organisation "[[Rahul Bose|The Foundation]]" to be auctioned off for the benefit of underprivileged children.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hindustantimes.com/entertainment/top-sportspersons-to-donate-memorablia/story-YVshFn7m6sH2Gu9ibj4PTN.html |title=Top sportspersons to donate memorablia |work=Hindustan Times |date=3 October 2010 |accessdate=31 July 2016}}</ref>

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+World Chess Championship Match 2008
|-
! !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! 11 !! Total
|-
| align=left | {{flagathlete|'''Viswanathan Anand'''|India}} || '''2783'''
| style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| 1 || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| 1 || 1 || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| 0 || ½ || '''6½'''
|-
| align=left | {{flagathlete|[[Vladimir Kramnik]]|Russia}} || 2772
| ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || 0 ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || 0 ||style="background:black; color:white"| 0 ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || 1
|style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || 4½
|}

===World Champion 2010===

{{Main|World Chess Championship 2010}}

Before the World Chess Championship 2010 match with [[Veselin Topalov]], Anand, who had been booked on the flight Frankfurt–Sofia on 16 April, was stranded due to the cancellation of all flights following the volcano ash cloud from [[2010 eruptions of Eyjafjallajökull|Eyjafjallajökull]]. Anand asked for a three-day postponement, which the Bulgarian organisers refused on 19 April. Anand eventually reached Sofia on 20 April, after a 40-hour road journey.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=6269 |title=Chess News – A volcanic trip – with the Lord of the Rings |website=ChessBase |date=21 April 2010 |accessdate=31 May 2010}}</ref>
Consequently, the first game was delayed by one day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chess.com/news/anand-v-topalov-1-day-postponement-8078 |title=Anand v Topalov 1 Day Postponement |website=Chess.com |accessdate=31 May 2010}}</ref>

The match consisted of 12 games. In Game 1, Topalov quickly defeated Anand in 30 moves, utilizing a very sharp line of attack that broke through Anand's [[Grunfeld Defence]]. It was revealed afterwards that Topalov had found the line during his opening preparation, with the help of a powerful supercomputer loaned to him by Bulgaria's Defense Department.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldchess.com/2016/10/14/the-greatest-world-championships-anand-vs-topalov-2010/ |title=The Greatest World Championships: Anand vs. Topalov, 2010 |website=worldchess.com |date=10 Nov 2016 |accessdate=11 Nov 2016}}</ref> Anand quickly responded with a win in Game 2, employing a novelty out of the [[Catalan Opening]] that was not easily recognized by computers at the time (15. Qa3!?, followed by 16. bxa3!). Anand would win again with the Catalan in Game 4, only to drop Game 8 and leave the score level once again.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://worldchess.com/2016/10/24/history-of-the-world-ch-part-xii-anand-reigns-supreme/ |title=History of the World Ch., Part XII: Anand Reigns Supreme |website=worldchess.com |date=10 Nov 2016 |accessdate=11 Nov 2016}}</ref> After 11 games the score was tied at 5½–5½. Anand won game 12 on the Black side of a [[Queen's Gambit Declined]] to win the game and the match. Topalov chose to accept a pawn sacrifice by Anand, hoping to force a result and avoid a rapid chess tiebreak round. But after Topalov's dubious 31st and 32nd moves, Anand used the sacrifice to obtain a strong attack against Topalov's relatively exposed king. Topalov subsequently [[resign (chess)|resigned]], allowing Anand to retain the World Championship.

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+World Chess Championship Match 2010
|-
! !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! 11 !! 12 !! Total
|-
| align=left | {{flagathlete|'''Viswanathan Anand'''|India}} || '''2787'''
|style="background:black; color:white"| 0 ||1 || style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || 1 || style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| 0 || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| 1 || '''6½'''
|-
| align=left | {{flagathlete|[[Veselin Topalov]]|Bulgaria}} || 2805
|1 || style="background:black; color:white"| 0 || ½ || style="background:black; color:white"| 0 || ½ || style="background:black; color:white"| ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || 1 ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½
|style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || 0 || 5½
|}

===World Champion 2012===

{{Main|World Chess Championship 2012}}
As a result of Anand's victory in the World Chess Championship 2010, he defended his title in the World Chess Championship 2012; the location of the event was the [[Tretyakov Gallery]] in Moscow.<ref>[[Keene, Raymond]]. "Chess", ''[[Sunday Times]]'', 6 May 2012</ref> His opponent was [[Boris Gelfand]], the winner of the 2011 [[Candidates Matches]]. After losing in the 7th game to Gelfand, Anand came back to win the 8th game in only 17 moves – the shortest decisive game in World Chess Championship history. The match was tied 6–6 after regular games with one win each. Anand won the rapid tie break 2½–1½ to win the match and retain his title. After the match, Russian president [[Vladimir Putin]] greeted Anand and Gelfand by calling both to his official residence.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/31/putin-viswanathan-anand-tea_n_1558764.html | work=Huffington Post | title=Putin Meets Chess Champ For Tea | date=31 May 2012 | access-date=14 December 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151017221727/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2012/05/31/putin-viswanathan-anand-tea_n_1558764.html | archive-date=17 October 2015 | url-status=dead | df=dmy-all }}</ref>

:{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:center"
|+World Chess Championship Match 2012
|-
! !! Rating !! 1 !! 2 !! 3 !! 4 !! 5 !! 6 !! 7 !! 8 !! 9 !! 10 !! 11 !! 12 !! Points !! 13 !! 14 !! 15 !! 16 !! Total
|-
| align=left | {{flagathlete|'''Viswanathan Anand'''|India}} || '''2791'''
| ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| 0 || 1 ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ || 6 ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || 1 ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ || '''8½'''
|-
| align=left | {{flagathlete|[[Boris Gelfand]]|Israel}} || 2727
|style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½ || 1 ||style="background:black; color:white"| 0 || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || ½
|style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || 6 || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| 0 || ½ ||style="background:black; color:white"| ½ || 7½
|}

===World Championship 2013===

{{Main|World Chess Championship 2013}}
Anand lost the defence of his title in the World Chess Championship 2013 at Chennai. The winner was [[Magnus Carlsen]], the winner of the 2013 [[World Chess Championship 2013#Candidates Tournament|Candidates Tournament]]. The first four games were drawn, but Carlsen won the fifth and sixth games back to back. The seventh and eighth games were drawn, while the ninth game was won by Carlsen. On November 22, the tenth game was drawn making Carlsen the new world champion.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.chessbase.com/post/chennai-g9-magnus-44-beats-battling-anand |title=Chennai G9: Magnus .44 beats battling Anand |website=ChessBase |date=21 November 2013 |accessdate=21 November 2013}}</ref>

===World Championship 2014===

{{Main|World Chess Championship 2014}}
Anand won the double round-robin FIDE Candidates tournament at [[Khanty-Mansiysk]] (13–30 March) and earned a world championship rematch with Magnus Carlsen. Anand went through the tournament undefeated, winning his first-round game against [[Levon Aronian]], his third-round game against [[Shakhriyar Mamedyarov]], and his ninth-round game against [[Veselin Topalov]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessvibes.com/candidates%E2%80%99-r14-karjakin-second-after-beating-aronian-anand-undefeated|title=Candidates' R14: Karjakin Second and After Beating Aronian, Anand Undefeated|website=Chessvibes|date=30 March 2014|accessdate=30 March 2014}}</ref> He drew all his other games, including his twelfth-round game against [[Dmitry Andreikin]], where Anand agreed to a draw in a complex, but winning position.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.chessbase.com/post/candidates-rd12-time-is-running-out|title=Candidates Rd12: Time is running out|website=ChessBase|date=27 March 2014|accessdate=30 March 2014}}</ref> He faced Carlsen in the world championship match in Sochi, Russia, in November.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.fide.com/calendar.html|title=FIDE Calendar 2014|website=FIDE|accessdate=30 March 2014}}</ref> Carlsen won the match 6.5 to 4.5 after eleven of twelve scheduled games.

===FIDE World Rapid Chess Champion 2003===
In October 2003, the governing body of chess, [[FIDE]], organised a rapid time control tournament in [[Cap d'Agde]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fide.com/component/content/article/4-tournaments/2696-1187-anand-is-world-rapid-chess-champion |title=Anand is World Rapid Chess Champion |website=FIDE |date=31 October 2003 |accessdate=31 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=1276 |title=Chess News – World Champion Vishy Anand! |website=ChessBase |date=30 October 2003 |accessdate=31 May 2010}}</ref> and billed it as the [[World Rapid Chess Championship]]. Each player had 25 minutes at the start of the game, with an additional ten seconds after each move. Anand won this event ahead of ten of the other top twelve players in the world, beating Kramnik in the final. His main recent titles in this category are at: Corsica (six years in a row from 1999 through 2005), Chess Classic (nine years in a row from 2000 through 2008), Leon 2005, Eurotel 2002, Fujitsu Giants 2002 and the [[Melody Amber]] (five times, and he won the rapid portion of Melody Amber seven times). In the [[Melody Amber]] 2007, Anand did not lose a single game in the rapid section, and scored 8½/11, two more than the runners-up, for a [[Performance rating (chess)|performance rating]] in the rapid section of 2939.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3766 |title=Chess News – Blindfold king Kramnik wins 16th Amber Tournament |website=ChessBase |date=30 March 2007 |accessdate=1 June 2012}}</ref> In most tournament time control games that Anand plays, he has more time left than his opponent at the end of the game. He lost on time in one game, to [[Gata Kamsky]]. Otherwise, he took advantage of the rule allowing players in time trouble to use dashes instead of the move notation during the last four minutes only once, in the game Anand versus Svidler at the MTel Masters 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3121 |title=Chess News – MTel R9: Topalov on top after victory over Kamsky |website=ChessBase |accessdate=1 June 2012}}</ref>

===FIDE World Rapid Chess Champion 2017===

Anand won the 2017 [[World Rapid Chess Championship]] by defeating [[Vladimir Fedoseev]] 2-0 in the final tiebreak after he, Fedoseev and [[Ian Nepomniachtchi]] tied for first with 10.5/15 points.<ref name="thehindu.com">{{cite web|title=Viswanathan Anand wins World Rapid Chess Championship |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/viswanathan-anand-wins-world-rapid-championship-title/article22324482.ece|website=The Hindu}}</ref> He won the tournament ahead of reigning Classical World Champion [[Magnus Carlsen]] and this was his first victory in a world championship since losing the classical championship to Carlsen in 2013.

==Post-2010 chess career==

===2010===
*'''''2010 Sofia World Chess Championship''''': From 24 April – 11 May 2010, Anand participated in a World Championship match against [[Veselin Topalov]]. Topalov gained direct entry into a challengers match against [[Gata Kamsky]], as compensation from FIDE for not gaining entry into the 2007 World Chess Championship cycle. Because Topalov defeated Kamsky, he earned the right to challenge Anand for the World Chess Championship title. The match was level after 11 games — with 2 wins apiece in Rounds 1, 2, 4, and 8. Finally, in Game 12, Anand was able to defeat Topalov with the Black pieces and hold on to his title.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.chessbase.com/post/sofia-r12-vishy-wins-retains-world-championship-title|title=Sofia R12: Vishy wins, retains World Championship title |website=ChessBase |date=11 May 2010 |accessdate=6 March 2016}}</ref>

===2011===
*''73rd Tata Steel Chess Tournament'': From 14 to 30 January 2011, Anand participated in the 73rd [[Tata Steel Chess Tournament]], held in [[Wijk Aan Zee]] The Netherlands. Anand finished overall 2nd place in the tournament, scoring 8.5 points out of 13 (+4-0=9), just behind the winner [[Hikaru Nakamura]]. Anand scored victories over [[Ruslan Ponomariov]], [[Wang Hao (chess player)|Wang Hao]], [[Jan Smeets]], and [[Alexei Shirov]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/73rd-tata-steel-chess-tournament-2011 |title=Nakamura wins Tata Steel tournament in Wijk aan Zee (13) |website=The Week in Chess |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*''20th Amber Tournament 2011'': From 11 to 25 March 2011, Anand participated in the 20th and final Amber Chess tournament, held in the city of Monte Carlo in Monaco. The tournament was broken into a Blindfold tournament and a Rapid Tournament. Anand scored 7 points out of a possible 11 in the Blindfold tournament (4 wins and 0 losses). In the Rapid tournament, Anand 6 points out of 11 (+4-3=4).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/20th-amber-tournament-2011 |title=Aronian wins final Amber Tournament (11) |website=The Week in Chess |date=23 March 2011 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*''Anand-Kasimdzhanov Match'': On 27 March 2011, Anand played a friendly 4-game rapid match with one of his seconds, [[Rustam Kasimdzhanov]]. The match took place in [[Tashkent]], [[Uzbekistan]]. Anand won the match 3.5-0.5 (the first game being a draw and the rest in Anand's favor).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/anand-beats-kasimdzhanov-in-rapid-match |title=Anand beats Kasimdzhanov in Rapid Match |website=The Week in Chess |date=30 March 2011 |accessdate=6 March 2016}}</ref>
*''Anand-Shirov Match'': From 2–6 June 2011, Anand played in the 24th León Masters Tournament (XXIV Magistral de Ajedrez Ciudad de Leon Match). It was a rapid match between Viswanathan Anand and Alexei Shirov, consisting of two games a day between 3 and 5 June with a time control of 60 minutes + 30 seconds per move. Anand defeated Shirov 4.5-1.5 to win the match (+3-0=3).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/24th-leon-masters-2011 |title=24th Leon Masters 2011 |website=The Week in Chess |date=6 June 2011 |accessdate=6 March 2016}}</ref>
*''Tal Memorial 2011'': The 6th Tal Memorial tournament took place from 16 to 25 June 2011. The tournament was a 10-player, 9-round single round robin played in Moscow, Russia. Anand scored 50%, with a perfect 9 draws out of 9. [[Magnus Carlsen]] eventually was declared the winner of the tournament on a tiebreak, having finished equal in points [[Levon Aronian]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/tal-memorial-2011 |title=Carlsen edges out Aronian on tie-break at the Tal Memorial (9) |website=The Week in Chess |date=25 November 2011 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*''2011 Bilbao Masters — Grand Slam'': From 25 September – 11 October 2011, Anand participated in the 4th Bilbao Masters tournament. The tournament was a 6-player double-round-robin, played using the soccer-like scoring system (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss). The other five participants included [[Magnus Carlsen]], [[Vassily Ivanchuk]], [[Hikaru Nakamura]], [[Levon Aronian]], and [[Francisco Vallejo Pons]]. Anand finished tied 3rd to 5th (same number of points as Nakamura and Aronian), winning 2 games and losing 2 games and earning him 12 points out of a maximum 30.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/4th-final-masters-in-sao-paulo-and-bilbao-2011|title=Carlsen beats Ivanchuk in blitz playoff to take Bilbao title (10 and Playoff) |website=The Week in Chess |date=11 October 2011 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*''Corsican Masters Knockout'': From 22 to 31 October 2011, Anand won the Corsican Masters Knockout Tournament, held in [[Ajaccio]], [[Corsica]]. The tournament started out with an open tournament, where the top 14 players after 9 rounds joined [[Shakriyar Mamedyarov]] and Viswanathan Anand in a 16-player knockout tournament. Anand and Mamedyarov both made it to the final round and Anand defeated Mamedyarov 2-0.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.chessbase.com/post/anand-wins-corsican-masters-knockout|title=Anand wins Corsican Masters Knockout |website=ChessBase |date=1 November 2011 |accessdate=6 March 2016}}</ref>

===2012===
In 2012, Viswanathan Anand participated in several high level tournaments, including the London Chess Classic and the Bilbao Masters Grand Slam. Earlier in 2012, he also played a World Championship match against [[Boris Gelfand]] in Moscow, Russia.

*'''''2012 Moscow World Chess Championship''''': From 10 to 30 May 2012, Anand participated in a World Championship match against [[Boris Gelfand]]. Earlier in 2011, [[Boris Gelfand]] had won the 2012 World Chess Championship Candidates Tournament in [[Kazan]], Russia. The championship was a scheduled 12-game match, played in the [[Tretyakov Gallery]] in Moscow, Russia. The 12-game match was level after 12 games — with 1 win a piece in Rounds 7 and 8. Anand had won one of the shortest decisive chess games in World Chess Championship, in 17 moves. Anand was able to retain his title after defeating Gelfand in the following 4-game rapid match.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.chessbase.com/post/world-championship-g8-anand-strikes-back-wins-in-17-moves- |title=Round eight – Anand strikes back, wins in 17 moves! |website=ChessBase |date=21 May 2012 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessdom.com/viswanathan-anand-wins-2012-world-chess-championship/ |title=Viswanathan Anand wins 2012 World Chess Championship |website=Chessdom |date=30 May 2012 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*''2012 Bilbao Masters — Grand Slam'': During 24 September – 13 October 2012, Anand participated in the 5th Bilbao Masters tournament. The tournament was a 6-player double-round-robin, played using the soccer-like scoring system (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss). The other five participants included [[Magnus Carlsen]], [[Fabiano Caruana]], [[Francisco Vallejo Pons]], [[Levon Aronian]], and [[Sergey Karjakin]]. Anand finished in the bottom half of the tournament, finishing 5th place out of 6 with a -1 score (losing 1 game to Magnus Carlsen in Round 9).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/5th-final-masters-sao-paulo-and-bilbao-2012|title=Magnus Carlsen wins 5th Final Masters after blitz playoff against Caruana (10) |website=The Week in Chess |date=25 September 2012 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*''4th London Chess Classic'': From 1 to 10 December, Anand participated in the 2012 London Chess Classic. The tournament was a 9-player round-robin tournament, with points earned using the soccer-like scoring system. Because of the odd number of players in the tournament, 1 player was required to sit out every single round. Therefore, each player played exactly 8 games with 24 maximum points. Anand finished on 50%, by winning 1 game (to Gawain Jones) and losing 1 game (to Michael Adams). The eventual winner of the tournament was [[Magnus Carlsen]], who earned 18 points out of 24 (scoring his 5 wins against the 3 British grandmasters — Michael Adams, Gawain Jones, and Luke McShane — and against Levon Aronian and Judit Polgar).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.chessbase.com/post/lcc-r9-carlsen-first-kramnik-second-both-with-big-wins |title=LCC R9: Carlsen first, Kramnik second, both with big wins |website=ChessBase |date=10 December 2012 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>

===2013===
Anand participated in several high-level tournaments in 2013, including the Tata Steel Chess Tournament, Grenke Chess Classic, Zurich Chess Challenge, Alekhine Memorial, Tal Memorial, the 1st Norway Chess Tournament, and the London Chess Classic. He also participated in the 2013 World Chess Championship match against Magnus Carlsen.

*''75th Tata Steel Chess Tournament'': From 12 to 27 January 2013, Anand participated in the 75th [[Tata Steel Chess Tournament]], held in [[Wijk Aan Zee]], The Netherlands. Anand finished overall 3rd place in the tournament, scoring 8 points out of 13 (+4-1=8), just behind the winner and runner-up [[Magnus Carlsen]] and [[Levon Aronian]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/75th-tata-steel-wijk-aan-zee-2013 |title=Carlsen matches Kasparov record in winning Tata Steel 2013 (13) |website=The Week in Chess |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*''GRENKE Chess Classic Baden-Baden 2013'': From 7 to 17 February 2013, Anand participated in the 2013 GRENKE Chess Classic, a tournament held in the German city of [[Baden-Baden]]. The other participants included [[Fabiano Caruana]], [[Michael Adams (chess player)|Michael Adams]], [[Arkadij Naiditsch]], [[Daniel Fridman]] and [[Georg Meier]]. Anand took clear 1st place after scoring 6.5 points out of 10, defeating Naiditsch twice in their two encounters in the tournament and Daniel Fridman once.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/grenke-chess-classic-baden-baden-2013 |title=Anand takes clear first place in Baden-Baden tournament (10) |website=The Week in Chess |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*''2nd Zurich Chess Challenge'': From 23 February – 1 March 2013, Anand participated in the Zurich Chess Challenge 2013, along with [[Fabiano Caruana]], [[Vladimir Kramnik]], and [[Boris Gelfand]]. The tournament was a 4-player double-round robin, played in Zurich, Switzerland. Caruana won the tournament by scoring 4 points out of 6 (scoring victories over Anand and Gelfand) while Anand finished 2nd with 50% (moving to an equal score after defeating Kramnik in the final round).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/zurich-chess-challenge-2013 |title=Caruana wins the Zuerich Chess Classic (6) |website=The Week in Chess |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
* ''Alekhine Memorial 2013'': Anand participated in the 2013 [[Alekhine Memorial]] tournament, held from 20 April to 1 May. The tournament was a 10-player, 9-round single round robin played in two venues - [[Tuileries Garden]] in [[Paris]], and the [[Russian Museum]] in [[Saint Petersburg]], Russia. Anand finished third, with +2−1=6.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessbase.com/Home/TabId/211/PostId/4009694/aronian-and-gelfand-win-alekhine-memorial-2013-020513.aspx |title=Aronian and Gelfand win Alekhine Memorial 2013 |website=ChessBase |date=1 May 2013 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*''Norway Chess 2013'': The 1st Norway Chess Super Tournament took place 8 to 18 May 2013. The tournament was a 10-player, 9-round single round robin played in the [[Stavanger]] area, Norway. Participants included [[Sergey Karjakin]], [[Magnus Carlsen]], Viswanathan Anand, [[Hikaru Nakamura]], [[Peter Svidler]], [[Teimour Radjabov]], [[Jon Ludvig Hammer]], [[Wang Hao (chess player)|Wang Hao]], [[Levon Aronian]], and [[Veselin Topalov]]. Anand scored +1 in the tournament (5 points out of 9 (+3-2=4)), scoring wins over tail-enders Hammer, Topalov, and Radjabov but losing to Wang Hao and Nakamura. Overall, he placed 6th out of 10.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/norway-chess-super-tournament-2013 |title=Karjakin deserved winner of first Norway Chess Tournament (9) |website=The Week in Chess |date=20 May 2013 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*''Tal Memorial 2013'': The 8th Tal Memorial tournament took place from 12 to 24 June June 2013. The tournament was a 10-player, 9-round single round robin played in Moscow, Russia. Viswanathan Anand scored 2nd place in the Blitz tournament that decided the color order for the main classical tournament (behind winner Hikaru Nakamura). In the classical tournament, Anand scored 9th place out of 10, scoring 1 win against [[Alexander Morozevich]] but losing to [[Fabiano Caruana]], [[Hikaru Nakamura]], and [[Magnus Carlsen]]. Boris Gelfand took clear first place with 6/9, half a point clear of Magnus Carlsen.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/8th-tal-memorial-2013 |title=Boris Gelfand wins the 8th Tal Memorial 2013 (9) |website=The Week in Chess |date=26 June 2013 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessvibes.com/?q=tal-memorial-nakamura-wins-the-blitz-full-pairings-now-known |title=Tal Memorial: Nakamura wins the blitz, full pairings now known |website=Chessvibes |date=12 June 2013 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*'''''2013 Chennai World Chess Championship'':''' From 9 to 22 November 2013, Anand participated in a World Championship match against Magnus Carlsen. Earlier in the year, Carlsen had won the 2013 London Candidates Tournament. The championship was a scheduled 12-game match, played in Anand's hometown of Chennai, India, in the [[Hyatt Regency Chennai]] 5-star hotel. Anand lost the match 6.5 - 3.5, unable to win a single game and losing 3 games. The match only lasted 10 games before Carlsen was declared the winner.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessdom.com/magnus-carlsen-is-world-chess-champion-2013/ |title=Magnus Carlsen is World Chess Champion 2013! |website=Chessdom |date=22 November 2013 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*''5th London Chess Classic'': From 7 to 15 December, Anand participated in the 2013 London Chess Classic. The tournament was a Super 16 Rapid Tournament, where 16 players were broken up into 4 mini groups and the top-scoring participants from each group played in a knockout rapid tournament. Anand was knocked out by Vladimir Kramnik in the quarterfinals. The eventual winner of the tournament was [[Hikaru Nakamura]], who defeated [[Boris Gelfand]] in the finals.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.londonchessclassic.com/2013/report.final.htm |title=Nakamura triumphs in the Super Sixteen Rapid |website=London Chess Classic |date=16 December 2013 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>

===2014===
Viswanathan Anand won the World Chess Championship Candidates Tournament, which earned him a rematch against Magnus Carlsen for the World Championship. He also participated in the Dubai World Rapid and Blitz Championships, Zurich Chess Challenge, Bilbao Masters, and London Chess Classic.

*''3rd Zurich Chess Challenge'': From 29 January – 4 February 2014, Anand participated in the Zurich Chess Challenge 2014. A Blitz Tournament on the opening day was played to determine the colors distribution for the Classical Tournament.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.zurich-cc.com/archive/zcc2014/pages/press.html|website=zurich-cc.com }}</ref> The classical tournament consisted of 5 games played with classical time control. The last day of the tournament consisted of 5 rapid games. The classical games were worth 2 points for a victory, 1 point for a draw, and 0 points for a loss, while the Rapid and Blitz games were worth 1 point for a win, 0.5 points for a draw, and 0 points for a loss, thus placing greater importance on each classical result. Anand scored 2.5 points out of 5 in the Blitz tournament. In the Classical phase of the tournament, Anand scored 2 points out of 5, losing his first two games to [[Levon Aronian]] and [[Hikaru Nakamura]] respectively, drawing against [[Fabiano Caruana]] and [[Magnus Carlsen]] in Rounds 3 and 5 respectively, and defeating [[Boris Gelfand]] in Round 4. In the final Rapid tournament, Anand finished last, scoring 1 point out of 5 (+0-3=2). In the entirety of the tournament, Anand in 5th place out of 6.
*'''''2014 World Chess Championship Candidates Tournament''''': As part of the qualification cycle for the World Chess Championship 2014, Viswanathan Anand participated in the Candidates Tournament, held in [[Khanty-Mansiysk]], Russia from 13–31 March 2014 in the Ugra Chess Academy. The participants of the tournament included [[Veselin Topalov]] and [[Shakriyar Mamedyarov]], both of whom qualified through winning the top two spots in the [[FIDE Grand Prix 2012–13]]. Viswanathan Anand won the Candidates Tournament by remaining undefeated and scoring victories over Levon Aronian (in round 1), Shakriyar Mamedyarov (in Round 3), and Veselin Topalov (in Round 9). This guaranteed his spot as challenger to Magnus Carlsen in the Sochi World Chess Championship match. By drawing against [[Sergey Karjakin]] in Round 13, he was able to secure the challenger spot with 1 round to spare.
*''2014 Dubai World Rapid and Blitz Chess Championship'': From 16 to 20 June, Anand participated in the World Rapid and Blitz Chess Championships. The Rapid Championship was 15 rounds, while the Blitz Championship was 21 rounds. Anand scored an undefeated 10.5 points out of 15 in the Rapid, earning him 3rd spot (behind winner Magnus Carlsen and runner-up Fabiano Caruana) and the Bronze medal. In the Blitz, Anand scored 13.5 points out of 21, which was good for tied 5th to 8th but placed 7th overall.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theweekinchess.com/chessnews/events/fide-world-rapid-and-blitz-championships-2014|title=FIDE World Rapid and Blitz Championships 2014 |website=The Week in Chess}}</ref>
*''2014 Bilbao Masters — Grand Slam'': From 14 to 20 September 2014, Anand participated in the 7th Bilbao Masters tournament. The tournament was a 4-player double-round-robin, played using the soccer-like scoring system (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss). The other three participants included [[Levon Aronian]], [[Ruslan Ponomariov]], and [[Francisco Vallejo Pons]]. Anand won the tournament by scoring 3 wins (2 against Vallejo Pons and 1 against Ponomariov) and 1 final loss (to Levon Aronian), giving him 11 points out of 18.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://en.chessbase.com/post/bilbao-final-anand-first-aronian-second|title=Bilbao Final: Anand first, Aronian second |website=ChessBase |date=20 September 2014 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>
*'''''2014 Sochi World Chess Championship''''': From 7 to 28 November 2014, Anand participated in a rematch against Magnus Carlsen after having won the Khanty-Mansiysk Candidates Tournament. The match was a 12-game match, played in [[Sochi]], Russia. Anand lost the match 6.5 - 4.5, having equalized the score in Round 3 after losing Round 2 but losing two more subsequent games in Rounds 6 and 11.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessdom.com/magnus-carlsen-is-fide-world-chess-champion-2014/|title=Magnus Carlsen is FIDE World Chess Champion 2014! |website=Chessdom}}</ref>
*''6th London Chess Classic'': From 6 to 14 December, Anand participated in the 2014 London Chess Classic. The other 5 tournament participants included [[Vladimir Kramnik]], [[Anish Giri]], [[Fabiano Caruana]], [[Hikaru Nakamura]], and [[Michael Adams (chess player)|Michael Adams]]. Vishy finished the tournament with 7 points (+1-0=4), equal with Kramnik and Giri. However, Anand was declared the winner because the tiebreak rules stated that the player with the greater number of black wins has a better tiebreak. With Anand's last round win over Michael Adams, he secured tournament victory and his 3rd tournament win in 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.londonchessclassic.com/2014/index.htm |title=The Berlin Wall has Fallen — but the Tower of London still remains |website=London Chess Classic |date=15 December 2014 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>

===2015===
In 2015, Viswanathan Anand was a participant in the inaugural 2015 [[Grand Chess Tour]], a series of 3 supertournaments featuring the world's elite players. The three tournaments that Anand participated in were [[Norway Chess]], [[Sinquefield Cup]], and [[London Chess Classic]]. Among these tournaments, Anand also participated in the Berlin World Rapid and Blitz Championships, GRENKE Chess, Zurich Chess Challenge, [[Bilbao Chess Masters Final]], and Shamkir Chess.

*''GRENKE Chess Classic (Baden-Baden)'': Viswanathan Anand began the 2015 year by participating in the GRENKE Chess Classic. The tournament, held from 2–9 February 2015 in the city of [[Baden-Baden]], [[Baden-Württemberg]], Germany, was an 8-player round robin consisting of 7 rounds. Anand scored 2.5 points out of 7 (+1-3=7), placing 7th out of 8.
*''4th Zurich Chess Challenge'': From 13–19 February, Anand participated in the Zurich Chess Challenge 2015. A Blitz Tournament on the opening day was played to determine the colors distribution for the Classical Tournament. The classical tournament consisted of 5 games played with classical time control. The last day of the tournament consisted of 5 rapid games. The classical games were worth 2 points for a victory, 1 point for a draw, and 0 points for a loss, while the Rapid and Blitz games were worth 1 point for a win, 0.5 points for a draw, and 0 points for a loss, thus placing greater importance on each classical result. The rules also stated that players who drew before their 40th move would have to play a rapid game (that would not count in the tournament standings). Anand scored 3.5 points out of 5 possible points in the opening Blitz tournament (+3-1=1). He won the Classical tournament, scoring 2 victories and 3 draws. He defeated [[Levon Aronian]] in Round 2 and [[Hikaru Nakamura]] in Round 4. In the final Rapid Tournament, Anand scored 2 points out of 5 (+1-2=2). However, because Anand and Nakamura were tied for the overall Zurich Chess Challenge in number of total points, they played a blitz Armageddon game, which Nakamura won, defeating Anand with the black pieces. Therefore, Anand came in second in the overall Zurich Chess Challenge.
*''Shamkir Chess (Gashimov Memorial 2015)'': From 16–25 April 2015, Anand participated in the 2nd Gashimov Memorial, in honor of the late Vugar Gashimov. It was a 9-round, 10-player single-round robin classical tournament, held in the town of Şəmkir (Shamkir District), Azerbaijan. Anand scored an overall +3 score, defeating [[Wesley So]], [[Michael Adams (chess player)|Michael Adams]], and [[Shakriyar Mamedyarov]]. He finished the tournament undefeated and in second place, behind winner Magnus Carlsen (whom he was better against in their individual encounter in Game 1).
*''Norway Chess 2015'': Anand competed in Norway Chess 2015, the first leg of the Grand Chess Tour. This specific tournament was held in Stavanger, Norway, from 15–26 June 2015. The Blitz portion of the tournament was used to determine the colors and pairings of the main classical stage. In the Blitz tournament, Anand scored 5.5 points out of 9 (+4-2=3). In the Classical part of the tournament, the final standings through which the Grand Chess Tour points are awarded, Anand finished 2nd and undefeated (+3-0=6) and earned himself 10 Grand Chess Tour points, behind the winner of the tournament [[Veselin Topalov]]. He also reached an almost career-high rating of 2816 after the tournament and earned victories against [[Magnus Carlsen]], [[Maxime Vachier-Lagrave]], and [[Jon Ludvig Hammer]], the latter of whom was the Wild-card of the tournament.
*''Sinquefield Cup 2015'': Anand competed in the 3rd [[Sinquefield Cup]], the second leg of the Grand Chess Tour. This specific tournament was held in the [[Chess Club and Scholastic Center of Saint Louis]] in [[St. Louis]], Missouri, from 22 August – 3 September 2015. Similar to Norway Chess, the tournament featured the 9 overall Grand Chess Tour participants and 1 wild-card in a 9-round single-round robin tournament. The wild card in this tournament was Wesley So, who had just recently switched federations from the Philippines to the United States. Anand started off the tournament with 2 losses, against [[Hikaru Nakamura]] and [[Alexander Grischuk]] and ended the tournament with 7 draws. This gave him an overall score of -2 (+0-2=7), or 3.5 points out of 9, earning him 2 Grand Chess Tour points.
*''World Rapid and Blitz Championships'': From 10–14 October 2015, Anand participated in the World Rapid and Blitz Championships in Berlin, Germany. In the Rapid Championship, Anand scored 9.5 points out of 15 (+8-4=3). In the Blitz Championship, Anand scored 13 points out of 21 (+7-2=12).
*''2015 Bilbao Masters — Grand Slam'': From 26 October – 1 November 2015, Anand participated in the 8th Grand Slam Masters Final in Bilbao, Spain. The format of the tournament was a 4-player double round robin featuring 6 round of classical chess, using the soccer-like scoring system (3 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, 0 points for a loss). Out of the 12 games played in the tournament, only 2 games were decisive. Anand finished the tournament on the bottom half (+0-1=5), losing a single game to [[Anish Giri]].
*''7th London Chess Classic'': Anand competed in the London Chess Classic, the third and final leg of the Grand Chess Tour. This specific tournament was held in the Olympia Conference Centre in [[London]], England from 4–13 December 2015. Similar to Norway Chess and the Sinquefield Cup tournaments, the London Chess Classic featured the 9 overall Grand Chess Tour participants and 1 wild-card in a 9-round single-round robin tournament. The wild card in this tournament was [[Michael Adams (chess player)|Michael Adams]]. Anand scored 3.5 points out of 9 in the Classic, earning 1 victory against [[Veselin Topalov]] but losing to [[Hikaru Nakamura]], [[Alexander Grischuk]], and [[Maxime Vachier-Lagrave]]. He finished the tournament in 9th place and earned 2 Grand Chess Tour points.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.londonchessclassic.com/ |title=Magnus Carlsen wins the London Chess Classic and Grand Chess Tour |website=London Chess Classic |date=16 December 2015 |accessdate=5 March 2016}}</ref>

Overall, because of his performances in the Sinquefield Cup and the London Chess Classic, Anand finished 8th out of the main 9 Grand Chess Tour main participants - 14 Grand Chess tour points out of 39 maximum.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://grandchesstour.com/2015-tour-results|title=2015 Tour Results |website=Grand Chess Tour}}</ref>

===2016===
Viswanathan Anand was a participant in the 2nd [[Grand Chess Tour]], a series of four supertournaments featuring the world's elite players: the [[Paris]], France and [[Leuven]], Belgium Rapid and Blitz tournaments (replacements for the [[Norway Chess]] tournament), [[Sinquefield Cup|2016 Sinquefield Cup]], and the [[London Chess Classic|2016 London Chess Classic]]. The three best tournament results for each participant would be used to determine his final tour standings at the end of the year. Anand declined to participate in the Paris Rapid and Blitz tournament, meaning his results in Leuven, the Sinquefield Cup and the London Chess Classic would count toward the overall standings. Additionally Anand qualified for the 2016 World Chess Championship Candidates tournament by virtue of losing the 2014 World Chess Championship match.

* ''Gibraltar Chess Open'': In 2016, Anand played in the Gibraltar open, his first open in 23 years. Anand finished with 5 wins, 2 losses and 3 draws. The losses were against Réunion-born [[Adrien Demuth]] and Hungarian talent [[Benjámin Gledura]]. Anand's classical rating dropped 21.9 points.
* ''5th Zurich Chess Challenge'': From 12 to 15 February 2016, Anand played in the Zurich Chess Challenge 2016, which was broken up into a Rapid section and a blitz section. This rapid section of the tournament was a played with a modified time control of 40 minutes for the game with 10 additional seconds per move. The other 5 players of the tournament included [[Hikaru Nakamura]], [[Levon Aronian]], [[Vladimir Kramnik]], [[Anish Giri]], and [[Alexei Shirov]]. Anand scored victories over Aronian and Giri in the first two games of the Rapid tournament. He eventually tied for first with Nakamura with 10.5 points, after Nakamura won the final blitz game against Aronian; however Nakamura won the tournament on a Sonneborn-Berger tiebreaker.<ref>{{cite web|title=Nakamura wins the 2016 Zurich Chess Challenge!|url=http://www.zurich-chess-challenge.com/108-nakamura-wins-the-2016-zurich-chess-challenge.html|website=Zurich Chess Challenge|accessdate=15 February 2016}}</ref>
* '''''2016 World Chess Championship Candidates Tournament''''': As part of the qualification cycle for the [[World Chess Championship 2016]], Viswanathan Anand participated in the Candidates Tournament, held in Moscow, Russia from 10–30 March 2016 in the [[Central Telegraph]] (Центральный телеграф) Building. The lineup of the tournament included [[Fabiano Caruana]] and [[Hikaru Nakamura]], both of whom qualified through winning the top two spots in the FIDE Grand Prix 2014–15. [[Sergey Karjakin]] and [[Peter Svidler]] qualified by becoming winner and runner-up (respectively) of the [[Chess World Cup 2015]] Knockout tournament. [[Veselin Topalov]] and [[Anish Giri]] qualified by rating. Anand qualified by virtue of losing the 2014 World Chess Championship match against Magnus Carlsen. Finally [[Levon Aronian]] qualified as the organizers' Wild Card. Anand finished in shared second place with Fabiano Caruana, one point behind the tournament winner [[Sergey Karjakin]]. Anand had the unique distinction of the only player to have beaten the winner Karjakin in the 2016 Candidates Tournament.
*''Leon Chess Masters Rapid Tournament'': Anand won the 29th Leon Masters Rapid Tournament by defeating [[Wei Yi]] and [[David Anton Guijarro]].
*''Leuven Grand Chess Tour'': From 17 to 20 June 2016, Anand participated in the Leuven leg of the 2016 Grand Chess Tour. The Rapid tournament was a Single Round Robin, consisting of 9 rounds of Rapid Games. Time control for the Rapid tournament was 25 minutes + 10 seconds increment starting from Move 1. The Blitz tournament was a Double Round Robin, consisting of 18 rounds of Blitz Games. Time control for the Blitz tournament was 5 minutes + 2 seconds increment starting from Move 1. Each Rapid game counted for 2 points for a win, 1 point for a draw, and 0 points for a loss, while each Blitz game counted for 1 point for a win, 0.5 points for a draw and 0 points for a loss. Anand amassed 19.5 points out of a maximum 27 points, earning him 4th place in the tournament (behind winner [[Magnus Carlsen]], [[Wesley So]], and [[Levon Aronian]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=Carlsen wins Grand Chess Tour Leuven|url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/carlsen-wins-grand-chess-tour-leuven|website=ChessBase |accessdate=17 July 2016}}</ref>
*''Sinquefield Cup 2016'': Anand competed in the 4th [[Sinquefield Cup]], the third leg of the 2016 Grand Chess Tour. This specific tournament was held in the [[Chess Club and Scholastic Center of Saint Louis]] in [[St. Louis]], Missouri, from 4 to 17 August 2016. Similar to the Paris and Leuven Grand Chess Tour Rapid and Blitz events, this tournament featured the 9 overall Grand Chess Tour participants and 1 wild-card in a 9-round single-round robin tournament. The wild card in this tournament was [[Ding Liren]]. Anand tied for 2nd place - with [[Levon Aronian]], [[Fabiano Caruana]], and [[Veselin Topalov]] - behind winner [[Wesley So]].
*''Tal Memorial 2016'': The 10th Tal Memorial tournament took place on 25 September 2016 in the Museum of Russian Impressionism in Moscow Russia. The lineup of the players included [[Vladimir Kramnik]], [[Anish Giri]], [[Boris Gelfand]], [[Levon Aronian]], [[Evgeny Tomashevsky]], [[Li Chao (chess player)|Li Chao]], [[Shakriyar Mamedyarov]], [[Ian Nepomniachtchi]], and [[Peter Svidler]]. Anand finished with a +1 score, losing to [[Vladimir Kramnik]] and defeating [[Boris Gelfand]] and [[Shakriyar Mamedyarov]].

===2017===
Viswanathan Anand participated in several high-level tournaments in 2017 including the World Rapid and Blitz championship, the Isle of Man Championship, the Norway chess tournament, the Zurich Chess Challenge, the Leon Chess Masters Rapid Tournament and the FIDE World Cup, to which he returned after fifteen years. He also played in the [[Grand Chess Tour]] a series of five events: the Paris, Leuven and St. Louis rapid and blitz tournaments, the [[Sinquefield Cup|2017 Sinquefield Cup]] and the [[London Chess Classic|2017 London Chess Classic]], with Anand declining to participate in the Paris Rapid and Blitz tournament. Anand made more than $450 000 in prize money in 2017.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chess prize money top list|url=https://chessearnings.com/player/vishy-anand-1534618937551x898864562157541500|website=Chessearnings}}</ref>

*''Zurich Chess Challenge 2017'': [[Zurich Chess Challenge|Zurich Chess Challenge 2017]] held from 12–17 April 2017, was divided into semi-classical (45 minutes per game+ 30 second per move) and blitz (10 minutes per game + 5 second per move) sections. The winner of a classical game was awarded 2 points for the overall standings, in case of a draw each player gets 1 point and the loser 0 points, while a win in a blitz game is awarded one point and a draw 0.5 points respectively. Anand finished third in the semi-classical section with a score of 4½/7 (+4-2=1) and second in the blitz section with a score of 4½/7 (+2-0=5), giving him a combined score of 13½/21 for a third-place finish.<ref>{{cite web|title=Anand finishes third at Zurich Chess Challenge 2017
|url=https://www.chessbase.in/news/anand-zurich-chess-challenge|website=ChessBase}}</ref>

*''Norway Chess Tournament 2017'': The fifth [[Norway Chess|Norway Chess tournament]] was held from 6–16 June 2017 in [[Stavanger]], Norway. The tournament was a 10 player round robin involving all ten of the world's best players by rating (at the time of announcement) and had an average Elo rating of 2797. Anand finished in eighth place scoring 4/9 (+1-2=6).<ref>{{cite web|title=Levon Aronian wins Norway Chess 2017!|url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/levon-aronian-wins-norway-chess-2017|website=ChessBase}}</ref>
*''Sinquefield Cup 2017'': Anand competed in the Sinquefield Cup, held at the Chess Club and Scholastic Centre of Saint Louis from August 2 to 11 2017. The event was the 3rd leg of the 2017 Grand Chess Tour, with nine tour regulars joined by wild card [[Peter Svidler]], in a 9-round single-round robin tournament. Anand finished with a score of 5½/9 (+2-0=7) with victories over [[Ian Nepomniachtchi]] and [[Fabiano Caruana]]. In the final standings he placed joint second with [[Magnus Carlsen]], behind the winner [[Maxime Vachier-Lagrave]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Sinquefield Cup: MVL WINS!
|url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/grand-chess-tour-sinquefield-cup-live|website=ChessBase}}</ref>

*''Isle of Man Championship 2017'': Anand participated in the 2017 Isle of Man Championship, a 9-round Swiss tournament, held from 23 September to 1 November. Anand finished joint-second with [[Hikaru Nakamura]] with a score of 7/9 (+5-0=4), behind the winner Magnus Carlsen.<ref>{{cite web|title=Anand signs off joint second at Isle of Man Chess |url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/anand-signs-off-joint-second-at-isle-of-man-chess/article19784600.ece|website=The Hindu}}</ref>
*''Chess World Cup 2017'': Anand played in the Chess World Cup 2017 a 128-player single-elimination chess tournament, held in [[Tbilisi]], Georgia, from 2 to 27 September 2017. Anand was eliminated in the second round, losing to the Canadian Grandmaster [[Anton Kovalyov]]. Kovalyov won the first game with the black pieces after a dubious sacrifice from Anand and drew the second game with white to win the match. This was Anand's earliest exit in a knockout tournament at the World Championship/World Cup level.<ref>{{cite web|title=Viswanathan Anand bows out of Chess World Cup|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/chess/viswanathan-anand-bows-out-of-chess-world-cup/articleshow/60425118.cms|website=The Times of India}}</ref>
*''King Salman FIDE World Rapid and Blitz Championship'': Anand won the World Rapid Championship held in the Saudi Arabian capital of Riyadh from 26–28 December. The rapid tournament was a 15-round Swiss open, Anand finished 10.5/15 in a three-way tie with [[Ian Nepomniachtchi]] and [[Vladimir Fedoseev]]. Anand won the tie break over [[Vladimir Fedoseev]] 2-0.<ref name="thehindu.com"/> Anand finished third in the FIDE World Blitz Championship, a 21-round Swiss held from 29–30 December. Anand finished 14.5/21, behind [[Sergey Karjakin]] at 14.5/21 (ahead on tie-break) and [[Magnus Carlsen]] at 16/21.<ref>{{cite web|title=Viswanathan Anand wins bronze at World Blitz Chess Championship|url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/sports/chess/viswanathan-anand-wins-bronze-at-world-blitz-chess-championship/articleshow/62310411.cms|website=The Times Of India}}</ref>

===2018===
*''80th Tata Steel Masters'': Anand played in the [[Tata Steel Chess Tournament|2018 Tata Steel Masters]], held from 13–28 January 2018. Anand finished fifth with a score of 8/13 (+4-1=8).<ref>{{cite web|url =https://www.tatasteelchess.com/players/masters/master-standings|title =Results of Tata Steel Masters 2018|website=Tata Steel Chess|author =Staff writer(s)}}</ref>
*''Tal Memorial 2018'': Anand won the 11th Tal Memorial tournament (rapid section) with a score of 6/9. The lineup of the players included [[Vladimir Kramnik]], [[Hikaru Nakamura]], [[Boris Gelfand]], [[Shakriyar Mamedyarov]], [[Ian Nepomniachtchi]], and [[Peter Svidler]]. Anand defeated [[Ian Nepomniachtchi]], [[Hikaru Nakamura]], [[Daniil Dubov]], [[Alexander Grischuk]] and drew the final round with [[Boris Gelfand]] to finish with a +3 score.
*''5th Grenke Chess Classic'':From 31 March to 9 April 2018, Anand participated in the [[Grenke Chess Classic#2018|5th Grenke Chess Classic]]. He finished eighth with a score of 3½/9 (+0–2=7).<ref>{{cite web|url =http://www.grenkechessclassic.de/en/grenke-chess-classic-2015/pairings-standings|title =GRENKE Chess Classic 2018: Pairings & standings|website=Grenke Chess|author =Staff writer(s)|date =9 April 2018}}</ref>
*''6th Norway Chess'': From 28 May to 7 June, he competed in the [[Norway Chess#2018|sixth edition]] of Norway Chess, placing fourth with 4½/8 (+2–1=5).<ref>{{cite web|url =https://www.chess.com/news/view/caruana-wins-altibox-norway-chess-6814|title =Caruana Wins Norway Chess|first =Peter|last =Doggers|website=Chess.com|date =7 June 2018}}</ref>
*''1st Tata Steel India Rapid & Blitz Tournament'': In November 2018, he competed in the inaugural Tata Steel Chess India Rapid & Blitz tournament held in [[Kolkata]], winning the blitz portion of the event.<ref>{{cite web|url =https://indianexpress.com/article/sports/sport-others/vishwanathan-anand-seals-tata-steel-chess-india-blitz-title-in-style-5446856/|title =Vishwanathan Anand seals Tata Steel Chess India Blitz title in style|publisher =PTI|date =14 November 2018}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chess.com/news/view/anand-wins-tata-steel-chess-india-blitz|title=Anand Wins Tata Steel Chess India Blitz|first =Peter|last =Doggers|date=14 November 2018|website=chess.com}}</ref>

===2019===
*''81st Tata Steel Masters'': In January he competed in the 81st Tata Steel Masters tournament held in [[Wijk aan Zee]]. There he scored 7.5/13 which netted him a third-place finish. The 3rd place was shared with [[Ian Nepomniachtchi]] and [[Ding Liren]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Carlsen Wins 81st Tata Steel Chess Tournament|url=https://www.chess.com/news/view/carlsen-wins-81st-tata-steel-chess-tournament|website=Chess.com|accessdate=8 September 2019}}</ref>
*''2019 Gashimov Memorial'': He placed third in the 2019 Gashimov Memorial tournament. His final score was 4.5/9 and his placement was shared with [[Teimour Radjabov]] and [[Alexander Grischuck]]. The event was held from 30 March to 9 April in [[Şəmkir]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Carlsen Wraps Up Gashimov Memorial With 'Stellar Performance'|url=https://www.chess.com/news/view/shamkir-chess-gashimov-memorial-2019-round-9|website=Chess.com|accessdate=8 September 2019}}</ref>

===Rating===
In the April 2007 FIDE [[Elo rating system|Elo rating]] list, Anand was ranked first in the world for the first time,<ref>[http://ratings.fide.com/top.phtml?list=men Top 100 Players]. Retrieved 15 April 2007.</ref> and ({{as of|2008|7|lc=on}}) he held the number one spot in all ratings lists but one since then until July 2008, the exception being the January 2008 list, where he was rated No. 2 behind Vladimir Kramnik (equal rating, but Kramnik held the No. 1 spot due to more games played).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ratings.fide.com/toparc.phtml?cod=121 |title=FIDE Top 100, January 2008 |website=FIDE |accessdate=11 November 2010}}</ref> He dropped to No. 5 in the October 2008 list, the first time he had been outside the top 3 since July 1996.<ref>[http://chess.eusa.ed.ac.uk/Chess/Trivia/AlltimeList.html All Time Rankings] – lists the top 10 from 1970 to 1997</ref>

In 2010, Anand announced that he would expand his tournament schedule, beginning in late 2010, in an effort to regain the world number one ranking from [[Magnus Carlsen]].<ref>{{cite news| url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2010-07-24/chess/28316325_1_viswanathan-anand-elo-points-world-chess-championship |work=The Times of India | title=My target is to regain world number one status: Anand | date=24 July 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=6567 |title=Final Chess Masters 2010 in Shanghai and Bilbao |website=ChessBase |accessdate=11 November 2010}}</ref> He achieved that goal on 1 November 2010 list with a rating of 2804, two points ahead of [[Magnus Carlsen]],<ref>[http://ratings.fide.com/top.phtml?list=men Top 100 Players] Retrieved on 1 November 2010</ref> but was once again overtaken by Carlsen in July 2011.

==Assessment==
[[Lubomir Kavalek]] describes Anand as the most versatile world champion ever, pointing out that Anand is the only player to have won the world chess championship in [[Chess tournament|tournament]], [[Match (chess)|match]], and [[Knockout competition|knockout]] format, as well as [[Rapid chess|rapid]] time controls.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chess Champion's Class Act|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/lubomir-kavalek/chess-champions-class-act_b_768397.html|website=Huffington Post|first=Lubomir |last=Kavalek|accessdate=8 February 2015}}</ref>

In an interview in 2011, Kramnik said about Anand: "I always considered him to be a colossal talent, one of the greatest in the whole history of chess"; and "I think that in terms of play Anand is in no way weaker than [[Garry Kasparov|Kasparov]] but he's simply a little lazy, relaxed and only focuses on matches. In the last 5–6 years he's made a qualitative leap that's made it possible to consider him one of the great chess players."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/kramnik-on-che-anand-topalov-and-his-future-part-1 |title=Vladimir Kramnik on Chess, Anand, Topalov, and his future | date=31 March 2012}}</ref>

FIDE President Kirsan Ilyumzhinov commented that Anand's victory in the 2014 Candidates Tournament "...proved that he is one of the strongest and greatest players of modern times."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://candidates2014.fide.com/kirsan-ilyumzhinov-anand-proved-to-be-one-of-the-greatest-chess-players-of-modern-times|title=Kirsan Ilyumzhinov: Anand proved to be one of the greatest chess players of modern times | date=31 March 2014}}</ref>

In an interview in 2014 [[Alexander Grischuk]] said about Anand: "I have to say that of all the players I've played against Anand has personally struck me as the strongest, of course after Kasparov."<ref>{{cite web|url=https://chess24.com/en/read/news/candidates-rd-9-dream-day-for-anand|title=Candidates, Rd 9: Dream day for Anand | date=23 May 2014}}</ref>

==Notable tournament successes==

=== Rapid/exhibition tournaments===
{{Columns-start|num=2}}
* 1989 India Active Chess Championship, Pune 1st
* 1989 2nd Asian Active Chess Championship, Hong Kong 1st
* 1994 Melody Amber Tournament, Monaco 1st
* 1994 PCA Grand Prix (Rapid), Moscow 1st
* 1994 Munich blitz tournament 1st
* 1996 Credit Swiss Rapid Chess Grand Prix, Geneva 1st
* 1996 Torneo Magistral de Ajedrez, Leon 1st
* 1996 Torneo Villarrobledo Rapid, 1st
* 1997 Melody Amber Tournament, Monaco 1st
* 1997 Chess Classic Rapid Championship, Frankfurst 1st, beat Karpov in the final
* 1998 Torneo Villarrobledo Rapid, 1st
* 1998 Torneo Magitral Communidad De Madrid, Madrid 1st
* 1998 Chess Classic Rapid Championship, Frankfurt 1st, beat Kramnik in the final
* 1998 Wydra Memorial Chess (Rapid), Haifa 1st
* 2000 Wydra International Tournament (Rapid), Haifa 1st
* 2000 Torneo Magistral de Ajedrez, Leon 1st, beat Shirov in the final
* 2000 Chess Classic Rapid Championship, Frankfurt 1st
* 2000 GSM Plus blitz World Cup, 1st
* 2000 Corsica Masters Knockout (Rapid), Bastia 1st
* 2001 Torneo Magistral de Ajedrez, Leon 1st, beat Shirov in the final
* 2001 Mirabal Rapid tournament, Madrid 1st
* 2001 Torneo Villarrobledo Rapid, 1st
* 2001 Corsica Masters Knockout (Rapid), Bastia 1st
* 2002 Corsica Masters Knockout (Rapid), Bastia 1st
* 2002 Eurotel (Combined Rapid plus Classical), Prague 1st
{{Column}}
* 2003 Santurzi (Rapid and blindfold) 1st
* 2003 SIS Masters, Middelfart 1st
* 2003 FIDE World Rapid Chess Championship, Cap d'Agde 1st, beat Kramnik in the final 1.5-0.5
* 2003 Corsica Masters Knockout (Rapid), Bastia 1st
* 2004 Sao Paulo Rapid, 1st
* 2004 Keres Memorial Rapid, Tallinn 1st
* 2004 Corsica Masters Knockout (Rapid), Bastia 1st
* 2005 Torneo Magistral de Ajedrez, Leon 1st, beat Qosimjonov in the final
* 2005 Corsican Circuit, Venaco Rapid, 1st
* 2006 Torneo Villarrobledo Rapid, 1st
* 2006 Torneo Magistral de Ajedrez, Leon 1st, beat Topalov in the final
* 2007 Torneo Magistral de Ajedrez, Leon 1st, beat Topalov in the final
* 2007 Mainz World Rapid Chess Championship, 1st, beat Aronian in the final
* 2008 Mainz World Rapid Chess Championship, 1st, beat Carlsen in the final
* 2011 Botvinnik Memorial, Moscow, 1st<ref>[http://www.chessvibes.com/reports/anand-cmilyte-winners-botvinnik-memorial-rapid Anand & Cmilyte winners Botvinnik Memorial rapid] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111222425/http://www.chessvibes.com/reports/anand-cmilyte-winners-botvinnik-memorial-rapid |date=11 January 2015 }}. ChessVibes. Retrieved on 31 May 2012.</ref>
* 2011 Corsica Masters Knockout (Rapid), Corsica 1st<ref>[http://www.chessvibes.com/reports/anand-wins-corsica-masters-knockout Anand wins Corsica Masters Knockout] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150111205732/http://www.chessvibes.com/reports/anand-wins-corsica-masters-knockout |date=11 January 2015 }}. ChessVibes. Retrieved on 31 May 2012.</ref>
* 2014 World Rapid Chess Championship (Rapid), Dubai 3rd
* 2016 Zurich Chess Challenge (Rapid and blitz), Zurich 1st-2nd
* 2016 Torneo Magistral de Ajedrez, Leon 1st, beat Wei Yi in the final
* 2016 St. Louis Champions Tournament, St. Louis 1st
* 2017 [[World Rapid Chess Championship]], Riyadh 1st
* 2017 [[World Blitz Chess Championship]], Riyadh 3rd
* 2018 11th Tal Memorial Rapid, Moscow 1st
* 2018 1st Tata Steel India Rapid & Blitz Tournament (Blitz), Calcutt 1st
* 2019 Paris Grand Chess Tour blitz tournament, Paris 1st-3rd
* 2019 Levitov blitz tournament, Amsterdam 1st-2nd

{{Columns-end}}

===Classical international tournaments===
{{Columns-start|num=2}}
* 1986 Arab-Asian International Chess Championship, Doha 1st
* 1987 Sakthi Finance Grandmasters Chess Tournament, Coimbatore 1st
* 1989 51st Hoogovens Chess Tournament, Wijk aan Zee 1st-4th
* 1990 Asian Zonal Tournament, Qatar
* 1990 Manchester Chess Festival, Manchester 1st
* 1990 Far East Bank International Open, Manila 1st-2nd
* 1990 Triveni Super Grandmasters Tournament, Delhi Joint 1st (with Kamsky)
* 1991-1992 Reggio Emilia Chess Tournament, Reggio Emilia 1st
* 1992 Goodrich Open International Tournament, Calcutta 1st-4th
* 1992 Euwe Memorial, Amsterdam 1st-2nd (with Short)
* 1992 Alekhine Memorial, Moscow 1st-2nd (with Gelfand)
* 1993 VSB Tournament, Amsterdam, 1st-3rd
* 1993 Madrid Tournament, 1st-3rd
* 1993 PCA Selection tournament, Groningen 1st-2nd (with Adams)
* 1993 Linares Chess Tournament, 2nd-3rd
* 1995 Tal Memorial, Riga, 2nd
* 1996 Dortmunder Schachtage, Dortmund (joint 1st with Kramnik)
* 1997 Torneo de Ajedrez, Dos Hermanas 1st-2nd (with Kramnik)
* 1997 Invesbanka Chess tournament, Belgrade 1st-2nd (with Ivanchuk)
* 1997 Credit Suisse Classic Tournament, Biel 1st
* 1998 60th Hoogovens Schaak Tornoi, Wijk aan Zee 1st-2nd (with Kramnik)
* 1998 Torneo International De Ajedrez, Linares 1st
* 1998 Madrid tournament, 1st
* 1998 Fontys International Chess Tournament, Tilburg 1st
* 1999 Linares Chess Tournament, 2nd-3rd
* 2000 FIDE World Cup, Shenyang 1st
* 2000 Dortmunder Schachtage, Dortmund, 2nd on tie-break after Kramnik
{{Column}}
* 2001 Magistral Merida GM tournament, 1st
* 2002 FIDE World Cup, Hyderabad 1st
* 2003 65th Corus Chess Tournament, Wijk aan Zee 1st
* 2004 66th Corus Chess Tournament, Wijk aan Zee 1st
* 2004 Dortmunder Schachtage, Dortmund 1st
* 2006 68th Corus Chess Tournament, Wijk aan Zee 1st-2nd (with Topalov)
* 2007 Linares Chess Tournament, Linares 1st
* 2007 FIDE World Championship Tournament, Mexico City 1st
* 2008 Linares Chess Tournament, Linares 1st
* 2010 [[Bilbao Chess Masters Final]] - Grand Slam Final, Bilbao 2nd
* 2010 [[London Chess Classic]] - London 1st-3rd, 2nd after tie-break
* 2011 [[Tata Steel Chess Tournament]], Wijk aan Zee 2nd
* 2013 [[Grenke Chess Classic]], Baden Baden 1st
* 2013 [[Zurich Chess Challenge]], Zurich 2nd
* 2014 Candidates Tournament, Khanty Mansiysk 1st
* 2014 Bilbao Chess Masters Final (Grand Slam Final), Bilbao 1st
* 2014 [[London Chess Classic]], London 1st on Tie-break
* 2015 Zurich Chess Challenge (classical section), Zurich 1st
* 2015 [[Shamkir Chess]] (Vugar Gashimov Memorial), Shamkir 2nd
* 2015 [[Norway Chess]] (Grand Chess Tour), Stavanger 2nd
* 2016 [[Candidates Tournament 2016|Candidates Tournament]], Moscow 2nd-3rd
* 2016 [[Sinquefield Cup]], Saint-Louis 2nd
* 2016 Champions Showdown, Saint-Louis 1st-2nd (with Topalov)
* 2017 Sinquefield Cup, Saint-Louis 2nd
* 2018 Norway Chess, Stavanger 2nd-4th

{{Columns-end}}

===Matches===
* 1991 Madras, World Chess Championship Candidates match vs [[Alexey Dreev]] won 4.5-1.5
* 1992 Linares match Anand vs [[Vassily Ivanchuk]] 5–3
* 1994-5 PCA World Championship Candidates Cycle, Linares, Las Palmas winner
* 1997 Aegon Man vs Computers chess event (clock simultan vs 6 programs) won 4–2
* 1997 Leon match Anand vs [[Miguel Illescas]] 4.5-1.5
* 1999 Magistral de Ajedrez Ciudad de Leon, [[Advanced Chess]] Rapid match vs [[Anatoly Karpov]] 5–1
* 2001 Mainz Chess Classic World Rapid Championship vs [[Vladimir Kramnik|Kramnik]]; won 6.5-5.5
* 2002 Mainz Chess Classic World Rapid Championship vs [[Ruslan Ponomariov]]; won 4.5-3.5
* 2003 Mainz Chess Classic World Rapid Championship vs [[Judit Polgar]]; won 5-3
* 2004 Mainz Chess Classic World Rapid Championship vs [[Alexei Shirov]]; won 5-3
* 2005 Mainz Chess Classic World Rapid Championship vs [[Alexander Grischuk]]; won 5-3
* 2006 Mainz Chess Classic World Rapid Championship vs [[Teimour Radjabov]]; won 5-3
* 2008 World Chess Championship vs [[Vladimir Kramnik]]; won 6.5-4.5
* 2010 World Chess Championship vs [[Veselin Topalov]]; won 6.5-5.5
* 2011 Leon Rapid match vs Shirov; won 4.5-1.5
* 2012 World Chess Championship vs [[Boris Gelfand]]; won 8.5-7.5 (2.5-1.5 in rapid tiebreaks)

==Awards==
[[File:The President, Smt. Pratibha Devisingh Patil presenting the Padma Vibhushan to Shri Viswanathan Anand at Civil Investiture-II Ceremony, at Rashtrapati Bhavan, in New Delhi on May 10, 2008.jpg|thumb|The President, Smt. Pratibha Devisingh Patil presenting the Padma Vibhushan to Shri Viswanathan Anand, at Rashtrapati Bhavan, in 2008]]
Anand has received many national and international awards.

===Indian national honours===
* [[Arjuna Award]] for Outstanding Indian sports person in Chess in 1985.
* [[Padma Shri]] – Fourth highest civilian award awarded by [[Government of India]] in 1987.<ref name="Padma Awards">{{cite web | url=http://mha.nic.in/sites/upload_files/mha/files/LST-PDAWD-2013.pdf | title=Padma Awards | website=Ministry of Home Affairs, Government of India | date=2015 | accessdate=21 July 2015}}</ref>
* The inaugural [[Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna]] Award, India's highest sporting honour in the years 1991–1992.
* [[Padma Bhushan]] – Third highest civilian award awarded by [[Government of India]] in 2000.<ref name="Padma Awards" />
* [[Padma Vibhushan]] – Second highest civilian award awarded by [[Government of India]] in 2007.<ref name="Padma Awards" />

===Other honours===
* National Citizens Award and Soviet Land Nehru Award in 1987
* [[British Chess Federation]] "Book of the Year" Award in 1998 for his book ''My Best Games of Chess''.<ref>[http://www.chess.com/article/view/vishy-anand-world-champion-review Chess Articles] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502145728/http://www.chess.com/article/view/vishy-anand-world-champion-review |date=2 May 2012 }}. Chess.com. Retrieved on 31 May 2012.</ref>
* Anand has won the [[Chess Oscar]] in 1997, 1998, 2003, 2004, 2007 and 2008. The Chess Oscar is awarded to the year's best player according to a worldwide poll of leading chess critics, writers, and journalists conducted by the Russian chess magazine ''[[64 (magazine)|64]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.whychess.org/en/node/1128|title=Carlsen beats Anand to 2010 Chess Oscar|date=29 July 2011|website=WhyChess.org|accessdate=13 October 2011}}</ref>
* Sportstar Best Sportsperson of the Year for 1995<ref>{{cite news |title=Anand presented Sportstar Award |url=http://www.expressindia.com/ie/daily/19961022/29650732.html |accessdate=13 October 2018 |work=The Indian Express |date=22 October 1996 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/19970526220459/http://www.expressindia.com/ie/daily/19961022/29650732.html |archivedate=26 May 1997}}</ref>
* Sportstar Millennium Award in 1998, from India's premier sports magazine for being the sportsperson of the millennium.
* "Global Strategist Award" for mastering many formats of World Chess Championships by [[NASSCOM]] in 2011.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/generalnewsfeed/news/vishwanathan-anand-among-winners-of-global-leadership-awards/571660.html |title=Vishwanathan Anand among winners of Global Leadership Awards |website=IBN Live News |accessdate=27 July 2011}}</ref>
* Tamil Nadu chief minister [[Jayalalithaa|J. Jayalalithaa]] honoured Anand with a cheque of Rs 2 ''[[crore]]s'', for winning the World Chess Championship for the fifth time.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://www.thehindu.com/sport/other-sports/article3497244.ece | title=Jayalalithaa hands over Rs. 2 crore to Anand | date=6 June 2012 | location=Chennai, India | work=The Hindu}}</ref>
* In 2012, he received the "Indian sportsperson of the year" and "Indian of the year" awards.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=8720 |title=Chess News – Anand in the news: comeback in 2013? |website=ChessBase |date=21 December 2012 |accessdate=21 February 2013}}</ref>
*In 2014 Anand was awarded the Russian [[Order of Friendship]] for the development of economic, scientific and cultural ties with Russia. The Order of Friendship was awarded to Viswanathan Anand and [[Boris Gelfand]], the participants in the FIDE World Chess Championship Match that was held at the State Tretyakov Gallery in Moscow in 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fide.com/component/content/article/1-fide-news/8126-russian-federation-friendship-order-awards-to-gms-anand-and-gelfand.html |title=Russian Federation Friendship Order Awards to GMs Anand and Gelfand |website=FIDE |date=2014-07-04 |accessdate=2014-12-01}}</ref>
* In 2015 Anand was honoured with the top country award at the Spanish embassy, [[Delhi]] on 8 January. It is given to the eminent people of Indian origin who helped to bring glory to both [[India]] and [[Spain]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/prateekchat/status/553135584172986368|title=Prateek Chatterjee on Twitter|via=Twitter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/vishy64theking/status/552709984979394561|title=Viswanathan Anand on Twitter|via=Twitter}}</ref>
*4538 Vishyanand (provisional designation 1988 TP) is a main-belt minor planet. It was discovered by [[Kenzo Suzuki (astronomer)|Kenzo Suzuki]] in Toyota, [[Aichi Prefecture]], on 10 October 1988 and was named after Vishy on April 1, 2015.<ref>{{cite news|title=4538 Vishyanand: Top 5 things you must know about the minor planet named after Viswanathan Anand|url=http://indiatoday.intoday.in/education/story/4538-vishyanand/1/428278.html|accessdate=3 April 2015|website=India Today|date=3 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Planet Vishyanand named after Indian Grandmaster Vishwanathan Anand|url=http://news.biharprabha.com/2015/04/planet-vishyanand-named-after-indian-grandmaster-vishwanathan-anand/|accessdate=2 April 2015|website=news.biharprabha.com|date=2 April 2015}}</ref>

==Notable games==
{{algebraic notation|pos=secleft}}
On his way to winning the FIDE World Chess Championship in 2000, Anand, playing [[White and Black in chess|White]], defeated Grandmaster [[Viktor Bologan]]:
{{Chess diagram
|tright
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|{{hidden |Position after 36... c3 |headerstyle=text-align:left; |multiline=y |Anand, in an apparently worse position, finds an intuitive [[Sacrifice (chess)|sacrifice]] that leads to a winning attack. }}
}}
:Anand vs. Bologan, New Delhi, 2000 World Championship; [[Ruy Lopez]], Breyer (''[[Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings|ECO]]'' C95) [Analysis by GM [[Ľubomír Ftáčnik]]] '''1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bb5 a6 4. Ba4 Nf6 5. 0-0 Be7 6. Re1 b5 7. Bb3 d6 8. c3 0-0 9. h3 Nb8 10. d4 Nbd7 11. Nbd2 Bb7 12. Bc2 Re8 13. Nf1 Bf8 14. Ng3 c5 15. d5 c4 16. Bg5 Qc7 17. Nf5 Kh8 18. g4 Ng8 19. Qd2 Nc5 20. Be3 Bc8 21. Ng3 Rb8 22. Kg2 a5 23. a3 Ne7 24. Rh1 Ng6 25. g5{{chesspunc|!}} b4{{chesspunc|!?}}''' Anand has a strong kingside attack, so Bologan seeks counterplay with the sacrifice of a pawn. '''26. axb4 axb4 27. cxb4 Na6 28. Ra4 Nf4+ 29. Bxf4 exf4 30. Nh5 Qb6 31. Qxf4 Nxb4 32. Bb1 Rb7 33. Ra3 Rc7 34. Rd1 Na6 35. Nd4 Qxb2 36. Rg3 c3''' (see diagram) '''37. Nf6{{chesspunc|!!}} Re5''' If 37...gxf6, 38.gxf6 h6 39.Rg1! Qd2! 40.Qh4 leaves White with an irresistible initiative. '''38. g6! fxg6 39. Nd7 Be7 40. Nxe5 dxe5 41. Qf7 h6 42. Qe8+ {{chessAN|1–0}}'''<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1259162 |title=Anand vs. Bologan, New Delhi, 2000 WCH |website=[[Chessgames.com]] |access-date=15 April 2007 }}</ref> White forces mate in 12 moves if the game were to continue, with 42...Bf8 43.Rf3 Qa3 44.Rxf8+ Qxf8 45.Qxf8+ Kh7 46.d6 exd4 47.Ba2 h5 48.dxc7 Nb4 49.Qg8+ Kh6 50.f4 g5 51.f5 g4 52.h4 Bxf5 53.exf5 Nxa2 54.Qh8{{chessAN|#}}.

==See also==
* [[List of chess games between Anand and Kramnik]]

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==Further reading==
* Viswanathan Anand, ''My Best Games of Chess'' (Gambit, 2001 (new edition))
* [http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/extra/modern.html Edward Winter's "Books about Leading Modern Chessplayers" (Chess Notes Feature Article)]

==External links==
{{Wikiquote}}
{{commons category}}
* [http://www.365chess.com/players/Viswanathan_Anand Viswanathan Anand] chess games at 365Chess.com
* {{chessgames player|id=12088}}
* [http://players.chessdom.com/viswanathan-anand/anand-world-chess-champion-2010 Anand wins World Championship 2010] Chessdom
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20081223235413/http://latestchess.com/showInterview.php?id=1 Interview with Viswanathan Anand] at LatestChess.com year 2007
* [http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/article/0,28804,1815747_1815707_1815674,00.html TIME: History of Chess, by Viswanathan Anand]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20120515091440/http://www.pluggd.in/entrepreneurship/startup-inspirations-from-viswanathan-anand-chess-champ-855/ Startup Lessons from Viswanathan Anand]
* [http://ibnlive.in.com/videos/64541/05_2008/devils_anand_0405_1/devils-advocate-viswanathan-anand-on-mind-games.html Interview with CNN IBN, May 2008]
* [http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=4933 Interview at ChessBase]
* [http://epaper.timesofindia.com/Default/Scripting/ArticleWin.asp?From=Search&Key=ETCH/2007/11/13/1/Ar00101.xml&CollName=ET_CHENNAI_ARCHIVE_2007&DOCID=89252&Keyword=%28%3Cmany%3E%3Cstem%3Evishy%3Cand%3E%3Cmany%3E%3Cstem%3Eanand%29&skin=pastissues2&AppName=2&ViewMode=HTML&GZ=T Vishy Anand on lessons to board room from the board Economic Times]
* [https://www.nytimes.com/2010/08/09/world/asia/09india.html "India Swoons Over Its Chess Champ, and Even the Game"] ''New York Times'' 9 August 2010
* [https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2011/dec/02/vishy-anand-small-talk-interview Viswanathan Anand's Interview in Dec 2011 before London Chess Classic]

{{S-start}}
{{s-ach|aw}}
{{Succession box
| title = [[Fédération Internationale des Échecs|FIDE]] [[World Chess Championship|World Chess Champion]]
| years = 2000–2002
| before = [[Alexander Khalifman]]
| after = [[Ruslan Ponomariov]]
}}
{{Succession box
| title = [[World Chess Championship|World Chess Champion]]
| years = 2007–2013
| before = [[Vladimir Kramnik]]
| after = [[Magnus Carlsen]]
}}
{{Succession box
| title = [[World Rapid Chess Championship|World Rapid Chess Champion]]
| years = 2003–2009 2017-present
| before = [[Garry Kasparov]] [[Vassily Ivanchuk]]
| after = [[Levon Aronian]] Incumbent
}}
{{succession box
| title = [[World Blitz Chess Championship|World Blitz Chess Champion]]
| years = 2000–2006
| before = [[Mikhail Tal]]
| after = [[Alexander Grischuk]]
}}
{{s-ach|ach}}
{{Succession box
| title = [[List of FIDE chess world number ones|World No. 1]]
| years = 1 April – 31 December 2007 1 April – 30 September 2008 1 November – 31 December 2010 1 March – 30 June 2011
| before = [[Veselin Topalov]] Vladimir Kramnik [[Magnus Carlsen]] Magnus Carlsen
| after = Vladimir Kramnik Veselin Topalov Magnus Carlsen Magnus Carlsen
}}
{{S-end}}

{{World Chess Championships}}
{{Chess World Cups}}
{{Bilbao Chess Masters Finals|state=collapsed}}
{{Padma Vibhushan Awards}}
{{PadmaBhushanAwardRecipients 2000–09}}
{{Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna Awardees}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Anand, Viswanathan}}
[[Category:1969 births]]
[[Category:Living people]]
[[Category:World chess champions]]
[[Category:Chess grandmasters]]
[[Category:World Junior Chess Champions]]
[[Category:Chess Olympiad competitors]]
[[Category:Chess writers]]
[[Category:Don Bosco schools alumni]]
[[Category:Indian chess players]]
[[Category:Indian Tamil people]]
[[Category:Indian male writers]]
[[Category:Loyola College, Chennai alumni]]
[[Category:Chess players from Chennai|Chennai]]
[[Category:People from Nagapattinam district]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Arjuna Award]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Bhushan in sports]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Shri in sports]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Padma Vibhushan in sports]]
[[Category:Recipients of the Rajiv Gandhi Khel Ratna]]
[[Category:University of Madras alumni]]
[[Category:Tamil sportspeople]]

Barry Attack

2019-12-10T12:52:58Z

JanTurin: Zet teveel verwijderd

{{notability|date=January 2019}}

The '''Barry Attack''' is a [[chess opening]] for White that starts with the moves 1. d4 Nf6 2. Nf3 g6 3. Nc3 d5 4. Bf4 Bg7 5. e3 a6 6. Be2. It is a [[Queen's Pawn Opening]] ([[Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings|ECO]] code D00) and is normally used against Black defenses such as the [[King's Indian Defense]], the [[East Indian Defense]] and the [[Pirc Defense]]. Noted regular practitioners of this opening include [[chess Grandmaster|Grandmasters]] [[Niaz Murshed]] and [[Mark Hebden]], and also [[chess Grandmaster|GM]] [[Aaron Summerscale]], who wrote the book ''A Killer Chess Opening Repertoire,'' surveying both the Barry Attack and the related [[150 Attack]].<ref>http://www.kenilworthchessclub.org/kenilworthian/2005/11/barry-attack-bibliography.html</ref>
{{Chess diagram
| tright
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| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
| | | | | | | |
| | | |pl| |bl| |
| | |nl| |pl|nl| |
|pl|pl|pl| |bl|pl|pl|pl
|rl| | |ql|kl| | |rl
|The Barry Attack: initial setup
}}

==Characteristics==
The effectiveness of the Barry Attack has been analyzed and debated extensively by both proponents and detractors.<ref>https://www.chesspublishing.com/content/8/nov04.htm</ref> The opening normally involves an aggressive kingside attack by White, often including the [[Sacrifice (chess)|sacrifice]] of one or more of White's pieces to set up a [[checkmate]]. An instructive game is [[chess Grandmaster|GM]] [[Pavel Blatny]] v. Martin Fette ([[Vienna]], 1991), in which Blatny forced his opponent's King into the middle of the board, at which point Blatny had mate in 1 after 23. e4<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chessgame?gid=1030013|title=Pavel Blatny vs Martin Fette (1991)|website=www.chessgames.com}}</ref>:

1. d4 Nf6 2. Nf3 g6 3. Nc3 d5 4. Bf4 Bg7 5. e3 Bg4 6. Be2 c6 7. Ne5 Be2 8. Qe2 Nbd7 9. O-O-O O-O 10. h4 Qa5 11. h5 Ne5 12. de5 Ne4 13. hg6 Nc3 14. Qh5 Na2 15. Kb1 fg6 16. Qh7 Kf7 17. Bh6 Rg8 18. Rh4 g5 19. Bg7 gh4 20. Bf6 Ke6 21. Qe7 Kf5 22. Qh7 Ke6 23. e4 1-0 (Black resigns).

==Books==
*{{cite book
| author=Summerscale, Aaron
| title=A Killer Chess Opening Repertoire
| publisher=Globe Pequot
| year=1999
| isbn=978-1-85744-519-0}}

==References==
{{reflist|35em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.chessgames.com/perl/chesscollection?cid=1027712 Barry Attack games at Chessgames.com]

[[Category:Chess openings]]

{{chess-opening-stub}}

Garry Kasparov

2019-10-24T18:23:20Z

JanTurin: /* Break with and ejection from FIDE */

{{short description|Russian chess player and activist}}
{{Eastern Slavic name|Kimovich|Kasparov}}
{{Infobox chess player
|name = Garry Kasparov
|image = Kasparov-34.jpg{{!}}border
|caption = Kasparov in 2007
|country = [[Soviet Union]] {{small|(until 1991)}} [[Russia]] {{small|(1992−2014)}} [[Croatia]] {{small|(since 2014)}}<ref name=croCitizenship>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/28/chess-champion-garry-kasparov-croatian-citizenship |title=Chess champion Garry Kasparov granted Croatian citizenship |date=28 February 2014 |work=The Guardian |location=London}}</ref>
|full_name = Garry Kimovich Kasparov
|birth_name = Garik Kimovich Weinstein
|birth_date = {{Birth date and age|1963|04|13|df=y}}
|birth_place = [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijan SSR]], [[Soviet Union]] (now Baku, [[Azerbaijan]])
|title = [[Grandmaster (chess)|Grandmaster]] (1980)
|career = 1976–2005
|worldchampion = 1985–1993 (undisputed) 1993–2000 (classical)
|rating = [inactive]
|peakrating = 2851 (July 1999, January 2000)
|ranking =
|peakranking = No. 1 (January 1984)
|FideID = 4100018
}}
{{Listen|filename=Garri Kasparov voice.oga|title=Kasparov's voice (in Russian)|type=speech|description=from Kasparov's interview for [[Echo of Moscow]], 13 September 2011}}

'''Garry Kimovich Kasparov''' ({{lang-ru|Га́рри Ки́мович Каспа́ров}}, {{IPA-ru|ˈɡarʲɪ ˈkʲiməvʲɪtɕ kɐˈsparəf}}; born '''Garik Kimovich Weinstein''',<ref>''Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov'', part I, 2011, {{ISBN|978-1-85744-672-2}}, pp. 16–17</ref> 13 April 1963) is a [[Russia]]n chess [[International Grandmaster|grandmaster]], former [[world chess champion]], writer, and political activist, whom many consider to be the [[Comparison of top chess players throughout history|greatest chess player of all time]].<ref>"Most experts place [[Bobby Fischer]] the second or third best ever, behind Kasparov but probably ahead of [[Anatoly Karpov|Karpov]]." – [https://www.theguardian.com/obituaries/story/0,,2243266,00.html Obituary of Bobby Fischer], [[Leonard Barden]], ''[[The Guardian]]'', 19 January 2008</ref> From 1986 until his retirement in 2005, Kasparov was ranked world No. 1 for 225 out of 228 months. His peak [[Elo rating system|rating]] of 2851,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chess.com/article/view/who-is-the-strongest-chess-player |title=Who is the Strongest Chess Player? |accessdate=2 March 2009 |date=27 October 2008 |work=Bill Wall |publisher=Chess.com}}</ref> achieved in 1999, was the highest recorded until being surpassed by [[Magnus Carlsen]] in 2013. Kasparov also [[#Other records|holds records]] for consecutive professional tournament victories (15) and [[Chess Oscar]]s (11).

Kasparov became the youngest ever undisputed World Chess Champion in 1985 at age 22 by defeating then-champion [[Anatoly Karpov]].<ref>[[Ruslan Ponomariov]] won the disputed [[FIDE]] title, at the age of 18, when the world title was split</ref> He held the official FIDE world title until 1993, when a dispute with FIDE led him to set up a rival organization, the [[Professional Chess Association]].<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Garry-Kasparov|title=Garry Kasparov {{!}} Biography & Facts|work=Encyclopædia Britannica|access-date=3 August 2017|language=en}}</ref> In 1997 he became the first world champion to lose a match to a computer under standard [[time control]]s, when he failed to the [[IBM]] supercomputer [[Deep Blue (chess computer)|Deep Blue]] in a [[Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov|highly publicized match]]. He continued to hold the "Classical" World Chess Championship until his defeat by [[Vladimir Kramnik]] in 2000. In spite of losing the title, he continued winning tournaments and was the world's highest-rated player when he retired from professional chess in 2005.

After Kasparov retired, he devoted his time to politics and writing. He formed the [[United Civil Front]] movement, and joined as a member of [[The Other Russia (coalition)|The Other Russia]], a coalition opposing the administration and [[Putinism|policies]] of [[Vladimir Putin]]. In 2008, he announced an intention to run as a candidate in [[2008 Russian presidential election|that year's Russian presidential race]], but failure to find a sufficiently large rental space to assemble the number of supporters that is legally required to endorse such a candidacy led him to withdraw. Kasparov blamed "official obstruction" for the lack of available space.<ref name="heir">Conor Sweeney, Chris Baldwin, [https://www.reuters.com/article/worldNews/idUSL1364229620071213 Putin "heir" on course to win Russia election: poll]</ref> Although he is widely regarded in the West as a symbol of opposition to Putin,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2012/06/17/chessmaster-garry-kasparov-is-determined-to-checkmate-vladimir-putin.html|title=Chessmaster Garry Kasparov Is Determined to Checkmate Vladimir Putin|author =Eli Lake |website= [[The Daily Beast]] |date=17 June 2012}}</ref> he was barred from the presidential ballot,<ref name="heir" /> as the political climate in Russia makes it difficult for opposition candidates to organize.<ref>{{cite book |last=Gessen |first=Masha |date=2012 |title=[[The Man Without a Face: The Unlikely Rise of Vladimir Putin]] |location=New York |publisher=Riverhead Books |pages=196–197 |isbn=978-1-59448-842-9 }} Gessen describes some of the obstacles Kasparov encountered during the attempt to build his campaign: his chartered plane was refused airport access; hotels were advised not to house him; event attendees and organizers were threatened; secret police were a constant presence; a "total television blackout" was enforced. These measures, Gessen concludes, kept the Kasparov movement from growing.</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Demirjian |first=Karoun |date=13 September 2014 |title=Moscow city elections leave little room for Russian opposition |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/world/europe/moscow-city-elections-leave-little-room-for-russian-opposition/2014/09/12/918f562c-070c-4ef8-8592-bc1f8d674e46_story.html |newspaper=The Washington Post |accessdate=28 September 2014}}"Independent opposition candidates faced many obstacles. In February, Putin signed a law requiring all independent candidates to collect signatures from 3 percent of their constituents. The city didn't finalize the boundaries of the districts – which expanded from 35 to 45 – until April. Then in May, two of the original 'For Moscow' members were slapped with fraud charges, effectively ending their campaigns.[paragraph break] The remaining would-be candidates had a few weeks in the summer to collect approximately 5,000 signatures. It proved an elusive goal for most coalition members."</ref>

Kasparov is currently chairman for the [[Human Rights Foundation]] and chairs its International Council. In 2017, he founded the [[Renew Democracy Initiative]] (RDI), an American political organization promoting and defending [[liberal democracy]] in the U.S. and abroad. He also serves as chairman of the group.<ref>{{cite news |last= |first= |date=December 4, 2018 |title=Garry Kasparov Says We Are Living in Chaos, But Remains an Incorrigible Optimist |url=https://www.newyorker.com/culture/the-new-yorker-interview/garry-kasparov-says-we-are-living-in-chaos-but-remains-an-incorrigible-optimist |work=The New Yorker |location= |access-date= }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |last=Boot |first=Max |date=April 25, 2018 |title=The political center is fighting back |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/opinions/global-opinions/the-political-center-is-fighting-back/2018/04/25/6170f646-489b-11e8-827e-190efaf1f1ee_story.html |work=The Washington Post |location= |access-date= }}</ref>

== Early career ==
[[File:Kasparov-2.jpg|thumb|Kasparov at age 11, Vilnius, 1974]]
Kasparov was born Garik Kimovich Weinstein (Russian: Гарик Вайнштейн) in [[Baku]], [[Azerbaijan Soviet Socialist Republic|Azerbaijan SSR]] (now [[Azerbaijan]]), [[Soviet Union]]. His father, Kim Moiseyevich Weinstein, was [[History of the Jews in Russia|Russian-Jewish]], and his mother, Klara Shagenovna Kasparova, was [[Armenians|Armenian]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.thedailybeast.com/|title=Chess Champion Garry Kasparov is Russia's Great Red Hope|website=The Daily Beast}}</ref><ref>{{citation|first=Garry|last=Kasparov|title=Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov, Part 1: 1973–1985|year=2011|publisher=Everyman Chess}}: "I am absolutely sure that the Garry Kasparov, who became leader of the chess world, professed the same values as Garik Weinstein, who once, following the example of his father, became fascinated by chess..."</ref><ref name="biography">[http://www.kasparov.ru/note.php?id=44993207033D9 Biography] on Kasparov.ru site {{ru icon}}</ref><ref>''White King and Red Queen'' by Daniel Johnson, {{ISBN|1-84354-609-4}}</ref> Kasparov has described himself as a "self-appointed Christian", although "very indifferent"<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,301057,00.html |title=Transcript: Kasparov to Start Campaign Promoting 'Values of Democracy' |publisher=Fox News |accessdate=20 October 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130521160837/http://www.foxnews.com/story/0%2C2933%2C301057%2C00.html |archivedate=21 May 2013 }}</ref> and identifies as Russian.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversationswithbillkristol.org/video/garry-kasparov/|title=Garry Kasparov on Conversations with Bill Kristol|publisher=}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://conversationswithbillkristol.org/transcript/garry-kasparov-transcript/|title=Garry Kasparov Transcript – Conversations with Bill Kristol|publisher=}}</ref>

Kasparov began the serious study of [[chess]] after he came across a chess problem set up by his parents and proposed a solution.<ref>''Unlimited Challenge'', an autobiography by Garry Kasparov with Donald Trelford, {{ISBN|0-00-637358-5}}</ref> His father died of [[leukemia]] when Garry was seven years old.<ref name="Azerbaijan">[http://www.azer.com/aiweb/categories/magazine/33_folder/33_articles/33_kasparov.html Kasparov: The World's Chess Champion], by Anne Kressler, From ''Azerbaijan International'' (3.3) Autumn 1995. (Retrieved 31 March 2008)</ref> At the age of twelve, Garry, upon request of mother Klara and consent of the family, adopted Klara's surname Kasparov, which was done to avoid possible [[antisemitic]] tensions, which were common in the [[USSR]] at the time.<ref>{{cite book|title=[[Oxford Companion To Chess]]|author=[[David Vincent Hooper|Hooper, David]] & [[Kenneth Whyld|Whyld, Kenneth]] |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]]|year=1996|isbn=0-19-280049-3|oclc=34618196}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=Reason for name change |url=http://www.jewornotjew.com/profile.jsp?ID=79 |accessdate=22 June 2019}}</ref>

From age 7, Kasparov attended the [[Pioneers Palace|Young Pioneer Palace]] in [[Baku]] and, at 10 began training at [[Mikhail Botvinnik]]'s chess school under noted coach [[Vladimir Makogonov]]. Makogonov helped develop Kasparov's positional skills and taught him to play the [[Caro-Kann Defence]] and the [[Savielly Tartakower|Tartakower]] System of the [[Queen's Gambit Declined]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chesscafe.com/text/review506.pdf |title=The Young King |accessdate=11 August 2007 |last=Ham |first=Stephen |year=2005 |format=PDF |publisher=Chesscafe}}</ref> Kasparov won the Soviet Junior Championship in [[Tbilisi]] in 1976, scoring 7 points of 9, at age 13. He repeated the feat the following year, winning with a score of 8½ of 9. He was being trained by [[Alexander Shakarov]] during this time.

In 1978, Kasparov participated in the [[Alexey Sokolsky|Sokolsky]] Memorial tournament in [[Minsk]]. He had been invited as an exception but took first place and became a [[chess master]]. Kasparov has repeatedly said that this event was a turning point in his life and that it convinced him to choose chess as his career. "I will remember the Sokolsky Memorial as long as I live", he wrote. He has also said that after the victory, he thought he had a very good shot at the World Championship.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessclub.com/help/interview |title=ICC Help: interview |accessdate=11 August 2007 |publisher=Internet Chess Club}}</ref>

He first qualified for the [[USSR Chess Championship|Soviet Chess Championship]] at age 15 in 1978, the youngest ever player at that level. He won the 64-player Swiss system tournament at [[Daugavpils]] on tiebreak over [[Igor V. Ivanov]] to capture the sole qualifying place.

Kasparov rose quickly through the [[FIDE|World Chess Federation]] rankings. Starting with an oversight by the [[Russian Chess Federation]], he participated in a grandmaster tournament in [[Banja Luka]], [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] (then part of [[Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia|Yugoslavia]]), in 1979 while still unrated (he was a replacement for the Soviet [[Defection|defector]] [[Viktor Korchnoi]], who was originally invited but withdrew due to the threat of a boycott from the Soviets). Kasparov won this high-class tournament, emerging with a provisional rating of 2595, enough to catapult him to the top group of chess players (at the time, number 15 in the world).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olimpbase.org/Elo/Elo198001e.html|title=FIDE Rating List: January 1980|publisher=OlimpBase|accessdate=2 April 2011}}</ref> The next year, 1980, he won the [[World Junior Chess Championship]] in [[Dortmund]], West Germany. Later that year, he made his debut as second reserve for the Soviet Union at the [[Chess Olympiad]] at [[Valletta]], [[Malta]], and became a Grandmaster.

== Towards the top ==
[[File:Garry Kasparov 1980 Dortmund.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Kasparov becomes World Junior Champion at Dortmund in 1980]]
As a teenager, Kasparov tied for first place in the [[USSR Chess Championship]] in 1981–82. His first win in a superclass-level international tournament was scored at [[Bugojno]], Yugoslavia in 1982. He earned a place in the 1982 Moscow [[Interzonal]] tournament, which he won, to qualify for the [[Candidates Tournament]].<ref name="chessmetrics">[http://chessmetrics.com/cm/CM2/PlayerProfile.asp?Params=199510SSSSS3S062926000000111000000000000010100 Chessmetrics Player Profile: Garry Kasparov] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120308054908/http://chessmetrics.com/cm/CM2/PlayerProfile.asp?Params=199510SSSSS3S062926000000111000000000000010100 |date=8 March 2012 }}</ref> At age 19, he was the youngest Candidate since Bobby Fischer, who was 15 when he qualified in 1958. At this stage, he was already the No. 2-rated player in the world, trailing only World Chess Champion Anatoly Karpov on the January 1983 list.

Kasparov's first (quarter-final) Candidates match was against [[Alexander Beliavsky]], whom he defeated 6–3 (four wins, one loss).<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mark-weeks.com/chess/8284$cix.htm |title=World Chess Championship 1982–84 Candidates Matches |accessdate=11 August 2007 |publisher=Mark Weeks' Chess Pages}}</ref> Politics threatened Kasparov's semi-final against Viktor Korchnoi, which was scheduled to be played in [[Pasadena, California]]. Korchnoi had defected from the Soviet Union in 1976, and was at that time the strongest active non-Soviet player. Various political maneuvers prevented Kasparov from playing Korchnoi, and Kasparov forfeited the match. This was resolved by Korchnoi allowing the match to be replayed in London, along with the previously scheduled match between [[Vasily Smyslov]] and [[Zoltán Ribli]]. The Kasparov-Korchnoi match was put together on short notice by [[Raymond Keene]]. Kasparov lost the first game but won the match 7–4 (four wins, one loss).

In January 1984, Kasparov became the [[List of FIDE chess world number ones|No. 1 ranked player]] in the world, with a FIDE rating of 2710. He became the youngest ever world No. 1, a record that lasted 12 years until being broken by Vladimir Kramnik in January 1996; Magnus Carlsen currently holds the album.

Later in 1984, he won the Candidates' final 8½–4½ (four wins, no losses) against the resurgent former world champion Vasily Smyslov, at [[Vilnius]], thus qualifying to play Anatoly Karpov for the World Championship. That year he joined the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU), as a member of which he was elected to the Central Committee of [[Komsomol]] in 1987.

== 1984 World Championship ==
{{Main|World Chess Championship 1984}}
The [[World Chess Championship 1984]] match between Anatoly Karpov and Garry Kasparov had many ups and downs, and a very controversial finish. Karpov started in very good form, and after nine games Kasparov was down 4–0 in a "first to six wins" match. Fellow players predicted he would be whitewashed 6–0 within 18 games.<ref name="Karpov1984">[http://www.mark-weeks.com/chess/84kk$$.htm 1984 Karpov – Kasparov Title Match Highlights] Mark Weeks' Chess Pages</ref>

In an unexpected turn of events, there followed a series of 17 successive draws, some relatively short, and others drawn in unsettled positions. Kasparov lost game 27 (5–0), then fought back with another series of draws until game 32 (5–1), earning his first-ever win against the World Champion. Another 14 successive draws followed, through game 46; the previous record length for a world title match had been 34 games, the set of [[José Raúl Capablanca]] vs. [[Alexander Alekhine]] in 1927.

Kasparov won games 47 and 48 to bring the scores to 5–3 in Karpov's favour. Then the match was ended without result by [[Florencio Campomanes]], the President of [[Fédération Internationale des Échecs]] (FIDE), and a new match was announced to start a few months later. The termination was controversial, as both players stated that they preferred the game to continue. Announcing his decision at a [[press conference]], Campomanes cited the health of the players, which had been strained by the length of the match.

The match became the first, and so far only, world championship match to be abandoned without result. Kasparov's relations with Campomanes and FIDE were greatly strained, and the feud between them finally came to a head in 1993 with Kasparov's complete break-away from FIDE.

== World Champion ==
{{more citations needed|section|date=November 2018}}
[[File:Kasparov-1.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Kasparov after winning the FIDE World Championship title in 1985]]
The second Karpov-Kasparov match in 1985 was organized in Moscow as the best of 24 games where the first player to win 12½ points would claim the World Champion title. The scores from the terminated match would not carry over; however, in the event of a 12–12 draw, the title would remain with Karpov. On 9 November 1985, Kasparov secured the title by a score of 13–11, winning the 24th game with Black, using a [[Sicilian defense]]. He was 22 years old at the time, making him the youngest ever World Champion,<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2010/12/25/world/asia/25chess.html|title=Record Set for World's Youngest Chess Champion|author =Dylan Loeb McClain |newspaper= The New York Times |date=24 December 2010}}</ref> and breaking the record held by [[Mikhail Tal]] for over 20 years.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.worldchesshof.org/hall-of-fame/world-chess-hall-of-fame/mikhail-tal/|title=Mikhail Tal|publisher=[[World Chess Hall of Fame]]|accessdate=22 June 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120206023152/http://worldchesshof.org/hall-of-fame/world-chess-hall-of-fame/mikhail-tal/|archive-date=6 February 2012|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all}}</ref> Kasparov's win as Black in the 16th game has been recognized as one of the all-time masterpieces in chess history.

As part of the arrangements following the aborted 1984 match, Karpov had been granted (in the event of his defeat) a right to rematch. Another match took place in 1986, hosted jointly in London and [[Saint Petersburg|Leningrad]], with each city hosting 12 games. At one point in the match, Kasparov opened a three-point lead and looked well on his way to a decisive match victory. But Karpov fought back by winning three consecutive games to level the score late in the match. At this point, Kasparov dismissed one of his seconds, grandmaster [[Evgeny Vladimirov]], accusing him of selling his [[Chess opening|opening]] preparation to the Karpov team (as described in Kasparov's autobiography ''Unlimited Challenge'', chapter Stab in the Back). Kasparov scored one more win and kept his title by a final score of 12½–11½.

A fourth match for the world title took place in 1987 in [[Seville]], as Karpov had qualified through the Candidates' Matches to again become the official challenger. This match was very close, with neither player holding more than a one-point lead at any time during the contest. Kasparov was down one full point at the time of the final game, and needed a win to draw the match and retain his title. A long tense game ensued in which Karpov [[blunder (chess)|blundered]] away a [[Pawn (chess)|pawn]] just before the first [[time control]], and Kasparov eventually won a long ending. Kasparov retained his title as the match was drawn by a score of 12–12. (All this meant that Kasparov had played Karpov four times in the period 1984–87, a statistic unprecedented in chess. Matches organized by FIDE had taken place every three years since 1948, and only Botvinnik had a right to a rematch before Karpov.)

A fifth match between Kasparov and Karpov was held in New York and [[Lyon]] in 1990, with each city hosting 12 games. Again, the result was a close one with Kasparov winning by a margin of 12½–11½. In their five world championship matches, Kasparov had 21 wins, 19 losses, and 104 draws in 144 games.

== Break with and ejection from FIDE ==
[[File:Kasparov-10.jpg|thumb|Kasparov and [[Viswanathan Anand]] in a publicity photo on top of the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] in New York]]
With the World Champion title in hand, Kasparov began opposing FIDE. Beginning in 1986, he created the Grandmasters Association (GMA), an organization to represent professional chess players and give them more say in FIDE's activities. Kasparov assumed a leadership role. GMA's major achievement was in organizing a series of six World Cup tournaments for the world's top players. A somewhat uneasy relationship developed with FIDE, and a sort of truce was brokered by [[Bessel Kok]], a Dutch businessman.

This stand-off lasted until 1993, by which time a new challenger had qualified through the [[Candidates Tournament|Candidates]] cycle for Kasparov's next World Championship defense: [[Nigel Short]], a British grandmaster who had defeated Anatoly Karpov in a qualifying match, and then [[Jan Timman]] in the finals held in early 1993. After a confusing and compressed bidding process produced lower financial estimates than expected,<ref>''Nigel Short: Quest for the Crown'', by Cathy Forbes</ref> the world champion and his challenger decided to play outside FIDE's jurisdiction. That is under another organization created by Kasparov called the [[Professional Chess Association]] (PCA). At this point, a great fracture occurred in the lineage of the FIDE World Championship. In an interview in 2007, Kasparov called the break with FIDE the worst mistake of his career, as it hurt the game in the long run.<ref>[http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?newsid=1120623 'My decision to break away from fide was a mistake'] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090318122600/http://www.dnaindia.com/report.asp?newsid=1120623 |date=18 March 2009 }}, ''[[DNA (newspaper)|DNA]]'', 10 September 2007. Retrieved 11 September 2007.</ref>

Fide ejected Kasparov and Short, and they [[World Chess Championship 1993|played their well-sponsored match]] in London. Kasparov won convincingly by a score of 12½–7½. The match considerably raised the profile of chess in the UK, with an unprecedented level of coverage on [[Channel 4]]. Meanwhile, FIDE organized a World Championship match between [[Jan Timman]] (the defeated Candidates finalist) and former World Champion Karpov (a defeated Candidates semi-finalist), which Karpov won.
[[File:Kasparov-44.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Kasparov and [[Sting (musician)|Sting]] in 2000]]
FIDE removed Kasparov and Short from the FIDE rating lists. Until this happened, there was a parallel rating list presented by PCA which featured all world top players, regardless of their relation to FIDE. There were now two World Champions: PCA champion Kasparov, and FIDE champion Karpov. The title remained split for 13 years.

Kasparov defended his title in a [[PCA World Chess Championship 1995|1995 match]] against [[Viswanathan Anand]] at the [[World Trade Center (1973–2001)|World Trade Center]] in New York City. Kasparov won the match by four wins to one, with thirteen draws. It was the last World Championship to be held under the auspices of the PCA, which collapsed when [[Intel]], one of its major backers, withdrew its sponsorship.

Kasparov tried to organize another World Championship match, under another organization, the World Chess Association (WCA) with [[Linares chess tournament|Linares]] organizer [[Luis Rentero]]. [[Alexei Shirov]] and Vladimir Kramnik played a candidates match to decide the challenger, which Shirov won in a surprising upset. But when Rentero admitted that the funds required and promised had never materialized, the WCA collapsed. This left Kasparov stranded, and yet another organization stepped in: BrainGames.com, headed by [[Raymond Keene]]. No match against Shirov was arranged, and talks with Anand collapsed, so a game was instead arranged against Kramnik.

During this period, Kasparov was approached by [[Oakham School]] in the United Kingdom, at the time the only school in the country with a full-time chess coach,<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/education/expateducation/4179931/Tradition-with-an-eye-on-the-future.html|title=Tradition with an eye on the future|date=6 November 2001|work=Telegraph.co.uk|accessdate=2 May 2015}}</ref> and developed an interest in the use of chess in education. In 1997, Kasparov supported a scholarship programme at the school.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-19147262.html|title=Kasparov's master class to launch chess scholarship in Britain|publisher=}}{{dead link|date=February 2019|bot=medic}}{{cbignore|bot=medic}}</ref> Kasparov also won the [[Marca Leyenda]] trophy that year.

== Losing the title and aftermath ==
[[File:Kasparov-11.jpg|thumb|Kasparov playing against [[Vladimir Kramnik]] in the Botvinnik Memorial match in Moscow, 2001]]
The Kasparov-Kramnik match took place in London during the latter half of 2000. Kramnik had been a student of Kasparov's at the famous Botvinnik/Kasparov chess school in Russia, and had served on Kasparov's team for the 1995 match against Viswanathan Anand.

The better-prepared Kramnik won game 2 against Kasparov's [[Grünfeld Defence]] and achieved winning positions in Games 4 and 6, although Kasparov held the draw in both games. Kasparov made a critical error in Game 10 with the [[Nimzo-Indian Defence]], which Kramnik exploited to win in 25 moves. As White, Kasparov could not crack the passive but solid [[Ruy Lopez#Berlin Defence|Berlin Defence in the Ruy Lopez]], and Kramnik successfully drew all his games as Black. Kramnik won the match 8½–6½. Kasparov became the first player to lose a world championship match without winning a game since [[Emanuel Lasker]]'s loss to [[José Raúl Capablanca]] in 1921.

After losing the title, Kasparov won a series of major tournaments, and remained the top rated player in the world, ahead of both Kramnik and the FIDE World Champions. In 2001 he refused an invitation to the 2002 Dortmund [[Candidates Tournament]] for the Classical title, claiming his results had earned him a rematch with Kramnik.<ref>{{cite press release |title=BGN/Dortmund Event |publisher=This Week in Chess |date=6 September 2001 |url=http://www.chesscenter.com/twic/owenbrain.html |accessdate=11 August 2001}}</ref>

Kasparov and Karpov played a four-game match with rapid time controls over two days in December 2002 in New York City. Karpov surprised the experts and emerged victorious, winning two games and drawing one.<ref>[http://www.chessbase.com/newsprint.asp?newsid=661 Anatoly Karpov wins X3D Rapid Match] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019054119/http://www.chessbase.com/newsprint.asp?newsid=661 |date=19 October 2012 }}, ''ChessBase News'', 21 December 2002</ref>

Due to Kasparov's continuing reliable results, and status as world No. 1 in much of the public eye, he was included in the so-called "Prague Agreement", masterminded by [[Yasser Seirawan]] and intended to reunite the two World Championships. Kasparov was to play a match against the FIDE World Champion [[Ruslan Ponomariov]] in September 2003. But this match was called off after Ponomariov refused to sign his contract for it without reservation. In its place, there were plans for a game against [[Rustam Kasimdzhanov]], winner of the [[FIDE World Chess Championship 2004]], to be held in January 2005 in the [[United Arab Emirates]]. These also fell through due to lack of funding. Plans to own the match in Turkey instead came too late. Kasparov announced in January 2005 that he was tired of waiting for FIDE to organize a game and so had decided to stop all efforts to regain the World Championship title.

== Retirement from chess ==
After winning the prestigious [[Linares chess tournament|Linares tournament]] for the ninth time, Kasparov announced on 10 March 2005 that he would retire from serious competitive chess. He cited as the reason a lack of personal goals in the chess world (he commented when winning the [[Russian Chess Championship|Russian championship]] in 2004 that it had been the last major title he had never won outright) . Besides, he expressed frustration at the failure to reunify the world championship.

Kasparov said he may play in some rapid chess events for fun, but intends to spend more time on his books, including both the ''My Great Predecessors'' series (see [[#Books and other writings|below]]) and a work on the links between decision-making in chess and other areas of life, and will continue to involve himself in [[Politics of Russia|Russian politics]], which he views as "headed down the wrong path".

Kasparov has been married three times: to Masha, with whom he had a daughter before divorcing. He also married to Yulia, with whom he had a son before their 2005 divorce. And, he also married to Daria (Dasha), with whom he has two children, a daughter born in 2006 and a son born in 2015. They live in New York City.<ref>Emma Cowing, "[http://news.scotsman.com/international.cfm?id=1024232006 Kasparov makes his first political move on Putin]", ''The Scotsman'', 13 July 2006.</ref><ref name="New_Yorker">{{cite journal |author=David Remnick |url=http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2007/10/01/071001fa_fact_remnick?printable=true |title=The Tsar's Opponent: Garry Kasparov takes aim at the power of Vladimir Putin |accessdate=22 October 2007 |date=1 October 2007 |journal=New Yorker}}</ref><ref>Masha Gessen, "[https://www.newyorker.com/culture/the-new-yorker-interview/garry-kasparov-says-we-are-living-in-chaos-but-remains-an-incorrigible-optimist Garry Kasparov Says We Are Living in Chaos, But Remains an Incorrigible Optimist]", ''The New Yorker'', 4 December 2018.</ref> Kasparov's wife manages his business activities worldwide as the founder of Kasparov International Management Inc.

=== Post-retirement chess ===
On 22 August 2006, in his first public chess games since his retirement, Kasparov played in the Lichthof Chess Champions Tournament, a [[fast chess|blitz]] event played at the time control of 5 minutes per side and 3-second increments per move. Kasparov tied for first with Anatoly Karpov, scoring 4½/6.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=3310 |title=The Credit Suisse Blitz – in pictures |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=27 August 2006 |publisher=Chessbase}}</ref>

Kasparov and Anatoly Karpov played a 12-game match from 21–24 September 2009, in [[Valencia]], Spain. It consisted of four rapid (or semi rapid) games, in which Kasparov won 3–1, and eight blitz games, in which Kasparov won 6–2, winning the match with total result 9–3. The event took place exactly 25 years after the two players' legendary encounter at [[World Chess Championship 1984]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://previews.chessdom.com/kasparov-karpov-valencia-2009 |title=Kasparov and Karpov to play 12 games match in Valencia |accessdate=8 July 2009 |publisher=Chessdom}}</ref>

Kasparov actively coached Magnus Carlsen for approximately one year beginning in February 2009. The collaboration remained secret until September 2009.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=5742 |title=Breaking news: Carlsen and Kasparov join forces |accessdate=8 September 2009 |date=7 September 2009 |publisher=Chessbase}}</ref> Under Kasparov's tutelage, Carlsen in October 2009 became the youngest ever to achieve a FIDE rating higher than 2,800, and rose from world number four to world number one. While the pair initially planned to work together throughout 2010,<ref name="carlsen">[http://www.chessvibes.com/reports/magnus-carlsen-my-job-is-to-improve-my-chess/#more-15978 Magnus Carlsen: "My job is to improve my chess"] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130128130236/http://www.chessvibes.com/reports/magnus-carlsen-my-job-is-to-improve-my-chess/#more-15978 |date=28 January 2013 }}, ''ChessVibes'', 7 September 2009</ref> in March of that year it was announced that Carlsen had split from Kasparov and would no longer be using him as a trainer.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/sport/2010/mar/13/chess-magnus-carlsen-garry-kasparov|title=World No1 Magnus Carlsen parts company with mentor Garry Kasparov|last=Barden|first=Leonard|date=13 March 2010|work=The Guardian |location=UK |accessdate=14 March 2010 }}</ref> According to an interview with the German magazine ''[[Der Spiegel]]'', Carlsen indicated that he would remain in contact and that he would continue to attend training sessions with Kasparov,<ref>"[http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=6187 Magnus Carlsen on his chess career]", ''ChessBase News'', 15 March 2010.</ref> but in fact no further training sessions were held and the cooperation gradually fizzled out over the course of the spring.<ref>"NIC's Cafe: Last Call", New in Chess Magazine, 2011/07, p. 6.</ref>

In May 2010 he played 30 games simultaneously, winning each one, against players at [[Tel Aviv University]] in Israel.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jpost.com/Israel/Article.aspx?id=175227|title=Kasparov beats 30 challengers in simultaneous play at TAU|work=The Jerusalem Post|accessdate=2 May 2015}}</ref> In the same month it was revealed that Kasparov had aided Viswanathan Anand in preparation for the [[World Chess Championship 2010]] against challenger [[Veselin Topalov]]. Anand won the match 6½–5½ to retain the title.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=6346 |title=Chess News – Anand in Playchess – the helpers in Sofia |accessdate=19 May 2010 |date=19 May 2010 |publisher=Chessbase}}</ref>

[[File:Garry Kasparov (23954609358).jpg|upright|thumb|Kasparov delivering a speech in Arizona in October 2017]]
In January 2011, Kasparov began training the U.S. grandmaster [[Hikaru Nakamura]]. The first of several training sessions was held in New York just prior to Nakamura's participation in the Tata Steel Chess tournament in Wijk aan Zee, the Netherlands.<ref>Peterson, Macauley. "The Spirit of Saint Louis" New in Chess Magazine, 2001/07, p. 12.</ref> In December 2011, it was announced that the cooperation had come to an end.<ref>{{cite web|title=Now it's official: Kasparov no longer training Nakamura|url=http://chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=7764|work=Chessbase Publishing|publisher=Chessbase|accessdate=16 December 2011}}</ref>

Kasparov played two blitz exhibition matches in the autumn of 2011. The first was in September against French grandmaster [[Maxime Vachier-Lagrave]], in [[Clichy, Hauts-de-Seine|Clichy]] ([[France]]), which Kasparov won 1½–½. The second was a longer match consisting of eight blitz games played on 9 October, against English grandmaster [[Nigel Short]]. Kasparov won again by a score of 4½–3½.

A little after that, in October 2011, Kasparov played and defeated fourteen opponents in a simultaneous exhibition that took place in [[Bratislava]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.chessfriends.com/diary/kasparov-defeated-all-fourteen-opponents-game-photographs/|title=Kasparov Defeated All Fourteen Opponents|accessdate=21 July 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160704222148/http://news.chessfriends.com/diary/kasparov-defeated-all-fourteen-opponents-game-photographs/|archive-date=4 July 2016|url-status=dead}}</ref>

On 25 and 26 April 2015, Kasparov played a mini-match against Nigel Short. The match consisted of two rapid games and eight blitz games. Kasparov won the game decisively with a score of 8½–1½, winning all five games on the second day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.chessbase.com/post/battle-of-the-legends-2-2|title=Battle of the Legends (2/2)|work=Chess News|accessdate=2 May 2015}}</ref>

On Wednesday 19 August 2015 he played and won the 19 games of a simultaneous exhibition in [[Pula]], [[Croatia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chess-news.ru/en/node/19811|title=19–0|accessdate=21 July 2016}}</ref>

On Thursday 28 April and Friday 29 April 2016 at the Chess Club and Scholastic Center of Saint Louis, Kasparov played a 6-round exhibition blitz round-robin tournament with [[Fabiano Caruana]], [[Wesley So]], and [[Hikaru Nakamura]] in an event called the Ultimate Blitz Challenge.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=http://www.uschesschamps.com/2016-us-championship-news/ultimate-blitz-challenge-garry-kasparov|title=Ultimate Blitz Challenge with Garry Kasparov|website=uschesschamps.com|access-date=28 April 2016}}</ref> He finished the tournament third with 9.5/18, behind Hikaru Nakamura (11/18) and Wesley So (10/18). At the post-tournament interview, he considered the possibility of playing future top-level blitz exhibition matches.

On 2 June 2016, Kasparov played against fifteen chess players in a simultaneous exhibition in the [[:de:Kaiser-Friedrich-Halle|Kaiser-Friedrich-Halle]] of [[Mönchengladbach]]. He won all games.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://chess24.com/en/watch/live-tournaments/kasparov-simultaneous-moenchengladbach|title=Kasparov simultaneous exhibition Mönchengladbach|accessdate=21 July 2016}}</ref>

==== Candidate for FIDE presidency ====
On 7 October 2013, Kasparov announced his candidacy for World Chess Federation president during a reception in Tallinn, Estonia, where the 84th FIDE Congress took place.<ref>{{cite news | title = Kasparov Announces Candidacy for FIDE President | publisher = [[Chess.com]]| date = 7 October 2013 | url = http://www.chess.com/news/breaking-kasparov-announces-candidacy-for-fide-president-1854 | accessdate = 8 October 2013 }}</ref> Kasparov's candidacy was supported by his former student, reigning [[World Chess Championship|World Chess Champion]] and [[FIDE World Rankings|FIDE#1 ranked player]] Magnus Carlsen.<ref>{{cite news |script-title=ru:Карлсен: поддерживаю Каспарова на выборах президента FIDE|url=http://www.championat.com/other/news-1849106-karlsen-podderzhivaju-kasparova-na-vyborakh-prezidenta-fide.html|date=4 June 2014|publisher=Championat.com|accessdate=8 June 2014|language=Russian}}</ref> At the FIDE General Assembly in August 2014, Kasparov lost the presidential election to incumbent FIDE president [[Kirsan Ilyumzhinov]], with a vote of 110–61.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.chess.com/news/breaking-ilyumzhinov-beats-kasparov-110-61-at-fide-presidential-elections-4528|title=Ilyumzhinov Beats Kasparov 110–61 at FIDE Presidential Elections|last=|first=|date=11 August 2014|website=Chess.com|publisher=|language=en-US|access-date=13 August 2016}}</ref>

A few days before the election took place, the ''New York Times Magazine'' had published a lengthy report on the viciously fought campaign. Included was information about a leaked contract between Kasparov and former FIDE Secretary General [[Ignatius Leong]] from Singapore, in which the Kasparov campaign reportedly "offered to pay Leong [[U.S. Dollars|$]]500,000. He also offered to pay $250,000 a year for four years to the Asean Chess Academy. That is an organization Leong helped create to teach the game. It also specifys that Leong would be responsible for delivering 11 votes from his region [...]".<ref>{{cite news|last1=Myers|first1=Steven Lee|title=Vladimir Putin's Chess-Master Nemesis|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2014/08/10/magazine/garry-kasparov.html?_r=0|work=The New York Times Magazine|date=6 August 2014}}</ref> In September 2015, the FIDE Ethics Commission found Kasparov and Leong guilty of violating its Code of Ethics<ref>{{cite web|title=Kasparov, Leong Found Guilty of Breaching FIDE Code of Ethics|work=Chess.com|date=9 September 2015|url=https://www.chess.com/news/kasparov-leong-found-guilty-of-breaching-fide-code-of-ethics-6538?page=2}}</ref> and later suspended them for two years from all FIDE functions and meetings.<ref>{{cite web|title=Ethics Commission Judgement|date=21 October 2015|work=Fide.com|url=https://www.fide.com/component/content/article/1-fide-news/9132-ethics-commission-judgement.html}}</ref>

=== Return from retirement ===
In 2017, Kasparov came out of retirement to participate in the inaugural [[Grand Chess Tour#Grand Chess Tour 2017|St. Louis Rapid and Blitz]] tournament from 14–19 August, scoring 3.5/9 in the rapid and 9/18 in the blitz, finishing 8th out of 10 participants, which included Nakamura, Caruana, former world champion Anand, and the eventual winner, Aronian.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.usnews.com/news/us/articles/2017-07-15/chess-legend-kasparov-picks-st-louis-competition-for-return|title= Chess Legend Kasparov Picks St. Louis Competition for Return |work=[[U.S. News & World Report]]|date=15 July 2017|accessdate=16 August 2017|first=Jim|last= Salter}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/early-lead/wp/2017/08/15/chess-legend-garry-kasparov-proving-hes-still-got-it-in-first-competitive-tournament-in-12-years/|title= Chess legend Garry Kasparov proving he's still got it in first competitive tournament in 12 years |work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=15 August 2017|accessdate=16 August 2017|first=Marissa|last= Payne}}</ref> Any tournament money that he earned would go towards charities to promote chess in Africa.

== Politics ==

===1980s===
Kasparov's grandfather was a staunch communist but Kasparov gradually began to have doubts about the Soviet Union's political system at age 13 when he traveled abroad for the first time to Paris for a chess tournament. In 1981, at age 18 he read [[Solzhenitsyn]]’s ''[[Gulag Archipelago]]'', a copy of which he bought while abroad.<ref name="Kristol">{{cite web |url=http://conversationswithbillkristol.org/transcript/garry-kasparov-v-transcript/ |title=GARRY KASPAROV V TRANSCRIPT |author= |date=25 April 2018 |website=Conversations with Bill Kristol |publisher=The Foundation for Constitutional Government |access-date=6 June 2017}}</ref>

Kasparov joined the [[Communist Party of the Soviet Union]] (CPSU) in 1984, and in 1987 was elected to the Central Committee of [[Komsomol]]. However, in 1990, he left the party and together with his family fled from [[Baku]] to [[Moscow]] on a chartered plane<ref name="New York Times">{{cite news |title=Gorbachev Is at Fault, Chess Champion Says |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1990/01/22/world/gorbachev-is-at-fault-chess-champion-says.html |newspaper=[[The New York Times]] |date=22 January 1990 |accessdate=13 November 2012 |quote=''In any democratic country Gorbachev would have resigned by now,'' Mr. Kasparov, who fled from Baku last Thursday, told the French television. ''He is unable to resolve the nationality problem, and should assume responsibility for what has happened,'' he said. Mr. Kasparov fled from Baku to Moscow on a chartered plane.}}</ref> when [[Pogrom of Armenians in Baku|pogroms against Armenians in Baku]] took place forcing thousands of ethnic Armenians to flee Azerbaijan.<ref>[http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/frostinterview/2013/08/2013822131453799320.html Garry Kasparov : 'A game designed for me']. [[Al Jazeera]]. 24 August 2013. Retrieved 31 August 2013.</ref>

===1990s===
In May 1990, Kasparov took part in the creation of the [[Democratic Party of Russia]], which at first was a liberal anti-communist party, later shifting to centrism.<ref name="biography"/> Kasparov left the party on April 28, 1991, after its conference.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910429.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |title=SPLIT IN DEMOCRATIC PARTY OF RUSSIA |last=Tolz |first=Vera |date=April 29, 2018 |website=friends-partners.org |publisher=Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty |access-date=September 17, 2018 |quote= |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180917105402/http://friends-partners.org/friends/news/omri/1991/04/910429.html(opt,text,unix,english,,new) |archive-date=17 September 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

In June 1993, Kasparov was involved with the creation of the "Choice of Russia" bloc of parties and in 1996 took part in the election campaign of [[Boris Yeltsin]]. In 2001 he voiced his support for the Russian television channel [[NTV Russia|NTV]].<ref name="biography"/>

In 1991, Kasparov received the Keeper of the Flame award from the [[Center for Security Policy]] for "propagation of democracy and the respect for individual rights throughout the world". In his acceptance speech Kasparov lauded the defeat of communism while also urging the United States to give no financial assistance to central Soviet leaders.<ref name="New_Yorker"/><ref name="216.105.98.164">{{cite web |url=http://216.105.98.164/modules/newsmanager/inside%20the%20ctr%20images%20pdfs/AnnualReport2006.pdf#page=23 |title=Center for Security Policy Annual Report 2006 |accessdate=11 August 2007 |format=PDF |page=23 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070809041525/http://216.105.98.164/modules/newsmanager/inside%20the%20ctr%20images%20pdfs/AnnualReport2006.pdf#page=23 |archivedate=9 August 2007 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref name="centerforsecuritypolicy.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.centerforsecuritypolicy.org/Home.aspx?SID=75 |title=The Center's Role in National Security Policy |accessdate=11 August 2007 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070807064124/http://www.centerforsecuritypolicy.org/Home.aspx?SID=75 |archivedate=7 August 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref><ref name="1991: Keeper of the Flame Award">{{cite web|url=http://www.centerforsecuritypolicy.org/Modules/NewsManager/ShowSectionNews.aspx?CategoryID=62&SubCategoryID=63&NewsID=3445 |title=1991: Keeper of the Flame Award |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=18 April 2007 |publisher=Center for Security Policy |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070917022412/http://www.centerforsecuritypolicy.org/Modules/NewsManager/ShowSectionNews.aspx?CategoryID=62&SubCategoryID=63&NewsID=3445 |archivedate=17 September 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref><ref name="neudob">{{cite web |url=http://www.kasparov.ru/material.php?id=462668EB23D6F |script-title=ru:Неудобные вопросы |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=18 April 2007 |language=Russian}}</ref>

===2000s===
After his retirement from chess in 2005, Kasparov turned to politics and created the [[United Civil Front]], a social movement whose main goal is to "work to preserve [[Election|electoral]] democracy in Russia".<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.mosnews.com/news/2005/05/18/kasparovfront.shtml |archive-url=https://archive.today/20070509165213/http://www.mosnews.com/news/2005/05/18/kasparovfront.shtml |url-status=dead |archive-date=9 May 2007 |publisher=MOSNEWS.com |title=Russian Chess Legend Kasparov to Establish United Civil Front |date=18 May 2005 |df=dmy-all }}</ref> He has vowed to "restore democracy" to Russia by restoring the [[rule of law]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Kasparov leads demonstration against Putin's rule |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/europe/kasparov-leads-demonstration-against-putins-rule-452536.html |newspaper=The Independent on Sunday |date=10 June 2007 |accessdate=17 November 2010 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20050312/ai_n13466947 |title=Chess champ Kasparov's new gambit: politics |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=12 March 2005 |work=Chicago Sun-Times |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130825064913/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qn4155/is_20050312/ai_n13466947 |archivedate=25 August 2013 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3724/is_20070421/ai_n19047082 |title=Why Putin will stop at nothing to smash the new Russian revolution |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=21 April 2007 |work=The Spectator |location=UK |first=Anne |last=Applebaum |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080622055528/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3724/is_20070421/ai_n19047082 |archivedate=22 June 2008 }}</ref>

Kasparov was instrumental in setting up [[The Other Russia (coalition)|The Other Russia]], a coalition which opposes Putin's government. The Other Russia has been boycotted by the leaders of Russia's mainstream opposition parties, [[Yabloko]] and [[Union of Right Forces]] due to its inclusion of nationalist and radical groups. Kasparov has criticized these groups as being secretly under the auspices of the [[Kremlin]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kasparov.ru/material.php?id=46B73D00E4AC1|title=Non-partying system}}</ref>

On 10 April 2005, Kasparov was in Moscow at a promotional event when he was struck over the head with a chessboard he had just signed. The assailant was reported to have said "I admired you as a chess player, but you gave that up for politics" immediately before the attack.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=2344 |title=Pictures of the Moscow assault |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=22 April 2005 |work=The Federal Post |publisher=Chessbase}}</ref> Kasparov has been the subject of a number of other episodes since, including police brutality and alleged harassment from the Russian secret service.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=2393 |title=Kasparov manhandled by police at Moscow protest |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=16 May 2005 |work=The Moscow Times|publisher=Chessbase}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=2486 |title=Breaking news: Kasparov assaulted again |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=30 June 2005 |work=Mosnewsm.com|publisher=Chessbase}}</ref>

[[File:MarchNesoglas09juneSpB1.jpg|thumb|right|Kasparov at the third [[Dissenters March]] in [[Saint Petersburg]] on 9 June 2007]]
Kasparov helped organize the [[Saint Petersburg Dissenters' March]] on 3 March 2007 and [[Dissenters March|The March of the Dissenters]] on 24 March 2007, both involving several thousand people rallying against Putin and Saint Petersburg Governor [[Valentina Matviyenko]]'s policies.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/europe/03/03/russia.protest.ap/index.html |title=Anti-Kremlin protesters beaten by police |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=3 March 2007 |publisher=CNN |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070314235206/http://edition.cnn.com/2007/WORLD/europe/03/03/russia.protest.ap/index.html |archivedate=14 March 2007 }}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6492447.stm |title=Russian opposition demo quashed |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=25 March 2005 |work=BBC News | location=London}}</ref>

On 14 April 2007, Kasparov led a pro-democracy demonstration in Moscow. Soon after the demonstration's start, however, over 9,000 police descended on the group and seized almost everyone. Kasparov, who was briefly arrested by the Moscow police, was warned by the prosecution office on the eve of the march that anyone participating risked being detained. He was held for some 10 hours and then fined and released.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/6554989.stm |title=Kasparov arrested at Moscow rally |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=17 April 2007|work=BBC News | location=London}}</ref> He was later summoned by the [[FSB (Russia)|FSB]] for violations of Russian anti-extremism laws.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/27e706a8-ed4a-11db-9520-000b5df10621.html |title=Russian intelligence to quiz Kasparov over "inciting extremism" |accessdate=11 August 2007 |last=Buckley |first=neil |date=18 April 2007 |work=Financial Times }}</ref>

Speaking about Kasparov, former [[KGB]] general [[Oleg Kalugin]] in 2007 remarked, "I do not talk in details—people who knew them are all dead now because they were vocal, they were open. I am quiet. There is only one man who is vocal and he may be in trouble: [former] world chess champion [Garry] Kasparov. He has been very outspoken in his attacks on Putin and I believe that he is probably next on the list."<ref>{{cite magazine |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/story/cms.php?story_id=3911 |title=Seven Questions: A Little KGB Training Goes a Long Way |accessdate=11 August 2007 |last=Rivkin |first=Amanda |date=July 2007 |magazine=Foreign Policy}}
</ref>

In April 2007, it was asserted<ref>{{cite web |url=http://vz.ru/politics/2007/4/5/76063.print.html |title=Political Death of Kasparov |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=5 April 2007 |publisher=Front Line |language=Russian}}</ref> that Kasparov was a board member of the National Security Advisory Council of [[Center for Security Policy]],<ref name="216.105.98.164"/> a "non-profit, non-partisan national security [think tank in Washington, DC], which specializes in identifying policies, actions, and resource needs that are vital to American security".<ref name="centerforsecuritypolicy.org"/> Kasparov confirmed this and added that he had his name removed shortly after he became aware of it. He noted that he did not know about his "membership", suggesting that he was included on the board by accident, due to having received the 1991 Keeper of the Flame award from this organization.<ref name="1991: Keeper of the Flame Award"/><ref name="neudob"/> However, Kasparov maintained his association with the leadership by giving speeches at think tanks such as the [[Hoover Institution]].<ref name="New_Yorker"/>

On 30 September 2007, Kasparov entered the [[2008 Russian presidential election|Russian Presidential race]], receiving 379 of 498 votes at a congress held in Moscow by [[The Other Russia (coalition)|The Other Russia]].<ref>{{cite news|url=http://usatoday30.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-09-30-kasparov_N.htm|title=Kasparov runs for Russian presidency|date=1 October 2007 |agency=Associated Press}}</ref> In October 2007, Kasparov announced his intention of standing for the Russian position as the candidate of the "[[The Other Russia (coalition)|Other Russia]]" coalition and vowed to fight for a "democratic and just Russia". Later that month he traveled to the United States, where he appeared on several popular television programs, which were hosted by [[Stephen Colbert]], [[Wolf Blitzer]], [[Bill Maher]], and [[Chris Matthews]].

On 24 November 2007, Kasparov and other protesters were detained by police at an Other Russia rally in Moscow. 3,000 demonstrators arrived to allege the rigging of upcoming elections. Following an attempt by about 100 protesters to march through police lines to the electoral commission, which had barred Other Russia candidates from parliamentary elections, arrests were made. The Russian authorities stated a rally had been approved but not any marches, resulting in several detained demonstrators.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/7110910.stm |title=Kasparov seized by Russian Police |accessdate=24 November 2007 |date=24 November 2007 |work=BBC News | location=London}}</ref> He was subsequently charged with [[resisting arrest]] and organizing an unauthorized protest and given a jail sentence of five days. Kasparov appealed the charges, citing that he had been following orders given by the police, although it was denied. He was released from jail on 29 November.<ref>{{cite news|author=Misha Japaridze |title= Kasparov released from Moscow jail |url=https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/2007-11-29-kasparov-released_N.htm |agency=Associated Press |date=28 November 2007 |accessdate=28 November 2007 }}</ref> Putin criticized Kasparov at the rally for his use of English when speaking rather than Russian.<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/specials/2007/personoftheyear/article/0,28804,1690753_1690757_1691279,00.html A Bible, But No E-mail] ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' magazine</ref>

On 12 December 2007, Kasparov announced that he had to withdraw his presidential candidacy due to inability to rent a meeting hall where at least 500 of his supporters could assemble. With the deadline expiring on that date, he explained it was impossible for him to run. Russian election laws required sufficient meeting hall space for assembling supporters. Kasparov's spokeswoman accused the government of using pressure to deter anyone from renting a hall for the gathering and said that the electoral commission had rejected a proposal that would have allowed for smaller gathering sizes rather than one large gathering at a meeting hall.<ref>Andrew E. Kramer, [https://www.nytimes.com/2007/12/13/world/europe/13russia.html "Kasparov Says He Was Forced to End Bid for Presidency"], ''The New York Times'', 13 December 2007.</ref>

===2010s===
Kasparov was among the 34 first signatories and a key organizer of the online anti-Putin campaign "[[Putin must go]]", started on 10 March 2010. The campaign was begun by a coalition of opposition to Putin who regard his rule as lacking any rule of law. Within the text is a call to Russian law enforcement to ignore Putin's orders. By June 2011, there were 90,000 signatures. While the identity of the petition author remained anonymous, there was wide speculation that it was indeed Kasparov.<ref name=kasparov0604>{{cite web|url=http://www.ej.ru/?a=note&id=10000 |title=Гарри Каспаров. Возьмемся за руки, друзья... "ЕЖ", 6 April 2010 |publisher=Ej.ru |accessdate=17 January 2012}}</ref><ref name=ryzhkov>[http://www.echo.msk.ru/programs/personalno/663243-echo/ Особое мнение. Гость: Владимир Рыжков]. [Echo Moskvy], 12 March 2010</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://igeid.livejournal.com/51463.html |title=Игорь Эйдман. Открытое письмо организаторам кампании по сбору подписей |publisher=Igeid.livejournal.com |date=25 March 2010 |accessdate=17 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305151607/http://igeid.livejournal.com/51463.html |archivedate=5 March 2012 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>[http://novayagazeta.ru/data/2010/027/17.html Гарри Каспаров: В интернет ОМОН не пришлешь] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110927004221/http://novayagazeta.ru/data/2010/027/17.html |date=27 September 2011 }} [[Novaya Gazeta]], No. 27 of 17 March 2010.</ref>

On 17 August 2012, Kasparov was arrested and beaten outside of the Moscow court while attending the verdict reading in the case involving the all-female punk band [[Pussy Riot]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=8416 |title=Breaking news: Kasparov arrested and beaten at Pussy Riot trial |publisher=Chessbase.com |date=17 August 2012 |accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref> On 24 August, he was cleared of charges that he took part in an unauthorized protest against the conviction of three members of Pussy Riot. Judge Yekaterina Veklich said there were "no grounds to believe the testimony of the police". He could still face criminal charges over a police officer's claims that the opposition leader bit his finger while he was being detained.<ref>{{cite news
| title = Putin Critic Kasparov Acquitted Over Pussy Riot Protest
| url = http://en.rian.ru/russia/20120825/175424704.html
| date = 25 August 2012
| location = Moscow
| publisher = RIA Novosti
}}</ref> He later thanked all the bloggers and reporters who provided video evidence that contradicted the testimony of the police.{{Citation needed|date=July 2013}}

Kasparov wrote in February 2013 that "fascism has come to Russia. ... Project Putin, just like the old Project Hitler, is but the fruit of a conspiracy by the ruling elite. Fascist rule was never the result of the free will of the people. It was always the fruit of a conspiracy by the ruling elites!"<ref>{{cite web|last=Kasparov|first=Garry|title=Fascism in Our Own Backyard|url=http://www.kasparov.com/fascism-in-our-own-backyard/|publisher=The Official Website of Garry Kasparov|accessdate=2 November 2013|date=6 February 2013}}</ref>

In April 2013, Kasparov joined in an HRF condemnation of [[Kanye West]] for having performed for the leader of Kazakhstan in exchange for a $3 million paycheck, saying that West "has entertained a brutal killer and his entourage" and that his fee "came from the loot stolen from the Kazakhstan treasury".<ref>{{cite web|title=Rights Group Slams Kanye West for Gig in Kazakhstan|url=http://en.ria.ru/world/20130906/183208660.html|publisher=RIA Novosti|accessdate=4 November 2013|date=6 September 2013}}</ref>

Kasparov denied rumors in April 2013 that he planned to leave Russia for good. "I found these rumors to be deeply saddening and, moreover, surprising," he wrote. "I was unable to respond immediately because I was in such a state of shock that such an incredibly inaccurate statement, the likes of which is constantly distributed by the Kremlin's propagandists, came this time from Ilya Yashin, a fellow member of the Opposition Coordination Council (KSO) and my former colleague from the Solidarity movement."<ref>{{cite web|last=Kasparov |first=Garry |title=Don't You Worry, I'm Not Leaving |url=http://www.kasparov.com/dont-you-worry-im-not-leaving/ |publisher=The Official Website of Garry Kasparov |accessdate=5 November 2013 |date=7 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131105045837/http://www.kasparov.com/dont-you-worry-im-not-leaving/ |archivedate=5 November 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref>

In an April 2013 op-ed piece, Kasparov accused prominent Russian journalist [[Vladimir Posner]] of failing to stand up to Putin and to earlier Russian and Soviet leaders.<ref>{{cite web|last=Kasparov |first=Garry |title=The Doubling of VVP |url=http://www.kasparov.com/the-doubling-of-vvp/ |publisher=The Official Website of Garry Kasparov |accessdate=7 November 2013 |date=24 April 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131026063733/http://www.kasparov.com/the-doubling-of-vvp/ |archivedate=26 October 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref>

In November 2013, Kasparov co-wrote a Wall Street Journal op-ed with human rights activist [[David Keyes]].<ref name=":1">{{Cite news|url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/washington-needs-a-magnitsky-plaza-1384376250|title=Issuing a Streetwise Challenge to Dictators|last=Keyes|first=Garry Kasparov And David|date=2013-11-13|work=Wall Street Journal|access-date=2019-10-15|language=en-US|issn=0099-9660}}</ref> Kasparov and Keyes called for the street in front of Russian embassies around the world to be renamed "Magnitsky Plaza" in order to raise awareness of Russian mistreatment of [[Sergei Magnitsky]].<ref name=":1" /> The suggestion was part of Keyes' new global initiative to rename the streets in front of the embassies of dictatorships after political prisoners.<ref>{{Cite news|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/in-the-loop/wp/2014/06/02/liu-xiaobo-plaza-coming-to-an-embassy-near-you/|title=Liu Xiaobo Plaza coming to an embassy near you?|last=Kamen|first=Al|date=2 June 2014|work=The Washington Post|access-date=}}</ref>

Kasparov was presented with the Morris B. Abram Human Rights Award, [[UN Watch]]'s annual human-rights prize, in 2013. The organization praised him as "not only one of the world's smartest men" but "also among its bravest".<ref>{{cite web|title=Russian Dissident & Chess Champion Wins Human Rights Award |url=http://www.unwatch.org/cms.asp?id=3936405&campaign_id=65378 |publisher=UN Watch |accessdate=7 November 2013 |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131216090902/http://www.unwatch.org/cms.asp?id=3936405&campaign_id=65378 |archivedate=16 December 2013 |df=dmy }}</ref>

At the 2013 Women in the World conference, Kasparov told ''[[The Daily Beast]]''{{'}}s [[Michael C. Moynihan|Michael Moynihan]] that democracy no longer existed in what he called Russia's "dictatorship".<ref name=dailybeast>{{cite web|last=Kasparov|first=Garry|title=I Will Not Return to the Dark Reality of Putin's Russia|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/06/20/my-fight-for-russia-goes-on-garry-kasparov-declares.html|website=The Daily Beast|accessdate=14 November 2013|date=20 June 2013}}</ref>

Kasparov said at a press conference in June 2013 that if he returned to Russia he doubted he would be allowed to leave again, given Putin's ongoing crackdown against dissenters. "So for the time being," he said, "I refrain from returning to Russia." He explained shortly thereafter in an article for ''The Daily Beast'' that this had not been intended as "a declaration of leaving my home country, permanently or otherwise", but merely an expression of "the dark reality of the situation in Russia today, where nearly half the members of the opposition's Coordinating Council are under criminal investigation on concocted charges". He noted that the Moscow prosecutor's office was "opening an investigation that would limit my ability to travel", making it impossible for him to fulfill "professional speaking engagements" and hindering his "work for the nonprofit Kasparov Chess Foundation, which has centers in New York City, Brussels, and Johannesburg to promote chess in education".<ref name=dailybeast />

Kasparov further wrote in his June 2013 ''Daily Beast'' article that the mass protests in Moscow 18 months earlier against fraudulent Russian elections had been "a proud moment for me". He recalled that after joining the opposition movement in March 2005, he had been criticized for seeking to unite "every anti-Putin element in the country to march together regardless of ideology". Therefore, the sight of "hundreds of flags representing every group from liberals to nationalists all marching together for 'Russia Without Putin' was the fulfillment of a dream." Yet most Russians, he lamented, had continued to "slumber" even as Putin had "taken off the flimsy mask of democracy to reveal himself in full as the would-be KGB dictator he has always been".<ref>{{cite web|last=Kasparov|first=Garry|title=I Will Not Return to the Dark Reality of Putin's Russia|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/06/20/my-fight-for-russia-goes-on-garry-kasparov-declares.html|website=The Daily Beast|accessdate=18 November 2013|date=20 June 2013}}</ref>

Kasparov responded with several sardonic [[Twitter]] postings to a September 2013 ''[[The New York Times]]'' [[op-ed]] by Putin. "I hope Putin has taken adequate protections," he tweeted. "Now that he is a Russian journalist his life may be in grave danger!" Also: "Now we can expect NY Times op-eds by [[Mugabe]] on fair elections, [[Fidel Castro|Castro]] on free speech, & [[Kim Jong-un]] on prison reform. The Axis of Hypocrisy."<ref>{{cite web|title=Checkmate: Garry Kasparov rips apart ‘pathetic’ NYT for providing Putin a platform for ‘condescending propaganda’|url=http://twitchy.com/2013/09/11/checkmate-garry-kasparov-rips-apart-pathetic-nyt-for-providing-putin-a-platform-for-condescending-propaganda/|publisher=Twitchy|accessdate=5 December 2013|date=11 September 2013}}</ref>

In a 12 May 2013 op-ed for ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]'', Kasparov questioned reports that the Russian security agency, the [[Federal Security Service|FSB]], had fully cooperated with the [[FBI]] in the matter of the [[Boston bombers]]. He noted that the elder bomber, [[Tamerlan Tsarnaev]], had reportedly met in Russia with two known jihadists who "were killed in Dagestan by the Russian military just days before Tamerlan left Russia for the U.S." Kasparov argued, "If no intelligence was sent from Moscow to Washington" about this meeting, "all this talk of FSB cooperation cannot be taken seriously." He further observed, "This would not be the first time Russian security forces seemed strangely impotent in the face of an impending terror attack," pointing out that in both the [[2002 Moscow theater siege]] and the [[Beslan school hostage crisis|2004 Beslan school attack]], "there were FSB informants in both terror groups—yet the attacks went ahead unimpeded." Given this history, he wrote, "it is impossible to overlook that the Boston bombing took place just days after the U.S. [[Magnitsky List]] was published, creating the first serious external threat to the Putin power structure by penalizing Russian officials complicit in human-rights crimes." In sum, Putin's "dubious record on counterterrorism and its continued support of terror sponsors Iran and Syria mean only one thing: common ground zero".<ref name=wsj>{{cite news|last=Kasparov|first=Garry|title=A Shared Enemy Does Not Mean Shared Values|url=https://www.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424127887324244304578473603662138038|newspaper=The Wall Street Journal|accessdate=9 November 2013|date=12 May 2013}}</ref>

Kasparov wrote in July 2013 about the trial in [[Kirov, Russia|Kirov]] of fellow opposition leader [[Alexei Navalny]], who had been convicted "on concocted embezzlement charges", only to see the prosecutor, surprisingly, ask for his release the next day pending appeal. "The judicial process and the democratic process in Russia," wrote Kasparov, "are both elaborate mockeries created to distract the citizenry at home and to help Western leaders avoid confronting the awkward fact that Russia has returned to a police state". Still, Kasparov felt that whatever had caused the Kirov prosecutor's about-face, "my optimism tells me it was a positive sign. After more than 13 years of predictable repression under Putin, anything different is good."<ref>{{cite web|last=Kasparov|first=Garry|title=Kasparov: Why cracks are starting to appear in Putin's Russia|url=http://edition.cnn.com/2013/07/26/opinion/opinion-kasparov-russia/index.html|publisher=CNN|accessdate=27 November 2013|date=26 July 2013}}</ref>

Kasparov maintains a summer home in the Croatian city of [[Makarska]]. In early February 2014, Kasparov applied for citizenship by naturalisation in Croatia, adding that he was finding it increasingly difficult to live in Russia. According to an article in ''[[The Guardian]]'', Kasparov is "widely perceived" as having been a vocal supporter of Croatian independence during the early 1990s. On 28 February 2014, his application for naturalisation was approved, and he is now a Croatian passport holder.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/28/chess-champion-garry-kasparov-croatian-citizenship |title=Chess champion Garry Kasparov granted Croatian citizenship |work=The Guardian |location=London |date=28 February 2014 |accessdate=18 April 2014}}</ref>

=== Views ===
Kasparov wrote in ''[[Time Magazine|Time]]'' on 18 September 2013 that he considered the "chess metaphors thrown around during the world's response to the civil war in Syria" to be "trite" and rejected what he called "all the nonsense about 'Putin is playing chess and Obama is playing checkers,' or tic-tac-toe or whatever." Putin, argued Kasparov, "did not have to outplay or outthink anyone. He and Bashar Assad won by forfeit when President Obama, Prime Minister Cameron and the rest of the so-called leaders of the free world walked away from the table." There is, he lamented, "a new game at the negotiating table where Putin and Assad set the rules and will run the show under the protection of the U.N."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ideas.time.com/2013/09/18/putins-pawn-forget-chess-or-checkers-obama-forfeited/|title=Putin's Pawn: Forget Chess or Checkers — Obama Forfeited Read more: Putin’s Pawn: Forget Chess or Checkers — Obama Forfeited {{!}} TIME.com|last=Kasparov|first=Garry|date=18 September 2013|publisher=Time Ideas|accessdate=1 December 2013}}</ref> Kasparov said in September 2013 that Russia was now a dictatorship.<ref>{{cite web|title='Russia is a Dictatorship Now:' Kasparov|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/video/-russia-is-a-dictatorship-now-kasparov-utIuVqgRSLGUqnrzPYulCA.html|publisher=Bloomberg TV|accessdate=1 December 2013|year=2013}}</ref> In the same month he told an interviewer that "Obama going to Russia now is dead wrong, morally and politically," because Putin's regime "is behind Assad".<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Keating|first=Joshua|title=Garry Kasparov: "Obama Going to Russia Now Is Dead Wrong|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_world_/2013/09/04/garry_kasparov_the_chess_champion_turned_political_activist_explains_why.html|magazine=Slate|accessdate=1 December 2013}}</ref>

Kasparov spoke out several times about [[Russian LGBT propaganda law|Putin's antigay laws]] and the [[proposed Sochi Olympics boycott]]. He explained in August 2013 that he had opposed Russia's bid from the outset, since hosting the Olympics would "allow Vladimir Putin's cronies to embezzle hundreds of millions of dollars" and "lend prestige to Putin's authoritarian regime". Kasparov added that Putin's anti-gay law was "only the most recent encroachment on the freedom of speech and association of Russia's citizens", which the international community had largely ignored. Instead of supporting a games boycott, which would "unfairly punish athletes", Kasparov called for athletes and others to "transform Putin's self-congratulatory pet project into a spotlight that exposes his authoritarian rule for the entire world to see".<ref>{{cite web|last=Portwood|first=Jerry|title=Garry Kasparov:Let's Boycott Putin at the Sochi Olympics|url=http://www.out.com/news-opinion/2013/08/28/garry-kasparov-russian-boycott-putin-sochi-olympics|publisher=Out|accessdate=2 December 2013|date=28 August 2013|quote="The 'homosexual propaganda' law is only the most recent encroachment on the freedom of speech and association of Russia's citizens. Yet, the European Union and other governments have largely ignored the fact that Russia has signed various international conventions that categorically forbid this sort of discrimination. In the face of silent complicity by governments, it is up to artists, activists, and individuals like us to speak up against Putin's human rights abuses."}}</ref> In September, Kasparov expanded on his remarks, saying that "forcing athletes to play a political role against their will is not fair" and that politicians should not "hide behind athletes". Instead of boycotting Sochi, he suggested, politicians should refuse to attend the games and the public should "put pressure on the sponsors and the media". [[Coca-Cola]], for example, could put "a [[Rainbow flag (LGBT movement)|rainbow flag]] on each Coca-Cola can" and [[NBC]] could "do interviews with Russian gay activists or with Russian political activists". Kasparov also emphasized that although he was "still a Russian citizen", he had "good reason to be concerned about my ability to leave Russia if I returned to Moscow".<ref>{{cite web|last=Keating|first=Joshua| authorlink =Joshua Keating|title=Garry Kasparov: "Obama Going to Russia Now Is Dead Wrong"|url=http://www.slate.com/blogs/the_world_/2013/09/04/garry_kasparov_the_chess_champion_turned_political_activist_explains_why.html|work=[[Slate (magazine)|Slate]]|accessdate=2 December 2013}}</ref>

Kasparov has spoken out against the [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|2014 Russian annexation of Crimea]] and has stated that control of [[Crimea]] should be returned to [[Ukraine]] after the overthrow of Vladimir Putin without additional conditions.<ref>{{uk icon}} [http://pda.pravda.com.ua/news/id_7118650/ After removing Putin of Russia returns the Crimea Ukraine – Kasparov], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (25 August 2016)</ref>

Kasparov's website was blocked by the Russian federative regulator, [[Federal Service for Supervision of Communications, Information Technology and Mass Media|Roskomnadzor]], at the behest of the public prosecutor, allegedly due to Kasparov's opinions of the [[Annexation of Crimea by the Russian Federation|Crimean crisis]]. Kasparov's block was made in unison with several other notable Russian sites that were accused of inciting public outrage. Reportedly, several of the blocked sites received an affidavit noting their violations. However, Kasparov stated that his site had received no such notice of violations after its block.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gazeta.ru/politics/2014/03/13_a_5949065.shtml |title=В России заблокировали несколько интернет-СМИ и блог Алексея Навального – Газета.Ru |publisher=Gazeta.ru |date=17 June 2013 |accessdate=17 March 2014}}</ref>

In October 2015, Kasparov published a book titled ''Winter Is Coming: Why Vladimir Putin and the Enemies of the Free World Must Be Stopped''. In the book, Kasparov likens Putin to Hitler, and explains the need for the west to oppose Putin sooner, rather than appeasing him and postponing the eventual confrontation. According to his publisher, "Kasparov wants this book out fast, in a way that has potential to influence the discussion during the [[United States presidential primary|primary season]]."<ref name="Lozada, Carlos">{{cite web | url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/book-party/wp/2015/01/28/garry-kasparov-on-his-next-book-and-why-vladimir-putin-is-like-tywin-lannister/ | title=Garry Kasparov on his next book – and why Putin is like Tywin Lannister | work=The Washington Post | date=28 January 2015 | author=Lozada, Carlos}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a242ace8-7da8-11e5-98fb-5a6d4728f74e.html#axzz40EP98bQs|title=Review: ‘Winter is Coming’, by Garry Kasparov|work=Financial Times|author=John Thornhill|date=8 November 2015|accessdate=15 February 2016}}</ref>

In the [[2016 United States presidential election]], Kasparov described [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]] front-runner [[Donald Trump]] as "a celebrity showman with racist leanings and authoritarian tendencies",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kasparov.com/parties-pledges-and-principles-medium-march-6th-2016/|title=Parties, Pledges and Principles|author=Garry Kasparov|date=6 March 2016}}</ref> and criticised Trump for calling for closer ties with Vladimir Putin,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.kasparov.com/blog-post/trump-putin-and-real-fascism/|title=Trump, Putin, and Real Fascism|author=Garry Kasparov|date=11 December 2015}}</ref> and responded to Trump's running mate, [[Mike Pence]], calling Putin a strong leader, that Putin is a strong leader "in the same way [[arsenic]] is a strong drink".<ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/kasparov63/status/773996059949404160|title=Garry Kasparov's response to Mike Pence on Twitter}}</ref> He also criticised the economic policies of [[Democratic Party (United States)|Democratic]] primary candidate [[Bernie Sanders]], but showed respect for Sanders as "a charismatic speaker and a passionate believer in his cause".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2016/03/10/garry-kasparov-hey-bernie-don-t-lecture-me-about-socialism-i-lived-through-it.html|title=Garry Kasparov: Hey, Bernie, Don't Lecture Me About Socialism. I Lived Through It.|author=Garry Kasparov|website=The Daily Beast|date=10 March 2016}}</ref>

In 2017, he condemned the violence unleashed by the Spanish police against the [[2017 Catalan independence referendum|independence referendum in Catalonia]] on October 1. He criticized the Spanish PM [[Mariano Rajoy]] and accused him of "betraying" the European promise of peace.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kasparov acusa a Rajoy de "traicionar" la promesa europea del fin de la fuerza|url=https://www.elnacional.cat/es/politica/kasparov-rajoy-represion-referendum_197727_102.html|publisher=''El Nacional''|accessdate=12 February 2018|language=Spanish|date=2 October 2017}}</ref> Also, after the [[2017 Catalan regional election|Catalan regional election]] held the same year on December 21, he called on the [[European Union]] to intervene in the conflict to find a negotiated solution. He wrote on [[Twitter]]: "Despite unprecedented pressure from Madrid, Catalonian separatists won a majority. Europe must speak and help find a peaceful path toward resolution and avoid more violence".<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.es/2017/12/22/el-mensaje-de-kasparov-a-la-union-europea-tras-las-elecciones-en-cataluna_a_23315340|title=El mensaje de Kasparov a la Unión Europea tras las elecciones en Cataluña|work=The Huffington Post|language=Spanish|date=22 December 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://twitter.com/Kasparov63/status/944222399867904000?ref_src=twsrc%5Etfw|title=Despite unprecedented pressure from Madrid, Catalonian separatists won a majority. Europe must speak and help find a peaceful path toward resolution and avoid more violence.|first=Garry|last=Kasparov|publisher=}}</ref>

==Human Rights Foundation==

Kasparov was named Chairman of the [[Human Rights Foundation]] in 2011, succeeding the recently deceased author, activist, and former Czech president [[Václav Havel]].<ref>{{cite web|title=HRF Elects Garry Kasparov as New Chairman|url=http://humanrightsfoundation.org/news/hrf-elects-garry-kasparov-as-new-chairman-0067|publisher=Human Rights Foundation|accessdate=31 October 2013|date=4 May 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150502164312/http://humanrightsfoundation.org/news/hrf-elects-garry-kasparov-as-new-chairman-0067|archive-date=2 May 2015|url-status=dead}}</ref> On 31 January 2012, Kasparov hosted a meeting of opposition leaders planning a [[Protests following the 2011 Russian elections#4 February|mass march on 4 February 2012]], the third major opposition rally held since the [[2011 Russian legislative election|disputed State Duma elections of December 2011]]. Among other opposition leaders attending were [[Alexey Navalny]] and [[Putin must go#The rally of 12 December|Yevgenia Chirikova]].<ref>{{cite news | title = Protest Organizers Meet to Settle on Demands | pages = 12–27 | newspaper = [[The Moscow Times]]| date = 1 February 2012 | url = http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/protest-organizers-meet-to-settle-on-demands/452086.html | accessdate =3 February 2012 }}</ref>

==Playing style==
Kasparov's style of play has been compared by many to [[Alexander Alekhine|Alekhine's]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/2000-02-06/entertainment/0002040830_1_garry-kasparov-judit-polgar-viswanathan-anand |title=Poll Picks Bobby Fischer As Favorite Player – Sun Sentinel |publisher=Articles.sun-sentinel.com |date=6 February 2000 |accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.spectator.co.uk/article/26th-july-1986/45/chess |title=CHESS " 25 Jul 1986 " The Spectator Archive |publisher=Archive.spectator.co.uk |date=25 July 1986 |accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref> Kasparov has described his style as being influenced chiefly by Alekhine, Tal and Fischer.<ref>Kasparov, Garry (2003). ''My Great Predecessors, part I''. Everyman Chess. {{ISBN|1-85744-330-6}}. p. 9 {{OCLC|223602528}}.</ref> Kramnik has opined that "[Kasparov's] capacity for study is second to none", and said "There is nothing in chess he has been unable to deal with."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.kramnik.com/eng/interviews/getinterview.aspx?id=61 |title=The most important interviews by GM Vladimir Kramnik, World Chess Champion 2000–2007 |publisher=Kramnik.com |accessdate=20 October 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080512052013/http://www.kramnik.com/eng/interviews/getinterview.aspx?id=61 |archive-date=12 May 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }}</ref> [[Magnus Carlsen]], whom Kasparov coached from 2009 to 2010, said of Kasparov, "I've never seen someone with such a feel for [[Glossary of chess#Dynamism|dynamics]] in complex positions."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=7778 |title=Magnus Carlsen – 'I don't quite fit into the usual schemes' |publisher=ChessBase News |date=22 December 2011 |accessdate=13 August 2013}}</ref> Kasparov was known for his extensive opening preparation and aggressive play in the opening.<ref>{{cite news|last=Byrne|first=Robert|title=CHESS; How Kramnik Kept Kasparov Off His Game|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2000/11/05/nyregion/chess-how-kramnik-kept-kasparov-off-his-game.html|newspaper=The New York Times|date=5 November 2000}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://articles.sun-sentinel.com/1997-05-08/news/9705160275_1_deep-blue-garry-kasparov-45th-move |title=Game 4: Ibm, Kasparov Draw – Sun Sentinel |publisher=Articles.sun-sentinel.com |date=8 May 1997 |accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref>

== Olympiads and other major team events ==
[[File:Garry Kasparov 1980 Malta.jpg|thumb|right|Kasparov at Valletta in 1980]]
Kasparov played in a total of eight [[Chess Olympiad]]s. He represented the Soviet Union four times and Russia four times, following the breakup of the Soviet Union in 1991. In his 1980 Olympiad debut, he became, at age 17, the youngest player to represent the Soviet Union or Russia at that level, a record which was broken by Vladimir Kramnik in 1992. In 82 games, he has scored (+50−3=29), for 78.7% and won a total of 19 medals, including team gold medals all eight times he competed. For the 1994 Moscow Olympiad, he had a significant organizational role, in helping to put together the event on short notice, after [[Thessaloniki]] canceled its offer to host, a few weeks before the scheduled dates. Kasparov's detailed Olympiad record<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olimpbase.org/players/ssimw2af.html|title=Kasparov, Garry}}</ref> follows:
* [[24th Chess Olympiad|Valletta 1980]], USSR 2nd reserve, 9½/12 (+8−1=3), team gold, board bronze;
* [[25th Chess Olympiad|Lucerne 1982]], USSR 2nd board, 8½/11 (+6−0=5), team gold, board bronze;
* [[27th Chess Olympiad|Dubai 1986]], USSR 1st board, 8½/11 (+7−1=3), team gold, board gold, performance gold;
* [[28th Chess Olympiad|Thessaloniki 1988]], USSR 1st board, 8½/10 (+7−0=3), team gold, board gold, performance gold;
* [[30th Chess Olympiad|Manila 1992]], Russia board 1, 8½/10 (+7−0=3), team gold, board gold, performance silver;
* [[31st Chess Olympiad|Moscow 1994]], Russia board 1, 6½/10 (+4−1=5), team gold;
* [[32nd Chess Olympiad|Yerevan 1996]], Russia board 1, 7/9 (+5−0=4), team gold, board gold, performance silver;
* [[35th Chess Olympiad|Bled 2002]], Russia board 1, 7½/9 (+6−0=3), team gold, board gold.

Kasparov made his international teams debut for the USSR at age 16 in the 1980 European Team Championship and played for Russia in the 1992 edition of that championship. He won a total of five medals. His detailed Euroteams record, from,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.olimpbase.org/playerse/ssimw2af.html|title=Kasparov, Garry}}</ref> follows.
* [[Skara]] 1980, USSR 2nd reserve, 5½/6 (+5−0=1), team gold, board gold;
* [[Debrecen]] 1992, Russia board 1, 6/8 (+4−0=4), team gold, board gold, performance silver.

Kasparov also represented the USSR once in Youth Olympiad competition, but the detailed data at Olimpbase is incomplete; the Chessmetrics Garry Kasparov player file has his individual score from that event.
* [[Graz]] 1981, USSR board 1, 9/10 (+8−0=2), team gold.

== Records and achievements ==

=== Chess ratings achievements ===
Kasparov holds the record for the longest time as the [[List of FIDE chess world number ones|No. 1 rated player in the world]]—from 1986 to 2005 (Vladimir Kramnik shared the No. 1 ranking with him once, in the January 1996 FIDE rating list).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://chess.eusa.ed.ac.uk/Chess/Trivia/AlltimeList.html |title=All Time rankings |url-status=dead |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091126000035/http://chess.eusa.ed.ac.uk/Chess/Trivia/AlltimeList.html |archivedate=26 November 2009 |df=dmy }}</ref> He was also briefly ejected from the list following his split from FIDE in 1993, but during that time he headed the rating list of the rival [[Professional Chess Association|PCA]]. At the time of his retirement, he was still ranked No. 1 in the world, with a rating of 2812. His rating has fallen inactive since the January 2006 rating list.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fide.com/ratings/toparc.phtml?cod=81 |title=FIDE Archive: Top 100 Players July 2005 |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=18 April 2007 |publisher=World Chess Federation |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070629035231/http://www.fide.com/ratings/toparc.phtml?cod=81 |archivedate=29 June 2007 |url-status=dead |df=dmy }}</ref>

In January 1990, Kasparov achieved the (then) highest FIDE rating ever, passing 2800 and breaking Bobby Fischer's old record of 2785. By the July 1999 and January 2000 FIDE rating lists, Kasparov had reached a 2851 [[Elo rating system|Elo rating]], at that time the highest rating ever achieved.<ref>[http://www.chesscenter.com/twic/twic270.html The Week in Chess 270], [[The Week in Chess]], 10 January 2000.</ref> He held that record for the highest rating ever achieved until [[Magnus Carlsen]] attained a new record high rating of 2861 in January 2013.

=== Other records ===
Kasparov holds the record for most consecutive professional tournament victories, placing first or equal first in 15 individual tournaments from 1981 to 1990.{{Citation needed|date=August 2007}} The streak was broken by [[Vasily Ivanchuk]] at [[Linares chess tournament|Linares]] 1991, where Kasparov placed 2nd, half a point behind him. The details of this record winning streak follow:<ref name="chessmetrics" />
* [[Bishkek|Frunze]] 1981, USSR Championship, 12½/17, tie for 1st;
* [[Bugojno]] 1982, 9½/13, 1st;
* Moscow 1982, Interzonal, 10/13, 1st;
* [[Nikšić]] 1983, 11/14, 1st;
* [[Brussels]] OHRA 1986, 7½/10, 1st;
* [[Brussels]] SWIFT 1987, 8½/11, tie for 1st;
* [[Amsterdam]] Optiebeurs 1988, 9/12, 1st;
* [[Belfort]] (World Cup) 1988, 11½/15, 1st;
* Moscow 1988, USSR Championship, 11½/17, tie for 1st;
* [[Reykjavík]] (World Cup) 1988, 11/17, 1st;
* [[Barcelona]] (World Cup) 1989, 11/16, tie for 1st;
* [[Skellefteå]] (World Cup) 1989, 9½/15, tie for 1st;
* [[Tilburg]] 1989, 12/14, 1st;
* [[Belgrade]] (Investbank) 1989, 9½/11, 1st;
* [[Linares, Jaén|Linares]] 1990, 8/11, 1st.

Kasparov won the [[Chess Oscar]] a record eleven times.

== Chess and computers ==

In 1983, [[Acorn Computers]] acted as one of the sponsors for Kasparov's Candidates semi-final match against [[Viktor Korchnoi]]. Kasparov was awarded a [[BBC Micro]] which he took back with him to Baku, making it perhaps the first western-made microcomputer to reach Baku at that time.<ref>{{cite web |title=How it all started |url=https://en.chessbase.com/post/garry-kasparov-on-how-it-all-started |accessdate=14 October 2019}}</ref> In 1985, computer chess magazine editor [[Frederic Friedel]] invited Kasparov to his house, and the two of them discuss how a chess database program would be useful for preparation. Two years later, Friedel founded [[Chessbase]], and gave a copy of the program to Kasparov who started using it in his preparation.<ref>Garry Kasparov. ''Deep Thinking.''</ref>

In 1985, Kasparov played against thirty-two different chess computers in Hamburg, winning all games, but with some difficulty.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nybooks.com/articles/archives/2010/feb/11/the-chess-master-and-the-computer/|title=The Chess Master and the Computer by Garry Kasparov|work=nybooks.com|accessdate=2 May 2015}}</ref>

On October 22, 1989, Kasparov defeated the chess computer [[Deep Thought (chess computer)|Deep Thought]] in both games of a two-game match.<ref>Garry Kasparov, Jon Speelman and Bob Wade. 1995. ''Garry Kasparov's Fighting Chess.'' Henry Holt. p.242.
{{Cite journal
| last = Hsu
| first = Feng-hsiung
| authorlink= Feng-hsiung Hsu
| title = Behind Deep Blue: Building the Computer that Defeated the World Chess Champion
| publisher=[[Princeton University Press]]
| year = 2002
| isbn = 0-691-09065-3
}}</ref>

In December 1992, Kasparov visited [[Frederic Friedel]] in his hotel room in Cologne, and played 37 blitz games against [[Fritz (chess)|Fritz]] 2 winning 24, drawing 4 and losing 9.<ref>''Computerschach & Spiele.'' 1993#1 page 40</ref>

Kasparov cooperated in producing video material for the computer game [[Kasparov's Gambit]] released by [[Electronic Arts]] in November 1993. In April 1994, [[Intel]] acted as a sponsor for the first [[Professional Chess Association]] Grand Prix event in Moscow played a time control of 25 minutes per game. In May, [[Chessbase]]'s [[Fritz (chess)|Fritz]] 3 running on an [[Intel]] [[Pentium]] PC defeated Kasparov in their first in the Intel Express blitz tournament in Munich, but Kasparov managed to tie it for first, and then win the playoff with 3 wins and 2 draws. The next day, Kasparov lost to Fritz 3 again in a game on ZDF TV.<ref>Kasparov, Speelman and Wade. 1995. ''Garry Kasparov's Fighting Chess.'' p.290</ref> In August, Kasparov was knocked out of the London Intel Grand Prix by Richard Lang's [[ChessGenius]] 2 program in the first round.

In 1995, during Kasparov's world title match with [[Viswanathan Anand]], he unveiled an opening novelty that had been checked with a chess engine, an approach that would become increasingly common in subsequent years.<ref>Garry Kasparov. 2014. Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov Part II 1993–2005. Everyman Chess.</ref>

[[Deep Blue versus Garry Kasparov|Kasparov played in]] a pair of six-game [[chess]] matches with an IBM supercomputer called [[Deep Blue (chess computer)|Deep Blue]]. The first match was played in Philadelphia in 1996 and won by Kasparov. The second was played in New York City in 1997 and won by Deep Blue. The 1997 match was the first defeat of a reigning world chess champion by a computer under tournament conditions.<ref name="Kristol2"/>

In May 1997, an updated version of [[IBM Deep Blue|Deep Blue]] defeated Kasparov 3½–2½ in a highly publicized six-game match. The match was even after five games but Kasparov lost quickly in [[Deep Blue - Kasparov, 1997, Game 6|Game 6]]. This was the first time a computer had ever defeated a world champion in a match. A documentary film was made about this famous match entitled ''[[Game Over: Kasparov and the Machine]]''.

Kasparov said that he was "not well prepared" to face Deep Blue in 1997. He said that based on his "objective strengths" his play was stronger than that of Deep Blue.<ref name="Kristol2">{{cite web |url=http://conversationswithbillkristol.org/transcript/garry-kasparov-iv-transcript/ |title=GARRY KASPAROV IV TRANSCRIPT |author= |date=13 December 2017 |website=Conversations with Bill Kristol |publisher=The Foundation for Constitutional Government |access-date=6 June 2018}}</ref> Kasparov claimed that several factors weighed against him in this match. In particular, he was denied access to Deep Blue's recent games, in contrast to the computer's team, which could study hundreds of Kasparov's.

After the loss, Kasparov said that he sometimes saw deep intelligence and creativity in the machine's moves, suggesting that during the second game, human chess players, in contravention of the rules, intervened. IBM denied that it cheated, saying the only human intervention occurred between games. The rules provided for the developers to modify the program between games, an opportunity they said they used to shore up weaknesses in the computer's play revealed during the course of the match. Kasparov requested printouts of the machine's log files but IBM refused, although the company later published the logs on the Internet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/watch/html/c.shtml|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080701232743/http://www.research.ibm.com/deepblue/watch/html/c.shtml|url-status=dead|archive-date=1 July 2008|title=IBM Research – Deep Blue – Overview|date=1 July 2008}}</ref> Much later, it was suggested that the behavior Kasparov noted may have resulted from a glitch in the computer program.<ref name="Roberts">{{cite journal|last1=Roberts|first1=Jacob|title=Thinking Machines: The Search for Artificial Intelligence|journal=Distillations|date=2016|volume=2|issue=2|pages=14–23|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/thinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence|accessdate=22 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180819152455/https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/thinking-machines-the-search-for-artificial-intelligence|archive-date=19 August 2018|url-status=dead}}</ref> Although Kasparov wanted another rematch, [[IBM]] declined and ended their Deep Blue program.

Kasparov's loss to Deep Blue inspired the creation of the game [[Arimaa]].<ref>{{cite magazine |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=mind-reviews-brainy-gifts |title=MIND Reviews: Brainy Gifts |author1=Gary Stix |author2=Frederik Joelving |author3=Melinda Wenner |date=6 November 2009 |magazine=Scientific American |accessdate=12 May 2012}}</ref>

[[File:Kasparov-18.jpg|thumb|right|Kasparov wore 3D glasses in his match against the program [[X3D Fritz]].]]
In January 2003, he engaged in a six-game classical time control match with a $1 million prize fund which was billed as the FIDE "Man vs. Machine" World Championship, against [[Deep Junior]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=599 |title=Kasparov vs Deep Junior in January 2003 |accessdate=11 August 2007 |publisher=ChessBase}}</ref> The engine evaluated three million positions per second.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.cnn.com/2003/TECH/fun.games/02/08/cnna.kasparov/ |title=Kasparov: "Intuition versus the brute force of calculation" |accessdate=11 August 2007 |date=10 February 2003 |publisher=CNN}}</ref> After one win each and three draws, it was all up to the final game. After reaching a decent position Kasparov offered a draw, which was soon accepted by the Deep Junior team. Asked why he offered the draw, Kasparov said he feared making a blunder.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.thechessdrum.net/tournaments/Kasparov-DeepJr/ |title=Kasparov & Deep Junior fight 3–3 to draw! |accessdate=11 August 2007 |last=Shabazz |first=Damian |publisher=The Chess Drum}}</ref> Originally planned as an annual event, the match was not repeated.

Deep Junior was the first machine to beat Kasparov with black and at a standard time control.<ref>{{cite web|title=Kasparov knows more about Deep Junior than we do |publisher=[[ChessBase]] |date=15 February 2003 |url=http://en.chessbase.com/home/TabId/211/PostId/4000799 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130829184940/http://en.chessbase.com/home/TabId/211/PostId/4000799 |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 August 2013 |accessdate=27 August 2013 |df=dmy-all }}</ref>

In June 2003, [[Mindscape]] released the computer game [[Kasparov Chessmate]] with Kasparov himself listed as a co-designer.<ref>https://www.mobygames.com/game/windows/kasparov-chessmate</ref>

In November 2003, he engaged in a four-game match against the computer program [[X3D Fritz]], using a virtual board, [[Stereoscopy#3D viewers|3D glasses]] and a [[speech recognition]] system. After two draws and one win apiece, the X3D Man–Machine match ended in a draw. Kasparov received $175,000 for the result and took home the golden trophy. Kasparov continued to criticize the blunder in the second game that cost him a crucial point. He felt that he had outplayed the machine overall and played well. "I only made one mistake but unfortunately that one mistake lost the game."<ref>{{cite web | title = Kasparov vs X3D Fritz match finishes 2–2 after game four draw | publisher=[[ChessBase]] | date = 19 November 2003 | url = http://www.chessbase.com/newsdetail.asp?newsid=1312 | accessdate =19 November 2009 }}</ref>

== Books and other writings ==

=== Early writings ===
Kasparov has written books on chess. He published a controversial<ref>[http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/extra/child.html Kasparov's Child of Change by Edward Winter] chesshistory.com</ref> autobiography when still in his early 20s, originally titled ''Child of Change'', later retitled ''Unlimited Challenge''. This book was subsequently updated several times after he became World Champion. Its content is mainly literary, with a small chess component of key unannotated games. He published an annotated games collection in 1985: ''Fighting Chess: My Games and Career''<ref>{{ISBN|0-7855-0863-5}}</ref> and this book has also been updated several times in further editions. He also wrote a book annotating the games from his [[World Chess Championship 1985]] victory, ''World Chess Championship Match: Moscow, 1985''.

He has annotated his own games extensively for the Yugoslav ''[[Chess Informant]]'' series and for other chess publications. In 1982, he co-authored ''Batsford Chess Openings'' with British grandmaster [[Raymond Keene]] and this book was an enormous seller. It was updated into a second edition in 1989. He also co-authored two opening books with his trainer Alexander Nikitin in the 1980s for British publisher [[Pavilion Books|Batsford]]—on the [[Caro-Kann Defence#Classical / Capablanca Variation|Classical Variation of the Caro-Kann Defence]] and on the [[Sicilian Defence, Scheveningen Variation|Scheveningen Variation of the Sicilian Defence]]. Kasparov has also contributed extensively to the five-volume openings series ''Encyclopedia of Chess Openings''.

In 2000, Kasparov co-authored ''Kasparov Against the World: The Story of the Greatest Online Challenge''<ref>{{ISBN|0-9704813-0-6}}</ref> with grandmaster [[Daniel J. King|Daniel King]]. The 202-page book analyzes the 1999 [[Kasparov versus the World]] game, and holds the record for the longest analysis devoted to a single chess game.<ref>Winter, Edward [http://chesshistory.com/winter/extra/records.html "Chess Records"] Chess Notes</ref>

=== ''My Great Predecessors'' series ===
{{Main|My Great Predecessors}}
In 2003, the first volume of his five-volume work ''Garry Kasparov on My Great Predecessors'' was published. This volume, which deals with the world chess champions [[Wilhelm Steinitz]], [[Emanuel Lasker]], [[José Raúl Capablanca]], [[Alexander Alekhine]], and some of their strong contemporaries, has received lavish praise from some reviewers (including [[Nigel Short]]), while attracting criticism from others for historical inaccuracies and analysis of games directly copied from unattributed sources. Through suggestions on the book's website, most of these shortcomings were corrected in following editions and translations. Despite this, the first volume won the [[British Chess Federation]]'s Book of the Year award in 2003. Volume two, covering [[Max Euwe]], Mikhail Botvinnik, Vasily Smyslov and [[Mikhail Tal]] appeared later in 2003. Volume three, covering [[Tigran Petrosian]] and Boris Spassky appeared in early 2004. In December 2004, Kasparov released volume four, which covers [[Samuel Reshevsky]], [[Miguel Najdorf]], and [[Bent Larsen]] (none of these three were World Champions), but focuses primarily on [[Bobby Fischer]]. The fifth volume, devoted to the chess careers of World Champion Anatoly Karpov and challenger Viktor Korchnoi, was published in March 2006.

=== ''Modern Chess'' series ===
{{Main|My Great Predecessors#Modern Chess}}
His book ''Revolution in the 70s'' (published in March 2007) covers "the openings revolution of the 1970s–1980s" and is the first book in a new series called "Modern Chess Series", which intends to cover his matches with Karpov and selected games. The book "Revolution in the 70s" concerns the revolution in opening theory that was witnessed in that decade. Such systems as the controversial (at the time) [[Hedgehog Defense|"Hedgehog"]] opening plan of passively developing the pieces no further than the first three ranks are examined in great detail. Kasparov also analyzes some of the most notable games played in that period. In a section at the end of the book, top opening theoreticians provide their own "take" on the progress made in opening theory in the 1980s.

=== ''Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov'' series ===
{{Main|My Great Predecessors#Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov}}
Kasparov is publishing three volumes of his games.

===Winter Is Coming===
In October 2015, Kasparov published a book titled Winter Is Coming: Why Vladimir Putin and the Enemies of the Free World Must Be Stopped. The title is a reference to the HBO television series Game of Thrones. In the book, Kasparov writes about the need for an organization solely composed of democratic countries to replace the United Nations. In an interview, he called the United Nations a "catwalk for dictators".<ref name="Kristol"/>

===Historical revision===

Kasparov believes that the conventional history of civilization is radically incorrect. Specifically, he believes that the history of [[ancient civilizations]] is based on misdatings of events and achievements that actually occurred in the [[medieval period]]. He has cited several aspects of ancient history that he says are likely to be anachronisms.<ref name="ualberta">{{cite web|url=https://www.math.ualberta.ca/pi/issue5/page05-08.pdf|title=Mathematics of the Past|author=Garry Kasparov|website=Pi in the Sky (magazine of the [[Pacific Institute for the Mathematical Sciences]], Canada)}}</ref>

Kasparov has written in support of [[New Chronology (Fomenko)|New Chronology]] (Fomenko), although with some reservations.<ref>Winter, Edward [http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/extra/newchronology.html "Garry Kasparov and New Chronology"] ''Chess Notes''</ref> In 2001, Kasparov expressed a desire to devote his time to promoting the New Chronology after his chess career. "New Chronology is a great area for investing my intellect ... My analytical abilities are well placed to figure out what was right and what was wrong."<ref name="warren">{{cite news|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/russia/1311163/Email-from-Russia.html|title=Email from Russia|author=Marcus Warren|work=The Daily Telegraph|location=London|date=24 April 2001}}</ref> "When I stop playing chess, it may well be that I concentrate on promoting these ideas... I believe they can improve our lives."<ref name="warren"/>

Later, Kasparov renounced his support of Fomenko theories but reaffirmed his belief that mainstream historical knowledge is highly inconsistent.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.gazeta.ru/kasparov.shtml|title=Газета.Ru – Интервью с Гарри Каспаровым|website=gazeta.ru}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://bulvar.com.ua/gazeta/archive/s48_62551/4992.html|title=Многократный чемпион мира по шахматам Гарри КАСПАРОВ|work=bulvar.com}}</ref>

=== Other post-retirement writing ===
In 2007, he wrote ''[[How Life Imitates Chess]]'', an examination of the parallels between decision-making in chess and in the business world.

In 2008, Kasparov published a sympathetic obituary for [[Bobby Fischer]], writing: "I am often asked if I ever met or played Bobby Fischer. The answer is no, I never had that opportunity. But even though he saw me as a member of the evil chess establishment that he felt had robbed and cheated him, I am sorry I never had a chance to thank him personally for what he did for our sport."<ref>[http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1707222,00.html The Chessman], ''TIME'', 26 January 2008</ref>

He is the chief advisor for the book publisher [[Everyman Chess]].

Kasparov works closely with [[Mig Greengard]] and his comments can often be found on Greengard's blog (apparently no longer active).

Kasparov collaborated with [[Max Levchin]] and [[Peter Thiel]] on ''The Blueprint'', a book calling for a revival of world innovation, planned to release in March 2013 from W. W. Norton & Company. The book was never released, as the authors disagreed on its contents.<ref>[https://www.technologyreview.com/s/429690/why-we-cant-solve-big-problems/ Why We Can't Solve Big Problems], ''MIT Technology Review'', 24 October 2012.</ref>

Kasparov argued that Chess has become the Drosophila fruit fly of reasoning, in an editorial comment on Google's AlphaZero chess-playing system. "I was pleased to see that AlphaZero had a dynamic, open style like my own," he wrote in late 2018.<ref>Garry Kasparov, "Chess, a Drosophila of reasoning". Science 07 Dec 2018: Vol. 362, Issue 6419, pp. 1087. DOI 10.1126/science.aaw2221 Full text: http://science.sciencemag.org/content/362/6419/1087.full</ref>

=== Bibliography ===
* ''Kasparov Teaches Chess'' (1984–85, Sport in the USSR Magazine; 1986, First Collier Books)
* ''The Test of Time (Russian Chess)'' (1986, Pergamon Pr)
* ''World Chess Championship Match: Moscow, 1985'' (1986, Everyman Chess)
* ''Child of Change: An Autobiography'' (1987, Hutchinson)
* ''London–Leningrad Championship Games'' (1987, Everyman Chess)
* ''Unlimited Challenge'' (1990, Grove Pr)
* ''The Sicilian Scheveningen'' (1991, B.T. Batsford Ltd)
* ''The Queen's Indian Defence: Kasparov System'' (1991, B.T. Batsford Ltd)
* ''Kasparov Versus Karpov, 1990'' (1991, Everyman Chess)
* ''Kasparov on the King's Indian'' (1993, B.T. Batsford Ltd)
* Kasparov, Garry. Jon Speelman and Bob Wade. 1995. ''Garry Kasparov's Fighting Chess.'' Henry Holt. {{ISBN|0805042210}}
* ''Garry Kasparov's Chess Challenge'' (1996, Everyman Chess)
* ''Lessons in Chess'' (1997, Everyman Chess)
* ''Kasparov Against the World: The Story of the Greatest Online Challenge'' (2000, Kasparov Chess Online)
* ''My Great Predecessors Part I'' (2003, Everyman Chess)
* ''My Great Predecessors Part II'' (2003, Everyman Chess)
* ''Checkmate!: My First Chess Book'' (2004, Everyman Mindsports)
* ''My Great Predecessors Part III'' (2004, Everyman Chess)
* ''My Great Predecessors Part IV'' (2004, Everyman Chess)
* ''My Great Predecessors Part V'' (2006, Everyman Chess)
* ''How Life Imitates Chess'' (2007, William Heinemann Ltd.)
* ''Garry Kasparov on Modern Chess, Part I: Revolution in the 70s'' (2007, Everyman Chess)
* ''Garry Kasparov on Modern Chess, Part II: Kasparov vs Karpov 1975–1985'' (2008, Everyman Chess)
* ''Garry Kasparov on Modern Chess, Part III: Kasparov vs Karpov 1986–1987'' (2009, Everyman Chess)
* ''Garry Kasparov on Modern Chess, Part IV: Kasparov vs Karpov 1988–2009'' (2010, Everyman Chess)
* ''Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov, part I'' (2011, Everyman Chess)
* ''Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov, part II'' (2013, Everyman Chess)
* ''Garry Kasparov on Garry Kasparov, part III'' (2014, Everyman Chess)
* ''Winter Is Coming: Why Vladimir Putin and the Enemies of the Free World Must Be Stopped'' (2015, Public Affairs)
* ''Deep Thinking<ref>https://lccn.loc.gov/2017304768</ref>'' with Mig Greengard (2017, Public Affairs)

===Videos===
* Kasparov, Garry, [[Nigel Short]], [[Raymond Keene]] and [[Daniel King (chess player)|Daniel King]]. 1993. ''Kasparov Short The Inside Story.'' Grandmaster Video.
* Kasparov, Garry, [[Jonathan Tisdall]] and Jim Plaskett. 2000. ''My Story.'' Grandmaster Video.
* Kasparov, Garry. 2004. ''How to Play the Queen's Gambit.'' Chessbase. {{ISBN|9783937549064}}
* Kasparov, Garry. 2005. ''How to Play the Najdorf.'' Chessbase. vol. 1 {{ISBN|9783937549255}}, vol. 2 {{ISBN|9783937549781}}
* Kasparov, Garry. 2012. ''How I Became World Champion 1973–1985.'' Chessbase. {{ISBN|9783866813410}}
* Kasparov, Garry. 2017. ''Garry Kasparov Teaches Chess.'' Masterclass.com.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.masterclass.com/classes/garry-kasparov-teaches-chess |title=Archived copy |access-date=2 December 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181202070710/https://www.masterclass.com/classes/garry-kasparov-teaches-chess |archive-date=2 December 2018 |url-status=dead }}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Portal|Chess|Biography}}
* [[Kasparov versus the World]]
* [[List of chess games between Kasparov and Kramnik]]
* [[Committee 2008]]
* [[Putinism]]

== Notes ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

== Further reading ==
* {{Cite book
| author=Nikitin, Alexander
| title=Coaching Kasparov, Year by Year and Move by Move, Volume I: The Whizz-Kid (1973-1981)
| publisher=Elk and Ruby Publishing House
| year=2019
| isbn=5-604176-95-8}}
* {{Cite book
| author=Borik, Otto
| title=Kasparov's Chess Openings: A World Champion's Repertoire
| publisher=Trafalgar Square Pub
| year=1991
| isbn=0-943955-39-4}}
* {{Cite book
| author=Stohl, Igor
| title=Garry Kasparov's Greatest Chess Games, Volume 1
| year=2005
| publisher=[[Gambit Publications]]
| isbn=1-904600-32-8}}
* {{Cite book
| author=Stohl, Igor
| title=Garry Kasparov's Greatest Chess Games, Volume 2
| year=2006
| publisher=[[Gambit Publications]]
| isbn=1-904600-43-3}}
* {{Cite book
| author=[[Tibor Károlyi (chess player)|Károlyi, Tibor]]
|author2=Aplin, Nick |authorlink2=Nick Aplin
| title=Kasparov's Fighting Chess 1993–1998
| year=2007
| publisher=[[Anova Books|Batsford]]
| isbn=0-7134-8994-4}}
* {{Cite book
| author=Károlyi, Tibor
|author2=Aplin, Nick
| title=Kasparov's Fighting Chess 1999–2005
| year=2007
| publisher=[[Anova Books|Batsford]]
| isbn=978-0-7134-8984-2}}
* {{Cite book
| author=Károlyi, Tibor
|author2=Aplin, Nick
| title=Kasparov: How His Predecessors Misled Him About Chess
| year=2009
| publisher=[[Anova Books|Batsford]]
| isbn=978-1-906388-26-3}}

== External links ==
{{sisterlinks|d=Q28614|n=no|b=no|v=no|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|s=no|wikt=no|species=no|c=Category:Garry Kasparov}}

* {{Official website}}
* {{Chessgames player|15940}}
* {{DMOZ|Games/Board_Games/Abstract/Battle_Games/Chess/People/World_Champions/Kasparov%2C_Garry/}}
* Garry Kasparov, [http://www.opinionjournal.com/editorial/feature.html?id=110011031 "Man of the Year?"], ''[[OpinionJournal.com|OpinionJournal]]'', 23 December 2007
* [[Edward Winter (chess historian)|Edward Winter]], [http://www.chesshistory.com/winter/extra/fischerkasparov.html List of Books About Fischer and Kasparov]
* {{C-SPAN|Garry Kasparov}}
* [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zhkTHkIZJEc Kasparov's "Deep Thinking" talk at Google]
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20180711230343/https://topchessvideos.com/garry-kasparov/ Garry Kasparov's best games analyzed in video]

{{S-start}}
{{s-sports}}
{{s-bef| rows = 2 | before = [[Anatoly Karpov]] }}
{{s-ttl| title = [[FIDE]] [[World Chess Champion]]
| years = 1985–93 }}
{{s-aft| after = [[Anatoly Karpov]] }}
{{s-ttl| title = Classical [[World Chess Champion]]
| years = 1985–2000 }}
{{s-aft| after = [[Vladimir Kramnik]] }}
{{s-bef|before = [[Peter Svidler]]}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[Russian Chess Champion]]|years = 2004}}
{{s-aft|after = [[Sergei Rublevsky]]}}
{{s-ach|ach}}
{{s-bef|before = [[Anatoly Karpov]] Anatoly Karpov Vladimir Kramnik}}
{{s-ttl|title = [[List of FIDE chess world number ones|World No. 1]]|years = 1 January 1984 – 30 June 1985 1 January 1986 – 31 December 1995 1 July 1996 – 31 March 2006}}
{{s-aft|after = Anatoly Karpov [[Vladimir Kramnik]] [[Veselin Topalov]]}}
{{S-end}}
{{World Chess Championships}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}}
{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kasparov, Garry}}
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[[Category:Jewish chess players]]
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[[Category:Azerbaijan University of Languages alumni]]

Bishop's Opening

2019-05-11T12:13:14Z

JanTurin: /* Summary after 2...Bc5 */ 3.d4 added

{{Infobox chess opening
|openingname = Bishop's Opening
|image = {{Chess diagram
|
|
|rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd
| | | | | | | |
| | | | |pd| | |
| | |bl| |pl| | |
| | | | | | | |
|pl|pl|pl|pl| |pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|bl|ql|kl| |nl|rl
|}}
|moves = 1.e4 e5 2.Bc4
|ECO = C23–C24
|birth =
|nameorigin = Bishop in 2.Bc4
|parentopening = [[Open Game]]
|AKA =
|chessgid = 26269&move=2.5&moves=e4.e5.Bc4&nodes=21720.21721.26269
}}

The '''Bishop's Opening''' is a [[chess opening]] that begins with the moves:
:1. [[b:Chess Opening Theory/1. e4|e4]] [[b:Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5|e5]]
:2. [[b:Chess Opening Theory/1. e4/1...e5/2. Bc4|Bc4]]

White attacks Black's f7-square and prevents Black from advancing his d-pawn to d5. By ignoring the beginner's maxim "develop [[Knight (chess)|knights]] before [[Bishop (chess)|bishops]]", White leaves his f-pawn unblocked, allowing the possibility of playing f2–f4.

The f2–f4 {{chessgloss|push}} gives the Bishop's Opening an affinity with the [[King's Gambit]] and the [[Vienna Game]], two openings that share this characteristic. The Bishop's Opening can [[transposition (chess)|transpose]] into either of these openings, and in particular a favorable variation of the King's Gambit, but with care Black can circumvent this. Transpositions into [[Giuoco Piano]] and [[Two Knights Defense]] and other openings are also possible.

The ''[[Encyclopaedia of Chess Openings]]'' assigns Bishop's Opening the codes C23 and C24.
{{algebraic notation|pos=toc}}

==History and use==
The Bishop's Opening is one of the oldest openings to be analyzed; it was studied by [[Luis Ramirez Lucena|Lucena]] and [[Ruy López de Segura|Ruy Lopez]]. Later it was played by [[François-André Danican Philidor|Philidor]]. [[Bent Larsen|Larsen]] was one of the few [[International Grandmaster|grandmasters]] to play it often, after first using it at the 1964 [[Interzonal]] tournament. Although the Bishop's Opening is uncommon today, it has been used occasionally as a surprise by players such as [[Garry Kasparov|Kasparov]]. [[John Nunn|Nunn]] uses it to avoid [[Petrov's Defence]] (1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6),<ref>
{{cite book
|last=Reuben
|first=Stewart
|authorlink=Stewart Reuben
|title=Chess Openings – Your Choice!
|publisher=Cadogan Chess
|year=1992
|isbn=1-85744-070-6
|page=59
}}
</ref> and [[Peter Lékó|Lékó]] played it in the [[FIDE World Chess Championship 2007|2007 World Championship]] against [[Vladimir Kramnik|Kramnik]], known to consistently play the Petrov.

[[Weaver W. Adams|Weaver Adams]] in his classic work "White to Play and Win" claimed that the Bishop's Opening was a win for White by force from the second move.<ref>
{{cite book
|last=Adams
|first=Weaver
|authorlink=Weaver Adams
|title=White to Play and Win
|publisher=David McKay Company
|year=1939
|pages=9–12
|isbn=
}}
</ref> However, he was unable to prove this by defeating players stronger than himself, and later abandoned the Bishop's Opening for the [[Vienna Game]], making the same claim.<ref>
{{cite book
|last=Evans
|first=Larry
|authorlink=Larry Evans (chess grandmaster)
|title=Chess Catechism
|publisher=Simon and Schuster
|year=1970
|pages=147, 153
|isbn=978-0-671-21531-6
}}
</ref> Grandmaster [[Nick de Firmian]], in the 14th edition of ''[[Modern Chess Openings]]'' concludes that the Bishop's Opening leads to equality with best play by both sides,<ref>
{{cite book
|last=de Firmian
|first=Nick
|authorlink=Nick de Firmian
|title=Modern Chess Openings
|publisher=David McKay Company
|year=1999
|pages=144–45
|isbn=0-8129-3084-3
}}
</ref> and notes that, "Among modern players only [[Bent Larsen]] has played it much, but even Kasparov gave it a whirl (winning against Bareev)."<ref>''Id.'' at 143.</ref>

==Main variations==
Because White's second move makes no direct threat, Black has many possible responses on the second move.
As shown below, the Bishop's Opening offers opportunities to transpose to several other {{chessgloss|open game|open games}}.

===Berlin Defense: 2...Nf6 {{anchor|Berlin Defense}}===
Probably Black's most popular second move is 2...Nf6, forcing White to decide how to defend his e-pawn.

{| align="right" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0"
|-valign="top"
|
{{Chess diagram small
| tright
|
|rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd| |rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd
| | | | | |nd| |
| | | | |pd| | |
| | |bl| |pl| | |
| | | |pl| | | |
|pl|pl|pl| | |pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|bl|ql|kl| |nl|rl
|3.d3
}}
|
{{Chess diagram small
| tright
|
|rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd| |rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd
| | | | | |nd| |
| | | | |pd| | |
| | |bl|pl|pl| | |
| | | | | | | |
|pl|pl|pl| | |pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|bl|ql|kl| |nl|rl
|Urusov Gambit: 3.d4
}}
|}
{{Chess diagram small
| tright
|
|rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd| |rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd
| | | | | | | |
| | | | |pd| | |
| | |bl| |nd| | |
| | |nl| | |nl| |
|pl|pl|pl|pl| |pl|pl|pl
|rl| |bl|ql|kl| | |rl
|[[Petrov's Defence|Boden–Kieseritzky Gambit]]: 3.Nf3 Nxe4 4.Nc3
}}

After 3.d3 Black must be careful not to drift into an inferior variation of the [[King's Gambit#King's Gambit Declined|King's Gambit Declined]]. One continuation that avoids this pitfall is 3...c6 4.Nf3 d5 5.Bb3 Bd6. Also possible is 3...d6 4.f4 exf4 5.Bxf4 Be6{{chesspunc|!}} neutralizing White's {{chessgloss|king bishop}}.

White sometimes chooses the Bishop's Opening move order to transpose into the [[Giuoco Piano]] while preventing Black from playing [[Petrov's Defence|Petrov's Defense]]. For example, 2...Nf6 3.d3 Nc6 4.Nf3 Bc5 reaches the quiet [[Giuoco Pianissimo]].

The ''Urusov Gambit'' is named after Russian Prince [[Sergey Semyonovich Urusov]] (1827–1897). After 2...Nf6 3.d4 exd4 (3...Nxe4 4.dxe5 gives White some advantage) 4.Nf3, Black can transpose to the [[Two Knights Defense]] with 4...Nc6, or can decline the gambit with 4...d5 5.exd5 Bb4+ 6.c3 (6.Kf1 is recommended by Michael Goeller, winning a pawn at the expense of castling rights) 6...Qe7+ 7.Be2 dxc3, when 8.bxc3 and 8.Nxc3 both offer approximately equal chances. Instead, Black can accept the gambit with 4...Nxe4 5.Qxd4 Nf6 (5...Nd6{{chesspunc|?}} 6.0-0 gives White an overwhelming attack), and White will continue with Nc3, Bg5, Qh4, 0-0-0, and usually intends to meet ...0-0 and ...h6 with the piece sacrifice Bxh6, exposing the black king. Black has a solid position with no clear weaknesses but White has attacking chances and piece activity as compensation for the pawn. The Urusov Gambit is also occasionally reached via the [[Petrov Defence]] after 1.e4 e5 2.Nf3 Nf6 3.d4 exd4 4.Bc4.

The ''Boden–Kieseritzky Gambit'' is named after English player and chess writer [[Samuel Boden]] and [[Lionel Kieseritzky]]. Boden published the first analysis of it in 1851. Opening theoreticians consider that after 2...Nf6 3.Nf3 Nxe4 4.Nc3 Nxc3 5.dxc3 f6, White's attack is not quite worth a pawn. The game may continue 6.0-0 Nc6 (not 6...Be7? 7.Nxe5! with a tremendous attack, but 6...d6 is also {{chessgloss|playable}}) 7.Nh4 g6 8.f4 f5 9.Nf3 (9.Nxf5? d5!) e4 10.Ng5 (10.Ne5 Qe7! threatening Qc5+ is strong) Bc5+. In practice, Black's lack of {{chessgloss|development}} and inability to [[castling|castle]] {{chessgloss|kingside}} can prove very problematic.

Safer for Black are [[Paul Morphy]]'s solid 5...c6 6.Nxe5 d5, returning the pawn with equality, and 4...Nc6{{chesspunc|!?}} (instead of 4...Nxc3) 5.0-0 (5.Nxe4 d5) Nxc3 6.dxc3 Qe7! when, according to [[Bobby Fischer]] in ''[[My 60 Memorable Games]]'', "White has no compensation for the Pawn."<ref>{{cite book |last=Fischer |first=Bobby |authorlink=Bobby Fischer |title=My 60 Memorable Games |publisher=Faber and Faber |year=1972 |pages=280–81 |isbn=0-571-09987-4}}</ref>

Black can also decline the pawn with 3...Nc6, transposing into the [[Two Knights Defense]]. He must, however, be willing to offer a gambit himself after 4.Ng5. White may invite an offshoot of the Boden–Kieseritzky Gambit with 4.0-0 Nxe4 5.Nc3.

Irregular move orders are 2.Nc3 (Vienna) Nf6 3.Bc4 Nxe4 4.Nf3 and 2.Nf3 Nf6 (Russian or Petrov Defence) 3.Bc4 Nxe4 4.Nf3.

====Summary after 2...Nf6====
{{Chess diagram small
| tright
|
|rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd| |rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd
| | | | | |nd| |
| | | | |pd| | |
| | |bl| |pl|pl| |
| | | | | | | |
|pl|pl|pl|pl| | |pl|pl
|rl|nl|bl|ql|kl| |nl|rl
|Greco Gambit: 3.f4
}}

*3.Nc3 (Vienna Game, by transposition)
*3.d3
*3.d4 (Ponziani's Gambit)
**3...exd4 4.Qxd4 Nc6 ([[Center Game]], by transposition)
**3...exd4 4.Nf3 (Urusov Gambit)
***4...Bc5 5.0-0 Nc6 ([[Max Lange Attack]], by transposition)
***4...Nc6 ([[Two Knights Defense]], by transposition)
***4...Nxe4 5.Qxd4 (Urusov Gambit Accepted)
*3.Nf3 ([[Petrov's Defence|Petrov's Defense]], by transposition)
**3...Nxe4 4.Nc3 ([[Petrov's Defence|Boden–Kieseritzky Gambit]])
*3.f4 (Greco Gambit)
**3...Nxe4 4.d3 Nd6 5.Bb3 Nc6 or 5...e4
**3...exf4 ([[King's Gambit]], by transposition)

===Classical Defense: 2...Bc5 {{anchor|Classical Defense}}===
{| align="right" border="0" cellpadding="1" cellspacing="0"
|-valign="top"
|
{{Chess diagram small
| tright
|
|rd|nd|bd|qd|kd| |nd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd
| | | | | | | |
| | |bd| |pd| | |
| |pl|bl| |pl| | |
| | | | | | | |
|pl| |pl|pl| |pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|bl|ql|kl| |nl|rl
|Wing Gambit: 3.b4
}}
|
{{Chess diagram small
| tright
|
|rd|nd|bd|qd|kd| |nd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd
| | | | | | | |
| | |bd| |pd| | |
| | |bl| |pl| | |
| | |pl| | | | |
|pl|pl| |pl| |pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|bl|ql|kl| |nl|rl
|Philidor Variation: 3.c3
}}
|}
{{Chess diagram small
| tright
|
|rd|nd|bd|qd|kd| |nd|rd
|pd|pd|pd|pd| |pd|pd|pd
| | | | | | | |
| | |bd| |pd| | |
| | |bl| |pl| | |
| | | |pl| | | |
|pl|pl|pl| | |pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|bl|ql|kl| |nl|rl
|3.d3
}}
The Classical Defense is Black's symmetrical response, 2...Bc5.
White can then transpose into the [[Vienna Game]] (3.Nc3) or the [[Giuoco Piano]] (3.Nf3), or remain in the Bishop's Opening with the ''Wing Gambit'' (3.b4) or the ''Philidor Variation'' (3.c3). The main line of the Philidor Variation runs: 3.c3 Nf6 4.d4 exd4 5.e5 d5! 6.exf6 dxc4 7.Qh5 0-0 8.Qxc5 Re8+ 9.Ne2 d3 10.Be3. Transpositions into the [[King's Gambit]] Declined and the Giuoco Piano are also possible after 3.d3.

The [[Wing Gambit]] results in positions similar to those in the [[Evans Gambit]]. It can transpose into the Evans Gambit, for instance by 3.b4 Bxb4 4.c3 Ba5 5.Nf3 Nc6.

Black's most energetic response to the Philidor Variation is the ''Lewis Countergambit'', 3.c3 d5, named for the [[England|English]] player and author [[William Lewis (chess player)|William Lewis]] (1787–1870) who published analysis of the line in 1834.

Among amateurs, 3.Qf3 and 3.Qh5 are also popular, threatening an immediate [[Scholar's mate]]. But the threat is easily met (e.g. 3.Qh5 Qe7) and the moves are considered inferior since they hamper White's development or leave the queen exposed, leading to loss of [[tempo (chess)|tempo]].

====Summary after 2...Bc5====
*3.b4 ([[Wing Gambit]])
*3.c3 (Philidor Variation)
**3...d5 (Lewis Countergambit)
**3...d6
**3...Nf6
*3.Nc3 ([[Vienna Game]], by transposition)
*3.d3
*3.Nf3 Nc6 ([[Giuoco Piano]], by transposition)
*3.Qg4
*3.d4

===Other Black responses===
{{Chess diagram small
| tright
|
|rd|nd|bd|qd|kd|bd|nd|rd
|pd|pd| |pd| |pd|pd|pd
| | |pd| | | | |
| | | | |pd| | |
| | |bl| |pl| | |
| | | | | | | |
|pl|pl|pl|pl| |pl|pl|pl
|rl|nl|bl|ql|kl| |nl|rl
|Philidor Counterattack: 2...c6
}}
Other Black second moves are rarely played. If Black tries to transpose into the [[Hungarian Defense]] with 2...Be7?, then 3.Qh5 wins a pawn.

The ''Calabrese Countergambit'' (2...f5{{chesspunc|?!}}) is named after Greco's homeland, [[Calabria]]. It is considered dubious, as the line recommended by [[Carl Jaenisch]], 3.d3 Nf6 4.f4 d6 5.Nf3, gives White the advantage. However, other analyses have found that the sharp 3. f4! or safe 3.Nc3 are better for White than 3.d3.

====Summary of other Black responses====
*2...c6 (Philidor Counterattack)
*[[Wikibooks:Opening theory in chess/1. e4/1...e5/2. Bc4/2...Nc6|2...Nc6]]
*2...d6
*2...f5?! (Calabrese Countergambit)
**3.d3 (Jaenisch Variation)

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

'''Bibliography'''
*[[Weaver W. Adams|Adams, Weaver W.]] (1939). ''White to Play and Win''. {{ISBN|978-0-923891-83-1}}.
*{{cite book | author=[[David Vincent Hooper|Hooper, David]] and [[Kenneth Whyld]] | title=[[The Oxford Companion to Chess]] | publisher=Oxford University| year=1996 | isbn=0-19-280049-3}}
*{{cite book|last=Lane|first=Gary|authorlink=Gary Lane|title=The Bishop's Opening Explained|publisher=Batsford|year=2004|isbn=0-7134-8917-0}}

==External links==
{{wikibooks|Chess Opening Theory|1. e4/1...e5/2. Bc4|Bishop's Opening}}
*Goeller, Michael. [http://www.rci.rutgers.edu/~goeller/urusov/bishops/index.html The Bishop's Opening].

*Harding, Tim (August 1998). [http://www.chesscafe.com/text/kibitz27.txt The Kibitzer: What Exactly is the Bishop's Opening?]. ''ChessCafe.com''.
*Harding, Tim (September 1998). [http://www.chesscafe.com/text/kibitz28.txt The Kibitzer: The Eternal Appeal Of The Urusov Gambit]. ''ChessCafe.com''.
*Harding, Tim (October 1998). [http://www.chesscafe.com/text/kibitz29.txt The Kibitzer: Is the Urusov Gambit Sound?]. ''ChessCafe.com''

{{chess|state=collapsed}}

[[Category:Chess openings]]
[[Category:15th century in chess]]

Škoda Citigo

2019-04-03T16:52:24Z

JanTurin: Infobox added

{{Multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 220
| image1 = Skoda Citigo 1.0 Ambition – Frontansicht (1), 17. März 2012, Düsseldorf.jpg
| image2 = Skoda Citigo 1.0 Ambition – Heckansicht, 17. März 2012, Düsseldorf.jpg
| caption2 = Škoda Citigo in 2012
}}
{{Multiple image | align = right | direction = vertical | width = 220
| image1 = 2018 Skoda Citigo SE MPi 1.0 Front.jpg
| image2 = 2018 Skoda Citigo SE MPi 1.0 Rear.jpg
| caption2 = Škoda Citigo facelift
}}
{{Infobox automobile
| name = Škoda Citigo
| manufacturer = [[Škoda Auto]]
| production = 2011–present
| class = [[Citycar]]
}}

'''Škoda Citigo''' is a city car produced by Czech automobile manufacturer [[Škoda Auto]] that was introduced in 2011. The Citigo is a "sister car" of the [[Volkswagen Up]] and [[SEAT Mii]] and is built on the [[Volkswagen Group New Small Family platform]]. It is manufactured at the [[Volkswagen Bratislava Plant]] in [[Slovakia]]. Citigo is available only in Europe, where 37,100 units were sold in 2017.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.skoda-auto.com/news/news-detail/sales-2018|title=More than 1.2 million vehicles delivered in 2017|website=www.skoda-auto.com}}</ref> The car was facelifted in 2017.

== Škoda e-Citigo ==
A fully electric version, the '''Škoda e-Citigo''', is to be available from 2019<ref>Rachel Burgess. [https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/industry/skoda-confirms-five-electrified-models-next-two-years Skoda confirms five electrified models in next two years]. ''[[Autocar (magazine)|Autocar]]''. Published on 21 March 2018.</ref> with a 186 miles (300km) of range on a single charge.<ref>Mark Tisshaw. [https://www.autocar.co.uk/car-news/motor-shows-geneva-motor-show/2019-skoda-e-citigo-confirmed-brands-first-all-electric-model 2019 Skoda e-Citigo confirmed as brand's first all-electric model]. ''[[Autocar (magazine)|Autocar]]''. Published on 6 March 2018.</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* {{commons category inline|Škoda Citigo}}
* {{official website|http://www.skoda-auto.com/}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Skoda Citigo}}
[[Category:Škoda automobiles|Citigo]]
[[Category:Hatchbacks]]
[[Category:City cars]]
[[Category:Front-wheel-drive vehicles]]
[[Category:2010s cars]]
[[Category:Cars introduced in 2011]]

2008 K2 disaster

2019-03-10T13:01:35Z

JanTurin: /* D'Aubarède's fall */

{{more citations needed|date=May 2016}}
{{coord|35.8825|76.5133|display=title}}
[[File:K2-big.jpg|right|thumb|[[K2]] in summer]]
The '''2008 K2 disaster''' occurred on 1 August 2008, when 11 [[mountaineering|mountaineers]] from international expeditions died on [[K2]], the second-[[List of highest mountains|highest]] [[mountain]] on [[Earth]].<ref name = everestnews/> Three others were seriously injured. The series of deaths, over the course of the Friday ascent and Saturday descent, was the worst single accident in the history of K2 mountaineering.<ref name=bbc_2008_0803/><ref>The most deadly climbing ''season'' on K2 was in 1986, when 13 climbers died in seven separate accidents. See Curran pp. 183–207</ref> Some of the specific details remain uncertain, with different plausible scenarios having been given about different climbers' timing and actions, when reported later via survivors' eyewitness accounts or via radio communications of climbers who died (sometimes minutes) later in the course of events on K2 that day.

The main problem was reported as an ice avalanche occurring at an area known as "The [[Bottleneck (K2)|Bottleneck]]", which destroyed many of the climbers' rope lines.<ref name="Spiegel">{{Cite news|url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/just-pure-stupidity-eleven-climbers-die-in-k2-disaster-a-569997.html|title='Just Pure Stupidity': Eleven Climbers Die in K2 Disaster|date=2008-08-04|work=Spiegel Online|access-date=2018-01-24}}</ref> However, two climbers died on the way up to the top prior to the avalanche.<ref name="Spiegel" /> Among the dead were people from France, Ireland, Korea, Nepal, Norway, Pakistan, and Serbia.<ref name="Spiegel" />

==Expedition goal: K2==
{{main|K2}}
K2 is the [[List of highest mountains|second-highest mountain]] on Earth, after [[Mount Everest]], with a peak elevation of {{convert|8611|m|ft|0}}. K2 is part of the [[Karakoram]] [[mountain range|range]], not far from the [[Himalayas]], and is located on the border between the Pakistani [[Gilgit-Baltistan]] region, and China's [[Taxkorgan Tajik Autonomous County]] of [[Xinjiang Autonomous Region]].<ref name="border_agreement"/> It is regarded by mountaineers as far more challenging than Everest, and is statistically the second most dangerous mountain in the world in terms of fatality per summit.<ref name=independent_2008_0805/>

The most dangerous section of the climb is the [[Bottleneck (K2)|Bottleneck]], a steep [[couloir]] overhung by [[serac]]s from the ice field east of the summit. The high risk of falling ice and avalanches means climbers aim to minimize time spent there. This section would prove especially deadly on this day.

The climbing season at K2 lasts from June to August, but in 2008 adverse weather prevented any groups from summitting during June and July. At the end of July, ten different groups were waiting for good weather, some of them having waited for almost two months. The months preceding the summit push were used for [[acclimatization]] and preparing for the camps higher on the mountain, the highest of them, Camp IV, at {{cvt|7800-7900|m|||}} above sea level.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

==Events between Camp IV and the summit==
With the end of July approaching and weather forecasts indicating improving weather, several groups had arrived at Camp IV on Thursday, 31 July in preparation to try the summit as soon as weather would permit. Members of an American team, a French team, a Norwegian team, a Serbian team, a South Korean team along with their [[Sherpa people|Sherpa]]s from Nepal, an international team sponsored by the Dutch company Norit, and the teams' Pakistani [[high-altitude porter]]s (HAPs) decided to work together on the Friday 1 August ascent.<ref name=MensJournal>{{cite web |url=http://www.mensjournal.com/magazine/k2-the-killing-peak-20120503?page=3 |title=K2: The Killing Peak |first=Matthew |last=Power |publisher=Men's Journal LLC |date=November 2008 |accessdate=May 16, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140109202722/http://www.mensjournal.com/magazine/k2-the-killing-peak-20120503?page=3 |archive-date=2014-01-09 |dead-url=yes |df= }}</ref> A few independent climbers (a solo Spaniard and an Italian pair) would also push for the summit in the morning.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

===Friday, 1 August===

==== Initial delays ====
The HAPs and Sherpas started to prepare [[Fixed rope|fixed lines]] before midnight. They were joined by Spanish solo climber [[Alberto Zerain]], who had come up from Camp III during the night and decided to continue his summit push early, rather than stay at Camp IV. The most experienced HAP, Jehan Baig, had to go back down with symptoms of [[high altitude sickness]]. His experience as the only person in the collected teams to have previously summited K2,<ref name=MensJournal/> and his unofficial leadership of the HAPs and Sherpas, was sorely missed. Some confusion followed and ropes may have been left behind or placed too far down the slope from the [[Bottleneck (K2)|Bottleneck]].

When the climbing groups started upward at 3:00 a.m., they found that the HAPs and Sherpas had started planting lines right above Camp IV, where they were not needed, up into the Bottleneck, and then had run out of rope for the [[Traverse (climbing)|traverse]] just above the Bottleneck. This forced the climbers to take the rope from the lower portion of the route and use it to prepare the lines above the Bottleneck, causing a dangerous unplanned delay in the climb schedule.

At this point, Eric Meyer and Fredrik Sträng of the American group decided to abort the attempt and return to Camp IV,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nickrice.us/index_files/k2dispatch63.htm |title=Day Sixty-three: SUMMIT PUSH- Summit Day; Tragedy Begins |publisher=www.nickrice.us |accessdate=7 August 2008  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828023431/http://www.nickrice.us/index_files/k2dispatch63.htm |archivedate=28 August 2008 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref> due to both the high probability of reaching the summit late, and the high exposure to ice fall in the crowded Bottleneck. Chris Klinke pushed on for a few more hours before abandoning the ascent,<ref>{{Cite web|title = Death on K2|url = http://billingsgazette.com/news/features/outdoors/death-on-k/article_dda0f5a2-c594-5d4d-a9ea-78da509f6a0f.html|website = The Billings Gazette|accessdate = 2015-11-17}}</ref> as did Jelle Staleman of the Norit team, who was also suffering frozen feet.<ref name="nickrice.us">{{Cite web|title = Nicholas Rice: K2 and Broad Peak Dispatch|url = http://www.nickrice.us/index_files/k2dispatch63.htm|website = www.nickrice.us|accessdate = 2015-11-17}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|title = Death or glory: The truth about K2|url = https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/death-or-glory-the-truth-about-k2-909516.html|website = The Independent|accessdate = 2015-11-17|language = en-GB}}</ref>

==== Mandić and Baig fall ====
At 8:00 a.m., climbers were finally advancing through the Bottleneck. Dren Mandić, from the Serbian team, decided to unclip himself from the fixed rope to attend to his oxygen system and to pass [[Cecilie Skog]] of the Norwegian team. He lost his balance and fell, bumping into Skog.<ref>{{Cite web|title = A Few False Moves|url = http://www.outsideonline.com/1848126/few-false-moves|website = Outside Online|accessdate = 2015-11-17}}</ref> She was still clipped to the rope and was merely knocked over. Mandić, however, fell over 100 m (328 feet) down the Bottleneck. Some climbers at Camp IV claimed they could see he was still moving after the fall and sent a group to help recover Mandić. Swede [[Fredrik Sträng]] stated he took command of the recovery operation.<ref name="k2climb">{{cite web|url=http://www.k2climb.net/news.php?id=17472|title=K2 report: Missing summit pics and no world records - turning the tables on Fredrik Strang|date=August 6, 2008|publisher=K2Climb|accessdate=2008-08-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080807081738/http://www.k2climb.net/news.php?id=17472|archive-date=2008-08-07|dead-url=yes|df=}}</ref>

When Sträng reached the body, Serbian climbers Predrag Zagorac and Iso Planić, along with their HAP Mohammed Hussein, had already arrived. They had found no pulse and, judging by the severity of Mandić's injuries, pronounced him dead. The Serbian climbers decided to lower the body down to Camp IV, and Sträng assisted them. They were joined by Jehan Baig, a HAP from the French team, who had fulfilled his assisting duties and had been allowed to head down. Several people later indicated Baig may have been suffering from high altitude sickness, since he had displayed questionable behaviour in [[abseiling]] down the Bottleneck. Sträng also noticed that Baig was incoherent, first offering to help in the rescue, later refusing to help, then returning moments later to assist them again. Baig lost his footing and bumped into Sträng, who then urged him to let go of the rope attached to Mandić's harness, before all four climbers would be dragged down. Baig finally let go of the rope, but to Sträng's and the others' surprise, he did not try to stop his slide by using the [[self-arrest]] technique, which has about a 50% chance of arresting a fall, and Baig fell to his death. It is unclear why he did not try to stop his slide. Sträng then decided to descend without Mandić's body.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://k2climb.net/news.php?id=17465 |title=K2: Fredrik Sträng's tale of Pakistani guide's fatal fall |publisher=k2climb.net |accessdate=7 August 2008  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080806220615/http://www.k2climb.net/news.php?id=17465 |archivedate=2008-08-06 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> The Serbian group aborted, wrapped Mandić's body in a flag and fastened him to the mountain, and started to descend.<ref name = everestnews /> Nicholas Rice, a climber with the French team who had been delayed, also aborted at this point.<ref name="nickrice.us"/>

These delays, together with the traffic jam in the Bottleneck, resulted in most climbers' reaching the summit much later than planned, some as late as 8:00 p.m., well outside the typical time for summitting of 3:00 to 5:00 p.m. All together, 18 people summited that day, though eight (plus one who stopped near the summit) would not survive the lengthy descent. On the descent, the Spaniard Alberto Zerain, who had topped out first and alone at 3:00 p.m., managed to pass through the Bottleneck without trouble.

==== First serac fall ====

By 8:30 p.m., darkness had enveloped K2. Members of the Norwegian group – including Lars Flatø Nessa and Skog, who had both summitted two hours after Zerain – had almost navigated the traverse leading to the Bottleneck, when a [[serac]] (a large block of glacial ice) broke off from above. As it fell, it cut all the fixed lines and took with it Skog's husband [[Rolf Bae]], who had abandoned the ascent only {{cvt|100|m|||}} below the summit, telling Nessa to look after his wife, as he waited for her. Nessa and Skog continued descending without the fixed lines, and managed to reach Camp IV during the night.<ref>{{cite news|work=[[The Summit (2012 film)|The Summit]]|date=2008|title=Skog's statements during the film}}</ref>

As a result of the serac's fall, the descent through the Bottleneck became more technical. Chunks of ice lay scattered around the route, and the mountaineers above were stranded in darkness in the [[death zone]] above {{cvt|8000|m|||}}.<ref name="mcdonnell">{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/7539069.stm|title=K2 climber missing after ice fall|publisher=[[bbc.co.uk]]|accessdate=2008-08-06|date=2008-08-02| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080803003806/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/northern_ireland/7539069.stm| archivedate= 3 August 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref> Since the climbers had planned for the fixed lines, they were not carrying additional ropes or fall protection devices, forcing the climbers to "[[Free soloing|free solo]]" the descent through the notorious Bottleneck. According to team Norit's Dutch mountaineer Wilco van Rooijen, panic broke out among the climbers waiting above the Bottleneck.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://in.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idINISL3480720080804?pageNumber=2&virtualBrandChannel=0 |title=INTERVIEW-K2 survivor recounts fatal mistakes, numbed panic |publisher=Reuters |date=August 4, 2008 |accessdate=7 August 2008  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828054005/http://in.reuters.com/article/domesticNews/idINISL3480720080804?pageNumber=2&virtualBrandChannel=0 |archivedate=28 August 2008 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref> Some tried to descend in the darkness, while others decided to [[bivouac shelter|bivouac]] and wait until morning before descending.

==== Midnight descents ====

The Norit team included a full climbing member named [[National Geographic Adventure (magazine)#Adventurer of the Year|Pemba Gyalje]], a Sherpa mountaineer who years earlier had been a support climber on [[Mount Everest]]. Gyalje descended in the darkness without fixed ropes to reach Camp IV before midnight. Sherpa Chhiring Dorje also free-soloed the Bottleneck with "Little" Pasang Lama (who had been stranded without an ice axe) secured to his harness. "I can just about imagine how you might pull it off," writes [[Ed Viesturs]] in ''K2: Life and Death on the World's Most Dangerous Mountain''. "You kick each foot in solid, plant the axe, then tell the other guy to kick with his own feet and punch holds with his hands. Don't move until he's secure. Still, if Pasang had come off [i.e., 'fallen'], he probably would have taken Chhiring with him. Talk about selfless!"<ref>Viesturs & Roberts</ref>

Two members of the South Korean expedition, Kim Jae-soo and [[Go Mi-Young]], also managed to navigate the Bottleneck in the dark, although the latter had to be helped by two Sherpas from the Korean B team, Chhiring Bhote and "Big" Pasang Bhote, who were supposed to summit the next morning. The men had climbed up around midnight without food or oxygen, and found Go Mi-Young stranded somewhere in the Bottleneck, unsure of which route she had to take. They guided her down safely.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

==== D'Aubarède's fall ====
Meanwhile, team Norit's Cas van de Gevel and the French team's Hugues D’Aubarede had each decided to manoeuvre the Bottleneck in the dark. As Van de Gevel reached the bottom of the Bottleneck, he witnessed a climber falling to his death, a story corroborated by the two Sherpas Chhiring Bhote and "Big" Pasang Bhote, who also had witnessed one or two objects falling from the mountain. This climber was probably D'Aubarede, whom van de Gevel had passed just above the Bottleneck in the dark. D'Aubarede had run out of bottled oxygen hours before, and when van de Gevel had passed him, he had looked tired and insisted van de Gevel descend before him.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

Italian semi-soloist Marco Confortola and Norit teammates van Rooijen and Irishman [[Ger McDonnell]] bivouacked above the traverse, as they could not find the fixed ropes leading across the traverse. Confortola claimed that during the bivouac, he heard screams and saw headlights disappear below him after a roaring sound came from the serac field. At that point, eight people were still above the Bottleneck.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

===Saturday, 2 August===
{{refimprove section|date=July 2014}}
The rescue efforts started in the base camp as a group was sent upwards with ropes to help those still stuck in the Bottleneck. The group included Sherpas Tsering Bhote and "Big" Pasang Bhote, who had previously helped Go Mi-Young down the Bottleneck; they now went to search for their relative Jumik Bhote, who had been stranded with the remaining climbers of the Korean expedition somewhere above the Bottleneck.

==== Second serac fall ====
Early in the morning, above the traverse, van Rooijen gave up the search for the fixed ropes and descended alone. His vision was deteriorating and he feared he was going [[Photokeratitis|snow blind]], requiring him to get off the mountain quickly. Confortola and McDonnell did not follow him immediately. Later, van Rooijen reached the remaining Korean climbers (Confortola claims one of them was Kyeong-Hyo Park) and their guide Jumik Bhote.

The men were tangled in several ropes and had clearly been hanging there, some upside down and bloodied, through the night, but all alive. It is unclear whether or not the men were the victims of a second serac fall, an avalanche, or perhaps a regular fall leaving them tangled in the ropes. Some sources mention only two Koreans and Jumik Bhote, while other reports indicate three remaining Koreans (one near death). It could be that this was the event Confortola had witnessed during the bivouac the previous night, while it could also be that this was the second object Tsering Bhote and "Big" Pasang Bhote saw falling off the mountain—there is little direct evidence to clearly confirm either possibility. Van Rooijen handed Jumik Bhote his spare pair of gloves but was unable to help them any more. He claims Jumik Bhote informed him a rescue mission was under way from Camp IV. Van Rooijen decided to continue descending.<ref name=""gloves"">Bowley, p. 143</ref>

Confortola and McDonnell reached the Korean group later in the morning and worked for several hours trying to free them. It is unclear what happened next. Confortola claims McDonnell, after working with Confortola for at least 1.5 hours, suddenly climbed back up the mountain, leaving him with the three stranded men. Confortola assumed McDonnell had succumbed to high-altitude sickness and was growing delusional, believing he had to climb back up. Left alone, Confortola did all he could for Jumik Bhote, giving him his own equipment. They had managed to get the Koreans back into at least a comfortable position, though they were still entangled. Confortola says he was able to radio Tsering Bhote and "Big" Pasang Bhote, who were on their way up to rescue the men. Confortola, having spent at least three hours with the entangled men, was exhausted and chose to continue down.

Van Rooijen disputes Confortola's version of the events. Van Rooijen, who had seen Confortola and McDonnell helping the stranded Koreans and their guide from below, thinks McDonnell did not climb back up the mountain, but rather climbed up to the highest anchor supporting the three stranded men to try to transfer the load. He then could have returned to the three men and may have spent another several hours alone helping free the men from the ropes. In his book ''Surviving K2'', van Rooijen provides some photographs he believes supports these claims.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wilco van Rooijen|title=Surviving K2|url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/18903365-surviving-k2|date=|asin=B007TKATSM}}</ref>

==== Third serac fall and avalanche ====
[[File:K2-above-Bottleneck.jpg|thumb|High on K2: Seracs above the Bottleneck]]
Confortola stated that some time after he left the three men, an avalanche struck just feet away from him. In the rubble of this avalanche, he spotted the remains of one climber. After investigating them, he suggests these were McDonnell's remains.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

Just after noon, Tsering Bhote and "Big" Pasang Bhote had reached the bottom of the Bottleneck. There they found Confortola crawling on his hands and knees. The two Sherpas radioed Gyalje and van de Gevel to come up for Confortola, so Tsering Bhote and "Big" Pasang Bhote could continue the search for their relative Jumik Bhote and the Koreans. "Big" Pasang Bhote later radioed Gyalje that he had met Jumik Bhote and two members of the Korean expedition just above the Bottleneck—apparently they were freed after all. He also radioed that a fourth climber, descending behind the two Koreans and the two Sherpas, had been swept away by a serac fall and was dead. The description of the climber's red-and-black suit matched McDonnell's, which suggests Confortola was mistaken in identifying the remains in the avalanche as McDonnell's and supports van Rooijen's theory that McDonnell freed the two Koreans and Jumik Bhote, before perishing in a different serac fall. Tsering Bhote, from his position at the base of the Bottleneck, has also claimed to have seen a serac fall strike the rescue party as they were descending near the top of the Bottleneck.<ref>{{cite book|author=Wilkinson, Freddie|title= One Mountain Thousand Summits: The Untold Story of Tragedy and True Heroism on K2|publisher= New Amer Library|date= 2010|pages= 320, 332}}</ref>

==== Uncertainties ====
Here, another mystery of the 2008 K2 disaster adds confusion to the sequence of events. There was one other climber still unaccounted for: D’Aubarede's HAP, Meherban Karim. Karim was last seen returning from the summit with D’Aubarede, in the later hours of 1 August. He and D’Aubarede must have gotten separated in the dark, as van de Gevel encountered only D’Aubarede above the Bottleneck. Van Rooijen, in his book ''Surviving K2'', supports the theory that Karim bivouacked even higher on the mountain than van Rooijen, Confortola, and McDonnell. Again, van Rooijen provides photographic evidence: what looks like a climber can be seen above the serac field on the morning of 2 August. In a later photo, the figure seems to have disappeared, and there is a trail leading down the seracs. Van Rooijen and others, such as McDonnell's partner Annie Starkey, believe this figure was Karim. Disoriented from spending the night at such high altitudes without an oxygen mask, he might have gotten lost and stumbled onto the serac field, where he fell or got swept away by an avalanche or part of the breaking serac. He might even have actually caused one of the serac falls. Hence, it may have been Karim's remains Confortola had found earlier in the avalanche rubble.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

Graham Bowley, in his book ''No Way Down'' (2010),<ref>{{cite book|title=No Way Down|author=Bowley, Graham|url=https://www.goodreads.com/book/show/6978889-no-way-down?from_search=true&search_version=service|date=2010}}</ref> is unable to refute the evidence presented by van Rooijen but still deems the photos inconclusive at best. He is joined in his analysis by writer Michael Kodas.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} Both men edge towards the testimony of the only living eyewitness: Marco Confortola. In the photos taken by Gyalje, individual climbers cannot be made out. In fact, some of the figures assumed to be climbers could very well be rocks, and marks that look like trails are everywhere on the mountain.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

Confortola statements were conflicting at best. Many of the things he said were later disproved. In his initial interview at Milan Airport, he stated that he had freed the Korean climbers. It was later determined that McDonnell had freed them. He also made the mistake of misidentifying McDonnell's remains, later thought to be those of another climber. In regards to the bivying of the night before, Confortola stated that he and McDonnell saw climbers being swept away, and they decided to bivy until morning. He said Rooijen joined them later. Rooijen disputed this claim. He told McDonnell's family that they had all started together and bivyed together at the same time. Overall, much of the truth of the story came down to Rooijen's and Gaylje's version of events. Part of the reason Confortola's version of events were believed early on was because he was first to speak to the media. Gaylje was still trekking out of the mountain range when he was giving his statements and it would be days before he could give his version of events. <ref>{{Cite web|url=https://basecampmagazine.com/2018/02/12/the-2008-k2-tragedy/|title=The 2008 K2 Disaster|last=Leger|first=C. J.|date=2018-02-12|website=Base Camp Magazine|language=en|access-date=2019-03-09}}</ref>

Another possible explanation of the mystery is an error in "Big" Pasang Bhote's observations about the colour of the suit, meaning the last climber could have been Karim, who was wearing a pure red down suit. If so, Confortola had indeed identified McDonnell's remains in the avalanche earlier.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}} The existence of multiple plausible scenarios underscores the uncertainty, even among eyewitnesses, pertaining to the course of events on K2 that day.

In the book ''Buried in the Sky'' (2012), Amanda Padoan and Peter Zuckerman examine much more closely the Sherpa and HAP experiences of the 2008 disaster, and present plausible alternative scenarios and explanations of the events, including the possibility that McDonnell and Karim were still alive at the time of the fourth serac fall.

==== Fourth serac fall and avalanche ====
Minutes after "Big" Pasang Bhote had radioed in the news that he had found his relative Jumik Bhote and two Koreans, another avalanche or serac fall struck. It swept away the four men. Tsering Bhote, who had climbed more slowly than fellow rescuer "Big" Pasang Bhote, had not yet reached the top of the Bottleneck. Consequently, he survived the avalanche, as did Gyalje and Confortola at the bottom of the Bottleneck. The death toll had now risen to 11.{{citation needed|date=September 2015}}

==== Van Rooijen's descent ====
Meanwhile, van Rooijen was making his way down the mountain alone. He had climbed down a new route to the left of the Česen route, bypassing Camp IV. Van de Gevel and Gyalje descended from Camp IV to Camp III after they had heard van Rooijen was still somewhere on the mountain. Van Rooijen had managed several satellite phone calls that may have helped pinpoint his location. He would ultimately have to spend a second bivouac out on the mountain, suffering third-degree frostbite to his feet.<ref>{{Cite web|title = K2 Survivor Wilco van Rooijen, In His Own Words|url = http://adventureblog.nationalgeographic.com/2008/08/06/k2-survivor-wilco-van-rooijen/|website = Beyond the Edge|accessdate = 2015-11-18}}</ref> Wilco van Rooijen is one of only a few people to survive two days above the 8000m "Death Zone".

===Evacuation===
On Saturday, Van de Gevel and Gyalje made contact with van Rooijen on the Česen route early in the morning; the three managed to get down to the base camp at 10:00 p.m.<ref name=nick>{{cite news|url=http://thelede.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/08/05/tales-of-chaos-and-survival-on-k2/|title=Tales of Chaos and Survival on K2|publisher=New York Times | first=Mike | last=Nizza | date=August 5, 2008 | accessdate=April 22, 2010}}</ref> The next day, Van de Gevel and van Rooijen were evacuated from base camp by helicopter, to [[Skardu]]. Confortola reached Camp II, the advance base camp.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nickrice.us/index_files/k2dispatch66.htm |title=Day Sixty-six: SUMMIT PUSH– The Final Cost |publisher=www.nickrice.us |accessdate=5 August 2008 |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828023436/http://www.nickrice.us/index_files/k2dispatch66.htm |archivedate=28 August 2008 |deadurl=yes |df= }}</ref> Pakistani authorities released a list of names of those killed and injured.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.everestnews.com/pak2008/k22008sadnews081020080101.htm |title=K2 2008: List of climbers who died released |publisher=www.everestnews.com |accessdate=4 August 2008  |archiveurl=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090707003743/http%3A//www%2Eeverestnews%2Ecom/pak2008/k22008sadnews081020080101%2Ehtm |archivedate= July 7, 2009 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref> Confortola was evacuated by helicopter the following day.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nickrice.us/index_files/k2dispatch68.htm |title=Day Sixty-eight: Wait for Porters Continues; Italians Evacuated |publisher=www.nickrice.us |accessdate=7 August 2008  |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080828023454/http://www.nickrice.us/index_files/k2dispatch68.htm |archivedate=28 August 2008 |deadurl=no |df= }}</ref><ref>{{Citation|url = https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=s44GC32d6Co&t=1h45s|accessdate = 2015-09-30|title = K2 - The Killer Summit}}</ref>

==Rescue operation==
The [[Pakistani military]] started a rescue operation early on 4 August 2008, using two helicopters. They rescued two injured and [[Frostbite|frostbitten]] Dutch climbers from the base camp, located approximately 5,000 metres (16,400 ft) above sea level.<ref>{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2008/08/05/world/asia/05K2.html?partner=rssnyt&emc=rss|title=More Are Feared Dead Near K2’s Harsh Summit|last=Perlez|first=Jane|publisher=The New York Times | date=August 5, 2008 | accessdate=April 22, 2010}}</ref> Four climbers, including an Italian, were making their own way down the mountain.<ref name=ih_tribute/> The four were flown to [[Skardu]] for treatment. Van Rooijen was found using [[Global Positioning System|GPS]] coordinates sent out by his [[Thuraya]] [[satellite phone]] when he used it to call his brother.<ref name=xsatusa/>

===After K2===
*Marco Confortola authored a book in Italian, titled ''Days of Ice.'' <ref>{{Cite web |url=http://news.marcoconfortola.it/?p=250 |title=Archived copy |access-date=2009-05-25 |archive-url=https://www.webcitation.org/5h7IMALyl?url=http://news.marcoconfortola.it/?p=250 |archive-date=2009-05-28 |dead-url=yes |df= }}</ref>
*Ger McDonnell's family established a charity to sponsor the children of four HAPs who died on K2.<ref>{{cite news|last1=Murphy|first1=Claire|title=Scholarship memorial to Gerard -- the hero of K2|url=https://www.herald.ie/news/scholarship-memorial-to-gerard-the-hero-of-k2-27950726.html|accessdate=31 December 2017|work=[[The Herald (Ireland)]]|date=6 May 2010}}</ref>
*Chhiring Dorje Sherpa and "Little" Pasang Lama's intersecting lives were profiled in ''Buried in the Sky'' (2012).<ref>{{cite book|title= Buried in the Sky: The Extraordinary Story of the Sherpa Climbers on K2's Deadliest Day|author=Zuckerman, Peter|author2=Padoan, Amanda|last-author-amp=yes |url=http://www.buriedinthesky.com}}</ref> The book won the National Outdoor Book Award (history/biography), the 2012 NCTE George Orwell award, the Banff Mountain Book Festival's Mountaineering History Award. Chhiring Dorje Sherpa was honoured for his heroism with the Tenzing Norgay Award at the Explorers Club Annual Banquet in March 2013.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chhiring Dorje Sherpa|url=https://explorers.org/about/chhiring_dorje_sherpa|website=The Explorers Club|accessdate=31 December 2017}}</ref>
*[[National Geographic Adventure (magazine)#Adventurer of the Year|Pemba Gyalje Sherpa]] was named the 2008 ''[[National Geographic Adventure]]'' Adventurer of the Year,<ref>{{cite news|title=Best of Adventure: Adventurers of the Year - They Did It (Fourteen people who dreamed big, pushed their limits, and made our year)|work=National Geographic Adventure|url=http://adventure.nationalgeographic.com/2008/12/best-of/adventurer-of-the-year-list-text|date=December 2008}}</ref> for "extreme heroism under trying extreme circumstances".<ref>{{cite news|series=The Savior and the Storm|url=http://www.pemba.com.np/news.php?id=9The%20Savior%20and%20the%20Storm%20on%20K2%20by%20Christian%20DeBenedetti|author=DeBenedetti, Christian|date=December 2008|title=K2 Hero is Adventurer of the Year}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=90 hours in the 'death zone': One man’s brave actions on an uncompromising mountain|author=Lederman, Marsha |work=The Globe and Mail|date= October 24, 2013 |url=https://www.theglobeandmail.com/arts/film/one-sherpas-brave-actions-on-an-uncompromising-mountain/article15043482/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|work=Epoch Times| title=Spirituality Safeguards Adventurer Pemba Gyalje Sherpa, at World’s Deadliest Peaks: Mountain climber who summited K2 talks about his experience| author=Skorbach, Kristina Skorbach | date=October 8, 2013|url=http://www.theepochtimes.com/n3/311953-spirituality-safeguards-adventurer-at-worlds-deadliest-peaks/}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Best of Adventure: Adventurers of the Year - The savior and the storm on K2; Heroism: Pemba Gyalje Sherpa|author=DeBenedetti, Christian |work=National Geographic Adventure|url=http://adventure.nationalgeographic.com/2008/12/best-of/pemba-sherpa-text|date=December 2008}}</ref>
* [[Ed Viesturs]] published ''K2: Life and Death on the World's Most Dangerous Mountain'' (2009) and has participated in numerous [[Ed Viesturs#Media|other media projects]] related to the experience.
*Wilco van Rooijen authored a book in Dutch and English, titled ''Surviving K2.'' <ref>{{cite web |title=Expeditienet |author=Rhinofly |url=http://www.expeditienet.nl/winkel.php?id=111&language=NL |work= |archiveurl=https://www.webcitation.org/5h7ILoP5U?url=http://www.expeditienet.nl/winkel.php?id=111&language=NL |archivedate=2009-05-28 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=2009-05-25 |df= }}</ref>

==List of fatalities==
{| class="wikitable"
|-
! Name<ref name=adv_stats/>
! Nationality<ref name=adv_stats/>
! Location of death
! Cause of death
|-
| Dren Mandić
| [[Serbia]]
| rowspan=2| Below the [[Bottleneck (K2)|Bottleneck]]
| Fell during the ascent
|-
| Jehan Baig
| [[Pakistan]]
| Fell while trying to recover Dren Mandić's corpse
|-
| [[Rolf Bae]]
| [[Norway]]
| Bottleneck
| The first serac fall
|-
| {{nowrap|Hugues D'Aubarede}}
| [[France]]
| rowspan=3|Above the Bottleneck
| Fell in descent during the night
|-
| Karim Meherban
| [[Pakistan]]
| Either the second serac fall or the third serac fall
|-
| [[Ger McDonnell|Gerard McDonnell]]
| [[Republic of Ireland|Ireland]]
| Hit by either the second or third serac fall, after helping the injured Koreans
|-
| Kyeong-Hyo Park
| [[South Korea]]
| rowspan=5| Above the Bottleneck
| rowspan=5| The fourth serac fall
|-
| Hyo-Gyeong Kim
| [[South Korea]]
|-
| Dong-Jin Hwang
| [[South Korea]]
|-
| Jumik Bhote
| [[Nepal]]
|-
| Pasang Bhote
| [[Nepal]]
|-

|}

One of the three Korean casualties perished either during the incident that caused their original fall and tangled the ropes, or the morning after before the others were freed. Some sources claim there were three Koreans tangled in the ropes, whilst McDonnell and Confortola were trying to rescue them. Others have the number at two Koreans and Jumik Bhote. What is certain is: only two Koreans were alive to encounter Pasang Bhote before the last serac fall.{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}}

==Climbing on K2 since the disaster==
There were no summits in 2009 and 2010, during which season the renowned skier [[Fredrik Ericsson]] fell to his death in the Bottleneck.<ref name=planetmtn2010/> K2's summit was not reached again until 23 August 2011, when [[Gerlinde Kaltenbrunner]] ([[Austria]]), Maxut Zhumayev and Vassiliy Pivtsov ([[Kazakhstan]]), and Darek Zaluski ([[Poland]]) topped out via the North Pillar.<ref name=expweb_2011_0823/>

According to AdventureStats, the last 17 fatalities on K2 have all occurred in, around, or above the Bottleneck, once again proving the deadly nature of K2's upper slopes.<ref name=adv_stats/>

==See also==
{{wikinews|Death toll rises to eleven in K2 mountain avalanche}}
* [[1986 K2 disaster]]
* [[List of deaths on eight-thousanders]]
* [[The Summit (2012 film)|''The Summit'' (film)]], a 2012 documentary film about the disaster
* [[List of books about K2]], including seven about the 2008 season
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{Reflist
|2
|refs=
<ref name=adv_stats>
{{cite web | url = http://www.adventurestats.com/tables/k2fatilities.shtml
| title = K2 Fatalities | publisher = advensturestats.com | accessdate = 2014-01-15}}</ref>
<ref name=bbc_2008_0803>
{{cite news | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7539543.stm
| title= Eleven climbers feared dead on K2
| publisher=BBC News |date=2008-08-03
| accessdate=2008-08-06
| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20090217233348/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/7539543.stm
| archivedate=February 17, 2009}}</ref>
<ref name="border_agreement">{{cite web |url= http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS085.pdf |title= Text of border agreement between China and Pakistan |access-date= 2008-08-06 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20120211132925/http://www.law.fsu.edu/library/collection/LimitsinSeas/IBS085.pdf |archive-date= 2012-02-11 |dead-url= yes |df= }} {{small|(253 [[Kibibyte|KiB]])}}</ref>
<ref name=everestnews>
{{cite web
|url=http://www.everestnews.com/pak2008/k22008sadnews081020080101.htm
|title=K2 2008: List of climbers who passed away released
|publisher=everestnews.com
|accessdate=2008-08-04 
|archiveurl=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20090707003743/http%3A//www%2Eeverestnews%2Ecom/pak2008/k22008sadnews081020080101%2Ehtm
|archivedate= July 7, 2009
|deadurl=no
|df=
}}</ref>
<ref name=expweb_2011_0823>
{{cite web | url = http://www.explorersweb.com/everest_k2/news.php?id=20313
| title = K2 north pillar SUMMITS! Gerlinde bags the first female No-O2 14x8000ers ascent - Max, Vassiliy and Darek on top too
| publisher = ExplorersWeb | subscription = yes
| date = 23 August 2011 | accessdate = 2014-01-15}}</ref>
<ref name=ih_tribute>
{{cite web | url = http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/08/04/asia/K-2.php
| title = Death toll in climbing accident on K2 rises to 11
| publisher = International Herald Tribune | date = 4 August 2008
| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20080808103843/http://www.iht.com/articles/2008/08/04/asia/K-2.php
| archivedate = 2008-08-08}}</ref>
<ref name=independent_2008_0805>
{{cite web | url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-big-question-what-makes-k2-the-most-perilous-challenge-a-mountaineer-can-face-885220.html
| title=The Big Question: What makes K2 the most perilous challenge a mountaineer can face?
| accessdate=2008-08-07 |author=Taylor, Jerome | date=5 August 2008 |work=
| publisher=[[The Independent]] | location=London
| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20080818214211/http://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/the-big-question-what-makes-k2-the-most-perilous-challenge-a-mountaineer-can-face-885220.html
| archivedate= 18 August 2008}}</ref>
<ref name=planetmtn2010>
{{cite web | title = Fredrik Ericsson, fatal accident on K2 | date = 9 August 2010
| url = http://www.planetmountain.com/en/news/alpinism/fredrik-ericsson-fatal-accident-on-k2.html
| publisher = planetmountain.com | accessdate = 2016-04-09}}</ref>
<ref name=xsatusa>
{{cite web | url = http://www.xsatusa.com/news.php?ArticleID=13
| title = XSAT USA plays role in recent K2 mountain rescue
| publisher = XSAT USA | date = 14 August 2008
| accessdate = 2014-01-15}}</ref>
}}

==Bibliography==
{{refbegin}}
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* {{cite book | title=K2: The Story of the Savage Mountain
| last=Curran | first=Jim|year=1995
| publisher=Hodder & Stoughton | location=
| isbn=978-0-340-66007-2}}
* {{cite book
|title = The Summit: How Triumph Turned To Tragedy on K2's Deadliest Days
|last1 = Falvey
|first1 = Pat
|last2 = Pemba
|first2 = Gyalje Sherpa
|publisher = Beyond Endurance Publishing & The O'Brien Press
|location = Dublin
|year = 2013
|url = http://www.thesummitk2.com
|isbn = 978-1-84717-643-1
|access-date = 2018-09-16
|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20161104070755/http://www.thesummitk2.com/
|archive-date = 2016-11-04
|dead-url = yes
|df =
}}
* {{cite book | title = Buried in the Sky: The Extraordinary Story of the Sherpa Climbers on K2's Deadliest Day
| last1 = Padoan | first1 = Amanda | last2 = Zuckerman | first2 = Peter
| publisher = WW Norton | location = New York | year = 2012
| isbn =978-039-334-5414}}
* {{cite book | title = K2: Life and Death on the World's Most Dangerous Mountain
| last1 = Viesturs | first1 = Ed | last2 = Roberts | first2 = David
| publisher = Broadway Books | location = New York | year = 2009
| url = https://www.scribd.com/doc/21008975/K2-by-Ed-Viesturs-and-David-Roberts-Excerpt
| accessdate = 2014-01-15
| isbn =978-0-7679-3250-9}}
* {{cite book | title = One Mountain Thousand Summits: The Untold Story of Tragedy and True Heroism on K2
| last = Wilkinson | first = Freddie
| publisher = New America Library (NAL) | location = New York | year = 2010
| url = https://www.amazon.com/One-Mountain-Thousand-Summits-Tragedy/dp/0451231198/ref=tmm_hrd_swatch_0?_encoding=UTF8&sr=&qid=
| accessdate = 2014-03-19
| isbn =978-0451231192}}
{{refend}}

==External links==
*{{cite web|url=http://watershednews.blogspot.com/2008/08/death-zone.html |title=Death zone blog entry including the picture of the Bottleneck and a line of climbers |website= Watershed News including picture taken August 1, 2008 by Nicholas Rice, of the Bottleneck and a line of climbers|author= McCarthy, Guy|date=August 7, 2008}}
*{{cite web|website=ExplorersWeb.com|url=http://www.explorersweb.com/sitemedia/images/everest/20081031k2aug1_2008_10am.jpg |title=Mountain at 10am Aug 1}}
*{{cite web|website=ExplorersWeb.com|url= http://www.explorersweb.com/ |title=Photo taken by Sherpa Pemba Gyalje, of the situation around the Bottleneck in the morning of Aug 2}}
*{{cite web|website=Flickr|url=https://www.flickr.com/photos/25037111@N07/sets/72157604615380378/ |title=Expedition photographs from the Dutch Norit K2 team}}
* [https://web.archive.org/web/20080722233137/http://www.noritk2.nl/ Norit K2 Expedition 2008], Internet Archive Wayback Machine

{{K2nav}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:2008 K2 disaster}}
[[Category:K2]]
[[Category:2008 natural disasters|K2 disaster]]
[[Category:2008 in Pakistan|K2 disaster]]
[[Category:2008 in Asian sport|K2 disaster]]
[[Category:Mountaineering disasters]]
[[Category:Disasters in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Natural disaster deaths in Pakistan]]
[[Category:Deaths in avalanches]]

Satellite navigation device

2019-02-11T09:39:01Z

JanTurin: /* Privacy concerns */ propaganda footnote removed

{{redirect|GPS navigation|navigation provided by a GPS|Turn-by-turn navigation}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=October 2016}}
[[File:Magellan Trailblazer XL GPS Handheld Receiver.jpg|thumb|A 1993 Magellan Trailblazer XL GPS Handheld Receiver]]
[[File:Garmin Nüvi 200.jpg|thumb|Vehicle navigation on a [[personal navigation assistant]]]]
[[File:Garmin eTrex10.jpg|150px|thumb|right|Garmin eTrex10 edition handheld]]
A '''GPS navigation device''', '''GPS receiver''', or simply '''GPS''' is a device that is capable of receiving information from [[GPS satellites]] and then to calculate the device's geographical position. Using suitable software, the device may display the position on a map, and it may offer directions. The [[Global Positioning System]] (GPS) is a [[satellite navigation|global navigation satellite system]] (GNSS) made up of a network of a minimum of 24, but currently [[List of GPS satellites|30, satellites]] placed into orbit by the [[United States Department of Defense|U.S. Department of Defense]].<ref name="GPS.gov advice">{{cite web |last1=US Government|title=GPS.gov|url=http://www.gps.gov/support/faq/#gap1|website=GPS.gov|publisher=US Govt.|accessdate=21 March 2015}}</ref>

The GPS was originally developed for use by the United States military, but in the 1980s, the United States government allowed the system to be used for civilian purposes. Though the GPS satellite data is free and works anywhere in the world, the GPS device and the associated software must be bought or rented.

A GPS device can retrieve from the GPS system location and time information in all weather conditions, anywhere on or near the Earth. A GPS reception requires an unobstructed line of sight to four or more GPS satellites,<ref>{{cite web|title=What is a GPS?|url=https://www.loc.gov/rr/scitech/mysteries/global.html}}</ref> and is subject to poor satellite signal conditions. In exceptionally poor signal conditions, for example in urban areas, satellite signals may exhibit [[multipath propagation]] where signals bounce off structures, or are [[Radio propagation#Absorption|weakened]] by meteorological conditions. Obstructed lines of sight may arise from a tree canopy or inside a structure, such as in a building, garage or tunnel. Today, most standalone GPS receivers are used in automobiles. The GPS capability of [[smartphone]]s may use [[assisted GPS]] (A-GPS) technology, which can use the base station or [[cell tower]]s to provide a faster [[Time to First Fix]] (TTFF), especially when GPS signals are poor or unavailable. However, the mobile network part of the A-GPS technology would not be available when the smartphone is outside the range of the mobile reception network, while the GPS aspect would otherwise continue to be available.

The Russian Global Navigation Satellite System ([[GLONASS]]) was developed contemporaneously with GPS, but suffered from incomplete coverage of the globe until the mid-2000s.<ref>{{cite web|title=Russia Launches Three More GLONASS-M Space Vehicles|url=http://www.insidegnss.com/node/982|publisher=''[[Inside GNSS]]''|accessdate=December 26, 2008}}</ref> GLONASS can be added to GPS devices to make more satellites available and enabling positions to be fixed more quickly and accurately, to within 2 meters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blog.clove.co.uk/2012/01/10/glonass-the-future-for-all-smartphones/|title=index.php|author=|date=10 January 2012|website=clove.co.uk|accessdate=3 April 2018}}</ref>

==Automotive navigation system==
Using the GPS information and subject to the sophistication of installed GPS software, a GPS device used as an [[automobile navigation system]] may be used in a number of contexts, including:
* maps, including street maps, displayed in human readable format via text or in a graphical format,
* [[turn-by-turn navigation]] directions to a human in charge of a vehicle or vessel via text or speech,
* directions fed directly to an [[Autonomous car|autonomous vehicle]] such as a robotic probe,
* [[traffic congestion map]]s (depicting either historical or real time data) and suggested alternative directions,
* information on nearby amenities such as restaurants, fueling stations, and [[tourist attraction]]s.

GPS devices may be able to indicate:
* the roads or paths available,
* traffic congestion and alternative routes,
* roads or paths that might be taken to get to the destination,
* if some roads are busy (now or historically) the best route to take,
* The location of food, banks, hotels, fuel, airports or other places of interests,
* the shortest route between the two locations,
* the different options to drive on highway or back roads.

== History ==
{{See|Global Positioning System#History}}

As with many other technological breakthroughs of the latter 20th century, the modern GPS system can reasonably be argued to be a direct outcome of the [[Cold War]] of the latter 20th century. The multibillion-dollar expense of the program was initially justified by military interest.

In 1960, the US Navy put into service its [[Transit (satellite)|Transit satellite]] based navigation system to aid in ship navigation. Between 1960 and 1982, as the benefits were been shown, the US military consistently improved and refined its satellite navigation technology and satellite system. In 1973, the US military began to plan for a comprehensive worldwide navigational system which eventually became known as the GPS (global positioning system). In 1983, in the wake of the tragedy of the downing of the [[Korean Airlines Flight 007]], an aircraft which was shot down while in Soviet airspace due to a navigational error, President Reagan made the navigation capabilities of the existing military GPS system available for dual civilian use. However, civilian use was initially only a slightly degraded "[[Selective Availability]]" positioning signal. This new availability of the US military GPS system for civilian use required a certain technical collaboration with the private sector for some time, before it could become a commercial reality. In 1989, [[Magellan Navigation|Magellan Navigation Inc.]] unveiled its Magellan NAV 1000, the world’s first commercial handheld GPS receiver. These units initially sold for approximately US$2,900 each. In 2000, the Clinton administration removed the military use signal restrictions, thus providing full commercial access to the US GPS satellite system.

In 1990, [[Mazda]]'s [[Eunos Cosmo]] was the first production car in the world with a [[automotive navigation system|built-in GPS navigation system]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.motortrend.com/classic/features/12q2_1993_eunos_mazda_cosmo_drive/ |title=1993 Eunos/Mazda Cosmo Classic Drive Uncosmopolitan: Meet the rarest Mazda in America |date=February 2012 |website=Motor Trend |publisher=TEN: The Enthusiast Network |accessdate=18 January 2015}}</ref> In 1991, [[Mitsubishi]] introduced GPS car navigation on the [[Mitsubishi Debonair]] (MMCS: Mitsubishi Multi Communication System).<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=RXd32z5vN18|title=Mitsubishi DEBONAIR Commercial 1991 Japan|first=|last=Sigma Heart|date=16 January 2015|publisher=|accessdate=3 April 2018|via=YouTube}}</ref> In 1997, a navigation system using [[Differential GPS]] was developed as a factory-installed option on the [[Toyota Prius]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.player-top.fr/|title=Autoradio GPS Android pas cher, Caméra radar de recul - Player Top|website=www.player-top.fr|access-date=2016-07-18}}</ref>

As GPS navigation systems became more and more widespread and popular, the pricing of such systems began to fall, and their widespread availability steadily increased. Also, several additional manufacturers of these systems, such as [[Garmin]] (1991), [[Twig Com|Benefon]] (1999), [[Mio Technology|Mio]] (2002) and [[TomTom]] (2002) entered the market. Mitac Mio 168 was the first PocketPC to contain a built-in GPS receiver.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pocketgpsworld.com/mitacmio168.php|title=Mitac Mio 168 Review|first=Darren|last=Griffin|date=|website=www.pocketgpsworld.com|accessdate=3 April 2018}}</ref> Benefon's 1999 entry into the market also presented users with the world's first phone based GPS navigation system. Later, as smartphone technology developed, a GPS chip eventually became standard equipment for most smartphones. To date, ever more popular GPS navigation systems and devices continue to proliferate with newly developed software and hardware applications. It has been incorporated, for example, into cameras.

While the American GPS was the first [[satellite navigation]] system to be deployed on a fully global scale, and to be made available for commercial use, this is not the only system of its type. Due to military and other concerns, similar global or regional systems have been, or will soon be deployed by Russia, the European Union, China, India, and Japan.

== Sensitivity ==
GPS devices vary in sensitivity, speed, vulnerability to [[multipath propagation]], and other performance parameters. '''High Sensitivity [[Global Positioning System|GPS]]''' receivers use large banks of correlators{{clarify|date=June 2016}}{{cit|date=June 2016}} and [[digital signal processing]] to search for GPS signals very quickly. This results in very fast [[time to first fix|times to first fix]] when the signals are at their normal levels, for example outdoors. When GPS signals are weak, for example indoors, the extra processing power can be used to integrate weak signals to the point where they can be used to provide a position or timing solution.

GPS signals are already very weak when they arrive at the Earth’s surface. The [[GPS satellite]]s only transmit 27 W (14.3 dBW) from a distance of 20,200 km in [[orbit]] above the Earth. By the time the signals arrive at the user's receiver, they are typically as weak as −160 [[dBW]], equivalent to one tenth of a million-billionth of a watt (100 attowatts). This is well below the thermal noise level in its bandwidth. Outdoors, GPS signals are typically around the −155 dBW level (−125 [[dBm]]).

Conventional GPS receivers integrate the received GPS signals for the same amount of time as the duration of a complete [[Global Positioning System#Navigation signals|C/A code cycle]] which is 1 ms. This results in the ability to acquire and track signals down to around the −160 dBW level. High Sensitivity GPS receivers are able to integrate the incoming signals for up to 1,000 times longer than this and therefore acquire signals up to 1,000 times weaker, resulting in an integration gain of 30 dB. A good High Sensitivity GPS receiver can acquire signals down to −185 dBW, and tracking can be continued down to levels approaching −190 dBW.

High Sensitivity GPS can provide positioning in many but not all [[Indoor positioning system|indoor locations]]. Signals are either heavily [[attenuation|attenuated]] by the building materials or reflected as in [[Multipath propagation|multipath]]. Given that High Sensitivity GPS receivers may be up to 30 [[decibel|dB]] more sensitive, this is sufficient to track through 3 layers of dry bricks, or up to 20 cm (8 inches) of steel reinforced concrete for example.{{citation needed|date=September 2011}}

Examples of high sensitivity receiver chips include [[SiRFstarIII]] and [[MediaTek]]ʼs MTK II.<ref>{{ cite patent | country = US | number = 6674401 | status = Patent | title = High sensitivity GPS receiver and reception | pubdate = 21 August 2003 | gdate = 6 January 2004 | fdate = YYYY-MM-DD | pridate = YYYY-MM-DD | inventor = MCBURNEY PAUL W [US]; WOO ARTHUR N [US] | class = G01S19}}</ref>

== Consumer applications ==
Consumer GPS navigation devices include:
* Dedicated GPS navigation devices
* GPS modules that need to be connected to a computer to be used
* GPS loggers that record trip information for download. Such [[GPS tracking]] is useful for trailblazing, mapping by hikers and cyclists, and the production of [[geocoded photograph]]s.
* Converged devices, including GPS Phones and [[Auto-geotagging|GPS cameras]], in which GPS is a feature rather than the main purpose of the device. The majority of GPS devices are now converged devices, and may use [[assisted GPS]] or standalone (not network dependent) or both. The vulnerability of consumer GPS to radio frequency interference from [[LightSquared#Interference issues|planned wireless data services]] is controversial.

=== Dedicated GPS navigation devices ===
{{see also|automotive navigation system|personal navigation assistant}}
[[File:GPS Receivers 2007.jpg|thumb|Hand-held receivers]]
[[Image:KyotoTaxiRide.jpg|thumb|right|A [[Taxicab|taxi]] equipped with GPS]]

Dedicated devices have various degrees of mobility. ''Hand-held'', ''outdoor'', or ''sport'' receivers have replaceable batteries that can run them for several hours, making them suitable for [[hiking]], [[bicycle touring]] and other activities far from an electric power source. Their screens are small, and some do not show color, in part to save power. Some use [[transflective liquid-crystal display]]s, allowing use in bright sunlight. Cases are rugged and some are water resistant.

Other receivers, often called ''mobile'' are intended primarily for use in a car, but have a small rechargeable internal battery that can power them for an hour or two away from the car. Special purpose devices for use in a car may be permanently installed and depend entirely on the automotive electrical system.

The pre-installed embedded software of early receivers did not display maps; 21st century ones commonly show interactive street maps (of certain regions) that may also show [[Point of interest|points of interest]], route information and step-by-step routing directions, often in spoken form with a feature called "[[text to speech]]".

Manufacturers include:
* [[Navman#Products|Navman products]]
* [[TomTom#Products|TomTom products]]
* [[Garmin#Products|Garmin products]]
* [[Mio Technology|Mio products]]
* [[Navigon#Products|Navigon products]]
* [[Magellan Navigation#Consumer products|Magellan Navigation consumer products]]
* [[Satmap#Active 12|Satmap Systems Ltd]]
* [[TeleType Co.#Product line|TeleType products]]

=== Mobile phones with GPS capability ===
{{further|Comparison of GPS software (disambiguation){{!}}Comparison of GPS software}}

Due in part to regulations encouraging [[mobile phone tracking]], including [[E911]], the majority of GPS receivers are built into [[mobile telephone]]s, with varying degrees of coverage and user accessibility. Commercial navigation software is available for most 21st-century [[smartphone]]s as well<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poi-factory.com/node/36948|title=Smartphone Offline Navigation Software|work=poi-factory.com}}</ref> as some [[Java (programming language)|Java]]-enabled phones that allows them to use an internal or external GPS receiver (in the latter case, connecting via [[serial communications|serial]] or [[Bluetooth]]). Some phones using [[assisted GPS]] (A-GPS) function poorly when out of range of their carrier's cell towers. Others can navigate worldwide with satellite GPS signals as well as a dedicated portable GPS receiver does, upgrading their operation to A-GPS mode when in range. Still others have a [[hybrid positioning system]] that can use other signals when GPS signals are inadequate.


More [[bespoke]] solutions also exist for [[smartphone]]s with inbuilt GPS capabilities. Some such phones can use [[tethering]] to double as a [[wireless modem]] for a [[laptop]], while allowing GPS-navigation/localisation as well.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150402151446/http://www.track-phone.net/monitor/example-of-hookup-of-gps-phone/|title=Sony Ericsson - Mobile Broadband - Overview - EC400g|author=|date=2 April 2015|website=archive.org|accessdate=3 April 2018}}</ref> One such example is marketed by [[Verizon Wireless]] in the [[United States]], and is called [[VZ Navigator]]. The system uses [[gpsOne]] technology to determine the location, and then uses the mobile phone's data connection to download maps and calculate navigational routes. Other products including [[iPhone]] are used to provide similar services. [[Nokia]] gives [[HERE Maps]] free on mobile operating systems: Windows Phone 8, Android, Sailfish OS and FirefoxOS, but excluding iOS. Maps can be preloaded onto the device.

According to market research from the independent analyst firm Berg Insight, the sales of GPS-enabled GSM/WCDMA handsets was 150 million units in 2009,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.berginsight.com/ReportPDF/Summary/bi-gps4-sum.pdf |title=GPS and Mobile Handsets – 4th edition |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref> while only 40 million separate GPS receivers were sold.<ref>[https://www.nytimes.com/2010/11/15/technology/15iht-navigate.html Kevin J. O'Brien, New York Times, 15 November 2010] Smartphone Sales Taking Toll on G.P.S. Devices</ref>

GPS navigation applications for mobile phones include on-line (e.g. [[Waze]], [[Google Maps Navigation]], [[Apple Maps]]) and off-line (e.g. [[iGO (software)|iGo]] for Android, Maverick and [[Here (company)|HERE]] for Windows Phone) navigation applications. [[Google Maps Navigation]], which is included with [[Android (operating system)|Android]], means most smartphone users only need their phone to have a [[personal navigation assistant]].

Many Android smartphones have an additional GPS feature, called ''Extended Prediction Orbit'' (EPO). The phone downloads a file to help it locate GPS satellites more quickly and reduce the [[time to first fix]].<ref>[http://www.bt747.org/book/agps Extended Prediction Orbit] GPS data logger software</ref>

=== Palm, pocket and laptop PC ===
{{For|manufacturers of commercial software|GPS_navigation_software#Software}}
{{further|Comparison of GPS software (disambiguation){{!}}Comparison of GPS software}}
Software companies have made available [[GPS navigation software]] programs for in-vehicle use on laptop computers.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.laptopgpsworld.com/37-list-laptop-gps-navigation-software-programs-reviews#post73 |title=List of laptop GPS navigation software programs and reviews |publisher=Laptopgpsworld.com |date=27 July 2008 |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref> Benefits of GPS on a laptop include larger map overview, ability to use the keyboard to control GPS functions, and some GPS software for laptops offers advanced trip-planning features not available on other platforms, such as midway stops, capability of finding alternative scenic routes as well as only highway option.

Palms<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gpsinformation.org/dale/Palm/pilotgps.htm#soft|title=Navigation with Palm OS|author=Dale DePriest|work=gpsinformation.org}}</ref> and [[Pocket PC]]'s can also be equipped with GPS navigation.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gpss.force9.co.uk/navi.htm|title=GPS Navigation with the GPS Software|work=force9.co.uk}}</ref> A pocket PC differs from a dedicated navigation device as it has an own operating system and can also run other applications.

=== GPS modules ===
[[Image:GPS receiver (mouse).jpg|thumb|A modern SiRFstarIII chip based 20-channel GPS receiver with WAAS/EGNOS support]]
Other GPS devices need to be connected to a computer in order to work. This computer can be a [[home computer]], [[laptop]], [[personal digital assistant|PDA]], [[digital camera]], or [[smartphone]]s. Depending on the type of computer and available connectors, connections can be made through a [[serial cable|serial]] or [[Universal Serial Bus|USB]] cable, as well as [[Bluetooth]], [[CompactFlash]], [[Secure Digital card|SD]], [[PC Card|PCMCIA]] and the newer [[ExpressCard]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.buygpsnow.com/compactflash-sd-gps_10.aspx |title=PCMCIA GPS adaptors |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=5 June 2008 |accessdate=1 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080605145708/http://www.buygpsnow.com/compactflash-sd-gps_10.aspx |archivedate=5 June 2008}}</ref> Some PCMCIA/ExpressCard GPS units also include a [[wireless modem]].<ref>{{cite web|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090108061831/http://www.sonyericsson.com/cws/products/pccards/overview/ec400g?cc=be&lc=en|title=Sony Ericsson - Mobile Broadband - Overview - EC400g|author=|date=8 January 2009|website=archive.org|accessdate=3 April 2018}}</ref>

Devices usually do not come with pre-installed [[GPS navigation software]], thus, once purchased, the user must install or write their own software. As the user can choose which software to use, it can be better matched to their personal taste. It is very common for a PC-based GPS receiver to come bundled with a navigation software suite. Also, GPS modules are significantly cheaper than complete stand-alone systems (around [[Euro|€]]50 to €100). The software may include maps only for a particular region, or the entire world, if software such as Google Maps are used.

Some hobbyists have also made some GPS devices and open-sourced the plans. Examples include the Elektor GPS units.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.elektor-magazine.com/en/magazine-contents/previous-issues.html?tx_elektorarticle_listissues[article]=18921&tx_elektorarticle_listissues[action]=show&cHash=15557dd0aaa057b844b945af27d6960d |title=Multi-purpose GPS Receiver (link1) |publisher=Elektor International Media BV |date=1 October 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140407104044/http://www.elektor-magazine.com/en/magazine-contents/previous-issues.html?tx_elektorarticle_listissues |archivedate=7 April 2014 |df=dmy-all }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.elektormagazine.com/magazine/elektor-200810/18921 |title=Multi-purpose GPS Receiver (link2)|publisher=ELEKTOR INTERNATIONAL MEDIA BV |date=1 October 2008 |accessdate=16 July 2016 |deadurl=no |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20160716103558/https://www.elektormagazine.com/magazine/elektor-200810/18921 |archivedate=16 July 2016}}</ref> These are based around a [[SiRFstarIII]] chip and are comparable to their commercial counterparts. Other chips and software implementations are also available.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://gnss-sdr.org/documentation/about-project |title=GNSS-SDR, an open source Global Navigation Satellite Systems software defined receiver. |publisher=Centre Tecnològic de Telecomunicacions de Catalunya (CTTC) |date=2015 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120914063149/http://gnss-sdr.org/documentation/about-project |archivedate=14 September 2012 |df=dmy }}</ref>

== Commercial aviation ==
Commercial aviation applications include GPS devices that calculate location and feed that information to large multi-input navigational computers for [[autopilot]], course information and correction displays to the pilots, and course tracking and recording devices.

== Military ==
Military applications include devices similar to consumer sport products for foot soldiers (commanders and regular soldiers), small vehicles and ships, and devices similar to commercial aviation applications for aircraft and missiles. Examples are the United States military's '''Commander's Digital Assistant''' and the '''Soldier Digital Assistant'''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://peosoldier.army.mil/factsheets/SWAR_LW_DBCS.pdf |title=Commanders Digital Assistant explanation and photo |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=1 December 2007 |accessdate=1 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20071201034857/http://peosoldier.army.mil/factsheets/SWAR_LW_DBCS.pdf |archivedate=1 December 2007}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://peosoldier.army.mil/factsheets/SWAR_LW_CDA.pdf |title=Latest version Commanders Digital Assistant |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081001155532/http://peosoldier.army.mil/factsheets/SWAR_LW_CDA.pdf |archivedate=1 October 2008 |deadurl=yes |accessdate=4 October 2016 |df=dmy }}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.army-technology.com/contractors/computers/lago/lago6.html |title=Soldier Digital Assistant explanation and photo |publisher=Web.archive.org |date=10 June 2008 |accessdate=1 February 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080610092154/http://www.army-technology.com/contractors/computers/lago/lago6.html |archivedate=10 June 2008}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last=Sinha |first=Vandana |url=http://gcn.com/articles/2003/07/24/soldiers-take-digital-assistants-to-war.aspx |title=Commanders and Soldiers' GPS receivers |publisher=Gcn.com |date=24 July 2003 |accessdate=1 February 2012}}</ref> Prior to May 2000 only the military had access to the full accuracy of GPS. Consumer devices were restricted by [[Error analysis for the Global Positioning System#Selective availability|selective availability]] (SA), which was scheduled to be phased out but was removed abruptly by President Clinton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.gps.gov/systems/gps/modernization/sa/|title=GPS.gov: Selective Availability|work=gps.gov}}</ref> [[Differential GPS]] is a method of cancelling out the error of SA and improving GPS accuracy, and has been routinely available in commercial applications such as for golf carts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.leaderboard.com/ABOUTGPS.htm|title=GPS and Golf|author=|date=|website=leaderboard.com|accessdate=3 April 2018}}</ref> GPS is limited to about 15 meter accuracy even without SA. DGPS can be within a few centimeters.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oc.nps.edu/oc2902w/gps/gpsacc.html|title=GPS Accuracy Levels|work=nps.edu}}</ref>

== Sequential receivers ==
{{unreferenced section|date=June 2015}}
A '''sequential GPS receiver''' tracks the necessary satellites by typically using one or two hardware channels. The set will track one satellite at a time, time tag the measurements and combine them when all four satellite [[pseudorange]]s have been measured. These [[Receiver (information theory)|receivers]] are among the least expensive available, but they cannot operate under high dynamics and have the slowest [[Time to first fix|time-to-first-fix (TTFF)]] performance.

== Mishaps ==
GPS maps and directions are occasionally imprecise.{{citation needed|date=March 2016}} Some people have gotten lost by asking for the shortest route, like a couple in the United States who were looking for the shortest route from South Oregon to [[Jackpot, Nevada]].<ref>{{cite news|author=|title=Body of missing B.C. man Albert Chretien found in Nevada|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british-columbia/story/2012/10/01/albert-chretien-body-found.html|accessdate=3 October 2012|newspaper=CBC|date=1 October 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|author=|title=Husband died just SIX miles from help after he and wife got lost in wild because of GPS ... he died trying to raise alarm but she survived for seven weeks by staying put|url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2211532/Albert-Chretien-Remains-Canadian-lost-Nevada-wilderness-miles-town-18-months-later.html|accessdate=3 October 2012|newspaper=Daily Mail|date=2 October 2012}}</ref>

In August 2009 a young mother and her six-year-old son became stranded in [[Death Valley]] after following GPS directions that led her up an unpaved dead end road. When they were found five days later, her son had died from the effects of heat and [[dehydration]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Knudson|first=Tom|title='Death by GPS' in desert|url=http://www.sacbee.com/entertainment/living/travel/article2573180.html|accessdate=30 November 2014|newspaper=[[The Sacramento Bee]]|date=30 May 2012}}</ref>

In May 2012, Japanese tourists in Australia were stranded when traveling to [[North Stradbroke Island]] and their GPS receiver instructed them to drive into [[Moreton Bay]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Goessl|first=Leigh|title=GPS fail: Japanese tourists follow course into Australian waters|url=http://digitaljournal.com/article/321344|accessdate=3 October 2012|newspaper=Digital Journal|date=17 March 2012}}</ref>

Other hazards involve an alley being listed as a street, a lane being identified as a road,<ref>{{cite news|last=Saranow|first=Jennifer|title=Drivers trust GPS even to a fault|url=http://www.azcentral.com/business/consumer/articles/0318biz-GPSDevices-18.html?nclick_check=1|accessdate=3 October 2012|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=18 March 2008|quote=Last May [2007], the North Yorkshire County Council in England put up signs at the entrance to a gravel track declaring it "unsuitable for motor vehicles" after navigation systems had sent drivers on it as a shortcut between two valleys. The rough road quickly turns stony with steep drops in some places, and locals have had to help cars turn around.}}</ref> or rail tracks as a road.<ref>{{cite news|last=Zaremba|first=Lauren|title=GPS mishap results in wrong turn, crushed car|url=http://www.udreview.com/news/gps-mishap-results-in-wrong-turn-crushed-car-1.2225653|accessdate=3 October 2012|newspaper=[[University of Delaware#Media|The Review]]|date=10 May 2011|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130622050453/http://www.udreview.com/news/gps-mishap-results-in-wrong-turn-crushed-car-1.2225653#.VHqBTGfDX5M|archivedate=22 June 2013}}</ref>

Obsolete maps sometimes cause the unit to lead a user on an indirect, time-wasting route, because roads may change over time. Smartphone GPS information is usually updated automatically, and free of additional charge. Manufacturers of separate GPS devices also offer map update services for their merchandise, usually for a fee.

== Privacy concerns ==
User [[privacy]] may be compromised if GPS receivers in handheld devices such as mobile phones upload user geo-location data through associated software installed on the device. User geo-location is currently the basis for navigational apps such as Googlemaps, [[location-based advertising]], which can promote nearby shops and may allow an [[advertising agency]] to track user movements and habits for future use. Regulatory bodies differ between countries regarding the treatment of geo-location data as privileged or not. Privileged data cannot be stored, or otherwise used, without the user's consent.<ref name="Messmer"/>

GPS [[vehicle tracking system]]s allow employers to track their employees' location raising questions regarding violation of employee privacy. There are cases where employers continued to collect geo-location data when an employee was off duty in private time.<ref>{{cite web|last=J. Joyce|first=Kenneth|title=Global Positioning Systems and Invasion of Privacy|url=http://www.brinkleymorgan.com/news/191/global-positioning-systems-and-invasion-of-privacy|publisher=Legal Talk|accessdate=12 February 2013}}</ref>
[[Rental car]] services may use the same technique to geo-fence their customers to the areas they have paid for, charging additional fees for violations.<ref>{{cite web|last=Yamshon|first=Leah|title=GPS: A Stalker's Best Friend|url=http://www.pcworld.com/article/188274/gps_a_stalkers_best_friend.html|publisher=PCWorld|accessdate=12 February 2013|date=10 February 2010}}</ref> In 2010, [[New York Civil Liberties Union]] filed a case against the Labor Department for firing Michael Cunningham after tracking his daily activity and locations using a GPS device attached to his car.<ref>{{cite web|last=KARLIN|first=RICK|title=GPS used to track fired state worker raises privacy issue|url=http://www.timesunion.com/local/article/GPS-used-to-track-fired-state-worker-raises-2172601.php|publisher=TIMESUNION|accessdate=12 February 2013}}</ref> [[Private investigator]]s use planted GPS devices to provide information to their clients on a target's movements.

In 2011 the FBI tracked down Antoine Jones' GPS devices, without a search warrant. Later the Federal Appeal Court rejected the FBI's surveillance data as evidence against her.<ref>{{cite news|last=ASSOCIATED PRESS|title=New privacy fears as police could track your GPS without a warrant |url=http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2059001/GPS-Privacy-Issues-Fears-police-track-GPS-warrant.html#axzz2KaG9bNlY |newspaper=MAIL ONLINE |date=9 November 2011 |accessdate=4 October 2016}}</ref>

== See also ==
{{Wikivoyage|GPS navigation}}
{{commons category|GPS receivers}}
* [[Comparison of web map services]]
* [[Dashcam]]
* [[Defense Advanced GPS Receiver]]
* [[Head unit]]
* [[GPS puck]]
* [[GPS watch]]
* [[Precision Lightweight GPS Receiver]]
* [[Radio clock#GPS clocks]]
* [[Turn-by-turn navigation]]

== References ==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{Satellite navigation systems}}
{{Satellite navigation}}

[[Category:Global Positioning System]]
[[Category:GPS navigation devices| ]]

Network switching subsystem

2019-02-06T16:02:12Z

JanTurin: /* Description */

{{Refimprove|date=March 2009}}
'''Network switching subsystem''' ('''NSS''') (or '''GSM core network''') is the component of a [[GSM]] system that carries out [[telephone exchange|call out]] and [[mobility management]] functions for [[mobile phones]] [[roaming]] on the [[Base Station subsystem|network of base stations]]. It is owned and deployed by [[mobile phone operator]]s and allows mobile devices to communicate with each other and [[telephone]]s in the wider [[public switched telephone network]] (PSTN). The architecture contains specific features and functions which are needed because the phones are not fixed in one location.

The NSS originally consisted of the circuit-switched [[core network]], used for traditional [[GSM services]] such as voice calls, [[Short message service|SMS]], and [[Circuit Switched Data|circuit switched data]] calls. It was extended with an overlay architecture to provide packet-switched data services known as the [[GPRS core network]]. This allows mobile phones to have access to services such as [[Wireless Application Protocol|WAP]], [[Multimedia Messaging Service|MMS]] and the [[Internet]].

==Mobile switching center (MSC)==


===Description===
The '''mobile switching center''' (MSC) is the primary service delivery node for GSM/CDMA, responsible for [[routing in the PSTN|routing]] voice calls and SMS as well as other services (such as conference calls, FAX and circuit switched data).

The MSC sets up and releases the '''end-to-end connection''', handles mobility and hand-over requirements during the call and takes care of charging and real time prepaid account monitoring.

In the GSM mobile phone system, in contrast with earlier analogue services, fax and data information is sent digitally encoded directly to the MSC. Only at the MSC is this re-coded into an "analogue" signal (although actually this will almost certainly mean sound is encoded digitally as a [[pulse-code modulation]] (PCM) signal in a 64-kbit/s timeslot, known as a [[DS0]] in America).

There are various different names for MSCs in different contexts which reflects their complex role in the network, all of these terms though could refer to the same MSC, but doing different things at different times.

The '''gateway MSC''' (G-MSC) is the MSC that determines which "visited MSC" (V-MSC) the subscriber who is being called is currently located at. It also interfaces with the PSTN. All mobile to mobile calls and PSTN to mobile calls are routed through a G-MSC. The term is only valid in the context of one call, since any MSC may provide both the gateway function and the visited MSC function. However, some manufacturers design dedicated high capacity MSCs which do not have any [[base station subsystem]]s (BSS) connected to them. These MSCs will then be the gateway MSC for many of the calls they handle.

The '''visited MSC''' (V-MSC) is the MSC where a customer is currently located. The [[Network_switching_subsystem#Visitor_location_register_(VLR)|visitor location register]] (VLR) associated with this MSC will have the subscriber's data in it.

The '''anchor MSC''' is the MSC from which a [[handover]] has been initiated. The '''target MSC''' is the MSC toward which a handover should take place. A [[mobile switching center server]] is a part of the redesigned MSC concept starting from [[3GPP#Standards|3GPP Release 4]].

===Mobile switching center server (MSC-Server, MSCS or MSS)===
{{main article|Mobile switching centre server}}
The '''mobile switching center server''' is a soft-switch variant (therefore it may be referred as mobile soft switch, MSS) of the mobile switching center, which provides circuit-switched calling mobility management, and GSM services to the mobile phones [[roaming]] within the area that it serves. functionality enables split between control (signalling) and user plane (bearer in network element called as media gateway/MG), which guarantees better placement of network elements within the network.

MSS and [[Media Gateway|media gateway]] (MGW) makes it possible to cross-connect circuit switched calls switched by using IP, ATM AAL2 as well as [[Time-division multiplexing|TDM]]. More information is available in 3GPP TS 23.205.

The term [[Circuit switching]] (CS) used here originates from traditional telecommunications systems. However, modern MSS and MGW devices mostly use generic [[Internet]] technologies and form [[Next-generation network|next-generation telecommunication networks]]. MSS software may run on generic computers or [[virtual machine]]s in [[Cloud computing|cloud]] environment.

===Other GSM core network elements connected to the MSC===
The MSC connects to the following elements:
* The [[Network switching subsystem#Home location register (HLR)|home location registering]] (HLR) for obtaining data about the [[Subscriber Identity Module|SIM]] and [[MSISDN|mobile services ISDN]] number (MSISDN; i.e., the telephone number).
* The [[Base Station Subsystem|base station subsystems]] (BSS) which handles the radio communication with [[2G]] and [[2.5G]] mobile phones.
* The [[UTRAN|UMTS terrestrial radio access network]] (UTRAN) which handles the radio communication with [[3G]] mobile phones.
* The [[Network switching subsystem#Visitor location register (VLR)|visitor location register]] (VLR) provides subscriber information when the subscriber is outside its home network.
* Other MSCs for procedures such as [[handoff|hand over]].

===Procedures implemented===
Tasks of the MSC include:
* [[GSM services#Call set up process for incoming calls|Delivering calls to subscribers]] as they arrive based on information from the VLR.
* Connecting outgoing calls to other mobile subscribers or the PSTN.
* Delivering SMSs from subscribers to the [[short message service center]] (SMSC) and vice versa.
* Arranging handovers from BSC to BSC.
* Carrying out handovers from this MSC to another.
* Supporting [[supplementary services]] such as conference calls or call hold.
* Generating billing information.

==Home location register (HLR) {{anchor|HLR}}==
The '''home location register''' (HLR) is a central database that contains details of each mobile phone subscriber that is authorized to use the GSM core network. There can be several logical, and physical, HLRs per [[Public Land Mobile Network|public land mobile network]] (PLMN), though one [[international mobile subscriber identity]] (IMSI)/MSISDN pair can be associated with only one logical HLR (which can span several physical nodes) at a time.

The HLRs store details of every [[SIM card]] issued by the mobile phone operator. Each SIM has a unique identifier called an IMSI which is the [[primary key]] to each HLR record.

Another important item of data associated with the SIM are the MSISDNs, which are the [[telephone number]]s used by mobile phones to make and receive calls. The primary MSISDN is the number used for making and receiving voice calls and SMS, but it is possible for a SIM to have other secondary MSISDNs associated with it for [[fax]] and data calls. Each MSISDN is also a [[primary key]] to the HLR record. The HLR data is stored for as long as a subscriber remains with the mobile phone operator.

Examples of other data stored in the HLR against an IMSI record is:
* GSM services that the subscriber has requested or been given.
* [[General Packet Radio Service]] (GPRS) settings to allow the subscriber to access packet services.
* Current location of subscriber (VLR and [[SGSN|serving GPRS support node]]/SGSN).
* [[Call forwarding|Call divert]] settings applicable for each associated MSISDN.

The HLR is a system which directly receives and processes [[Mobile Application Part|MAP]] transactions and messages from elements in the GSM network, for example, the location update messages received as mobile phones roam around.

===Other GSM core network elements connected to the HLR===
The HLR connects to the following elements:
* The G-MSC for handling incoming calls
* The VLR for handling requests from mobile phones to attach to the network
* The SMSC for handling incoming SMSs
* The [[voice mail]] system for delivering notifications to the mobile phone that a message is waiting
* The AuC for authentication and ciphering and exchange of data (triplets)

===Procedures implemented===
The main function of the HLR is to manage the fact that SIMs and phones move around a lot. The following procedures are implemented to deal with this:
* Manage the mobility of subscribers by means of updating their position in administrative areas called 'location areas', which are identified with a LAC. The action of a user of moving from one LA to another is followed by the HLR with a Location area update procedure.
* Send the subscriber data to a VLR or SGSN when a subscriber first roams there.
* Broker between the G-MSC or SMSC and the subscriber's current VLR in order to allow [[GSM services#Call set up process for incoming calls|incoming calls or text messages to be delivered]].
* Remove subscriber data from the previous VLR when a subscriber has roamed away from it.
* Responsible for all SRI related queries (i.e. for invoke SRI, HLR should give sack SRI or SRI reply).

=={{anchor|AuC}} Authentication center (AuC)==

===Description===
The '''authentication center''' (AuC) is a function to [[authentication|authenticate]] each [[SIM card]] that attempts to connect to the '''gsm''' core network (typically when the phone is powered on). Once the authentication is successful, the HLR is allowed to manage the SIM and services described above. An [[encryption key]] is also generated that is subsequently used to encrypt all wireless communications (voice, SMS, etc.) between the mobile phone and the GSM core network.

If the authentication fails, then no services are possible from that particular combination of SIM card and mobile phone operator attempted. There is an additional form of identification check performed on the serial number of the mobile phone described in the EIR section below, but this is not relevant to the AuC processing.

Proper implementation of security in and around the AuC is a key part of an operator's strategy to avoid [[SIM cloning]].

The AuC does not engage directly in the authentication process, but instead generates data known as ''triplets'' for the MSC to use during the procedure. The security of the process depends upon a [[shared secret]] between the AuC and the SIM called the ''Ki''. The ''Ki'' is securely burned into the SIM during manufacture and is also securely replicated onto the AuC. This ''Ki'' is never transmitted between the AuC and SIM, but is combined with the IMSI to produce a challenge/response for identification purposes and an encryption key called ''Kc'' for use in over the air communications.

===Other GSM core network elements connected to the AuC===
The AuC connects to the following elements:
* The MSC which requests a new batch of triplet data for an IMSI after the previous data have been used. This ensures that same keys and challenge responses are not used twice for a particular mobile.

===Procedures implemented===
The AuC stores the following data for each IMSI:
* the ''Ki''
* Algorithm id. (the standard algorithms are called A3 or A8, but an operator may choose a proprietary one).

When the MSC asks the AuC for a new set of triplets for a particular IMSI, the AuC first generates a random number known as ''RAND''. This ''RAND'' is then combined with the ''Ki'' to produce two numbers as follows:
* The ''Ki'' and ''RAND'' are fed into the A3 algorithm and the signed response (SRES) is calculated.
* The ''Ki'' and ''RAND'' are fed into the A8 algorithm and a session key called ''Kc'' is calculated.
The numbers (''RAND'', SRES, ''Kc'') form the triplet sent back to the MSC. When a particular IMSI requests access to the GSM core network, the MSC sends the ''RAND'' part of the triplet to the SIM. The SIM then feeds this number and the ''Ki'' (which is burned onto the SIM) into the A3 algorithm as appropriate and an SRES is calculated and sent back to the MSC. If this SRES matches with the SRES in the triplet (which it should if it is a valid SIM), then the mobile is allowed to attach and proceed with GSM services.

After successful authentication, the MSC sends the encryption key ''Kc'' to the [[Base Station Subsystem#Base station controller|base station controller]] (BSC) so that all communications can be encrypted and decrypted. Of course, the mobile phone can generate the ''Kc'' itself by feeding the same RAND supplied during authentication and the ''Ki'' into the A8 algorithm.

The AuC is usually collocated with the HLR, although this is not necessary. Whilst the procedure is secure for most everyday use, it is by no means hack proof. Therefore, a new set of security methods was designed for 3G phones.

A3 Algorithm is used to encrypt Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM) cellular communications. In practice, A3 and A8 algorithms are generally implemented together (known as A3/A8, see [[COMP128]]). An A3/A8 algorithm is implemented in Subscriber Identity Module (SIM) cards and in GSM network Authentication Centers. It is used to authenticate the customer and generate a key for encrypting voice and data traffic, as defined in 3GPP TS 43.020 (03.20 before Rel-4). Development of A3 and A8 algorithms is considered a matter for individual GSM network operators, although example implementations are available.

==Visitor location register (VLR)==

===Description===
The '''Visitor Location Register (VLR)''' is a database of the MSs ([[Mobile station]]s) that have roamed into the jurisdiction of the MSC (Mobile Switching Center) which it serves. Each main [[Base Transceiver Station|base station]] in the network is served by exactly one VLR (one [[Base transceiver station|BTS]] may be served by many MSCs in case of MSC in pool), hence a subscriber cannot be present in more than one VLR at a time.

The data stored in the VLR has either been received from the [[Network_switching_subsystem#Home_location_register_.28HLR.29|'''Home Location Register (HLR)''']], or collected from the MS. In practice, for performance reasons, most vendors integrate the VLR directly to the V-MSC and, where this is not done, the VLR is very tightly linked with the MSC via a proprietary interface. Whenever an MSC detects a new MS in its network, in addition to creating a new record in the VLR, it also updates the HLR of the mobile subscriber, apprising it of the new location of that MS. If VLR data is corrupted it can lead to serious issues with text messaging and call services.

Data stored include:
* [[International mobile subscriber identity|IMSI]] (the subscriber's identity number).
* Authentication data.
* MSISDN (the subscriber's phone number).
* GSM services that the subscriber is allowed to access.
* [[GPRS Access Points|access point (GPRS)]] subscribed.
* The HLR address of the subscriber.
* SCP Address(For Prepaid Subscriber).

===Procedures implemented===
The primary functions of the VLR are:
* To inform the HLR that a subscriber has arrived in the particular area covered by the VLR.
* To track where the subscriber is within the VLR area (location area) when no call is ongoing.
* To allow or disallow which services the subscriber may use.
* To allocate roaming numbers during the processing of incoming calls.
* To purge the subscriber record if a subscriber becomes inactive whilst in the area of a VLR. The VLR deletes the subscriber's data after a fixed time period of inactivity and informs the HLR (e.g., when the phone has been switched off and left off or when the subscriber has moved to an area with no coverage for a long time).
* To delete the subscriber record when a subscriber explicitly moves to another, as instructed by the HLR.

==Equipment identity register (EIR)==
The '''[[Central Equipment Identity Register|equipment identity register]]''' is often integrated to the HLR. The EIR keeps a list of mobile phones (identified by their [[IMEI]]) which are to be banned from the network or monitored. This is designed to allow tracking of stolen mobile phones. In theory all data about all stolen mobile phones should be distributed to all EIRs in the world through a Central EIR. It is clear, however, that there are some countries where this is not in operation. The EIR data does not have to change in real time, which means that this function can be less distributed than the function of the HLR. The EIR is a database that contains information about the identity of the mobile equipment that prevents calls from stolen, unauthorized or defective mobile stations. Some EIR also have the capability to log Handset attempts and store it in a log file.

==Other support functions==
Connected more or less directly to the GSM core network are many other functions.

===Billing center (BC)===
The '''billing center''' is responsible for processing the toll tickets generated by the VLRs and HLRs and generating a bill for each subscriber. It is also responsible for generating billing data of roaming subscriber.

===Multimedia messaging service center (MMSC)===
The '''[[multimedia messaging service]] center''' supports the sending of multimedia messages (e.g., images, [[Sound|audio]], [[video]] and their combinations) to (or from) MMS-bluetooth.

===Voicemail system (VMS)===
The '''[[voicemail]] system''' records and stores voicemail. which may have to pay

===Lawful interception functions===
{{main|Lawful interception}}
According to U.S. law, which has also been copied into many other countries, especially in Europe, all telecommunications equipment must provide facilities for monitoring the calls of selected users. There must be some level of support for this built into any of the different elements. The concept of ''lawful interception'' is also known, following the relevant U.S. law, as [[Communications Assistance for Law Enforcement Act|CALEA]].
Generally, lawful Interception implementation is similar to the implementation of conference call. While A and B are talking with each other, C can join the call and listen silently.

==See also==
* The [[GPRS core network]] with the rest of the GSM core network.
* [[Base station subsystem]]
*[[COMP128]] - An implementation of A3/A8.
*[[3GPP|4GLET]] - Wiki on 3GPP

== References ==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* 4GLET - the standardisation body for GSM and UMTS
* [http://www.elektroda.pl/rtvforum/download.php?id=338749 UMTS Networks: Protocols, Terminology and Implementation] - a PDF eBook by Gunnar Heine
{{Mobile telecommunications standards}}

[[Category:GSM standard]]
[[Category:Telecommunications infrastructure]]

The Long and Winding Road

2018-04-13T19:59:40Z

JanTurin: little mistake corrected

{{For|the [[Maureen McGovern]] album|A Long and Winding Road}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2011}}
{{Infobox single
| Name = The Long and Winding Road
| Cover = Beatles-singles-the-long-and-winding-road-1.jpg
| Border = yes
| Caption = US picture sleeve
| Artist = [[the Beatles]]
| Album = [[Let It Be]]
| B-side = "[[For You Blue]]"
| Released = 11 May 1970
| Format = [[Gramophone record|7-inch single]]
| Recorded = 26 January 1969; 1 April 1970
| Studio = [[Apple Studio]], London; [[Abbey Road Studios]], London
| Genre = [[Pop music|Pop]]
| Length = 3:40
| Writer = [[Lennon–McCartney]]
| Label = [[Apple Records|Apple]]
| Producer = [[Phil Spector]]
| Chronology = [[The Beatles]] US singles
| Last single = "[[Let It Be (song)|Let It Be]]" (1970)
| This single = "'''The Long and Winding Road'''" (1970)
| Next single = "[[Got to Get You into My Life]]" (1976)
| Misc =
}}
"'''The Long and Winding Road'''" is a song by the English rock band [[the Beatles]] from their 1970 album ''[[Let It Be]]''. It was written by [[Paul McCartney]] and credited to [[Lennon–McCartney]]. When issued as a single in May 1970, a month after [[Break-up of the Beatles|the Beatles' break-up]], it became the group's 20th and last number-one hit on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] chart in the United States.{{sfn|Whitburn|2000}} It was the final single released by the quartet.

The main recording of the song took place in January 1969 and featured a sparse musical arrangement. When preparing the tapes from these sessions for release in April 1970, producer [[Phil Spector]] added orchestral and choral overdubs. Spector's modifications angered McCartney to the point that when the latter made his case in the British High Court for the Beatles' dissolution, he cited the treatment of "The Long and Winding Road" as one of six reasons for doing so. New versions of the song with simpler instrumentation were subsequently released by McCartney and by the Beatles.

In 2011, ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' ranked "The Long and Winding Road" at number 90 on their list of 100 greatest Beatles songs.

==Inspiration==
[[Image:Crossaig north of Carradale on B842, Kintyre. - geograph.org.uk - 63443.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Coastline of the [[Kintyre]] peninsula, where McCartney's farm High Park is situated. He said he drew inspiration from "the calm beauty of Scotland" when writing the song.<ref name="Merritt/SH" />]]
Paul McCartney said he came up with the title "The Long and Winding Road" during one of his first visits to his property High Park Farm, near [[Campbeltown]] in Scotland,{{sfn|Sounes|2010|p=181}} which he purchased in June 1966.{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=234}} The phrase was inspired by the sight of a road "stretching up into the hills" in the remote [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] surroundings of lochs and distant mountains.{{sfn|Sounes|2010|p=181}} He wrote the song at his farm in 1968, inspired by the growing tension among the Beatles.<ref name="Merritt/SH">{{cite news|last=Merritt|first=Mike|title=Truth behind ballad that split Beatles|date=16 November 2003|newspaper=[[Sunday Herald]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427062227/http://www.sundayherald.com/38051
|archivedate=27 April 2006|url=http://www.sundayherald.com/38051|accessdate=18 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="Duca/HuffPost" /> Based on other comments McCartney has made, author [[Howard Sounes]] writes, the lyrics can be seen as McCartney expressing his anguish at the direction his personal life was taking in the autumn of 1968, after he had separated from his fiancée [[Jane Asher]], as well as a nostalgic look back at the Beatles' history.{{sfn|Sounes|2010|pp=239–40}} McCartney recalled: "I just sat down at my piano in Scotland, started playing and came up with that song, imagining it was going to be done by someone like [[Ray Charles]]. I have always found inspiration in the calm beauty of Scotland and again it proved the place where I found inspiration."<ref name="Merritt/SH" />

Once back in London, McCartney recorded a [[demo (music)|demo version]] of "The Long and Winding Road" during one of the recording sessions for ''[[The Beatles (album)|The Beatles]]''.{{sfn|Lewisohn|2005|p=156}} Later, he offered the song to [[Tom Jones (singer)|Tom Jones]] on the condition that the singer release it as his next single. In Jones' recollection, he was forced to turn it down since his record company were about to issue "[[Without Love (Clyde McPhatter song)|Without Love]]" as a single.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Owens|first1=David|title=Sir Tom Jones reveals the Beatles hit that was written for him|url=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/sir-tom-jones-reveals-beatles-2028517|publisher=[[WalesOnline]]|date=3 June 2012|accessdate=21 February 2017}}</ref>

The song takes the form of a piano-based ballad, with conventional chord changes.<ref name="Pollack/Notes" /> McCartney described the chords as "slightly jazzy" and in keeping with Charles' style.<ref name="Duca/HuffPost">{{cite web|last=Duca|first=Lauren|title='The Long And Winding Road' Led To The Beatles' Final No. 1 Single|date=13 June 2014|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/entry/beatles-long-and-winding-road_n_5479380
|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref> The song's home [[Key (music)|key]] is [[E-flat major]] but it also uses the relative C minor.<ref name="Pollack/Notes">{{cite web|last=Pollack|first=Alan W.|title=Notes on 'The Long and Winding Road'| year=1999|url=http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/DATABASES/AWP/tlawr.shtml
|publisher=Soundscapes|accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref> Lyrically, it is a sad and melancholic song, with an evocation of an as-yet unrequited, though apparently inevitable, love.

In an interview in 1994, McCartney described the lyric more obliquely: "It's rather a sad song. I like writing sad songs, it's a good bag to get into because you can actually acknowledge some deeper feelings of your own and put them in it. It's a good vehicle, it saves having to go to a [[psychiatry|psychiatrist]]."<ref name="Interviews">{{cite web|publisher=The Beatles Interview Database|year=2004|title=Let It Be|url=http://www.beatlesinterviews.org/dba12let.html
|accessdate=11 September 2004}}</ref>

The opening theme is repeated throughout. The song lacks a traditional chorus, and the melody and lyrics are ambiguous about the opening stanza's position in the song; it is unclear whether the song has just begun, is in the verse, or is in the bridge.<ref name="Pollack/Notes" />

==Recording==
===January 1969===
The Beatles recorded several takes of "The Long and Winding Road" at their [[Apple Studio]] in central London on 26 January 1969 and again on 31 January. The line-up on the track was McCartney on lead vocals and piano, [[John Lennon]] on [[bass guitar]], [[George Harrison]] on [[electric guitar]], [[Ringo Starr]] on [[drum kit|drums]], and guest keyboardist [[Billy Preston]] on [[Rhodes piano]]. This was during a series of sessions for an album and film project then known as ''Get Back''. Lennon, usually the band's rhythm guitarist, played bass only occasionally and made several mistakes on the recording.<ref name="Merritt/SH" />

In May 1969, [[Glyn Johns]], who had been asked by the Beatles to compile and mix the ''Get Back'' album, selected the 26 January recording. Since the song had been deemed unsuitable for inclusion in the band's filmed rooftop concert on 30 January, the Beatles also taped a master version of "The Long and Winding Road" at Apple the following day.{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=333}} This 31 January version, which had slightly different lyrics from the released take, and was recorded with Johns in an unofficial producer's role, was used in the film, subsequently titled ''Let It Be''.{{sfn|Sulpy|Schweighardt|1999|pp=301, 307–08}} For the 1969 and 1970 versions of the ''Get Back'' album – both of which were rejected by the Beatles – Johns used the 26 January mix as released on the ''[[Anthology 3]]'' album in 1996.{{sfn|Spizer|2003|pp=74–75}}

===April 1970===
In early 1970, Lennon and the Beatles' manager, [[Allen Klein]], turned over the recordings to American producer [[Phil Spector]] with the hope of salvaging an album, which was then titled ''Let It Be''.<ref name="Merritt/SH" /> McCartney had become estranged from his bandmates at this time, due to his opposition to Klein's appointment as manager. Several weeks were lost before McCartney replied to messages requesting his approval for Spector to begin working on the recordings.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|pp=115–16}} Spector chose to return to the same 26 January recording of "The Long and Winding Road".{{sfn|Spizer|2003|pp=74-75}}

Spector made various changes to the songs. His most dramatic embellishments occurred on 1 April 1970, the last ever Beatles recording session, when he added orchestral overdubs to "The Long and Winding Road", "[[Across the Universe]]" and "[[I Me Mine]]" at [[Abbey Road Studios]]. The only member of the Beatles present was Starr, who played drums with the session musicians to create Spector's characteristic "[[Wall of Sound]]". Already known for his eccentric behaviour in the studio, Spector was in a peculiar mood that day, according to balance engineer Peter Bown: "He wanted tape echo on everything, he had to take a different pill every half hour and had his bodyguard with him constantly. He was on the point of throwing a wobbly, saying 'I want to hear this, I want to hear that. I must have this, I must have that.'"{{sfn|Cross|2005|p=396}} The orchestra became so annoyed by Spector's behaviour that the musicians refused to play any further; at one point, Bown left for home, forcing Spector to telephone him and persuade him into coming back after Starr had told Spector to calm down.{{sfn|Lewisohn|2005|pp=198–199}}

Spector succeeded in [[overdubbing]] "The Long and Winding Road", using eight [[violin]]s, four [[viola]]s, four [[cello]]s, three [[trumpet]]s, three [[trombone]]s, two guitars, and a choir of 14 women.{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=339}} The orchestra was scored and conducted by [[Richard Anthony Hewson|Richard Hewson]], a young London [[arranger]] who had worked with Apple artists [[Mary Hopkin]]{{sfn|Lewisohn|2005|p=199}} and [[James Taylor]].{{sfn|Castleman|Podrazik|1976|pp=71, 189}} This lush orchestral treatment was in direct contrast to the Beatles' stated intentions for a "real" recording when they began work on ''Get Back''.{{sfn|Lewisohn|2005|p=199}}

On 2 April, Spector sent each of the Beatles an acetate of the completed album with a note saying: "If there is anything you'd like done to the album, let me know and I'll be glad to help … If you wish, please call me about anything regarding the album tonight."{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=123}} All four of the band members sent him their approval by telegram.<ref name="Irvin/Mojo" />{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=373}}

==Controversy around Spector's overdubs==
According to author [[Peter Doggett]], McCartney had felt the need to accommodate his bandmates when accepting Spector's version of ''Let It Be''; but, following his announcement of [[the Beatles' break-up]] in a written press release accompanying promotional copies of his solo album, ''[[McCartney (album)|McCartney]]'', on 9 April, he repeatedly listened again to "The Long and Winding Road" and came to resent Spector's additions.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=130–31}} On 14 April, with manufacturing underway for ''Let It Be'', he sent a terse letter to Klein, demanding that the [[harp]] be removed from the song and that the other added instrumentation and voices be reduced.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=131}} McCartney concluded the letter with the words: "Don't ever do it again."{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=350}} Klein attempted to phone McCartney but he had changed his number without informing Apple; Klein then sent a telegram asking McCartney to contact him or Spector about his concerns. According to Klein, "The following day, a message was relayed to me [from McCartney] that the letter spoke for itself."{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=132}} With ''Let It Be'' scheduled for release in advance of the similarly titled documentary film, Klein allowed the production process to continue with Spector's version of "The Long and Winding Road" intact.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|pp=120–21, 130, 132}}

In an interview published by the ''[[Evening Standard]]'' in two parts on 22 and 23 April 1970, McCartney said: "The album was finished a year ago, but a few months ago American record producer Phil Spector was called in by Lennon to tidy up some of the tracks. But a few weeks ago, I was sent a re-mixed version of my song 'The Long and Winding Road' with harps, [[French horn|horn]]s, an orchestra, and a women's choir added. No one had asked me what I thought. I couldn't believe it."{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=851}} The Beatles' usual producer, [[George Martin]], called the remixes "so uncharacteristic" of the Beatles, while Johns, who was denied a production credit by Lennon,{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=374}} described Spector's embellishments as "revolting … just puke".{{sfn|Sounes|2010|p=271}}

McCartney asked Klein to dissolve the Beatles' partnership, but was refused. Exasperated, he took the case to the [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] in London in early 1971, naming Klein and the other Beatles as defendants. Among the six reasons McCartney gave for dissolving the Beatles was that Klein's company, [[ABKCO Records|ABKCO]], had caused "intolerable interference" by overdubbing "The Long and Winding Road" without consulting McCartney.{{sfn|Cross|2005|p=396}} In his written affidavit, Starr countered this statement by saying that when Spector had sent acetates of ''Let It Be'' to each of the Beatles for their approval, with a request also for feedback: "We all said yes. Even at the beginning Paul said yes. I spoke to him on the phone, and said, 'Did you like it?' and he said, 'Yeah, it's OK.' He didn't put it down."{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=123}} Starr added: "And then suddenly he didn't want it to go out. Two weeks after that, he wanted to cancel it."{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=373}}

Speaking shortly after the overdubbing sessions, Spector said that he had asked whether any of the Beatles would like to help him produce the album, but none of them had wanted to.<ref name="Irvin/Mojo">{{cite magazine|first=Jim|last=Irvin|title=Get It Better: The Story of ''Let It Be… Naked''|magazine=[[Mojo (magazine)|Mojo]]|date=November 2003}} Available at [https://www.rocksbackpages.com/Library/Article/get-it-better-the-story-of-ilet-it-be-nakedi Rock's Backpages] (subscription required).</ref> He also said that his hand was forced into remixing "The Long and Winding Road" due to the poor quality of Lennon's bass playing. Others agreed: in his book ''[[Revolution in the Head]]'' Beatles scholar [[Ian MacDonald]] wrote: "The song was designed as a standard to be taken up by mainstream balladeers. … It features some atrocious bass-playing by Lennon, prodding clumsily around as if uncertain of the harmonies and making many comical mistakes. Lennon's crude bass playing on 'The Long and Winding Road,' though largely accidental, amounts to sabotage when presented as finished work."<ref name="Merritt/SH" /> Spector said that McCartney was being hypocritical in his criticism: "Paul had no problem picking up the [[Academy Award for Best Original Score|Academy Award]] for the ''[[Let It Be (movie)|Let It Be]]'' movie soundtrack, nor did he have any problem in using my arrangement of the string and horn and choir parts when he performed it during 25 years of touring on his own. If Paul wants to get into a pissing contest about it, he's got me mixed up with someone who gives a shit."<ref>{{cite book|first=Merrell|last=Noden|chapter=Extra-celestial |year=2003 |title=[[Mojo (magazine)#Special editions|Mojo Special Limited Edition]]: 1000 Days of Revolution (The Beatles' Final Years – Jan 1, 1968 to Sept 27, 1970)|location=London |publisher=Emap|p=127}}</ref>

==Release and reception==
The song was released on the ''Let It Be'' album on 8 May 1970.{{sfn|Castleman|Podrazik|1976|pp=89–90}} On 11 May, seven days before the album's North American release,{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=377}} Apple issued "The Long and Winding Road" as a single in the United States with "[[For You Blue]]" on the B-side.{{sfn|Castleman|Podrazik|1976|p=90}} In the context of the recent news regarding the Beatles' split, the song captured the sadness that many listeners felt.{{sfn|Rodriguez|2010|p=3}}

On 13 June 1970, it became the Beatles' twentieth and final number-one single on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] chart in America and held the top position for a second week. The band thereby set the all-time record for number of chart-topping singles on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100. The Beatles achieved this feat in the space of 74 months from their debut US number one, "[[I Want to Hold Your Hand]]", in February 1964 – an average of one chart-topping single per 3.7 months, another all-time record.{{sfn|Cross|2006}}{{sfn|Whelan|2005}} The single's contemporary US sales were insufficient for [[Recording Industry Association of America certification#Singles|gold accreditation]] by the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA).{{sfn|Castleman|Podrazik|1976|p=332}} In February 1999, the song was certified platinum by the RIAA for sales of 1,000,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riaa.com/gold-platinum/?tab_active=default-award&ar=The+Beatles&ti=Long+and+Winding+Road#search_section |title=''Search:'' The Beatles, Long and Winding Road|publisher=[[Recording Industry Association of America]]|accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref>

In 2011, ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' placed "The Long and Winding Road" at number 90 on its list of "The 100 Greatest Beatles Songs".<ref name="RS 100 Greatest">{{cite web|title=100 Greatest Beatles Songs: 90. 'The Long and Winding Road'|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-beatles-songs-20110919/the-long-and-winding-road-19691231|publisher=[[Rolling Stone|rollingstone.com]]|accessdate=7 April 2017}}</ref> On a similar list compiled by ''[[Mojo (magazine)|Mojo]]'' in 2006, the song appeared at number 27. In his commentary for the magazine, [[Brian Wilson]] described it as his "all time favourite Beatles track", saying that while the Beatles were "genius songwriters", this song was distinguished by a "''heart-and-soul'' melody". Wilson concluded: "When they broke up I was heartbroken. I think they should have kept going."<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Alexander|first=Phil|title=The 101 Greatest Beatles Songs|magazine=[[Mojo (magazine)|Mojo]]|date=July 2006|p=84|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

==Other recordings==
Since release in 1970, there have been six additional recordings released by McCartney.{{sfn|Womack|2014|p=569}} The same 26 January take, without the orchestration and overdubs, was released on ''[[Anthology 3]]'' in 1996.<ref>{{cite AV media notes|last=Lewisohn|first=Mark|year=1996|title=Anthology 3|publisher=[[Apple Records]]| titlelink=Anthology 3|others=[[The Beatles]]|type=booklet|id=34451|pp=30, 31}}</ref> This version included a bridge section spoken, rather than sung, by McCartney.

In 2003, McCartney persuaded Starr and Ono (as Lennon's widow) to release ''[[Let It Be... Naked]]'',<ref name="Merritt/SH" /> touted as the band's version of ''Let It Be'' remixed by independent producers. McCartney claimed that his long-standing dissatisfaction with the released version of "The Long and Winding Road" (and the entire ''Let It Be'' album) was in part the impetus for the new version. The new album included a later take of "The Long and Winding Road", recorded on 31 January. With no strings or other added instrumentation beyond that which was played in the studio at the time, it was closer to the Beatles's original intention than the 1970 version.<ref name="Merritt/SH" /> This take is also the one seen in the film ''[[Let It Be (film)|Let It Be]]'' and on the Beatles' 2015 video compilation ''[[1 (Beatles album)|1]]''.<ref>{{cite web|first= Matt |last= Rowe |title= The Beatles 1 To Be Reissued With New Audio Remixes... And Videos |work= The Morton Report |date= 18 September 2015 |accessdate= 5 November 2016 |url= http://www.themortonreport.com/entertainment/music/the-beatles-1-to-be-reissued-with-new-audio-remixesand-videos}}</ref> Starr said of the ''Let It Be... Naked'' version: "There's nothing wrong with Phil's strings [on the 1970 release], this is just a different attitude to listening. But it's been 30-odd years since I've heard it without all that and it just blew me away."<ref name="Merritt/SH" />

McCartney and producer [[George Martin]] re-recorded "The Long and Winding Road" with instrumentation incorporating a lead saxophone, for the soundtrack to McCartney’s 1984 film, ''[[Give My Regards to Broad Street]]''.{{sfn|Calkin|2001a}} A second new studio recording of the song was made by McCartney in 1989 and used as a B-side of single releases from his ''[[Flowers in the Dirt]]'' album, starting with the "Postcard Pack" vinyl format of "[[This One (song)|This One]]".{{sfn|Madinger|Easter|2000|p=309}}

"The Long and Winding Road" became a staple of McCartney's post-Beatles concert repertoire. On the 1976 [[Wings Over the World Tour]], where it was one of the few Beatles songs played, it was performed on piano in a sparse arrangement using a [[horn section]]. On McCartney's [[Get Back World Tour|1989 solo tour]] and since, it has generally been performed on piano with an arrangement using a [[synthesiser]] mimicking strings, but this string sound is more restrained than on the Spector recorded version.{{sfn|Badman|2001}} The live performance recording of the Rio de Janeiro concert in April 1990 is on the album ''[[Tripping the Live Fantastic]]''. McCartney also played the song to close the [[Live 8 concert, London|Live 8 concert in London]].<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|title=Live 8 Rocks the Globe| date=3 July 2005|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/03/world/europe/03iht-web.0703live8.html?_r=1 |accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref>

Several other artists have performed or recorded "The Long and Winding Road". As McCartney had envisaged,<ref name="Duca/HuffPost" /> Ray Charles recorded a cover version, which was released on his 2006 album ''[[Ray Sings, Basie Swings]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tamarkin|first=Jeff|title=Ray Charles ''Ray Sings, Basie Swings''|publisher=[[AllMusic]]|url={{Allmusic|class=album|id=r858244/review|pure_url=yes}}|accessdate=8 January 2010}}</ref> Other versions include a 1999 [[Royal Albert Hall]] performance by [[George Michael]], a 1977 single release by [[Melba Moore]], a 1978 recording by [[Peter Frampton]], and a 2010 performance at the White House by [[Faith Hill]] when [[Barack Obama]] gave McCartney the Gershwin Prize.{{sfn|Womack|2014|p=570}}

The only charting cover of the song in the U.S. was done by [[Billy Ocean]] in 1985. His version reached #24 on the Adult Contemporary chart.<ref>{{cite book|first= Joel |last= Whitburn |authorlink= Joel Whitburn |year= 1993 |title= Top Adult Contemporary: 1961–1993 |publisher= Record Research |page=178}}</ref>

==Personnel==
According to Walter Everett:{{sfn|Everett|1999|p=229}}

'''The Beatles'''
*[[Paul McCartney]] – vocal, piano
*[[John Lennon]] – [[Fender Bass VI|six-string bass]]
*[[George Harrison]] – electric guitar
*[[Ringo Starr]] – drums

'''Additional musicians'''
*[[Billy Preston]] – [[Rhodes piano|Fender Rhodes]]
*Uncredited orchestral musicians – 18 violins, 4 violas, 4 cellos, harp, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, 2 guitars, 14 female voices{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=339}}
*[[Richard Hewson]] – orchestral arrangement{{sfn|Lewisohn|2005|p=199}}
*[[John Barham]] – choral arrangement{{sfn|Lewisohn|2010|p=349}}

==Charts and certifications==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

===Weekly charts===
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!Chart (1970)
!Peak position
|-
|Australian ''[[Go-Set]]'' National Top 60<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poparchives.com.au/gosetcharts/1970/19700919.html |title=Go-Set Australian charts – 19 September 1970|publisher=poparchives.com.au |accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref>
|align="center"|6
|-
|Australian [[Kent Music Report]]<ref>{{cite book | title=Australian Chart Book (1940–1969) | author=Kent, David | publisher=Australian Chart Book | location=Turramurra | year=2005 | isbn=0-646-44439-5}}</ref>
|align="center"|7
|-
|{{singlechart|Belgium (Flanders)|8|artist=The Beatles|song=The Long and Winding Road|accessdate=16 May 2016}}
|-
|Canadian ''[[RPM (magazine)|RPM]]'' 100<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/films-videos-sound-recordings/rpm/Pages/item.aspx?IdNumber=2515& |title=Top Singles – Volume 13, No. 18: Jun 20, 1970|publisher=[[Library and Archives Canada]]|accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref>
|align="center"|1
|-
|{{singlechart|Dutch100|11|artist=The Beatles|song=The Long and Winding Road|accessdate=16 May 2016}}
|-
|{{singlechart|Switzerland|8|artist=The Beatles|song=The Long and Winding Road|accessdate=16 May 2016}}
|-
|{{singlechart|Billboardhot100|1|artist=The Beatles|accessdate=16 May 2016}}
|-
|US ''Billboard'' [[Adult Contemporary (chart)|Adult Contemporary]]<ref>{{cite book|first= Joel |last= Whitburn |authorlink= Joel Whitburn |year= 1993 |title= Top Adult Contemporary: 1961–1993
|publisher= Record Research |page=25}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|2
|-
|US [[Cashbox (magazine)|''Cash Box'' Top 100]]<ref>{{cite book| first=Frank| last=Hoffmann| year=1983| title=The Cash Box Singles Charts, 1950-1981| publisher=The Scarecrow Press, Inc| location=Metuchen, NJ & London| pages= 32–34}}</ref>
|align="center"|1
|-
|West German ''[[Musikmarkt]]'' Singles<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.offiziellecharts.de/charts|title=Offizielle Deutsche Charts|format=Enter "Beatles" in the search box|publisher=[[GfK Entertainment Charts]]|language=German|accessdate=16 May 2016}}</ref>
|align="center"|26
|}
{{col-2}}

===Year-end charts===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!align="left"|Chart (1970)
! style="text-align:center;"|Rank
|-
|Canadian ''RPM'' Top Singles<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/films-videos-sound-recordings/rpm/Pages/image.aspx?Image=nlc008388.3740&URLjpg=http%3a%2f%2fwww.collectionscanada.gc.ca%2fobj%2f028020%2ff4%2fnlc008388.3740.gif&Ecopy=nlc008388.3740|title=RPM's Top 100 of 1970|publisher=[[Library and Archives Canada]]|accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|11
|-
|US ''Cash Box''<ref>[http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/70s_files/1970YESP.html Cash Box Year-End Charts: Top 100 Pop Singles, December 26, 1970]</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|36
|-
|US [[Billboard Year-End|''Billboard'' Hot 100]]<ref>[http://www.musicoutfitters.com/topsongs/1970.htm "Top 100 Hits of 1970/Top 100 Songs of 1970"], musicoutfitters.com (retrieved 12 June 2016).</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|41
|-
|}

===Certifications===
{{Certification Table Top}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=United States|artist=The Beatles|title=Long and Winding Road|award=Platinum|relyear=1970|certyear=1999|type=single|accessdate=14 May 2016}}
{{Certification Table Bottom}}

{{col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

'''Sources'''
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Badman|first=Keith|title=The Beatles Diary Volume 2: After the Break-Up 1970–2001|publisher=Omnibus Press|location=London|year=2001|isbn=978-0-7119-8307-6|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| author=The Beatles
| year=2000
| authorlink=The Beatles
| title=The Beatles Anthology
| publisher=Chronicle Books
| location=San Francisco
| isbn=0-8118-2684-8
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite web
| last=Calkin
| first=Graham
| title=Give My Regards to Broad Street
| work=Graham Calkin's Beatles Pages
| year=2001a
| url=http://www.jpgr.co.uk/pctc2.html
| accessdate=2 February 2010
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book|last1=Castleman|first1=Harry|last2=Podrazik|first2=Walter J.|title=All Together Now: The First Complete Beatles Discography 1961–1975|publisher=Ballantine Books|location=New York, NY|year=1976|isbn=0-345-25680-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last=Cross
| first=Craig
| year=2005
| title=The Beatles: Day-by-Day, Song-by-Song, Record-by-Record
| publisher=iUniverse, Inc
| isbn=978-0-595-34663-9
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite web
| last=Cross
| first=Craig
| year=2006
| title='The Long and Winding Road' American single
| url=http://www.beatles-discography.com/records/?c=usa&single=the-long-and-winding-road
| accessdate=15 February 2012
| ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Doggett|first=Peter|title=You Never Give Me Your Money: The Beatles After the Breakup|publisher=It Books|location=New York, NY|year=2011|isbn=978-0-06-177418-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last=Everett| first=Walter| year=1999| title=The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver Through the Anthology| publisher=Oxford University Press| location=New York, NY| isbn=0-19-512941-5| ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last=Lewisohn
| first=Mark
| year=1996
| title=The Complete Beatles Chronicle
| publisher=Chancellor Press
| isbn=0-7607-0327-2
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book|first=Mark|last=Lewisohn|title=The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions: The Official Story of the Abbey Road Years 1962–1970|publisher=Bounty Books|location=London|year=2005|origyear=1988|isbn=978-0-7537-2545-0|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|first=Mark|last=Lewisohn|title=The Complete Beatles Chronicle: The Definitive Day-By-Day Guide to the Beatles' Entire Career|publisher=Chicago Review Press|location=Chicago, IL|year=2010|ISBN=978-1-56976-534-0|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last=MacDonald
| first=Ian
| year=2005
| authorlink=Ian MacDonald
| title=Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties
| publisher=Pimlico (Rand)
| location=London
| edition=Second Revised
| isbn=1-84413-828-3
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book|last1=Madinger|first1=Chip|last2=Easter|first2=Mark|title=Eight Arms to Hold You: The Solo Beatles Compendium|publisher=44.1 Productions|location=Chesterfield, MO|year=2000|isbn=0-615-11724-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Miles|first=Barry|title=The Beatles Diary Volume 1: The Beatles Years|year=2001|publisher=Omnibus Press|location=London|isbn=0-7119-8308-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Robert|title=Fab Four FAQ 2.0: The Beatles' Solo Years, 1970–1980|publisher=Backbeat Books|location=Milwaukee, WI|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4165-9093-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Sounes|first=Howard|title=Fab: An Intimate Life of Paul McCartney|publisher=HarperCollins|location=London|year=2010|isbn=978-0-00-723705-0|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last=Spitz
| first=Bob
| year=2005
| authorlink=Bob Spitz
| title=The Beatles: The Biography
| publisher=Little, Brown
| location=Boston
| isbn=0-316-80352-9
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Spizer
| first=Bruce
| year=2003
| authorlink=Bruce Spizer
| title=The Beatles on Apple Records
| publisher=498 Productions
| location=New Orleans
| isbn=0-9662649-4-0
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sulpy|first1=Doug|last2=Schweighardt|first2=Ray|title=Get Back: The Unauthorized Chronicle of The Beatles' Let It Be Disaster|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York, NY|year=1999|isbn=0-312-19981-3|ref=harv}}
* {{cite web
| last=Whelan
| first=John
| year=2005
| title=The Beatles Timeline
| url=http://beatles.ncf.ca/timeline.html#70
| accessdate=15 March 2006
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Whitburn
| first=Joel
| year=2000
| title=40 Top Hits
| publisher=Billboard Books
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book|last= Womack|first= Kenneth|year= 2014|title=The Beatles Encyclopedia: Everything Fab Four|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, CA|isbn= 978-0-313-39171-2|ref=harv}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|Let It Be}}
* {{Notes on|http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/DATABASES/AWP/tlawr.shtml}}
* {{MetroLyrics song|beatles|the-long-and-winding-road}}

{{Let It Be}}
{{The Beatles singles}}
{{Navboxes |title =Succession: Number one singles |list =
{{s-start}}
{{succession box
| before = "[[Everything is Beautiful]]" by [[Ray Stevens]]
| title = [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] [[List of number-one hits (United States)|number one single]] (The Beatles' version)
| years = 13 June 1970 (two weeks)
| after = "[[The Love You Save]]" by [[The Jackson 5]]
}}
{{succession box
| before = "[[Just like a Pill]]" by [[Pink (singer)|Pink]]
| title = [[List of number-one singles (UK)|UK number-one single]]
| years = 29 September 2002 (2 weeks) ([[Will Young]] version)
| after = "[[The Ketchup Song (Aserejé)]]" by [[Las Ketchup]]
}}
{{s-end}}
}}

{{featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2012}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Long And Winding Road, The}}
[[Category:1970 singles]]
[[Category:1970s ballads]]
[[Category:2002 singles]]
[[Category:Songs written by Lennon–McCartney]]
[[Category:The Beatles songs]]
[[Category:Will Young songs]]
[[Category:Gareth Gates songs]]
[[Category:Cissy Houston songs]]
[[Category:Andy Williams songs]]
[[Category:Nancy Wilson (jazz singer) songs]]
[[Category:Song recordings produced by Phil Spector]]
[[Category:Songs published by Northern Songs]]
[[Category:Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles]]
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[[Category:Rock ballads]]
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[[Category:Songs about loneliness]]
[[Category:Johnny Mathis songs]]
[[Category:The Corrs songs]]
[[Category: 1970 songs]]

The Long and Winding Road

2018-04-13T19:51:27Z

JanTurin: sentence

{{For|the [[Maureen McGovern]] album|A Long and Winding Road}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2011}}
{{Infobox single
| Name = The Long and Winding Road
| Cover = Beatles-singles-the-long-and-winding-road-1.jpg
| Border = yes
| Caption = US picture sleeve
| Artist = [[the Beatles]]
| Album = [[Let It Be]]
| B-side = "[[For You Blue]]"
| Released = 11 May 1970
| Format = [[Gramophone record|7-inch single]]
| Recorded = 26 January 1969; 1 April 1970
| Studio = [[Apple Studio]], London; [[Abbey Road Studios]], London
| Genre = [[Pop music|Pop]]
| Length = 3:40
| Writer = [[Lennon–McCartney]]
| Label = [[Apple Records|Apple]]
| Producer = [[Phil Spector]]
| Chronology = [[The Beatles]] US singles
| Last single = "[[Let It Be (song)|Let It Be]]" (1970)
| This single = "'''The Long and Winding Road'''" (1970)
| Next single = "[[Got to Get You into My Life]]" (1976)
| Misc =
}}
"'''The Long and Winding Road'''" is a song by the English rock band [[the Beatles]] from their 1970 album ''[[Let It Be]]''. It was written by [[Paul McCartney]] and credited to [[Lennon–McCartney]]. When issued as a single in May 1970, a month after [[Break-up of the Beatles|the Beatles' break-up]], it became the group's 20th and last number-one hit on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] chart in the United States.{{sfn|Whitburn|2000}} It was the final single released by the quartet.

The main recording of the song took place in January 1969 and featured a sparse musical arrangement. When preparing the tapes from these sessions for release in April 1970, producer [[Phil Spector]] added orchestral and choral overdubs. Spector's modifications angered McCartney to the point that when he made his case in the British High Court for the Beatles' dissolution, the latter cited the treatment of "The Long and Winding Road" as one of six reasons for doing so. New versions of the song with simpler instrumentation were subsequently released by McCartney and by the Beatles.

In 2011, ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' ranked "The Long and Winding Road" at number 90 on their list of 100 greatest Beatles songs.

==Inspiration==
[[Image:Crossaig north of Carradale on B842, Kintyre. - geograph.org.uk - 63443.jpg|thumb|250px|left|Coastline of the [[Kintyre]] peninsula, where McCartney's farm High Park is situated. He said he drew inspiration from "the calm beauty of Scotland" when writing the song.<ref name="Merritt/SH" />]]
Paul McCartney said he came up with the title "The Long and Winding Road" during one of his first visits to his property High Park Farm, near [[Campbeltown]] in Scotland,{{sfn|Sounes|2010|p=181}} which he purchased in June 1966.{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=234}} The phrase was inspired by the sight of a road "stretching up into the hills" in the remote [[Scottish Highlands|Highlands]] surroundings of lochs and distant mountains.{{sfn|Sounes|2010|p=181}} He wrote the song at his farm in 1968, inspired by the growing tension among the Beatles.<ref name="Merritt/SH">{{cite news|last=Merritt|first=Mike|title=Truth behind ballad that split Beatles|date=16 November 2003|newspaper=[[Sunday Herald]]|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427062227/http://www.sundayherald.com/38051
|archivedate=27 April 2006|url=http://www.sundayherald.com/38051|accessdate=18 October 2017}}</ref><ref name="Duca/HuffPost" /> Based on other comments McCartney has made, author [[Howard Sounes]] writes, the lyrics can be seen as McCartney expressing his anguish at the direction his personal life was taking in the autumn of 1968, after he had separated from his fiancée [[Jane Asher]], as well as a nostalgic look back at the Beatles' history.{{sfn|Sounes|2010|pp=239–40}} McCartney recalled: "I just sat down at my piano in Scotland, started playing and came up with that song, imagining it was going to be done by someone like [[Ray Charles]]. I have always found inspiration in the calm beauty of Scotland and again it proved the place where I found inspiration."<ref name="Merritt/SH" />

Once back in London, McCartney recorded a [[demo (music)|demo version]] of "The Long and Winding Road" during one of the recording sessions for ''[[The Beatles (album)|The Beatles]]''.{{sfn|Lewisohn|2005|p=156}} Later, he offered the song to [[Tom Jones (singer)|Tom Jones]] on the condition that the singer release it as his next single. In Jones' recollection, he was forced to turn it down since his record company were about to issue "[[Without Love (Clyde McPhatter song)|Without Love]]" as a single.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Owens|first1=David|title=Sir Tom Jones reveals the Beatles hit that was written for him|url=http://www.walesonline.co.uk/news/wales-news/sir-tom-jones-reveals-beatles-2028517|publisher=[[WalesOnline]]|date=3 June 2012|accessdate=21 February 2017}}</ref>

The song takes the form of a piano-based ballad, with conventional chord changes.<ref name="Pollack/Notes" /> McCartney described the chords as "slightly jazzy" and in keeping with Charles' style.<ref name="Duca/HuffPost">{{cite web|last=Duca|first=Lauren|title='The Long And Winding Road' Led To The Beatles' Final No. 1 Single|date=13 June 2014|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com.au/entry/beatles-long-and-winding-road_n_5479380
|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref> The song's home [[Key (music)|key]] is [[E-flat major]] but it also uses the relative C minor.<ref name="Pollack/Notes">{{cite web|last=Pollack|first=Alan W.|title=Notes on 'The Long and Winding Road'| year=1999|url=http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/DATABASES/AWP/tlawr.shtml
|publisher=Soundscapes|accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref> Lyrically, it is a sad and melancholic song, with an evocation of an as-yet unrequited, though apparently inevitable, love.

In an interview in 1994, McCartney described the lyric more obliquely: "It's rather a sad song. I like writing sad songs, it's a good bag to get into because you can actually acknowledge some deeper feelings of your own and put them in it. It's a good vehicle, it saves having to go to a [[psychiatry|psychiatrist]]."<ref name="Interviews">{{cite web|publisher=The Beatles Interview Database|year=2004|title=Let It Be|url=http://www.beatlesinterviews.org/dba12let.html
|accessdate=11 September 2004}}</ref>

The opening theme is repeated throughout. The song lacks a traditional chorus, and the melody and lyrics are ambiguous about the opening stanza's position in the song; it is unclear whether the song has just begun, is in the verse, or is in the bridge.<ref name="Pollack/Notes" />

==Recording==
===January 1969===
The Beatles recorded several takes of "The Long and Winding Road" at their [[Apple Studio]] in central London on 26 January 1969 and again on 31 January. The line-up on the track was McCartney on lead vocals and piano, [[John Lennon]] on [[bass guitar]], [[George Harrison]] on [[electric guitar]], [[Ringo Starr]] on [[drum kit|drums]], and guest keyboardist [[Billy Preston]] on [[Rhodes piano]]. This was during a series of sessions for an album and film project then known as ''Get Back''. Lennon, usually the band's rhythm guitarist, played bass only occasionally and made several mistakes on the recording.<ref name="Merritt/SH" />

In May 1969, [[Glyn Johns]], who had been asked by the Beatles to compile and mix the ''Get Back'' album, selected the 26 January recording. Since the song had been deemed unsuitable for inclusion in the band's filmed rooftop concert on 30 January, the Beatles also taped a master version of "The Long and Winding Road" at Apple the following day.{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=333}} This 31 January version, which had slightly different lyrics from the released take, and was recorded with Johns in an unofficial producer's role, was used in the film, subsequently titled ''Let It Be''.{{sfn|Sulpy|Schweighardt|1999|pp=301, 307–08}} For the 1969 and 1970 versions of the ''Get Back'' album – both of which were rejected by the Beatles – Johns used the 26 January mix as released on the ''[[Anthology 3]]'' album in 1996.{{sfn|Spizer|2003|pp=74–75}}

===April 1970===
In early 1970, Lennon and the Beatles' manager, [[Allen Klein]], turned over the recordings to American producer [[Phil Spector]] with the hope of salvaging an album, which was then titled ''Let It Be''.<ref name="Merritt/SH" /> McCartney had become estranged from his bandmates at this time, due to his opposition to Klein's appointment as manager. Several weeks were lost before McCartney replied to messages requesting his approval for Spector to begin working on the recordings.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|pp=115–16}} Spector chose to return to the same 26 January recording of "The Long and Winding Road".{{sfn|Spizer|2003|pp=74-75}}

Spector made various changes to the songs. His most dramatic embellishments occurred on 1 April 1970, the last ever Beatles recording session, when he added orchestral overdubs to "The Long and Winding Road", "[[Across the Universe]]" and "[[I Me Mine]]" at [[Abbey Road Studios]]. The only member of the Beatles present was Starr, who played drums with the session musicians to create Spector's characteristic "[[Wall of Sound]]". Already known for his eccentric behaviour in the studio, Spector was in a peculiar mood that day, according to balance engineer Peter Bown: "He wanted tape echo on everything, he had to take a different pill every half hour and had his bodyguard with him constantly. He was on the point of throwing a wobbly, saying 'I want to hear this, I want to hear that. I must have this, I must have that.'"{{sfn|Cross|2005|p=396}} The orchestra became so annoyed by Spector's behaviour that the musicians refused to play any further; at one point, Bown left for home, forcing Spector to telephone him and persuade him into coming back after Starr had told Spector to calm down.{{sfn|Lewisohn|2005|pp=198–199}}

Spector succeeded in [[overdubbing]] "The Long and Winding Road", using eight [[violin]]s, four [[viola]]s, four [[cello]]s, three [[trumpet]]s, three [[trombone]]s, two guitars, and a choir of 14 women.{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=339}} The orchestra was scored and conducted by [[Richard Anthony Hewson|Richard Hewson]], a young London [[arranger]] who had worked with Apple artists [[Mary Hopkin]]{{sfn|Lewisohn|2005|p=199}} and [[James Taylor]].{{sfn|Castleman|Podrazik|1976|pp=71, 189}} This lush orchestral treatment was in direct contrast to the Beatles' stated intentions for a "real" recording when they began work on ''Get Back''.{{sfn|Lewisohn|2005|p=199}}

On 2 April, Spector sent each of the Beatles an acetate of the completed album with a note saying: "If there is anything you'd like done to the album, let me know and I'll be glad to help … If you wish, please call me about anything regarding the album tonight."{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=123}} All four of the band members sent him their approval by telegram.<ref name="Irvin/Mojo" />{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=373}}

==Controversy around Spector's overdubs==
According to author [[Peter Doggett]], McCartney had felt the need to accommodate his bandmates when accepting Spector's version of ''Let It Be''; but, following his announcement of [[the Beatles' break-up]] in a written press release accompanying promotional copies of his solo album, ''[[McCartney (album)|McCartney]]'', on 9 April, he repeatedly listened again to "The Long and Winding Road" and came to resent Spector's additions.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=130–31}} On 14 April, with manufacturing underway for ''Let It Be'', he sent a terse letter to Klein, demanding that the [[harp]] be removed from the song and that the other added instrumentation and voices be reduced.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=131}} McCartney concluded the letter with the words: "Don't ever do it again."{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=350}} Klein attempted to phone McCartney but he had changed his number without informing Apple; Klein then sent a telegram asking McCartney to contact him or Spector about his concerns. According to Klein, "The following day, a message was relayed to me [from McCartney] that the letter spoke for itself."{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=132}} With ''Let It Be'' scheduled for release in advance of the similarly titled documentary film, Klein allowed the production process to continue with Spector's version of "The Long and Winding Road" intact.{{sfn|Doggett|2011|pp=120–21, 130, 132}}

In an interview published by the ''[[Evening Standard]]'' in two parts on 22 and 23 April 1970, McCartney said: "The album was finished a year ago, but a few months ago American record producer Phil Spector was called in by Lennon to tidy up some of the tracks. But a few weeks ago, I was sent a re-mixed version of my song 'The Long and Winding Road' with harps, [[French horn|horn]]s, an orchestra, and a women's choir added. No one had asked me what I thought. I couldn't believe it."{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=851}} The Beatles' usual producer, [[George Martin]], called the remixes "so uncharacteristic" of the Beatles, while Johns, who was denied a production credit by Lennon,{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=374}} described Spector's embellishments as "revolting … just puke".{{sfn|Sounes|2010|p=271}}

McCartney asked Klein to dissolve the Beatles' partnership, but was refused. Exasperated, he took the case to the [[High Court of Justice|High Court]] in London in early 1971, naming Klein and the other Beatles as defendants. Among the six reasons McCartney gave for dissolving the Beatles was that Klein's company, [[ABKCO Records|ABKCO]], had caused "intolerable interference" by overdubbing "The Long and Winding Road" without consulting McCartney.{{sfn|Cross|2005|p=396}} In his written affidavit, Starr countered this statement by saying that when Spector had sent acetates of ''Let It Be'' to each of the Beatles for their approval, with a request also for feedback: "We all said yes. Even at the beginning Paul said yes. I spoke to him on the phone, and said, 'Did you like it?' and he said, 'Yeah, it's OK.' He didn't put it down."{{sfn|Doggett|2011|p=123}} Starr added: "And then suddenly he didn't want it to go out. Two weeks after that, he wanted to cancel it."{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=373}}

Speaking shortly after the overdubbing sessions, Spector said that he had asked whether any of the Beatles would like to help him produce the album, but none of them had wanted to.<ref name="Irvin/Mojo">{{cite magazine|first=Jim|last=Irvin|title=Get It Better: The Story of ''Let It Be… Naked''|magazine=[[Mojo (magazine)|Mojo]]|date=November 2003}} Available at [https://www.rocksbackpages.com/Library/Article/get-it-better-the-story-of-ilet-it-be-nakedi Rock's Backpages] (subscription required).</ref> He also said that his hand was forced into remixing "The Long and Winding Road" due to the poor quality of Lennon's bass playing. Others agreed: in his book ''[[Revolution in the Head]]'' Beatles scholar [[Ian MacDonald]] wrote: "The song was designed as a standard to be taken up by mainstream balladeers. … It features some atrocious bass-playing by Lennon, prodding clumsily around as if uncertain of the harmonies and making many comical mistakes. Lennon's crude bass playing on 'The Long and Winding Road,' though largely accidental, amounts to sabotage when presented as finished work."<ref name="Merritt/SH" /> Spector said that McCartney was being hypocritical in his criticism: "Paul had no problem picking up the [[Academy Award for Best Original Score|Academy Award]] for the ''[[Let It Be (movie)|Let It Be]]'' movie soundtrack, nor did he have any problem in using my arrangement of the string and horn and choir parts when he performed it during 25 years of touring on his own. If Paul wants to get into a pissing contest about it, he's got me mixed up with someone who gives a shit."<ref>{{cite book|first=Merrell|last=Noden|chapter=Extra-celestial |year=2003 |title=[[Mojo (magazine)#Special editions|Mojo Special Limited Edition]]: 1000 Days of Revolution (The Beatles' Final Years – Jan 1, 1968 to Sept 27, 1970)|location=London |publisher=Emap|p=127}}</ref>

==Release and reception==
The song was released on the ''Let It Be'' album on 8 May 1970.{{sfn|Castleman|Podrazik|1976|pp=89–90}} On 11 May, seven days before the album's North American release,{{sfn|Miles|2001|p=377}} Apple issued "The Long and Winding Road" as a single in the United States with "[[For You Blue]]" on the B-side.{{sfn|Castleman|Podrazik|1976|p=90}} In the context of the recent news regarding the Beatles' split, the song captured the sadness that many listeners felt.{{sfn|Rodriguez|2010|p=3}}

On 13 June 1970, it became the Beatles' twentieth and final number-one single on the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] chart in America and held the top position for a second week. The band thereby set the all-time record for number of chart-topping singles on the ''Billboard'' Hot 100. The Beatles achieved this feat in the space of 74 months from their debut US number one, "[[I Want to Hold Your Hand]]", in February 1964 – an average of one chart-topping single per 3.7 months, another all-time record.{{sfn|Cross|2006}}{{sfn|Whelan|2005}} The single's contemporary US sales were insufficient for [[Recording Industry Association of America certification#Singles|gold accreditation]] by the [[Recording Industry Association of America]] (RIAA).{{sfn|Castleman|Podrazik|1976|p=332}} In February 1999, the song was certified platinum by the RIAA for sales of 1,000,000.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.riaa.com/gold-platinum/?tab_active=default-award&ar=The+Beatles&ti=Long+and+Winding+Road#search_section |title=''Search:'' The Beatles, Long and Winding Road|publisher=[[Recording Industry Association of America]]|accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref>

In 2011, ''[[Rolling Stone]]'' placed "The Long and Winding Road" at number 90 on its list of "The 100 Greatest Beatles Songs".<ref name="RS 100 Greatest">{{cite web|title=100 Greatest Beatles Songs: 90. 'The Long and Winding Road'|url=https://www.rollingstone.com/music/lists/100-greatest-beatles-songs-20110919/the-long-and-winding-road-19691231|publisher=[[Rolling Stone|rollingstone.com]]|accessdate=7 April 2017}}</ref> On a similar list compiled by ''[[Mojo (magazine)|Mojo]]'' in 2006, the song appeared at number 27. In his commentary for the magazine, [[Brian Wilson]] described it as his "all time favourite Beatles track", saying that while the Beatles were "genius songwriters", this song was distinguished by a "''heart-and-soul'' melody". Wilson concluded: "When they broke up I was heartbroken. I think they should have kept going."<ref>{{cite magazine|last=Alexander|first=Phil|title=The 101 Greatest Beatles Songs|magazine=[[Mojo (magazine)|Mojo]]|date=July 2006|p=84|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

==Other recordings==
Since release in 1970, there have been six additional recordings released by McCartney.{{sfn|Womack|2014|p=569}} The same 26 January take, without the orchestration and overdubs, was released on ''[[Anthology 3]]'' in 1996.<ref>{{cite AV media notes|last=Lewisohn|first=Mark|year=1996|title=Anthology 3|publisher=[[Apple Records]]| titlelink=Anthology 3|others=[[The Beatles]]|type=booklet|id=34451|pp=30, 31}}</ref> This version included a bridge section spoken, rather than sung, by McCartney.

In 2003, McCartney persuaded Starr and Ono (as Lennon's widow) to release ''[[Let It Be... Naked]]'',<ref name="Merritt/SH" /> touted as the band's version of ''Let It Be'' remixed by independent producers. McCartney claimed that his long-standing dissatisfaction with the released version of "The Long and Winding Road" (and the entire ''Let It Be'' album) was in part the impetus for the new version. The new album included a later take of "The Long and Winding Road", recorded on 31 January. With no strings or other added instrumentation beyond that which was played in the studio at the time, it was closer to the Beatles's original intention than the 1970 version.<ref name="Merritt/SH" /> This take is also the one seen in the film ''[[Let It Be (film)|Let It Be]]'' and on the Beatles' 2015 video compilation ''[[1 (Beatles album)|1]]''.<ref>{{cite web|first= Matt |last= Rowe |title= The Beatles 1 To Be Reissued With New Audio Remixes... And Videos |work= The Morton Report |date= 18 September 2015 |accessdate= 5 November 2016 |url= http://www.themortonreport.com/entertainment/music/the-beatles-1-to-be-reissued-with-new-audio-remixesand-videos}}</ref> Starr said of the ''Let It Be... Naked'' version: "There's nothing wrong with Phil's strings [on the 1970 release], this is just a different attitude to listening. But it's been 30-odd years since I've heard it without all that and it just blew me away."<ref name="Merritt/SH" />

McCartney and producer [[George Martin]] re-recorded "The Long and Winding Road" with instrumentation incorporating a lead saxophone, for the soundtrack to McCartney’s 1984 film, ''[[Give My Regards to Broad Street]]''.{{sfn|Calkin|2001a}} A second new studio recording of the song was made by McCartney in 1989 and used as a B-side of single releases from his ''[[Flowers in the Dirt]]'' album, starting with the "Postcard Pack" vinyl format of "[[This One (song)|This One]]".{{sfn|Madinger|Easter|2000|p=309}}

"The Long and Winding Road" became a staple of McCartney's post-Beatles concert repertoire. On the 1976 [[Wings Over the World Tour]], where it was one of the few Beatles songs played, it was performed on piano in a sparse arrangement using a [[horn section]]. On McCartney's [[Get Back World Tour|1989 solo tour]] and since, it has generally been performed on piano with an arrangement using a [[synthesiser]] mimicking strings, but this string sound is more restrained than on the Spector recorded version.{{sfn|Badman|2001}} The live performance recording of the Rio de Janeiro concert in April 1990 is on the album ''[[Tripping the Live Fantastic]]''. McCartney also played the song to close the [[Live 8 concert, London|Live 8 concert in London]].<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=[[The New York Times]]|title=Live 8 Rocks the Globe| date=3 July 2005|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2005/07/03/world/europe/03iht-web.0703live8.html?_r=1 |accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref>

Several other artists have performed or recorded "The Long and Winding Road". As McCartney had envisaged,<ref name="Duca/HuffPost" /> Ray Charles recorded a cover version, which was released on his 2006 album ''[[Ray Sings, Basie Swings]]''.<ref>{{cite web|last=Tamarkin|first=Jeff|title=Ray Charles ''Ray Sings, Basie Swings''|publisher=[[AllMusic]]|url={{Allmusic|class=album|id=r858244/review|pure_url=yes}}|accessdate=8 January 2010}}</ref> Other versions include a 1999 [[Royal Albert Hall]] performance by [[George Michael]], a 1977 single release by [[Melba Moore]], a 1978 recording by [[Peter Frampton]], and a 2010 performance at the White House by [[Faith Hill]] when [[Barack Obama]] gave McCartney the Gershwin Prize.{{sfn|Womack|2014|p=570}}

The only charting cover of the song in the U.S. was done by [[Billy Ocean]] in 1985. His version reached #24 on the Adult Contemporary chart.<ref>{{cite book|first= Joel |last= Whitburn |authorlink= Joel Whitburn |year= 1993 |title= Top Adult Contemporary: 1961–1993 |publisher= Record Research |page=178}}</ref>

==Personnel==
According to Walter Everett:{{sfn|Everett|1999|p=229}}

'''The Beatles'''
*[[Paul McCartney]] – vocal, piano
*[[John Lennon]] – [[Fender Bass VI|six-string bass]]
*[[George Harrison]] – electric guitar
*[[Ringo Starr]] – drums

'''Additional musicians'''
*[[Billy Preston]] – [[Rhodes piano|Fender Rhodes]]
*Uncredited orchestral musicians – 18 violins, 4 violas, 4 cellos, harp, 3 trumpets, 3 trombones, 2 guitars, 14 female voices{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=339}}
*[[Richard Hewson]] – orchestral arrangement{{sfn|Lewisohn|2005|p=199}}
*[[John Barham]] – choral arrangement{{sfn|Lewisohn|2010|p=349}}

==Charts and certifications==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}

===Weekly charts===
{|class="wikitable sortable"
!Chart (1970)
!Peak position
|-
|Australian ''[[Go-Set]]'' National Top 60<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.poparchives.com.au/gosetcharts/1970/19700919.html |title=Go-Set Australian charts – 19 September 1970|publisher=poparchives.com.au |accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref>
|align="center"|6
|-
|Australian [[Kent Music Report]]<ref>{{cite book | title=Australian Chart Book (1940–1969) | author=Kent, David | publisher=Australian Chart Book | location=Turramurra | year=2005 | isbn=0-646-44439-5}}</ref>
|align="center"|7
|-
|{{singlechart|Belgium (Flanders)|8|artist=The Beatles|song=The Long and Winding Road|accessdate=16 May 2016}}
|-
|Canadian ''[[RPM (magazine)|RPM]]'' 100<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/films-videos-sound-recordings/rpm/Pages/item.aspx?IdNumber=2515& |title=Top Singles – Volume 13, No. 18: Jun 20, 1970|publisher=[[Library and Archives Canada]]|accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref>
|align="center"|1
|-
|{{singlechart|Dutch100|11|artist=The Beatles|song=The Long and Winding Road|accessdate=16 May 2016}}
|-
|{{singlechart|Switzerland|8|artist=The Beatles|song=The Long and Winding Road|accessdate=16 May 2016}}
|-
|{{singlechart|Billboardhot100|1|artist=The Beatles|accessdate=16 May 2016}}
|-
|US ''Billboard'' [[Adult Contemporary (chart)|Adult Contemporary]]<ref>{{cite book|first= Joel |last= Whitburn |authorlink= Joel Whitburn |year= 1993 |title= Top Adult Contemporary: 1961–1993
|publisher= Record Research |page=25}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|2
|-
|US [[Cashbox (magazine)|''Cash Box'' Top 100]]<ref>{{cite book| first=Frank| last=Hoffmann| year=1983| title=The Cash Box Singles Charts, 1950-1981| publisher=The Scarecrow Press, Inc| location=Metuchen, NJ & London| pages= 32–34}}</ref>
|align="center"|1
|-
|West German ''[[Musikmarkt]]'' Singles<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.offiziellecharts.de/charts|title=Offizielle Deutsche Charts|format=Enter "Beatles" in the search box|publisher=[[GfK Entertainment Charts]]|language=German|accessdate=16 May 2016}}</ref>
|align="center"|26
|}
{{col-2}}

===Year-end charts===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!align="left"|Chart (1970)
! style="text-align:center;"|Rank
|-
|Canadian ''RPM'' Top Singles<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bac-lac.gc.ca/eng/discover/films-videos-sound-recordings/rpm/Pages/image.aspx?Image=nlc008388.3740&URLjpg=http%3a%2f%2fwww.collectionscanada.gc.ca%2fobj%2f028020%2ff4%2fnlc008388.3740.gif&Ecopy=nlc008388.3740|title=RPM's Top 100 of 1970|publisher=[[Library and Archives Canada]]|accessdate=19 October 2017}}</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|11
|-
|US ''Cash Box''<ref>[http://tropicalglen.com/Archives/70s_files/1970YESP.html Cash Box Year-End Charts: Top 100 Pop Singles, December 26, 1970]</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|36
|-
|US [[Billboard Year-End|''Billboard'' Hot 100]]<ref>[http://www.musicoutfitters.com/topsongs/1970.htm "Top 100 Hits of 1970/Top 100 Songs of 1970"], musicoutfitters.com (retrieved 12 June 2016).</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|41
|-
|}

===Certifications===
{{Certification Table Top}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=United States|artist=The Beatles|title=Long and Winding Road|award=Platinum|relyear=1970|certyear=1999|type=single|accessdate=14 May 2016}}
{{Certification Table Bottom}}

{{col-end}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

'''Sources'''
{{Refbegin|30em}}
* {{cite book|last=Badman|first=Keith|title=The Beatles Diary Volume 2: After the Break-Up 1970–2001|publisher=Omnibus Press|location=London|year=2001|isbn=978-0-7119-8307-6|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| author=The Beatles
| year=2000
| authorlink=The Beatles
| title=The Beatles Anthology
| publisher=Chronicle Books
| location=San Francisco
| isbn=0-8118-2684-8
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite web
| last=Calkin
| first=Graham
| title=Give My Regards to Broad Street
| work=Graham Calkin's Beatles Pages
| year=2001a
| url=http://www.jpgr.co.uk/pctc2.html
| accessdate=2 February 2010
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book|last1=Castleman|first1=Harry|last2=Podrazik|first2=Walter J.|title=All Together Now: The First Complete Beatles Discography 1961–1975|publisher=Ballantine Books|location=New York, NY|year=1976|isbn=0-345-25680-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last=Cross
| first=Craig
| year=2005
| title=The Beatles: Day-by-Day, Song-by-Song, Record-by-Record
| publisher=iUniverse, Inc
| isbn=978-0-595-34663-9
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite web
| last=Cross
| first=Craig
| year=2006
| title='The Long and Winding Road' American single
| url=http://www.beatles-discography.com/records/?c=usa&single=the-long-and-winding-road
| accessdate=15 February 2012
| ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Doggett|first=Peter|title=You Never Give Me Your Money: The Beatles After the Breakup|publisher=It Books|location=New York, NY|year=2011|isbn=978-0-06-177418-8|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book| last=Everett| first=Walter| year=1999| title=The Beatles as Musicians: Revolver Through the Anthology| publisher=Oxford University Press| location=New York, NY| isbn=0-19-512941-5| ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last=Lewisohn
| first=Mark
| year=1996
| title=The Complete Beatles Chronicle
| publisher=Chancellor Press
| isbn=0-7607-0327-2
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book|first=Mark|last=Lewisohn|title=The Complete Beatles Recording Sessions: The Official Story of the Abbey Road Years 1962–1970|publisher=Bounty Books|location=London|year=2005|origyear=1988|isbn=978-0-7537-2545-0|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|first=Mark|last=Lewisohn|title=The Complete Beatles Chronicle: The Definitive Day-By-Day Guide to the Beatles' Entire Career|publisher=Chicago Review Press|location=Chicago, IL|year=2010|ISBN=978-1-56976-534-0|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last=MacDonald
| first=Ian
| year=2005
| authorlink=Ian MacDonald
| title=Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties
| publisher=Pimlico (Rand)
| location=London
| edition=Second Revised
| isbn=1-84413-828-3
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book|last1=Madinger|first1=Chip|last2=Easter|first2=Mark|title=Eight Arms to Hold You: The Solo Beatles Compendium|publisher=44.1 Productions|location=Chesterfield, MO|year=2000|isbn=0-615-11724-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Miles|first=Barry|title=The Beatles Diary Volume 1: The Beatles Years|year=2001|publisher=Omnibus Press|location=London|isbn=0-7119-8308-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Rodriguez|first=Robert|title=Fab Four FAQ 2.0: The Beatles' Solo Years, 1970–1980|publisher=Backbeat Books|location=Milwaukee, WI|year=2010|isbn=978-1-4165-9093-4|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book|last=Sounes|first=Howard|title=Fab: An Intimate Life of Paul McCartney|publisher=HarperCollins|location=London|year=2010|isbn=978-0-00-723705-0|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book
| last=Spitz
| first=Bob
| year=2005
| authorlink=Bob Spitz
| title=The Beatles: The Biography
| publisher=Little, Brown
| location=Boston
| isbn=0-316-80352-9
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Spizer
| first=Bruce
| year=2003
| authorlink=Bruce Spizer
| title=The Beatles on Apple Records
| publisher=498 Productions
| location=New Orleans
| isbn=0-9662649-4-0
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book|last1=Sulpy|first1=Doug|last2=Schweighardt|first2=Ray|title=Get Back: The Unauthorized Chronicle of The Beatles' Let It Be Disaster|publisher=St. Martin's Griffin|location=New York, NY|year=1999|isbn=0-312-19981-3|ref=harv}}
* {{cite web
| last=Whelan
| first=John
| year=2005
| title=The Beatles Timeline
| url=http://beatles.ncf.ca/timeline.html#70
| accessdate=15 March 2006
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Whitburn
| first=Joel
| year=2000
| title=40 Top Hits
| publisher=Billboard Books
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book|last= Womack|first= Kenneth|year= 2014|title=The Beatles Encyclopedia: Everything Fab Four|publisher=ABC-CLIO|location=Santa Barbara, CA|isbn= 978-0-313-39171-2|ref=harv}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|Let It Be}}
* {{Notes on|http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/DATABASES/AWP/tlawr.shtml}}
* {{MetroLyrics song|beatles|the-long-and-winding-road}}

{{Let It Be}}
{{The Beatles singles}}
{{Navboxes |title =Succession: Number one singles |list =
{{s-start}}
{{succession box
| before = "[[Everything is Beautiful]]" by [[Ray Stevens]]
| title = [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] [[List of number-one hits (United States)|number one single]] (The Beatles' version)
| years = 13 June 1970 (two weeks)
| after = "[[The Love You Save]]" by [[The Jackson 5]]
}}
{{succession box
| before = "[[Just like a Pill]]" by [[Pink (singer)|Pink]]
| title = [[List of number-one singles (UK)|UK number-one single]]
| years = 29 September 2002 (2 weeks) ([[Will Young]] version)
| after = "[[The Ketchup Song (Aserejé)]]" by [[Las Ketchup]]
}}
{{s-end}}
}}

{{featured article}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2012}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Long And Winding Road, The}}
[[Category:1970 singles]]
[[Category:1970s ballads]]
[[Category:2002 singles]]
[[Category:Songs written by Lennon–McCartney]]
[[Category:The Beatles songs]]
[[Category:Will Young songs]]
[[Category:Gareth Gates songs]]
[[Category:Cissy Houston songs]]
[[Category:Andy Williams songs]]
[[Category:Nancy Wilson (jazz singer) songs]]
[[Category:Song recordings produced by Phil Spector]]
[[Category:Songs published by Northern Songs]]
[[Category:Billboard Hot 100 number-one singles]]
[[Category:UK Singles Chart number-one singles]]
[[Category:Apple Records singles]]
[[Category:Rock ballads]]
[[Category:Pop ballads]]
[[Category:Songs about loneliness]]
[[Category:Johnny Mathis songs]]
[[Category:The Corrs songs]]
[[Category: 1970 songs]]

I Saw Her Standing There

2018-04-13T13:59:12Z

JanTurin: /* Composition */ on setlist Hamburg

{{about|the 1963 song|the 2013 album|I Saw Her Standing There (album)}}
{{Use British English|date=June 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2011}}

{{Infobox song
| Name = I Saw Her Standing There
| Artist = [[the Beatles]]
| Album = [[Please Please Me]]
| Released = 22 March 1963
| track_no = 1
| Recorded = 11 February 1963, [[Abbey Road Studios|EMI Studios]], [[London]]
| Genre = [[Rock and roll]]
| Length = 2:55
| Writer = [[Lennon–McCartney|McCartney–Lennon]]
| Label = [[Parlophone]]
| Producer = [[George Martin]]
| Tracks =
|next = "[[Misery (Beatles song)|Misery]]"|next_no = 2}}
{{Infobox single
| Name = I Saw Her Standing There
| Artist = [[the Beatles]]
| Cover = 03_iwantoholdyourhand.jpg
| Caption = US single cover
| A-side = "[[I Want to Hold Your Hand]]"
| Released = 26 December 1963 (US)
| Length = 2:55
| Writer = [[Lennon–McCartney|McCartney–Lennon]]
| Label = [[Capitol Records|Capitol]] 5112 (US)
| Misc = {{Extra chronology
| Artist = [[The Beatles]]
| Type = single
| Last single = "[[She Loves You]]" (1963)
| This single = "'''I Want to Hold Your Hand'''" (US-1963)
| Next single = "[[Twist and Shout#The Beatles' version|Twist and Shout]]" (US-1964)}}
}}
"'''I Saw Her Standing There'''" is a song by the English rock band [[the Beatles]] credited to [[Paul McCartney]] and [[John Lennon]], but written primarily by McCartney. It is the opening track on the band's 1963 debut album ''[[Please Please Me]]''.

In December 1963, [[Capitol Records]] released the song in the United States as the [[A-side and B-side|B-side]] on the label's first [[single (music)|single]] by the Beatles, "[[I Want to Hold Your Hand]]". While the A-side topped the US ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' chart for seven weeks starting 1 February 1964, "I Saw Her Standing There" entered the [[Billboard Hot 100|''Billboard'' Hot 100]] on 8 February 1964, remaining there for 11 weeks, peaking at No. 14. The song placed on the ''[[Cashbox (magazine)|Cashbox]]'' chart for only one week at No. 100 on the same week of its ''Billboard'' debut. In 2004, "I Saw Her Standing There" was ranked No. 139 on ''[[Rolling Stone]]''{{'}}s list of [[Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time|the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time]].

==Composition==
The song was mainly written by Paul McCartney.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=93–94}} Originally titled "Seventeen", the song was apparently conceived by McCartney while driving home from a Beatles' concert in [[Southport]], [[Lancashire]] {{sfn|Badman|2000|p=50}} as a modern take on the traditional song "As I Roved Out", a version of "[[Seventeen Come Sunday]]" that he had heard in Liverpool in 1960.{{sfn|Schofield|2012|p=395}} According to Beatles biographer Mark Lewisohn, McCartney worked out chords and changes for the song on an acoustic guitar, at the family home of his Liverpool friend and fellow musician [[Rory Storm]], on the same night, 22 October 1962.<ref>Lewisohn, Mark. ''The Beatles: All These Years, Volume One – Tune In''. Crown Archetype, 2013, {{ISBN|978-1-4000-8305-3}}, pp. 747-748</ref> Two days later, McCartney was writing lines for the song during a visit to London with his then-girlfriend Celia Mortimer, who was seventeen at the time herself.<ref>Lewisohn, Mark. ''The Beatles: All These Years, Volume One – Tune In''. Crown Archetype, 2013, {{ISBN|978-1-4000-8305-3}}, p. 748</ref> The song was completed about a month later at McCartney's [[20 Forthlin Road|Forthlin Road home]] with Lennon.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=93–94}} It was on their setlist in December 1962 in the Star Club in Hamburg.

McCartney later described in ''Beat Instrumental'' how he went about the song's composition: "Here’s one example of a bit I pinched from someone: I used the bass [[riff]] from '[[I'm Talking About You|Talkin’ About You]]' by [[Chuck Berry]] in 'I Saw Her Standing There'. I played exactly the same notes as he did and it fitted our number perfectly. Even now, when I tell people, I find few of them believe me; therefore, I maintain that a bass riff hasn’t got to be original".{{sfn|Harry|1992|pp=329}}

The lyrics were written on a [[Liverpool Institute]] exercise book. ''Remember'', a book by McCartney's brother [[Mike McCartney]], includes a photograph of [[John Lennon|Lennon]] and McCartney writing the song while strumming guitars and reading the exercise book. It was typical of how Lennon and McCartney would work in partnership, as McCartney later commented: "I had 'She was just seventeen,' and then 'never been a beauty queen'. When I showed it to John, he screamed with laughter, and said 'You're joking about that line, aren't you?'"{{sfn|Badman|2000|p=50}} "We came up with, 'You know what I mean.' Which was good, because you don't know what I mean."<ref>Barry Miles. ''Paul McCartney: Many Years From Now''</ref><ref name=BB>{{cite web|url=http://www.beatlesbible.com/songs/i-saw-her-standing-there/|title=I Saw Her Standing There|work=The Beatles Bible}}</ref> "It was one of the first times he ever went 'What? Must change that ...'"{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|p=9}} Lennon said: "That's Paul doing his usual good job of producing what George Martin used to call a 'potboiler'. I helped with a couple of the lyrics."<ref name=BB /><ref>David Sheff. ''John Lennon: All We Are Saying''</ref> The songwriting credit on the ''Please Please Me'' liner notes is "McCartney–Lennon" which differs from the more familiar "Lennon–McCartney" that appears on subsequent releases.{{sfn|Parlophone|1963|p=3}}

==Recording==
The first live recording (a slow version of the song) was made at the Cavern Club at the end of 1962. Lennon did not play rhythm guitar; he played harmonica in the introduction and during the verses. Lennon and McCartney laughed when they sing "Well we danced all night/And I held her tight/And I held her hand in mine" the second time.<ref name=BB />

The song was recorded at [[Abbey Road Studios|EMI Studios]] on 11 February 1963 and engineered by [[Norman Smith (record producer)|Norman Smith]], as part of the marathon recording session that produced 10 of the 14 songs on ''Please Please Me''.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|p=24}} The Beatles were not present for the [[Audio mixing (recorded music)|mixing]] session on 25 February 1963.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|p=28}} It was not common practice for bands to be present at such sessions at that time.

On the album, the song starts with a rousing "One, two, three, ''four''!" count-in by McCartney. Usually count-ins are edited off the final audio mix; however, [[record producer]] [[George Martin]] wanted to create the effect that the album was a live performance: "I had been up to [[the Cavern]] and I'd seen what they could do, I knew their repertoire, and I said 'Let's record every song you've got, come down to the studios and we'll just whistle through them in a day'".{{sfn|The Beatles|2000|p=92}} Martin took the count-in from take 9, which was considered 'especially spirited'{{sfn|Lewisohn|1988|p=9}} and spliced it onto take 1.{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=60}} Music journalist [[Richard Williams (journalist)|Richard Williams]] suggested that this dramatic introduction to their debut album was just as stirring as [[Elvis Presley]]'s "Well, it's one for the money, two for the show ..." on his opening track, "[[Blue Suede Shoes]]", for his debut album seven years earlier.{{sfn|Mojo|2002|p=40}} In addition it also made the point that the Beatles were a live band as, at that time, they opened their set with this song.{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=68}} On the first American release of the song, issued on [[Vee Jay Records]], the count was edited out—but the "Four!" is still audible.

The full take 9 version of the song appears on the "[[Free as a Bird]]" CD single as a B side, released for the first time.

Take 2 of the song was released on ''The Beatles Bootleg Recordings 1963'' which was an album released exclusively to iTunes in 2013.

==Critical acclaim==
Carr and Tyler, in ''The Beatles: An Illustrated Record'', claimed it was only the third all-British rock classic up to that time, the previous two being [[Cliff Richard]]'s "[[Move It]]" and [[Johnny Kidd (singer)|Johnny Kidd]]'s "[[Shakin' All Over]]".

==Chart performance==
{{col-begin}}
{{col-2}}
===Weekly charts===
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!align="left"|Chart (1964)
!align="left"|Peak position
|-
|align="left"|U.S. ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' [[Billboard Hot 100|Hot 100]]<ref>[Joel Whitburn's Top Pop Singles 1955-2002]</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|14
|-
|align="left"|U.S. ''[[Cashbox (magazine)|Cash Box]]'' Top 100
| style="text-align:center;"|100
|}
{{col-2}}

===Year-end charts===
{| class="wikitable"
|-
!align="left"|Chart (1964)
! style="text-align:center;"|Rank
|-
|U.S. ''Billboard'' Hot 100<ref>http://www.musicoutfitters.com/topsongs/1964.htm</ref>
| style="text-align:center;"|95
|-
|}
{{col-end}}

==Release==
*British [[LP album|LP]]: ''[[Please Please Me]]''
*British [[Extended play|EP]]: ''[[The Beatles (No. 1)]]''
*American [[LP album|LP]]: ''[[Introducing... The Beatles]]''
*American [[Single (music)|Single]]: "[[I Want to Hold Your Hand]]"
*American [[LP album|LP]]: ''[[Meet the Beatles!]]''

==Personnel==
* [[Paul McCartney]] – lead vocals, bass, handclaps
* [[John Lennon]] – rhythm guitar, harmony vocals, handclaps
* [[George Harrison]] – lead guitar, handclaps
* [[Ringo Starr]] – drums, handclaps
:Personnel per [[Ian MacDonald]]{{sfn|MacDonald|2005|p=66}}<ref name=BB />

==Later performances by Beatles==
{{refimprove section|date=September 2012}}

===John Lennon===
A 1974 live version was recorded by [[Elton John|the Elton John Band]] with John Lennon and released as the B-side to the former's "[[Philadelphia Freedom (song)|Philadelphia Freedom]]" single. The song is available on the ''[[Lennon (album)|Lennon]]'' box set, and on Elton John's ''[[To Be Continued (Elton John album)|To Be Continued...]]'' box set as well as the expanded CD edition of his 1976 live album ''[[Here and There (Elton John album)|Here and There]]'' and Elton John's ''[[Rare Masters]]''. Lennon's introduction:
{{quote|I'd like to thank Elton and the boys for having me on tonight. We tried to think of a number to finish off with so I can get out of here and be sick, and we thought we'd do a number of an old, estranged fiancé of mine, called Paul. This is one I never sang, it's an old Beatle number, and we just about know it.}}
This was the last major live performance by John Lennon. After Lennon's death, the track was released as a single and reached #40 on the [[UK Singles Chart]] in March 1981, making it the first time that any version of the song had entered the UK charts.

===Paul McCartney===
McCartney included "I Saw Her Standing There" on his live albums ''[[Tripping the Live Fantastic]]'' (1990), ''[[Back in the US]]'' (2002) and ''[[Back in the World]]'' (2003). In 1987, he recorded a new version for his album ''[[CHOBA B CCCP]]'', but left it to [[outtakes]]. The song has become a mainstay of McCartney's live sets, and a special version was played when McCartney and his band returned to [[Liverpool]] in June 2008. It featured special guest drummer [[Dave Grohl]], the lead singer of the [[Foo Fighters]] and ex-drummer of [[Nirvana (band)|Nirvana]].

McCartney performed "I Saw Her Standing There" at the 1986 Prince's Trust Rock Gala, as part of the 10th anniversary celebration of HRH Prince Charles' charity. He was supported by an all-star band featuring Elton John, Eric Clapton, Phil Collins, Mark Knopfler, and Ray King. Interviewed at the time, McCartney said: "It is a good thrill playing with musicians of this calibre ... since it was a birthday thing, they wanted to do something silly at the end, and that's me".{{sfn|YouTube|2009}} Paul McCartney also performed a duet of this song with Billy Joel during the inaugural concert at Citi Field in Flushing, New York.

==Tiffany version==
{{Infobox single
| Name = I Saw Him Standing There
| Cover = I Saw Him Standing There.jpg
| Artist = [[Tiffany (American singer)|Tiffany]]
| from Album = [[Tiffany (album)|Tiffany]]
| B-side = "Mr. Mambo & Gotta Be Love"
| Released = March 1988
| Format = 7" single, 12" single, Cassette single
| Recorded = 1987
| Genre = [[Synthpop]]
| Length = 4:12 (album version) 3:57 (single remix)
| Label = [[MCA Records|MCA]]
| Writer = [[Lennon–McCartney]]
| Producer = [[George Tobin]]
| Last single = "[[Could've Been]]" (1988)
| This single = "'''I Saw Him Standing There'''" (1988)
| Next single = "[[Feelings of Forever]]" (1988)
| Misc = {{External music video|1="[https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pJ7X0inKxbo Tiffany - I Saw Him Standing There]" on YouTube}}
}}

"'''I Saw Him Standing There'''" was recorded and released by [[Tiffany (American singer)|Tiffany]]. It appeared on her debut [[Tiffany (album)|self-titled album]], changing the lyrics to "him" instead of "her". The track was re-recorded and remixed for single release.

The [[music video]] was a live performance of the song in front of thousands of screaming fans. Like her previous videos, it got a lot of play from video stations such as [[MTV]]. In Japan, one of Tiffany's most well loved songs, "Can't Stop a Heartbeat" was the b-side. She and the song were featured in TV commercials for Meiji's "Marble Chocolate".

"Can't Stop a Heartbeat" was released in Japan before the rest of the world on the b-side on the Japanese release of "I Saw Him Standing There" because it was made for a TV commercial for Meiji "Lucky" chocolate.

===Track listings and formats===
;Cassette single and 7" single

# "I Saw Him Standing There"
# "Gotta Be Love"
# "Mr. Mambo"

;UK 7" single
# "I Saw Him Standing There"
# "Mr. Mambo"

;Japanese 3" CD Single
# "I Saw Him Standing There"
# "Can't Stop a Heartbeat"

;Japanese CD EP
# "I Think We're Alone Now (extended version)"
# "I Saw Him Standing There (dance mix)"
# "Can't Stop a Heartbeat (long version)"
# "Mr. Mambo"
# "Can't Stop a Heartbeat (singalong version)"

===Chart performance===
'''Tiffany version'''
{| class="wikitable sortable"
!Chart (1988)
!Peak position
|-
|[[ARIA Charts|Australian Singles Chart]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://australian-charts.com/showinterpret.asp?interpret=Tiffany|title=australian-charts.com > Discography Tiffany|publisher=Hung Medien|accessdate=2015-11-15}}</ref>
|align="center"|10
|-
|New Zealand RIANZ Singles Chart
|align="center"|3
|-
|Dutch Singles Chart
|align="center"|40
|-
|Irish Singles Chart
|align="center"|4
|-
|-
|Japan Singles Chart
|align="center"|64
|-
|[[UK Singles Chart]]
|align="center"|8
|-
|U.S. ''[[Billboard (magazine)|Billboard]]'' Hot 100
|align="center"|7
|}

===Sales and certifications===
{{Certification Table Top}}
{{Certification Table Entry|region=Japan|type=single|title=Could've Been|artist=Tiffany|award=|certyear=1988|relyear=1988|salesamount=14,550|autocat=yes}}
{{s-end}}

==References==
{{Reflist}}

;Bibliography
{{Refbegin|2}}
* {{cite book
| last=Badman
| first=Keith
| year=2000
| title=The Beatles Off the Record
| publisher=Omnibus
| location=London
| isbn=0-7119-7985-5
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite web
| work=Dailymotion
| year=2009
| title=The Ladybugs Sing "I Saw Her Standing There"
| url=http://www.dailymotion.com/video/x7pzvf_the-ladybugs-sing-i-saw-her-standin_funLadybugs'
| accessdate=13 April 2009
| ref={{SfnRef|Dailymotion|2009}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Harry
| first=Bill
| year=1992
| authorlink=Bill Harry
| title=The Ultimate Beatles Encyclopedia
| publisher=Virgin Books
| location=London
| isbn=0-86369-681-3
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Lewisohn
| first=Mark
| year=1988
| authorlink=Mark Lewisohn
| title=The Beatles Recording Sessions
| publisher=Harmony Books
| location=New York
| isbn=0-517-57066-1
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last=MacDonald
| first=Ian
| year=2005
| authorlink=Ian MacDonald
| title=Revolution in the Head: The Beatles' Records and the Sixties
| publisher=Pimlico (Rand)
| location=London
| edition=Second Revised
| isbn=1-84413-828-3
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Miles
| first=Barry
| year=1997
| authorlink=Barry Miles
| title=Paul McCartney: Many Years From Now
| publisher=Henry Holt & Company
| location=New York
| isbn=0-8050-5249-6
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite book
| work=Mojo
| year=2002
| title=Mojo Special Limited Edition # M-04951
| location=London
| ref={{SfnRef|Mojo|2002|p=40}}
}}
* {{cite book
| last=Schofield
| first=Nigel
| year=2012
| title=Fairport by Fairport
| publisher=Rocket 88
| location=London
| isbn=978-1-906615-47-5
| ref=harv
}}
* {{cite AV media notes
| publisher=[[Parlophone]]
| year=1963
| title=Please Please Me
| location=London
| titlelink=Please Please Me
| others=[[The Beatles]]
| type=booklet
| id=CDP 7 46435 2
| ref={{SfnRef|Parlophone|1963|p=3}}
}}
* {{cite web
| work=YouTube
| year=2009
| title=The Prince's Trust 1986, "I Saw Her Standing There" by Paul McCartney
| url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NHLgdXnf-G0
| accessdate=6 December 2009
| ref={{SfnRef|YouTube|2009}}
}}
*{{cite book
|author=The Beatles
|year=2000
|title=The Beatles Anthology
|publisher=Cassell & Co
|location=London
|isbn=0-304-35605-0
|ref=harv
}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Wikiquote|Please Please Me}}
* {{Notes on|http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/DATABASES/AWP/ishst.shtml}}
* {{MetroLyrics song|beatles|i-saw-her-standing-there}}

{{Please Please Me}}
{{The Beatles singles}}
{{Tiffany}}

[[Category:1963 songs]]
[[Category:The Beatles songs]]
[[Category:Song recordings produced by George Martin]]
[[Category:Songs written by Lennon–McCartney]]
[[Category:Elton John songs]]
[[Category:The Supremes songs]]
[[Category:Little Richard songs]]
[[Category:Jerry Lee Lewis songs]]
[[Category:The Tubes songs]]
[[Category:The Who songs]]
[[Category:Songs published by Northern Songs]]
[[Category:1988 singles]]
[[Category:Tiffany (American singer) songs]]
[[Category:MCA Records singles]]
[[Category:Capitol Records singles]]
[[Category:Parlophone singles]]
[[Category:Songs about dancing]]
[[Category:1963 singles]]

The Beatles in Hamburg

2018-04-07T10:25:47Z

JanTurin: /* The Top Ten */

{{Use British English|date=August 2010}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{The Beatles history|image=|caption=From left: [[Pete Best]], [[George Harrison]], [[John Lennon]], [[Paul McCartney]]}}

[[The Beatles]] members [[John Lennon]], [[Paul McCartney]], [[George Harrison]], [[Stuart Sutcliffe]] and [[Pete Best]] regularly performed at different clubs in [[Hamburg]], [[Northern Germany]], during the period from August 1960 to December 1962; a chapter in the group's history which honed their performance skills, widened their reputation, and led to their first recording, which brought them to the attention of [[Brian Epstein]].

The Beatles' booking agent, [[Allan Williams]], decided to send the group to Hamburg when another group he managed, [[Derry and the Seniors]], proved successful there. Having no permanent drummer at the time, they recruited Best a few days before their departure. After breaking their contract by playing at another club, Harrison was deported for being underaged, and McCartney and Best were arrested and deported for attempted arson.

The Beatles first met [[Astrid Kirchherr]] in Hamburg, who was instrumental in their adoption of the famous [[Beatle haircut]]. During their time in Hamburg, Sutcliffe decided to leave the group to continue his studies. In April 1962, less than a year after leaving the group, he died of a [[brain hemorrhage]].

==Hamburg in the 1960s==
Hamburg had once been Germany's main seaport, the fourth largest in the world, but in 1943 virtually the entire city had been reduced to rubble by [[World War II]] bombing raids. By 1960, when they arrived, the Hamburg that had grown up from the ruins of WWII had established a reputation throughout Europe as a city of vice and criminal activity.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|p=24}} In contrast to an economically depressed post-war Liverpool, Hamburg was a wealthy city.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=64}}

===Leaving Liverpool===
Williams, a 29-year-old Liverpool businessman and promoter, had sent his leading group, Derry and the Seniors (later known as [[Howie Casey]] and the Seniors)<ref name="IntheBeginningp1">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Harry |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/a-z/howiecasie.shtml |title= In the Beginning... There Was Howie Casie & The Seniors (p1) |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref> to Hamburg, where they were enjoying success, and wanted to send an additional group.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=76}} He initially tried to send [[Rory Storm]] and the Hurricanes, but Storm and his group were committed to a [[Butlins]] holiday camp and turned Williams' offer down, as did [[Gerry and the Pacemakers]]. Williams started promoting concerts for The Beatles in May 1960, after they had played at his Jacaranda club in Liverpool,{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=64}} and offered The Beatles the Hamburg bookings.<ref name="TheBeatlesAnthologyDVDEpisode1">The Beatles, Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:38:45) Harrison talking about the offer to play in Hamburg.</ref>{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=202}}<ref name="BillHarryPage4">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Harry |url=http://triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/a-z/rorystorm-hurricanes4.shtml |title=While My Guitar Gently Weeps: The Tragic Story of Rory Storm & the Hurricanes (page 4) |publisher=[[Bill Harry]] |accessdate=29 February 2008}}</ref> He booked them into [[Bruno Koschmider]]'s Indra club in Hamburg for a season of bookings starting on 12 August 1960, but said that he was not impressed with them as a musical group, and hoped to find a better act to follow them.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=56}}<ref name="HamburgBeatleClubs">{{cite web|url=http://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://webs.wichita.edu/mschneegurt/hamburg/kaiserkeller.gif&imgrefurl=http://webs.wichita.edu/mschneegurt/hamburg/hamburg.html&h=254&w=355&sz=65&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=XuBKiGVW2CiqFM:&tbnh=87&tbnw=121&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dkaiserkeller%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26sa%3DG|title=Photos of Clubs in Hamburg|publisher=images.google.co.uk|accessdate=20 December 2007}}</ref>{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=203}}

As they had no permanent drummer, McCartney looked for someone to fill the position, which was difficult, as Lennon later said that drummers were "few and far between", because a set of drums was an expensive item.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:18) Lennon talking about drummers.</ref> Harrison had seen Best playing with the Black Jacks in [[The Casbah Coffee Club]]<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:01) Harrison talking about having seen Pete Best play drums.</ref> (which was run by his mother, [[Mona Best]]). He was regarded as a steady drummer, playing the [[bass drum]] on all four [[beat (music)|beat]]s in the [[Bar (music)|bar]], which pushed the rhythm,{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=204}} and was known in Liverpool at the time as being "mean, moody, and magnificent" by female fans,<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:07) McCartney talking about Best and his reputation.</ref> which convinced McCartney he would be good for the group.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:39:26) McCartney talking Best's reputation in Liverpool</ref> After the Black Jacks broke up, McCartney asked Best to go to Hamburg, telling him they would earn £15 per week each.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=57}}{{sfn|Lennon|2005|pp=69-70}} Best had the chance to go to a teacher-training college, as he had passed his school [[exam]]s, unlike Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, who had failed most of theirs, but decided that playing in Hamburg would be a better career move.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=6}}

The [[St. Pauli]] quarter of Hamburg, where the Indra club was located, was well known as an area where prostitutes were to be found, and was a dangerous place for anyone that looked different from the usual clientele.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=221}} McCartney's father, [[Jim and Mary McCartney|Jim McCartney]], was reluctant to let his teenage son go to Hamburg,{{sfn|Lennon|2005|pp=69-70}} but relented after a visit from Williams, who told him that he "shouldn't worry".{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=57}}{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=205}} Lennon's aunt, [[Mimi Smith]], was also reluctant to allow Lennon to go to Hamburg, wanting Lennon to continue his studies, but Lennon placated her by exaggerating the amount he would earn.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|pp=70-71}} Best had an audition in Williams' Jacaranda club on 15 August 1960,<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:31) Harrison talking about Best's audition.</ref> and travelled to Hamburg the next day as a member of the group.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:39:49) Harrison talking about the audition with Best</ref><ref>[http://triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/archives/my-beatle-days.shtml My Beatle Days, by Pete Best] triumphpc.com - Retrieved 26 November 2007</ref> Williams later admitted that the audition with Best was not needed, as they had not found any other drummer willing to travel to Hamburg, but did not tell Best in case he asked for more money.<ref name="Goldsmithp46">Goldsmith (2004) p46</ref> The group were to be paid about £100 per week, which was much more than promoters in Liverpool paid. Williams drove the group and their equipment in his [[Morris_Commercial_J4|Austin J4 minibus]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beatlesource.com/savage/1960/1960.html|title=THE SOURCE - The Savage Young Beatles - 1960|publisher=}}</ref> which was loaded by crane onto a ferry at [[Harwich]] on 16 August 1960, and landed at [[Hook of Holland]].

All five Beatles, Williams and his wife Beryl, her brother Barry Chang, and "[[Lord Woodbine]]" were in the minivan, along with Georg Sterner (Koschmider's translator and future waiter),{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=31}} making a total of ten people, which resulted in a journey that was both uncomfortable and dangerous.<ref name="BeatlesattheIndracont ">{{cite web |first= |last= |url= http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/beatles/beatles_indra3.shtml |title=Beatles at the Indra (page 3) |publisher=Bill Harry/Mersey Beat Ltd. |accessdate=10 June 2009}}</ref> As Williams had not obtained German work permits, they were detained at Harwich for five hours.{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=31}} Williams finally convinced the authorities that they were students on holiday,<ref name="IndraMusicClub">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/indra.html |title=Indra Music Club (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref><ref name="FabFourHangouts">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url= http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/reeper.html |title=Early '60s ~ Part V: Fab Four Hangouts (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref><ref name="TimelineTheBeatlesinHamburg">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://anothergirl83.tripod.com/id42.html |title= Timeline...The Beatles in Hamburg |publisher=tripod |accessdate=14 May 2009}}</ref> although work permits were later obtained after their arrival in Hamburg.<ref name="JohnLennonsHamburgWorkPermits">{{cite web |first=Jim |last=Vallance |url=http://www.jimvallance.com/03-projects-folder/john-lennon-visa-folder/lennon-visa-main-page.html |title=John Lennon's Hamburg Work Permits |publisher=Jim Vallance |accessdate=21 May 2009}}</ref>
Note: "Lord Woodbine" and Williams ran a strip club called New Cabaret Artistes club at 174A Upper Parliament Street in Liverpool. Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Sutcliffe once played backing music for "Janice the Stripper" there, in July 1960.<ref name="ALittleBare">{{cite web |first=Paul |last=McCartney |url=http://mersey-beat.com/archives/littlebare.shtml |title=A Little Bare |publisher=Bill Harry/Mersey Beat Ltd. |accessdate=10 June 2009}}</ref>

==Hamburg clubs==
[[File:Beatles Platz Hamburg.JPG|thumb|The [[Beatles-Platz]] in [[Hamburg]]]]

In the early 1960s, the Hamburg scene revolved around the Kaiserkeller, Top Ten, Star-Club, Beer-Shop, Mambo, Holle, Wagabond (pronounced vagabond in German) and the Pacific Hotel, as well as the less popular clubs like Grannies, the Ice Cream Shop, Chugs, and Sacha's. The [[Reeperbahn]] and the Grosse Freiheit were decorated with neon lights, with posters advertising the performers in the clubs. Each club had a doorman whose job was to entice customers inside, as the drinks were expensive (for [[Babycham]] and watered-down beer). Customers who would not, or could not afford to pay were dealt with severely by being beaten and then thrown out.<ref name=" Hamburg2p1">{{cite web |first=Mike |last=Hart |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/archives/hamburg2.shtml |title= Hamburg 2 (p1) |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref>

==={{anchor|Bambi Kino}} {{anchor|Indra Club}} The Indra and Kaiserkeller===

[[File:Indra-Club-Hamburg.png|alt=The Indra Club from the outside looks like a simple storefront, with a closed security gate at the entrance and display windows.|thumb|left|The Indra Club, where The Beatles first played on arriving in Hamburg, as it appeared in 2007.]]
The Beatles arrived very early in the morning of 17 August 1960, but had no trouble finding the St. Pauli area of Hamburg, as it was so infamous.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:41:14) McCartney talking about arriving in Hamburg.</ref> Unfortunately the Indra Club (64 Grosse Freiheit){{sfn|Cross|2004|p=32}} was closed, so a manager from a neighbouring club found someone to open it up, and the group slept on the red leather seats in the alcoves.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:41:47) McCartney talking about sleeping in the club on the first night.</ref> The group played at the club on the same night, but were told they could sleep in a small cinema's storeroom, which was cold and in very poor condition, the Bambi Kino<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> (33 Paul-Roosen Strasse).{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=32}}

McCartney later said, "We lived backstage in the Bambi Kino, next to the toilets, and you could always smell them. The room had been an old storeroom, and there were just concrete walls and nothing else. No heat, no wallpaper, not a lick of paint; and two sets of bunk beds, with not very much covers—[[Union Jack]] flags—we were frozen."<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/digs.html |title=Early '60s ~ Part II: Digs (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Lennon remembered: "We were put in this pigsty. We were living in a toilet, like right next to the ladies' toilet. We'd go to bed late and be woken up next day by the sound of the cinema show and old German fraus [women] pissing next door."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> After having been awoken in this fashion, the group were then obliged to use cold water from the urinals for washing and shaving.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|p=25}} They were paid £2.50 each a day, seven days a week, playing from 8:30-9:30, 10 until 11, 11:30-12:30, and finishing the evening playing from one until two o'clock in the morning.{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=33}} German customers found the group's name comical, as "Beatles" sounded like "Peedles", which meant a small boy's penis.{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=36}}

Harrison remembered the Reeperbahn and Grosse Freiheit as the best thing the group had ever seen, as it had so many neon lights, clubs and restaurants, although also saying, "The whole area was full of transvestites and prostitutes and gangsters, but I couldn't say that they were the audience ...<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:43:14) Harrison talking about Hamburg’s gangsters and hookers.</ref> Hamburg was really like our apprenticeship, learning how to play in front of people."<ref name="Reeperbahn">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url= http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/reeper.html|title=Reeperbahn |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009 }}</ref>
Best remembered the Indra as being a depressing place that was filled with a few tourists, and having heavy, old, red curtains that made it seem shabby compared to the larger Kaiserkeller, a club also owned by Koschmider and located nearby at 36 Grosse Freiheit.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=208}} After the closure of the Indra because of complaints about the noise, the Beatles played in the Kaiserkeller, starting on 4 October 1960.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=76}}{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=57-58}}

====Performances====

Their playing schedule at the Kaiserkeller remained the same as it had been in the Indra.<ref name="TimelineTheBeatlesinHamburg"/> Lennon said: "We had to play for hours and hours on end. Every song lasted twenty minutes and had twenty solos in it. That's what improved the playing. There was nobody to copy from. We played what we liked best and the Germans liked it as long as it was loud."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> The Beatles had been used to simply standing still when they had performed in Liverpool, but Koschmider would come to the front of the stage and loudly shout “Mach schau, mach schau!” ("make [a] show" or, more idiomatically, "put on a show" for the customers). Harrison explained that this prompted Lennon to “dance around like a gorilla, and we’d all knock our heads together.”<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:45:48) Harrison talking about “Mach schau”.</ref> As Best had been the only one to take [[O-Level]] German at school, he could communicate with Koschmider and the clientele better than the rest of the group,{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=77}} and was invited to sing a speciality number called "[[Peppermint Twist]]" (while McCartney played the drums) but Best complained that he always felt uncomfortable being at the front of the stage.<ref>[http://www.eskimo.com/~bpentium/beatles/besttape/besttape.html Best and "Peppermint Twist"] eskimo.com - Retrieved 26 November 2007</ref> Willie Limpinski, Koschmider's business manager, decided that the club would attract more customers if it presented continuous live music.<ref name="IntheBeginningp3">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Harry |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/a-z/howiecasie3.shtml |title= In the Beginning... There Was Howie Casie & The Seniors (p3) |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref>

Williams warned the Beatles about the competition they would face by playing in the same club as the Hurricanes by saying, "You'd better pull your socks up because Rory Storm and the Hurricanes are coming in, and you know how good they are. They're going to knock you for six."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> In early October 1960, Storm and the Hurricanes were free to travel to Hamburg, replacing Derry and the Seniors at the [[Kaiserkeller]]. They arrived in Hamburg on 1 October 1960, having negotiated to be paid more than the Seniors or the Beatles.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=201}} They played five or six 90-minute sets every day, alternating with the Beatles.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=76}}{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=216}} They were appalled at the living conditions the Beatles and other groups like Howie Casey and the Seniors (who were sleeping in one room at the back of the Kaiserkeller) had to put up with,<ref name="CaseyOfficialWebsite">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.howiecasey.com/ |title=Howie Casey Official Website |publisher=Howie Casey |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> so they booked into Hamburg's [[Centres for Seafarers|Seamens' Mission]].<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:42:17) Starr talking about living conditions.</ref>

====Violence and conflict====

The stage of the Kaiserkeller was made of planks of wood balanced on the top of beer crates, so the two groups made a bet to see to who would be the first to break it.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=219}} After punishing the stage for days, a slight crack appeared, and when Storm jumped off the top of the upright piano it finally broke.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=219}} Johnny 'Guitar' Byrne remembered that as Storm hit the stage, it cracked loudly and formed a V-shape around him. He disappeared into it, and all the amplifiers and drummer [[Ringo Starr]]'s cymbals slid into the hole. Koschmider was furious, and had to replace the live music with a juke box. Both groups went across the road to ''Harold's cafe'' for breakfast on the Grosse Freiheit,<ref>{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/places.html |title=Early '60s ~ Part V: Fab Four Hangouts (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> but were followed by Koschmider's doormen, armed with [[Blackjack (weapon)|coshes]], who beat them all as punishment.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=220-221}}

[[Horst Fascher]] (born 1936, Hamburg) was Koschmider's nightclub [[Bouncer (doorman)|bouncer]], who had been the 1959 West German featherweight boxing champion, but his career was cut short after he unintentionally killed a sailor in a street fight.<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll">{{cite web |first=David |last=Crossland |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,400870,00.html|title=Hamburg's Heady Days of Rock & Roll |work=Der Spiegel |date=15 February 2006 |accessdate=14 May 2009}}</ref> He later became a friend of the Beatles, and protected them from drunken customers.<ref name="MancalledHorst">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Harry |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/beatles/horst.shtml |title=A Man called Horst |publisher=Triumph pc |date=20 August 1999 |accessdate=12 October 2008}}</ref> Lennon occasionally urinated out of his apartment’s window onto the street below, and often started arguments with the audience, so that eventually one member of the audience would jump on stage to hit him, but it was Fascher’s job to protect Lennon and the group. In some occasions beer bottles were thrown at them.<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll"/> Fascher remembered Lennon often greeting the audience with a "Heil [[Hitler]]",{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=217}} and a Nazi salute: "He'd pull out a black comb and pretend it was a moustache... people laughed."<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll"/>

Lennon was missing for a performance one evening, and Fascher found him in the toilet with a woman. He broke up the tête-à-tête with a bucket of cold water which he threw over them both, and ordered Lennon onto the stage. Lennon was furious, and complained that he could not go on stage dripping wet. Fascher snapped back: "I don't give a shit, you're going onstage and I don't care if you do it naked." A short time later the audience was roaring with laughter. Fascher ran to see what the commotion was, and saw Lennon playing guitar, but only wearing underpants with a toilet seat around his neck.<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll"/> (Epstein later asked Liverpool journalist [[Bill Harry]] not to publish photos showing Lennon walking along the Reeperbahn in his underpants).<ref name="InvestigationMyth">{{cite web |first=Eric |last=Krasker |url=http://www.iol.ie/~beatlesireland/Beatles%20Bits/Promo/investigationofamyth.html |title=The Beatles - Investigation of a Myth 1960 - 1962 |publisher=Beatles Ireland |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Fascher's brother, Fred, sang lead vocals with the group on "[[Be Bop A Lula]]", while he sang with them on "[[Hallelujah I Love Her So]]", and his alliance with the Beatles continued, as he later went to work at the Star-Club.<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll"/>

====Performance skills====

According to McCartney, Sutcliffe was a "typical art student", with bad skin and [[Acne vulgaris|pimples]], but his reputation grew after he began wearing tight trousers and dark [[Ray-Ban Wayfarer|Ray-Ban]] sunglasses.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=65}} Sutcliffe's high spot was singing "[[Love Me Tender (song)|Love Me Tender]]", which drew more applause than when the other Beatles sang, increasing the friction between himself and McCartney. Lennon also started to criticise Sutcliffe; making jokes about Sutcliffe's size and playing.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=242}} While Sutcliffe is often described in Beatles' biographies as appearing very uncomfortable onstage, and often playing with his back to the audience, Best denies this, recalling Sutcliffe as usually good-natured and "animated" before an audience.<ref>[http://www.rickresource.com/rrp/petebest.html An Evening With Pete Best, Part I: The Interview] rickresource.com - Retrieved: 20 January 2007</ref>

The Beatles steadily improved during their time in Hamburg, and this was noticed by other musicians who were there at the time. McCartney recalled, "We got better and better and other groups started coming to watch us. The accolade of accolades was when Sheridan would come in from the Top Ten (the big club where we aspired to go) or when Rory Storm or Ringo [Starr] would hang around to watch us. ‘[[What'd I Say]]’ was always the one that really got them."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> The song was often played by the group, once being played for 90 minutes non-stop, with group members walking off stage to wash and drink before returning.<ref name="JohnLennonByDominicTurner">{{cite web |first=Dominic |last=Turner |url=http://www.rockabilly.nl/references/messages/john_lennon.htm |title=John Lennon (By Dominic Turner) |publisher=Dik de Heer |date=15 February 2006 |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Sutcliffe wrote a letter to his mother saying, "We have improved a thousand-fold since our arrival and Allan Williams, who is here at the moment, tells us that there is no group in Liverpool to touch us."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/>

On Saturday 22 October 1960, Williams arranged a recording session for Lou Walters (of the Hurricanes) at the Akustik Studio, a small booth on the fifth floor of 57 Kirchenallee (The Klockmann-House).<ref name="BillHarryPage4"/> Williams asked Lennon, McCartney, and Harrison to play and sing harmonies on the recording.<ref name="MerseyBeatIssueNo7">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.merseybeat.co.uk/articles-details.php?cat=Bill+Harry's+Mersey+Beat&id=311 |title=Issue No.7 |publisher=[[Bill Harry]] |date=20 August 1999 |accessdate=15 August 2008}}</ref> Best was in town buying drumsticks, so Starr, the Hurricanes' drummer, played drums. This was the first time Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr recorded together.<ref>[http://www.beatlesource.com/bs/ao-smrtime.html Lou Walters' recording session] Retrieved: 29 January 2007</ref> They recorded three songs: "[[Fever (1956 song)|Fever]]", "[[September Song]]" and "[[Summertime (George Gershwin song)|Summertime]]".<ref name="BillHarryPage4"/>

===The Top Ten===

[[File:Reeperbahn.jpg|alt=The Reeperbahn nighclub as seen from the side walk with its entrance lighted. Theatre marques say "Sex" and "Peep live shows".|thumb|left|200px|The Reeperbahn]]
Formerly the Hippodrome (Reeperbahn 136), the Top Ten club was opened in 1960 by Peter Eckhorn,<ref name="TopTenMusicClub">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/topten.html |title=Top Ten Music Club (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> and was operated by Iain Hines, who was an organist.<ref name="Hamburg3p1">{{cite web |first=Mal |last=Jefferson |url= http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/archives/hamburg3.shtml |title=Hamburg 3 |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref>
In late October 1960, The Beatles left Koschmider's club to work at the Top Ten Club,{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=71-72}} as Eckhorn offered the group more money, a better PA (with reverb and echo){{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=229}} and a slightly better place to sleep (above the club itself) although by doing so the group broke their contract with Koschmider.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=71-72}}{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=93}} Koschmider then reported Harrison for working under the legal age limit (even though he had been working at Koschmider's club) and Harrison was deported on 21 November 1960.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:49:56) Notice telling Harrison to leave Hamburg.</ref>{{sfn|Lewisohn|1996|p=24}}{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=72-73}} When Best and McCartney went back to the Bambi Kino to get their belongings they found it in almost total darkness. As a snub to Koschmider, McCartney and Best found a [[condom]] in their luggage, attached it to a nail on the concrete wall of the room, and set fire to it in order to have light to gather their possessions.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=230}} There was no real damage done, but Koschmider reported them both for attempted arson. McCartney: "One evening we were just walking down the Reeperbahn, when we heard this 'ta-ti-ti-ta', and then 'Komm mit mir!' ('Come with me!')".<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs"/>
Best and McCartney spent three hours in the Davidwache Police Station, and were deported on 1 December 1960.<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs"/> Lennon's [[work permit]] was revoked a few days later and he went home by train, but as Sutcliffe had a [[Common cold|cold]], he stayed in Hamburg.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=230}} Sutcliffe later borrowed money from Kirchherr (his German girlfriend) for the airfare back to Liverpool in early January 1961.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=242}} Back in Liverpool, no one contacted each other for two weeks, but Best and his mother made numerous phone calls to Hamburg to recover the group's equipment.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=231}}

Back in Liverpool, the group played an engagement on 17 December 1960, at the Casbah Coffee Club, with [[Chas Newby]] substituting for Sutcliffe,{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=4-5}} playing bass with them for four shows.<ref>[http://www.beatlesource.com/savage/1960/1960.html Photo of Chas Newby] beatlesource.com - Retrieved 5 November 2007</ref>{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=234}} Newby was shocked at the vast improvement of their playing and singing after the residency in Hamburg, and was struck by how powerful Best's drumming now was, pushing the group to play harder and louder.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=5}} (It was probably due to McCartney that Best developed a loud drumming style, as he would often tell Best in Hamburg to "Crank it up" = play as loud as possible).{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=214}}

After Harrison turned 18 and the immigration problems had been solved, the Beatles went back to Hamburg for another residency at the [[Top Ten Club]], playing from 27 March to 2 July 1961. To secure their return, Eckhorn paid [[Deutsche Mark|DM]] 158 to the German authorities, which was the cost of deporting McCartney and Best back to Liverpool the previous winter.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1996|p=31}} Fellow musician, [[Tony Sheridan]], later remembered the living conditions at the club: “John, George, Paul, Stuart and Pete and I were booked to open the smart Top Ten in the Reeperbahn. We moved into a dormitory over the club and slept in bunks. It was terrible really, now I look back. We all washed our own shirts and socks so the place smelt like a Chinese laundry. But we had great times and I’m afraid we used to tease the life out of the old lady who [took care of] us.”<ref name="BeatlesBrowserFourp3">{{cite web|url=http://triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/beatles/beatlesbrowser-four3.shtml |title=Beatles Browser Four (p3) |first= |last= |publisher=Bill Harry/Mersey Beat Ltd. |accessdate=4 July 2009}}</ref>

Sutcliffe decided to leave the Beatles to concentrate on his art studies and to be with Kirchherr, so McCartney (unwillingly) took over as bass player for the group.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=74-75}} Sutcliffe later enrolled at the Hamburg College of Art under the tutelage of the [[pop art]]ist [[Eduardo Paolozzi]].{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=65}} Sutcliffe lent McCartney his [[Höfner]] President 500/5 model bass guitar but asked McCartney not to change the strings around, so McCartney had to play it with the strings arranged backwards, until he could buy a specially made left-handed Höfner bass of his own.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:28:02) Harrison and McCartney talking about Sutcliffe’s first bass guitar.</ref>{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=74-75}}<ref name="Sutcliffe's cheque book">[http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/mol/exhibitions/sutcliffe/cheque.asp Sutcliffe's cheque book -] liverpoolmuseums.org.uk - Retrieved: 13 May 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.rockmine.com/Stu2.html Sutcliffe's President Bass] rockmine.com - Retrieved: 9 May 2007</ref> McCartney bought his first Höfner Violin bass guitar (model 500/1) from the Steinway-Haus Music Store (Colonnaden 29) for £30 (equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|30|1961|r=-2}}|0}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}){{Inflation-fn|UK}}., being unable to afford a Fender due to costing around £100 (equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|100|1961|r=-2}}|0}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}){{Inflation-fn|UK}}.<ref>[http://www.thecanteen.com/mccartney3.html mccartney3]</ref>,
Lennon bought a 1958 [[Rickenbacker 325]] Capri guitar prior to Sutcliffe's departure and Harrison bought a Gibson amplifier.<ref name="THEGIGSPartV">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/other.html |title=The Gigs: Part V (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref>

The matching lilac jackets, made by McCartney's next-door neighbour in Liverpool to be worn as stage clothes, were soon threadbare, as were any other items of clothing,<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> so the group bought cowboy boots, jeans and black leather jackets and trousers, from Paul Hundertmark's (Spielbudenplatz 9) and a tailor's shop at Thadenstrasse 6.<ref name="FabFourHangouts"/> Lennon said: "We had a bit more money the second time so we bought leather pants ... we looked like four [[Gene Vincent]]s.<ref name="TopTenMusicClub"/>

===The Star-Club===

[[File:Guitarras de McCartney y Harrison.jpg|alt=Two electric guitars displayed with an amplifier.|right|thumb|175px|Replicas of McCartney's Höfner bass and Harrison's Gretsch guitar leant against a [[Vox AC30]]]]

On 13 April 1962, the Beatles were booked as the opening act for the launch of a new club. The [[Star-Club]], opened by Manfred Weissleder, had a capacity for two thousand people, as well as cinema-style seating.<ref name="TheStarClub">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/starclub.html|title=The Star Club (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> When the Beatles were booked to play there, [[Neil Aspinall]] left his job to become the Beatles' permanent road manager, as he was earning more money driving them around than he was earning by being an [[accountant]], and had his van ferried to Hamburg.<ref name="Beat">[http://triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/beatles/neilaspinall.shtml First meeting with George Harrison - Merseybeat] triumphpc.com - Retrieved 11 February 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.beatlesource.com/savage/1960/1960.html photo of Aspinall’s van being loaded on the ferry to Hamburg] beatlesource.com - Retrieved 4 November 2007</ref> The Beatles returned to Hamburg by plane to play from 13 April to 31 May 1962.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1996|p=69}} Upon their arrival, they were informed of Sutcliffe's death.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=109}}

By the time of their second Star-Club visit from 1–14 November 1962, Starr had become the group's drummer. The Beatles stayed at the Hotel Germania (Detlev-Bremer-Strasse 8), having the luxury of single rooms for the first time, and then stayed at the Hotel Pacific (Neuer Pferdemarkt 30) for another booking from 18–31 December 1962.<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs"/> Harrison said: "We came back to play the Star-Club, a big place and fantastic because it had a great sound system. This time we had a hotel. I remember it was quite a long walk from the club, at the top of the Reeperbahn going back towards the city."<ref name="TheStarClub"/> Portions of their final performances were taped with a portable recorder by an associate of Ted "King Size" Taylor of the Dominoes, another group playing at the club. The tapes were released on West Germany's [[Bellaphon Records|Bellaphon]] label in 1977 as ''The Beatles: [[Live! at the Star-Club in Hamburg, Germany; 1962]],'' and subsequently re-released in various formats and titles.<ref name="TheStarClub"/>

The set list at the Star-Club (with the lead singer in parentheses):<ref name="TheBeatlesLiveattheStarClub1962">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.dmbeatles.com/disk.php?disk=62 |title=The Beatles Live at the Star-Club in Hamburg, Germany, 1962 |publisher=dmBeatles |accessdate=21 May 2009}}</ref>

"[[I Saw Her Standing There]]" (McCartney)
"[[Roll Over Beethoven]]" (Harrison)
"[[Hippy Hippy Shake]]" (McCartney)
"[[Sweet Little Sixteen]]" (Lennon)
"[[Lend Me Your Comb]]" (Lennon)
"Your Feet's Too Big" (McCartney)
"[[Red Sails in the Sunset (song)|Red Sails in the Sunset]]" (McCartney)
"[[Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby]]" (Harrison)
"[[Matchbox (song)|Matchbox]]" (Lennon)
"[[Talkin' 'Bout You]]" (Lennon)
"Shimmy Shimmy" (McCartney)
"[[Long Tall Sally]]" (McCartney)
"I Remember You" (McCartney)
"[[I'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Cry (Over You)]]" (Lennon)
"Where Have You Been All My Life" (Lennon)

"[[Twist and Shout]]" (Lennon)
"[[Mr. Moonlight (song)|Mr. Moonlight]]" (Lennon)
"[[A Taste of Honey (song)|A Taste of Honey]]" (McCartney)
"[[Besame Mucho]]" (McCartney)
"Reminiscing" (Harrison)
"[[Kansas City (Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller song)|Kansas City]]" (McCartney)
"Nothin' Shakin' But the Leaves On a Tree" (Harrison)
"[[To Know Him Is to Love Him|To Know Her is to Love Her]]" (Harrison or Lennon)
"[[Little Queenie]]" (McCartney)
"[[Falling in Love Again (Can't Help It)|Falling in Love Again]]" (McCartney)
"[[Ask Me Why]]" (Lennon)
"[[Hallelujah I Love Her So]]" (club manager [[Horst Fascher]])
"[[Be-Bop-A-Lula]]" (Fred Fascher, Horst's brother)
"[[Till There Was You]]" (McCartney)
"[[Sheila (song)|Sheila]]" (Harrison)<ref name="TheStarClub"/>

===Sex, drugs and rock and roll===

McCartney explained that the Beatles had only experienced sex with girls from Liverpool, but when they got to Hamburg the only women who hung around the clubs late at night were strippers, dancers, or prostitutes. Harrison (who was then only 17) called Hamburg "the naughtiest city in the world".<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:43:05) Harrison talking about Hamburg women and sex.</ref> McCartney said: "By the time you got to Hamburg, a girlfriend there was likely to be a stripper, so to be suddenly involved with a hard-core striptease artist, who obviously knew a thing or two about sex... it was quite an eye-opener."<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:43:39) McCartney talking about Hamburg women and sex.</ref> [[Gerry Marsden]]—frontman for Gerry & the Pacemakers—remembered visiting a Hamburg brothel in Herbertstrasse with Lennon: "We paid our money, went in and sat down. This guy came out with the biggest lady we had ever seen in our lives. She looked like a bus with a bra on. We ran out that door so quick we didn't hear it shut. I wanted to go back to get my money back but John said: 'No, we'd better not. Might cause trouble.'"<ref name="JohnLennonfledHamburg brothel">{{cite web |first=Pierce |last=King |url=http://www.clickliverpool.com/news/local-news/122211-john-lennon-fled-hamburg-brothel-reveals-old-liverpool-rival.html |title=John Lennon fled Hamburg brothel reveals old Liverpool rival |publisher=Click Creative |date=7 January 2009 |accessdate=21 May 2009}}</ref>

The Beatles's introduction to "Prellies" ([[Preludin]]) was in Hamburg.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1: 44:28) Starr and Harrison talking about Preludins in Hamburg.</ref> As the group had to play for hours, Sheridan offered them Preludin, saying: "Here's something to keep you awake."<ref name="TheBeatlesandPreludin">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://anothergirl83.tripod.com/id150.html |title=The Beatles and Preludin |publisher=tripod |accessdate=14 May 2009}}</ref> [[Astrid Kirchherr]] also supplied Sutcliffe and the other Beatles with Preludin, which when taken with beer, made them feel euphoric and helped to keep them awake until the early hours of the morning. Looking back, Harrison said that the whole group would be "frothing at the mouth" and would sometimes stay awake for days.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:44:29) Harrison talking about drugs in Hamburg.</ref> Lennon recalled, "The waiters always had these pills [Preludin], so when they saw the musicians falling over with tiredness or drink, they'd give you the pill. You could work almost endlessly until the pill wore off, and then you'd have another."<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:45:10) Lennon talking about drugs in Hamburg.</ref> McCartney said that he would usually take one, but Lennon would often take four or five.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=66-67}}

Legitimate use of Preludin required a doctor's [[Medical prescription|prescription]], but Kirchherr's mother was able to obtain it from a local [[Pharmacist|chemist]] who supplied the drug without asking questions.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=66}} Epstein later asked the Star-Club owner, Weissleder, not to publish photographs showing the group playing with tubes of Preludin.<ref name="InvestigationMyth"/> Starr explained that [[Dexedrine]] too was in plentiful supply in Hamburg, as it was known to produce increased wakefulness and focus, in association with decreased fatigue, and decreased appetite.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:44:06) Starr talking about drugs in Hamburg.</ref>

==Record release==

The first recording of the Beatles ever released was the single "[[My Bonnie]]", made in Hamburg with Tony Sheridan, who also had a residency at the Top Ten club. He recruited the band to act as his [[Backup band|backing group]] on a series of recordings for the German [[Polydor Records]] label,{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=97}} the tracks produced by the famed bandleader [[Bert Kaempfert]].{{sfn|Lewisohn|1996|p=42}} On 22 June 1961, Sheridan and the Beatles drove to [[Hamburg-Harburg]] (about 30 minutes from Hamburg) to the Friedrich-Ebert-Halle (auditorium/hall) and were paid 330 Deutschmarks (about $75) for the recording. Kaempfert signed the group to a one-year Polydor contract<ref name="MyBeatleDays">{{cite web |first=Pete |last=Best |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/archives/my-beatle-days.shtml |title= My Beatle Days |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref> at the first session on 22 June 1961. There were subsequent recording sessions on 23 June and in May 1962.<ref name="THEGIGSPartV"/><ref name="TheBeatlesinHamburg19601962">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://german.about.com/cs/music/a/beatleger_2.htm |title=The Beatles in Hamburg: 1960-1962 |publisher=about |accessdate=14 May 2009}}</ref>

On 31 October 1961, Polydor released "My Bonnie" (Mein Herz ist bei dir nur), appearing on the West German charts under the name "Tony Sheridan and the Beat Brothers"—a generic name used for whoever happened to be in Sheridan's backup group.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=250}} McCartney later explained: "They didn't like our name and said, 'Change to the Beat Brothers, this is more understandable for the German audience.' We went along with it... it was a record."<ref name="TopTenMusicClub"/> The song was later released in the UK, on 5 January 1962.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=288}}<ref name="MyBonnie">“My Bonnie“ / “The Saints“ 23 April 1962. Polydor NH 66833 (Tony Sheridan and the Beat Brothers)</ref> A few copies were also pressed under the American [[Decca Records]] label.<ref name="PalowskiPage64">Palowski (1989), p.64</ref>

===Brian Epstein===

{{Main|Brian Epstein}}
"My Bonnie" was to bring the Beatles to the attention of a key figure in their subsequent development and commercial success, [[Brian Epstein]]. In September 1961, Harrison had a German copy of the record, which Sutcliffe had sent to him, as he was still in Hamburg.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=252}} Harrison loaned it to Bob Wooler (The Cavern Club DJ) who played it at various venues, when the members of the group lent it to him.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=252}} On 28 October 1961, the 27-year-old Epstein, manager of the record department in his father's NEMS music store in Whitechapel Street, Liverpool, was asked for the record by an 18-year-old boy, Raymond Jones. Epstein could find nothing on his files about the Beatles or the record, but the following day it was requested again by two girls, this time mentioning that the Beatles had been seen playing at the Cavern, a club in nearby Mathew Street.<ref name="Hill 2007 p15">{{harvnb|Hill|2007|p=15}}</ref> [[Alistair Taylor]] (Epstein's assistant) later said that the story had been invented and that he had used the name Jones to order copies of the record himself.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=252}}

Mersey Beat founder Bill Harry later repudiated the story about Epstein not knowing who the Beatles were, as Harry had been talking to Epstein about the band for a long time (being the group he promoted the most in ''[[Mersey Beat]]'') and by McCartney saying, “Brian [Epstein] knew perfectly well who the Beatles were, they were on the front page of the second issue of ''Mersey Beat''.”<ref name="TheBirthofMerseyBeatp5">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.mersey-beat.com/ |title=The Birth of Mersey Beat (p5) |publisher=Bill Harry/Mersey Beat Ltd. |accessdate=12 June 2009}}</ref> Regardless, the interest in the record eventually led Epstein to make his way to the Cavern with Taylor, during lunch hour on 9 November 1961. He was initially repelled by the dark, damp club, but he congratulated them on their performance.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|pp=39-40}}

==Astrid Kirchherr, Voormann, and Vollmer==

{{Main|Astrid Kirchherr|Klaus Voormann}}

Kirchherr, [[Klaus Voormann]], and [[Jürgen Vollmer]] were early fans of the Beatles after they heard the group play in the Kaiserkeller. Kirchherr, Voormann's girlfriend, was initially horrified at the idea of spending any time in such a sordid district, but Voormann, after watching the Beatles several times without her, eventually persuaded her to come too.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|pp=25-27}} After having previously only listened to [[Trad jazz]], [[the Platters]], and [[Nat King Cole]], the [[Rock n' Roll]] that the Beatles played was totally new to them.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=222}}{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=62}} The three friends visited the Kaiserkeller almost every night, arriving at 9 o'clock and sitting by the front of the stage.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=221}} Kirchherr, then 22 years old, later said: "It was like a merry-go-round in my head, they looked absolutely astonishing... My whole life changed in a couple of minutes. All I wanted was to be with them and to know them."{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=223}} Sutcliffe was fascinated by Kirchherr, and Harry later wrote that when Kirchherr walked in, every head would immediately turn her way.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=222}} Sutcliffe wrote to a friend that he could hardly take his eyes off her when she had first walked into the club, and tried to talk to her during the next break, but she had already left.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=221}}

Kirchherr asked the Beatles if they would mind letting her take photographs of them in a photo session, which impressed them, as other groups only had [[Snapshot (photography)|snapshots]] that were taken by friends. The next morning Kirchherr took photographs in a fairground park called "[[Hamburger Dom|Der Dom]]" which was close to the Reeperbahn.<ref name="TheBeatlesAnthologyDVD">(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:47:16) Harrison talking their friends Kircherr, Voormannn and Volmer.</ref>{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=223}} Kirchherr started dating Sutcliffe, and they were engaged in November 1960.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=64-65}}{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=224}}

Kirchherr is credited with inventing the Beatles' [[moptop]] haircut, although she personally disagrees.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=245}} In 1995, she told BBC Radio Merseyside: "All my friends in art school used to run around with this sort of what you call Beatles' haircut, and my boyfriend then, Klaus Voormann, had this hairstyle, and Stuart [Sutcliffe] liked it very very much. He was the first one who really got the nerve to get the [[Brylcreem]] out of his hair and asking me to cut his hair for him. Pete [Best] has really curly hair and it wouldn't work."<ref name="InterviewBBCLiverpool">[http://members.aol.com/scottwheelerband/astrid.htm Kirchherr's interview on BBC Radio Merseyside's 500th ''On the Beat'' programme, Saturday 26 August 1995.]</ref><ref>[http://www.genesis-publications.com/fame/liverpool.html "Liverpool Days" book] genesis-publications.com - Retrieved: 21 May 2007</ref> After suffering blackouts and intense headaches, Sutcliffe was taken to a hospital on 10 April 1962—Kirchherr rode with him in the ambulance—but died before the ambulance reached the hospital.<ref name="lennonp110">Lennon (2005) p110</ref> Three days later Kirchherr met the Beatles at the Hamburg airport and told them Sutcliffe had died of a [[Cerebral hemorrhage|brain haemorrhage]].{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=305}}

In 1966, Voormann was asked by Lennon to design the sleeve for the Beatles' album ''[[Revolver (Beatles album)|Revolver]]'', and also played bass on solo recordings by Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, and Starr. In 1995, Voormann designed the artwork for the three-volume CD sets in [[The Beatles Anthology#Albums|The Beatles Anthology]] series. In 1999, Kirchherr published a book called ''Hamburg Days'' (a two-volume limited edition) containing a set of photographs by Kirchherr and "memory drawings" by Voormann of the Beatles time in Hamburg.<ref>[http://www.genesis-publications.com/books/ham/index.html Genesis books - Hamburg Days] genesis-publications.com - Retrieved: 23 May 2007</ref>

==Later years==

The Beatles returned to Hamburg in June 1966, staying at the Tremsbüttel castle (Schlosstrasse 10), and played two concerts in the Ernst-Merck-Halle on 26 and 27 June.<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs"/> Lennon later said, "I might have been born in Liverpool - but I grew up in Hamburg".<ref name="BeatleEchoesOntheReeperbahn">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/echoes.html |title=Beatle Echoes On the Reeperbahn (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref>
Lennon made the door of Jäger-Passage at Wohlwillstrasse 22 famous when he posed in front of it for a photo which was later used on the covers of the ''[[Rock 'n' Roll (John Lennon album)|Rock 'n' Roll]]'' and ''Rock 'n' Roll Sessions'' albums. The photo was taken by [[Jürgen Vollmer]], during the time The Beatles were playing at the Top Ten club.<ref name="FabFourHangouts"/>
[[File:John Lennon Rock'n Roll - Hamburg.jpg|150px|right|thumb|The doorway of Jäger-Passage, Wohlwillstrasse 22, as it looks today]]
Individual Beatles later commented about their memories of Hamburg, with Lennon reflecting, "We'd outlived the Hamburg stage and wanted to pack that up. We hated going back to Hamburg those last two times. We'd had that scene. Brian [Epstein] made us go back to fulfill the contract...". Harrison had positive memories of the period: "I'd have to say with hindsight that Hamburg bordered on the best of Beatles times. We didn't have any luxury, we didn't have any bathrooms or any clothes, we were pretty grubby, we couldn't afford anything, but on the other hand we weren't yet famous, so we didn't have to contend with the bullshit that comes with fame." McCartney was philosophical: "Hamburg was certainly a great childhood memory. But I think all things are enhanced by time. It was very exciting, though I think it felt better to me a little later in our career, once we'd started to get a bit of success with the records."<ref name="TheStarClub" />

A memorial square, ''[[Beatles-Platz]]'', was constructed in Hamburg in 2008 at the meeting of Reeperbahn and Große Freiheit streets, containing five stainless steel sculptures of the Beatles.<ref name="GICPretoria">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.germanyandafrica.diplo.de/Vertretung/pretoria__dz/en/05__GL/Destination__Germany/Beatlerplatz.html |title=Beatles Memorial Square in Hamburg |publisher=GIC Pretoria |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Construction costs amounted to €550,000 ($776,000), of which €200,000 was provided by sponsors and donors. The idea of creating a memorial to the Beatles had been initiated in 2001 by Hamburg radio station Oldie 95. Hamburg's Mayor, Ole von Beust, said at the opening, "It is about time that Hamburg commemorated this great group." The square when illuminated resembles a spinning turntable.<ref name="BeatlesMemorialatLast">{{cite web |first=Dorit |last=Koch |url=http://www.efluxmedia.com/news_Hamburg_Gets_Its_Official_Beatles_Memorial_at_Last_24121.html |title=Hamburg Gets Its Official Beatles Memorial at Last
|publisher=eFluxMedia |date=11 September 2008 |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Because the band members are shown only in outline form, the figure of the drummer can be either Best or Starr.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last=Best |first= Pete| title=BEATLE! The Pete Best Story | publisher=[[Plexus Publishing]] Ltd| year=1989 | isbn=978-0-85965-077-9|ref={{SfnRef|Best|1989}}}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Best | first1 = Roag | first2 = Pete | last2 = Best | first3 = Rory | last3 = Best | title=The Beatles: The True Beginnings | publisher=[[Thomas Dunne Books]]| year=2003 | isbn=978-0-312-31926-7|ref={{SfnRef|Best|2003}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Cross |first=Craig |authorlink= |title=Day-By-Day Song-By-Song Record-By-Record|publisher=[[iUniverse]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-595-31487-4|ref={{SfnRef|Cross|2005}}}}
* {{cite book | authorlink=Bill Harry |last=Harry |first=Bill | title=The Beatles Encyclopedia| publisher=[[Virgin Publishing]]| edition= Rev Upd | year= 2001 | isbn=978-0-7535-0481-9|ref={{SfnRef|Harry|2001}}}}
* {{cite book | last = Davies | first = Hunter | authorlink=Hunter Davies | title=The Beatles | publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] | year=2004| isbn=978-0-393-31571-4|ref={{SfnRef|Davies|2004}}}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kirchherr | first1 = Astrid | last2 = Voormann | first2 = Klaus| title=Hamburg Days | publisher=[[Genesis Publications]]| year=1999 | isbn=978-0-904351-73-6|ref={{SfnRef|Kirchherr|Voormann|1999}}}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Leigh | first1 = Spencer| title=Drummed Out!: The Sacking of Pete Best| publisher=Northdown Publishing Ltd.| year=1998| isbn=978-1-900711-04-3|ref={{SfnRef|Leigh|1998}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Lennon |first=Cynthia |authorlink=Cynthia Lennon |title=John |publisher=[[Hodder & Stoughton]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-340-89512-2|ref={{SfnRef|Lennon|2005}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Lewisohn|first=Mark|authorlink=Mark Lewisohn|title=The Complete Beatles Chronicle|publisher=Chronicle Press|year=1996|isbn=978-1-85152-975-9|ref={{SfnRef|Lewisohn|1996}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Miles |first=Barry |authorlink=Barry Miles |title=[[Many Years From Now]] |publisher=[[Vintage (publisher)|Vintage]]-[[Random House]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7493-8658-0|ref={{SfnRef|Miles|1997}}}}
* {{cite book | last =Pawlowski | first = Gareth L. | title=How They Became The Beatles | publisher=McDonald & Co (Publishers) Ltd | year=1990 | isbn=978-0-356-19052-5|ref={{SfnRef|Pawlowski|1990 }}}}
* {{cite book |last=Spitz |first=Bob |authorlink=Bob Spitz |title=The Beatles – The Biography |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-316-80352-6 |ref={{SfnRef|Spitz|2005}}}}
* {{cite book | author=The Beatles | authorlink=The Beatles| title=[[The Beatles Anthology]] (DVD) | publisher=[[Apple records]] | year=2003 | id=ASIN: B00008GKEG}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{portal|The Beatles|Hamburg|1960s}}
* [http://anothergirl83.tripod.com/id9.html The Beatles in Hamburg ]
* [http://www.bootlegzone.com/beatleg/thejets.html The Jets and the beginning]
* [http://www.columbia.edu/~brennan/beatles/hamburg.html The Beatles' Hamburg Recordings on Record]
* [http://www.taringa.net/posts/imagenes/2621410/Fotos-ineditas-de-los-beatles-en-sus-comienzos.html Photos of the Quarrymen and the Beatles in Hamburg]
* [http://www.robertwhitakerphotography.com Photos taken by Robert Whitaker of the Beatles in Hamburg.]
* [http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/VOLUME12/Interview_McGrath.shtml Interview with James McGrath about Liverpool's black community] Includes Discussion of [[Lord Woodbine]] and [[The Beatles]] in Hamburg
{{The Beatles main}}

{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Beatles In Hamburg, The}}
[[Category:History of the Beatles]]
[[Category:Culture in Hamburg]]
[[Category:1960 in music]]
[[Category:1961 in music]]
[[Category:1962 in music]]
[[Category:1960 in British music]]
[[Category:1961 in British music]]
[[Category:1962 in British music]]
[[Category:1960s in Germany]]

The Beatles in Hamburg

2018-04-07T10:15:25Z

JanTurin: Detail preferably not in introduction (item arson covered under Top Ten)

{{Use British English|date=August 2010}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{The Beatles history|image=|caption=From left: [[Pete Best]], [[George Harrison]], [[John Lennon]], [[Paul McCartney]]}}

[[The Beatles]] members [[John Lennon]], [[Paul McCartney]], [[George Harrison]], [[Stuart Sutcliffe]] and [[Pete Best]] regularly performed at different clubs in [[Hamburg]], [[Northern Germany]], during the period from August 1960 to December 1962; a chapter in the group's history which honed their performance skills, widened their reputation, and led to their first recording, which brought them to the attention of [[Brian Epstein]].

The Beatles' booking agent, [[Allan Williams]], decided to send the group to Hamburg when another group he managed, [[Derry and the Seniors]], proved successful there. Having no permanent drummer at the time, they recruited Best a few days before their departure. After breaking their contract by playing at another club, Harrison was deported for being underaged, and McCartney and Best were arrested and deported for attempted arson.

The Beatles first met [[Astrid Kirchherr]] in Hamburg, who was instrumental in their adoption of the famous [[Beatle haircut]]. During their time in Hamburg, Sutcliffe decided to leave the group to continue his studies. In April 1962, less than a year after leaving the group, he died of a [[brain hemorrhage]].

==Hamburg in the 1960s==
Hamburg had once been Germany's main seaport, the fourth largest in the world, but in 1943 virtually the entire city had been reduced to rubble by [[World War II]] bombing raids. By 1960, when they arrived, the Hamburg that had grown up from the ruins of WWII had established a reputation throughout Europe as a city of vice and criminal activity.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|p=24}} In contrast to an economically depressed post-war Liverpool, Hamburg was a wealthy city.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=64}}

===Leaving Liverpool===
Williams, a 29-year-old Liverpool businessman and promoter, had sent his leading group, Derry and the Seniors (later known as [[Howie Casey]] and the Seniors)<ref name="IntheBeginningp1">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Harry |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/a-z/howiecasie.shtml |title= In the Beginning... There Was Howie Casie & The Seniors (p1) |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref> to Hamburg, where they were enjoying success, and wanted to send an additional group.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=76}} He initially tried to send [[Rory Storm]] and the Hurricanes, but Storm and his group were committed to a [[Butlins]] holiday camp and turned Williams' offer down, as did [[Gerry and the Pacemakers]]. Williams started promoting concerts for The Beatles in May 1960, after they had played at his Jacaranda club in Liverpool,{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=64}} and offered The Beatles the Hamburg bookings.<ref name="TheBeatlesAnthologyDVDEpisode1">The Beatles, Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:38:45) Harrison talking about the offer to play in Hamburg.</ref>{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=202}}<ref name="BillHarryPage4">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Harry |url=http://triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/a-z/rorystorm-hurricanes4.shtml |title=While My Guitar Gently Weeps: The Tragic Story of Rory Storm & the Hurricanes (page 4) |publisher=[[Bill Harry]] |accessdate=29 February 2008}}</ref> He booked them into [[Bruno Koschmider]]'s Indra club in Hamburg for a season of bookings starting on 12 August 1960, but said that he was not impressed with them as a musical group, and hoped to find a better act to follow them.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=56}}<ref name="HamburgBeatleClubs">{{cite web|url=http://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://webs.wichita.edu/mschneegurt/hamburg/kaiserkeller.gif&imgrefurl=http://webs.wichita.edu/mschneegurt/hamburg/hamburg.html&h=254&w=355&sz=65&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=XuBKiGVW2CiqFM:&tbnh=87&tbnw=121&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dkaiserkeller%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26sa%3DG|title=Photos of Clubs in Hamburg|publisher=images.google.co.uk|accessdate=20 December 2007}}</ref>{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=203}}

As they had no permanent drummer, McCartney looked for someone to fill the position, which was difficult, as Lennon later said that drummers were "few and far between", because a set of drums was an expensive item.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:18) Lennon talking about drummers.</ref> Harrison had seen Best playing with the Black Jacks in [[The Casbah Coffee Club]]<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:01) Harrison talking about having seen Pete Best play drums.</ref> (which was run by his mother, [[Mona Best]]). He was regarded as a steady drummer, playing the [[bass drum]] on all four [[beat (music)|beat]]s in the [[Bar (music)|bar]], which pushed the rhythm,{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=204}} and was known in Liverpool at the time as being "mean, moody, and magnificent" by female fans,<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:07) McCartney talking about Best and his reputation.</ref> which convinced McCartney he would be good for the group.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:39:26) McCartney talking Best's reputation in Liverpool</ref> After the Black Jacks broke up, McCartney asked Best to go to Hamburg, telling him they would earn £15 per week each.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=57}}{{sfn|Lennon|2005|pp=69-70}} Best had the chance to go to a teacher-training college, as he had passed his school [[exam]]s, unlike Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, who had failed most of theirs, but decided that playing in Hamburg would be a better career move.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=6}}

The [[St. Pauli]] quarter of Hamburg, where the Indra club was located, was well known as an area where prostitutes were to be found, and was a dangerous place for anyone that looked different from the usual clientele.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=221}} McCartney's father, [[Jim and Mary McCartney|Jim McCartney]], was reluctant to let his teenage son go to Hamburg,{{sfn|Lennon|2005|pp=69-70}} but relented after a visit from Williams, who told him that he "shouldn't worry".{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=57}}{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=205}} Lennon's aunt, [[Mimi Smith]], was also reluctant to allow Lennon to go to Hamburg, wanting Lennon to continue his studies, but Lennon placated her by exaggerating the amount he would earn.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|pp=70-71}} Best had an audition in Williams' Jacaranda club on 15 August 1960,<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:31) Harrison talking about Best's audition.</ref> and travelled to Hamburg the next day as a member of the group.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:39:49) Harrison talking about the audition with Best</ref><ref>[http://triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/archives/my-beatle-days.shtml My Beatle Days, by Pete Best] triumphpc.com - Retrieved 26 November 2007</ref> Williams later admitted that the audition with Best was not needed, as they had not found any other drummer willing to travel to Hamburg, but did not tell Best in case he asked for more money.<ref name="Goldsmithp46">Goldsmith (2004) p46</ref> The group were to be paid about £100 per week, which was much more than promoters in Liverpool paid. Williams drove the group and their equipment in his [[Morris_Commercial_J4|Austin J4 minibus]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beatlesource.com/savage/1960/1960.html|title=THE SOURCE - The Savage Young Beatles - 1960|publisher=}}</ref> which was loaded by crane onto a ferry at [[Harwich]] on 16 August 1960, and landed at [[Hook of Holland]].

All five Beatles, Williams and his wife Beryl, her brother Barry Chang, and "[[Lord Woodbine]]" were in the minivan, along with Georg Sterner (Koschmider's translator and future waiter),{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=31}} making a total of ten people, which resulted in a journey that was both uncomfortable and dangerous.<ref name="BeatlesattheIndracont ">{{cite web |first= |last= |url= http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/beatles/beatles_indra3.shtml |title=Beatles at the Indra (page 3) |publisher=Bill Harry/Mersey Beat Ltd. |accessdate=10 June 2009}}</ref> As Williams had not obtained German work permits, they were detained at Harwich for five hours.{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=31}} Williams finally convinced the authorities that they were students on holiday,<ref name="IndraMusicClub">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/indra.html |title=Indra Music Club (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref><ref name="FabFourHangouts">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url= http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/reeper.html |title=Early '60s ~ Part V: Fab Four Hangouts (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref><ref name="TimelineTheBeatlesinHamburg">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://anothergirl83.tripod.com/id42.html |title= Timeline...The Beatles in Hamburg |publisher=tripod |accessdate=14 May 2009}}</ref> although work permits were later obtained after their arrival in Hamburg.<ref name="JohnLennonsHamburgWorkPermits">{{cite web |first=Jim |last=Vallance |url=http://www.jimvallance.com/03-projects-folder/john-lennon-visa-folder/lennon-visa-main-page.html |title=John Lennon's Hamburg Work Permits |publisher=Jim Vallance |accessdate=21 May 2009}}</ref>
Note: "Lord Woodbine" and Williams ran a strip club called New Cabaret Artistes club at 174A Upper Parliament Street in Liverpool. Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Sutcliffe once played backing music for "Janice the Stripper" there, in July 1960.<ref name="ALittleBare">{{cite web |first=Paul |last=McCartney |url=http://mersey-beat.com/archives/littlebare.shtml |title=A Little Bare |publisher=Bill Harry/Mersey Beat Ltd. |accessdate=10 June 2009}}</ref>

==Hamburg clubs==
[[File:Beatles Platz Hamburg.JPG|thumb|The [[Beatles-Platz]] in [[Hamburg]]]]

In the early 1960s, the Hamburg scene revolved around the Kaiserkeller, Top Ten, Star-Club, Beer-Shop, Mambo, Holle, Wagabond (pronounced vagabond in German) and the Pacific Hotel, as well as the less popular clubs like Grannies, the Ice Cream Shop, Chugs, and Sacha's. The [[Reeperbahn]] and the Grosse Freiheit were decorated with neon lights, with posters advertising the performers in the clubs. Each club had a doorman whose job was to entice customers inside, as the drinks were expensive (for [[Babycham]] and watered-down beer). Customers who would not, or could not afford to pay were dealt with severely by being beaten and then thrown out.<ref name=" Hamburg2p1">{{cite web |first=Mike |last=Hart |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/archives/hamburg2.shtml |title= Hamburg 2 (p1) |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref>

==={{anchor|Bambi Kino}} {{anchor|Indra Club}} The Indra and Kaiserkeller===

[[File:Indra-Club-Hamburg.png|alt=The Indra Club from the outside looks like a simple storefront, with a closed security gate at the entrance and display windows.|thumb|left|The Indra Club, where The Beatles first played on arriving in Hamburg, as it appeared in 2007.]]
The Beatles arrived very early in the morning of 17 August 1960, but had no trouble finding the St. Pauli area of Hamburg, as it was so infamous.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:41:14) McCartney talking about arriving in Hamburg.</ref> Unfortunately the Indra Club (64 Grosse Freiheit){{sfn|Cross|2004|p=32}} was closed, so a manager from a neighbouring club found someone to open it up, and the group slept on the red leather seats in the alcoves.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:41:47) McCartney talking about sleeping in the club on the first night.</ref> The group played at the club on the same night, but were told they could sleep in a small cinema's storeroom, which was cold and in very poor condition, the Bambi Kino<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> (33 Paul-Roosen Strasse).{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=32}}

McCartney later said, "We lived backstage in the Bambi Kino, next to the toilets, and you could always smell them. The room had been an old storeroom, and there were just concrete walls and nothing else. No heat, no wallpaper, not a lick of paint; and two sets of bunk beds, with not very much covers—[[Union Jack]] flags—we were frozen."<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/digs.html |title=Early '60s ~ Part II: Digs (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Lennon remembered: "We were put in this pigsty. We were living in a toilet, like right next to the ladies' toilet. We'd go to bed late and be woken up next day by the sound of the cinema show and old German fraus [women] pissing next door."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> After having been awoken in this fashion, the group were then obliged to use cold water from the urinals for washing and shaving.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|p=25}} They were paid £2.50 each a day, seven days a week, playing from 8:30-9:30, 10 until 11, 11:30-12:30, and finishing the evening playing from one until two o'clock in the morning.{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=33}} German customers found the group's name comical, as "Beatles" sounded like "Peedles", which meant a small boy's penis.{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=36}}

Harrison remembered the Reeperbahn and Grosse Freiheit as the best thing the group had ever seen, as it had so many neon lights, clubs and restaurants, although also saying, "The whole area was full of transvestites and prostitutes and gangsters, but I couldn't say that they were the audience ...<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:43:14) Harrison talking about Hamburg’s gangsters and hookers.</ref> Hamburg was really like our apprenticeship, learning how to play in front of people."<ref name="Reeperbahn">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url= http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/reeper.html|title=Reeperbahn |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009 }}</ref>
Best remembered the Indra as being a depressing place that was filled with a few tourists, and having heavy, old, red curtains that made it seem shabby compared to the larger Kaiserkeller, a club also owned by Koschmider and located nearby at 36 Grosse Freiheit.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=208}} After the closure of the Indra because of complaints about the noise, the Beatles played in the Kaiserkeller, starting on 4 October 1960.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=76}}{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=57-58}}

====Performances====

Their playing schedule at the Kaiserkeller remained the same as it had been in the Indra.<ref name="TimelineTheBeatlesinHamburg"/> Lennon said: "We had to play for hours and hours on end. Every song lasted twenty minutes and had twenty solos in it. That's what improved the playing. There was nobody to copy from. We played what we liked best and the Germans liked it as long as it was loud."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> The Beatles had been used to simply standing still when they had performed in Liverpool, but Koschmider would come to the front of the stage and loudly shout “Mach schau, mach schau!” ("make [a] show" or, more idiomatically, "put on a show" for the customers). Harrison explained that this prompted Lennon to “dance around like a gorilla, and we’d all knock our heads together.”<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:45:48) Harrison talking about “Mach schau”.</ref> As Best had been the only one to take [[O-Level]] German at school, he could communicate with Koschmider and the clientele better than the rest of the group,{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=77}} and was invited to sing a speciality number called "[[Peppermint Twist]]" (while McCartney played the drums) but Best complained that he always felt uncomfortable being at the front of the stage.<ref>[http://www.eskimo.com/~bpentium/beatles/besttape/besttape.html Best and "Peppermint Twist"] eskimo.com - Retrieved 26 November 2007</ref> Willie Limpinski, Koschmider's business manager, decided that the club would attract more customers if it presented continuous live music.<ref name="IntheBeginningp3">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Harry |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/a-z/howiecasie3.shtml |title= In the Beginning... There Was Howie Casie & The Seniors (p3) |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref>

Williams warned the Beatles about the competition they would face by playing in the same club as the Hurricanes by saying, "You'd better pull your socks up because Rory Storm and the Hurricanes are coming in, and you know how good they are. They're going to knock you for six."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> In early October 1960, Storm and the Hurricanes were free to travel to Hamburg, replacing Derry and the Seniors at the [[Kaiserkeller]]. They arrived in Hamburg on 1 October 1960, having negotiated to be paid more than the Seniors or the Beatles.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=201}} They played five or six 90-minute sets every day, alternating with the Beatles.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=76}}{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=216}} They were appalled at the living conditions the Beatles and other groups like Howie Casey and the Seniors (who were sleeping in one room at the back of the Kaiserkeller) had to put up with,<ref name="CaseyOfficialWebsite">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.howiecasey.com/ |title=Howie Casey Official Website |publisher=Howie Casey |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> so they booked into Hamburg's [[Centres for Seafarers|Seamens' Mission]].<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:42:17) Starr talking about living conditions.</ref>

====Violence and conflict====

The stage of the Kaiserkeller was made of planks of wood balanced on the top of beer crates, so the two groups made a bet to see to who would be the first to break it.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=219}} After punishing the stage for days, a slight crack appeared, and when Storm jumped off the top of the upright piano it finally broke.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=219}} Johnny 'Guitar' Byrne remembered that as Storm hit the stage, it cracked loudly and formed a V-shape around him. He disappeared into it, and all the amplifiers and drummer [[Ringo Starr]]'s cymbals slid into the hole. Koschmider was furious, and had to replace the live music with a juke box. Both groups went across the road to ''Harold's cafe'' for breakfast on the Grosse Freiheit,<ref>{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/places.html |title=Early '60s ~ Part V: Fab Four Hangouts (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> but were followed by Koschmider's doormen, armed with [[Blackjack (weapon)|coshes]], who beat them all as punishment.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=220-221}}

[[Horst Fascher]] (born 1936, Hamburg) was Koschmider's nightclub [[Bouncer (doorman)|bouncer]], who had been the 1959 West German featherweight boxing champion, but his career was cut short after he unintentionally killed a sailor in a street fight.<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll">{{cite web |first=David |last=Crossland |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,400870,00.html|title=Hamburg's Heady Days of Rock & Roll |work=Der Spiegel |date=15 February 2006 |accessdate=14 May 2009}}</ref> He later became a friend of the Beatles, and protected them from drunken customers.<ref name="MancalledHorst">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Harry |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/beatles/horst.shtml |title=A Man called Horst |publisher=Triumph pc |date=20 August 1999 |accessdate=12 October 2008}}</ref> Lennon occasionally urinated out of his apartment’s window onto the street below, and often started arguments with the audience, so that eventually one member of the audience would jump on stage to hit him, but it was Fascher’s job to protect Lennon and the group. In some occasions beer bottles were thrown at them.<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll"/> Fascher remembered Lennon often greeting the audience with a "Heil [[Hitler]]",{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=217}} and a Nazi salute: "He'd pull out a black comb and pretend it was a moustache... people laughed."<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll"/>

Lennon was missing for a performance one evening, and Fascher found him in the toilet with a woman. He broke up the tête-à-tête with a bucket of cold water which he threw over them both, and ordered Lennon onto the stage. Lennon was furious, and complained that he could not go on stage dripping wet. Fascher snapped back: "I don't give a shit, you're going onstage and I don't care if you do it naked." A short time later the audience was roaring with laughter. Fascher ran to see what the commotion was, and saw Lennon playing guitar, but only wearing underpants with a toilet seat around his neck.<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll"/> (Epstein later asked Liverpool journalist [[Bill Harry]] not to publish photos showing Lennon walking along the Reeperbahn in his underpants).<ref name="InvestigationMyth">{{cite web |first=Eric |last=Krasker |url=http://www.iol.ie/~beatlesireland/Beatles%20Bits/Promo/investigationofamyth.html |title=The Beatles - Investigation of a Myth 1960 - 1962 |publisher=Beatles Ireland |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Fascher's brother, Fred, sang lead vocals with the group on "[[Be Bop A Lula]]", while he sang with them on "[[Hallelujah I Love Her So]]", and his alliance with the Beatles continued, as he later went to work at the Star-Club.<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll"/>

====Performance skills====

According to McCartney, Sutcliffe was a "typical art student", with bad skin and [[Acne vulgaris|pimples]], but his reputation grew after he began wearing tight trousers and dark [[Ray-Ban Wayfarer|Ray-Ban]] sunglasses.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=65}} Sutcliffe's high spot was singing "[[Love Me Tender (song)|Love Me Tender]]", which drew more applause than when the other Beatles sang, increasing the friction between himself and McCartney. Lennon also started to criticise Sutcliffe; making jokes about Sutcliffe's size and playing.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=242}} While Sutcliffe is often described in Beatles' biographies as appearing very uncomfortable onstage, and often playing with his back to the audience, Best denies this, recalling Sutcliffe as usually good-natured and "animated" before an audience.<ref>[http://www.rickresource.com/rrp/petebest.html An Evening With Pete Best, Part I: The Interview] rickresource.com - Retrieved: 20 January 2007</ref>

The Beatles steadily improved during their time in Hamburg, and this was noticed by other musicians who were there at the time. McCartney recalled, "We got better and better and other groups started coming to watch us. The accolade of accolades was when Sheridan would come in from the Top Ten (the big club where we aspired to go) or when Rory Storm or Ringo [Starr] would hang around to watch us. ‘[[What'd I Say]]’ was always the one that really got them."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> The song was often played by the group, once being played for 90 minutes non-stop, with group members walking off stage to wash and drink before returning.<ref name="JohnLennonByDominicTurner">{{cite web |first=Dominic |last=Turner |url=http://www.rockabilly.nl/references/messages/john_lennon.htm |title=John Lennon (By Dominic Turner) |publisher=Dik de Heer |date=15 February 2006 |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Sutcliffe wrote a letter to his mother saying, "We have improved a thousand-fold since our arrival and Allan Williams, who is here at the moment, tells us that there is no group in Liverpool to touch us."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/>

On Saturday 22 October 1960, Williams arranged a recording session for Lou Walters (of the Hurricanes) at the Akustik Studio, a small booth on the fifth floor of 57 Kirchenallee (The Klockmann-House).<ref name="BillHarryPage4"/> Williams asked Lennon, McCartney, and Harrison to play and sing harmonies on the recording.<ref name="MerseyBeatIssueNo7">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.merseybeat.co.uk/articles-details.php?cat=Bill+Harry's+Mersey+Beat&id=311 |title=Issue No.7 |publisher=[[Bill Harry]] |date=20 August 1999 |accessdate=15 August 2008}}</ref> Best was in town buying drumsticks, so Starr, the Hurricanes' drummer, played drums. This was the first time Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr recorded together.<ref>[http://www.beatlesource.com/bs/ao-smrtime.html Lou Walters' recording session] Retrieved: 29 January 2007</ref> They recorded three songs: "[[Fever (1956 song)|Fever]]", "[[September Song]]" and "[[Summertime (George Gershwin song)|Summertime]]".<ref name="BillHarryPage4"/>

===The Top Ten===

[[File:Reeperbahn.jpg|alt=The Reeperbahn nighclub as seen from the side walk with its entrance lighted. Theatre marques say "Sex" and "Peep live shows".|thumb|left|200px|The Reeperbahn]]
Formerly the Hippodrome (Reeperbahn 136), the Top Ten club was opened in 1960 by Peter Eckhorn,<ref name="TopTenMusicClub">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/topten.html |title=Top Ten Music Club (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> and was operated by Iain Hines, who was an organist.<ref name="Hamburg3p1">{{cite web |first=Mal |last=Jefferson |url= http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/archives/hamburg3.shtml |title=Hamburg 3 |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref>
In late October 1960, The Beatles left Koschmider's club to work at the Top Ten Club,{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=71-72}} as Eckhorn offered the group more money, a better PA (with reverb and echo){{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=229}} and a slightly better place to sleep (above the club itself) although by doing so the group broke their contract with Koschmider.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=71-72}}{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=93}} Koschmider then reported Harrison for working under the legal age limit (even though he had been working at Koschmider's club) and Harrison was deported on 21 November 1960.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:49:56) Notice telling Harrison to leave Hamburg.</ref>{{sfn|Lewisohn|1996|p=24}}{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=72-73}} When Best and McCartney went back to the Bambi Kino to get their belongings they found it in almost total darkness. As a snub to Koschmider, McCartney and Best found a [[condom]] in their luggage, attached it to a nail on the concrete wall of the room, and set fire to it.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=230}} There was no real damage done, but Koschmider reported them both for attempted arson. McCartney: "One evening we were just walking down the Reeperbahn, when we heard this 'ta-ti-ti-ta', and then 'Komm mit mir!' ('Come with me!')".<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs"/>
Best and McCartney spent three hours in the Davidwache Police Station, and were deported on 1 December 1960.<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs"/> Lennon's [[work permit]] was revoked a few days later and he went home by train, but as Sutcliffe had a [[Common cold|cold]], he stayed in Hamburg.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=230}} Sutcliffe later borrowed money from Kirchherr (his German girlfriend) for the airfare back to Liverpool in early January 1961.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=242}} Back in Liverpool, no one contacted each other for two weeks, but Best and his mother made numerous phone calls to Hamburg to recover the group's equipment.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=231}}

Back in Liverpool, the group played an engagement on 17 December 1960, at the Casbah Coffee Club, with [[Chas Newby]] substituting for Sutcliffe,{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=4-5}} playing bass with them for four shows.<ref>[http://www.beatlesource.com/savage/1960/1960.html Photo of Chas Newby] beatlesource.com - Retrieved 5 November 2007</ref>{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=234}} Newby was shocked at the vast improvement of their playing and singing after the residency in Hamburg, and was struck by how powerful Best's drumming now was, pushing the group to play harder and louder.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=5}} (It was probably due to McCartney that Best developed a loud drumming style, as he would often tell Best in Hamburg to "Crank it up" = play as loud as possible).{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=214}}

After Harrison turned 18 and the immigration problems had been solved, the Beatles went back to Hamburg for another residency at the [[Top Ten Club]], playing from 27 March to 2 July 1961. To secure their return, Eckhorn paid [[Deutsche Mark|DM]] 158 to the German authorities, which was the cost of deporting McCartney and Best back to Liverpool the previous winter.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1996|p=31}} Fellow musician, [[Tony Sheridan]], later remembered the living conditions at the club: “John, George, Paul, Stuart and Pete and I were booked to open the smart Top Ten in the Reeperbahn. We moved into a dormitory over the club and slept in bunks. It was terrible really, now I look back. We all washed our own shirts and socks so the place smelt like a Chinese laundry. But we had great times and I’m afraid we used to tease the life out of the old lady who [took care of] us.”<ref name="BeatlesBrowserFourp3">{{cite web|url=http://triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/beatles/beatlesbrowser-four3.shtml |title=Beatles Browser Four (p3) |first= |last= |publisher=Bill Harry/Mersey Beat Ltd. |accessdate=4 July 2009}}</ref>

Sutcliffe decided to leave the Beatles to concentrate on his art studies and to be with Kirchherr, so McCartney (unwillingly) took over as bass player for the group.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=74-75}} Sutcliffe later enrolled at the Hamburg College of Art under the tutelage of the [[pop art]]ist [[Eduardo Paolozzi]].{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=65}} Sutcliffe lent McCartney his [[Höfner]] President 500/5 model bass guitar but asked McCartney not to change the strings around, so McCartney had to play it with the strings arranged backwards, until he could buy a specially made left-handed Höfner bass of his own.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:28:02) Harrison and McCartney talking about Sutcliffe’s first bass guitar.</ref>{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=74-75}}<ref name="Sutcliffe's cheque book">[http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/mol/exhibitions/sutcliffe/cheque.asp Sutcliffe's cheque book -] liverpoolmuseums.org.uk - Retrieved: 13 May 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.rockmine.com/Stu2.html Sutcliffe's President Bass] rockmine.com - Retrieved: 9 May 2007</ref> McCartney bought his first Höfner Violin bass guitar (model 500/1) from the Steinway-Haus Music Store (Colonnaden 29) for £30 (equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|30|1961|r=-2}}|0}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}){{Inflation-fn|UK}}., being unable to afford a Fender due to costing around £100 (equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|100|1961|r=-2}}|0}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}){{Inflation-fn|UK}}.<ref>[http://www.thecanteen.com/mccartney3.html mccartney3]</ref>,
Lennon bought a 1958 [[Rickenbacker 325]] Capri guitar prior to Sutcliffe's departure and Harrison bought a Gibson amplifier.<ref name="THEGIGSPartV">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/other.html |title=The Gigs: Part V (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref>

The matching lilac jackets, made by McCartney's next-door neighbour in Liverpool to be worn as stage clothes, were soon threadbare, as were any other items of clothing,<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> so the group bought cowboy boots, jeans and black leather jackets and trousers, from Paul Hundertmark's (Spielbudenplatz 9) and a tailor's shop at Thadenstrasse 6.<ref name="FabFourHangouts"/> Lennon said: "We had a bit more money the second time so we bought leather pants ... we looked like four [[Gene Vincent]]s.<ref name="TopTenMusicClub"/>

===The Star-Club===

[[File:Guitarras de McCartney y Harrison.jpg|alt=Two electric guitars displayed with an amplifier.|right|thumb|175px|Replicas of McCartney's Höfner bass and Harrison's Gretsch guitar leant against a [[Vox AC30]]]]

On 13 April 1962, the Beatles were booked as the opening act for the launch of a new club. The [[Star-Club]], opened by Manfred Weissleder, had a capacity for two thousand people, as well as cinema-style seating.<ref name="TheStarClub">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/starclub.html|title=The Star Club (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> When the Beatles were booked to play there, [[Neil Aspinall]] left his job to become the Beatles' permanent road manager, as he was earning more money driving them around than he was earning by being an [[accountant]], and had his van ferried to Hamburg.<ref name="Beat">[http://triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/beatles/neilaspinall.shtml First meeting with George Harrison - Merseybeat] triumphpc.com - Retrieved 11 February 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.beatlesource.com/savage/1960/1960.html photo of Aspinall’s van being loaded on the ferry to Hamburg] beatlesource.com - Retrieved 4 November 2007</ref> The Beatles returned to Hamburg by plane to play from 13 April to 31 May 1962.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1996|p=69}} Upon their arrival, they were informed of Sutcliffe's death.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=109}}

By the time of their second Star-Club visit from 1–14 November 1962, Starr had become the group's drummer. The Beatles stayed at the Hotel Germania (Detlev-Bremer-Strasse 8), having the luxury of single rooms for the first time, and then stayed at the Hotel Pacific (Neuer Pferdemarkt 30) for another booking from 18–31 December 1962.<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs"/> Harrison said: "We came back to play the Star-Club, a big place and fantastic because it had a great sound system. This time we had a hotel. I remember it was quite a long walk from the club, at the top of the Reeperbahn going back towards the city."<ref name="TheStarClub"/> Portions of their final performances were taped with a portable recorder by an associate of Ted "King Size" Taylor of the Dominoes, another group playing at the club. The tapes were released on West Germany's [[Bellaphon Records|Bellaphon]] label in 1977 as ''The Beatles: [[Live! at the Star-Club in Hamburg, Germany; 1962]],'' and subsequently re-released in various formats and titles.<ref name="TheStarClub"/>

The set list at the Star-Club (with the lead singer in parentheses):<ref name="TheBeatlesLiveattheStarClub1962">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.dmbeatles.com/disk.php?disk=62 |title=The Beatles Live at the Star-Club in Hamburg, Germany, 1962 |publisher=dmBeatles |accessdate=21 May 2009}}</ref>

"[[I Saw Her Standing There]]" (McCartney)
"[[Roll Over Beethoven]]" (Harrison)
"[[Hippy Hippy Shake]]" (McCartney)
"[[Sweet Little Sixteen]]" (Lennon)
"[[Lend Me Your Comb]]" (Lennon)
"Your Feet's Too Big" (McCartney)
"[[Red Sails in the Sunset (song)|Red Sails in the Sunset]]" (McCartney)
"[[Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby]]" (Harrison)
"[[Matchbox (song)|Matchbox]]" (Lennon)
"[[Talkin' 'Bout You]]" (Lennon)
"Shimmy Shimmy" (McCartney)
"[[Long Tall Sally]]" (McCartney)
"I Remember You" (McCartney)
"[[I'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Cry (Over You)]]" (Lennon)
"Where Have You Been All My Life" (Lennon)

"[[Twist and Shout]]" (Lennon)
"[[Mr. Moonlight (song)|Mr. Moonlight]]" (Lennon)
"[[A Taste of Honey (song)|A Taste of Honey]]" (McCartney)
"[[Besame Mucho]]" (McCartney)
"Reminiscing" (Harrison)
"[[Kansas City (Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller song)|Kansas City]]" (McCartney)
"Nothin' Shakin' But the Leaves On a Tree" (Harrison)
"[[To Know Him Is to Love Him|To Know Her is to Love Her]]" (Harrison or Lennon)
"[[Little Queenie]]" (McCartney)
"[[Falling in Love Again (Can't Help It)|Falling in Love Again]]" (McCartney)
"[[Ask Me Why]]" (Lennon)
"[[Hallelujah I Love Her So]]" (club manager [[Horst Fascher]])
"[[Be-Bop-A-Lula]]" (Fred Fascher, Horst's brother)
"[[Till There Was You]]" (McCartney)
"[[Sheila (song)|Sheila]]" (Harrison)<ref name="TheStarClub"/>

===Sex, drugs and rock and roll===

McCartney explained that the Beatles had only experienced sex with girls from Liverpool, but when they got to Hamburg the only women who hung around the clubs late at night were strippers, dancers, or prostitutes. Harrison (who was then only 17) called Hamburg "the naughtiest city in the world".<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:43:05) Harrison talking about Hamburg women and sex.</ref> McCartney said: "By the time you got to Hamburg, a girlfriend there was likely to be a stripper, so to be suddenly involved with a hard-core striptease artist, who obviously knew a thing or two about sex... it was quite an eye-opener."<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:43:39) McCartney talking about Hamburg women and sex.</ref> [[Gerry Marsden]]—frontman for Gerry & the Pacemakers—remembered visiting a Hamburg brothel in Herbertstrasse with Lennon: "We paid our money, went in and sat down. This guy came out with the biggest lady we had ever seen in our lives. She looked like a bus with a bra on. We ran out that door so quick we didn't hear it shut. I wanted to go back to get my money back but John said: 'No, we'd better not. Might cause trouble.'"<ref name="JohnLennonfledHamburg brothel">{{cite web |first=Pierce |last=King |url=http://www.clickliverpool.com/news/local-news/122211-john-lennon-fled-hamburg-brothel-reveals-old-liverpool-rival.html |title=John Lennon fled Hamburg brothel reveals old Liverpool rival |publisher=Click Creative |date=7 January 2009 |accessdate=21 May 2009}}</ref>

The Beatles's introduction to "Prellies" ([[Preludin]]) was in Hamburg.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1: 44:28) Starr and Harrison talking about Preludins in Hamburg.</ref> As the group had to play for hours, Sheridan offered them Preludin, saying: "Here's something to keep you awake."<ref name="TheBeatlesandPreludin">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://anothergirl83.tripod.com/id150.html |title=The Beatles and Preludin |publisher=tripod |accessdate=14 May 2009}}</ref> [[Astrid Kirchherr]] also supplied Sutcliffe and the other Beatles with Preludin, which when taken with beer, made them feel euphoric and helped to keep them awake until the early hours of the morning. Looking back, Harrison said that the whole group would be "frothing at the mouth" and would sometimes stay awake for days.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:44:29) Harrison talking about drugs in Hamburg.</ref> Lennon recalled, "The waiters always had these pills [Preludin], so when they saw the musicians falling over with tiredness or drink, they'd give you the pill. You could work almost endlessly until the pill wore off, and then you'd have another."<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:45:10) Lennon talking about drugs in Hamburg.</ref> McCartney said that he would usually take one, but Lennon would often take four or five.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=66-67}}

Legitimate use of Preludin required a doctor's [[Medical prescription|prescription]], but Kirchherr's mother was able to obtain it from a local [[Pharmacist|chemist]] who supplied the drug without asking questions.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=66}} Epstein later asked the Star-Club owner, Weissleder, not to publish photographs showing the group playing with tubes of Preludin.<ref name="InvestigationMyth"/> Starr explained that [[Dexedrine]] too was in plentiful supply in Hamburg, as it was known to produce increased wakefulness and focus, in association with decreased fatigue, and decreased appetite.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:44:06) Starr talking about drugs in Hamburg.</ref>

==Record release==

The first recording of the Beatles ever released was the single "[[My Bonnie]]", made in Hamburg with Tony Sheridan, who also had a residency at the Top Ten club. He recruited the band to act as his [[Backup band|backing group]] on a series of recordings for the German [[Polydor Records]] label,{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=97}} the tracks produced by the famed bandleader [[Bert Kaempfert]].{{sfn|Lewisohn|1996|p=42}} On 22 June 1961, Sheridan and the Beatles drove to [[Hamburg-Harburg]] (about 30 minutes from Hamburg) to the Friedrich-Ebert-Halle (auditorium/hall) and were paid 330 Deutschmarks (about $75) for the recording. Kaempfert signed the group to a one-year Polydor contract<ref name="MyBeatleDays">{{cite web |first=Pete |last=Best |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/archives/my-beatle-days.shtml |title= My Beatle Days |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref> at the first session on 22 June 1961. There were subsequent recording sessions on 23 June and in May 1962.<ref name="THEGIGSPartV"/><ref name="TheBeatlesinHamburg19601962">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://german.about.com/cs/music/a/beatleger_2.htm |title=The Beatles in Hamburg: 1960-1962 |publisher=about |accessdate=14 May 2009}}</ref>

On 31 October 1961, Polydor released "My Bonnie" (Mein Herz ist bei dir nur), appearing on the West German charts under the name "Tony Sheridan and the Beat Brothers"—a generic name used for whoever happened to be in Sheridan's backup group.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=250}} McCartney later explained: "They didn't like our name and said, 'Change to the Beat Brothers, this is more understandable for the German audience.' We went along with it... it was a record."<ref name="TopTenMusicClub"/> The song was later released in the UK, on 5 January 1962.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=288}}<ref name="MyBonnie">“My Bonnie“ / “The Saints“ 23 April 1962. Polydor NH 66833 (Tony Sheridan and the Beat Brothers)</ref> A few copies were also pressed under the American [[Decca Records]] label.<ref name="PalowskiPage64">Palowski (1989), p.64</ref>

===Brian Epstein===

{{Main|Brian Epstein}}
"My Bonnie" was to bring the Beatles to the attention of a key figure in their subsequent development and commercial success, [[Brian Epstein]]. In September 1961, Harrison had a German copy of the record, which Sutcliffe had sent to him, as he was still in Hamburg.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=252}} Harrison loaned it to Bob Wooler (The Cavern Club DJ) who played it at various venues, when the members of the group lent it to him.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=252}} On 28 October 1961, the 27-year-old Epstein, manager of the record department in his father's NEMS music store in Whitechapel Street, Liverpool, was asked for the record by an 18-year-old boy, Raymond Jones. Epstein could find nothing on his files about the Beatles or the record, but the following day it was requested again by two girls, this time mentioning that the Beatles had been seen playing at the Cavern, a club in nearby Mathew Street.<ref name="Hill 2007 p15">{{harvnb|Hill|2007|p=15}}</ref> [[Alistair Taylor]] (Epstein's assistant) later said that the story had been invented and that he had used the name Jones to order copies of the record himself.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=252}}

Mersey Beat founder Bill Harry later repudiated the story about Epstein not knowing who the Beatles were, as Harry had been talking to Epstein about the band for a long time (being the group he promoted the most in ''[[Mersey Beat]]'') and by McCartney saying, “Brian [Epstein] knew perfectly well who the Beatles were, they were on the front page of the second issue of ''Mersey Beat''.”<ref name="TheBirthofMerseyBeatp5">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.mersey-beat.com/ |title=The Birth of Mersey Beat (p5) |publisher=Bill Harry/Mersey Beat Ltd. |accessdate=12 June 2009}}</ref> Regardless, the interest in the record eventually led Epstein to make his way to the Cavern with Taylor, during lunch hour on 9 November 1961. He was initially repelled by the dark, damp club, but he congratulated them on their performance.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|pp=39-40}}

==Astrid Kirchherr, Voormann, and Vollmer==

{{Main|Astrid Kirchherr|Klaus Voormann}}

Kirchherr, [[Klaus Voormann]], and [[Jürgen Vollmer]] were early fans of the Beatles after they heard the group play in the Kaiserkeller. Kirchherr, Voormann's girlfriend, was initially horrified at the idea of spending any time in such a sordid district, but Voormann, after watching the Beatles several times without her, eventually persuaded her to come too.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|pp=25-27}} After having previously only listened to [[Trad jazz]], [[the Platters]], and [[Nat King Cole]], the [[Rock n' Roll]] that the Beatles played was totally new to them.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=222}}{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=62}} The three friends visited the Kaiserkeller almost every night, arriving at 9 o'clock and sitting by the front of the stage.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=221}} Kirchherr, then 22 years old, later said: "It was like a merry-go-round in my head, they looked absolutely astonishing... My whole life changed in a couple of minutes. All I wanted was to be with them and to know them."{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=223}} Sutcliffe was fascinated by Kirchherr, and Harry later wrote that when Kirchherr walked in, every head would immediately turn her way.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=222}} Sutcliffe wrote to a friend that he could hardly take his eyes off her when she had first walked into the club, and tried to talk to her during the next break, but she had already left.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=221}}

Kirchherr asked the Beatles if they would mind letting her take photographs of them in a photo session, which impressed them, as other groups only had [[Snapshot (photography)|snapshots]] that were taken by friends. The next morning Kirchherr took photographs in a fairground park called "[[Hamburger Dom|Der Dom]]" which was close to the Reeperbahn.<ref name="TheBeatlesAnthologyDVD">(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:47:16) Harrison talking their friends Kircherr, Voormannn and Volmer.</ref>{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=223}} Kirchherr started dating Sutcliffe, and they were engaged in November 1960.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=64-65}}{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=224}}

Kirchherr is credited with inventing the Beatles' [[moptop]] haircut, although she personally disagrees.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=245}} In 1995, she told BBC Radio Merseyside: "All my friends in art school used to run around with this sort of what you call Beatles' haircut, and my boyfriend then, Klaus Voormann, had this hairstyle, and Stuart [Sutcliffe] liked it very very much. He was the first one who really got the nerve to get the [[Brylcreem]] out of his hair and asking me to cut his hair for him. Pete [Best] has really curly hair and it wouldn't work."<ref name="InterviewBBCLiverpool">[http://members.aol.com/scottwheelerband/astrid.htm Kirchherr's interview on BBC Radio Merseyside's 500th ''On the Beat'' programme, Saturday 26 August 1995.]</ref><ref>[http://www.genesis-publications.com/fame/liverpool.html "Liverpool Days" book] genesis-publications.com - Retrieved: 21 May 2007</ref> After suffering blackouts and intense headaches, Sutcliffe was taken to a hospital on 10 April 1962—Kirchherr rode with him in the ambulance—but died before the ambulance reached the hospital.<ref name="lennonp110">Lennon (2005) p110</ref> Three days later Kirchherr met the Beatles at the Hamburg airport and told them Sutcliffe had died of a [[Cerebral hemorrhage|brain haemorrhage]].{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=305}}

In 1966, Voormann was asked by Lennon to design the sleeve for the Beatles' album ''[[Revolver (Beatles album)|Revolver]]'', and also played bass on solo recordings by Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, and Starr. In 1995, Voormann designed the artwork for the three-volume CD sets in [[The Beatles Anthology#Albums|The Beatles Anthology]] series. In 1999, Kirchherr published a book called ''Hamburg Days'' (a two-volume limited edition) containing a set of photographs by Kirchherr and "memory drawings" by Voormann of the Beatles time in Hamburg.<ref>[http://www.genesis-publications.com/books/ham/index.html Genesis books - Hamburg Days] genesis-publications.com - Retrieved: 23 May 2007</ref>

==Later years==

The Beatles returned to Hamburg in June 1966, staying at the Tremsbüttel castle (Schlosstrasse 10), and played two concerts in the Ernst-Merck-Halle on 26 and 27 June.<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs"/> Lennon later said, "I might have been born in Liverpool - but I grew up in Hamburg".<ref name="BeatleEchoesOntheReeperbahn">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/echoes.html |title=Beatle Echoes On the Reeperbahn (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref>
Lennon made the door of Jäger-Passage at Wohlwillstrasse 22 famous when he posed in front of it for a photo which was later used on the covers of the ''[[Rock 'n' Roll (John Lennon album)|Rock 'n' Roll]]'' and ''Rock 'n' Roll Sessions'' albums. The photo was taken by [[Jürgen Vollmer]], during the time The Beatles were playing at the Top Ten club.<ref name="FabFourHangouts"/>
[[File:John Lennon Rock'n Roll - Hamburg.jpg|150px|right|thumb|The doorway of Jäger-Passage, Wohlwillstrasse 22, as it looks today]]
Individual Beatles later commented about their memories of Hamburg, with Lennon reflecting, "We'd outlived the Hamburg stage and wanted to pack that up. We hated going back to Hamburg those last two times. We'd had that scene. Brian [Epstein] made us go back to fulfill the contract...". Harrison had positive memories of the period: "I'd have to say with hindsight that Hamburg bordered on the best of Beatles times. We didn't have any luxury, we didn't have any bathrooms or any clothes, we were pretty grubby, we couldn't afford anything, but on the other hand we weren't yet famous, so we didn't have to contend with the bullshit that comes with fame." McCartney was philosophical: "Hamburg was certainly a great childhood memory. But I think all things are enhanced by time. It was very exciting, though I think it felt better to me a little later in our career, once we'd started to get a bit of success with the records."<ref name="TheStarClub" />

A memorial square, ''[[Beatles-Platz]]'', was constructed in Hamburg in 2008 at the meeting of Reeperbahn and Große Freiheit streets, containing five stainless steel sculptures of the Beatles.<ref name="GICPretoria">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.germanyandafrica.diplo.de/Vertretung/pretoria__dz/en/05__GL/Destination__Germany/Beatlerplatz.html |title=Beatles Memorial Square in Hamburg |publisher=GIC Pretoria |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Construction costs amounted to €550,000 ($776,000), of which €200,000 was provided by sponsors and donors. The idea of creating a memorial to the Beatles had been initiated in 2001 by Hamburg radio station Oldie 95. Hamburg's Mayor, Ole von Beust, said at the opening, "It is about time that Hamburg commemorated this great group." The square when illuminated resembles a spinning turntable.<ref name="BeatlesMemorialatLast">{{cite web |first=Dorit |last=Koch |url=http://www.efluxmedia.com/news_Hamburg_Gets_Its_Official_Beatles_Memorial_at_Last_24121.html |title=Hamburg Gets Its Official Beatles Memorial at Last
|publisher=eFluxMedia |date=11 September 2008 |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Because the band members are shown only in outline form, the figure of the drummer can be either Best or Starr.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last=Best |first= Pete| title=BEATLE! The Pete Best Story | publisher=[[Plexus Publishing]] Ltd| year=1989 | isbn=978-0-85965-077-9|ref={{SfnRef|Best|1989}}}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Best | first1 = Roag | first2 = Pete | last2 = Best | first3 = Rory | last3 = Best | title=The Beatles: The True Beginnings | publisher=[[Thomas Dunne Books]]| year=2003 | isbn=978-0-312-31926-7|ref={{SfnRef|Best|2003}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Cross |first=Craig |authorlink= |title=Day-By-Day Song-By-Song Record-By-Record|publisher=[[iUniverse]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-595-31487-4|ref={{SfnRef|Cross|2005}}}}
* {{cite book | authorlink=Bill Harry |last=Harry |first=Bill | title=The Beatles Encyclopedia| publisher=[[Virgin Publishing]]| edition= Rev Upd | year= 2001 | isbn=978-0-7535-0481-9|ref={{SfnRef|Harry|2001}}}}
* {{cite book | last = Davies | first = Hunter | authorlink=Hunter Davies | title=The Beatles | publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] | year=2004| isbn=978-0-393-31571-4|ref={{SfnRef|Davies|2004}}}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kirchherr | first1 = Astrid | last2 = Voormann | first2 = Klaus| title=Hamburg Days | publisher=[[Genesis Publications]]| year=1999 | isbn=978-0-904351-73-6|ref={{SfnRef|Kirchherr|Voormann|1999}}}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Leigh | first1 = Spencer| title=Drummed Out!: The Sacking of Pete Best| publisher=Northdown Publishing Ltd.| year=1998| isbn=978-1-900711-04-3|ref={{SfnRef|Leigh|1998}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Lennon |first=Cynthia |authorlink=Cynthia Lennon |title=John |publisher=[[Hodder & Stoughton]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-340-89512-2|ref={{SfnRef|Lennon|2005}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Lewisohn|first=Mark|authorlink=Mark Lewisohn|title=The Complete Beatles Chronicle|publisher=Chronicle Press|year=1996|isbn=978-1-85152-975-9|ref={{SfnRef|Lewisohn|1996}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Miles |first=Barry |authorlink=Barry Miles |title=[[Many Years From Now]] |publisher=[[Vintage (publisher)|Vintage]]-[[Random House]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7493-8658-0|ref={{SfnRef|Miles|1997}}}}
* {{cite book | last =Pawlowski | first = Gareth L. | title=How They Became The Beatles | publisher=McDonald & Co (Publishers) Ltd | year=1990 | isbn=978-0-356-19052-5|ref={{SfnRef|Pawlowski|1990 }}}}
* {{cite book |last=Spitz |first=Bob |authorlink=Bob Spitz |title=The Beatles – The Biography |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-316-80352-6 |ref={{SfnRef|Spitz|2005}}}}
* {{cite book | author=The Beatles | authorlink=The Beatles| title=[[The Beatles Anthology]] (DVD) | publisher=[[Apple records]] | year=2003 | id=ASIN: B00008GKEG}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{portal|The Beatles|Hamburg|1960s}}
* [http://anothergirl83.tripod.com/id9.html The Beatles in Hamburg ]
* [http://www.bootlegzone.com/beatleg/thejets.html The Jets and the beginning]
* [http://www.columbia.edu/~brennan/beatles/hamburg.html The Beatles' Hamburg Recordings on Record]
* [http://www.taringa.net/posts/imagenes/2621410/Fotos-ineditas-de-los-beatles-en-sus-comienzos.html Photos of the Quarrymen and the Beatles in Hamburg]
* [http://www.robertwhitakerphotography.com Photos taken by Robert Whitaker of the Beatles in Hamburg.]
* [http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/VOLUME12/Interview_McGrath.shtml Interview with James McGrath about Liverpool's black community] Includes Discussion of [[Lord Woodbine]] and [[The Beatles]] in Hamburg
{{The Beatles main}}

{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Beatles In Hamburg, The}}
[[Category:History of the Beatles]]
[[Category:Culture in Hamburg]]
[[Category:1960 in music]]
[[Category:1961 in music]]
[[Category:1962 in music]]
[[Category:1960 in British music]]
[[Category:1961 in British music]]
[[Category:1962 in British music]]
[[Category:1960s in Germany]]

The Beatles in Hamburg

2018-04-07T08:24:49Z

JanTurin: /* Leaving Liverpool */ link to minibus used by Beatles

{{Use British English|date=August 2010}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2012}}
{{The Beatles history|image=|caption=From left: [[Pete Best]], [[George Harrison]], [[John Lennon]], [[Paul McCartney]]}}

[[The Beatles]] members [[John Lennon]], [[Paul McCartney]], [[George Harrison]], [[Stuart Sutcliffe]] and [[Pete Best]] regularly performed at different clubs in [[Hamburg]], [[Northern Germany]], during the period from August 1960 to December 1962; a chapter in the group's history which honed their performance skills, widened their reputation, and led to their first recording, which brought them to the attention of [[Brian Epstein]].

The Beatles' booking agent, [[Allan Williams]], decided to send the group to Hamburg when another group he managed, [[Derry and the Seniors]], proved successful there. Having no permanent drummer at the time, they recruited Best a few days before their departure. After breaking their contract by playing at another club, Harrison was deported for being underaged, and McCartney and Best were arrested and deported for attempted arson (after McCartney or Best had set fire to a [[condom]] in their living quarters as a light source to gather their possessions as their host had cut off power to their room).

The Beatles first met [[Astrid Kirchherr]] in Hamburg, who was instrumental in their adoption of the famous [[Beatle haircut]]. During their time in Hamburg, Sutcliffe decided to leave the group to continue his studies. In April 1962, less than a year after leaving the group, he died of a [[brain hemorrhage]].

==Hamburg in the 1960s==
Hamburg had once been Germany's main seaport, the fourth largest in the world, but in 1943 virtually the entire city had been reduced to rubble by [[World War II]] bombing raids. By 1960, when they arrived, the Hamburg that had grown up from the ruins of WWII had established a reputation throughout Europe as a city of vice and criminal activity.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|p=24}} In contrast to an economically depressed post-war Liverpool, Hamburg was a wealthy city.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=64}}

===Leaving Liverpool===
Williams, a 29-year-old Liverpool businessman and promoter, had sent his leading group, Derry and the Seniors (later known as [[Howie Casey]] and the Seniors)<ref name="IntheBeginningp1">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Harry |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/a-z/howiecasie.shtml |title= In the Beginning... There Was Howie Casie & The Seniors (p1) |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref> to Hamburg, where they were enjoying success, and wanted to send an additional group.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=76}} He initially tried to send [[Rory Storm]] and the Hurricanes, but Storm and his group were committed to a [[Butlins]] holiday camp and turned Williams' offer down, as did [[Gerry and the Pacemakers]]. Williams started promoting concerts for The Beatles in May 1960, after they had played at his Jacaranda club in Liverpool,{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=64}} and offered The Beatles the Hamburg bookings.<ref name="TheBeatlesAnthologyDVDEpisode1">The Beatles, Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:38:45) Harrison talking about the offer to play in Hamburg.</ref>{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=202}}<ref name="BillHarryPage4">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Harry |url=http://triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/a-z/rorystorm-hurricanes4.shtml |title=While My Guitar Gently Weeps: The Tragic Story of Rory Storm & the Hurricanes (page 4) |publisher=[[Bill Harry]] |accessdate=29 February 2008}}</ref> He booked them into [[Bruno Koschmider]]'s Indra club in Hamburg for a season of bookings starting on 12 August 1960, but said that he was not impressed with them as a musical group, and hoped to find a better act to follow them.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=56}}<ref name="HamburgBeatleClubs">{{cite web|url=http://images.google.co.uk/imgres?imgurl=http://webs.wichita.edu/mschneegurt/hamburg/kaiserkeller.gif&imgrefurl=http://webs.wichita.edu/mschneegurt/hamburg/hamburg.html&h=254&w=355&sz=65&hl=en&start=1&tbnid=XuBKiGVW2CiqFM:&tbnh=87&tbnw=121&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dkaiserkeller%26svnum%3D10%26hl%3Den%26lr%3D%26sa%3DG|title=Photos of Clubs in Hamburg|publisher=images.google.co.uk|accessdate=20 December 2007}}</ref>{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=203}}

As they had no permanent drummer, McCartney looked for someone to fill the position, which was difficult, as Lennon later said that drummers were "few and far between", because a set of drums was an expensive item.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:18) Lennon talking about drummers.</ref> Harrison had seen Best playing with the Black Jacks in [[The Casbah Coffee Club]]<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:01) Harrison talking about having seen Pete Best play drums.</ref> (which was run by his mother, [[Mona Best]]). He was regarded as a steady drummer, playing the [[bass drum]] on all four [[beat (music)|beat]]s in the [[Bar (music)|bar]], which pushed the rhythm,{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=204}} and was known in Liverpool at the time as being "mean, moody, and magnificent" by female fans,<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:07) McCartney talking about Best and his reputation.</ref> which convinced McCartney he would be good for the group.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:39:26) McCartney talking Best's reputation in Liverpool</ref> After the Black Jacks broke up, McCartney asked Best to go to Hamburg, telling him they would earn £15 per week each.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=57}}{{sfn|Lennon|2005|pp=69-70}} Best had the chance to go to a teacher-training college, as he had passed his school [[exam]]s, unlike Lennon, McCartney and Harrison, who had failed most of theirs, but decided that playing in Hamburg would be a better career move.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=6}}

The [[St. Pauli]] quarter of Hamburg, where the Indra club was located, was well known as an area where prostitutes were to be found, and was a dangerous place for anyone that looked different from the usual clientele.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=221}} McCartney's father, [[Jim and Mary McCartney|Jim McCartney]], was reluctant to let his teenage son go to Hamburg,{{sfn|Lennon|2005|pp=69-70}} but relented after a visit from Williams, who told him that he "shouldn't worry".{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=57}}{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=205}} Lennon's aunt, [[Mimi Smith]], was also reluctant to allow Lennon to go to Hamburg, wanting Lennon to continue his studies, but Lennon placated her by exaggerating the amount he would earn.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|pp=70-71}} Best had an audition in Williams' Jacaranda club on 15 August 1960,<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:39:31) Harrison talking about Best's audition.</ref> and travelled to Hamburg the next day as a member of the group.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:39:49) Harrison talking about the audition with Best</ref><ref>[http://triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/archives/my-beatle-days.shtml My Beatle Days, by Pete Best] triumphpc.com - Retrieved 26 November 2007</ref> Williams later admitted that the audition with Best was not needed, as they had not found any other drummer willing to travel to Hamburg, but did not tell Best in case he asked for more money.<ref name="Goldsmithp46">Goldsmith (2004) p46</ref> The group were to be paid about £100 per week, which was much more than promoters in Liverpool paid. Williams drove the group and their equipment in his [[Morris_Commercial_J4|Austin J4 minibus]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.beatlesource.com/savage/1960/1960.html|title=THE SOURCE - The Savage Young Beatles - 1960|publisher=}}</ref> which was loaded by crane onto a ferry at [[Harwich]] on 16 August 1960, and landed at [[Hook of Holland]].

All five Beatles, Williams and his wife Beryl, her brother Barry Chang, and "[[Lord Woodbine]]" were in the minivan, along with Georg Sterner (Koschmider's translator and future waiter),{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=31}} making a total of ten people, which resulted in a journey that was both uncomfortable and dangerous.<ref name="BeatlesattheIndracont ">{{cite web |first= |last= |url= http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/beatles/beatles_indra3.shtml |title=Beatles at the Indra (page 3) |publisher=Bill Harry/Mersey Beat Ltd. |accessdate=10 June 2009}}</ref> As Williams had not obtained German work permits, they were detained at Harwich for five hours.{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=31}} Williams finally convinced the authorities that they were students on holiday,<ref name="IndraMusicClub">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/indra.html |title=Indra Music Club (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref><ref name="FabFourHangouts">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url= http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/reeper.html |title=Early '60s ~ Part V: Fab Four Hangouts (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref><ref name="TimelineTheBeatlesinHamburg">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://anothergirl83.tripod.com/id42.html |title= Timeline...The Beatles in Hamburg |publisher=tripod |accessdate=14 May 2009}}</ref> although work permits were later obtained after their arrival in Hamburg.<ref name="JohnLennonsHamburgWorkPermits">{{cite web |first=Jim |last=Vallance |url=http://www.jimvallance.com/03-projects-folder/john-lennon-visa-folder/lennon-visa-main-page.html |title=John Lennon's Hamburg Work Permits |publisher=Jim Vallance |accessdate=21 May 2009}}</ref>
Note: "Lord Woodbine" and Williams ran a strip club called New Cabaret Artistes club at 174A Upper Parliament Street in Liverpool. Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Sutcliffe once played backing music for "Janice the Stripper" there, in July 1960.<ref name="ALittleBare">{{cite web |first=Paul |last=McCartney |url=http://mersey-beat.com/archives/littlebare.shtml |title=A Little Bare |publisher=Bill Harry/Mersey Beat Ltd. |accessdate=10 June 2009}}</ref>

==Hamburg clubs==
[[File:Beatles Platz Hamburg.JPG|thumb|The [[Beatles-Platz]] in [[Hamburg]]]]

In the early 1960s, the Hamburg scene revolved around the Kaiserkeller, Top Ten, Star-Club, Beer-Shop, Mambo, Holle, Wagabond (pronounced vagabond in German) and the Pacific Hotel, as well as the less popular clubs like Grannies, the Ice Cream Shop, Chugs, and Sacha's. The [[Reeperbahn]] and the Grosse Freiheit were decorated with neon lights, with posters advertising the performers in the clubs. Each club had a doorman whose job was to entice customers inside, as the drinks were expensive (for [[Babycham]] and watered-down beer). Customers who would not, or could not afford to pay were dealt with severely by being beaten and then thrown out.<ref name=" Hamburg2p1">{{cite web |first=Mike |last=Hart |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/archives/hamburg2.shtml |title= Hamburg 2 (p1) |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref>

==={{anchor|Bambi Kino}} {{anchor|Indra Club}} The Indra and Kaiserkeller===

[[File:Indra-Club-Hamburg.png|alt=The Indra Club from the outside looks like a simple storefront, with a closed security gate at the entrance and display windows.|thumb|left|The Indra Club, where The Beatles first played on arriving in Hamburg, as it appeared in 2007.]]
The Beatles arrived very early in the morning of 17 August 1960, but had no trouble finding the St. Pauli area of Hamburg, as it was so infamous.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:41:14) McCartney talking about arriving in Hamburg.</ref> Unfortunately the Indra Club (64 Grosse Freiheit){{sfn|Cross|2004|p=32}} was closed, so a manager from a neighbouring club found someone to open it up, and the group slept on the red leather seats in the alcoves.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:41:47) McCartney talking about sleeping in the club on the first night.</ref> The group played at the club on the same night, but were told they could sleep in a small cinema's storeroom, which was cold and in very poor condition, the Bambi Kino<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> (33 Paul-Roosen Strasse).{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=32}}

McCartney later said, "We lived backstage in the Bambi Kino, next to the toilets, and you could always smell them. The room had been an old storeroom, and there were just concrete walls and nothing else. No heat, no wallpaper, not a lick of paint; and two sets of bunk beds, with not very much covers—[[Union Jack]] flags—we were frozen."<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/digs.html |title=Early '60s ~ Part II: Digs (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Lennon remembered: "We were put in this pigsty. We were living in a toilet, like right next to the ladies' toilet. We'd go to bed late and be woken up next day by the sound of the cinema show and old German fraus [women] pissing next door."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> After having been awoken in this fashion, the group were then obliged to use cold water from the urinals for washing and shaving.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|p=25}} They were paid £2.50 each a day, seven days a week, playing from 8:30-9:30, 10 until 11, 11:30-12:30, and finishing the evening playing from one until two o'clock in the morning.{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=33}} German customers found the group's name comical, as "Beatles" sounded like "Peedles", which meant a small boy's penis.{{sfn|Cross|2004|p=36}}

Harrison remembered the Reeperbahn and Grosse Freiheit as the best thing the group had ever seen, as it had so many neon lights, clubs and restaurants, although also saying, "The whole area was full of transvestites and prostitutes and gangsters, but I couldn't say that they were the audience ...<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:43:14) Harrison talking about Hamburg’s gangsters and hookers.</ref> Hamburg was really like our apprenticeship, learning how to play in front of people."<ref name="Reeperbahn">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url= http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/reeper.html|title=Reeperbahn |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009 }}</ref>
Best remembered the Indra as being a depressing place that was filled with a few tourists, and having heavy, old, red curtains that made it seem shabby compared to the larger Kaiserkeller, a club also owned by Koschmider and located nearby at 36 Grosse Freiheit.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=208}} After the closure of the Indra because of complaints about the noise, the Beatles played in the Kaiserkeller, starting on 4 October 1960.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=76}}{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=57-58}}

====Performances====

Their playing schedule at the Kaiserkeller remained the same as it had been in the Indra.<ref name="TimelineTheBeatlesinHamburg"/> Lennon said: "We had to play for hours and hours on end. Every song lasted twenty minutes and had twenty solos in it. That's what improved the playing. There was nobody to copy from. We played what we liked best and the Germans liked it as long as it was loud."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> The Beatles had been used to simply standing still when they had performed in Liverpool, but Koschmider would come to the front of the stage and loudly shout “Mach schau, mach schau!” ("make [a] show" or, more idiomatically, "put on a show" for the customers). Harrison explained that this prompted Lennon to “dance around like a gorilla, and we’d all knock our heads together.”<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:45:48) Harrison talking about “Mach schau”.</ref> As Best had been the only one to take [[O-Level]] German at school, he could communicate with Koschmider and the clientele better than the rest of the group,{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=77}} and was invited to sing a speciality number called "[[Peppermint Twist]]" (while McCartney played the drums) but Best complained that he always felt uncomfortable being at the front of the stage.<ref>[http://www.eskimo.com/~bpentium/beatles/besttape/besttape.html Best and "Peppermint Twist"] eskimo.com - Retrieved 26 November 2007</ref> Willie Limpinski, Koschmider's business manager, decided that the club would attract more customers if it presented continuous live music.<ref name="IntheBeginningp3">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Harry |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/a-z/howiecasie3.shtml |title= In the Beginning... There Was Howie Casie & The Seniors (p3) |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref>

Williams warned the Beatles about the competition they would face by playing in the same club as the Hurricanes by saying, "You'd better pull your socks up because Rory Storm and the Hurricanes are coming in, and you know how good they are. They're going to knock you for six."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> In early October 1960, Storm and the Hurricanes were free to travel to Hamburg, replacing Derry and the Seniors at the [[Kaiserkeller]]. They arrived in Hamburg on 1 October 1960, having negotiated to be paid more than the Seniors or the Beatles.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=201}} They played five or six 90-minute sets every day, alternating with the Beatles.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=76}}{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=216}} They were appalled at the living conditions the Beatles and other groups like Howie Casey and the Seniors (who were sleeping in one room at the back of the Kaiserkeller) had to put up with,<ref name="CaseyOfficialWebsite">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.howiecasey.com/ |title=Howie Casey Official Website |publisher=Howie Casey |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> so they booked into Hamburg's [[Centres for Seafarers|Seamens' Mission]].<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:42:17) Starr talking about living conditions.</ref>

====Violence and conflict====

The stage of the Kaiserkeller was made of planks of wood balanced on the top of beer crates, so the two groups made a bet to see to who would be the first to break it.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=219}} After punishing the stage for days, a slight crack appeared, and when Storm jumped off the top of the upright piano it finally broke.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=219}} Johnny 'Guitar' Byrne remembered that as Storm hit the stage, it cracked loudly and formed a V-shape around him. He disappeared into it, and all the amplifiers and drummer [[Ringo Starr]]'s cymbals slid into the hole. Koschmider was furious, and had to replace the live music with a juke box. Both groups went across the road to ''Harold's cafe'' for breakfast on the Grosse Freiheit,<ref>{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/places.html |title=Early '60s ~ Part V: Fab Four Hangouts (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> but were followed by Koschmider's doormen, armed with [[Blackjack (weapon)|coshes]], who beat them all as punishment.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=220-221}}

[[Horst Fascher]] (born 1936, Hamburg) was Koschmider's nightclub [[Bouncer (doorman)|bouncer]], who had been the 1959 West German featherweight boxing champion, but his career was cut short after he unintentionally killed a sailor in a street fight.<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll">{{cite web |first=David |last=Crossland |url=http://www.spiegel.de/international/0,1518,400870,00.html|title=Hamburg's Heady Days of Rock & Roll |work=Der Spiegel |date=15 February 2006 |accessdate=14 May 2009}}</ref> He later became a friend of the Beatles, and protected them from drunken customers.<ref name="MancalledHorst">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Harry |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/beatles/horst.shtml |title=A Man called Horst |publisher=Triumph pc |date=20 August 1999 |accessdate=12 October 2008}}</ref> Lennon occasionally urinated out of his apartment’s window onto the street below, and often started arguments with the audience, so that eventually one member of the audience would jump on stage to hit him, but it was Fascher’s job to protect Lennon and the group. In some occasions beer bottles were thrown at them.<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll"/> Fascher remembered Lennon often greeting the audience with a "Heil [[Hitler]]",{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=217}} and a Nazi salute: "He'd pull out a black comb and pretend it was a moustache... people laughed."<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll"/>

Lennon was missing for a performance one evening, and Fascher found him in the toilet with a woman. He broke up the tête-à-tête with a bucket of cold water which he threw over them both, and ordered Lennon onto the stage. Lennon was furious, and complained that he could not go on stage dripping wet. Fascher snapped back: "I don't give a shit, you're going onstage and I don't care if you do it naked." A short time later the audience was roaring with laughter. Fascher ran to see what the commotion was, and saw Lennon playing guitar, but only wearing underpants with a toilet seat around his neck.<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll"/> (Epstein later asked Liverpool journalist [[Bill Harry]] not to publish photos showing Lennon walking along the Reeperbahn in his underpants).<ref name="InvestigationMyth">{{cite web |first=Eric |last=Krasker |url=http://www.iol.ie/~beatlesireland/Beatles%20Bits/Promo/investigationofamyth.html |title=The Beatles - Investigation of a Myth 1960 - 1962 |publisher=Beatles Ireland |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Fascher's brother, Fred, sang lead vocals with the group on "[[Be Bop A Lula]]", while he sang with them on "[[Hallelujah I Love Her So]]", and his alliance with the Beatles continued, as he later went to work at the Star-Club.<ref name="HeadyDaysofRock&Roll"/>

====Performance skills====

According to McCartney, Sutcliffe was a "typical art student", with bad skin and [[Acne vulgaris|pimples]], but his reputation grew after he began wearing tight trousers and dark [[Ray-Ban Wayfarer|Ray-Ban]] sunglasses.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=65}} Sutcliffe's high spot was singing "[[Love Me Tender (song)|Love Me Tender]]", which drew more applause than when the other Beatles sang, increasing the friction between himself and McCartney. Lennon also started to criticise Sutcliffe; making jokes about Sutcliffe's size and playing.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=242}} While Sutcliffe is often described in Beatles' biographies as appearing very uncomfortable onstage, and often playing with his back to the audience, Best denies this, recalling Sutcliffe as usually good-natured and "animated" before an audience.<ref>[http://www.rickresource.com/rrp/petebest.html An Evening With Pete Best, Part I: The Interview] rickresource.com - Retrieved: 20 January 2007</ref>

The Beatles steadily improved during their time in Hamburg, and this was noticed by other musicians who were there at the time. McCartney recalled, "We got better and better and other groups started coming to watch us. The accolade of accolades was when Sheridan would come in from the Top Ten (the big club where we aspired to go) or when Rory Storm or Ringo [Starr] would hang around to watch us. ‘[[What'd I Say]]’ was always the one that really got them."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> The song was often played by the group, once being played for 90 minutes non-stop, with group members walking off stage to wash and drink before returning.<ref name="JohnLennonByDominicTurner">{{cite web |first=Dominic |last=Turner |url=http://www.rockabilly.nl/references/messages/john_lennon.htm |title=John Lennon (By Dominic Turner) |publisher=Dik de Heer |date=15 February 2006 |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Sutcliffe wrote a letter to his mother saying, "We have improved a thousand-fold since our arrival and Allan Williams, who is here at the moment, tells us that there is no group in Liverpool to touch us."<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/>

On Saturday 22 October 1960, Williams arranged a recording session for Lou Walters (of the Hurricanes) at the Akustik Studio, a small booth on the fifth floor of 57 Kirchenallee (The Klockmann-House).<ref name="BillHarryPage4"/> Williams asked Lennon, McCartney, and Harrison to play and sing harmonies on the recording.<ref name="MerseyBeatIssueNo7">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.merseybeat.co.uk/articles-details.php?cat=Bill+Harry's+Mersey+Beat&id=311 |title=Issue No.7 |publisher=[[Bill Harry]] |date=20 August 1999 |accessdate=15 August 2008}}</ref> Best was in town buying drumsticks, so Starr, the Hurricanes' drummer, played drums. This was the first time Lennon, McCartney, Harrison and Starr recorded together.<ref>[http://www.beatlesource.com/bs/ao-smrtime.html Lou Walters' recording session] Retrieved: 29 January 2007</ref> They recorded three songs: "[[Fever (1956 song)|Fever]]", "[[September Song]]" and "[[Summertime (George Gershwin song)|Summertime]]".<ref name="BillHarryPage4"/>

===The Top Ten===

[[File:Reeperbahn.jpg|alt=The Reeperbahn nighclub as seen from the side walk with its entrance lighted. Theatre marques say "Sex" and "Peep live shows".|thumb|left|200px|The Reeperbahn]]
Formerly the Hippodrome (Reeperbahn 136), the Top Ten club was opened in 1960 by Peter Eckhorn,<ref name="TopTenMusicClub">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/topten.html |title=Top Ten Music Club (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> and was operated by Iain Hines, who was an organist.<ref name="Hamburg3p1">{{cite web |first=Mal |last=Jefferson |url= http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/archives/hamburg3.shtml |title=Hamburg 3 |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref>
In late October 1960, The Beatles left Koschmider's club to work at the Top Ten Club,{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=71-72}} as Eckhorn offered the group more money, a better PA (with reverb and echo){{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=229}} and a slightly better place to sleep (above the club itself) although by doing so the group broke their contract with Koschmider.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=71-72}}{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=93}} Koschmider then reported Harrison for working under the legal age limit (even though he had been working at Koschmider's club) and Harrison was deported on 21 November 1960.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:49:56) Notice telling Harrison to leave Hamburg.</ref>{{sfn|Lewisohn|1996|p=24}}{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=72-73}} When Best and McCartney went back to the Bambi Kino to get their belongings they found it in almost total darkness. As a snub to Koschmider, McCartney and Best found a [[condom]] in their luggage, attached it to a nail on the concrete wall of the room, and set fire to it.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=230}} There was no real damage done, but Koschmider reported them both for attempted arson. McCartney: "One evening we were just walking down the Reeperbahn, when we heard this 'ta-ti-ti-ta', and then 'Komm mit mir!' ('Come with me!')".<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs"/>
Best and McCartney spent three hours in the Davidwache Police Station, and were deported on 1 December 1960.<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs"/> Lennon's [[work permit]] was revoked a few days later and he went home by train, but as Sutcliffe had a [[Common cold|cold]], he stayed in Hamburg.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=230}} Sutcliffe later borrowed money from Kirchherr (his German girlfriend) for the airfare back to Liverpool in early January 1961.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=242}} Back in Liverpool, no one contacted each other for two weeks, but Best and his mother made numerous phone calls to Hamburg to recover the group's equipment.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=231}}

Back in Liverpool, the group played an engagement on 17 December 1960, at the Casbah Coffee Club, with [[Chas Newby]] substituting for Sutcliffe,{{sfn|Spitz|2005|pp=4-5}} playing bass with them for four shows.<ref>[http://www.beatlesource.com/savage/1960/1960.html Photo of Chas Newby] beatlesource.com - Retrieved 5 November 2007</ref>{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=234}} Newby was shocked at the vast improvement of their playing and singing after the residency in Hamburg, and was struck by how powerful Best's drumming now was, pushing the group to play harder and louder.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=5}} (It was probably due to McCartney that Best developed a loud drumming style, as he would often tell Best in Hamburg to "Crank it up" = play as loud as possible).{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=214}}

After Harrison turned 18 and the immigration problems had been solved, the Beatles went back to Hamburg for another residency at the [[Top Ten Club]], playing from 27 March to 2 July 1961. To secure their return, Eckhorn paid [[Deutsche Mark|DM]] 158 to the German authorities, which was the cost of deporting McCartney and Best back to Liverpool the previous winter.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1996|p=31}} Fellow musician, [[Tony Sheridan]], later remembered the living conditions at the club: “John, George, Paul, Stuart and Pete and I were booked to open the smart Top Ten in the Reeperbahn. We moved into a dormitory over the club and slept in bunks. It was terrible really, now I look back. We all washed our own shirts and socks so the place smelt like a Chinese laundry. But we had great times and I’m afraid we used to tease the life out of the old lady who [took care of] us.”<ref name="BeatlesBrowserFourp3">{{cite web|url=http://triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/beatles/beatlesbrowser-four3.shtml |title=Beatles Browser Four (p3) |first= |last= |publisher=Bill Harry/Mersey Beat Ltd. |accessdate=4 July 2009}}</ref>

Sutcliffe decided to leave the Beatles to concentrate on his art studies and to be with Kirchherr, so McCartney (unwillingly) took over as bass player for the group.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=74-75}} Sutcliffe later enrolled at the Hamburg College of Art under the tutelage of the [[pop art]]ist [[Eduardo Paolozzi]].{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=65}} Sutcliffe lent McCartney his [[Höfner]] President 500/5 model bass guitar but asked McCartney not to change the strings around, so McCartney had to play it with the strings arranged backwards, until he could buy a specially made left-handed Höfner bass of his own.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:28:02) Harrison and McCartney talking about Sutcliffe’s first bass guitar.</ref>{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=74-75}}<ref name="Sutcliffe's cheque book">[http://www.liverpoolmuseums.org.uk/mol/exhibitions/sutcliffe/cheque.asp Sutcliffe's cheque book -] liverpoolmuseums.org.uk - Retrieved: 13 May 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.rockmine.com/Stu2.html Sutcliffe's President Bass] rockmine.com - Retrieved: 9 May 2007</ref> McCartney bought his first Höfner Violin bass guitar (model 500/1) from the Steinway-Haus Music Store (Colonnaden 29) for £30 (equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|30|1961|r=-2}}|0}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}){{Inflation-fn|UK}}., being unable to afford a Fender due to costing around £100 (equivalent to £{{formatnum:{{Inflation|UK|100|1961|r=-2}}|0}} in {{CURRENTYEAR}}){{Inflation-fn|UK}}.<ref>[http://www.thecanteen.com/mccartney3.html mccartney3]</ref>,
Lennon bought a 1958 [[Rickenbacker 325]] Capri guitar prior to Sutcliffe's departure and Harrison bought a Gibson amplifier.<ref name="THEGIGSPartV">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/other.html |title=The Gigs: Part V (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref>

The matching lilac jackets, made by McCartney's next-door neighbour in Liverpool to be worn as stage clothes, were soon threadbare, as were any other items of clothing,<ref name="IndraMusicClub"/> so the group bought cowboy boots, jeans and black leather jackets and trousers, from Paul Hundertmark's (Spielbudenplatz 9) and a tailor's shop at Thadenstrasse 6.<ref name="FabFourHangouts"/> Lennon said: "We had a bit more money the second time so we bought leather pants ... we looked like four [[Gene Vincent]]s.<ref name="TopTenMusicClub"/>

===The Star-Club===

[[File:Guitarras de McCartney y Harrison.jpg|alt=Two electric guitars displayed with an amplifier.|right|thumb|175px|Replicas of McCartney's Höfner bass and Harrison's Gretsch guitar leant against a [[Vox AC30]]]]

On 13 April 1962, the Beatles were booked as the opening act for the launch of a new club. The [[Star-Club]], opened by Manfred Weissleder, had a capacity for two thousand people, as well as cinema-style seating.<ref name="TheStarClub">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/starclub.html|title=The Star Club (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> When the Beatles were booked to play there, [[Neil Aspinall]] left his job to become the Beatles' permanent road manager, as he was earning more money driving them around than he was earning by being an [[accountant]], and had his van ferried to Hamburg.<ref name="Beat">[http://triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/beatles/neilaspinall.shtml First meeting with George Harrison - Merseybeat] triumphpc.com - Retrieved 11 February 2007</ref><ref>[http://www.beatlesource.com/savage/1960/1960.html photo of Aspinall’s van being loaded on the ferry to Hamburg] beatlesource.com - Retrieved 4 November 2007</ref> The Beatles returned to Hamburg by plane to play from 13 April to 31 May 1962.{{sfn|Lewisohn|1996|p=69}} Upon their arrival, they were informed of Sutcliffe's death.{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=109}}

By the time of their second Star-Club visit from 1–14 November 1962, Starr had become the group's drummer. The Beatles stayed at the Hotel Germania (Detlev-Bremer-Strasse 8), having the luxury of single rooms for the first time, and then stayed at the Hotel Pacific (Neuer Pferdemarkt 30) for another booking from 18–31 December 1962.<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs"/> Harrison said: "We came back to play the Star-Club, a big place and fantastic because it had a great sound system. This time we had a hotel. I remember it was quite a long walk from the club, at the top of the Reeperbahn going back towards the city."<ref name="TheStarClub"/> Portions of their final performances were taped with a portable recorder by an associate of Ted "King Size" Taylor of the Dominoes, another group playing at the club. The tapes were released on West Germany's [[Bellaphon Records|Bellaphon]] label in 1977 as ''The Beatles: [[Live! at the Star-Club in Hamburg, Germany; 1962]],'' and subsequently re-released in various formats and titles.<ref name="TheStarClub"/>

The set list at the Star-Club (with the lead singer in parentheses):<ref name="TheBeatlesLiveattheStarClub1962">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.dmbeatles.com/disk.php?disk=62 |title=The Beatles Live at the Star-Club in Hamburg, Germany, 1962 |publisher=dmBeatles |accessdate=21 May 2009}}</ref>

"[[I Saw Her Standing There]]" (McCartney)
"[[Roll Over Beethoven]]" (Harrison)
"[[Hippy Hippy Shake]]" (McCartney)
"[[Sweet Little Sixteen]]" (Lennon)
"[[Lend Me Your Comb]]" (Lennon)
"Your Feet's Too Big" (McCartney)
"[[Red Sails in the Sunset (song)|Red Sails in the Sunset]]" (McCartney)
"[[Everybody's Trying to Be My Baby]]" (Harrison)
"[[Matchbox (song)|Matchbox]]" (Lennon)
"[[Talkin' 'Bout You]]" (Lennon)
"Shimmy Shimmy" (McCartney)
"[[Long Tall Sally]]" (McCartney)
"I Remember You" (McCartney)
"[[I'm Gonna Sit Right Down and Cry (Over You)]]" (Lennon)
"Where Have You Been All My Life" (Lennon)

"[[Twist and Shout]]" (Lennon)
"[[Mr. Moonlight (song)|Mr. Moonlight]]" (Lennon)
"[[A Taste of Honey (song)|A Taste of Honey]]" (McCartney)
"[[Besame Mucho]]" (McCartney)
"Reminiscing" (Harrison)
"[[Kansas City (Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller song)|Kansas City]]" (McCartney)
"Nothin' Shakin' But the Leaves On a Tree" (Harrison)
"[[To Know Him Is to Love Him|To Know Her is to Love Her]]" (Harrison or Lennon)
"[[Little Queenie]]" (McCartney)
"[[Falling in Love Again (Can't Help It)|Falling in Love Again]]" (McCartney)
"[[Ask Me Why]]" (Lennon)
"[[Hallelujah I Love Her So]]" (club manager [[Horst Fascher]])
"[[Be-Bop-A-Lula]]" (Fred Fascher, Horst's brother)
"[[Till There Was You]]" (McCartney)
"[[Sheila (song)|Sheila]]" (Harrison)<ref name="TheStarClub"/>

===Sex, drugs and rock and roll===

McCartney explained that the Beatles had only experienced sex with girls from Liverpool, but when they got to Hamburg the only women who hung around the clubs late at night were strippers, dancers, or prostitutes. Harrison (who was then only 17) called Hamburg "the naughtiest city in the world".<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:43:05) Harrison talking about Hamburg women and sex.</ref> McCartney said: "By the time you got to Hamburg, a girlfriend there was likely to be a stripper, so to be suddenly involved with a hard-core striptease artist, who obviously knew a thing or two about sex... it was quite an eye-opener."<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:43:39) McCartney talking about Hamburg women and sex.</ref> [[Gerry Marsden]]—frontman for Gerry & the Pacemakers—remembered visiting a Hamburg brothel in Herbertstrasse with Lennon: "We paid our money, went in and sat down. This guy came out with the biggest lady we had ever seen in our lives. She looked like a bus with a bra on. We ran out that door so quick we didn't hear it shut. I wanted to go back to get my money back but John said: 'No, we'd better not. Might cause trouble.'"<ref name="JohnLennonfledHamburg brothel">{{cite web |first=Pierce |last=King |url=http://www.clickliverpool.com/news/local-news/122211-john-lennon-fled-hamburg-brothel-reveals-old-liverpool-rival.html |title=John Lennon fled Hamburg brothel reveals old Liverpool rival |publisher=Click Creative |date=7 January 2009 |accessdate=21 May 2009}}</ref>

The Beatles's introduction to "Prellies" ([[Preludin]]) was in Hamburg.<ref>(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1: 44:28) Starr and Harrison talking about Preludins in Hamburg.</ref> As the group had to play for hours, Sheridan offered them Preludin, saying: "Here's something to keep you awake."<ref name="TheBeatlesandPreludin">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://anothergirl83.tripod.com/id150.html |title=The Beatles and Preludin |publisher=tripod |accessdate=14 May 2009}}</ref> [[Astrid Kirchherr]] also supplied Sutcliffe and the other Beatles with Preludin, which when taken with beer, made them feel euphoric and helped to keep them awake until the early hours of the morning. Looking back, Harrison said that the whole group would be "frothing at the mouth" and would sometimes stay awake for days.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:44:29) Harrison talking about drugs in Hamburg.</ref> Lennon recalled, "The waiters always had these pills [Preludin], so when they saw the musicians falling over with tiredness or drink, they'd give you the pill. You could work almost endlessly until the pill wore off, and then you'd have another."<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:45:10) Lennon talking about drugs in Hamburg.</ref> McCartney said that he would usually take one, but Lennon would often take four or five.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=66-67}}

Legitimate use of Preludin required a doctor's [[Medical prescription|prescription]], but Kirchherr's mother was able to obtain it from a local [[Pharmacist|chemist]] who supplied the drug without asking questions.{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=66}} Epstein later asked the Star-Club owner, Weissleder, not to publish photographs showing the group playing with tubes of Preludin.<ref name="InvestigationMyth"/> Starr explained that [[Dexedrine]] too was in plentiful supply in Hamburg, as it was known to produce increased wakefulness and focus, in association with decreased fatigue, and decreased appetite.<ref>The Beatles Anthology DVD (2003) (Episode 1 - 0:44:06) Starr talking about drugs in Hamburg.</ref>

==Record release==

The first recording of the Beatles ever released was the single "[[My Bonnie]]", made in Hamburg with Tony Sheridan, who also had a residency at the Top Ten club. He recruited the band to act as his [[Backup band|backing group]] on a series of recordings for the German [[Polydor Records]] label,{{sfn|Lennon|2005|p=97}} the tracks produced by the famed bandleader [[Bert Kaempfert]].{{sfn|Lewisohn|1996|p=42}} On 22 June 1961, Sheridan and the Beatles drove to [[Hamburg-Harburg]] (about 30 minutes from Hamburg) to the Friedrich-Ebert-Halle (auditorium/hall) and were paid 330 Deutschmarks (about $75) for the recording. Kaempfert signed the group to a one-year Polydor contract<ref name="MyBeatleDays">{{cite web |first=Pete |last=Best |url=http://www.triumphpc.com/mersey-beat/archives/my-beatle-days.shtml |title= My Beatle Days |publisher=Triumph PC |accessdate=25 May 2009}}</ref> at the first session on 22 June 1961. There were subsequent recording sessions on 23 June and in May 1962.<ref name="THEGIGSPartV"/><ref name="TheBeatlesinHamburg19601962">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://german.about.com/cs/music/a/beatleger_2.htm |title=The Beatles in Hamburg: 1960-1962 |publisher=about |accessdate=14 May 2009}}</ref>

On 31 October 1961, Polydor released "My Bonnie" (Mein Herz ist bei dir nur), appearing on the West German charts under the name "Tony Sheridan and the Beat Brothers"—a generic name used for whoever happened to be in Sheridan's backup group.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=250}} McCartney later explained: "They didn't like our name and said, 'Change to the Beat Brothers, this is more understandable for the German audience.' We went along with it... it was a record."<ref name="TopTenMusicClub"/> The song was later released in the UK, on 5 January 1962.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=288}}<ref name="MyBonnie">“My Bonnie“ / “The Saints“ 23 April 1962. Polydor NH 66833 (Tony Sheridan and the Beat Brothers)</ref> A few copies were also pressed under the American [[Decca Records]] label.<ref name="PalowskiPage64">Palowski (1989), p.64</ref>

===Brian Epstein===

{{Main|Brian Epstein}}
"My Bonnie" was to bring the Beatles to the attention of a key figure in their subsequent development and commercial success, [[Brian Epstein]]. In September 1961, Harrison had a German copy of the record, which Sutcliffe had sent to him, as he was still in Hamburg.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=252}} Harrison loaned it to Bob Wooler (The Cavern Club DJ) who played it at various venues, when the members of the group lent it to him.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=252}} On 28 October 1961, the 27-year-old Epstein, manager of the record department in his father's NEMS music store in Whitechapel Street, Liverpool, was asked for the record by an 18-year-old boy, Raymond Jones. Epstein could find nothing on his files about the Beatles or the record, but the following day it was requested again by two girls, this time mentioning that the Beatles had been seen playing at the Cavern, a club in nearby Mathew Street.<ref name="Hill 2007 p15">{{harvnb|Hill|2007|p=15}}</ref> [[Alistair Taylor]] (Epstein's assistant) later said that the story had been invented and that he had used the name Jones to order copies of the record himself.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=252}}

Mersey Beat founder Bill Harry later repudiated the story about Epstein not knowing who the Beatles were, as Harry had been talking to Epstein about the band for a long time (being the group he promoted the most in ''[[Mersey Beat]]'') and by McCartney saying, “Brian [Epstein] knew perfectly well who the Beatles were, they were on the front page of the second issue of ''Mersey Beat''.”<ref name="TheBirthofMerseyBeatp5">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.mersey-beat.com/ |title=The Birth of Mersey Beat (p5) |publisher=Bill Harry/Mersey Beat Ltd. |accessdate=12 June 2009}}</ref> Regardless, the interest in the record eventually led Epstein to make his way to the Cavern with Taylor, during lunch hour on 9 November 1961. He was initially repelled by the dark, damp club, but he congratulated them on their performance.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|pp=39-40}}

==Astrid Kirchherr, Voormann, and Vollmer==

{{Main|Astrid Kirchherr|Klaus Voormann}}

Kirchherr, [[Klaus Voormann]], and [[Jürgen Vollmer]] were early fans of the Beatles after they heard the group play in the Kaiserkeller. Kirchherr, Voormann's girlfriend, was initially horrified at the idea of spending any time in such a sordid district, but Voormann, after watching the Beatles several times without her, eventually persuaded her to come too.{{sfn|Pawlowski|1990|pp=25-27}} After having previously only listened to [[Trad jazz]], [[the Platters]], and [[Nat King Cole]], the [[Rock n' Roll]] that the Beatles played was totally new to them.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=222}}{{sfn|Miles|1997|p=62}} The three friends visited the Kaiserkeller almost every night, arriving at 9 o'clock and sitting by the front of the stage.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=221}} Kirchherr, then 22 years old, later said: "It was like a merry-go-round in my head, they looked absolutely astonishing... My whole life changed in a couple of minutes. All I wanted was to be with them and to know them."{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=223}} Sutcliffe was fascinated by Kirchherr, and Harry later wrote that when Kirchherr walked in, every head would immediately turn her way.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=222}} Sutcliffe wrote to a friend that he could hardly take his eyes off her when she had first walked into the club, and tried to talk to her during the next break, but she had already left.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=221}}

Kirchherr asked the Beatles if they would mind letting her take photographs of them in a photo session, which impressed them, as other groups only had [[Snapshot (photography)|snapshots]] that were taken by friends. The next morning Kirchherr took photographs in a fairground park called "[[Hamburger Dom|Der Dom]]" which was close to the Reeperbahn.<ref name="TheBeatlesAnthologyDVD">(''The Beatles Anthology'') DVD 2003 (Episode 1 - 0:47:16) Harrison talking their friends Kircherr, Voormannn and Volmer.</ref>{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=223}} Kirchherr started dating Sutcliffe, and they were engaged in November 1960.{{sfn|Miles|1997|pp=64-65}}{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=224}}

Kirchherr is credited with inventing the Beatles' [[moptop]] haircut, although she personally disagrees.{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=245}} In 1995, she told BBC Radio Merseyside: "All my friends in art school used to run around with this sort of what you call Beatles' haircut, and my boyfriend then, Klaus Voormann, had this hairstyle, and Stuart [Sutcliffe] liked it very very much. He was the first one who really got the nerve to get the [[Brylcreem]] out of his hair and asking me to cut his hair for him. Pete [Best] has really curly hair and it wouldn't work."<ref name="InterviewBBCLiverpool">[http://members.aol.com/scottwheelerband/astrid.htm Kirchherr's interview on BBC Radio Merseyside's 500th ''On the Beat'' programme, Saturday 26 August 1995.]</ref><ref>[http://www.genesis-publications.com/fame/liverpool.html "Liverpool Days" book] genesis-publications.com - Retrieved: 21 May 2007</ref> After suffering blackouts and intense headaches, Sutcliffe was taken to a hospital on 10 April 1962—Kirchherr rode with him in the ambulance—but died before the ambulance reached the hospital.<ref name="lennonp110">Lennon (2005) p110</ref> Three days later Kirchherr met the Beatles at the Hamburg airport and told them Sutcliffe had died of a [[Cerebral hemorrhage|brain haemorrhage]].{{sfn|Spitz|2005|p=305}}

In 1966, Voormann was asked by Lennon to design the sleeve for the Beatles' album ''[[Revolver (Beatles album)|Revolver]]'', and also played bass on solo recordings by Lennon, McCartney, Harrison, and Starr. In 1995, Voormann designed the artwork for the three-volume CD sets in [[The Beatles Anthology#Albums|The Beatles Anthology]] series. In 1999, Kirchherr published a book called ''Hamburg Days'' (a two-volume limited edition) containing a set of photographs by Kirchherr and "memory drawings" by Voormann of the Beatles time in Hamburg.<ref>[http://www.genesis-publications.com/books/ham/index.html Genesis books - Hamburg Days] genesis-publications.com - Retrieved: 23 May 2007</ref>

==Later years==

The Beatles returned to Hamburg in June 1966, staying at the Tremsbüttel castle (Schlosstrasse 10), and played two concerts in the Ernst-Merck-Halle on 26 and 27 June.<ref name="Early60sPartIIDigs"/> Lennon later said, "I might have been born in Liverpool - but I grew up in Hamburg".<ref name="BeatleEchoesOntheReeperbahn">{{cite web |first=Bill |last=Hillman |url=http://www.hillmanweb.com/BEATLES/echoes.html |title=Beatle Echoes On the Reeperbahn (Quotations taken from ''The Beatles Anthology'') |publisher=Hillmanweb |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref>
Lennon made the door of Jäger-Passage at Wohlwillstrasse 22 famous when he posed in front of it for a photo which was later used on the covers of the ''[[Rock 'n' Roll (John Lennon album)|Rock 'n' Roll]]'' and ''Rock 'n' Roll Sessions'' albums. The photo was taken by [[Jürgen Vollmer]], during the time The Beatles were playing at the Top Ten club.<ref name="FabFourHangouts"/>
[[File:John Lennon Rock'n Roll - Hamburg.jpg|150px|right|thumb|The doorway of Jäger-Passage, Wohlwillstrasse 22, as it looks today]]
Individual Beatles later commented about their memories of Hamburg, with Lennon reflecting, "We'd outlived the Hamburg stage and wanted to pack that up. We hated going back to Hamburg those last two times. We'd had that scene. Brian [Epstein] made us go back to fulfill the contract...". Harrison had positive memories of the period: "I'd have to say with hindsight that Hamburg bordered on the best of Beatles times. We didn't have any luxury, we didn't have any bathrooms or any clothes, we were pretty grubby, we couldn't afford anything, but on the other hand we weren't yet famous, so we didn't have to contend with the bullshit that comes with fame." McCartney was philosophical: "Hamburg was certainly a great childhood memory. But I think all things are enhanced by time. It was very exciting, though I think it felt better to me a little later in our career, once we'd started to get a bit of success with the records."<ref name="TheStarClub" />

A memorial square, ''[[Beatles-Platz]]'', was constructed in Hamburg in 2008 at the meeting of Reeperbahn and Große Freiheit streets, containing five stainless steel sculptures of the Beatles.<ref name="GICPretoria">{{cite web |first= |last= |url=http://www.germanyandafrica.diplo.de/Vertretung/pretoria__dz/en/05__GL/Destination__Germany/Beatlerplatz.html |title=Beatles Memorial Square in Hamburg |publisher=GIC Pretoria |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Construction costs amounted to €550,000 ($776,000), of which €200,000 was provided by sponsors and donors. The idea of creating a memorial to the Beatles had been initiated in 2001 by Hamburg radio station Oldie 95. Hamburg's Mayor, Ole von Beust, said at the opening, "It is about time that Hamburg commemorated this great group." The square when illuminated resembles a spinning turntable.<ref name="BeatlesMemorialatLast">{{cite web |first=Dorit |last=Koch |url=http://www.efluxmedia.com/news_Hamburg_Gets_Its_Official_Beatles_Memorial_at_Last_24121.html |title=Hamburg Gets Its Official Beatles Memorial at Last
|publisher=eFluxMedia |date=11 September 2008 |accessdate=15 May 2009}}</ref> Because the band members are shown only in outline form, the figure of the drummer can be either Best or Starr.

==Notes==
{{Reflist|20em}}

==References==
{{Refbegin}}
* {{cite book | last=Best |first= Pete| title=BEATLE! The Pete Best Story | publisher=[[Plexus Publishing]] Ltd| year=1989 | isbn=978-0-85965-077-9|ref={{SfnRef|Best|1989}}}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Best | first1 = Roag | first2 = Pete | last2 = Best | first3 = Rory | last3 = Best | title=The Beatles: The True Beginnings | publisher=[[Thomas Dunne Books]]| year=2003 | isbn=978-0-312-31926-7|ref={{SfnRef|Best|2003}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Cross |first=Craig |authorlink= |title=Day-By-Day Song-By-Song Record-By-Record|publisher=[[iUniverse]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-595-31487-4|ref={{SfnRef|Cross|2005}}}}
* {{cite book | authorlink=Bill Harry |last=Harry |first=Bill | title=The Beatles Encyclopedia| publisher=[[Virgin Publishing]]| edition= Rev Upd | year= 2001 | isbn=978-0-7535-0481-9|ref={{SfnRef|Harry|2001}}}}
* {{cite book | last = Davies | first = Hunter | authorlink=Hunter Davies | title=The Beatles | publisher=[[W. W. Norton & Company]] | year=2004| isbn=978-0-393-31571-4|ref={{SfnRef|Davies|2004}}}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Kirchherr | first1 = Astrid | last2 = Voormann | first2 = Klaus| title=Hamburg Days | publisher=[[Genesis Publications]]| year=1999 | isbn=978-0-904351-73-6|ref={{SfnRef|Kirchherr|Voormann|1999}}}}
* {{cite book | last1 = Leigh | first1 = Spencer| title=Drummed Out!: The Sacking of Pete Best| publisher=Northdown Publishing Ltd.| year=1998| isbn=978-1-900711-04-3|ref={{SfnRef|Leigh|1998}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Lennon |first=Cynthia |authorlink=Cynthia Lennon |title=John |publisher=[[Hodder & Stoughton]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-340-89512-2|ref={{SfnRef|Lennon|2005}}}}
* {{cite book|last=Lewisohn|first=Mark|authorlink=Mark Lewisohn|title=The Complete Beatles Chronicle|publisher=Chronicle Press|year=1996|isbn=978-1-85152-975-9|ref={{SfnRef|Lewisohn|1996}}}}
* {{cite book |last=Miles |first=Barry |authorlink=Barry Miles |title=[[Many Years From Now]] |publisher=[[Vintage (publisher)|Vintage]]-[[Random House]] |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-7493-8658-0|ref={{SfnRef|Miles|1997}}}}
* {{cite book | last =Pawlowski | first = Gareth L. | title=How They Became The Beatles | publisher=McDonald & Co (Publishers) Ltd | year=1990 | isbn=978-0-356-19052-5|ref={{SfnRef|Pawlowski|1990 }}}}
* {{cite book |last=Spitz |first=Bob |authorlink=Bob Spitz |title=The Beatles – The Biography |publisher=[[Little, Brown and Company]] |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-316-80352-6 |ref={{SfnRef|Spitz|2005}}}}
* {{cite book | author=The Beatles | authorlink=The Beatles| title=[[The Beatles Anthology]] (DVD) | publisher=[[Apple records]] | year=2003 | id=ASIN: B00008GKEG}}
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{portal|The Beatles|Hamburg|1960s}}
* [http://anothergirl83.tripod.com/id9.html The Beatles in Hamburg ]
* [http://www.bootlegzone.com/beatleg/thejets.html The Jets and the beginning]
* [http://www.columbia.edu/~brennan/beatles/hamburg.html The Beatles' Hamburg Recordings on Record]
* [http://www.taringa.net/posts/imagenes/2621410/Fotos-ineditas-de-los-beatles-en-sus-comienzos.html Photos of the Quarrymen and the Beatles in Hamburg]
* [http://www.robertwhitakerphotography.com Photos taken by Robert Whitaker of the Beatles in Hamburg.]
* [http://www.icce.rug.nl/~soundscapes/VOLUME12/Interview_McGrath.shtml Interview with James McGrath about Liverpool's black community] Includes Discussion of [[Lord Woodbine]] and [[The Beatles]] in Hamburg
{{The Beatles main}}

{{Good article}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Beatles In Hamburg, The}}
[[Category:History of the Beatles]]
[[Category:Culture in Hamburg]]
[[Category:1960 in music]]
[[Category:1961 in music]]
[[Category:1962 in music]]
[[Category:1960 in British music]]
[[Category:1961 in British music]]
[[Category:1962 in British music]]
[[Category:1960s in Germany]]

Líneas Aéreas Suramericanas

2018-03-10T10:49:44Z

JanTurin: /* Fleet */ alignment of table

{{Infobox Airline |
airline = Líneas Aéreas Suramericanas - LAS CARGO |
logo = Líneas Aéreas Suramericanas logo.svg |
logo_size = 250 |
fleet_size = 7 |
destinations = 27 |
IATA = LA |
ICAO = LAU |
callsign = SURAMERICANO |
parent = |
founded = 1972 as AeroNorte |
headquarters = [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]] |
key_people = Luis Prieto G. - CEO
Leonardo Alvarez - TechOps VP|
hubs = [[El Dorado International Airport|El Dorado Int'l Airport]] |
lounge = |
alliance = |
website = http://www.lascargo.co/
|image=|num_employees=|frequent_flyer=|focus_cities=}}

'''Líneas Aéreas Suramericanas''' ('''LAS CARGO''') is a [[cargo airline]] based in [[Bogotá]], [[Colombia]]. It operates scheduled and chartered cargo flights to North and South America, Mexico, and the Caribbean. Its main base is [[El Dorado International Airport]], Bogotá.<ref name="FI">{{cite news | title= Directory: World Airlines | work= [[Flight International]] | page= 106 | date= 2007-04-03}}</ref>

== History ==
The airline started operations in 1972, created as '''AeroNorte''' and using Curtiss C46 planes. In 1975 it started regional cargo service and bought a Douglas DC-6.

The company changed its name in 1986 to '''Líneas Aéreas Suramericanas''' and started traveling to North America with a CL-44 plane. In 1987 it started flying between Bogotá and Panamá<ref name="FI" />, when a Caravelle plane joined the fleet.

In 1991 the company bought its first [[Boeing]] B727-100. In 2001 the company purchased two DC-9 aircraft for widening its domestic operations. In 2002 two Boeing B727-200 were acquired, equipped with JT8D-15 and JT8D-17 turbines.

By 2005 the company had built its own two hangars and purchased its fourth Boeing B727-200 plane, and by the end of 2008 two Boeing B727-200 Super27 planes joined the fleet. The company became an [[International Air Transport Association|IATA]] member in 2013.

The company updated its coporate image in 2014 including a new logo and a new livery design for its aircraft.

== Fleet ==
[[File:LAS 4636.jpg|thumb|[[Boeing 727-200|Boeing 727-200 Super 27]] of LAS CARGO]]
'''LAS CARGO''' has a current fleet of seven planes.<ref>{{cite journal|title=Global Airline Guide 2017 (Part One)|journal=Airliner World|issue=October 2017|page=12|accessdate=29 September 2017}}</ref>

On 13 July 2016 Boeing announced that LAS CARGO had purchased two B737-800 BCF planes to join its fleet.<ref>http://boeing.mediaroom.com/2016-07-13-Boeing-Announces-10-New-Orders-and-Commitments-for-Boeing-Converted-Freighters</ref>
<center>
{| class="wikitable toccolours" border="1" cellpadding="5" style="border-collapse:collapse"
|+ '''LAS CARGO Fleet:'''
|- bgcolor="Yellow"
!Aircraft
!In Fleet
!Orders
!Registration
|-
|[[Boeing 727|Boeing 727-100F]]
| align="center" |2
| align="center" |0
|HK1271 - HK4154
|-
|[[Boeing 727|Boeing 727-200F]]
| align="center" |3
| align="center" |0
|HK2461 - HK4262 - HK4401
|-
|[[Boeing 727|Boeing 727-200F Super 27]]
| align="center" |2
| align="center" |0
| HK4636 - HK4637
|-
|[[Boeing 737 Next Generation|Boeing NG 737-800BCF]]
| align="center" |0
| align="center" |2
|
|}
</center>

== References ==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{Portal|Aviation}}
*[http://www.lascargo.com/ Líneas Aéreas Suramericanas]
{{commonscat-inline|Líneas Aéreas Suramericanas}}

{{Airlines of Colombia}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Lineas Aereas Suramericanas}}
[[Category:Airlines of Colombia]]
[[Category:Airlines established in 1986]]
[[Category:Cargo airlines]]
[[Category:1986 establishments in Colombia]]

{{Colombia-airline-stub}}

Dassault Mirage 2000

2017-08-12T09:28:53Z

JanTurin: /* Previous projects */ link to Mirage F1

{|{{Infobox aircraft begin
|name= Mirage 2000
|image= File:Mirage 2000C in-flight 2 (cropped).jpg
|caption= A Mirage 2000C of the French Air Force
}}{{Infobox aircraft type
|type= [[Multirole combat aircraft|Multirole]] [[fighter aircraft|fighter]]
|national origin= France
|manufacturer= [[Dassault Aviation]]
|designer=
|first flight= 10 March 1978<ref name=Spick_p420>Spick 2000, p. 420.</ref>
|introduced= July 1984
|retired=
|status= In service
|primary user= [[French Air Force]]
|more users= [[United Arab Emirates Air Force]] [[Republic of China Air Force]] [[Indian Air Force]]
|produced= 1978–2007
|number built= 601<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-173924270.html|title=Last Mirage 2000s delivered.(DEFENCE BRIEFING)(Brief article)|work=Interavia Business & Technology|date=22 December 2007|accessdate=12 April 2017|subscription=yes|via=[[HighBeam Research]]}}</ref>
|unit cost=
|developed from= 
|variants with their own articles= [[Dassault Mirage 2000N/2000D]]
|developed into= [[Dassault Mirage 4000]]
}}
|}

The '''Dassault Mirage 2000''' is a French multirole, single-engine [[fourth-generation jet fighter]] manufactured by [[Dassault Aviation]]. It was designed in the late 1970s as a lightweight fighter to replace the [[Dassault Mirage III|Mirage III]] for the [[French Air Force]] (''Armée de l'Air''). The Mirage 2000 evolved into a multirole aircraft with several variants developed, with sales to a number of nations. The variants include the [[Dassault Mirage 2000N/2000D|Mirage 2000N and 2000D]] strike variants, the improved Mirage 2000-5 and several export variants. Over 600 aircraft were built and it has been in service with nine nations.

==Development==

===Previous projects===
The origins of the Mirage 2000 could be traced back to 1965, when France was involved with Britain "Anglo-French Variable Geometry" ([[AFVG]]) [[Variable-sweep wing|swing-wing aircraft]]. Two years later the country withdrew from the project on grounds of costs, after which Britain would collaborate with Western Germany and Italy to ultimately produce the Panavia Tornado, Dassault focused its energy on its own variable-geometry aircraft, the Mirage G experimental prototype. The design was expected to materialise in the Mirage G8, which would serve as the replacement for the popular Mirage III in French Air Force service.<ref name="MFactory">(Last updated 2 February 2015) "[http://www.militaryfactory.com/aircraft/detail.asp?aircraft_id=232 Dassault Mirage 2000 Multi-role Aircraft]". Military Factory. Retrieved 24 August 2015.</ref><ref name=Better_delta>{{Cite journal|author1=Richardson, Doug|author2=Ramsden, J. M.|author3=Velupillai, David|author4=Warwick, Graham|title=Mirage 2000: Dassault's better delta|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1978/1978%20-%201693.html|journal=Flight International|issue=3523|volume=114|location=London, UK|publisher=IPC Transport Press|date=20–26 August 1978|page=637|issn=0015-3710}}</ref>

The Mirage 2000 started out as a project of secondary project tentatively named "Delta 1000" in 1972. Dassault at the time was devoting considerable attention on a more ambitious design, the Mirage G8A, a fixed-geometry derivative of the Mirage G8 that served as the competitor to the Panavia Tornado. The Mirage G8, which was envisioned as the "Avion de Combat Futur" (ACF / Future Combat Aircraft) of the French Air Force (''Armee de l'Air'', ''AdA''), did not align with the service's conception of its future aircraft. More specifically, the ''AdA'' wanted a Mach 3 fighter, not an interdictor aircraft incapable of dogfighting that was the Mirage G8. As such, Dassault redesigned the Mirage G8 into the two-engine Super Mirage G8A that would prove to be ambitious and expensive, being two and a half times the price of the [[Mirage F1]], and over-engineered especially compared to the F-16 that had just won orders from a number of European countries. Consequently, during a meeting of the National Defence Council on 18 December 1975, the Super Mirage was cancelled.<ref name= Frawley/><ref name=Donald>Donald, David, ed. "Dassault Mirage 2000". ''The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft''. Barnes & Noble Books, 1997. {{ISBN|0-7607-0592-5}}.</ref>

The ACF was a strike aircraft first and an interceptor second, while the Delta 2000 was exactly the reverse, but the single-engine Delta 2000 was much more affordable. At the same meeting, what was now redesignated as the Mirage 2000 was offered to the AdA and three prototypes were ordered. The AdA in March 1976 would issue a set of official requirements whose parameters matched that of Dassault's performance estimates of the new fighter. The aircraft's primary role was interception with a secondary ground-attack capability; the AdA had an commitment for 200 aircraft. The first aircraft was to be delivered in 1982.<ref name= Donald /><ref name=Better_delta/> This was a return to the first generation Mirages, but with several important innovations that tried to solve their shortcomings.

===Design phase===
The production of the Mirage 2000 involves three construction sites, all located in Bordeaux, that specialise in different components. The wings are built at Martignas, and the fuselages are fabricated at Argenteuil, with final assembly taking place at Bordeaux-Merignac. However, the first prototype, Mirage 2000 No. 01, was hand built at St Cloud, before being moved to Dassault's Istres facility for assembly. At the hands of Jean Coureau, No. 01 made its first flight on 10 March 1978, a mere 27 months after the programme go-ahead. During the 65-minute flight, Coureau took the aircraft to Mach 1.02 without afterburner, before climbing to some more than 12,000 m and accelerated the aircraft to Mach 1.3.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Mirage 2000 in production|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1982/1982%20-%202135.html|journal=Flight International|issue=3826|volume=122|date=29 August – 4 September 1982|location=London, UK|publisher=IPC Transport Press|page=657}}</ref><ref name=Spick_p420/><ref>"Dassault Mirage 2000," ''World Air Power Journal'', p. 57.</ref> By the end of May, the aircraft had surpassed Mach 2 and an indicated airspeed of 650 knots. On the other end of the speed spectrum, the Mirage 2000 proved to be a capable low-speed aircraft, as demonstrated at the Farnborough Air Show in September 1978, during which Dassault pilot Guy Mitaux-Maurourd raised the aircraft's nose to 25° angle of attack as the aircraft slowed to 100 knots. Later tests showed that the aircraft could attain 30° AoA while carrying fuel tanks and weapons.<ref>"Dassault Mirage 2000," pp. 57–58.</ref>

The second prototype, No. 02, made its 50-minute first flight in September 1978 at the controls of Maurourd. The aircraft was tasked with the testing of some of the avionics systems and the carriage of weapons. Due to a flame out while on a landing approach, the aircraft was lost in May 1984. No. 03 would make its first flight in April 1979; equipped with a complete weapons system, it was tasked with radar and weapons trials. After 400 hours of flight, they were sent to CEV (''Centre d'Essais en Vol'', Flight tests centre). Although three prototypes were ordered in December 1975, Dassault constructed an additional fourth single-seat demonstrator for its own purposes, which embodied lessons on the earlier aircraft, namely the reduction in fin height and an increased fin sweep, redesigned air inlets and FBW system. The only dual-seat Mirage 2000B of the test programme first flew on 11 October 1980.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Mirage 2000 No 3 flies|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1979/1979%20-%201715.html|journal=Flight International|date=19 May 1979}}</ref><ref>World Air Power Journal, pp. 58–59.</ref>

The first production Mirage 2000C (C stands for Chasseur, "Fighter") flew on 20 November 1982.<ref name=Donald>Donald, David, ed. "Dassault Mirage 2000". ''The Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft''. Barnes & Noble Books, 1997. {{ISBN|0-7607-0592-5}}.</ref> Deliveries to the AdA began in 1983. The first 37 Mirage 2000Cs delivered were fitted with the Thomson-CSF RDM (Radar Doppler Multifunction) and were powered by the SNECMA M53-5 turbofan engine. The 38th Mirage 2000C had an upgraded SNECMA M53-5 P2 turbofan engine. The Radar Doppler Impulse (RDI) built by Thales for the Mirage 2000C entered service in 1987. It has a much improved range of about 150 km, and is linked to Matra Super 530D missiles, which are much improved compared to the older Super 530F. [[Look-down/shoot-down]] capabilities are much improved as well, but this radar is not usually used for air-to-surface roles.

===Further development===
The Mirage 2000N is a dedicated [[nuclear warfare|nuclear strike]] variant which was intended to carry the [[Air-Sol Moyenne Portée]] (ASMP) nuclear stand-off missile. Flight tests of the first of two prototypes, Mirage 2000N 01 (the eighth Mirage 2000) began on 3 February 1983. During the 65-minute flight, the aircraft reached a speed of Mach 1.5.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Nuclear-attack Mirage 2000 flies|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1983/1983%20-%200300.html|journal=Flight International|date=19 February 1983|page=438}}</ref> The variant entered operational service in 1988, initially operating from Luxeil Air Base with 4e Escadre de Chasse.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=First Mirage 2000N unit forms|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1988/1988%20-%200970.html|journal=Flight International|date=16 April 1988}}</ref> Closely derived from the Mirage 2000N is a dedicated conventional attacked variant designated Mirage 2000D. Initial flight of the Mirage 2000D prototype, a modified Mirage 2000N prototype, was on 19 February 1991. The first flight of a production aircraft occurred 31 March 1993, and service introduction followed in April 1995. A total of 75 and 86 Mirage 2000Ns and Mirage 2000Ds were manufactured, respectively.

By the late 1980s, the Mirage 2000 was beginning to age compared with the latest models of F-16 fighters. In particular, attention was drawn to the aircraft's inability to engage multiple target simultaneously and the small load of air-to-air missiles it could carry. Consequently, Dassault in April 1989 announced that it (with the cooperation of Thomson-CSF) would be working on a privately funded update of the Mirage 2000C which was to be named the Mirage 2000-5.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Military Aircraft of the World|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1991/1991%20-%202172.html|journal=Flight International|date=21–27 August 1991}}</ref><ref>Grolleau 2003, p. 54.</ref> A two-seat Mirage 2000B prototype was extensively modified as the first Mirage 2000-5 prototype, and it first flew on 24 October 1990. A Mirage 2000C prototype was also reworked to a similar standard, making its initial flight on 27 April 1991. The first front-line aircraft variant to have been designed specifically in response to the export market, Taiwan was the first country to order the type in 1992, followed by Qatar in 1994. The type was first delivered in 1996 and entered service in 1997.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.dassault-aviation.com/en/defense/mirage-2000/mirage-2000-5-mk2.html?L=1 |title=Mirage 2000-5 Mk2 |publisher=Dassault-aviation.com |accessdate=31 May 2011}}</ref>

Domestically, Dassault needed an order from the AdA to help promote foreign sales and, in 1993, the AdA decided to upgrade 37 of their existing Mirage 2000s to the 2000-5 specification as a stopgap before the arrival of the Rafale in AdA service. The upgraded aircraft were redesignated Mirage 2000-5F, and became operational in 2000. They retained the old countermeasures system with the [[Serval]]/[[Sabre]]/Spirale units and did not receive the ICMS 2 system. A two-seat version was developed as well, whose rear seat has a HUD but not an associated head-level display and lacks a built-in cannon, although cannon pods can be carried.

At the urging of the United Arab Emirates, Dassault worked on a further modification of the Mirage 2000-5. Initially dubbed Mirage 2000-9, this variant saw the upgrade of the radar and the associated avionics, the change of weapons configuration, and the extension of range

The last Mirage 2000 was delivered on 23 November 2007 to the [[Hellenic Air Force]];<ref>{{Citation |url= http://www.dassault-aviation.com/en/aviation/news/archives/2007/delivery-of-the-last-mirage-2000-5-mkii-to-hellenic-air-force.html |title= Delivery of the Last Mirage 2000-5 Mk.II to Hellenic Air Force |publisher= Dassault aviation |year= 2007}}.</ref> afterwards the production line was shut down.

==Design==

===Overview===


The aircraft uses retractable [[Tricycle landing gear|tricycle type landing gear]] by [[Messier-Dowty]], with twin nosewheels and a single wheel on each main gear. A runway [[tailhook]] or a fairing for a brake [[parachute]] can be fitted under the tail, which can operate in conjunction with the landing gear's [[carbon]] brakes to shorten landing distances. A removable refueling probe can be attached in front of the [[cockpit (aviation)|cockpit]], offset slightly to the right of centre.{{citation needed|date=March 2011}}

===Cockpit===
The Mirage 2000 is available as a single-seat or two-seat multi-role fighter. The pilot flies the aircraft by means of a [[centre stick]] and left hand [[throttle]]s, with both incorporating [[hands-on-throttle-and-stick]] (HOTAS) controls. The pilot sits on a SEM MB Mk10<ref>{{cite web|author=Isabelle Godard |url=http://www.martin-baker.fr/en/mk10.htm |title=SEM MB Martin-Baker |publisher=Martin-baker.fr |accessdate=31 May 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721010722/http://www.martin-baker.fr/en/mk10.htm |archivedate=21 July 2011 |df=dmy }}</ref> zero-zero [[ejection seat]] (a license-built version of the British [[Martin-Baker]] Mark 10).

The [[Flight instruments|instrument panel]] (in the Mirage 2000 C) is dominated by a Sextant VE-130 [[head-up display]] which presents data relating to flight control, navigation, target engagement and weapon firing, and a radar screen located centrally below it.{{citation needed|date=March 2011}}

===Engines===
The [[SNECMA M53]] afterburning [[turbofan]] was developed for the ACF, and was available for the Mirage 2000 project. It is a single-shaft engine of modular construction that is relatively light and simple compared to those of the British or American designs. The M53 consists of three low-pressure turbine stages, five high-pressure stages and two turbine stages.<ref name=WAPJ_56_7>World Air Power Journal, pp. 56–57.</ref> With the development programme consisting of 20 engines, the M53 ''sans suffix'' was first bench tested in February 1970 and became airborne on a Caravelle testbed in July 1973. Dassault conducted flight tests of the M53-2 version using its Mirage F1E testbeds starting in December 1974; this version produced {{Convert|84|kN|lbf}} in afterburner. The Mirage 2000 itself was powered by two versions of the M53 – the M53-5, which equipped initial operational aircraft, was rated at {{Convert|88|kN|lbf|abbr=on}} of thrust with afterburner. The definitive version of the engine, the M53-P2, which equipped the majority of the type, is rated at {{Convert|65|kN|lbf|abbr=on}} in dry thrust and {{Convert|95|kN|lbf|abbr=on}} in afterburner.<ref name=WAPJ_56_7/><ref>Grolleau 2003, p. 49.</ref>

===Payload and armaments===
The Mirage 2000 is equipped with built-in twin [[DEFA cannon|DEFA 554]] autocannon (now GIAT 30–550 F4) 30 mm revolver-type [[cannon]]s with 125 rounds each. The cannons have selectable fire rates of 1,200 or 1,800 [[rate of fire|rounds per minute]].


==Operational history==

===France===
[[File:U.S 109th Airlift Squadron C-130 H3 MOD 45162026.jpg|thumb|2000D 603 of [[03.003 Fighter Squadron "Ardennes"|3/3 "Ardennes" at Kandahar, 2010]]]]

The first aircraft entered service in July 1984.<ref>{{Cite journal |last=Condom |first=Pierre |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-77133458.html |title=Second youth for the Mirage 2000 |journal=Interavia Business & Technology |publisher=Aerospace Media Publishing|date=1 July 2001 |accessdate=24 July 2015 |subscription=yes |via=[[HighBeam Research]]}}</ref> The first operational squadron was formed during the same year, the 50th anniversary of the French Air Force. A total of 124 Mirage-2000Cs were obtained by the AdA.

French Mirage 2000s were used during the [[Gulf War]] where they flew high altitude air defence for USAF U2 spy aircraft, as well as in UN and [[NATO]] air operations during the [[Bosnian War]] and the [[Kosovo War]]. During [[Operation Deliberate Force]], on 30 August 1995, one [[Mirage 2000D]] was shot down over Bosnia by a [[9K38 Igla]] [[MANPADS|shoulder-launched missile]] fired by air defence units of the [[Army of Republika Srpska]], prompting efforts to obtain improved defensive systems. Both pilots were captured.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ejection-history.org.uk/PROJECT/Biographies/Joint-Crash-Details/!995_00-00_French_Mirage_2000/1995_Bosnia-French-Mirage.htm |year= 1995 |title= Bosnia |work= French Mirage 2000 |place= UK |publisher=Ejection history |accessdate=31 May 2011}}{{Unreliable source?|date=March 2017}}</ref>

[[French Air Force]] (''Armée de l'Air'') Mirage 2000Ds later served with the [[International Security Assistance Force]] during the [[War in Afghanistan (2001–present)|conflict]] in Afghanistan in 2001–2002, operating in close conjunction with international forces and performing precision attacks with [[laser-guided bomb]]s. In the summer of 2007, after the [[Dassault Rafale]] fighters had been removed from the theater of operations, 3 French Mirage 2000s were deployed to Afghanistan in support of NATO troops.<ref>{{Citation |type= news |language= French |title= 3 Mirage 2000 à Kandahar |trans_title= 3 Mirage 2000 at Kandahar |url= http://www.defense.gouv.fr/operations/afghanistan/actualites/27-09-07-afghanistan-3-mirage-2000-a-kandahar |place= FR |publisher= Défense}}.</ref>

The Mirage 2000 is being replaced in French service by the Dassault Rafale, which became operational with the French Air Force in June 2006.

French Mirage 2000s were committed to enforcing the no-fly zone in Libya as part of [[Opération Harmattan]] in 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marianne.net/blogsecretdefense/Operation-Harmattan-le-nom-de-code-militaire-pour-la-Libye_a181.html |title=Opération Harmattan, le nom de code militaire pour la Libye |work=Marianne |accessdate=7 April 2015}}</ref>

===Egypt===
Egypt became the first export customer of the Mirage 2000 when it ordered 20 aircraft in December 1981. The $890 million order encompassed 16 single-seat Mirage 2000EMs and 4 two-seat Mirage 2000BMs, as well as options for 20 more aircraft. The aircraft were delivered between June 1986 and January 1988.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Egypt's Mirage 2000s ready this month|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1986/1986%20-%201389.html|journal=Flight International|location=Surrey, UK|publisher=Business Press International|date=15–21 June 1986|issue=4016|volume=129|page=17|issn=0015-3710}}</ref>

One was lost in a training accident. Egypt originally planned to buy another squadron of Mirage-2000 fighters but financial problems prevented this, instead Egypt signed a contract with France to upgrade the existing fighters which were fitted with new ECM systems.

===India===
The sale of US F-16s to Pakistan prompted India to enter talks with France regarding the purchase of the Mirage 2000. In October 1982, the country placed an order with Dassault for 36 single-seat Mirage 2000Hs and 4 twin-seat Mirage 2000THs (with ''H'' standing for "Hindustan"). Previously, negotiations were underway for a purchase of up to 150 aircraft, which would have paved the way for joint production with Hindustan Aeronautics Limited. In any case, the number of aircraft ordered was too small for such an arrangement. India nevertheless had the option to produce a number of Mirage 2000s under license that was later scrapped due to the country's close relationship with the Soviet Union. India also purchased ATLIS II pods and laser-guided weapons for the Mirage, which the IAF had named the "Vajra" ({{lang-sa |वज्र}}, for [[Lightning]], [[Thunderbolt]]).<ref>*''Vayau Aerospace and Defence Review'' 2015, pp. 42, 44.
*{{Cite journal|title=India signs for Mirage 2000|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1982/1982%20-%202451.html|journal=Flight International|date=30 October 1982|page=1263}}
*{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=S. Nihal|title=Why India goes to Moscow for Arms|url=http://www.jstor.org/stable/2644184|journal=Asian Survey|volume=24|issue=7|date=July 1984|pages=707–708|subscription=yes|via=[[JSTOR]]}}
*{{Cite news|last=Roy|first=S.G.|title=India will buy 40 Mirage jet fighters from France|url=http://www.upi.com/Archives/1982/10/18/India-will-buy-40-Mirage-jetfighters-from-France/8342403761600/|date=18 October 1982|agency=United Press International|accessdate=21 June 2017}}</ref>

With the delivery of the first seven aircraft on 29 June 1985 to No. 1 Squadron, the Indian Air Force (IAF) became the first foreign user of the type.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Mirage 2000 sees first foreign service|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1985/1985%20-%202267.html|journal=Flight International|page=9|date=20 July 1985}}</ref> The service's early aircraft were powered by the Snecma M53-5 engine (and so were designated Mirage 2000H5 and Mirage 2000TH5), which were quickly replaced by the more-powerful M53-P2 engine. No. 1 Squadron formally converted to the type in January 1986; within twelve months of the first delivery, the IAF had received all 40 aircraft ordered. However, the delivery schedule had in fact been delayed. In addition, with the various accidents that occurred, another eight single-seat and one two-seat aircraft were ordered in 1986 as attrition replacement and maintenance reserves. As such, it was not until 1990 that full unit establishment was achieved.<ref>''Vayau Aerospace and Defense Review'' 2015, pp. 42–43.</ref><ref name=Pushpindar/> The Mirage 2000 would encounter other issues; during the first decade of service, the fleet suffered from operational and maintenance issues. The Indian government's Comptroller and Auditor General reported in 1995 that there was a delay in the construction of overhaul facilities and a shortage of spare parts, and that as a result the fleet could not meet its required flying hours. Compounding the issue was a lack of Mirage pilots.<ref name=Pushpindar>{{Cite journal|last=Singh|first=Pushpindar|title=Reliability Problems Stalk Indian Mirages|journal=Aviation Week & Space Technology|page=46|date=5 June 1995}}</ref>

In 1999, when the Kargil War broke out, the Mirage 2000 performed remarkably well during the whole conflict in the high [[Himalayas]], even though the Mirages supplied to India had limited [[air interdiction]] capability and had to be heavily modified to drop [[laser-guided bomb]]s as well as conventional [[unguided bomb]]s. Armed with Paveway LGBs, the aircraft were involved in the destruction of enemy command bunkers. During Operation Safed Sagar from June–July 1999, two Mirage squadrons flew a total of 514 sorties. No. 1 Squadron flew air defence and strike escort missions, while No. 7 Squadron conducted 240 strike missions during which it dropped {{convert|55000|kg|abbr=on}} of ordnance.<ref>''Vayau Aerospace and Defense Review'' 2015, pp. 44–46.</ref>

The impressive service of the Mirage 2000 in 1999 prompted the IAF to consider the acquisition of a further 126 aircraft. Instead, the Mirage 2000-5 became a contender for the IAF's [[Indian MRCA competition]] in competition with the [[Mikoyan MiG-35]], F-16 Fighting Falcon and [[JAS 39 Gripen]]. In 2004, the Indian government approved purchase of ten Mirage 2000Hs, featuring improved avionics, particularly an upgraded RDM 7 radar; they were delivered in 2007 for a total of 59 aircraft. Dassault would replace the Mirage 2000 with the Rafale as its contender as the Mirage 2000 production line was to be closed.

In 2004, when India made its third order for the type, the government announced its intention to upgrade its existing Mirage 2000s. After a period of protracted negotiations for the next several years during which India and Dassault came close to signing a contract several times, India in July 2011 approved a $2.2 billion upgrade package for its Mirage 2000s. Worth some $43 million per aircraft, the upgrade would see the fleet be upgraded to Mirage 2000-5 Mk. 2 standard, with provisions made for the use of a night vision-capable glass cockpit, upgraded navigation and IFF systems, advanced multi-mode multi-layered radar, and fully integrated electronic warfare suite, among other updates. In addition, the fleet's inventory of Super 530D and Magic II missiles would be replaced by MICA, an order for which was placed in 2012. The first of the two IAF Mirages sent to France to be upgraded made its first flight in October 2013, marking the start of a test campaign that would encompass 250 flights, culminating in the handover of the first aircraft, redesignated Mirage 2000I, in March 2015. The new jets were redesignated Mirage 2000I for the single-seat version and Mirage 2000TI for the twin-seat version.<ref>''Vayau Aerospace and Defense Review'' 2015, p. 47.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ndtv.com/india-news/the-mirage-2000-upgrade-what-makes-indias-fighter-jet-better-749715 |title=The Mirage 2000 Upgrade: What Makes India's Fighter Jet Better |author=Vishnu Som|date=26 March 2015 |work=NDTV.com |accessdate=7 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.business-standard.com/article/economy-policy/iaf-starts-getting-upgraded-mirage-2000-fighters-115032600035_1.html |title=IAF starts getting upgraded Mirage 2000 fighters |author=Ajai Shukla|date=26 March 2015 |work=business-standard.com |accessdate=7 April 2015}}</ref>

One two-seat trainer crashed on 25 February 2012. Another two-seater crashed on 5 March 2012.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2012-03-05/india/31123769_1_iaf-aircraft-kiran-mk-ii-second-crash |work=The Times of India |title= IAF Mirage-2000 crashes, pilot safe|date=5 March 2012}}</ref>

===Peru===
In December 1982, Peru placed an $800 million order for 14 single-seat Mirage 2000Ps and two two-seat Mirage 2000DP trainers, with an option for eight and two more aircraft, respectively. Although contract was firmed in 1985, the Peruvian government, due to the country’s financial issues, renegotiated to have the number of aircraft to be reduced to ten single-seaters and two two-seaters. Handover of the first aircraft occurred in June 1985, although it was not until December 1986 when the first deliveries to Peru were made, after the initial training of pilots in France had been completed.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Peru halves Mirage 2000 order|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1985/1985%20-%202450.html|journal=Flight International|date=11–17 August 1985|page=10|volume=128|issue=3973|location=Surrey, UK|publisher=IPC Transport Press|issn=0015-3710}}</ref><ref>https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1985/1985%20-%201968.html</ref><ref>World Air Power Journal, p. 97.</ref>

The [[Peruvian Air Force]] ordered a set of munitions similar to that ordered by Egypt, along with ATLIS II targeting pods. The Peruvian Mirages flew [[combat air patrol]] missions in 1995 during the [[Cenepa War]].<ref>{{cite web |language= Spanish |title= Conflicto del Cenepa 1995: operaciones aéreas |trans_title= Cenepa war 1995: air operations |url= http://fuerzamilitarperu.foroactivo.net/t260-conflicto-del-cenepa-1995-operaciones-aereas |publisher= Fueza militar peru; Foro activo}}</ref>

Peru's Mirage 2000s underwent an inspection and partial electronic modernization programme following a $140 million deal in 2009 that involved Dassault, Snecma and Thales.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Hoyle|first=Craig|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/peru-mirages-to-get-fleet-recovery-upgrade-328433/|title=Peru Mirages to get fleet recovery upgrade|date=18 June 2009|work=Flight International|accessdate=21 June 2017}}</ref><ref>http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/peru-moves-to-maintain-modernize-its-fighter-fleet-07400/</ref> The aircraft is expected to be retired by 2025.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.upi.com/Peru-mulls-replacing-aged-air-force-jets/16101364290342/|title=Peru mulls replacing aged air force jets|date=26 March 2013|agency=United Press International|accessdate=21 June 2017}}</ref>

===United Arab Emirates===
In May 1983, the UAE placed an order for 36 Mirage 2000 aircraft. The order consisted of 22 single-seat Mirage 2000EAD, eight unique single-seat reconnaissance variants designated Mirage 2000RAD and six Mirage 2000DAD trainers, which collectively are known as SAD-8 (Standard Abu Dhabi). The order specified an Italian-made defensive avionics suite that delayed delivery of the first of these aircraft until 1989.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}}

[[File:A Kuwaiti Mirage 2000C fighter aircraft during Operation Desert Storm.JPEG|thumb|left|UAE Mirage 2000RAD during Operation Desert Storm]]
In November 1998, the UAE signed a $3.2 billion contract that consisted of an order for 30 Mirage 2000-9s as well as the deal to upgrade 33 of the surviving SAD-8 aircraft up the new standard. The contract was later amended such it would encompass 32 new-built aircraft–20 single-seater Mirage 2000-9 and 12 two-seater 2000-9Ds–and 30 upgrade kits for original aircraft. The aircraft were equipped with a classified countermeasures system designated IMEWS. Although deliveries were scheduled for 2001, the first aircraft arrived in the spring of 2003.<ref>{{Cite web|last=Macrae|first=Duncan|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-54466878.html|title=New recce systems for UAE Mirage 2000-9s.|work=Interavia Business & Technology|date=1 March 1999|accessdate=21 June 2017|subscription=yes|via=[[HighBeam Research]]}}</ref><ref>Grolleau 2003, p. 75.</ref>

The UAE's Mirage 2000-9s are equipped for the strike mission, with the Shehab laser targeting pod (a variant of the [[Thales Damocles|Damocles]]) and the Nahar navigation pod, complementing the air-to-ground modes of the RDY-2 radar. They are also equipped with a classified [[countermeasures]] system designated "IMEWS", which is comparable to the ICMS 3. Emirati Mirage 2000s are armed with weapons such as the [[PGM 500]] guided bomb and the "Black Shaheen" [[cruise missile]], which is basically a variant of the [[MBDA Apache]] cruise missile.<ref>http://theaviationist.com/special-reports/uae-air-force-mirage-2000s-carrying-bombs/</ref> All 30 survivors of this first batch have been extensively refurbished and upgraded, bringing them to the same standard as Mirage 2000-9.{{Citation needed|date= July 2011}}

UAE Mirage 2000s flew in the [[Gulf War]] of 1991, but saw little action. Six Mirage 2000s were to participate in the enforcement of the no-fly zone over Libya.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.wam.org.ae/servlet/Satellite?c=WamLocEnews&cid=1300255413630&p=1135099400124&pagename=WAM%2FWamLocEnews%2FW-T-LEN-FullNews |title= UAE updates support to UN resolution 1973|date=24 March 2011}}</ref>

===Greece===
In July 1985, Greece signed a contract for 40 Mirage 2000s comprising 36 single-seat aircraft and 4 two-seat trainers. The order came as part of a larger defence acquisition programme that saw the country, for political reasons, proceed with an order for the F-16. The $1.38 billion Mirage contract also consisted of weapons and equipment, as well as industrial offsets that permitted HAI to produce the M53-P2 engines. The first aircraft were delivered in June 1988 and the last, by the end of 1989. They featured an "ICMS mk1" defensive countermeasures suite (DCS), an updated version of the standard Mirage 2000C DCS, characterized by two small antennas near the top of the tailfin. Initially armed with R.550 Matra Magic-2 missiles. During the "[[Talos]]" modernisation project of the 1990s, carried out by [[Hellenic Aerospace Industry]] and supervised by Dassault and Thompson-CSF, the aircraft received: a vastly improved RDM-3 radar set; the ICMS 1 DCS; the ability to carry the Super-530D medium-range missile and the AM39 Exocet Block II anti-ship missile. After "Talos", the aircraft were renamed Mirage-2000EGM/BGM.{{Citation needed|date=March 2017}}

In August 2000, Greece placed a $1.1 billion order for a batch of 15 new Mirage 2000-5 Mk. 2 fighters, and had 10 existing Mirage 2000EGMs upgraded to Mirage 2000-5 Mk. 2 standard. The upgrade meant the addition of the RDY-2 radar and ICMS-3 DCS, and the ability to deploy SCALP cruise missiles and both versions of the MICA instead, an order for which was placed.<ref>{{Cite journal|title=Greece signs for fighters and cruise missiles|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/2000/2000-1%20-%200789.html|journal=Flight International|date=29 August – 4 September 2000|page=21|issn=0015-3710}}</ref><ref>{{Cite journal|title=Athens' new wings|journal=Military Technology|location=Bonn, Germany|publisher=Monch Publications|date=September 1999|volume=23|issue=9|pages=77–80}}</ref> All Greek machines (Mk 2s and EGMs) feature the TOTEM-3000 INS of the Mk2 instead of the Uliss-52 and have hose-and-drogue [[aerial refueling]] capability. The only visual difference between the Mirage 2000-5 Mk 2 and the existing Mirage 2000EGM/BGMs is a fixed IFR probe near the canopy.{{Citation needed|date=March 2017}}

On 8 October 1996, 7 months after the escalation of the dispute with Turkey over the [[Imia/Kardak]] islands, a Greek Mirage 2000 fired an [[R.550 Magic|R.550 Magic II]] missile and shot down a Turkish F-16D<ref>{{Citation |url= http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P2-4362620.html |title= Turkish F-16 jet crashes after Greek interception |newspaper= Chicago Sun-Times|date= 9 October 1996 |publisher= High beam}}.</ref> over the [[Aegean Sea]]. The Turkish pilot died, while the co-pilot ejected and was rescued by Greek forces.<ref>{{Citation |url= http://f-16.net/ |contribution-url= http://www.f-16.net/f-16_fighting_falcon_airframe-3371.html |publisher= F-16 |title= Aircraft Database |type= airframe details |contribution= 91-0023 |accessdate= 18 May 2008}}.</ref> In August 2012, after [[Turkish-Syrian relations#Friction due to Syrian civil war|the downing of a RF-4E]] on the Syrian Coast, Turkish Defence Minister İsmet Yılmaz confirmed that the Turkish F-16D was shot down by a Greek Mirage 2000 with an R.550 Magic II in 1996 after reportedly violating Greek airspace near [[Chios]] island.<ref>{{Cite web |title= Tuaf incidents |url= http://theaviationist.com/2012/09/06/tuaf-incidents/ |work= The Avionist|date= Sep 6, 2012}}</ref> Greece denies that the F-16 was shot down.<ref>https://www.rt.com/news/343467-turkey-greek-pilot-sentence/ Athens also denies the downing of the jet, and says that Turkish pilot reported a control failure. It also claims that the jet violated Greece’s airspace because one of the Turkish pilots was rescued in the Greek flight information region.</ref> Both [[Mirage 2000]] pilots reported that the [[F-16]] caught fire and they saw one [[parachute]].<ref>http://www.newsbomb.gr/ellada/ethnika/story/697371/katarripsi-toyrkikoy-f-16-ti-dilose-o-ellinas-pilotos Greek TV: Pilot reports after the crash. Both reports were sent to Ankara.</ref>

===Republic of China (Taiwan) ===
In response to mainland China's purchase of the Su-27, the Republic of China (Taiwan) entered into talks with the US and France about the possible purchase of new fighters. While the US would oppose Taiwan's acquisition of the Mirage 2000 and instead pressure it to procure the F-16, in November 1992, the [[Republic of China Air Force]] became the first customer for the Mirage 2000-5. The order, which attracted the condemnation of China, purchased 48 single-seat Mirage 2000-5EIs and 12 Mirage 2000-5DI trainers. The deal for the 60 aircraft was accompanied by the purchase of 480 Magic short-range air-to-air missiles, 960 MICA intermediate-range air-to-air missiles, auxiliary fuel tanks, ground support equipment, and monitoring equipment; total costs amounted to US$4.9 billion, of which $2.6 billion was for the aircraft.<ref>For context of the negotiations, see {{Cite journal|title=Taiwanese dream is a Mirage|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1991/1991%20-%201843.html|journal=Flight International|date=10–16 July 1991|page=5|issn=0015-3710}}
*For details about the negotiations, see {{Cite news|title=U.S. Puts Pressure on Taiwan To Slow French Mirage Talks|newspaper=Wall Street Journal|date=15 September 1992}}
*For details about the order, see {{Cite journal|last=Dreyer|first=June Teufel|title=China's military strategy toward Taiwan|journal=American Asian Review|volume=17|issue=3|page=19|date=Fall 1999|publisher=Institute of Asian Studies|location=Queens, NY}}
*For the response from China, see {{Cite news|url=http://www.upi.com/Archives/1992/11/19/China-slams-France-on-Taiwan-jet-deal/2115722149200/|title=China slams France on Taiwan jet deal|agency=United Press International|date=19 November 1992}}
*Also see {{Cite web |url=http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1G1-12909824.html |title=Taiwan expected to sign deal this week to buy French fighter |work=Defense Daily|date=17 November 1992 |accessdate=8 August 2015 |subscription=yes |via=[[HighBeam Research]]}}</ref> The MICA missile provides the Mirage with a degree of [[BVR]] capability needed for its role as front-line interceptor. In addition, a set of ASTAC electronic intelligence (ELINT) pods was ordered.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} A number of centerline twin gun pods with [[DEFA 554]] cannons were also acquired and fitted on the two-seaters, as they do not have an internal gun armament.

[[File:ROCAF Dassault Mirage 2000-5Ei Aoki-8.jpg|thumb|Taiwanese Air Force Mirage 2000-5EI]]
Taiwanese Mirage 2000s were delivered from May 1997 to November 1998, and are based at Hsinchu AB.{{Citation needed|date=March 2017}}

The RoCAF's Mirages have suffered from low operational readiness and high maintenance costs; the harsh environment and high operational tempo had caused higher-than-expected wear and tear. After the presence of cracks in the blades of the aircraft's engines were detected in 2009, Dassault worked with Taiwanese authorities to successfully rectify the issue and provided compensation for the engine damage. By the following year, normal training hours of 15 per month had resumed and the fleet's operational readiness had been restored, after having reportedly dropped to 6 hours per month due to the engine troubles.<ref name= "Taipei Times">{{cite web |url= http://www.taipeitimes.com/News/taiwan/archives/2010/03/22/2003468632 |title= France compensates Taiwan for Mirage 2000 engine trouble |publisher=Taipei Times|date=24 May 2011 |accessdate=31 May 2011}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |url=https://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20100321/wl_asia_afp/taiwanfranceweapons |title=Taiwan, France: Weapons |newspaper=AFP |publisher=Yahoo|date=Mar 21, 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100327045848/http://news.yahoo.com/s/afp/20100321/wl_asia_afp/taiwanfranceweapons |archivedate=27 March 2010}}</ref> In addition to this issue, there were considerations of mothballing the entire Mirage fleet due to its high maintenance costs.<ref>{{Citation|date= Oct 22, 2009 |url= http://www.globalsecurity.org/wmd/library/news/taiwan/2009/taiwan-091022-cna01.htm |title= Taiwan |newspaper= Global security}}</ref> Although the aircraft's maintenance supplies cost more than those of the Republic's [[AIDC F-CK-1 Ching-kuo]] and the [[Lockheed F-16 Fighting Falcon]], the fleet was reportedly still being maintained adequately because of its popularity. Yet plans to upgrade the fleet had not been carried out as costs for doing so in France would be very high.<ref name="DW20161206">{{cite web|url=http://www.defenseworld.net/news/17883/Taiwan_To_Locally_Upgrade_MICA_Missiles_in_ITS_Mirage_2000_Jets#.WEb8iVKsBZE|title=Taiwan To Locally Upgrade MICA Missiles in ITS Mirage 2000 Jets|publisher=Defense World|date=6 Dec 2016|accessdate=6 Dec 2016}}</ref>

===Qatar===
In 1994, Qatar became the second export customer for the Mirage 2000-5 as it ordered twelve aircraft to replace its Mirage F1EDAs. Designated Mirage 2000-5DAs, the aircraft ordered consisted of nine single-seaters and three two-seaters, and the first delivery was made in September 1997. Qatar also purchased the MICA missile and the Apache stand-off cruise missile.<ref>{{Cite journal|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1994/1994%20-%201874.html|title=Qatar Mirage 2000 package unveiled|date=10–16 August 1994|journal=Flight International|location=London, UK|publisher=Reed Business Publishing|accessdate=21 June 2017|issn=0015-3710}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|last=Moxon|first=Julian|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/qatar-takes-first-mirage-2000s-21647/|title=Qatar takes first Mirage 2000s|date=17 September 1997|work=Flight International|accessdate=21 June 2017|issn=0015-3710}}</ref> The aircraft would be used sparingly, and by the mid-2000s, under pressure from the US to dispose of the aircraft and with most of the aircraft's operational life still intact, Qatar offered to sell the aircraft to Pakistan and later India. Such a deal would not materialise.<ref>{{Cite web|url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-1143938711.html|title=India looking again at Qatari Mirage fighters|date=11 October 2016|accessdate=21 June 2017|work=Hindustan Times|subscription=yes|via=[[HighBeam Research]]}}</ref>

In March 2011, Mirage 2000s were deployed to an airbase on the Greek island of Crete as part of Qatar's commitment to assist in the NATO-enforced no-fly-zone over Libya. The aircraft would soon jointly enforce the no-fly-zone along with French Mirage 2000-5 aircraft.<ref>https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1A1-75f4a24396b34a7e92577e4d1b1d02d1.html</ref><ref>https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1A1-bcf391134ee04d629f4d41dd13452412.html</ref>

===Brazil===
Dassault participated in a competition to replace the [[Brazilian Air Force]]'s aging [[Mirage III|Mirage IIIEBR/DBRs]] with a Brazilian-specific version of the Mirage 2000-9 that would have been developed in collaboration with Embraer designated Mirage 2000BR. However, due to Brazilian fiscal problems, the competition dragged on for years until it was suspended in February 2005. Instead, Brazil in July 2005 purchased 12 ex-French Air Force Mirage 2000 aircraft (ten "C" and two "B" versions), designated F-2000, for $72 million.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2005/07/05/200136/brazil-to-seal-mirage-2000-deal.html |title=Brazil to seal Mirage 2000 deal|date=5 July 2005 |work=Flight International |accessdate=31 May 2011}}</ref> Deliveries began in September 2006 and concluded on 27 August 2008 with the delivery of the last 2 aircraft.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.aereo.jor.br/2008/08/28/ultimos-f-2000-sao-recebidos/ |title=Últimos Mirage 2000 são recebidos pela FAB |language=Portuguese |trans_title= FAB receives last Mirage 2000s |newspaper =Poder Aéreo|date=27 August 2008 |accessdate= 25 January 2011 |place= BR}}</ref> According to Journal of Electronic Defense, the figure was $200 million, which consisted of a significant number of Magic 2 air-to-air missiles, and the AdA would provide full conversion training in France and full logistical support. The ten single-seat fighters and two twin-seat combat-trainers were drawn from operational squadrons Escadon de Chasse 1/5 and 2/5, based at Orange AB, respectively. The first delivery was made September 2006 to 1º Grupo de Defesa Aérea (1º GDA – 1st Air Defence Group) based at Annapolis.<ref>Brazil Buying French Mirage, Journal of Electronic Defense, September 2005.</ref> They were primarily used in the air-defence role and were equipped with Matra [[Super 530]]D and [[Matra Magic]] 2.<ref>{{cite news |url =http://www.aereo.jor.br/2008/08/24/f-2000-o-gap-filler-da-defesa-aerea-do-brasil/ |title=F-2000, o 'gap filler' da defesa aérea do Brasil |language=Portuguese |trans_title= F‐2000, the Brazilian aerial defense gap filler |newspaper=Poder Aéreo|date= 24 August 2008 |accessdate= 25 January 2012 |place= BR}}</ref> Brazil officially retired its fleet in December 2013,<ref name=BR_retirement>{{Citation |language= Portuguese |title= Brasil negocia tomar caças emprestados de empresa sueca |url= http://g1.globo.com/politica/noticia/2013/12/brasil-negocia-tomar-cacas-emprestados-de-empresa-sueca.html |newspaper= G1 |publisher= Globo|date=Dec 2013 |place= BR}} — actually, Brazil would lease the Gripen from the Swedish air force, not from Saab — Saab does not keep airplanes do lend or lease.</ref><ref>{{Citation |language= Portuguese |title= FAB se despede dos caças Mirage 2000 |trans_title= FAB says farewell to the Mirage 2000 fighters |url= http://www.aereo.jor.br/2013/12/20/fab-se-despede-dos-cacas-mirage-2000/ |newspaper= Poder aéreo |place= BR}}.</ref> just before the maintenance contract with Dassault concluded.<ref>{{cite news |url= http://planobrasil.com/2011/10/05/brasil-renova-acordo-e-prolonga-a-vida-dso-mirage-2000/ |title= Brasil renova acordo e prolonga a vida dos Mirage 2000 |language= Portuguese |trans_title= Brazil renews agreement and extends Mirage 2000s' life |newspaper= Plano Brasil|date= 5 October 2011 |accessdate=25 January 2012}}</ref>

==Variants==
{{Refimprove section|date=March 2011}}

===Mirage 2000C===
Upgrades include the addition of the [[Non-Cooperative Target Recognition]] (NCTR) mode to the RDI Radar to allow identification of airborne targets not responding on [[identification friend or foe]] (IFF), and the ability to carry air-to-ground stores such as rocket pods, [[gravity bomb|iron bombs]] and [[cluster bomb]]s. Some variants, especially those equipped with the RDM radar (mainly used in export models) have the capability to use the Exocet anti-ship missile. Also, Indian Mirage 2000s have been integrated to carry the Russian R-73AE Archer missile and the indigenous Indian built Astra missile.

===Mirage 2000B===
The Mirage 2000B is a two-seat operational conversion [[Trainer (aircraft)|trainer]] variant which first flew on 11 October 1980. The French Air Force acquired 30 Mirage 2000Bs, and all three AdA fighter wings each obtained several of them for conversion training.

===Mirage 2000N===
The [[Dassault Mirage 2000N/2000D|Mirage 2000N]] is the [[nuclear warfare|nuclear strike]] variant which was intended to carry the [[Air-Sol Moyenne Portée]] nuclear stand-off missile.

===Mirage 2000D===
The [[Dassault Mirage 2000N/2000D|Mirage 2000D]] is a dedicated conventional attack variant developed from the Mirage 2000N.

===Mirage 2000-5F===
First major upgrade over the Mirage 2000C.

;Mirage 2000-5 Mark 2
Dassault further improved the Mirage 2000-5, creating the Mirage 2000-5 Mark 2 which is currently the most advanced variant of the Mirage 2000.

===Mirage 2000E===
"Mirage 2000E" was a blanket designation for a series of export variants of the Mirage 2000. These aircraft were fitted the M53-P2 engine and an enhanced "RDM+" radar, and all can carry the day-only [[ATLIS II]] laser targeting pod.

;Mirage 2000M
The Mirage 2000M is the version purchased by Egypt. Two-seat Mirage 2000BM trainers were also ordered.

;Mirage 2000H and 2000I
Designation of two-seat trainers and single-seat fighters in Indian service.

;Mirage 2000P
Peru placed an order for 10 single-seat Mirage 2000Ps and 2 Mirage 2000DP trainers.

;Mirage 2000-5EI
Of the 60 Mirage 2000s Taiwan ordered in 1992, the [[Republic of China Air Force]] (ROCAF) would receive 48 single-seat Mirage 2000-5EI interceptors and 12 Mirage 2000-5DI trainers. This version of Mirage 2000-5 had the mid-air refuel ability as well as its ground attack ability deleted.

;Mirage 2000-5EDA
In 1994, Qatar ordered nine single-seat Mirage 2000-5EDAs and three Mirage 2000-5DDA trainers, with initial deliveries starting in late 1997.

;Mirage 2000EAD/RAD
[[File:UAE Mirage 2000.JPG|thumb|A [[UAE]] Mirage 2000 multi-role fighter]]

In 1983, the [[United Arab Emirates]] (UAE) purchased 22 single-seat Mirage 2000EADs, 8 unique single-seat Mirage 2000RAD reconnaissance variants, and 6 Mirage 2000DAD trainers, for a total order of 36 aircraft.

The Mirage 2000RAD [[reconnaissance]] variant does not have any built-in cameras or sensors, and the aircraft can still be operated in air combat or strike roles. The reconnaissance systems are implemented in pods produced by Thales and Dassault. The UAE is the only nation operating such a specialized reconnaissance variant of the Mirage 2000 at this time.{{Citation needed|date=March 2017}}

;Mirage 2000EG
In March 1985, [[Greece]] ordered 30 single-seat Mirage 2000EGs and 10 Mirage 2000BG two-seat trainers, equipped with RDM radars and M53P2 engines, mainly for interception/air defence roles, although the ability to use air-to ground armaments was retained. After the Talos modernisation project, during which the aircraft received updated sensors and avionics, as well as new anti-ship and air-to-air weapons, the aircraft were redesignated Mirage 2000EGM.

;Mirage 2000BR
A variant of the Mirage 2000-9 for Brazil that did not materialise.

;Mirage 2000-9
Mirage 2000-9 is the export variant of Mirage 2000-5 Mk.2. The UAE was the launch customer, ordering 32 new-build aircraft, comprising 20 Mirage 2000-9 single-seaters and 12 Mirage 2000-9D two-seaters. A further 30 of [[Abu Dhabi]]'s older Mirage 2000s will also be upgraded to Mirage 2000-9 standard.

==Operators==
{{refimprove|date=November 2016}}
[[File:MIR-2000 User countries.png|thumb|350px|Operators of the Mirage 2000, as of 2013]]
{|class="wikitable"
|+ List of users and variants
!colspan="3" |{{FRA}}
|-
!Variant!!Purpose!!Number
|-
|rowspan="2" |2000C ||Single-seat fighter ||124
|-
|Updated to 2000-5F specs ||37
|-
|2000D ||Two-seat conventional strike ||86
|-
|2000N ||Two-seat nuclear strike ||75
|-
|2000B ||Two-seater with 2000C kit ||30
|-
|colspan="2" |Total ||315
|-
!colspan="3" |{{IND}}
|-
|2000H ||To be upgraded to 2000I ||42
|-
|2000TH ||Two-seat trainer to be upgraded to 2000TI ||9
|-
|colspan="2" |Total ||51
|-
!colspan="3" |{{UAE}}
|-
|2000EAD ||Single-seat multirole ||22
|-
|2000-9 ||Single-seat ||19<ref>http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/international/mideast-africa/2016/03/14/uae-mirage-fighter-jet-missing-yemen/81753912/</ref>
|-
|2000-9D ||Two-seat trainer ||12
|-
|2000RAD ||Unique reconnaissance variant ||8
|-
|2000DAD ||Two-seat trainer ||6
|-
|colspan="2" |Total ||67
|-
!colspan="3" |{{ROC-TW}}
|-
|2000-5EI ||Similar to 2000–5 ||48
|-
|2000-5DI ||Similar to 2000-5D ||12
|-
|colspan="2" |Total ||60
|-
!colspan="3" |{{GRE}}
|-
|2000EG ||Similar to 2000C ||17
|-
|2000-5 Mk 2 ||Multirole fighter ||25
|-
|2000BG ||Two-seat trainer ||2
|-
|colspan="2" |Total ||44
|-
!colspan="3" |{{EGY}}
|-
|2000EM ||Similar to 2000C ||16
|-
|2000BM ||Two-seat trainer ||4
|-
|colspan="2" |Total ||20
|-
!colspan="3"|{{BRA}} (retired)
|-
|2000C || Single-seat fighter || 10
|-
|2000B || Two-seat trainer || 2
|-
!colspan="3" |{{QAT}}
|-
|2000-5EDA ||Single-seat fighter ||9
|-
|2000-5DDA ||Two-seat trainer ||3
|-
|colspan="2" |Total ||12
|-
!colspan="3" |{{PER}}
|-
|2000P ||Single-seat multirole fighter ||10
|-
|2000DP ||Two-seat trainer ||2
|-
|colspan="2" |Total ||12
|-
|Total Produced
|All Variants
|583
|-
|}

==Specifications (Mirage 2000)==
[[File:Mirage 2000C 3-view.gif|right|400px|3-view of Mirage 2000C/RDI]]
{{externalimage |topic=Dassault Mirage 2000 cutaway |width= |align=right |image1=[http://www.flightglobal.com/airspace/media/militaryaviation1946-2006cutaways/dassault-mirage-2000-5-cutaway-10910.aspx Hi-res cutaway of the Dassault Mirage 2000 by Flight Global]}}

{{Aircraft specifications

|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=jet

|ref=Complete Encyclopedia of World Aircraft,<ref name=Donald/> International Directory of Military Aircraft<ref name= Frawley>Frawley, Gerald. "Dassault Mirage 2000". ''The International Directory of Military Aircraft, 2002/2003''. Fishwick, Act: Aerospace Publications, 2002. {{ISBN|1-875671-55-2}}.</ref>

|crew=1
|length main=14.36 m
|length alt=47 ft 1 in
|span main=9.13 m
|span alt=29 ft
|height main=5.20 m
|height alt=17 ft
|area main=41 m²
|area alt=441.3 ft²
|airfoil=
|empty weight main=7,500 kg
|empty weight alt=16,350 lb
|loaded weight main=13,800 kg
|loaded weight alt=30,420 lb
|max takeoff weight main=17,000 kg
|max takeoff weight alt=37,500 lb
|more general=

|engine (jet)=[[SNECMA M53]]-P2
|type of jet=afterburning [[turbofan]]
|number of jets=1
|thrust main= 64.3 kN
|thrust alt= 14,500 lbf
|afterburning thrust main=95.1 kN
|afterburning thrust alt=21,400 lbf

|max speed main=[[mach number|Mach]] 2.2
|max speed alt=2,336 km/h, 1,451 mph
|max speed more=at high altitude/ 1,110 km/h (690 mph) at low altitude
|cruise speed main=
|cruise speed alt=
|cruise speed more=
|never exceed speed main=
|never exceed speed alt=
|range main=1,550 km
|range alt= 837 [[nautical mile|nmi]], 963 mi
|range more= with drop tanks
|combat radius main=
|combat radius alt=
|combat radius more=
|ferry range main=3,335 km
|ferry range alt=1,800 [[nautical mile|nmi]], 2,073 mi
|ferry range more= with auxiliary fuel
|ceiling main=17,060 m
|ceiling alt=59,000 ft
|climb rate main=285 m/s
|climb rate alt=56,000 ft/min
|loading main=337 kg/m²
|loading alt=69 lb/ft²
|thrust/weight =0.7 at loaded weight
|more performance=


|guns=2× 30 mm (1.18 in) [[DEFA 554]] [[revolver cannon]], 125 rounds per gun
|hardpoints=9 total (4× under-wing, 5× under-fuselage)
|hardpoint capacity=6,300 kg (13,900 lb) external fuel and ordnance
|rockets=Matra 68 mm unguided rocket pods, 18 rockets per pod
|missiles= 
**'''[[Air-to-air missile]]s''':
*** 6× [[MBDA MICA|MBDA MICA IR/RF]](Mirage 2000-5, Mirage 2000-9, Mirage 2000 I)
*** 2× [[R550 Magic|Matra R550 Magic-II]] and 2× [[Super 530|Matra Super 530D]] (Mirage 2000 C)
**'''[[Air-to-surface missile]]s''':
*** 2× [[AM.39 Exocet]] (Mirage 2000 EG, Mirage 2000-5 Mk2)
|bombs= 
**'''Unguided''':
*** [[Mk.82]]
**'''Guided''':
*** [[PGM 500|PGM 500 and PGM 2000]] modular guided bombs (Mirage 2000-9)
*** 2× [[AS-30L]] laser-guided missile (Mirage 2000 D)
*** 2× [[GBU-12]] laser-guided bombs (Mirage 2000 D, Mirage 2000 C & Mirage 2000 N with external laser designation)
*** 1× [[GBU-16]] laser-guided bomb (Mirage 2000 D, Mirage 2000 C & Mirage 2000 N with external laser designation)
*** 1× [[GBU-24]] laser-guided bomb (Mirage 2000 D, Mirage 2000 C & Mirage 2000 N with external laser designation)
*** 2× [[GBU-49]] laser-guided bombs (Mirage 2000 D)
*** 1× [[Air-Sol Moyenne Portée|ASMP-A tactical nuclear cruise missile]] (Mirage 2000 N)
|avionics=*[[RDY (Radar Doppler Multitarget)|Thomson-CSF RDY (Radar Doppler Multi-target) radar]] (Mirage 2000-5)
}}

==Notable appearances in media==
{{Main article|Aircraft in fiction#Dassault Mirage 2000|l1=Dassault Mirage 2000 in fiction}}



==See also==
{{Portal|Aviation}}
{{aircontent
|see also= 
|related= 
*[[Dassault Mirage 2000N/2000D]]
*[[Dassault Mirage 4000]]
|similar aircraft=
|lists=
*[[List of fighter aircraft]]
*[[List of military aircraft of France]]

}}

==References==

===Citations===
{{Reflist|30em}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
* {{Cite journal|title=The Indian Thunderbolts|journal=Vayau Aerospace and Defence Review|date=May–June 2015|pages=41–49}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last= Eden |editor-first= Paul |year= 2006 |title=The Encyclopedia of Modern Military Aircraft |location= London, UK |publisher=Amber Books |origyear= 2004 |isbn= 1-904687-84-9}}
* {{Cite book |author1-link= Bill Gunston |last1= Gunston |first1= Bill |first2= Mike |last2= Spick |title= Modern Combat Aircraft |series= The Great Weapons Encyclopedia |publisher= Salamander |origyear= 1983 |year= 1988 |pages= 44–45}}; printed in Italy by Peruzzi.
*{{Cite journal|last=Grolleau|first=Henri-Pierre|editor-last=Donald|editor-first=David|title=Dassault Mirage 2000: 'Deux-Mille' comes of age|journal=International Air Power Review|year=2003|location=London|publisher=AIRtime Publishing|volume=9|pages=38–75|isbn=1-880588-56-0}}
* {{Cite book |editor-last= Spick |editor-first= Mike |chapter= Dassault Mirage 2000 |title= Great Book of Modern Warplanes |place= Osceola, WI |publisher= MBI |year= 2000 |ISBN= 0-7603-0893-4}}.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons|position=right|Dassault Mirage 2000}}
*[http://www.dassault-aviation.com/en/defense/mirage-2000/mirage-2000-familly.html?L=1 Official Mirage 2000 family website]

{{Dassault aircraft}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=May 2011}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:French fighter aircraft 1970–1979]]
[[Category:Dassault Group aircraft|Mirage 2000]]
[[Category:Single-engined jet aircraft]]
[[Category:Tailless delta-wing aircraft]]
[[Category:Relaxed-stability aircraft]]
[[Category:Aircraft first flown in 1978]]

Tenerife airport disaster

2017-04-11T09:11:43Z

JanTurin: /* Diversion of aircraft to Los Rodeos */ retrieval date

{{redirect|Tenerife crash|other crashes|Tenerife North Airport|and|Tenerife South Airport}}
{{use American English|date=November 2015}}
{{use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox aircraft occurrence
|occurrence_type = Accident
|name = Tenerife airport disaster {{nobold|{{small|KLM Flight 4805{{·}}Pan Am Flight 1736}}}}
|image =
|caption =
|Date = March 27, 1977
|type = [[Pilot error]], [[runway incursion]], heavy fog, limitations and failures in communication
|site = {{longitem|style=line-height:1.2em; |[[Los Rodeos Airport]] {{small|(now Tenerife-North Airport)}}}} [[Tenerife]], [[Canary Islands]], Spain
|total_survivors = 61
|total_fatalities = 583
|total_injuries = 61
|plane1_type = [[Boeing 747#747-200|Boeing 747-206B]]
|plane1_name = ''Rijn'' {{small|("[[Rhine]]")}}
|plane1_image = KLM 747 (7491686916).jpg
|plane1_caption = PH-BUF, the KLM Boeing 747-206B involved in the accident
|plane1_operator = [[KLM|KLM Royal Dutch Airlines]]
|plane1_tailnum = {{Airreg|PH|BUF}}
|plane1_origin = [[Amsterdam Airport Schiphol|Schiphol Airport]] Amsterdam, Netherlands
|plane1_destination = [[Gran Canaria Airport]] Canary Islands, Spain
|plane1_passengers = 234
|plane1_crew = 14
|plane1_fatalities = 248 {{small|(all)}}
|plane1_survivors = 0
|plane2_type = [[Boeing 747#747-100|Boeing 747–121]]
|plane2_name = ''Clipper Victor''
|plane2_image = Boeing 747-121, Pan American World Airways - Pan Am AN1399875.jpg
|plane2_caption = A Pan Am Boeing 747-121 similar to the one involved
|plane2_operator = [[Pan American World Airways]]
|plane2_tailnum = {{Airreg|N|736PA}}
|plane2_origin = [[Los Angeles International Airport|Los Angeles Int'l Airport]] Los Angeles, United States
|plane2_stopover = {{nowrap|[[John F. Kennedy International Airport|John F. Kennedy Int'l Airport]]}} {{nowrap|New York City, United States}}
|plane2_destination = Gran Canaria Airport Canary Islands, Spain
|plane2_passengers = 380
|plane2_crew = 16
|plane2_injuries = 61
|plane2_fatalities = {{nowrap|335 {{small|(326 passengers, 9 crew)}}}}
|plane2_survivors = 61
}}

On March 27, 1977, two [[Boeing 747]] passenger jets collided on the runway at [[Los Rodeos Airport]] (now Tenerife North Airport), on the Spanish island of [[Tenerife]], [[Canary Islands]]. The crash killed 583 people, making it the [[List of aircraft accidents and incidents resulting in at least 50 fatalities|deadliest accident in aviation history]]. As a result of the complex interaction of organizational influences, environmental conditions, and unsafe acts leading up to this aircraft mishap, the disaster at Tenerife has served as a textbook example for reviewing the processes and frameworks used in aviation mishap investigations and accident prevention.<ref>{{cite news|title=TENERIFE DISASTER - 27 MARCH 1977: The Utility of the Swiss Cheese Model & other Accident Causation Frameworks|url=http://goflightmedicine.com/tenerife-disaster/|accessdate=13 October 2014|publisher=Go Flight Medicine}}</ref>

A bomb explosion at [[Gran Canaria Airport]], and the threat of a second bomb, caused many aircraft to be diverted to Los Rodeos Airport. Among them were [[KLM]] Flight 4805 and [[Pan Am]] Flight 1736 – the two aircraft involved in the accident. At Los Rodeos Airport, air traffic controllers were forced to park many of the airplanes on the taxiway, thereby blocking it. While authorities waited to reopen Gran Canaria, a dense fog had developed at Tenerife, which greatly reduced visibility and further complicated the situation.

When Gran Canaria reopened, the parked aircraft blocking the taxiway at Tenerife required both of the 747s to taxi on the only runway in order to get in position for takeoff. The fog was so thick that neither aircraft could be seen from the other, and the controller in the tower could not see the runway or the two 747s on it. As the airport did not have [[Airport surveillance radar|ground radar]], the controller could only find where each airplane was by voice reports over the radio.

The disaster occurred in Spanish territory, making Spain responsible for investigating the accident. The crash involved aircraft from the United States and the Netherlands, and both of those countries appointed representatives to the investigation. The investigations revealed that the primary cause of the accident was the captain of the KLM flight taking off without clearance from [[air traffic control]] (ATC).<ref name=ASN/> The investigation specified that the captain did not intentionally take off without clearance; rather he fully believed he had clearance to take off due to misunderstandings between his flight crew and ATC.<ref name=ASN/> Dutch investigators placed a greater emphasis on this than their American and Spanish counterparts,<ref name="dutch_response"/> but ultimately KLM admitted their crew was responsible for the accident, and the airline financially compensated the victims' relatives.<ref name="KLM responsibility"/>

The accident had a lasting influence on the industry, particularly in the area of communication. An increased emphasis was placed on using standardized phraseology in ATC communication by controllers and pilots alike, thereby reducing the chance for misunderstandings. As part of these changes, the word "takeoff" was removed from general usage, and is only spoken by ATC when clearing an aircraft to take off<ref>{{cite web|title=The Tenerife Airport Disaster - the worst in aviation history|url=http://www.tenerife-information-centre.com/tenerife-airport-disaster.html|publisher=Tenerife Information Centre|accessdate=11 May 2011}}</ref> or when cancelling that same clearance. Less experienced flight crew members were encouraged to challenge their captains when they believed something was not correct, and captains were instructed to listen to their crew and evaluate all decisions in light of crew concerns. This concept was later expanded into what is known today as [[crew resource management]] (CRM), in which training is now mandatory for all airline pilots.<ref>{{cite web|last=Baron|first=Robert|title=The Cockpit, the Cabin, and Social Psychology|url=http://www.gofir.com/general/crm/index.htm|publisher=Global Operators Flight Information Resource|accessdate=11 May 2011}}</ref>

== Flight history ==
[[File:KLM Magazine that contains Captain Jacob Veldhuyzen Van Zanten.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Veldhuyzen van Zanten in a KLM magazine]]
Tenerife was an unscheduled stop for both aircraft. Their destination was [[Gran Canaria Airport|Gran Canaria International Airport]] (also known as Las Palmas Airport or Gando Airport), serving [[Las Palmas]] on the nearby island of [[Gran Canaria]]. Both are in the [[Canary Islands]], an [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community of Spain]] located in the Atlantic Ocean off the southwest coast of [[Morocco]].

Pan Am Flight 1736 had originated at [[Los Angeles International Airport]], with an intermediate stop at New York's [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]] (JFK). The aircraft was a Boeing 747-121, registration N736PA, named ''Clipper Victor''. Of the 380 passengers (mostly of retirement age, but including two children), 14 had boarded in New York, where the crew was also changed. The new crew consisted of [[Pilot in command|Captain]] Victor Grubbs, [[First officer (aeronautics)|first officer]] Robert Bragg, [[flight engineer]] George Warns and 13 other crew members.

This aircraft had operated the inaugural 747 commercial flight on January 22, 1970.<ref name="airdisaster.com">Kilroy, Chris [http://www.airdisaster.com/special/special-pa1736.shtml ''Special Report: Tenerife''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018035500/http://www.airdisaster.com/special/special-pa1736.shtml |date=October 18, 2007 }} AirDisaster.com.</ref> In its first year of service, it also became the first 747 to be hijacked.<ref name=PanAm>{{cite web |url=http://www.panam.org/the-jet-age/522-a-day-of-firsts-2 |title=A Day of "Firsts" |publisher=Pan Am Historical Foundation}}</ref> It left JFK for [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]], at 1:07 am on August 2, 1970, with 359 or 360 passengers and 19 crew.<ref name=PanAm/> One hour and forty minutes later, a young man named R. Campos produced a gun and a bottle out of a bag that he claimed contained explosives, and hijacked the airplane to [[Havana]], where it touched down at [[Jose Marti Airport]] at 5:31 am.<ref name=PanAm/> The first 747 to land in [[Cuba]], it was met by Cuba's Premier [[Fidel Castro]].<ref name=PanAm/>

KLM Flight 4805 –a charter flight for Holland International Travel Group– had arrived from [[Amsterdam Airport Schiphol]], the Netherlands.<ref name="airdisaster.com"/> Its captain was [[Jacob Veldhuyzen van Zanten]], KLM's chief flying instructor.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, section 5.2, p. 38 (PDF page 41 of 63)"</ref> The first officer was Klaas Meurs and the flight engineer was Willem Schreuder. The aircraft was a Boeing 747-206B, registration PH-BUF, named ''Rijn ([[Rhine]])''. The KLM jet had 14 crew members and 235 passengers, including 52 children. Most of the KLM passengers were Dutch; four Germans, two Austrians and two Americans were also on the plane. After the aircraft landed at Tenerife, the passengers were transported to the airport terminal. One of the inbound passengers, who lived on the island with her partner, chose not to re-board the 747, leaving 234 passengers on board.<ref name="Air Disaster Volume 1"/><ref name="NOVA">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3315_planecra.html|title=The Deadliest Plane Crash|date= October 17, 2006|accessdate=2014-09-23 |publisher=PBS}}</ref>

==Disaster==

===Diversion of aircraft to Los Rodeos===
Both flights had been routine until they approached the islands. At 1:15 p.m., a bomb (planted by the separatist [[Fuerzas Armadas Guanches]]) exploded in the terminal of Gran Canaria International Airport, injuring one person.<ref>[http://www.1001crash.com/index-page-tenerife-lg-2.html The Tenerife disaster]. 1001 Crash (1977-03-27). Retrieved on 2017-04-09.</ref> There had been a phone call warning of the bomb, and soon after another call claimed that a second bomb was at the airport. The civil aviation authorities had therefore closed the airport temporarily after the bomb detonated and diverted all of its incoming flights to Los Rodeos, including the two Boeing 747 aircraft involved in the disaster.<ref name=ASN>{{cite web|title=ASN Accident Description|url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19770327-0|publisher=Aviation Safety Network|accessdate=11 May 2011}}</ref> The Pan Am crew indicated that they would prefer to circle in a holding pattern until landing clearance was given, but were ordered to divert to Los Rodeos.<ref>[http://www.tenerife-information-centre.com/tenerife-airport-disaster.html The Tenerife Airport Disaster – the worst in aviation history]. Tenerife-information-centre.com (1977-03-27). Retrieved on 2017-04-11.</ref>

All traffic from Gran Canaria, including five large airliners had been diverted to Los Rodeos,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQwU80HzPEkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA40|title=The Age of Catastrophe: Disaster and Humanity in Modern Times|last=Ebert|first=John David|date=2012-08-30|publisher=McFarland|year=|isbn=9780786471423|location=|pages=41|language=en|quote=Five large planes had been diverted to Las Rodeos, ...|via=}}</ref> a regional airport that could not easily accommodate them. The airport had only one [[runway]] and one major [[taxiway]] parallel to it, with four short taxiways connecting the two. While waiting for Gran Canaria airport to reopen, the diverted aircraft took up so much space that they were parked on the long taxiway, meaning that it could not be used for [[taxiing]]. Instead, departing aircraft had to taxi along the runway to position themselves for takeoff, a procedure known as a runway [[backtaxi]] or backtrack.<ref name=ASN/>

After the threat at Gran Canaria had been contained, authorities reopened that airport. The Pan Am aircraft was ready to depart from Tenerife, but the KLM plane and a refueling vehicle obstructed its access to the runway. The Pan Am aircraft was unable to maneuver around the fueling KLM, reach the runway and depart due to a lack of safe clearance, which was a mere {{convert|12|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Air Disaster Volume 1">[[Macarthur Job]] (1995). ''Air Disaster Volume 1'', ISBN 1-875671-11-0, pp.164–180</ref> Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten had decided to fully refuel at Los Rodeos instead of Las Palmas, apparently to save time. The refueling took about 35 minutes. After that, the passengers were brought back to the plane. The search for a missing Dutch family of four delayed the flight even further. A tour guide chose not to reboard for Las Palmas, because she lived on Tenerife and did not think it practical to fly to Gran Canaria just to return to Tenerife the next day. She would be the only person who flew from Amsterdam to Tenerife on Flight 4805 to survive, as she was not on the plane at the time of the accident.

=== Taxiing and takeoff preparations ===
Following the tower's instructions, the KLM was cleared to taxi the full length of the runway and make a 180° turn to get into takeoff position.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, p. 2 (PDF page 5 of 63)</ref> While the KLM was backtaxiing on the runway, the controller asked the flight crew to report when it was ready to copy the [[Instrument flight rules#Separation and clearance|ATC clearance]]. Because the flight crew was performing the checklist, copying this clearance was postponed until the aircraft was in takeoff position on Runway 30.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, p. 3-4 (PDF pages 6-7 of 63)</ref>

Shortly afterward, the Pan Am was instructed to follow the KLM down the same runway, exit it by taking the third exit on their left and then use the parallel taxiway. Initially, the crew was unclear as to whether the controller had told them to take the first or third exit. The crew asked for clarification and the controller responded emphatically by replying: "The third one, sir; one, two, three; third, third one." The crew began the taxi and proceeded to identify the unmarked taxiways using an airport diagram as they reached them.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, p. 3 (PDF page 6 of 63)</ref>

The crew successfully identified the first two taxiways (C-1 and C-2), but their discussion in the cockpit never indicated that they had sighted the third taxiway (C-3), which they had been instructed to use.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, pp. 56-57 (PDF pages 59-60 of 63)</ref> There were no markings or signs to identify the runway exits and they were in conditions of poor visibility. The Pan Am crew appeared to remain unsure of their position on the runway until the collision, which occurred near the intersection with the fourth taxiway (C-4).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/los_rodeos_anexo6.pdf |title=Official report, annex 6 }}</ref>

The angle of the third taxiway would have required the plane to perform a turn of approximately 148°, which would lead back toward the still-crowded main [[Airport apron|apron]]. At the end of C-3, the Pan Am would have to make another 148° turn in order to continue taxiing towards the start of the runway. Taxiway C-4 would have required two 35° turns. A study carried out by the [[Air Line Pilots Association, International|Air Line Pilots Association]] (ALPA) after the accident concluded that making the second 148° turn at the end of taxiway C-3 would have been "a practical impossibility."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 19 (PDF page 23 of 97)</ref> Subsequent performance calculations and taxi tests with a Boeing 747 turning off on an intersection comparable to the C-3 at Tenerife, as part of the Dutch investigation, indicate that in all probability the turns could have been made. The official report from the Spanish authorities explains that the controller instructed the Pan Am aircraft to use the third taxiway because this was the earliest exit that they could take to reach the unobstructed section of the parallel taxiway.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, pp. 46 (PDF page 49 of 63)</ref>

=== Weather conditions at Los Rodeos ===
Los Rodeos airport is at {{convert|633|m|abbr=off}} [[Sea level#AMSL|above sea level]], which gives rise to cloud behavior that differs from that at many other airports. Clouds at {{convert|600|m|abbr=on}} above ground level at the nearby coast are at ground level at Los Rodeos. Drifting clouds of different densities cause wildly varying visibilities, from unhindered at one moment to below the minimums the next. The collision took place in a high-density cloud.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 8 (PDF page 12 of 97)</ref>

The Pan Am crew found themselves in poor and rapidly deteriorating visibility almost as soon as they entered the runway. According to the ALPA report, as the Pan Am aircraft taxied to the runway, the visibility was about {{convert|500|m|abbr=on}}. Shortly after they turned onto the runway it decreased to less than {{convert|100|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 11 (PDF page 15 of 97)</ref>

Meanwhile, the KLM plane was still in good visibility, but with clouds blowing down the runway towards them. The KLM aircraft completed its 180 degree turn in relatively clear weather and lined up on Runway 30. The next cloud was some {{convert|900|m|abbr=on}} down the runway and moving towards the aircraft at about 12 knots (6 meters per second).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 12 (PDF page 16 of 97)</ref>

=== Communication misunderstandings ===
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="margin:auto; margin:1em; margin-top:0; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="background:brown;color:white;" colspan="2"|Cockpit and ATC tower communications
|-
|These communications are taken from the [[Flight recorder#Cockpit voice recorder|cockpit voice recorders]] of both aircraft, as well as from the Tenerife control tower's tapes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Project-Tenerife.com |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.airdisaster.com/cvr/tenetr.shtml |title=Airdisaster.com |publisher=Airdisaster.com |date= |accessdate=2012-05-05 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420202328/http://www.airdisaster.com/cvr/tenetr.shtml |archivedate=April 20, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKSwwwyWaT0C&pg=PA205&lpg=PA205&dq=pan+am+1736+%22there+he+is%22&source=bl&ots=c0u2usoJhd&sig=3FLXGqereSGiQinvPgZkncTP8yQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=WaMrT9ngOYOg2gWi_-mMDw&ved=0CFwQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=pan%20am%201736%20%22there%20he%20is%22&f=false |title=Aircraft safety: accident investigations, analyses, and applications By Shari Stamford Krause |publisher=Books.google.com |date=2003-07-23 |accessdate=2012-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/space/final-eight-minutes.html |title=NOVA/PBS.org: The final eight minutes |publisher=Pbs.org |date=1977-03-27 |accessdate=2012-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KY-MBUeQoZEC&pg=SA1-PA67&lpg=SA1-PA67&dq=pan+am+there+he+is&source=bl&ots=cN_sZj-YTT&sig=UTD2REj43T8Eey9i1i-ejqd7J-k&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lXaEUYb5M5Ti9gTTzICgCw&ved=0CGAQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=pan%20am%20there%20he%20is&f=false |title=JAR Professional Pilot Studies by Phil Croucher | publisher=books.google.com | accessdate=2013-05-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.1001crash.com/index-page-tenerife-lg-2-numpage-6.html|title=1001 Crash - The Tenerife disaster|website=www.1001crash.com|access-date=2016-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.travelok.net/4_a7d023eb9c9bef46_1.htm|title=KLM-PANAM CRASH|website=www.travelok.net|access-date=2016-06-28}}</ref>
1705:36-1706:32
<blockquote>
1705:36.7
:[KLM first officer completes pre-flight checklist. KLM 4805 is now at the end of the runway, in position for departure.]
1705:41.5
:'''KLM FIRST OFFICER''' Wait a minute, we don't have an ATC clearance. [This statement is apparently a response to an advancing of the throttles in the KLM.]
:'''KLM CAPTAIN''' No, I know that, go ahead, ask.
1705:44.6 - 1705:50.8
:'''KLM (RADIO)''' The KLM four eight zero five is now ready for take-off and we are waiting for our ATC clearance.
1705:53.4 - 1706:08.1
:'''TENERIFE TOWER''' KLM eight seven zero five {{sic}} you are cleared to the Papa Beacon, climb to and maintain flight level nine zero, right turn after take-off, proceed with heading four zero until intercepting the three two five radial from Las Palmas VOR.
1706:07.4
:'''KLM CAPTAIN''' Yes.
1706:09.6 - 1706:17.8
:'''KLM (RADIO)''' Ah roger, sir, we are cleared to the Papa Beacon flight level nine zero until intercepting the three two five. We are now at take-off [or "uh..taking off"].
1706:11.1
:[KLM brakes released.]
1706:12.3
:'''KLM CAPTAIN''' ''We gaan'' ... check thrust. [We're going ... check thrust].
1706:14.0
:[Engine acceleration audible in KLM cockpit]
1706:18.2 - 1706:21.2
:'''TENERIFE TOWER''' OK.... Stand by for take-off, I will call you. [Only the start of this message could be heard clearly by the KLM crew due to a radio [[heterodyne]].]
1706:19.3
:'''PAN AM CAPTAIN''' No... uh.
1706:20.3
:'''PAN AM (RADIO)''' And we're still taxiing down the runway, the clipper one seven three six. [This message was not heard completely clear by the KLM crew due to a radio heterodyne.]
1706:25.5
:'''TENERIFE TOWER''' Ah, papa alpha one seven three six report the runway clear.
1706:29.6
:'''PAN AM (RADIO)''' OK, will report when we're clear.
1706:31.7
:'''TENERIFE TOWER''' Thank you. [This the last radio communication involving the two aircraft. Everything which follows is intra-cockpit communication amongst its respective crews.]
</blockquote>
1706:32-1706:40
<blockquote>
1706:32.1
:'''PAN AM CAPTAIN''' Let's get the fuck out of here.
1706:34.9
:'''PAN AM FIRST OFFICER''' Yeah, he's anxious, isn't he?
1706:36.2
:'''PAN AM FLT ENGR''' Yeah, after he held us up for half an hour, that [expletive]. Now he's in a rush.
1706:32.4
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
:'''KLM FLT ENGR''' ''Is hij er niet af dan?'' [Is he not clear then?]
1706:34.1
:'''KLM CAPTAIN''' ''Wat zeg je?'' [What do you say?]
1706:34.2
:'''KLM UNKNOWN''' Yup.
1706:34.7
:'''KLM FLT ENGR''' ''Is hij er niet af, die Pan American?'' [Is he not clear, that Pan American?]
1706:35.7
:'''KLM CAPTAIN''' ''Jawel.'' [Oh yes. - emphatic]
</blockquote>
1706:40-1706:50
<blockquote>
1706:40.5
:[Pan Am captain sees landing lights of KLM Boeing at approx. 700 m]
1706:40.6
:'''PAN AM CAPTAIN''' There he is ... look at him. Goddamn that son-of-a-bitch is coming!
1706:45.9
:'''PAN AM FIRST OFFICER''' Get off! Get off! Get off!
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
1706:43.5
:'''KLM FIRST OFFICER''' [[V speeds#V1 definitions|V-1]].
1706:44.0
:[PH-BUF (KLM 4805) starts [[Rotation (aeronautics)|rotation]].]
1706:47.4
:'''KLM CAPTAIN''' Oh shit!
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
1706:50
:N736PA (Pan Am 1736) records sound of collision.
</blockquote>
|}
Immediately after lining up, the KLM pilot advanced the throttles and the aircraft started to move forward.<ref>Official report, p.48</ref> The co-pilot advised the captain that ATC clearance had not yet been given, and Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten responded, "I know that. Go ahead, ask." Meurs then radioed the tower that they were "ready for takeoff" and "waiting for our ATC clearance". The KLM crew then received instructions which specified the route that the aircraft was to follow after takeoff. The instructions used the word "takeoff," but did not include an explicit statement that they were cleared for takeoff.

Meurs read the flight clearance back to the controller, completing the readback with the statement: "We are now at takeoff."<ref name=ASN/> Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten interrupted the co-pilot's read-back with the comment, "We're going."<ref name=ASN/>

The controller, who could not see the runway due to the fog, initially responded with "OK" (terminology which is nonstandard), which reinforced the KLM captain's misinterpretation that they had takeoff clearance. The controller's response of "OK" to the co-pilot's nonstandard statement that they were "now at takeoff" was likely due to his misinterpretation that they were in takeoff position and ready to begin the roll when takeoff clearance was received, but not in the process of taking off. The controller then immediately added "stand by for takeoff, I will call you,"<ref name=ASN/> indicating that he had not intended the clearance to be interpreted as a takeoff clearance.<ref>Bruggink, Gerard M. [http://cf.alpa.org/internet/alp/2000/aug00p18.htm "Remembering Tenerife"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060513193139/http://cf.alpa.org/internet/alp/2000/aug00p18.htm |date=May 13, 2006 }}. Retrieved 24 February 2014.</ref>

A simultaneous radio call from the Pan Am crew caused mutual [[interference (communication)|interference]] on the radio frequency, which was audible in the KLM cockpit as a three-second-long whistling sound (or [[heterodyne]]). This caused the KLM crew to miss the crucial latter portion of the tower's response. The Pan Am crew's transmission was "We're still taxiing down the runway, the Clipper 1736!". This message was also blocked by the interference and inaudible to the KLM crew. Either message, if heard in the KLM cockpit, would have alerted the crew to the situation and given them time to abort the takeoff attempt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.salon.com/2002/03/28/heterodyne/singleton/|title=Air travel's communications killer|publisher=Salon.com|date=2002-03-28}}</ref>

Due to the fog, neither crew was able to see the other plane on the runway ahead of them. In addition, neither of the aircraft could be seen from the control tower, and the airport was not equipped with [[surface movement radar|ground radar]].<ref name=ASN/>

After the KLM plane had started its takeoff roll, the tower instructed the Pan Am crew to "report when runway clear." The Pan Am crew replied: "OK, we'll report when we're clear." On hearing this, the KLM flight engineer expressed his concern about the Pan Am not being clear of the runway by asking the pilots in his own cockpit, "Is he not clear, that Pan American?" Veldhuyzen van Zanten emphatically replied "Oh, yes" and continued with the takeoff.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planecrashinfo.com/cvr770327.htm |title=Plane Crash Info, March 1977, page 18 |publisher=Planecrashinfo.com |date=1977-03-27 |accessdate=2012-05-05}}</ref>

=== Collision ===
[[File:Map Tenerife Disaster EN.svg|thumb|left|380px|Simplified map of runway, taxiways, and aircraft. The red star indicates the location of impact. Not to scale.]]

According to the [[Flight recorder#Cockpit voice recorder|cockpit voice recorder]] (CVR), the Pan Am pilot said, "There he is!" when he spotted the KLM's landing lights through the fog just as his plane approached exit C-4. When it became clear that the KLM was approaching at takeoff speed, Grubbs exclaimed, "Goddamn, that son-of-a-bitch is coming straight at us!" while the co-pilot Robert Bragg yelled, "Get off! Get off! Get off!". The Pan Am crew applied full power to the throttles and took a sharp left turn towards the grass in an attempt to avoid a collision.<ref name=ASN/> By the time the KLM pilots saw the Pan Am, they were already traveling too fast to stop. In desperation the pilots prematurely [[Rotation (aeronautics)|rotated]] the aircraft and attempted to clear the Pan Am by climbing away, causing a severe [[tailstrike]] for {{convert|22|m|ft|abbr=on}}.

The KLM was within {{convert|100|m|abbr=on}} of the Pan Am when it left the ground. Its nose gear cleared the Pan Am, but the engines, lower [[fuselage]] and main landing gear struck the upper right side of the Pan Am's fuselage at approximately {{convert|140|knot|km/h mph}},<ref name="Air Disaster Volume 1"/> ripping apart the center of the Pan Am jet almost directly above the wing. The right side engines crashed through the Pan Am's upper deck immediately behind the cockpit.

The KLM plane remained briefly airborne following the collision, but the impact with the Pan Am had sheared off the outer left engine, caused significant amounts of shredded materials to be ingested by the inner left engine, and damaged the wings. The KLM aircraft immediately went into a stall, rolled sharply, and hit the ground at a point approximately {{convert|150|m|-2|abbr=on}} past the collision, sliding a further {{convert|300|m|-2|abbr=on}} down the runway. The full load of fuel, which had caused the earlier delay, ignited immediately in a large fireball that could not be subdued for several hours.

[[File:Tenerife-airport-disaster-crash-animation.gif||left|500px|Tenerife-airport-disaster-crash-animation]]
One of the 61 survivors of the Pan Am flight, John Coombs of [[Haleiwa]], Hawaii, said that sitting in the nose of the plane probably saved his life: "We all settled back, and the next thing an explosion took place and the whole port side, left side of the plane, was just torn wide open."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Sadat-Visits-Israel/12361881614363-1/#title |title=Tenerife Disaster, 1977 Year in Review. |publisher=Upi.com |date=2012-04-30 |accessdate=2012-05-05 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420191915/http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Sadat-Visits-Israel/12361881614363-1 |archivedate=April 20, 2012 }}</ref>

Both airplanes were destroyed. All 234 passengers and 14 crew members in the KLM plane died, as did 326 passengers and nine crew members aboard the Pan Am,<ref>[http://www.airsafe.com/events/airlines/klm.htm ''Fatal Events Since 1970 for KLM''] AirSafe.com.</ref> primarily due to the fire and explosions resulting from the fuel spilled and ignited in the impact. The other 54 passengers and seven crew members aboard the Pan Am aircraft survived, including the captain, first officer and flight engineer. Most of the survivors on the Pan Am walked out onto the intact left wing, the side away from the collision, through holes in the fuselage structure. The Pan Am's engines were still running for a few minutes after the accident despite First Officer Bragg's intention to turn them off. The top part of the cockpit, where the engine switches were located, had been destroyed in the collision, and all control lines were severed, leaving no method for the flight crew to control the aircraft's systems. Survivors waited for rescue, but it did not come promptly, as the firefighters were initially unaware that there were two aircraft involved and were concentrating on the KLM wreck some distance away in the thick fog and smoke. Eventually, most of the survivors on the wings dropped to the ground below.<ref name="Air Disaster Volume 1"/>

Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten was KLM's chief of flight training and one of their most senior pilots. His photograph was used for publicity materials such as magazine advertisements, including the inflight magazine on board PH-BUF.<ref name="Air Disaster Volume 1"/><ref>[http://www.project-tenerife.com/nederlands/fotos/bemanning/1.jpg Advertisement showing Veldhuyzen van Zanten], Project-Tenerife.</ref> As such, KLM suggested that he should be part of the investigation team, before learning that he was the captain involved.<ref>{{Smallcaps|Jan Reijnoudt}} en {{Smallcaps|Niek Sterk}}: ''Tragedie op Tenerife: de grootste luchtramp, optelsom van kleine missers'', 2002. ISBN 9043505633</ref> He had given the co-pilot on the flight his Boeing 747 qualification check about two months before the accident.<ref name="NOVA"/>

=== Airport closure ===
Los Rodeos airport, the only operating airport on Tenerife in 1977, was closed to all [[fixed-wing aircraft|fixed-wing]] traffic for two days. The first crash investigators to arrive at Tenerife the day after the crash travelled there by way of a three-hour boat ride from Las Palmas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1977/03/29/page/1/article/experts-converge-on-canaries-to-probe-plane-crash|title=Experts converge on Canaries to probe plane crash (March 29, 1977)|access-date=2016-06-28}}</ref> The first aircraft that was able to land was a [[United States Air Force]] [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|C130]] transport, which landed on the airport's main taxiway at 12:50 p.m. on March 29. It transported all surviving and injured passengers from Tenerife to Las Palmas; many of the injured would be taken from there to Air Force bases in the United States for further treatment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=DS19770329.2.2|title=Desert Sun 29 March 1977 — California Digital Newspaper Collection|website=cdnc.ucr.edu|access-date=2016-06-28}}</ref>

Spanish army troops were tasked with clearing crash wreckage from the runways and taxiways.<ref name=":0" /> By March 30, a small plane shuttle service was approved, but large jets still could not land.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/21933329/|title=30 Mar 1977, Page 4 - The Naples Daily News|website=Newspapers.com|access-date=2016-06-19}}</ref> Los Rodeos was fully reopened on April 3, after wreckage had been fully removed and engineers had repaired the airport's runway.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Page/newnation19770404-1.1.5.aspx|title=Newspaper Full Page - New Nation, 4 April 1977, Page 5|website=eresources.nlb.gov.sg|access-date=2016-06-28}}</ref>

== Investigation ==
The accident was investigated by Spain's Comisión de Investigación de Accidentes e Incidentes de Aviación Civil (CIAIAC).<ref name=ASN /> About 70 personnel were involved in the investigation, including representatives from the Netherlands, the United States, and the two airline companies.<ref>Job, p.164</ref> Facts showed that there had been misinterpretations and false assumptions. Analysis of the CVR transcript showed that the KLM pilot was convinced that he had been cleared for takeoff, while the Tenerife control tower was certain that the KLM 747 was stationary at the end of the runway and awaiting takeoff clearance. It appears KLM's co-pilot was not as certain about take-off clearance as the captain.

=== Probable cause ===
The investigation concluded that the fundamental cause of the accident was that Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten took off without clearance. The investigators suggested the reason for this was a desire to leave as soon as possible in order to comply with KLM's duty-time regulations, and before the weather deteriorated further.

Other major factors contributing to the accident were:
* The sudden fog greatly limited visibility. The control tower and the crews of both planes were unable to see one another.
* Interference from simultaneous radio transmissions, with the result that it was difficult to hear the message.

The following factors were considered contributing but not critical:
* Use of ambiguous non-standard phrases by the KLM co-pilot ("We're at take off") and the Tenerife control tower ("OK").
* The Pan Am aircraft had not exited the runway at C-3.
* The airport was forced to accommodate a great number of large aircraft due to rerouting from the bomb threat, resulting in disruption of the normal use of taxiways.<ref name=official_report>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, pp. 61–62</ref>

=== Dutch response ===
The Dutch authorities were reluctant to accept the Spanish report blaming the KLM captain for the accident. The Netherlands Department of Civil Aviation published a response that, while accepting that the KLM aircraft had taken off "prematurely", argued that he alone should not be blamed for the "mutual misunderstanding" that occurred between the controller and the KLM crew, and that limitations of using radio as a means of communication should have been given greater consideration.

In particular, the Dutch response pointed out that:
* The crowded airport had placed additional pressure on all parties, including the KLM cockpit crew, the Pan Am cockpit crew, and the controller;
* Sounds on the CVR suggested that during the accident the Spanish control tower crew had been listening to a [[Association football|football]] match on the radio and may have been distracted.
* The transmission from the tower in which the controller passed KLM their ATC clearance was ambiguous and could have been interpreted as also giving take-off clearance. In support of this part of their response, the Dutch investigators pointed out that Pan Am's messages "No! Eh?" and "We are still taxiing down the runway, the Clipper 1736!" indicated that Captain Grubbs and First Officer Bragg had recognised the ambiguity (this message was not audible to the control tower or KLM crew due to simultaneous cross-communication);
* The Pan Am had taxied beyond the third exit. Had the plane turned at the third exit as instructed, the collision would not have occurred.<ref name=dutch_response>{{cite web | url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Dutch_comments.PDF | format=PDF | title=Dutch comments on the Spanish report | publisher=Project-Tenerife}}</ref><ref name="Black Box">Nicholas Faith (1996, 1998). ''Black Box'': pp.176–178</ref>

Although the Dutch authorities were initially reluctant to blame Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten and his crew,<ref name="dutch_response"/><ref name="Black Box"/> the airline ultimately accepted responsibility for the accident. KLM paid the victims or their families compensation ranging between $58,000 and $600,000.<ref name="KLM responsibility">{{cite web | url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/howklmaccept.htm | title=How KLM accepted their responsibility for the accident | publisher=Project-Tenerife}}</ref> The sum of settlements for property and damages was $110 million<ref>''[[The Washington Post]]'', March 25, 1980</ref> (an average of $189,000 per victim,{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}} due to limitations imposed by European Compensation Conventions in effect at the time).

=== Speculations ===
This was one of the first accident investigations during which the contribution of "human factors" was studied.<ref name="alpa22a">{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 2 (PDF page 6 of 97). "The study group notes with approval that the official report of the spanish government has, itself, included a section on human factors involved in this accident. We feel that this is an excellent beginning toward a better understanding of the causal factors of aviation accidents, an idea whose time has finally come."</ref> The human factors included:
* Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten, a KLM training captain and instructor for over 10 years, had not flown on regular routes during the 12 weeks prior to the accident.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weick|first1=Karl E.|title=The Vulnerable System: An Analysis of the Tenerife Air Disaster|journal=Journal of Management|date=September 1990|volume=16|issue=3|page=576|doi=10.1177/014920639001600304}}</ref>
* The flight engineer's and the first officer's apparent hesitation to challenge Veldhuyzen van Zanten further. The official investigation suggested that this might have been because the captain was not only senior in rank, but also one of the most respected pilots working for the airline.<ref name="Air Disaster Volume 1"/><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, section 5.2, p. 38 (PDF page 41 of 63): "... these circumstances could have induced the co-pilot not to ask any questions, assuming that his captain was always right"</ref> This view is questioned by Jan Bartelski, a former KLM Captain and the president of the [[International Federation of Air Line Pilots' Associations]] (IFALPA), who knew both men and believes that this explanation is inconsistent with his experience of their personalities.<ref name=book>{{Cite book
| last = Bartelski
| first = Jan
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Disasters in the air: mysterious air disasters explained
| publisher = Airlife
| year = 2001
| location =
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 978-1-84037-204-5
| quote=}}</ref>
* The reason only the flight engineer on the KLM plane reacted to the radio transmission "OK, we'll report when we're clear" might lie in the fact that by then he had completed his pre-flight checks, whereas his colleagues were experiencing an increased workload, just as the visibility worsened.<ref name="alpa22">{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 22 (PDF page 26 of 97). "Both pilots were contending with heavy demands on their attention as the visibility rapidly worsened. The flight engineer, to the contrary, had completed the heaviest part of his workload and was now reverting to an instrument monitoring mode."</ref>
* The ALPA study group concluded that the KLM crew did not realize that the transmission "Papa Alpha one seven three six, report when runway clear" was directed at the Pan Am because this was the first and only time the Pan Am was referred to by that name. Before that, the Pan Am was called "Clipper one seven three six", with the proper callsign.<ref name="alpa22b">{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |format=pdf |publisher=project-Tenerife.com |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 22 (PDF page 26 of 97). "It is our opinion that the flight engineer, like the pilots, did not perceive the message from the controller to the Pan Am asking them to report when runway clear. (Because of the use of the address "Papa Alpha)."</ref>

The extra fuel the KLM plane took on added several factors:
*it delayed takeoff an extra 35 minutes, which gave time for the fog to settle in;
*it added over forty tons of weight<ref>[http://www.fomento.es/MFOM/LANG_CASTELLANO/DIRECCIONES_GENERALES/ORGANOS_COLEGIADOS/CIAIAC/PUBLICACIONES/HISTORICOS/LOSRODEOS/los_rodeos_2_1.htm This Spanish report] says 55,500 liters of [[jet fuel]]. Based on a density of 0.8705 kg/l that weighs some 45 metric tons, or 49 US tons {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412154318/http://www.fomento.es/MFOM/LANG_CASTELLANO/DIRECCIONES_GENERALES/ORGANOS_COLEGIADOS/CIAIAC/PUBLICACIONES/HISTORICOS/LOSRODEOS/los_rodeos_2_1.htm |date=April 12, 2009 }}</ref> to the plane, which increased the takeoff distance and made it more difficult to clear the Pan Am when taking off;
*it increased the size of the fire from the crash that ultimately killed everyone on board.<ref>{{Cite |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/space/deadliest-plane-crash.html |title=The Deadliest Plane Crash - transcript|quote=The 55 tons of fuel the Dutch plane had taken on creates a massive fireball that seals the fate of everyone onboard |publisher=NOVA }}</ref><ref>[http://www.crossroadstoday.com/content/news/international/story/Worlds-deadliest-airline-disaster-occurred-36-yea/mRW2KWYC7UitRHn5UWeXLw.cspx ''The full load of new fuel ignited immediately''], Crossroads Today {{deadlink|date=December 2016}}</ref>

== Safety response ==
As a consequence of the accident, sweeping changes were made to international airline regulations and to aircraft. Aviation authorities around the world introduced requirements for [[Voice procedure|standard phrases]] and a greater emphasis on English as a common [[lingua franca|working language]].

Air traffic instruction should not be acknowledged solely with a colloquial phrase such as "OK" or even "[[Voice procedure|Roger]]" (which simply means the last transmission was received<ref>CAP 413 Radio Telephony Manual (Edition 15), chapter 2 page 6</ref>), but with a readback of the key parts of the instruction, to show mutual understanding. The phrase "take off" is now spoken only when the actual takeoff clearance is given or when cancelling that same clearance (i.e. "cleared for take-off" or "cancel take-off clearance"). Up until that point, aircrew and controllers should use the phrase "departure" in its place, e.g. "ready for departure". Additionally, an ATC clearance given to an aircraft already lined-up on the runway must be prefixed with the instruction "hold position".<ref>CAP 413 Radio Telephony Manual (Edition 15), chapter 4, page 6, paragraph 1.7.10</ref>

[[Cockpit]] procedures were also changed. Hierarchical relations among crew members were played down. More emphasis was placed on team decision-making by mutual agreement, part of what has become known in the industry as [[crew resource management]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Evolution of Crew Resource Management Training in Commercial Aviation|author1 = Helmreich, R. L.|author2 = Merritt, A. C.|author3 = Wilhelm, J. A.|journal = [[Int. J. Aviat. Psychol.]]|year = 1999|volume = 9|issue = 1|pages = 19–32|doi = 10.1207/s15327108ijap0901_2|pmid = 11541445|url = http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/group/helmreichlab/publications/pubfiles/Pub235.pdf |archivedate=March 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306162247/http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/group/HelmreichLAB/publications/pubfiles/Pub235.pdf |format=pdf}}</ref>

In 1978 a second airport was inaugurated on the island: the new [[Tenerife–South Airport]] (TFS). This airport now serves the majority of international tourist flights. Los Rodeos, renamed to Tenerife North Airport (TFN), was then used only for domestic and inter-island flights. In 2002 a new terminal was opened and Tenerife North once again carries international traffic, including budget airlines.

The Spanish government installed a ground radar at Tenerife North following the accident.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tenerife-training.net/Tenerife-News-Cycling-Blog/tenerife-north-airport-will-get-a-new-control-tower-more-than-30-years-after-worlds-biggest-air-disaster/|title=» Tenerife North airport will get a new control tower, more than 30 years after world’s biggest air disaster.|website=www.tenerife-training.net|access-date=2017-03-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.tenerife-information-centre.com/tenerife-airport-disaster.html|title=The Tenerife Airport Disaster - the worst in aviation history|work=The Tenerife Information Centre|access-date=2017-03-04}}</ref>

== Memorials ==
[[File:International Tenerife Memorial March 27, 1977.jpg|thumbnail|Tenerife Memorial]]
[[File:Westgaarde.jpg|thumb|Monument in Westgaarde Cemetery, Amsterdam]]

A Dutch national memorial and final resting place for the victims of the KLM plane is located in [[Amsterdam]], at Westgaarde cemetery. There is also a memorial at the Westminster Memorial Park and Mortuary in [[Westminster, California]].

In 2007, the 30th anniversary marked the first time that Dutch and American next-of-kin and aid helpers from Tenerife joined an international commemoration service, held at the Auditorio de Tenerife in Santa Cruz. The [[International Tenerife Memorial March 27, 1977]], was inaugurated at the Mesa Mota on March 27, 2007. The monument was designed by Dutch sculptor Rudi van de Wint.

==Notable victims==
*[[Eve Meyer]], a [[Pinup girl|pin-up model]], film actress and producer and former wife of film director [[Russ Meyer]], was on the Pan Am, and was killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/panampas.htm |title=Passenger list of the PanAm| publisher=ProjectTenerife.com| accessdate=2016-02-10}}</ref>
*[[A. P. Hamann]], the former city manager of [[San Jose, California]], and his wife Frances Hamann, were also on the Pan Am, and were both killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sanjoseinside.com/sji/blog/entries/dutch_hamann1/ |title=San Jose Inside – Dutch Hamann – Part 2 |publisher=Sanjoseinside.com |date=2006-01-23 |accessdate=2012-05-05}}</ref>

== Documentaries ==
The disaster has been featured in many TV shows and documentaries. These include the ''[[Mayday (Canadian TV series)|Mayday]]'' special episode "Crash of the Century" and the Season 16 episode "Disaster at Tenerife", the ''[[Survival in the Sky]]'' episode "Blaming the Pilot", the ''[[Seconds From Disaster]]'' episode "Collision on the Runway", PBS's ''[[Nova (TV series)|NOVA]]'' episode "The Deadliest Plane Crash" in 2006, the PBS special ''Surviving Disaster: How the Brain Works Under Extreme Duress'' (based on [[Amanda Ripley]]'s book ''The Unthinkable'') in 2011, and the [[Discovery Channel]] TV series ''Most Deadly'' and ''[[Destroyed in Seconds]]''.

== Other accidents at Los Rodeos ==
Although the accident of 27 March 1977 is the most well known, two other major accidents have occurred at the airport of Los Rodeos.<ref>[http://aniversario.elpais.com/accidente-los-rodeos/ Los Rodeos: 583 viajeros perecieron en la mayor catástrofe de la aviación civil] {{es}}</ref>
* [[Spantax Flight 275]] (1972): 155 casualties
* [[Dan-Air Flight 1008]] (1980): 146 casualties

==Similar accidents and incidents==
Similar incidents involving two large airliners in collision or near misses when one aircraft was taking off whilst another was occupying the runway include:
* On January 29, 1971, Flight 592 a [[Boeing 727]] operated by [[Trans-Australia Airlines]] collided with a [[Canadian Pacific Airlines]] [[Douglas DC8|Douglas DC8-63]] aircraft at [[Kingsford-Smith Airport]], [[Sydney]], Australia, due to errors by the crew of the DC-8. Both aircraft were substantially damaged; The Boeing 727 sustained damage to the underside of its [[fuselage]]. It made a successful emergency landing back at Kingsford-Smith Airport. The DC-8 lost most of its tailfin and rudder. The starboard elevator was also damaged. There were no injuries amongst the nineteen crew and 240 passengers on board the two aircraft.<ref name=Sydney>{{cite web |url=http://www.atsb.gov.au/media/24753/197101202.pdf |title=Special Investigation Report 71-1 |publisher=Air Saftety Investigation Branch |date=August 1971 |accessdate=30 October 2016}}</ref>
* The [[Linate Airport disaster]]: on October 8, 2001, Scandianavian Airlines Flight 686, operated by a [[McDonnell Douglas MD-87]], collided with a [[Cessna Citation CJ2]] on the runway at [[Linate Airport]], [[Milan]], Italy, in foggy conditions. All 114 people on board the two aircraft were killed, as were four more on the ground. The cause of the accident was a runway incursion by the Citation.
* On October 11, 2016, [[China Eastern Airlines]] Flight 5643, an [[Airbus 320]], was forced to rotate early whilst taking off from [[Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport]] due to China Eastern Airlines Flight 5106, an [[Airbus A330]], crossing the runway ahead of it. The crew of the latter had been cleared to cross by Air Traffic Control. There was no collision, the A320 clearing the A330 by {{convert|19|m|ft}}. There were 26 crew and 413 passengers aboard the two aircraft. The pilot of the A320 was rewarded by the [[Civil Aviation Administration of China]] for averting the accident.<ref name=AH49f37b96>{{cite web |url=http://avherald.com/h?article=49f37b96&opt=0 |title=Incident: China Eastern A333 at Shanghai on Oct 11th 2016, runway incursion forces departure to rotate early and climb over A333 |first=Simon |last=Hradecky |publisher=Aviation Herald |date=11 October 2016 |accessdate=30 October 2016}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft]]
{{portal bar|Spain|Netherlands|United States|1970s|Aviation|Disasters}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{external media
| align = right
| width =
| image1 = [http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?regsearch=PH-BUF&distinct_entry=true PH-BUF (KLM 4805)] - Airliners.net
| image2 = [http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?regsearch=N736PA&distinct_entry=true N736PA (Pan Am 1736)] - Airliners.net
}}










*[http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/rapporten.htm Official Spanish and Dutch accident reports]
** "[http://www.fomento.gob.es/MFOM/LANG_CASTELLANO/ORGANOS_COLEGIADOS/CIAIAC/PUBLICACIONES/HISTORICOS/A-102-103-1977/ A-102/1977 y A-103/1977 Accidente Ocurrido el 27 de Marzo de 1977 a las Aeronaves Boeing 747, Matrícula PH-BUF de K.L.M. y Aeronave Boeing 747, matrícula N736PA de PANAM en el Aeropuerto de los Rodeos, Tenerife (Islas Canarias)]." - Hosted by the [[Civil Aviation Accident and Incident Investigation Commission]] {{es icon}}
*[http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf Human Factors Report on the Tenerife Accident] - [[Air Line Pilots Association, International|Air Line Pilots Association]] of the United States ([http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf Archive])
*[http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/index.htm Project Tenerife] — a Web site about the disaster at Tenerife

{{Coord|28.48165|N|16.3384|W|region:ES-TF_type:event|display=title}}
{{Aviation accidents and incidents in 1977}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tenerife Airport Disaster}}
[[Category:Accidents and incidents involving the Boeing 747]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents involving ground collisions]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by pilot error]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents involving fog]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1977]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in Spain]]
[[Category:KLM accidents and incidents]]
[[Category:Pan American World Airways accidents and incidents]]
[[Category:Runway incursions]]
[[Category:Tenerife|Disaster]]
[[Category:1977 in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:1977 in Spain]]
[[Category:March 1977 events]]

Tenerife airport disaster

2017-04-09T19:50:46Z

JanTurin: /* Diversion of aircraft to Los Rodeos */ retrieval date

{{redirect|Tenerife crash|other crashes|Tenerife North Airport|and|Tenerife South Airport}}
{{use American English|date=November 2015}}
{{use mdy dates|date=November 2015}}
{{Infobox aircraft occurrence
|occurrence_type = Accident
|name = Tenerife airport disaster {{nobold|{{small|KLM Flight 4805{{·}}Pan Am Flight 1736}}}}
|image =
|caption =
|Date = March 27, 1977
|type = [[Pilot error]], [[runway incursion]], heavy fog, limitations and failures in communication
|site = {{longitem|style=line-height:1.2em; |[[Los Rodeos Airport]] {{small|(now Tenerife-North Airport)}}}} [[Tenerife]], [[Canary Islands]], Spain
|total_survivors = 61
|total_fatalities = 583
|total_injuries = 61
|plane1_type = [[Boeing 747#747-200|Boeing 747-206B]]
|plane1_name = ''Rijn'' {{small|("[[Rhine]]")}}
|plane1_image = KLM 747 (7491686916).jpg
|plane1_caption = PH-BUF, the KLM Boeing 747-206B involved in the accident
|plane1_operator = [[KLM|KLM Royal Dutch Airlines]]
|plane1_tailnum = {{Airreg|PH|BUF}}
|plane1_origin = [[Amsterdam Airport Schiphol|Schiphol Airport]] Amsterdam, Netherlands
|plane1_destination = [[Gran Canaria Airport]] Canary Islands, Spain
|plane1_passengers = 234
|plane1_crew = 14
|plane1_fatalities = 248 {{small|(all)}}
|plane1_survivors = 0
|plane2_type = [[Boeing 747#747-100|Boeing 747–121]]
|plane2_name = ''Clipper Victor''
|plane2_image = Boeing 747-121, Pan American World Airways - Pan Am AN1399875.jpg
|plane2_caption = A Pan Am Boeing 747-121 similar to the one involved
|plane2_operator = [[Pan American World Airways]]
|plane2_tailnum = {{Airreg|N|736PA}}
|plane2_origin = [[Los Angeles International Airport|Los Angeles Int'l Airport]] Los Angeles, United States
|plane2_stopover = {{nowrap|[[John F. Kennedy International Airport|John F. Kennedy Int'l Airport]]}} {{nowrap|New York City, United States}}
|plane2_destination = Gran Canaria Airport Canary Islands, Spain
|plane2_passengers = 380
|plane2_crew = 16
|plane2_injuries = 61
|plane2_fatalities = {{nowrap|335 {{small|(326 passengers, 9 crew)}}}}
|plane2_survivors = 61
}}

On March 27, 1977, two [[Boeing 747]] passenger jets collided on the runway at [[Los Rodeos Airport]] (now Tenerife North Airport), on the Spanish island of [[Tenerife]], [[Canary Islands]]. The crash killed 583 people, making it the [[List of aircraft accidents and incidents resulting in at least 50 fatalities|deadliest accident in aviation history]]. As a result of the complex interaction of organizational influences, environmental conditions, and unsafe acts leading up to this aircraft mishap, the disaster at Tenerife has served as a textbook example for reviewing the processes and frameworks used in aviation mishap investigations and accident prevention.<ref>{{cite news|title=TENERIFE DISASTER - 27 MARCH 1977: The Utility of the Swiss Cheese Model & other Accident Causation Frameworks|url=http://goflightmedicine.com/tenerife-disaster/|accessdate=13 October 2014|publisher=Go Flight Medicine}}</ref>

A bomb explosion at [[Gran Canaria Airport]], and the threat of a second bomb, caused many aircraft to be diverted to Los Rodeos Airport. Among them were [[KLM]] Flight 4805 and [[Pan Am]] Flight 1736 – the two aircraft involved in the accident. At Los Rodeos Airport, air traffic controllers were forced to park many of the airplanes on the taxiway, thereby blocking it. While authorities waited to reopen Gran Canaria, a dense fog had developed at Tenerife, which greatly reduced visibility and further complicated the situation.

When Gran Canaria reopened, the parked aircraft blocking the taxiway at Tenerife required both of the 747s to taxi on the only runway in order to get in position for takeoff. The fog was so thick that neither aircraft could be seen from the other, and the controller in the tower could not see the runway or the two 747s on it. As the airport did not have [[Airport surveillance radar|ground radar]], the controller could only find where each airplane was by voice reports over the radio.

The disaster occurred in Spanish territory, making Spain responsible for investigating the accident. The crash involved aircraft from the United States and the Netherlands, and both of those countries appointed representatives to the investigation. The investigations revealed that the primary cause of the accident was the captain of the KLM flight taking off without clearance from [[air traffic control]] (ATC).<ref name=ASN/> The investigation specified that the captain did not intentionally take off without clearance; rather he fully believed he had clearance to take off due to misunderstandings between his flight crew and ATC.<ref name=ASN/> Dutch investigators placed a greater emphasis on this than their American and Spanish counterparts,<ref name="dutch_response"/> but ultimately KLM admitted their crew was responsible for the accident, and the airline financially compensated the victims' relatives.<ref name="KLM responsibility"/>

The accident had a lasting influence on the industry, particularly in the area of communication. An increased emphasis was placed on using standardized phraseology in ATC communication by controllers and pilots alike, thereby reducing the chance for misunderstandings. As part of these changes, the word "takeoff" was removed from general usage, and is only spoken by ATC when clearing an aircraft to take off<ref>{{cite web|title=The Tenerife Airport Disaster - the worst in aviation history|url=http://www.tenerife-information-centre.com/tenerife-airport-disaster.html|publisher=Tenerife Information Centre|accessdate=11 May 2011}}</ref> or when cancelling that same clearance. Less experienced flight crew members were encouraged to challenge their captains when they believed something was not correct, and captains were instructed to listen to their crew and evaluate all decisions in light of crew concerns. This concept was later expanded into what is known today as [[crew resource management]] (CRM), in which training is now mandatory for all airline pilots.<ref>{{cite web|last=Baron|first=Robert|title=The Cockpit, the Cabin, and Social Psychology|url=http://www.gofir.com/general/crm/index.htm|publisher=Global Operators Flight Information Resource|accessdate=11 May 2011}}</ref>

== Flight history ==
[[File:KLM Magazine that contains Captain Jacob Veldhuyzen Van Zanten.jpg|thumb|Photograph of Veldhuyzen van Zanten in a KLM magazine]]
Tenerife was an unscheduled stop for both aircraft. Their destination was [[Gran Canaria Airport|Gran Canaria International Airport]] (also known as Las Palmas Airport or Gando Airport), serving [[Las Palmas]] on the nearby island of [[Gran Canaria]]. Both are in the [[Canary Islands]], an [[Autonomous communities of Spain|autonomous community of Spain]] located in the Atlantic Ocean off the southwest coast of [[Morocco]].

Pan Am Flight 1736 had originated at [[Los Angeles International Airport]], with an intermediate stop at New York's [[John F. Kennedy International Airport]] (JFK). The aircraft was a Boeing 747-121, registration N736PA, named ''Clipper Victor''. Of the 380 passengers (mostly of retirement age, but including two children), 14 had boarded in New York, where the crew was also changed. The new crew consisted of [[Pilot in command|Captain]] Victor Grubbs, [[First officer (aeronautics)|first officer]] Robert Bragg, [[flight engineer]] George Warns and 13 other crew members.

This aircraft had operated the inaugural 747 commercial flight on January 22, 1970.<ref name="airdisaster.com">Kilroy, Chris [http://www.airdisaster.com/special/special-pa1736.shtml ''Special Report: Tenerife''] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071018035500/http://www.airdisaster.com/special/special-pa1736.shtml |date=October 18, 2007 }} AirDisaster.com.</ref> In its first year of service, it also became the first 747 to be hijacked.<ref name=PanAm>{{cite web |url=http://www.panam.org/the-jet-age/522-a-day-of-firsts-2 |title=A Day of "Firsts" |publisher=Pan Am Historical Foundation}}</ref> It left JFK for [[San Juan, Puerto Rico]], at 1:07 am on August 2, 1970, with 359 or 360 passengers and 19 crew.<ref name=PanAm/> One hour and forty minutes later, a young man named R. Campos produced a gun and a bottle out of a bag that he claimed contained explosives, and hijacked the airplane to [[Havana]], where it touched down at [[Jose Marti Airport]] at 5:31 am.<ref name=PanAm/> The first 747 to land in [[Cuba]], it was met by Cuba's Premier [[Fidel Castro]].<ref name=PanAm/>

KLM Flight 4805 –a charter flight for Holland International Travel Group– had arrived from [[Amsterdam Airport Schiphol]], the Netherlands.<ref name="airdisaster.com"/> Its captain was [[Jacob Veldhuyzen van Zanten]], KLM's chief flying instructor.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, section 5.2, p. 38 (PDF page 41 of 63)"</ref> The first officer was Klaas Meurs and the flight engineer was Willem Schreuder. The aircraft was a Boeing 747-206B, registration PH-BUF, named ''Rijn ([[Rhine]])''. The KLM jet had 14 crew members and 235 passengers, including 52 children. Most of the KLM passengers were Dutch; four Germans, two Austrians and two Americans were also on the plane. After the aircraft landed at Tenerife, the passengers were transported to the airport terminal. One of the inbound passengers, who lived on the island with her partner, chose not to re-board the 747, leaving 234 passengers on board.<ref name="Air Disaster Volume 1"/><ref name="NOVA">{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/transcripts/3315_planecra.html|title=The Deadliest Plane Crash|date= October 17, 2006|accessdate=2014-09-23 |publisher=PBS}}</ref>

==Disaster==

===Diversion of aircraft to Los Rodeos===
Both flights had been routine until they approached the islands. At 1:15 p.m., a bomb (planted by the separatist [[Fuerzas Armadas Guanches]]) exploded in the terminal of Gran Canaria International Airport, injuring one person.<ref>[http://www.1001crash.com/index-page-tenerife-lg-2.html The Tenerife disaster]. 1001 Crash (1977-03-27). Retrieved on 2017-04-09.</ref> There had been a phone call warning of the bomb, and soon after another call claimed that a second bomb was at the airport. The civil aviation authorities had therefore closed the airport temporarily after the bomb detonated and diverted all of its incoming flights to Los Rodeos, including the two Boeing 747 aircraft involved in the disaster.<ref name=ASN>{{cite web|title=ASN Accident Description|url=http://aviation-safety.net/database/record.php?id=19770327-0|publisher=Aviation Safety Network|accessdate=11 May 2011}}</ref> The Pan Am crew indicated that they would prefer to circle in a holding pattern until landing clearance was given, but were ordered to divert to Los Rodeos.<ref>[http://www.tenerife-information-centre.com/tenerife-airport-disaster.html The Tenerife Airport Disaster – the worst in aviation history]. Tenerife-information-centre.com (1977-03-27). Retrieved on 2011-01-14.</ref>

All traffic from Gran Canaria, including five large airliners had been diverted to Los Rodeos,<ref>{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UQwU80HzPEkC&lpg=PP1&pg=PA40|title=The Age of Catastrophe: Disaster and Humanity in Modern Times|last=Ebert|first=John David|date=2012-08-30|publisher=McFarland|year=|isbn=9780786471423|location=|pages=41|language=en|quote=Five large planes had been diverted to Las Rodeos, ...|via=}}</ref> a regional airport that could not easily accommodate them. The airport had only one [[runway]] and one major [[taxiway]] parallel to it, with four short taxiways connecting the two. While waiting for Gran Canaria airport to reopen, the diverted aircraft took up so much space that they were parked on the long taxiway, meaning that it could not be used for [[taxiing]]. Instead, departing aircraft had to taxi along the runway to position themselves for takeoff, a procedure known as a runway [[backtaxi]] or backtrack.<ref name=ASN/>

After the threat at Gran Canaria had been contained, authorities reopened that airport. The Pan Am aircraft was ready to depart from Tenerife, but the KLM plane and a refueling vehicle obstructed its access to the runway. The Pan Am aircraft was unable to maneuver around the fueling KLM, reach the runway and depart due to a lack of safe clearance, which was a mere {{convert|12|ft|abbr=on}}.<ref name="Air Disaster Volume 1">[[Macarthur Job]] (1995). ''Air Disaster Volume 1'', ISBN 1-875671-11-0, pp.164–180</ref> Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten had decided to fully refuel at Los Rodeos instead of Las Palmas, apparently to save time. The refueling took about 35 minutes. After that, the passengers were brought back to the plane. The search for a missing Dutch family of four delayed the flight even further. A tour guide chose not to reboard for Las Palmas, because she lived on Tenerife and did not think it practical to fly to Gran Canaria just to return to Tenerife the next day. She would be the only person who flew from Amsterdam to Tenerife on Flight 4805 to survive, as she was not on the plane at the time of the accident.

=== Taxiing and takeoff preparations ===
Following the tower's instructions, the KLM was cleared to taxi the full length of the runway and make a 180° turn to get into takeoff position.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, p. 2 (PDF page 5 of 63)</ref> While the KLM was backtaxiing on the runway, the controller asked the flight crew to report when it was ready to copy the [[Instrument flight rules#Separation and clearance|ATC clearance]]. Because the flight crew was performing the checklist, copying this clearance was postponed until the aircraft was in takeoff position on Runway 30.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, p. 3-4 (PDF pages 6-7 of 63)</ref>

Shortly afterward, the Pan Am was instructed to follow the KLM down the same runway, exit it by taking the third exit on their left and then use the parallel taxiway. Initially, the crew was unclear as to whether the controller had told them to take the first or third exit. The crew asked for clarification and the controller responded emphatically by replying: "The third one, sir; one, two, three; third, third one." The crew began the taxi and proceeded to identify the unmarked taxiways using an airport diagram as they reached them.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, p. 3 (PDF page 6 of 63)</ref>

The crew successfully identified the first two taxiways (C-1 and C-2), but their discussion in the cockpit never indicated that they had sighted the third taxiway (C-3), which they had been instructed to use.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, pp. 56-57 (PDF pages 59-60 of 63)</ref> There were no markings or signs to identify the runway exits and they were in conditions of poor visibility. The Pan Am crew appeared to remain unsure of their position on the runway until the collision, which occurred near the intersection with the fourth taxiway (C-4).<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/los_rodeos_anexo6.pdf |title=Official report, annex 6 }}</ref>

The angle of the third taxiway would have required the plane to perform a turn of approximately 148°, which would lead back toward the still-crowded main [[Airport apron|apron]]. At the end of C-3, the Pan Am would have to make another 148° turn in order to continue taxiing towards the start of the runway. Taxiway C-4 would have required two 35° turns. A study carried out by the [[Air Line Pilots Association, International|Air Line Pilots Association]] (ALPA) after the accident concluded that making the second 148° turn at the end of taxiway C-3 would have been "a practical impossibility."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 19 (PDF page 23 of 97)</ref> Subsequent performance calculations and taxi tests with a Boeing 747 turning off on an intersection comparable to the C-3 at Tenerife, as part of the Dutch investigation, indicate that in all probability the turns could have been made. The official report from the Spanish authorities explains that the controller instructed the Pan Am aircraft to use the third taxiway because this was the earliest exit that they could take to reach the unobstructed section of the parallel taxiway.<ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, pp. 46 (PDF page 49 of 63)</ref>

=== Weather conditions at Los Rodeos ===
Los Rodeos airport is at {{convert|633|m|abbr=off}} [[Sea level#AMSL|above sea level]], which gives rise to cloud behavior that differs from that at many other airports. Clouds at {{convert|600|m|abbr=on}} above ground level at the nearby coast are at ground level at Los Rodeos. Drifting clouds of different densities cause wildly varying visibilities, from unhindered at one moment to below the minimums the next. The collision took place in a high-density cloud.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 8 (PDF page 12 of 97)</ref>

The Pan Am crew found themselves in poor and rapidly deteriorating visibility almost as soon as they entered the runway. According to the ALPA report, as the Pan Am aircraft taxied to the runway, the visibility was about {{convert|500|m|abbr=on}}. Shortly after they turned onto the runway it decreased to less than {{convert|100|m|abbr=on}}.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 11 (PDF page 15 of 97)</ref>

Meanwhile, the KLM plane was still in good visibility, but with clouds blowing down the runway towards them. The KLM aircraft completed its 180 degree turn in relatively clear weather and lined up on Runway 30. The next cloud was some {{convert|900|m|abbr=on}} down the runway and moving towards the aircraft at about 12 knots (6 meters per second).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 12 (PDF page 16 of 97)</ref>

=== Communication misunderstandings ===
{| class="wikitable collapsible collapsed" style="margin:auto; margin:1em; margin-top:0; margin:auto;"
|-
! style="background:brown;color:white;" colspan="2"|Cockpit and ATC tower communications
|-
|These communications are taken from the [[Flight recorder#Cockpit voice recorder|cockpit voice recorders]] of both aircraft, as well as from the Tenerife control tower's tapes.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Project-Tenerife.com |format=PDF |date= |accessdate=2012-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.airdisaster.com/cvr/tenetr.shtml |title=Airdisaster.com |publisher=Airdisaster.com |date= |accessdate=2012-05-05 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420202328/http://www.airdisaster.com/cvr/tenetr.shtml |archivedate=April 20, 2012 }}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YKSwwwyWaT0C&pg=PA205&lpg=PA205&dq=pan+am+1736+%22there+he+is%22&source=bl&ots=c0u2usoJhd&sig=3FLXGqereSGiQinvPgZkncTP8yQ&hl=en&sa=X&ei=WaMrT9ngOYOg2gWi_-mMDw&ved=0CFwQ6AEwBw#v=onepage&q=pan%20am%201736%20%22there%20he%20is%22&f=false |title=Aircraft safety: accident investigations, analyses, and applications By Shari Stamford Krause |publisher=Books.google.com |date=2003-07-23 |accessdate=2012-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/space/final-eight-minutes.html |title=NOVA/PBS.org: The final eight minutes |publisher=Pbs.org |date=1977-03-27 |accessdate=2012-05-05}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KY-MBUeQoZEC&pg=SA1-PA67&lpg=SA1-PA67&dq=pan+am+there+he+is&source=bl&ots=cN_sZj-YTT&sig=UTD2REj43T8Eey9i1i-ejqd7J-k&hl=en&sa=X&ei=lXaEUYb5M5Ti9gTTzICgCw&ved=0CGAQ6AEwCA#v=onepage&q=pan%20am%20there%20he%20is&f=false |title=JAR Professional Pilot Studies by Phil Croucher | publisher=books.google.com | accessdate=2013-05-03}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.1001crash.com/index-page-tenerife-lg-2-numpage-6.html|title=1001 Crash - The Tenerife disaster|website=www.1001crash.com|access-date=2016-06-28}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.travelok.net/4_a7d023eb9c9bef46_1.htm|title=KLM-PANAM CRASH|website=www.travelok.net|access-date=2016-06-28}}</ref>
1705:36-1706:32
<blockquote>
1705:36.7
:[KLM first officer completes pre-flight checklist. KLM 4805 is now at the end of the runway, in position for departure.]
1705:41.5
:'''KLM FIRST OFFICER''' Wait a minute, we don't have an ATC clearance. [This statement is apparently a response to an advancing of the throttles in the KLM.]
:'''KLM CAPTAIN''' No, I know that, go ahead, ask.
1705:44.6 - 1705:50.8
:'''KLM (RADIO)''' The KLM four eight zero five is now ready for take-off and we are waiting for our ATC clearance.
1705:53.4 - 1706:08.1
:'''TENERIFE TOWER''' KLM eight seven zero five {{sic}} you are cleared to the Papa Beacon, climb to and maintain flight level nine zero, right turn after take-off, proceed with heading four zero until intercepting the three two five radial from Las Palmas VOR.
1706:07.4
:'''KLM CAPTAIN''' Yes.
1706:09.6 - 1706:17.8
:'''KLM (RADIO)''' Ah roger, sir, we are cleared to the Papa Beacon flight level nine zero until intercepting the three two five. We are now at take-off [or "uh..taking off"].
1706:11.1
:[KLM brakes released.]
1706:12.3
:'''KLM CAPTAIN''' ''We gaan'' ... check thrust. [We're going ... check thrust].
1706:14.0
:[Engine acceleration audible in KLM cockpit]
1706:18.2 - 1706:21.2
:'''TENERIFE TOWER''' OK.... Stand by for take-off, I will call you. [Only the start of this message could be heard clearly by the KLM crew due to a radio [[heterodyne]].]
1706:19.3
:'''PAN AM CAPTAIN''' No... uh.
1706:20.3
:'''PAN AM (RADIO)''' And we're still taxiing down the runway, the clipper one seven three six. [This message was not heard completely clear by the KLM crew due to a radio heterodyne.]
1706:25.5
:'''TENERIFE TOWER''' Ah, papa alpha one seven three six report the runway clear.
1706:29.6
:'''PAN AM (RADIO)''' OK, will report when we're clear.
1706:31.7
:'''TENERIFE TOWER''' Thank you. [This the last radio communication involving the two aircraft. Everything which follows is intra-cockpit communication amongst its respective crews.]
</blockquote>
1706:32-1706:40
<blockquote>
1706:32.1
:'''PAN AM CAPTAIN''' Let's get the fuck out of here.
1706:34.9
:'''PAN AM FIRST OFFICER''' Yeah, he's anxious, isn't he?
1706:36.2
:'''PAN AM FLT ENGR''' Yeah, after he held us up for half an hour, that [expletive]. Now he's in a rush.
1706:32.4
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
:'''KLM FLT ENGR''' ''Is hij er niet af dan?'' [Is he not clear then?]
1706:34.1
:'''KLM CAPTAIN''' ''Wat zeg je?'' [What do you say?]
1706:34.2
:'''KLM UNKNOWN''' Yup.
1706:34.7
:'''KLM FLT ENGR''' ''Is hij er niet af, die Pan American?'' [Is he not clear, that Pan American?]
1706:35.7
:'''KLM CAPTAIN''' ''Jawel.'' [Oh yes. - emphatic]
</blockquote>
1706:40-1706:50
<blockquote>
1706:40.5
:[Pan Am captain sees landing lights of KLM Boeing at approx. 700 m]
1706:40.6
:'''PAN AM CAPTAIN''' There he is ... look at him. Goddamn that son-of-a-bitch is coming!
1706:45.9
:'''PAN AM FIRST OFFICER''' Get off! Get off! Get off!
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
1706:43.5
:'''KLM FIRST OFFICER''' [[V speeds#V1 definitions|V-1]].
1706:44.0
:[PH-BUF (KLM 4805) starts [[Rotation (aeronautics)|rotation]].]
1706:47.4
:'''KLM CAPTAIN''' Oh shit!
</blockquote>
<blockquote>
1706:50
:N736PA (Pan Am 1736) records sound of collision.
</blockquote>
|}
Immediately after lining up, the KLM pilot advanced the throttles and the aircraft started to move forward.<ref>Official report, p.48</ref> The co-pilot advised the captain that ATC clearance had not yet been given, and Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten responded, "I know that. Go ahead, ask." Meurs then radioed the tower that they were "ready for takeoff" and "waiting for our ATC clearance". The KLM crew then received instructions which specified the route that the aircraft was to follow after takeoff. The instructions used the word "takeoff," but did not include an explicit statement that they were cleared for takeoff.

Meurs read the flight clearance back to the controller, completing the readback with the statement: "We are now at takeoff."<ref name=ASN/> Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten interrupted the co-pilot's read-back with the comment, "We're going."<ref name=ASN/>

The controller, who could not see the runway due to the fog, initially responded with "OK" (terminology which is nonstandard), which reinforced the KLM captain's misinterpretation that they had takeoff clearance. The controller's response of "OK" to the co-pilot's nonstandard statement that they were "now at takeoff" was likely due to his misinterpretation that they were in takeoff position and ready to begin the roll when takeoff clearance was received, but not in the process of taking off. The controller then immediately added "stand by for takeoff, I will call you,"<ref name=ASN/> indicating that he had not intended the clearance to be interpreted as a takeoff clearance.<ref>Bruggink, Gerard M. [http://cf.alpa.org/internet/alp/2000/aug00p18.htm "Remembering Tenerife"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060513193139/http://cf.alpa.org/internet/alp/2000/aug00p18.htm |date=May 13, 2006 }}. Retrieved 24 February 2014.</ref>

A simultaneous radio call from the Pan Am crew caused mutual [[interference (communication)|interference]] on the radio frequency, which was audible in the KLM cockpit as a three-second-long whistling sound (or [[heterodyne]]). This caused the KLM crew to miss the crucial latter portion of the tower's response. The Pan Am crew's transmission was "We're still taxiing down the runway, the Clipper 1736!". This message was also blocked by the interference and inaudible to the KLM crew. Either message, if heard in the KLM cockpit, would have alerted the crew to the situation and given them time to abort the takeoff attempt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.salon.com/2002/03/28/heterodyne/singleton/|title=Air travel's communications killer|publisher=Salon.com|date=2002-03-28}}</ref>

Due to the fog, neither crew was able to see the other plane on the runway ahead of them. In addition, neither of the aircraft could be seen from the control tower, and the airport was not equipped with [[surface movement radar|ground radar]].<ref name=ASN/>

After the KLM plane had started its takeoff roll, the tower instructed the Pan Am crew to "report when runway clear." The Pan Am crew replied: "OK, we'll report when we're clear." On hearing this, the KLM flight engineer expressed his concern about the Pan Am not being clear of the runway by asking the pilots in his own cockpit, "Is he not clear, that Pan American?" Veldhuyzen van Zanten emphatically replied "Oh, yes" and continued with the takeoff.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.planecrashinfo.com/cvr770327.htm |title=Plane Crash Info, March 1977, page 18 |publisher=Planecrashinfo.com |date=1977-03-27 |accessdate=2012-05-05}}</ref>

=== Collision ===
[[File:Map Tenerife Disaster EN.svg|thumb|left|380px|Simplified map of runway, taxiways, and aircraft. The red star indicates the location of impact. Not to scale.]]

According to the [[Flight recorder#Cockpit voice recorder|cockpit voice recorder]] (CVR), the Pan Am pilot said, "There he is!" when he spotted the KLM's landing lights through the fog just as his plane approached exit C-4. When it became clear that the KLM was approaching at takeoff speed, Grubbs exclaimed, "Goddamn, that son-of-a-bitch is coming straight at us!" while the co-pilot Robert Bragg yelled, "Get off! Get off! Get off!". The Pan Am crew applied full power to the throttles and took a sharp left turn towards the grass in an attempt to avoid a collision.<ref name=ASN/> By the time the KLM pilots saw the Pan Am, they were already traveling too fast to stop. In desperation the pilots prematurely [[Rotation (aeronautics)|rotated]] the aircraft and attempted to clear the Pan Am by climbing away, causing a severe [[tailstrike]] for {{convert|22|m|ft|abbr=on}}.

The KLM was within {{convert|100|m|abbr=on}} of the Pan Am when it left the ground. Its nose gear cleared the Pan Am, but the engines, lower [[fuselage]] and main landing gear struck the upper right side of the Pan Am's fuselage at approximately {{convert|140|knot|km/h mph}},<ref name="Air Disaster Volume 1"/> ripping apart the center of the Pan Am jet almost directly above the wing. The right side engines crashed through the Pan Am's upper deck immediately behind the cockpit.

The KLM plane remained briefly airborne following the collision, but the impact with the Pan Am had sheared off the outer left engine, caused significant amounts of shredded materials to be ingested by the inner left engine, and damaged the wings. The KLM aircraft immediately went into a stall, rolled sharply, and hit the ground at a point approximately {{convert|150|m|-2|abbr=on}} past the collision, sliding a further {{convert|300|m|-2|abbr=on}} down the runway. The full load of fuel, which had caused the earlier delay, ignited immediately in a large fireball that could not be subdued for several hours.

[[File:Tenerife-airport-disaster-crash-animation.gif||left|500px|Tenerife-airport-disaster-crash-animation]]
One of the 61 survivors of the Pan Am flight, John Coombs of [[Haleiwa]], Hawaii, said that sitting in the nose of the plane probably saved his life: "We all settled back, and the next thing an explosion took place and the whole port side, left side of the plane, was just torn wide open."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Sadat-Visits-Israel/12361881614363-1/#title |title=Tenerife Disaster, 1977 Year in Review. |publisher=Upi.com |date=2012-04-30 |accessdate=2012-05-05 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20120420191915/http://www.upi.com/Audio/Year_in_Review/Sadat-Visits-Israel/12361881614363-1 |archivedate=April 20, 2012 }}</ref>

Both airplanes were destroyed. All 234 passengers and 14 crew members in the KLM plane died, as did 326 passengers and nine crew members aboard the Pan Am,<ref>[http://www.airsafe.com/events/airlines/klm.htm ''Fatal Events Since 1970 for KLM''] AirSafe.com.</ref> primarily due to the fire and explosions resulting from the fuel spilled and ignited in the impact. The other 54 passengers and seven crew members aboard the Pan Am aircraft survived, including the captain, first officer and flight engineer. Most of the survivors on the Pan Am walked out onto the intact left wing, the side away from the collision, through holes in the fuselage structure. The Pan Am's engines were still running for a few minutes after the accident despite First Officer Bragg's intention to turn them off. The top part of the cockpit, where the engine switches were located, had been destroyed in the collision, and all control lines were severed, leaving no method for the flight crew to control the aircraft's systems. Survivors waited for rescue, but it did not come promptly, as the firefighters were initially unaware that there were two aircraft involved and were concentrating on the KLM wreck some distance away in the thick fog and smoke. Eventually, most of the survivors on the wings dropped to the ground below.<ref name="Air Disaster Volume 1"/>

Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten was KLM's chief of flight training and one of their most senior pilots. His photograph was used for publicity materials such as magazine advertisements, including the inflight magazine on board PH-BUF.<ref name="Air Disaster Volume 1"/><ref>[http://www.project-tenerife.com/nederlands/fotos/bemanning/1.jpg Advertisement showing Veldhuyzen van Zanten], Project-Tenerife.</ref> As such, KLM suggested that he should be part of the investigation team, before learning that he was the captain involved.<ref>{{Smallcaps|Jan Reijnoudt}} en {{Smallcaps|Niek Sterk}}: ''Tragedie op Tenerife: de grootste luchtramp, optelsom van kleine missers'', 2002. ISBN 9043505633</ref> He had given the co-pilot on the flight his Boeing 747 qualification check about two months before the accident.<ref name="NOVA"/>

=== Airport closure ===
Los Rodeos airport, the only operating airport on Tenerife in 1977, was closed to all [[fixed-wing aircraft|fixed-wing]] traffic for two days. The first crash investigators to arrive at Tenerife the day after the crash travelled there by way of a three-hour boat ride from Las Palmas.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://archives.chicagotribune.com/1977/03/29/page/1/article/experts-converge-on-canaries-to-probe-plane-crash|title=Experts converge on Canaries to probe plane crash (March 29, 1977)|access-date=2016-06-28}}</ref> The first aircraft that was able to land was a [[United States Air Force]] [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|C130]] transport, which landed on the airport's main taxiway at 12:50 p.m. on March 29. It transported all surviving and injured passengers from Tenerife to Las Palmas; many of the injured would be taken from there to Air Force bases in the United States for further treatment.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://cdnc.ucr.edu/cgi-bin/cdnc?a=d&d=DS19770329.2.2|title=Desert Sun 29 March 1977 — California Digital Newspaper Collection|website=cdnc.ucr.edu|access-date=2016-06-28}}</ref>

Spanish army troops were tasked with clearing crash wreckage from the runways and taxiways.<ref name=":0" /> By March 30, a small plane shuttle service was approved, but large jets still could not land.<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url=https://www.newspapers.com/image/21933329/|title=30 Mar 1977, Page 4 - The Naples Daily News|website=Newspapers.com|access-date=2016-06-19}}</ref> Los Rodeos was fully reopened on April 3, after wreckage had been fully removed and engineers had repaired the airport's runway.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://eresources.nlb.gov.sg/newspapers/Digitised/Page/newnation19770404-1.1.5.aspx|title=Newspaper Full Page - New Nation, 4 April 1977, Page 5|website=eresources.nlb.gov.sg|access-date=2016-06-28}}</ref>

== Investigation ==
The accident was investigated by Spain's Comisión de Investigación de Accidentes e Incidentes de Aviación Civil (CIAIAC).<ref name=ASN /> About 70 personnel were involved in the investigation, including representatives from the Netherlands, the United States, and the two airline companies.<ref>Job, p.164</ref> Facts showed that there had been misinterpretations and false assumptions. Analysis of the CVR transcript showed that the KLM pilot was convinced that he had been cleared for takeoff, while the Tenerife control tower was certain that the KLM 747 was stationary at the end of the runway and awaiting takeoff clearance. It appears KLM's co-pilot was not as certain about take-off clearance as the captain.

=== Probable cause ===
The investigation concluded that the fundamental cause of the accident was that Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten took off without clearance. The investigators suggested the reason for this was a desire to leave as soon as possible in order to comply with KLM's duty-time regulations, and before the weather deteriorated further.

Other major factors contributing to the accident were:
* The sudden fog greatly limited visibility. The control tower and the crews of both planes were unable to see one another.
* Interference from simultaneous radio transmissions, with the result that it was difficult to hear the message.

The following factors were considered contributing but not critical:
* Use of ambiguous non-standard phrases by the KLM co-pilot ("We're at take off") and the Tenerife control tower ("OK").
* The Pan Am aircraft had not exited the runway at C-3.
* The airport was forced to accommodate a great number of large aircraft due to rerouting from the bomb threat, resulting in disruption of the normal use of taxiways.<ref name=official_report>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, pp. 61–62</ref>

=== Dutch response ===
The Dutch authorities were reluctant to accept the Spanish report blaming the KLM captain for the accident. The Netherlands Department of Civil Aviation published a response that, while accepting that the KLM aircraft had taken off "prematurely", argued that he alone should not be blamed for the "mutual misunderstanding" that occurred between the controller and the KLM crew, and that limitations of using radio as a means of communication should have been given greater consideration.

In particular, the Dutch response pointed out that:
* The crowded airport had placed additional pressure on all parties, including the KLM cockpit crew, the Pan Am cockpit crew, and the controller;
* Sounds on the CVR suggested that during the accident the Spanish control tower crew had been listening to a [[Association football|football]] match on the radio and may have been distracted.
* The transmission from the tower in which the controller passed KLM their ATC clearance was ambiguous and could have been interpreted as also giving take-off clearance. In support of this part of their response, the Dutch investigators pointed out that Pan Am's messages "No! Eh?" and "We are still taxiing down the runway, the Clipper 1736!" indicated that Captain Grubbs and First Officer Bragg had recognised the ambiguity (this message was not audible to the control tower or KLM crew due to simultaneous cross-communication);
* The Pan Am had taxied beyond the third exit. Had the plane turned at the third exit as instructed, the collision would not have occurred.<ref name=dutch_response>{{cite web | url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Dutch_comments.PDF | format=PDF | title=Dutch comments on the Spanish report | publisher=Project-Tenerife}}</ref><ref name="Black Box">Nicholas Faith (1996, 1998). ''Black Box'': pp.176–178</ref>

Although the Dutch authorities were initially reluctant to blame Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten and his crew,<ref name="dutch_response"/><ref name="Black Box"/> the airline ultimately accepted responsibility for the accident. KLM paid the victims or their families compensation ranging between $58,000 and $600,000.<ref name="KLM responsibility">{{cite web | url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/howklmaccept.htm | title=How KLM accepted their responsibility for the accident | publisher=Project-Tenerife}}</ref> The sum of settlements for property and damages was $110 million<ref>''[[The Washington Post]]'', March 25, 1980</ref> (an average of $189,000 per victim,{{Citation needed|date=January 2011}} due to limitations imposed by European Compensation Conventions in effect at the time).

=== Speculations ===
This was one of the first accident investigations during which the contribution of "human factors" was studied.<ref name="alpa22a">{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 2 (PDF page 6 of 97). "The study group notes with approval that the official report of the spanish government has, itself, included a section on human factors involved in this accident. We feel that this is an excellent beginning toward a better understanding of the causal factors of aviation accidents, an idea whose time has finally come."</ref> The human factors included:
* Captain Veldhuyzen van Zanten, a KLM training captain and instructor for over 10 years, had not flown on regular routes during the 12 weeks prior to the accident.<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Weick|first1=Karl E.|title=The Vulnerable System: An Analysis of the Tenerife Air Disaster|journal=Journal of Management|date=September 1990|volume=16|issue=3|page=576|doi=10.1177/014920639001600304}}</ref>
* The flight engineer's and the first officer's apparent hesitation to challenge Veldhuyzen van Zanten further. The official investigation suggested that this might have been because the captain was not only senior in rank, but also one of the most respected pilots working for the airline.<ref name="Air Disaster Volume 1"/><ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/Tenerife.pdf |title=Official report }} {{small|(5.98 MB)}}, section 5.2, p. 38 (PDF page 41 of 63): "... these circumstances could have induced the co-pilot not to ask any questions, assuming that his captain was always right"</ref> This view is questioned by Jan Bartelski, a former KLM Captain and the president of the [[International Federation of Air Line Pilots' Associations]] (IFALPA), who knew both men and believes that this explanation is inconsistent with his experience of their personalities.<ref name=book>{{Cite book
| last = Bartelski
| first = Jan
| authorlink =
| coauthors =
| title = Disasters in the air: mysterious air disasters explained
| publisher = Airlife
| year = 2001
| location =
| pages =
| url =
| doi =
| id =
| isbn = 978-1-84037-204-5
| quote=}}</ref>
* The reason only the flight engineer on the KLM plane reacted to the radio transmission "OK, we'll report when we're clear" might lie in the fact that by then he had completed his pre-flight checks, whereas his colleagues were experiencing an increased workload, just as the visibility worsened.<ref name="alpa22">{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 22 (PDF page 26 of 97). "Both pilots were contending with heavy demands on their attention as the visibility rapidly worsened. The flight engineer, to the contrary, had completed the heaviest part of his workload and was now reverting to an instrument monitoring mode."</ref>
* The ALPA study group concluded that the KLM crew did not realize that the transmission "Papa Alpha one seven three six, report when runway clear" was directed at the Pan Am because this was the first and only time the Pan Am was referred to by that name. Before that, the Pan Am was called "Clipper one seven three six", with the proper callsign.<ref name="alpa22b">{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |title=ALPA report on the crash |format=pdf |publisher=project-Tenerife.com |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf |archivedate=June 14, 2011 |df=mdy-all }} {{small|(2.70 MB)}}, p. 22 (PDF page 26 of 97). "It is our opinion that the flight engineer, like the pilots, did not perceive the message from the controller to the Pan Am asking them to report when runway clear. (Because of the use of the address "Papa Alpha)."</ref>

The extra fuel the KLM plane took on added several factors:
*it delayed takeoff an extra 35 minutes, which gave time for the fog to settle in;
*it added over forty tons of weight<ref>[http://www.fomento.es/MFOM/LANG_CASTELLANO/DIRECCIONES_GENERALES/ORGANOS_COLEGIADOS/CIAIAC/PUBLICACIONES/HISTORICOS/LOSRODEOS/los_rodeos_2_1.htm This Spanish report] says 55,500 liters of [[jet fuel]]. Based on a density of 0.8705 kg/l that weighs some 45 metric tons, or 49 US tons {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090412154318/http://www.fomento.es/MFOM/LANG_CASTELLANO/DIRECCIONES_GENERALES/ORGANOS_COLEGIADOS/CIAIAC/PUBLICACIONES/HISTORICOS/LOSRODEOS/los_rodeos_2_1.htm |date=April 12, 2009 }}</ref> to the plane, which increased the takeoff distance and made it more difficult to clear the Pan Am when taking off;
*it increased the size of the fire from the crash that ultimately killed everyone on board.<ref>{{Cite |url=http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/space/deadliest-plane-crash.html |title=The Deadliest Plane Crash - transcript|quote=The 55 tons of fuel the Dutch plane had taken on creates a massive fireball that seals the fate of everyone onboard |publisher=NOVA }}</ref><ref>[http://www.crossroadstoday.com/content/news/international/story/Worlds-deadliest-airline-disaster-occurred-36-yea/mRW2KWYC7UitRHn5UWeXLw.cspx ''The full load of new fuel ignited immediately''], Crossroads Today {{deadlink|date=December 2016}}</ref>

== Safety response ==
As a consequence of the accident, sweeping changes were made to international airline regulations and to aircraft. Aviation authorities around the world introduced requirements for [[Voice procedure|standard phrases]] and a greater emphasis on English as a common [[lingua franca|working language]].

Air traffic instruction should not be acknowledged solely with a colloquial phrase such as "OK" or even "[[Voice procedure|Roger]]" (which simply means the last transmission was received<ref>CAP 413 Radio Telephony Manual (Edition 15), chapter 2 page 6</ref>), but with a readback of the key parts of the instruction, to show mutual understanding. The phrase "take off" is now spoken only when the actual takeoff clearance is given or when cancelling that same clearance (i.e. "cleared for take-off" or "cancel take-off clearance"). Up until that point, aircrew and controllers should use the phrase "departure" in its place, e.g. "ready for departure". Additionally, an ATC clearance given to an aircraft already lined-up on the runway must be prefixed with the instruction "hold position".<ref>CAP 413 Radio Telephony Manual (Edition 15), chapter 4, page 6, paragraph 1.7.10</ref>

[[Cockpit]] procedures were also changed. Hierarchical relations among crew members were played down. More emphasis was placed on team decision-making by mutual agreement, part of what has become known in the industry as [[crew resource management]].<ref>{{Cite journal|title = The Evolution of Crew Resource Management Training in Commercial Aviation|author1 = Helmreich, R. L.|author2 = Merritt, A. C.|author3 = Wilhelm, J. A.|journal = [[Int. J. Aviat. Psychol.]]|year = 1999|volume = 9|issue = 1|pages = 19–32|doi = 10.1207/s15327108ijap0901_2|pmid = 11541445|url = http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/group/helmreichlab/publications/pubfiles/Pub235.pdf |archivedate=March 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130306162247/http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepage/group/HelmreichLAB/publications/pubfiles/Pub235.pdf |format=pdf}}</ref>

In 1978 a second airport was inaugurated on the island: the new [[Tenerife–South Airport]] (TFS). This airport now serves the majority of international tourist flights. Los Rodeos, renamed to Tenerife North Airport (TFN), was then used only for domestic and inter-island flights. In 2002 a new terminal was opened and Tenerife North once again carries international traffic, including budget airlines.

The Spanish government installed a ground radar at Tenerife North following the accident.<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://www.tenerife-training.net/Tenerife-News-Cycling-Blog/tenerife-north-airport-will-get-a-new-control-tower-more-than-30-years-after-worlds-biggest-air-disaster/|title=» Tenerife North airport will get a new control tower, more than 30 years after world’s biggest air disaster.|website=www.tenerife-training.net|access-date=2017-03-04}}</ref><ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.tenerife-information-centre.com/tenerife-airport-disaster.html|title=The Tenerife Airport Disaster - the worst in aviation history|work=The Tenerife Information Centre|access-date=2017-03-04}}</ref>

== Memorials ==
[[File:International Tenerife Memorial March 27, 1977.jpg|thumbnail|Tenerife Memorial]]
[[File:Westgaarde.jpg|thumb|Monument in Westgaarde Cemetery, Amsterdam]]

A Dutch national memorial and final resting place for the victims of the KLM plane is located in [[Amsterdam]], at Westgaarde cemetery. There is also a memorial at the Westminster Memorial Park and Mortuary in [[Westminster, California]].

In 2007, the 30th anniversary marked the first time that Dutch and American next-of-kin and aid helpers from Tenerife joined an international commemoration service, held at the Auditorio de Tenerife in Santa Cruz. The [[International Tenerife Memorial March 27, 1977]], was inaugurated at the Mesa Mota on March 27, 2007. The monument was designed by Dutch sculptor Rudi van de Wint.

==Notable victims==
*[[Eve Meyer]], a [[Pinup girl|pin-up model]], film actress and producer and former wife of film director [[Russ Meyer]], was on the Pan Am.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/panampas.htm |title=Passenger list of the PanAm| publisher=ProjectTenerife.com| accessdate=2016-02-10}}</ref>
*[[A. P. Hamann]], the former city manager of [[San Jose, California]], and his wife Frances Hamann, were also on the Pan Am.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sanjoseinside.com/sji/blog/entries/dutch_hamann1/ |title=San Jose Inside – Dutch Hamann – Part 2 |publisher=Sanjoseinside.com |date=2006-01-23 |accessdate=2012-05-05}}</ref>

== Documentaries ==
The disaster has been featured in many TV shows and documentaries. These include the ''[[Mayday (Canadian TV series)|Mayday]]'' special episode "Crash of the Century" and the Season 16 episode "Disaster at Tenerife", the ''[[Survival in the Sky]]'' episode "Blaming the Pilot", the ''[[Seconds From Disaster]]'' episode "Collision on the Runway", PBS's ''[[Nova (TV series)|NOVA]]'' episode "The Deadliest Plane Crash" in 2006, the PBS special ''Surviving Disaster: How the Brain Works Under Extreme Duress'' (based on [[Amanda Ripley]]'s book ''The Unthinkable'') in 2011, and the [[Discovery Channel]] TV series ''Most Deadly'' and ''[[Destroyed in Seconds]]''.

== Other accidents at Los Rodeos ==
Although the accident of 27 March 1977 is the most well known, two other major accidents have occurred at the airport of Los Rodeos.<ref>[http://aniversario.elpais.com/accidente-los-rodeos/ Los Rodeos: 583 viajeros perecieron en la mayor catástrofe de la aviación civil] {{es}}</ref>
* [[Spantax Flight 275]] (1972): 155 casualties
* [[Dan-Air Flight 1008]] (1980): 146 casualties

==Similar accidents and incidents==
Similar incidents involving two large airliners in collision or near misses when one aircraft was taking off whilst another was occupying the runway include:
* On January 29, 1971, Flight 592 a [[Boeing 727]] operated by [[Trans-Australia Airlines]] collided with a [[Canadian Pacific Airlines]] [[Douglas DC8|Douglas DC8-63]] aircraft at [[Kingsford-Smith Airport]], [[Sydney]], Australia, due to errors by the crew of the DC-8. Both aircraft were substantially damaged; The Boeing 727 sustained damage to the underside of its [[fuselage]]. It made a successful emergency landing back at Kingsford-Smith Airport. The DC-8 lost most of its tailfin and rudder. The starboard elevator was also damaged. There were no injuries amongst the nineteen crew and 240 passengers on board the two aircraft.<ref name=Sydney>{{cite web |url=http://www.atsb.gov.au/media/24753/197101202.pdf |title=Special Investigation Report 71-1 |publisher=Air Saftety Investigation Branch |date=August 1971 |accessdate=30 October 2016}}</ref>
* The [[Linate Airport disaster]]: on October 8, 2001, Scandianavian Airlines Flight 686, operated by a [[McDonnell Douglas MD-87]], collided with a [[Cessna Citation CJ2]] on the runway at [[Linate Airport]], [[Milan]], Italy, in foggy conditions. All 114 people on board the two aircraft were killed, as were four more on the ground. The cause of the accident was a runway incursion by the Citation.
* On October 11, 2016, [[China Eastern Airlines]] Flight 5643, an [[Airbus 320]], was forced to rotate early whilst taking off from [[Shanghai Hongqiao International Airport]] due to China Eastern Airlines Flight 5106, an [[Airbus A330]], crossing the runway ahead of it. The crew of the latter had been cleared to cross by Air Traffic Control. There was no collision, the A320 clearing the A330 by {{convert|19|m|ft}}. There were 26 crew and 413 passengers aboard the two aircraft. The pilot of the A320 was rewarded by the [[Civil Aviation Administration of China]] for averting the accident.<ref name=AH49f37b96>{{cite web |url=http://avherald.com/h?article=49f37b96&opt=0 |title=Incident: China Eastern A333 at Shanghai on Oct 11th 2016, runway incursion forces departure to rotate early and climb over A333 |first=Simon |last=Hradecky |publisher=Aviation Herald |date=11 October 2016 |accessdate=30 October 2016}}</ref>

== See also ==
* [[List of accidents and incidents involving commercial aircraft]]
{{portal bar|Spain|Netherlands|United States|1970s|Aviation|Disasters}}

== References ==
{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
{{Commons category}}
{{external media
| align = right
| width =
| image1 = [http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?regsearch=PH-BUF&distinct_entry=true PH-BUF (KLM 4805)] - Airliners.net
| image2 = [http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?regsearch=N736PA&distinct_entry=true N736PA (Pan Am 1736)] - Airliners.net
}}










*[http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/rapporten.htm Official Spanish and Dutch accident reports]
** "[http://www.fomento.gob.es/MFOM/LANG_CASTELLANO/ORGANOS_COLEGIADOS/CIAIAC/PUBLICACIONES/HISTORICOS/A-102-103-1977/ A-102/1977 y A-103/1977 Accidente Ocurrido el 27 de Marzo de 1977 a las Aeronaves Boeing 747, Matrícula PH-BUF de K.L.M. y Aeronave Boeing 747, matrícula N736PA de PANAM en el Aeropuerto de los Rodeos, Tenerife (Islas Canarias)]." - Hosted by the [[Civil Aviation Accident and Incident Investigation Commission]] {{es icon}}
*[http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf Human Factors Report on the Tenerife Accident] - [[Air Line Pilots Association, International|Air Line Pilots Association]] of the United States ([http://www.webcitation.org/5zRT8z0Rm?url=http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/PDF/alpa.pdf Archive])
*[http://www.project-tenerife.com/engels/index.htm Project Tenerife] — a Web site about the disaster at Tenerife

{{Coord|28.48165|N|16.3384|W|region:ES-TF_type:event|display=title}}
{{Aviation accidents and incidents in 1977}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Tenerife Airport Disaster}}
[[Category:Accidents and incidents involving the Boeing 747]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents involving ground collisions]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents caused by pilot error]]
[[Category:Airliner accidents and incidents involving fog]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in 1977]]
[[Category:Aviation accidents and incidents in Spain]]
[[Category:KLM accidents and incidents]]
[[Category:Pan American World Airways accidents and incidents]]
[[Category:Runway incursions]]
[[Category:Tenerife|Disaster]]
[[Category:1977 in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:1977 in Spain]]
[[Category:March 1977 events]]

Fokker

2017-04-04T11:28:54Z

JanTurin: /* Post-World War II rebuilding */ F28

{{other uses}}
{{Refimprove|article|date=August 2008}}
{{Infobox company
|name = Fokker
|logo = [[Image:Fokker logo.png|center|Logo of Fokker company.]]
|caption =
|fate = Acquired by GKN company
|foundation = 22 February 1912
|defunct = 1996
|location = [[Amsterdam]], [[Netherlands]]
|industry = [[Aerospace]]
|key_people = [[Anthony Fokker]], [[Reinhold Platz]], [[Walter Rethel]]
|products = Commercial airliners Military aircraft
|num_employees =
|parent = GKN
|subsid =
}}

'''Fokker''' was a [[Netherlands|Dutch]] [[aircraft manufacturer]] named after its founder, [[Anthony Fokker]]. The company operated under several different names, starting out in 1912 in [[Schwerin]], [[German Empire|Germany]], moving to the [[Netherlands]] in 1919.

During its most successful period in the 1920s and 1930s, it dominated the civil aviation market. Fokker went into bankruptcy in 1996, and its operations were sold to competitors.

==History==
[[Image:Fokker Spin.jpg|thumb|right|Fokker's first airplane, the ''Spin'' (Spider) (1910)]]

===Fokker in Germany===
At age 20, while studying in Germany, Anthony Fokker built his initial aircraft, the [[Fokker Spin|''Spin'']] (Spider)—the first Dutch-built plane to fly in his home country. Taking advantage of better opportunities in Germany, he moved to [[Berlin]], where in 1912, he founded his first company, Fokker Aeroplanbau, later moving to the Görries suburb just southwest of [[Schwerin]] (at {{Coord|53|36|45.90|N|11|22|31.60|E}}), where the current company was founded, as Fokker Aviatik GmbH, on 12 February 1912.<ref>[http://library.thinkquest.org/C002752/fokker.cgi?page=anthony "Anthony Herman Gerard Fokker."] ''Fokker, A Living History.'' Retrieved: 19 December 2010.</ref>

===[[World War I]]===
Fokker capitalized on having sold several [[Fokker Spin]] monoplanes to the German government and set up a factory in Germany to supply the [[German Army (German Empire)|German Army]]. His first new design for the Germans to be produced in any numbers was the [[Fokker M.5]], which was little more than a copy of the [[Morane-Saulnier G]], built with steel tube instead of wood for the fuselage, and with minor alterations to the outline of the rudder and undercarriage and a new aerofoil section.<ref name="Weyl p65-7">Weyl 1965, pp. 65–67.</ref> When it was realized that arming these scouts with a machine gun firing through the propeller was desirable, Fokker developed a [[Synchronization gear#Fokker's Synchronizer and other German gears|synchronization gear]] similar to that patented by [[Franz Schneider (engineer)|Franz Schneider]].<ref name="Weyl 96">Weyl 1965, p. 96.</ref>

[[file:Fokker_EIII_210-16.jpg|thumb|right|Fokker Eindecker in flight]]
Fitted with a developed version of this gear, the M.5 became the [[Fokker Eindecker]], which due to its revolutionary armament, became one of the most feared aircraft over the western front, its introduction leading to a period of German air superiority known as the [[Fokker Scourge]] until the balance was restored by aircraft such as the [[Nieuport 11]] and [[Airco DH.2]].

During World War I, Fokker engineers were working on the [[Fokker-Leimberger]], an externally powered 12-barrel [[Gatling gun]] in the 7.92×57mm round claimed to be capable of firing over 7200 round per minute.<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1957/1957%20-%200312.html?tracked=1 "Motor Guns-A flashback to 1914–18."] ''Flight,'' 8 March 1957, pp. 313–314.</ref>

Later in the war, after the [[Fokker D.V]] had failed to gain acceptance with the ''Luftstreitkräfte'' (the last design by earlier chief designer Martin Kreutzer), the German government forced Fokker (for their aircraft production expertise) and [[Junkers]] (for their pioneering all-metal airframe construction techniques, and advanced design concepts) to cooperate more closely, which resulted in the foundation of the Junkers-Fokker Aktiengesellschaft, or Jfa, on 20 October 1917. As this partnership proved to be troublesome, it was eventually dissolved again. By then, former Fokker welder and new designer [[Reinhold Platz]], who had taken the late Martin Kreutzer's place with the firm, had adapted some of Prof. Junkers' design concepts, that resulted in a visual similarity between the aircraft of those two manufacturers during the next decade.

Some of the noteworthy types produced by Fokker during the second half of the war, all designed primarily by Herr Platz, included the [[Fokker D.VI]], [[Fokker Dr.I]] ''Dreidecker'' (one mount of the [[Red Baron]]), [[Fokker D.VII]] (the only aircraft ever referred to directly in a treaty: all DVII's were singled out for handover to the allies in their terms of the [[Armistice with Germany (Compiègne)|armistice agreement]]) and the [[Fokker D.VIII]].

===Return to the Netherlands===
In 1919, Fokker, owing large sums in back taxes (including 14,250,000 [[German Papiermark|marks]] of income-tax),<ref name="weyl p354">Weyl 1965, p.354.</ref> returned to the Netherlands and founded a new company near [[Amsterdam]] with the support of Steenkolen Handels Vereniging, now known as [[SHV Holdings]]. He chose the name Nederlandse Vliegtuigenfabriek (Dutch Aircraft Factory) to conceal the Fokker brand because of his World War I involvement. Despite the strict disarmament conditions in the [[Treaty of Versailles]], Fokker did not return home empty-handed. In 1919, he arranged an export permit and brought six entire trains of parts, and 180 types of aircraft across the Dutch-German border, among them 117 Fokker C.Is, D.VIIs, and D.VIIIs. This initial stock enabled him to set up shop quickly.

After his company's relocation, many Fokker C.I and C.IV military airplanes were delivered to Russia, Romania, and the still clandestine German air force. Success came on the commercial market, too, with the development of the Fokker F.VII, a high-winged aircraft capable of taking on various types of engines. Fokker continued to design and build military aircraft, delivering planes to the [[Royal Netherlands Air Force]]. Foreign military customers eventually included Finland, Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Switzerland, Hungary, and Italy. These countries bought substantial numbers of the Fokker C.V reconnaissance aircraft, which became Fokker's main success in the late 1920s and early 1930s.

===1920s and 30s: Fokker's glory period===
[[Image:Southern cross.jpg|thumb|right|Fokker F.VII]]

In the 1920s, Fokker entered its glory years, becoming the world's largest aircraft manufacturer by the late 1920s. Its greatest success was the 1925 [[Fokker F.VII|F.VIIa/3m trimotor]] passenger aircraft, which was used by 54 [[airline|airline companies]] worldwide and captured 40% of the American market in 1936. It shared the European market with the Junkers all-metal aircraft, but dominated the American market until the arrival of the [[Ford Trimotor]] which copied the aerodynamic features of the Fokker F.VII, and Junkers structural concepts.

A serious blow to Fokker's reputation came after the 1931 [[TWA Flight 599]] disaster in Kansas, when it became known that the crash was caused by a structural failure caused by wood rot. [[Notre Dame Fighting Irish football|Notre Dame]] legendary football coach [[Knute Rockne]] was among the fatalities, prompting extensive media coverage and technical investigation. As a result, all Fokkers were grounded in the USA, along with many other types that had copied Fokker's wings.

In 1923, Anthony Fokker moved to the United States, where in 1927, he established an American branch of his company, the [[Atlantic Aircraft]] Corporation, which was renamed the Fokker Aircraft Corporation of America. In 1930, this company merged with [[General Motors Corporation]] and the company's name became General Aviation Manufacturing Corporation, which in turn merged with [[North American Aviation]] and was divested by GM in 1948. In 1931, discontented at being totally subordinate to GM management, Fokker resigned. On December 23, 1939, he died in New York City.

===World War II===
At the outset of [[World War II]], the few [[Fokker G.I|G.I]]s and [[Fokker D.XXI|D.XXI]]s of the Dutch Air Force were able to score a respectable number of victories against the ''Luftwaffe'', but many were destroyed on the ground before they could be used.

The Fokker factories were confiscated by the Germans and were used to build [[Bücker Flugzeugbau|Bücker]] [[Bücker Bü 181|Bü 181 Bestmann]] trainers and parts for the [[Junkers Ju 52]] transport. At the end of the war, the factories were completely stripped by the Germans and destroyed by Allied bombing.

===Post-World War II rebuilding===
[[Image:Gloster Meteor F.8 EG-121 Belgian A.F. BLA 06.09.55 edited-2.jpg|thumb|right|Fokker-built Gloster Meteor of the [[Belgian Air Force]] in 1955]]

Rebuilding after the war proved difficult. The market was flooded with cheap surplus planes from the war. The company cautiously started building [[Glider aircraft|glider]]s and autobuses and converting [[C-47 Skytrain|Dakota]] transport planes to civilian versions. A few [[Fokker F25|F25]]s were built. Nevertheless, the [[Fokker S-11|S-11]] trainer was a success, being purchased by several air forces. The [[Fokker S.14 Machtrainer|S-14 Machtrainer]] became one of the first [[jet trainers]], and although not an export success, it served for over a decade with the [[Royal Netherlands Air Force]].

A new factory was built next to [[Schiphol]] Airport near Amsterdam in 1951. A number of military planes were built there under license, among them the [[Gloster Meteor]] twin-jet fighter and [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]]'s [[F-104 Starfighter]]. A second production and maintenance facility was established at [[Woensdrecht]].

[[Image:Fokker F27 d-aeld Marcel van Leeuwen 2-2002.jpg|thumb|left|The Fokker F-27 turboprop airliner]]

In 1958, the [[Fokker F27|F-27]] Friendship was introduced, Fokker's most successful postwar airliner. The Dutch government contributed 27 million [[Dutch gulden|guilders]] to its development. Powered by the [[Rolls-Royce Dart]], it became the world's best-selling [[turboprop]] airliner, reaching almost 800 units sold by 1986, including 206 under license by [[Fairchild (aircraft manufacturer)|Fairchild]]. Also, a military version of the F-27, the F-27 Troopship, was built.

In 1962, the F-27 was followed by the jet-powered [[Fokker F28|F-28]] Fellowship. Until production stopped in 1987, a total of 241 were built in various versions. Both an F-27 and later an F-28 served with the [[Dutch Royal Flight]], [[Prince Bernhard]] himself being a pilot.{{cn|date=March 2017}}

In 1969, Fokker agreed to an alliance with [[Bremen (city)|Bremen]]-based [[Vereinigte Flugtechnische Werke]] under control of a transnational holding company. They collaborated on an unsuccessful regional [[jet airliner|jetliner]], the [[VFW-614]], of which only 19 were sold. This collaboration ended in early 1980.

[[File:Royal Netherlands Air Force F-16 arrives RIAT Fairford 10thJuly2014 arp.jpg|thumb|A Fokker-assembled [[Royal Netherlands Air Force]] [[F-16]] arrives for the [[Royal International Air Tattoo]], [[England]], (2014)]]

Fokker was one of the main partners in the [[General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon|F-16 Fighting Falcon]] consortium (European Participating Air Forces), which was responsible for the production of these fighters for the [[Belgian Air Force|Belgian]], [[Danish Air Force|Danish]], [[Royal Netherlands Air Force|Dutch]], and [[Royal Norwegian Air Force|Norwegian]] Air Forces. It consisted of companies and government agencies from these four countries and the United States. F-16s were assembled at Fokker and at [[SABCA]] in Belgium with parts from the five countries involved.

In 1986, Fokker released the title song "Fokker on the Wing"<ref>{{Citation|last=Huib De Bruijn|title=fokker on the wing Title song|date=2015-05-12|url=https://m.youtube.com/watch?v=5Bb7VnKAbTc|accessdate=2016-04-07}}</ref> to promote the company's work on the Fokker 50 and 100 aircraft. The song talks about Fokker "knows how to build aircraft", "builds you wings to sail the sky", and "on our way to new horizons". The song is now famous{{cn|date=March 2017}} and is used in many Fokker promotions and advertisements. It was sung by Toon Vieijra.

===Aerospace===
In 1967, Fokker started a modest space division building parts for European [[satellite]]s. A major advance came in 1968 when Fokker developed the first Dutch satellite (the [[Astronomical Netherlands Satellite]]) together with [[Philips]] and Dutch universities. This was followed by a second major satellite project, [[IRAS]], successfully launched in 1983. The [[European Space Agency]] in June 1974 named a consortium headed by [[Entwicklungsring Nord|ERNO]]-[[VFW-Fokker GmbH]] to build pressurized modules for [[Spacelab]].

Subsequently, Fokker contributed to many European satellite projects, as well as to the [[Ariane (rocket)|Ariane rocket]] in its various models. Together with a Russian contractor, they developed the huge parachute system for the [[Ariane 5]] rocket boosters which would allow the boosters to return to Earth safely and be reused.

The space division became more and more independent, until just before Fokker's bankruptcy in 1996, it became a fully stand-alone corporation, known successively as Fokker Space and Systems, Fokker Space, and Dutch Space. On 1 January 2006, it was taken over by [[EADS]]-Space Transportation.

===Fokker 50, Fokker 100, and Fokker 70===
[[Image:Fokker.70.flying.arp.jpg|thumb|right|Fokker 70, Fokker's last successful aircraft]]
[[Image:Fokker-100 F-28-0100.jpg|thumb|right|Fokker 100]]

After a brief and unsuccessful collaboration effort with [[McDonnell Douglas]] in 1981, Fokker began an ambitious project to develop two new aircraft concurrently. The [[Fokker 50]] was to be a completely modernised version of the F-27, and the [[Fokker 100]] a new airliner based on the F-28. Yet development costs were allowed to spiral out of control, almost forcing Fokker out of business in 1987. The Dutch government bailed them out with 212 million guilders, but demanded Fokker look for a "strategic partner", [[British Aerospace]] and [[DaimlerChrysler Aerospace|DASA]] being named most likely candidates.

Initial sales of the Fokker 100 were good, leading Fokker to begin development of the [[Fokker 70]], a smaller version of the F100, in 1991, but sales of the F 70 were below expectations and the F 100 had strong competition from Boeing and Airbus by then.

In 1992, after a long and arduous negotiation process, Fokker signed an agreement with DASA. This did not solve Fokker's problems, though, mostly because DASA's parent company [[Daimler-Benz]] also had to deal with its own organisational problems.

===Bankruptcy===

On 22 January 1996, the board of directors of Daimler-Benz decided to focus on its core automobile business and cut ties with Fokker. The next day, an Amsterdam court extended temporary creditor protection.

Discussions were initiated with Bombardier on February 5, 1996. After having reviewed and evaluated the opportunities and challenges Fokker represented at the time, Bombardier renounced its acquisition on February 27.<ref>{{cite press release |url= http://www.thefreelibrary.com/Bombardier+Ends+Talks+With+Fokker.-a018029019 |title= Bombardier Ends Talks With Fokker |publisher= Bombardier |date= February 27, 1996}}</ref> On 15 March, the Fokker company was declared bankrupt.

Differences in national culture could have played a role in the failed take-over of Fokker by [[Deutsche Aerospace]] (DASA).<ref>{{cite news |title= FOKKER, A CLASH OF CULTURE |doi= 10.1142/S0218495899000169 |author1= JAN ULIJN (Eindhoven University of Technology, The Netherlands) |author2= HANS HEERKENS (University of Twente, The Netherlands) |journal= J. Enterprising Culture |date= September 1999}}</ref>

Those divisions of the company that manufactured parts and carried out maintenance and repair work were taken over by [[Stork N.V.]]; it is now known as Stork Aerospace Group. Stork Fokker exists to sustain remarketing of the company's existing aircraft: they refurbish and resell F 50s and F 100s, and converted a few F 50s to transport aircraft. Special projects included the development of an F50 Maritime Patrol variant and an F 100 Executive Jet. For this project, Stork received the 2005 "Aerospace Industry Award" in the Air Transport category from ''[[Flight International]]'' magazine.

Other divisions of the company that were profitable continued as separate companies: Fokker Space (later Dutch Space) and [[Moog in the Netherlands|Fokker Control Systems]].

In November 2009, Stork Aerospace changed its name to Fokker Aerospace Group. As of 2011, the Fokker Aerospace Group changed its name to [[Fokker Technologies]]. The four individual business units within Fokker Technologies all carry the Fokker name:
* Fokker Aerostructures
* Fokker Landing Gear
* Fokker Elmo
* Fokker Services

The former Fokker aircraft facilities at Schiphol were redeveloped into the Fokker Logistics Park. One of the former Fokker tenants is Fokker Services.

Meanwhile, [[Rekkof Aircraft]] ("Fokker" backwards) is attempting to restart production of the Fokker XF70 and XF100, supported by suppliers and airlines.

==Famous Fokker aircraft and pilots==
[[Image:RoteBaron.JPG|thumb|right|[[Fokker Dr.I]] replica at the [[Berlin Air Show|ILA 2006]], the "[[Red Baron]]" triplane]]

* In 1915, the Fokker E.I was the first "[[Fighter aircraft|fighter]]" introduced into the German air force, leading to the [[Fokker Scourge]].
* [[Manfred von Richthofen]] (the top scoring World War I ace) is associated with an all red [[Fokker Dr.I]] [[triplane]], at least for some of his 80 victories (1917–1918)
* The introduction of the [[Fokker D.VII]] into the German air force in 1918 revolutionized aircraft design.
* In 1923, [[Oakley George Kelly]] and [[John Arthur Macready]] completed the first non-stop flight spanning the North American continent in a Fokker T-2 Variant of [[Fokker F.IV]].
* In 1927, [[Richard E. Byrd]] completed his trans-Atlantic flight from [[New York City]] to [[Paris]] in a [[Fokker F.VII]]. The aircraft was named ''[[America (aircraft)|America]]''.
* In 1928, [[Amelia Earhart]], the first woman to fly across the Atlantic as a passenger (from Newfoundland to the small [[Wales|Welsh]] town of [[Burry Port]]) did so in a [[Fokker F.VII]] piloted by [[Wilmer Stultz|Wilmer L. Stultz]].
* In 1928, [[Charles Kingsford-Smith]] completed the first trans-Pacific flight in another F.VII, the ''[[Southern Cross (aircraft)|Southern Cross]]''.
* The [[Fokker S.14 Machtrainer]] was one of the first purpose-built jet training aircraft in the world (1951).
* The [[United States Army Parachute Team]] (The Golden Knights) Jump from an F-27

==Fokker aircraft==

===1912–1918===
{{Columns-list|3|
* [[Fokker Spin]]
* [[Fokker M.1]] – [[Fokker Spin|M.4 Spin]] (military version)
* [[Fokker W.1]] – [[Fokker W.2|W.2]]
* [[Fokker A.III]] (M.5K)
* [[Fokker A.II]] (M.5L)
* [[Fokker M.6]]
* [[Fokker B.I (1915)|Fokker B.I]] (M.7 en M.10E)
* [[Fokker W.3]]
* [[Fokker A.I]] (M.8)
* [[Fokker M.9]]
* [[Fokker B.II (1916)|Fokker B.II]] (M.10Z)
* [[Fokker Eindecker fighters]]
** [[Fokker E.I]] (M.5K/MG)
** [[Fokker E.II]] (M.14)
** [[Fokker E.III]] (M.14v)
** [[Fokker E.IV]] (M.15)
* [[Fokker M.16E]] and [[Fokker M.16Z|M.16Z]]
* [[Fokker B.II (1916)|Fokker B.II]] (M.17Z)
* [[Fokker D.II|Fokker B.III]] (M.18Z)
* [[Fokker D.I]] (M.18E)
* [[Fokker D.II]] (M.17E)
* [[Fokker D.III]] (M.19)
* [[Fokker D.IV]] (M.21)
* [[Fokker D.V]] (M.22)
* [[Fokker V.1]]
* [[Fokker V.2 and V.3]]
* [[Fokker V.4]]
* [[Fokker F.I]] (V.5)
* [[Fokker Dr.I]]
* [[Fokker V.6]]
* [[Fokker V.7]]
* [[Fokker V.8]]
* [[Fokker V.9, V.11, V.12, V.13. V.14, and V.16]]
* [[Fokker D.VI]]
* [[Fokker D.VII]] (V.11/13)
* [[Fokker V.17]] – [[Fokker V.25|V.25]]
* [[Fokker E.V]]/[[Fokker D.VIII|D.VIII]] (V.26)
* [[Fokker V.27]] – [[Fokker V.37|V.37]]
* [[Fokker C.I]] (V.38)
* [[Fokker V.39]]
}}

===1919–1940===
{{Columns-list|3|
* [[Fokker V.39]] – [[Fokker V.42]]
* [[Fokker C.I]]
* [[Fokker F.6]]
* [[Fokker F.II]]
* [[Fokker F.III]]
* [[Fokker F.IV]]
* [[Fokker T.II]]
* [[Fokker S.I]]
* [[Fokker D.IX]]
* [[Fokker D.X]]
* [[Fokker S.II]]
* [[Fokker B.I (1922)|Fokker B.I]]
* [[Fokker C.IV]]
* [[Fokker F.V]]
* [[Fokker S.III]]
* [[Fokker D.XI]]
* [[Fokker DC.I]]
* [[Fokker T.III]]
* [[Fokker B.II (1923)|Fokker B.II]]
* [[Fokker F.VII]]
* [[Fokker C.V]]
* [[Fokker D.XII]]
* [[Fokker D.XIII]]
* [[Fokker S.IV]]
* [[Fokker D.XIV]]
* [[Fokker D.I|Fokker B.III]]
* [[Fokker F.VIII]]
* [[Fokker T.IV]] – [[Fokker T.IVa|T.IVa]]
* [[Fokker C.VII|Fokker C.VII-W]]
* [[Fokker Universal|Fokker F.XI "Universal"]]
* [[Fokker F.XIV]]
* [[Fokker D.XVI]]
* [[Fokker F.IX]]
* [[Fokker C.VIII]]
* [[Fokker C.IX]]
* [[Fokker F.XII]]
* [[Fokker D.XVII]]
* [[Fokker F.XVIII]]
* [[Fokker F.XX]]
* [[Fokker F.XXXVI]]
* [[Fokker C.X]]
* [[Fokker F.XXII]]
* [[Fokker C.XI|Fokker C.XI-W]]
* [[Fokker D.XXI]]
* [[Fokker G.I]]
* [[Fokker T.V]]
* [[Fokker S.IX]]
* [[Fokker C.IV|Fokker C.IV-W]]
* [[Fokker T.VIII]]
* [[Fokker D.XXIII]]
* [[Fokker F.XXIV]]
* [[Fokker T.IX]]
}}

===Fokker-Atlantic designs===
{{Columns-list|3|
* [[Fokker F.IV|Fokker A-2]] Ambulance
* [[Fokker C.IV|Fokker AO-1]] Artillery Observation / Atlantic Observation
* [[Fokker F.VII|Fokker C-2]]
* [[Fokker F.10|Fokker C-5]]
* [[Fokker F.VII|Fokker C-7]]
* [[Fokker F.14|Fokker C-14]]
* [[Fokker F.14|Fokker C-15]]
* [[Fokker F.11|Fokker C-16]]
* [[Fokker F.32|Fokker C-20]]
* [[Fokker C.IV|Fokker CO-4]]
* [[Fokker C.IV|Fokker CO-4 Mailplane]]
* [[Airco DH.4|Fokker CO-8]]
* [[Fokker F.10|Fokker LB-2]] Light Bomber
* [[Fokker XB-8|Fokker O-27]]
* [[General Aviation PJ|Fokker FLB/PJ]]
* [[Fokker PW-5]]
* [[Fokker D.VII|Fokker PW-6]]
* [[Fokker D.XI|Fokker PW-7]]
* [[Fokker F.VII|Fokker RA]]
* [[Fokker F.IV|Fokker T-2]]
* [[Fokker XA-7]] Attack
* [[Fokker XB-8]] Bomber
* [[Fokker Super Universal|Fokker XJA-1]]
* [[Fokker F.VII|Fokker XLB-2]] Light Bomber
* [[General Aviation PJ|Fokker AF.15]]
* [[Fokker B.11]] Sport/Trainer
* [[Fokker F.VII|Fokker F.7]]
* [[Fokker Universal|Fokker F.9 Universal]] Airliner & freighter
* [[Fokker F.10]]
* [[Fokker F.11]]
* [[Fokker F.12]]
* [[Fokker F.13]]
* [[Fokker F.14]]
* [[Fokker Super Universal|Fokker F.18 Super Universal]] Airliner & freighter
* [[Fokker F.32]]
* [[Airco DH.4|Fokker DH-4M]]
* [[Fokker-Hall H-51]]
}}

===1945–1996===
{{Columns-list|2|
* [[Fokker F24]]
* [[Fokker F25]] Promotor
* [[Fokker S-11]] Instructor
* [[Fokker S-12]] Instructor
* [[Fokker S-13]] Universal Trainer
* [[Fokker S-14]] Machtrainer
* [[Fokker F26]] Phantom
* [[Fokker F27]] Friendship
* [[Fokker F28]] Fellowship
* [[Fokker F.29]]
* [[Fokker 50]]
* [[Fokker 60]] Utility
* [[Fokker 70]]
* [[Fokker 100]]
* [[Fokker 120NG]] (in development)
* [[Fokker 130]] (concept stage only)
}}

==References==

===Notes===
{{Reflist}}

===Bibliography===
{{Refbegin}}
* Bowers, Peter and Ernest McDowell. ''Triplanes: A Pictorial History of the World's Triplanes and Multiplanes''. St. Paul, Minnesota: Motorbooks International, 1993. ISBN 0-87938-614-2.
* Dierikx, Marc. ''Fokker: A Transatlantic Biography''. Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1997. ISBN 1-56098-735-9.
* Hegener, Henri. ''Fokker – the man and the aircraft'' Herts, UK: Harleyford Publications, 1961. LCCN 61-10595
* Molson, K.M. ''Pioneering in Canadian Air Transport''. Winnipeg: James Richardson & Sons, Ltd., 1974. ISBN 0-919212-39-5.
* Nevin, David. ''The Pathfinders (The Epic of Flight Series)''. Alexandria, Virginia: Time-Life Books, 1980. ISBN 0-8094-3256-0.
* Postma, Thijs. ''Fokker: Aircraft Builders to the World''. London: Jane's, 1979. ISBN 978-0-71060-059-2.
* Weyl, A.R. ''Fokker: The Creative Years''. London: Putnam, 1965.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons|Fokker}}
{{Portal|Netherlands|Companies|Aviation}}
* [http://www.fokker.com Fokker Technologies Official company website]
* [http://www.airplanes.se/index.php?script_name=aircrafts&list=familj&marke=Fokker Pictures of the Fokker fleet]
* [http://www.rekkof.nl Rekkof official website]
* [http://library.thinkquest.org/C002752/ Fokker, a living history]
* [http://www.fokkerpilot.net FokkerPilot.net]
* [http://www.fokker-aircraft.info Fokker aircraft website]
* [http://www.airliners.net/open.file/1076554/M/ The assembly-hall at Fokker with lots of F-16s]
* [http://www.firstworldwar.com/source/armisticeterms.htm Armistice terms]

{{Fokker aircraft}}

[[Category:Companies established in 1912]]
[[Category:Defunct aircraft manufacturers of the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Fokker| ]]
[[Category:Science and technology in the Netherlands]]
[[Category:Manufacturing companies disestablished in 1996]]
[[Category:Defunct aircraft manufacturers of Germany]]
[[Category:1912 establishments in Germany]]
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[[Category:Dutch brands]]

Red Arrows

2017-03-27T19:28:43Z

JanTurin: /* Incidents and accidents */

{{Other uses}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2013}}
{{Infobox military unit
|unit_name=Red Arrows Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team
|image=[[File:RAF Red Arrows - Rhyl Air Show.jpg|250px]]
|caption=The Red Arrows in 2011
|dates= 1965 – present
|country= [[File:Flag of the United Kingdom.svg|20px]] [[United Kingdom]]
|allegiance=
|branch= [[File:RAF roundel.svg|20px]] [[Royal Air Force]]
|type=
|role= [[Aerobatic]] flight display team
|size= 9 Pilots 91 Support members
|command_structure=
|garrison= {{Unbulleted list| [[RAF Scampton]], Lincolnshire, England 1983–1995, 2000– }}
|garrison_label=Base
|nickname= The Reds
|patron=
|motto= ''{{Lang|fr|Éclat}}'' ({{lang-en|Excellence}})
|colors= Red, white and blue
|colors_label=Colours
|march=
|mascot=
|equipment=
|equipment_label=
|anniversaries=
|decorations=
|disbanded=

|commander1= Sqn Ldr David Montenegro
|commander1_label= Team Leader/Red 1
|commander2= Wg Cdr Martin Higgins
|commander2_label= Officer Commanding
|commander3=
|commander3_label=
|notable_commanders=

|identification_symbol=[[File:Red Arrows Eclat.png|100px]]
|identification_symbol_label=Red Arrows Squadron Badge

|aircraft_trainer= {{Unbulleted list| 1964–1979 [[Folland Gnat]] | 1980–present [[BAE Hawk|Hawk T1A]] }}
|aircraft_transport=
}}
[[File:RAF Red Arrows depart RIAT Fairford 14thJuly2014 arp.jpg|thumb|The RAF Red Arrows depart the 2014 [[Royal International Air Tattoo]], [[England]], in a colour scheme that commemorates their 50th year.]]
The '''Red Arrows''', officially known as the '''Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team''', is the [[aerobatics]] display team of the [[Royal Air Force]] based at [[RAF Scampton]]. The team was formed in late 1964 as an all-RAF team, replacing a number of unofficial teams that had been sponsored by RAF commands.

The Red Arrows badge shows the aircraft in their trademark diamond nine formation, with the motto ''Éclat'', a French word meaning "brilliance" or "excellence".

Initially, they were equipped with seven [[Folland Gnat]] trainers inherited from the RAF [[Yellowjacks]] display team. This aircraft was chosen because it was less expensive to operate than front-line [[fighter aircraft|fighters]]. In their first season, they flew at 65 shows across [[Europe]]. In 1966, the team was increased to nine members, enabling them to develop their ''Diamond Nine'' formation. In late 1979, they switched to the [[BAE Hawk]] trainer. The Red Arrows have performed over 4,700 displays in 56 countries worldwide.<ref>http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/aboutus/</ref>

==History==

===Predecessors===
The Red Arrows were not the first RAF aerobatics team. An RAF pageant was held at [[Hendon Aerodrome|Hendon]] in 1920 with teams from front-line [[biplane]] squadrons.
[[File:LONDON DEFENDED Torchlight and Searchlight spectacle.jpg|thumb|right|"London Defended" 1925 Official Programme]]
In 1925, [[No. 32 Squadron RAF]] flew an air display six nights a week entitled "London Defended" at the [[British Empire Exhibition]]. Similar to the display they had done the previous year, when the aircraft were painted black, it consisted of a night time air display over the Wembley Exhibition flying RAF [[Sopwith Snipe]]s which were painted red for the display and fitted with white lights on the wings, tail and fuselage. The display involved firing blank ammunition into the stadium crowds and dropping pyrotechnics from the aeroplanes to simulate shrapnel from guns on the ground, Explosions on the ground also produced the effect of bombs being dropped into the stadium by the Aeroplanes. One of the Pilots in the display was Flying officer [[C. W. A. Scott]] who later became famous for breaking three England Australia solo flight records and winning the [[MacRobertson Air Race]] with co-pilot [[Tom Campbell Black]] in 1934.<ref>Scott, C.W.A. ''Scott's Book, the life and Mildenhall-Melbourne flight of C. W. A. Scott'', London : Hodder & Stoughton, 1934., Bib ID 2361252 Chapter 3, Aerobatics</ref><ref>''London Defended Torchlight and Searchlight spectacle, The Stadium Wembley May 9 to June 1, 1925 official programme''. London: Fleetway Press</ref>

In 1938, three [[Gloster Gladiator]]s flew with their wing-tips tied together.{{Citation needed|date=April 2012}} Formation aerobatics largely stopped during the [[Second World War]].

In 1947, the first jet team of three [[de Havilland Vampire]]s came from [[RAF Odiham]] Fighter Wing. Various teams flew the Vampire, and in 1950, [[No. 72 Squadron RAF|No. 72 Squadron]] was flying a team of seven. [[No. 54 Squadron RAF|No. 54 Squadron]] became the first RAF jet formation team to use smoke trails. Vampires were replaced by [[Gloster Meteor]]s, [[No. 66 Squadron RAF|No. 66 Squadron]] developing a formation team of six aircraft.

[[Hawker Hunter]] aircraft were first used for aerobatics teams in 1955, when [[No. 54 Squadron RAF|No. 54 Squadron]] flew a formation of four.

The official RAF team was provided by [[No. 111 Squadron RAF|No. 111 Squadron]] in 1956, and for the first time the aircraft had a special colour scheme, which was an all-black finish. After a demonstration in [[France]], they were hailed as "''Les Fleches Noires''" and from then on known as the [[Black Arrows]]. This team became the first team to fly a five-Hunter formation. In 1958 the Black Arrows performed a loop and barrel roll of 22 Hunters; a world record for the greatest number of aircraft looped in formation. The Black Arrows were the premier team until 1961, when the Blue Diamonds ([[No. 92 Squadron RAF|No. 92 Squadron]]) continued their role, flying sixteen blue Hunters.

In 1960, the Tigers ([[No. 74 Squadron RAF|No. 74 Squadron]]) were re-equipped with the supersonic [[English Electric Lightning]] and performed wing-overs and rolls with nine aircraft in tight formation. They sometimes gave co-ordinated displays with the Blue Diamonds.
Yet another aerobatics team was formed in 1960 by [[No. 56 Squadron RAF|No. 56 Squadron]], the Firebirds, with nine red and silver Lightnings.

In 1964, the [[Red Pelicans]], flying six [[BAC Jet Provost]] T Mk 4s, assumed the role of the RAF's leading display team. In that same year, a team of five yellow Gnat trainers from [[No. 4 Flying Training School RAF|No 4 Flying Training School]] displayed at the [[Farnborough Airshow]]. This team became known as the Yellowjacks after Flight Lieutenant Lee Jones's call sign, "Yellowjack".

In 1964, all the RAF display teams were amalgamated, as it was feared pilots were spending too much time practising formation aerobatics rather than operational training. The new team name took the word ''red'' from the fact that the Yellowjacks' planes had been painted red (for safety reasons, as it was a far clearer and more visible colour in the sky) and ''arrows'' after the Black Arrows; the official version, however, is that the red was a tribute to the Red Pelicans.<ref name="Team History">{{cite web |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/history/teamhistory.cfm |title=Team History |year=2012 |publisher=Royal Air Force Arrows |accessdate=3 July 2012}}</ref> Another reason for the change to red was that responsibility for the team moved from Fighter Command to the [[Central Flying School]], whose main colour was red.

===Establishment===
[[File:Hawker Siddeley Gnat T1, UK - Air Force AN2239232.jpg|right|thumb|right|[[Folland Gnat|Gnat T.1s]] on the flightline at [[RAF Kemble]] in 1973.]]
The Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team (RAFAT), the formal name of the Red Arrows, began life at RAF Fairford in Gloucestershire, then a satellite of the Central Flying School (CFS).The Red Arrows moved to RAF Kemble in 1966 after RAF Fairford became the place of choice for BAC to run test flights for Concorde.{{citation needed|date=June 2014}} When [[RAF Scampton]] became the CFS Headquarters in 1983, the Red Arrows moved there. As an economy measure, Scampton closed in 1995, so the Red Arrows moved just twenty miles to [[RAF Cranwell]]; however, as they still used the air space above Scampton, the emergency facilities and runways had to be maintained. Since 21 December 2000, the Red Arrows have been based again at RAF Scampton, near [[Lincoln, England|Lincoln]].

[[File:British Aerospace Hawk T1, UK - Air Force AN1355498.jpg|thumb|left|[[BAE Hawk|Hawk T.1s]] on the flightline at [[RAF Mildenhall]] in 1985.]]
The first team, led by [[Squadron Leader]] Lee Jones, had seven display pilots and flew the Folland Gnat T1 jet trainer. The first display in the UK was on 6 May 1965 at Little Rissington for a press day. At the subsequent National Air Day display, three days later, at [[Clermont Ferrand]] in France, one French journalist described the team as "''Les Fleches Rouges''", confirming the name "The Red Arrows". By the end of their first season, the Red Arrows had displayed 65 times in Britain, France, Italy, Holland, Germany and Belgium and were awarded the [[Britannia Trophy]] by the [[Royal Aero Club]] for their contribution to aviation.

In 1968, the then Team Leader (Sqn Ldr [[Ray Hanna]]) expanded the team from seven to nine jets, as he wanted to expand the team's capabilities and the permutations of formation patterns. It was during this season that the 'Diamond Nine' pattern was formed and it has remained the team's trademark pattern ever since. Ray Hanna served as Red Leader for three consecutive years until 1968 and was recalled to supersede Squadron Leader Timothy Nelson for the 1969 display season, a record four seasons as Leader which still stands to this day.<ref>{{cite news | title = Ray Hanna Recalled to Red Arrows | url = http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1969/1969%20-%202346.html | publisher = Flight International | date = 26 June 1969 | accessdate =12 August 2009
}}</ref> For his considerable achievements of airmanship with the team, Ray Hanna was awarded a bar to his existing [[Air Force Cross (United Kingdom)|Air Force Cross (AFC)]].

After displaying 1,292 times in the [[Folland Gnat]], the Red Arrows took delivery of the [[BAE Hawk|BAe Hawk]] in the winter of 1979. Since being introduced into service with the Red Arrows, the Hawk has performed with the Red Arrows in fifty countries.

===Later years===
[[File:RAF Red Arrows perform the Spaghetti Break over Scampton.JPG|thumb|upright|Red Arrows perform a manoeuvre called the "''Spaghetti Break''" over RAF Scampton, September 2015]]
In July 2004 there was speculation in the British media that the Red Arrows would be disbanded, after a defence spending review, due to running costs of between £5 million and £6 million.<ref>{{cite news |title=Why everyone loves the Red Arrows |first=Jonathan |last=Duffy |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/magazine/3908187.stm |newspaper=BBC News |date=20 July 2004 |accessdate=16 April 2011}}</ref> The Arrows were not disbanded and their expense has been justified through their public relations benefit of helping to develop business in the defence industry and promoting recruitment for the RAF. According to the [[BBC]], it is highly unlikely that the Red Arrows will be disbanded, as they are a considerable attraction throughout the world. This was reiterated by [[Prime Minister of the United Kingdom|Prime Minister]] [[David Cameron]] on 20 February 2013,<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-21514999 |title=Red Arrows 'future safe under David Cameron'|publisher=BBC News |date=20 February 2013 |accessdate=20 February 2013}}</ref> when he guaranteed the estimated £9m per annum costs while visiting India to discuss a possible sale of Hawk aircraft to be used by India's military aerobatics team, the [[Surya Kiran]].

With the planned closure of RAF Scampton, the future home of the Red Arrows became uncertain. On 20 May 2008 months of speculation was ended when it was revealed that the Ministry of Defence were moving the Red Arrows to nearby [[RAF Waddington]].<ref>{{cite news |title=Red Arrows moving to new RAF base |first= |last= |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/lincolnshire/7412074.stm |newspaper=BBC News |date=21 May 2008 |accessdate=16 April 2011}}</ref> However, in December 2011, those plans were put under review.<ref>{{cite news |title=Red Arrows RAF Scampton move plan to be reviewed |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lincolnshire-16205679 |newspaper=BBC News |date=16 December 2011 |accessdate=18 February 2012}}</ref> The Ministry of Defence confirmed in June 2012 that the Red Arrows would remain at RAF Scampton until at least the end of the decade. Scampton's runway was resurfaced as a result.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.mod.uk/DefenceInternet/DefenceNews/EstateAndEnvironment/RafUnitsToRemainAtScampton.htm |title=RAF units to remain at Scampton |date=18 June 2012 |work=Estate and Environment |publisher=Ministry of Defence |accessdate=26 June 2012}}</ref>

==Pilots==
Since 1966, there have been nine display pilots each year, all volunteers. Pilots must have completed one or more operational tours on a fast jet such as the [[Panavia Tornado|Tornado]], [[RAF Harrier II|Harrier]] or [[Eurofighter Typhoon|Typhoon]], have accumulated at least 1,500 flying hours and have been assessed as above average in their operational role to be eligible. Even then, there are more than ten applicants for each place on the team.<ref>[http://www.bbc.co.uk/jersey/content/articles/2004/09/09/red_arrows_feature.shtml "The Red Arrows"] from [[BBC Jersey]], 9 September 2004. Retrieved 18 April 2005.</ref> Pilots stay with the Red Arrows for a three-year [[tour of duty]]. Three pilots are changed every year, such that there are normally three first year pilots, three second year pilots, and three in their final year. The Team Leader also spends three years with the team. The 'Boss', as he is known to the rest of the team, is always a pilot who has previously completed a three-year tour with the Red Arrows, often (although not always) including a season as the leader of the Synchro Pair.

During the second half of each display the Red Arrows split into two sections. Reds 1 to 5 are known as 'Enid' (named after Enid Blyton, author of the Famous Five books) and Reds 6 to 9 are known as 'Gypo' (the nickname of one of the team's pilots back in the Sixties). Enid continue to perform close formation aerobatics while Gypo perform more dynamic manoeuvres. Red 6 (Syncro Leader) and Red 7 (Synchro 2) make up the Synchro Pair and they perform a series of opposition passes during this second half. At the end of each season, one of that year's new pilots will be chosen to be Red 7 for the following season, with that year's Red 7 taking over as Red 6.

[[File:red.arrows.pilots.arp.750pix.jpg|thumb|left|The pilots line up for an official photo after their display in June 2004]]
The Reds have no reserve pilots, as a spare pilot would not perform often enough to fly to the standard required, nor would they be able to learn the intricacies of each position in the formation. If one of the pilots is not able to fly, the team flies an eight-plane formation. However, if the Team Leader, 'Red 1', is unable to fly then the team does not display at all. Each pilot always flies the same position in the formation during a season. The pilots spend six months from October to April practising for the display season. Pilots wear green [[flying suit]]s during training, and are only allowed to wear their red flying suits once they are awarded their Public Display Authority (PDA) at the end of winter training.<ref name="Year">{{cite web|url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/behindthescenes/redsyear.cfm |title=The Reds' Year |publisher=[[Royal Air Force]] |year=2011 |accessdate=10 April 2011}}</ref>

The new pilots joining the team will spend their first season flying at the front of the formation near the Team Leader. As their experience and proficiency improves they will move to positions further back in the formation in their second and third seasons. Pilots who start on the left of the formation will stay on that side for the duration of their three-year tour with the team and pilots on the right side will stay on the right. The exception to this are Reds 6 and 7 (the Synchro Pair) who fly in the 'stem' of the formation - the two positions behind the Team Leader.

During an aerobatics display, Red Arrows pilots experience forces up to five times [[g-force|that of gravity (1g)]], and when performing the aerobatic manoeuvre 'Vixen Break', forces up to 7g can be reached, close to the 8g structural limit of the aircraft.

As well as the nine pilots, 'Red 10', who is the Team Supervisor, is a fully qualified Hawk pilot who flies the tenth aircraft when the Red Arrows are away from base. This means the team have a reserve aircraft at the display site. Red 10's duties include co-ordination of all practices and displays and acting as the team's Ground Safety Officer. Red 10 often flies TV cameramen and photographers for air-to-air pictures of the Red Arrows and also provides the commentary for all of the team's displays.<ref name="Support Team">{{cite web|url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/behindthescenes/supportteam.cfm |title=The Support Team |publisher=Royal Air Force |year=2011 |accessdate=10 April 2011}}</ref>

[[File:Red Arrows, Southport Airshow 2009 (01).jpg|thumb|right|Red Arrows at Southport Airshow in 2009]]
On 13 May 2009, it was announced that the Red Arrows would include their first female display pilot. Flt Lt Kirsty Moore (née Stewart) joined for the 2010 season alongside fellow newcomer Flt Lt Ben Plank. Wing Commander Jas Hawker concluded his three-year tour of duty as 'The Boss' and was replaced by 2009 Red Six, Squadron Leader Ben Murphy.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/teamnews/index.cfm?storyid=A54936DA-5056-A318-A8E6AFF6966BAB73 |title=2010 Team Announced |year= |publisher=Royal Air Force |accessdate=16 April 2011}}</ref> Flt Lt Moore was not the first female to apply to become a Red Arrow, but was the first to be taken forward to the intense final selection process. She joined the RAF in 1998 and was a Qualified Flying Instructor on the Hawk aircraft at RAF Valley. Prior to joining the team she flew the Tornado GR4 at RAF Marham.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/8046617.stm | work=BBC News | title=First female pilot for Red Arrows | date=12 May 2009 | accessdate=10 April 2010}}</ref> Flt Lt Plank previously flew the Harrier GR9 at [[RAF Cottesmore]].

The team for the 2011 season was announced on 13 September 2010 and subsequently undertook winter training in preparation for the 2011 display season.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/teamnews/index.cfm?storyid=0A8B622E-5056-A318-A8971C997ADF55C9 |title=Red Arrows Team for 2011 |year=2011 |publisher=Royal Air Force |accessdate=16 April 2011}}</ref> The team departed the UK on Friday 18 March 2011 and travelled to Cyprus to undertake Exercise SPRINGHAWK at [[RAF Akrotiri]]. The first 9-ship practice was flown on the first day of training in [[Cyprus]] on Monday 21 March 2011.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/teamnews/index.cfm?storyid=DE8D75DC-5056-A318-A8120E3FAB20CB5F |title=Reds Practice first 9-ship |author= |year=2011 |work= |publisher=Royal Air Force |accessdate=16 April 2011}}</ref> The team remained in Cyprus until the end of May whilst they took advantage of the good weather on offer to work up to display standard.<ref name="Year"/> The team gained their Public Display Authority (PDA) on 20 May 2011, just two days before their first planned public display in [[Crete]].

On 13 September 2011, the team for 2012 was announced.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/teamnews/index.cfm?storyid=DEF736E1-5056-A318-A8C18903BAA08AE6 |title=Red Arrows Team 2012 Announced |date=13 September 2011 |publisher=Royal Air Force |accessdate=11 June 2012}}</ref> The team received its PDA on 22 May 2012, having taken part in the [[Diamond Jubilee Armed Forces Parade and Muster|Armed Forces Muster]] for [[Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II|Elizabeth II's Diamond Jubilee]] at [[Windsor Castle]] three days earlier.<ref>{{cite news |title=Red Arrows given official go-ahead for 2012 season displays |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lincolnshire-18167918 |newspaper=BBC News |date=22 May 2012 |accessdate=11 June 2012}}</ref>

==The 'Blues'==
The engineering team that supports the Red Arrows is known as "The Blues" and consists of 85 members who cover all of the various trades in the RAF.<ref name="Support Team"/> Each season nine members of the Blues are selected to be members of the 'Circus'. Each member of the Circus works with the same pilot for the duration of the season and is responsible for servicing their aircraft and preparing their flying kit prior to each display. The Circus also fly in the back seat of the jets during transit flights.

==Aircraft==
[[File:Red Arrow with new tail design.jpg|thumb|left|A Hawk T1A of the Red Arrows with new 2015 colour scheme]]
The team use the same two-seat training aircraft used for advanced pilot training, at first the [[Folland Gnat|Hawker Siddeley Gnat]] which was replaced in 1979 by the [[BAE Hawk|BAE Hawk T1]].<ref name="hawk">[http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/behindthescenes/hawkaircraft.cfm RAF Red Arrows – Hawk Aircraft]</ref> The Hawks are modified with an uprated engine and a modification to enable smoke to be generated; diesel is mixed with a coloured dye and ejected into the jet exhaust to produce either red, white or blue smoke.<ref name="hawk" />
{{clear}}

==Displays==
[[File:RedArrows01.jpg|thumb|The Red Arrows in formation with two [[Supermarine Spitfire]]s at [[Royal International Air Tattoo|RIAT]] 2005]]
The first display by the Red Arrows was at [[RAF Little Rissington]] on 6 May 1965. The display was to introduce the Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team to the media. However, the first public display was on 9 May 1965 in France, at the French National Air Day in [[Clermont-Ferrand]]. The first public display in the UK was on 15 May 1965 at the [[Biggin Hill International Air Fair]]. The first display with nine aircraft was on 8 July 1966 at [[RAF Little Rissington]].

The first display in Germany was at [[RAF Laarbruch]] on 6 August 1965. The Red Arrows performed in Germany a further 170 times before formation aerobatics were banned in Germany following the [[Ramstein airshow disaster]] in 1988.

During displays, the aircraft do not fly directly over the crowd apart from entering the display area by flying over the crowd from behind; any manoeuvres in front of and parallel to the audience can be as low as 300 feet, the 'synchro pair' can go as low as 100 feet straight and level, or 150 feet when in inverted flight. To carry out a full looping display the [[cloud base]] must be above 4,500 feet to avoid the team entering the cloud while looping. If the cloud base is less than 4,500 ft but more than 2,500 ft the Team will perform the Rolling Display, substituting wing-overs and rolls for the loops. If the cloud base is less than 2,500 ft the Team will fly the Flat Display, which consists of a series of fly-pasts and steep turns.

[[File:red arrows in apollo formation cotswoldairshow 2010 arp.jpg|thumb|left|The Red Arrows in Apollo formation, 2010]]

The greatest number of displays flown in any year was in 1995, when the Red Arrows performed 136 times. The smallest number of displays in one year was in 1975, after the [[1973 oil crisis]] limited their appearances. At a charity auction in 2008, a British woman paid £1.5 million to fly with them.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.meeja.com.au/index.php?display_article_id=169|title=Planespotter pays $3.2m for Red Arrows ride |publisher=www.meeja.com.au |date=3 September 2008 |accessdate=3 September 2008}}</ref>

By the end of the 2009 season, the Red Arrows had performed a total of 4,269 displays in 53 countries.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/behindthescenes/bestofbritish.cfm |title=Best of British |publisher=Royal Air Force |year=2009 |accessdate=16 April 2011}}</ref> The 4,000th display was at [[RAF Leuchars]] during the [[Battle of Britain]] Airshow in September 2006.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/behindthescenes/teamhistory.cfm |title=Team History |publisher=Royal Air Force |year=2011 |accessdate=16 April 2011}}</ref>

Following the accidents during the 2011 season, the Red Arrows retained Red 8 and moved the original Red 10 to the Red 5 position to enable them to continue displaying with nine aircraft. In March 2012, the MOD announced that the Red Arrows would fly aerobatic displays with seven aircraft during the 2012 display season as Flt Lt Kirsty Stewart had moved into a ground based role with the team. It is believed this was due to the emotional stress she had been suffering over the loss of her two Red Arrows colleagues the previous year. As a consequence of this, Red 8 also dropped out of the display team to enable an odd number of aircraft to perform and thus maintain formation symmetry. However, the team carried out official flypasts with nine aircraft by utilising Red 8 as well as ex-Red Arrow display pilot and current Red 10 Mike Ling. The Red Arrows returned to a full aerobatic formation of nine aircraft in 2013.<ref>https://www.google.com/hostednews/ukpress/article/ALeqM5j5lURBGbDPtBGuU8Ty_BTYv9zHKA?docId=N0892591330839602757A</ref>

[[File:Red Arrows at Eastbourne Air Show 2014.JPG|thumb|The Red Arrows with their 50th anniversary tail markings visible at the [[Eastbourne Airshow]] 2014]]
In 2014, The Red Arrows celebrated 50 years of Aerobatic history as a display team returning to RAF Fairford for the Royal International Air Tattoo. For the entirety of the 2014 display season, the aircraft carried special 50th Anniversary markings on their tails instead of just the red, white and blue stripes.

After the 2016 display season, the Red Arrows embarked on an Asia-Pacific and Middle East Tour. They performed flypasts or displays in [[Karachi]] in [[Pakistan]]; [[Hindon Air Force Station|Hindon]] and [[Hyderabad]] in [[India]]; [[Dhaka]] in [[Bangladesh]]; [[Singapore]]; [[Kuala Lumpur]] in [[Malaysia]]; [[Danang]] in [[Vietnam]]; [[Beijing]], [[Shanghai]], [[Wuhan]], [[Guangzhou]], [[Hong Kong]] and [[Zhuhai]] in [[China]]; [[Muscat, Oman|Muscat]] in [[Oman]]; [[Manama]] in [[Bahrain]]; [[Abu Dhabi]] and [[Kuwait]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Asia-Pacific & Middle East Tour 2016|url=http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/displays/asiapacificmiddleeasttour2016.cfm|website=Royal Air Force|accessdate=29 November 2016}}</ref> The programnme was the first time the team had displayed in China, and the first time a British military aircraft had deployed to Vietnam.

===Display charges===
In 1977, a charge of £200 was introduced by the [[Ministry of Defence (United Kingdom)|MOD]] for a Red Arrows display. By 2000, the charge had risen to £2,000 (including [[VAT]] and insurance). In 2011 the team manager quoted the charge as £9,000.<ref>"Red Arrow Rookies" documentary broadcast on BBC Radio 4 on 19 January 2011.</ref>

===Transits===
On a transit flight (getting to or from a display location) the team may fly at the relatively low altitude of {{convert|1000|ft|m}}. This avoids the complication of moving though the cloud base in formation, and also avoids much controlled air space. Jets are more efficient at higher altitude, so longer flights are made at {{convert|35000|to|42000|ft|m}}. On transit flights, the formation can include spare planes. Sometimes a [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|C-130 Hercules]] accompanies them, carrying spare parts.

[[File:Symmetry MOD 45160740.jpg|thumb|Red Arrows with red and blue smoke, in April 2016 at [[Tanagra Air Base]] in Greece]]
As the fuel tank capacity of the Hawk sets a limit to nonstop flight distance, very long flights between display sites may need landings on the way to refuel. For example, a flight from [[RAF Scampton]] to [[Quebec]] for an international air display team competition had to be done in seven hops: RAF Scampton, [[RAF Kinloss]] (Scotland), [[Keflavík]] (Iceland), [[Kangerlussuaq]] (west Greenland), [[Narsarsuaq]] (south tip of Greenland), [[Goose Bay (Newfoundland and Labrador)|Goose Bay]] ([[Newfoundland (island)|Newfoundland]]), [[La Baie, Quebec|Bagotville]], [[Quebec]].

For the same reason, Red Arrows displays in [[New Zealand]] are unlikely because there is no land near enough for a Hawk to land and refuel to reach New Zealand on the most fuel that it can carry.

===Smoke===
The smoke trails left by the team are made by releasing [[Diesel fuel|diesel]] into the [[exhaust gas|exhaust]]; this [[oxidisation|oxidises]] straight away, leaving a white smoke trail. [[Dye]]s can be added to produce the red and blue colour. The diesel is stored in the pod on the underside of the plane; it houses three tanks: one {{convert|50|impgal|L|adj=on}} tank of pure diesel and two {{convert|10|impgal|L|adj=on}} tanks of blue and red dyed diesel. The smoke system uses {{convert|10|impgal|L|adj=on}} per minute; therefore each plane can trail smoke for a total of seven minutes: – five minutes of white smoke, a minute of blue and a minute of red.

==Incidents and accidents==
*{{Start date|1969|03|26|df=y}} A Gnat hit trees while joining formation during a practice at [[Cotswold Airport|RAF Kemble]]. Flt Lt Jerry Bowler (no ejection) was killed.<ref name=Halley77>Halley 2001, p. 77</ref>
* {{Start date|1969|12|16|df=y}} Two Gnats crashed, one at Kemble and the other in a field near [[Chelworth]]. The pilots both ejected safely although a fire warning from air traffic was intended for only one of the aircraft.<ref name="Times57745">{{Cite newspaper The Times |articlename=Red Arrow pilot ejects in error |author= |section=News |day_of_week=Wednesday |date=17 December 1969 |page_number=3 |issue=57745 |column=F }}</ref>
*{{Start date|df=yes|1969}} A Gnat crashed short of the [[RAF Fairford]] runway.{{citation needed|date=August 2011}}
*{{Start date|1971|01|20|df=y}} Two Gnats collided during the cross-over manoeuvre, over the runway at Kemble with four fatalities.<ref name="ejection">{{cite web|url=http://www.ejection-history.org.uk/AEROBATIC/Red_Arrows/RED_ARROWS.htm |title=Red Arrows Losses and Ejections |publisher=Ejection History |date=25 April 2007 |accessdate=16 April 2011}}</ref>
* {{Start date|1980|05|17|df=y}} A Hawk hit a yacht mast at an air show in [[Brighton]], Sussex. The pilot, Sqn Ldr Steve Johnson, ejected safely.<ref name="ejection" />
* {{Start date|1984|03|21|df=y}} A Hawk hit the ground at [[RAF Akrotiri]], [[Cyprus]], while practising a loop. The pilot, Flt Lt Chris Hurst, suffered serious injuries when the impact with the ground forced the ejection seat through the canopy and deployed the chute, dragging him out.<ref name="Ejection History">{{cite news|title=Red Arrows Losses & Ejections|url=http://www.ejection-history.org.uk/aerobatic/Red_Arrows/RED_ARROWS.htm|accessdate=26 November 2011}}</ref>
* {{Start date|df=yes|1986}} A Hawk rammed into the back of another on a runway.
* {{Start date|df=yes|1987|11|16}} Two Hawks collided during a winter training practice with one aircraft crashing into a house in the village of [[Welton, Lincolnshire]]. The aircraft of Flt Lt Spike Newbery struck the aircraft of new Team Leader Sqn Ldr Tim Miller from behind, knocking off the tail. Both pilots ejected successfully. Flt Lt Newbery suffered a broken leg and had to leave the team.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://old.welton-village.info/articles/latest/Miracle_As_Jet_Crashes_Into_Homes_-_And_No-One_Killed_ad93607.html |title=Welton Village News |publisher=Old Welton Village |date= |accessdate=15 June 2009}}</ref>
* {{Start date|1988|06|24|df=y}} A Hawk crashed whilst attempting to take off, and the fuel tanks exploded. The pilot ejected safely.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://nl.newsbank.com/nl-search/we/Archives?p_product=SL&p_theme=sl&p_action=search&p_maxdocs=200&p_topdoc=1&p_text_direct-0=0EB3281FD760B166&p_field_direct-0=document_id&p_perpage=10&p_sort=YMD_date:D&s_trackval=GooglePM|title=Pilot Ejects Safely From Burning Jet |date=26 June 1988|work=St. Louis Post Dispatch|accessdate=14 August 2009}}</ref>
* {{Start date|df=yes|1988}} Flt Lt Neil MacLachlan died practising a "roll back" at RAF Scampton.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/uknews/defence/8713439/A-brief-history-of-the-Red-Arrows.html|title=A brief history of the Red Arrows|publisher=The Telegraph|date=20 August 2011|accessdate=20 August 2011}}</ref>
* {{Start date|1998|10|17|df=y}} Flt Lt R. Edwards landed short of the runway after a practice run at the Red Arrows then home base, RAF Cranwell, and ejected safely at low altitude.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ejection-history.org.uk/aerobatic/Red_Arrows/RED_ARROWS.htm| title=Red Arrows Losses and Ejections|accessdate=20 August 2011}}</ref>
* {{Start date|2003|09|09|df=y}} A Hawk overshot the runway while landing at [[Jersey Airport]] in advance of an [[Jersey International Air Display|air display]]. The pilot ran the jet into a gravel pile and little damage was sustained.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/3093782.stm | work=BBC News | title=Red Arrows jet in runway drama | date=9 September 2003 | accessdate=10 April 2010}}</ref>
* {{Start date|df=yes|2007}} The wingtip of a Hawk hit the tail of another during a practice flight near RAF Scampton.<ref>{{cite news | title = Red Arrows in mid-air collision | url = http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/lincolnshire/6256827.stm | publisher = BBC News | date = 12 January 2007 | accessdate =1 February 2007}}</ref>
* {{Start date|2010|03|23|df=y}}|| Two Hawks were involved in a mid-air collision. The synchro pair were practising one of their manoeuvres when the two aircraft collided. Red 7 (Flt Lt David Montenegro) landed his plane safely, but Red 6 (Flt Lt Mike Ling) [[ejection system|ejected]] and suffered a dislocated shoulder. The incident took place during pre-season training in [[Crete]]. Due to his injuries, Flt Lt Ling was unable to participate in the forthcoming display season and was replaced by 2008's Red 6, Flt Lt Paul O'Grady.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.sky.com/skynews/Home/World-News/RAF-Red-Arrows-Collide-Near-Crete-One-Plane-Crashes-While-Second-Lands/Article/201003415580343?f=rss|title=Red Arrows Collide During Greek Training|date=23 March 2010|work=Sky News|accessdate=25 March 2011}}</ref>
* {{Start date|2011|08|20|df=y}} A Hawk aircraft crashed into a field near Throop Mill, one mile from [[Bournemouth Airport]] following a display at the [[Bournemouth Air Festival]]. Flt Lt Jon Egging, pilot of Red 4 (XX179), died in the accident. The investigation into the incident determined that Flt Lt Egging was incapacitated due to the effects of [[g-LOC]] until very shortly before impact.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-14602900|title=Red Arrows pilot dies in Bournemouth Air Festival crash|date=20 August 2011|accessdate=20 August 2011|publisher=BBC|work=BBC News Online}}</ref>
*{{Start date|2011|11|08|df=y}} Pilot Flt Lt Sean Cunningham, was ejected from his aircraft while it was on the ground at [[RAF Scampton]] and subsequently died from his injuries. He was shot 200 feet into the air and received fatal injuries when his parachute failed to open. The UK [[Health and Safety Executive]] announced in 2016 that it would be prosecuting the ejection seat manufacturer [[Martin-Baker]] for breach of Health and safety law.<ref>[http://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-2059004/Red-Arrows-pilot-rushed-hospital-life-threatening-injuries-ejector-seat-accident.html Flt Lt Cunningham]</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-15640104|title=Red Arrows pilot dies after incident at RAF Scampton|date=8 November 2011|publisher=BBC|accessdate=8 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.news.com.au/world/daredevil-red-arrows-pilot-dies-after-ejector-crash/story-e6frfkyi-1226189745182|title=Daredevil Red Arrows pilot dies after 'ejector crash'|date=8 November 2011|publisher=news.com.au|accessdate=8 November 2011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Red Arrows pilot death: Ejector seat firm to be prosecuted|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-lincolnshire-37475298|website=BBC|accessdate=29 November 2016}}</ref>

{{clear}}
{{Wikinews|Red Arrows pilot killed at 2011 Bournemouth air display}}

==Video game==
In 1985, [[Database Software]] released a [[flight simulator]] called ''Red Arrows'', made in cooperation with the flight team. In the simulator, stunts have to be performed while flying in formation. It was available for the [[ZX Spectrum]], [[Commodore 64]], [[Amstrad CPC]], [[Acorn Electron]], [[BBC Micro]] and [[Atari]].<ref>Martijn van der Heide, [http://www.worldofspectrum.org/infoseekid.cgi?id=0004067 "Red Arrows, The"], [http://www.worldofspectrum.org/ World of Spectrum], 1995–2005. Retrieved 18 April 2005.</ref>

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

*{{cite book | last = Halley | first = James | title = Royal Air Force Aircraft XA100 to XZ999 | publisher = Air-Britain | year = 2001 | isbn = 0-85130-311-0}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Red Arrows}}
* {{Official website|http://www.raf.mod.uk/reds/}}
* [http://twitter.com/RedArrowsUK/ Red Arrows Twitter page]
* [http://www.bbc.co.uk/archive/aerialjourneys/5328.shtml BBC Archive] video from ''[[Go with Noakes]]'' in 1976 at RAF Kemble

{{Modern aerobatic teams}}
{{Royal Air Force}}

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}

[[Category:Britannia Trophy winners]]
[[Category:Military units and formations established in 1965]]
[[Category:Red Arrows]]
[[Category:Royal Air Force]]
[[Category:West Lindsey]]
[[Category:1965 establishments in the United Kingdom]]

Airbus A400M Atlas

2017-03-22T21:31:22Z

JanTurin: /* Design */

{{Use British English|date=December 2016}}
{|{{Infobox aircraft begin
|name= A400M Atlas
|image= File:A400M-1969.jpg
|caption= The second prototype A400M, ''Grizzly 2'', at the 2010 Farnborough Airshow
}}{{Infobox aircraft type
|type= [[Airlift|Strategic/tactical airlift]]
|manufacturer= [[Airbus Defence and Space]]
|designer=
|first flight= 11 December 2009<ref name="ff" />
|introduced= 2013
|retired= 
|status= In service
|primary user= [[French Air Force]]
|more users= [[Royal Air Force]] [[German Air Force]] [[Turkish Air Force]] See ''[[#Operators|Operators]]'' below for others
|produced= 2007–present 
|number built= 38 
|unit cost= [[Euro|€]]152.4m<ref name=Francebudget2013 />(FY 2013) (France)
|variants with their own articles=
}}
|}

The '''Airbus A400M Atlas'''<ref name="Official naming">[http://www.airbusmilitary.com/LatestNews/tabid/176/ArticleID/205/ArtMID/681/A400M-ATLAS-naming-ceremony-at-RIAT.aspx "A400M naming ceremony at RIAT."] ''[[Airbus Military]],'' 6 July 2012. Retrieved: 6 July 2012.</ref><ref>Hoyle, Craig. [http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/riat-a400m-reborn-as-atlas-373861/ "RIAT: A400M reborn as 'Atlas'."] ''Flightglobal'' 6 July 2012. Retrieved: 6 July 2012.</ref> is a multi-national, four-engine [[turboprop]] [[military transport aircraft]]. It was designed by [[Airbus Military]] (now [[Airbus Defence and Space]]) as a [[tactical airlift]]er with [[Strategic airlift|strategic]] capabilities to replace older transport aircraft, such as the [[Transall C-160]] and the [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules]].<ref>[http://www.raf.mod.uk/equipment/a400m.cfm "RAF – A400m."] ''RAF, MOD''. Retrieved: 15 May 2010.</ref> The A400M is positioned, in terms of size, between the C-130 and the [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|C-17]]; it can carry heavier loads than the C-130, while able to use rough landing strips. Along with the transport role, the A400M can perform [[aerial refuelling]] and [[medical evacuation]] when fitted with appropriate equipment.

The A400M's [[maiden flight]], originally planned for 2008, took place on 11 December 2009 from [[Seville]], Spain.<ref name="ff"/> Between 2009 and 2010, the A400M faced cancellation as a result of development programme delays and cost overruns; however, the customer nations chose to maintain their support of the project. A total of 174 A400M aircraft had been ordered by eight nations by July 2011.<ref>[http://www.a400m.com/PressRelease/tabid/112/ArticleId/137/A400M-contract-amendment-finalised-with-customer-nations.aspx "A400M Contract Amendment Finalised With Customer Nations."] ''Airbus Military.'' Retrieved: 9 September 2011.</ref> In March 2013, the A400M received [[European Aviation Safety Agency]] (EASA) certification. The first aircraft was delivered to the French Air Force in August 2013.

==Development==

===Origins===
The project began as the Future International Military Airlifter (FIMA) group, set up in 1982 by [[Aérospatiale]], [[British Aerospace]] (BAe), [[Lockheed Corporation|Lockheed]], and [[Messerschmitt-Bölkow-Blohm]] (MBB) to develop a replacement for the [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|C-130 Hercules]] and [[Transall C-160]].<ref name=Hewson>Hewson, R. ''The Vital Guide to Military Aircraft'', 2nd ed. Airlife Press, Ltd. 2001.</ref> Varying requirements and the complications of international politics caused slow progress. In 1989, Lockheed left the grouping and went on to develop an upgraded Hercules, the [[Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules|C-130J Super Hercules]]. With the addition of [[Alenia Aermacchi|Alenia]] of Italy and [[EADS CASA|CASA]] of Spain the FIMA group became [[Euroflag]].

Since no existing turboprop engine in the western world was powerful enough to reach the projected cruise speed of Mach 0.72, a new engine design was required. Originally the SNECMA M138 turboprop (based on the [[Snecma M88|M88 core]]) was selected, but didn't meet the requirements.<ref>''A400M: engines. Tracing the tangled roots.'' [[Flight International]], 9–15 November 2004, p. [http://www.flightglobal.com/FlightPDFArchive/2004/2004-09%20-%202272.PDF 59], [http://www.flightglobal.com/FlightPDFArchive/2004/2004-09%20-%202273.PDF 60].</ref> Airbus Military issued a new [[request for proposal]] (RFP) in April 2002, after which [[Pratt & Whitney Canada]] with the [[Pratt & Whitney Canada PW180|PW180]] and [[Europrop International]] answered. In May 2003, Airbus Military selected the [[Europrop TP400]]-D6, reportedly due to political interference over the PW180 engine.<ref name=Takeoff_WSJ2009>[https://www.wsj.com/article/SB20001424052748703735004574569712739616656.html "Airbus Transport Is Almost Ready for Takeoff "]. ''Wall Street Journal'', 2 December 2009.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/usa-blasts-a400m-engine-choice-165396/ |title= USA blasts A400M engine choice |author= Reed Business Information Limited |work= flightglobal.com |accessdate=9 May 2015}}</ref>

The original partner nations were France, Germany, Italy, Spain, the United Kingdom, Turkey, Belgium, and Luxembourg. These nations decided to charge the [[Organisation for Joint Armament Cooperation]] (OCCAR) with the management of the acquisition of the A400M. Following the withdrawal of Italy and revision of procurement totals the revised requirement was for 180 aircraft, with first flight in 2008 and first delivery in 2009. On 28 April 2005, South Africa joined the partnership programme with the state-owned [[Denel]] Saab Aerostructures receiving a contract for fuselage components.<ref>[http://www.defenseindustrydaily.com/South-Africa-to-Cancel-its-A400M-Order-05919/ "South Africa to Cancel its A400M Order."] ''Defense Industry Daily.'' Retrieved: 2 May 2012.</ref>

The A400M is positioned as an intermediate size and range between the Lockheed C-130 and the [[Boeing C-17 Globemaster III|Boeing C-17]], carrying cargo too heavy for the C-130 while able to use rough landing strips.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/business-10631213|title=Will the world buy the A400M?|publisher=|accessdate=17 November 2016|via=www.bbc.com}}</ref> It has been advertised with the tagline "transport what the C130 cannot to places that the C17 can’t".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.thinkdefence.co.uk/2012/09/the-airbus-a400m-atlas-part-2-what-is-so-good-about-it-anyway/|title=The Airbus A400M Atlas – Part 2 (What is So Good about It Anyway) - Think Defence|date=9 September 2012|work=thinkdefence.co.uk|accessdate=17 November 2016}}</ref>

===Delays and problems===
On 9 January 2009, [[EADS]] announced that the first delivery was postponed until at least 2012, and indicated that it wanted to renegotiate "certain technical characteristics".<ref>Regan, James and Tim Hepher. [http://www.reuters.com/article/2009/01/09/eads-idUSL915166620090109 EADS wants A400M contract change, adds delay>"] ''Reuters,'' 9 January 2009. Retrieved: 1 July 2011.</ref> EADS maintained the first deliveries would begin three years after the A400M's first flight. On 12 January 2009, the German newspaper ''[[Financial Times Deutschland]]'' reported that the A400M was overweight by 12 tons and may not achieve a critical performance requirement, the ability to airlift 32 tons; sources told ''FTD'' at the time that the aircraft could only lift 29 tons, which is insufficient to carry a modern armored infantry fighting vehicle, like the [[Puma (IFV)|Puma]].<ref>[http://www.thelocal.de/money/20090112-16705.html "Airbus A400M military transport reportedly too heavy and weak.'] ''Thelocal.de.'' Retrieved: 20 July 2010.</ref> In response to the ''FTD'' report, the chief of the German Air Force stated: "That is a disastrous development," and could delay deliveries to the [[German Air Force]] (''Luftwaffe'') until 2014.<ref>[http://www.khaleejtimes.com/biz/inside.asp?xfile=/data/internationalbusiness/2009/January/internationalbusiness_January298.xml&section=internationalbusiness "Business: EADS denies mulling collapse of A400M project."] ''Khaleejtimes.com,'' 23 January 2009. Retrieved: 20 July 2010.</ref> The Initial Operational Capability (IOC) for the Luftwaffe is delayed at least until 2017, leading to political planning of potential alternatives such as a higher integration of European airlift capabilities.<ref>[http://www.swp-berlin.org/en/common/get_document.php?asset_id=5801 "Sascha Lange: The End for the Airbus A400M?"]. SWP Comments, 26 February 2009.</ref>

On 29 March 2009, Airbus CEO Thomas Enders told ''[[Der Spiegel]]'' magazine that the programme might need to be abandoned without changes.<ref>Evans-Pritchard, Ambrose. [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/newsbysector/transport/5071242/Airbus-admits-it-may-scrap-A400M-military-transport-aircraft-project.html "Airbus admits it may scrap A400M military transport aircraft project."] ''The Daily Telegraph,'' 29 March 2009. Retrieved: 23 April 2010.</ref> The [[Organisation conjointe de coopération en matière d'armement|OCCAR]] reminded the participating countries that they can terminate the contract before 31 March 2009.<ref>[http://www.spiegel.de/wirtschaft/0,1518,610493,00.html Airbus-Projekt A400M droht zu scheitern], ''[[Der Spiegel]]'', 2009-02-27.</ref> On 3 April 2009 the [[South African Air Force]] announced that it would start considering alternatives to the A400M due to postponed production and increased cost.<ref>Engelbrecht, Leon. [http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1552&Itemid=350 "SAAF considering A400M alternative"]. ''DefenceWeb'', 3 April 2009.</ref> On 5 November 2009, South Africa announced it was cancelling the order citing increased cost and delivery delays.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mg.co.za/article/2009-11-05-govt-cancels-multibillionrand-airbus-contract|title=Govt cancels multibillion-rand Airbus contract|first=Staff|last=Reporter|work=mg.co.za|accessdate=17 November 2016}}</ref> On 12 June, ''[[The New York Times]]'' reported that Germany and France had delayed the decision whether or not to cancel their orders for another six months, while the UK still planned to decide at the end of June. The NYT also quoted a report to the [[French Senate]] from February 2009, according to which "the A400M is €5 billion over budget, 3 to 4 years behind schedule, [...] aerospace experts estimate it is also costing Airbus between €1 billion and €1.5 billion a year."<ref>Brothers, Caroline. [https://www.nytimes.com/2009/06/12/business/global/12airbus.html?_r=1&ref=europe "Germany and France Delay Decision on Airbus Military Transport."] ''The New York Times,'' 11 June 2009.</ref>

In 2009, Airbus acknowledged that the programme was expected to lose at least €2.4 billion and cannot break even without sales outside NATO countries.<ref name=Takeoff_WSJ2009/> A [[PricewaterhouseCoopers]] audit projected that the programme would run €11.2 billion over budget, and that corrective measures would result in an overrun of €7.6 billion.<ref name="reuters_pwc_audit_20100121">[http://www.reuters.com/article/2010/01/21/eads-airbus-figures-idUSLDE60K19R20100121?type=marketsNews "Factbox: The big money behind Airbus A400M talks."] ''Reuters,'' 21 January 2010.</ref> On 24 July 2009, the seven European nations announced that the programme would proceed and formed a joint procurement agency to renegotiate the contract.<ref>[http://www.spacewar.com/reports/New_chance_for_Europes_A400M_transporter_999.html "New chance for Europe's A400M transporter."] ''Spacewar.com.'' Retrieved: 20 July 2010.</ref><ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=conewsstory&tkr=BA:US&sid=aM.h7daOYOgI "Airbus gets extension of A400M Contract Moratorium."] ''Bloomberg News,'' 27 July 2009.</ref> On 9 December 2009, the ''[[Financial Times]]'' reported that Airbus requested an additional €5 billion subsidy for the project.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wayback.archive.org/web/20100312062400/http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/a6239b0e-e4ea-11de-817b-00144feab49a.html?nclick_check=1|title=FT.com / Companies / Aerospace & Defence - EADS pleads for €5bn to complete A400M|work=archive.org|accessdate=17 November 2016}}</ref> On 5 January 2010, Airbus repeated that the A400M may be scrapped, costing Airbus €5.7 billion unless €5.3 billion was added by partner governments.<ref name="FTscrap">Hollinger, Peggy, Pilita Clark and Jeremy Lemer. [http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/dfb12870-f9f1-11de-adb4-00144feab49a.html?catid=4&SID=google "Airbus threatens to scrap A400M aircraft."] ''Financial Times'', 5 January 2010.</ref> On 11 January 2010, Tom Enders, Airbus chief executive, stated that he was prepared to cancel the A400M if European governments did not provide more funding; delays had already increased its budget by 25%.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8452493.stm "Airbus chief 'may cancel A400M'."] ''BBC News,'' 12 January 2010. Retrieved: 23 April 2010.</ref> Airbus executives reportedly regarded the A400M as a drain on resources that could have gone towards the [[Airbus A380|A380]] or [[Airbus A350|A350 XWB]] programmes, and even considered spinning off the military division as a separate company.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/8491206.stm|title=BBC News - Airbus' military plane continues to distract|work=bbc.co.uk|accessdate=17 November 2016}}</ref>

[[File:Size comparison C-17 A400M C-130J-30 C-130J.jpg|thumb|Military transport size comparison: C-130J, C-130J-30, A400M and C-17 (top down)]]
A shortage of military transports caused by the delay of the A400M programme led the UK to lease C-17s in 2001 and eventually purchase eight of the aircraft. France and Germany also considered other aircraft, as all three countries needed support operations in Afghanistan.<ref>Bohlen, Celestine. [https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601039&sid=aKM9OZmTX9PY "Airbus Needs U.S. Help to Dispose of Elephant."]''Bloomberg.com'', 6 July 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/review-turns-up-the-heat-on-eurofighter-186087/ "Review turns up the heat on eurofighter"]. ''Flight International'', 22 July 2004.</ref> The C-17 gives the RAF additional strategic capabilities such as a maximum payload of 169,500 lb (77,000 kg) compared to the A400M's 82,000 lb (37,000 kg).<ref name=avweek_20060313/><ref name=avweek_20060313>Fulghum, D., A. Butler and D. Barrie. [http://awin.aviationweek.com/ArticlesStory.aspx?id=b9a164fd-807b-4404-8224-f386cc54691f"Boeing's C-17 wins against EADS' A400."] ''[[Aviation Week & Space Technology]]'', 13 March 2006, p. 43.</ref> In June 2009, Lockheed Martin said that both the UK and France had asked for technical details on the C-130J as an alternative to the A400M.<ref>[https://www.bloomberg.com/apps/news?pid=20601102&sid=aNcg2IMlOgv4 "U.K., France Seek Data on Super Hercules Plane, Lockheed Says."] ''Bloomberg.''</ref> In 2011, the [[Society of British Aircraft Constructors|ADS Group]] warned that shifting British orders to American aircraft for short term budget savings would cost much more over time in missed civil and military aerospace business, stating that technologies used in the A400M would be a bridge to the next generation of civilian aircraft.<ref>Pocock, Chris. [http://www.ainonline.com/news/single-news-page/article/fresh-doubts-over-a400m-as-europe-tightens-its-belt-25484/ "Fresh doubts over A400M as Europe tightens its belt."] ''ainonline.com.'' Retrieved: 9 September 2011. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100721114242/http://www.ainonline.com/news/single-news-page/article/fresh-doubts-over-a400m-as-europe-tightens-its-belt-25484/ |date=21 July 2010 }}</ref>

On 5 November 2010, Belgium, Britain, France, Germany, Luxembourg, Spain and Turkey finalised the contract and agreed to lend Airbus Military €1.5 billion. The programme was then at least three years behind schedule. The UK reduced its order from 25 to 22 aircraft and Germany from 60 to 53, decreasing the total order from 180 to 170.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://aviationweek.com/awin/partner-nations-approve-a400m-contract |title= Partner Nations Approve A400M Contract |publisher= ''[[Aviation Week]]'' |author= Christina Mackenzie |date= 1 January 2011 |accessdate= 28 April 2016 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20160428141757/http://aviationweek.com/awin/partner-nations-approve-a400m-contract |archivedate= 28 April 2016}}</ref> In October 2012, [[John Gilbert, Baron Gilbert|John Gilbert]], Britain's former [[Minister for Defence Procurement]], stated in the British [[House of Lords]] "The A400M is a complete, absolute wanking disaster, and we should be ashamed of ourselves. I have never seen such a waste of public funds in the defence field since I have been involved in it these past 40 years."<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.publications.parliament.uk/pa/ld201213/ldhansrd/text/121024-gc0001.htm#12102469000014 |title=Lords Hansard text for 24 October 2012 GC68 |work=Hansard |publisher=UK Parliament |date=11 June 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.co.uk/2012/10/25/lord-gilbert-wanking-disaster-a400m-unparliamentary_n_2016384.html |title=Lord Gilbert Slams Airbus A400M As 'Absolute Wanking Disaster' In Display Of Unparliamentary Language |date=25 Oct 2012| author= Felicity Morse |work=Huffington Post}}</ref>

In 2013, France's budget for 50 aircraft was €8.9bn (~US$11.7bn) at a unit cost of €152.4m (~US$200m), or €178m (~US$235m) including development costs.<ref name=Francebudget2013>{{cite web |url=http://www.senat.fr/rap/a13-158-8/a13-158-813.html#toc174 |title=Projet de loi de finances pour 2014 : Défense : équipement des forces |language=French |publisher=Senate of France |date=21 November 2013 |accessdate=2014-08-30}}</ref> The [[2013 French White Paper on Defence and National Security]] cut their requirement for tactical transport aircraft from 70 to 50, including aircraft for use by special forces.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marianne.net/blogsecretdefense/Armee-de-l-air-moins-d-une-quarantaine-d-A400-M-devrait-etre-commandee_a1026.html |title=Armée de l'air : moins d'une quarantaine d'A400M devrait être commandée |language=French |date=30 April 2013 |first=Jean-Dominique |last=Merchet |publisher=[[Marianne (magazine)|Marianne]]}}</ref> As the A400M was still unable to perform in-flight refuelling for helicopters, France announced in 2016 that it would also purchase four C-130J aircraft for special forces support and helicopter aerial refueling.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/france-reportedly-confirms-c-130j-buy-420518/ |title= France reportedly confirms C-130J buy |last1= Stevenson |first1=Beth |date= 5 January 2016 |work= Flightglobal |publisher= |accessdate= 3 April 2016}}</ref> In July 2016, French aerospace laboratory [[ONERA]] confirmed that it had successfully trialled a 36.5m (120ft) hose and drogue configuration in a wind tunnel to permit helicopter refuelling from the airlifter. Earlier flight tests had demonstrated that the intended 24m (80ft) hose was unstable due to the vortices generated by the deployment of the A400M’s spoilers to achieve the required 108-130kt air speed. New flight tests are to be conducted later in 2016 to validate the findings.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/french-aerospace-laboratory-details-a400m-refuelling-427792/? |title=French aerospace laboratory details A400M refuelling tests |date=25 July 2016 |publisher=FlightGlobal}}</ref>

On 1 April 2016, ADS confirmed that it was working to resolve manufacturing faults affecting fourteen propeller gear boxes (PGBs) produced by TP400 supplier [[Europrop International]] (EPI) in the first half of 2015. The gearboxes are made by Italian supplier [[Avio]] Aero, owned by [[General Electric]]. The issue involved a specific heat treatment process in manufacturing that adversely affected the strength of the ring gear; no other PGBs before or since were affected and the units involved either have been or are being changed. Airbus noted that "pending full replacement of the batch, any aircraft can continue to fly with no more than one affected propeller gear box installed and is subject to continuing inspections." Another PGB issue involves cracking of the input pinion plug, which in some cases can result in the release of small metallic particles into the oil system, where they are detected by a magnetic chip detector. Only engines 1 and 3, which have propellers that rotate to the right, are affected. The [[European Aviation Safety Agency]] has issued an Airworthiness Directive mandating immediate on-wing inspection, followed by replacement if evidence of damage is found, or else return-to-service and continuing inspections.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-airbus-a400m-engines-idUSKCN0X22G7 |title=Airbus A400M engine glitch seen taking weeks to fix |date=5 April 2016 |publisher=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://aviationweek.com/defense/airbus-working-a400m-manufacturing-glitches? |title=Airbus Working A400M Manufacturing Glitches |date=4 April 2016 |publisher=Aviation Week}}</ref> On 27 April 2016, when delivering Q1 2016 financial results, Airbus warned there could be a significant cost in repairing the gearbox.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/air-space/2016/04/28/airbus-reports-a400m-engine-gearbox-problems-cause-delays/83643340/ |title=Airbus Reports A400M Engine Gearbox Problems Will Cause Delays |date=28 April 2016 |publisher=Defense News}}</ref> In June 2016, two German A400Ms received in December 2014 – aircraft 54-01 and 54-02 – were temporarily grounded after inspections found heavy engine wear in the clockwise rotation PGBs after only 365 and 189 hours of operations, respectively.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/article/61929/engine-problems-ground-german-a400ms? |title=Engine problems ground German A400Ms |date=1 July 2016 |publisher=IHS Jane's 360}}</ref> An interim fix for this PGB issue was certified in July 2016, which extends the inspection phase from 100 hours to 650 hours, with follow-up inspections every 150 hours, up from 20 hours.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/us-airshow-britain-airbus-a400m-idUSKCN0ZP0R9 |title=Interim fix for A400M engine issue certified: Airbus |last1=Shalal |first1=Andrea |date=9 July 2016 |website=reuters.com |publisher=Reuters |access-date=12 July 2016 }}</ref>

On 13 May 2016, Airbus confirmed that an unknown cracking behaviour that had already been identified during quality control checks in 2011 was found in an aluminium fuselage part of a French A400M; the issue did not affect flight safety and repairs could be incorporated into regular maintenance and upgrade schedules.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/airbus-germany-idUSL5N18A67J |title=Airbus wants to replace A400M parts after cracks found, Germany says |date=13 May 2016 |publisher=Reuters}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/air-space/support/2016/05/18/germany-presses-airbus-resolve-a400m-problems/84536234/ |title=Germany Presses Airbus to Resolve A400M Problems |date=18 May 2016 |publisher=Defense News}}</ref> The aluminium alloy, known as 7X6, has been used in a number of frames in the aircraft’s centre; the alloy’s chemistry, along with environmental conditions, resulted in small cracks propagating into the frames. A decision has been made to exclude the material from MSN70 onwards, an aircraft that will emerge from the production line in 2017. A retrospective process to remove the material from aircraft already in service is now being defined. The swap could take up to seven months.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://aviationweek.com/defense/airbus-works-through-a400m-woes? |title=Airbus Works Through A400M Woes |date=1 July 2016 |publisher=Aviation Week}}</ref>

On 29 May 2016, Airbus chief Tom Enders conceded in an interview published in [[Bild am Sonntag]] that some of the "massive problems" dogging the A400M were of the group’s own making. He said "We underestimated the engine problems" and "Airbus had let itself be persuaded by some well-known European leaders into using an engine made by an inexperienced consortium." Furthermore, it had let itself be roped into assuming full responsibility for this new type of turbo-prop engine, he continued. "These are two massive problems which we’re now paying for."<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/policy-budget/industry/2016/05/29/airbus-concedes-problems-home-made/85128382/ |title=Airbus Concedes Some A400M Problems Are ‘Homemade’ |date=29 May 2016 |publisher=Defense News}}</ref> On 27 July 2016 Airbus confirmed that it had taken a $1 billion financial charge on the A400M programme, in the light of delivery problems and export market prospects. It noted that “Commercial negotiations with [[OCCAR]] and the nations are yet to take place with regard to the revised delivery schedule and its implications.”<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/air-space/2016/07/27/airbus-a400m-financial-charge/87607522/? |title=Airbus Announces Additional €1B in Financial Charges for A400M |date=28 July 2016 |publisher=Defense News}}</ref> Tom Enders commented “Industrial efficiency and the step-wise introduction of the A400M’s military functionalities are still lagging behind schedule and remain challenging.” <ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/airbus-takes-fresh-1bn-charge-against-a400m-427909/? |title=Airbus takes fresh €1bn charge against A400M |date=27 July 2016 |publisher=FlightGlobal}}</ref>

===Flight testing===
Before the first flight, the required airborne test time on the [[Europrop TP400]] engine was gained using a [[Lockheed C-130 Hercules|Lockheed C-130]] [[Testbed#Aircraft engine development|testbed aircraft]], which first flew on 17 December 2008.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/12/17/320258/pictures-airbus-a400ms-engine-becomes-airborne-for-first-time.html |title= Airbus A400M's engine becomes airborne for first time |author= Kaminski-Morrow, David |publisher= ''Flightglobal'' |date= 17 December 2008 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20081218205101/http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2008/12/17/320258/pictures-airbus-a400ms-engine-becomes-airborne-for-first-time.html |archivedate= 18 December 2008}}</ref><ref>{{Cite web |url = http://media.marketwire.com/attachments/200812/MOD-492736_IMG_5115sm.jpg |title= Flying test bed |date= |accessdate= 28 September 2016 |publisher= |format= Image JPG|archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20160928041627/http://media.marketwire.com/attachments/200812/MOD-492736_IMG_5115sm.jpg|archivedate= 28 September 2016}}</ref> On 11 December 2009, the A400M's maiden flight was carried out from Seville.<ref name="ff">{{cite web|url= http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2009/12/11/336083/updated-pictures.html| title= Updated- Pictures & Video: Airbus celebrates as A400M gets airborne |publisher= ''[[Flight International]]'' |date= 11 December 2009 |archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20091214021041/http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2009/12/11/336083/updated-pictures.html|archivedate= 14 December 2009}}</ref> By March 2010, the first A400M had flown 39 hours of test flights.<ref>[http://militaryaircraft-airbusds.com/PressCenter/LatestNews/TabId/176/ArtMID/681/ArticleID/123/-First-A400M-ferried-from-Seville-to-Toulouse.aspx "First A400M ferried from Seville to Toulouse"]. Airbus Military, 9 March 2009.</ref> On 8 April 2010, the second A400M made its first flight.<ref>[http://militaryaircraft-airbusds.com/PressCenter/LatestNews/TabId/176/ArtMID/681/ArticleID/119/Second-Airbus-Military-A400M-completes-maiden-flight.aspx "Second Airbus Military A400M completes maiden flight."] Airbus Military, 9 April 2010.</ref> In July 2010, the third A400M took to the air, at which point the fleet had flown 400 hours over more than 100 flights.<ref name=3rd_A400M_flies>Hoyle, Craig. [http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2010/07/09/344266/picture-third-a400m-takes-to-the-air.html "Picture: Third A400M takes to the air."] ''Flight International,'' 9 July 2011.</ref> In July 2010, the A400M passed a key test – ultimate-load testing of the wing.<ref>[http://www.defpro.com/news/details/17309/ "A400M wing passes critical test."] ''defpro.com,'' 3 August 2010. Retrieved: 3 August 2010. Quote: A400M new airlifter has passed the ultimate-load up-bend test. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120317030806/http://www.defpro.com/news/details/17309/ |date=17 March 2012 }}</ref> On 28 October 2010, Airbus announced that it was to start refuelling and air-drop tests.<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2010/10/28/349074/a400m-close-to-first-air-drop-refuelling-tests-says.html "A400M close to first air drop, refuelling tests, says Airbus."] ''Flightglobal.com,'' 31 October 2010.</ref> By October 2010, the A400M had flown 672 hours of the 2,700 hours expected to reach certification.<ref>[http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?channel=awst&id=news/awst/2010/11/01/AW_11_01_2010_p42-265722.xml&headline=Airbus%20To%20Ramp%20Up%20A400M%20Test%20Effort&next= "Airbus To Ramp Up A400M Test Effort."]{{dead link|date=June 2015}} ''Aviation Week'', 28 October 2010.</ref> In November 2010, the first paratroop jumps were performed; Airbus CEO Tom Enders and A400M project manager Bruno Delannoy were among the skydivers.<ref>{{Cite AV media|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q-N8nVrAVsk|title=A high-profile parachute jump from the A400M airlifter|date=5 May 2011|work=YouTube|accessdate=9 May 2015}}</ref><ref>Hoyle, Craig. [http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2010/11/08/349448/picture-first-paratroops-jump-from-europes-a400m.html "Picture: First paratroops jump from Europe's A400M."] ''Flightglobal.com,'' 10 November 2010.</ref> By December 2010, the total fleet flight time had risen to 965 hours.<ref>Hoyle, Craig. [http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2010/12/17/351036/fourth-a400m-nears-debut-as-type-approaches-1000-flight.html "Fourth A400M nears debut, as type approaches 1,000 flight hours."] ''Flight International,'' 17 December 2010.</ref> A fourth A400M made its first flight on 20 December 2010.<ref name=4th_A400M_TO>Tran, Pierre. [http://www.defensenews.com/story.php?i=5278845&c=EUR&s=AIR "4th A400M Takes Off."] ''Defense News'', 20 December 2010.</ref>

[[File:Airbus A400M Rollout.JPG|thumb|left|The first A400M during the world presentation in Seville on 26 June 2008]]
In late 2010, simulated icing tests were performed on the MSN1 flight test aircraft using devices installed on the leading edges of the wing.<ref name="FlightGlobal1">Hoyle, Craig. [http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/bearing-up-airbus-militarys-grizzly-nears-civil-certification-363962/ "Bearing up: Airbus Military's 'Grizzly' nears civil certification."] ''[[Flightglobal]],'' 27 October 2011. Retrieved: 12 August 2012.</ref> These revealed an aerodynamic issue causing buffeting of the horizontal tail, necessitating a six-week retrofit to install anti-icing equipment fed with engine bleed air;<ref name="FlightGlobal1" /> production aircraft are to be similarly fitted.<ref name="FlightGlobal1" /> Winter tests were done in [[Kiruna]], Sweden during February 2011.<ref>Perry, Dominic. [http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2011/02/08/352880/picture-a400m-undergoes-swedish-winter-trials.html "A400M undergoes Swedish winter trials."] ''Flight International,'' 8 February 2011.</ref> In March 2012, high altitude start and landing tests were performed at [[El Alto International Airport|La Paz]] at 4,061.5 m (13,325 ft) and [[Jorge Wilstermann International Airport|Cochabamba]] at 2,548 m (8,360 feet) in [[Bolivia]].<ref name=sld>[http://www.sldinfo.com/the-global-tour-of-the-a400m/ "The global tour of the A400M."] ''Second Line of Defense''. Retrieved: 16 April 2012.</ref><ref name=fg>[http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/picture-a400m-has-high-time-in-la-paz-370203/ "A400M has high time in La Paz"] ''[[Flightglobal]]'', 30 March 2012. Retrieved: 16 April 2012.</ref><ref name=ing>[http://ing.dk/artikel/128394-se-luftens-bamse-faa-en-hoejder#0 "Pictures."] ''[[Ingeniøren]]'', 16 April 2012.</ref>

By April 2011, a total of 1,400 flight hours over 450 flights had been achieved.<ref>Hoyle, Craig. [http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2011/04/07/355315/a400m-contract-amendment-signed-as-test-fleet-passes-1400-flight.html "A400M contract amendment signed, as test fleet passes 1,400 flight hours."] ''Flight International,'' 7 April 2011.</ref> In May 2011, the A400M's EPI TP400-D6 engine received certification from the [[European Aviation Safety Agency]] (EASA).<ref name=Def-News_TP400_cert>Chuter, Andrew. [http://defensenews.com/story.php?i=6433535&c=EUR&s=AIR "A400M Engine Wins Safety Certification."] ''Defense News'', 6 May 2011.</ref> In May 2011, the A400M fleet had totaled 1,600 hours over 500 flights; by September 2011, the total increased to 2,100 hours and 684 flights.<ref>Hoyle, Craig. [http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2011/09/08/361726/a400m-fleet-passes-2000-test-hours-despite-engine-issue.html "Pictures: New-look A400M readied for icing trials."] ''Flight International,'' 16 July 2011.</ref> Due to a gearbox problem, an A400M was shown on static display instead of a flight demonstration at the 2011 [[Paris Air Show]].<ref>Morrison, Murdo. [http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2011/06/19/358240/paris-engine-problems-prevent-a400m-flying-at-show.html "Paris: Engine problems prevent A400M flying at show."] ''Flight International,'' 19 July 2011.</ref> By October 2011, the total flight hours had reached 2,380 over 784 flights.<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/bearing-up-airbus-militarys-grizzly-nears-civil-certification-363962/ "Bearing up: Airbus Military's 'Grizzly' nears civil certification."] ''[[Flightglobal]].'' Retrieved: 2 May 2012.</ref>

During May 2012, the MSN2 flight test aircraft was due to spend a week conducting unpaved runway trials on a grass strip at [[Cottbus-Drewitz Airport]] in Germany.<ref name="FlightGlobal2">Hoyle, Craig. [http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/soft-ground-cuts-short-a400m-landing-trials-372340/ "Soft ground cuts short A400M landing trials."] ''[[Flightglobal]],'' 25 May 2012. Retrieved: 7 June 2012.</ref> Testing was cut short on 23 May, when, during a rejected takeoff test, the left side main wheels broke through the runway surface. Airbus Military stated that it found the aircraft's behaviour was "excellent". The undamaged aircraft returned to Toulouse.<ref name="FlightGlobal2" />

On 14 March 2013, the A400M received its Type Certification from the European Aviation Safety Agency.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://defense-update.com/20130314_airbus-military-a400m-receives-full-civil-type-certificate-from-easa.html |title=Airbus Military A400M Receives Full Civil Type Certificate From EASA |work=defense-update.com |accessdate=9 May 2015}}</ref>

===Production and delivery===
Assembly of the first A400M began at the [[Seville]] plant of [[Construcciones Aeronáuticas SA|EADS Spain]] in early 2007. Major assemblies built at other facilities abroad were brought to the Seville facility by [[Airbus Beluga]] transporters. In February 2008, four Europrop TP400-D6 flight test engines were delivered for the first A400M.<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/blogBurst/investing?type=hotStocksNews&w1=B7ovpm21IaDoL40ZFnNfGe&w2=B7pJeHult9GszE37UXlSpmUm&src=blogBurst_investingNews&bbPostId=Cz6kWAoEsHafEB1MocXQQ0XIFCz4UKnM6iuVsvBBiw0AQO74dt&bbParentWidgetId=B7gSUbux1hpbz8uOa7TWsLnV "Fourth Engine for A400M Brings First Flight Closer"]. Reuters, {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090109231047/http://www.reuters.com/article/blogBurst/investing?type=hotStocksNews&w1=B7ovpm21IaDoL40ZFnNfGe&w2=B7pJeHult9GszE37UXlSpmUm&src=blogBurst_investingNews&bbPostId=Cz6kWAoEsHafEB1MocXQQ0XIFCz4UKnM6iuVsvBBiw0AQO74dt&bbParentWidgetId=B7gSUbux1hpbz8uOa7TWsLnV |date=9 January 2009 }}</ref> Static structural testing of an A400M test airframe began on 12 March 2008 in Spain.<ref>[http://www.airbusmilitary.com/press.html "Static test programme begins on aircraft MSN 5000"]. EADS, 28 March 2008. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090708042914/http://www.airbusmilitary.com/press.html |date=8 July 2009 }}</ref> By 2010, Airbus planned to manufacture 30 aircraft per year.<ref>[http://www.a400m-countdown.com/index.php?v=4&spage=3 "A400M Countdown #4 – A Progress report from Airbus Military."] ''A400m-countdown.com.'' Retrieved: 20 July 2010.</ref>

[[File:A400m flaps down.jpg|thumb|left|The first A400M during its fourth flight on 15 January 2010]]
The first flight, originally scheduled for the first quarter of 2008, was postponed due to programme delays, schedule adjustments and financial pressures. EADS announced in January 2008 that development problems with the engines had resulted in a delay to the second quarter of 2008 before the first engine test flights on a C-130 testbed aircraft. The first flight of the aircraft, previously scheduled for July 2008, was again postponed. Civil certification under [[European Aviation Safety Agency]] (EASA) CS-25 will be followed later by certification for military purposes. The A400M was "rolled out" in Seville on 26 June 2008 at an event presided by [[King Juan Carlos I]] of Spain.<ref>[http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/Rey/estrena/Airbus/400/mayor/avion/militar/fabricacion/europea/elpepueco/20080626elpepueco_12/Tes "El Rey estrena el Airbus 400, el mayor avión militar de fabricación europea."] ''ELPAÍS.com.''</ref>

On 12 January 2011, serial production of the A400M formally commenced.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/blogs/defense/index.jsp?plckController=Blog&plckBlogPage=BlogViewPost&newspaperUserId=27ec4a53-dcc8-42d0-bd3a-01329aef79a7&plckPostId=Blog%3A27ec4a53-dcc8-42d0-bd3a-01329aef79a7Post%3A62b03119-ba99-4b68-8cd3-37ed4c716803&plckScript=blogScript&plckElementId=blogDest |title=A400M Gets Going |date=12 January 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121002182916/http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/blogs/defense/index.jsp?plckController=Blog&plckBlogPage=BlogViewPost&newspaperUserId=27ec4a53-dcc8-42d0-bd3a-01329aef79a7&plckPostId=Blog:27ec4a53-dcc8-42d0-bd3a-01329aef79a7Post:62b03119-ba99-4b68-8cd3-37ed4c716803&plckScript=blogScript&plckElementId=blogDest |archivedate=2 October 2012 }}</ref> On 1 August 2013, delivery of the first aircraft to the [[French Air Force]], it was formally handed over during a ceremony on 30 September 2013.<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/french-acceptance-sees-a400m-deliveries-take-off-389029/ "French acceptance sees A400M deliveries take off"]. Flight International, 1 August 2013.</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/france-formally-accepts-a400m-transport-391116/ "France formally accepts A400M transport"]. Flight International, 30 September 2013.</ref> On 9 August 2013, the first [[Turkey|Turkish]] A400M conducted its maiden flight from Seville,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.eads.com/eads/int/en/news/press.20130812_airbus_military_a400m_turkey.html |title=First Airbus Military A400M for Turkish Air Force makes maiden flight |publisher=EADS |date=12 August 2013 |accessdate=27 October 2013 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029193408/http://www.eads.com/eads/int/en/news/press.20130812_airbus_military_a400m_turkey.html |archivedate=29 October 2013 }}</ref> and in March 2015 Malaysia took delivery of its first A400M.<ref name=fgMal>{{cite web |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/pictures-malaysia-receives-first-a400m-409951/ |title=Malaysia receives first A400M |work=[[Flightglobal]] |publisher=Reed Business Information |first=Greg |last=Waldron |date=10 March 2015 |accessdate=10 March 2015 |archive-url= |archive-date= |deadurl=no}}</ref>

In May 2015, a German defense ministry letter revealed that the member countries had established a Programme Monitoring Team (PMT) to analyze and judge Airbus plans to bring the A400M on track. As well as monitoring progress in development and production, the PMT schedules on-site visits to the final assembly line in Seville, Spain, and other production facilities. The PMT's first conclusions on programme recovery include an observation that Airbus lacked an integrated approach to production, development and retrofits, treating these as separate programmes.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aviationweek.com/defense/a400m-countries-form-monitoring-team-germany-warns-airlift-gap |title=A400M Countries Form Monitoring Team, Germany Warns Of Airlift Gap |date=21 May 2015 |publisher=Aviation Week}}</ref>

On 9 May 2015, an [[2015 Seville A400M crash|A400M crashed in Seville]] on its first production test flight.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://sevilla.abc.es/sevilla/20150509/sevi-a400m-accidentado-comunico-problemas-201505091543.html |title=El A400M accidentado comunicó problemas en el tren de aterrizaje tras despegar |author=M. J. Pereira |date=10 May 2015 |work=ABC de Sevilla}}</ref> Germany, Malaysia, Turkey and UK suspended A400M flights during the investigation.<ref>{{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/may/10/uk-mod-halts-airbus-a400m-seville-crash-spain |title=UK halts Airbus A400M usage after Seville crash |date= 10 May 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title = Black Boxes of Crashed A400M Plane Found, Aircraft Grounded|url = http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/international/europe/2015/05/10/black-boxes-crashed-plane-found-aircraft-grounded/27083231/|date = 2015-05-10}}</ref> Initial focus was on whether the crash was caused by new fuel supply management software, designed to trim the fuel tanks to enable certain military maneuvers; Airbus issued an update instructing operators to inspect all Engine Control Units (ECUs).<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aviationweek.com/defense/software-cut-fuel-supply-stricken-a400m/|title=Software Cut Off Fuel Supply In Stricken A400M|work=Aviation Week|accessdate=19 May 2015}}</ref> A key scenario examined by investigators is that the torque calibration parameter data was accidentally wiped on three engines as the software was being installed, preventing [[FADEC]] operations. As designed, the first warning of an engine data problem would occur when the plane was 120 meters (400 feet) in the air; on the ground, there is no cockpit alert.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/06/09/us-airbus-a400m-idUSKBN0OP2AS20150609 |title=A400M probe focuses on impact of accidental data wipe |work=Reuters |date=9 June 2015}}</ref> On 3 June 2015, Airbus announced that investigators had confirmed "that engines one, two and three experienced power frozen after lift-off and did not respond to the crew's attempts to control the power setting in the normal way."<ref name="defensenews1">{{cite web |url=http://www.defensenews.com/story/defense/international/europe/2015/06/03/airbus-says-3-of-4-engines-failed-in-spain-a400m-crash/28399947/ |title=Airbus Says 3 of 4 Engines Failed in Spain A400M Crash |date=27 May 2015 |publisher=Defense News}}</ref>

On 11 June 2015, Spain's Ministry of Defense announced that A400M prototypes could restart test flights and confirmed that its specialist aerospace unit had met with Airbus to discuss flight permits, and that further permits relating to the programme could be granted in the coming days.<ref>{{Cite news |url=http://www.reuters.com/article/2015/06/11/us-spain-airbus-flights-idUSKBN0OR2H920150611 |title=Airbus can restart A400M test flights in Spain after crash: Defense Ministry |date=11 June 2015 |publisher=Reuters}}</ref> The RAF lifted its suspension on A400M flights "following certain checks and extra procedures" on 16 June 2015, followed the next day by the Turkish Air Force.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/1bb48a60-1445-11e5-9bc5-00144feabdc0,Authorised=false.html |title=Airbus hoping to resume A400M deliveries |date=17 June 2015 |publisher=Financial Times}}</ref> On 19 June 2015, deliveries restarted; the first aircraft, MSN019, is the seventh to be delivered to France and the 13th to be delivered in all. The FAL has also completed the build of four aircraft for the United Kingdom, which will now undergo pre-delivery checks and trials before being flown to Royal Air Force (RAF) [[RAF Brize Norton|Brize Norton]] in Oxfordshire.<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://www.janes.com/article/52483/airbus-resumes-a400m-customer-deliveries |title=Airbus resumes A400M customer deliveries |date=22 June 2015 |publisher=IHS Jane's 360}}</ref>

In June 2016 the French Air Force accepted its ninth A400M – MSN33 – the first capable of conducting tactical tasks such as the airdrop of supplies. The revised standard includes the addition of cockpit armour and defensive aids system equipment, plus clearance for the Atlas to transfer and receive fuel in-flight.<ref>{{Cite web |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/france-receives-first-a400m-with-tactical-capability-426592/ |title=France receives first A400M with tactical capability |date=22 June 2016 |publisher=FlightGlobal}}</ref>

Airbus has been working to develop a Future Maritime Patrol (MPA) version and airborne refuelling (AAR) variant for the A400M.

==Design==
[[File:Airbus A400M EC-404 MSN 004 at Seville.jpg|thumb|A400M showing its [[counter-rotating propellers]] on each wing]]

The Airbus A400M increases the airlift capacity and range compared with the aircraft it was originally set to replace, the older versions of the Hercules and Transall. Cargo capacity is expected to double over existing aircraft, both in payload and volume, and range is increased substantially as well. The cargo box is 17.71 m long excluding ramp, 4.00 m wide, and 3.85 m high (or 4.00 m aft of the wing).<ref>[http://www.airbusmilitary.com/Aircraft/A400M/A400MAbout.aspx "The versatile airlifter for the 21st Century."] ''Airbus Military.'' Retrieved: 2 May 2012.</ref> The A400M operates in many configurations including [[cargo]] transport, [[troop transport]], and [[medical evacuation]]. The aircraft is intended for use on short, soft landing strips and for long-range, cargo transport flights.<ref>[http://www.a400m.com/Capabilities.aspx "A400M Capabilities."] ''Airbus Military.'' Retrieved: 15 May 2010. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110907032158/http://www.a400m.com/Capabilities.aspx |date=7 September 2011 }}</ref>

It features a [[fly-by-wire]] flight control system with sidestick controllers and [[flight envelope protection]]. Like other Airbus aircraft, the A400M has a full [[glass cockpit]]. Most of the aircraft systems are loosely based on those of the [[Airbus A380|A380]], but modified for the military mission. The hydraulic system has dual 3,000-psi channels powering the primary and secondary flight-control actuators, landing gear, wheel brakes, cargo door and optional hose-and-drogue refueling system. As with the A380, there is no third hydraulic system. Instead, there are two electrical systems; one is a set of dual-channel electrically powered hydraulic actuators, the other an array of electrically/hydraulically powered hybrid actuators. The dissimilar redundancy provides more protection against battle damage.<ref name="aviationweek1">{{cite web |url=http://aviationweek.com/defense/pilot-report-proves-a400m-s-capabilities |title=Pilot Report Proves A400M’s Capabilities |publisher= Aviation Week |date= 10 June 2013}}</ref>

[[File:A400M Propeller (Hamilton-Sundstrand).jpg|thumb|left|Hamilton Sundstrand propeller for A400M at the Paris Air Show 2009]]
The A400M's wings are primarily [[Carbon fiber reinforced plastic|carbon fibre reinforced plastic]]. [[Ratier|Ratier-Figeac]] FH385 counterclockwise, FH386 clockwise<ref>{{cite web |title=The TP400-D6 will use the Ratier-Figeac FH386 propeller (Airbus Military interface) ; from google (europrop ratier figeac) result 4 |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/a400m-engine-set-to-propel-ratier-figeacs-fortunes-357912/ }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |title=FH386 ; from google (europrop ratier figeac) result 1 |url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/a400m-engine-set-to-propel-ratier-figeacs-fortunes-357912/ }}</ref><ref name=typecert/> eight-bladed [[scimitar propeller]] is also made from a woven composite material. The aircraft is powered by four [[Europrop TP400|Europrop TP400-D6]] engines rated at 8,250 kW (11,000 hp) each.<ref>[http://militaryaircraft-airbusds.com/Aircraft/A400M/A400MAbout.aspx Military Aircraft Airbus DS | A400M]. Airbus Defence & Space. Retrieved: 19 May 2015</ref> The TP400-D6 engine is to be the most powerful turboprop engine in the West to enter operational use.<ref name=Def-News_TP400_cert/>

The pair of propellers on each wing of the A400M [[Counter-rotating propellers|turn in opposite directions]], with the tips of the propellers advancing from above towards the midpoint between the two engines. This is in contrast to the overwhelming majority of multi-engine propeller driven aircraft where all propellers turn in the same direction. The counter-rotation is achieved by the use of a gearbox fitted to two of the engines, and only the propeller turns the opposite direction; all four engines are identical and turn in the same direction. This eliminates the need to have two different "handed" engines on stock for the same aircraft, simplifying maintenance and supply costs. This configuration, dubbed ''down between engines'' (DBE), allows the aircraft to produce more lift and lessens the [[torque]] and [[prop wash]] on each wing. It also reduces [[Aircraft principal axes|yaw]] in the event of an outboard engine failure.<ref>[http://www.a400m-countdown.com/index.php?v=2&spage=7 "Airbus Military."] ''countdown.com.''</ref>

[[File:A400M landing gear P1220828.jpg|thumb|A400M landing gear display at Paris Air Show, 2007]]
A forward-looking infrared enhanced vision system (EVS) camera provides an enhanced terrain view in low-visibility conditions. The EVS imagery is displayed on the [[Head-up display|HUD]] for low altitude flying, demonstrating its value for flying tactical missions at night or in clouds.<ref name="aviationweek1"/> EADS and Thales provides the new Multi-Colour Infrared Alerting Sensor (MIRAS) missile warning sensor for the A400M.<ref>[http://www.iaf.fraunhofer.de/pdf/jahresbericht-2006/sensor.pdf "IR Sensors Page 4 English Seite 5 deutsch]. [[Fraunhofer Society|IAF.Fraunhofer]] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090731042619/http://www.iaf.fraunhofer.de/pdf/jahresbericht-2006/sensor.pdf |date=31 July 2009 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/library/news/2005/09/mil-050928-eads01.htm "EADS and Thales to supply latest-technology missile warner to A400M."] ''globalsecurity.org.''</ref>

The A400M has a removable refuelling probe mounted above the cockpit to allow the aircraft to receive fuel from drogue-equipped tankers.<ref name="a400about">{{cite web|url=http://www.airbusmilitary.com/Aircraft/A400M/A400MAbout.aspx|title=Military Aircraft Airbus DS – A400M|work=airbusmilitary.com|accessdate=9 May 2015}}</ref> Optionally, the receiving probe can be replaced with a fuselage mounted UARRSI receptacle for receiving fuel from boom equipped tankers.<ref name="A400M as a tanker.">[http://www.c295.ca/wp-content/uploads/a400m-tanker-data-sheet.pdf]</ref> The aircraft can also act as a tanker when fitted with two wing mounted hose and drogue under-wing refuelling pods or a centre-line Hose and Drum unit.<ref name="a400about" />

The A400M features deployable baffles in front of the rear side doors, intended to give paratroops time to get clear of the aircraft before they are hit by the slipstream.<ref>{{cite web |author= Klimek, Chris |url=http://www.airspacemag.com/daily-planet/tom-cruise-hitches-ride-side-airbus-a400m-emmission-impossible-rogue-nationem-180954805/ |title=Tom Cruise Hangs on to a Flying Airbus (Really) in the Next Mission Impossible |website=airspacemag.com |date= 1 April 2015 |accessdate= 10 May 2015}}</ref>

==Operational history==
[[File:A400M.jpg|thumb|A400M flying during the [[Royal International Air Tattoo]] (RIAT) 2010]]

On 29 December 2013, the [[French Air Force]] performed the A400M's first operational mission, the aircraft having flown to [[Mali]] in support of [[Operation Serval]].<ref>[http://theaviationist.com/2014/01/02/atlas-first-mission-mali/ "Airbus A400M tactical airlifter makes combat debut in Mali"]. ''The Aviationist,'' 2 January 2014.</ref><ref name=Flt_A400M_operational_debut>{{cite web |url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/french-mali-mission-gives-a400m-operational-debut-394565/ |author= Hoyle, Craig |title= French Mali mission gives A400M operational debut |work=Flight International |date=6 January 2014 |accessdate= 11 March 2014}}</ref>

On 10 September 2015, the RAF was declared the A400M fleet leader in terms of flying hours, with 900 hours flown over 300 sorties, achieved by a fleet of four aircraft. Sqn. Ldr. Glen Willcox of the RAF's Heavy Aircraft Test Squadron confirmed that reliability levels were high for an aircraft so early in its career, and that night vision goggle trials, hot and cold soaking, noise characterization tests and the first tie-down schemes for cargo had already been completed. In March 2015, the RAF's first operational mission occurred flying cargo to [[RAF Akrotiri]], [[Cyprus]].<ref>{{Cite web |url=http://aviationweek.com/defense/a400m-deliveries-create-headaches-uk?NL=AW-05&Issue=AW-05_20150914_AW-05_283&sfvc4enews=42&cl=article_3&utm_rid=CPEN1000000921975&utm |title=A400M Deliveries Create Headaches For Uk |date=11 September 2015 |publisher=Aviation Week}}</ref>
===Exports===
;South Africa
In December 2004, [[South Africa]] announced it would purchase eight A400Ms at a cost of approximately €837 million, with the nation joining the Airbus Military team as an industrial partner. Deliveries were expected from 2010 to 2012.<ref>[http://www.eads.com/1024/en/investor/News_and_Events/news_ir/2004/2004/en_20041215eads_a400m_za.html "EADS welcomes South Africa's intention to become an A400M partner"]. EADS, 15 December 2004. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081202141930/http://www.eads.com/1024/en/investor/News_and_Events/news_ir/2004/2004/en_20041215eads_a400m_za.html |date=2 December 2008 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2005/05/03/197468/south-africa-signs-for-a400m-transports.html "South Africa signs for A400M transports."] ''Flight International,'' 3 May 2005.</ref> In 2009, South Africa cancelled all eight aircraft, citing increasing costs. On 29 November 2011 [[Airbus Military]] reached an agreement to refund pre-delivery payments worth €837 million to [[Armscor (South Africa)|Armscor]].<ref>Roberts, Janice. [http://www.moneyweb.co.za/mw/view/mw/en/page295023?oid=558212&sn=2009+Detail "Airbus refunds A400M payments to Armscor."] ''Moneyweb,'' 19 December 2011.</ref>

;Others
In July 2005, the [[Chilean Air Force]] signed a [[Memorandum of understanding]] for three aircraft,<ref>[http://www.airbusmilitary.com/pressrelease.html#182005 Airbus Military signs agreement with Chile] Airbus Military. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050406192920/http://www.airbusmilitary.com/pressrelease.html#182005 |date=6 April 2005 }}</ref> but no order has been placed; Chile began talks on buying the Brazilian [[Embraer KC-390]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Roberts|first1=Janice|title=Airbus refunds A400M payments to Armscor|url=https://www.moneyweb.co.za/archive/airbus-refunds-a400m-payments-to-armscor/|website=MoneyWeb South Africa|accessdate=21 February 2017|archiveurl=http://archive.is/zFklN|archivedate=21 February 2017|location=Johannesburg|date=19 December 2011}}</ref>

In December 2005, the [[Royal Malaysian Air Force]] ordered four A400Ms to supplement its fleet of C-130 Hercules.<ref name="myorder4">[http://2005.reports.eads.net/2005/ar_2005/en/book3/2/2/3/4.html "Annual Report and Registration Document 2005."] ''European Aeronautic Defence and Space Company EADS N.V.,'' December 2005 Retrieved: 25 April 2011</ref><ref>[http://www.mmail.com.my/content/18830-a400m-price-tag-stays-rm600m-each "A400M price tag stays at RM600m each."] ''Malay Mail,'' 13 November 2009. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628201305/http://www.mmail.com.my/content/18830-a400m-price-tag-stays-rm600m-each |date=28 June 2011 }}</ref>

In January 2017, [[Indonesia]] approved the acquisition of five A400Ms to boost the country's military airlift capabilities and modernise the air force.<ref name="Indonesia">{{cite web|last1=Rahmat|first1=Ridzwan|title=Indonesia approves acquisition of five Airbus A400Ms for USD2 billion|url=http://www.janes.com/article/67064/|website=IHS Jane's 360|accessdate=20 January 2017|location=Singapore|date=19 January 2017}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Indonesia eyes five Airbus A400M transporters|url=http://airheadsfly.com/2017/01/19/indonesia-eyes-five-airbus-a400m-transporters/|website=AirHeadsFly|accessdate=20 January 2017|date=19 January 2017}}</ref>

In February 2017, the Czech and Swiss Ministries of Defence stated they were interested in a joint lease of 13 A400Ms from Germany.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Adamowski|first1=Jaroslaw|title=Czech, Swiss militaries could lease Airbus A400M from Germany|url=http://www.defensenews.com/articles/czech-swiss-militaries-could-lease-airbus-a400m-from-germany|website=Defense News|accessdate=21 February 2017|location=Warsaw, Poland|date=14 February 2017}}</ref>

==Variants==
[[File:54+01 German Air Force Airbus A400M ILA Berlin 2016 12.jpg|thumb|A400M of the [[German Air Force]]]]
;A400M Grizzly
:Five prototype and development aircraft, a sixth aircraft was cancelled.
;A400M-180 Atlas
:Production variant

==Operators==
[[File:Airbus A400M Atlas operators.png|thumb|350px|Operators of the aircraft.{{legend|#0c4c9e|Current operators}}{{legend|#1bd21f|Aircraft ordered}}]]
{{As of|2016|12|31}}<ref>[https://airbusdefenceandspace.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/2016-12_mrs_gen_ord-deliv-by-country.pdf Retrieved: 17 March 2017.]</ref>
{| class="wikitable" style="font-size:96%; margin:1em"
|-
! Date
! Country
! Orders
! Deliveries
! Entry into service date
! Notes
|-
|rowspan=7| 27 May 2003
|{{DEU}} || 53 || 7<ref>{{cite web|url=https://airbusdefenceandspace.com/newsroom/news-and-features/germany-receives-first-tactical-standard-airbus-a400m-airlifter|title=Germany Receives First Tactical Standard Airbus A400M Airlifter|work=airbusdefenceandspace.com|accessdate=13 December 2016}}</ref> || December 2014 || Order reduced from 60 to 53 (plus 7 options),<ref>[http://sueddeutsche.de/wirtschaft/weniger-militaertransporter-bestellt-durchbruch-im-streit-ueber-am-1.1015973 "Durchbruch im Streit über A400M" (German)] ''Sueddeutsche Zeitung.'' Retrieved: 27 October 2010.</ref> and will try to resell 13, and leave 40 for German use.<ref>[http://www.timesofmalta.com/articles/view/20110128/world-news/germany-to-take-fewer-a400m-planes "Germany to take fewer A400M planes."] ''AFP'', 28 January 2011.</ref>
|-
|{{FRA}} || 50 || 10 || August 2013 || Two aircraft delivered in 2013;<ref name='fig20130801'>[http://www.lefigaro.fr/societes/2013/08/01/20005-20130801ARTFIG00443-la-france-a-receptionne-le-premier-airbus-a400m.php "La France a réceptionné le premier Airbus A400M" (French)] ''Le Figaro.'' Retrieved: 2013-08-01.</ref> four more delivered during 2014.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://aviationweek.com/defense/more-a400m-delivery-delays-expected-2015 |title=More A400M Delivery Delays Expected In 2015| publisher=Aviation Week |date=20 January 2015}}</ref>
|-
|{{ESP}} || 27 || 1<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/spain-receives-its-first-a400m-transport-431578/|title=Spain receives its first A400M transport|date=17 November 2016|work=flightglobal.com|accessdate=17 November 2016}}</ref> || November 2016 || Original budget of €3,453M increased to €5,493M in 2010.<ref name=PEAs>[http://www.revistatenea.es/revistaatenea/revista/PDF/documentos/Documento_1026.pdf "Evaluación de los Programas Especiales de Armamento (PEAs)" (in Spanish).] ''Ministerio de Defensa'', Madrid (Grupo Atenea), September 2011. Retrieved: 30 September 2012.</ref> Requirement reduced to 14 aircraft and will try to resell the remaining 13.<ref>[http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/08/02/us-airbus-a400m-idUSBRE9710MX20130802 "Spain aims to resell half A400M fleet."] ''Reuters.'' Retrieved: 2 August 2013.</ref>
|-
|{{GBR}} || 22 || 14 || November 2014<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/uk39s-first-a400m-arrives-at-brize-norton-home-406173/|title=UK's first A400M arrives at Brize Norton home|author=Reed Business Information Limited|work=flightglobal.com|accessdate=9 May 2015}}</ref> || Order reduced from 25 to "at least 22".<ref>[http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/uk-approaches-airbus-military-thales-for-a400m-training-345891/ UK approaches Airbus Military, Thales for A400M training service] August 2010 flightglobal.com</ref>
|-
|{{TUR}} || 10 || 3 || April 2014<ref>{{cite web|title=Airbus Defence and Space delivers A400M to Turkish Air Force |url=http://www.airbus-group.com/airbusgroup/int/en/news/press.20140404_airbus_defence_and_space_a400m_turkey.html |work=airbus-group.com |accessdate=22 May 2014 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20140522181017/http://www.airbus-group.com/airbusgroup/int/en/news/press.20140404_airbus_defence_and_space_a400m_turkey.html |archivedate=22 May 2014 }}</ref><ref>[http://www.defensenews.com/article/20140407/DEFREG01/304070015/Turkey-Accepts-First-A400M "Turkey Accepts First A400M"] ''Defense news'' Retrieved: 11 May 2014.</ref> || A400M deliveries to be completed by 2018.<ref>[http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/n.php?n=military-cargo-plane-to-be-delivered-to-turkey-in-2013-2011-05-18 "Military cargo plane to be delivered to Turkey in 2013."] ''Hürriyet Daily News.'' Retrieved: 1 July 2011.</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.airrecognition.com/index.php/archive-world-worldwide-news-air-force-aviation-aerospace-air-military-defence-industry/2014-global-news-worldwide-world-international-air-force-aviation/april-2014-global-news-worldwide-world-international-air-force-aviation-aerospace-air-defence-/1040-turkey-accepts-delivery-of-its-first-airbus-a400m.html |title=Turkey accepts delivery of its First Airbus A400M |date=5 April 2014}}</ref> Second aircraft delivered in 2014.<ref name='flightglobal'>[http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/turkish-air-force-receives-second-a400m-407503/ "Turkish air force receives second A400M"] ''Flightglobal.'' Retrieved: 2014-12-30.</ref>
|-
|{{BEL}} || 7 || 0 || Expected 2018–2020 ||
|-
|{{LUX}} || 1 || 0 || Expected 2019 ||To be stationed in Belgium as a part of a bi-national fleet.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.wort.lu/en/luxembourg/168-million-euro-military-plane-to-touch-down-in-luxembourg-in-2019-52e0e61ce4b02ecc4ece1f54 |title=168-million-euro military plane to touch down in Luxembourg in 2019 |author= |publisher=Luxemburger Wort|date=23 January 2014 |accessdate=19 June 2016}}</ref>
|-
| 8 December 2005 ||{{MYS}} || 4<ref name="myorder4"/> || 4<ref>{{cite web|title=Fourth and Final A400M Delivered to Malaysia|url=http://airheadsfly.com/2017/03/09/fourth-and-final-a400m-delivered-to-malaysia/|website=Airheads Fly|accessdate=10 March 2017|archiveurl=http://archive.is/Wv30z|archivedate=10 March 2017|date=9 March 2017}}</ref> || March 2015<ref name=fgMal/> || Second non-European country, after Turkey, to purchase the A400M. Deliveries began in March 2015.<ref name=fgMal/>
|-
!Total: !! !! 174 !! 39 !! !!
|}

==Accidents==
The first crash of an A400M occurred on 9 May 2015, when aircraft MSN23,<ref name="aw2015-05-09">{{cite news |first = Tony |last = Osborne |url = http://aviationweek.com/defense/airbus-a400m-crashes-during-test-flight |title = Airbus A400M Crashes During Test Flight |work = [[Aviation Week & Space Technology]] |date = 9 May 2015 |deadurl = no}}</ref> on its first test flight [[2015 Seville A400M crash|crashed shortly after take-off]] from [[San Pablo Airport]] in [[Seville]], [[Spain]], killing four Spanish Airbus crew members and seriously injuring two others. Once airborne, the crew had contacted air traffic controllers just before the crash about a technical failure,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/four-dead-after-military-plane-crash-in-spain-1.2206718 |title= Four dead after military plane crash in Spain |work=Irish Times |accessdate= 28 April 2016| archiveurl= https://web.archive.org/web/20151216120455/http://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/four-dead-after-military-plane-crash-in-spain-1.2206718| archivedate= 16 December 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite news |url= http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/spain/11594603/Military-plane-crashes-during-test-flight-near-Seville.html |title= Video: Military plane crashes during test flight near Seville |date=9 May 2015 |work= Telegraph |location= London |first= Harriet |last= Alexander}}</ref> and collided with an electricity pylon while attempting an emergency landing.<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.elmundo.es/andalucia/2015/05/09/554df2d6ca4741bd328b456e.html |title=Cuatro muertos tras estrellarse un avión militar A-400M en pruebas junto al aeropuerto de Sevilla |author= Teresa López Pavón |date=9 May 2015 |work=ELMUNDO |language=es }}</ref> One of the survivors told investigators that "the aircraft suffered multiple engine failures."<ref>{{cite web |url= http://www.ainonline.com/aviation-news/defense/2015-05-11/fatal-a400m-crash-disrupts-production-recovery-plan |title= Fatal A400m crash disrupts production-recovery plan |work= Irish Times |accessdate=9 May 2015}}</ref> The aircraft had been scheduled for delivery to the [[Turkish Air Force]].<ref>{{cite news |url= http://uk.reuters.com/article/2015/05/09/uk-spain-crash-idUKKBN0NU0G920150509 |title= Airbus A400M military transporter crashes on test flight, killing four |work= Reuters |accessdate=9 May 2015}}</ref> The crash was later attributed to the [[FADEC]] being unable to properly read engine sensors due to an accidental file-wipe, leading to three of its four propeller engines remaining in 'Idle' mode during takeoff.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.com/news/technology-33078767 |title=Fatal A400M crash linked to data-wipe mistake |work=BBC |accessdate=10 June 2015}}</ref>

==Specifications==
[[File:Airbus A400M silhouettes.png|thumb|right|Airbus A400M silhouettes]]
[[File:Map with distance circles to paris.svg|thumb|Operational range of A400M with {{Convert|20|t|lb|adj=on}} and {{Convert|30|t|lb|adj=on}} payloads, flown from Paris, France]]

{{Aircraft specs
|ref=Airbus Defence & Space specifications<ref>[http://militaryaircraft-airbusds.com/Aircraft/A400M/A400MSpec.aspx "A400M Specifications."] ''Airbus Defence & Space'' via militaryaircraft-airbusds.com. Retrieved: 15 July 2015.</ref>
|prime units?=met

|genhide=
|crew=3 or 4 (2 pilots, 3rd optional, 1 [[loadmaster]])
|capacity= 37,000 kg (81,600 lb)
**116 fully equipped troops / paratroops,
**up to 66 stretchers accompanied by 25 medical personnel
**cargo compartment: width {{Convert|4.00|m|ft|adj=on}} x height {{Convert|3.85|m|ft|adj=on}} x length {{Convert|17.71|m|ft|adj=on}} (without ramp {{Convert|5.40|m|ft|adj=on}})
|length m=45.1
|length ft=
|length in=
|length note=
|span m=42.4
|span ft=
|span in=
|span note=
|height m=14.7
|height ft=
|height in=
|height note=
|wing area sqm=225.1
|wing area sqft=2384
|wing area note=
|aspect ratio=
|airfoil=
|empty weight kg=76500
|empty weight lb=
|empty weight note=; operating weight<ref>[http://search.janes.com/Search/documentView.do?docId=/content1/janesdata/yb/jawa/jawa0428.htm@current&pageSelected=allJanes&keyword=Airbus%20Military%20A400M&backPath=http://search.janes.com/Search&Prod_Name=JAWA& "Airbus Military A400M".] ''Jane's All the World's Aircraft''. Jane's Information Group, 2010. (subscription article, dated 24 February 2010).</ref>
|gross weight kg=120000
|gross weight lb=
|gross weight note=
|max takeoff weight kg=141000
|max takeoff weight lb=
|max takeoff weight note=
|fuel capacity= 50,500 kg (111,300 lb) internal fuel
|more general=
*'''Max landing weight:''' 123,000 kg (271,200 lb)

|eng1 number=4
|eng1 name=[[Europrop TP400|Europrop TP400-D6]]
|eng1 type=turboprop
|eng1 kw= 8200
|eng1 hp=
|eng1 shp=
|eng1 note=
|power original=
|thrust original=
|more power=
|prop blade number=8
|prop name=[[Ratier|Ratier-Figeac]] FH385 and FH386 variable pitch tractor propellers with [[Propeller (aeronautics)#Feathering|feathering]] and reversing capability (FH385 anticlockwise on engines 2 and 4, FH386 clockwise on engines 1 and 3)<ref name=typecert>{{cite web |title=EASA Type Certificate Data Sheet for A400M-180 ; from google (easa type certificate a400m) result 1 |url=https://www.easa.europa.eu/system/files/dfu/EASA-TCDS-A.169_Airbus_A400M-04-17072013.pdf }}</ref>

|prop dia m=5.3
|prop dia ft=
|prop dia in=
|prop note=

|perfhide=
|max speed kmh=
|max speed mph=
|max speed kts=
|max speed note=
|max speed mach=
|cruise speed kmh=781
|cruise speed mph=485
|cruise speed kts=422
|cruise speed note= at 9,450 m (31,000 ft)<ref name="aviationweek1"/>
*'''Initial cruise altitude:''' 9,000 m (29,000 ft) at [[Maximum Take-Off Weight|MTOW]]
|range km=3300
|range miles=
|range nmi=
|range note=at max payload (long range cruise speed; reserves as per MIL-C-5011A)
**'''Range at 30-tonne payload:''' 4,500 km (2,450 nmi)
**'''Range at 20-tonne payload:''' 6,400 km (3,450 nmi)
|ferry range km=8700
|ferry range miles=
|ferry range nmi=
|ferry range note=
|endurance=
|ceiling m=12200
|ceiling ft=
|ceiling note=
|fuel consumption kg/km=
|fuel consumption lb/mi=
|power/mass=
|thrust/weight=
|more performance=*'''Tactical takeoff distance:''' 980 m (3,215 ft), aircraft weight {{convert|100|tonnes}}, soft field, ISA, sea level
*'''Tactical landing distance:''' {{cvt|770|m}} (as above)
*'''Turning radius (ground):''' 28.6 m
|avionics=
}}

==See also==
{{Portal|Aviation}}
{{aircontent
|see also=
* [[Cargo aircraft]]
|related=
|similar aircraft=
* [[Antonov An-70]] – four propfans
* [[Embraer KC-390]] – two jet engines
* [[UAC/HAL Il-214]] – two jet engines
* [[Kawasaki C-2]] – two jet engines
* [[Lockheed Martin C-130J Super Hercules]] – four turboprops
* [[Shaanxi Y-9]] – four turboprops
* [[Tupolev Tu-330]] – two jet engines

}}

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons|Airbus A400M}}
* [https://airbusdefenceandspace.com/our-portfolio/military-aircraft/a400m/ Airbus Defense and Space's A400M page]
* [http://www.occar-ea.org/ OCCAR site]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/7475687.stm BBC video of unveiling of the A400M]
* [http://www.elpais.com/articulo/economia/Rey/estrena/Airbus/400/mayor/avion/militar/fabricacion/europea/elpepueco/20080626elpepueco_12/Tes Official unveiling in Seville]
* [http://media.defenceindustrydaily.com/images/AIR_A400M_Cutaway_Numbered_lg.jpg Cutaway diagram]

{{Airbus Group aircraft}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2013}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Airbus A400m}}
[[Category:International military transport aircraft 2000–2009]]
[[Category:United Kingdom defence procurement]]
[[Category:Airbus Defence and Space aircraft|A400M]]
[[Category:Four-engined tractor aircraft]]
[[Category:High-wing aircraft]]
[[Category:T-tail aircraft]]
[[Category:Turboprop aircraft]]

Max Yasgur

2017-03-15T12:06:57Z

JanTurin: /* After Woodstock */

{{Infobox person
| name = Max Yasgur
| image = Max yasgur.jpg
| image_size = 220px
| alt =
| caption = Max Yasgur at the Woodstock Festival in 1969 held on part of his dairy farm in [[Bethel, New York]]
| birth_name =
| birth_date = {{birth date|1919|12|15|mf=y}}
| birth_place = [[New York City]], [[New York (state)|New York]], [[United States|U.S.]]
| death_date = {{Death date and age|1973|2|9|1919|12|15|mf=y}}
| death_place = [[Marathon, Florida|Marathon]], [[Florida]], U.S.
| residence = [[Bethel, New York|Bethel]], [[New York (state)|New York]], U.S.
| nationality =
| ethnicity =
| citizenship =
| known_for = Leasing a field of his farm for the purpose of holding the [[Woodstock Festival]]
| alma_mater = [[New York University]]
| occupation = [[Farmer]]
| children = [[Sam Yasgur]]
| years_active =
| home_town =
| salary =
|party = [[Republican Party (United States)|Republican]]
}}

[[Image:Max Yasgurs Farm 2.JPG|thumb|right|Max Yasgur's Farm (1999) {{Coord|41|42|05|N|74|52|49|W|region:US-NY_type:event|display=inline|name=Woodstock festival location}}]]

'''Max B. Yasgur''' (December 15, 1919 – February 9, 1973) was an [[United States|American]] [[farmer]], best known as the owner of the [[dairy|dairy farm]] in [[Bethel, New York]], at which the [[Woodstock|Woodstock Music and Art Fair]] was held between August 15 and August 18, 1969.

==Personal life and dairy farming==
Yasgur was born in [[New York City]] to Russian Jewish immigrants Samuel and Bella Yasgur.<ref>U.S. Census, January 1, 1920, State of New York, County of New York, enumeration district 701, p. 8-A, family 200.</ref> He was raised on the family's farm and attended [[New York University]], studying real estate law. By the late 1960s, he was the largest milk producer in [[Sullivan County, New York]].<ref name='Yasgur-tribute'>{{cite web|url=http://www.woodstockpreservation.org/pastpresent/maxtribute.html |title=Max Yasgur Tribute Page |accessdate=2009-09-09 |work=woodstockpreservation.org |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20090816222547/http://www.woodstockpreservation.org/pastpresent/maxtribute.html |archivedate=August 16, 2009 }}</ref> His farm had 650 cows, mostly [[Guernsey cattle|Guernseys]].<ref name='soulfarmer'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= |authorlink= | title=Farmer With Soul:Max Yasgur | date=1969-08-17 | publisher= | url = | work =The New York Times | pages = | accessdate = 2009-09-07 | language = }}</ref>

At the time of the festival in 1969, Yasgur was married and had a son and daughter. His son, [[Sam Yasgur]], was an assistant district attorney in New York City at the time.{{citation needed|date = October 2016}}

== Woodstock Festival==
After area villages [[Saugerties (town), New York|Saugerties]] (located about {{convert|40|mi|km}} from Yasgur's farm) and [[Wallkill, Orange County, New York|Wallkill]] declined to provide a venue for the festival, Yasgur leased one of his farm's fields for a fee that festival sponsors said was $10,000.<ref name='soulfarmer'/> Soon afterward he began to receive both threatening and supporting phone calls (which could not be placed without the assistance of an operator because the community of [[White Lake, New York]], where the [[telephone exchange]] was located, still utilized manual switching).<ref name='Timesobit'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= |authorlink= | title=Max Yasgur Dies; Woodstock Festival Was on His Farm | date=1973-02-09 | publisher= | url = | work =The New York Times | pages = | accessdate = 2009-09-07 | language = }}</ref> Some of the calls threatened to burn him out. However, the helpful calls outnumbered the threatening ones.<ref name='soulfarmer'/>
Opposition to the festival began soon after the festival's relocation to Bethel was announced. Signs were erected around town, saying, "Stop Max's Hippie Music Festival. No 150,000 hippies here. Buy no milk."<ref name='Timesjuly'>{{cite news | first=Richard F. | last=Shepard | coauthors= |authorlink= | title=Pop Rockl Festival Finds New Home | date=1969-07-23 | publisher= | url = | work =The New York Times | pages = | accessdate = 2009-09-07 | language = }}</ref>

Yasgur was 49 at the time of the festival and had a heart condition. He said at the time that he never expected the festival to be so large, but that "if the generation gap is to be closed, we older people have to do more than we have done."<ref name='soulfarmer'/>

Yasgur quickly established a rapport with the concert-goers, providing food at cost or for free. When he heard that some local residents were reportedly selling water to people coming to the concert, he put up a big sign at his barn on [[New York State Route 17B]] reading "Free Water". ''The New York Times'' reported that Yasgur "slammed a work-hardened fist on the table and demanded of some friends, 'How can anyone ask money for water?'"<ref name='soulfarmer'/> His son Sam recalled his father telling his children to "take every empty milk bottle from the plant, fill them with water and give them to the kids, and give away all the milk and milk products we had at the dairy."<ref name='Riverreporter'>{{cite news | first=Friz | last=Weaver | coauthors= |authorlink= | title=County attorney waxes historic | date=Oct,30-Nov. 5, 2008 | publisher= | url =http://www.riverreporter.com/issues/08-10-30/news-attorney.html | work =The River Reporter | pages = | accessdate = 2009-09-07 | language = }}</ref>

At the time of the concert, friends described Yasgur as an individualist, who was motivated as much by his principles as by the money.<ref name='soulfarmer'/> According to Sam Yasgur, his father agreed to rent the field to the festival organizers because it was a very wet year, which curtailed hay production. The income from the rental would offset the cost of purchasing thousands of bales of hay.

Yasgur also believed strongly in freedom of expression, and was angered by the hostility of some townspeople toward "anti-war hippies". Hosting the festival became for him a "cause".<ref name='Riverreporter'/>

On the third day of the festival, just before [[Joe Cocker]]'s early afternoon set, Yasgur addressed the crowd.<ref>https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=a8eiL25BjkY</ref>

== After Woodstock ==
Many of his neighbors turned against him after the festival, and he was no longer welcome at the town general store, but he never regretted his decision to allow the concert on his farm.<ref name='Riverreporter'/> On January 7, 1970, he was sued by his neighbors for property damage caused by the concert attendees. However, the damage to his own property was far more extensive and, over a year later, he received a $50,000 settlement to pay for the near-destruction of his dairy farm.{{Citation needed|date=May 2009}} He refused to rent out his farm for a 1970 revival of the festival, saying "As far as I know, I'm going back to running a dairy farm."<ref name='Timesobit'/>

In 1971, Yasgur sold the {{convert|600|acre|km2|adj=on}} farm, and moved to [[Marathon, Florida]] where a year and a half later he died of a [[Myocardial infarction|heart attack]] at the age of 53.<ref name='Timesobit'/> He was given a full-page obituary in ''[[Rolling Stone (magazine)|Rolling Stone]]'' magazine, one of the few non-musicians to have received such an honor.<ref>http://www.woodstockstory.com/maxyasgur.html</ref>

In 1997, the site of the concert and {{convert|1400|acre|km2}} surrounding it was purchased by [[Alan Gerry]] for the purpose of creating the Bethel Woods Center for the Arts. In August 2007, the {{convert|103|acre|km2|sing=on}} parcel that contains Yasgur's former homestead was placed on the market for $8 million by its current owner, Roy Howard. The Woodstock site had been the locale of frequent reunions.<ref name='AP'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= |authorlink= | title=Yasgur's farm for sale ... for $8 million | date=2007-08-08 | publisher= | url =http://www.msnbc.msn.com/id/20183704/ | work =Associated Press | pages = | accessdate = 2009-06-13 | language = }}</ref>

==In popular culture==
[[Joni Mitchell]]'s song "[[Woodstock (song)|Woodstock]]" (also covered by [[Crosby, Stills, Nash & Young]], [[Iain Matthews|Matthews Southern Comfort]], [[Richie Havens]], [[Eva Cassidy]], and [[Brooke Fraser]]) refers to "Yasgur's Farm".<ref>[http://jonimitchell.com/music/song.cfm?id=75 Joni Mitchell's website -- Woodstock song lyrics]</ref>

In addition, [[Mountain (band)|Mountain]] (who were also at the festival) recorded a song shortly after the event entitled "[[For Yasgur's Farm]]".

The band [[Moon Safari (band)|Moon Safari]] has a song titled "Yasgur's Farm" on their album ''[[Blomljud]]''.

Yasgur is portrayed by [[Eugene Levy]] in [[Ang Lee]]'s film ''[[Taking Woodstock]]''.

Sam Yasgur wrote a book about his father, ''Max B. Yasgur: The Woodstock Festival's Famous Farmer'', in August 2009.<ref name='book'>{{cite news | first=Howard | last=Cohen | coauthors= |authorlink= | date=2009-08-15 | publisher= | title =Woodstock books bring readers back to Yasgur’s farm | work =The Providence Journal | pages = | accessdate = 2009-09-07 | language = }}</ref>

==Quotes==
{{cquote|"I hear you are considering changing the zoning law to prevent the festival. I hear you don't like the look of the kids who are working at the site. I hear you don't like their lifestyle. I hear you don't like they are against the war and that they say so very loudly. . . I don't particularly like the looks of some of those kids either. I don't particularly like their lifestyle, especially the drugs and free love. And I don't like what some of them are saying about our government. However, if I know my American history, tens of thousands of Americans in uniform gave their lives in war after war just so those kids would have the freedom to do exactly what they are doing. That's what this country is all about and I am not going to let you throw them out of our town just because you don't like their dress or their hair or the way they live or what they believe. This is America and they are going to have their festival.|||addressing a [[Bethel, New York|Bethel]] town board prior to the festival.<ref name='Samwebsite'>{{cite web|url=http://www.maxyasgurfarm.com/book.html |title=Book excerpt, Sam Yasgur website |accessdate=2009-09-08 |last=Yasgur |first=Sam }}</ref>}}

{{cquote|I'm a farmer. I don't know how to speak to twenty people at one time, let alone a crowd like this. But I think you people have proven something to the world--not only to the Town of Bethel, or [[Sullivan County, New York|Sullivan County]], or [[New York State]]; you've proven something to the world. This is the largest group of people ever assembled in one place. We have had no idea that there would be this size group, and because of that, you've had quite a few inconveniences as far as water, food, and so forth. Your producers have done a mammoth job to see that you're taken care of... they'd enjoy a vote of thanks. But above that, the important thing that you've proven to the world is that a half a million kids--and I call you kids because I have children that are older than you--a half million young people can get together and have three days of fun and music and have nothing but fun and music, and I God Bless You for it!|||addressing the crowd at [[Woodstock festival|Woodstock]] on August 17, 1969|from the film, ''[[Woodstock (film)|Woodstock]]''}}

{{cquote|I made a deal with (Woodstock producer) [[Michael Lang (producer)|Mike Lang]] before the festival started. If anything went wrong I was going to give him a [[crew cut]]. If everything was OK I was going to let my hair grow long. I guess he won the bet, but I'm so bald I'll never be able to pay it off.|||[[Life Magazine]], Special Edition, Woodstock 1969}}

==See also==
*[[Michael Eavis]], the English farmer who has hosted the [[Glastonbury festival]] from 1970.

==References==
* [http://www.woodstockstory.com/maxyasgur.html "The Woodstock Story: Max Yasgur"]
{{reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://www.sc-democrat.com/archives/2004/news/09September/14/awards.htm Sullivan County Democrat: Those Who Shaped History]
* {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090913092209/http://www.maxyasgurfarm.com/index.html |date=September 13, 2009 |title=Sam Yasgur website }}

{{Woodstock}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Yasgur, Max}}
[[Category:Farmers from New York]]
[[Category:American people of Russian-Jewish descent]]
[[Category:1919 births]]
[[Category:1973 deaths]]
[[Category:People from Bethel, New York]]
[[Category:People from New York City]]
[[Category:New York Republicans]]
[[Category:Place of birth missing]]
[[Category:Place of death missing]]
[[Category:20th-century American businesspeople]]
[[Category:People from Marathon, Florida]]

List of European cities by population within city limits

2016-09-13T06:03:54Z

JanTurin: /* Largest cities */

This is a list of the largest cities in [[Europe]] ranked according to population within their city limits. It deals exclusively with the areas within city administrative boundaries ([[municipalities]]) as opposed to [[urban area]]s or [[metropolitan area]]s, which are generally larger in terms of population than the main city.

The list includes cities geographically situated in Europe, using the conventional [[Europe#Definition|definition of its boundaries]].

{{GeoGroup}}

== Largest cities ==
Note: The cities are sorted by the column labelled '''Population within city limits'''. Cities in '''bold''' are [[Capital city|capital cities]] of their respective countries.

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
!
! style="text-align:center;"| City !! Country
! Population within city limits
! style="text-align:right;" | Date
! 2011 Eurostat population<ref>{{cite web |url=http://appsso.eurostat.ec.europa.eu/nui/show.do?dataset=urb_cpop1&lang=en |title=Population on 1 January by age groups and sex - cities and greater cities |publisher=Eurostat |date=9 June 2015 |accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref>
! class="unsortable"| Image
! class="unsortable" | Location
! style="width:10px;" class="unsortable" | Ref.
|-
| style="text-align:left;"| 1
| [[Istanbul]]{{refn|Istanbul is a [[transcontinental city]] in Eurasia, with its commercial and historical centre and about two-thirds of the population lying on the European side, and about one-third living on the Asian side. The population figure refers to the entirety of [[Istanbul Province]].|group=lower-alpha}}
|| {{flagcountry|Turkey}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|14657434}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2015|December|31}}
| style="text-align:right;" |
| [[File:LeventPano3.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord| 41.013611 |N| 28.955 |E|name=1 Istanbul}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.turkstat.gov.tr/HbGetirHTML.do?id=21507 |publisher=[[Turkish Statistical Institute]] |title=The Results of Address Based Population Registration System, 2015|date=31 December 2015 |accessdate= 2 July 2016}}</ref>
|- Eu
|- Eu
| style="text-align:left;" | 2
| '''[[Moscow]]'''{{refn|Moscow is the largest city entirely within Europe.|group=lower-alpha}}
|| {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|12330126}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2016|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;"|
| [[File:Moscow-City skyline.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord| 55.75 |N| 37.616667 |E|name=2 Moscow}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref name="2016Est">[[Goskomstat|Rosstat]]. [http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/population/demo/Popul2016.xls] {{ru icon}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 3
| '''[[London]]'''{{refn|London, a city in [[Great Britain|Britain]], an island within Europe.|group=lower-alpha}}
|| {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|8673713}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2015|June|30}}
| style="text-align:right;"| {{nts|8173941}}
| [[File:London from a hot air balloon.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|51.507222|N|0.1275 |W|name=3 London}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="UK">{{cite journal|url=https://www.ons.gov.uk/peoplepopulationandcommunity/populationandmigration/populationestimates/datasets/populationestimatesforukenglandandwalesscotlandandnorthernireland |title=Population Estimates for UK, England and Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland |publisher=[[Office for National Statistics]] |accessdate=29 July 2016}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 4
| [[Saint Petersburg]]
|| {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|5225690}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2016|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;"|
| [[File:Saray Meydanı, St. Petersburg.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord| 59.95 |N|30.3|E|name=1 Saint Petersburg}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref name="2015Est">[[Goskomstat|Rosstat]]. [http://www.gks.ru/free_doc/new_site/population/demo/Popul2015.xls] {{ru icon}}</ref><ref>http://www.stat-info.net/largest-cities-in-russia</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 5
| '''[[Berlin]]'''
|| {{flagcountry|DEU}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|3562166}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|december|31}}
| align=right|{{nts|3460725}}
| [[File:Siegessaeule Aussicht 10-13 img4 Tiergarten.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|52.516667|N|13.383333|E|name=5 Berlin}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.statistik-berlin-brandenburg.de/BasisZeitreiheGrafik/Bas-Einwohnerregister.asp?Ptyp=300&Sageb=12041&creg=BBB&anzwer=11|title=Amt für Statistik Berlin Brandenburg|work=[[Amt für Statistik Berlin-Brandenburg]]|year=2014|accessdate=5 March 2015|language=German}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 6
| '''[[Madrid]]''' || {{flagcountry|ESP}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|3165235}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|January|1}}
| align=right|{{nts|3198645}}
| [[File:Cuatro Torres Business Area.JPG|150px]]
| {{coord|40.383333|N|3.716667|W|name=6 Madrid}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="spain">{{cite web |url=http://www.ine.es/nomen2/index.do?accion=busquedaDesdeHome&language=1&nombrePoblacion=madrid&x=0&y=0 |title=List of place name: Population of the Continuous Municipal Register by Population Unit |publisher=[[Instituto Nacional de Estadística (Spain)]] |accessdate=11 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 7
| '''[[Kiev]]''' || {{flagcountry|Ukraine}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|2909491}}
| style="text-align:right;" |{{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2016|June|1}}
| style="text-align:right;"|
| [[File:Panorama of Kyiv from Saint Sophia Monastery 6.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|50.45|N|30.523333|E|name=8 Kiev}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web | url=http://database.ukrcensus.gov.ua/PXWEB2007/eng/news/op_popul_e.asp | title=Population (by estimate) as of June 1, 2016. | publisher=[[State Statistics Service of Ukraine]] | accessdate=29 July 2016}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 8
| '''[[Rome]]''' || {{flagcountry|ITA}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|2874038}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|November|30}}
| align=right|{{nts|2761477}}
| [[File:Roma dall'aereo.JPG|150px]]
| {{coord|41.9|N|12.5|E|name=7 Rome}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="italy">{{cite web |title=I.Stat |url=http://dati.istat.it/Index.aspx |language=Italian |publisher= [[National Institute of Statistics (Italy)|Italian National Institute of Statistics]] |accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 9
| '''[[Paris]]''' || {{flagcountry|FRA}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|2241346}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|January|1}}
| align=right|{{nts|2249977}}
| [[File:Sunset over Paris 5, France August 2013.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord| 48.8567 |N| 2.3508 |E|name=9 Paris}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.insee.fr/fr/themes/tableau.asp?reg_id=20&ref_id=poptc02101|title=Population of Paris in January 2014|publisher=INSEE|accessdate=11 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 10
| '''[[Minsk]]'''
|| {{flagcountry|Belarus}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1949400}}
| style="text-align:right;" |{{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2015|October|1}}
| style="text-align:right;"|
| [[File:Centre de Minsk.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|53.9|N|27.566667|E|name=10 Minsk}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web|url=http://belstat.gov.by/ofitsialnaya-statistika/otrasli-statistiki/naselenie/demografiya_2/operativnaya-informatsiya_1/o-demograficheskoi-situatsii/o-demograficheskoi-situatsii-v-yanvare-sentyabre-2015-g/ |title=Belarus in figures 2015 |publisher=National Statistical Committee of the Republic of Belarus |date=19 March 2015 |accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 11
| '''[[Bucharest]]''' || {{flagcountry|Romania}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1924425}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|October|20}}
| align=right|{{nts|1903299}}
| [[File:Bucharest-Skyline-01.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|44.4325|N|26.103889|E|name=11 Bucharest}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="INSSE">{{cite web | url = http://www.recensamantromania.ro/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/sR_TAB_1.xls | title = Official data for 2011 census | date = 4 July 2013 | accessdate = 4 July 2013 | publisher = [[National Institute of Statistics (Romania)|INSSE]] | language = Romanian}}</ref><ref name="metro">{{cite web|url=http://www.urbanaudit.org/DownloadPDF.ashx?CityCode=RO001C |title=Urban Audit: Bucharest Profile |accessdate=14 April 2011}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 12
| '''[[Vienna]]''' || {{flagcountry|AUT}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1840573}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2016| January |1}}
| align=right|{{nts|1598626}}
| [[File:Vienna Skyline.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|48.2|N|16.366667|E|name=12 Vienna}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.statistik.at/web_de/statistiken/menschen_und_gesellschaft/bevoelkerung/bevoelkerungsstand_und_veraenderung/bevoelkerung_zu_jahres-_quartalsanfang/023582.html |title=Bevölkerung zu Quartalsbeginn seit 2002 nach Bundesland |publisher=[[Statistik Austria]] |date=11 June 2015 |accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 13
| [[Hamburg]]
|| {{flagcountry|DEU}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1758041}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|October|31}}
| align="right" |{{nts|1786448}}
| [[File:Hamburg Rathaus.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|53.565278|N|10.001389|E|name=13 Hamburg}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.statistik-portal.de/Statistik-Portal/en/en_zs01_hh.asp |title=Population - Hamburg |publisher=[[Federal Statistical Office of Germany|Federal Statistical Office]] and the statistical Offices of the Länder |date=10 June 2015 |accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 14
| '''[[Budapest]]''' || {{flagcountry|HUN}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1754000}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2015|January|1}}
| align="right" |{{nts|1729040}}
| [[File:Budapest castle night 5.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|47.4925|N|19.051389|E|name=14 Budapest}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.ksh.hu/docs/hun/xstadat/xstadat_eves/i_wdsd001.html |title=1.2. Népesség a település jellege szerint, január 1. (1980–)* |publisher=[[Hungarian Central Statistical Office]] |accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 15
| '''[[Warsaw]]''' || {{flagcountry|POL}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1740119}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|December|31}}
| align="right" |{{nts|1708491}}
| [[File:Lotnicza panorama Warszawy.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|52.233333|N|21.016667|E|name=15 Warsaw}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="http45">{{cite web|url=http://demografia.stat.gov.pl/bazademografia/Tables.aspx|title=Tabl. 2. Ludność według płci, województw i podregionów |trans-title=Table 2. Population by gender, regions and subregions |language=pl |publisher=[[Central Statistical Office (Poland)]] |accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 16
| [[Barcelona]] || {{flagcountry|ESP}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1602386}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|January|1}}
| align="right" |{{nts|1611013}}
| [[File:Central business district of Barcelona (2).JPG|150px]]
| {{coord|41.383333|N|2.183333|E|name=16 Barcelona}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="spain" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 17
| [[Kharkiv]] || {{flagcountry|Ukraine}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1431565}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;" |
| [[File:Kharkov Freedom Square.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|50.004444|N|36.231389|E|name=17 Kharkiv}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref name="Ukraine2014">{{cite report |url=http://database.ukrcensus.gov.ua/PXWEB2007/ukr/publ_new1/2014/rpn_2013.zip |title=РОЗПОДІЛ ПОСТІЙНОГО НАСЕЛЕННЯ УКРАЇНИ ЗА СТАТТЮ ТА ВІКОМ: Станом на 1 січня 2014 року |trans-title=Resident Population of Ukraine by Sex and Age: as of 1 January 2014 |publisher=[[State Statistics Service of Ukraine]] |date=2014 |accessdate=11 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 18
| [[Munich]] || {{flagcountry|DEU}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1407836}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2013|December|31}}
| align="right" |{{nts|1378176}}
| [[File:Stadtbild München.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|48.133333|N|11.566667|E|name=18 Munich}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="bayern">{{cite web |title=Result - 12411-001: Bevölkerung: Gemeinden, Stichtage (letzten 6) |url=https://www.statistikdaten.bayern.de/genesis/online?sequenz=tabelleErgebnis&selectionname=12411-001 |author=Bayerisches Landesamt für Statistik und Datenverarbeitung |accessdate=14 June 2015 |language=German}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 19
| [[Milan]] || {{flagcountry|ITA}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1344906}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2015|November|30}}
| align="right" |{{nts|1324110}}
| [[File:Milano skyline.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|45.466667|N|9.183333|E|name=19 Milan}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="italy" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 20
| [[Nizhny Novgorod]]
| | {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1260000}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2013|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;" |
| [[File:Рождественская церковь, ночной вид на Стрелку.JPG|150px]]
| {{coord|56.326944|N|44.0075|E|name=20 Nizhny Novgorod}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref name="Russia">{{cite web |url=http://www.gks.ru/bgd/regl/b14_12/IssWWW.exe/Stg/d01/05-04.htm |title=5.4. Cities with population size of 1 million persons and over |access-date=11 June 2015 |publisher=[[Russian Federal State Statistics Service]] |website=Russia in figures - 2014}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 21
| '''[[Prague]]''' || {{flagcountry|CZE}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1259079}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2015|January|1}}
| align="right" |{{nts|1241664}}
| [[File:Prague old town square panorama.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|50.083333|N|14.416667|E|name=21 Prague}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web |last=Brinkhoff |first=Thomas |title=Czech Republic: Major Cities|url=http://www.citypopulation.de/CzechRep-Cities.html|publisher=City Population|accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 22
| '''[[Sofia]]''' || {{flagcountry|Bulgaria}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1,260,120}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|December|31}}
| align="right" |{{nts|1202921}}
| [[File:Aleksandar-nevski15.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|42.7|N|23.33|E|name=22 Bulgaria}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nsi.bg/en/content/6710/population-towns-and-sex}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 23
| [[Kazan]]
|| {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1216965}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2016|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;" |
| [[File:Kazan skyline view.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|55.790278|N|49.134722|E|name=23 New York City}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web|title=Информация о численности населения Республики Татарстан|url=http://tatstat.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_ts/tatstat/resources/a13d30804c105562b39ef7b4bce00d93/chslmo_16.pdf|publisher=[[Rosstat]]|accessdate=11 July 2016|language=Russian|quote=город Казань}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 24
| '''[[Brussels]]''' || {{flagcountry|BEL}}
| align="right" | {{nts|1171828}}
| align="right" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2015|January|1}}
| align=right | {{nts|1136778}}
| [[File:Brussels floral carpet B.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|50.85|N|4.35|E|name=26 Brussels}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web|url=http://statbel.fgov.be/fr/binaries/PopRegFR_tcm326-264764.xls |title=Population par région et âge, au 1er janvier 2015-2061 |trans-title=Population by region and age, on 1 January 2015-2061 |language=French |publisher=[[Statistics Belgium]] |accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 25
| [[Samara, Russia|Samara]]
|| {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1170910}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2016|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;" |
| [[File:Samara 8-01-2009.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|53.202778|N|50.140833|E|name=24 Samara}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web|title=Утвержденная численность постоянного населения Самарской области|url=http://samarastat.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_ts/samarastat/resources/d1b9f3804b73e4b4a0e8b7797736af7f/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C+%D0%BD%D0%B0+01.01.2016%D0%B3.+%D0%B7%D0%B0+2015%D0%B3.%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B9%D1%82.xls|publisher=[[Rosstat]]|accessdate=11 July 2016|language=Russian|quote=г. Самара}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 26
| '''[[Belgrade]]''' || {{flagcountry|Serbia}}
| style="text-align:right;" |{{nts|1,166,763}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2011|September|30}}
| style="text-align:right;" |
| [[File:Belgrade skyline by borismrdja-d4sfg7r.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|44.816667|N|20.466667|E|name=25 Belgrade}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{Serbian census 2011}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 27
| [[Rostov-on-Don]]
|| {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1119875}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2016|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;" |
| [[File:Река Дон, Набережная Ростова-на-Дону.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|47.233333|N|39.7|E|name=27 Rostov-on-Don}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web|title=Результат запроса БД ПМО Ростовской области|url=http://www.gks.ru/scripts/db_inet2/passport/table.aspx?opt=607010002016|publisher=[[Rosstat]]|accessdate=11 July 2016|language=Russian}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 28
| [[Birmingham]] || {{flagcountry|United Kingdom}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1092330}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2013|June|30}}
| align=right|{{nts|1073045}}
| [[File:Birmingham Skyline from Edgbaston Cricket Ground.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|52.483056|N|1.893611|W|name=28 Birmingham}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="UK" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 29
| [[Ufa]]
|| {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1121429}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2016|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;"|
| [[File:BashkirWhiteHouse.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|54.75|N|55.966667|E|name= 29 Ufa}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web|title=ОЦЕНКА ЧИСЛЕННОСТИ ПОСТОЯННОГО НАСЕЛЕНИЯ РЕСПУБЛИКИ БАШКОРТОСТАН НА 1 ЯНВАРЯ 2016|url=http://bashstat.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_ts/bashstat/resources/f8f969804c3a8b96a93dbb7dff7d05ed/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%BF%D0%BE+%D0%BC%D1%83%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BF%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%BC+%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B9%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BC+%D0%B8+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D0%BC+%D0%BE%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC+%D0%A0%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%83%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B8+%D0%91%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BA%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD+%D0%BD%D0%B0+1+%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%8F+2016%D0%B3..pdf|publisher=[[Rosstat]]|accessdate=11 July 2016|language=Russian|quote=г.Уфа}}</ref>
|-
| align="left" | 30
| [[Cologne]] || {{flagcountry|DEU}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1039488}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|June|30}}
| align=right|{{nts|1007119}}
| [[File:Kölnpanorama bei Abenddämmerung (2).JPG|150px]]
| {{coord|50.936389|N|6.952778|E|name=30 Cologne}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.it.nrw.de/statistik/a/daten/bevoelkerungszahlen_zensus/zensus_rp3_juni14.html |title=Einwohnerzahlen im Regierungsbezirk Köln |publisher=Landesbetrieb Information und Technik Nordrhein-Westfalen |accessdate=14 June 2015}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 31
| [[Perm]]
| | {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1041876}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2016|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;"|
| [[File:Perm Russia.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|58|N|56.316667|E|name=32 Perm}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web|title=Численность населения Пермского края, человек|url=http://permstat.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_ts/permstat/resources/977c050047c191a4bf25bfed3bc4492f/03.xls|publisher=[[Rosstat]]|accessdate=11 July 2016|language=Russian|quote=г. Пермь}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 32
| [[Voronezh]]
|| {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1032382}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2016|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;"|
| [[File:Главное здание управления ЮВЖД.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|51.671667|N|39.210556|E|name=33 Voronezh}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web|title=Оценка численности постоянного населения Воронежской области на I января 2016 года|url=http://voronezhstat.gks.ru/wps/wcm/connect/rosstat_ts/voronezhstat/resources/62e8e4004c22fad280bce7b4bce00d93/%D0%A7%D0%B8%D1%81%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C+%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F+%D0%92%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B6%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9+%D0%BE%D0%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8+%D0%BD%D0%B0+1.01.2016+%D0%B3%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0.pdf|publisher=[[Rosstat]]|accessdate=11 July 2016|language=Russian|quote=Городской округ город Воронеж}}</ref>
|-
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| [[Volgograd]]
|| {{flagcountry|Russia}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|1016137}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2016|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;"|
| [[File:Mamaev kurgan (ОКН).JPG|150px]]
| {{coord|48.7|N|44.516667|E|name=31 New York City}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref>{{cite web|title=БД ПМО Волгоградской области ПОКАЗАТЕЛИ|url=http://www.gks.ru/scripts/db_inet2/passport/table.aspx?opt=187010002016|publisher=[[Rosstat]]|accessdate=11 July 2016|language=Russian|quote=населения на 1 января текущего года}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 34
| [[Odessa]] || {{flagcountry|Ukraine}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|999359}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;"|
| [[File:Odessa Potemkin Stairs.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|46.466667|N|30.733333|E|name=34 Odessa}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref name="Ukraine2014" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 35
| [[Naples]] || {{flagcountry|ITA}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|989111}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|January|1}}
| align=right|{{nts|959574}}
|
| {{coord|40.833333|N|14.25|E|name=35 Naples}}
| style="text-align:center;" |<ref name="italy" />
|-
| style="text-align:left;" | 36
| [[Dnipropetrovsk|Dnipro]] || {{flagcountry|Ukraine}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{nts|982969}}
| style="text-align:right;" | {{dts|format=dmy|link=off|2014|January|1}}
| style="text-align:right;"|
| [[File:Dnipropetrowsk.jpg|150px]]
| {{coord|48.45 |N|34.983333 |E|name=36 Dnipropetrovsk}}
| style="text-align:center;" | <ref name="Ukraine2014" />
|}

==See also==
*[[List of urban areas in Europe]]
*[[List of metropolitan areas in Europe]]
*[[List of cities in the European Union by population within city limits]]
*[[List of urban areas in the European Union]]
*[[List of larger urban zones in the European Union]] (metropolitan area)
*[[List of cities and towns in Russia by population]]

== Notes ==
{{Notelist|30em}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

{{World's largest cities}}

[[Category:Lists of cities in Europe]]

List of Antarctic expeditions

2016-06-23T19:02:14Z

JanTurin: /* 21st century */

{{Use dmy dates|date=February 2013}}
{{Infobox fictional location
| name = Terra Australis
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| image = Typus Orbis Terrarum drawn by Abraham Ortelius.jpg
| imagesize = 250px
| caption = Terra Australis is the large continent on the bottom of this 1570 map.
| source =
| creator =
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}}
This '''list of Antarctic expeditions''' is a [[chronological]] list of [[expeditions]] involving [[Antarctica]]. Although the existence of a [[Terra Australis|southern continent]] had been hypothesized as early as the writings of [[Ptolemy]] in the 1st century AD, the South Pole was not reached until 1911.

==Pre-exploration==
*600 BC – 300 BC [[Greek philosophy|Greek Philosophers]] theorize [[Spherical Earth]] with [[North Pole|North]] and [[South Pole|South]] [[Polar region]]s.
*150 [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[Ptolemy]] published [[Geographia (Ptolemy)|Geographia]], which notes [[Terra Australis|Terra Australis Incognita]]

==Pre-19th century==
* 7th century — [[Ui-te-Rangiora]] claimed to have sighted southern ice fields.
* 13th century — Polynesians settle [[Auckland Islands]] (50° S)<ref>O'Connor, Tom ''Polynesians in the Southern Ocean: Occupation of the Auckland Islands in Prehistory'' in New Zealand Geographic 69 (September–October 2004): 6–8)</ref><ref>Anderson, Atholl J., & Gerard R. O'Regan ''To the Final Shore: Prehistoric Colonisation of the Subantarctic Islands in South Polynesia'' in ''Australian Archaeologist: Collected Papers in Honour of Jim Allen'' Canberra: Australian National University, 2000. 440–454.</ref><ref>Anderson, Atholl J., & Gerard R. O'Regan ''The Polynesian Archaeology of the Subantarctic Islands: An Initial Report on Enderby Island'' Southern Margins Project Report. Dunedin: Ngai Tahu Development Report, 1999</ref><ref>Anderson, Atholl J. ''Subpolar Settlement in South Polynesia'' Antiquity 79.306 (2005): 791–800</ref>
* 1501–1502 — [[Gonçalo Coelho]] and [[Amerigo Vespucci]] potentially sail to (52° S)
* 1522 — [[Ferdinand Magellan]] – first [[circumnavigation]] discovers [[Strait of Magellan]] (54° S)
* 1578 — [[Francis Drake]] discovers [[Drake Passage]]
* 1599 — [[Dirk Gerritsz]] – potentially sails to (64° S)
* 1603 — [[Gabriel de Castilla]] – potentially sails to (64° S)
* 1615 — [[Jacob le Maire]] and [[Willem Schouten]] first to sail around [[Cape Horn]] cross (56° S)
* 1619 — [[Garcia de Nodal expedition]] – circumnavigate [[Tierra del Fuego]] and discover [[Diego Ramirez Islands]] ({{coord|56|30|S|68|43|W}})
* 1675 — [[Anthony de la Roché]] discovers [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia]] ({{coord|54|15|00|S|36|45|00|W|}}), the first ever land discovered south of the [[Antarctic Convergence]]
* 1698–1699 — [[Edmond Halley]] sails to (52° S)
* 1720 — [[Captain George Shelvocke]] – sails to (61° 30′ S)
* 1739 — [[Jean-Baptiste Charles Bouvet de Lozier]] – discovers [[Bouvet Island]] ({{coord|54|26|S|3|24|E|}})
* 1771 — [[James Cook]] – [[HM Bark Endeavour]] expedition
* 1771–1772 — [[French Antarctic Expedition|First French Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[Yves-Joseph de Kerguelen-Trémarec]] discovers [[Kerguelen Islands]] ({{coord|49|15|S|69|35|E|}})
* 1772–1775 — [[James Cook]] – sails [[HMS Resolution (Cook)|HMS Resolution]] crossing [[Antarctic Circle]] in January 1773 and December 1773. On 30 January 1774 he reaches 71° 10′ S, his [[Farthest South]], coming within about 75 miles of the Antarctic mainland without seeing it.

==19th century==
* 1780s to 1839 — American and British whalers and sealers make incidental discoveries
* 1819 — [[William Smith (mariner)|William Smith]] discovers [[South Shetland Islands]] ({{coord|62|00|S|058|00|W|}}), the first land discovered south of 60° south latitude.
* 1819 — [[San Telmo (ship)|San Telmo]] wrecks in the [[Drake Passage]] off [[Livingston Island]]
* 1819–1821 — [[Fabian Gottlieb von Bellingshausen]] – on 27 January 1820, discovers an [[ice shelf]] at [[Princess Martha Coast]] that later became known as the [[Fimbul Ice Shelf]] ({{coord|69|21|28|S|2|14|50|W|}}).
* 1820 — [[Edward Bransfield]] with [[William Smith (mariner)|William Smith]] as his pilot – on 30 January 1820, sight [[Trinity Peninsula]] ({{coord|63|37|S|058|20|W|}}).
* 1820 — [[Nathaniel Palmer]] sights Antarctica on 17 November 1820
* 1821 — George Powell, a British sealer, and Nathaniel B. Palmer, an American sealer, discover the [[South Orkney Islands]]. Powell annexes them for the British.
* 1821 — [[John Davis (sealer)|John Davis]] – on 7 February 1821 disputed claim of setting foot on Antarctica at [[Hughes Bay]] ({{coord|64|13|S|61|20|W|}})
* 1823–1824 — [[James Weddell]] discovers the [[Weddell Sea]]; – on 20 February 1823 his ship ''Jane'' (160 tons) reached a new [[Farthest South]] of 74° 15′ S ({{coord|74|15|S|30|12|W|}})
* 1830–1833 — [[Southern Ocean Expedition]] led by [[John Biscoe]], an English sealer; circumnavigates the continent, sets foot on [[Anvers Island]], names and annexes [[Graham Land]], discovers [[Biscoe Islands]], [[Adelaide Island|Queen Adelaide Island]] ({{coord|67.25|S|68.5|W|}}) and sights [[Enderby Land]] ({{coord|67|30|S|53|0|E|}})
* 1837–1840 — [[French Antarctic Expedition|Second French Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[Jules Dumont d'Urville]]; discovers [[Adelie Land]] and sets foot on an [[Débarquement Rock|islet]] of [[Geologie Archipelago]] ({{coord|66|36|19|S|140|4|0|E|source:GNIS}}) 4 km from the mainland to take mineral and animal samples (66° S)
* 1838–1839 — [[John Balleny]] discovers [[Balleny Islands]] ({{coord|66|55|S|163|45|E|}})
* 1838–1842 — [[United States Exploring Expedition]] – led by [[Charles Wilkes]] to [[Antarctic Peninsula]] ({{coord|69|30|S|065|00|W|}}) and eastern Antarctica; discovers "Termination Barrier" ("Shackleton Ice Shelf")
* 1839–1843 — [[James Clark Ross]]'s [[Ross expedition|expedition of 1839 to 1843]] discovered the [[Ross Ice Shelf]], [[Ross Sea]], [[Mount Erebus]], [[Mount Terror (Antarctica)|Mount Terror]] and [[Victoria Land]]; extended his [[Farthest South]] to 78° 10′ S on 23 January 1842
* 1851–1853 — [[Mercator Cooper]] landed on what is now known as [[Oates Coast]] in what is probably the first adequately-documented landing on the mainland of Antarctica.
* 1872–1876 — {{HMS|Challenger|1858|6}} under Capt. George S. Nares, becomes the first steamship to cross the Antarctic Circle; reopens the study of oceanography in the region after a 30-year gap.<ref>David McGonigalm ''Antarctica: Secrets of the Southern Continent'' Frances Lincoln Ltd., 2009 ISBN 0-7112-2980-5 page 288-289</ref>
* 1892–1893 — [[Carl Anton Larsen]] led the first [[Norwegian people|Norwegian]] expedition to [[Antarctica]] aboard the ship [[Jason (ship)|Jason]]. Larsen became the first person to [[ski]] in Antarctica where the [[Larsen Ice Shelf]] was named after him.
* 1892–1893 — [[Dundee Whaling Expedition]] discover [[Dundee Island]] ({{coord|63|30|S|055|55|W|}})
* 1893–1894 — [[Carl Anton Larsen]] led the second [[Norwegian people|Norwegian]] expedition to [[Antarctica]]
* 1893–1895 — [[Henryk Bull]], [[Carstens Borchgrevink]] and [[Alexander von Tunzelmann]] – set foot on Antarctica at [[Cape Adare]]
* 1897–1899 — [[Belgian Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[Adrien de Gerlache]]; first to winter in Antarctica
* 1898–1900 — [[Southern Cross Expedition]], [[Carsten Borchgrevink]] – sails to [[Cape Adare]], winters on Antarctica and takes [[Farthest South]] on 16 February 1900 at 78° 50′ S

==20th century==
* 1901–1904 — [[Discovery Expedition]] – led by [[Robert Falcon Scott]], on 30 December 1903, reached (82° 17′S)
* 1901–1903 — [[Gauss expedition]] (or [[Gauss expedition|First German Antarctic Expedition]]) – led by [[Erich von Drygalski]]
* 1901–1903 — [[Swedish Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[Otto Nordenskjöld]] with captain [[Carl Anton Larsen]]
* 1902–1904 — [[Scottish National Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[William Speirs Bruce]]
* 1903–1905 — [[French Antarctic Expedition|Third French Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[Jean-Baptiste Charcot]]
* 1907–1909 — [[Nimrod Expedition]] – On 9 January 1909, [[Ernest Shackleton]] reached 88° 23 ′S ([[Farthest South]]), and on 16 January 1909, Professor [[Edgeworth David]] reached the [[South Magnetic Pole]] at ({{coord|72|25|S|155|16|E}}) (mean position)
* 1908–1910 — [[French Antarctic Expedition|Fourth French Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[Jean-Baptiste Charcot]]
* 1910–1912 — [[Japanese Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[Nobu Shirase]]
* 1910–1912 — '''[[Amundsen's South Pole expedition|Roald Amundsen's South Pole expedition]]''' – On 14 December 1911, reached the [[South Pole]] (90° S)
* 1910–1913 — [[Terra Nova Expedition]] – On 17 January 1912, [[Robert Falcon Scott]], reached the [[South Pole]] (90° S)
* 1911–1913 — [[Second German Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[Wilhelm Filchner]]
* 1911–1914 — [[Australasian Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[Douglas Mawson]]
* 1914–1916 — [[Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[Ernest Shackleton]]
* 1914–1917 — [[Ross Sea Party]] – led by [[Aeneas Mackintosh]]
* 1920–1922 — British Graham Land Expedition - a British expedition to [[Graham Land]] led by John Lachlan Cope
* 1921–1922 — [[Shackleton-Rowett Expedition]] – led by [[Ernest Shackleton]] – the last expedition of the [[Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration]]
* 1929–1931 — [[British Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research Expedition]] (BANZARE) – led by [[Douglas Mawson]]
* 1928–1930 — [[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] – First expedition
* 1931 — [[H. Halvorsen]] – discovered [[Princess Astrid Coast]]
* 1931 — [[Hjalmar Riiser-Larsen]] – flew over Antarctica, discovered [[Prince Olav Coast|Kronprins Olav Kyst]]
* 1933–1935 — [[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] – Second expedition
* 1933–1939 — [[Lincoln Ellsworth]] – Aircraft expedition
* 1934–1937 — [[British Graham Land Expedition]] (BGLE) – led by [[John Riddoch Rymill]]
* 1936 — [[Lars Christensen]] – dropped Norwegian flag over [[Prince Harald Coast]]
* 1938 — [[Third German Antarctic Expedition]] ([[New Swabia]], or ''[[New Swabia|Neuschwabenland]]'', claimed for [[Nazi Germany]]) – led by Capt. [[Alfred Ritscher]]
* 1939–1941 — [[United States Antarctic Service Expedition]] – led by [[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] (Byrd's third expedition)
* 1943–1945 — [[Operation Tabarin]] – led by Lieutenant [[James William Slessor Marr|James Marr]]
* 1946–1946 — [[Operation Highjump]] – led by [[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] (Byrd's fourth expedition)
* 1947–[[First Chilean Antarctic Expedition]]
* 1947–1948 — [[Operation Windmill]] – led by Commander [[Gerald Ketchum]]
* 1947–1946 — [[Ronne Antarctic Research Expedition]] – led by [[Finn Ronne]]
* 1949–1950 — Adelie-Land, Ship ''Commandant Charcot'' – led by [[Michel Barre]]
* 1949–1952 — [[Norwegian-British-Swedish Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[John Giaever]]
* 1954 — [[Mawson Station]] established
* 1955–1956 — [[Operation Deep Freeze]] – led by [[Richard Evelyn Byrd]] (Byrd's fifth expedition)
* 1955-1957 — Falkland Island Dependency Aerial Survey led by P G Mott
* 1955–1957 — [[1st Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Mikhail Somov]]
* 1956 [[Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station]] established
* 1956–1958 — [[Commonwealth Trans-Antarctic Expedition]] – led by [[Vivian Fuchs]]
* 1956–1958 — [[2nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Aleksei Treshnikov]]
* 1957–1958 — [[International Geophysical Year]]
* 1957–1958 — [[New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition]]
* 1957 — [[Scott Base]] established
* 1957–1958 — [[Luncke Expedition]]
* 1957–1959 — [[3rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Yevgeny Tolstikov]]
* 1958–1959 — [[New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition]]
* 1958–1960 — [[4th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Aleksandr Dralkin]]
* 1959–1961 — [[5th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Yevgeny Korotkevich]]
* 1960 — [[SANAE|South African National Antarctic Expedition]]
* 1960–1962 — [[6th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by V.Driatsky
* 1961–1963 — [[7th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Aleksandr Dralkin]]
* 1962–1962 — [[Vostok traverse]] – led by [[Australian National Antarctic Research Expeditions]] ([[ANARE]])
* 1962–1964 — [[8th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Mikhail Somov]]
* 1963–1965 — [[9th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Mikhail Somov]]
* 1964-1965 — [[South Pole—Queen Maud Land Traverse]] I
* 1964–1966 — [[10th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by M.Ostrekin, I.Petrov
* 1965-1966 — [[South Pole—Queen Maud Land Traverse]] II
* 1965–1967 — [[11th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by D.Maksutov, [[Leonid Dubrovin]]
* 1965–1965 — [[Operación 90]] - Terrestrial Argentine Expedition to the South Pole Led by Coronel D. Jorge Leal.
* 1966–1968 — [[12th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Pavel Senko]] and [[Vladislav Gerbovich]]
* 1966–1967 — [[New Zealand Antarctic Research Programme Mariner Glacier Northern Party Expedition]] — led by [[John E S Lawrence]]
* 1967-1968 — [[South Pole—Queen Maud Land Traverse]] III
* 1967–1969 — [[13th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Aleksei Treshnikov]]
* 1968–1970 — [[14th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by D.Maksutov, [[Ernst Krenkel]]
* 1969–1970 — [[New Zealand Geological Survey Antarctic Expedition]]
* 1969–1971 — [[15th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Pavel Senko]] and [[Vladislav Gerbovich]]
* 1970–1972 — [[16th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by I.Petrov and [[Yury Tarbeyev]]
* 1971–1973 — [[17th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Yevgeny Korotkevich]], V. Averyanov
* 1972–1974 — [[18th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Pavel Senko]]
* 1973–1975 — [[19th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by D.Maksutov, V. Ignatov
* 1974–1976 — [[20th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by V.Serdyukov, N. Kornilov
* 1975–1977 — [[21st Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by O.Sedov, G. Bardin
* 1976–1978 — [[22nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by N.Tyabin, [[Leonid Dubrovin]]
* 1977–1979 — [[23rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by V.Serdyukov, O. Sedov
* 1978–1980 — [[24th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by A.Artemyev, O. Sedov
* 1979 — [[Air New Zealand Flight 901]] – airplane crash
* 1979–1980 — [[25th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by N.Kornilov, N. Tyabin
* 1980–1981 — [[Transglobe Expedition]] – led by [[Ranulph Fiennes]]
* 1980–1982 — [[26th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by V.Serdyukov, V. Shamontyev
* 1981–1983 — [[27th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by D.Maksutov, R. Galkin
* 1981-1982 — [[First Indian Expedition to Antarctica]] - led by Dr. [[Sayed Zahoor Qasim]]
* 1982 — [[Falkland Islands War]]
* 1982-1983 — [[First Brazilian Expedition to Antarctica]] -
* 1982-1983 — [[Second Indian Expedition to Antarctica]] - led by V. K. Raina
* 1982–1984 — [[28th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by N.Kornilov, A. Artemyev
* 1983–1985 — [[29th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] – led by N.Tyabin, L. Bulatov
* 1983–1985 — [[Third Indian Expedition to Antarctica]]
* 1984–1987 — In the Footsteps of Scott – led by [[Robert Swan]]
* 1984–1985 — [[1st Uruguayan Antarctic Expedition - Antarkos I]] Led by Lt. Col. Omar Porciúncula
* 1984–1986 — [[30th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] – led by D.Maksutov, R. Galkin
* 1985–1987 — [[31st Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by N. Tyabin, V. Dubovtsev
* 1986–1988 — [[32nd Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by V.Klokov, V.Vovk
* 1987 — [[Iceberg B-9]] calves and carries away [[Little America (exploration base)|Little America]]s I – III
* 1987–1989 — [[33rd Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by N.A.Kornilov, Yu.A.Khabarov
* 1987–1988 — [[First Bulgarian Antarctic Expedition]] — [[St. Kliment Ohridski Base]] established
* 1988–1990 — [[34th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by S.M.Pryamikov, L.V.Bulatov
* 1989–1991 — [[35th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by V.M.Piguzov
* 1989-1990 - [[1990 International Trans-Antarctica Expedition]] — led by American [[Will Steger]] and Frenchman [[Jean-Louis_Étienne]], first un-mechanized crossing
* 1991–1992 — [[36th Soviet Antarctic Expedition]] — led by [[Lev Savatyugin]]
* 1992-1993 — [[British Polar Plod]] — led by [[Ranulph Fiennes]] with [[Mike Stroud (physician)]], first unassisted expedition crossing the continent by ski, (2,173 km in 95 days)
* 1992-1993 — [[Erling Kagge]], first unassisted, and first solo expedition to the South Pole by ski, (1,310 km in 53 days)
* 1992–1993 — [[Antarctic Environmental Research Expedition]] — led by [[Kenji Yoshikawa]]
* 1995 — “A Pole at the Poles” – [[Marek Kamiński]] solo expedition to the South Pole from [[Berkner Island]] (1,400 km in 53 days);
* 1995-1996 - Bernard Voyer and Thierry Pétry unassisted expedition to the South Pole by ski
* 1996 — [[Lake Vostok]] discovered
* 1996/97 — “Solo TransAntarctica” – [[Marek Kamiński]] attempted solo crossing of Antarctica (1,450 km);

==21st century==
* 2004 — Scot100 First ever Scottish Expedition to South Pole <ref>http://v1.explorapoles.org/UK/Whos/PT_M-N/Mathieson_Craig.htm</ref> began in October 2004 - a century after a historic expedition led by [[William Speirs Bruce]], Edinburgh's "unknown" explorer, who [[Craig Mathieson (polar explorer)|Craig Mathieson]] views as "truly the greatest polar explorer of all time".
* 2004 — Together to the Pole - a Polish four-man expedition led by [[Marek Kamiński]], with [[Jan Mela]] (a teenage double [[amputation|amputee]], who in the same year reached also the [[North Pole]])
* 2004–2005 — [[Chilean South Pole Expedition]].
* 2004–2005 — [[Tangra 2004/05]] created [[Camp Academia]].
* 2005 — [[Ice Challenger Expedition]] travelled to the South Pole in a six-wheeled vehicle.<ref>[http://www.icechallenger.co.uk/ IceChallenger.co.uk], 2005. Retrieved on 2008-10-14{{Self-published source|date=March 2013}}</ref>
* 2005–2006 — [[Spanish Trans-Antarctic Expedition]], led by Ramon Larramendi, reached the [[Southern Pole of Inaccessibility]] using kite-sleds.<ref>[http://www.tierraspolares.es/transantartica_ing.php Tierraspolared.es], Transantarctica 2005–06 at Tierras Polares {{wayback|url=http://www.tierraspolares.es/transantartica_ing.php |date=20080207072609 |df=y }}</ref>
*2006 [[Hannah McKeand]] sets coast-to-pole solo/unsupported record of 39 days, 9 hours and 33 minutes<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2006/dec/30/uknews2.mainsection2|newspaper=[[The Guardian]]|date=29 December 2006 |title=Woman treks alone to South Pole in 39 days|author= Aislinn Simpson|accessdate=2013-03-12}}</ref>
* 2007- [http://www.patfalvey.com/ Pat Falvey] leads an Irish team to reach the South Pole, skiing 1140 km only weeks after completing an unsupported Ski traverse of the Greenland Ice Cap in August 2007 in honour of Irish Polar Explorers such as Shakelton and Tom Crean. Clare O'Leary becomes the first Iirsh female to reach the South Pole.
* 2007–2008 — [[Norwegian-U.S. Scientific Traverse of East Antarctica]].<ref>[http://traverse.npolar.no/ Traverse.npolar.no]{{Self-published source|date=March 2013}}</ref>
* 2007–2008 — British Army Antarctic Expedition 2007–2008 <ref>[http://elements.geoscienceworld.org/cgi/reprint/4/5/354.pdf Conor J. Ryan ''Joys and Hardships of Antarctic Fieldwork'', retrieved 2011 Aug 24]</ref>
*2008 — [[Todd Carmichael]] sets coast-to-pole solo/unsupported record of 39 days, 7 hours and 49 minutes<ref>{{citation|title=Todd Carmichael, American|last=Martin|first=Peter|journal=Esquire|date=Dec 2011|page=202|url=http://www.esquire.com/features/americans-2011/todd-carmichael-1211|accessdate=2013-03-13}}</ref>
* 2008 — [[First Venezuelan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica]].
* 2008–2009 — Impossible 2 Possible (i2P) unsupported South Pole quest by [[Ray Zahab]], [[Kevin Vallely]] and [[Richard Weber (explorer)|Richard Weber]].<ref>[http://www.southpolequest.com/ Southpolequest.com]{{Self-published source|date=March 2013}}</ref>
* 2009 — [[Azerbaijan Scientific Expedition]]
* 2009 — [[Kaspersky Commonwealth Antarctic Expedition]], largest and most international group of women to ski to South Pole.
* 2009 — [[Second Venezuelan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica]].
* 2009−2010 — Unsupported/Unassisted Antarctica Ski Traverse from Berkner Island to South Pole to Ross Sea by [[Cecilie Skog]] and Ryan Waters.
* 2010 — Moon Regan Transantarctic Crossing, first wheeled transantarctic crossing and first [[biofuel|bio-fuelled]] vehicle to travel to the South Pole.<ref>[http://www.transantarcticexpedition.com/ Moon Regan transantarctic crossing]{{Self-published source|date=March 2013}}</ref>
* 2010 — [[Third Venezuelan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica]].
* 2011 — [[Fourth Venezuelan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica]].
* 2011−2012 — From Novolazarevskaya to Pole of Inaccessibility to South Pole to Hercules inlet by [[Sebastian Copeland]] and Eric McNair Landry by kites and skis.<ref>http://www.explorersweb.com/polar/news.php?id=20632</ref>
* 2011−2012 — [[British Services Antarctic Expedition 2012]]<ref>[http://www.bsae2012.co.uk/ BSAE 2012 - Spirit of Scott]{{Self-published source|date=March 2013}}</ref>
* 2012 — [[Felicity Aston]] becomes the first person to ski alone across [[Antarctica]] using only personal muscle power, as well as the first woman to cross Antarctica alone.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.rdasia.com/long-days-journey-into-white/ |title=Long Day's Journey into White | Adventure |publisher=Reader's Digest Asia |date= |accessdate=2012-01-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|author=Michael Warren |url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/news/world/skier-felicity-aston-sets-antarctic-record-becomes-first-woman-to-cross-continent-alone/article2311401/?utm_medium=Feeds%3A%20RSS%2FAtom&utm_source=Home&utm_content=2311401 |title=First woman to cross Antarctica solo sets two records |publisher=The Globe and Mail |date= |accessdate=2012-01-28}}</ref> Her journey began on 25 November 2011, at the [[Leverett Glacier]], and continued for 59 days and a distance of 1,084 miles (1,744 kilometers).<ref name=ESPN>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/olympics/crosscountry/story/_/id/7492378/british-adventurer-felicity-aston-caps-first-ski-crossing-antarctica-woman |title=British adventurer Felicity Aston caps first ski crossing of Antarctica by woman |publisher=ESPN |date=2012-01-23 |accessdate=2012-01-28}}</ref>
* 2012 — [[Fifth Venezuelan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica]].
* 2012-2013 - Aaron Linsdau becomes the second only American to ski solo from the Hercules Inlet to the South Pole. His original plan was to make a round trip but through a series of problems, like all other expeditions this year, was unable to make the return journey.<ref>[http://www.amazon.com/Antarctic-Tears-Determination-adversity-pursuit-ebook/dp/B00LLIQBRQ/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1413900625&sr=8-1&keywords=antarctic+tears Antarctic Tears, Sastrugi Press, 2014]</ref>
* 2012 — [[Eric Larsen (Polar Explorer)|Eric Larsen]] attempts a bicycle ride from coast to South Pole. Completes a quarter of the distance.
* 2012−2013 — Shackleton's centenary re-enactment expedition of the journey of the ''James Caird'' aboard the replica ''Alexandra Shackleton''. Six British and Australian Explorers completed the "double journey" on 10 February 2013 after the 800-mile journey from Elephant Island to South Georgia and the mountain crossing.<ref>{{citation|url=http://www.shackletonepic.com|title=Shackleton Epic}}{{Self-published source|date=March 2013}}</ref>
* 2013 — [[Sixth Venezuelan Scientific Expedition to Antarctica]].
* 2013 — [[Ben Saunders (explorer)|Ben Saunders]] and [[Tarka L'Herpiniere]] attempts to complete in October 2013, the [[Terra Nova Expedition]] first taken by [[Robert Falcon Scott]] in January 1912.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://scottexpedition.com/ |title=The Scott Expedition}}</ref>
* 2013 — [[Parker Liautaud]] and Douglas Stoup attempt in December 2013 the [[Willis Resilience Expedition]] <ref>{{cite web|url= http://www.willis.com/Media_Room/Press_Releases_%28Browse_All%29/2013/20130819_Willis_Media_Pack/|title=Willis Resilience Expedition}}</ref> to set a "coast to Pole" speed record <ref>{{cite news|author=Explorersweb |url=http://www.explorersweb.com/polar/news.php?id=19887 |title=Breaking news: Christian Eide bags the South Pole solo speed ski world record |publisher=explorersweb.com |date=2011-01-13 |accessdate=2011-01-13}}</ref> by reaching the geographical [[South Pole]] on skis in the fastest miles per hour ever recorded from an interior of continent start while being followed by a support vehicle.
* 2013 — [[Antony Jinman]] will walk to the South Pole solo for the 2013 ETE Teachers South Pole Mission, during which he will be in daily contact with schoolchildren from across the United Kingdom and will make films using the world's first drone flights at the South Pole.
* 2013 — Maria Leijerstam completes the first tricycle ride from coast to South Pole.
* 2013-14 - Lewis Clarke (aged 16) guided by Carl Alvey (aged 30) became the youngest person to trek from the Antarctic coast at Hercules Inlet to the South Pole. His expedition was in support of the Prince's Trust and his achievement is recognised by Guinness World Records.
* 2013−14 — [[Daniel P. Burton]] completes the first bicycle ride from coast to the South Pole.
* 2013−14 — [[Chris Turney]] led an expedition, entitled "[[Spirit of Mawson]]", aimed at highlighting the decline in sea ice due to [[climate change]]. The expedition was abandoned when its Russian ship became stuck in unusually large amounts of sea ice.
* 2013 — In December 2013 the Expeditions 7 Team led by Scott Brady made a successful east-to-west crossing in four-wheel drive vehicles from Novolazarevskaya to the Ross Ice Shelf via the Scott-Amundsen South Pole Station. Expeditions 7’s logistic plan included providing assistance to the [[Walking With The Wounded]] expedition, which was required at latitude 88°S. From the Ross Ice Shelf the Expeditions 7 team returned to Novolazarevskaya via the same route.
* 2015-16 - [[Henry Worsley (explorer)|Henry Worsley]] died while attempting to complete the first solo and unaided crossing of the Antarctic.<ref>http://www.bbc.com/news/uk-35398552</ref>

==Agreements==
* 1959 — [[Antarctic Treaty System]]
* 1964 — [[Agreed Measures for the Conservation of Antarctic Fauna and Flora]]
* 1978 — [[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Seals]]
* 1982 — [[Convention for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources]]
* 1988 — [[Convention on the Regulation of Antarctic Mineral Resource Activities]]
* 1998 — [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty]]

==See also==
{{portal|Antarctica}}
{{div col|colwidth=30em}}
* [[Arctic exploration]]
* [[European and American voyages of scientific exploration]]
* [[Farthest South]]
* [[Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration]]
* [[History of Antarctica]]
* [[History of research ships]]
* [[List of Arctic expeditions]]
* [[List of polar explorers]]
* [[List of Russian explorers]]
* [[Research stations in Antarctica]]
{{div col end}}

==Notes==
{{reflist|30em}}

==References==
* {{cite book |last1=Savatyugin|first1= L. M. |last2=Preobrazhenskaya |first2=M. A. |script-title=ru:Российские исследования в Антарктике|language=Russian|trans_title= Russian Exploration of Antarctica|year=1999 |publisher=Gidrometeoizdat, Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute (AARI), Federal Service for Hydrometeorology and Environmental Monitoring of Russian Federation (Roshydromet) |location=Saint Petersburg |isbn=5-286-01265-5 }}
* {{cite journal |year=1958–1974 |title=Soviet Antarctic Expedition |journal=Information Bulletin |location= Amsterdam|publisher=Elsevier Pub. Co |issn=0038-5271}}

==Further reading==
* Headland, Robert K. (1990). ''Chronological List of Antarctic Expeditions and Related Historical Events''. [[Cambridge University Press]]. ISBN 0-521-30903-4
* Landis, Marilyn J. (2003). ''Antarctica: Exploring the Extreme: 400 Years of Adventure''. Chicago Review Press. ISBN 1-55652-480-3

==External links==
* [http://www.fram.museum.no/en/default.asp?page=159 Fram.museum.no], map of Antarctic Expeditions 1772 – 1931 at [[Fram Museum|The Fram Museum (Frammuseet)]]
* [http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk/resources/expeditions/ SPRI.cam.ac.uk], index to Antarctic Expeditions at the Scott Polar Research Institute's website
* [http://www.antarctica.ac.uk/bas_research/data/access/bedmap/database/bibliography.html Antarctic Expeditions], information about some of them from the British Antarctic Survey
* [http://www.antarctic-circle.org/timeline.htm Antarctic-circle.org], Chronologies and Timelines of Antarctic Exploration
* [http://www.thingsmadethinkable.com/item/antarctic_exploration_timeline.php Antarctic Exploration Timeline], animated map of Antarctic exploration and settlement
* Listen to Ernest Shackleton describing his 1908 [http://aso.gov.au/titles/spoken-word/my-south-polar-expedition/ South Pole Expedition], and read more about the recording on [australianscreen online].
* The recording describing Shackleton's 1908 South Pole Expedition was added to the [[National Film and Sound Archive]]'s [http://nfsa.gov.au/collection/national-collection/sound/sounds-australia/complete-list/ Sounds of Australia Registry] in 2007
* [http://www.portlandmonthly.com/portmag/2012/10/working-class-hero/ Before she’s lost to decay on the West Coast, former Antarctica researchers in Maine want to save their storied 'Hero']. Portland Magazine. 8 November 2012

{{Antarctica}}
{{Polar exploration |state=uncollapsed}}

[[Category:Antarctic expeditions| ]]
[[Category:Antarctica-related lists|Expeditions]]
[[Category:Exploration of Antarctica| ]]
[[Category:Explorers of Antarctica| ]]
[[Category:History-related lists|Antarctic Expeditions]]

Frank Hurley

2016-06-23T10:34:44Z

JanTurin: /* Antarctic expeditions */ full text in link

{{about|the Australian photographer and adventurer|the U.S. congressional candidate|United States House of Representatives elections in North Carolina, 2010#District 13{{!}}United States House of Representatives elections in North Carolina, 2010}}
{{Use British English|date=August 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2011}}
{{Infobox writer
| name = Frank Hurley
| image = FrankHurley.png
| alt =
| image_size = 220px
| caption = Frank Hurley, photographed c.1914
| birth_date = {{Birth date|df=yes|1885|10|15}}
| birth_place = [[Glebe]], Sydney, Australia
| death_date = {{Death date and age|df=yes|1962|1|16|1885|10|15}}
| death_place = [[Sydney]], Australia
| nationality = Australian
| other_names = James Francis Hurley
| known_for =
| occupation = Photographer
| notableworks = ''[[Shackleton's Argonauts|Shackleton's Argonauts : A Saga of Antacrtic Icepacks]]''
| awards = [[Children's Book of the Year Award: Older Readers]] 1948
| years_active = 1926-1948
}}

'''James Francis "Frank" Hurley''', [[Order of the British Empire|OBE]] (15 October 1885 – 16 January 1962) was an Australian photographer and adventurer. He participated in a number of expeditions to [[Antarctica]] and served as an official photographer with Australian forces during both [[world wars]].

His artistic style produced many memorable images. He also used staged scenes, composites and photographic manipulation.

==Biography==
Hurley was the third of five children to parents Edward and Margaret Hurley and was raised in [[Glebe, New South Wales|Glebe, a suburb of Sydney, Australia]].<ref>McGregor (2004) p 8</ref> He ran away from home at the age of 13 to work on the Lithgow steel mill, returning home two years later to study at the local technical school and attend science lectures at the University of Sydney. When he was 17 he bought his first camera, a 15 shilling [[Eastman Kodak|Kodak]] [[Brownie (camera)|Box Brownie]] which he paid for at the rate of a shilling per week. He taught himself photography and set himself up in the postcard business; where he gained a reputation for putting himself in danger in order to produce stunning images, including placing himself in front of an oncoming train to capture it on film.

Hurley married Antoinette Rosalind Leighton on 11 April 1918.<ref name="Hurley-ADB"/> The couple had four children: three daughters and one son.<ref name="Hurley-ADB"/>

While living on [[Collaroy Plateau]], ([[Warringah]] LGA), Frank became involved with ABC radio. He was a frequent storyteller on the perennial children's program ''The Argonauts''.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}} He enjoyed even more a degree of commercial success by publishing his photos on advertising calendars, postcards and tourist booklets.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

His most successful book was ''Australia: A Camera Study ''published in 1955 and reprinted three times.{{citation needed|date=February 2015}}

He engaged in aerial photography with Brud Rees on his Piper Cub float plane. He travelled extensively throughout Australia commissioned on various photographic assignments.<ref>McGregor (2004) p. 406-409</ref>

==Antarctic expeditions==
Of his lifetime, Frank Hurley spent more than four years in Antarctica.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Frank Hurley’s Antarctica.|last = Ennis|first = Helen|publisher = National Library of Australia.|year = 2010|isbn = |location = Australia|pages = 2}}</ref> At the age of 25, in 1908, Hurley learned that Australian explorer [[Douglas Mawson]] was planning an expedition to Antarctica; fellow Sydney-sider [[Henri Mallard]] in 1911, recommended Hurley for the position of official photographer to Mawson's [[Australasian Antarctic Expedition]], ahead of himself.<ref>while Hurley records his approach to Mawson differently in his memoir, the fact of this introduction via Mallard was established by David P. Millar in Millar (1984).</ref> Hurley asserts in his biography that he then cornered Mawson as he was making his way to their interview on a train, using the advantage to talk his way into the job.<ref>[[Jack Cato]] in his obituary explains Hurley's motivation and enthusiasm; 'We were both fired with the Spirit of Adventure; we were both happy in the knowledge that the camera was the key that would open that Magic Door.' Cato, Jack, 'For the Late Frank Hurley, Three Tributes', ''Australian Popular Photography'', March 1962.</ref> Mawson was persuaded, while Mallard, who was the manager of Harringtons (a local Kodak franchise) to which Hurley was in debt, provided photographic equipment. The Expedition departed in 1911, returning in 1914. On his return, he edited and released a documentary ''Home of the Blizzard'' using his footage from the expedition.<ref name="Hurley-ADB"/>

Hurley was also the official photographer on [[Ernest Shackleton]]'s [[Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition]] which set out in 1914 and was marooned until August 1916; Hurley produced many pioneering colour images of the Expedition using the then-popular [[Paget process]] of colour photography. He photographed in [[South Georgia and the South Sandwich Islands|South Georgia]] in 1917. He later compiled his records into the documentary film ''South'' in 1919. His footage was also used in the 2001 [[IMAX]] film ''[[Shackleton's Antarctic Adventure]]''. He returned to the Antarctic in 1929 and 1931 on Mawson's British Australian (and) New Zealand Antarctic Research Expeditions ([[BANZARE]]).

<gallery mode=packed class="center" widths="160px" heights="160px">
File:Wreck of the 'Gratitude', Macquarie Island, 1911.jpg|''Wreck of the 'Gratitude', Macquarie Island, 1911''
File:Endurance in Antarctica, 1915 Hurley a090007.jpg|''Endurance in Antarctica, 1915''
Image:Endurance trapped in pack ice.jpg|Frank Hurley, ''HMS Endurance trapped in Antarctic pack ice'', 1915, [[National Library of Australia]] in Canberra
File:Glimpse of the Endurance Shackleton Expedition 1914-17 Hurley a090018.jpg|The ''Endurance''
File:Endurance Final Sinking.jpg|''Endurance Final Sinking''
File:Antarctica wind Mawson Hurley.jpg|Mawson leaning against the wind
File:Elephant island party.jpg|The Elephant Island party
File:British Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition, 1914-1917.jpg|Hurley with a cinematograph in South Georgia, Antarctica
File:Frank Hurley's business card.jpg|Business card, 1910
</gallery>

==Wartime photography==
In 1917, Hurley joined the [[First Australian Imperial Force|Australian Imperial Force]] (AIF) as an honorary [[Captain (land)|captain]] and captured many stunning battlefield scenes during the [[Third Battle of Ypres]]. In keeping with his adventurous spirit, he took considerable risks to photograph his subjects, also producing many rare panoramic and colour photographs of the conflict. Hurley kept a diary in 1917-1918 describing his time as a war photographer.<ref>{{cite web|title=Series 03: Frank Hurley diaries and related papers, 21 August 1917 – 13 August 1918, kept while official photographer to the Australian Imperial Force|url=http://acmssearch.sl.nsw.gov.au/search/itemDetailPaged.cgi?itemID=422460|website=Catalogue|publisher=State Library of NSW|accessdate=14 July 2014}}</ref> In it he describes his commitment "to illustrate to the public the things our fellows do and how war is conducted" and his short-lived resignation in October 1917 when he was ordered not to produce composite images.<ref name="Transcript">[http://acms.sl.nsw.gov.au/_transcript/2012/D14653/a2826.htm Frank Hurley - diary transcript, 1917-1918. Accessed 14 July 2014]</ref> His period with the AIF ended in March 1918.

For the 1918 London exhibition ''Australian War Pictures and Photographs ''he employed composites for photomurals to convey drama of the war on a scale otherwise not possible using the technology available. This brought Hurley into conflict with the AIF on the grounds that montage diminished documentary value.<ref>for an account of the conflict between Hurley and the war correspondent Charles Bean, see Gough, Paul. "‘Exactitude is truth’: representing the British military through commissioned artworks". Journal of War and Culture Studies Volume: 1 | Issue: 3 December 2008 Page(s): 341–356 ({{ISSN|1752-6272}}), and also the excellent discussion of this, and Hurley's use of montage in some of his Antarctic imagery, in McGregor, Alisdair (2004) ''Frank Hurley: a photographer's life''.'' ''Camberwell:Viking/Penguin</ref> [[Charles Bean]], official war historian, labelled Hurley's composite images "fake".<ref name="Hurley-ADB"/>

Hurley also served as a war photographer during [[World War II]].

<gallery mode=packed class="center" widths="160px" heights="160px">

File:Episode after Battle of Zonnebeke 1918 Hurley.jpg|An episode after the Battle of Zonnebeke (a composite image<ref name=Hurley-ADB>{{cite web|last=Pike|first=A. F.|title=Frank Hurley|url=http://adb.anu.edu.au/biography/hurley-james-francis-frank-6774|work=Australian Dictionary of Biography|publisher=National Centre of Biography, Australian National University|accessdate=7 November 2013}}</ref><ref name=Thomas>{{cite book|last=Thomas|first=Julian|title=Show Man: the Photography of Frank Hurley|year=1990|publisher=National Library of Australia|url=http://www.nla.gov.au/sites/default/files/showman.pdf}}</ref><ref name=SLNSWcatalogue>{{cite web|title=Exhibition of war photographs / taken by Capt. F. Hurley, August 1917- August 1918|url=http://acms.sl.nsw.gov.au/item/itemDetailPaged.aspx?itemID=423850|work=Catalogue|publisher=State Library of NSW|accessdate=7 November 2013}}</ref>)
File:Supports going up after battle to relieve the front trenches, note the three observation balloons above the bright cloud (3007981750).jpg|Supports going up after battle to relieve the front trenches, note the three observation balloons above the bright cloud
File:A trench in the low flat country near La Bassee Ville (3007144955).jpg|A trench in the low flat country near La Bassee Ville
File:Chateauwood.jpg|Chateau Wood, [[Ypres]], 1917 by Frank Hurley
File:Australian soldiers September 1917.JPG|Australian soldiers in action, September 1917
File:World War I soldiers in dugout.JPG|Soldiers in dugout
File:An Australian Light Horseman.jpg|An Australian Light Horseman
File:A flight of bombing planes.jpg|1st Australian Flying Corps, Palestine
</gallery>

==Movie photography==
Hurley also used a [[movie camera]] to record a range of experiences including the Antarctic expeditions, the building of the [[Sydney Harbour Bridge]], and war in the Middle East during World War II. The camera was a [[Debrie Parvo]] L 35mm hand-crank camera made in France. This camera is now in the collection of the [[National Museum of Australia]].<ref>[http://www.nma.gov.au/collections/frank_hurleys_movie_camera/ Frank Hurley's movie camera], [[National Museum of Australia]]</ref>

==Film career==
Hurley made several documentaries throughout his career, most notably ''[[Pearls and Savages]]'' (1921). He wrote and directed several dramatic feature films, including ''[[Jungle Woman (1926 film)|Jungle Woman]]'' (1926) and ''[[The Hound of the Deep]]'' (1926). He also worked as cinematographer for [[Cinesound Productions]] where his best known film credits include ''[[The Squatter's Daughter (1933 film)|The Squatter's Daughter]]'' (1933), ''[[The Silence of Dean Maitland]]'' (1934) and ''[[Grandad Rudd]]'' (1935). His 1941 documentary short ''[[Sagebrush and Silver]]'' was nominated for an [[Academy Award]] at the [[14th Academy Awards]] for [[Academy Award for Best Live Action Short Film|Best Short Subject (One-Reel)]].<ref name="Oscars1942">{{Cite web|url=http://www.oscars.org/oscars/ceremonies/1942 |title=The 14th Academy Awards (1942) Nominees and Winners |accessdate=2013-06-25 |work=oscars.org}}</ref>

== In Collections ==
[[File:A radiant turret lit by the midsummer midnight sun.jpg|thumb|"A radiant turret lit by the midsummer midnight sun", 1912 photo by Hurley held by [[State Library of New South Wales]].]]
Photographs by Hurley of the Antarctic are held by a number of institutions. Notable collections include the [[Australian War Memorial]], [[Canberra]], [[National Library of Australia]], [[Canberra]], [[Scott Polar Research Institute]], Cambridge, [[Royal Geographical Society]], London, [[State Records of South Australia]], and the [[South Australian Museum]], Adelaide.

'''National Library of Australia'''
*[http://nla.gov.au/nla.pic-an11546686 ''Frank Hurley Negative Collection''], 1910–1962
The collection contains 10,999 glass negatives, gelatin negatives, colour transparencies, lantern slides, and stereographs that have been fully catalogued and digitised.

The collection covers photographs of Hurley's trips to Antarctica; as official photographer during World War I 1914–1918; later travels in the Middle East and Egypt; as official photographer during World War II 1939–1945; Papua and New Guinea; Australian scenery, industries and social life and customs.

Related photographic prints can be found in the ''Hurley Collection of Photographic Prints''.
*[http://nla.gov.au/nla.pic-an24539066 ''Hurley collection of photographic prints''], 1910–1962
The collection contains 1000 photographic prints. 44 prints have been catalogued and digitised.
*[http://nla.gov.au/nla.pic-an13751629 ''B.A.N.Z. Antarctic Research Expedition 1929–31, photographs''], 1929–1931
This album contains 60 gelatin silver photographs by Hurley, all of which have been catalogued and digitised.
*[http://nla.gov.au/nla.pic-vn3201344 ''Photograph album of Papua and the Torres Strait''],
The collection contains 259 photographic prints, all of which have been catalogued and digitised.

'''State Records of South Australia'''

As part of South Australia's Centenary celebration in 1936, Frank Hurley was commissioned to produce images of South Australia for inclusion in an illustrated souvenir booklet.<ref>[[State Records of South Australia]], GRG 7/29 File 13/1935.</ref> The resulting glass plate negatives are held as part of a series of glass plate negatives produced by or for the South Australian Government for publicity or other purposes.<ref>See [[State Records of South Australia]], GRG 35/342/1 Glass plate and other negatives - Photolithographic Branch, Department of Lands, units 181 - 186.</ref>

At this time, Hurley was also commissioned to produce a couple of promotional films for the South Australian Government, 'Oasis'<ref>See [[State Records of South Australia]], GRG 7/77 Motion picture films - Tourist Bureau, Film 10 'Oasis'</ref> and 'Here is Paradise'.<ref>See [[State Records of South Australia]], GRG 7/77 Motion picture films - Tourist Bureau, Film 30 'Here is Paradise'</ref>

==Selected Filmography==
*''Home of the Blizzard'' (1913) (documentary)
*''Into the Unknown'' (1914) (documentary)
*''In the Grip of the Polar Ice'' (1917) (documentary) - director
*''[[South (1919 film)|South (1919)]]'' (documentary)- cinematographer, director
*''[[Pearls and Savages]]'' (1921) (documentary) - director
*''[[Jungle Woman (1926 film)|Jungle Woman]]'' (1926) - writer, director
*''[[The Hound of the Deep]]'' (1926) - writer, director
*''[[The Squatter's Daughter (1933 film)|The Squatter's Daughter]]'' (1933) - cinematographer
*''[[The Silence of Dean Maitland]]'' (1934) - cinematographer
*''[[Grandad Rudd]]'' (1935) - cinematographer
*''[[Tall Timbers (1937 film)|Tall Timbers]]'' (1937) - original story
*''[[A Nation is Built]]'' (1938)
*[http://library.sl.nsw.gov.au/search~S2?/Xa:(hurley+frank)&searchscope=2&SORT=R&f=g/Xa:(hurley+frank)&searchscope=2&SORT=R&f=g&SUBKEY=a%3A(hurley+frank)/1%2C13%2C13%2CE/frameset&FF=Xa:(hurley+frank)&searchscope=2&SORT=R&f=g&10%2C10%2C The Eternal Forest] (1952)
*[http://library.sl.nsw.gov.au/search~S2?/ahurley%20frank\/ahurley+frank/1%2C2%2C99%2CB/frameset&FF=ahurley+frank+1885+1962&5%2C%2C98 Antarctic Pioneers] (1962) co-director with Philip Law

==Photographic Books by Hurley==
* {{Cite web |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn947737 |first=Frank |last=Hurley |title=Australia, in natural colour |publisher=s.l: John Sands |year=19--?}}
* {{Cite web |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn3538155 |first=Frank |last=Hurley |title=Manly: South Pacific playground in natural colour |publisher=Sydney: John Sands |year=195?}}
* {{Cite web |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn166892 |first=Frank |last=Hurley |title=South Australia: in natural colour |publisher=Adelaide: John Sands |year=19--?}}
* {{Cite web |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn2055826 |first=Frank |last=Hurley |title=Exhibition of unique photographic pictures taken during the Australasian Antarctic Expedition: also other photographic studies |publisher=London: The Fine Art Society |year=1915}}
* {{Cite web |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn944908 |first=Frank |last=Hurley |title=Catalogue of an exhibition of war photographs by Capt. F. Hurley, late official photographer with the A.I.F., held at the Kodak Salon, Sydney |publisher=Sydney?: s.n. |year=192-?}}
* {{Cite web |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn2324685 |first=Frank |last=Hurley |title=Gems of Jenolan |publisher=Sydney: New South Wales Government Tourist Bureau |year=192-?}}
* {{Cite web |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn2324685 |first=Frank |last=Hurley |title=Pearls and savages: adventures in the air, on land and sea in New Guinea |publisher=New York: Putnam's Sons |year=1924}}
* {{Cite web |url=http://nla.gov.au/nla.cat-vn643709 |first=Frank |last=Hurley |title=Argonauts of the south, by Captain Frank Hurley ... being a narrative of voyagings and polar seas and adventures in the Antarctic with Sir Douglas Mawson and Sir Ernest Shackleton; with 75 illustrations and maps |publisher=New York; London: G.P. Putnam's sons |year=1925}}
* Hurley, Frank (1949). The Holy City: A Camera Study of Jerusalem and Surroundings.
* Hurely, Frank (1950). Queensland: A Camera Study, Angus and Robertson.
* Hurley, Frank (195-?). Beautiful Hobart.
* Hurley, Frank (1953) Western Australia: A Camera Study, Angus and Robertson, Sydney.
* Hurley, Frank (1955). Australia: A Camera Study.
* Hurley, Frank (1955). Sydney in Natural Colour.
* Hurley, Frank (1956). Victoria: A Camera Study, Sydney.
* Hurley, Frank (1956). Beautiful Sydney.
* Hurley, Frank (1956). Hobart in Natural Colour.
* Hurley, Frank (1957). Launceston and North West Coast of Tasmania in Natural Colour.
* Hurley, Frank (1958). Blue Mountains and Jenolan Caves in Natural Colour.
* Hurley, Frank (1961). Snowy Mountains, The Camera Study.

== Prose works ==

* ''Pearls and Savages : Adventures in the Air, on Land and Sea - in New Guinea'' (1924) - travel
* ''[[Shackleton's Argonauts|Shackleton's Argonauts : A Saga of the Antarctic Ice-Pack]]'' (1948) - children's information
* ''The Diaries of Frank Hurley 1912-1941'' (2011) - diary

== Films about Hurley ==
[http://library.sl.nsw.gov.au/search~S2?/Xa:(hurley+frank)&searchscope=2&SORT=R&f=g/Xa:(hurley+frank)&searchscope=2&SORT=R&f=g&SUBKEY=a%3A(hurley+frank)/1%2C13%2C13%2CE/frameset&FF=Xa:(hurley+frank)&searchscope=2&SORT=R&f=g&5%2C5%2C Snow, Sand & Savages: the life of Frank Hurley], 1999.

==Writings about Hurley==
* Hurley, Frank, 1885-1962 & Ponting, Herbert, 1870-1935 & [[Jennie Boddington|Boddington, Jennie]], 1922- (1979). Antarctic photographs 1910-1916. Macmillan, London
* Dixon Robert (2012).[http://library.sl.nsw.gov.au/search~S2?/dHurley+frank/dhurley+frank/1%2C36%2C36%2CB/frameset&FF=dhurley+frank+1885+1962&1%2C1%2C/indexsort=r Photography, early cinema and colonial modernity] : Frank Hurley's synchronized lecture entertainments.
* Edited by Robert Dixon and Christopher Lee (2011).[http://library.sl.nsw.gov.au/search~S2?/XFrank%20Hurley&SORT=D/XFrank%20Hurley&SORT=D&SUBKEY=Frank+Hurley/1%2C128%2C128%2CE/frameset&FF=XFrank%20Hurley&SORT=D&1%2C1%2C The Diaries of 1912-1941].
* {{Cite book |last=Ennis |first=Helen |url=http://shop.nla.gov.au/product_info.php?products_id=12692 |title=Frank Hurley's Antarctica |publisher=National Library of Australia |location=Canberra |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-642-27698-8}}
* {{Cite web |last=Kleinig |first=Simon |url=http://www.nla.gov.au/pub/nlanews/2003/aug03/article3.html |title=Hiking with Hurley |work=NLA News, Volume 13, Number 11 |publisher=National Library of Australia |date=August 2003}}
* {{Cite book |last=McGregor |first=Alasdair |title=Frank Hurley: A photographer's life |publisher=Viking |location=Camberwell |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-670-88895-5}}
* {{Cite book |last=Millar |first=David P. |year=1984 |title=From snowdrift to shellfire : Capt. James Francis (Frank) Hurley, 1885–1962 |location=Sydney |publisher=David Ell Press |isbn=978-0-908197-59-0}}

==See also==

* [[Photography in Australia]]
* [[Cinema of Australia]]
* [[List of Australian diarists of World War I]]
* [[John Watt Beattie]]
* [[William Bland]]
* [[Jeff Carter (photographer)]]
* [[Jack Cato]]
* [[Maggie Diaz]]
* [[Ken G. Hall]]
* [[Charles Kerry]]
* [[Henry King (photographer)]]
* [[David Perry (Australian filmmaker)]]
* [[Mark Strizic]]
* [[Ruby Spowart]]

==References==
{{reflist}}

==External links==
{{Commons category}}
*{{IMDb name|0403439}}
* [http://nla.gov.au/nla.ms-ms883 Guide to the Papers of Frank Hurley, National Library of Australia – '''Note:''' the diaries in Series 1 have been digitised and accessible online]
* [http://image.sl.nsw.gov.au/cgi-bin/ebindshow.pl?doc=on_26/a090;thumbs=1 Colour photographs by Frank Hurley from the Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition]
* [http://www.nevasport.com/nevablogs/d/frank-hurley---una-leyenda-australiana---frank-hurley---an-australian-legend/988 "Frank Hurley: An Australian Legend"] (in Spanish)
* [http://www.awm.gov.au/people/222.asp AWM biography]
* [http://www.kodak.com/US/en/corp/features/endurance/ Kodak feature on Frank Hurley during his voyage with Ernest Shackleton aboard the Endurance]
* [http://www.visitandlearn.co.uk/enduranceobituaries/hurley.asp Frank Hurley obit]
* [http://www.alistairscott.com/hurley/ Frank Hurley's most famous photograph]
* [http://colsearch.nfsa.afc.gov.au/nfsa/search/summary/summary.w3p;adv=yes;group=;groupequals=;page=0;parentid=;query=Number%3A355516%20|%20Number%3A352543%20|%20Number%3A354107%20|%20Number%3A355029%20|%20Number%3A567324%20|%20Number%3A567141%20|%20Number%3A503018%20|%20Number%3A351368%20|%20Number%3A353062;querytype=;resCount=10 Frank Hurley at the National Film and Sound Archive]
* [http://www.nma.gov.au/collections/frank_hurleys_movie_camera/ Frank Hurley's camera at the National Museum of Australia]
* [http://adbonline.anu.edu.au/biogs/A090408b.htm Hurley, James Francis (Frank) (1885–1962)], Australian Dictionary of Biography
* [http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/discover_collections/natural_world/antarctica/hurley/index.html Hurley's Antarctica (article with photos: Part of the State Library of NSW Discover Collections)]
* [http://www.sl.nsw.gov.au/services/learning_at_the_Library/curriculum_resources/stage_3_frank_hurley.pdf NSW Syllabus for the Australian Curriculum - History (Significant Individuals - Frank Hurley)]

{{Australasian Antarctic Expedition}}
{{Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition}}

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Hurley, Frank}}
[[Category:Australian photographers]]
[[Category:Australian explorers]]
[[Category:Explorers of Antarctica]]
[[Category:1885 births]]
[[Category:1962 deaths]]
[[Category:Australian photojournalists]]
[[Category:War photographers]]
[[Category:Australian military personnel of World War I]]
[[Category:Imperial Trans-Antarctic Expedition]]
[[Category:Australian Officers of the Order of the British Empire]]
[[Category:People from New South Wales]]
[[Category:20th-century photographers]]

Fischer random chess numbering scheme

2016-05-03T15:16:58Z

JanTurin: /* Scharnagl's methods */ NQ-skeleton Table errors

{{Refimprove|date=August 2012}}

The game [[Chess960]], played with conventional [[chess]] [[chess piece|pieces]] and [[rules of chess|rules]], starts with a random selection of one of 960 positions for the pieces. Arrangements of the pieces are restricted so that the [[king (chess)|king]] is between the [[rook (chess)|rooks]] and the [[bishop (chess)|bishops]] are on different colored squares. In order to both select a valid arrangement and to then concisely discuss which randomly selected arrangement a particular game used, the '''Chess960 numbering scheme''' is used: a number between 0 and 959 indicates a valid arrangement and given an arrangement the number can be determined.

The Chess960 numbering scheme can be shown in the form of a simple two tables representation. Also a direct derivation of starting arrays exists for any given number from 0 to 959. This mapping of starting arrays and numbers stems from Reinhard Scharnagl and is now used worldwide for Chess960. The enumeration has been published first in the internet and then 2004 in his (German language) book ''"Fischer-Random-Schach (FRC / Chess960) - Die revolutionäre Zukunft des Schachspiels (inkl. Computerschach)",'' ISBN 3-8334-1322-0.

== Two tables representation ==
These two tables will serve for a quick mapping of an arbitrary Chess960 starting position (short: SP) at White's base row to a random number between 0 and 959. First search for the same or the nearest smaller number from the King's Table. Then determine the difference (0 to 15) to the drawn number and select that matching bishops' positioning from the Bishop's Table. According to this first place both bishops at the first base row, then the six pieces in the sequence of the found row of the King's Table upon the six free places left over. Finally the black pieces will be placed symmetrically to White's base row.

=== Example ===
This is the SP-518 arrangement. In the King's Table we will find No. 512 "RNQKNR". For the remainder 6 we will find "--B--B--" in the Bishop's Table at No. 6. Altogether by that for the SP-518 = 512+6 this will result in the well known white starting array "RNBQKBNR" from traditional Chess.

=== King's table ===
{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|- style="background:#eeeeee;" align="center"
| Max.
| colspan="23" | Positioning Sequence of the other Pieces
|- align="center"
| '''0''' ||Q||N||N||R||K||R
| rowspan="21" |   || '''336''' ||N||R||K||Q||R||N
| rowspan="21" |   || '''672''' ||Q||R||K||N||N||R
|- align="center"
| '''16''' ||N||Q||N||R||K||R|| '''352''' ||N||R||K||R||Q||N|| '''688''' ||R||Q||K||N||N||R
|- align="center"
| '''32''' ||N||N||Q||R||K||R|| '''368''' ||N||R||K||R||N||Q|| '''704''' ||R||K||Q||N||N||R
|- align="center"
| '''48''' ||N||N||R||Q||K||R|| '''384''' ||Q||R||N||N||K||R|| '''720''' ||R||K||N||Q||N||R
|- align="center"
| '''64''' ||N||N||R||K||Q||R|| '''400''' ||R||Q||N||N||K||R|| '''736''' ||R||K||N||N||Q||R
|- align="center"
| '''80''' ||N||N||R||K||R||Q|| '''416''' ||R||N||Q||N||K||R|| '''752''' ||R||K||N||N||R||Q
|- align="center"
| '''96''' ||Q||N||R||N||K||R|| '''432''' ||R||N||N||Q||K||R|| '''768''' ||Q||R||K||N||R||N
|- align="center"
| '''112''' ||N||Q||R||N||K||R|| '''448''' ||R||N||N||K||Q||R|| '''784''' ||R||Q||K||N||R||N
|- align="center"
| '''128''' ||N||R||Q||N||K||R|| '''464''' ||R||N||N||K||R||Q|| '''800''' ||R||K||Q||N||R||N
|- align="center"
| '''144''' ||N||R||N||Q||K||R|| '''480''' ||Q||R||N||K||N||R|| '''816''' ||R||K||N||Q||R||N
|- align="center"
| '''160''' ||N||R||N||K||Q||R|| '''496''' ||R||Q||N||K||N||R|| '''832''' ||R||K||N||R||Q||N
|- align="center"
| '''176''' ||N||R||N||K||R||Q|| '''512''' ||R||N||Q||K||N||R|| '''848''' ||R||K||N||R||N||Q
|- align="center"
| '''192''' ||Q||N||R||K||N||R|| '''528''' ||R||N||K||Q||N||R|| '''864''' ||Q||R||K||R||N||N
|- align="center"
| '''208''' ||N||Q||R||K||N||R|| '''544''' ||R||N||K||N||Q||R|| '''880''' ||R||Q||K||R||N||N
|- align="center"
| '''224''' ||N||R||Q||K||N||R|| '''560''' ||R||N||K||N||R||Q|| '''896''' ||R||K||Q||R||N||N
|- align="center"
| '''240''' ||N||R||K||Q||N||R|| '''576''' ||Q||R||N||K||R||N|| '''912''' ||R||K||R||Q||N||N
|- align="center"
| '''256''' ||N||R||K||N||Q||R|| '''592''' ||R||Q||N||K||R||N|| '''928''' ||R||K||R||N||Q||N
|- align="center"
| '''272''' ||N||R||K||N||R||Q|| '''608''' ||R||N||Q||K||R||N|| '''944''' ||R||K||R||N||N||Q
|- align="center"
| '''288''' ||Q||N||R||K||R||N|| '''624''' ||R||N||K||Q||R||N|| '''960''' ||Q||N||N||R||K||R
|- align="center"
| '''304''' ||N||Q||R||K||R||N|| '''640''' ||R||N||K||R||Q||N
| style="background:#eeeeee;" colspan="7" rowspan="2"| R. Scharnagl
|- align="center"
| '''320''' ||N||R||Q||K||R||N|| '''656''' ||R||N||K||R||N||Q
|}

=== Bishop's table ===
{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|- style="background:#eeeeee;" align="center"
| rowspan="2" | Remainder
| colspan="8" | Bishop positioning
|- style="background:#eeeeee;" align="center"
| a || b || c || d || e || f || g || h
|- align="center"
| '''0''' || B || B || - || - || - || - || - || -
|- align="center"
| '''1''' || B || - || - || B || - || - || - || -
|- align="center"
| '''2''' || B || - || - || - || - || B || - || -
|- align="center"
| '''3''' || B || - || - || - || - || - || - || B
|- align="center"
| '''4''' || - || B || B || - || - || - || - || -
|- align="center"
| '''5''' || - || - || B || B || - || - || - || -
|- align="center"
| '''6''' || - || - || B || - || - || B || - || -
|- align="center"
| '''7''' || - || - || B || - || - || - || - || B
|- align="center"
| '''8''' || - || B || - || - || B || - || - || -
|- align="center"
| '''9''' || - || - || - || B || B || - || - || -
|- align="center"
| '''10''' || - || - || - || - || B || B || - || -
|- align="center"
| '''11''' || - || - || - || - || B || - || - || B
|- align="center"
| '''12''' || - || B || - || - || - || - || B || -
|- align="center"
| '''13''' || - || - || - || B || - || - || B || -
|- align="center"
| '''14''' || - || - || - || - || - || B || B || -
|- align="center"
| '''15''' || - || - || - || - || - || - || B || B
|}

== Direct derivation ==
White's [[Chess960]] starting array can be derived from its number N (0 ... 959) as follows:

'''a)''' Divide N by 4, yielding quotient N2 and remainder B1. Place a '''Bishop''' upon the bright square corresponding to B1 (0=b, 1=d, 2=f, 3=h).

'''b)''' Divide N2 by 4 again, yielding quotient N3 and remainder B2. Place a second '''Bishop''' upon the dark square corresponding to B2 (0=a, 1=c, 2=e, 3=g).

'''c)''' Divide N3 by 6, yielding quotient N4 and remainder Q. Place the '''Queen''' according to Q, where 0 is the first free square starting from a, 1 is the second, etc.

'''d)''' N4 will be a single digit, 0 ... 9. Place the '''Knights''' according to its value by consulting the following table:

{|border="1" cellpadding="4" cellspacing="0"
|- style="background:#eeeeee;" align="center"
| Digit
| colspan="5" | Knight positioning
|- align="center"
| '''0''' || N || N || - || - || -
|- align="center"
| '''1''' || N || - || N || - || -
|- align="center"
| '''2''' || N || - || - || N || -
|- align="center"
| '''3''' || N || - || - || - || N
|- align="center"
| '''4''' || - || N || N || - || -
|- align="center"
| '''5''' || - || N || - || N || -
|- align="center"
| '''6''' || - || N || - || - || N
|- align="center"
| '''7''' || - || - || N || N || -
|- align="center"
| '''8''' || - || - || N || - || N
|- align="center"
| '''9''' || - || - || - || N || N
|}

'''e)''' There are three blank squares remaining; place a '''Rook''' in each of the outer two and the '''King''' in the middle one.

== Starting position IDs in Chess960 ==

For years, Reinhard Scharnagl has championed the desirability of giving each of the Chess960 starting positions (SP) a unique identification number (idn) in the range 0-959 or, perhaps, 1-960. He has presented his methods on the internet and in books. See the external references. As an application, a random number generator could make one probe into the range at hand for a random number, and produce a random SP. Late in 2005, the program Fritz9 became available. It has a Chess960 option, but, for some unexplained reason, it assigns idns to SPs in a different way. Rather than requiring a giant table with 960 entries, both methods can use some smaller tables and some arithmetic.

===Preliminaries===

Both methods take account of the positions of the bishops first, and ignore the distinction between the king and rooks. Once the positions of the bishops, knights and queen are known, there is only one possibility for the remaining three squares. In the places where division of whole numbers is done, it is always done giving a quotient (designated q1,q2,..) and a remainder (designated r1,r2 ..).

There are 16 ways to put two bishops on opposite colored squares. These are shown and numbered in the small table below. The entries actually can be calculated using simple arithmetic, but the table method seems less error prone. For the standard SP the bishop's code is 6.

Scharnagl's Bishop's Table
-
0 BB------ 4 -BB----- 8 -B--B--- 12 -B----B-
1 B--B---- 5 --BB---- 9 ---BB--- 13 ---B--B-
2 B----B-- 6 --B--B-- 10 ----BB—14 -----BB-
3 B------B 7 --B----B 11 ----B--B 15 ------BB

In any SP, when looking at the arrangement of the other pieces around the bishops, it is helpful to write down the NQ-skeleton for that SP. This is done by ignoring the bishops and replacing the "K" and "R" by a common symbol, say "-". The NQ-skeleton for the standard SP is -NQ-N-. The sections below showing Scharnagl's Methods and the Fritz9 Methods are independent, and may be read in any order.

===Scharnagl's methods===

The methods described below are appropriate for the idn range 0-959. For the idn range 1-960, he recommends conversion by dividing by 960 and working with the remainder. This has the effect of assigning to idn 0 the SP that was at idn 960, and leaving the other idn SP matchups unchanged. If this calculation is applied in the idn range 0-959, nothing is changed.

For any SP, after skipping over the bishop's, the queen may occupy any one of six possible squares, and they are numbered from left to right (from White's perspective) 0,1,2,3,4,5. The two knights, then, can appear in any of the remaining five squares (skipping over bishops and queen) in 10 ways. These are shown and numbered in the N5N table below.
{| align='left' border=1
|+Scharnagl's N5N Table
|-
|0 || <tt>NN---</TT> || 5 ||<tt>-N-N-</tt>
|-
|1 || <tt>N-N--</tt> || 6 ||<tt>-N--N</tt>
|-
|2 || <tt>N--N-</tt> || 7 ||<tt>--NN-</tt>
|-
|3 || <tt>N---N</tt> || 8 ||<tt>--N-N</tt>
|-
|4 || <tt>-NN--</tt> || 9 ||<tt>---NN</tt>
|-
|}

{| align='right' border=1
|+Scharnagl's NQ-skeleton Table
|-
| 0||<tt>QNN---</tt>|| 192||<tt> QN--N- </tt>|| 384||<tt> Q-NN-- </tt>|| 576||<tt> Q-N--N </tt>|| 768||<tt> Q--N-N </tt>
|-
| 16||<tt>NQN---</tt>|| 208||<tt> NQ--N- </tt>|| 400||<tt> -QNN-- </tt>|| 592||<tt> -QN—N </tt>|| 784||<tt> -Q-N-N </tt>
|-
| 32||<tt>NNQ---</tt>|| 224||<tt> N-Q-N- </tt>|| 416||<tt> -NQN-- </tt>|| 608||<tt> -NQ—N </tt>|| 800||<tt> --QN-N </tt>
|-
| 48||<tt>NN-Q--</tt>|| 240||<tt> N--QN- </tt>|| 432||<tt> -NNQ-- </tt>|| 624||<tt> -N-Q-N </tt>|| 816||<tt> --NQ-N </tt>
|-
| 64||<tt>NN--Q-</tt>|| 256||<tt> N--NQ- </tt>|| 448||<tt> -NN-Q- </tt>|| 640||<tt> -N--QN </tt>|| 832||<tt> --N-QN </tt>
|-
| 80||<tt>NN---Q</tt>|| 272||<tt> N--N-Q </tt>|| 464||<tt> -NN—Q </tt>|| 656||<tt> -N--NQ </tt>|| 848||<tt> --N-NQ </tt>
|-
| 96||<tt>QN-N--</tt>|| 286||<tt> QN---N </tt>|| 480||<tt> Q-N-N- </tt>|| 672||<tt> Q--NN- </tt>|| 864||<tt> Q---NN </tt>
|-
|112||<tt>NQ-N--</tt>|| 304||<tt> NQ---N </tt>|| 496||<tt> -QN-N- </tt>|| 688||<tt> -Q-NN- </tt>|| 880||<tt> -Q--NN </tt>
|-
|128||<tt>N-QN--</tt>|| 320||<tt> N-Q--N </tt>|| 512||<tt> -NQ-N- </tt>|| 704||<tt> --QNN- </tt>|| 896||<tt> --Q-NN </tt>
|-
|144||<tt>N-NQ--</tt>|| 336||<tt> N--Q-N </tt>|| 528||<tt> -N-QN- </tt>|| 720||<tt> --NQN- </tt>|| 912||<tt> ---QNN </tt>
|-
|160||<tt>N-N-Q-</tt>|| 352||<tt> N---QN </tt>|| 544||<tt> -N-NQ- </tt>|| 736||<tt> --NNQ- </tt>|| 928||<tt> ---NQN </tt>
|-
|176||<tt>N-N--Q</tt>|| 368||<tt> N---NQ </tt>|| 560||<tt> -N-N-Q </tt>|| 752||<tt> --NN-Q </tt>|| 944||<tt> ---NNQ </tt>
|}

For any SP, both the queens position and the N5N configuration are immediately available from the NQ-skeleton. The queen's position is the number of characters to the left of the "Q", giving 2 for the standard SP. The N5N configuration is obtained by omitting the "Q", giving -N-N- for the standard SP, so its N5N code is 5. In general

idn = (bishop's code) + 16* (queen's position) + 96* (N5N code)

For the standard SP, idn = 6 + 16*2 + 96*5 = 518

Going the other way, starting with an idn, divide it by 16 and get

idn = q1*16 + r1. r1 gives the bishop's code, so put the bishops on the board. Then divide q1 by 6.

q1 = q2*6 + r2. r2 gives the queen's position, so put it on the board.

q2 gives the N5N code, so put the knights on the board (of course skipping over the bishops and queen).

Starting with idn = 518, we get 518 = 32*16 + 6, and 32 = 5*6 + 2 so the bishop's code is 6, the queen's position is 2 and the N5N code is 5 with configuration -N-N-. If asterisks denote blank squares, the first rank fills up as: **B**B** **BQ*B** *NBQ*BN*

All of the multiplication and division can be eliminated by using the NQ-skeleton table below. It contains all of the 60 possible NQ-skeletons, and directly refers to all of the SPs with bishop's code 0, i.e. with bishops on a1 and b1.

Given an SP, extract the bishop's code, the NQ-skeleton and its N5N configuration. The six skeletons in each of the 10 blocks in the table all have the same N5N configuration, and the blocks are arranged according to the N5N table above. It is easy, then, to find the appropriate block, and look inside for the entry with the "Q" in the desired place, say at No. M. Then idn = (bishop's code) + M. For the standard SP, we extract 6 -NQ-N- and -N-N-. The desired block is the middle one in the second row, and the desired skeleton is at No. 512. We get idn = 6 + 512 = 518.

Going the other way, given an idn, locate, in the table, the largest number, say M, that is less than or equal to idn. Then idn - M gives the bishop's code, and the skeleton at M shows how to fill in the rest of the pieces. Given idn = 518 we locate 512, with NQ-skeleton -NQ-N-, in the table, and get bishops code = 518 - 512 = 6.

===Fritz9 methods===

Upon entry to Chess960, Fritz9 prompts the user to enter a position idn or to "Draw Lots". If the user wishes to choose the first rank configuration of pieces, he/she must know how to get at the idn, but, unfortunately, Fritz9 does not use the standard method described above. The table below shows a quick way to get the Fritz9 idn for any SP.

For any SP, after ignoring the bishops, attention is given first to the knights (rather than to the queen). After taking account of the arrangement of the two knights in six squares (skipping over bishops), the queen is left with four possibilities: 0,1,2,3 (counting from the a-side of the board and skipping over bishops and knights). The queen's position is the number of hyphens to the left of the "Q" in the NQ-skeleton for the SP.

In the table below, the columns correspond to the queen's position, and, in each column, the ordering is alphabetic with "-" last.

Given an SP, extract the bishop's code, the NQ-skeleton and its queen's position. Then, locate, in the appropriate column, the NQ-skeleton at hand, say at No. M. The Fritz9 idn = (bishop's code) + M. For the standard SP, we extract 6 -NQ-N- and 1 and get Fritz9 idn = 6 + 353 = 359.

Fritz9 NQ-skeleton Table
-
1 NNQ--- 241 NN-Q-- 481 NN—Q- 721 NN---Q
17 NQN--- 257 N-NQ—497 N-N-Q- 737 N-N--Q
33 NQ-N-- 273 N-QN—513 N--NQ- 753 N--N-Q
49 NQ—N- 289 N-Q-N- 529 N--QN- 769 N---NQ
65 NQ---N 305 N-Q--N 545 N--Q-N 785 N---QN
81 QNN--- 321 -NNQ—561 -NN-Q- 801 -NN—Q
97 QN-N-- 337 -NQN—577 -N-NQ- 817 -N-N-Q
113 QN—N- 353 -NQ-N- 593 -N-QN- 833 -N--NQ
129 QN---N 369 -NQ—N 609 -N-Q-N 849 -N--QN
145 Q-NN—385 -QNN—625—NNQ- 865—NN-Q
161 Q-N-N- 401 -QN-N- 641—NQN- 881—N-NQ
177 Q-N--N 417 -QN—N 657—NQ-N 897—N-QN
193 Q--NN- 433 -Q-NN- 673—QNN- 913 ---NNQ
209 Q--N-N 449 -Q-N-N 689—QN-N 929 ---NQN
225 Q---NN 465 -Q--NN 705—Q-NN 945 ---QNN

Anyone with Fritz9 can verify this table by entering in the idns. It directly refers to just those SPs with bishop's code 0 i.e. with the bishops on a1 and b1.

== External links ==
*[https://web.archive.org/20070402110500/http://www.playchess960.com:80/images/AllPositionsChess960.gif Image of all starting positions]
*[http://koti.mbnet.fi/villes/php/fischerandom.php Fischer random chess setups]
*[http://www.mark-weeks.com/cfaa/chess960/c960strt.htm Chess960 start positions]

{{DEFAULTSORT:Chess960 Numbering Scheme}}
[[Category:Chess variants]]

List of Internet chess servers

2016-04-11T12:27:07Z

JanTurin: LSS added

This is a list of notable [[internet chess server]]s.<ref>{{cite web |author=Tim Mann |title=Internet Chess Servers |url=http://www.tim-mann.org/ics.html |accessdate=May 14, 2013}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|first=Susan |last=Polgar |author-link=Susan Polgar |title=The new age of Internet chess |work=Susan Polgar on chess |publisher=CyberCafes |year=2005 |url=http://www.chesscafe.com/text/polgar32.pdf |format=pdf |accessdate=May 14, 2013}}</ref>

*[[Chess.com]]
*[[Chess24.com|Chess24]]
*[[ChessCube]]
*[[Chess Live]]
*[[FIDE Online Arena]]
*[[Free Internet Chess Server]] (FICS)
*[[Internet Chess Club]] (ICC)
*[[Lechenicher SchachServer]] (LSS)
*[[Lichess]]
*[[Playchess]]
*[[SchemingMind]]
*[[World Chess Network]]

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:List Of Internet Chess Servers}}
[[Category:Chess websites]]
[[Category:Internet chess servers|*]]
[[Category:Internet protocols]]
[[Category:Chess-related lists|Internet chess servers]]

Sukhoi Su-27

2015-05-10T14:25:06Z

JanTurin: /* Notable accidents */ geographical term

{{Redirect|Su-27 Flanker|the PC game|Su-27 Flanker (video game)}}

{|{{Infobox aircraft begin
|name= Su-27
|image= File:Sukhoi Su-27SKM at MAKS-2005 airshow.jpg
|caption= Su-27SKM at MAKS-2005 airshow
}}{{Infobox aircraft type
|type= [[Air superiority fighter]], [[Multirole combat aircraft|Multirole fighter]]
|manufacturer= [[Sukhoi]]
|national origin= [[Soviet Union]] [[Russia]]
|designer=
|first flight= 20 May 1977
|introduced= 22 June 1985
|retired=
|status= In service
|primary user= [[Russian Air Force]]
|more users= [[People's Liberation Army Air Force]] [[Ukrainian Air Force]] See ''[[#Operators|operators]]'' for others 
|produced= 1982–current
|number built= 809
|unit cost= [[United States dollar|US$]]30 million
|variants with their own articles= [[Sukhoi Su-30]] [[Sukhoi Su-33]] [[Sukhoi Su-34]] [[Sukhoi Su-35]] [[Sukhoi Su-37]] [[Shenyang J-11]]
}}
|}

The '''Sukhoi Su-27''' ({{lang-ru|Сухой Су-27}}) ([[NATO reporting name]]: '''Flanker''') is a [[twinjet|twin-engine]] [[Supermaneuverability|supermaneuverable]] [[fighter aircraft]] designed by [[Sukhoi]]. It was intended as a direct competitor for the large United States [[Fourth-generation jet fighter|fourth-generation fighters]] such as the [[F-14 Tomcat]] and [[F-15 Eagle]], with {{Convert|3530|km|nmi|sigfig=3|adj=on}} range, heavy [[aircraft ordnance]], sophisticated [[avionics]] and high manoeuvrability. The Su-27 most often flies [[air supremacy]] missions, but its most modern variants are able to perform almost all [[aerial warfare]] operations. Complementing the smaller [[Mikoyan MiG-29|MiG-29]], the Su-27 has its closest US counterpart in the [[McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle|F-15 Eagle]].

The Su-27 entered service with the [[Soviet Air Forces]] in 1985. The primary role was long range air defence against American [[Strategic Air Command|SAC]] [[Rockwell B-1 Lancer|B-1B]] and [[Boeing B-52 Stratofortress#B-52G|B-52G/H]] bombers, protecting the Soviet coast from aircraft carriers and flying long range fighter escort for Soviet heavy bombers such as the [[Tupolev Tu-95|Tu-95 "Bear"]], [[Tupolev Tu-22M|Tu-22M "Backfire"]] and [[Tupolev Tu-160|Tu-160 "Blackjack"]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kopp|first1=Dr Carlo|title=Fulcrum and Flanker The New Look in Soviet Air Superiority|url=http://www.ausairpower.net/Profile-Fulcrum-Flanker.html|website=AusAirPower.net|publisher=First published in Australian Aviation May/June, 1990 by Carlo Kopp|accessdate=5 March 2015}}</ref>

There are several related developments of the Su-27 design. The [[Sukhoi Su-30|Su-30]] is a two-seat, dual-role fighter for all-weather, air-to-air and air-to-surface deep interdiction missions. The [[Sukhoi Su-33|Su-33 'Flanker-D']] is a navy fleet defense interceptor for use on [[aircraft carrier]]s. Further versions include the side-by-side 2-seat [[Sukhoi Su-34|Su-34 'Fullback']] strike variant and the [[Sukhoi Su-35|Su-35 'Flanker-E']] improved air defense fighter.

== Development ==
{{Refimprove section|date=March 2009}}

In 1969, the Soviet Union learned of the [[United States Air Force|U.S. Air Force]]'s "F-X" program, which resulted in the [[McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle|F-15 Eagle]]. The Soviet leadership soon realized that the new American fighter would represent a serious technological advantage over existing Soviet fighters. What was needed was a better-balanced fighter with both good agility and sophisticated systems. In response, the Soviet General Staff issued a requirement for a ''Perspektivnyy Frontovoy Istrebitel'' (''PFI'', literally "Prospective Frontline Fighter", roughly "Advanced Frontline Fighter").<ref name="Great Book">Spick, Mike, ed. "MiG-29 'Fulcrum'". "The Flanker". ''Great Book of Modern Warplanes''. Osceola, WI: MBI Publishing, 2000. ISBN 0-7603-0893-4.</ref> Specifications were extremely ambitious, calling for long range, good short-field performance (including the ability to use austere runways), excellent agility, Mach 2+ speed, and heavy armament. The aerodynamic design for the new aircraft was largely carried out by [[TsAGI]] in collaboration with the [[Sukhoi]] design bureau.<ref name="Great Book" />

When the specification proved too challenging and costly for a single aircraft in the number needed, the PFI specification was split into two: the ''LPFI'' (''Lyogkyi PFI'', Lightweight PFI) and the ''TPFI'' (''Tyazholyi PFI'', Heavy PFI). The LPFI program resulted in the [[Mikoyan MiG-29]], a relatively short-range tactical fighter, while the TPFI program was assigned to Sukhoi OKB, which eventually produced the Su-27 and its various derivatives.

[[File:Su-27 05.jpg|thumb|left|Soviet Su-27 in-flight]]

The Sukhoi design, which was altered progressively to reflect Soviet awareness of the F-15's specifications, emerged as the ''T-10'', which first flew on 20 May 1977. The aircraft had a large wing, clipped, with two separate [[Nacelle|podded]] engines and a [[twin tail]]. The ‘tunnel’ between the two engines, as on the [[F-14 Tomcat]], acts both as an additional lifting surface and hides armament from radar.

===Air Force===

The T-10 was spotted by Western observers and assigned the [[NATO reporting name]] 'Flanker-A'. The development of the T-10 was marked by considerable problems, leading to a fatal crash of the second prototype, the T-10-2 on 7 May 1978 due to shortcomings in the [[Fly-by-wire|FBW]] control system. Extensive redesigns followed (T-10-3 through T-10-15) and a revised version of the T-10-7, now designated the ''T-10S'', made its first flight on 20 April 1981. It also crashed due to control problems and was replaced by T-10-12 which became ''T-10S-2''. This one also crashed on 23 December 1981 during a high speed test killing the pilot.<ref>{{cite web|title=Prototype of Su-27 and whole Flanker family – T-10 Flanker A|url=http://su-27flanker.com/versions/t-10-flanker-a|website=Su-27Flanker.com|accessdate=5 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=T-10 Su-27 FLANKER-A Prototype|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/su-27-t10.htm|website=GlobalSecurity.org|publisher=2000-2015 GlobalSecurity.org|accessdate=5 March 2015}}</ref> Eventually the T-10-15 demonstrator, ''T-10S-3'', evolved into the definitive Su-27 configuration.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kopp|first1=Dr Carlo|title=Sukhoi Flankers The Shifting Balance of Regional Air Power Technical Report APA-TR-2007-0101|url=http://www.ausairpower.net/APA-Flanker.html|website=AusAirpower.net|publisher=2004 - 2014 Carlo Kopp - January, 2007 Updated September, 2009 Updated April, 2012|accessdate=5 March 2015}}</ref>

The ''T-10S-3'' was modified and officially designated the ''P-42'', setting a number of [[Viktor Pugachyov#Record flights|world records for time-to-height]], beating those set in 1975 by a [[McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle#Research and test|similarly modified F-15]] called "The Streak Eagle".<ref>{{cite web|title=40 Years Ago, 'Streak Eagle' Smashed Records for 'Time to Climb'|url=http://www.utc.com/News/PW/Pages/40-Years-Ago-Streak-Eagle-Smashed-Records-for-Time-to-Climb.aspx|website=UTC.com|publisher=2/18/2015, United Technologies|accessdate=6 March 2015}}</ref> The ''P-42'' "Streak Flanker" was stripped of all armament, radar and operational equipment. The fin tips, tail-boom and the wingtip launch rails were also removed. The composite radome was replaced by a lighter metal version. The aircraft was stripped of paint, polished and all drag-producing gaps and joints were sealed. The engines were modified to deliver an increase in thrust of {{convert|2,204|lb|kg|abbr=on}}, resulting in a [[thrust-to-weight ratio]] of almost 2:1 (for comparison with standard example see [[Sukhoi Su-27#Specifications .28Su-27SK.29|Specifications]]).<ref>{{cite web|title=P-42 Record Flanker|url=http://www.propro.ru/flankers/eng/su-27.htm#p42|website=ProPro.ru|publisher=ProPro Group using materials officially published by Sukhoy design bureau|accessdate=6 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last1=Winchester|first1=Jim|title=Jet fighters : inside & out|date=2012|publisher=Rosen Pub.|location=New York|isbn=1448859824|page=130|url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=3shgcJXesN0C&pg=PA130#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=6 March 2015}}</ref>

The production ''Su-27'' (sometimes ''Su-27S'', NATO designation 'Flanker-B') began to enter [[Soviet Air Forces|VVS]] operational service in 1985, although manufacturing difficulties kept it from appearing in strength until 1990.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.sukhoi.org/eng/planes/military/su27sk/history/|title=Sukhoi Company (JSC) - Airplanes - Military Aircraft - Su-27SÊ - Historical background|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref> The Su-27 served with both the [[Soviet Air Defence Forces|V-PVO]] and [[Soviet Air Forces|Frontal Aviation]]. Operational conversion of units to the type occurred using the ''Su-27UB'' (Russian for "'''U'''chebno '''B'''oevoy" - "Combat Trainer", NATO designation 'Flanker-C') twin seat trainer, with the pilots seated in tandem.<ref>{{cite web|title=Su-27UB FLANKER-C|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/su-27ub.htm|website=GlobalSecurity.org|publisher=2000-2015 GlobalSecurity.org|accessdate=7 March 2015}}</ref>

When the naval Flanker trainer was being conceived the Soviet Air Force was evaluating a replacement for the [[Sukhoi Su-24|Su-24 "Fencer"]] strike aircraft, which was essentially a Soviet [[General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark|F-111]] and it became evident to Soviet planners at the time that a replacement for the Su-24 would need to be capable of surviving engagements with the new American F-15 and F-16. The Sukhoi bureau concentrated on adaptations of the standard ''Su-27UB'' tandem seat trainer. However the Soviet Air Force favoured the crew station (side-by-side seating) approach used in the Su-24 as it worked better for the high workload and potentially long endurance strike roles. Therefore the conceptual naval [[Trainer (aircraft)#Tandem and side by side|side-by-side seated trainer]] was used as the basis for development of the ''Su-27IB'' (Russian for "'''I'''strebityel '''B'''ombardirovshchik" - "Fighter Bomber") as an Su-24 replacement in 1983. The first production airframe was flown in early 1994 and renamed the ''Su-34'' (NATO reporting name 'Fullback').<ref name="auto">{{cite web|last1=Kopp|first1=Dr. Carlo|title=Sukhoi Su-34 Fullback Russia's New Heavy Strike Fighter Technical Report APA-TR-2007-0108|url=http://www.ausairpower.net/APA-Fullback.html|website=AusAirpower.net|publisher=by Dr Carlo Kopp, AFAIAA, SMIEEE, PEng January, 2007 - Updated October, 2008 - Updated January, 2011 - Updated April, 2012|accessdate=19 March 2015}}</ref>

===Navy===

Development of a version for the Soviet Navy called the ''Su-27K'' (Russian for "'''K'''orablny" - "Shipborne", NATO designation 'Flanker-D') commenced not long after the development of the main land based type. Some of the T10 demonstrators were modified to test features of navalized variants for carrier operations.
These modified demonstrators led to specific prototypes for the Soviet Navy, designated "''T10K''" ('''K'''orablny). The ''T10K''s had [[canards]], an [[Tailhook|arresting hook]] and carrier landing avionics as well as a retractable inflight re-fueling probe. They did not have the landing gear required for carrier landings or folding wings. The first ''T10K'' flew in August 1987 flown by the famous Soviet test pilot [[Viktor Pugachyov|Viktor Pugachev]] (who first demonstrated the [[Pugachev's Cobra|cobra manoeuvre]] using an Su-27 in 1989), performing test take-offs from a land-based [[Flight deck#Ski-jump ramp|ski-jump]] carrier deck on the [[Black Sea]] coast at [[Saky]] in the [[Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic|Ukrainian SSR]]. The aircraft was lost in an accident in 1988.

At the time the naval Flanker was being developed the Soviets were building their first generation of aircraft carriers and had no experience with [[Aircraft catapult|steam catapults]] and did not want to delay the introduction of the carriers. Thus it was decided to use a take-off method that did not require catapults by building up full thrust against a blast deflector until the aircraft sheared restraints holding it down to the deck. The fighter would then accelerate up the deck onto a ski jump and become airborne.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Goebel|first1=Greg|title=[1.0] First-Generation Su-27s - [1.5] Naval Su-27K (Su-33)|url=http://www.airvectors.net/avsu27_1.html#m5|website=AirVectors.net|publisher=v1.4.0 - chapter 1 of 2 - 01 mar 14 - greg goebel - public domain|accessdate=8 March 2015}}</ref>

The production ''Su-27K'' featured the required strengthened landing gear with a two-wheel nose gear assembly, folding [[stabilator]]s and wings, outer [[aileron]]s that extended further with inner double slotted [[Flap (aeronautics)|flaps]] and enlarged [[leading-edge slats]] for low-speed carrier approaches, modified [[Leading-edge extension|LERX]] ('''L'''eading '''E'''dge '''R'''oot e'''X'''tension) with canards, a modified ejection seat angle, upgraded [[Fly-by-wire|FBW]], upgraded hydraulics, an arresting hook and retractable in-flight refuelling probe with a pair of deployable floodlights in the nose to illuminate the [[Ilyushin Il-78|tanker]] at night. The ''Su-27K'' began carrier trials in November 1989, again with Pugachev at the controls, on board the first Soviet aircraft carrier, called "[[Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov|Tblisi]]" at the time and formal carrier operations commenced in September 1991.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kopp|first1=Dr Carlo|title=Sukhoi Su-33 and Su-33UB Flanker D Shenyang J-15 Flanker D Technical Report APA-TR-2008-0603|url=http://www.ausairpower.net/APA-Maritime-Flanker-D.html|website=AusAirPower.net|publisher=by Dr Carlo Kopp, AFAIAA, SMIEEE, PEng June, 2008 Updated April, 2012|accessdate=8 March 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Kuznetsov class Heavy aviation cruiser|url=http://www.military-today.com/navy/kuznetsov_class.htm|website=Military-Today.com|publisher=2006 - 2015 www.Military-Today.com}}</ref>

Development of the naval trainer, called the ''Su-27KUB'' (Russian for "'''K'''orablny '''U'''chebno-'''B'''oyeviy" - "Shipborne Trainer-Combat"), began in 1989. The aim was to produce an airframe with dual roles for the Navy and Air Force suitable for a range of other missions such as reconnaissance, aerial refuelling, maritime strike and jamming. This concept then evolved into the ''Su-27IB'' ([[Sukhoi Su-34|Su-34 "Fullback"]]) for the Soviet Air Force. The naval trainer had a revised forward fuselage to accommodate a side-by-side cockpit seating arrangement with crew access via a ladder in the nose-wheel under carriage and enlarged canards, stabilisers, fins and rudders. The wings had extra ordnance hard-points and the fold position was also moved further outboard. The inlets were fixed and did not feature [[Foreign object damage|FOD]] suppression hardware. The central fuselage was strengthened to accommodate {{convert|45|t|lb|abbr=off}} maximum gross weight and internal volume was increased by 30%. This first prototype, the ''T-10V-1'', flew in April 1990 conducting aerial refuelling trials and simulated carrier landing approaches on the Tbilisi. The second prototype, the ''T-10V-2'' was built in 1993 and had enlarged internal fuel tanks, enlarged spine, lengthened tail and tandem dual wheel main undercarriage.<ref name="auto"/>

===Export===

In 1991, the production facilities at [[Komsomolsk-on-Amur]] and [[Irkutsk]] developed export variants of the Su-27: the ''Su-27SK'' single seat fighter and ''Su-27UBK'' twin-seat trainer, (the ''K'' in both variants is Russian for "'''K'''ommercial" - literally "Commercial")<ref>{{cite web|title=Su-27UBK FLANKER|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/su-27ubk.htm|website=GlobalSecurity.org|publisher=2000-2015 GlobalSecurity.org|accessdate=7 March 2015}}</ref> which have been exported to [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Ethiopia]] and [[Indonesia]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Su-27 FLANKER|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/su-27.htm|website=GlobalSecurity.org|publisher=2000-2015 GlobalSecurity.org|accessdate=6 March 2015}}</ref>

===Post Soviet Development===

After the [[Dissolution of the Soviet Union|collapse of the USSR]] in 1991, [[Russia]], the successor state, started development of advanced variants of the Su-27 including the [[Sukhoi Su-30|Su-30]], [[Sukhoi Su-33|Su-33]], [[Sukhoi Su-34|Su-34]], [[Sukhoi Su-35|Su-35]], and [[Sukhoi Su-37|Su-37]].

Since 1998 the export ''Su-27SK'' has been produced as the [[Shenyang J-11]] in China under licence. The first licensed-production plane, [[Shenyang Aircraft Corporation|assembled in Shenyang]] from Russian supplied kits, was flight tested on 16 December 1998. These licence-built versions, which numbered 100, were designated J-11A. The next model, the J-11B made extensive use of Chinese developed systems within the ''Su-27SK'' airframe.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kopp|first1=Dr Carlo|title=PLA-AF and PLA-N Flanker Variants Technical Report APA-TR-2012-0401|url=http://www.ausairpower.net/APA-PLA-Flanker-Variants.html|website=AusAirPower.net|publisher=by Dr Carlo Kopp, AFAIAA, SMIEEE, PEng April, 2012 Updated May, 2012|accessdate=7 March 2015}}</ref>

Starting in 2004, the Russian Air Force began a major update of the original Soviet Su-27 ('Flanker-B') fleet. The upgraded variants were designated ''Su-27SM'' (Russian for "'''S'''erial '''M'''oderniziroval" - literally "'''S'''erial '''M'''odernized"). This included upgrades in air-to-air capability with the [[R-77|RVV-AE]] missile with an active radar homing head. The strike capability was enhanced with the addition of the [[Kh-29|Kh-29T/TE/L]] and [[AS-17 Krypton|Kh-31P/Kh-31A]] [[Air-to-surface missile|ASM]] and [[KAB-500KR|KAB-500KR/KAB-1500KR]] smart bombs. The avionics were also upgraded.<ref>{{cite web|title=Su-27SM [serial modernized]|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/su-27sm.htm|website=GlobalSecurity.org|publisher=2000-2015 GlobalSecurity.org|accessdate=6 March 2015}}</ref>

The Su-30 is a two-seat multi-role version developed from the ''Su-27UBK'' and was designed for export and evolved into two main variants. The export variant for China, the [[Sukhoi Su-30MKK|''SU-30MKK'']] ('Flanker-G') which first flew in 1999. The other variant developed as the export version for India, the [[Sukhoi Su-30MKI|''Su-30MKI'']] ('Flanker-H') was delivered in 2002 and has at least five other configurations.

The Su-33 is the Russian Navy version of the Soviet ''Su-27K'' which was re-designated by the [[Sukhoi|Sukhoi Design Bureau]] after 1991. (Both have the NATO designation 'Flanker-D')

The Su-34 is the Russian derivative of the Soviet-era ''Su-27IB'', which evolved from the Soviet Navy ''Su-27KUB'' operational conversion trainer. It was previously referred to as the ''Su-32MF''.

The newest and most advanced version of the Su-27, as of 2014, is the [[Sukhoi Su-35#Modernization|Su-35S]] ("'''S'''erial"). It was previously referred to as the ''Su-27M'', ''Su- 27SM2'' and ''Su-35BM''.<ref>{{cite web|last1=Katz|first1=Dan|title=Program Dossier - Sukhoi Flanker|url=http://aviationweek.com/site-files/aviationweek.com/files/uploads/2014/11/asd_11_14_2014_Flanker6.pdf|website=AviationWeek.com|publisher=All Program Dossier data is excerpted from the Aviation Week Intelligence Network (awin.aviationweek.com).|accessdate=7 March 2015}}</ref>

The Su-37 is an advanced technology demonstrator derived from Su-35 prototypes, featuring thrust vectoring nozzles made of [[Titanium#Aerospace and marine|titanium]] rather than steel and an updated airframe containing a high proportion of [[Carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer|carbon-fibre]] and [[Aluminium-lithium alloy|Al-Li alloy]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Su-37|url=http://fas.org/man/dod-101/sys/ac/row/su-37.htm|website=FAS.org|publisher=Federation of American Scientists. Updated Thursday, March 11, 1999 7:47:49 PM|accessdate=21 March 2015}}</ref> Only two examples were built and in 2002 one crashed, effectively ending the program. The Su-37 improvements did however make it into new Flanker variants such as the ''Su-35S'' and the ''Su-30MKI''.<ref>{{cite web|title=Su-37 Flanker-F Fighter, Russia|url=http://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/su37/|website=Airforce-Technology.com|publisher=2015 Kable, a trading division of Kable Intelligence Limited.|accessdate=21 March 2015}}</ref>
{{expand section|Development of later Su-27 versions and upgrades should be covered here also.|date=August 2014}}

== Design ==
{{Refimprove section|date=March 2009}}
[[File:Su-27 Cobra 2b.png|thumb|upright=1.7|Sketch of Su-27 performing [[Pugachev's Cobra]] manoeuvre]]
The Su-27's basic design is aerodynamically similar to the [[MiG-29]], but it is substantially larger. The [[swept wing]] blends into the [[fuselage]] at the [[leading edge extension]]s and is essentially a [[cropped delta]] (the delta wing with tips cropped for missile rails or [[Electronic countermeasures|ECM]] pods). The Su-27 is also an example of a [[tailed delta]] wing configuration, retaining conventional horizontal [[tailplane]]s, though it is not a true delta.

The Su-27 had the Soviet Union's first operational [[fly-by-wire]] control system, based on the Sukhoi [[OKB]]'s experience with the [[Sukhoi T-4|T-4]] bomber project. Combined with relatively low [[wing loading]] and powerful basic flight controls, it makes for an exceptionally agile aircraft, controllable even at very low speeds and high [[angle of attack]]. In [[airshow]]s the aircraft has demonstrated its maneuverability with a ''Cobra'' ([[Pugachev’s Cobra]]) or dynamic deceleration – briefly sustained level flight at a 120° angle of attack.

[[File:Su-27 armament.jpg|thumb|left|Su-27 carrying R-27 missiles]]
The naval version of the 'Flanker', the ''Su-27K'' (or [[Sukhoi Su-33|Su-33]]), incorporates [[canard (aeronautics)]] for additional [[lift (force)]], reducing [[takeoff]] distances. These canards have also been incorporated in some Su-30s, the Su-35, and the Su-37.

The Su-27 is equipped with a [[Phazotron]] [[Myech radar|N001 Myech]] coherent [[Pulse-Doppler radar]] with [[Track while scan]] and [[look-down/shoot-down]] capability. The fighter also has an OLS-27 [[Infra-red search and track|infrared search and track (IRST)]] system in the nose just forward of the [[cockpit]] with an 80–100 km range.<ref>[http://www.uscc.gov/researchpapers/2004/04fisher_report/7airforcesystems.htm Sukhoi Su-27SK FLANKER-B]</ref>

The Su-27 is armed with a single 30 mm [[Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-30-1]] cannon in the starboard wingroot, and has up to 10 [[hardpoint]]s for missiles and other weapons. Its standard missile armament for air-to-air combat is a mixture of [[R-73 (missile)]] (AA-11 Archer), [[R-27 (air-to-air missile)]] (AA-10 'Alamo') weapons, the latter including extended range and [[infrared homing]] models.

== Operational history ==

=== Soviet Union and Russia ===
[[File:Su-27SM3 flight, Celebration of the 100th anniversary of Russian Air Force.jpg|thumb|left|RuAF Su-27SM3]]

The [[Soviet Air Force]] began receiving Su-27s in June 1985. It officially entered service in August 1990.<ref>[http://www.sukhoi.org/eng/planes/military/su27sk/history/ "Su-27 Historical background"]. Sukhoi. Retrieved 29 August 2014.</ref>

On 13 September 1987, a fully armed Soviet Su-27, Red 36, intercepted a Norwegian [[Lockheed P-3 Orion]] maritime patrol aircraft flying over the [[Barents Sea]]. The Soviet fighter jet performed different close passes, colliding with the [[reconnaissance aircraft]] on the third pass. The Su-27 disengaged and both aircraft landed safely at their bases.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_287.shtml|title=Bear Hunters, Part 3: Collision with Flanker|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref>

These aircraft were used by the [[Russian Air Force]] during the [[War in Abkhazia (1992–1993)|1992–1993 war in Abkhazia]] against Georgian forces. One fighter, piloted by Major Vaclav Alexandrowich Shipko (Вацлав Александрович Шипко) was reported shot down by an [[S-75 Dvina|S-75M Dvina]] on 19 March 1993 while intercepting Georgian Su-25's performing close air support. The pilot was killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://mdb.cast.ru/mdb/3-2008/item3/article3/|title=Moscow Defense Brief|work=cast.ru|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_282.shtml|title=Georgia and Abkhazia, 1992-1993: the War of Datchas|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref>

In the [[2008 South Ossetia War]], Russia used Su-27s to gain airspace control over [[Tskhinvali]], the capital city of South Ossetia.<ref name="lenta888">[http://lenta.ru/news/2008/08/08/stopsheling/ Lenta.Ru: Georgian army forces falling back from Tskhinvali] {{Ru icon}}</ref><ref name="airplanes">[http://lenta.ru/news/2008/08/08/strikes/ Lenta.Ru: Russian airplanes are bombing Georgian army positions] {{Ru icon}}</ref>

On 7 February 2013, two Su-27s briefly entered Japanese airspace off [[Rishiri Island]] near [[Hokkaido]], flying south over the [[Sea of Japan]] before turning back to the north.<ref name="Russian fighter jets 'breach Japan airspace'" /> Four [[Mitsubishi F-2]] fighters were scrambled to visually confirm the Russian planes,<ref name="Japan accuses Russian jets of violating airspace">{{citation|title=Japan accuses Russian jets of violating airspace|url=http://dawn.com/2013/02/08/japan-accuses-russian-jets-of-violating-airspace/|publisher=DAWN.COM|date=7 Feb 2013|accessdate=9 Feb 2013}}</ref> warning them by radio to leave their airspace.<ref name="Japan scrambles fighter jets as Russian warplanes intrude into airspace">{{citation|title=Japan scrambles fighter jets as Russian warplanes intrude into airspace|url=http://www.kuna.net.kw/ArticleDetails.aspx?id=2291677&language=en|publisher=Kuwait News Agency (KUNA)|date=7 Feb 2013|accessdate=10 Feb 2013}}</ref> A photo taken by a [[Japan Air Self-Defense Force|JASDF]] pilot of one of the two Su-27s was released by the Japan [[Ministry of Defense (Japan)|Ministry of Defense]].<ref name="Japan says 2 Russian fighters entered its airspace">{{citation|title=Japan says 2 Russian fighters entered its airspace|url=http://news.yahoo.com/japan-says-2-russian-fighters-entered-airspace-141944662.html|publisher=Yahoo! News|date=7 Feb 2013|accessdate=9 Feb 2013}}</ref> Russia denied the incursion, saying the jets were making routine flights near the [[Kuril Islands dispute|disputed]] [[Kuril Islands]].<ref name="Russian fighter jets 'breach Japan airspace'">{{citation|title=Russian fighter jets 'breach Japan airspace'|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-asia-21364559|publisher=BBC News|date=7 Feb 2013}}</ref> In another encounter near Japan, in 2014 a Su-27 nearly collided with an American [[RC-135]].<ref>{{cite news |url=http://freebeacon.com/national-security/collision-course/ |title=Russian jet nearly collides with U.S. surveillance aircraft in ‘reckless’ intercept in Asia |last1=Gertz |first1=Bill |date=3 June 2014 |work=Washington Free Beacon |accessdate=3 June 2014}}</ref>

[[File:Russian SU-27 Flanker with RAF Typhoon MOD 45157730.jpg|thumb|A Russian Su-27 and a British Typhoon meet over the Baltic, June 2014]]

Russia plans to replace the Su-27, the [[Indian Air Force|IAF]] [[Sukhoi Su-30MKI|''Su-30MKI'']] and the [[Mikoyan MiG-29]] eventually with the [[Sukhoi PAK FA]] stealth fifth-generation multi-role twin-engine fighter.<ref>{{cite web|title=Sukhoi T-50 PAK FA Stealth Fighter, Russia|url=http://www.airforce-technology.com/projects/sukhoit50stealthfigh/|website=Airforce-Technology.com|publisher=2015 Kable, a trading division of Kable Intelligence Limited}}</ref>

=== Ethiopia ===
Ethiopian Su-27s reportedly shot down two Eritrean MiG-29s and damaged another one<ref name="Milavia">{{cite web |url=http://www.milavia.net/aircraft/su-27/su-27_ops.htm |title=Su-27 operations |publisher=Milavia}}</ref><ref name="Claims with No Names">[http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_192.shtml Claims with No Names]{{dead link|date=July 2011}}, Air Aces page.</ref> in February 1999 and destroyed another two in May 2000.<ref name="Claims with No Names" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://users.accesscomm.ca/magnusfamily/noname.htm |title=Air Aces |date=}}</ref> The Su-27s were also used in CAP ([[Combat Air Patrol]]) missions, suppression of air defense, and providing escort for fighters on bombing and reconnaissance missions.<ref>"ke bahru be chilfa" (Ethiopian Air Force 2007 graduation publication, May 2007), pp. 72–3</ref> The [[Ethiopian Air Force|EtAF]] used their Su-27s to deadly effect, bombing [[Islamist]] garrisons and patrolling the airspace. The Su-27 has replaced the aging [[Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-21]], which was the main fighter of the EtAF between 1977 and 1999, as Ethiopia's main [[air superiority fighter]].<ref>{{cite web|last1=Kyzer|first1=Jonathan|last2=Cooper|first2=Tom|last3=Ruud|first3=Frithjof Johan|title=Air War between Ethiopia and Eritrea, 1998-2000|url=http://www.dankalia.com/archive/2003/030117.htm|website=Dankalia.com|publisher=The acig journal, a Publication of the Air Combat Information Group, Jan 17, 2003, 05:29|accessdate=10 March 2015}}</ref>

=== Angola ===
The Su-27 entered Angolan service in mid-2000 during the [[Angolan Civil War]]. It is reported that one Su-27 in the process of landing, was shot down by [[SA-14]] MANPADs fired by [[UNITA]] forces on 19 November 2000.<ref name="Milavia" /><ref name="Cast">{{cite web |url= http://mdb.cast.ru/mdb/2-2001/ff/atdjm/#_ednref24 |title= Moscow Defense Brief }}</ref>

=== Indonesia ===
Four Indonesian Flanker-type fighters including Su-27s participated for the first time in the annual Pitch Black exercise in Australia on 27 July 2012. Arriving at Darwin, Australia the Indonesian fighters two Su-27s and two Su-30s were escorted by two Australian No. 77 Squadron F/A-18 Hornets.<ref name="defense-update.com">{{cite web|url=http://defense-update.com/20120727_pitch_black_fencers.html|title=Indonesian Sukhois Arrive at Darwin for Pitch Black 2012|author=News Desk|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref> Exercise Pitch Black is a major multi-national biennial exercise hosted by the Royal Australian Air Force, involving Offensive Counter Air and Offensive Air Support missions being flown at training ranges across the Northern Territory. Exercise Pitch Black 12 was conducted from 27 July through 17 August 2012, and involved 2,200 personnel and up to 94 aircraft from Australia, Indonesia, Singapore, Thailand, New Zealand and the United States.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.airforce-technology.com/news/newsexercise-pitch-black-2012-concludes|title=Exercise Pitch Black 2012 concludes|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref>

=== Ukraine ===
[[File:Sukhoi Su-27UB Belyakov.jpg|thumb|[[Ukrainian Air Force]] Su-27UB in July 2011]]

During the post-[[Euromaidan]] Ukrainian crisis of 2014, a [[Ukrainian Air Force]] Su-27 was scrambled to intercept Russian fighter jets that violated Ukraine's airspace twice over the [[Black Sea]] on 3 March to prevent any possible "provocative actions".<ref name="Russian fighter jets violated Ukraine's air space – ministry">{{citation|title = Russian fighter jets violated Ukraine's air space – ministry|url = http://uk.reuters.com/article/2014/03/03/uk-urkaine-crisis-jets-idUKBREA220W520140303|publisher = Reuters UK|date = 3 Mar 2014|accessdate = 4 Mar 2014}}</ref>
With no Air to Air opposition and other aircraft available for Air to Ground duties, Ukrainian Su-27s played a little role in the [[2014–15 Russian military intervention in Ukraine]]. Ukrainian Su-27s were recorded performing low fly passes and were reported flying top covers, combat air patrols and eventual escort or intercept of civil aviation traffic over Eastern Ukraine.<ref>http://theaviationist.com/2014/03/03/ukrainian-armed-flanker/</ref><ref>http://theaviationist.com/2014/07/21/su-27s-escorted-mh17/</ref> During one of these flights, the claim about the downing of an Ukrainian Su-27 surfaced on 15 April 2014, but the video proved to be fake, taken from a previous video of the Syrian civil war. Videos of the Su-27s involved in the operation performing low fly passes revealed they were armed with [[R-27 (air-to-air missile)|R-27]] and [[R-73 (missile)|R-73]] Air to Air missiles.<ref>http://theaviationist.com/2014/04/15/su-27-reportedly-down/</ref>

== Variants ==
<ref>{{cite book|last1=Winchester|first1=Jim|title=Jet fighters : inside & out|date=2012|publisher=Rosen Pub.|location=New York|isbn=1448859824|page=128|url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=3shgcJXesN0C&pg=PA128#v=onepage&q&f=false|accessdate=6 March 2015}}</ref>
{{Refimprove section|date=March 2009}}

=== Soviet era ===
[[File:Т-10-1 VVS museum.jpg|thumb|Initial T-10 prototype]]
[[File:Su-27 Red 36.jpg|thumb|Left side scheme of a Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker B, first production series]]

*'''T10 ("Flanker-A")''': Initial prototype configuration.
*'''T10S''': Improved prototype configuration, more similar to production spec.
*'''P-42''': Special version built to beat climb time records. The aircraft had all armament, radar and paint removed, which reduced weight to 14,100 kg. It also had improved engines.
*'''Su-27''' Pre-production series built in small numbers with AL-31 engine
*'''Su-27S (Su-27 / "Flanker-B")''': Initial production single-seater with improved AL-31F engine. The "T10P"
*'''Su-27P (Su-27 / "Flanker-B")''': Standard version but without air-to-ground weapons control system and wiring and assigned to [[Soviet Air Defence Forces]] units. Often designated Su-27 without -P.<ref>[http://www.milavia.net/aircraft/su-27/su-27_variants.htm] "Su-27P"</ref>
*'''Su-27UB ("Flanker-C")''': Initial production two-seat operational conversion trainer.
*'''Su-27SK''': Export Su-27S single-seater.
*'''Su-27UBK''': Export Su-27UB two-seater.

[[File:Su27K (Su33) DD-SD-99-06153.jpg|thumb|Russian fighter Su-27K (later designated Su-33) on the deck of [[Russian aircraft carrier Admiral Kuznetsov|''Admiral Kuznetsov'']] ]]
*'''Su-27K ([[Sukhoi Su-33|Su-33]] / "Flanker-D")''': Carrier-based single-seater with folding wings, [[high-lift device]]s, and [[Tailhook|arresting gear]], built in small numbers. They followed the "T10K" [[prototype]]s and demonstrators.
*'''Su-27M ([[Sukhoi Su-35|Su-35]]/[[Sukhoi Su-37|Su-37]], Flanker-E/F)''': Improved demonstrators for an advanced single-seat multi-role Su-27S derivative. These also included a two-seat "Su-35UB" demonstrator.
*'''Su-27PU ([[Sukhoi Su-30|Su-30]])''': Two seat version of the Su-27P interceptor, designed to support with tactical data other single-seat Su-27P, MiG-31 and other interceptor aircraft in PVO service. Later prototypes renamed Su-30 by Russia, and modified into a multi-role fighter mainly for export market, moving away from the original purpose of the aircraft.
*'''Su-32 (Su-27IB)''': Two-seat dedicated long-range strike variant with side-by-side seating in "platypus" nose. Prototype of Su-32FN and [[Sukhoi Su-34|Su-34]] 'Fullback'.

=== Post-Soviet era ===
*'''Su-27PD''': Single-seat demonstrator with improvements such as inflight [[Aerial refueling|refuelling probe]].
*'''[[Sukhoi Su-30|Su-30M]] / Su-30MK''': Next-generation multi-role two-seater. A few Su-30Ms were built for Russian evaluation in the mid-1990s, though little came of the effort. The Su-30MK export variant was embodied as a series of two demonstrators of different levels of capability. Versions include Su-30MKA for [[Algeria]], [[Sukhoi Su-30MKI|Su-30MKI]] for India, [[Sukhoi Su-30MKK|Su-30MKK]] for the [[People's Republic of China]], and [[Sukhoi Su-30MKM|Su-30MKM]] for [[Malaysia]].
*'''[[Shenyang J-11]]''': Chinese version of Su-27SK.
*'''Su-27SM (Flanker-B Mod. 1)''': Mid-life upgraded Russian Su-27S, featuring technology evaluated in the Su-27M demonstrators.
*'''Su-27SKM''': Single-seat multi-role fighter for export. It is a derivative of the Su-27SK but includes upgrades such as advanced cockpit, more sophisticated self-defense electronic countermeasures (ECM) and an in-flight refuelling system.<ref>[http://www.knaapo.ru/eng/products/military/su27SKM.wbp Production – Defense – Su-27SKM]. KNAAPO</ref>
*'''Su-27UBM''': Comparable upgraded Su-27UB two-seater.
*'''Su-27SM2''': 4.5-gen block upgrade for Russian Su-27, featuring some technology of the Su-35BM; it includes Irbis-E radar, and upgraded engines and avionics.
*'''Su-27SM3''': The same as the Su-27SM but is built new rather than a mid-life upgrade.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ruaviation.com/news/2011/12/23/699/|title=Sukhoi Company has performed the state contract on delivery of new multi-role Su-27SM3 fighters to the Russian air forces - News - Russian Aviation - RUAVIATION.COM|work=ruaviation.com|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref>
*'''Su-27KUB''': Essentially an Su-27K carrier-based twin-seater with a side-by-side cockpit, for use as a naval carrier [[Trainer (aircraft)|trainer]] or multi-role aircraft.
*'''[[Sukhoi Su-35#Deep Modernization|Su-35BM/Su-35S]]''': Also named the "Last Flanker" is latest development from Sukhoi Flanker family. It features newer avionics and new radar.
*'''Su-27UB1M''' – Ukrainian modernized version of the Su-27UB.
*'''Su-27UP1M''' – Ukrainian modernized version of the Su-27UP.
*'''Su-27S1M''' – Ukrainian modernized version of the Su-27S.
*'''Su-27P1M''' – Ukrainian modernized version of the Su-27P.

== Operators ==
[[File:All Sukhoi Su-27 operators.png|400px|thumb|All operators and former operators of the Su-27]]

;{{ANG}}
: [[People's Air and Air Defence Force of Angola]] – Seven Su-27s in service as of January 2013<ref name=2013_Aero>"World Military Aircraft Inventory". ''2013 Aerospace: Aviation Week and Space Technology'', January 2013.</ref> Three were bought from Belarus in 1998. Received a total of eight.<ref name="Су-27 сняты с вооружения в Белоруссии">{{cite web|url=http://bmpd.livejournal.com/407154.html|title=Су-27 сняты с вооружения в Белоруссии|date=7 December 2012|accessdate=16 December 2012}}</ref> One has reportedly been shot down on 19 November 2000 by an SA-14 MANPADS during the [[Angolan Civil War]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.milavia.net/aircraft/su-27/su-27_operators.htm|title=MILAVIA Aircraft - Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker Operators|author=Niels Hillebrand|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref>

;{{PRC}}
: [[People's Liberation Army Air Force]] (PLAAF) – 59 Su-27 fighters, consisting of 33 Su-27SKs and 26 Su-27UBKs as of January 2013<ref name=2013_Aero /> The Flankers were produced under three separate contracts by the Russian [[KnAAPO]] and IAPO plants. Delivery of the aircraft began in February 1991 and finished by September 2009. The first contract was for 18 Su-27SK and 6 Su-27UBK aircraft. The deal, known as '906 Project' within China, saw the Su-27 exported to a foreign country for the first time. In February 1991, an Su-27 performed a flight demonstration at [[Beijing]]'s [[Nanyuan Airport]]. The official induction to service with the PLAAF occurred shortly thereafter. Chinese Su-27 pilots described its performance as "outstanding" in all aspects and [[flight envelope]]s. Differences over the payment method delayed the signing of the second, identical contract. For the first batch, 70% of the payment had been made in barter transactions with light industrial goods and food. [[Russian Federation]] argued that future transactions should be made in [[US dollars]]. In May 1995, Chinese Central Military Commission Vice Chairman, Liu Huaqing visited Russia and agreed to the term, on a condition that the production line of Su-27 be imported. The contract was signed the same year. Delivery of the final aircraft from the second batch, occurred in July 1996. In preparation for the expanding Su-27 fleet, the PLAAF sought to augment its trainer fleet. On December 3, 1999, a third contract was signed, this time for 28 Su-27UBKs. All 76 of the aircraft featured strengthened [[airframe]] and [[landing gear]] – result of the PLAAF demands that the fighter has a "usable" air-ground capability. As a result, the aircraft are capable of employing most of the conventional [[Air-to-ground weaponry|Air-to-Ground ordnance]] produced by Russia. [[Maximum Take-Off Weight]] (MTOW) increased to 33,000 kg (72,750 lb). As is common for Russian export fighters, the active jamming device was downgraded; Su-27's L005 ECM pod was replaced with the L203/L204 pod. Furthermore, there were slight avionics differences between the batches. The first batch had N001E radar, while the later aircraft had N001P radar, capable of engaging two targets at the same time. Additionally, ground radar and navigational systems were upgraded. The aircraft are not capable of deploying the [[R-77]] "Adder" missile due to a downgraded fire control system,<ref>{{cite journal|last=Wei|first=Bai|title=A Flanker by any other name|journal=Air Forces Monthly|date=May 2012|issue=290|pages=72–77}}</ref> except for the last batch of 28 Su-27UBKs.<ref>{{cite web|title=考据的魅力——教你如何识别中国苏-27系列战机|url=http://j.news.163.com/docs/99/2014082107/A45IGM4Q9001GM4R.html|website=J.News.163.com|publisher=1997-2015 NetEase, 2014-08-21 07:35:02 Source: Xinhua|accessdate=5 March 2015}}</ref>
:At the 2009 [[Farnborough Airshow]], Alexander Fomin- Deputy Director of Russia's Federal Service for Military-Technical Co-operation, confirmed the existence of an all-encompasing contract and an on-going [[licence-built|licensed production]] of the Su-27 variant by the Chinese. The aircraft are being produced as the [[Shenyang J-11]].<ref>{{cite journal|last=Rupprecht|first=Andreas|title=China's 'Flanker' gains momentum. Shenyang J-11 update.|journal=Combat Aircraft Monthly|date=December 2011|volume=12|issue=12|pages=40–42}}</ref>

;{{ERI}}
: [[Eritrean Air Force]] – 9 Su-27s in service as of January 2013.<ref name=2013_Aero /> It received about 8 Su-27SK/27UBs in 2003.<ref name="milavia">{{cite web |url=http://www.milavia.net/aircraft/su-27/su-27_operators.htm |title=Su-27 Flanker Operators List |author=Niels Hillebrand |date=11 October 2008 |publisher=MILAVIA |accessdate=12 October 2008}}</ref>
;{{ETH}}
: [[Ethiopian Air Force]] – 12 Su-27s, including 8 Su-27SKs in use as of January 2013<ref name=2013_Aero />
;{{IDN}}
: [[Indonesian Air Force]] (TNI - AU or ''Tentara Nasional Indonesia - Angkatan Udara'') – 5 Su-27SK/SKM fighters in service as of January 2013<ref name=2013_Aero />

;{{KAZ}}
: [[Military of Kazakhstan]] – 30 Su-27s as of December 2010.<ref name=FI_AirForces_2010>"Directory: World Air Forces". ''[[Flight International]]'', 14–20 December 2010.</ref> It had another 12 on order.<ref name="milavia" />


;{{RUS}}
: [[Russian Air Force]] – 359 Su-27 aircraft, including 225 Su-27s, 70 Su-27SMs, 12 Su-27SM3s, and 52 Su-27UBs in service as of January 2014.<ref name=2014_Aero>"World Military Aircraft Inventory". ''2014 Aerospace: Aviation Week and Space Technology'', January 2014.</ref> A modernisation program began in 2004.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.samara-airlines.ru/su-27-predlagayut-spisat/|title=Су-27 предлагают списать|work=samara-airlines.ru|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://lenta.ru/news/2011/11/03/su27sm/|title=Lenta.ru: Наука и техника: ВВС России получат восемь новых истребителей Су-27СМ|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref><ref>AirForces Monthly, Dec 2010</ref> Half of the fleet has been modernized by 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.armstrade.org/includes/periodics/news/2012/0313/100511974/detail.shtml|title=ÖÀÌÒÎ / Íîâîñòè / Àâèàïàðê Ñó-27 ÂÂÑ ÐÔ ìîäåðíèçèðîâàí áîëåå ÷åì íà 50%, äî êîíöà ãîäà îæèäàåòñÿ ïîñòóïëåíèå ïåðâûõ øåñòè ñåðèéíûõ Ñó-35|date=13 March 2012|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref> The Russian Air Force is currently receiving aircraft modernized to the SM3 standard.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://vpk-news.ru/news/22219|title=Летчики ЮВО получат более 40 единиц авиатехники - Еженедельник "Военно-промышленный курьер"|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref>
: [[Russian Navy]] – 53 Su-27s in use as of January 2014<ref name=2014_Aero />

;{{UKR}}
: [[Ukrainian Air Force]] – 70 Su-27s<ref>{{cite web |url=http://mil.in.ua/vynyschuvachi/su-27 |title=Су-27 - Український мілітарний портал - Український мілітарний портал |author= |date= |website= |publisher= |accessdate=February 27, 2014 |archiveurl=http://web.archive.org/web/20120118095037/http://mil.in.ua/vynyschuvachi/su-27 |archivedate=January 18, 2012}}</ref> It has 50 Su-27s in inventory as of January 2013.<ref name=2013_Aero /> The number of airworthy air-frames was reduced to 36 in 2014 and then down to 16 in 2015.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ukraine loses half of its military {{sic|nolink=Y|aircrafts}} in one year of Donbas war|url=http://mw.ua/UKRAINE/ukraine-loses-half-of-its-military-aircrafts-in-one-year-of-donbas-war-1025_.html|accessdate=27 March 2015|agency=International|issue=Weekly|publisher=Mirror Weekly Ukraine|date=January 27, 2015}}</ref>
;{{UZB}}
: [[Military of Uzbekistan]] – 34 Su-27s in use as of January 2013<ref name=2013_Aero />
;{{VIE}}
: [[Vietnam People's Air Force]] – 9 Su-27SKs and 3 Su-27UBKs in use as of January 2013<ref name=2013_Aero />

;{{USA}}: Two Su-27s were delivered to the United States in 1995.<ref name="milavia" /><ref>Gordon and Davison 2006, p. 101.</ref> Two more were bought from Ukraine in 2009 by a private company, Pride Aircraft. They were to be used for aggressor training for U.S. pilots.<ref>[http://en.rian.ru/world/20090512/121553649.html U.S. buys Su-27 fighters from Ukraine for 'aggressor' training]. RIA Novosti</ref>

=== Former operators ===
;{{BLR}}
: [[Belarusian Air Force]] inherited 23-28 Su-27s from the former 61st Fighter Aviation Regiment of the [[Soviet Union]].<ref name="milavia" /> They had 22 in service as of December 2010.<ref name=FI_AirForces_2010 /> Two or three Su-27 were sold to Angola in 1998. Belarus had 17 Su-27P and 4 Su-27UBM1 aircraft remaining when they were retired in December 2012.<ref>http://bmpd.livejournal.com/407154.html</ref><ref name="Су-27 сняты с вооружения в Белоруссии" /><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.airrecognition.com/index.php/archive-world-worldwide-news-air-force-aviation-aerospace-air-military-defence-industry/2014-global-news-worldwide-world-international-air-force-aviation/january-2014-global-news-worldwide-world-international-air-force-aviation-aerospace-air-defence-/993-belarus-to-modernize-its-fleet-of-sukhoi-su-27-jet-fighter.html |title=Belarus to modernize its fleet of Sukhoi Su-27 jet fighter |date=January 31, 2014}}</ref>
;{{USSR}}
: [[Soviet Air Force]] and [[Soviet Air Defence Forces]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/pvo-ia.htm|title=Fighter Aviation (Istrebitel'naya Aviatsiya) / Samolet Istrebitel Perehvatchik Aircraft Fighter Interceptor|author=John Pike|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref> Passed to different successor nations in 1991.

=== Private ownership ===
According to the U.S. [[FAA]] there are 2 privately owned Su-27s in the U.S.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://registry.faa.gov/aircraftinquiry/AcftRef_Inquiry.aspx|title=FAA Registry - Aircraft - Make / Model Inquiry|work=faa.gov|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref> Two Su-27s from the Ukrainian Air Force were demilitarised and sold to Pride Aircraft of Rockford, Illinois, USA. Pride Aircraft modified some of the aircraft to their own desires by remarking all cockpit controls in English and replacing much of the Russian avionics suite with Garmin, Bendix/King, and Collins avionics. The aircraft were both sold to private owners for approximately $5 million each.<ref>[http://www.prideaircraft.com/flanker.htm Pride Aircraft: Sukhoi SU-27 Flankers]</ref>

On 30 August 2010, the Financial Times claimed that a Western private training support company ECA Program placed a US$1.5 billion order with Belorussian state arms dealer BelTechExport for 15 unarmed Su-27s (with an option on 18 more) to organize a [[dissimilar air combat training]] school in the former NATO airbase in Keflavik, Iceland with deliveries due by the end of 2012.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/de571c4e-b460-11df-8208-00144feabdc0.html#axzz2zyb2deUj|title=Cold war base to be private ‘Top Gun’ school|work=Financial Times|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref><ref>''Air International'' October 2010, p. 9.</ref> A September 2010 media report by RIA Novosti questioned the existence of the agreement.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://en.ria.ru/world/20100901/160423765.html|title=NATO 'no comment' on Russian warplane deal report|date=1 September 2010|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref> No further developments on such a plan have been reported by 2014, while a plan for upgrading and putting the retired Belorussian Air Force Su-27 fleet back to service was reported in February 2014.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://english.cntv.cn/20140201/100877.shtml|title=Belarus to upgrade its Su-27 fighters|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref>

''See [[Sukhoi Su-30]], [[Sukhoi Su-33]], [[Sukhoi Su-34]], and [[Sukhoi Su-35]] for operators of Su-27 derivatives.''

== Notable accidents ==
[[File:Russian Knights Tkachenko tribute flight Mishin.jpg|thumb|Russian Knights paying tribute to [[Igor Tkachenko]], leader of the group who died during practice a week earlier]]

* 9 September 1990: A Soviet Su-27 crashed at the [[Salgareda]] airshow in 1990 after pulling a loop at too low of an altitude. The Lithuanian pilot, Rimas A.A. Stankevičius, and a spectator were killed.<ref name="Salgareda airshow crash 1990">{{cite web |url= http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4wlnnZZsx2k |title= Salgareda airshow crash 1990}}</ref><ref>[http://aviation-safety.net/wikibase/wiki.php?id=54531 9 September 1990 crash of Su-27]. aviation-safety.net, 11 January 2011.</ref>
* 12 December 1995: Two Su-27s and an Su-27UB of the [[Russian Knights]] flight demonstration team crashed into terrain outside of [[Cam Ranh]], Vietnam, killing 4 team pilots. Six Su-27s and an [[Ilyushin Il-76]] support aircraft were returning from a Malaysian airshow. The aircraft were flying in echelons right and left of the Il-76 on their way to Cam Ranh for refueling. During the landing approach, the Il-76 passed too close to the terrain and the three right-echelon Su-27s crashed. The remaining aircraft landed safely at Cam Ranh. The cause was controlled flight into terrain; contributing factors were pilot error, mountainous terrain and poor weather.<ref>{{cite web | last = Sidorov | first = Pavel | title = Катастрофа "Русских Витязей" (in Russian) | publisher = RU.AVIATION по материалам «ВЕСТHИК ВОЗДУШHОГО ФЛОТА 1-2 1996 года» | url = http://airbase.ru/crashes/1995/12/kamran/ | accessdate = 2007-04-24 }}</ref>
*December 1998: An [[Ethiopian Air Force]] Su-27 crashed during a night-flying exercise, resulting in the pilot's death.<ref name="acig.org">[http://www.acig.org/artman/publish/article_189.shtml]{{dead link|date=July 2011}}</ref>
* 6 January 1999: An Ethiopian Su-27, piloted by a Russian pilot, crashed while undergoing test flights. The pilot ejected safely.<ref name="acig.org" />
* 27 July 2002: A [[Ukraine|Ukrainian]] Su-27 [[Sknyliv airshow disaster|crashed while performing]] an aerobatics presentation, killing 77 spectators. Both pilots ejected and suffered only minor injuries.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/WORLD/europe/08/07/ukraine.pilots/index.html |title=Pilots blamed for air show crash |date= 7 August 2002 |publisher=CNN }}</ref>
* 15 September 2005: A Russian Air Force Su-27P crashed in Lithuania after it strayed out of its air corridor while it was flying from St. Petersburg to Russia's Baltic exclave of Kaliningrad due to a mechanical failure. The Su-27 was armed with at least 4 air-to-air missiles. The pilot ejected and was taken into Lithuanian custody. The incident led to an international debate between Lithuania, Russia and NATO.<ref>{{cite web|author=Niels Hillebrand |url=http://www.milavia.net/aircraft/su-27/su-27_history.htm |title=MILAVIA Aircraft – Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker Historical Events & Key Dates |publisher=Milavia.net |date= |accessdate=2011-08-30}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/europe/4264010.stm |title=Europe | Russian jet jangles Baltic nerves |publisher=BBC News |date=2005-09-20 |accessdate=2011-08-30}}</ref>
* 29 July 2008: An Su-27UB crashed on a training flight in [[Primorsky Krai|Primorye]] Territory, Russia. One pilot was killed, while the other survived.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20080729/115145935.html |title=Su-27 Flanker fighter crashes in Russia's Far East, 1 pilot dead |date=29 July 2008 |publisher=[[RIA Novosti]] }}</ref>
* 16 August 2009: While practicing for the 2009 [[MAKS Airshow]], two Su-27s of the [[Russian Knights]] collided in mid-air above [[Zhukovsky Airfield]], south-east of Moscow, killing the Knights' leader, [[Igor Tkachenko]]. One of the jets crashed into a house and started a fire.<ref name="BBC Pilot" /> A probe into the crash was launched, according to the [[Ministry of Defence (Russia)|Russian Defense Ministry]] the accident may have been caused by a "flying skill error."<ref name="BBC Pilot">{{cite news |url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/europe/8204072.stm |title= Pilot dies as Russia jets collide |work=BBC News |date=17 August 2009 |accessdate=24 May 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://en.rian.ru/russia/20090816/155824125.html |title=Pilot killed as two Su-27 fighters collide southeast of Moscow|publisher=[[RIA Novosti]]|date=16 August 2009}}</ref>
* 30 August 2009: A Belarus Air Force Su-27UBM crashed at the 2009 [[Radom Air Show]] in Poland. The Su-27 crashed after exiting a loop, possibly due to an engine failure from a [[bird strike]]. Both pilots died after opting to stay with the aircraft to steer it away from spectators.<ref>{{cite news |url=http://www.airshow.sp.mil.pl/index.php/en/news |title=Belarusian Air Force Sukhoi Su-27 crash |date=30 August 2009 |publisher=Centrum Prasowe AIR SHOW – 2009}}{{dead link|date=January 2010}}</ref><ref name="Belorussian jet crashes at Polish airshow">{{cite web |url= http://www.newsobserver.com/1635/story/1668275.html |title= Belorussian jet crashes at Polish airshow}}{{dead link|date=July 2011}}</ref>
* 6 April 2011: A Russian Air Force Su-27SM crashed during a training drill near the city of Vladivostok in Russia's Far East. The pilot ejected unhurt.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://aviation-safety.net/wikibase/wiki.php?id=121564|title=ASN Aircraft accident 06-APR-2011 Su-27SM Flanker 08 blue|author=Harro Ranter|work=aviation-safety.net|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref>
* 28 June 2012: A Russian Air Force Su-27UB crashed in [[Karelia]], Russia. Both pilots ejected unhurt.<ref>[http://en.rian.ru/mlitary_news/20120628/174283286.html Su-27 Fighter Jet Crashes in Karelia]</ref>
* 31 March 2013: A Chinese PLA Air Force Su-27UBK crashed during a drill in [[Shangdong]], China. Both pilots died.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.ibtimes.com/pla-fighter-jet-crash-two-die-chinese-military-air-drill-video-1164303|title=PLA Fighter Jet Crash: Two Die In Chinese Military Air Drill [VIDEO]|date=2 April 2013|work=International Business Times|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref>

== Aircraft on display ==
[[File:Su-27 Red 27 at Central Armed Forces Museum 09.09.2012.jpg|thumb|Su-27 Red 27 at Central Armed Forces Museum in Moscow]]

* A Su-27, Red 27 is on display at the [[Central Armed Forces Museum]] in Moscow<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.bestrussiantour.com/military/central_museum_armed_forces|title=Armed Forces Central Museum - Military historical Tour in Central Museum of Armed Forces|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://forum.scramble.nl/viewtopic.php?p=594553|title=Scramble Messageboard • View topic - The Central armed forces museum Moskva 10-08-2012|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref>

== Specifications (Su-27SK) ==
[[File:SUKHOI Su-27 FLANKER.svg|right|350px]]

{{aircraft specifications

|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=jet

|ref=Gordon and Davison,<ref name="Gordon_p92">Gordon and Davison 2006, pp. 91–92, 95–96.</ref> KNAAPO Su-27SKM page,<ref name=knaapo_Su-27SKM>[http://www.knaapo.ru/eng/about/knaapo_aircraft/su27SKM.wbp Sukhoi Su-27SKM]. KNAAPO.</ref> Sukhoi Su-27SK page<ref name=Sukhoi_Su-27SK_page>[http://www.sukhoi.org/eng/planes/military/su27sk/lth/ Su-27SK Aircraft performance page]. Sukhoi.</ref>

|crew=1
|length main=21.9 m
|length alt=72 ft
|span main=14.7 m
|span alt=48 ft 3 in
|height main=5.92 m
|height alt=19 ft 6 in
|area main=62 m²
|area alt=667 ft²
|empty weight main=16,380 kg
|empty weight alt=36,100 lb
|loaded weight main=23,430 kg.
|loaded weight alt=51,650 lb.
|loaded weight more=with 56% internal fuel
|max takeoff weight main=30,450 kg
|max takeoff weight alt=67,100 lb
|more general='''Leading edge sweep:''' 42°

|engine (jet)=[[AL-31|Saturn/Lyulka AL-31F]]
|type of jet=[[turbofan]]s
|number of jets=2
|thrust main=7,670 kgf
|thrust alt=75.22 kN, 16,910 lbf
|thrust more=dry
|afterburning thrust main=12,500 kgf
|afterburning thrust alt=122.6 kN, 27,560 lbf
|afterburning thrust more=with afterburner
|more general='''Fuel capacity:''' 9,400 kg (20,724 lb) internally<ref name="sukhoi.org">{{cite web|url=http://www.sukhoi.org/eng/planes/military/su27sk/lth/|title=Sukhoi Company (JSC) - Airplanes - Military Aircraft - Su-27SÊ - Aircraft performance|publisher=|accessdate=4 February 2015}}</ref>

|max speed main= 
** '''At altitude:''' Mach 2.35 (2,500 km/h, 1,550 mph)
** '''At sea level:''' 1,400 km/h, 870 mph<ref name=knaapo_Su-27SKM />
|max speed alt=
|max speed more=
|range main= 3,530 km
|range alt= 2,070 mi
|range more= at altitude; (1,340 km / 800 mi at sea level)
|ceiling main=19,000 m
|ceiling alt=62,523 ft
|climb rate main=300 m/s<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fighter-planes.com/info/su27.htm|title=Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker|work=fighter-planes.com|accessdate=1 April 2015}}</ref>
|climb rate alt=59,000 ft/min
|loading main=377.9 kg/m² (444.61 kg/m² with full fuel)
|loading alt=77.3 lb/ft² with 56% fuel
|thrust/weight=1.07 with 56% internal fuel; 0.907 with full fuel
|more performance=* '''Maximum ''g''-load:''' +9 ''g''

|armament=
* 1 × 30 mm [[Gryazev-Shipunov GSh-301|GSh-30-1]] cannon with 150 rounds
* {{convert|4430|kg|lb|abbr=on|sigfig=3}} on 10 external pylons<ref name=Sukhoi_Su-27SK_page /><ref name="sukhoi.org" />
** Up to 6 × medium-range AA missiles [[R-27 (air-to-air missile)|R-27]], 2 × short-range heat-seeking AA missiles [[R-73 (missile)|R-73]]
}}

=== Su-27S armament ===
* 30 mm GSH-30 Cannon, 150 rounds
* 6 × Medium-Range [[R-27 (air-to-air missile)|R-27R, R-27ER, R-27T, R-27ET]]
* 4 × Short-Range [[R-73 (missile)|R-73E]]
* FAB-250
* FAB-500
* RBK-250
* RBK-500
* [[S-8 rocket|S-8]]
* [[S-13 rocket|S-13]]
* [[S-24 rocket|S-24]]
* [[S-25 (rocket)|S-25]]
* [[SMKB]]<ref>{{cite journal|journal=Revista Asas |language=Portuguese |volume=61 |issn=1413-1218 |publisher= |title=Bombas Guiada SMKB |page=29 |date=June 2011}}</ref>

=== Su-27SM armament ===
* 8 x [[Vympel R-77]] advanced medium-range missile
* 6 x [[KAB-500KR]] and [[KAB-500L]] Guided Bombs
* 4 x [[Kh-29]]T/L
* 4 x [[Kh-31]]P/A anti-radar/ship missiles
* 4 x [[Kh-35]] anti-ship missile

== See also ==
{{Portal|Aviation}}
{{aircontent
|see also= 
|related= 
* [[Sukhoi Su-30]]
* [[Sukhoi Su-33]]
* [[Sukhoi Su-34]]
* [[Sukhoi Su-35]]
* [[Sukhoi Su-37]]
* [[Shenyang J-11]]
|similar aircraft= 
* [[Dassault Rafale]]
* [[Eurofighter Typhoon]]
* [[McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle]]
|lists= 
* [[List of fighter aircraft]]
}}

== References ==
:References
{{Reflist|2}}

;Bibliography
* "ECA Program Su-27 ''Flankers'' Destined for Iceland". ''[[Air International]]''. October 2010, Vol. 79 No. 4. p. 9. ISSN 0306-5634.
* {{cite book |last=Gordon |first=Yefim |title=Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker: Air Superiority Fighter |publisher=Airlife Publishing, 1999|isbn=1-84037-029-7|ref={{harvid|Gordon|1999}}}}
* Gordon, Yefim and Peter Davison. ''Sukhoi Su-27 Flanker'', Specialty Press, 2006. ISBN 978-1-58007-091-1.
* ''Modern Combat Aircraft: Reference guide'', pp. 50–51. Minsk, "Elida", 1997. ISBN 985-6163-10-2. {{Ru icon}}
* North, David M. ''[http://aviationweek.com/site-files/aviationweek.com/files/uploads/2015/01/1990-%20Su-27%20Pilot%20Report%20%281%20of%202%29.pdf Su-27 pilot report - part 1] [http://aviationweek.com/site-files/aviationweek.com/files/uploads/2015/01/1990-%20Su-27%20Pilot%20Report%20%282%20of%202%29.pdf Part 2]'' 

== External links ==
{{Commons category|Sukhoi Su-27}}
*[http://www.sukhoi.org/eng/planes/military/su27sk/ Su-27SК Sukhoi]
*[http://www.knaapo.ru/eng/ Su-27 page on knaapo.ru]
*[http://www.ecaprogram.com/iopfor/iopfor_air.html ECA Program BV Website]
*[http://www.warfare.ru/?catid=255&linkid=1604 Su-27SК Russia Military Analysis]
*[http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/world/russia/su-27.htm Su-27 page GlobalSecurity.org]
*[http://www.ausairpower.net/APA-Flanker.html Sukhoi Flankers – The Shifting Balance of Regional Air Power]
*[http://www.ausairpower.net/TE-Flankers-Aug03.pdf Asia's Advanced Flankers]
*[http://www.zacharz.com/lebourget/su27/photos.htm The Su-27SKM]
*[http://scalemodels.ru/modules/photo/viewcat_cid_2.html Su-27 free walkaround (37 shots)]
*[http://www.prideaircraft.com/flanker.htm Su-27UB walkaround photos]

{{Sukhoi aircraft}}
{{aviation lists}}
{{Use British English|date=July 2011}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=June 2011}}

[[Category:Soviet fighter aircraft 1970–1979]]
[[Category:Sukhoi aircraft|Su-27]]
[[Category:1985 introductions]]
[[Category:Twinjets]]

Battle of Kiev (1943)

2015-01-25T20:16:40Z

JanTurin: /* Sources */ Apparently spam

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}
{{multiple issues|
{{Refimprove|date=March 2013}}
{{Expert-subject|Military history|date=November 2008}}
{{tone|date=July 2008}}
}}

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict = '''Second Battle of Kiev'''
| image =
| caption =
| partof = the [[Eastern Front (World War II)|Eastern Front]] of [[World War II]]
| place = [[Kiev]], [[Soviet Union]]
| date = 3 - 13 November 1943 (Offensive operation) 13 November - 22 December 1943 (Defensive operation)
| result = Soviet victory
| combatant1 = {{flagcountry|Nazi Germany}}
| combatant2 = {{flag|Soviet Union|1923}}
| commander1 = {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Erich von Manstein]] {{flagicon|Nazi Germany}} [[Hermann Hoth]]
| commander2 = {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Nikolai Vatutin]] {{flagicon|Soviet Union|1923}} [[Ivan Konev]]
| units1 = [[German Fourth Panzer Army|4th Panzer Army]]
| units2 = [[1st Ukrainian Front]] {{flagdeco|Czechoslovakia}} [[Czechoslovak military units on Eastern front|Czechoslovakian Independent Brigade]]
| casualties1 = '''Unknown'''
| casualties2 = '''Unknown'''
| campaignbox = {{Campaignbox Axis-Soviet War}}
}}

The '''Second Battle of Kiev''' describes three strategic operations (two offensive and one defensive) by the [[Soviet Red Army]], and one operational counterattack by the ''[[Wehrmacht]]'' which took place in the wake of the failed German offensive at [[Kursk]] during [[World War II]]. These four operations took place between 3 October and 22 December 1943.

==Overview==
The Red Army launched their first summer offensive of the war, pushing [[Erich von Manstein]]'s battered [[Army Group South]] back towards the [[Dnieper River]]. There, Manstein intended to rest and refit his troops, but that was not to be. [[Stavka]], (the Soviet high command), ordered the [[Central Front (Soviet Union)|Central Front]] (Byelorussian Front 20 Oct 1943) and the [[Voronezh Front]] (1st Ukrainian Front 20 Oct 1943) to force crossings of the Dnieper before the Germans could catch their breath. When this was unsuccessful in October, the effort was handed over to the [[1st Ukrainian Front]], with some support from the [[2nd Ukrainian Front]]. The 1st Ukrainian Front, commanded by [[Nikolai Vatutin]], was able to secure bridgeheads north and south of [[Kiev]]. His opponent would be the veteran [[4th Panzer Army]], commanded by [[Hermann Hoth]].

The structure of the strategic operations from the Soviet planning point of view was:
*Kiev Strategic Offensive Operation (October) (1–24 October 1943) by the [[Central Front (Soviet Union)|Central]] and [[Voronezh Front]]s
:[[Chernobyl-Radomysl Offensive Operation]] (1–4 October 1943)
:[[Chernobyl-Gornostaipol Defensive Operation]] (3–8 October 1943)
:[[Lyutezh Offensive Operation]] (11–24 October 1943)
:[[Bukrin Offensive Operation]] (12–15 October 1943)
:[[Bukrin Offensive Operation]] (21–24 October 1943)
*Kiev Strategic Offensive Operation (November) (3–13 November 1943)
:Rauss' November 1943 counterattack
*Kiev Strategic Defensive Operation (1943) (13 November 1943–22 December 1943)

==First attempt==
[[File:Zitomir 43-44.jpg|thumb|right]]
In October 1943, several of Vatutin's armies were having serious trouble trying to break out of the rugged terrain of the [[Bukrin bend]], the southern bridgehead. The [[German XXIV Panzer Corps|24th Panzer Corps]] of [[Walther Nehring]], in an effective defensive position, had the opposing Soviet forces squeezed in. As a result, Vatutin decided to concentrate his strength at the northern bridgehead at [[Lyutezh]].

The [[3rd Guards Tank Army]], commanded by [[Pavel Rybalko]], moved northwards toward the Lyutezh bridgehead under cover of darkness and diversionary attacks out of the Bukrin bend. Masses of artillery were shifted northwards, but the movements went unnoticed by the Germans.

==Initial stage of second attempt==
Early on the morning of 3 November 1943, the 4th Panzer Army was subjected to a massive Soviet bombardment. The German forces screening the bridgehead were defeated, and Kiev was quickly captured. The [[1st Ukrainian Front]]'s objective was to drive quickly westward in order to take the towns of [[Zhitomir]], [[Korosten]], [[Berdichev]] and [[Fastov]], and to cut the rail link to [[Army Group Center]]; this would be the first step towards the encirclement of [[Army Group South]].

The plan went very well for Vatutin; Manstein, however, became worried. As Rybalko's tanks moved through the streets of Kiev on 5 November, Manstein pleaded with [[Adolf Hitler]] to release the [[48th Panzer Corps|48th]] and [[40th Panzer Corps]] in order to have sufficient forces to retake Kiev. The 48th Panzer Corps was committed to Manstein. Hitler refused to divert the 40th Panzer Corps, and replaced Hoth with [[Erhard Raus]], who was ordered to blunt the Soviet attack and secure Army Group South's northern flank and communications with Army Group North. A number of sources give 6 November as the date for the fall of Kiev.<ref>[http://www.whatson-kiev.com/index.php?go=News&in=view&id=977] accessed 26 August 2007</ref><ref>Andrew Gregorovich, Ukrainian Review No. 92, Spring 1995 http://www.infoukes.com/history/ww2/page-28.html. accessed 26 August 2007</ref><ref>1943: Kiev in Flames : in our pages:100, 75 and 50 years ago, Monday, 8 November 1993 [http://www.iht.com/articles/1993/11/08/edold_15.php] accessed 26 August 2007</ref> The 1st Czechoslovak Independent Brigade seems to have started the assault earlier, at 12.30 on 5 November, reaching the Dniepr at 02.00 on the 6th, after sweeping through the western suburbs of the city and were the first unit in the city center, with Kiev finally being captured at 06.50 on the 6th.<ref>Michal Gelbič, Czechoslovak military units in the USSR (1942–1945) [http://www.czechpatriots.com/csmu/bri-combats.php]. accessed on 26 August 2007</ref>

==Raus counterattacks==
Raus was in difficulty with his units suffering heavy casualties in the initial stages of Vatutin's offensive. The 4th Panzer Army was reinforced, especially with artillery and rockets. The German divisions were bolstered on 7 November by the arrival of the newly formed [[German 25th Panzer Division|25th Panzer Division]] commanded by ''General der Panzertruppen'' [[Georg Jauer]]. Its drive on Fastov was halted by the [[7th Guards Tank Corps]]. Rybalko was soon just {{convert|40|mi|km|abbr=on}} from Berdichev. Zhitomir was taken by the [[38th Army]]; the [[60th Army]] was at the gates of Korosten; [[40th Army (Soviet Union)|40th Army]] was moving south from Kiev. The only respite for the Germans came when the [[27th Army (Soviet Union)|27th Army]] exhausted itself and went over to the defensive in the Bukrin bend.
[[File:Panzer a Zitomir.jpg|thumb|right|Panzer IVs in Zhitomir, November 1943]]
The 4th Panzer Army was in deep trouble. However, the situation changed with the arrival of [[Hermann Balck]]'s XLVIII Panzer Corps, comprising the [[1st SS Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler|1st SS Division]], [[1st Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|1st Panzer Division]] and [[7th Panzer Division (Wehrmacht)|7th Panzer Division]]. Balck drove his forces north to [[Brusilov]] and then west to retake Zhitomir. Rybalko sent the [[7th Guards Tank Corps]] to counter the German assault. A huge tank battle ensued, which continued until the latter part of November, when the autumn mud halted all operations.

Both sides had suffered heavy losses. The casualty ratio was fairly balanced, though the Soviets lost slightly more than the Germans. With the recapture of Zhitomir and Korosten the 4th Panzer had gained some breathing room. With Vatutin halted, Stavka released substantial reserves to his First Ukrainian Front to regain momentum.

==Final stage of second attempt==
[[File:5011-0007-reverse.gif|129px|left|]]
By 5 December, the mud had frozen in the Russian winter. 48th Panzer Corps conducted a wide sweeping attack north of Zhitomir. Catching the Soviets by surprise, the Germans sought to trap the Soviet 60th Army, and the 13th Corps. Reinforced with the [[2nd Parachute Division (Germany)|2nd ''Fallschirmjäger'' Division]], the Germans drove eastward, putting the Soviets on the defensive. With Fastov also being threatened, the 60th Army withdrew from Korosten.

Vatutin was forced to ask Stavka for more reserves, and was granted [[1st Guards Tank Army (Soviet Union)|1st Tank Army]] and [[18th Army (Soviet Union)|18th Army]]. These new units, along with additional Corps from other sectors, were hastily rushed westward. Thus, the Soviets stopped the German advance, went back on the offensive, and retook Brusilov. Both sides were exhausted by late December and the battle for Kiev was over.

==Aftermath==
Although the Soviets had failed to break the rail link with Army Group Center or envelop Army Group South, they had conquered Kiev, broken the Dnieper line, and inflicted significant casualties on the 4th Panzer Army. The Germans, for their part, had destroyed several sizable Soviet formations and kept the vital rail link open. But there was to be no rest. A few days after XLVIII Panzer Corps was pulled out to rest and refit, the Soviets launched [[Dnieper–Carpathian Offensive|their winter offensive]] on Christmas Eve. The renamed [[Voronezh Front]] Offensive succeeded in pushing the Germans back to the 1939 Polish border by 3 January 1944.

==Sources==
*Radey, Jack, Bongard, David, O'Connor, Dave, ''Fire Brigade: The Battle for Kiev 1943'', Panther Games Pty.Ltd., Canberra, 1988

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{coord missing|Ukraine}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Kiev, Battle Of (1943)}}
[[Category:Conflicts in 1943]]
[[Category:1943 in the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of the Soviet–German War]]
[[Category:Battles of World War II involving Germany]]
[[Category:Battles involving the Soviet Union]]
[[Category:Battles and operations of World War II involving Czechoslovakia]]
[[Category:Czechoslovakia–Soviet Union relations]]

Maidan casualties

2014-12-15T15:13:25Z

JanTurin: /* Identified victims */ sort value corrected

{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| image1 = Bodies of protesters in the hotel Ukraine lobby. Clashes in Kiev, Ukraine. Events of February 20, 2014-2.jpg
| width1 = 220
| caption1 = Corpses of Yu. Paraschuk, U. Holodnyuk and R. Varenitsya in ''[[Hotel Ukrayina]]''
| image2 = Євромайдан2278.JPG
| width2 = 220
| caption2 = Memorial for killed Euromaidan participants.
| image3 = A moment of silence.JPG
| width3 = 100
| caption3 = Moment of silence in memory of killed Euromaidan participants.
}}

This is the '''list of people killed during [[Euromaidan]]''' events taking place in the fall and winter of 2013–2014. The list contains only confirmed deaths of [[Euromaidan]] participants, Ukrainian policemen and other victims killed by Euromaidan participants. There are currently over 110 identified civilian victims; almost all were protesters. 18 police officers were also killed during the clashes.<ref name="MSV-03.02.14">{{cite web|url=http://mvs.gov.ua/mvs/control/main/ru/publish/article/989615|title=МВС УКРАЇНИ|publisher=mvs.gov.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref> Ukrainian sources often refer to the killed protesters as the '''Heavenly Hundred'''.

On 21 February 2014, [[Verkhovna Rada]] recognized the perished protesters of [[Euromaidan]] as victims.<ref>[http://lb.ua/news/2014/02/21/256541_rada_ustanovila_pomoshch_semyam.html The Rada established help to the families of perished activists]. LB. February 21, 2014</ref> On 21 November 2014 by [[Petro Poroshenko]]'s decree the Heavenly Hundred members were posthumously awarded the [[Hero of Ukraine]] title.<ref>{{cite web|title=УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАЇНИ № 890/2014|url=http://www.president.gov.ua/documents/18477.html|website=Official cite of the President of Ukraine}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry looks at the photos of those killed at Maidan, at the Verkhovna Rada in Kyiv.jpg|thumbnail|right|[[U.S. Secretary of State]] [[John Kerry]] looks at the photos of some of those killed at Maidan, at the Verkhovna Rada in Kyiv (4 March 2014)]]

The first deaths occurred on [[Ukrainian unification day|Unity Day]], 22 January 2014, during [[2014 Hrushevskoho Street riots|riots]] on [[Hrushevskoho Street]] in [[Kiev]], where 3 Euromaidan activists were shot dead. On the same day, a dead body of another Euromaidan activist was found on the outskirts of the city; he was [[kidnapping|kidnapped]] a day before with [[Ihor Lutsenko]], who was released. These were the first victims to die in demonstrations in Ukraine since gaining national independence in 1991. The deaths caused [[Euromaidan#Protests across Ukraine|widespread protests across the country]]. On 23 January 2014, then Prime Minister [[Mykola Azarov]] in an interview with [[BBC]] said that police had not been issued firearms, and denied any police officers were located on the rooftops around the protest area. He made an assumption that the shooting of protesters was a provocation aimed at escalating violence.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/ukrainian/politics/2014/01/140122_azarov_interview_ko.shtml|script-title=uk:Микола Азаров: демонстрантів могли застрелити провокатори|newspaper=BBC Ukrainian|date=23 January 2014|accessdate=23 January 2014|language=uk}}</ref> [[Party of Regions]] MP [[Arsen Klinchayev]] stated during a memorial service in [[Luhansk]] for those killed on 22 January by police, "These people were against the government. Nobody has the right to use physical force against police officers. And then they have their sticks, then stones, then something else. The police have the right to defend their lives. So I think it's right that these four people were killed. Moreover, I believe that you need to be stricter."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiosvoboda.org/content/article/25239158.html|script-title=uk:Луганський регіонал назвав правильною загибель людей у Києві|publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|date=3 January 2014|accessdate=23 January 2014|language=uk}}</ref>

5 More deaths in connection with Euromaidan occurred between 25 January and 13 February.

The [[2014 Ukrainian revolution|second active phase]] started February 18. After a brief truce on 19 February, the clashes renewed 20 February. According to the newspaper Ukrainska Pravda, the special force ([[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]]) and [[Internal Troops of Ukraine|Interior Troops]] snipers<ref>[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/20/7015163/ Video of snipers shooting people] [[Ukrainska Pravda]] {{uk icon}}</ref> shot at people on Maidan and/or snipers located in nearby buildings, with special forces firing with AK-74 assault rifles.<ref name="radiosvoboda">{{cite web|url=http://www.radiosvoboda.org/media/video/25270710.html|script-title=uk:Силовики стріляють бойовими набоями із снайперських гвинтівок та автоматів Калашникова|publisher=radiosvoboda.org|accessdate=2014-04-03|language=uk}}</ref> The final death toll from these clashes in late February was 103 protesters and 13 police.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rosjanie próbują ukryć wojska na Krymie przed misją OBWE? Komisja Europejska przyjęła pakiet wsparcia dla Ukrainy. Nawet 11 mld euro|url=http://wyborcza.pl/1,75477,15300590,Po_nocnym_ataku_na_Majdan__Sa_zabici_i_wielu_rannych_.html}}</ref><ref>[http://www.unian.ua/politics/887221-sogodni-v-kievi-vbito-ponad-60-protestuvalnikiv-svoboda.html More than 70 were killed in Kyiv] [[UNIAN]] {{uk icon}}</ref><ref>[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/20/7015249/ Maidan medical service: 70 to 100 poople killed on Thuersday] [[Ukrainska Pravda]] {{uk icon}}</ref> According to the Deputy [[Prosecutor General of Ukraine]] [[Oleh Zalisko]] in February 2014 67 people were killed in Kiev's city centre, 184 sustained gunshot wounds and over 750 suffered bodily injuries (as stated on 9 December 2014).<ref>[http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/238709.html Twenty-two suspects in Maidan shooting probe on wanted list, 13 others to be declared wanted – Ukraine prosecutor], [[Interfax-Ukraine]] (9 December 2014)</ref> On 20 February 2014, the (then) opposition parties ([[Batkivshchyna]], [[UDAR]] and [[Svoboda (political party)|Svoboda]]) released a statement that stated "To hold talks with the regime, the policies of which led to the deaths of many people, is an extremely unpleasant thing but we must do everything possible and even the impossible to prevent further bloodshed".<ref>[http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/191112.html Three Ukrainian opposition forces calling to do everything possible to prevent further bloodshed], [[Interfax-Ukraine]] (19 February 2014)</ref>

At least 17 people died from previously received wounds and injuries since then.

On 21 February 2014. Maidan participants wished last farewell to the perished protesters who they named the Heavenly Hundred.<ref>[http://nbnews.com.ua/ua/news/113764/ At Maidan they wished farewell to the Heavenly hundreds of perished activists]. NBNews. February 22, 2014</ref> During the event, a mourning [[Lemko]] song "A duck floats on [[Tysa River|Tysa]]..." was heard ({{lang-uk|«Плине кача по Тисині…»}}).

On 24 February 2014, the [[Verkhovna Rada]] (Ukraine's parliament) decided to propose [[Ukrainian presidential election, 2014|the next Ukrainian president]] award the title Hero of Ukraine to protesters killed in the clashes with the riot police.<ref>[http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/192492.html Rada confers titles of Heroes of Ukraine on civilians killed in protests], [[Interfax-Ukraine]] (24 February 2014)</ref>

===Identity of snipers===
{{main|Euromaidan#Investigation Into Shooters/Snipers}}
On 30 March 2014, [[The Daily Beast]] published photos which it claimed were of members of the Alfa Group of the [[Security Service of Ukraine|Ukrainian security services]] (SBU) taken on 20 February 2014 and asserted that these troops may have been trained by members of Russian special forces.<ref name="thedailybeast">{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/03/30/exclusive-photographs-expose-russian-trained-killers-in-kiev.html|title=Exclusive: Photographs Expose Russian-Trained Killers in Kiev - The Daily Beast|publisher=thedailybeast.com|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>

==Identified victims==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Nationality
! Name
! Details
! data-sort-type="isoDate" | Date of death
! Cause of death/Reference
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Yuriy Verbytskyi || A scientist (seismologist) from the Geophysical Institute in [[Lviv]].<ref>[http://www.wz.lviv.ua/ukraine/125464 Вербицький, якого викрадали разом з Луценком, мертвий], Високий Замок (22 січня 2014)</ref> Yury was a member of Lviv's climber society. After his death, the society proposed to name one of the Caucasian mountains after Verbytskyi—the idea was supported by the Georgian climber society which is currently looking for an unnamed mountain hill.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://life.pravda.com.ua/person/2014/01/30/150488/ |title=One of the Caucasian mountains may be named after Verbytskyi, Ukrpravda 30.01.2014, in Ukrainian |publisher=Life.pravda.com.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> || data-sort-value="2014-01-21" | 21 or 22 January 2014|| Verbytskyi was kidnapped from the Oleksandivsky Hospital together with [[Ihor Lutsenko]] on 21 January 2014.<ref>[http://www.radiosvoboda.org/content/article/25238996.html Брат Юрія Вербицького упізнав тіло, знайдене у лісосмузі], Радіо Свобода (22 січня 2014)</ref> His body was found on 22 January close to village Gnidyn of [[Boryspil Raion]], with signs of torture.<ref>[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/01/22/7010706/ У Бориспільському районі виявлено два трупи зі слідами тортур], Українська правда (22 січня 2014)</ref> However, the official cause of death was said to be hypothermia.<ref name="2_трупи_ліс_21-22.01_УП">[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/01/22/7010792/ ВЕРБИЦЬКИЙ, ЯКОГО ВИКРАДАЛИ РАЗОМ ІЗ ЛУЦЕНКОМ, МЕРТВИЙ]. Українська правда. 22.01.2014</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Pavlo Mazurenko || Participated in [[Euromaidan]]<ref>[http://glavred.info/stolica/podrobnosti-smerti-za-maydan-vrachi-uveryayut-chto-izbityy-umer-ot-pnevmonii-267128.html Подробности смерти «за Майдан»: врачи уверяют, что избитый умер от пневмонии], ГЛАВРЕД (26 грудня 2013)</ref> || data-sort-value="2013-12-22" | 22 December 2014 || According to his wife, as reported by the Ukrayinska Pravda, Pavlo Mazurenko (41 years old) was beaten up on 18 December 2013 by three law enforcement agents in the neighborhood of [[Borshchahivka]] (Mykilska).<ref name=mazurenko>{{cite news|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2013/12/24/7008248/ |title=Law enforcement agents beat up a man for the Euromaidan. He died in hospital|newspaper=[[Ukrayinska Pravda]]|date=24 December 2013|accessdate=24 December 2013|language=uk}}</ref> According to police, he died as a result of a fight with employees of a private security company that were guarding the Colibris store in Kyiv. Police also claimed that Pavlo's wife stated he was not involved in Euromaidan protests.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unian.net/politics/867127-v-mvd-nazvali-prichinu-gibeli-mujchinyi-izbitogo-za-maydan.html |title=В МВД назвали причину гибели мужчины, избитого "за Майдан" : Новости УНИАН |publisher=Unian.net |date=2013-12-24 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> Ukrainian [[UNIAN]] News Agency interviewed Pavlo's wife days after, and she commented her husband was beaten by "three men in black uniform and batons [...] more resembling interior ministry servicemen, or a private security company staff". She also claimed that the three ran away after beating Pavlo.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ольга Гордиенко |url=http://www.unian.net/politics/867121-maydan-kak-povod-dlya-ubiystva.html |title=Майдан как повод для убийства (обновлено) : Новости УНИАН |publisher=Unian.net |date=2013-12-24 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> On 21 December, he visited a doctor who sent him to a hospital where Mazurenko was diagnosed with a [[concussion]].<ref name=mazurenko/> The same day he was hospitalized doctors found fractures to his skull.<ref name=mazurenko/> On 22 December, Mazurenko died and his body was sent for forensic examination, after which he was diagnosed with two-way [[contagious bovine pleuropneumonia]] (lung plaque seen in [[bovine animal]]s).<ref name=mazurenko/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || [[Serhiy Nigoyan]] || style="width:35%;"| Born in the village of Bereznuvativka in [[Dnipropetrovsk Oblast]].<ref name="up" >[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/01/22/7010564/ The name of a person killed on Hryshevskyi street became known (ВІДОМО ІМ'Я ЛЮДИНИ, ЯКУ ЗАСТРЕЛИЛИ НА ГРУШЕВСЬКОГО)], Ukrpravda, in Ukrainian (22nf january 2014)</ref> The Nigoyan family moved from [[Armenia]] to Ukraine as refuges of the [[Nagorno-Karabakh War]].<ref>[http://interfax.com.ua/news/general/187030.html Nigoyan family moved to Ukraine as refuges of Nagorno-Karabakh war (Семья погибшего в Киеве активиста Нигояна переехала в Украину, спасаясь от войны в Нагорном Карабахе)], Interfax Ukraine (22nd January 2014), in Russian</ref> Nigoyan came to Euromaidan on 8 December and was mostly involved in security.<ref name="up" /> After his death, Ukrainian composer [[Valentyn Sylvestrov]] dedicated two songs to the memory of Nigoyan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unian.ua/politics/879776-kijivskiy-kompozitor-prisvyativ-dva-tvori-pamyati-sergiya-nigoyana.html |title=Kyiv composer dedicates two songs to the memory of Nigoyan, Unian 03.02.2014, in Ukrainian |publisher=Unian.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> || data-sort-value="2014-01-22" | 22 January 2014|| style="width:35%;"| Died on 22 January 2014 during [[2014 Hrushevskoho Street riots|clashes with the police on Hrushevskyi street]]. He suffered multiple gunshot wounds during a Berkut attack on the Hrushevskoho Street barricades.<ref name=up/><ref name="mvs">{{cite web|url=http://mvs.gov.ua/mvs/control/main/uk/publish/article/965163 |title=The investigation results of the dead protesters — Ministry of internal affairs (23 January 2014) |publisher=Mvs.gov.ua |date=2014-01-23 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref><ref name="tvi">[http://tvi.ua/new/2014/01/22/eksklyuzyv_tvi_tila_vbytykh_zhizdnevskoho_ta_nihoyana__uvaha_shokuyuche_video TBI. The bodies of gunshot Zhyznevskyi and Nigoyan (shocking videos)], ТВі (22 January 2014)</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Belarus}} || Mikhail Zhyznevskyi || Zhyznevskyi left [[Belarus]] for political reasons. In Ukraine, he lived and worked in [[Kiev]] and later [[Bila Tserkva]].<ref name="up2">[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/01/22/7010699/ One of killed in Hrushevskyj clashes was Belorussian], Ukrparvda (22 January 2014)</ref> Was a member of the Ukrainian nationalist group, the [[Ukrainian National Assembly – Ukrainian National Self Defence|UNSO]]. At Euromaidan, Zhyznevskyi was involved in security.<ref name="up2" /> ||data-sort-value="2014-01-22" | 22 January 2014 || Died on 22 January 2014 during [[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]]'s attack on barricades on Hrushevsky street where he was shot in the chest by a sniper.<ref name="mvs" /><ref name="tvi" /> His funeral was attended by Euromaidan and opposition leaders; he was buried with the Ukrainian UNA-UNSO and Belarusian flags.<ref name="google">{{cite web|url=http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=uk&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Funa-unso.in.ua%2F|title=Google Translate|publisher=translate.google.com|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Roman Senyk || Senyk was born in [[Lviv Oblast]] and in the last few years lived in [[Turka, Ukraine|Turka]].|| data-sort-value="2014-01-25" | 25 January 2014 || During a [[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]] attack on barricades on Hrushevskoho Street, a grenade tore his hand and made multiple wounds in his lower chest and lungs.<ref>[http://www.day.kiev.ua/ru/news/240114-bolee-200-kievlyan-uzhe-sdali-krov-dlya-postradavshego-na-grushevskogo More than 200 people donated blood to save victims of Hrushevsky clashes], Den (Day), 24 January 2014, in Russian</ref> Hit with a metal bullet in the lung, he underwent several operations and had to have his arm amputated.<ref name=kpdeathsum>{{cite news|title=EuroMaidan’s victims include five killed, many injured and missing|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/euromaidans-victims-include-five-killed-many-injured-and-missing-335932.html|newspaper=Kyiv Post|date=Jan 31, 2014}}</ref> Having lost more than 3.5 litres of blood, he died in one of Kyiv's hospitals after multiple surgeries.<ref>[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/01/25/7011296/ Another Euromaidan activist shot on Hrushevsky died]. Ukrpravda, 25.01.2014, in Ukrainian</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Bohdan Kalyniak || 52 years old from [[Kolomyia]], [[Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-01-28" | 28 January 2014 || Died at a hospital in Ivano-Frankivsk on 28 January. Kolomyia Mayor Igor Sluzar said the man had come down with pneumonia during the clashes on Hrushevskoho Street in Kyiv where police used water cannons on protesters despite sub-zero temperatures.<ref name=kpdeathsum />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Serhiy Synenko || [[AutoMaidan]] activist. [[Zaporizhia]]. || data-sort-value="2014-02-13" | 13 February 2014 || In [[Zaporizhia]], the gas tank of his car was shot at, causing it to explode and the car to engulf him in flames. Police stated the murder may have been motivated by his participation in Automaidan.<ref name="renamed_from_061_on_20140403205140">{{cite web|url=http://www.061.ua/news/475300|title=В Запорожье убили и сожгли в машине активиста АвтоМайдана | 061.ua - Новости Запорожья|publisher=061.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Serhiy Bondarev || Software engineer from [[GlobalLogic]], Kyiv. Originally from Kramatorsk, Donetsky region || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || 4 Gunshot wounds<ref name=spisok />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || [[Valeriy Brezdenyuk]] || Ukrainian painter, known for "paintings on the water". From [[Zhmerynka]], [[Vinnytska Oblast]].,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fakty.ictv.ua/ua/index/read-news/id/1437747/marker/weekthemes |title="Факти": Чиста вода, фарби та фантазія - інгредієнти живого малюнку ебру |publisher=Fakty.ictv.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.0432.ua/news/478731 |title=Вінницький художник Валерій Брезденюк загинув на Майдані |publisher=0432.ua |date=2009-05-07 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> 50 year old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Killed during clashes by a gunshot wound to the back.<ref name="18ж">{{cite web|url=http://society.lb.ua/accidents/2014/02/19/256092_poyavilsya_perviy_spisok_pogibshih.html |title=Появился первый список погибших (ФАМИЛИИ) |publisher=Society.lb.ua |date=2014-02-19 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Serhiy Didych || [[Svoboda (political party)|Svoboda]] member. 44 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Killed during clashes with the riot police and [[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]] on Hrushevskoho street. According to his friend a grenade explosion ruptured his carotid artery.<ref name=pravda18FebWar>{{cite web|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/articles/2014/02/18/7014151/ |title=The war on streets of Kyiv, 18 Feb 2014, in Ukrainian |publisher=Pravda.com.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.expres.ua/news/2014/02/18/102031-tila-vbytyh-yevromaydanivciv-odyn-nyh-maye-beydzhyk-prizvyshchem-foto |title=One dead identified as a VO Svoboda member from Ivano Frankivsk |publisher=Expres.ua}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Antonina Dvoryanets || From [[Brovary]]. [[Kyiv Oblast]]. 62 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Participated in a picketing action. Beaten to death with clubs during clashes on Instytutska Street.<ref name=kplivenight /><ref name="pravo-znaty">{{cite web|url=http://pravo-znaty.org.ua/zavtra-hovatimut-vbitu-berkutom-brovarchanku/|title=Сьогодні у Броварах ховатимуть жінку, яку вбили на барикадах | Маєш право знати - Бровари|publisher=pravo-znaty.org.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Kapinos || From [[Ternopil Oblast]], [[Svoboda (political party)|Svoboda]] member, 29 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Killed during clashes.<ref name="18ж" /> According to his friend, Oleksandr was hit by a grenade, then shot in the head with a rubber bullet at close range. Died in the hospital.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|GEO}} || Zurab Khurtsia || [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]n, 53 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Died from a heart attack on Maidan<ref name=kplivenight>{{cite news|title=Police advance on EuroMaidan at night after government ultimatum (LIVE UPDATES)|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/police-advance-on-euromaidan-following-a-government-ultimatum-live-updates-337067.html|newspaper=Kyiv Post|date=18 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/18/7014410/ |title=На Інститутській лежать дві мертві людини | Українська правда |publisher=Pravda.com.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-02-18}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Kishchuk || From [[Zaporizhia Oblast]]. 58 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Shot during clashes with the riot police and [[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]] on Hrushevskoho street.<ref name=pravda18FebWar /><ref name=espresso18Feb>{{cite web|url=http://espreso.tv/new/2014/02/18/staly_vidomi_imena_trokh_zahyblykh_protestuvalnykiv |title=Three killed protesters identified |publisher=Espreso.tv |date=2014-02-18 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andriy Korchak || [[Boryslav]]. [[Lviv Oblast]] 1964-07-18 || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Beaten by "Berkut" and died from a head injury in the hospital.<ref name="18ж" /><ref name="gazeta">{{cite web|url=http://gazeta.ua/articles/politics-newspaper/_andrij-korchak-buv-na-majdani-z-listopada/543144|title=Андрій Корчак був на Майдані з листопада | Новини на Gazeta.ua|publisher=gazeta.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Kulchytskyi || From [[Kyiv]]. 65 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Killed by two bullets during clashes.<ref name="18ж" />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Naumov || Member of Euromaidan self-defense units, from [[Donetsk Oblast]]. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Body found on [[Trukhaniv Island]] near the Dnipro River. Police accused Naumov of suicide.<ref name=kplivenight /><ref name="pravda">{{cite web|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/19/7014638/|title=На Трухановому острові знайшли тіло активіста – Українська правда|publisher=pravda.com.ua|accessdate=3 April 2014}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Plekhanov || 22 year-old college student from [[Kyiv]]. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Killed during clashes<ref>{{cite web|url=https://charter97.org/be/news/2014/2/19/87348/ |title=UDAR: one killed was 22 year young, the whole hospital was crying, charter97.org from censor.net, in Russian |publisher=Charter97.org |date=2014-02-19 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ihor Serdyuk || From [[Kremenchuk]]. 40 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Executed by "titushkas" thugs and "Berkut" next to Mariinksy Park. He was building a barricade at the time.<ref name="spisok"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Serhiy Shapoval || From [[Kyiv]]. 45 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Shot during clashes with the riot police and [[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]] on Hrushevskoho street.<ref name=pravda18FebWar /><ref name=espresso18Feb />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vyacheslav Veremiy || Journalist for Vesti newspaper; lost 1 eye during the Hrushevskoho Street riots weeks prior; survived by a 4-year-old son.<ref>[http://www.unian.ua/politics/886215-v-likarni-shvidkoji-dopomogi-pomer-jurnalist.html In emergency died a journalist]. [[UNIAN]]. February 19, 2014</ref> || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Pulled out of a taxi on his way home from work and then shot in the chest by government-paid thugs.<ref name="theinsider">{{cite web|url=http://www.theinsider.ua/politics/5304294c36b13/|title=У БСП помер журналіст газети "Вести"|publisher=INSIDER|accessdate=3 April 2014}}</ref><ref name="vesti">{{cite web|url=http://vesti.ua/kiev/38201-neizvestnye-zhestko-izbili-zhurnalista-i-it-specialista-vestej|title=Неизвестные расстреляли журналиста "Вестей" | Киев | Вести|publisher=vesti.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref> A targeted killing. Driver was also severely beaten with lacerations to his legs.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140226155757/http://wiadomosci.wp.pl/kat,1356,title,Dziennikarz-zastrzelony-w-Kijowie-nowe-fakty,wid,16417872,wiadomosc.html Dziennikarz zastrzelony w Kijowie - nowe fakty (Journalist shot at Kiev - new facts)] WP.pl Wiadomości, 2014-02-20 (Internet Archive).</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || [[Yakiv Zaiko]] || Former [[People's Deputy of Ukraine]], [[Zhytomyr]]. 73 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Died from heart attack while being chased by "Berkut" special unit.<ref name="telekritika">{{cite web|url=http://www.telekritika.ua/profesija/2014-02-20/90663|title=Помер журналіст і народний депутат першого скликання Яків Зайко|publisher=telekritika.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andriy Chernenko || Slobodo-Petrivka, [[Poltava Oblast]], 35 years old. Survived by 7 -month-old daughter. || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 ||<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Yuriy Paskhalin || From [[Cherkasy Oblast]]. 30 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 || 3 Gunshot wounds in the back and 1 pneumatic injury<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Dmytro Maksymov || From [[Kyiv]], 19 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Injured by a grenade explosion, lost an arm, died of blood loss.<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vitaliy Vasyltsov || from [[Bila Tserkva]]. {{birth year and age|1977}} || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 ||Shot on Velyka Zhitomirska st.<ref name="identified">{{cite web|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/20/7015286/|title=Оновлений список загиблих під час сутичок в Києві, серед них - журналіст – Українська правда|publisher=pravda.com.ua|accessdate=3 April 2014}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Serhiy Baidovsky || from [[Lutsk]], originally from [[Novovolynsk]]. 22 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed on Maidan Square<ref name="identified"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || [[Serhiy Bondarchuk(Heaven's Hundred)|Serhiy Bondarchuk]] || from [[Starokostiantyniv]]. {{birth year and age|1961}} Teacher of Physics.<ref name="svoboda"/> || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire<ref name="identified"/><ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Mykola Dziavulsky || Born in [[Krasnoyarsky Krai]], [[Russia]]. Lived in [[Shepetivka]], [[Khmelnytskyi Oblast]]. {{birth year and age|1958}} Teacher of geography and biology || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire on Instytutska Street.<ref name="svoboda">[http://www.svoboda.org.ua/diyalnist/novyny/047956/ In Kiev from vulytsia Instytutska snipers and gunners are targeting people]. Svoboda website. February 20, 2014</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || [[Ustym Holodnyuk]] || from [[Zbarazh]], [[Ternopil Oblast]] {{birth year and age|1994}} 19 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head by sniper fire<ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Eduard Hrynevych || [[Volyn Oblast]], born in 1985 (28 years old) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head by a sniper. Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Serhiy Kemsky || From [[Kerch]], [[Crimea]]. 34 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || [[Ihor Kostenko]] || Journalist from the newspaper Sportanalytic, geography student and contributor to the [[Ukrainian Wikipedia]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wikimediaukraine.wordpress.com/2014/02/23/in-memoriam-of-ihor-kostenko/ |publisher=Wikimedia Ukraine |title=In memoriam of Ihor Kostenko|date=23 February 2014|language=uk}}</ref> from Buchach, [[Ternopil Oblast]]. 22 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 ||Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref>[http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/191501.html Sports newspaper journalist killed in Maidan – editors], [[Interfax-Ukraine]] (20 February 2014)</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ivan Kreman (Panteleyev) || From [[Kremenchuk]], [[Poltava Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire<ref name="svoboda"/><ref name="vpoltave">{{cite web|url=http://vpoltave.info/read/novost/id/200194290/V-spiske-umershikh-na-Kievskom-Majjdane-est-vykhodec-iz-Poltavshhiny|title=В списке умерших на Киевском Майдане есть выходец из Полтавщины|publisher=vpoltave.info|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andrii Movchan || from [[Kyiv]]. 34 years old. Democratic Alliance activist|| data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire. According to a friend, Andrii was bringing food to Maidan when he was killed.<ref name="civicua">{{cite web|url=http://www.civicua.org/news/view.html?q=2184563|title=Перегляд публікації :: Новини :: Громадський Простiр|publisher=civicua.org|accessdate=3 April 2014}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Roman Nikulichev || [[Kyiv]], 21 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || <ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Dmytro Pahor || [[Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine|Khmelnytskyi]], 21 y/o || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head next to the SBU office in Khmelnitsky<ref name="ye">{{cite web|url=http://ye.ua/news/news_15321.html|title=Вбитого під СБУ Дмитра Пагора ховатимуть завтра | Новини Хмельницького "Є" | ye.ua|publisher=ye.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Yuriy Parashchuk || Lived in [[Kharkiv]], born in Talne, [[Cherkasy Oblast]]. Born in 1966 (47 y/o) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head and killed by sniper fire on Instytutska Street.<ref name=spisok>{{cite web|url=http://society.lb.ua/accidents/2014/02/20/256239_poyavilsya_predvaritelniy_spisok.html|title=Список погибших в ходе акций протеста в Украине (январь-март 2014). Дополняется - В списке 115 человек, включая милиционеров. - LB.ua|publisher=society.lb.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Anatoliy Korneyev || From Havrylivtsi, [[Khmelnytskyi Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire.<ref name="spisok"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andriy Sayenko || From [[Fastiv]]. 42 years old|| data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || 7th [[Sotnia]] of Maidan Self-Defense. Killed by a sniper<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oWKz471g0vw Bodies of victims]. #Euromaidan thru youtube. February 20, 2014</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Yosyp Shylinh || {{birth date and age|1953|02|14}} From [[Drohobych]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head by a sniper next to [[October Palace]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Viktor Chmilenko || Borysivka, [[Bobrynets Raion]] {{birth year and age|1961}} || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire<ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vitaliy Smolinsky || Furmanivka village. From [[Cherkasy Oblast]]. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Bohdan Solchanyk || From [[Stary Sambir]], [[Lviv Oblast]], Professor of [[Ukrainian Catholic University]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 ||Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Igor Tkachuk || [[Znamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast|Znamensk]], [[Kaliningrad Oblast]] ([[Russia]]) {{birth year and age|1975}}. Father of three children with the youngest only a year old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire.<ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Bohdan Ilkiv || Shirets, [[Lviv Oblast]], 51 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-22" | 22 February 2014 || Shot twice in the stomach on Maidan. Died in the hospital.<ref name="society">{{cite web|url=http://society.lb.ua/accidents/2014/02/21/256239_poyavilsya_predvaritelniy_spisok.html|title=Список погибших в ходе акций протеста в Украине (январь-март 2014). Дополняется - В списке 115 человек, включая милиционеров. - LB.ua|publisher=society.lb.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Roman Tochyn || [[Khodoriv]] {{birth year and age|1970}}, Svoboda party member || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head by a sniper.<ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Tsariok || Kalinin, [[Vasylkiv Raion]], [[Kyiv Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire<ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleh Ushnevych || [[Drohobych]] {{birth year and age|1982}} || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire<ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Roman Varenytsia || from [[Yavoriv Raion]]. {{birth date and age|1978|12|14}} || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire<ref name="identified"/><ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Nazar Voytovych || A 17 year-old from Travneve village, [[Ternopil Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Anatoliy Zhalovaha || [[Lviv]], born in 1980 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Anatoliy Zherebnyh || Rudky, [[Lviv Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Bohdan Vaida || Letnya village, [[Lviv Oblast]], 48 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the chest by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Chaplinsky || [[Obukhiv]], born in 1979 (34 y/o) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the neck by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ihor Dmytriv || Kopanky village, [[Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast]], 30 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the chest by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andriy Dyhdalovych || Sokilnyky, [[Pustomyty Raion]], [[Lviv Oblast]], born in 1973 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot by a sniper while covering a friend.<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Roman Hurik || [[Ivano-Frankivsk]], born in 1994 || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 || Shot in the head by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vitaliy Kotsyuba || [[Lviv]], 32 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || <ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Khrapachenko|| Theatre director from [[Rivne]], originally from Zdolbunov, 1987 (26 years old) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head and killed by sniper fire.<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vasyl Moysei || Kivertsi, [[Volyn Oblast]], born in 1992 (21 y/o) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the chest by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Valeriy Opanasyuk || [[Rivne]], born in 1971. Had 4 children. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Pavliuk || [[Kolomyia]], [[Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast]], about 40 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot 4 times, once in the head. Died in the hospital <ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Leonid Polyanksy || About 35 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Body found in morgue on Oranhereyna Street<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Shcherbaniuk || From [[Chernivtsi]], Batkivshchina party member. Afghanistan war veteran. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the heart by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Maksym Shymko || From [[Vinnytsia]], 33 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot by a sniper <ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ivan Tarasiuk || Olyka village, [[Volyn Oblast]], born in 1993, 21 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by a sniper.<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ivan Bliok || [[Horodok, Lviv Oblast|Horodok]], [[Lviv Oblast]], born in 1973 (40 y/o) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the heart by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Mykola Pankiv || Lapayivka, [[Lviv Oblast]], 39 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the chest<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vasyly Prohorskiy || [[Kyiv]], 33 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Went to Maidan on Feb 18, was missing, found dead and tortured.<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Viktor Shvets || Hatne village, [[Kyiv Oblast]], born in 1957 || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 || Shot in the stomach 3 times<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Zherebniy || Born in Vyshnya village (moved to Rudky), [[Lviv Oblast]], born in 1985 (28 years old) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the neck by a sniper<ref name="zik">{{cite web|url=http://zik.ua/ua/news/2014/02/23/rudky_shcho_na_lvivshchyni_proshchalysya_z_voinom_nebesnoi_sotni_volodymyrom_zherebnym_464005|title=Рудки що на Львівщині прощалися з воїном Небесної Сотні Володимиром Жеребним|publisher=zik.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Liudmyla Sheremeta || [[Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine|Khmelnytskyi]], 73 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-22" | 22 February 2014 || Shot in the head by an SBU officer on 19 February 2014 during the storming of [[Security Service of Ukraine|SBU]] office in [[Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine|Khmelnitsky]]. Died in the hospital three days later.<ref name="crime">{{cite web|url=http://crime.in.ua/taxonomy/term/3977|title=Людмила Шеремета | CRIME.in.UA|publisher=crime.in.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.segodnya.ua/regions/lvov/v-hmelnickom-umerla-zhenshchina-kotoruyu-podstrelili-vo-vremya-shturma-sbu-497895.html |title=В Хмельницком умерла женщина, которую подстрелили во время штурма СБУ - Новости Львова - Женщина получила огнестрельное ранение в голову | СЕГОДНЯ |publisher=Segodnya.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Yevhen Kotliar || [[Kharkiv]], born in 1980 (33 y/o) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot on Instytutska Street.<ref name="kp">{{cite web|url=http://kp.ua/daily/210214/440066/|title=Евгений Котляр: на Майдане погиб активист-эколог из Харькова - Евромайдан | KP.UA|publisher=kp.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ivan Horodniuk || Berezne, [[Rivne Oblast]], 29 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 || On 18 February, was beaten by "Berkut" and soaked from a water cannon. Returned home 19 February and died from a heart attack same night.<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andriy Tsepun || [[Kyiv]], 35 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-21" | 21 February 2014 || EuroMaidan activist, found beaten to death.<ref name="crime.in.ua">{{cite web|url=http://crime.in.ua/news/20140223/zepun|title=Небесная сотня пополнилась бойцом: активиста Самообороны похитили и убили по дороге домой | CRIME.in.UA|publisher=crime.in.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Maksym Mashkov || || data-sort-value="2014-02-21" | 21 February 2014 || Died in the hospital <ref name="crime.in.ua"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Maksym Horoshishin || Hrushivka village, [[Cherkasy Oblast]], 25 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Died from gas grenade poisoning during the clashes on Instytutska Street.<ref name="procherk">{{cite web|url=http://procherk.info/news/7-cherkassy/21286-u-pamjat-pro-zagiblih-na-majdani-nazvut-dvi-vulitsi-na-cherkaschini|title=У пам’ять про загиблих на Майдані назвуть дві вулиці на Черкащині — ПРОЧЕРК.інфо|publisher=procherk.info|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|UKR}} || Georgiy Arutiunyan || Georgian Citizen of Armenian descent, lived in [[Rivne]], born in 1960. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot by a sniper. Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Melnychuk || Lived in [[Kyiv]], 40 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Was helping Euromaidan activists. Shot in the neck by a sniper while standing next to his wife.<ref name="ntn">{{cite web|url=http://ntn.ua/uk/news/murders/2014/02/23/13001|title=Снайпер застрелив беззбройного киянина - Вбивства - Телеканал НТН|publisher=ntn.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|GEO}} || David Kipiani || Republic of Georgia || data-sort-value="2014-02-21" | 21 February 2014 || Found wounded, likely shot by a sniper, next to the barricades on Khmelnytsky Street, died in the emergency vehicle.<ref name="kavkaz-uzel">{{cite web|url=http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/238482/|title=Кавказский Узел | В Киеве погиб гражданин Грузии Давид Кипиани|publisher=kavkaz-uzel.ru|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Victor Chernets || Podibna, [[Cherkasy Oblast]], born in 1977 || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 || Died from injury caused by the collision with an unidentified SUV while guarding an improvised checkpoint built to block special units and thugs on Kyiv-Odesa highway. The SUV was storming the checkpoint to open the way for the Interior troops.<ref name="crime2">{{cite web|url=http://crime.in.ua/statti/20140222/nebesna-sotnya|title=Не забудем, не простим: "Небесная сотня" (обновляется) | CRIME.in.UA|publisher=crime.in.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Scherbatyuk || From [[Chernivtsi]]; 46 years old; Jewish; Afghan war veteran || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by snipers.<ref name="timesofisrael">{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/jewish-afghan-war-vet-killed-fighting-in-kiev-buried/#ixzz2uTjN9ofV|title=Jewish Afghan War vet killed fighting in Kiev | The Times of Israel|publisher=timesofisrael.com|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Topiy || Vyshnya village, [[Lviv Oblast]], 57 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 January 2014 || Died during the fire at the Trade Unions Building<ref name="ukr.net">{{cite web|url=http://www.ukr.net/theheavenshundred.html|title=Список загиблих учасників Євромайдану|publisher=ukr.net|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Zubok || [[Chernihiv Oblast]], born in 1985 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 January 2014 || <ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Viktor Khomyak || Euromaidan activist || data-sort-value="2014-01-27" | 27 January 2014 || Body found hung on the Christmas Tree on the Maidan. Details are unknown.<ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Viktor Prokhorchuk || born in 1975 (38 years old) || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Member of the self-defense. Was found with his throat slit on the backyard of a Kreshchatik house a week after disappearance on 18 February.<ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andriy Zhanovachiy || born in 1964 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20? February 2014 || <ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Boykiv || born in 1955 || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 || <ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksiy Bratushko || From [[Sumy]], born in 1971 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot by a sniper on Instytutska Street.<ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ihor Batchinsky || 30 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-25" | 25 February 2014 || <ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Mykola Tarshchuk || born in 1975 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the neck by a sniper<ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Mykola Semisiuk || From [[Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine|Khmelnytskyi]], born in 1986 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head by a sniper<ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ihor Pehenko || [[Vyshhorod]], [[Kyiv Oblast]], born in 1970, 43 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the neck by a sniper<ref name="pamjat">{{cite web|url=http://pamjat.org/memory/88-pehenko.html|title=Книга пам'яті - Плеханов Олександр Вікторович|publisher=pamjat.org|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vladyslav Zubenko || "Svoboda" Party activist from [[Kharkiv]], born in 1991, 22 years old|| data-sort-value="2014-02-28" | 28 February 2014 || Shot by a sniper 20 February, died from the wounds in the hospital.<ref name="pamjat2">{{cite web|url=http://pamjat.org/memory/87-zubenko.html|title=Книга пам'яті - Пехенько Ігор Олександрович|publisher=pamjat.org|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Artem Mazur || 26 years old|| data-sort-value="2014-03-03" | 3 March 2014 || Sustained heavy head trauma, died from the wounds in the hospital.<ref name="vgorode">{{cite web|url=http://kiev.vgorode.ua/news/213483-ushel-yz-zhyzny-esche-odyn-aktyvyst-maidana-kem-byl-artem-mazur|title=Майдан онлайн: умер еще один активист Майдана|publisher=kiev.vgorode.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Taras Slobodian || From [[Ternopil Oblast]], 31 years old|| data-sort-value="2014-03-05" | 5 March 2014 || Disappeared from Maidan, tortured body was found in the woods of Sumskiy Forest.<ref name="tv4">{{cite web|url=http://www.tv4.te.ua/nadzvychaine/3473-pokhovaly-zakatovanoho-tarasa-slobodiana|title=Поховали закатованого Тараса Слободяна|publisher=tv4.te.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Mykhailo Kostyshyn || Nyzhniy Strutyn, [[Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-26" | 26 February 2014 ||Was on Maidan from the first days. Beaten to death in January 2014, was in the hospital for almost a month but did not recover.<ref name="gazeta2">{{cite web|url=http://gazeta.ua/articles/life/_pomer-sche-odin-aktivist-majdanu/544614|title=Помер ще один активіст Майдану | Новини на Gazeta.ua|publisher=gazeta.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Artur Khuntsaar || From [[Ivano-Frankivsk]], born in 1984 (29 years old)|| data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Killed by a sniper.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Yuriy Nechiporuk || From [[Khmilnyk]], [[Vinnytsia Oblast]], 30 years old|| data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Euromaidan activist, kidnapped and brutally killed by thugs. Sustained 20 knife wounds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espreso.tv/new/2014/02/28/titushky_vbyly_aktyvista_maydanu |title=Тітушки вбили активіста Майдану |publisher=Espreso.tv |date=2014-02-28 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Anatoliy Kurach || From [[Rivne]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-21" | 21 February 2014 || Died because of a head trauma received on Maidan<ref name="vse">{{cite web|url=http://vse.rv.ua/news/1393012891-u-pomerlogo-v-likarni-rivnenskogo-protestuvalnika-bula-travma-golovi.html|title=У померлого в лікарні рівненського протестувальника була травма голови | ВСЕ - сайт чесних новин|publisher=vse.rv.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Badera || From [[Volodymyr-Volynsky]], born in 1948 (66 years old) || data-sort-value="2014-01-28" | 28 January 2014 || Died because of trauma received 22 January 2014 on Hrushevskoho Street.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Baliuk || From Lypovy village, [[Zhytomyr Oblast]], born in 1974 (39 years old) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Received a firearm wound to the chest. Was trying to rescue another person.<ref name="nebesnasotnya">{{cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/http://nebesnasotnya.org/%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BA-%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80-%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87|title=Олександр Олександрович Балюк. Небесна Сотня Майдану | Небесна Сотня Майдану|publisher=web.archive.org|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Reshat Ametov || From [[Crimea]], born in 1975. Father of 3 children. || data-sort-value="2014-03-03" | 3 March 2014? || Participated in the protests against separatism movement. Disappeared 3 March, found on 15 March tortured to death.<ref name="censor">{{cite web|url=http://censor.net.ua/news/276351/zverski_ubitogo_krymskogo_tatarina_zvali_reshat_ametov_troe_maloletnih_deteyi_osiroteli_foto|title=Зверски убитого крымского татарина звали Решат Аметов. Трое малолетних детей осиротели. ФОТО - Крым, Россия, татары, Украина, Агрессия России против Украины (18.03.14 01:57) « Политика Украины « Новости | Цензор.НЕТ|publisher=censor.net.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vyacheslav Vorona || Born in [[Prypyat]], lived in Kyiv || data-sort-value="2014-03-09" | 9 March 2014 || Received a head injury during the clashes, was brought to the intensive care, never recovered from coma.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vasyl Aksenin || From Letyache, [[Ternopil Oblast]], born in 1961. || data-sort-value="2014-03-12" | 12 March 2014 || Was heavily wounded on 20 February in Kyiv. At the end of February he was sent for treatment to Poland, but did not survive.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Olha Bura || From Rypne, [[Lviv Oblast]], born in 1986. || data-sort-value="2014-03-10" | 10 March 2014 || Participated in the protests since the end of November. Died at a hospital from the serious injuries received during the clashes.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vasyl Sheremet || From Lanchyn, [[Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast]], born in 1949 (64 y/o). || data-sort-value="2014-03-07" | 7 March 2014 || Died from wounds sustained during the clashes with "Berkut"
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ivan Nakonechny || From Kyiv, born in 1931 (82 years old). || data-sort-value="2014-03-07" | 7 March 2014 || Navy officer. Was on the Euromaidan since 30 November. Died from wounds sustained during the clashes on Instytutska Street on 19 February 2014.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Petro Hadzha || Lived in Kyiv, born in [[Rakhiv]], [[Zakarpattia Oblast]], born in 1966 (47 years old). || data-sort-value="2014-03-22" | 22 March 2014 || Was on the Euromaidan since its first days. Member of the 8th Sotnia. Died in the hospital due to gas poisoning which he had sustained during the clashes on Hrushevskoho Street.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Dmytro Chernyavskiy || Born in the [[Donetsk Oblast]]. Studied at Lviv National University, born in 1992 (22 years old). || data-sort-value="2014-03-13" | 13 March 2014 || On 13 March, participated in the meeting for the unity of Ukraine in the city of Donetsk. Was stabbed to death in clashes with pro-Russian activists.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Roman Olikh || Born in the village of Hybalivka, [[Vinnytsia Oblast]]. || data-sort-value="2014-02-15" | 15 February 2014 || Came to Maidan in January. On the 6th of February he was injured and taken to a hospital in Kyiv. Fell into coma and never recovered.
|}

===Unnamed dead activists===
[[File:Орден Героїв Небесної Сотні.PNG|thumbnail|[[Order of the Heavenly Hundred Heroes]]]]
There are currently some unidentified activists who were reported killed during the conflict.
*During the Hrushevskoho Street riots, a 22 year-old man died falling from the colonnade near the [[Lobanovsky Dynamo Stadium]] during a beating by police; the cause of death was multiple injuries, particularly spine fracture.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://espreso.tv/new/2014/01/22/zmi_aktyvist_pobytyy_berkutom_na_kolonadi_dynamo_pomer|title=Mass media: Activist who was beaten by Berkut on colonnade of Dynamo died (ЗМІ: Активіст, побитий "Беркутом" на колонаді "Динамо", помер)|newspaper=[[Espresso TV]]|date=22 January 2014|accessdate=22 January 2014|language=uk}}</ref>
*Two unnamed shooting victims were announced by Euromaidan medical service coordinators on the evening of the 22nd.<ref name=kpj22deaths>{{cite news|title=Five killed, at least 300 injured, in police assaults on EuroMaidan protesters|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/five-killed-at-least-300-injured-in-police-assaults-on-euromaidan-protesters-335386.html|newspaper=[[Kyiv Post]]|date=22 January 2014|accessdate=22 January 2014}}</ref> The identity of the two remains unknown as their bodies disappeared from the street after the assault of Berkut in the early morning 22 January 2014.<ref>[http://dt.ua/UKRAINE/u-likarni-v-kritichnomu-stani-pislya-vognepalnogo-poranennya-znahoditsya-sche-odin-protestuvalnik-136045_.html Another protesters is located in hospital in critical condition after a gunshot wound].[[Mirror Weekly]]. 22 January 2014</ref> Roman Senyk was later identified as shot and killed on this date.
*On 26 January, the body of a man was found in the Obolon district of Kyiv, with his hands bound.<ref name="pravda2">{{cite web|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/01/26/7011373/|title=На околиці Києва знайшли замерзле тіло, зв'язане по руках і ногах. МВС: смерть не насильницька – Українська правда|publisher=pravda.com.ua|accessdate=3 April 2014}}</ref>
*On 29 January, two male activists, one younger and one older, were shot on Hrushevskoho Street and brought to a Kyiv hospital. The latter died from the gunshot wounds the following day.<ref name="censor2">{{cite web|url=http://censor.net.ua/news/268748/v_stolichnoyi_bolnitse_ot_ognestrelnyh_raneniyi_umer_esche_odin_aktivist_smi|title=убийство активистов: В столичной больнице от огнестрельных ранений умер еще один активист, - СМИ - Беркут, избиение, Киев, смерть, стрельба, убийство, евромайдан, Революция в Украине, убийство активистов (30.01.14 08:58) « Политика Украины « Новости | Цензор.НЕТ|publisher=censor.net.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref> A [[Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform|UDAR]] MP accused police of shooting the two as a provocation.<ref name="ictv">{{cite web|url=http://fakty.ictv.ua/ua/index/read-news/id/1502096|title=У лікарні від вогнепального поранення помер активіст з Грушевського - джерело - "Факти"|publisher=fakty.ictv.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
*On 15 February, the body of a missing Euromaidan activist was found outside of Kyiv.<ref name="sled">{{cite web|url=http://sled.net.ua/node/11653|title=Под Киевом нашли обезображенный труп ещё одного евромайдановца, – ВК "Наступление" | СЛЕД.net.ua|publisher=sled.net.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref><ref name="unn">{{cite web|url=http://www.unn.com.ua/uk/news/1305055-pid-kiyevom-znayshli-trup-sche-odnogo-yevromaydanivtsya-vk-nastup|title=Під Києвом знайшли труп ще одного євромайданівця - ВК "Наступ". Інформаційне агентство Українські Національні Новини (УНН). Всі онлайн новини дня в Україні за сьогодні - найсвіжіші, останні, головні.|publisher=unn.com.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
*On 18–19 February, 16 protesters were killed in clashes with police,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/19/7014688/ |title=У МОЗ підтверджують загибель 25 людей (25 dead confirmed by Ministry of Healthcare), in Ukrainian |publisher=Pravda.com.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> of whom 7 have been named.
*Later, on 19 February at 9pm, a young man was killed in Khmelnytsky outside the SBU building in further clashes with police.<ref name="tsn">{{cite web|url=http://tsn.ua/ukrayina/pri-shturmi-sbu-v-hmelnickomu-zastrelili-cholovika-335453.html|title=При штурмі СБУ в Хмельницькому застрелили чоловіка - Новини України на 1+1 - ТСН.ua|publisher=tsn.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref> 5Kanal reported both a 23 year-old and a 16 year-old were shot and killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ouepZWm3wxE |title=#Хмельницький у вогні / #Євромайдан |publisher=YouTube |date=2014-02-19 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>
*On 20 February, at least 34 protesters were shot dead by police as of 1pm, with reporters verifying the bodies (15 at Kozatsky Hotel, 12 at Ukraine Hotel, 7 at the central post office).<ref name=kplive20>{{cite news|title=Ukraine death toll rising on Feb. 20 with at least 42 people killed, most by gunshots from police|url= http://www.kyivpost.com/content/kyiv/ukraine-death-toll-rising-on-feb-20-with-at-least-42-people-killed-most-by-gunshots-from-police-live-updates-video-337236.html|newspaper=Kyiv Post|date=20 February 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201194141/http://www.kyivpost.com/content/kyiv/ukraine-death-toll-rising-on-feb-20-with-at-least-42-people-killed-most-by-gunshots-from-police-live-updates-video-337236.html|archivedate=21 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rte.ie/news/2014/0220/505470-foreign-ministers-meet-to-consider-ukraine-crisis/|title=Ukraine protesters take back Kiev square|work=[[RTÉ News and Current Affairs|RTÉ News]]|accessdate=20 February 2014}}</ref> Kyiv Post journalists reported an additional eight bodies on Khreshchatyk Street early afternoon, separate from the previous body count.<ref name=kplive20 /> Dr. [[Olha Bohomolets]], one of the attending physicians to 12 fatal gunshot victims at Ukraine Hotel, said that the victims were shot with high-precision rifles and powerful ammunition that broke their bones.<ref name=kplive20 />



===Other victims===
Militants from the [[Social-National Assembly]] and the "[[Patriots of Ukraine]]" seized and burned on February 18, 2014 the central office of the ruling party - the [[Party of Regions]]. A bystander, 57-year old IT engineer{{Who|date=August 2014}} who tried to stop the attackers from entering the server room, was beaten to death by maidan activists.<ref>{{ru icon}} Маргарита Чимирис, Анастасия Браткова (Margarita Chemeris, Anastasia Bratkova). [http://reporter.vesti.ua/45908-kto-shagaet-s-pravoj Кто шагает с правой: Радикалы Майдана хотят продолжения революции. Власть называет их провокаторами] (Who walks ''right'': Maidan radicals want to continue revolution. Authorities call them provocateurs), ''Internet-newspaper Vesti.ua'', № 12(30), 4–10 April 2014.</ref><ref>[https://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/radical-protesters-burst-into-party-of-regions-kyiv-office-337006.html Radical protesters burst into Party of Regions' Kyiv office], ''Kyiv Post'', February 18, 2014.</ref>

===Police officers' deaths===
[[File:Berkut special police soldier holding a shotgun pointed at the line of protesters, Hrushevskoho str. Euromaidan Protests. Events of Jan 19, 2014.jpg|thumb|right|200пкс|Special Operations police "[[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]]" member on the Hrushevskoho Street in Kyiv (19 January 2014)]]
The Interior Ministry's main investigations department has dismissed two deaths which occurred during the crisis as having no relation to Euromaidan or civil unrest.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ukrainian detectives say killings of two police officers not linked to protests|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/ukrainian-detectives-say-killings-of-two-police-officers-not-linked-to-protests-336014.html|newspaper=Kyiv Post|date=Jan 31, 2014}}</ref>

On 30 January 2014, Minister of Internal Affairs, [[Vitaliy Zakharchenko]] officially announced that 30 year-old captain of the [[Internal Troops of Ukraine]] Dmytro Donets died from heart attack as a consequence of daily stress from the standoff on Hrushevskoho.<ref>[http://www.radiosvoboda.org/content/article/25247681.html Law officer who worked on Hrushevskoho died from heart attack, - Zakharchenko].[[Radio Svoboda]]. January 30, 2014</ref> Later the same day it became known that Donets was found already dead when his unit was alerted, while being quartered in the village of Stare ([[Boryspil Raion]]).<ref>[http://poglyad.te.ua/podii/ministr-zbrehav.-kapitan-donets-pomer-ne-na-hrushevskoho/ Minister lied. Captain Donets did not died on Hrushevskoho]. Pohliad. January 30, 2014</ref><ref>[http://fakty.ictv.ua/ua/index/read-news/id/1502191 Details on the death of the captain of Internal Troops]. Facts (ICTV). January 30, 2014</ref> On 18 February, six officers were killed during an attack on protest camps in Kyiv.<ref name=BBCPoliceStormCamp>{{cite web|title=Ukraine police storm main Kiev protest camp|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26249330|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=18 February 2014|accessdate=18 February 2014}}</ref>

As of 2 March, The Ministry of Internal Affairs reported 18 police-officer fatalities related to the conflict.<ref name="MSV-03.02.14"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Nationality
! Rank
! Name
! Details
! data-sort-type="isoDate" | Date of death
! Cause of death/Reference
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Lieutenant || Dmytro Vlasenko || Born 1982, [[Internal Troops of Ukraine|Internal Troops]] (Crimea) || 18 February 2014 ||<ref name=mvsofficialfeb19>{{cite web|title=ВІТАЛІЙ ЗАХАРЧЕНКО: "У ПОДІЯХ В КИЄВІ ВИННІ БЕЗВІДПОВІДАЛЬНІ ПОЛІТИКИ|url=http://mvs.gov.ua/mvs/control/main/uk/publish/article/984266|publisher=MVS Ukraine|accessdate=19 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Lieutenant || Vitaliy Honcharov || Born 1989, Internal Troops (Crimea) || 18 February 2014 ||<ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Lieutenant || Volodymyr Yevtushok || Born 1971, Patrol Service (Kyiv) || 18 February 2014 || <ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Senior Lieutenant || Andriy Fediukin || Born 1972, Berkut (Crimea) || 18 February 2014 || <ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Oleksiy Ivanenko || Born 1977, Internal Troops (Kharkiv) || 18 February 2014 || <ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Lieutenant || Petro Savitsky || Born 1972, Patrol Service (Kyiv) || 18 February 2014 || <ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Sergeant || Vasil' Bulitko || Born 1986, Berkut (Kyiv) || 18 February 2014 ||<ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Sergeant || Serhiy Tsvihun || Born 1990, Berkut (Zaporizhia) || 18 February 2014 ||<ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Ivan Tepliuk || Born 1993, Internal Troops (Kyiv) || 18 February 2014 ||<ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Maxim Tretiak || Born 1993, Internal Troops (Kyiv) || 18 February 2014 ||<ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Serhiy Spichak || Berdyansk (Zaporizhia region)|| 19 February 2014 || <ref name="volkmedia.info">{{cite web|url=http://www.volkmedia.info/news/berdyansk-pervaya-krov-i-pervyie-zhertvyi-maydana|title=Бердянск. Первая кровь и первые жертвы майдана. | ГДЕ ВЫ, ВОЛКИ?!|publisher=volkmedia.info|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Volodymyr Zubok || || || <ref name="censorMarch17">{{cite web|url=http://censor.net.ua/news/276347/na_17_marta_120_pogibshih_na_mayidane_i_po_ukraine_spisok|title=На 17 марта - 120 погибших на Майдане и по Украине. СПИСОК - Клюев, санкции, Янукович, Люстрация палачей Майдана (18.03.14 01:20) « Политика Украины « Новости | Цензор.НЕТ|publisher=censor.net.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Vitaliy Zakharchenko || || || <ref name="censorMarch17"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Roman Kizik || || || <ref name="censorMarch17"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Nazariy Myrka || || || <ref name="censorMarch17"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Serhiy Mikhaylovych || || || <ref name="censorMarch17"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Mykola Simisiuk || || || <ref name="censorMarch17"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Nikolay Semchuk || Berkut || 20 February 2014 ||
|}

==Legacy==
The name "Heavenly Hundred" refers to the pro-Euromaidan activists killed during Euromaidan.<ref>[http://news.rin.ru/eng/news///41161/ The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine established the order of the Characters hundreds of Heaven], [[news.rin.ru]] (1 July 2014)</ref>

In April 2014 the [[Kyiv City State Administration]] and [[Ministry of Culture (Ukraine)|Culture Ministry of Ukraine]] stated that they expected to open a memorial complex "to the heroes of Heavenly Hundred" in February 2015, on the occasion of the anniversary of the death activists.<ref>[http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/memorial-to-heroes-of-heavenly-hundred-might-be-opened-by-anniversary-of-tragic-events-on-maidan-344928.html Memorial to heroes of Heavenly Hundred might be opened by anniversary of tragic events on Maidan], [[Kyiv Post]] (24 April 2014)</ref>

On 1 July 2014 the [[Verkhovna Rada]] (the parliament of Ukraine) established the [[Order of the Heavenly Hundred Heroes|Medal "Order of Heroes Hundreds of Heaven"]].<ref>[http://iportal.rada.gov.ua/en/news/News/News/page/en/news/News/News/95089.html The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted the Law “On amendments to article 7 of the Law of Ukraine “On National Awards of Ukraine” (re establishing the order of the Heavenly Hundred Heroes)], [[Verkhovna Rada]] (1 July 2014)</ref><ref>{{uk icon}} [http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/07/1/7030598/ The Council established the Order of Heroes Hundreds of Heaven], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (1 July 2014)</ref>

On 25 August 2014 President [[Petro Poroshenko]] claimed he had called the [[2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election]] in order to purify parliament of MPs who had supported "the [[Dictatorship laws in Ukraine|[January 2014] Dictatorship laws]] that took the live of the Heavenly hundred".<ref name=SPne25814>[http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2014/08/25/Ukrainian-President-dissolves-Parliament-announces-early-elections/3261408995210/ Ukrainian President dissolves Parliament, announces early elections], [[United Press International]] (25 August 2014) [http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/ukraine-s-petro-poroshenko-announces-new-parliamentary-elections/505837.html Ukraine's Petro Poroshenko Dissolves Parliament, Sets Election Date], [[The Moscow Times]] (26 August 2014)
</ref><ref>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/31081.html
| title = President's address on the occasion of early parliamentary elections of October 26
| last1 = Poroshenko
| first1 = Petro
| authorlink1 = Petro Poroshenko
| date = 2014-08-25
| website = Petro Poroshenko, President of Ukraine: Official website
| publisher = President of Ukraine
| accessdate = 2014-10-29
| quote = We must begin purification from the highest legislative body. [...] Current composition of Parliament has been the mainstay of Yanukovych for 1.5 years. [...] The majority of these MPs voted for dictatorial laws that took the lives of Nebesna Sotnya.
}}
</ref>

[[Kiev City Council]] renamed a part of Instytutska Street into Heavenly Hundred Heroes Avenue on 20 November 2014.<ref>[http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/235483.html Kyiv Council renames part of Instytutska Street into Heavenly Hundred Heroes Avenue], [[Interfax-Ukraine]] (20 November 2014)</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commonscat-inline|Heavenly Hundred}}
* [http://nebesnasotnya.com.ua/en Website] dedicated to the Heavenly Hundred

{{Euromaidan}}

[[Category:Euromaidan]]
[[Category:People of the Euromaidan|*]]
[[Category:Ukraine-related lists]]

Maidan casualties

2014-12-15T12:04:55Z

JanTurin: /* Identified victims */ date of death corrected

{{multiple image
| align = right
| direction = horizontal
| image1 = Bodies of protesters in the hotel Ukraine lobby. Clashes in Kiev, Ukraine. Events of February 20, 2014-2.jpg
| width1 = 220
| caption1 = Corpses of Yu. Paraschuk, U. Holodnyuk and R. Varenitsya in ''[[Hotel Ukrayina]]''
| image2 = Євромайдан2278.JPG
| width2 = 220
| caption2 = Memorial for killed Euromaidan participants.
| image3 = A moment of silence.JPG
| width3 = 100
| caption3 = Moment of silence in memory of killed Euromaidan participants.
}}

This is the '''list of people killed during [[Euromaidan]]''' events taking place in the fall and winter of 2013–2014. The list contains only confirmed deaths of [[Euromaidan]] participants, Ukrainian policemen and other victims killed by Euromaidan participants. There are currently over 110 identified civilian victims; almost all were protesters. 18 police officers were also killed during the clashes.<ref name="MSV-03.02.14">{{cite web|url=http://mvs.gov.ua/mvs/control/main/ru/publish/article/989615|title=МВС УКРАЇНИ|publisher=mvs.gov.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref> Ukrainian sources often refer to the killed protesters as the '''Heavenly Hundred'''.

On 21 February 2014, [[Verkhovna Rada]] recognized the perished protesters of [[Euromaidan]] as victims.<ref>[http://lb.ua/news/2014/02/21/256541_rada_ustanovila_pomoshch_semyam.html The Rada established help to the families of perished activists]. LB. February 21, 2014</ref> On 21 November 2014 by [[Petro Poroshenko]]'s decree the Heavenly Hundred members were posthumously awarded the [[Hero of Ukraine]] title.<ref>{{cite web|title=УКАЗ ПРЕЗИДЕНТА УКРАЇНИ № 890/2014|url=http://www.president.gov.ua/documents/18477.html|website=Official cite of the President of Ukraine}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry looks at the photos of those killed at Maidan, at the Verkhovna Rada in Kyiv.jpg|thumbnail|right|[[U.S. Secretary of State]] [[John Kerry]] looks at the photos of some of those killed at Maidan, at the Verkhovna Rada in Kyiv (4 March 2014)]]

The first deaths occurred on [[Ukrainian unification day|Unity Day]], 22 January 2014, during [[2014 Hrushevskoho Street riots|riots]] on [[Hrushevskoho Street]] in [[Kiev]], where 3 Euromaidan activists were shot dead. On the same day, a dead body of another Euromaidan activist was found on the outskirts of the city; he was [[kidnapping|kidnapped]] a day before with [[Ihor Lutsenko]], who was released. These were the first victims to die in demonstrations in Ukraine since gaining national independence in 1991. The deaths caused [[Euromaidan#Protests across Ukraine|widespread protests across the country]]. On 23 January 2014, then Prime Minister [[Mykola Azarov]] in an interview with [[BBC]] said that police had not been issued firearms, and denied any police officers were located on the rooftops around the protest area. He made an assumption that the shooting of protesters was a provocation aimed at escalating violence.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/ukrainian/politics/2014/01/140122_azarov_interview_ko.shtml|script-title=uk:Микола Азаров: демонстрантів могли застрелити провокатори|newspaper=BBC Ukrainian|date=23 January 2014|accessdate=23 January 2014|language=uk}}</ref> [[Party of Regions]] MP [[Arsen Klinchayev]] stated during a memorial service in [[Luhansk]] for those killed on 22 January by police, "These people were against the government. Nobody has the right to use physical force against police officers. And then they have their sticks, then stones, then something else. The police have the right to defend their lives. So I think it's right that these four people were killed. Moreover, I believe that you need to be stricter."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.radiosvoboda.org/content/article/25239158.html|script-title=uk:Луганський регіонал назвав правильною загибель людей у Києві|publisher=[[Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty]]|date=3 January 2014|accessdate=23 January 2014|language=uk}}</ref>

5 More deaths in connection with Euromaidan occurred between 25 January and 13 February.

The [[2014 Ukrainian revolution|second active phase]] started February 18. After a brief truce on 19 February, the clashes renewed 20 February. According to the newspaper Ukrainska Pravda, the special force ([[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]]) and [[Internal Troops of Ukraine|Interior Troops]] snipers<ref>[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/20/7015163/ Video of snipers shooting people] [[Ukrainska Pravda]] {{uk icon}}</ref> shot at people on Maidan and/or snipers located in nearby buildings, with special forces firing with AK-74 assault rifles.<ref name="radiosvoboda">{{cite web|url=http://www.radiosvoboda.org/media/video/25270710.html|script-title=uk:Силовики стріляють бойовими набоями із снайперських гвинтівок та автоматів Калашникова|publisher=radiosvoboda.org|accessdate=2014-04-03|language=uk}}</ref> The final death toll from these clashes in late February was 103 protesters and 13 police.<ref>{{cite web|title=Rosjanie próbują ukryć wojska na Krymie przed misją OBWE? Komisja Europejska przyjęła pakiet wsparcia dla Ukrainy. Nawet 11 mld euro|url=http://wyborcza.pl/1,75477,15300590,Po_nocnym_ataku_na_Majdan__Sa_zabici_i_wielu_rannych_.html}}</ref><ref>[http://www.unian.ua/politics/887221-sogodni-v-kievi-vbito-ponad-60-protestuvalnikiv-svoboda.html More than 70 were killed in Kyiv] [[UNIAN]] {{uk icon}}</ref><ref>[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/20/7015249/ Maidan medical service: 70 to 100 poople killed on Thuersday] [[Ukrainska Pravda]] {{uk icon}}</ref> According to the Deputy [[Prosecutor General of Ukraine]] [[Oleh Zalisko]] in February 2014 67 people were killed in Kiev's city centre, 184 sustained gunshot wounds and over 750 suffered bodily injuries (as stated on 9 December 2014).<ref>[http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/238709.html Twenty-two suspects in Maidan shooting probe on wanted list, 13 others to be declared wanted – Ukraine prosecutor], [[Interfax-Ukraine]] (9 December 2014)</ref> On 20 February 2014, the (then) opposition parties ([[Batkivshchyna]], [[UDAR]] and [[Svoboda (political party)|Svoboda]]) released a statement that stated "To hold talks with the regime, the policies of which led to the deaths of many people, is an extremely unpleasant thing but we must do everything possible and even the impossible to prevent further bloodshed".<ref>[http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/191112.html Three Ukrainian opposition forces calling to do everything possible to prevent further bloodshed], [[Interfax-Ukraine]] (19 February 2014)</ref>

At least 17 people died from previously received wounds and injuries since then.

On 21 February 2014. Maidan participants wished last farewell to the perished protesters who they named the Heavenly Hundred.<ref>[http://nbnews.com.ua/ua/news/113764/ At Maidan they wished farewell to the Heavenly hundreds of perished activists]. NBNews. February 22, 2014</ref> During the event, a mourning [[Lemko]] song "A duck floats on [[Tysa River|Tysa]]..." was heard ({{lang-uk|«Плине кача по Тисині…»}}).

On 24 February 2014, the [[Verkhovna Rada]] (Ukraine's parliament) decided to propose [[Ukrainian presidential election, 2014|the next Ukrainian president]] award the title Hero of Ukraine to protesters killed in the clashes with the riot police.<ref>[http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/192492.html Rada confers titles of Heroes of Ukraine on civilians killed in protests], [[Interfax-Ukraine]] (24 February 2014)</ref>

===Identity of snipers===
{{main|Euromaidan#Investigation Into Shooters/Snipers}}
On 30 March 2014, [[The Daily Beast]] published photos which it claimed were of members of the Alfa Group of the [[Security Service of Ukraine|Ukrainian security services]] (SBU) taken on 20 February 2014 and asserted that these troops may have been trained by members of Russian special forces.<ref name="thedailybeast">{{cite web|url=http://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2014/03/30/exclusive-photographs-expose-russian-trained-killers-in-kiev.html|title=Exclusive: Photographs Expose Russian-Trained Killers in Kiev - The Daily Beast|publisher=thedailybeast.com|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>

==Identified victims==
{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Nationality
! Name
! Details
! data-sort-type="isoDate" | Date of death
! Cause of death/Reference
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Yuriy Verbytskyi || A scientist (seismologist) from the Geophysical Institute in [[Lviv]].<ref>[http://www.wz.lviv.ua/ukraine/125464 Вербицький, якого викрадали разом з Луценком, мертвий], Високий Замок (22 січня 2014)</ref> Yury was a member of Lviv's climber society. After his death, the society proposed to name one of the Caucasian mountains after Verbytskyi—the idea was supported by the Georgian climber society which is currently looking for an unnamed mountain hill.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://life.pravda.com.ua/person/2014/01/30/150488/ |title=One of the Caucasian mountains may be named after Verbytskyi, Ukrpravda 30.01.2014, in Ukrainian |publisher=Life.pravda.com.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> || data-sort-value="2014-01-21" | 21 or 22 January 2014|| Verbytskyi was kidnapped from the Oleksandivsky Hospital together with [[Ihor Lutsenko]] on 21 January 2014.<ref>[http://www.radiosvoboda.org/content/article/25238996.html Брат Юрія Вербицького упізнав тіло, знайдене у лісосмузі], Радіо Свобода (22 січня 2014)</ref> His body was found on 22 January close to village Gnidyn of [[Boryspil Raion]], with signs of torture.<ref>[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/01/22/7010706/ У Бориспільському районі виявлено два трупи зі слідами тортур], Українська правда (22 січня 2014)</ref> However, the official cause of death was said to be hypothermia.<ref name="2_трупи_ліс_21-22.01_УП">[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/01/22/7010792/ ВЕРБИЦЬКИЙ, ЯКОГО ВИКРАДАЛИ РАЗОМ ІЗ ЛУЦЕНКОМ, МЕРТВИЙ]. Українська правда. 22.01.2014</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Pavlo Mazurenko || Participated in [[Euromaidan]]<ref>[http://glavred.info/stolica/podrobnosti-smerti-za-maydan-vrachi-uveryayut-chto-izbityy-umer-ot-pnevmonii-267128.html Подробности смерти «за Майдан»: врачи уверяют, что избитый умер от пневмонии], ГЛАВРЕД (26 грудня 2013)</ref> || data-sort-value="2014-01-25" | 22 December 2014 || According to his wife, as reported by the Ukrayinska Pravda, Pavlo Mazurenko (41 years old) was beaten up on 18 December 2013 by three law enforcement agents in the neighborhood of [[Borshchahivka]] (Mykilska).<ref name=mazurenko>{{cite news|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2013/12/24/7008248/ |title=Law enforcement agents beat up a man for the Euromaidan. He died in hospital|newspaper=[[Ukrayinska Pravda]]|date=24 December 2013|accessdate=24 December 2013|language=uk}}</ref> According to police, he died as a result of a fight with employees of a private security company that were guarding the Colibris store in Kyiv. Police also claimed that Pavlo's wife stated he was not involved in Euromaidan protetsts.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unian.net/politics/867127-v-mvd-nazvali-prichinu-gibeli-mujchinyi-izbitogo-za-maydan.html |title=В МВД назвали причину гибели мужчины, избитого "за Майдан" : Новости УНИАН |publisher=Unian.net |date=2013-12-24 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> Ukrainian [[UNIAN]] News Agency interviewed Pavlo's wife days after, and she commented her husband was beaten by "three men in black uniform and batons [...] more resembling interior ministry servicemen, or a private security company staff". She also claimed that the three ran away after beating Pavlo.<ref>{{cite web|author=Ольга Гордиенко |url=http://www.unian.net/politics/867121-maydan-kak-povod-dlya-ubiystva.html |title=Майдан как повод для убийства (обновлено) : Новости УНИАН |publisher=Unian.net |date=2013-12-24 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> On 21 December, he visited a doctor who sent him to a hospital where Mazurenko was diagnosed with a [[concussion]].<ref name=mazurenko/> The same day he was hospitalized doctors found fractures to his skull.<ref name=mazurenko/> On 22 December, Mazurenko died and his body was sent for forensic examination, after which he was diagnosed with two-way [[contagious bovine pleuropneumonia]] (lung plaque seen in [[bovine animal]]s).<ref name=mazurenko/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || [[Serhiy Nigoyan]] || style="width:35%;"| Born in the village of Bereznuvativka in [[Dnipropetrovsk Oblast]].<ref name="up" >[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/01/22/7010564/ The name of a person killed on Hryshevskyi street became known (ВІДОМО ІМ'Я ЛЮДИНИ, ЯКУ ЗАСТРЕЛИЛИ НА ГРУШЕВСЬКОГО)], Ukrpravda, in Ukrainian (22nf january 2014)</ref> The Nigoyan family moved from [[Armenia]] to Ukraine as refuges of the [[Nagorno-Karabakh War]].<ref>[http://interfax.com.ua/news/general/187030.html Nigoyan family moved to Ukraine as refuges of Nagorno-Karabakh war (Семья погибшего в Киеве активиста Нигояна переехала в Украину, спасаясь от войны в Нагорном Карабахе)], Interfax Ukraine (22nd January 2014), in Russian</ref> Nigoyan came to Euromaidan on 8 December and was mostly involved in security.<ref name="up" /> After his death, Ukrainian composer [[Valentyn Sylvestrov]] dedicated two songs to the memory of Nigoyan.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unian.ua/politics/879776-kijivskiy-kompozitor-prisvyativ-dva-tvori-pamyati-sergiya-nigoyana.html |title=Kyiv composer dedicates two songs to the memory of Nigoyan, Unian 03.02.2014, in Ukrainian |publisher=Unian.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> || data-sort-value="2014-01-22" | 22 January 2014|| style="width:35%;"| Died on 22 January 2014 during [[2014 Hrushevskoho Street riots|clashes with the police on Hrushevskyi street]]. He suffered multiple gunshot wounds during a Berkut attack on the Hrushevskoho Street barricades.<ref name=up/><ref name="mvs">{{cite web|url=http://mvs.gov.ua/mvs/control/main/uk/publish/article/965163 |title=The investigation results of the dead protesters — Ministry of internal affairs (23 January 2014) |publisher=Mvs.gov.ua |date=2014-01-23 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref><ref name="tvi">[http://tvi.ua/new/2014/01/22/eksklyuzyv_tvi_tila_vbytykh_zhizdnevskoho_ta_nihoyana__uvaha_shokuyuche_video TBI. The bodies of gunshot Zhyznevskyi and Nigoyan (shocking videos)], ТВі (22 January 2014)</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Belarus}} || Mikhail Zhyznevskyi || Zhyznevskyi left [[Belarus]] for political reasons. In Ukraine, he lived and worked in [[Kiev]] and later [[Bila Tserkva]].<ref name="up2">[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/01/22/7010699/ One of killed in Hrushevskyj clashes was Belorussian], Ukrparvda (22 January 2014)</ref> Was a member of the Ukrainian nationalist group, the [[Ukrainian National Assembly – Ukrainian National Self Defence|UNSO]]. At Euromaidan, Zhyznevskyi was involved in security.<ref name="up2" /> ||data-sort-value="2014-01-22" | 22 January 2014 || Died on 22 January 2014 during [[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]]'s attack on barricades on Hrushevsky street where he was shot in the chest by a sniper.<ref name="mvs" /><ref name="tvi" /> His funeral was attended by Euromaidan and opposition leaders; he was buried with the Ukrainian UNA-UNSO and Belarusian flags.<ref name="google">{{cite web|url=http://translate.google.com/translate?hl=en&sl=uk&tl=en&u=http%3A%2F%2Funa-unso.in.ua%2F|title=Google Translate|publisher=translate.google.com|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Roman Senyk || Senyk was born in [[Lviv Oblast]] and in the last few years lived in [[Turka, Ukraine|Turka]].|| data-sort-value="2014-01-25" | 25 January 2014 || During a [[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]] attack on barricades on Hrushevskoho Street, a grenade tore his hand and made multiple wounds in his lower chest and lungs.<ref>[http://www.day.kiev.ua/ru/news/240114-bolee-200-kievlyan-uzhe-sdali-krov-dlya-postradavshego-na-grushevskogo More than 200 people donated blood to save victims of Hrushevsky clashes], Den (Day), 24 January 2014, in Russian</ref> Hit with a metal bullet in the lung, he underwent several operations and had to have his arm amputated.<ref name=kpdeathsum>{{cite news|title=EuroMaidan’s victims include five killed, many injured and missing|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/euromaidans-victims-include-five-killed-many-injured-and-missing-335932.html|newspaper=Kyiv Post|date=Jan 31, 2014}}</ref> Having lost more than 3.5 litres of blood, he died in one of Kyiv's hospitals after multiple surgeries.<ref>[http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/01/25/7011296/ Another Euromaidan activist shot on Hrushevsky died]. Ukrpravda, 25.01.2014, in Ukrainian</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Bohdan Kalyniak || 52 years old from [[Kolomyia]], [[Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-01-28" | 28 January 2014 || Died at a hospital in Ivano-Frankivsk on 28 January. Kolomyia Mayor Igor Sluzar said the man had come down with pneumonia during the clashes on Hrushevskoho Street in Kyiv where police used water cannons on protesters despite sub-zero temperatures.<ref name=kpdeathsum />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Serhiy Synenko || [[AutoMaidan]] activist. [[Zaporizhia]]. || data-sort-value="2014-02-13" | 13 February 2014 || In [[Zaporizhia]], the gas tank of his car was shot at, causing it to explode and the car to engulf him in flames. Police stated the murder may have been motivated by his participation in Automaidan.<ref name="renamed_from_061_on_20140403205140">{{cite web|url=http://www.061.ua/news/475300|title=В Запорожье убили и сожгли в машине активиста АвтоМайдана | 061.ua - Новости Запорожья|publisher=061.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Serhiy Bondarev || Software engineer from [[GlobalLogic]], Kyiv. Originally from Kramatorsk, Donetsky region || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || 4 Gunshot wounds<ref name=spisok />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || [[Valeriy Brezdenyuk]] || Ukrainian painter, known for "paintings on the water". From [[Zhmerynka]], [[Vinnytska Oblast]].,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://fakty.ictv.ua/ua/index/read-news/id/1437747/marker/weekthemes |title="Факти": Чиста вода, фарби та фантазія - інгредієнти живого малюнку ебру |publisher=Fakty.ictv.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.0432.ua/news/478731 |title=Вінницький художник Валерій Брезденюк загинув на Майдані |publisher=0432.ua |date=2009-05-07 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> 50 year old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Killed during clashes by a gunshot wound to the back.<ref name="18ж">{{cite web|url=http://society.lb.ua/accidents/2014/02/19/256092_poyavilsya_perviy_spisok_pogibshih.html |title=Появился первый список погибших (ФАМИЛИИ) |publisher=Society.lb.ua |date=2014-02-19 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Serhiy Didych || [[Svoboda (political party)|Svoboda]] member. 44 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Killed during clashes with the riot police and [[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]] on Hrushevskoho street. According to his friend a grenade explosion ruptured his carotid artery.<ref name=pravda18FebWar>{{cite web|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/articles/2014/02/18/7014151/ |title=The war on streets of Kyiv, 18 Feb 2014, in Ukrainian |publisher=Pravda.com.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.expres.ua/news/2014/02/18/102031-tila-vbytyh-yevromaydanivciv-odyn-nyh-maye-beydzhyk-prizvyshchem-foto |title=One dead identified as a VO Svoboda member from Ivano Frankivsk |publisher=Expres.ua}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Antonina Dvoryanets || From [[Brovary]]. [[Kyiv Oblast]]. 62 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Participated in a picketing action. Beaten to death with clubs during clashes on Instytutska Street.<ref name=kplivenight /><ref name="pravo-znaty">{{cite web|url=http://pravo-znaty.org.ua/zavtra-hovatimut-vbitu-berkutom-brovarchanku/|title=Сьогодні у Броварах ховатимуть жінку, яку вбили на барикадах | Маєш право знати - Бровари|publisher=pravo-znaty.org.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Kapinos || From [[Ternopil Oblast]], [[Svoboda (political party)|Svoboda]] member, 29 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Killed during clashes.<ref name="18ж" /> According to his friend, Oleksandr was hit by a grenade, then shot in the head with a rubber bullet at close range. Died in the hospital.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|GEO}} || Zurab Khurtsia || [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]]n, 53 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Died from a heart attack on Maidan<ref name=kplivenight>{{cite news|title=Police advance on EuroMaidan at night after government ultimatum (LIVE UPDATES)|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/police-advance-on-euromaidan-following-a-government-ultimatum-live-updates-337067.html|newspaper=Kyiv Post|date=18 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/18/7014410/ |title=На Інститутській лежать дві мертві людини | Українська правда |publisher=Pravda.com.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-02-18}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Kishchuk || From [[Zaporizhia Oblast]]. 58 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Shot during clashes with the riot police and [[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]] on Hrushevskoho street.<ref name=pravda18FebWar /><ref name=espresso18Feb>{{cite web|url=http://espreso.tv/new/2014/02/18/staly_vidomi_imena_trokh_zahyblykh_protestuvalnykiv |title=Three killed protesters identified |publisher=Espreso.tv |date=2014-02-18 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andriy Korchak || [[Boryslav]]. [[Lviv Oblast]] 1964-07-18 || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Beaten by "Berkut" and died from a head injury in the hospital.<ref name="18ж" /><ref name="gazeta">{{cite web|url=http://gazeta.ua/articles/politics-newspaper/_andrij-korchak-buv-na-majdani-z-listopada/543144|title=Андрій Корчак був на Майдані з листопада | Новини на Gazeta.ua|publisher=gazeta.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Kulchytskyi || From [[Kyiv]]. 65 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Killed by two bullets during clashes.<ref name="18ж" />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Naumov || Member of Euromaidan self-defense units, from [[Donetsk Oblast]]. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Body found on [[Trukhaniv Island]] near the Dnipro River. Police accused Naumov of suicide.<ref name=kplivenight /><ref name="pravda">{{cite web|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/19/7014638/|title=На Трухановому острові знайшли тіло активіста – Українська правда|publisher=pravda.com.ua|accessdate=3 April 2014}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Plekhanov || 22 year-old college student from [[Kyiv]]. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Killed during clashes<ref>{{cite web|url=https://charter97.org/be/news/2014/2/19/87348/ |title=UDAR: one killed was 22 year young, the whole hospital was crying, charter97.org from censor.net, in Russian |publisher=Charter97.org |date=2014-02-19 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ihor Serdyuk || From [[Kremenchuk]]. 40 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Executed by "titushkas" thugs and "Berkut" next to Mariinksy Park. He was building a barricade at the time.<ref name="spisok"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Serhiy Shapoval || From [[Kyiv]]. 45 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Shot during clashes with the riot police and [[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]] on Hrushevskoho street.<ref name=pravda18FebWar /><ref name=espresso18Feb />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vyacheslav Veremiy || Journalist for Vesti newspaper; lost 1 eye during the Hrushevskoho Street riots weeks prior; survived by a 4-year-old son.<ref>[http://www.unian.ua/politics/886215-v-likarni-shvidkoji-dopomogi-pomer-jurnalist.html In emergency died a journalist]. [[UNIAN]]. February 19, 2014</ref> || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Pulled out of a taxi on his way home from work and then shot in the chest by government-paid thugs.<ref name="theinsider">{{cite web|url=http://www.theinsider.ua/politics/5304294c36b13/|title=У БСП помер журналіст газети "Вести"|publisher=INSIDER|accessdate=3 April 2014}}</ref><ref name="vesti">{{cite web|url=http://vesti.ua/kiev/38201-neizvestnye-zhestko-izbili-zhurnalista-i-it-specialista-vestej|title=Неизвестные расстреляли журналиста "Вестей" | Киев | Вести|publisher=vesti.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref> A targeted killing. Driver was also severely beaten with lacerations to his legs.<ref>[https://web.archive.org/web/20140226155757/http://wiadomosci.wp.pl/kat,1356,title,Dziennikarz-zastrzelony-w-Kijowie-nowe-fakty,wid,16417872,wiadomosc.html Dziennikarz zastrzelony w Kijowie - nowe fakty (Journalist shot at Kiev - new facts)] WP.pl Wiadomości, 2014-02-20 (Internet Archive).</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || [[Yakiv Zaiko]] || Former [[People's Deputy of Ukraine]], [[Zhytomyr]]. 73 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Died from heart attack while being chased by "Berkut" special unit.<ref name="telekritika">{{cite web|url=http://www.telekritika.ua/profesija/2014-02-20/90663|title=Помер журналіст і народний депутат першого скликання Яків Зайко|publisher=telekritika.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andriy Chernenko || Slobodo-Petrivka, [[Poltava Oblast]], 35 years old. Survived by 7 -month-old daughter. || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 ||<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Yuriy Paskhalin || From [[Cherkasy Oblast]]. 30 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 || 3 Gunshot wounds in the back and 1 pneumatic injury<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Dmytro Maksymov || From [[Kyiv]], 19 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Injured by a grenade explosion, lost an arm, died of blood loss.<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vitaliy Vasyltsov || from [[Bila Tserkva]]. {{birth year and age|1977}} || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 ||Shot on Velyka Zhitomirska st.<ref name="identified">{{cite web|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/20/7015286/|title=Оновлений список загиблих під час сутичок в Києві, серед них - журналіст – Українська правда|publisher=pravda.com.ua|accessdate=3 April 2014}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Serhiy Baidovsky || from [[Lutsk]], originally from [[Novovolynsk]]. 22 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed on Maidan Square<ref name="identified"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || [[Serhiy Bondarchuk(Heaven's Hundred)|Serhiy Bondarchuk]] || from [[Starokostiantyniv]]. {{birth year and age|1961}} Teacher of Physics.<ref name="svoboda"/> || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire<ref name="identified"/><ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Mykola Dziavulsky || Born in [[Krasnoyarsky Krai]], [[Russia]]. Lived in [[Shepetivka]], [[Khmelnytskyi Oblast]]. {{birth year and age|1958}} Teacher of geography and biology || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire on Instytutska Street.<ref name="svoboda">[http://www.svoboda.org.ua/diyalnist/novyny/047956/ In Kiev from vulytsia Instytutska snipers and gunners are targeting people]. Svoboda website. February 20, 2014</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || [[Ustym Holodnyuk]] || from [[Zbarazh]], [[Ternopil Oblast]] {{birth year and age|1994}} 19 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head by sniper fire<ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Eduard Hrynevych || [[Volyn Oblast]], born in 1985 (28 years old) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head by a sniper. Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Serhiy Kemsky || From [[Kerch]], [[Crimea]]. 34 years old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || [[Ihor Kostenko]] || Journalist from the newspaper Sportanalytic, geography student and contributor to the [[Ukrainian Wikipedia]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://wikimediaukraine.wordpress.com/2014/02/23/in-memoriam-of-ihor-kostenko/ |publisher=Wikimedia Ukraine |title=In memoriam of Ihor Kostenko|date=23 February 2014|language=uk}}</ref> from Buchach, [[Ternopil Oblast]]. 22 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 ||Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref>[http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/191501.html Sports newspaper journalist killed in Maidan – editors], [[Interfax-Ukraine]] (20 February 2014)</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ivan Kreman (Panteleyev) || From [[Kremenchuk]], [[Poltava Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire<ref name="svoboda"/><ref name="vpoltave">{{cite web|url=http://vpoltave.info/read/novost/id/200194290/V-spiske-umershikh-na-Kievskom-Majjdane-est-vykhodec-iz-Poltavshhiny|title=В списке умерших на Киевском Майдане есть выходец из Полтавщины|publisher=vpoltave.info|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andrii Movchan || from [[Kyiv]]. 34 years old. Democratic Alliance activist|| data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire. According to a friend, Andrii was bringing food to Maidan when he was killed.<ref name="civicua">{{cite web|url=http://www.civicua.org/news/view.html?q=2184563|title=Перегляд публікації :: Новини :: Громадський Простiр|publisher=civicua.org|accessdate=3 April 2014}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Roman Nikulichev || [[Kyiv]], 21 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || <ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Dmytro Pahor || [[Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine|Khmelnytskyi]], 21 y/o || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head next to the SBU office in Khmelnitsky<ref name="ye">{{cite web|url=http://ye.ua/news/news_15321.html|title=Вбитого під СБУ Дмитра Пагора ховатимуть завтра | Новини Хмельницького "Є" | ye.ua|publisher=ye.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Yuriy Parashchuk || Lived in [[Kharkiv]], born in Talne, [[Cherkasy Oblast]]. Born in 1966 (47 y/o) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head and killed by sniper fire on Instytutska Street.<ref name=spisok>{{cite web|url=http://society.lb.ua/accidents/2014/02/20/256239_poyavilsya_predvaritelniy_spisok.html|title=Список погибших в ходе акций протеста в Украине (январь-март 2014). Дополняется - В списке 115 человек, включая милиционеров. - LB.ua|publisher=society.lb.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Anatoliy Korneyev || From Havrylivtsi, [[Khmelnytskyi Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire.<ref name="spisok"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andriy Sayenko || From [[Fastiv]]. 42 years old|| data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || 7th [[Sotnia]] of Maidan Self-Defense. Killed by a sniper<ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oWKz471g0vw Bodies of victims]. #Euromaidan thru youtube. February 20, 2014</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Yosyp Shylinh || {{birth date and age|1953|02|14}} From [[Drohobych]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head by a sniper next to [[October Palace]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Viktor Chmilenko || Borysivka, [[Bobrynets Raion]] {{birth year and age|1961}} || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire<ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vitaliy Smolinsky || Furmanivka village. From [[Cherkasy Oblast]]. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Bohdan Solchanyk || From [[Stary Sambir]], [[Lviv Oblast]], Professor of [[Ukrainian Catholic University]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 ||Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Igor Tkachuk || [[Znamensk, Kaliningrad Oblast|Znamensk]], [[Kaliningrad Oblast]] ([[Russia]]) {{birth year and age|1975}}. Father of three children with the youngest only a year old. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire.<ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Bohdan Ilkiv || Shirets, [[Lviv Oblast]], 51 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-22" | 22 February 2014 || Shot twice in the stomach on Maidan. Died in the hospital.<ref name="society">{{cite web|url=http://society.lb.ua/accidents/2014/02/21/256239_poyavilsya_predvaritelniy_spisok.html|title=Список погибших в ходе акций протеста в Украине (январь-март 2014). Дополняется - В списке 115 человек, включая милиционеров. - LB.ua|publisher=society.lb.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Roman Tochyn || [[Khodoriv]] {{birth year and age|1970}}, Svoboda party member || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head by a sniper.<ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Tsariok || Kalinin, [[Vasylkiv Raion]], [[Kyiv Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire<ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleh Ushnevych || [[Drohobych]] {{birth year and age|1982}} || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire<ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Roman Varenytsia || from [[Yavoriv Raion]]. {{birth date and age|1978|12|14}} || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by sniper fire<ref name="identified"/><ref name="svoboda"/>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Nazar Voytovych || A 17 year-old from Travneve village, [[Ternopil Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Anatoliy Zhalovaha || [[Lviv]], born in 1980 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Anatoliy Zherebnyh || Rudky, [[Lviv Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Bohdan Vaida || Letnya village, [[Lviv Oblast]], 48 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the chest by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Chaplinsky || [[Obukhiv]], born in 1979 (34 y/o) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the neck by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ihor Dmytriv || Kopanky village, [[Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast]], 30 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the chest by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andriy Dyhdalovych || Sokilnyky, [[Pustomyty Raion]], [[Lviv Oblast]], born in 1973 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot by a sniper while covering a friend.<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Roman Hurik || [[Ivano-Frankivsk]], born in 1994 || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 || Shot in the head by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vitaliy Kotsyuba || [[Lviv]], 32 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || <ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Khrapachenko|| Theatre director from [[Rivne]], originally from Zdolbunov, 1987 (26 years old) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head and killed by sniper fire.<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vasyl Moysei || Kivertsi, [[Volyn Oblast]], born in 1992 (21 y/o) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the chest by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Valeriy Opanasyuk || [[Rivne]], born in 1971. Had 4 children. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Pavliuk || [[Kolomyia]], [[Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast]], about 40 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot 4 times, once in the head. Died in the hospital <ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Leonid Polyanksy || About 35 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Body found in morgue on Oranhereyna Street<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Shcherbaniuk || From [[Chernivtsi]], Batkivshchina party member. Afghanistan war veteran. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the heart by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Maksym Shymko || From [[Vinnytsia]], 33 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot by a sniper <ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ivan Tarasiuk || Olyka village, [[Volyn Oblast]], born in 1993, 21 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by a sniper.<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ivan Bliok || [[Horodok, Lviv Oblast|Horodok]], [[Lviv Oblast]], born in 1973 (40 y/o) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the heart by a sniper<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Mykola Pankiv || Lapayivka, [[Lviv Oblast]], 39 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the chest<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vasyly Prohorskiy || [[Kyiv]], 33 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Went to Maidan on Feb 18, was missing, found dead and tortured.<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Viktor Shvets || Hatne village, [[Kyiv Oblast]], born in 1957 || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 || Shot in the stomach 3 times<ref name=spisok />
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Zherebniy || Born in Vyshnya village (moved to Rudky), [[Lviv Oblast]], born in 1985 (28 years old) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the neck by a sniper<ref name="zik">{{cite web|url=http://zik.ua/ua/news/2014/02/23/rudky_shcho_na_lvivshchyni_proshchalysya_z_voinom_nebesnoi_sotni_volodymyrom_zherebnym_464005|title=Рудки що на Львівщині прощалися з воїном Небесної Сотні Володимиром Жеребним|publisher=zik.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Liudmyla Sheremeta || [[Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine|Khmelnytskyi]], 73 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-22" | 22 February 2014 || Shot in the head by an SBU officer on 19 February 2014 during the storming of [[Security Service of Ukraine|SBU]] office in [[Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine|Khmelnitsky]]. Died in the hospital three days later.<ref name="crime">{{cite web|url=http://crime.in.ua/taxonomy/term/3977|title=Людмила Шеремета | CRIME.in.UA|publisher=crime.in.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.segodnya.ua/regions/lvov/v-hmelnickom-umerla-zhenshchina-kotoruyu-podstrelili-vo-vremya-shturma-sbu-497895.html |title=В Хмельницком умерла женщина, которую подстрелили во время штурма СБУ - Новости Львова - Женщина получила огнестрельное ранение в голову | СЕГОДНЯ |publisher=Segodnya.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Yevhen Kotliar || [[Kharkiv]], born in 1980 (33 y/o) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot on Instytutska Street.<ref name="kp">{{cite web|url=http://kp.ua/daily/210214/440066/|title=Евгений Котляр: на Майдане погиб активист-эколог из Харькова - Евромайдан | KP.UA|publisher=kp.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
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| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ivan Horodniuk || Berezne, [[Rivne Oblast]], 29 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 || On 18 February, was beaten by "Berkut" and soaked from a water cannon. Returned home 19 February and died from a heart attack same night.<ref name=spisok />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andriy Tsepun || [[Kyiv]], 35 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-21" | 21 February 2014 || EuroMaidan activist, found beaten to death.<ref name="crime.in.ua">{{cite web|url=http://crime.in.ua/news/20140223/zepun|title=Небесная сотня пополнилась бойцом: активиста Самообороны похитили и убили по дороге домой | CRIME.in.UA|publisher=crime.in.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Maksym Mashkov || || data-sort-value="2014-02-21" | 21 February 2014 || Died in the hospital <ref name="crime.in.ua"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Maksym Horoshishin || Hrushivka village, [[Cherkasy Oblast]], 25 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Died from gas grenade poisoning during the clashes on Instytutska Street.<ref name="procherk">{{cite web|url=http://procherk.info/news/7-cherkassy/21286-u-pamjat-pro-zagiblih-na-majdani-nazvut-dvi-vulitsi-na-cherkaschini|title=У пам’ять про загиблих на Майдані назвуть дві вулиці на Черкащині — ПРОЧЕРК.інфо|publisher=procherk.info|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|UKR}} || Georgiy Arutiunyan || Georgian Citizen of Armenian descent, lived in [[Rivne]], born in 1960. || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot by a sniper. Brought to [[St. Michael's Golden-Domed Monastery]]<ref name=spisok />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Melnychuk || Lived in [[Kyiv]], 40 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Was helping Euromaidan activists. Shot in the neck by a sniper while standing next to his wife.<ref name="ntn">{{cite web|url=http://ntn.ua/uk/news/murders/2014/02/23/13001|title=Снайпер застрелив беззбройного киянина - Вбивства - Телеканал НТН|publisher=ntn.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|GEO}} || David Kipiani || Republic of Georgia || data-sort-value="2014-02-21" | 21 February 2014 || Found wounded, likely shot by a sniper, next to the barricades on Khmelnytsky Street, died in the emergency vehicle.<ref name="kavkaz-uzel">{{cite web|url=http://www.kavkaz-uzel.ru/articles/238482/|title=Кавказский Узел | В Киеве погиб гражданин Грузии Давид Кипиани|publisher=kavkaz-uzel.ru|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Victor Chernets || Podibna, [[Cherkasy Oblast]], born in 1977 || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 || Died from injury caused by the collision with an unidentified SUV while guarding an improvised checkpoint built to block special units and thugs on Kyiv-Odesa highway. The SUV was storming the checkpoint to open the way for the Interior troops.<ref name="crime2">{{cite web|url=http://crime.in.ua/statti/20140222/nebesna-sotnya|title=Не забудем, не простим: "Небесная сотня" (обновляется) | CRIME.in.UA|publisher=crime.in.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Scherbatyuk || From [[Chernivtsi]]; 46 years old; Jewish; Afghan war veteran || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Killed by snipers.<ref name="timesofisrael">{{cite web|url=http://www.timesofisrael.com/jewish-afghan-war-vet-killed-fighting-in-kiev-buried/#ixzz2uTjN9ofV|title=Jewish Afghan War vet killed fighting in Kiev | The Times of Israel|publisher=timesofisrael.com|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Topiy || Vyshnya village, [[Lviv Oblast]], 57 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 January 2014 || Died during the fire at the Trade Unions Building<ref name="ukr.net">{{cite web|url=http://www.ukr.net/theheavenshundred.html|title=Список загиблих учасників Євромайдану|publisher=ukr.net|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Zubok || [[Chernihiv Oblast]], born in 1985 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 January 2014 || <ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Viktor Khomyak || Euromaidan activist || data-sort-value="2014-01-27" | 27 January 2014 || Body found hung on the Christmas Tree on the Maidan. Details are unknown.<ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Viktor Prokhorchuk || born in 1975 (38 years old) || data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Member of the self-defense. Was found with his throat slit on the backyard of a Kreshchatik house a week after disappearance on 18 February.<ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Andriy Zhanovachiy || born in 1964 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20? February 2014 || <ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Volodymyr Boykiv || born in 1955 || data-sort-value="2014-02-19" | 19 February 2014 || <ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksiy Bratushko || From [[Sumy]], born in 1971 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot by a sniper on Instytutska Street.<ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ihor Batchinsky || 30 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-25" | 25 February 2014 || <ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Mykola Tarshchuk || born in 1975 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the neck by a sniper<ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Mykola Semisiuk || From [[Khmelnytskyi, Ukraine|Khmelnytskyi]], born in 1986 || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the head by a sniper<ref name="ukr.net"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ihor Pehenko || [[Vyshhorod]], [[Kyiv Oblast]], born in 1970, 43 years old || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Shot in the neck by a sniper<ref name="pamjat">{{cite web|url=http://pamjat.org/memory/88-pehenko.html|title=Книга пам'яті - Плеханов Олександр Вікторович|publisher=pamjat.org|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vladyslav Zubenko || "Svoboda" Party activist from [[Kharkiv]], born in 1991, 22 years old|| data-sort-value="2014-02-28" | 28 February 2014 || Shot by a sniper 20 February, died from the wounds in the hospital.<ref name="pamjat2">{{cite web|url=http://pamjat.org/memory/87-zubenko.html|title=Книга пам'яті - Пехенько Ігор Олександрович|publisher=pamjat.org|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Artem Mazur || 26 years old|| data-sort-value="2014-03-03" | 3 March 2014 || Sustained heavy head trauma, died from the wounds in the hospital.<ref name="vgorode">{{cite web|url=http://kiev.vgorode.ua/news/213483-ushel-yz-zhyzny-esche-odyn-aktyvyst-maidana-kem-byl-artem-mazur|title=Майдан онлайн: умер еще один активист Майдана|publisher=kiev.vgorode.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Taras Slobodian || From [[Ternopil Oblast]], 31 years old|| data-sort-value="2014-03-05" | 5 March 2014 || Disappeared from Maidan, tortured body was found in the woods of Sumskiy Forest.<ref name="tv4">{{cite web|url=http://www.tv4.te.ua/nadzvychaine/3473-pokhovaly-zakatovanoho-tarasa-slobodiana|title=Поховали закатованого Тараса Слободяна|publisher=tv4.te.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Mykhailo Kostyshyn || Nyzhniy Strutyn, [[Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-26" | 26 February 2014 ||Was on Maidan from the first days. Beaten to death in January 2014, was in the hospital for almost a month but did not recover.<ref name="gazeta2">{{cite web|url=http://gazeta.ua/articles/life/_pomer-sche-odin-aktivist-majdanu/544614|title=Помер ще один активіст Майдану | Новини на Gazeta.ua|publisher=gazeta.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Artur Khuntsaar || From [[Ivano-Frankivsk]], born in 1984 (29 years old)|| data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Killed by a sniper.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Yuriy Nechiporuk || From [[Khmilnyk]], [[Vinnytsia Oblast]], 30 years old|| data-sort-value="2014-02-18" | 18 February 2014 || Euromaidan activist, kidnapped and brutally killed by thugs. Sustained 20 knife wounds.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espreso.tv/new/2014/02/28/titushky_vbyly_aktyvista_maydanu |title=Тітушки вбили активіста Майдану |publisher=Espreso.tv |date=2014-02-28 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Anatoliy Kurach || From [[Rivne]] || data-sort-value="2014-02-21" | 21 February 2014 || Died because of a head trauma received on Maidan<ref name="vse">{{cite web|url=http://vse.rv.ua/news/1393012891-u-pomerlogo-v-likarni-rivnenskogo-protestuvalnika-bula-travma-golovi.html|title=У померлого в лікарні рівненського протестувальника була травма голови | ВСЕ - сайт чесних новин|publisher=vse.rv.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Badera || From [[Volodymyr-Volynsky]], born in 1948 (66 years old) || data-sort-value="2014-01-28" | 28 January 2014 || Died because of trauma received 22 January 2014 on Hrushevskoho Street.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Oleksandr Baliuk || From Lypovy village, [[Zhytomyr Oblast]], born in 1974 (39 years old) || data-sort-value="2014-02-20" | 20 February 2014 || Received a firearm wound to the chest. Was trying to rescue another person.<ref name="nebesnasotnya">{{cite web|url=http://web.archive.org/http://nebesnasotnya.org/%D0%B1%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8E%D0%BA-%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80-%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%87|title=Олександр Олександрович Балюк. Небесна Сотня Майдану | Небесна Сотня Майдану|publisher=web.archive.org|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Reshat Ametov || From [[Crimea]], born in 1975. Father of 3 children. || data-sort-value="2014-03-03" | 3 March 2014? || Participated in the protests against separatism movement. Disappeared 3 March, found on 15 March tortured to death.<ref name="censor">{{cite web|url=http://censor.net.ua/news/276351/zverski_ubitogo_krymskogo_tatarina_zvali_reshat_ametov_troe_maloletnih_deteyi_osiroteli_foto|title=Зверски убитого крымского татарина звали Решат Аметов. Трое малолетних детей осиротели. ФОТО - Крым, Россия, татары, Украина, Агрессия России против Украины (18.03.14 01:57) « Политика Украины « Новости | Цензор.НЕТ|publisher=censor.net.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vyacheslav Vorona || Born in [[Prypyat]], lived in Kyiv || data-sort-value="2014-03-09" | 9 March 2014 || Received a head injury during the clashes, was brought to the intensive care, never recovered from coma.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vasyl Aksenin || From Letyache, [[Ternopil Oblast]], born in 1961. || data-sort-value="2014-03-12" | 12 March 2014 || Was heavily wounded on 20 February in Kyiv. At the end of February he was sent for treatment to Poland, but did not survive.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Olha Bura || From Rypne, [[Lviv Oblast]], born in 1986. || data-sort-value="2014-03-10" | 10 March 2014 || Participated in the protests since the end of November. Died at a hospital from the serious injuries received during the clashes.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Vasyl Sheremet || From Lanchyn, [[Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast]], born in 1949 (64 y/o). || data-sort-value="2014-03-07" | 7 March 2014 || Died from wounds sustained during the clashes with "Berkut"
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Ivan Nakonechny || From Kyiv, born in 1931 (82 years old). || data-sort-value="2014-03-07" | 7 March 2014 || Navy officer. Was on the Euromaidan since 30 November. Died from wounds sustained during the clashes on Instytutska Street on 19 February 2014.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Petro Hadzha || Lived in Kyiv, born in [[Rakhiv]], [[Zakarpattia Oblast]], born in 1966 (47 years old). || data-sort-value="2014-03-22" | 22 March 2014 || Was on the Euromaidan since its first days. Member of the 8th Sotnia. Died in the hospital due to gas poisoning which he had sustained during the clashes on Hrushevskoho Street.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Dmytro Chernyavskiy || Born in the [[Donetsk Oblast]]. Studied at Lviv National University, born in 1992 (22 years old). || data-sort-value="2014-03-13" | 13 March 2014 || On 13 March, participated in the meeting for the unity of Ukraine in the city of Donetsk. Was stabbed to death in clashes with pro-Russian activists.
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Roman Olikh || Born in the village of Hybalivka, [[Vinnytsia Oblast]]. || data-sort-value="2014-02-15" | 15 February 2014 || Came to Maidan in January. On the 6th of February he was injured and taken to a hospital in Kyiv. Fell into coma and never recovered.
|}

===Unnamed dead activists===
[[File:Орден Героїв Небесної Сотні.PNG|thumbnail|[[Order of the Heavenly Hundred Heroes]]]]
There are currently some unidentified activists who were reported killed during the conflict.
*During the Hrushevskoho Street riots, a 22 year-old man died falling from the colonnade near the [[Lobanovsky Dynamo Stadium]] during a beating by police; the cause of death was multiple injuries, particularly spine fracture.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://espreso.tv/new/2014/01/22/zmi_aktyvist_pobytyy_berkutom_na_kolonadi_dynamo_pomer|title=Mass media: Activist who was beaten by Berkut on colonnade of Dynamo died (ЗМІ: Активіст, побитий "Беркутом" на колонаді "Динамо", помер)|newspaper=[[Espresso TV]]|date=22 January 2014|accessdate=22 January 2014|language=uk}}</ref>
*Two unnamed shooting victims were announced by Euromaidan medical service coordinators on the evening of the 22nd.<ref name=kpj22deaths>{{cite news|title=Five killed, at least 300 injured, in police assaults on EuroMaidan protesters|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/five-killed-at-least-300-injured-in-police-assaults-on-euromaidan-protesters-335386.html|newspaper=[[Kyiv Post]]|date=22 January 2014|accessdate=22 January 2014}}</ref> The identity of the two remains unknown as their bodies disappeared from the street after the assault of Berkut in the early morning 22 January 2014.<ref>[http://dt.ua/UKRAINE/u-likarni-v-kritichnomu-stani-pislya-vognepalnogo-poranennya-znahoditsya-sche-odin-protestuvalnik-136045_.html Another protesters is located in hospital in critical condition after a gunshot wound].[[Mirror Weekly]]. 22 January 2014</ref> Roman Senyk was later identified as shot and killed on this date.
*On 26 January, the body of a man was found in the Obolon district of Kyiv, with his hands bound.<ref name="pravda2">{{cite web|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/01/26/7011373/|title=На околиці Києва знайшли замерзле тіло, зв'язане по руках і ногах. МВС: смерть не насильницька – Українська правда|publisher=pravda.com.ua|accessdate=3 April 2014}}</ref>
*On 29 January, two male activists, one younger and one older, were shot on Hrushevskoho Street and brought to a Kyiv hospital. The latter died from the gunshot wounds the following day.<ref name="censor2">{{cite web|url=http://censor.net.ua/news/268748/v_stolichnoyi_bolnitse_ot_ognestrelnyh_raneniyi_umer_esche_odin_aktivist_smi|title=убийство активистов: В столичной больнице от огнестрельных ранений умер еще один активист, - СМИ - Беркут, избиение, Киев, смерть, стрельба, убийство, евромайдан, Революция в Украине, убийство активистов (30.01.14 08:58) « Политика Украины « Новости | Цензор.НЕТ|publisher=censor.net.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref> A [[Ukrainian Democratic Alliance for Reform|UDAR]] MP accused police of shooting the two as a provocation.<ref name="ictv">{{cite web|url=http://fakty.ictv.ua/ua/index/read-news/id/1502096|title=У лікарні від вогнепального поранення помер активіст з Грушевського - джерело - "Факти"|publisher=fakty.ictv.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
*On 15 February, the body of a missing Euromaidan activist was found outside of Kyiv.<ref name="sled">{{cite web|url=http://sled.net.ua/node/11653|title=Под Киевом нашли обезображенный труп ещё одного евромайдановца, – ВК "Наступление" | СЛЕД.net.ua|publisher=sled.net.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref><ref name="unn">{{cite web|url=http://www.unn.com.ua/uk/news/1305055-pid-kiyevom-znayshli-trup-sche-odnogo-yevromaydanivtsya-vk-nastup|title=Під Києвом знайшли труп ще одного євромайданівця - ВК "Наступ". Інформаційне агентство Українські Національні Новини (УНН). Всі онлайн новини дня в Україні за сьогодні - найсвіжіші, останні, головні.|publisher=unn.com.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
*On 18–19 February, 16 protesters were killed in clashes with police,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/02/19/7014688/ |title=У МОЗ підтверджують загибель 25 людей (25 dead confirmed by Ministry of Healthcare), in Ukrainian |publisher=Pravda.com.ua |date= |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref> of whom 7 have been named.
*Later, on 19 February at 9pm, a young man was killed in Khmelnytsky outside the SBU building in further clashes with police.<ref name="tsn">{{cite web|url=http://tsn.ua/ukrayina/pri-shturmi-sbu-v-hmelnickomu-zastrelili-cholovika-335453.html|title=При штурмі СБУ в Хмельницькому застрелили чоловіка - Новини України на 1+1 - ТСН.ua|publisher=tsn.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref> 5Kanal reported both a 23 year-old and a 16 year-old were shot and killed.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ouepZWm3wxE |title=#Хмельницький у вогні / #Євромайдан |publisher=YouTube |date=2014-02-19 |accessdate=2014-04-14}}</ref>
*On 20 February, at least 34 protesters were shot dead by police as of 1pm, with reporters verifying the bodies (15 at Kozatsky Hotel, 12 at Ukraine Hotel, 7 at the central post office).<ref name=kplive20>{{cite news|title=Ukraine death toll rising on Feb. 20 with at least 42 people killed, most by gunshots from police|url= http://www.kyivpost.com/content/kyiv/ukraine-death-toll-rising-on-feb-20-with-at-least-42-people-killed-most-by-gunshots-from-police-live-updates-video-337236.html|newspaper=Kyiv Post|date=20 February 2014|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081201194141/http://www.kyivpost.com/content/kyiv/ukraine-death-toll-rising-on-feb-20-with-at-least-42-people-killed-most-by-gunshots-from-police-live-updates-video-337236.html|archivedate=21 February 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.rte.ie/news/2014/0220/505470-foreign-ministers-meet-to-consider-ukraine-crisis/|title=Ukraine protesters take back Kiev square|work=[[RTÉ News and Current Affairs|RTÉ News]]|accessdate=20 February 2014}}</ref> Kyiv Post journalists reported an additional eight bodies on Khreshchatyk Street early afternoon, separate from the previous body count.<ref name=kplive20 /> Dr. [[Olha Bohomolets]], one of the attending physicians to 12 fatal gunshot victims at Ukraine Hotel, said that the victims were shot with high-precision rifles and powerful ammunition that broke their bones.<ref name=kplive20 />



===Other victims===
Militants from the [[Social-National Assembly]] and the "[[Patriots of Ukraine]]" seized and burned on February 18, 2014 the central office of the ruling party - the [[Party of Regions]]. A bystander, 57-year old IT engineer{{Who|date=August 2014}} who tried to stop the attackers from entering the server room, was beaten to death by maidan activists.<ref>{{ru icon}} Маргарита Чимирис, Анастасия Браткова (Margarita Chemeris, Anastasia Bratkova). [http://reporter.vesti.ua/45908-kto-shagaet-s-pravoj Кто шагает с правой: Радикалы Майдана хотят продолжения революции. Власть называет их провокаторами] (Who walks ''right'': Maidan radicals want to continue revolution. Authorities call them provocateurs), ''Internet-newspaper Vesti.ua'', № 12(30), 4–10 April 2014.</ref><ref>[https://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/radical-protesters-burst-into-party-of-regions-kyiv-office-337006.html Radical protesters burst into Party of Regions' Kyiv office], ''Kyiv Post'', February 18, 2014.</ref>

===Police officers' deaths===
[[File:Berkut special police soldier holding a shotgun pointed at the line of protesters, Hrushevskoho str. Euromaidan Protests. Events of Jan 19, 2014.jpg|thumb|right|200пкс|Special Operations police "[[Berkut (Ukraine)|Berkut]]" member on the Hrushevskoho Street in Kyiv (19 January 2014)]]
The Interior Ministry's main investigations department has dismissed two deaths which occurred during the crisis as having no relation to Euromaidan or civil unrest.<ref>{{cite news|title=Ukrainian detectives say killings of two police officers not linked to protests|url=http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/ukrainian-detectives-say-killings-of-two-police-officers-not-linked-to-protests-336014.html|newspaper=Kyiv Post|date=Jan 31, 2014}}</ref>

On 30 January 2014, Minister of Internal Affairs, [[Vitaliy Zakharchenko]] officially announced that 30 year-old captain of the [[Internal Troops of Ukraine]] Dmytro Donets died from heart attack as a consequence of daily stress from the standoff on Hrushevskoho.<ref>[http://www.radiosvoboda.org/content/article/25247681.html Law officer who worked on Hrushevskoho died from heart attack, - Zakharchenko].[[Radio Svoboda]]. January 30, 2014</ref> Later the same day it became known that Donets was found already dead when his unit was alerted, while being quartered in the village of Stare ([[Boryspil Raion]]).<ref>[http://poglyad.te.ua/podii/ministr-zbrehav.-kapitan-donets-pomer-ne-na-hrushevskoho/ Minister lied. Captain Donets did not died on Hrushevskoho]. Pohliad. January 30, 2014</ref><ref>[http://fakty.ictv.ua/ua/index/read-news/id/1502191 Details on the death of the captain of Internal Troops]. Facts (ICTV). January 30, 2014</ref> On 18 February, six officers were killed during an attack on protest camps in Kyiv.<ref name=BBCPoliceStormCamp>{{cite web|title=Ukraine police storm main Kiev protest camp|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-europe-26249330|publisher=[[BBC]]|date=18 February 2014|accessdate=18 February 2014}}</ref>

As of 2 March, The Ministry of Internal Affairs reported 18 police-officer fatalities related to the conflict.<ref name="MSV-03.02.14"/>

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
! Nationality
! Rank
! Name
! Details
! data-sort-type="isoDate" | Date of death
! Cause of death/Reference
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Lieutenant || Dmytro Vlasenko || Born 1982, [[Internal Troops of Ukraine|Internal Troops]] (Crimea) || 18 February 2014 ||<ref name=mvsofficialfeb19>{{cite web|title=ВІТАЛІЙ ЗАХАРЧЕНКО: "У ПОДІЯХ В КИЄВІ ВИННІ БЕЗВІДПОВІДАЛЬНІ ПОЛІТИКИ|url=http://mvs.gov.ua/mvs/control/main/uk/publish/article/984266|publisher=MVS Ukraine|accessdate=19 February 2014}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Lieutenant || Vitaliy Honcharov || Born 1989, Internal Troops (Crimea) || 18 February 2014 ||<ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Lieutenant || Volodymyr Yevtushok || Born 1971, Patrol Service (Kyiv) || 18 February 2014 || <ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Senior Lieutenant || Andriy Fediukin || Born 1972, Berkut (Crimea) || 18 February 2014 || <ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Oleksiy Ivanenko || Born 1977, Internal Troops (Kharkiv) || 18 February 2014 || <ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Lieutenant || Petro Savitsky || Born 1972, Patrol Service (Kyiv) || 18 February 2014 || <ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Sergeant || Vasil' Bulitko || Born 1986, Berkut (Kyiv) || 18 February 2014 ||<ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || Sergeant || Serhiy Tsvihun || Born 1990, Berkut (Zaporizhia) || 18 February 2014 ||<ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Ivan Tepliuk || Born 1993, Internal Troops (Kyiv) || 18 February 2014 ||<ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Maxim Tretiak || Born 1993, Internal Troops (Kyiv) || 18 February 2014 ||<ref name=mvsofficialfeb19 />
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Serhiy Spichak || Berdyansk (Zaporizhia region)|| 19 February 2014 || <ref name="volkmedia.info">{{cite web|url=http://www.volkmedia.info/news/berdyansk-pervaya-krov-i-pervyie-zhertvyi-maydana|title=Бердянск. Первая кровь и первые жертвы майдана. | ГДЕ ВЫ, ВОЛКИ?!|publisher=volkmedia.info|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Volodymyr Zubok || || || <ref name="censorMarch17">{{cite web|url=http://censor.net.ua/news/276347/na_17_marta_120_pogibshih_na_mayidane_i_po_ukraine_spisok|title=На 17 марта - 120 погибших на Майдане и по Украине. СПИСОК - Клюев, санкции, Янукович, Люстрация палачей Майдана (18.03.14 01:20) « Политика Украины « Новости | Цензор.НЕТ|publisher=censor.net.ua|accessdate=2014-04-03}}</ref>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Vitaliy Zakharchenko || || || <ref name="censorMarch17"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Roman Kizik || || || <ref name="censorMarch17"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Nazariy Myrka || || || <ref name="censorMarch17"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Serhiy Mikhaylovych || || || <ref name="censorMarch17"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Mykola Simisiuk || || || <ref name="censorMarch17"/>
|-
| style="text-align:center"| {{flagicon|Ukraine}} || || Nikolay Semchuk || Berkut || 20 February 2014 ||
|}

==Legacy==
The name "Heavenly Hundred" refers to the pro-Euromaidan activists killed during Euromaidan.<ref>[http://news.rin.ru/eng/news///41161/ The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine established the order of the Characters hundreds of Heaven], [[news.rin.ru]] (1 July 2014)</ref>

In April 2014 the [[Kyiv City State Administration]] and [[Ministry of Culture (Ukraine)|Culture Ministry of Ukraine]] stated that they expected to open a memorial complex "to the heroes of Heavenly Hundred" in February 2015, on the occasion of the anniversary of the death activists.<ref>[http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/memorial-to-heroes-of-heavenly-hundred-might-be-opened-by-anniversary-of-tragic-events-on-maidan-344928.html Memorial to heroes of Heavenly Hundred might be opened by anniversary of tragic events on Maidan], [[Kyiv Post]] (24 April 2014)</ref>

On 1 July 2014 the [[Verkhovna Rada]] (the parliament of Ukraine) established the [[Order of the Heavenly Hundred Heroes|Medal "Order of Heroes Hundreds of Heaven"]].<ref>[http://iportal.rada.gov.ua/en/news/News/News/page/en/news/News/News/95089.html The Verkhovna Rada of Ukraine adopted the Law “On amendments to article 7 of the Law of Ukraine “On National Awards of Ukraine” (re establishing the order of the Heavenly Hundred Heroes)], [[Verkhovna Rada]] (1 July 2014)</ref><ref>{{uk icon}} [http://www.pravda.com.ua/news/2014/07/1/7030598/ The Council established the Order of Heroes Hundreds of Heaven], [[Ukrayinska Pravda]] (1 July 2014)</ref>

On 25 August 2014 President [[Petro Poroshenko]] claimed he had called the [[2014 Ukrainian parliamentary election]] in order to purify parliament of MPs who had supported "the [[Dictatorship laws in Ukraine|[January 2014] Dictatorship laws]] that took the live of the Heavenly hundred".<ref name=SPne25814>[http://www.upi.com/Top_News/World-News/2014/08/25/Ukrainian-President-dissolves-Parliament-announces-early-elections/3261408995210/ Ukrainian President dissolves Parliament, announces early elections], [[United Press International]] (25 August 2014) [http://www.themoscowtimes.com/news/article/ukraine-s-petro-poroshenko-announces-new-parliamentary-elections/505837.html Ukraine's Petro Poroshenko Dissolves Parliament, Sets Election Date], [[The Moscow Times]] (26 August 2014)
</ref><ref>
{{cite web
| url = http://www.president.gov.ua/en/news/31081.html
| title = President's address on the occasion of early parliamentary elections of October 26
| last1 = Poroshenko
| first1 = Petro
| authorlink1 = Petro Poroshenko
| date = 2014-08-25
| website = Petro Poroshenko, President of Ukraine: Official website
| publisher = President of Ukraine
| accessdate = 2014-10-29
| quote = We must begin purification from the highest legislative body. [...] Current composition of Parliament has been the mainstay of Yanukovych for 1.5 years. [...] The majority of these MPs voted for dictatorial laws that took the lives of Nebesna Sotnya.
}}
</ref>

[[Kiev City Council]] renamed a part of Instytutska Street into Heavenly Hundred Heroes Avenue on 20 November 2014.<ref>[http://en.interfax.com.ua/news/general/235483.html Kyiv Council renames part of Instytutska Street into Heavenly Hundred Heroes Avenue], [[Interfax-Ukraine]] (20 November 2014)</ref>

==References==
{{reflist|2}}

==External links==
{{commonscat-inline|Heavenly Hundred}}
* [http://nebesnasotnya.com.ua/en Website] dedicated to the Heavenly Hundred

{{Euromaidan}}

[[Category:Euromaidan]]
[[Category:People of the Euromaidan|*]]
[[Category:Ukraine-related lists]]

Criticism of Human Rights Watch

2014-12-10T08:09:20Z

JanTurin: /* Allegations of poor research and inaccuracy */ clusterbombs in Ukraine

The international [[non-governmental organization]] [[Human Rights Watch]] (HRW) has been criticized by national governments, other NGOs, the media and its founder (and former chairman), [[Robert L. Bernstein]]. Criticism falls into one of two general categories: poor research or inaccurate reporting and (more commonly) bias. Bias allegations include the organization's being influenced by United States government policy, particularly in relation to reporting on Latin America; ignoring [[anti-Semitism]] in Europe, or being anti-Semitic itself; the [[Arab–Israeli conflict]]; and the misrepresentation of human-rights issues in Eritrea and Ethiopia. Accusations in relation to the Arab–Israeli conflict include claims that HRW is biased against Israel, demonstrated by its requesting (or accepting) donations from Saudi Arabian citizens. HRW has publicly responded to criticism of its reporting on Latin America and the Arab–Israeli conflict.

==Allegations of poor research and inaccuracy==
[[Rupert Murdoch]], owner of ''[[The Times]]'', accused HRW of lacking sufficient expertise to report on warfare because the organization has never hired former military members (with the exception of [[Marc Garlasco]]).<ref name="Scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch" >[http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article7076462.ece?token=null&offset=0&page=1/Nazi scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch] The Sunday Times, March 28, 2010 {{Login required|date=September 2014}}</ref> ''The Times'' accused HRW of overriding its own researcher, who wished to rescind a factually-inaccurate report accusing Israel of responsibility for the 2006 [[Israeli bombing of the Gaza beach (2006)|Gaza beach explosion]].<ref name="Scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch"/>

HRW has been accused of evidence-gathering bias because it is said to be "credulous of civilian witnesses in places like Gaza and Afghanistan" but "skeptical of anyone in a uniform."<ref name="Scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch"/> Its founder, [[Robert L. Bernstein|Robert Bernstein]], accused the organization of poor research methods and relying on "witnesses whose stories cannot be verified and who may testify for political advantage or because they fear retaliation from their own rulers."<ref name="Bernstein_19102009">{{Cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/20/opinion/20bernstein.html?_r=1&em|title=Rights Watchdog, Lost in the Mideast|last=Bernstein|first=Robert L.|date=2009-10-19|publisher=The NY Times|accessdate=2009-10-20}}</ref> According to ''The Times'', HRW "does not always practice the transparency, tolerance and accountability it urges on others."<ref name="Scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch"/> In 2012, ''[[New Europe (newspaper)|New Europe]]'' said that HRW "allegedly erased references in its reports to its previous cooperation with the [[Gaddafi]] regime, including the role of the organization's MENA Director, Sarah Leah Whitson, in marketing Saif al-Islam Gaddafi as a reformer."<ref name="neurope1">{{cite web|url=http://www.neurope.eu/article/human-rights-watch-slammed-over-anti-israeli-and-pro-gaddafi-reports |title=Human Rights Watch slammed over anti-Israeli and pro-Gaddafi reports |publisher=Neurope.eu |date=2012-01-09 |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref>

HRW has also been criticized for accusing the army of Ukraine of using cluster bombs in the war against the insurgents in the east of the country. The research by HRW is said to have been carried out in the very short period of one week.
<ref name="ukraine1">{{cite web|url=http://euromaidanpress.com/2014/10/23/wer-benutzt-streumunition-in-der-ukraine | title=Wer-benutzt-streumunition-in-der-ukraine |
publisher=euromaidanpress.com | date=2014-10-23 | accessdate=2014-12-10 }}</ref>

==Allegations of bias==

===Ideological and selection bias===
In October 2009, Bernstein said that the organization had lost critical perspective on events in the [[Middle East]]:<ref name="Bernstein_19102009">{{cite news|url=http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/20/opinion/20bernstein.html?_r=1&em|title=Rights Watchdog, Lost in the Mideast|last=Bernstein|first=Robert L.|date=2009-10-19|publisher=The NY Times|accessdate=2009-10-20}}</ref> "[T]he region is populated by authoritarian regimes with appalling human rights records. Yet in recent years Human Rights Watch has written far more condemnations of Israel for violations of international law than of any other country in the region."<ref name="Bernstein_19102009"/> Tom Porteus, director of the HRW's London branch, replied that the organization rejected Bernstein's "obvious double standard. Any credible human rights organization must apply the same human rights standards to all countries."<ref name="guardian1">{{cite news|url=http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/oct/30/human-rights-watch-ngo-monitor |title=''The Guardian'': Credible approach on human rights |publisher=Guardian |date=2009-10-30 |accessdate=2013-01-28 |location=London}}</ref>
''The Times'' accused HRW of imbalance, alleging that it ignores human-rights abuses in certain regimes while covering other conflict zones (notably Israel) intensively. Although HRW issued five reports on Israel in one fourteen-month period, in twenty years it issued only four reports on the conflict in Kashmir (despite 80,000 conflict-related deaths in Kashmir and "torture and extrajudicial murder ... on a vast scale")<ref name="hrw_nazi_scandal">{{cite news|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/news/world/us_and_americas/article7076462.ece?token=null&offset=24&page=3|title=Nazi scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch|publisher=Times Online|author=Jonothan Foreman | location=London | date=2010-03-28}}</ref> and no report on [[2009–2010 Iranian election protests|post-election violence]] and repression in Iran. A source told ''The Times'', "Iran is just not a bad guy that they are interested in highlighting. Their hearts are not in it. Let’s face it, the thing that really excites them is Israel."<ref name="Scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch"/> The newspaper also accused HRW of failing to report on human-rights abuses of Arabs when "perpetrators are fellow Arabs."<ref name="Scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch"/>

In the February 2013 issue of ''[[The Spectator]]'' [[Nick Cohen]] wrote, "[[Amnesty International]] and Human Rights Watch look with horror on those who speak out about murder, mutilation and oppression if the murderers, mutilators and oppressors do not fit into their script."<ref>[http://blogs.spectator.co.uk/nick-cohen/2013/02/lone-voice-against-terror/ Lone voices against Terror]</ref> Robert Bernstein accused HRW of allowing repressive regimes to play a "moral equivalence game", failing to weigh evidence according to whether it was collected from an open or closed society<ref name="Bernstein_19102009"/> and failing to recognize any "difference between wrongs committed in self-defense and those perpetrated intentionally."<ref name="Bernstein_19102009"/> ''The Times'' accused HRW of filling its staff with former radical political activists, including [[Joe Stork]] and [[Sarah Leah Whitson]]: "Theoretically an organization like HRW would not select as its researchers people who are so evidently on one side."<ref name="Scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch"/> HRW has been accused of being unwilling (or unable) to perceive threats posed by radical Islam because their leftist ideology leads them to see criticism of Hezbollah, Hamas, Al Qaeda and similar groups as "a dangerous distraction from the real struggle."<ref name="Scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch"/> An example was a 2006 verbal attack on [[Peter Tatchell]], who was accused of racism, Islamophobia and colonialism by HRW staff for criticizing Iran's execution of homosexuals.<ref name="Scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch"/>

===Bias regarding particular nations===

====Latin America====
Claims have been made regarding alleged HRW bias with regard to Haiti, Venezuela and Honduras. Robert Naiman, policy director of Just Foreign Policy,<ref name="commond_90experts_HRW_hn" /> wrote that HRW is "often heavily influenced" by United States foreign policy.<ref name="naiman_hrw_washington">{{cite news| last =Naiman| first =Robert| authorlink =| title =Latin America Scholars Urge Human Rights Watch to Speak Up on Honduras Coup| work =| publisher =Huffington Post| date =2009-08-21| url =http://www.huffingtonpost.com/robert-naiman/latin-america-scholars-ur_b_265282.html | doi =| accessdate =2009-08-22 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5jELkhpuR |archivedate=2009-08-22 |deadurl=no}}</ref>

=====Haiti=====
The [[2004 Haiti rebellion]] was a [[coup d'etat]] which removed elected President [[Jean-Bertrand Aristide]] of Haiti voluntarily (according to US authorities and Aristide's bodyguards)<ref name="washtimesaircraft">{{cite web| author=Steve Miller and Joseph Curl | year=2004 | url=http://newsmine.org/archive/war-on-terror/haiti/march-04-coup/aristide-removal/aristide-accuses-us-of-forcing-his-ouster.txt | title= Aristide accuses U.S. of forcing his ouster | publisher=Washington Times | accessdate=2005-12-26}}</ref><ref name=Herald>{{cite web| url=http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/haiti/kidnap.htm | publisher=Miami Herald | title=Aristide says he was kidnapped | last1=Davies | first1=Frank | last2=San Martin | first2=Nancy | last3=Ottey | first3=Michael | accessdate=August 1, 2014 | archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/*/http://www.latinamericanstudies.org/haiti/kidnap.htm | archivedate=April 4, 2013}}</ref> or involuntarily (according to Aristide)<ref name="demnow">{{cite web| title = Aristide related articles| publisher = [[Democracy Now]]| url = http://www.democracynow.org/index.pl?issue=20040301 | accessdate=2006-07-21}}</ref> from the Americas on a US plane, accompanied by his bodyguards, on 29 February 2004.<ref name=Herald /> [[Z Communications]] writer Joe Emersberger said that HRW accurately reported on human-rights violations in Haiti after a 1991 coup attempt against Aristide, but was inaccurate in its reporting of the relative number of deaths before and after the 2004 coup.<ref name="ZNet_Haiti2004">{{cite web| last =Emersberger| first =Joe| authorlink =| title=Haiti and Human Rights Watch| work =| publisher =[[Z Communications]]| date =2006-03-29| url =http://www.zmag.org/znet/viewArticle/4131 |format =| doi =| accessdate =2009-08-11 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5ixS2Xhem |archivedate=2009-08-11 |deadurl=no}}{{dead link|date=August 2014}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=August 2014}} Emersberger estimated the number of deaths at about 20–30 per year before the 2004 coup, and 1,000 during the first month after it. He said, "HRW's reports were not only inexcusably sparse, but they legitimized the overthrow of Aristide" and HRW "knew that criminals were being incorporated into the police; yet they were silent about this contributing factor to the abuses that occurred under Aristide."<ref name="ZNet_Haiti2004" />{{citation needed|date=August 2014}}

=====Venezuela=====
Human Rights Watch work in Venezuela became controversial in September 2008, when the country expelled two HRW staff members accused of "anti-state activities".<ref>Human Rights Watch, 19 September 2008, [http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2008/09/19/venezuela-human-rights-watch-delegation-expelled Venezuela: Human Rights Watch Delegation Expelled]</ref> Foreign Minister [[Nicolas Maduro]] said, "These groups, dressed up as human rights defenders, are financed by the United States. They are aligned with a policy of attacking countries that are building new economic models."<ref>''[[Reuters]]'', 19 September 2008, [http://www.reuters.com/article/topNews/idUSN1948835520080919 Venezuela expels U.S. rights group for criticism]</ref> After HRW published a report (''A Decade Under Chávez: Political Intolerance and Lost Opportunities for Advancing Human Rights in Venezuela'')<ref>Human Rights Watch, 22 September 2008, [http://www.hrw.org/en/node/64174/section/1 A Decade Under Chávez]</ref> documenting Chavez government abuses, 118 scholars from Argentina, Australia, Brazil, Mexico, the US, the UK, Venezuela and other countries signed a letter criticizing the organization for a perceived bias against the [[government of Venezuela]]. The open letter criticized the report, saying that it "does not meet even the most minimal standards of scholarship, impartiality, accuracy, or credibility."<ref>[[Mark Weisbrot]], ''[[guardian.co.uk]]'', 11 March 2009, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/cifamerica/2009/mar/11/state-department-human-rights Who is America to judge?]</ref><ref>http://www.coha.org/taking-human-rights-watch-to-task/ (Retrieved 05/09/2013)</ref> [[Hugh O'Shaughnessy]] accused HRW of using false and misleading information, saying that the report was "put together with [a] sort of know-nothing Washington bias."<ref name=oshaugh>[[Hugh O'Shaughnessy]], ''[[New Statesman]]'', 26 September 2008, [http://www.newstatesman.com/south-america/2008/09/hrw-report-chavez-venezuela HRW v Chavez]</ref> HRW director [[Kenneth Roth]] responded that the letter misrepresents "both the substance and the source material of the report".<ref name="nacla_roth_on_ve">{{cite web|url=https://nacla.org/node/5369 |title=Human Rights Watch Responds to Criticism of Venezuela Report | North American Congress on Latin America |publisher=Nacla.org |date=2009-01-05 |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> Tom Porteous, Human Rights Watch's London director, said that O'Shaughnessy " ... not only fails to provide any evidence for these allegations", but " ... more seriously, he misrepresents HRW's positions in his apparent determination to undermine our well earned international reputation for accuracy and impartiality."<ref name="newstates_porteoushas">Tom Porteus, 30 September 2008, ''[[New Statesman]]'', [http://www.newstatesman.com/human-rights/2008/09/hrw-chavez-shaughnessy HRW v Chavez II]</ref>

=====Honduras=====
On August 21, 2009 93 academics and authors from the UK, the US, Canada, Australia, Mexico, Colombia and other countries published an open letter criticizing HRW's "absence of statements and reports" on human-rights violations in Honduras after 8 July 2009, following the [[2009 Honduran constitutional crisis#Coup d'état|28 June coup d'état]].<ref name="commond_90experts_HRW_hn">{{cite web| last =Grandin| first =Greg| authorlink =Greg Grandin|author2=Adrienne Pine| title =Over 90 Experts Call on Human Rights Watch to Speak Out on Honduras Abuses| work =| publisher =[[Common Dreams]]| date =2009-08-22| url =http://www.commondreams.org/newswire/2009/08/21 |format =| doi =| accessdate =2009-08-22 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5jE3pnzk8 |archivedate=2009-08-22 |deadurl=no}}</ref> According to its authors, after 8 July HRW had not "raised the alarm over the extra-judicial killings, arbitrary detentions, physical assaults, and attacks on the press - many of which have been thoroughly documented - that have occurred in Honduras, in most cases by the coup regime against the supporters of the democratic and constitutional government of Manuel Zelaya";<ref name="commond_90experts_HRW_hn" /> they asked HRW to make a strong statement against the human-rights violations and conduct its own investigation.<ref name="commond_90experts_HRW_hn" /> The letter's signers said that the [[Presidency of Barack Obama|Obama administration]] was supporting the ''de facto'' [[Roberto Micheletti]] government by providing "aid money through the Millennium Challenge Account and other sources", training Honduran military students at the [[Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation|School of the Americas]] and ignoring [[Human rights in Honduras#Micheletti de facto presidency (since 28 June 2009)|Honduras' human-rights situation]].<ref name="commond_90experts_HRW_hn" /> Four days later, HRW published<ref name="hrw_indirectly_responds_to_93academics">{{cite web| author=Human Rights Watch| title=Honduras: Rights Report Shows Need for Increased International Pressure| publisher =[[Human Rights Watch]]| date =2009-08-25| accessdate =2009-08-28 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5jNGgJhhK |archivedate=2009-08-28 |url=http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/08/25/honduras-rights-report-shows-need-increased-international-pressure}}</ref> a summary of the preliminary version of a Honduran human-rights report by the [[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]] (IACHR) published on 21 August<ref name="CIDH_en_prelim">{{cite web| last =| first =| authorlink =| title =Preliminary Observations on the IACHR Visit to Honduras| work =| publisher =[[Inter-American Court of Human Rights]]| date =2009-08-21| url =http://www.cidh.oas.org/Comunicados/English/2009/60-09eng.Preliminary.Observations.htm | doi =| accessdate =2009-08-26 |archiveurl=http://www.webcitation.org/5jIo4ig3F |archivedate=2009-08-25 |deadurl=no}}</ref> and cited its earlier reports (published until 8 July): "Given the scope of alleged abuses, and the region's history of bloody coups leading to massive violations, human rights advocates believed the situation warranted the direct intervention of the region's most authoritative human rights investigative body, the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights."<ref name="hrw_indirectly_responds_to_93academics" />

===={{anchor|The Arab–Israeli conflict}}Arab–Israeli conflict====
{{Further|Arab–Israeli conflict}}

=====Anti-Israel bias=====
According to HRW co-founder and former executive director Aryeh Neier, it "is wrong to suggest that open societies should be spared criticism for human rights abuses". Neier also said that Robert Bernstein's distinction between "wrongs committed in self-defense and those committed intentionally" is not made by the laws of war and dangerous. On such grounds, groups such as al-Qaeda in Iraq (which murdered tens of thousands of civilians after the 2003 American invasion) could justify their crimes.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/aryeh-neier/human-rights-watch-should_b_342680.html |title=''Huffington Post'': Human Rights Watch Should Not Be Criticized for Doing Its Job |publisher=Huffingtonpost.com |date=2009-11-02 |accessdate=2013-01-28 |first=Aryeh |last=Neier}}</ref>

For a ''[[The Jerusalem Post|Jerusalem Post]]'' article, [[Natan Sharansky]] said: "Here is an organization created by the goodwill of the free world to fight violations of human rights, which has become a tool in the hands of dictatorial regimes to fight against democracies ... It is time to call a spade a spade. The real activity of this organization today is a far cry from what it was set up 30 years ago to do: throw light in dark places where there is really no other way to find out what is happening regarding human rights."<ref name="JP-Israel-vs-HRW"/> HRW executive director [[Kenneth Roth]] responded that "Israel accounts for about 15 percent of our published output on the region" and "our war coverage in the region has documented violations by all sides". According to Roth, "By failing to hold those responsible to account, Israel increases anger and resentment among the Palestinian population and in the wider Arab world and undercuts moderates who wish to pursue peace."<ref>{{cite web|last=Roth |first=Kenneth |url=http://www.haaretz.com/hasen/spages/1123838.html |title=''Haaretz'': Human Rights Watch applies same standards to Israel, Hamas |publisher=Haaretz.com |date=2009-10-27 |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' Mideast correspondent Scott MacLeod wrote in the ''[[Los Angeles Times]]'' that Israeli policy cannot be shielded from a group like Human Rights Watch.<ref>Scott MacLeod, ''Los Angeles Times'', 30 October 2009, [http://www.latimes.com/news/opinion/commentary/la-oe-maccleod30-2009oct30,0,1700643.story Sneak attack on Human Rights Watch]</ref>

HRW has been accused of bias against Israel<ref>{{cite news|last1=Pollak|first1=Noah|title=Double Standards and Human Rights Watch: The organization displays a strong bias against Israel|url=http://online.wsj.com/news/articles/SB10001424052970204619004574318344040299638|accessdate=11 August 2014|work=Wall Street Journal|date=July 30, 2009}}</ref><ref name="Huff-Swiftboating">{{Cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/daniel-levy/the-swiftboating-of-human_b_241634.html|title=The "Swiftboating" of Human Rights Watch|last=Levy|first=Daniel|date=2009-07-20|publisher=The Huffington Post|accessdate=2009-08-19}}
</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=FAR BEYOND THE CURVE: HRW’S BIAS AND LACK OF CREDIBILITY IN 2012|url=http://www.ngo-monitor.org/article/hrw_s_bias_and_lack_of_credibility_in_|website=www.ngo-monitor.org|publisher=NGO Monitor|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=HRW IN 2011: MORE BALANCE, LESS CREDIBILITY|url=http://www.ngo-monitor.org/article/hrw_in_more_balance_less_credibility|website=www.ngo-monitor.org|publisher=NGO Monitor|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Human Rights Watch's Ken Roth goes to bat for Hamas war crimes|url=http://elderofziyon.blogspot.com/2014/07/human-rights-watchs-ken-roth-goes-to.html|website=elderofziyon.blogspot.com|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=HRW's Ken Roth proves his anti-Israel bias in tweet meant to do the opposite|url=http://elderofziyon.blogspot.com/2014/07/hrws-ken-roth-proves-his-anti-israel.html#.U-hijfldURo|website=http://elderofziyon.blogspot.com|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref> (issuing one-sided reports hostile to Israel<ref>[http://www.ottawacitizen.com/news/secret+motives/1998271/story.html Not-so-secret motives, The Ottawa Citizen, September 16, 2009]{{dead link|date=January 2013}}</ref> and having an anti-Israeli agenda)<ref name="JP-Israel-vs-HRW">{{Cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/Features/Front-Lines/Diplomacy-Israel-vs-Human-Rights-Watch|title=Diplomacy: Israel vs. Human Rights Watch|last=Keinon|first=Herb|date=2009-07-16|publisher=The Jerusalem Post
|accessdate=2014-08-10}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=Human Rights Watch Discredited Even By Its Founder|url=http://www.camera.org/index.asp?x_context=2&x_outlet=35&x_article=1753|website=http://www.camera.org/|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=HRW New Middle East Board: Reinforcing the Bias|url=http://www.gatestoneinstitute.org/914/hrw-new-middle-east-board-reinforcing-the-bias|website=gatestoneinstitute.org|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=NGO Monitor: HRW Report More Israel Bashing|url=http://www.cbn.com/cbnnews/insideisrael/2010/January/NGO-Monitor--HRW-Report-More-Israel-Bashing/|accessdate=11 August 2014|work=CBN News|date=January 22, 2010}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Lazaroff|first1=Tovah|title=PM attacks 'hypocritical' human rights organizations|url=http://www.jpost.com/Diplomacy-and-Politics/PM-attacks-hypocritical-human-rights-organizations|accessdate=11 August 2014|work=Jerusalem Post|date=2010-12-19}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|last1=Stotsky|first1=Steven|title=Human Rights Watch Goes to Bat for Hamas's Al Aqsa TV|url=http://www.camera.org/index.asp?x_context=2&x_outlet=118&x_article=2416|website=camera.org|publisher=Committee for Accuracy in Middle East Reporting in America|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref> by general-circulation newspapers, the Israeli government and supporters of Israel.<ref name="NGOM on HRW 4/25/2010">{{cite web|title=FOR HRW, ISRAEL IS "LOW-HANGING FRUIT": THE NEW REPUBLIC ADDS EVIDENCE OF BIAS|url=http://www.ngo-monitor.org/article/for_hrw_israel_is_low_hanging_fruit_the_new_republic_adds_evidence_of_bias|website=http://www.ngo-monitor.org/|publisher=NGO monitor|accessdate=2014-08-10}}</ref><ref name="NGO monitor's ANALYSIS OF FALSE CLAIMS AGAINST ISRAEL">{{cite web|title=HRW´S DESTRUCTIVE CRITICISM: ANALYSIS OF FALSE CLAIMS AGAINST ISRAEL|url=http://www.ngo-monitor.org/article/hrw_s_destructive_criticism_analysis_of_false_claims_against_israel|website=http://www.ngo-monitor.org/|publisher=NGO monitor|accessdate=2014-08-10}}</ref><ref name="NGO-monitor's ANALYSIS OF HRW's Focus on Israel">{{cite web|title=EXPERTS OR IDEOLOGUES: SYSTEMATIC ANALYSIS OF HUMAN RIGHTS WATCH's Focus on Israel|url=http://www.ngo-monitor.org/article/experts_or_ideologues_systematic_analysis_of_human_rights_watch|website=http://www.ngo-monitor.org|accessdate=2014-08-10}}</ref> Political science professor and former consultant to the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs [[Gerald M. Steinberg]] of [[Bar Ilan University]], head of NGO Monitor (a pro-Israel NGO),<ref>''[[The Economist]]'', 13 September 2007, [http://www.economist.com/world/international/displaystory.cfm?story_id=9804231 Boycotting Israel: Israel-bashing—or a principled stance?]</ref> accused HRW of having "a strong anti-Israel bias from the beginning".<ref>[[Gerald M. Steinberg]], ''[[Jerusalem Post]]'', 25 January 2009, [http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-Ed-Contributors/For-HRW-Israel-is-always-guilty For HRW, Israel is always guilty]</ref> According to Steinberg, the organization's reports were based primarily on "Palestinian eyewitness testimony": testimony that is "not accurate, objective or credible but serves the political goal of indicting Israel".<ref>{{cite web|last=Steinberg |first=Gerald |url=http://jta.org/news/article/2009/09/03/1007523/op-ed-who-are-israels-accusers |title=Op-Ed: Who are Israel’s accusers? | JTA - Jewish & Israel News |publisher=JTA |date=2009-09-03 |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> In a ''[[Wall Street Journal]]'' opinion piece, law professor [[David Bernstein (law professor)|David Bernstein]] called HRW "maniacally anti-Israel".<ref name="Bernstein"/> Spokesman for Israeli Prime Minister [[Binyamin Netanyahu]] Mark Regev said: "We discovered during the Gaza operation and the Second Lebanon War that these organizations come in with a very strong agenda, and because they claim to have some kind of halo around them, they receive a status that they don't deserve," referring to HRW and Amnesty International allegations of human-rights violations by [[Israel Defense Forces|Israeli forces]] during those conflicts.<ref name="PMO slams 'biased' human rights NGOs">''[[Jerusalem Post]]'', 15 July 2009, [http://www.jpost.com/Israel/PMO-slams-biased-human-rights-NGOs PMO slams 'biased' human rights NGOs]</ref>

The organization has also been accused of ignoring [[Antisemitism|anti-Semitism]] or being anti-Semitic itself. In a 2005 speech to the [[Anti-Defamation League]] former Spanish [[Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Cooperation (Spain)|Foreign Minister]] [[Ana Palacio]] said, "NGOs like Human Rights Watch or Amnesty International pay little attention to anti-Semitism."<ref name="adl_hrwantisemit">[http://www.adl.org/Anti_semitism/speech_palacio.asp Anti-Semitism in Europe: Fighting Back],''Anti-Defamation League''</ref> The ADL has also suggested that criticism of Israel may be motivated by anti-Semitism.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.adl.org/israel/jenin/default.asp |title=Anatomy of Anti-Israel Incitement: Jenin, World Opinion and the Massacre That Wasn't |publisher=Adl.org |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> In ''[[The New York Sun]]'', ADL national director [[Abraham Foxman]] criticized Roth's use of "a classic anti-Semitic stereotype about Jews".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.nysun.com/opinion/no-accident/37146/ |title=No Accident - The New York Sun |publisher=Nysun.com |date=2006-08-02 |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref>

HRW Middle East and North Africa division director [[Sarah Leah Whitson]] responded to criticism: "In the case of Israel, where our focus is primarily on the violations of international law and humanitarian law in the occupied Palestinian territories, the fact that government is a democracy is completely irrelevant, because the rule in place in the occupied territories is military rule, it is not a democracy".<ref name="JP-Israel-vs-HRW" /> In July 2009, ''Jerusalem Post'' columnist Larry Derfner accused Israel's Prime Minister's Office and [[NGO Monitor]] of "smearing" human-rights organizations in response to the criticism of HRW.<ref name="JP-Derfner-2009-07-22">{{Cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Columnists/Rattling-the-Cage-The-smearing-of-human-rights-organizations|title=Rattling the Cage: The smearing of human rights organizations|last=Derfner|first=Larry|date=2009-07-22|publisher=The Jerusalem Post|accessdate=2014-08-10}}</ref> HRW program director Iain Levine said in August 2009, "If the Israeli government wants to silence critics, it should fully investigate allegations of wrongdoing and take action to end the abuses."<ref name="HRW-false-allegations">{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/08/14/false-allegations-about-human-rights-watch-s-latest-gaza-report|title=False Allegations about Human Rights Watch’s Latest Gaza Report|date=2009-08-14|publisher=Human Rights Watch|accessdate=2009-08-17}}</ref> In a ''Jerusalem Post'' op-ed piece that month, Kenneth Roth wrote that reports of recent Israeli human-rights violations had "given rise to an intense campaign by the Israeli government and some of its uncritical supporters to smear the messengers and change the subject." According to Roth, the "problem is not the messenger carrying news of that misconduct, whether Judge Goldstone or the human rights groups that have been the target of a disinformation campaign launched by the Israeli government and some supporters. The problem is the conduct of the Israeli military."<ref>[http://www.jpost.com/Opinion/Op-Ed-Contributors/Right-of-Reply-Dont-smear-the-messenger Right of Reply: Don't smear the messenger], Kenneth Roth, ''Jerusalm Post'', August 25, 2009</ref> According to ''The Times'', "most" HRW Middle East staff "have activist backgrounds — it was typical that one newly hired researcher came to HRW from the extremist anti-Israel publication Electronic Intifada — unlikely to reassure anyone who thinks that human-rights organizations should be non-partisan."<ref name="Scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch"/>

In a November 2012 ''Wall Street Journal'' article, David Feith said that there has been "bitter debate" within HRW about whether Iran's [[Mahmoud Ahmadinejad#Israel and Palestine|call for annihilation]] of Israel is a violation of human rights. HRW vice-chair Sid Sheinberg wrote in an internal email that doing nothing while [[Ahmadinejad]] wants to "kill Jews and annihilate Israel ... is a position unworthy of our great organization." According to Kenneth Roth, "[[Tehran]] isn't inciting genocide and claims to the contrary are part of an effort to beat the war drums against Iran."<ref>[http://online.wsj.com/article/SB10001424127887324439804578105691046734674.html Dancing Around Genocide]</ref>

In an analysis published by the [[Jewish Telegraphic Agency]], [[Ron Kampeas]] criticized HRW reports: "Reconstructions of the horrific death of civilians replete with painstakingly gathered evidence are coupled with bewildering omissions of context and blended into a package that assumes an inherent Israeli immorality" and denounced "efforts to turn criticism of individual officers and soldiers into a wholesale indictment of Israel’s military establishment and the decision to resort to military force."<ref name="jta.org">Facts, fiction and fury in the battle of human rights groups vs. Israel, News Analysis, Ron Kampeas, August 20, 2009 [http://jta.org/news/article/2009/08/20/1007367/facts-fiction-and-fury-in-the-battle-of-human-rights-groups-vs-israel]</ref> According to Kampeas, HRW reports on the 2009 fighting in Gaza "fail to assess evidence — including videos of Israeli forces holding their fire because of the presence of civilians — that Israel has provided to show that such incidents were the exception to the rule; they fail to examine what measures Israel has taken to prevent civilian deaths, which would be pertinent in examining any claim of war crimes."<ref name="jta.org"/>

In October 2009, Robert Bernstein criticized the organization's policy in the Middle East in a ''[[The New York Times|New York Times]]'' op-ed. According to Bernstein, "With increasing frequency, [HRW] casts aside its important distinction between open and closed societies ... The region is populated by authoritarian regimes with appalling human rights records. Yet in recent years Human Rights Watch has written far more condemnations of Israel for violations of international law than of any other country in the region."<ref name="Bernstein_19102009"/> HRW London branch director Tom Porteus replied that the organization rejected Bernstein's "obvious double standard. Any credible human rights organization must apply the same human rights standards to all countries."<ref name="guardian1"/> Jane Olson and Jonathan Fanton wrote in a letter to the ''New York Times'', "We were saddened to see Robert L. Bernstein argue that Israel should be judged by a different human rights standard than the rest of the world ... As long as open societies commit human rights abuses, Human Rights Watch has a vital role to play in documenting those violations and advocating to bring them to an end."<ref>[http://www.nytimes.com/2009/10/21/opinion/l21israel.html ''New York Times'': Crossfire: A Rights Group and Israel]</ref> According to the organization, in April 2009 Bernstein brought his concerns to the HRW board of directors; the board unanimously rejected his view that Human Rights Watch should report only on closed societies, expressing its full support for the organization's work.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/10/20/why-we-report-open-societies |title=Human Rights Watch: Why We Report on 'Open' Societies |publisher=Hrw.org |date=2009-10-20 |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref>

''[[The New Republic]]'' published a lengthy article about HRW in April 2010, criticizing the organization for "giving disproportionate attention to Israeli misdeeds."<ref name="tnr.com">Minority Report: Human Rights Watch fights a civil war over Israel, Benjamin Birnbaum, [[The New Republic]], April 27, 2010 [http://www.tnr.com/article/minority-report-2?page=0,0]</ref> "Robert James—a businessman, World War II veteran, and member of the MENA [Middle East and North Africa Desk of HRW] advisory committee who has been involved with HRW almost since its inception—calls the group 'the greatest NGO since the Red Cross'," but argues that it is chronically incapable of introspection. 'Bob [Bernstein, founder and former chair of HRW] is bringing this issue up on Israel', he says. 'But Human Rights Watch has a more basic problem ... They cannot take criticism'."<ref name="tnr.com"/> According to the magazine (referring to Bernstein's ''New York Times'' op-ed), "Yet, as difficult as it was to go public, Bernstein does not believe that Human Rights Watch left him with much choice. 'They think they’ve heard me out,' he says. 'You see, they think they’ve listened to me until they can’t listen anymore. Actually, they haven’t listened at all'."<ref name="tnr.com"/> In November 2010 Bernstein delivered the Shirley and Leonard Goldstein Lecture on Human Rights at the University of Nebraska at Omaha,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.unomaha.edu/religion/goldstein.home.htm |title=The Shirley and Leonard Goldstein Lecture on Human Rights at the University of Nebraska |publisher=Unomaha.edu |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> accusing HRW of "fault[ing] Israel as the principal offender" in the Israel-Palestine conflict and suggesting that human-rights groups were responsible for polarizing university campuses.

In her ''[[Washington Post]]'' blog, [[Jennifer Rubin (journalist)|Jennifer Rubin]] described HRW as "an anti-Israel group masquerading as one devoted to human rights".<ref>{{cite news|last=Rubin |first=Jennifer |url=http://voices.washingtonpost.com/right-turn/2010/12/morning_bits_16.html |title=Jennifer Rubin, Washington Post, Morning Bits |publisher=Voices.washingtonpost.com |date=2010-12-21 |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> A January 2012 ''New Europe'' article quoted an NGO Monitor report which said that HRW gives "disproportionate attention" to Israel and the occupied territories, which received "more attention in 2011 than Tunisia, Saudi Arabia, or Iraq." According to the article, HRW reports continued to show "bias on Israel" and "all op-eds published on the Arab-Israeli conflict in major media focused on allegations against Israel."<ref name="neurope1"/> Orlando Radice said about his interview with Kenneth Roth for ''[[The Jewish Chronicle]]'', "This was less of an interview than an exercise in denial, obfuscation and plain old censorship."<ref>[http://www.thejc.com/comment-and-debate/analysis/102268/censorship-never-human-rights-watch Censorship? Never, this is Human Rights Watch]</ref>

======Garlasco incident======
Senior HRW investigator [[Marc Garlasco]] has been criticized for collecting Nazi memorabilia,<ref name="Garlasco accused">{{cite news|last1=Pilkington|first1=Ed|title=Human Rights Watch investigator accused of collecting Nazi memorabilia|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/10/human-rights-watch-israel-nazi|accessdate=11 August 2014|work=The Guardian|date=10 September 2009}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|title=EXPERT OR IDEOLOGUES?: HRW’S DEFENSE OF MARC GARLASCO’S NAZI FETISH|url=http://www.ngo-monitor.org/article/expert_or_ideologues_hrw_s_defense_of_marc_garlasco_s_nazi_fetish|website=www.ngo-monitor.org|publisher=NGO Monitor|accessdate=11 August 2014}}</ref> and Emma Daly confirmed without elaboration in March 2010 that Garlasco had resigned from Human Rights Watch the previous month. Garlasco, who wrote a book about [[Nazi]]-era medals, posted on a collector website: "That is so [[cool (aesthetic)|cool]]! The leather [[SS]] jacket makes my blood go cold it is so COOL!"<ref name="Garlasco accused" /><ref>''[[Daily Telegraph]]'', 15 September 2009, [http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/israel/6194158/Human-Rights-Watch-suspends-researcher-who-collected-Nazi-memorabilia.html Human Rights Watch suspends researcher who collected Nazi memorabilia]</ref><ref>''[[New York Times]]'', 14 September 2009, [http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/15/world/middleeast/15nazi.html?em Rights Group Assailed for Analyst’s Nazi Collection]</ref><ref>[[Agence France-Presse|AFP]], 15 July 2009, [http://www.google.com/hostednews/afp/article/ALeqM5gN0ozL3Zpc5Wv8369sfOpffXmA6Q Rights group suspends analyst over Nazi collection]</ref><ref>{{cite news|last1=Pilkington|first1=Ed|title=Human Rights Watch investigator suspended over Nazi memorabilia|url=http://www.theguardian.com/world/2009/sep/15/human-rights-watch-nazi-israel|accessdate=11 August 2014|work=The Guardian|date=15 September 2009}}</ref> [[Ron Dermer]], then [[Binyamin Netanyahu]]'s policy director, said about Garlasco: "A war crimes investigator who is an avid collector and trader in Nazi memorabilia is perhaps a new low."<ref name="JP=2009-09-09">[http://www.jpost.com/Israel/HRW-expert-collects-Nazi-memorabilia 'HRW expert collects Nazi memorabilia'], JPost, September 09 2009</ref> HRW issued a rebuttal, saying that the "accusation is demonstrably false and fits into a campaign to deflect attention from Human Rights Watch's rigorous and detailed reporting on violations of international human rights and humanitarian law by the Israeli government" and Garlasco "has never held or expressed Nazi or anti-Semitic views."<ref name="JP=2009-09-09"/>
[[Helena Cobban]] (a fellow analyst on the Human Rights Watch Middle East advisory board) said that Garlasco engaged with "people who clearly do seem to be Nazi sympathizers," which she called "extremely disturbing".<ref name=NPR16Sep09/>

According to the organization Garlasco "covered Iraq as a senior intelligence analyst at the Pentagon",<ref>http://www.hrw.org/en/bios/marc-garlasco</ref> and ''The Guardian'' reported that he served in this role for seven years. He was chief of high-value targeting during the Iraq war in 2003, on the Operation Desert Fox (Iraq) Battle Damage Assessment team in 1998 and led a Pentagon Battle Damage Assessment team to Kosovo in 1999. Garlasco also participated in over 50 interrogations as a subject-matter expert.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://commentisfree.guardian.co.uk/marc_garlasco/profile.html | location=London | work=The Guardian | title=Marc Garlasco | date=2012-02-22}}</ref>

In a piece for ''[[The National (Abu Dhabi)|The National]]'', Alan Philps wrote that "the Netanyahu government and its supporters have set out to destroy the credibility of the UN Human Rights Council and all non-governmental organisations (NGOs) working in the human rights field ... The aim is clearly to de-legitimize the organization at a time when its rights-based analysis coincides with some of the views of the US president Barack Obama."<ref>{{cite web|author=02:03PM - Monday |url=http://www.thenational.ae/apps/pbcs.dll/article?AID=/20090918/OPINION/709179888/1080/NEWS |title=''The National'': Israeli defense depends on attacking the messenger |publisher=Thenational.ae |date=2012-12-13 |accessdate=2013-01-28}}{{dead link|date=September 2014}}</ref>

According to ''Christian Science Monitor'' staff writer Robert Marquand, a U.N. report by "jurist Richard Goldstone, head of South Africa’s Truth and Reconciliation Commission, chief prosecutor for the Yugoslav war-crimes tribunal" showed illegal white-phosphorus use consistent with Garlasco's eyewitness testimony provided to the ''Monitor''. Marquand wrote that it was "not okay ... to use Garlasco to distract from or obfuscate findings that war crimes and crimes against humanity may have taken place in Gaza".<ref>{{cite web|url=http://features.csmonitor.com/globalnews/2009/09/17/gaza-war-analyst-does-his-nazi-era-collection-indicate-bias/ |title=''Christian Science Monitor'': Gaza war analyst: Does his Nazi-era collection indicate bias? |publisher=Features.csmonitor.com |date=2009-09-17 |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref>

======{{anchor|Criticism of fund raising}}Fundraising======
On September 7, 2010, it was announced that [[George Soros]] planned to donate $100 million to Human Rights Watch.<ref>Human Rights Watch, 7 September 2010 [http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2010/09/07/global-challenge George Soros to Give $100 million to Human Rights Watch]</ref> Soros' donation was criticized by Gerald Steinberg, founder of NGO Monitor.<ref>{{cite news|last=Steinberg |first=Gerald |url=http://www.nypost.com/p/news/opinion/opedcolumnists/selling_out_to_soros_iYfn7YXaZg8xEFCp5iEcCJ |title=Selling Out to Soros by Prof. Gerald Steinberg|publisher=Nypost.com |date=2010-09-12 |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref>

Journalists have criticized Human Rights Watch for requesting, encouraging or accepting financial donations in Saudi Arabia and for its fundraising methods. Critics charge that these methods include descriptions of HRW "battles" and arguments with Israel and its supporters. According to ''[[Jerusalem Post]]'' columnist [[Herb Keinon]] and [[Jeffrey Goldberg]], a correspondent for ''[[The Atlantic]]'' and former ''JP'' columnist, this compromises HRW's integrity.<ref name="JP-Israel-vs-HRW"/> In an email exchange, Goldberg asked Kenneth Roth if funds were raised to fight pro-Israel lobbying groups. Roth answered: "The Saudis obviously are aware of the systematic attacks on us by various reflexive defenders of Israel. Everyone is", adding that these complaints are common in "discussions" during fundraisers and not exclusive to Saudi Arabia.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://jeffreygoldberg.theatlantic.com/archives/2009/07/fundraising_corruption_at_huma.php |title=Fundraising Corruption at Human Rights Watch - Jeffrey Goldberg - The Atlantic |publisher=Jeffreygoldberg.theatlantic.com |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref> Spokesman for Israeli PM Binyamin Netanyahu Mark Regev said in response to HRW's fundraising visit to Saudi Arabia, "A human rights organization raising money in Saudi Arabia is like a women's rights group asking the Taliban for a donation".<ref name="Scandal engulfs Human Rights Watch"/><ref name="PMO slams 'biased' human rights NGOs" />

David Bernstein of the [[George Mason University School of Law]] wrote that something is "wrong when a human rights organization goes to one of the worst countries in the world for human rights to raise money to wage [[lawfare]] against Israel",<ref name="Bernstein">Bernstein, David. [http://online.wsj.com/article/SB124528343805525561.html "Human Rights Watch Goes to Saudi Arabia."] ''[[The Wall Street Journal]]''. 15 July 2009. 15 July 2009.</ref> although [[Inter Press Service]] later said that he apologized for suggesting that HRW did not also discuss Saudi human-rights abuses during the meetings.<ref name="IPS-2009-07-06"/>

According to Human Rights Watch, allegations that HRW had "compromised its neutrality" by meeting with Saudi donors were based on "misleading assumptions and wrong facts". HRW noted that staffers made two May 2009 presentations in private Saudi homes to people interested in the organization. Among an estimated 50 guests at a Riyadh reception, three had governmental affiliations: "the spokesperson for the Ministry of Interior; the deputy head of the Human Rights Commission, a governmental organization; and a member of the [[Shura Council]], a government-appointed consultative body."<ref name="hrw_saudi_response_1">Visit to Saudi Arabia and False Allegations of Human Rights Watch 'Bias' [http://www.hrw.org/en/node/84956]</ref> According to HRW, none of those individuals were solicited for funds; HRW never accepts funds from government officials in any country,<ref name="HRW_response">{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/en/node/84512 |title=Human Rights Watch Visit to Saudi Arabia |publisher=[[Human Rights Watch]]}}</ref> and there is no reason why Saudi citizens cannot legitimately want to support human rights.<ref name="HRW_response"/>
[[Gerald Steinberg]], executive director of NGO Monitor, said that the HRW defense was an "absurd attempt to cast a distinction between soliciting Saudi officials and prominent members of society who owe their very position to the regime."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.baltimoresun.com/news/opinion/oped/bal-op.hrw30aug30,0,49598.story |title=Israel obsession leads HRW astray |publisher=The Baltimore Sun |accessdate=2013-01-28}}</ref>

HRW told Inter Press Service that the idea "that any money from Saudi Arabia is tainted because it comes from a country with a totalitarian ruling regime is a gross generalization ... The ethnic background of our donors is irrelevant to the work we do ... It's not relevant to our work in Israel that many, many of our donors are Jewish. And it's not relevant for the work that we do that we get money from Arab countries".<ref name="IPS-2009-07-06">{{Cite news|url=http://ipsnews.net/news.asp?idnews=47685|title=U.S.-Based Leading Rights Group Denies Improprieties|last=Gharib|first=Ali|date=2009-07-06|publisher=Inter Press Service|accessdate=2009-09-12}}</ref> According to the organization its work in Saudi Arabia, including "coverage of women's rights, the juvenile death penalty, domestic workers, and discrimination against religious minorities", was discussed at the receptions.<ref name="HRW_response"/> HRW also said, "No other human rights group has produced a more comprehensive, detailed, and thorough body of work on Saudi Arabian human rights issues in recent years than Human Rights Watch".<ref name="HRW_response"/> Although the Gaza situation was covered, HRW claimed that the coverage was justified since the Gaza war dominated worldwide headlines and is a regional issue in Saudi Arabia. Criticism of HRW as anti-Israel was juxtaposed against the accusations HRW faces in much of the Middle East that HRW is soft on Israeli human-rights violations.<ref name="HRW_response"/>

In 2008, HRW issued one multi-country and five single-country reports criticizing the Saudi Arabian government.<ref name="HRW-reps">{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/en/publications/reports|title=Human Rights Watch - Reports|publisher=Human Rights Watch|accessdate=2009-08-31}}</ref> In August 2009 the organization issued a report, "Human Rights and Saudi Arabia's Counterterrorism Response: Religious Counseling, Indefinite Detention, and Flawed Trials", criticizing the Saudi Arabian government's counterterrorism program.<ref name="HRW-SA-2009-08-10">{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/08/04/saudi-arabia-counterterrorism-efforts-violate-rights|title=Saudi Arabia: Counterterrorism Efforts Violate Rights|date=2009-08-10|publisher=Human Rights Watch|accessdate=2009-08-31}}</ref>

======{{anchor|Appointment of Shawan Jabarin}}Shawan Jabarin appointment======
In February 2011, HRW appointed [[Shawan Jabarin]] to their Mideast Advisory Board. Jabarin has been called "[[Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde]]" by the Israeli [[Supreme Court]] for his roles in the militant [[Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine]] and the human-rights organization [[Al Haq]]. HRW’s decision to include Jabarin on its Mideast Board evoked criticism from Robert Bernstein, Stuart Robinowitz (a New York attorney who has made human-rights missions for the [[American Bar Association]] and [[Helsinki Watch]] in Yugoslavia, Bulgaria and El Salvador) and Gerald Steinberg, president of NGO Monitor.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.jpost.com/International/Article.aspx?id=208768 |title=HRW appoints alleged terrorist to Mideast Board|last1=Friedman|first1=Ron|last2=Weinthal|first2=Benjamin|newspaper=Jerusalem Post|accessdate=September 19, 2014}}</ref>

=====Pro-Israel bias=====
During the [[2006 Israel-Lebanon conflict]], Israel-based journalist [[Jonathan Cook]] claimed that HRW's statements about the intentions of Israel and [[Hezbollah]] to target or avoid civilians unjustified by available evidence "[seemed to distort] its findings to placate the Israel lobby". According to Cook, "HRW is accusing Hezbollah of committing graver war crimes than Israel, even though it killed far fewer civilians both numerically and proportionally, because its rockets are 'less accurate'".<ref name="cookonhrwone">{{cite web| last = Cook | first = Jonathan | authorlink = Jonathan Cook | title = How Human Rights Watch lost its way in Lebanon | work = | publisher = Electronic Intifada | date = 7 September 2006 | url = http://electronicintifada.net/v2/article5698.shtml | doi = | accessdate = 2006-10-14 }}</ref> An HRW representative defended the organization's objectivity.<ref name="cookcounterpunch">{{cite web| last = Whitson | first = Sarah Leah | authorlink = | title = Hezbollah's Rockets and Civilian Casualties: A Response to Jonathan Cook | work = | publisher = Counterpunch | date = September 22, 2006 | url = http://www.counterpunch.org/whitson09222006.html | doi = | accessdate = 2006-10-14 }}</ref> Cook said that he did not criticize the empirical aspects of HRW's research, but its interpretation.<ref name="cookhrwcounter">{{cite web| last = Cook | first = Jonathan | authorlink = Jonathan Cook | title = Human Rights Watch still denying Lebanon the right to defend itself | work = | publisher = [[Z Communications]] | date = September 26, 2006 | url = http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=11048 | doi = | accessdate = 2006-10-14 }}</ref>

HRW has also been criticised for taking Israel's side for its claim that the Palestinians had used human shields.<ref name="finkelstein_humanshields">{{cite web|url=http://www.counterpunch.org/cook11302006.html |title=Palestinians Are Being Denied the Right of Non-Violent Resistance? » CounterPunch: Tells the Facts, Names the Names |publisher=CounterPunch |date=2006-11-30 |accessdate=2013-08-18}}</ref><ref>[http://www.normanfinkelstein.com/article.php?pg=11&ar=700 ]{{dead link|date=August 2013}}</ref><ref>[http://www.normanfinkelstein.com/article.php?pg=11&ar=700#rdrl ]{{dead link|date=August 2013}}</ref> [[Norman Finkelstein]] criticized HRW for "seeking to appease pro-Israel critics after taking the heat for its report documenting Israeli war crimes in Lebanon".<ref>[http://www.normanfinkelstein.com/human-rights-watch-must-retract-its-shameful-press-release/ ]{{dead link|date=August 2013}}</ref>

In December 2012, HRW was criticized by [[Hamas]] after the organization criticized Palestinian armed groups for launching hundreds of rockets toward populated areas in Israel. According to a Hamas spokesperson, the Palestinians were fighting an occupying power and attempting to liberate their homeland; this was "not terrorism as HRW claims."<ref>[http://www.china.org.cn/world/Off_the_Wire/2012-12/24/content_27502414.htm 'Hamas rejects human rights report over Gaza rocket attacks against Israel'] Xinhua, December 24, 2012</ref>

====={{anchor|Human Rights Watch responds to criticism}}Response to criticism=====
In the wake of the 2009 [[United Nations Fact Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict|Goldstone report]], HRW accused Israel and its supporters of an organized campaign of false allegations and misinformation designed to discredit the group over its findings concerning the [[Gaza War (2008–09)|Gaza War]]. The organization tied the criticism to a June 2009 statement by a senior official in the Israeli prime minister's office who pledged to "dedicate time and manpower to combating" human-rights organizations. According to HRW, the criticism amounted to an organized effort. Attacks from different sources, with similar language and arguments, implied prior coordination. Iain Levine of HRW said, "We are having to spend a lot of time repudiating the lies, the falsehoods, the misinformation".<ref>''[[The Guardian]]'', 13 November 2009, [http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2009/nov/13/israel-human-rights-watch-gaza Israel 'personally attacking human rights group' after Gaza war criticism]</ref> A group of 10 Israeli rights groups accused the Israeli government of attempting to "instill fear and silence or alarm vital organizations" who were engaging in open, public discourse.<ref name=NPR16Sep09>[[National Public Radio]], 16 September 2009, [http://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=112900014&ps=cprs Rights Analyst Suspended Over Nazi-Era Collection]</ref>

===={{anchor|Allegations of bias concerning Africa}}Africa====
HRW has been accused of unfair and biased reporting of [[Human rights in Eritrea|human-rights issues]] in [[Eritrea]] and [[Ethiopia]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://danielberhane.com/2010/06/09/media-darling-hrws-10-flagrant-blunders/|title=Media Darling: Human Rights Watch’s 10 flagrant blunders|last1=Berhane|first1=Daniel|date=June 9, 2010|website=Horn Affairs|accessdate=September 20, 2014}}</ref>

=====Eritrea=====
In April 2009, the organization published a report accusing the [[Politics of Eritrea|Eritrean government]] of serious human-rights violations.<ref name="HRW-Service-for-Life">{{cite web|url=http://www.hrw.org/en/news/2009/04/16/eritrea-repression-creating-human-rights-crisis
|title=Eritrea: Repression Creating Human Rights Crisis|date=2009-04-16|publisher=Human Rights Watch|accessdate=2009-08-21}}</ref> Sophia Tesfamariam, director of the US Foundation for the [[Horn of Africa]], refuted the report's allegations and called it an "anti-Eritrea report": "HRW goes to great lengths to embellish the truth in its attempts to paint a bleak picture of Eritrea and its government". She described it as “not only short on facts and evidence, but also short on intellectual and professional integrity”.{{cn|date=September 2014}}

=====Ethiopia=====
The Ethiopian government has raised questions about HRW's methods, commissioning a report dismissing "Human Rights Watch allegations of abuses in the [[Ogaden]] as hearsay and its methods as slapdash".<ref name="economist_hrw_ethiopia">{{cite news| url=http://www.economist.com/research/articlesBySubject/displaystory.cfm?subjectid=1521509&story_id=13061682 | work=The Economist | title=A row over human rights | date=2009-02-05}}</ref>

====Asia====

=====Bangladesh=====
A special tribunal dealing with war crimes during Bangladesh's 1971 independence war with Pakistan asked Human Rights Watch to explain why it should not be charged with contempt of court for a statement from the organization that the trial of former Islamic party leader [[Ghulam Azam]] was "deeply flawed" and did not meet international standards. Azam was sentenced to 90 years in prison for war crimes. The U.S. ambassador in Bangladesh expressed concern over the prosecutors' move against the organization.<ref>[http://www.foxnews.com/world/2013/09/02/bangladesh-court-asks-human-rights-watch-to-explain-why-it-shouldnt-be-charged/ Bangladesh court asks Human Rights Watch to explain why it shouldn't be charged with contempt], ''Fox News''</ref>

=====Saudi Arabia=====
A prominent Saudi human-rights activist described the Human Rights Watch report on Saudi Arabia as partially untrue, and said the report does not fully take into account the religious background of the Saudi people.<ref>[http://gulfnews.com/news/gulf/saudi-arabia/rights-group-report-ignores-islamic-law-1.2069 Rights group report 'ignores Islamic law'] - Statement to Gulf News, Dr Mufleh Al Qahtani, Chairman of the National Society for Human Rights in Saudi Arabia</ref>

==See also==
* [[Criticism of Amnesty International]]

==References==
{{cleanup-bare URLs|date=June 2013}}
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
*[http://www.hrw.org/middle-eastn-africa/saudi-arabia Human Rights Watch Saudi Arabia]
*[http://www.ngo-monitor.org/article/hrw_in_more_balance_less_credibility NGO Monitor: HRW in 2011 - More Balance, Less Credibility]
*[http://web.archive.org/web/20050121233829/www.sulekha.com/expressions/articledesc.asp?cid=199895 The HRW Report on Gujarat: Another Assassination] - by Aseem R. Shukla
* [http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?SectionID=55&ItemID=10011 Haiti and Human Rights Watch] (Joe Emersberger, blogger)
*Michael Barker, "[http://www.zmag.org/content/showarticle.cfm?ItemID=13436 Hijacking Human Rights: A Critical Examination of Human Rights Watch’s Americas Branch and their Links to the ‘Democracy’ Establishment]", blog, August 3, 2007.

{{DEFAULTSORT:Criticism Of Human Rights Watch}}
[[Category:Human Rights Watch]]
[[Category:Criticisms|Human Rights Watch]]

[[sv:Kritik av Human Rights Watch]]

De Havilland Sea Vixen

2014-10-10T17:57:05Z

JanTurin:

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2013}}
{{lowercase|de Havilland Sea Vixen}}

{|{{Infobox aircraft begin
|name= DH.110 Sea Vixen
|image= De Havilland Sea Vixen at Yeovilton 2009.JPG
|caption= The only remaining airworthy Sea Vixen (civil registration G-CVIX) at the 2009 Yeovilton Air Show
}}{{Infobox aircraft type
|type= Carrier-based [[fighter aircraft|fighter]]
|manufacturer= [[de Havilland]]
|first flight= 26 September 1951<ref name = 'neal 179'/>
|introduced= July 1959
|retired= 1972
|status=
|primary user= [[Royal Navy]]
|more users=
|produced=
|number built= 145
|unit cost=
|variants with their own articles=
}}
|}

The '''de Havilland DH.110 Sea Vixen''' is a [[twin boom]], twin-engined 1950s–1960s British two-seat [[jet fighter]] of the [[Fleet Air Arm]] designed by [[de Havilland]] at [[Hatfield, Hertfordshire|Hatfield]], Hertfordshire. Developed from an earlier first generation jet fighter, the Sea Vixen was a capable carrier-based fleet defence fighter that served into the 1970s. Initially produced by de Havilland it was later known as the '''Hawker Siddeley Sea Vixen''' after de Havilland became a part of the [[Hawker Siddeley]] Group in 1960. All 140 production Sea Vixens were manufactured and first flown from [[Christchurch, Dorset]]. A single example remains airworthy today in the UK and is displayed regularly at airshows.

==Development==
The aircraft was designated the ''DH.110'' by de Havilland; a twin-engined all-weather fighter, development of which started in 1946 following discussions with the [[Admiralty]] of its requirements for jet all-weather fighters.<ref name = 'neal 179'>Neal 1960, p. 179.</ref> De Havilland's design shared the [[twin-boom]] layout of the [[de Havilland Vampire]], had an all-metal structure and featured swept wings. It was to be powered by two [[Rolls-Royce Avon]] engines, each capable of {{convert|7,500|lbf|kN|abbr=on}} of thrust, which would allow the aircraft to be supersonic in a shallow dive.<ref name = 'neal 179'/> The DH 110 was the first British two seat combat aircraft to achieve supersonic speed.<ref>[http://books.google.com/books?id=fNwDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA97&dq=1954+Popular+Mechanics+January&hl=en&sa=X&ei=R9ZJT9CsO4WcgQeiuL2lDg&ved=0CD4Q6AEwAzgU#v=onepage&q=1954%20Popular%20Mechanics%20January&f=true "British Two-Seat Fighter To Attain Speed of Sound."] ''Popular Mechanics'', March 1955, p. 97.</ref> Armament was to be four 30 mm [[ADEN cannon]]s. In January 1947, [[List of Air Ministry specifications#1940-1949|specifications N.40/46 and F.44/46]] were issued by the British [[Air Ministry]] for similar night-fighters to equip the Fleet Air Arm (FAA) and [[Royal Air Force]] (RAF),<ref name = 'neal 179'/> with nine prototypes being ordered for the RAF (together with four of the competing [[Gloster Javelin]]) and four prototypes for the Fleet Air Arm.<ref name="AI ap91 p194">Birtles 1991, p. 194.</ref><ref name="Jackson dh p470">Jackson 1987, p. 470.</ref> In 1949, however, the Royal Navy decided to buy the [[de Havilland Sea Venom]], which as a development of an existing type was cheaper and available quickly to meet its immediate needs for a jet-powered night fighter to replace its piston-engined [[de Havilland Sea Hornet]]s, while the RAF cut its order back to two prototypes.<ref name = 'neal 179'/> Despite this, de Havilland continued with the project.<ref name="AI ap91 p195 8">Birtles 1991, pp. 195, 198.</ref>

[[File:De Havilland DH.110 WG236 in flight c1952.jpg|thumb|left|The DH.110 prototype ''WG236'', in 1952.]]

The first prototype was built and first flown at Hatfield on 26 September 1951 piloted by [[John Cunningham (RAF officer)|John Cunningham]];<ref name="Jackson dh p470"/> the aircraft's performance exceeded expectations, and by the following year it was regularly flying faster than the speed of sound.<ref name = 'neal 179'/> However, tragedy struck while the aircraft was being demonstrated at the [[Farnborough Airshow]] on 6 September 1952.<ref name = 'BBC archive'>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/dates/stories/september/6/newsid_2981000/2981786.stm "On This Day - 1952: Dozens die in air show tragedy."] ''BBC News,'' 2008.</ref> Following a demonstration of its ability to break the [[sound barrier]], [[1952 Farnborough Airshow DH.110 crash|the aircraft disintegrated]], killing 31 people, including the crew of two: test pilot and record breaker [[John Derry]] and Tony Richards.<ref name = 'BBC archive'/> The failure was traced to faulty design of the end sections of the [[Spar (aviation)|main spar]], which resulted in the outer ends of the wings shearing off during a high-rate turn. The subsequent shift in the DH.110's [[centre of lift]] caused the aircraft to lurch violently, creating forces of over 12 [[g-force|g]], resulting in the cockpit and tail sections breaking away and the engines being torn from the airframe. One of the engines hit an area crowded with spectators at the end of the runway, causing the majority of casualties. Other spectators were injured by debris from the cockpit landing close to the main spectator enclosures alongside the runway. This incident led to a major restructuring of the safety regulations for air shows in the UK and since this crash no member of the public has died as a result of an airshow accident in the UK.<ref name = 'BBC archive'/>

[[File:DH.110 20X XF828 FAR 10.09.55 edited-3.jpg|thumb|right|The third semi-navalised prototype demonstrating at the 1955 [[Farnborough Air Show]]]]

Owing to this incident, modifications were made to the second prototype, including the fitting of an all-moving tailplane, the modified aircraft not flying again until July 1954.<ref name="Jackson dh p471">Jackson 1987, p. 471.</ref> By this time, the RAF had abandoned its interest in the DH.110, choosing instead the [[Gloster Javelin]]<ref>Neal 1960, pp. 179–180.</ref> but the Fleet Air Arm decided to adopt the DH.110 to replace its interim Sea Venoms.

In 1955, a semi-navalised variant was produced as a prototype, including changes of the leading edge profile and strengthening of the wings,<ref name = 'neal 180'>Neal 1960, p. 180.</ref> making its first flight from de Havilland's factory airfield at Christchurch on 20 June 1955. The following year, the aircraft ''XF828'' made its first arrested deck landing on the fleet aircraft carrier {{HMS|Ark Royal|R09|6}}.<ref name="AI ap91 p198-9">Birtles 1991, pp. 198–199.</ref> The first true Sea Vixen, the ''Sea Vixen FAW.20'' (fighter all-weather, later redesignated ''FAW.1''), first flew on 20 March 1957;<ref name = 'neal 180'/> and on 2 July 1959, the first Sea Vixen equipped squadron formed.<ref name="Jackson dh p472">Jackson 1987, p. 472.</ref>

[[Image:sea vixens refuelling arp.jpg|thumb|right|Two Sea Vixen FAW.1 aircraft (XJ571 & XN694) of 899 Sqn, one refuelling the other at a 1960s [[Farnborough Air Show]]]]

==Design==
The Sea Vixen had a [[twin-boom aircraft|twin-boom]] tail, as used on the [[De Havilland Vampire|de Havilland Sea Vampire]] and [[de Havilland Sea Venom|Sea Venom]]. The Sea Vixen became the first British aircraft to be solely armed with missiles, rockets and bombs. The Sea Vixen FAW.1 was armed with four [[de Havilland Firestreak]] [[air-to-air missile]]s, two Microcell unguided 2 inch (51 mm) rocket packs, and four 500 lb (227 kg) or two 1,000 lb (454 kg) bombs. It was powered by two 11,230 lbf (50.0 kN) thrust [[Rolls-Royce Avon]] 208 [[turbojet]] engines; had a speed of 690 mph (1,110 km/h) and a range of 600 mi (1,000 km). The original DH.110 design as offered to the RAF had cannons fitted; however the cannons were soon removed and an all-missile armament was developed.<ref name = 'neal 180'/>

The [[Aviator|pilot]]'s canopy is offset to the left hand side. The [[Air observer#Fleet Air Arm|observer]] is housed to the right completely within the [[fuselage]], gaining access through a flush-fitting top hatch into his position, nicknamed the "Coal Hole".<ref name = 'neal 180'/><ref>[http://www.thunder-and-lightnings.co.uk/seavixen/history.php "deHavillan Sea Vixen History."] ''Thunder and Lightnings''. Retrieved: 14 July 2014.</ref>{{#tag:ref|"Observer" is the [[Fleet Air Arm|FAA]] term for the navigator/radar operator – the US Navy's equivalent is the radar intercept officer (RIO).|group=N}}
[[Image:De Havilland Sea Vixen REJS.jpg|right|thumb|Sea Vixen FAW.2 number XS575 at the [[Imperial War Museum]], Duxford (2007)]]

The ''Sea Vixen FAW.2'' was the successor to the FAW.1 and included many improvements. As well as Firestreak missiles, it could carry the [[Hawker Siddeley Red Top|Red Top]] AAM, four [[SNEB]] rocket pods and the air-to-ground [[AGM-12 Bullpup|Bullpup missile]]. An enlarged tail boom allowed for additional fuel tanks in the "pinion" extensions above and before the wing leading edge, and there was an improved escape system along with additional room for more electronic counter-measures equipment. However, the changes in aerodynamics meant that the 1,000 lb bomb was no longer able to be carried. Visually the FAW.1 and FAW.2 may be distinguished by the tail booms which extend forward over the leading edge of the [[wing]] on the FAW.2.

The FAW.2 first flew in 1962 and entered service with front line squadrons in 1964, with 29 being built and a further 67 FAW.1s being upgraded to FAW.2 standard. The FAW.1 began phasing out in 1966. In 1972, the career of the Sea Vixen FAW.2 came to an end. It was planned to replace the Sea Vixen with the [[F-4 Phantom II]], with both {{HMS|Ark Royal|R09|6}} and {{HMS|Eagle|R05|2}} to be refitted to take the new aircraft. In the event, due to defence cuts and following the decommissioning of HMS ''Eagle'', only ''Ark Royal'' was converted to take the new aircraft.

A small number of Sea Vixen subsequently saw service in the less glamorous roles of drone, being redesignated ''Sea Vixen D.3''. Only four were converted to the D.3 standard.<ref name=UKSerials>The aircraft converted to D.3 standard were: XN657, XP924, XS577 and XS 587. The aircraft sent to Farnborough for conversion but not converted were: XJ494, XN658, XN688. See [http://www.ukserials.com/ "UK Serials."] ''UK Serials.com.'' Retrieved: 27 September 2010. </ref> though three more were sent to Farnborough for conversion but not converted.<ref name=UKSerials/> The last remaining airworthy Sea Vixen (XP924) was a D3 conversion.<ref name=UKSerials/> Some other Sea Vixens became target tugs and were redesignated as ''TT.2''.

==Operational history==
[[Image:13 Sea Vixen landing on Eagle Mediterranean Jan1970.jpg|right|thumb|Landing on {{HMS|Eagle|R05|6}}]]

The aircraft did not take part in any true wars during its career with the Fleet Air Arm though it took part in many operations. In 1961, President [[Abdul Karim Kassem]] of [[Iraq]] threatened to annex the neighbouring oil-rich state of [[Kuwait]]. In response to Kuwait's appeal for external help, the United Kingdom dispatched a number of ships to the region, including two fleet carriers. Sea Vixens aboard the fleet carriers flew patrols in the region, and Kassem's aggressive actions wilted in the face of the strong naval presence, thus averting a Gulf War over Kuwait.

In January 1964, trouble flared in the [[East Africa]]n state of [[Tanganyika]] after the 1st and 2nd [[The Tanganyika Rifles|Tanganyika Rifles]] mutinied against the British officers and NCOs who, despite Tanganyika being independent, still commanded the regiment. The mutineers also seized the British [[High Commissioner]] and the airport at the capital [[Dar-es-Salaam]]. The UK responded by sending the light fleet carrier {{HMS|Centaur|R06|6}}, accompanied by [[Royal Marines|45 Commando, Royal Marines]]. The Sea Vixens, flying off ''Centaur'', performed a number of duties including the providing of cover for the Royal Marines who were landed in Tanganyika by helicopters. The operation "to restore Tanganyika to stability" ended in success. That same year, Sea Vixens of ''HMS Centaur'' saw service once again in the [[Persian Gulf]], including the launch of air-strikes against rebel forces, this time supporting British forces fighting against locals disgruntled by the loss of tolls in the [[Radfan]]. Later in 1964, HMS Centaur's 892 Squadron Sea Vixens stationed off Indonesia, helped to prevent an escalation of President Sukarno's [[Indonesia–Malaysia confrontation]].<ref>McCart 1997, p. 96.</ref>
[[File:DH.110 S.Vixen FAW.2 XJ609 890 Sq YVTN 17.07.71 edited-2.jpg|thumb|right|Sea Vixen FAW.2 of 890 NAS Squadron at RNAS Yeovilton in 1971]]
Sea Vixens saw further service during the 1960s, performing duties on [[Beira Patrol]], a Royal Navy operation designed to prevent oil reaching landlocked [[Rhodesia]] via the then Portuguese colony of [[Mozambique]]. The Sea Vixen also saw service in the [[Far East]]. In 1967, once again in the Persian Gulf, Sea Vixens helped cover the withdrawal from [[Aden]]. There were a number of Royal Navy warships involved, including the carriers {{HMS|Albion|R07|6}}, {{HMS|Bulwark|R08|6}} and {{HMS|Eagle|R05|6}} (carrying the Sea Vixens) and the LPD (Landing Platform Dock) {{HMS|Fearless|L10|6}}.

The Sea Vixen also took to the skies in the aerobatic role, performing in two Royal Navy display teams: "[[Simon's Sircus]]" (sic) and "Fred's Five".

Of the 145 Sea Vixens constructed, 54 were lost in accidents. Two DH.110 development prototypes were also lost.<ref>Eacott, John. [http://www.seavixen.org/sea-vixen-accidents-public-page Accidents."] ''Sea Vixen.org''. Retrieved: 14 July 2014.</ref>

A small number of Sea Vixens were sent to FR Aviation at [[RAF Tarrant Rushton|Tarrant Rushton airfield]] for conversion to D.3 drone standard, with some undergoing testing at [[Llanbedr Airport|RAF Llanbedr]] before the drone programme was abandoned.<ref name="AI ap91 p201">Birtles 1991, p. 201.</ref><ref name="Jackson dh p474">Jackson 1987, p. 474.</ref> Among them was XP924, now G-CVIX, the only Sea Vixen to remain in flying condition, which has now been returned to [[Fleet Air Arm|899 NAS]] colours. Owned and operated by [[De Havilland Aviation]], G-CVIX can be viewed at their hangar at [[Bournemouth Airport]] in [[Dorset]], southern England, or at air shows around the UK. The [[Air Accident Investigation Branch]] recently published an enquiry into damage suffered by G-CVIX on landing at Bournemouth on 5 April 2012.<ref>[http://www.aaib.gov.uk/publications/bulletins/october_2012/dh110_sea_vixen_faw_mk2__g_cvix.cfm "DH110 Sea Vixen Faw Mk2, G-CVIX."] ''Air Accident Investigation Branch''. Retrieved: 14 July 2014.</ref>

==Operators==
[[Image:07 SeaVixen launchingFromHMS Eagle Jan1970.jpg|thumb|899 Sqn Sea Vixen FAW.2 on ''Eagle'', 1970]]
:{{UK}}
* Royal Navy [[Fleet Air Arm]]

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
|+Sea Vixen FAW.1 units
|-valign="top"
!width=80| Squadron/ Flight
!width=72| From
!width=72| First on carrier
!width=72| To
!width=140| Codes
!| Comment
|-valign=top
|| [[700 Naval Air Squadron|700 Sqn Y Flight]] <ref name=FiddlerTable3>Fiddler 1985, Table 3.</ref>
|align = right| {{dts|November 1958}}<ref name=Hobbs20>Hobbs 1982, p. 20.</ref>
|align=center| Never
|align = right| {{dts|2 July 1959}}
|| ?
|| Intensive Flying Trials Unit (IFTU) based at RNAS Yeovilton.<ref name=Hobbs20/> Reformed as 892 Sqn.<ref name=Birtles102>Birtles 1986, p. 102.</ref>
|-valign="top"
|| [[892 Naval Air Squadron|892 Sqn]]<ref name=FiddlerTable3/>
|align = right| {{dts|2 July 1959}}
|align=center| {{dts|3 March 1960}}<ref name=Birtles102/> ''Ark Royal''
|align = right| {{dts|1965}}
|| 208-219
|| Flew from: ''Ark Royal'', ''Victorious'', ''Hermes'' and ''Centaur'' (late 1963 to mid-1965, the fourth and last commission of the ship)
|-valign="top"
|| [[890 Naval Air Squadron|890 Sqn]]<ref name=FiddlerTable3/>
|align = right| {{dts|1 February 1960}}
|align=center| {{dts|July 1960}} ''Hermes''
|align = right| {{dts|1966}}<ref name=Birtles106/>
|| 240-254
|| Flew from: ''Hermes'' and ''Ark Royal''. Disbanded 1966, reformed September 1967 initially with four FAW.1, and converting to FAW.2.<ref name=Birtles106/>
|-valign="top"
|| [[893 Naval Air Squadron|893 Sqn]]<ref name=FiddlerTable3/>
|align = right| {{dts|9 September 1960}}<ref name=Birtles102/>
|align=center| ''Ark Royal''
|align = right| {{dts|1964}}
|| 455-468
|| Flew from: ''Victorious'', with short periods on: ''Ark Royal'' and ''Centaur''.
|-valign="top"
|| [[899 Naval Air Squadron|899 Sqn]]<ref name=FiddlerTable3/>
|align = right| {{dts|1 February 1961}}<ref name=Birtles102/>
|align=center| ?
|align = right| {{dts|1965}}
|| 485-489
|| Sea Vixen HQ Sqn Yeovilton, with short periods on: ''Eagle''. 899 was the first squadron to evaluate and operate Sea Vixen FAW2 aircraft
|-valign="top"
|| [[766 Naval Air Squadron|766B Training Sqn]]<ref name=FiddlerTable3/>
|align = right| {{dts|October 1959}}
|align=center| 1964 ''Eagle'' post refit trials
|align = right| {{dts|1965}}?<ref name=FiddlerTable4/>
|| 710-722
|| 1962 renamed Naval Air Fighter School; provided a/c and crews for "Fred's Five" aerobatic team, all of whom were instructors on 766 squadron.
|-
|}

{| class="wikitable sortable"
|-
|+Sea Vixen FAW.2 units
|-valign="top"
!width=80| Squadron/ Flight
!width=72| From
!width=72| First on carrier
!width=72| To
!width=140| Codes
!| Comment
|-valign="top"
|| 13 JSTU<ref name=Birtles103>Birtles 1986, p. 103.</ref>
|align = right| {{dts|April 1964}}
|align=center| Never
|align = right| {{dts|February 1966}}<ref name=Birtles103/>
||
|| 13 Joint Service Trials Unit (13 JSTU). Red Top trials at Hatfield and Boscombe Down.
|-valign="top"
|| 899 Sqn<ref name=FiddlerTable4>Fiddler 1985, Table 4.</ref>
|align = right| {{dts|December 1963}}
|align=center| {{dts|December 1964}} ''Eagle''
|align = right| {{dts|February 1972}}
|| 120-127 130-137
|| Flew from: ''Eagle''. Last operational carrier embarked Sea Vixen squadron
|-valign="top"
|| 766 Sqn<ref name=FiddlerTable4/>
|align = right| {{dts|7 July 1965}}<ref name=Birtles106>Birtles 1986, p. 106.</ref>
|align=center| Never?
|align = right| {{dts|10 February 1970}}?{{#tag:ref|Fiddler 1985, Table 4 says that 766 Sqn disbanded 10 February 1970.<ref name=FiddlerTable4/>|group=N}}{{#tag:ref|<ref name=Birtles102/> Birtles 1986, p. 107 says that 766 Sqn disbanded 10 December 1970. It is not known which date for 766 Sqn disbanding is correct.|group=N}}
|| 700-707 710-717 720-727
|| Naval Air Fighter School, Yeovilton
|-valign="top"
|| 893 Sqn<ref name=FiddlerTable4/>
|align = right| {{dts|4 November 1965}}<ref name=Birtles106/>
|align=center| {{dts|19 April 1966}} ''Victorious''
|align = right| {{dts|July 1970}}<ref name=Birtles107/>
|| 240-247 250-257
|| Flew from: ''Victorious'', Yeovilton, RAF Akrotiri, then ''Hermes''.
|-valign="top"
|| 892 Sqn<ref name=FiddlerTable4/>
|align = right| {{dts|1963}}<ref name=Birtles107>Birtles 1986, p. 107.</ref>
|align=center| ''Hermes''
|align = right| {{dts|October 1968}}
|| 301-315
|| Flew from ''Hermes''. 1968 ''Simon's Circus'' aerobatic team from this squadron performed at Farnborough Air Show.
|-valign="top"
|| 890 Sqn<ref name=FiddlerTable4/>
|align = right| {{dts|September 1967}}<ref name=Birtles106/>
|align=center| Never
|align = right| {{dts|6 August 1971}}<ref name=Birtles107/>
|| 750-755{{#tag:ref| Fiddler 1985, Table 4 says 750-755 initially, with 001-007 and 010-014 during a brief period on ''Ark Royal'' in 1964-65, and 701-706 from 1971.<ref name="FiddlerTable4"/>|group=N}} {{#tag:ref|Birtles 1986, p. 107 says that 890 Sqn was disbanded in 1966 and reformed in 1967. Further research is required here.<ref name=Birtles107/>|group=N}}
|| Trials and operations unit at Yeovilton with mix of FAW.1 and FAW.2. For a short period 1964-5 ''Ark Royal''.
|-valign="top"
|| FRU<ref name=Birtles107/>
|align = right| {{dts|6 August 1971}}?
|align=center| Never
|align = right| {{dts|1 December 1972}}<ref name=FiddlerTable4/>
|| 750-755<ref name=FiddlerTable4/><ref name=FRADU-Hunters>[http://www.fradu-hunters.co.uk/history.html "History of the FRADU."] ''fradu-hunters.co.uk.'' Retrieved: 27 September 2010.</ref>
|| Fleet Requirements Unit (FRU). When 890 Sqn disbanded some aircraft passed to Fleet Requirements Unit (FRU), Yeovilton. FRU became Fleet Requirements and Aircraft Direction Unit (FRADU) on 1 December 1972.
|-valign="top"
|| [[Fleet Requirements and Aircraft Direction Unit|FRADU]]<ref name=Birtles107/>
|align = right| {{dts|1 December 1972}}<ref name=FiddlerTable4/>
|align=center| Never
|align = right| {{dts|January 1974}}{{#tag:ref|<ref>Birtles, Philip. ''Postwar Military Aircraft: 5, de Havilland Vampire, Venom and Sea Vixen'', p. 107 says January 1974.</ref>|group=N}}
|| 750-755<ref name=FiddlerTable4/><ref name=FRADU-Hunters/>
|| Fleet Requirements and Air Direction Unit (FRADU). Retired Sea Vixen on grounds of cost.<ref name=FiddlerTable4/> January 1974.<ref name=Birtles107/>
|-
|}

* [[De Havilland Aviation]] one former Royal Navy aircraft flown as a promotional and display aircraft

==Survivors==
[[Image:Sea.vixen.flying.arp.jpg|thumb|right|De Havilland Sea Vixen in sponsored livery at a 2004 airshow. It has since been returned to Royal Navy livery.<ref>[http://www.airliners.net/search/photo.search?regsearch=G-CVIX "Sea Vixen: G-CVIX."] ''airliners.net.'' Retrieved: 8 August 2010.</ref>]]
[[Image:xj565.jpg|thumb|right|Sea Vixen on display at the de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre. Cockpit open for visitors to sit in.]]
One Sea Vixen remains airworthy:
* Sea Vixen D.3 G-CVIX, the former XP924, registered until 2014 to DS Aviation (UK) at [[Bournemouth Airport]], [[Dorset]]. It has a ''display of registration mark exemption'' to fly in its original Royal Navy markings as "XP924" coded "134".<ref>[http://www.caa.co.uk/application.aspx?catid=60&pagetype=65&appid=1&mode=detailnosummary&fullregmark=CVIX "G-CVIX".] ''UK Civil Aviation Authority''. Retrieved: 14 July 2014.</ref> It originally flew with 899 Naval Air Squadron Fleet Air Arm as "134" from November 1968 until 1970 from HMS Eagle. The ownership of XP924 moved to the Fly Navy Heritage Trust with a formal donation ceremony at RNAS Yeovilton on 16 September 2014. The Sea Vixen will in future be maintained and operated from Yeovilton by Naval Aviation Ltd., a subsidiary of Fly Navy Heritage Trust.<ref name=FNHT >{{cite web|title= Classic Fleet Air Arm fighter returns to Yeovilton |url= http://www.fnht.co.uk/sea-vixen-arrives-at-yeovilton.html |work= News |publisher= Fly Navy Heritage Trust |accessdate= 6 October 2014 }}</ref>
[[File:Sea Vixen XP924.JPG|thumb|Sea Vixen, XP924, performing a 'photo' pass for the 'official' hand-over to the Fly Navy Heritage Trust at RNAS Yeovilton.]]

The following complete airframes are on public display:
* Sea Vixen FAW.1 XJ481, [[Fleet Air Arm Museum]], [[RNAS Yeovilton]], [[Somerset]]. Part of the Museum's reserve collection.<ref>[http://www.fleetairarm.com/exhibit/de-havilland-sea-vixen-faw1-xj481/6-30-65.aspx "de Havilland Sea Vixen FAW1 (XJ481)."] ''Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm Museum''. Retrieved: 15 March 2014</ref>
* Sea Vixen FAW.1 XJ482, [[Norfolk and Suffolk Aviation Museum]], [[Suffolk]].<ref>[http://www.aviationmuseum.net/our_aircraft.htm "Our Aircraft: Aircraft Exhibited at Flixton."] ''Norfolk and Suffolk Aviation Museum''. Retrieved: 15 March 2014.</ref>
* Sea Vixen FAW.2 XJ490, [[Queensland Air Museum]], [[Caloundra]], Australia.<ref>[http://www.qam.com.au/aircraft/sea-vixen-xj490/XJ490.htm "DE HAVILLAND SEA VIXEN F.A.W. MK 2 XJ490 C/N 110017."] ''Queensland Air Museum''. Retrieved: 15 March 2014.</ref> Airframe complete, but internals removed.{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}
* Sea Vixen FAW.2 XJ494, [[Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome]], [[Leicestershire]].{{Citation needed|date=March 2014}}
* Sea Vixen FAW.2 XJ560, [[Newark Air Museum]], [[Nottinghamshire]].<ref>[http://www.newarkairmuseum.org/aircraft_list.html "Aircraft List."] ''Newark Air Museum''. Retrieved: 15 March 2014.</ref>
* Sea Vixen FAW.2 XJ565, [[de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre]], [[Hertfordshire]].<ref>[http://www.dehavillandmuseum.co.uk/aircraft_in_collection.html "Aircraft Collection."]. ''de Havilland Aircraft Museum''. Retrieved: 15 March 2014.</ref>
* Sea Vixen FAW.2 XJ571, [[Solent Sky]], [[Hampshire]].<ref>[http://www.solentskymuseum.org/page_2493568.html "Exhibits."] ''Solent Sky Museum''. Retrieved: 15 March 2014.</ref>
* Sea Vixen FAW.2 XJ580, [[Tangmere Military Aviation Museum]], [[West Sussex]].<ref>[http://www.tangmere-museum.org.uk/museum-aircraft/de-havilland-sea-vixen-faw2 "Museum Aircraft: De Havilland Sea Vixen FAW2"]. ''Tangmere Military Air Museum''. Retrieved 15 March 2014.</ref>
* Sea Vixen FAW.2 XN685, [[Midland Air Museum]], Coventry.<ref>[http://www.midlandairmuseum.co.uk/aircraftlist.php "Aircraft Listing"]. ''Midland Air Museum''. Retrieved: 15 March 2014.</ref>
* Sea Vixen FAW.2 XS576, [[IWM Duxford]], [[Cambridgeshire]].<ref>[http://www.iwm.org.uk/sites/default/files/public-document/IWMDuxford_Aircraft_Vehicles_List.pdf "Aircraft at IWM Duxford". (pdf)."] ''Imperial War Museums''. 25 November 2011. Retrieved: 15 March 2014.</ref>
* Sea Vixen TT.2 XS587 (''now G-VIXN''), [[Gatwick Aviation Museum]], [[Surrey]].<ref>[http://gatwick-aviation-museum.co.uk/vixen/vixen.html "de Havilland Sea Vixen TT.8."] ''Gatwick Aviation Museum''. Retrieved: 15 March 2014.</ref>
* Sea Vixen FAW.2 XS590, [[Fleet Air Arm Museum]], [[RNAS Yeovilton]], [[Somerset]].<ref>[http://www.fleetairarm.com/exhibit/de-havilland-sea-vixen-faw2/3-5-35.aspx "de Havilland Sea Vixen FAW2."] ''Royal Navy Fleet Air Arm Museum''. Retrieved: 15 March 2014</ref>

==Specifications (Sea Vixen FAW.2)==
[[Image:Sea Vixen FAW 2.svg|350px|right]]

{{Aircraft specifications
|plane or copter?=plane
|jet or prop?=jet
|ref=The Great Book of Fighters<ref>Green, William and Gordon Swanborough. ''The Great Book of Fighters''. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-1194-3.</ref>


|crew=Two, pilot and [[Air observer#Fleet Air Arm|Observer]]
|length main=55 ft 7 in
|length alt=16.94 m
|span main=51 ft 0 in
|span alt=15.54 m
|height main=10 ft 9 in
|height alt=3.28 m
|area main=648 ft²
|area alt=60.2 m²
|empty weight main=27,950 [[pound (mass)|lb]]
|empty weight alt=12,680 kg
|loaded weight main=41,575 lb
|loaded weight alt=18,860 kg
|max takeoff weight main=46,750 lb <ref>"Sea Vixen FAW Mk.2 Flight Reference Cards AP101B-3002-14." ''Ministry of Technology,'' 1968, rev. 1970.</ref>
|max takeoff weight alt=21,205 kg
|engine (jet)=[[Rolls-Royce Avon]] Mk.208
|type of jet=[[turbojet]]s
|number of jets=2
|thrust main=50 kN
|thrust alt=11,000 [[pound-force|lbf]]

|max speed main=[[mach number|Mach]] 0.91
|max speed alt=690 mph, 1,110 km/h
|max speed more=at sea level
|range main=790 mi
|range alt=1,270 km
|range more=with internal fuel
|ceiling main=48,000 ft
|ceiling alt=14,600 m
|climb rate main=9,000 ft/min
|climb rate alt=46 m/s
|loading main=64.2 lb/ft²
|loading alt=313 kg/m²
|thrust/weight=0.54

|hardpoints=6
|hardpoint capacity=
|hardpoint rockets=4 × Matra rocket pods with 18 × [[SNEB]] 68 mm rockets each
|hardpoint missiles=4 × [[Hawker Siddeley Red Top|Red Top]] or [[de Havilland Firestreak|Firestreak]] [[air-to-air missile]]s
|hardpoint bombs=2 × 500 lb (227 kg) bombs
|hardpoint bombs=1 × [[Red Beard (nuclear weapon)|Red Beard]] freefall nuclear bomb

|avionics=[[General Electric Company plc|GEC]] AI.18 Air Interception radar
}}

==See also==
{{Aircontent
|related=
* [[de Havilland Vampire]]
* [[de Havilland Sea Venom]]
|similar aircraft=
|lists=
* [[List of fighter aircraft]]
|see also=
* [[De Havilland Aviation]]
* [[1952 Farnborough Airshow DH.110 crash]]
* [[de Havilland Aircraft Heritage Centre]]
* [[Portal:British aircraft since World War II]]
}}

==References==
;Notes
{{reflist|group=N}}
;Citations
{{reflist|2}}
;Bibliography
{{refbegin}}
* Birtles, Philip. ''Postwar Military Aircraft 5: de Havilland Vampire, Venom and Sea Vixen''. London: Ian Allan, 1986, ISBN 0-7110-1566-X.
* Birtles, Philip. "Sea Vixen: Britain's first missile specialist". ''[[Air International]]'', April 1991, Vol. 40, No. 4, pp. 194–201. Stamford, UK: Key Publishing. ISSN 0306-5634.
* Donald, David and Jon Lake, eds. ''Encyclopedia of World Military Aircraft''. London: AIRtime Publishing, 1996. ISBN 1-880588-24-2.
* Fiddler, Brian. ''Sea Vixen''. Ilchester, Somerset, UK: The Society of Friends of the Fleet Air Arm Museum, Fleet Air Arm Museum RNAS Yeovilton, 1985, ISBN 0-948251-03-4.
* Gunston, Bill. ''Fighters of the Fifties''. North Branch, Minnesota: Specialty Press Publishers & Wholesalers, Inc., 1981. ISBN 0-933424-32-9.
* Hobbs, Lt Cdr David. ''Aircraft of the Royal Navy Since 1945.'' Liskeard, UK: Maritime Books, 1982, ISBN 0-907771-06-8.
* Jackson, A.J. ''De Havilland Aircraft since 1909''. London: Putnam,, Third edition 1987. ISBN 0-85177-802-X.
* McCart, Neil. ''HMS "Centaur", 1943-72.'' Cheltenham, Gloucestershire, UK: Fan Publications, 1997. ISBN 978-0-9519538-9-1.
* Neal, Molly. [http://www.flightglobal.com/pdfarchive/view/1960/1960%20-%200179.html "Sea Vixen."] ''Flight'', 5 February 1960, pp. 179–186.
* Taylor, John W. R. "De Havilland Sea Vixen". Combat Aircraft of the World from 1909 to the Present. New York: G.P. Putnam's Sons, 1969. ISBN 0-425-03633-2.
* Winchester, Jim, ed. "De Havilland DH.110 Sea Vixen." ''Military Aircraft of the Cold War'' (The Aviation Factfile). London: Grange Books plc, 2006. ISBN 1-84013-929-3.
{{Refend}}

==External links==
{{Commons category|de Havilland Sea Vixen}}
* [http://www.dsaviationltd.com/DHA/Home.html De Havilland Aviation Ltd] – operates airworthy de Havilland jet aircraft, including the world's last airworthy Sea Vixen

* [http://books.google.com/books?id=nCEDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA123&dq=popular+science+1951+I+flew&hl=en&ei=1Cu_TIumLYvQnAe6m-yJDg&sa=X&oi=book_result&ct=result&resnum=4&ved=0CDgQ6AEwAw#v=onepage&q&f=true ''British Unveil Twin-Boom Jet'', early 1951 article on DH.110]
* [http://www.seavixen.org SeaVixen.org] – Contains information on the aircraft, the squadrons and carriers and those that flew them
* [http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~russells/nzrafaa/sbac.html The 1952 Farnborough Air Show crash (with pictures)]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/onthisday/hi/witness/september/6/newsid_4219000/4219540.stm Eyewitness accounts of Farnborough crash (BBC)]
* [http://www.condor49ers.org.uk/vixen.htm Aeroplane Naval Aircraft Archive - De Havilland Sea Vixen]
* [http://www.thunder-and-lightnings.co.uk/seavixen/index.html Thunder & Lightnings - De Havilland Sea Vixen]
* [http://www.globalaviationresource.com/reports/2009/mattwhitfield.php Interview with Sea Vixen display pilot - Lt Cdr Matt Whitfield]
{{de Havilland aircraft}}
{{Hawker Aircraft aircraft}}
{{aviation lists}}

[[Category:De Havilland aircraft|Sea Vixen]]
[[Category:British fighter aircraft 1950–1959]]
[[Category:Twinjets]]
[[Category:Monoplanes]]
[[Category:Twin-boom aircraft]]
[[Category:Carrier-based aircraft]]

Second Battle of Donetsk Airport

2014-10-08T20:25:00Z

JanTurin: /* Events */ typos

{{Infobox military conflict
| conflict =Second Battle of Donetsk Airport
| partof =[[War in Donbass]]
| image =
| caption =
| date =28 September 2014 – present ({{Age in years, months, weeks and days|month1=09|day1=29|year1=2014}})
| place =[[Donetsk International Airport]] Donetsk Oblast, Ukraine
| coordinates =
| map_type =
| map_relief =
| latitude =
| longitude =
| map_size =
| map_marksize =
| map_caption =
| map_label =
| territory =
| result =
| status =Ongoing
| combatants_header =
| combatant1 ={{flag|Ukraine}}
| combatant2 ={{flag|Donetsk People's Republic}}
| combatant3 =
| commander1 =
| commander2 =
| commander3 =
| units1 ={{Flagicon image|Ensign of the Ukrainian Armed Forces.svg}} [[Armed Forces of Ukraine]]
| units2 ={{flagicon image|War Flag of Novorussia.svg}} [[United Armed Forces of Novorossiya|Novorossiya Armed Forces]]
| units3 =
| strength1 =
| strength2 =
| strength3 =
| casualties1 = 30+ soldiers <ref>[http://www.euronews.com/2014/10/02/pro-russian-rebels-and-ukrainian-army-battle-for-donetsk-airport]</ref>
| casualties2 = 15-20 fighters<ref>[http://www.voanews.com/content/reu-truce-bypasses-donetsk-airport-symbol-of-conflict-in-eastern-ukraine/2474147.html]</ref>

1 tank destroyed
| casualties3 =
| notes =
| campaignbox =
}}
{{Campaignbox 2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine}}

Despite a ceasefire between the government of [[Ukraine]] and the breakaway [[Donetsk People's Republic]] (DPR) that was in place since the implementation of the 5 September 2014 [[Minsk Protocol]], fierce fighting broke out at [[Donetsk International Airport]] on 28 September.<ref>http://vesti-ukr.com/donbass/71221-v-donecke-prodolzhaetsja-bitva-za-ajeroport</ref> DPR-affiliated insurgents launched an offensive after the Ukrainian army stationed at the airport shelled Donetsk, the airport is the last public area in the city of [[Donetsk]] that is still under Ukrainian control.

==Events==
Fighting began at Donetsk Airport on 29 September, when seven Ukrainian soldiers were killed during clash with pro-Russian rebels. Ukrainian government sources claimed that a tank shell hit a vehicle carrying Ukrainian troops. Fierce fighting occurred, with Ukrainian forces suffering losses. The attack killed nine Ukrainian soldiers and wounding 27 more.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29415162|title = 'Seven Ukraine troops die' in deadliest post-truce attack|last = |first = |date = 29 September 2014|work = BBC|accessdate = }}</ref>

The next day, rebel positions pounded Ukrainian forces at the airport, but the rebels say they fought back in response to mortar fire by government forces. A key rebel leader supported this claim, saying Ukrainian forces were "still shelling Donetsk".<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29424766|title = Donetsk airport shelling violates east Ukraine truce|last = |first = |date = 30 September 2014|work = BBC|accessdate = }}</ref>

On 1 October, more fighting occurred. Ukrainian forces and rebels exchanged fire near the airport, killing ten civilians. Rebel leaders said that they controlled 90% of the airport.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/01/ukrainian-forces-pro-russia-rebels-donetsk-airport|title = Ukrainian forces and pro-Russia rebels clash over Donetsk airport|last = |first = |date = |work = |accessdate = }}</ref>

The next day, rebel forces claim that the airport was under 95% of there control, but this was denied by government forces.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.euronews.com/2014/10/02/pro-russian-rebels-and-ukrainian-army-battle-for-donetsk-airport/|title = Pro-Russian rebels and Ukrainian army battle for Donetsk airport|last = |first = |date = 2 October 2014|work = euronews|accessdate = }}</ref> Fighting soon escalated, with rebel forces violating the ceasefire that had been put in place. Sporadic shelling continued.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.aljazeera.com/news/europe/2014/10/fighting-intensifies-over-donetsk-airport-2014102122112679535.html|title = Fighting over Donetsk airport intensifies|last = |first = |date = 2 October 2014|work = Al Jazeera|accessdate = }}</ref> The airport was still reported to be in government hands, and repelled a one-hour attack on the airport by rebels. The situation, according to Ukraine, is "difficult".<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.livemint.com/Politics/ltUXL4J7qpTIFn6NXYaZ2M/Ukraine-truce-frays-as-rebels-step-up-attack-on-Donetsk-airp.html|title = Ukraine truce frays as rebels step up attack on Donetsk airport|last = |first = |date = 2 October 2014|work = livemint|accessdate = }}</ref>

On 3 October, more heavy fighting erupted around the airport, with artillery fire heard near the site. Ukraine claimed that rebels managed to break in into one of the terminal buildings under the cover of smoke bombs but the airport was still under their complete control. They also said that Ukrainian forces had pushed back the rebels from half of the building, and Russian drones were supporting them.<ref>{{cite news |author= |title=Ukraine conflict: Heavy fighting for Donetsk airport |url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-29481979 |newspaper=BBC |location= |date=3 October 2014 |accessdate= }}</ref> Rebels tanks pounded the airport terminal, where government forces were holed up. Sniper shots were fired, with rebels making gains in territory near the airport.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/oct/03/pro-russia-rebels-donetsk-airport-ukraine|title = Pro-Russia rebels attempt to seize Donetsk airport in Ukraine|last = |first = |date = October 3, 2014|work = The Guardian|accessdate = }}</ref> Meanwhile, government forces said they killed 10 militants and destroyed 2 of their tanks.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.kyivpost.com/content/ukraine/ukrainian-troops-kill-ten-militants-destroy-two-tanks-in-past-24-hours-366780.html|title = Ukrainian troops kill ten militants, destroy two tanks in past 24 hours|last = |first = |date = 3 October 2014|work = Kyiv Post|accessdate = }}</ref>

The next day, pro-Russian rebels suffered losses. Ukrainian forces claimed that they killed 12 rebels in attacks on the airport.<ref>{{Cite news|url = http://www.reuters.com/article/2014/10/04/us-ukraine-crisis-airport-idUSKCN0HT0DP20141004|title = Ukraine says its forces killed 12 rebels at Donetsk airport|last = |first = |date = 4 October 2014|work = Reuters|accessdate = }}</ref>

== References ==
{{Reflist|30em}}

{{2014 pro-Russian unrest in Ukraine}}

[[Category:Battles of the war in Donbass]]
[[Category:Conflicts in 2014]]
[[Category:2014 in Ukraine]]
[[Category:History of Donetsk]]
[[Category:Donetsk People's Republic]]

Avro Vulcan XH558

2014-10-08T11:55:29Z

JanTurin: /* 2014 */ on Farnborough

{{Use dmy dates|date=September 2014}}

{|{{Infobox Aircraft Begin
|name=Avro Vulcan XH558
|image =XH558 Planform.JPG
|caption = XH558 performs its display at Cosford Airshow 2009.
}}{{Infobox Aircraft Career
|type = [[Avro Vulcan|Avro Vulcan B2]]
|manufacturer = [[Avro]]
|other names =
|construction number = Set 12
|construction date =
|civil registration = G-VLCN
|military serial = XH558
|first flight = 25 May 1960
|flights =
|in service=Military: 1960-1993 Civilian: 1993-present
|total hours = 7387 (31 December 2007)
|total distance =
|fate =
|preservation = Airworthy
|owners = [[Royal Air Force]] [[Vulcan To The Sky Trust]]
}}
|}
'''Avro Vulcan''' '''XH558''' (civil [[aircraft registration]] ''G-VLCN'') ''The Spirit Of Great Britain'' is the only [[Airworthiness|airworthy]] example of the 134 [[Avro Vulcan]] [[V bomber]]s that were operated by the [[Royal Air Force]] from 1953 until 1985. Vulcan [[United Kingdom military aircraft serials|XH558]] served with the RAF between 1960 and 1985 in the bomber, maritime [[reconnaissance]] and [[air-to-air refuelling]] roles. The RAF operated XH558 as a display aircraft from 1986 until 1992, when budget cuts forced its retirement.

It is operated by the Vulcan to the Sky Trust as a display aircraft, funded entirely by charitable donations and the UK [[Heritage Lottery Fund]].<ref>{{cite web| title=Where has the majority of funding come from? | url=http://www.vulcantothesky.org/news/anmviewer.asp?a=522&z=19 | accessdate=28 June 2009}}{{dead link|date=May 2010}}</ref> It is [[Aircraft registration|registered]] with the United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority as ''G-VLCN'' but has an exemption to fly in Royal Air Force markings as ''XH558''.<ref name="caa">[http://www.caa.co.uk/application.aspx?catid=60&pagetype=65&appid=1&mode=detailnosummary&fullregmark=VLCN United Kingdom Civil Aviation Authority - G-VLCN]</ref>

==Royal Air Force==
XH558, the twelfth Vulcan B2 built, first flew in 1960 and was delivered to [[No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit RAF]] at [[RAF Waddington]] on 1 July 1960. Almost immediately the aircraft moved with [[No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit RAF|230 OCU]] to [[RAF Finningley]] where the aircraft spent some eight years before returning to Lincolnshire in 1968. Most of its operational service was with the units of the '''Waddington Wing''' including [[No. 50 Squadron RAF]].

The aircraft was one of nine converted to a SR2 Maritime Radar Reconnaissance configuration in 1973 and flew with 27 Sqn. For the maritime reconnaissance role the [[terrain-following radar]] (TFR) was removed and replaced by [[LORAN]] C equipment. XH558 was subsequently one of six Vulcans converted to the [[Aerial refueling|aerial refuelling]] variant K2 in 1982. The aerial refuelling variant was assessed on 1 May 1982. Go-ahead for modification was given three days later and the first aircraft (XH561) made its maiden flight on 18 June 1982 and flew to Waddington five days later.

XH558 was returned to standard B2 configuration in 1985 and was the last Vulcan in service, largely due to the fact that it had seen little service as a low-level bomber and had spent considerable time grounded due to an engine explosion during a routine preflight start around 1970, which damaged the airframe, taking many years to repair. From 1986 to 1992, XH558 was the RAF's display aircraft, until budget cuts forced it to be grounded again.

After service with the Royal Air Force, the aircraft and most of the RAF spare parts for the Vulcan were sold to C. Walton Limited and delivered by air to [[Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome]] on 23 March 1993. The aircraft was kept in a serviceable condition and would undertake fast taxi runs along Bruntingthorpe's main runway.

==Restoration to flight==
The engineering staff of the Vulcan Operating Company (the engineering arm of Vulcan to the Sky Trust, owners of XH558)<ref>[http://www.tvoc.co.uk/galleries.asp Restoration Pictures, In the Hangar]{{dead link|date=May 2010}}</ref> worked to return Vulcan XH558 to flight, with the first test flight taking place on 18 October 2007. They were supported by the "Vulcan to the Sky" club, a supporters and fundraising organisation. Though the website carried an announcement on 1 August 2006 that the project was in danger of being abandoned due to lack of finance,<ref>[http://www.vulcantotheskyclub.com/ Vulcan to the Sky Club]</ref> the target of raising the remaining £1.2m was achieved on 31 August 2006, thanks to a high-profile publicity campaign orchestrated by the supporters club, Vulcan to the Sky Club (formerly Vulcan 558 Club).

Time had almost run out for XH558 when Sir [[Jack Hayward]], a British philanthropist, donated £500,000, which topped off the £860,000 already raised by Vulcan to the Sky Club and Friends. Although the aircraft restoration was nearly complete, the aircraft was not ready for the flypast down The Mall in London for the 25th Anniversary of the Falklands conflict on 17 June 2007 or the RAF Waddington Airshow and the [[Royal International Air Tattoo]] (RIAT).<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/leicestershire/5300748.stm Donor saves Vulcan bomber project]</ref>
[[Image:Ollie "Les" Harvey installing a refurbished engine fire-bottle onto XH558.JPG|thumb|right|Installing a refurbished engine fire-bottle onto XH558]]

It was intended that the Vulcan would fly during at least one UK airshow during the 2007 season,<ref>[http://www.tvoc.co.uk/news/anmviewer.asp?a=114&z=1 TV News]{{dead link|date=May 2010}}</ref> but due to delays in returning the aircraft to flight, mainly down to delays in the return of refurbished flight-critical components, the aircraft was not ready for the display season.

On 16 August 2007, the aircraft started engine testing on the [[Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome|airfield at Bruntingthorpe]]. On the next day, XH558's No.3 [[Rolls-Royce Olympus]] 202 jet engine was run for the first time in over 20 years. This is a different engine from that used by XH558 during its final season with the [[RAF]]'s Vulcan Display Flight in 1992, with all four of the Vulcan's original Olympus 202 engines having been replaced by zero-hour units which had been stored since 1982. The VTS Team also has another four fully inhibited engines in stock. The removed engines were either scrapped, sectioned for display or passed on to [[Vulcan Restoration Trust|VRT's XL426]] at Southend. Another milestone in the restoration project was achieved on 22 August 2007, when all four of XH558's Olympus engines were run at nearly full power settings, for short intervals.

The first post-restoration flight, which lasted 34 minutes, took place on 18 October 2007.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/leicestershire/7049694.stm "The Vulcan Bomber returns to the sky"]</ref><ref>[http://uk.youtube.com/watch?v=VECwLl06ik0 "First Takeoff Video" at youtube]</ref>

On 14 April 2008, the Vulcan flew from Bruntingthorpe to [[RAF Cottesmore]] to have a compass swing and test flights.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/leicestershire/7345852.stm Test flights for restored bomber] ''bbc.co.uk'', 14 April 2008. Retrieved 14 April 2008.</ref> Whilst in mid air the plane called [[Mayday (distress signal)|Mayday]] after believing the [[auxiliary power unit]] (APU) was on fire. It landed safely at Cottesmore and the cause was later discovered to be an electrical fault.<ref>[http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/leicestershire/7347277.stm Vulcan bomber suffers fire alert] ''bbc.co.uk'', 14 April 2008. Retrieved 14 April 2008.</ref>

On 16 April, a further two-hour test flight was planned to perform "straight line testing" of avionics. The flight was scheduled to go between Cambridge and Marham, but this was abandoned when one of XH558's undercarriage doors failed to close due to an electrical micro-switch malfunction and the aircraft made a safe return to Bruntingthorpe Airfield.

During part of May 2008, XH558 resided at RAF Coningsby where it underwent further testing, and while there took part in a photo-call with the Lancaster and a Typhoon .<ref>[http://www.tvoc.co.uk/news/anmviewer.asp?a=269&z=1 Avro Vulcan XH558 Returns to RAF Conningsby]{{dead link|date=May 2010}} "TVOC", 9 May 2008. Retrieved 10 May 2008</ref>

On 9 June 2008, XH558 flew its final test flight and was granted on 3 July, by the CAA, its Permit to Fly at 1605. At 1705, it launched for RAF Waddington where it flew its airshow routine, in front of [[Civil Aviation Authority of the United Kingdom]] examiners who then issued its DA (Display Authorisation) for the RAF Waddington airshow in the first week of July.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.harboroughmail.co.uk/news/Clear-skies-give-Vulcan-chance.4165719.jp|title=Clear skies give Vulcan chance to shine|date=9 June 2008|accessdate=9 June 2008|publisher=Harborough Mail| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20080612005324/http://www.harboroughmail.co.uk/news/Clear-skies-give-Vulcan-chance.4165719.jp| archivedate= 12 June 2008 | deadurl= no}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/leicestershire/7444984.stm|title=Tests completed for Vulcan bomber|date=9 June 2008|accessdate=9 June 2008|publisher=BBC}}</ref>

On 29 March 2011, XH558 landed at its new home [[Robin Hood Airport Doncaster Sheffield]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.globalaviationresource.com/reports/2011/xh558dsa.php |title=Welcome Home - XH558 returns to Doncaster |author= |date=5 April 2011 |work= |publisher=Global Aviation Resource |accessdate=13 April 2011}}</ref> This location is the former [[RAF Finningley]] airbase where XH558 was previously based for 8 years during the 1960s. The aircraft will be stored and maintained in the hangar that previously provided the same maintenance workshop nearly 50 years earlier.

The longer-term aim is to make the authorised modifications that will allow fatigue life to match expected engine life, with both expiring at about the same time in the period 2013 to 2015, depending on Fatigue Index usage and engine cycle usage.

=== The "Vulcan Howl" ===
A serendipitous arrangement in air intakes causes some Vulcan airframes to emit a distinctive "howl" when the engines are at approximately ninety percent power.<ref>[http://www.vulcantothesky.org/news/526/82/We-all-love-the-howl.html "We all love the howl"] ''Vulcan To The Sky Trust'', 13 December 2013.</ref> This noise is produced by XH558, and is a popular feature of its [[flypast]]s at public airshows.<ref>[http://www.bournemouthecho.co.uk/news/4823500.Will__howl__of_the_Vulcan_bomber_be_heard_over_Bournemouth_again_/ "Will 'howl' of the Vulcan bomber be heard over Bournemouth again?"] The Daily Echo, 30 December 2009.</ref><ref>[http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H_ARSE8jEHQ "Vulcan XH558 Awesome Howl Sounds"] ''Youtube'', 28 October 2012.</ref>

==Display seasons==
[[Image:Vulcan-G-VLCN-173.jpg|thumb|left|[[Farnborough Airshow]] 2008]]
[[Image:Avro Vulcan XH558.jpg|thumb|left|Landing during [[Farnborough Airshow]] 2008]]

===2008===
[[Image:Vulcan-G-VLCN-180.jpg|thumb|right|[[Farnborough Airshow]] 2008]]

On 5 July 2008, XH558 performed the first post-restoration display at RAF Waddington with a flypast with the Avro Lancaster of the [[Battle of Britain Memorial Flight]], and then a solo display. Due to engine life restrictions (in cycles) plus a fuel bill of £3200 per hour, the yearly flying hours for XH558 are limited to approximately 70.<ref>{{cite web| url=http://www.thisislincolnshire.co.uk/air-appearance-Vulcan/story-11212965-detail/story.html |title=Five more air show appearances by Vulcan|date=12 July 2008|accessdate=14 June 2013}}</ref>
In 2008, three appearances were cancelled due to technical problems, two due to bad weather and three due to a fault in No. 2 engine.
{| class="wikitable"
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"
||'''Date'''
||'''Display/Location'''
||'''Notes'''
|-
| 5 July||[[RAF Waddington]] International Airshow||Did not fly on the second day due to technical failure
|-
| 30–31 August||[[Shoreham Airport|Shoreham]] Airshow||
|-
| 4 September||[[RAF Wyton]] Sunset Parade||Private event
|-
| 6–7 September||[[Imperial War Museum Duxford|Duxford]] Airshow||
|-
| 8 September||[[Southport]] Sea Front Airshow||"Vulcan roars in to thrill"<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.liverpoolecho.co.uk/liverpool-news/local-news/2008/09/08/vulcan-roars-in-to-thrill-100252-21698972/|title=Vulcan roars in to thrill|date=8 September 2008|publisher=Liverpool Echo|accessdate=9 September 2008}}</ref>
|-
| 11 September||[[Jersey]] International Air Display||
|-
| 11 September||[[Guernsey]] Battle of Britain Air Display||
|-
| 13 September||[[RAF Leuchars]] Airshow||Taxi runs only due to bad weather
|}

===2009===
[[Image:Vulcan at Windermere.jpg|thumb|left|Windermere Airshow 2009]]
[[Image:Vulcan detail.jpg|thumb|right|On the ground at Leuchars 2009]]

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"
||'''Date'''
||'''Display/Location'''
||'''Notes'''
|-
| 14 June||[[DCAE Cosford]]||
|-
| 19–20 June||[[Royal Netherlands Air Force|RNLAF]] [[Volkel Air Base|Volkel]] - Netherlands||First display in mainland Europe
|-
| 21 June||Kemble|| Displayed after flight from Volkel
|-
| 27–28 June||Biggin Hill||
|-
| 4–5 July||Waddington|| Cancelled<ref>{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/leicestershire/8134361.stm|title=
Vulcan bomber grounded at display|publisher=BBC | date=4 July 2009 | accessdate=1 January 2010}}</ref>
|-
|11 July||Yeovilton|| Grounded due to hydraulic fluid and weather problems
|-
|11 July||Lasham|| Planned flypast cancelled, see above
|-
| 18 July|| Cosford model show|| Flypast
|-
| 18–19 July||Fairford - [[Royal International Air Tattoo|RIAT]]|| Took off from Fairford, flew to Cosford for a flypast before displaying, successful displays on both days
|-
| 23–24 July||Lowestoft|| Appearance on second day cancelled after an inspection found a landing gear door bracket needed replacing
|-
| 25 July||Sunderland||
|-
| 25 July||East Fortune||
|-
| 25 July||Windermere||
|-
| 8 August|| RAF Lyneham families day || Displayed and landed for a static display
|-
| 9 August||Whitehaven||
|-
| 9 August|| Blackpool ||
|-
| 20 August|| Dawlish Air Show || Flypast at Bournemouth before displaying with [[The Red Arrows]]
|-
| 22–23 August||Shoreham ||
|-
| 22–23 August||Bournemouth ||Cancelled due to fuel leak [http://www.vulcantothesky.org/news/492/82/IMPORTANT-NEWS.html]
|-
| 29 August || Silverstone Circuit || BTCC/WAC
|-
| 30 August||Dunsfold||
|-
| 5 September ||Cosby-Leicestershire & Airbus Family Day - Hawarden ||
|-
| 12 September ||Leuchars|| Was given a Eurofighter escort into RAF Leuchars on arrival on 11/09/2009; Formed part of the static display in the morning of the show, before taking off and performing a full display before landing again; Returned to Brize Norton on 13 September, via [[Yorkshire Air Museum]] Elvington and Hull
|-
| 20 September||Sanicole - Belgium||
|-
| 20 September||[[Goodwood Revival]]||
|-
| 20 September||Cambridge||Private event
|-
| 26 September||Woodford||Southport|
|}

===2010===
[[File:XH558-AvroVulcan-1379.JPG|thumb|right|Lining up for departure from RAF Fairford at the end of the 2010 Royal International Air Tattoo]]
As the aircraft operates under [[visual flight rules]] (VFR) it cannot fly through cloud to higher altitudes where turbulence is lower, as this would require [[instrument flight rules]] (IFR) certification. Flying VFR in lower, often turbulent, air adds to airframe fatigue and this increases fatigue-index (FI) consumption. In 2010 the aircraft was therefore limited to between 30 and 40 hours flight-time, to help reduce FI usage and preserve the airframe. As a result, the number of air show appearances were fewer than in 2009. Some two-day fly-in shows were limited to just one appearance, with the first day being given preference to allow the second day to act as a reserve in case of technical or weather difficulties.

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"
||'''Date'''
||'''Display/Location'''
||'''Notes'''
|-
| 3–4 July||[[RAF Waddington]] International Airshow|| Displayed
|-
| 4 July||[[Goodwood Festival of Speed]]|| Displayed
|-
| 10 July||[[RNAS Yeovilton]] Airshow|| Displayed
|-
| 17–18 July||[[RAF Fairford]] [[RIAT]]|| Displayed
|-
| 19–25 July ||[[Farnborough Airshow]]|| Flew in formation with Red Arrows display team; Only performed up to the 24th; Grounded on 25th due to fault in brake system
|-
| 28 July ||[[RNAS Culdrose]] Airshow|| Displayed
|-
| 7 August ||[[RAF Lyneham]] Families Day (Private Event)|| Displayed
|-
| 12–13 August ||[[Lowestoft]] Sea Front Airshow|| Displayed
|-
| 21 August||[[Silverstone]]|| Cancelled due to weather
|-
| 21–22 August ||[[Bournemouth Air Festival]] || Cancelled due to weather
|-
| 21–22 August ||[[Shoreham Airport|Shoreham]] Airshow|| Cancelled due to weather
|-
| 25 August ||[[RAF Benson]] Families Day (Private Event)|| Cancelled due to weather
|-
| 30 August ||Wings and Wheels, [[Dunsfold Aerodrome]]|| Displayed
|-
| 9 September||Jersey International Air Display || Displayed
|-
| 11 September||[[RAF Leuchars]] Airshow|| Displayed
|-
| 18 September ||[[Bristol Filton Airport|Filton]] Families Day (Private Event)|| Displayed
|-
| 26 September ||[[Coventry Airport]] Fly in (11am Arrival 3 pm Departure. No Display)|| Static display and departure completed
|}

===2011===
[[Image:P1210243-XH558-Abingdon-2011.JPG|thumb|right|[[Abingdon Air & Country Show]] 2011]]

The schedule of appearances for the 2011 season, which was subject to weather and serviceability; they were:<ref>[http://www.vulcantothesky.org/appearances.html XH558 appearances]</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|- style="text-align:center; background:#f0f0f0;"
||'''Date'''
||'''Display/Location'''
||'''Notes'''
|-
| 8 May||[[Abingdon Air & Country Show]]|| Displayed
|-
| 28 May||[[Southend Airshow]]|| Displayed
|-
| 29 May||CWJ - [[Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome]]|| Static exhibition and departure completed
|-
| 10 June||Douglas Bay - Isle of Man|| Displayed
|-
| 12 June||RAF Cosford|| Cancelled due to weather
|-
| 18 June||Kemble|| Static exhibition and display completed
|-
| 18 June||Margate|| Displayed
|-
| 2–3 July||RAF Waddington|| Display and static exhibition completed
|-
|3 July||[[Goodwood Festival of Speed]]||Display completed<ref>[http://www.goodwood.co.uk/festival-of-speed/news-and-coverage/articles/spectacular-air-displays-at-the-2011-goodwood-festival-of-speed.aspx Goodwood] (dead link)</ref>
|-
| 9 July||RNAS Yeovilton|| Display and static exhibition completed
|-
| 16–17 July||RIAT Fairford|| Static exhibition and display completed
|-
| 23 July||Southport|| Display completed
|-
| 23 July||Windermere|| Display completed
|-
| 30–31 July||Sunderland|| Display completed
|-
| 18 August||Dawlish Carnival|| Display cancelled due to fuel tank problem
|-
| 20–21 August||Shoreham Airshow|| Display cancelled due to fuel tank problem
|-
| 20–21 August||Bournemouth Airshow|| Display cancelled due to fuel tank problem
|-
| 20–21 August||Wings and Wheels-Dunsfold|| No display on Sunday due to emergency landing at RAF Coningsby following a hydraulic fault; Display cancelled on the Monday for same reason. Aircraft remained at Coningsby
|-
| 4 September||Portrush|| Display cancelled due to weather
|-
| 4 September||Cosby|| Display
|-
| 10 September||[[RAF Leuchars]]|| Display
|}

===2012===

After extensive servicing over the 2011-2012 winter, XH558 had its CAA certificate renewed in April 2012, in time to perform a flypast at the dedication of the Falklands Memorial at the [[National Memorial Arboretum]] on 21 May.

During take off from [[Robin Hood Airport Doncaster Sheffield|Robin Hood airport]] for a practice flight on 28 May, both port engines failed. The failure was attributed to ingestion of silica gel desiccant bags. Damage sustained was limited to the engines and no structural damage was found. Both port engines were deemed beyond repair and replaced with engines in the trust's stocks.<ref>[http://www.vulcantothesky.org/news/354/82/Engine-Damage-Update.html Latest Update 30th May 2012]</ref>
The aircraft was returned to flight for the 2012 Farnborough International Airshow,<ref>[http://www.farnborough.com/ Farnborough International Airshow]</ref><ref>[http://www.farnborough.com/public-flying-display-aircraft.htm Flying Display Aircraft] (dead link)</ref> and has subsequently displayed throughout the 2012 season.

===2013===

On 12 October 2012, it was announced by Vulcan To The Sky that 2013 was likely to be the last flying season for the Vulcan, six years after her first post restoration flight. Reasons cited for the decision to end flight are due to the Vulcan requiring complex wing leading edge skin reinforcement, and a lack of spare engines after the incident in May 2012 when two engines were damaged beyond repair and the last working spares were used to replace them.<ref>[http://www.vulcantothesky.org/news/409/82/End-of-Flight-in-2013.html Final season announced for last flying Vulcan]</ref> However, on 25 January 2013, it was announced that wing modification investigations have begun after having contracted Cranfield Aerospace, who would extend her flying period beyond 2013.<ref>[http://mxm.mxmfb.com/rsps/wlnk/c/1216/r/207663/e/449 News from XH558, the last flying Vulcan]</ref> It was featured at the [[RNAS Yeovilton]]'s Air Day in July 2013.<ref>{{cite news|title=Crowds thrilled at spectacular air day at Yeovilton|url=http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/sitecore/content/home/news-and-events/latest-news/2013/july/15/130715-crowds-thrilled-at-yeovilton-air-day|publisher=[[Royal Navy|royalnavy.mod.uk]]|date=15 July 2013}}</ref> Later on in the year, it was confirmed that the wing modification was viable and a fundraising campaign referred to as Operation 2015 was launched. With sufficient funding raised, the modification was enacted, and in March 2014 the necessary modification was completed, extending XH558's flying hours.<ref>{{cite news|title=Thank you to all involved|url=http://www.vulcantothesky.org/news/544/82/Thank-you-to-all-involved.html|publisher=[[Vulcan To The Sky Trust|vulcantothesky.org]]|date=7 March 2014}}</ref>

===2014===

XH558 is confirmed as the highlight of the [[Armed Forces Day]] celebrations, taking place at [[Scarborough, North Yorkshire|Scarborough]] on 28 June 2014.<ref>Discover Yorkshire Coast - "[http://www.discoveryorkshirecoast.com/scarboroughs-official-tourism/whats-on-events/scarborough-armed-forces-day.aspx Scarborough Armed Forces Day]", Accessed 26 June 2014</ref>

XH558 performed at the [[Goodwood Festival of Speed]] at 1300hrs on Saturday 28 June 2014.<ref>http://grrc.goodwood.com/festival-of-speed/info/event-itinerary#/0</ref>

XH558 performed at the Waddington International Airshow.

XH558 flew in the last available time slot of the Friday 18 July Farnborough International Airshow 2014<ref>http://www.farnborough.com/Content/Dates-and-Times/6/</ref>, as well as on Saturday 19th and Sunday 20th earlier on the day.

XH558 performed at the Newcastle Airshow in Newcastle, Co. Down, Ireland on Saturday 9 August 2014.

XH558 flew together with the last two airworthy Lancaster bombers on 21 August 2014 to mark the turf-cutting ceremony of the new Bomber Command Memorial at Canwick Hill.<ref>http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-england-lincolnshire-28873614</ref>

XH558 performed at the Bournemouth Air Festival on Saturday 30 August and (in a last minute update to the schedule) Sunday 31 August 2014.

XH558 performed at the Shoreham Air Show over [[Shoreham Airport]] on Saturday 30 August 2014.

XH558 performed at the Scottish Air Show over Ayr on Saturday 6 September 2014.

XH558 performed at the Duxford Air Show on Saturday 13 September 2014.

XH558 performed at the Southport Air Show on Sunday 21 September 2014. It was listed on the Saturday line-up but had to be rescheduled to the Sunday due to poor weather at home airfield.

==Operators==
;United Kingdom
*[[Royal Air Force]]
**[[No. 27 Squadron RAF]]
**[[No. 50 Squadron RAF]]
**[[No. 55 Squadron RAF]]<ref>{{cite book|last=Darling|first=Kev|title=RAF Strike Command 1968 -2007: Aircraft, Men and Action|date=2012|publisher=Pen & Sword Aviation|isbn=1848848986|page=155|url=http://books.google.co.uk/books?id=whVkp7L15QwC&pg=PA155#v=onepage&q&f=false}}</ref>
**[[No. 230 Operational Conversion Unit RAF]]
**[[No. 617 Squadron RAF]] Scampton
**[[No. 35 Squadron RAF]] Scampton
**[[No. 82 Squadron RAF]] Scampton
*[[Vulcan To The Sky Trust|Vulcan to the Sky Trust]]

==Funding concerns==
On 9 September 2008, the Chief Executive of the Vulcan To The Sky Trust, Dr Robert Pleming, announced on XH558's site that there were serious shortfalls in the aircraft's funds suggesting that "...it looks as if the door may now be closing on the future of the Vulcan in flight. I think that anyone wishing to see a Vulcan in flight should do so as soon as possible." and that "If we don’t achieve a significant change of circumstances soon, we won’t be able to carry out our role of ‘Honouring the Past, Inspiring the Future’, providing the once-seen, never-forgotten sight of XH558 in flight to a new generation; stimulating interest in design and engineering; and telling people about an important period in our nation’s history".<ref>[http://www.vulcantothesky.org/ official website]</ref>

{{Wikinews|Fundraising to keep Avro Vulcan flying succeeds}}XH558 still has no commercial sponsors and relies on public donations and fundraising events organised by the Vulcan To The Sky Club members and supporters. In December 2008, the Vulcan To The Sky Trust set up a pledge scheme to raise £1 million by early 2009 to pay debts and cover servicing and operating costs for the 2009 display season. On 6 March the appeal reached its target.<ref>{{cite news | title=Vulcan appeal reaches fund target | url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/england/leicestershire/7928243.stm | accessdate=28 June 2009 | work=BBC News | date=6 March 2009}}</ref>

To fund maintenance work on XH558 that had to be brought forward from 2011, the Vulcan To The Sky Trust conducted a fresh campaign to raise further donations from the public. The Vulcan 50th Birthday appeal sought to raise an additional £800,000 ($1,280,000) by the end of March 2010, of which £500,000 ($800,000) was needed by the end of February 2010 to enable work to begin. On 24 February more than £400,000 was donated by an anonymous benefactor, passing the "survival level" target for necessary engineering maintenance to begin.

The VTST continues to run its 50th Anniversary Appeal for donations with the aim of building a sizeable cushion of additional donations as a prudent contingency. In the absence of a major ongoing sponsor, the Trust now aims to keep raising funds from public donations year-round.<ref>[http://www.vulcantothesky.org/downloads/VTST%20Press%20Release%2025%20Feb%202010%20FINAL.pdf Latest Press Release 25 February 2010]</ref>

==See also==
* [[Vulcan Restoration Trust]], Vulcan XL426 maintained in taxiable condition at [[Southend Airport]]
* [[Avro Vulcan XM655]], the only other taxiable Vulcan.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Avro Vulcan XH558}}
* [http://www.vulcantothesky.org/ Vulcan to the Sky Trust - XH558]
* [http://www.yourvulcanneedsyou.co.uk/howtohelp.shtml Your Vulcan Needs You]
* [http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/england/7502364.stm Test flight] at [[RAF Fairford]] on 11 July 2008 from the [[British Broadcasting Corporation|BBC]].
* [http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=24Tw7vFozZo Take-off] at the [[Farnborough Air Show]] (UK) on 20 July 2008.

{{aviation lists}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Avro Vulcan Xh558}}
[[Category:Individual aircraft]]
[[Category:Avro aircraft|XH558]]

Aerobatics

2014-09-20T20:57:38Z

JanTurin: sentence does not belong in introduction

{{Refimprove|date=May 2009}}

[[File:Patty Wagstaff At KBJC.jpg|thumb|right|[[Patty Wagstaff]] show at [[KBJC|JeffCo Airport]] in Denver, Colorado]]
'''Aerobatics''' is the practice of [[flight|flying]] maneuvers involving aircraft attitudes that are not used in normal flight.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.caa.govt.nz/rules/Rule_Consolidations/Part_001_Consolidation.pdf|title=Civil Aviation Rules Part 1|date=23 October 2008|work=Government publication|publisher=New Zealand Civil Aviation Authority|page=Page 16|accessdate=2009-05-28}}</ref><ref>{{cite web
| authorlink = [[FAA]]
| title = FAR 91.303
| publisher = USA Federal Aviation Administration
| url = http://rgl.faa.gov/REGULATORY_AND_GUIDANCE_LIBRARY/RGFAR.NSF/0/9C54CB14E91A41B8852566CF0067B9FE?OpenDocument
| accessdate = 2009-05-01}}
</ref> Aerobatics are performed in [[airplane]]s and [[Glider (sailplane)|gliders]] for [[training]], [[recreation]], [[entertainment]], and [[sport]]. Additionally, some [[helicopter]]s, such as the [[MBB Bo 105]], are capable of limited [[aerobatic maneuver]]s.<ref name="RB">{{cite web|url=http://www.redbullusa.com/en/ArticlePage.1165622311204-62961151/htmlArticlePage.action|title=Red Bull Bo-105 CBS Helicopter|work=Web page|publisher=Red Bull|accessdate=2009-05-28| archiveurl= http://web.archive.org/web/20090501130507/http://www.redbullusa.com/en/ArticlePage.1165622311204-62961151/htmlArticlePage.action?| archivedate= 1 May 2009 | deadurl= no}}</ref> The term is sometimes referred to as ''acrobatics'', especially when translated.{{citation needed|date=August 2012}}

Most aerobatic maneuvers involve rotation of the aircraft about its longitudinal (roll) axis or lateral (pitch) axis. Other maneuvers, such as a [[spin (flight)|spin]], displace the aircraft about its vertical (yaw) axis.<ref name="Williams">{{cite book|last=Williams|first=Neil|others=L. R. Williams, Illustrator|title=Aerobatics|publisher=Airlife Publishing Ltd|location=Surrey, England|year=1975|pages=32, et seq|isbn=0-9504543-0-3}}</ref> Maneuvers are often combined to form a complete aerobatic sequence for entertainment or competition.
Aerobatic flying requires a broader set of piloting skills and exposes the aircraft to greater structural stress than for normal flight.<ref name="SR">{{cite book|last=Langewiesche|first=Wolfgang|others=Jo Kotula, Illustrator|title=Stick and Rudder|publisher=McGraw Hill, Inc.|location=New York|year=1944|page=327|isbn=0-07-036240-8}}</ref> In some countries, the pilot must wear a parachute when performing aerobatics.<ref>{{cite web
| authorlink = [[FAA]]
| title = FAR 91.307(c)
| publisher = USA Federal Aviation Administration
| url = http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgFAR.nsf/0/23E90761E5001C628625754500734F2A?OpenDocument
| accessdate = 2009-05-01}}</ref>

While many pilots fly aerobatics for recreation, some choose to fly in [[Competition aerobatics|aerobatic competitions]], a [[referee]]d sport.<ref name="IACRules">{{cite book|title=Official Contest Rules|editor=Howard, Brian|publisher=International Aerobatic Club|location=Oshkosh, WI, USA|year=2009|pages=1–7}}</ref>

==Overview==
[[File:utterly.butterly.aerobatics.arp.jpg|thumb|left|The [[Utterly Butterly]] [[wingwalking]] team perform an [[aerobatic maneuver]] with their [[Boeing Stearman]]s.]]
In the early days of flying, some pilots used their [[aircraft]] as part of a [[barnstorming|flying circus]] to entertain. Amongst the earliest innovators in aerobatics the Frenchman Euclid's name is foremost.

Maneuvers were flown for artistic reasons or to draw gasps from onlookers. In due course some of these maneuvers were found to allow aircraft to gain tactical advantage during aerial combat or [[dogfight]]s between fighter aircraft.

Aerobatic aircraft fall into two categories—specialist aerobatic, and aerobatic capable. Specialist designs such as the [[Pitts Special]], the [[Extra 200]] and [[Extra 300|300]], and the [[Sukhoi Su-26]]M and [[Sukhoi Su-29]] aim for ultimate aerobatic performance. This comes at the expense of general purpose use such as touring, or ease of non aerobatic handling such as landing. At a more basic level, ''aerobatic capable'' aircraft, such as the [[Cessna 152]] Aerobat model, can be dual purpose—equipped to carrying passengers and luggage, as well as being capable of basic aerobatic figures.

''[[Formation Flying|Flight formation]] aerobatics'' are flown by teams of up to sixteen aircraft, although most teams fly between four and ten aircraft.<ref>The record is a 22-aircraft formation in 1958</ref> Some are state funded to reflect pride in the [[armed forces]] whilst others are commercially sponsored. Coloured smoke trails may be emitted to emphasise the patterns flown and/or the colours of a national flag. Usually each team will use aircraft similar to one another finished in a special and dramatic colour scheme, thus emphasising their entertainment function.

Teams often fly V-formations (otherwise known as echelon formation)— they will not fly directly behind another aircraft because of danger from wake vortices or engine exhaust. Aircraft will always fly slightly below the aircraft in front, if they have to follow in line (the "trail formation").
[[File:swift aerobatic display team at kemble arp.jpg|thumb|The UK Swift Aerobatic Display Team at [[Kemble Airfield|Kemble Battle of Britain Weekend]] 2009. A [[Swift S-1|Swift]] glider is performing continuous full rolls while towed by a [[Piper PA-25 Pawnee|Piper Pawnee]]]]
Aerobatic maneuvers flown in a jet-powered aircraft are limited in scope as they cannot take advantage of the gyroscopic forces that a propeller driven aircraft can exploit. Jet-powered aircraft also tend to fly much faster which increases the size of the figures and the length of time which the pilot has to withstand increased g-forces. Jet aerobatic teams often fly in formations which further restricts the maneuvers that can be safely flown.

To enhance the effect of aerobatic maneuveres smoke is sometimes generated; the smoke allows viewers to see the path travelled by the aircraft. Due to safety concerns, the smoke is not a result of combustion but is produced by the [[vaporization]] of [[Smoke screen#Oil|fog oil]] into a fine [[aerosol]], achieved either by injecting the oil into the hot engine exhaust<ref>"The smoke is generated by pumping smoke oil directly into the exhaust pipes just below the cylinder heads. The heat will vaporize, but not burn, the oil, creating thick white smoke. During an airshow routine, the smoke system will use around 5 gallons of smoke oil". http://www.northwestaerobatics.com/decathlon.htm</ref> or by the use of a dedicated device<ref>http://www.wipo.int/pctdb/en/wo.jsp?wo=2006096918</ref> that can be fitted in any position on the aircraft. The first military aerobatic team to use smoke at will during displays was [[Fleet Air Arm]] [[702 Naval Air Squadron|702 Squadron]] "[[Black Cats (Royal Navy)|The Black Cats]]" at the Farnborough Air show in
September 1957.<ref>"In June 1957 738 squadron was chosen to take part in a combined Naval display at the Farnborough Air show in September 1957, despite having a full operational programme. It was decided to have a team of five Hawker Seahawks. They were the first aerobatic team to produce smoke at will, by modifying the fuel injection system." http://www.seayourhistory.org.uk/index2.php?option=com_content&do_pdf=1&id=600</ref>

===Training===
Aerobatics are taught to military fighter pilots as a means of developing flying skills and for tactical use in combat.

Aerobatics and formation flying is not limited solely to fixed-wing aircraft; the [[British Army]], [[Royal Navy]], [[Spanish Air Force]] and the [[Indian Air Force]], among others, have helicopter display teams.

All aerobatic maneuvers demand training and practice to avoid [[accident]]s. Such accidents are rare but can result in fatalities. Low-level aerobatics are extremely demanding and airshow pilots must demonstrate their ability before being allowed to gradually reduce the height at which they may fly their show.

===Competition===
[[File:Spanish Air Force EC-120B Colibri.jpg|thumb|A Spanish Air Force Colibri demonstrates its agility with a [[barrel roll]]]]
{{Main|Competition aerobatics}}
Competitions start at Primary, or Graduate level and proceed in complexity through Sportsman, Intermediate and Advanced, with Unlimited being the top competition level. Experienced aerobatic pilots have been measured to pull +/-5g for short periods while unlimited pilots can perform more extreme maneuvers and experience higher [[g-force|g levels]] -possibly up to +8/-6g.<ref name="glimit">[http://www.aerobatics.org.uk/repeats/g_forces.htm G forces]</ref> The limits for positive g are higher than for negative g and this is due to the ability to limit blood pooling for positive g maneuvers, but it is generally accepted that +9 g for more than a few seconds will lead to loss of consciousness (also known as [[GLOC]]).<ref name="glimit"/><ref>FAA Advisory Circular 91-61 2/28/84</ref>

===Performance===

Aerobatics are most likely to be seen at a public [[airshow]]s.

==In popular culture==

===Video games===
*[[Flight Unlimited]]
Flight simulator x
AeroflyFs

==See also==
{{Commons category|Aerobatics}}
* [[List of aerobatic teams]]
* [[List of aerobatic aircraft]]
* [[Aerobatics (radio-controlled aircraft)]]
* [[Air racing]]
* [[Aresti Catalog]]
* [[Competition aerobatics]]
* [[Flight dynamics]]
* [[Flypast]]
* [[HASELL]]
* [[Aerobatic maneuver]]
* [[Aero GP]]
* [[:Category:Aerobatic pilots|Aerobatic pilots]]

==Notes==
{{Reflist}}

==External links==
* [http://media.libsyn.com/media/airspeed/AirspeedHunter.mp3 Audio of an aerobatic ride with air show performer Brett Hunter in a Pitts S-2C]
* [http://media.libsyn.com/media/airspeed/MancusoRide1.mp3 Audio of an aerobatic ride with air show performer Michael Mancuso in an Extra 300L]
* [http://www.citabria.co.nz Aerobatics and formation in New Zealand]
* [http://www.fulldeflection.com/index.php/maneuvers-catalogue Aerobatic maneuver website]

{{Aerobatics}}
{{Modern aerobatic teams}}

[[Category:Aerobatics| ]]
[[Category:Air sports]]
[[Category:Sport aircraft]]
[[Category:Military sports]]
[[Category:French inventions]]
[[Category:Soviet inventions]]

Friedrich Engels

2014-09-02T14:36:28Z

JanTurin: /* Return to Prussia */ wiki-link

{{Redirect|Engels}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=April 2013}}
{{Infobox philosopher
| region = Western Philosophy
| era = [[19th-century philosophy]]
| image = Engels.jpg
| caption = Engels in 1877
| name = Friedrich Engels
| birth_date = 28 November 1820
| birth_place = [[Wuppertal|Barmen]], [[Kingdom of Prussia]] (present-day [[Wuppertal]], Germany)
| death_date = {{death date and age|df=yes|1895|08|05|1820|11|28}}
| death_place = [[London]], [[England]], [[United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland|UK]]
| school_tradition = [[Marxism]], [[Materialism]]
| nationality = [[Germans|German]]
| main_interests = [[Political philosophy]], economics, [[class struggle]], capitalism
| influences = [[Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel|Hegel]], [[Ludwig Feuerbach|Feuerbach]], [[Max Stirner|Stirner]], [[Adam Smith|Smith]], [[David Ricardo|Ricardo]], [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], [[Goethe]], [[Charles Fourier|Fourier]], [[Moses Hess|Hess]], [[Lewis H. Morgan|Morgan]], [[Heraclitus]]
| influenced = [[Rosa Luxemburg|Luxemburg]], [[Vladimir Lenin|Lenin]], [[Leon Trotsky|Trotsky]], [[Mao Zedong|Mao]], [[Che Guevara|Guevara]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], [[Guy Debord|Debord]], [[Frankfurt School]], [[Antonio Negri|Negri]], [[V. Gordon Childe|Childe]] and [[List of Marxists|many others]]
| notable_ideas = Co-founder of [[Marxism]] (with [[Karl Marx]]), [[Marx's theory of alienation|alienation]] and exploitation of the worker, [[historical materialism]]
| signature = Friedrich Engels Signature.svg
}}
{{Socialism sidebar}}
'''Friedrich Engels''' ({{IPA-de|ˈfʁiːdʁɪç ˈɛŋəls|lang}}; 28 November 1820 – 5 August 1895) was a German [[social science|social scientist]], author, [[political theorist]], philosopher, and father of [[Marxism|Marxist theory]], together with [[Karl Marx]]. In 1845 he published ''[[The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844|The Condition of the Working Class in England]]'', based on personal observations and research in [[Manchester]].

In 1848 he co-authored ''[[The Communist Manifesto]]'' with Karl Marx, and later he supported Marx financially to do research and write ''[[Das Kapital]]''. After Marx's death, Engels edited the second and third volumes. Additionally, Engels organized Marx's notes on the "Theories of Surplus Value," which he later published as the "fourth volume" of ''Capital''.<ref>''Theories of Surplus Value'', in ''Collected Works of Marx and Englels: Volumes 30, 31 and 32'' (International Publishers: New York, 1988).</ref> He has also made important contributions to [[family economics]].

==Biography==

===Early years===
Friedrich (Frederick) Engels was born on 28 November 1820 in [[Barmen]], [[Kingdom of Prussia|Prussia]] (now [[Wuppertal]], Germany).<ref>A copy of Frederick Engels' birth certificate is on page 577 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 2'' (New York: International Publishers, 1975).</ref> Barmen was an expanding industrial metropolis, and Frederick was the eldest son of a wealthy German cotton manufacturer. His father, Friederich, Sr., was an evangelical.<ref>''[[:de:Friedrich Engels (Fabrikant)|de]]''</ref> Engels was raised Christian [[Pietism|Pietist]]. As he grew up, his relationship with his parents became strained because he developed [[Atheism|atheist]] beliefs.<ref>{{cite web |author=Frederick Engels |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/letters/45_03_17.htm |title=Letters of Marx and Engels, 1845 |publisher=Marxists.org |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref> His mother wrote to him of her concerns: <ref name="mothersletter">Elisabeth Engels' letter contained at No. 6 of the Appendix, ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38'' (International Publishers: New York, 1982) pp. 540–541.</ref> She said that he had ""really gone too far" and "begged" him "to proceed no further."<ref name="mothersletter"/>She continued:
<blockquote>"You have paid more heed to other people, to strangers, and have taken no account of your mother's pleas. God alone knows what I have felt and suffered of late. I was trembling when I picked up the newspaper and saw therein that a warrant was out for my son's arrest."<ref name="mothersletter"/></blockquote>When his mother wrote, Engels was in hiding in [[Brussels]], [[Belgium]], soon to make his way to [[Switzerland]]. In 1849, he returned to the Kingdom of Bavaria for the [[Revolutions of 1848 in the German states|Baden and Palatinate revolutionary uprising]].
[[File:280505 001 Engelshaus Barmen.jpg|thumb|right|The Engels family house at [[Barmen]] (now in [[Wuppertal]]), Germany.]]

At 17 years of age, young Frederick had dropped out of high school due to family circumstances. He spent a year in Barmen. In 1838, his father sent the young man to work as a nonsalaried office clerk at a commercial house in [[Bremen]].<ref name="engels-bio">{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1895/misc/engels-bio.htm |title=Lenin: Frederick Engels |publisher=Marxists.org |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref><ref name="tucker">Tucker, Robert C. ''The Marx-Engels Reader'', p.xv</ref> His parents expected that he would follow his father into a career in business. His revolutionary activities disappointed them.

Whilst at Bremen, Engels began reading the philosophy of [[Hegel]], whose teachings dominated German philosophy. In September 1838, he published his first work, a poem entitled "The Bedouin,", in the ''Bremisches Conversationsblatt,'' No. 40. He also engaged in other literary and journalistic work.<ref>{{cite web |author=Progress Publishers |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume02/preface.htm |title=Preface by Progress Publishers |publisher=Marxists.org |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/cw/volume02/footnote.htm#188 |title=Footnotes to Volume 1 of Marx Engels Collected Works |publisher=Marxists.org |date=15 November 1941 |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref>

In 1841, Engels joined the [[Prussian Army]] as a member of the Household Artillery. He was assigned to Berlin, where he attended university lectures and began to associate with groups of [[Young Hegelians]]. He anonymously published articles in the ''[[Rheinische Zeitung]],'' exposing the poor employment and living conditions endured by factory workers.<ref name="tucker" /> The editor of the ''Rheinische Zeitung'' was Karl Marx. Engels did not meet Marx until late November 1842.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al''., ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild: Dresden, Germany, 1972) p. 53.</ref> Engels acknowledged the influence of German philosophy to his [[intellectual]] development throughout his life.<ref name="engels-bio" /> He also wrote, "To get the most out of life you must be active, you must live and you must have the courage to taste the thrill of being young ... " (1840)

===Manchester===
In 1842, his parents sent the 22-year-old Engels to [[Manchester]], England, a manufacturing center. He was to work in [[Weaste]] in the offices of [[Baumwollspinnerei Ermen & Engels|Ermen and Engels]]' "Victoria Mill," which made sewing threads.<ref name="en-1893">{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/bio/engels/en-1893.htm |title=Biography on Engels |publisher=Marxists.org |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref><ref name="bbc-art1">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/england/manchester/article_1.shtml |title=Legacies – Work – England – Manchester – Engels in Manchester – Article Page 1 |publisher=[[BBC]] |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref><ref>''Salford Star,'' issue 6 Winter 2007, read on http://www.salfordstar.com/article.asp?id=461</ref> Engels' father thought that working at the Manchester firm might make his son reconsider some of his liberal opinions.<ref name="engels-bio" /><ref name="bbc-art1" /> On his way to Manchester, Engels visited the office of the ''[[Rheinische Zeitung]]'' and met Karl Marx for the first time. They were not impressed with each other.<ref>Wheen, Francis ''Karl Marx: A Life'', p. 75.</ref> Marx mistakenly thought that Engels was still associated with the Berliner Young Hegelians, with whom he (Marx) had just broken.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al''., ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild: Dresden, Germany, 1972) pp. 53–54.</ref>

In Manchester, Engels met [[Mary Burns]], a fierce young working woman with radical opinions. They began a relationship that lasted 20 years until her death in 1862.<ref name="bbc-art2">{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/england/manchester/article_2.shtml |title=Legacies – Work – England – Manchester – Engels in Manchester – Article Page 2 |publisher=BBC |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref><ref>"Friedrich Engels in Manchester", Roy Whitfield, 1988</ref> The two never married, as both were against the institution of marriage. While Engels regarded monogamy as a virtue, he considered state and church-regulated marriage as a form of class oppression.<ref>{{cite book | last= Carver | first = Terrell | authorlink = Terrell Carver| year = 2003 | publisher = [[Oxford University Press]] | title = Engels: A Very Short Introduction | pages = 71–72}}</ref><ref name=draper>{{cite journal | last = Draper| first = Hal| author-link = Hal Draper | title = Marx and Engels on Women's Liberation| journal = [[International Socialism (journal)|International Socialism]] |accessdate = 2011-11-29| date = July 1970| url = http://www.marxists.org/archive/draper/1970/07/women.htm}}</ref> Burns guided Engels through Manchester and [[Salford, Greater Manchester|Salford]], showing him the worst districts for his research.

While in Manchester between October and November 1843, Engels wrote his first economic work, entitled "Outline of a Critique of Political Economy."<ref>"Outline of a Critique of Political Economy," ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 3'' ([[International Publishers]]: New York, 1975), pp. 418–445.</ref> Engels sent the article to Paris, where Marx published it in the ''[[Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher]]'' in 1844.<ref name="en-1893" />

While observing the slums of Manchester in close detail, Engels took notes of its horrors, notably [[child labor]], the despoiled environment, and overworked and impoverished laborers.<ref name="NYT">[http://www.nytimes.com/2009/08/19/books/19garner.html?_r=2&pagewanted=all Fox Hunter, Party Animal, Leftist Warrior] by Dwight Garner, ''[[The New York Times]]'', 18 August 2009</ref> He sent a trilogy of articles to Marx; these were published in the ''Rheinische Zeitung'' and then in the ''[[Deutsch–Französische Jahrbücher]]'', chronicling the conditions among the working class in Manchester. He later collected these articles for his influential first book, ''[[The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844|The Condition of the Working Class in England]]'' (1845).<ref>''The Condition of the Working Class in England'', in the ''Collected Works of Marx and Engels: Volume 4'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 295–596.</ref> Written between September 1844 and March 1845, the book was published in German in 1845. In the book, Engels described the "grim future of capitalism and the industrial age",<ref name="NYT" /> noting the details of the squalor in which the working people lived.<ref name="salfordstar.com">''Salford Star,'' Issue 6 Winter 2007, [http://www.salfordstar.com/article.asp?id=456 "Friedrich Engels in Salford" part 1]</ref> The book was published in English in 1887.

Engels continued his involvement with radical journalism and politics. He frequented areas popular among members of the English [[Labour movement|labour]] and [[Chartism|Chartist]] movements, whom he met. He also wrote for several journals, including ''[[Northern Star (chartist newspaper)|The Northern Star]]'', [[Robert Owen]]’s ''New Moral World,'' and the ''[[Democratic Review]]'' newspaper.<ref name="bbc-art2" /><ref>{{cite web |author=Karl Marx |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/05/04.htm |title=Introduction to the French Edition of Engels' by Karl Marx 1880 |publisher=Marxists.org |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref><ref>Whitfield, Roy (1988) "The Double Life of Friedrich Engels." In: ''Manchester Region History Review'', vol. 2, no. 1, 1988</ref>

===Paris===
Engels decided to return to Germany in 1844. On the way, he stopped in Paris to meet [[Karl Marx]], with whom he had an earlier correspondence. Marx had been living in Paris since late October 1843, after the ''Rheinische Zeitung'' was banned in March 1843 by Prussian governmental authorities.<ref>P. N. Fedoseyev, ''Karl Marx: A Biography'' (Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1973) pp. 41–42 & 49.</ref> Prior to meeting Marx, Engels had become established as a fully developed [[Dialectical materialism|materialist]] and [[Scientific socialism|scientific socialist]], independent of Marx's philosophical development.<ref>P. N. Fedoseyev, ''et al.'', ''Karl Marx: A Biography'', p. 71.</ref>

In Paris, Marx was publishing the ''[[Deutsch-Französische Jahrbücher]].'' Engels first met Marx at the [[Café de la Régence]] on the Place du Palais, 28 August 1844. The two quickly became close friends and remained so their entire lives. Marx had read and was impressed by Engels' articles on ''The Condition of the Working Class in England.''<ref>Frederick Engels, "The Condition of the Working Class of England," ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 4'' (International Publishers: New York, 1975) pp. 295 through 596.</ref> Marx adopted Engels' idea that the working class would lead the revolution against the bourgeoisie as society advanced toward socialism, and incorporated this as part of his own philosophy.<ref>P. N. Fedoseyev, ''et al.'', ''Karl Marx: A Biography'' (Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1973) pp. 82–83.</ref> In late May 1845 Engels published the English version of his new book. He wrote, "A class which bears all the disadvantages of the social order without enjoying its advantages…Who can demand that such a class respect this social order ?"<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Collected Works: Volume 4,'' p. 424.</ref>

Engels stayed in Paris to help Marx write ''[[The Holy Family (book)|The Holy Family]]''.<ref>''The Holy Family,'' ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 4'', pp. 3 through 211.</ref> It was an attack on the [[Young Hegelians]] and the [[Bruno Bauer|Bauer]] brothers, and was published in late February 1845. Engels' earliest contribution to Marx's work was writing for the ''Deutsch-französische Jahrbücher'', edited by both Marx and [[Arnold Ruge]], in Paris in 1844.

During this time in Paris, both Marx and Engels began their association with and then joined the secret revolutionary society called the [[League of the Just]].<ref>P. N. Fedoseyev, ''et al.'', ''Karl Marx: A Biography'' (Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1973) p. 60.</ref> The League of the Just had been formed in 1837 in France to promote an egalitarian society through the overthrow of the existing governments. In 1839, the League of the Just participated in the 1839 rebellion fomented by the French utopian revolutionary socialist, [[Louis Auguste Blanqui]].

However, as Ruge remained a Young Hegelian in his belief, Marx and Ruge soon split and Ruge left the ''Deutsch-französische Jahrbücher''<ref>P. N. Fedoseyev ''et al''., ''Karl Marx: A Biography'' pp. 57–58.</ref> Nonetheless, following the split, Marx remained friendly enough with Ruge that he sent Ruge a warning on 15 January 1845 that the Paris police were going to execute orders against him, Marx and others at the ''Deutsche-französische Jahrbücher'' requiring all to leave Paris within 24 hours.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Letter from Marx to Ruge" (15 January 1845) contained in ''Collected Works: Volume 38'', p. 15.</ref> Marx himself was expelled from Paris by French authorities on 3 February 1845 and settled in Brussels with his wife and one daughter.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al''., ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' p. 625.</ref> Having left Paris on 6 September 1844, Engels returned to his home in Barmen, Germany, to work on his ''The Condition of the English Working Class'', which was published in late May 1845.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al''. ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' p. 625.</ref> Even before the publication of his book, Engels moved to Brussels in late April 1845, to collaborate with Marx on another book,''[[German Ideology]]''.<ref>''German Ideology'' is located in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels'' pp. 19 through 539.</ref> While living in Barmen, Engels began making contact with Socialists in the Rhineland to raise money for Marx's publication efforts in Brussels.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al''., ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' p. 101.</ref> However, these contacts became more important as both Marx and Engels began political organizing for the German Workers Party.

===Brussels===
From 1845 to 1848, Engels and Marx lived in [[Brussels]], spending much of their time organizing the city's German workers. Shortly after their arrival, they contacted and joined the underground [[Communist League|German Communist League]]. The Communist League was the successor organization to the old League of the Just which had been founded in 1837, but had recently disbanded.<ref>Isaiah Berlin, ''Karl Marx: His Life and Environment'' ([[Oxford University Press]]: Oxford, England, 1963) pp. 159–160.</ref> Influenced by [[Wilhelm Weitling]], the Communist League was an international society of proletarian revolutionaries with branches in various European cities.<ref>Isaiah Berlin, ''Karl Marx: His Life and Environment'' p. 160.</ref> The Communist League also had contacts with the underground conspiratorial organization of [[Louis Auguste Blanqui]]. Many of Marx's and Engels' current friends became members of the Communist League. Old friends like [[Georg Herwegh|Georg Friedrich Herwegh]], who had worked with Marx on the ''Rheinsche Zeitung'', [[Heinrich Heine]], the famous poet, a young doctor by the name of [[Roland Daniels]], [[Heinrich Burgers|Heinrich Bürgers]] and [[August Herman Ewerbeck]] all maintained their contacts with Marx and Engels in Brussels. [[Georg Weerth]], who had become a friend of Engels in England in 1843, now settled in Brussels. [[Karl Wallau]] and [[Stephen Born]] (real name [[Simon Buttermilch]]) were both German immigrant typesetters who settled in Brussels to help Marx and Engles with their Communist League work. Marx and Engels made many new important contacts through the Communist League. One of the first was [[Wilhelm Wolff]], who was soon to become one of Marx's and Engels' closest collaborators. Others were [[Joseph Weydemeyer]] and [[Ferdinand Freiligrath]], a famous revolutionary poet. While most of the associates of Marx and Engels were German immigrants living in Brussels, some of their new associates were Belgians. [[Phillipe Gigot]], a Belgian philosopher and [[Victor Tedesco]], a lawyer from Liège, both joined the Communist League. [[Joachim Lelewel]] a prominent Polish historian and participant in the Polish uprising of 1830–1831 was also a frequent associate.<ref>P. N.Fedoseyev ''et al''., ''Karl Marx: A Biography'' (Progress Publishers: Moscow, 1973) pp. 86–88.)</ref> The Communist League commissioned Marx and Engels to write a pamphlet explaining the principles of communism. This became ''[[Communist Manifesto|The Manifesto of the Communist Party]]'', better known as the ''Communist Manifesto''.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Manifesto of the Communist Party'' contained in the ''Collected Works Volume 6'' pp. 477–517.</ref> It was first published on 21 February 1848 and ends with the world famous phrase: "Let the ruling classes tremble at a Communistic revolution. The proletariat have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win ... Working Men of All Countries, Unite!"<ref name="engels-bio" />

===Return to Prussia===
There was a [[Revolutions of 1848 in France|revolution in France in 1848]] that eventually spread to other Western European countries. This event caused Engels and Marx to go back to their home country of [[Prussia]], specifically the city of [[Cologne]]. While living in Cologne, they created and served as editors for a new daily newspaper called the ''[[Neue Rheinische Zeitung]]''.<ref name="en-1893" /> Besides Marx and Engels, other frequent contributors to the ''Neue Rheinische Zeitung'' included [[Karl Schapper]], [[Wilhelm Wolff]], [[Ernst Dronke]], [[Peter Nothjung]], [[Heinrich Burgers|Heinrich Bürgers]], [[Ferdinand Wolf]] and [[Carl Cramer]].<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Banquet in Gűrzenich" contained in the ''Collected Works: Volume 9'' (International Publishers: New York, 1977) p. 490.</ref> Frederick Engels' mother, herself, gives unwitting witness to the effect of the ''Neue Rheinische Zeitung'' on the revolutionary uprising in Cologne in 1848. Criticizing his involvement in the uprising she states in a 5 December 1848 letter to Frederick that "nobody, ourselves included, doubted that the meetings at which you and your friends spoke, and also the language of ''(Neue) Rh.Z.'' were largely the cause of these disturbances."<ref>Elisabeth Engels' letter to Frederick Engels contained at No. 8 of the Appendix in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38'', p. 543.</ref> At the time of this letter, Frederick Engels's even more dangerous involvement in the revolutionary uprisings in Baden and the [[Palatinate_(region)|Palatinate]] in 1849, still lay ahead of him. Engels' parents hoped that young Frederick would "decide to turn to activities other than those which you have been pursing in recent years and which have caused so much distress."<ref name="Elisabeth Engels p. 543">Elisabeth Engels' letter contained at No. 8 of the Appendix in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38'', p. 543.</ref> At this point Frederick's parents felt the only hope for their son was to emigrate to America and start his life over. They told him that he should do this or he would "cease to receive money from us."<ref name="Elisabeth Engels p. 543"/> However, the problem in the relationship between Frederick and his parents was worked out without Engels having to leave England or being cut off from financial assistance from his parents. In July 1851, Frederick Engels' father arrived to visit him in Manchester, England. During the visit his father arranged for Frederick to meet Peter Ermen of the office of ''Ermond & Engels'', move to Liverpool and to take over sole management of the office in Manchester.<ref>Frederick Engels letter to Karl Marx dated 6 July 1851 and contained at No. 186 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38'', p. 378.</ref>

Starting with an article called "The Magyar Struggle", written on 8 January 1849, Frederick Engels, himself, began a series of reports on the Revolution and War for Independence of the newly founded Hungarian Republic.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "The Magyar Struggle" contained in ''Collected Works: Volume 8'', pp. 227–238.</ref> Engels' articles on the Hungarian Republic became a regular feature in the ''Neue Rheinische Zeitung'' under the heading: "From the Theater of War."<ref>See Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Collected Works: Volume 8'', pp. 451–480 and ''Volume 9, pp. 9–463.</ref>

However, during the June 1849 Prussian [[coup d'état]] the newspaper was suppressed. After the coup, Marx lost his Prussian [[citizenship]], was deported, and fled to Paris and then London. Engels stayed in Prussia and took part in an armed uprising in South Germany as an [[aide-de-camp]] in the volunteer corps of [[August Willich]].<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/bio/engels/en-1892.htm |title=Engels, Frederick (encyclopedia) |publisher=Marxists.org |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref><ref>Isaiah Berlin, ''Karl Marx: His Life and Environment'', 4th ed. 1978, New York and Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1996, p. 130, ISBN 978-0-19-510326-7.</ref><ref>Mike Rapport, ''1848 Year of Revolution'', London: Little Brown, 2008, p. 342, ISBN 978-0-316-72965-9.</ref> Engels also brought two cases of rifle cartridges with him when he went to join the uprising in Elberfeld on 10 May. 1849.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Elberfeld" contained in the ''Collected Works: Volume 9'' (International Publishers: New York, 1977) p. 447.</ref> Later when Prussian troops came to Kaiserslautern to suppress an uprising there, Engels joined a group of volunteers under the command of August Willich, who were going to fight the Prussian troops.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow, ''et al''., ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' (Verlag Zeit im Bild: Dresden, 1972) p.205.</ref> When the uprising was crushed, Engels was one of the last members of Willich's volunteers to escape by crossing the Swiss border. Marx and others became concerned for Engels life until they finally heard from him.<ref>"Letter from Engels to Jenny Marx" (25 July 1849) contained in the ''Collected Works: Volume 38'' p. 202-204.</ref> Engels traveled through [[Switzerland]] as a [[refugee]] and eventually made it to safety in England.<ref name="engels-bio" /> On 6 June 1849 Prussian authorities issued an arrest warrant for Frederick Engels which contained a physical description as "height: 5 feet 6 inches; hair: blond; forehead: smooth; eyebrows: blond; eyes: blue; nose and mouth: well proportioned; beard: reddish; chin: oval; face: oval; complexion: healthy; figure: slender. Special characteristics: speaks very rapidly and is short-sighted."<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Collected Works: Volume 9'', p. 524,</ref> As to his "short-sightedness", Engels admitted as much in a letter written to Joseph Weydemeyer on 19 June 1851 in which he says he was not worried about being selected for the Prussian military because of "my eye trouble, as I have now found out once and for all which renders me completely unfit for active service of any sort."<ref>Frederick Engels letter contained at No. 183 of the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38'', p. 370.</ref> Once he was safely in Switzerland, Engels began to write down all his memories of the recent military campaign against the Prussians. This writing eventually became the article published under the name "The Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution."<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, ''Collected Works: Volume 10'', p. 147.</ref>

===Back in Britain===
[[File:Engel House in Primrose.jpg|thumb|right|Friedrich Engels' house in Primrose Hill, London]]
In order to help Marx with the new publishing effort in London, ''[[Neue Rheinsche Zeitung Politische-okonomische Revue|Neue Rheinsche Zeitung Politisch-ökonomische Revue]]'', Engels sought ways to escape the continent and travel to London. On 5 October 1849, Engels arrived in the Italian port city of Genoa.<ref>See the "Letter to from Engels to George Julian Harney" dated 5 October 1849 in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38'' p. 217.</ref> There, Engels booked passage on the English schooner, ''Cornish Diamond'' under the command of a Captain Stevens.<ref>Karl Marx and Frederick Engels, "Letter from Engels to George Julian Harney (5 October 1849) ''Collected Works: Volume 38'' p. 217.</ref> The voyage across the western Mediterranean, around the Iberian Peninsula by sailing schooner took about five weeks. Finally, on 10 November 1849 the ''Cornish Diamond'' sailed up the River Thames to London with Engels on board.<ref>Heinrich Gemkow ''et al''., ''Frederick Engels: A Biography'' p. 213.</ref>

Once Engels made it to Britain, he decided to re-enter the Manchester company in which his father held shares, in order to be able to support Marx financially so he could work on his masterpiece "Das Kapital". Engels didn't like the work but did it for the good of the cause.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/england/manchester/article_4.shtml |title=Legacies – Work – England – Manchester – Engels in Manchester – Article Page 4 |publisher=BBC |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref><ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/legacies/work/england/manchester/article_5.shtml |title=Legacies – Work – England – Manchester – Engels in Manchester – Article Page 5 |publisher=BBC |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref>

Unlike his first period in England (1843), Engels was now under police surveillance. He had `official' homes and `unofficial homes' all over Salford, Weaste and other inner-city Manchester districts where he lived with Mary Burns under false names to confuse the police.<ref name="salfordstar.com"/> Little more is known, as Engels destroyed over 1,500 letters between himself and Marx after the latter's death so as to conceal the details of their secretive lifestyle.<ref name="salfordstar.com"/>

Despite his work at the mill, Engels found time to write his monumental work on Luther, the Reformation and the 1525 revolutionary war of the peasants. This work was entitled ''[[The Peasant War in Germany]]''.<ref>"The Peasant War in Germany" and s contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 10'' pp. 397 through 482.</ref> Engels also wrote some important newspaper articles such as "The Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution" which he finished in February 1850,<ref>The article called "The Campaign for the German Imperial Constitution" is contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 10'' p. 147</ref> and "On the Slogan of the Abolition of the State and the German 'Friends of Anarchy'" written in October 1850.<ref>The article "On the Slogan of the Abolition of the State and the German 'Friends of Anarchy'" is contained in the ''Collected Works of Marx and Engels: Volume 10'' p. 486.</ref> In April 1851, Engels wrote the pamphlet, "Conditions and Prospects of a War of the Holy Alliance against France."<ref>The pamphlet "Conditions and Prospects of a War of the Holy Alliance against France" is contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 10'' p. 542.</ref>

When Louis Bonaparte carried out a coup against the French government and made himself president for life on 2 December 1851, Marx and Engels, like many people, were shocked. In condemning this action, Engels wrote to Marx about the coup on 3 December 1851.<ref>Frederick Engels' letter to Karl Marx dated 3 December 1851 contained in the "Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38", p. 503.</ref> Engels characterized the coup as "comical"<ref>Frederick Engels' letter to Karl Marx contained in the "Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38", p. 503.</ref> and referred to it as occurring on "the 18th Brumaire"—the date of the coup according to the 1799 republican calendar of France under Napoleon I.<ref>See note 517 located at page 635 in the "Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 38.</ref> Marx was later to incorporate this comically ironic characterization of Louis Bonaparte's coup into his book about the coup. Indeed, Marx even called the book "[[The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte]]" again using Engels' suggested characterization.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'', p. 98.</ref> Marx also borrowed Engels characterisation of Hegel's notion of the World Spirit that history occurred twice, "once as a tragedy and secondly as a farce" in the first paragraph of his new book.<ref>Karl Marx, "The Eighteenth Brumaire of Louis Bonaparte" contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 11'', p. 103.</ref>

Meanwhile, while working at the mill owned by his father in Manchester, Engels started working as an office clerk, the same position he held in his teens while in Germany where his father's company was based. However, Frederick worked his way up to become a partner of the firm in 1864. Five years later, Engels retired from the business and could focus more on his studies.<ref name="en-1893" /> At this time, Marx was living in London but they were able to exchange ideas through daily correspondence. One of the ideas that Engels and Marx contemplated was the possibility and character of a potential revolution in the Russias. As early as April 1853, Engels and Marx anticipated an "aristocratic-bourgeois revolution in Russia<ref>See the letter from Frederick Engels to Joseph Weydemeyer dated April 12, 1853 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 39'' (New York: International Publishers, 1983) pp. 305–306.</ref> which would begin in "St. Petersburg with a resulting civil war in the interior."<ref>Letter from Fredereick Engels to Joseph Weydemeyer dated 12 April 1853 contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 39'', p. 306.</ref> The model for this type of aristocratic-bourgeois revolution in Russia against the autocratic czarist government in favor of a constitutional government had been provided by the [[Decembrist Revolt]] of 1825.<ref>W. Bruce Lincoln, ''The Romanovs: Autocrats of All the Russias'' (New York: Dial Press, 1981) pp. 408–413.</ref> Although an unsuccessful revolt against the czarist government in favor of a constitutional government, both Engels and Marx anticipated a bourgeois revolution in Russia would occur which would bring about a bourgeois stage in Russian development to precede a communist stage. By 1881, both Marx and Engels began to contemplate a course of development in Russia that would lead directly to the communist stage without the intervening bourgeois stage. This analysis was based on what Marx and Engels saw as the exceptional characteristics of the Russian village commune or the [[mir]].<ref>See the letter from Karl Marx to Vera Zasulich contained in the ''Collected Works of Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Volume 46, (New York: International Press, 1992) pp. 71–72.</ref> However, later doubt was cast on this theory by [[Georgi Plekhanov]].

In 1870, Engels moved to London where he and Marx lived until Marx's death in 1883.<ref name="engels-bio" /> His London home during this period and until his death was 122 Regent's Park Road, [[Primrose Hill]], NW1.<ref>{{openplaque|213}} – Accessed July 2010</ref> Marx's first London residence was a cramped apartment at 28 [[Dean Street]], [[Soho]]. From 1856, he lived at 9 Grafton Terrace, [[Kentish Town]], and then in a tenement at 41 Maitland Park Road from 1875 until his death.<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/photo/places/index.htm |title=Photos of Marx's Residence(s) |publisher=Marxists.org |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref>

Mary Burns suddenly died of a heart disease in 1863, after which Engels became close with her younger sister Lydia ("[[Lizzie Burns|Lizzie]]"). They lived openly as a couple in London and married on 11 September 1878, hours before Lizzie's death.<ref name=b1>{{cite book|author=Henderson, William Otto |title=The Life of Friedrich Engels|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=teYf8gwzoB4C&pg=PA567|year=1976|publisher=Psychology Press|isbn=978-0-7146-3040-3|page=567}}</ref><ref name=b2>{{cite book|author=Samuel Hollander|title=Friedrich Engels and Marxian Political Economy|url=http://books.google.com/books?id=qIn_Sa2wdx0C&pg=PA358|date=2011|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-139-49844-9|page=358}}</ref>

===Later years===
After Marx's death, Engels devoted much of his remaining years to editing Marx's unfinished volumes of ''Capital''. However, he also contributed significantly in other areas. Engels made an argument using [[anthropology|anthropological evidence]] of the time to show that family structures changed over history, and that the concept of [[monogamous]] marriage came from the necessity within class society for men to control women to ensure their own children would inherit their property. He argued a future communist society would allow people to make decisions about their relationships free of economic constraints. One of the best examples of Engels' thoughts on these issues are in his work ''[[The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State]]''.

Engels died of [[Esophageal cancer|throat cancer]] in London, 1895.<ref name="Marx-Engels_Correspondence_1895">{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1895/letters/95_05_21.htm |title=Letters: Marx-Engels Correspondence 1895 |publisher=Marxists.org |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref> Following cremation at [[Woking Crematorium]], his ashes were scattered off [[Beachy Head]], near [[Eastbourne]] as he had requested.<ref name="Marx-Engels_Correspondence_1895" /><ref>{{cite book |last=Kerrigan |first=Michael |title=Who Lies Where – A guide to famous graves |year=1998 |publisher=Fourth Estate Limited |location=London |isbn=1-85702-258-0 |page=156}}</ref>

==Personality==
[[File:Engels 1856.jpg|right|thumb|Friedrich Engels in 1868<ref>''Manchester Photographers by Gillian Read. Ed. Royal Photographic Society's Historical Group, 1982: „George Lester, 51, King Street , Manchester (1863–1868). See the photo in Jenny Marx album too.''</ref>]]
Engels is commonly known as a "ruthless party tactician", "brutal ideologue", and "master tactician" when it came to purging rivals in political organizations. However, another strand of Engels's personality was one of a "gregarious", "bighearted", and "jovial man of outsize appetites", who was referred to by his son-in-law as "the great beheader of champagne bottles."<ref name="NYT" /> His interests included poetry, [[fox hunting]], and hosting regular Sunday parties for London's left-wing [[intelligentsia]] where, as one regular put it, "no one left before two or three in the morning." His stated personal motto was "take it easy", while "jollity" was listed as his favorite virtue.<ref>{{cite web |author=Frederick Engels |url= http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1868/04/01.htm|title= Frederick Engels’ "Confession" |publisher=Marxists.org |date= |accessdate=2011-01-25}}</ref>

[[Tristram Hunt]], author of ''Marx's General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels'', sums up the disconnect between Engel's personality, and those Soviets who later utilized his works, stating:

{{quote|"This great lover of the good life, passionate advocate of individuality, and enthusiastic believer in literature, culture, art and music as an open forum could never have acceded to the Soviet Communism of the 20th century, all the [[Stalinist]] claims of his paternity notwithstanding."<ref name="NYT" />}}

As to the religious persuasion attributable to Engels, Hunt writes:

{{quote|"In that sense the latent [[rationality]] of Christianity comes to permeate the everyday experience of the modern world—its values are now variously incarnated in the family, civil society, and the state. What Engels particularly embraced in all of this was an idea of modern [[pantheism]] (or, rather, [[pandeism]]), a merging of [[divinity]] with progressing humanity, a happy dialectical synthesis that freed him from the fixed oppositions of the pietist [[ethos]] of devout longing and estrangement. “Through [[David Strauss|Strauss]] I have now entered on the straight road to [[Hegelianism]]... The Hegelian idea of God has already become mine, and thus I am joining the ranks of the 'modern pantheists'," Engels wrote in one of his final letters to the soon-to-be-discarded [[Graebers]].<ref>''Marx's General: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels'' By Tristram Hunt. 2010. Page 43.</ref>}}

==Ideological legacy==
[[Vladimir Lenin]] wrote: "After his friend Karl Marx (who died in 1883), Engels was the finest scholar and teacher of the modern proletariat in the whole civilised world.... In their scientific works, Marx and Engels were the first to explain that socialism is not the invention of dreamers, but the final aim and necessary result of the development of the productive forces in modern society. All recorded history hitherto has been a history of class struggle, of the succession of the rule and victory of certain social classes over others."<ref>{{cite web |author= Vladimir Ilyich Lenin |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/lenin/works/1895/misc/engels-bio.htm|title=Frederick Engels |publisher=Marxists.org |date= |accessdate=2011-01-25}}</ref>

But Labour Party politician [[Tristram Hunt]] argues that Engels has become a convenient [[scapegoat]], too easily blamed for the state crimes of the [[Soviet Union]], Communist Southeast Asia and [[People's Republic of China|China]]. "Engels is left holding the bag of 20th century ideological extremism," Hunt writes, "while Marx is rebranded as the acceptable, postpolitical seer of [[global capitalism]]."<ref name="NYT" /> Hunt largely exonerates Engels stating that "in no intelligible sense can Engels or Marx bear culpability for the crimes of historical actors carried out generations later, even if the policies were offered up in their honor."<ref name="NYT" />

Other writers, while admitting the distance between Marx and Engels and Stalin, are less charitable, noting for example that the anarchist [[Mikhail Bakunin|Bakunin]] predicted the oppressive potential of their ideas. "It is a fallacy that Marxism's flaws were exposed only after it was tried out in power.... [Marx and Engels] were centralizers. While talking about 'free associations of producers', they advocated discipline and hierarchy."<ref>Robert Service, ''Comrades: A World History of Communism'' (Londo: Macmillan, 2007) p. 37</ref>

Paul Thomas, of the [[University of California, Berkeley]], claims that while Engels had been the most important and dedicated facilitator and diffuser of Marx's writings, he significantly altered Marx's intents as he held, edited and released them in a finished form, and commentated on them. Engels attempted to fill gaps in Marx's system and extend it to other fields. He stressed [[Historical Materialism]] in particular, assigning it a character of scientific discovery and a doctrine, indeed forming [[Marxism]] as such. A case in point is ''[[Anti-Dühring]]'', which supporters of socialism, like its detractors, treated as an encompassing presentation of Marx's thought. And while in his extensive correspondence with German socialists Engels modestly presented his own secondary place in the couple's intellectual relationship and always emphasized Marx' outstanding role, Russian communists like Lenin raised Engels up with Marx and conflated their thoughts as if they were necessarily congruous. Soviet Marxists then developed this tendency to the state doctrine of [[Dialectical Materialism]].<ref>{{citation | last = Thomas | first = Paul | contribution = Critical Reception: Marx then and now | pages = 36–42 | title = The Cambridge Companion to Marx | editor-last = Carver | editor-first = Terrell | year = 1991 | publisher = Cambridge University Press}}</ref>

==Major works==

===''The Holy Family'' (1844)===
{{Marxism |People}}

''[[The Holy Family (book)|The Holy Family]]'' was a book written by [[Marx]] & Engels in November 1844. The book is a critique on the [[Young Hegelians]] and their trend of thought which was very popular in academic circles at the time. The title was a suggestion by the publisher and is meant as a sarcastic reference to the [[Bruno Bauer|Bauer]] Brothers and their supporters.<ref name="holy-family">{{cite web |url=http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/holy-family/index.htm |title=The Holy Family by Marx and Engels |publisher=Marxists.org |date= |accessdate=2010-02-13}}</ref>

The book created a controversy with much of the [[Print media|press]] and caused [[Bruno Bauer]] to attempt refuting the book in an article published in Wigand's ''Vierteljahrsschrift'' in 1845. Bauer claimed that Marx and Engels misunderstood what he was trying to say. Marx later replied to his response with his own article published in the journal Gesellschaftsspiegel in January 1846. Marx also discussed the argument in chapter 2 of [[The German Ideology]].<ref name="holy-family" />

===''The Condition of the Working Class in England'' (1844)===
{{Main|The Condition of the Working Class in England in 1844}}
''The Condition of the Working Class in England'' is a detailed description and analysis of the appalling conditions of the working class in Britain during Engels' stay in Manchester and Salford. The work also contains seminal thoughts on the state of socialism and its development. It was considered a classic in its time and must have been an eye-opener for most Germans. The work initially made rather little impact in England as it was not translated until the end of the nineteenth century. It was however very influential with historians of British industrialisation throughout the twentieth century.<ref>{{cite web|last=Griffin|first=Emma|title=The 'industrial revolution': interpretations from 1830 to the present|url=http://www.academia.edu/1843995/The_industrial_revolution_interpretations_from_1830_to_the_present|accessdate=9 March 2013}}</ref> It is still widely available today.

===''Herr Eugen Dühring's Revolution in Science'' (1878)===
{{Main|Anti-Dühring}}
Popularly known as ''Anti-Dühring'', ''Herr Eugen Dühring's Revolution in Science'' is a detailed critique of the philosophical positions of [[Eugen Dühring]], a German philosopher and critic of Marxism. In the course of replying to Dühring, Engels reviews recent advances in science and mathematics seeking to demonstrate the way in which the concepts of dialectics apply to natural phenomena. Many of these ideas were later developed in the unfinished work, ''[[Dialectics of Nature]]''. The last section of ''Anti-Dühring'' was later edited and published under the separate title, ''Socialism: Utopian and Scientific''.

===''Socialism: Utopian and Scientific'' (1880)===
{{Main|Socialism: Utopian and Scientific}}
In what he presented as an extraordinarily popular piece,<ref>{{cite book | quote = From this French text, a Polish and a Spanish edition were prepared. In 1883, our German friends brought out the pamphlet in the original language. Italian, Russian, Danish, Dutch, and Roumanian translations, based upon the German text, have since been published. Thus, the present English edition, this little book circulates in 10 languages. I am not aware that any other Socialist work, not even our Communist Manifesto of 1848, or Marx's Capital, has been so often translated. In Germany, it has had four editions of about 20,000 copies in all. | last = Engels | first = Friedrich | origyear = 1892 | chapter = Introduction | title = Socialism: Utopian and Scientific | chapter-url = http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1880/soc-utop/index.htm | publisher = Progress Publishers | year = 1970 | series = Marx/Engels Selected Works | volume = 3}} Cited in {{cite book | last= Carver | first = Terrell | year = 2003 | publisher = Oxford University Press | title = Engels: A Very Short Introduction | page = 56}} and {{citation | last = Thomas | first = Paul | contribution = Critical Reception: Marx then and now | title = The Cambridge Companion to Marx | editor-last = Carver | editor-first = Terrell | year = 1991 | publisher = Cambridge University Press}}</ref> Engels critiques the utopian socialists, such as [[Charles Fourier|Fourier]] and [[Robert Owen|Owen]], and provides an explanation of the socialist framework for understanding capitalism, and an outline of the progression of social and economic development from the perspective of [[historical materialism]].

===''The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State'' (1884)===
{{Main|The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State}}
''The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State'' is an important and detailed seminal work connecting capitalism with what Engels argues is an ever-changing institution – the family. It was written when Engels was 64 years of age and at the height of his [[intellectual]] power. It contains a comprehensive historical view of the family in relation to issues of class, female subjugation and [[private property]].

==Sources==
* Carlton, Grace (1965), ''Friedrich Engels: The Shadow Prophet''. London: Pall Mall Press
* Carver, Terrell. (1989). ''Friedrich Engels: His Life and Thought''. London: Macmillan
* Green, John (2008), ''Engels: A Revolutionary Life'', London: Artery Publications. ISBN 0-9558228-0-7
* Henderson, W. O. (1976), ''The life of Friedrich Engels'', London : Cass, 1976. ISBN 0-7146-4002-6
* [[Tristram Hunt|Hunt, Tristram]] (2009), ''The Frock-Coated Communist: The Revolutionary Life of Friedrich Engels'', London: Allen Lane. ISBN 978-0-7139-9852-8
* Mayer, Gustav (1936), ''Friedrich Engels: A Biography'' (1934; trans. 1936)

==Notes and references==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==External links==
{{commons}}
{{wikiquote}}
{{Wikisource author}}
*[http://www.cpgb.org.uk/home/weekly-worker/ww930/supplement-early-human-kinship-was-matrilineal Engels was Right: Early Human Kinship was Matriliineal]
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/bio/index.htm Marx/Engels Biographical Archive]
*[http://marxmyths.org/maximilien-rubel/article.htm The Legend of Marx, or “Engels the founder”] by [[Maximilien Rubel]]
*[http://www.marxist.com/rircontents-5.htm Reason in Revolt: Marxism and Modern Science]
*[http://www.greenleft.org.au/2008/769/39653 Engels: The Che Guevara of his Day]
*[http://simplycharly.com/marx/tristram_hunt_marx_interview.htm The Brave New World: Tristram Hunt On Marx and Engels' Revolutionary Vision]
*[http://www.dhm.de/lemo/html/biografien/EngelsFriedrich/index.html German Biography from dhm.de]

===Works by Engels===
*[http://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/index.htm The Marx & Engels Internet Archive] at [[Marxists.org]]
*[http://www.mlwerke.de/me/ Marx and Engels in their native German language]
*{{gutenberg author|id=Friedrich_Engels|name=Friedrich Engels}}
*[http://libcom.org/library/taxonomy/term/93 Libcom.org/library Frederick Engels archive]
*[http://www.zeno.org/Philosophie/M/Engels,%20Friedrich Works by Friedrich Engels] (in German) at [[Zeno.org]]
*[http://www.pathfinderpress.com/s.nl/sc.8/category.100/.f Pathfinder Press]
* Friedrich Engels, “[http://www.ringmar.net/joomla/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=814:engels-qof-rifled-cannonq-1860&catid=98:wonders-of-technology&Itemid=142 On Rifled Cannon]," articles from the New York ''Tribune'', April, May and June 1860, reprinted in ''Military Affairs'' 21, no. 4 (Winter 1957) ed. Morton Borden, 193–198.

{{Marx/Engels}}
{{Communism}}
{{Authority control|VIAF=68928644}}
{{Persondata 
|NAME=Engels, Friedrich
|ALTERNATIVE NAMES=
|SHORT DESCRIPTION=German political philosopher
|DATE OF BIRTH=28 November 1820
|PLACE OF BIRTH=[[Wuppertal]], Germany
|DATE OF DEATH=5 August 1895
|PLACE OF DEATH=London, England
}}
{{DEFAULTSORT:Engels, Friedrich}}
[[Category:1820 births]]
[[Category:1895 deaths]]
[[Category:People from the Rhine Province]]
[[Category:People from Wuppertal]]
[[Category:19th-century economists]]
[[Category:19th-century philosophers]]
[[Category:19th-century German writers]]
[[Category:19th-century Prussian people]]
[[Category:Atheist philosophers]]
[[Category:English people of German descent]]
[[Category:English atheists]]
[[Category:English philosophers]]
[[Category:English communists]]
[[Category:English economists]]
[[Category:English feminists]]
[[Category:English revolutionaries]]
[[Category:German atheists]]
[[Category:German political philosophers]]
[[Category:German communists]]
[[Category:German economists]]
[[Category:German emigrants to the United Kingdom]]
[[Category:German feminists]]
[[Category:German revolutionaries]]
[[Category:Karl Marx]]
[[Category:Male feminists]]
[[Category:Marxist feminists]]
[[Category:Marxist theorists]]
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[[Category:Members of the International Workingmen's Association]]
[[Category:Orthodox Marxists]]
[[Category:People of the Revolutions of 1848]]
[[Category:Prussian Army personnel]]
[[Category:Theories of history]]
[[Category:Urban theorists]]
[[Category:British industrialists]]
[[Category:German philosophers]]

Crop factor

2014-06-27T19:36:49Z

JanTurin: spelling

[[File:Crop Factor.JPG|thumb|The outer, red box displays what a 24×36 mm sensor would see, the inner, blue box displays what a 15×23 mm sensor would see. (The actual image circle of most lenses designed for 35 mm SLR format would extend further beyond the red box than shown in the above image.)]]

In [[digital photography]], a '''crop factor''' is related to the ratio of the [[Image sensor format|dimensions of a camera's imaging area]] compared to a reference format; most often, this term is applied to [[digital camera]]s, relative to [[135 film|35 mm film format (also called fullframe)]] as a reference. In the case of digital cameras, the imaging device would be a [[digital sensor]]. The most commonly used definition of crop factor is the ratio of a 35 mm frame's diagonal (43.3 mm) to the diagonal of the [[image sensor]] in question; that is, CF=diag35mm / diagsensor. Given the same 3:2 aspect ratio as 35mm's 36mm x 24mm area, this is equivalent to the ratio of heights or ratio of widths; the ratio of sensor areas is the ''square'' of the crop factor.

The crop factor is also commonly referred to as the '''focal length multiplier''' ("FLM") since multiplying a lens focal length by the crop factor or FLM gives the focal length of a lens that would yield the same field of view if used on the reference format (fullframe). For example, a lens with a 50 mm focal length on an imaging area with a crop factor of 1.6 with respect to the reference format (usually fullframe format) will yield the same field of view that a lens with an 80 mm focal length will yield on the reference format. It is important to note that the focal length of the lens does not change by using a smaller imaging area; the field of view is correspondingly smaller because a smaller area of the image circle cast by the lens is used by the smaller imaging area.

The term '''format factor''' (from German: '''Formatfaktor''') is a more neutral term for the crop factor, and indeed a more neutral term is appropriate: When comparing the images of cameras with different sensor sizes more than just the focal lengths need to be considered. E.g., when comparing the images of a cropped sensor with format factor <math>X</math> and the images of a fullframe sensor (with format factor 1), the focal length <math>f_{Full}</math>, the aperture <math>F_{Full}</math>, and the ISO of the fullframe sensor need to be adjusted according to the settings of cropped sensor <math>f_{Crop}, F_{Crop}, ISO_{Crop}</math>, respectively.
A basic rule <ref name="Tony Northrup">{{cite web | url=http://petapixel.com/2014/03/28/concise-explanation-crop-factor-affects-focal-length-aperture/ | title=
A Concise Explanation of How Crop Factor Affects Both Focal Length AND Aperture | first=T. |last=Northrup | accessdate=2014-06-24}}</ref>
is using the focal length of the fullframe sensor <math>f_{Full}=X* f_{Crop}</math> and the aperture <math>F_{Full}=X* F_{Crop}</math>.

==Introduction==

[[File:Full-frame vs APS-C.svg|thumb|A 50 mm lens on an APS-C format (crop factor 1.6) images a slightly smaller field of view than a 70 mm lens on a 35 mm camera.]]

The terms ''crop factor'' and ''focal length multiplier'' were coined in recent years in an attempt to help 35 mm film format [[single-lens reflex camera|SLR]] photographers understand how their existing ranges of lenses would perform on newly introduced [[DSLR]] cameras which had sensors smaller than the 35 mm film format, but often utilized existing 35 mm film format SLR lens mounts. Using an FLM of 1.5, for example, a photographer might say that a 50 mm lens on his DSLR "acts like" its [[focal length]] has been multiplied by 1.5, by which he means that it has the same field of view as a 75 mm lens on the film camera that he is more familiar with. Of course, the actual focal length of a [[photographic lens]] is fixed by its optical construction, and does not change with the format of the sensor that is put behind it.

Most DSLRs on the market have nominally [[APS-C]]-sized image sensors, smaller than the standard 36 × 24 mm (35 mm) film frame. For example, many Canon DSLRs use an APS-C sensor that measures 22.2 mm × 14.8 mm. The result is that the image sensor captures image data from a smaller area than a 35 mm film SLR camera would, effectively cropping out the corners and sides that would be captured by the 36 mm × 24 mm 'full-size' film frame.

Because of this crop, the effective [[Angle of view|field of view]] (FOV) is reduced by a factor proportional to the ratio between the smaller sensor size and the 35 mm film format (reference) size.

For most [[DSLR]] cameras, this factor is 1.3–2.0×. For example, a 28 mm lens delivers a moderately wide-angle FOV on a 35 mm format full-frame camera, but on a camera with a 1.6 crop factor, an image made with the same lens will have the same field of view that a full-frame camera would make with a ~45 mm lens (28 × 1.6 = 44.8). This narrowing of the FOV is a disadvantage to photographers when a wide FOV is desired. Ultra-wide lens designs become merely wide; [[wide-angle lens]]es become '[[Normal lens|normal]]'. However, the crop factor can be an advantage to photographers when a narrow FOV is desired. It allows photographers with [[Long focus lens|long-focal-length lenses]] to fill the frame more easily when the subject is far away. A 300 mm lens on a camera with a 1.6 crop factor delivers images with the same FOV that a 35 mm film format camera would require a 480 mm long focus lens to capture.

{{further|Image sensor format#Table_of_sensor_sizes}}

== Estimating sensor performance ==

For a given [[exposure (photography)|exposure]], for example for a fixed focal-plane [[illuminance]] and [[exposure time]], larger [[image sensor]]s capture more [[photon]]s and hence produce images with less noise and greater dynamic range than smaller sensors. Due to the statistics of photon [[shot noise]], the desirable properties of [[signal-to-noise ratio]] (SNR) and sensor unity gain both scale with the square root of pixel area.<ref name="ClarkVision">{{cite web | url=http://www.clarkvision.com/imagedetail/digital.sensor.performance.summary/index.html | title= Digital Camera Sensor Performance Summary | first=R. N. |last=Clark | accessdate=2007-12-06}}</ref>

Since crop factor is inversely proportional to the square root of sensor area (to within a small aspect ratio-dependent factor), it is useful for estimating image sensor performance. For example, if two different-sized [[image sensors]] have the same aspect ratio and a resolution of 10 [[megapixel]]s, and are made using similar technology, the larger sensor will have better signal-to-noise ratio by a factor equal to the ratio of the two sensors' crop factors. The larger sensor has the smaller crop factor and the higher signal-to-noise ratio.

==Digital lenses==

[[File:Dslr sensor comparison.jpg|thumb|An APS-C format SLR (left) and a full-frame DSLR (right) show the difference in the size of the image sensors.]]

Most SLR camera and lens manufacturers have addressed the concerns of wide-angle lens users by designing lenses with shorter focal lengths, optimized for the DSLR formats. In most cases, these lenses are designed to cast a smaller [[image circle]] that would not cover a 24×36 mm frame, but is large enough to cover the smaller 16×24 mm (or smaller) sensor in most DSLRs. Because they cast a smaller image circle, the lenses can be optimized to use less glass and are sometimes physically smaller and lighter than those designed for full-frame cameras.

Lenses designed for the smaller digital formats include Canon EF-S and EF-M lenses, Nikon DX lenses, Olympus [[Four Thirds System]] lenses, Sigma DC lenses, Tamron Di-II lenses, Pentax DA lenses, and Sony Alpha (SAL) DT & E lenses. Such lenses usually project a smaller image circle than lenses that were designed for the full-frame 35 mm format. Nevertheless, the crop factor or FLM of a camera has the same effect on the relationship between field of view and focal length with these lenses as with any other lens, even though the projected image is not as severely "cropped". In this sense, the term ''crop factor'' sometimes has confusing implications; the alternative term "focal length multiplier" is sometimes used for this reason.

==Crop factor of point-and-shoot cameras==

Smaller, non-DSLR, consumer cameras, typically referred to as point-and-shoot cameras, can also be characterized as having a crop factor or FLM relative to 35 mm format, even though they do not use interchangeable lenses or lenses designed for a different format. For example, the so-called "1/1.8-inch" format with a 9 mm sensor diagonal has a crop factor of almost 5 relative to the 43.3 mm diagonal of 35 mm film. Therefore, these cameras are equipped with lenses that are about one-fifth of the focal lengths that would be typical on a 35 mm point-and-shoot film camera. In most cases, manufacturers label their cameras and lenses with their actual focal lengths, but in some cases they have chosen to instead multiply by the crop factor (focal length multiplier) and label the [[35 mm equivalent focal length]]. Reviewers also sometimes use the 35 mm-equivalent focal length as a way to characterize the field of view of a range of cameras in common terms.

For example, the Canon Powershot SD600 lens is labeled with its actual focal length range of 5.8–17.4 mm. But it is sometimes described in reviews as a 35–105 mm lens, since it has a crop factor of about 6 ("1/2.5-inch" format).<ref>[http://www.dpreview.com/reviews/specs/Canon/canon_sd600.asp Canon SD600 specs.] Dpreview.com{{dead link|date=March 2013}}</ref>

==Magnification factor==

The crop factor is sometimes referred to as "magnification factor",<ref>{{cite book | title = Digital Travel Photography: Shooting People and Places Like the Pros | author = Dan Heller | publisher = Sterling Publishing Co. | year = 2007 | isbn = 1-57990-973-6 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=vX7sdIHrFPQC&pg=PA41&dq=crop+field-of-view+focal-length+%22magnification+factor%22&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=SgTpSNKeL4WYsgPZ6IzmBg&sig=ACfU3U39X0xFj3cOwDDvaBfmwfYa4t4tnA }}</ref> "focal length factor" or "focal length multiplier".<ref>{{cite book | title = Advanced Digital Photography | author = Tom Ang | publisher = Amphoto Books | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-8174-3273-6 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=jVDD2B4chAoC&pg=PA38&dq=crop+field-of-view+focal-length+%22focal+length+multiplier%22&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=fgXpSLioFIaqsgPN2IHrBg&sig=ACfU3U19GdWmflle4I4P-HNMC4J-_3uIDg }}</ref> This usage reflects the observation that lenses of a given focal length ''seem'' to produce greater magnification on crop-factor cameras than they do on full-frame cameras. This is an advantage in, for example, bird photography, where photographers often strive to get the maximum "reach". A camera with a smaller sensor can be preferable to using a [[teleconverter]], because the latter affects the [[f-number]] of the lens, and can therefore degrade the performance of the autofocus.

A given lens casts the same image no matter what camera it is attached to. The extra "magnification" occurs when the image is enlarged more to produce output (print or screen) that matches a standard output size. That is, the magnification, as usually defined from subject to focal plane, is unchanged, but the system magnification from subject to final output is increased.

[[File:LensCropFactor.png|thumb|500px|center|alt=Field-of-view crop is cameras of different sensor size but the same lens focal length|Field-of-view crop in cameras of different sensor size but the same lens focal length.]]

==Secondary effects==

When a lens designed for 35 mm format is used on a smaller-format DSLR, besides the obvious reduction in field of view, there may be secondary effects on [[depth of field]], [[Perspective (visual)|perspective]], camera-motion blur, and other photographic parameters.

The depth of field may change, depending on what conditions are compared. Shooting from the same position, with the same lens and same [[f-number]] as a non-cropped (full-frame) 35 mm camera, but enlarging the image to a given reference size, will yield a reduced depth of field. On the other hand, using a different lens with the same field of view as the non-cropped camera (matching the 35 mm-equivalent focal length), at same f-number, the smaller camera's depth of field is greater.

Perspective is a property that depends only on viewpoint (camera position). But if moving a lens to a smaller-format camera causes a photographer to move further from the subject, then the perspective will be affected.

The extra amount of enlargement required with smaller-format cameras increases the blur due to defocus, and also increases the blur due to camera motion (shake). As a result, the focal length that can be reliably hand-held at a given shutter speed for a sharp image is reduced by the crop factor. The old rule of thumb that shutter speed should be at least equal to focal length for hand-holding will work equivalently if the actual focal length is multiplied by the FLM first before applying the rule.

Many photographic lenses produce a superior image in the center of the frame than around the edges. When using a lens designed to expose a 35mm film frame with a smaller-format sensor, only the central "sweet spot" of the image is used; a lens that is unacceptably soft or [[vignetting|dark]] around the edges can give better results on a smaller sensor.<ref name="vignetting">[http://www.ophrysphotography.co.uk/pages/tutorialfullframeandcrop.htm Ophrys Photography], Full frame vs crop camera comparisons.</ref> However, since the image projected onto the sensor must be magnified more to make a print using a smaller sensor, lenses used on smaller formats must deliver a higher-resolution image to the sensor for acceptable quality.

==Common crop factors==

Crop factor figures are useful in calculating [[35 mm equivalent focal length]] and [[35 mm equivalent magnification]]. Some common crop factors are:

{| style="width: 50%; text-align: center;" border="1" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable sortable"
! Type !! Height (mm) !! Crop factor<ref>Defined here as the ratio of the vertical height of a full 35 frame to that of the sensor format, that is CF=Height24mm / Height sensor.</ref>
|-
! 1/2.5" (many [[superzoom]] and point-and-shoot cameras)
| 4.29 || 5.6
|-
! 1/2.3" (compacts and superzooms like [[Canon Powershot]] SX series)
| 4.62 || 5.2
|-
! 1/1.8" (high-end compacts like Canon Powershot G1 - G7)
| 5.32 || 4.5
|-
! 1/1.7" (high-end compacts like Canon Powershot G9 - G16)
| 5.70 || 4.2
|-
! 2/3" ([[Fujifilm X-series|Fujifilm X10]], [[Fujifilm X-series|Fujifilm X20]], [[Sony F828]], [[Sony F717]])
| 6.60 || 3.6
|-
! 1" ([[Nikon CX format|Nikon 1/CX]] / [[RX100|Sony RX100/RX100II]])
| 8.80 || 2.7
|-
! [[Four Thirds system|Four Thirds]], [[Micro Four Thirds system|Micro Four Thirds]] (used by [[Olympus Corporation|Olympus]] and [[Panasonic]] for [[DSLR]] and [[MILC]] respectively)
| 13 || 1.84–2<ref>Depending on aspect ratio; 2 is most commonly used.</ref>
|-
! [[Foveon X3 sensor|Sigma Foveon X3]] (old sensor pre Merrill cameras)
| 13.80 || 1.7
|-
! Canon [[APS-C]]
| 14.80 || 1.6
|-
! General [[APS-C]] ([[Foveon X3 sensor|Sigma Foveon X3]], [[Fujifilm X-mount]], [[Nikon DX format|Nikon DX]], [[Pentax K-mount|Pentax K]], [[Ricoh GXR]], & [[Ricoh GR series|Ricoh GR]], [[Samsung NX-mount|Samsung NX]], [[Sony Alpha|Sony α DT]] & [[Sony E-mount|E-Mount (NEX)]])
| 15.60 || 1.5
|-
! APS-H ([[Canon Inc.|Canon]], [[Leica M8]])
| 18.60 || 1.3
|-
|-
! 35mm full frame ([[Canon EF lens mount|Canon EF]], [[Leica M9]], [[Nikon FX format|Nikon FX]], [[Sony Alpha|Sony α]] & [[Sony E-mount|Full-Frame E-Mount]])
| 24.00 || 1.0
|-
|-
! [[Medium format]] ([[Hasselblad]], [[Leaf (Israeli company)|Leaf]], [[Phase One (company)|Phase One]], [[Pentax 645#645D|Pentax 645D]])
| 33.00 || 0.79
|-
|-
! [[Medium format]] ([[Hasselblad]], [[Leaf (Israeli company)|Leaf]], [[Phase One (company)|Phase One]])
| 40.40 || 0.64
|-
|}

==See also==

*[[Image sensor format]]
*[[Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras]]

==References==

<references />

==External links==
*[http://www.luminous-landscape.com/tutorials/understanding-series/dslr-mag.shtml DSLR Crop/Magnification Factor on ''The Luminous-Landscape'']
*[http://www.dpreview.com/learn/?/Glossary/Optical/Focal_Length_Multiplier_01.htm "Focal Length Multiplier" on ''Digital Photography Review'']{{dead link|date=March 2013}}
*[http://alphamagic.wordpress.com/2008/01/03/digital-slr-crop-factor/ Digital Crop Factor] About Lens Multiplication Factors and Apparent Focal Length Increase

[[Category:Science of photography]]

Crop factor

2014-06-27T19:34:17Z

JanTurin: spelling

[[File:Crop Factor.JPG|thumb|The outer, red box displays what a 24×36 mm sensor would see, the inner, blue box displays what a 15×23 mm sensor would see. (The actual image circle of most lenses designed for 35 mm SLR format would extend further beyond the red box than shown in the above image.)]]

In [[digital photography]], a '''crop factor''' is related to the ratio of the [[Image sensor format|dimensions of a camera's imaging area]] compared to a reference format; most often, this term is applied to [[digital camera]]s, relative to [[135 film|35 mm film format (also called fullframe)]] as a reference. In the case of digital cameras, the imaging device would be a [[digital sensor]]. The most commonly used definition of crop factor is the ratio of a 35 mm frame's diagonal (43.3 mm) to the diagonal of the [[image sensor]] in question; that is, CF=diag35mm / diagsensor. Given the same 3:2 aspect ratio as 35mm's 36mm x 24mm area, this is equivalent to the ratio of heights or ratio of widths; the ratio of sensor areas is the ''square'' of the crop factor.

The crop factor is also commonly referred to as the '''focal length multiplier''' ("FLM") since multiplying a lens focal length by the crop factor or FLM gives the focal length of a lens that would yield the same field of view if used on the reference format (fullframe). For example, a lens with a 50 mm focal length on an imaging area with a crop factor of 1.6 with respect to the reference format (usually fullframe format) will yield the same field of view that a lens with an 80 mm focal length will yield on the reference format. It is important to note that the focal length of the lens does not change by using a smaller imaging area; the field of view is correspondingly smaller because a smaller area of the image circle cast by the lens is used by the smaller imaging area.

The term '''format factor''' (from German: '''Formatfaktor''') is a more neutral term for the crop factor, and indeed a more neutral term is appropriate: When comparing the images of cameras with different sensor sizes more than just the focal lengths need to be considered. E.g., when comparing the images of a cropped sensor with format factor <math>X</math> and the images of a fullframe sensor (with format factor 1), the focal length <math>f_{Full}</math>, the apperture <math>F_{Full}</math>, and the ISO of the fullframe sensor need to be adjusted according to the settings of cropped sensor <math>f_{Crop}, F_{Crop}, ISO_{Crop}</math>, respectively.
A basic rule <ref name="Tony Northrup">{{cite web | url=http://petapixel.com/2014/03/28/concise-explanation-crop-factor-affects-focal-length-aperture/ | title=
A Concise Explanation of How Crop Factor Affects Both Focal Length AND Aperture | first=T. |last=Northrup | accessdate=2014-06-24}}</ref>
is using the focal length of the fullframe sensor <math>f_{Full}=X* f_{Crop}</math> and the apperture <math>F_{Full}=X* F_{Crop}</math>.

==Introduction==

[[File:Full-frame vs APS-C.svg|thumb|A 50 mm lens on an APS-C format (crop factor 1.6) images a slightly smaller field of view than a 70 mm lens on a 35 mm camera.]]

The terms ''crop factor'' and ''focal length multiplier'' were coined in recent years in an attempt to help 35 mm film format [[single-lens reflex camera|SLR]] photographers understand how their existing ranges of lenses would perform on newly introduced [[DSLR]] cameras which had sensors smaller than the 35 mm film format, but often utilized existing 35 mm film format SLR lens mounts. Using an FLM of 1.5, for example, a photographer might say that a 50 mm lens on his DSLR "acts like" its [[focal length]] has been multiplied by 1.5, by which he means that it has the same field of view as a 75 mm lens on the film camera that he is more familiar with. Of course, the actual focal length of a [[photographic lens]] is fixed by its optical construction, and does not change with the format of the sensor that is put behind it.

Most DSLRs on the market have nominally [[APS-C]]-sized image sensors, smaller than the standard 36 × 24 mm (35 mm) film frame. For example, many Canon DSLRs use an APS-C sensor that measures 22.2 mm × 14.8 mm. The result is that the image sensor captures image data from a smaller area than a 35 mm film SLR camera would, effectively cropping out the corners and sides that would be captured by the 36 mm × 24 mm 'full-size' film frame.

Because of this crop, the effective [[Angle of view|field of view]] (FOV) is reduced by a factor proportional to the ratio between the smaller sensor size and the 35 mm film format (reference) size.

For most [[DSLR]] cameras, this factor is 1.3–2.0×. For example, a 28 mm lens delivers a moderately wide-angle FOV on a 35 mm format full-frame camera, but on a camera with a 1.6 crop factor, an image made with the same lens will have the same field of view that a full-frame camera would make with a ~45 mm lens (28 × 1.6 = 44.8). This narrowing of the FOV is a disadvantage to photographers when a wide FOV is desired. Ultra-wide lens designs become merely wide; [[wide-angle lens]]es become '[[Normal lens|normal]]'. However, the crop factor can be an advantage to photographers when a narrow FOV is desired. It allows photographers with [[Long focus lens|long-focal-length lenses]] to fill the frame more easily when the subject is far away. A 300 mm lens on a camera with a 1.6 crop factor delivers images with the same FOV that a 35 mm film format camera would require a 480 mm long focus lens to capture.

{{further|Image sensor format#Table_of_sensor_sizes}}

== Estimating sensor performance ==

For a given [[exposure (photography)|exposure]], for example for a fixed focal-plane [[illuminance]] and [[exposure time]], larger [[image sensor]]s capture more [[photon]]s and hence produce images with less noise and greater dynamic range than smaller sensors. Due to the statistics of photon [[shot noise]], the desirable properties of [[signal-to-noise ratio]] (SNR) and sensor unity gain both scale with the square root of pixel area.<ref name="ClarkVision">{{cite web | url=http://www.clarkvision.com/imagedetail/digital.sensor.performance.summary/index.html | title= Digital Camera Sensor Performance Summary | first=R. N. |last=Clark | accessdate=2007-12-06}}</ref>

Since crop factor is inversely proportional to the square root of sensor area (to within a small aspect ratio-dependent factor), it is useful for estimating image sensor performance. For example, if two different-sized [[image sensors]] have the same aspect ratio and a resolution of 10 [[megapixel]]s, and are made using similar technology, the larger sensor will have better signal-to-noise ratio by a factor equal to the ratio of the two sensors' crop factors. The larger sensor has the smaller crop factor and the higher signal-to-noise ratio.

==Digital lenses==

[[File:Dslr sensor comparison.jpg|thumb|An APS-C format SLR (left) and a full-frame DSLR (right) show the difference in the size of the image sensors.]]

Most SLR camera and lens manufacturers have addressed the concerns of wide-angle lens users by designing lenses with shorter focal lengths, optimized for the DSLR formats. In most cases, these lenses are designed to cast a smaller [[image circle]] that would not cover a 24×36 mm frame, but is large enough to cover the smaller 16×24 mm (or smaller) sensor in most DSLRs. Because they cast a smaller image circle, the lenses can be optimized to use less glass and are sometimes physically smaller and lighter than those designed for full-frame cameras.

Lenses designed for the smaller digital formats include Canon EF-S and EF-M lenses, Nikon DX lenses, Olympus [[Four Thirds System]] lenses, Sigma DC lenses, Tamron Di-II lenses, Pentax DA lenses, and Sony Alpha (SAL) DT & E lenses. Such lenses usually project a smaller image circle than lenses that were designed for the full-frame 35 mm format. Nevertheless, the crop factor or FLM of a camera has the same effect on the relationship between field of view and focal length with these lenses as with any other lens, even though the projected image is not as severely "cropped". In this sense, the term ''crop factor'' sometimes has confusing implications; the alternative term "focal length multiplier" is sometimes used for this reason.

==Crop factor of point-and-shoot cameras==

Smaller, non-DSLR, consumer cameras, typically referred to as point-and-shoot cameras, can also be characterized as having a crop factor or FLM relative to 35 mm format, even though they do not use interchangeable lenses or lenses designed for a different format. For example, the so-called "1/1.8-inch" format with a 9 mm sensor diagonal has a crop factor of almost 5 relative to the 43.3 mm diagonal of 35 mm film. Therefore, these cameras are equipped with lenses that are about one-fifth of the focal lengths that would be typical on a 35 mm point-and-shoot film camera. In most cases, manufacturers label their cameras and lenses with their actual focal lengths, but in some cases they have chosen to instead multiply by the crop factor (focal length multiplier) and label the [[35 mm equivalent focal length]]. Reviewers also sometimes use the 35 mm-equivalent focal length as a way to characterize the field of view of a range of cameras in common terms.

For example, the Canon Powershot SD600 lens is labeled with its actual focal length range of 5.8–17.4 mm. But it is sometimes described in reviews as a 35–105 mm lens, since it has a crop factor of about 6 ("1/2.5-inch" format).<ref>[http://www.dpreview.com/reviews/specs/Canon/canon_sd600.asp Canon SD600 specs.] Dpreview.com{{dead link|date=March 2013}}</ref>

==Magnification factor==

The crop factor is sometimes referred to as "magnification factor",<ref>{{cite book | title = Digital Travel Photography: Shooting People and Places Like the Pros | author = Dan Heller | publisher = Sterling Publishing Co. | year = 2007 | isbn = 1-57990-973-6 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=vX7sdIHrFPQC&pg=PA41&dq=crop+field-of-view+focal-length+%22magnification+factor%22&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=SgTpSNKeL4WYsgPZ6IzmBg&sig=ACfU3U39X0xFj3cOwDDvaBfmwfYa4t4tnA }}</ref> "focal length factor" or "focal length multiplier".<ref>{{cite book | title = Advanced Digital Photography | author = Tom Ang | publisher = Amphoto Books | year = 2003 | isbn = 0-8174-3273-6 | url = http://books.google.com/books?id=jVDD2B4chAoC&pg=PA38&dq=crop+field-of-view+focal-length+%22focal+length+multiplier%22&lr=&as_brr=3&ei=fgXpSLioFIaqsgPN2IHrBg&sig=ACfU3U19GdWmflle4I4P-HNMC4J-_3uIDg }}</ref> This usage reflects the observation that lenses of a given focal length ''seem'' to produce greater magnification on crop-factor cameras than they do on full-frame cameras. This is an advantage in, for example, bird photography, where photographers often strive to get the maximum "reach". A camera with a smaller sensor can be preferable to using a [[teleconverter]], because the latter affects the [[f-number]] of the lens, and can therefore degrade the performance of the autofocus.

A given lens casts the same image no matter what camera it is attached to. The extra "magnification" occurs when the image is enlarged more to produce output (print or screen) that matches a standard output size. That is, the magnification, as usually defined from subject to focal plane, is unchanged, but the system magnification from subject to final output is increased.

[[File:LensCropFactor.png|thumb|500px|center|alt=Field-of-view crop is cameras of different sensor size but the same lens focal length|Field-of-view crop in cameras of different sensor size but the same lens focal length.]]

==Secondary effects==

When a lens designed for 35 mm format is used on a smaller-format DSLR, besides the obvious reduction in field of view, there may be secondary effects on [[depth of field]], [[Perspective (visual)|perspective]], camera-motion blur, and other photographic parameters.

The depth of field may change, depending on what conditions are compared. Shooting from the same position, with the same lens and same [[f-number]] as a non-cropped (full-frame) 35 mm camera, but enlarging the image to a given reference size, will yield a reduced depth of field. On the other hand, using a different lens with the same field of view as the non-cropped camera (matching the 35 mm-equivalent focal length), at same f-number, the smaller camera's depth of field is greater.

Perspective is a property that depends only on viewpoint (camera position). But if moving a lens to a smaller-format camera causes a photographer to move further from the subject, then the perspective will be affected.

The extra amount of enlargement required with smaller-format cameras increases the blur due to defocus, and also increases the blur due to camera motion (shake). As a result, the focal length that can be reliably hand-held at a given shutter speed for a sharp image is reduced by the crop factor. The old rule of thumb that shutter speed should be at least equal to focal length for hand-holding will work equivalently if the actual focal length is multiplied by the FLM first before applying the rule.

Many photographic lenses produce a superior image in the center of the frame than around the edges. When using a lens designed to expose a 35mm film frame with a smaller-format sensor, only the central "sweet spot" of the image is used; a lens that is unacceptably soft or [[vignetting|dark]] around the edges can give better results on a smaller sensor.<ref name="vignetting">[http://www.ophrysphotography.co.uk/pages/tutorialfullframeandcrop.htm Ophrys Photography], Full frame vs crop camera comparisons.</ref> However, since the image projected onto the sensor must be magnified more to make a print using a smaller sensor, lenses used on smaller formats must deliver a higher-resolution image to the sensor for acceptable quality.

==Common crop factors==

Crop factor figures are useful in calculating [[35 mm equivalent focal length]] and [[35 mm equivalent magnification]]. Some common crop factors are:

{| style="width: 50%; text-align: center;" border="1" cellspacing="0" class="wikitable sortable"
! Type !! Height (mm) !! Crop factor<ref>Defined here as the ratio of the vertical height of a full 35 frame to that of the sensor format, that is CF=Height24mm / Height sensor.</ref>
|-
! 1/2.5" (many [[superzoom]] and point-and-shoot cameras)
| 4.29 || 5.6
|-
! 1/2.3" (compacts and superzooms like [[Canon Powershot]] SX series)
| 4.62 || 5.2
|-
! 1/1.8" (high-end compacts like Canon Powershot G1 - G7)
| 5.32 || 4.5
|-
! 1/1.7" (high-end compacts like Canon Powershot G9 - G16)
| 5.70 || 4.2
|-
! 2/3" ([[Fujifilm X-series|Fujifilm X10]], [[Fujifilm X-series|Fujifilm X20]], [[Sony F828]], [[Sony F717]])
| 6.60 || 3.6
|-
! 1" ([[Nikon CX format|Nikon 1/CX]] / [[RX100|Sony RX100/RX100II]])
| 8.80 || 2.7
|-
! [[Four Thirds system|Four Thirds]], [[Micro Four Thirds system|Micro Four Thirds]] (used by [[Olympus Corporation|Olympus]] and [[Panasonic]] for [[DSLR]] and [[MILC]] respectively)
| 13 || 1.84–2<ref>Depending on aspect ratio; 2 is most commonly used.</ref>
|-
! [[Foveon X3 sensor|Sigma Foveon X3]] (old sensor pre Merrill cameras)
| 13.80 || 1.7
|-
! Canon [[APS-C]]
| 14.80 || 1.6
|-
! General [[APS-C]] ([[Foveon X3 sensor|Sigma Foveon X3]], [[Fujifilm X-mount]], [[Nikon DX format|Nikon DX]], [[Pentax K-mount|Pentax K]], [[Ricoh GXR]], & [[Ricoh GR series|Ricoh GR]], [[Samsung NX-mount|Samsung NX]], [[Sony Alpha|Sony α DT]] & [[Sony E-mount|E-Mount (NEX)]])
| 15.60 || 1.5
|-
! APS-H ([[Canon Inc.|Canon]], [[Leica M8]])
| 18.60 || 1.3
|-
|-
! 35mm full frame ([[Canon EF lens mount|Canon EF]], [[Leica M9]], [[Nikon FX format|Nikon FX]], [[Sony Alpha|Sony α]] & [[Sony E-mount|Full-Frame E-Mount]])
| 24.00 || 1.0
|-
|-
! [[Medium format]] ([[Hasselblad]], [[Leaf (Israeli company)|Leaf]], [[Phase One (company)|Phase One]], [[Pentax 645#645D|Pentax 645D]])
| 33.00 || 0.79
|-
|-
! [[Medium format]] ([[Hasselblad]], [[Leaf (Israeli company)|Leaf]], [[Phase One (company)|Phase One]])
| 40.40 || 0.64
|-
|}

==See also==

*[[Image sensor format]]
*[[Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras]]

==References==

<references />

==External links==
*[http://www.luminous-landscape.com/tutorials/understanding-series/dslr-mag.shtml DSLR Crop/Magnification Factor on ''The Luminous-Landscape'']
*[http://www.dpreview.com/learn/?/Glossary/Optical/Focal_Length_Multiplier_01.htm "Focal Length Multiplier" on ''Digital Photography Review'']{{dead link|date=March 2013}}
*[http://alphamagic.wordpress.com/2008/01/03/digital-slr-crop-factor/ Digital Crop Factor] About Lens Multiplication Factors and Apparent Focal Length Increase

[[Category:Science of photography]]

Four Thirds system

2014-06-25T10:26:15Z

JanTurin: /* Four Thirds system lenses */ Sigma lenses discontinued

{{Redirect|4/3|4:3 image aspect ratio|Aspect ratio (image)#4:3 standard}}
[[Image:4 3logo.png|thumb|right|Four Thirds logo]]

The '''Four Thirds system''' is a standard created by [[Olympus Corporation|Olympus]] and [[Kodak]] for [[digital single-lens reflex camera]] (DSLR) and mirrorless camera design and development.<ref name='DPReview.com 2001-02-13'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Kodak and Olympus join forces | date=2001-02-13 | publisher = DPReview.com | url =http://www.dpreview.com/news/0102/01021301kodakolympus.asp | work =DPReview.com | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-07 | language = }}</ref>

The system provides a [[Standardization|standard]] that, with [[digital camera]]s and [[Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras|lenses]] available from multiple manufacturers, allows for the interchange of lenses and bodies from different [[manufacturer]]s. {{US patent|6910814}} seems to cover the standard. Proponents describe it as an [[open standard]], but companies may only use it under a [[non-disclosure agreement]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/about/benefit.html | title = Benefits | accessdate = 2008-12-10 | publisher = Four Thirds Consortium | quote = Details of the Four Thirds System standard are available to camera equipment manufacturers and industry organizations on an NDA basis. Full specifications cannot be provided to individuals or other educational/research entities.}}</ref>

Unlike older SLR systems, Four Thirds has been designed from the ground up to be entirely digital. Many lenses are extensively computerized, to the point that Olympus offers [[firmware]] updates for many of them. Lens design has been tailored to the requirements of digital sensors, most notably through [[telecentric lens|telecentric]] designs. The size of the sensor is significantly smaller than for most DSLRs and this implies that lenses, especially telephoto lenses, can be smaller. For example, a Four Thirds lens with a 300 mm [[focal length]] would cover about the same angle of view as a 600 mm focal length lens for the [[135 film|35 mm film]] standard, and is correspondingly more compact. Thus, the Four Thirds System has [[crop factor]] (focal length multiplier) of about 2, and while this enables longer focal length for greater magnification, it doesn't aid the manufacture of wide angle lenses.

The [[image sensor format]], generally intermediate between those of larger SLRs and smaller [[compact camera]]s, generally gives levels of cost, performance and convenience intermediate between those two classes.

== Sensor size and aspect ratio ==
[[File:Sensor sizes overlaid inside.svg|thumb|300px|Drawing showing the relative sizes of sensors used in most current digital cameras, including Four Thirds System]]
The name of the system stems from the size of the image sensor used in the cameras, which is commonly referred to as a ''4/3" type'' or ''4/3 type'' sensor. The common inch-based sizing system is derived from vacuum image-sensing [[video camera tube]]s, which are now obsolete. The imaging area of a Four Thirds sensor is equal to that of a video camera tube of 4/3" diameter.<ref name='Olympus-Europe 4/3'>{{cite web| url= http://www.olympus-europa.com/consumer/dslr_7045.htm | title = No more compromises: The Four Thirds Standard |accessdate=2009-04-17 |work=Olympus | location = Europe | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20110714235957/http://www.olympus-europa.com/consumer/dslr_7045.htm | archivedate = 2011-07-14}}</ref>

[[Image:SensorSizes.svg|thumb|300px|left|Sizes of the sensors used in most current digital cameras relative to a standard 35mm frame]]
The usual [[image sensor format|size of the sensor]] is 18 mm × 13.5 mm (22.5 mm diagonal), with an imaging area of 17.3 mm × 13.0 mm (21.63 mm diagonal).<ref name= 'Olympus-Europe 4/3' /><ref name = "Four Thirds">{{Cite journal| url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/about/standard.html | publisher = Four Thirds Consortium | title = The Four Thirds Standard | accessdate = 2009-04-17 | year = 2008}}</ref> The sensor's area is about 30–40% smaller than [[APS-C]] sensors used in most other DSLRs, but still around 9 times larger than the 1/2.5" sensors typically used in [[compact digital camera]]s. Incidentally, the imaging area of a Four Thirds sensor is almost identical to that of [[110 film]].

The emphasis on the 4:3 [[Aspect ratio (image)|image aspect ratio]] sets Four Thirds apart from other DSLR systems, which usually adhere to the 3:2 aspect ratio of the traditional [[135 film|35 mm]] format. However, the standard only specifies the sensor diagonal, thus Four Thirds cameras using the standard 3:2 aspect ratio would be possible;<ref name = "Four Thirds Whitepaper">{{Cite journal| url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/fourthirds/whitepaper.html | publisher = Four Thirds Consortium | title = Four Thirds Standard | type = whitepaper | accessdate = 2009-10-09 | year = 2009}}</ref> notably newer Panasonic Micro Four Thirds models even offer shooting at multiple aspect ratios while maintaining the same image diagonal. For instance, the Panasonic GH1 uses a multi-aspect sensor designed to maximize use of the [[image circle]] at 4:3, 3:2, and 16:9; each ratio having a diagonal of 22.5 mm.<ref name = "Utpott">{{Citation | publisher = PBase | url = http://www.pbase.com/viztyger/image/109862835/original.jpg | title = G1 sensor vs GH1 sensor | format = diagram | first = Björn | last = Utpott | format = [[JPEG]]}}.</ref>

Sensor aspect ratio has an impact on lens design. For example, many lenses designed by Olympus for the Four Thirds system contain internal rectangular baffles or permanently mounted "petal" [[lens hood]]s that optimise their operation for the 4:3 aspect ratio.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

In an interview John Knaur, a Senior Product Manager at Olympus, stated that "The FourThirds refers to both the size of the imager and the aspect ratio of the sensor".<ref name = "Knaur">{{Citation | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20021205033057/http://www.a-digital-eye.com/Olympus43Q&A.html | archivedate = 2002-12-05 | url = http://www.a-digital-eye.com/Olympus43Q&A.html | last = Knaur | first = John | title = Interview | date = October 1, 2002 | publisher = A Digital Eye}}.</ref> He also pointed out the similarities between 4:3 and the [[Photo print sizes|standard printing size]] of 8×10 as well as medium format 6×4.5 and 6×7 cameras, thus helping explain Olympus' rationale on choosing 4:3 rather than 3:2.

== Advantages, disadvantages and other considerations ==
[[File:Olympus E-420.jpg|thumb|An [[Olympus E-420]], sold with a very thin [[Olympus Zuiko Digital 25mm f/2.8|25mm "pancake" lens]]. The E-4XX series was advertised as the smallest true [[DSLR]] in the world.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.letsgodigital.org/en/camera/review/128/page_1.html | title = Olympus E400 Digital Camera Review | publisher = Let’s go digital}}.</ref>]]

=== Advantages ===
* The smaller sensor size makes possible smaller and lighter camera bodies and lenses. In particular, the Four-Thirds system allows the development of compact, large aperture lenses. Corresponding lenses become larger, heavier and more expensive when designed for larger sensor formats.
* Telecentric optical path means that light hitting the sensor is traveling closer to perpendicular to the sensor, resulting in brighter corners, and improved off-center resolution, particularly on wide angle lenses.
* Because the flange focal distance is significantly shorter than those on Canon FD, Canon EF, Nikon F and Pentax K, lenses for many other SLR types including the old Olympus OM System can be fitted to Four Thirds cameras with simple mechanical adapter rings. Such mechanical adapter rings typically require manual setting of focus and aperture. A series of tests <ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.biofos.com/cornucop/omz_e1.html | publisher = Biofos | title = Cornucopia | contribution = OMs on E1}}.</ref> provides a demonstration.
* A smaller sensor produces a deeper depth-of-field, for the same lens aperture, reducing the risk of out-of-focus photos.

=== Disadvantages ===
* The main disadvantage of a smaller sensor, with a pixel count that matches a larger sensor, is the reduction in incoming light hitting the light sensitive part of each pixel of the sensor. This is true even if the Four Thirds camera and lens is properly designed to focus all captured light onto the smaller light circle circumscribing the smaller sensor. The reason is that a smaller pixel has a proportionately smaller light sensitive area because the pixel loses a larger proportion of its total area to secondary circuitry and edge shading than a larger pixel. With less captured light to work with each pixel output voltage requires additional amplification with associated higher signal noise, resulting in increased chromatic and color noise as well as reduced dynamic range. A telecentric lens design helps reducing this problem but still leaves a smaller sensor, with smaller pixels, more sensitive to the angle of incoming light, among other things producing a more pronounced image corner light fall off.

* The resolution of a sensor is often measured as the total sensor pixel count in Mega Pixels or MP. From an image resolution point of view, a large sensor consisting of small sensor pixels is therefore desirable. The resolution of a lens is typically defined as the ability to produce an image of, for example, 100 black and white line pairs per millimeter. This corresponds to a line pair distance of 10 [[µm]]. Since this is also in the neighborhood of how small pixels can be manufactured today, this puts a limit on what image resolution we can achieve in a Four Thirds image sensor. Smaller pixels consequently also place a greater demand on lens resolution in order to be able to take advantage of the higher image-sensor resolution, although a smaller pixel active area reduces the averaging effect and allows a better sampling of high spatial frequencies. The overall change in resolution is a highly non-trivial problem which cannot be summarized in a couple of short general principles. Complex numerical simulation is required to find the best balance between pixel size and pixel active area.<ref name="Full Frame Sensor vs Crop Sensor – Which is Right For You?">{{Citation | url = http://digital-photography-school.com/full-frame-sensor-vs-crop-sensor-which-is-right-for-you#ixzz0s3xIW5yZ | title = Full Frame Sensor vs Crop Sensor – Which is Right For You? | publisher = Digital Photography School}}.</ref>

* Because of the higher [[crop factor]], an image shot at a given relative aperture and angle of view has more [[depth of field]] on Four Thirds.<ref name= "Digital SLRs and Depth of Field">{{Citation | url = http://www.dofmaster.com/dof_dslr.html | title = Digital SLRs and Depth of Field | publisher = DoF Master}}</ref> This results in less control over depth of field, compared to larger formats. For instance, a 35 mm full frame DSLR can match the depth of field of a Four Thirds camera by closing down the aperture by two stops; but it may be more difficult or impossible for a Four Thirds system to match the shallow depth of field of a 35 mm full frame camera with fast lenses.

=== Differences ===
* Most Four Thirds cameras (notably those manufactured by Olympus) use an aspect ratio of 4:3 rather than 3:2; newer models offer cropping to 3:2, but this results in a reduced image diagonal (i.e., the effective crop factor is then 2.08).{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}

== Four Thirds system companies ==
As of the 2006 [[Photo Marketing Association Annual Convention and Trade Show]], the Four Thirds consortium consisted the following companies:
* [[Fujifilm|Fuji]]
* [[Eastman Kodak|Kodak]]
* [[Leica Camera|Leica]]
* [[Olympus (company)|Olympus]]
* [[Panasonic Corporation|Panasonic]]
* [[Sanyo]]
* [[Sigma Corporation|Sigma]]

This does not imply a commitment to end user products by each company. Historically, only Leica, Olympus, and Panasonic have produced bodies. Olympus and Leica/Panasonic make dedicated Four Thirds lenses, and Sigma makes adapted versions of their "DC" lenses for APS-C format DSLRs. Kodak once sold sensors to Olympus for use in their Four Thirds bodies, but the newer Olympus Four Thirds cameras used Panasonic sensors.

== Four Thirds system cameras ==
The majority of Four Thirds system cameras (and Four Thirds lenses) are made by Olympus. Many Four Thirds cameras use "sensor-shift" in-body [[image stabilization]], making the need for image stabilization technology in its lenses unnecessary. All Four Thirds cameras also incorporate an automatic sensor cleaning device, in which a thin glass filter in front of the sensor vibrates at 30 kHz causing dust to fall off and adhere to a piece of sticky material below. Olympus' E-system camera bodies are noted for their inclusion of a wide range of firmware-level features and customization, good JPEG engine, and compact size. Because of the smaller format of Four Thirds, the viewfinders tend to be smaller than on comparable cameras.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dpreview.com/reviews/olympuse30/page34.asp | date = 2009-04-09 | title = DPReview E-30 conclusions page}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://dpreview.com/reviews/olympuse510/ | date = 2009-04-09 | title = DPReview E-510 review}}</ref>

Currently-available cameras are the [[Olympus E-5]], [[Leica Digilux 3]], and [[Panasonic Lumix DMC-L10]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Products - Cameras|url=http://www.four-thirds.org/en/fourthirds/body.html|accessdate=27 April 2014}}</ref> Discontinued models include:

*[[Olympus E-1]]
*[[Olympus E-3]]
*[[Olympus E-30]]
*[[Olympus E-620]]
*Olympus E-600
*[[Olympus E-500]]
*[[Olympus E-510]]
*[[Olympus E-520]]
*[[Olympus E-300]]
*[[Olympus E-330]]
*[[Olympus E-450]]
*[[Olympus E-400]]
*[[Olympus E-410]]
*[[Olympus E-420]]
*[[Panasonic Lumix DMC-L1]]

== Four Thirds system lenses ==
[[Image:FourLenses.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Four lenses for the Four Thirds system. These are three Olympus zooms (40–150 mm, 11–22 mm and 14–54 mm) and a Sigma prime (30 mm).]]
The Four Thirds [[lens mount]] is specified to be a [[Bayonet mount|bayonet]] type with a [[flange focal distance]] of 38.67 mm.

There are currently around three dozen lenses for the Four Thirds system standard.<ref name = "Wrotniak">{{Citation | url = http://www.wrotniak.net/photo/oly-e/lenses.html | last = Wrotniak | title = Lens list}}.</ref>

[[Olympus (company)|Olympus]] produces about 20 lenses for the Four Thirds system under [[Zuiko Digital]] brand. They are divided into three "grades" (Standard, High Grade and Super High Grade). High Grade lenses have faster maximum apertures but are significantly more expensive and larger, and the Super High Grade zooms have constant maximum aperture over the full zoom range; all but the Standard grade are weather-sealed. Lenses within each grade cover the range from wide-angle to super telephoto.<ref name= 'Oly lens roadmap'>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympus.co.uk/consumer/images/E-System_Lens_Roadmap.pdf |title = Olympus E-System Zuiko Digital Interchangeable Lens Roadmap |accessdate=2007-11-29 |publisher=Olympus | location = UK | format = [[PDF]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071015011727/http://www.olympus.co.uk/consumer/images/E-System_Lens_Roadmap.pdf | archivedate = 2007-10-15}}</ref><ref name = 'SLRgear lens tests'>{{cite web |url=http://www.slrgear.com/reviews/showcat.php/cat/7 | publisher = SLRgear | title = Olympus Lens Tests}}</ref> The Zuiko Digital lenses are well regarded for their consistently good optics.<ref name='dpreview lens reviews'>{{cite web|url= http://www.dpreview.com/lensreviews/olympus_12-60_2p8-4_o20/page4.asp | title = Olympus Zuiko 12–60mm 1:2.8–1:4 lens review | publisher = DPReview}}</ref> The following is a table of all current Zuiko Digital lenses:<ref name = 'Zuiko digital lenses'>{{cite web|url=http://asia.olympus-imaging.com/products/dslr/lenses/ |title= Lens list | publisher = Olympus | location = Asia | accessdate = 2009-08-20}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Wide angle
! Standard
! Telephoto
! Super telephoto
! Special-purpose
|-
| '''Standard'''
| 9–18 1:4–5.6
| 14–42 1:3.5–5.6 25 1:2.8 "pancake"
| 40–150 1:4–5.6
| 70–300 1:4–5.6 macro
| 35 1:3.5 macro 18–180 1:3.5-6.3 superzoom
|-
| '''High Grade'''
| 11–22 1:2.8–3.5
| 12–60 1:2.8–4 14–54 1:2.8–3.5
| 50–200 1:2.8–3.5
|
| 50 1:2 macro 8 1:3.5 fisheye
|-
| '''Super High Grade'''
| 7–14 1:4
| 14–35 1:2
| 35–100 1:2 150 1:2
| 90–250 1:2.8 300 1:2.8
|}
Olympus also makes 1.4× and 2× [[teleconverter]]s and an electronically-coupled [[extension tube]].

[[Sigma Corporation|Sigma]] has adapted 13 lenses for the Four Thirds system, ranging from 10 mm to 800 mm, including several for which no equivalent exists: the fast primes (30 mm {{f/|1.4|link=yes}} and 50 mm {{f/|1.4}}) and extreme telephoto (300–800 mm {{f/}}5.6). As of 2014 all Sigma lenses for the Four Thirds system have been discontinued.

[[Leica Camera|Leica]] has designed four lenses for the Four Thirds system: fast and slow normal zooms and a 14–150 mm super-zoom, all with Panasonic's image stabilization system, and an unstabilized {{f/|1.4|link=yes}} 25 mm [[prime lens|prime]]. These are manufactured and sold by Panasonic.

An official list of available lenses can be found on Four-Thirds.org web site.<ref name = "FourThirdsOfficial">{{Citation | url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/fourthirds/lens_chart.html | publisher = Four Thirds | title = Lens list}}.</ref>

As for the system itself, it was silently discontinued in favor of the Micro Four Thirds system.

== Micro Four Thirds system ==
[[File:Olympus-MicroFT-Model.jpg|thumb|right|Concept Micro Four Thirds camera by Olympus]]
{{Main|Micro Four Thirds system}}

In August 2008, Olympus and Panasonic introduced a new format: [[Micro Four Thirds]].

The new system uses the same sensor, but removes the mirror box from the camera design. A [[live view]] preview is shown on either the camera's main [[LCD]] or via an [[electronic viewfinder]], as in digital [[compact camera]]s. Autofocus is accomplished via a [[Contrast detection autofocus|contrast-detect]] process using the main imager, again similar to digital compact cameras. The goal of the new system is to allow for even smaller cameras, competing directly with higher-end [[point-and-shoot]] compact digital cameras and lower-end DSLRs. The smaller [[flange focal distance]] allows for more compact normal and wideangle lenses. It also facilitates the use, with an adaptor, of lenses based on other mounting systems, including many manual focus lenses from the seventies and eighties.

In particular, Four Thirds lenses can be used on Micro Four Thirds bodies with an adapter, however, "all of the functions of the Micro Four Thirds System may not always be available."<ref name = "MicroFourThirdsBenefitsOfficial">[http://www.four-thirds.org/en/microft/index.html Micro Four Thirds Official] benefits list.</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras]]
*[[List of lens mounts]]
*[[Video camera tube#Size]], origin of 4/3" sensor measurement

== References ==

{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.four-thirds.org Official Four Thirds System site]
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=6910814 Four Thirds US patent 6,910,814]; [http://www.pat2pdf.org/patents/pat6910814.pdf PDF version] (1.7 MiB)
*[http://www.wrotniak.net/photo/oly-e/index.html Andrzej Wrotniak's pages about the Four Thirds System] – includes a complete lens list
*[http://www.fourthirds-user.com/ Four Thirds User – independent site and user-community dedicated to the Four Thirds system, including Micro Four Thirds]

{{Four Thirds lenses}}
{{Olympus DSLR cameras}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Four Thirds System}}
[[Category:Four Thirds System| ]]
[[Category:Lens mounts]]
[[Category:Photography equipment]]
[[Category:Eastman Kodak]]
[[Category:Olympus Corporation]]

Four Thirds system

2014-06-24T14:54:02Z

JanTurin: /* Four Thirds system lenses */ two models obsolete according to 4/3.org site

{{Redirect|4/3|4:3 image aspect ratio|Aspect ratio (image)#4:3 standard}}
[[Image:4 3logo.png|thumb|right|Four Thirds logo]]

The '''Four Thirds system''' is a standard created by [[Olympus Corporation|Olympus]] and [[Kodak]] for [[digital single-lens reflex camera]] (DSLR) and mirrorless camera design and development.<ref name='DPReview.com 2001-02-13'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Kodak and Olympus join forces | date=2001-02-13 | publisher = DPReview.com | url =http://www.dpreview.com/news/0102/01021301kodakolympus.asp | work =DPReview.com | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-07 | language = }}</ref>

The system provides a [[Standardization|standard]] that, with [[digital camera]]s and [[Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras|lenses]] available from multiple manufacturers, allows for the interchange of lenses and bodies from different [[manufacturer]]s. {{US patent|6910814}} seems to cover the standard. Proponents describe it as an [[open standard]], but companies may only use it under a [[non-disclosure agreement]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/about/benefit.html | title = Benefits | accessdate = 2008-12-10 | publisher = Four Thirds Consortium | quote = Details of the Four Thirds System standard are available to camera equipment manufacturers and industry organizations on an NDA basis. Full specifications cannot be provided to individuals or other educational/research entities.}}</ref>

Unlike older SLR systems, Four Thirds has been designed from the ground up to be entirely digital. Many lenses are extensively computerized, to the point that Olympus offers [[firmware]] updates for many of them. Lens design has been tailored to the requirements of digital sensors, most notably through [[telecentric lens|telecentric]] designs. The size of the sensor is significantly smaller than for most DSLRs and this implies that lenses, especially telephoto lenses, can be smaller. For example, a Four Thirds lens with a 300 mm [[focal length]] would cover about the same angle of view as a 600 mm focal length lens for the [[135 film|35 mm film]] standard, and is correspondingly more compact. Thus, the Four Thirds System has [[crop factor]] (focal length multiplier) of about 2, and while this enables longer focal length for greater magnification, it doesn't aid the manufacture of wide angle lenses.

The [[image sensor format]], generally intermediate between those of larger SLRs and smaller [[compact camera]]s, generally gives levels of cost, performance and convenience intermediate between those two classes.

== Sensor size and aspect ratio ==
[[File:Sensor sizes overlaid inside.svg|thumb|300px|Drawing showing the relative sizes of sensors used in most current digital cameras, including Four Thirds System]]
The name of the system stems from the size of the image sensor used in the cameras, which is commonly referred to as a ''4/3" type'' or ''4/3 type'' sensor. The common inch-based sizing system is derived from vacuum image-sensing [[video camera tube]]s, which are now obsolete. The imaging area of a Four Thirds sensor is equal to that of a video camera tube of 4/3" diameter.<ref name='Olympus-Europe 4/3'>{{cite web| url= http://www.olympus-europa.com/consumer/dslr_7045.htm | title = No more compromises: The Four Thirds Standard |accessdate=2009-04-17 |work=Olympus | location = Europe | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20110714235957/http://www.olympus-europa.com/consumer/dslr_7045.htm | archivedate = 2011-07-14}}</ref>

[[Image:SensorSizes.svg|thumb|300px|left|Sizes of the sensors used in most current digital cameras relative to a standard 35mm frame]]
The usual [[image sensor format|size of the sensor]] is 18 mm × 13.5 mm (22.5 mm diagonal), with an imaging area of 17.3 mm × 13.0 mm (21.63 mm diagonal).<ref name= 'Olympus-Europe 4/3' /><ref name = "Four Thirds">{{Cite journal| url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/about/standard.html | publisher = Four Thirds Consortium | title = The Four Thirds Standard | accessdate = 2009-04-17 | year = 2008}}</ref> The sensor's area is about 30–40% smaller than [[APS-C]] sensors used in most other DSLRs, but still around 9 times larger than the 1/2.5" sensors typically used in [[compact digital camera]]s. Incidentally, the imaging area of a Four Thirds sensor is almost identical to that of [[110 film]].

The emphasis on the 4:3 [[Aspect ratio (image)|image aspect ratio]] sets Four Thirds apart from other DSLR systems, which usually adhere to the 3:2 aspect ratio of the traditional [[135 film|35 mm]] format. However, the standard only specifies the sensor diagonal, thus Four Thirds cameras using the standard 3:2 aspect ratio would be possible;<ref name = "Four Thirds Whitepaper">{{Cite journal| url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/fourthirds/whitepaper.html | publisher = Four Thirds Consortium | title = Four Thirds Standard | type = whitepaper | accessdate = 2009-10-09 | year = 2009}}</ref> notably newer Panasonic Micro Four Thirds models even offer shooting at multiple aspect ratios while maintaining the same image diagonal. For instance, the Panasonic GH1 uses a multi-aspect sensor designed to maximize use of the [[image circle]] at 4:3, 3:2, and 16:9; each ratio having a diagonal of 22.5 mm.<ref name = "Utpott">{{Citation | publisher = PBase | url = http://www.pbase.com/viztyger/image/109862835/original.jpg | title = G1 sensor vs GH1 sensor | format = diagram | first = Björn | last = Utpott | format = [[JPEG]]}}.</ref>

Sensor aspect ratio has an impact on lens design. For example, many lenses designed by Olympus for the Four Thirds system contain internal rectangular baffles or permanently mounted "petal" [[lens hood]]s that optimise their operation for the 4:3 aspect ratio.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

In an interview John Knaur, a Senior Product Manager at Olympus, stated that "The FourThirds refers to both the size of the imager and the aspect ratio of the sensor".<ref name = "Knaur">{{Citation | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20021205033057/http://www.a-digital-eye.com/Olympus43Q&A.html | archivedate = 2002-12-05 | url = http://www.a-digital-eye.com/Olympus43Q&A.html | last = Knaur | first = John | title = Interview | date = October 1, 2002 | publisher = A Digital Eye}}.</ref> He also pointed out the similarities between 4:3 and the [[Photo print sizes|standard printing size]] of 8×10 as well as medium format 6×4.5 and 6×7 cameras, thus helping explain Olympus' rationale on choosing 4:3 rather than 3:2.

== Advantages, disadvantages and other considerations ==
[[File:Olympus E-420.jpg|thumb|An [[Olympus E-420]], sold with a very thin [[Olympus Zuiko Digital 25mm f/2.8|25mm "pancake" lens]]. The E-4XX series was advertised as the smallest true [[DSLR]] in the world.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.letsgodigital.org/en/camera/review/128/page_1.html | title = Olympus E400 Digital Camera Review | publisher = Let’s go digital}}.</ref>]]

=== Advantages ===
* The smaller sensor size makes possible smaller and lighter camera bodies and lenses. In particular, the Four-Thirds system allows the development of compact, large aperture lenses. Corresponding lenses become larger, heavier and more expensive when designed for larger sensor formats.
* Telecentric optical path means that light hitting the sensor is traveling closer to perpendicular to the sensor, resulting in brighter corners, and improved off-center resolution, particularly on wide angle lenses.
* Because the flange focal distance is significantly shorter than those on Canon FD, Canon EF, Nikon F and Pentax K, lenses for many other SLR types including the old Olympus OM System can be fitted to Four Thirds cameras with simple mechanical adapter rings. Such mechanical adapter rings typically require manual setting of focus and aperture. A series of tests <ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.biofos.com/cornucop/omz_e1.html | publisher = Biofos | title = Cornucopia | contribution = OMs on E1}}.</ref> provides a demonstration.
* A smaller sensor produces a deeper depth-of-field, for the same lens aperture, reducing the risk of out-of-focus photos.

=== Disadvantages ===
* The main disadvantage of a smaller sensor, with a pixel count that matches a larger sensor, is the reduction in incoming light hitting the light sensitive part of each pixel of the sensor. This is true even if the Four Thirds camera and lens is properly designed to focus all captured light onto the smaller light circle circumscribing the smaller sensor. The reason is that a smaller pixel has a proportionately smaller light sensitive area because the pixel loses a larger proportion of its total area to secondary circuitry and edge shading than a larger pixel. With less captured light to work with each pixel output voltage requires additional amplification with associated higher signal noise, resulting in increased chromatic and color noise as well as reduced dynamic range. A telecentric lens design helps reducing this problem but still leaves a smaller sensor, with smaller pixels, more sensitive to the angle of incoming light, among other things producing a more pronounced image corner light fall off.

* The resolution of a sensor is often measured as the total sensor pixel count in Mega Pixels or MP. From an image resolution point of view, a large sensor consisting of small sensor pixels is therefore desirable. The resolution of a lens is typically defined as the ability to produce an image of, for example, 100 black and white line pairs per millimeter. This corresponds to a line pair distance of 10 [[µm]]. Since this is also in the neighborhood of how small pixels can be manufactured today, this puts a limit on what image resolution we can achieve in a Four Thirds image sensor. Smaller pixels consequently also place a greater demand on lens resolution in order to be able to take advantage of the higher image-sensor resolution, although a smaller pixel active area reduces the averaging effect and allows a better sampling of high spatial frequencies. The overall change in resolution is a highly non-trivial problem which cannot be summarized in a couple of short general principles. Complex numerical simulation is required to find the best balance between pixel size and pixel active area.<ref name="Full Frame Sensor vs Crop Sensor – Which is Right For You?">{{Citation | url = http://digital-photography-school.com/full-frame-sensor-vs-crop-sensor-which-is-right-for-you#ixzz0s3xIW5yZ | title = Full Frame Sensor vs Crop Sensor – Which is Right For You? | publisher = Digital Photography School}}.</ref>

* Because of the higher [[crop factor]], an image shot at a given relative aperture and angle of view has more [[depth of field]] on Four Thirds.<ref name= "Digital SLRs and Depth of Field">{{Citation | url = http://www.dofmaster.com/dof_dslr.html | title = Digital SLRs and Depth of Field | publisher = DoF Master}}</ref> This results in less control over depth of field, compared to larger formats. For instance, a 35 mm full frame DSLR can match the depth of field of a Four Thirds camera by closing down the aperture by two stops; but it may be more difficult or impossible for a Four Thirds system to match the shallow depth of field of a 35 mm full frame camera with fast lenses.

=== Differences ===
* Most Four Thirds cameras (notably those manufactured by Olympus) use an aspect ratio of 4:3 rather than 3:2; newer models offer cropping to 3:2, but this results in a reduced image diagonal (i.e., the effective crop factor is then 2.08).{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}

== Four Thirds system companies ==
As of the 2006 [[Photo Marketing Association Annual Convention and Trade Show]], the Four Thirds consortium consisted the following companies:
* [[Fujifilm|Fuji]]
* [[Eastman Kodak|Kodak]]
* [[Leica Camera|Leica]]
* [[Olympus (company)|Olympus]]
* [[Panasonic Corporation|Panasonic]]
* [[Sanyo]]
* [[Sigma Corporation|Sigma]]

This does not imply a commitment to end user products by each company. Historically, only Leica, Olympus, and Panasonic have produced bodies. Olympus and Leica/Panasonic make dedicated Four Thirds lenses, and Sigma makes adapted versions of their "DC" lenses for APS-C format DSLRs. Kodak once sold sensors to Olympus for use in their Four Thirds bodies, but the newer Olympus Four Thirds cameras used Panasonic sensors.

== Four Thirds system cameras ==
The majority of Four Thirds system cameras (and Four Thirds lenses) are made by Olympus. Many Four Thirds cameras use "sensor-shift" in-body [[image stabilization]], making the need for image stabilization technology in its lenses unnecessary. All Four Thirds cameras also incorporate an automatic sensor cleaning device, in which a thin glass filter in front of the sensor vibrates at 30 kHz causing dust to fall off and adhere to a piece of sticky material below. Olympus' E-system camera bodies are noted for their inclusion of a wide range of firmware-level features and customization, good JPEG engine, and compact size. Because of the smaller format of Four Thirds, the viewfinders tend to be smaller than on comparable cameras.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dpreview.com/reviews/olympuse30/page34.asp | date = 2009-04-09 | title = DPReview E-30 conclusions page}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://dpreview.com/reviews/olympuse510/ | date = 2009-04-09 | title = DPReview E-510 review}}</ref>

Currently-available cameras are the [[Olympus E-5]], [[Leica Digilux 3]], and [[Panasonic Lumix DMC-L10]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Products - Cameras|url=http://www.four-thirds.org/en/fourthirds/body.html|accessdate=27 April 2014}}</ref> Discontinued models include:

*[[Olympus E-1]]
*[[Olympus E-3]]
*[[Olympus E-30]]
*[[Olympus E-620]]
*Olympus E-600
*[[Olympus E-500]]
*[[Olympus E-510]]
*[[Olympus E-520]]
*[[Olympus E-300]]
*[[Olympus E-330]]
*[[Olympus E-450]]
*[[Olympus E-400]]
*[[Olympus E-410]]
*[[Olympus E-420]]
*[[Panasonic Lumix DMC-L1]]

== Four Thirds system lenses ==
[[Image:FourLenses.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Four lenses for the Four Thirds system. These are three Olympus zooms (40–150 mm, 11–22 mm and 14–54 mm) and a Sigma prime (30 mm).]]
The Four Thirds [[lens mount]] is specified to be a [[Bayonet mount|bayonet]] type with a [[flange focal distance]] of 38.67 mm.

There are currently around three dozen lenses for the Four Thirds system standard.<ref name = "Wrotniak">{{Citation | url = http://www.wrotniak.net/photo/oly-e/lenses.html | last = Wrotniak | title = Lens list}}.</ref>

[[Olympus (company)|Olympus]] produces about 20 lenses for the Four Thirds system under [[Zuiko Digital]] brand. They are divided into three "grades" (Standard, High Grade and Super High Grade). High Grade lenses have faster maximum apertures but are significantly more expensive and larger, and the Super High Grade zooms have constant maximum aperture over the full zoom range; all but the Standard grade are weather-sealed. Lenses within each grade cover the range from wide-angle to super telephoto.<ref name= 'Oly lens roadmap'>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympus.co.uk/consumer/images/E-System_Lens_Roadmap.pdf |title = Olympus E-System Zuiko Digital Interchangeable Lens Roadmap |accessdate=2007-11-29 |publisher=Olympus | location = UK | format = [[PDF]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071015011727/http://www.olympus.co.uk/consumer/images/E-System_Lens_Roadmap.pdf | archivedate = 2007-10-15}}</ref><ref name = 'SLRgear lens tests'>{{cite web |url=http://www.slrgear.com/reviews/showcat.php/cat/7 | publisher = SLRgear | title = Olympus Lens Tests}}</ref> The Zuiko Digital lenses are well regarded for their consistently good optics.<ref name='dpreview lens reviews'>{{cite web|url= http://www.dpreview.com/lensreviews/olympus_12-60_2p8-4_o20/page4.asp | title = Olympus Zuiko 12–60mm 1:2.8–1:4 lens review | publisher = DPReview}}</ref> The following is a table of all current Zuiko Digital lenses:<ref name = 'Zuiko digital lenses'>{{cite web|url=http://asia.olympus-imaging.com/products/dslr/lenses/ |title= Lens list | publisher = Olympus | location = Asia | accessdate = 2009-08-20}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Wide angle
! Standard
! Telephoto
! Super telephoto
! Special-purpose
|-
| '''Standard'''
| 9–18 1:4–5.6
| 14–42 1:3.5–5.6 25 1:2.8 "pancake"
| 40–150 1:4–5.6
| 70–300 1:4–5.6 macro
| 35 1:3.5 macro 18–180 1:3.5-6.3 superzoom
|-
| '''High Grade'''
| 11–22 1:2.8–3.5
| 12–60 1:2.8–4 14–54 1:2.8–3.5
| 50–200 1:2.8–3.5
|
| 50 1:2 macro 8 1:3.5 fisheye
|-
| '''Super High Grade'''
| 7–14 1:4
| 14–35 1:2
| 35–100 1:2 150 1:2
| 90–250 1:2.8 300 1:2.8
|}
Olympus also makes 1.4× and 2× [[teleconverter]]s and an electronically-coupled [[extension tube]].

[[Sigma Corporation|Sigma]] has adapted 13 lenses for the Four Thirds system, ranging from 10 mm to 800 mm, including several for which no equivalent exists: the fast primes (30 mm {{f/|1.4|link=yes}} and 50 mm {{f/|1.4}}) and extreme telephoto (300–800 mm {{f/}}5.6).

[[Leica Camera|Leica]] has designed four lenses for the Four Thirds system: fast and slow normal zooms and a 14–150 mm super-zoom, all with Panasonic's image stabilization system, and an unstabilized {{f/|1.4|link=yes}} 25 mm [[prime lens|prime]]. These are manufactured and sold by Panasonic.

An official list of available lenses can be found on Four-Thirds.org web site.<ref name = "FourThirdsOfficial">{{Citation | url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/fourthirds/lens_chart.html | publisher = Four Thirds | title = Lens list}}.</ref>

As for the system itself, it was silently discontinued in favor of the Micro Four Thirds system.

== Micro Four Thirds system ==
[[File:Olympus-MicroFT-Model.jpg|thumb|right|Concept Micro Four Thirds camera by Olympus]]
{{Main|Micro Four Thirds system}}

In August 2008, Olympus and Panasonic introduced a new format: [[Micro Four Thirds]].

The new system uses the same sensor, but removes the mirror box from the camera design. A [[live view]] preview is shown on either the camera's main [[LCD]] or via an [[electronic viewfinder]], as in digital [[compact camera]]s. Autofocus is accomplished via a [[Contrast detection autofocus|contrast-detect]] process using the main imager, again similar to digital compact cameras. The goal of the new system is to allow for even smaller cameras, competing directly with higher-end [[point-and-shoot]] compact digital cameras and lower-end DSLRs. The smaller [[flange focal distance]] allows for more compact normal and wideangle lenses. It also facilitates the use, with an adaptor, of lenses based on other mounting systems, including many manual focus lenses from the seventies and eighties.

In particular, Four Thirds lenses can be used on Micro Four Thirds bodies with an adapter, however, "all of the functions of the Micro Four Thirds System may not always be available."<ref name = "MicroFourThirdsBenefitsOfficial">[http://www.four-thirds.org/en/microft/index.html Micro Four Thirds Official] benefits list.</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras]]
*[[List of lens mounts]]
*[[Video camera tube#Size]], origin of 4/3" sensor measurement

== References ==

{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.four-thirds.org Official Four Thirds System site]
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=6910814 Four Thirds US patent 6,910,814]; [http://www.pat2pdf.org/patents/pat6910814.pdf PDF version] (1.7 MiB)
*[http://www.wrotniak.net/photo/oly-e/index.html Andrzej Wrotniak's pages about the Four Thirds System] – includes a complete lens list
*[http://www.fourthirds-user.com/ Four Thirds User – independent site and user-community dedicated to the Four Thirds system, including Micro Four Thirds]

{{Four Thirds lenses}}
{{Olympus DSLR cameras}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Four Thirds System}}
[[Category:Four Thirds System| ]]
[[Category:Lens mounts]]
[[Category:Photography equipment]]
[[Category:Eastman Kodak]]
[[Category:Olympus Corporation]]

Panasonic Lumix DMC-L1

2014-06-23T16:35:42Z

JanTurin: wrong model-designation (since almost two years)

{{Infobox camera
| model = [[Panasonic]] Lumix DMC-L1
| image = [[Image:Lumix-L1 img 0961.jpg|300px]]
| kind = [[Digital single-lens reflex camera|Digital single-lens reflex]]
| sensor = 17.3 × 13.0 mm [[Four Thirds System]] RGB [[Live MOS]] sensor 2× [[Image sensor format|FOV crop]]
| res = 3136 × 2352 (7.4 effective [[Pixel#Megapixel|Megapixels]])
| lens = Interchangeable [[Four Thirds System|Four Thirds mount]]
| shutter = Focal-plane shutter
| shutterRange = 1/4000 – 60 sec Bulb mode (up to approx. 8 minutes) 1/160s [[Flash synchronization#M, F, FP, and X sync|X sync]]
| metering = [[Through-the-lens metering|TTL]]
| emode = '''P'''rogram automatic '''A'''perture automatic '''S'''hutter automatic '''M'''anual setting
| mmode = Intelligent Multiple / Center Weighted / Spot 49 zone metering (use [[viewfinder]]) 256 zones metering ([[Electronic viewfinder|EVF]])
| farea = 3-point TTL Phase Difference Detection System
| fmode = AFS / AFC / MF
| cont = 2 or 3 frame/s up to 6 RAW images or ∞ JPEG (depending on memory card size, battery power, picture size, and compression)
| viewfinder = Optical 0.93× [[Porro prism]]
| speedRange = 100–1600
| flash = Built in Pop-up, Guide number 10m at ISO 100, hotshoe
| flbkt =
| fcbkt =
| WB = auto, daylight, cloudy skies, shadow, halogen, flash, manual 1+2 & color temperature setting (2500 K to 10000 K in 31 steps) fine tuning: blue/amber bias; magenta/green bias
| wbbkt =
| rearLCD = 2.5" (63.5 mm) TFT LCD, 207,000 pixels
| storage = [[Secure Digital card|Secure Digital]], SDHC, [[MultiMediaCard]]
| battery = Li-ion battery pack (7.2 V, 1,500 mAh)
| weight = approx. 530 g (18.7 oz)
| obp =
| madeIn = [[Japan]]
}}

The '''[[Lumix]] DMC-L1''' was [[Panasonic]]'s first [[digital single-lens reflex camera]], and was announced in February 2006.<ref name= 'DPR'>{{cite web|url=http://www.dpreview.com/reviews/panasonicdmcl1/ |title=Panasonic Lumix DMC-L1 Review |accessdate=2008-03-02 | last=Askey |first=Phil |date=April 2007 |work=Digital Photography Review }}</ref> This camera adheres to the [[Four Thirds System]] lens mount standard, making it the first non-[[Olympus Corporation|Olympus]] [[Four Thirds System|Four Thirds]] camera, and thus confirming that the Four Thirds System is a semi-open standard such that compatible camera bodies can be built by different companies.<ref name = 'LL'>{{cite web|url=http://www.luminous-landscape.com/reviews/cameras/Panasonic-L1.shtml |title= Panasonic Lumix DMC L1 — A First Field Report |accessdate=2008-02-21 |last=Reichmann |first=Michael |date=August 2006 |work= The Luminous Landscape}}</ref>

The Lumix DMC-L1, together with the [[Olympus E-330]] (with which it shares some technology), were the first DSLRs that featured [[Live-preview digital camera|live view]], a capability later copied by other manufacturers. Live view makes it possible to preview the image on the LCD screen while composing the picture, and is particularly useful for high- and low-angled shots when it is uncomfortable or not feasible for the user to bring the eye to the viewfinder.<ref name='NYT 2006-08-31'>{{cite web|url= http://www.nytimes.com/2006/08/31/technology/31pogue.html?pagewanted=2 |title=Bulky Boxes That Can Take Great Photos |accessdate= 2008-02-21 |last=Pogue |first=David |date=2006-08-31 |work=New York Times }}</ref>

The camera was introduced with a new [[Leica D Vario-Elmarit 14–50mm f/2.8–3.5]] lens (a 28-100mm 35mm equivalent), the first [[Leica Camera|Leica]] lens for the Four Thirds System, and the first Four Thirds lens with [[image stabilization]]. The image stabilization can allow 2–3 stops lower shutter speed, and the quality of the lens is such that its value may exceed that of the camera body, and helps explain the relatively high combined introductory price of US $2000.<ref name='LL' /> Panasonic introduced two additional lenses under the [[Leica Camera|Leica]] brand name for the camera and Four Thirds System, being a 25mm f1.4 Summilux (50mm 35mm equivalent) without image stabilization) and an extended version of the kit lens out to 150mm (28-300mm 35mm equivalent) with image stabilization.

The Lumix DMC-L1 has an overall shape and viewfinder location reminiscent of a rangefinder camera rather than an SLR, and features a shutter speed dial on the body and an aperture ring on each lens, also similar to pre-digital 35mm film rangefinders and SLRs. Another design feature is the built-in [[Flash (photography)|flash]] which has a two-position operation: the first push of the open button puts the flash pointing 45 degrees up to provide bounce flash,<ref name='Shutterbug'>{{cite web|url=http://www.shutterbug.com/equipmentreviews/proquality_digital_slrs/0207panasonic/ |title=Panasonic’s Lumix DMC-L1; High-Tech Digital SLR with Conventional Controls and Traditional Style |accessdate=2008-02-21 |last=Burian |first=Peter K. |date=February 2007 |work=Shutterbug }}</ref> a feature that was mentioned in ''The New York Times'' in an article on brilliant ideas,<ref>{{cite web |url=http://www.nytimes.com/2006/12/28/technology/28pogue.html|title=Brilliant Ideas That Found a Welcome |date=December 28, 2006|last=Pogue |first=David| publisher = The New York Times|accessdate=2007-02-18}}</ref> and a second push of the button has the flash point directly away from the camera for full flash effect.

The [[Leica Digilux 3]], Leica's first interchangeable-lens DSLR, was presented in September 2006 and is based upon the same design as the Lumix DMC-L1.<ref name='IR Digilux3'>{{cite web|url=http://www.imaging-resource.com/PRODS/DGLX3/DGLX3A.HTM |title=Leica Digilux 3 Preview |accessdate=2008-03-02 |work=Imaging Resource }}</ref>

The Lumix DMC-L1 was succeeded by the [[Panasonic Lumix DMC-L10|Lumix DMC-L10]], announced in August, 2007.

Panasonic no longer supports the Lumix DMC-L1 and has abandoned the standard [[Four-Thirds]] system in favor of a [[Micro Four-Thirds]] system that, with an available adapter, can still accommodate the three [[Four-Thirds]] Leica lenses developed for the Lumix DMC-L1 and the [[Leica Digilux 3]]. A fairly wide selection of Olympus standard [[Four-Thirds]] [[Zuiko]] lenses remains available, however.

== References ==
{{reflist}}

*{{cite web |url=http://www.imaging-resource.com/PRODS/DMCL1/DMCL1A.HTM |title=Full Review: Panasonic Lumix DMC-L1|date=May 19, 2007 | publisher=''Imaging Resource'' |last=Barnett |first=Shawn |accessdate=2007-02-21}} Another review from a high quality photography review site.

*{{cite web |url=http://www.cameralabs.com/reviews/PanasonicL1/ |title=Panasonic Lumix DMC-L1 |date=October 2006 |publisher= ''Camera Labs'' |last=Laing |first=Gordon |accessdate=2007-02-21}} A review of the DMC-L1 by Camera Labs.

==External links==
{{commonscat-inline|Panasonic Lumix DMC-L1}}
* {{cite web | url = http://panasonic.co.jp/pavc/global/lumix/l1/specifications.html | title = Specifications | publisher = Panasonic}}
* {{cite web |url=http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ojWGzf-JTJs |title=Panasonic Lumix DMC L1 video tour |date=October 25, 2006 | publisher = Camera Labs |last= |first= |accessdate=2007-02-21}} A YouTube hosted video tour of the DMC-L1 by Camera Labs (also posted on their site).

{{Panasonic Lumix cameras}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Panasonic Lumix Dmc-L1}}
[[Category:Digital SLR cameras]]
[[Category:Panasonic Lumix cameras|L1]]
[[Category:Live-preview digital cameras]]
[[Category:Four Thirds System]]

Four Thirds system

2014-06-23T15:48:45Z

JanTurin: /* Four Thirds system cameras */ uniformity

{{Redirect|4/3|4:3 image aspect ratio|Aspect ratio (image)#4:3 standard}}
[[Image:4 3logo.png|thumb|right|Four Thirds logo]]

The '''Four Thirds system''' is a standard created by [[Olympus Corporation|Olympus]] and [[Kodak]] for [[digital single-lens reflex camera]] (DSLR) and mirrorless camera design and development.<ref name='DPReview.com 2001-02-13'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Kodak and Olympus join forces | date=2001-02-13 | publisher = DPReview.com | url =http://www.dpreview.com/news/0102/01021301kodakolympus.asp | work =DPReview.com | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-07 | language = }}</ref>

The system provides a [[Standardization|standard]] that, with [[digital camera]]s and [[Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras|lenses]] available from multiple manufacturers, allows for the interchange of lenses and bodies from different [[manufacturer]]s. {{US patent|6910814}} seems to cover the standard. Proponents describe it as an [[open standard]], but companies may only use it under a [[non-disclosure agreement]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/about/benefit.html | title = Benefits | accessdate = 2008-12-10 | publisher = Four Thirds Consortium | quote = Details of the Four Thirds System standard are available to camera equipment manufacturers and industry organizations on an NDA basis. Full specifications cannot be provided to individuals or other educational/research entities.}}</ref>

Unlike older SLR systems, Four Thirds has been designed from the ground up to be entirely digital. Many lenses are extensively computerized, to the point that Olympus offers [[firmware]] updates for many of them. Lens design has been tailored to the requirements of digital sensors, most notably through [[telecentric lens|telecentric]] designs. The size of the sensor is significantly smaller than for most DSLRs and this implies that lenses, especially telephoto lenses, can be smaller. For example, a Four Thirds lens with a 300 mm [[focal length]] would cover about the same angle of view as a 600 mm focal length lens for the [[135 film|35 mm film]] standard, and is correspondingly more compact. Thus, the Four Thirds System has [[crop factor]] (focal length multiplier) of about 2, and while this enables longer focal length for greater magnification, it doesn't aid the manufacture of wide angle lenses.

The [[image sensor format]], generally intermediate between those of larger SLRs and smaller [[compact camera]]s, generally gives levels of cost, performance and convenience intermediate between those two classes.

== Sensor size and aspect ratio ==
[[File:Sensor sizes overlaid inside.svg|thumb|300px|Drawing showing the relative sizes of sensors used in most current digital cameras, including Four Thirds System]]
The name of the system stems from the size of the image sensor used in the cameras, which is commonly referred to as a ''4/3" type'' or ''4/3 type'' sensor. The common inch-based sizing system is derived from vacuum image-sensing [[video camera tube]]s, which are now obsolete. The imaging area of a Four Thirds sensor is equal to that of a video camera tube of 4/3" diameter.<ref name='Olympus-Europe 4/3'>{{cite web| url= http://www.olympus-europa.com/consumer/dslr_7045.htm | title = No more compromises: The Four Thirds Standard |accessdate=2009-04-17 |work=Olympus | location = Europe | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20110714235957/http://www.olympus-europa.com/consumer/dslr_7045.htm | archivedate = 2011-07-14}}</ref>

[[Image:SensorSizes.svg|thumb|300px|left|Sizes of the sensors used in most current digital cameras relative to a standard 35mm frame]]
The usual [[image sensor format|size of the sensor]] is 18 mm × 13.5 mm (22.5 mm diagonal), with an imaging area of 17.3 mm × 13.0 mm (21.63 mm diagonal).<ref name= 'Olympus-Europe 4/3' /><ref name = "Four Thirds">{{Cite journal| url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/about/standard.html | publisher = Four Thirds Consortium | title = The Four Thirds Standard | accessdate = 2009-04-17 | year = 2008}}</ref> The sensor's area is about 30–40% smaller than [[APS-C]] sensors used in most other DSLRs, but still around 9 times larger than the 1/2.5" sensors typically used in [[compact digital camera]]s. Incidentally, the imaging area of a Four Thirds sensor is almost identical to that of [[110 film]].

The emphasis on the 4:3 [[Aspect ratio (image)|image aspect ratio]] sets Four Thirds apart from other DSLR systems, which usually adhere to the 3:2 aspect ratio of the traditional [[135 film|35 mm]] format. However, the standard only specifies the sensor diagonal, thus Four Thirds cameras using the standard 3:2 aspect ratio would be possible;<ref name = "Four Thirds Whitepaper">{{Cite journal| url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/fourthirds/whitepaper.html | publisher = Four Thirds Consortium | title = Four Thirds Standard | type = whitepaper | accessdate = 2009-10-09 | year = 2009}}</ref> notably newer Panasonic Micro Four Thirds models even offer shooting at multiple aspect ratios while maintaining the same image diagonal. For instance, the Panasonic GH1 uses a multi-aspect sensor designed to maximize use of the [[image circle]] at 4:3, 3:2, and 16:9; each ratio having a diagonal of 22.5 mm.<ref name = "Utpott">{{Citation | publisher = PBase | url = http://www.pbase.com/viztyger/image/109862835/original.jpg | title = G1 sensor vs GH1 sensor | format = diagram | first = Björn | last = Utpott | format = [[JPEG]]}}.</ref>

Sensor aspect ratio has an impact on lens design. For example, many lenses designed by Olympus for the Four Thirds system contain internal rectangular baffles or permanently mounted "petal" [[lens hood]]s that optimise their operation for the 4:3 aspect ratio.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

In an interview John Knaur, a Senior Product Manager at Olympus, stated that "The FourThirds refers to both the size of the imager and the aspect ratio of the sensor".<ref name = "Knaur">{{Citation | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20021205033057/http://www.a-digital-eye.com/Olympus43Q&A.html | archivedate = 2002-12-05 | url = http://www.a-digital-eye.com/Olympus43Q&A.html | last = Knaur | first = John | title = Interview | date = October 1, 2002 | publisher = A Digital Eye}}.</ref> He also pointed out the similarities between 4:3 and the [[Photo print sizes|standard printing size]] of 8×10 as well as medium format 6×4.5 and 6×7 cameras, thus helping explain Olympus' rationale on choosing 4:3 rather than 3:2.

== Advantages, disadvantages and other considerations ==
[[File:Olympus E-420.jpg|thumb|An [[Olympus E-420]], sold with a very thin [[Olympus Zuiko Digital 25mm f/2.8|25mm "pancake" lens]]. The E-4XX series was advertised as the smallest true [[DSLR]] in the world.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.letsgodigital.org/en/camera/review/128/page_1.html | title = Olympus E400 Digital Camera Review | publisher = Let’s go digital}}.</ref>]]

=== Advantages ===
* The smaller sensor size makes possible smaller and lighter camera bodies and lenses. In particular, the Four-Thirds system allows the development of compact, large aperture lenses. Corresponding lenses become larger, heavier and more expensive when designed for larger sensor formats.
* Telecentric optical path means that light hitting the sensor is traveling closer to perpendicular to the sensor, resulting in brighter corners, and improved off-center resolution, particularly on wide angle lenses.
* Because the flange focal distance is significantly shorter than those on Canon FD, Canon EF, Nikon F and Pentax K, lenses for many other SLR types including the old Olympus OM System can be fitted to Four Thirds cameras with simple mechanical adapter rings. Such mechanical adapter rings typically require manual setting of focus and aperture. A series of tests <ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.biofos.com/cornucop/omz_e1.html | publisher = Biofos | title = Cornucopia | contribution = OMs on E1}}.</ref> provides a demonstration.
* A smaller sensor produces a deeper depth-of-field, for the same lens aperture, reducing the risk of out-of-focus photos.

=== Disadvantages ===
* The main disadvantage of a smaller sensor, with a pixel count that matches a larger sensor, is the reduction in incoming light hitting the light sensitive part of each pixel of the sensor. This is true even if the Four Thirds camera and lens is properly designed to focus all captured light onto the smaller light circle circumscribing the smaller sensor. The reason is that a smaller pixel has a proportionately smaller light sensitive area because the pixel loses a larger proportion of its total area to secondary circuitry and edge shading than a larger pixel. With less captured light to work with each pixel output voltage requires additional amplification with associated higher signal noise, resulting in increased chromatic and color noise as well as reduced dynamic range. A telecentric lens design helps reducing this problem but still leaves a smaller sensor, with smaller pixels, more sensitive to the angle of incoming light, among other things producing a more pronounced image corner light fall off.

* The resolution of a sensor is often measured as the total sensor pixel count in Mega Pixels or MP. From an image resolution point of view, a large sensor consisting of small sensor pixels is therefore desirable. The resolution of a lens is typically defined as the ability to produce an image of, for example, 100 black and white line pairs per millimeter. This corresponds to a line pair distance of 10 [[µm]]. Since this is also in the neighborhood of how small pixels can be manufactured today, this puts a limit on what image resolution we can achieve in a Four Thirds image sensor. Smaller pixels consequently also place a greater demand on lens resolution in order to be able to take advantage of the higher image-sensor resolution, although a smaller pixel active area reduces the averaging effect and allows a better sampling of high spatial frequencies. The overall change in resolution is a highly non-trivial problem which cannot be summarized in a couple of short general principles. Complex numerical simulation is required to find the best balance between pixel size and pixel active area.<ref name="Full Frame Sensor vs Crop Sensor – Which is Right For You?">{{Citation | url = http://digital-photography-school.com/full-frame-sensor-vs-crop-sensor-which-is-right-for-you#ixzz0s3xIW5yZ | title = Full Frame Sensor vs Crop Sensor – Which is Right For You? | publisher = Digital Photography School}}.</ref>

* Because of the higher [[crop factor]], an image shot at a given relative aperture and angle of view has more [[depth of field]] on Four Thirds.<ref name= "Digital SLRs and Depth of Field">{{Citation | url = http://www.dofmaster.com/dof_dslr.html | title = Digital SLRs and Depth of Field | publisher = DoF Master}}</ref> This results in less control over depth of field, compared to larger formats. For instance, a 35 mm full frame DSLR can match the depth of field of a Four Thirds camera by closing down the aperture by two stops; but it may be more difficult or impossible for a Four Thirds system to match the shallow depth of field of a 35 mm full frame camera with fast lenses.

=== Differences ===
* Most Four Thirds cameras (notably those manufactured by Olympus) use an aspect ratio of 4:3 rather than 3:2; newer models offer cropping to 3:2, but this results in a reduced image diagonal (i.e., the effective crop factor is then 2.08).{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}

== Four Thirds system companies ==
As of the 2006 [[Photo Marketing Association Annual Convention and Trade Show]], the Four Thirds consortium consisted the following companies:
* [[Fujifilm|Fuji]]
* [[Eastman Kodak|Kodak]]
* [[Leica Camera|Leica]]
* [[Olympus (company)|Olympus]]
* [[Panasonic Corporation|Panasonic]]
* [[Sanyo]]
* [[Sigma Corporation|Sigma]]

This does not imply a commitment to end user products by each company. Historically, only Leica, Olympus, and Panasonic have produced bodies. Olympus and Leica/Panasonic make dedicated Four Thirds lenses, and Sigma makes adapted versions of their "DC" lenses for APS-C format DSLRs. Kodak once sold sensors to Olympus for use in their Four Thirds bodies, but the newer Olympus Four Thirds cameras used Panasonic sensors.

== Four Thirds system cameras ==
The majority of Four Thirds system cameras (and Four Thirds lenses) are made by Olympus. Many Four Thirds cameras use "sensor-shift" in-body [[image stabilization]], making the need for image stabilization technology in its lenses unnecessary. All Four Thirds cameras also incorporate an automatic sensor cleaning device, in which a thin glass filter in front of the sensor vibrates at 30 kHz causing dust to fall off and adhere to a piece of sticky material below. Olympus' E-system camera bodies are noted for their inclusion of a wide range of firmware-level features and customization, good JPEG engine, and compact size. Because of the smaller format of Four Thirds, the viewfinders tend to be smaller than on comparable cameras.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dpreview.com/reviews/olympuse30/page34.asp | date = 2009-04-09 | title = DPReview E-30 conclusions page}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://dpreview.com/reviews/olympuse510/ | date = 2009-04-09 | title = DPReview E-510 review}}</ref>

Currently-available cameras are the [[Olympus E-5]], [[Leica Digilux 3]], and [[Panasonic Lumix DMC-L10]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Products - Cameras|url=http://www.four-thirds.org/en/fourthirds/body.html|accessdate=27 April 2014}}</ref> Discontinued models include:

*[[Olympus E-1]]
*[[Olympus E-3]]
*[[Olympus E-30]]
*[[Olympus E-620]]
*Olympus E-600
*[[Olympus E-500]]
*[[Olympus E-510]]
*[[Olympus E-520]]
*[[Olympus E-300]]
*[[Olympus E-330]]
*[[Olympus E-450]]
*[[Olympus E-400]]
*[[Olympus E-410]]
*[[Olympus E-420]]
*[[Panasonic Lumix DMC-L1]]

== Four Thirds system lenses ==
[[Image:FourLenses.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Four lenses for the Four Thirds system. These are three Olympus zooms (40–150 mm, 11–22 mm and 14–54 mm) and a Sigma prime (30 mm).]]
The Four Thirds [[lens mount]] is specified to be a [[Bayonet mount|bayonet]] type with a [[flange focal distance]] of 38.67 mm.

There are currently around three dozen lenses for the Four Thirds system standard.<ref name = "Wrotniak">{{Citation | url = http://www.wrotniak.net/photo/oly-e/lenses.html | last = Wrotniak | title = Lens list}}.</ref>

[[Olympus (company)|Olympus]] produces about 20 lenses for the Four Thirds system under [[Zuiko Digital]] brand. They are divided into three "grades" (Standard, High Grade and Super High Grade). High Grade lenses have faster maximum apertures but are significantly more expensive and larger, and the Super High Grade zooms have constant maximum aperture over the full zoom range; all but the Standard grade are weather-sealed. Lenses within each grade cover the range from wide-angle to super telephoto.<ref name= 'Oly lens roadmap'>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympus.co.uk/consumer/images/E-System_Lens_Roadmap.pdf |title = Olympus E-System Zuiko Digital Interchangeable Lens Roadmap |accessdate=2007-11-29 |publisher=Olympus | location = UK | format = [[PDF]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071015011727/http://www.olympus.co.uk/consumer/images/E-System_Lens_Roadmap.pdf | archivedate = 2007-10-15}}</ref><ref name = 'SLRgear lens tests'>{{cite web |url=http://www.slrgear.com/reviews/showcat.php/cat/7 | publisher = SLRgear | title = Olympus Lens Tests}}</ref> The Zuiko Digital lenses are well regarded for their consistently good optics.<ref name='dpreview lens reviews'>{{cite web|url= http://www.dpreview.com/lensreviews/olympus_12-60_2p8-4_o20/page4.asp | title = Olympus Zuiko 12–60mm 1:2.8–1:4 lens review | publisher = DPReview}}</ref> The following is a table of all current Zuiko Digital lenses:<ref name = 'Zuiko digital lenses'>{{cite web|url=http://asia.olympus-imaging.com/products/dslr/lenses/ |title= Lens list | publisher = Olympus | location = Asia | accessdate = 2009-08-20}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Wide angle
! Standard
! Telephoto
! Super telephoto
! Special-purpose
|-
| '''Standard'''
| 9–18 1:4–5.6
| 14–42 1:3.5–5.6 14–45 1:3.5–5.6 17.5–45 1:3.5–5.6 25 1:2.8 "pancake"
| 40–150 1:4–5.6
| 70–300 1:4–5.6 macro
| 35 1:3.5 macro 18–180 1:3.5-6.3 superzoom
|-
| '''High Grade'''
| 11–22 1:2.8–3.5
| 12–60 1:2.8–4 14–54 1:2.8–3.5
| 50–200 1:2.8–3.5
|
| 50 1:2 macro 8 1:3.5 fisheye
|-
| '''Super High Grade'''
| 7–14 1:4
| 14–35 1:2
| 35–100 1:2 150 1:2
| 90–250 1:2.8 300 1:2.8
|}
Olympus also makes 1.4× and 2× [[teleconverter]]s and an electronically-coupled [[extension tube]].

[[Sigma Corporation|Sigma]] has adapted 13 lenses for the Four Thirds system, ranging from 10 mm to 800 mm, including several for which no equivalent exists: the fast primes (30 mm {{f/|1.4|link=yes}} and 50 mm {{f/|1.4}}) and extreme telephoto (300–800 mm {{f/}}5.6).

[[Leica Camera|Leica]] has designed four lenses for the Four Thirds system: fast and slow normal zooms and a 14–150 mm super-zoom, all with Panasonic's image stabilization system, and an unstabilized {{f/|1.4|link=yes}} 25 mm [[prime lens|prime]]. These are manufactured and sold by Panasonic.

An official list of available lenses can be found on Four-Thirds.org web site.<ref name = "FourThirdsOfficial">{{Citation | url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/fourthirds/lens_chart.html | publisher = Four Thirds | title = Lens list}}.</ref>

As for the system itself, it was silently discontinued in favor of the Micro Four Thirds system.

== Micro Four Thirds system ==
[[File:Olympus-MicroFT-Model.jpg|thumb|right|Concept Micro Four Thirds camera by Olympus]]
{{Main|Micro Four Thirds system}}

In August 2008, Olympus and Panasonic introduced a new format: [[Micro Four Thirds]].

The new system uses the same sensor, but removes the mirror box from the camera design. A [[live view]] preview is shown on either the camera's main [[LCD]] or via an [[electronic viewfinder]], as in digital [[compact camera]]s. Autofocus is accomplished via a [[Contrast detection autofocus|contrast-detect]] process using the main imager, again similar to digital compact cameras. The goal of the new system is to allow for even smaller cameras, competing directly with higher-end [[point-and-shoot]] compact digital cameras and lower-end DSLRs. The smaller [[flange focal distance]] allows for more compact normal and wideangle lenses. It also facilitates the use, with an adaptor, of lenses based on other mounting systems, including many manual focus lenses from the seventies and eighties.

In particular, Four Thirds lenses can be used on Micro Four Thirds bodies with an adapter, however, "all of the functions of the Micro Four Thirds System may not always be available."<ref name = "MicroFourThirdsBenefitsOfficial">[http://www.four-thirds.org/en/microft/index.html Micro Four Thirds Official] benefits list.</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras]]
*[[List of lens mounts]]
*[[Video camera tube#Size]], origin of 4/3" sensor measurement

== References ==

{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.four-thirds.org Official Four Thirds System site]
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=6910814 Four Thirds US patent 6,910,814]; [http://www.pat2pdf.org/patents/pat6910814.pdf PDF version] (1.7 MiB)
*[http://www.wrotniak.net/photo/oly-e/index.html Andrzej Wrotniak's pages about the Four Thirds System] – includes a complete lens list
*[http://www.fourthirds-user.com/ Four Thirds User – independent site and user-community dedicated to the Four Thirds system, including Micro Four Thirds]

{{Four Thirds lenses}}
{{Olympus DSLR cameras}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Four Thirds System}}
[[Category:Four Thirds System| ]]
[[Category:Lens mounts]]
[[Category:Photography equipment]]
[[Category:Eastman Kodak]]
[[Category:Olympus Corporation]]

Four Thirds system

2014-06-23T14:25:57Z

JanTurin: /* Four Thirds system lenses */ 40-150 f/3.5-4.5 model discontinued acc. 3/4.org site

{{Redirect|4/3|4:3 image aspect ratio|Aspect ratio (image)#4:3 standard}}
[[Image:4 3logo.png|thumb|right|Four Thirds logo]]

The '''Four Thirds system''' is a standard created by [[Olympus Corporation|Olympus]] and [[Kodak]] for [[digital single-lens reflex camera]] (DSLR) and mirrorless camera design and development.<ref name='DPReview.com 2001-02-13'>{{cite news | first= | last= | coauthors= | title=Kodak and Olympus join forces | date=2001-02-13 | publisher = DPReview.com | url =http://www.dpreview.com/news/0102/01021301kodakolympus.asp | work =DPReview.com | pages = | accessdate = 2007-11-07 | language = }}</ref>

The system provides a [[Standardization|standard]] that, with [[digital camera]]s and [[Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras|lenses]] available from multiple manufacturers, allows for the interchange of lenses and bodies from different [[manufacturer]]s. {{US patent|6910814}} seems to cover the standard. Proponents describe it as an [[open standard]], but companies may only use it under a [[non-disclosure agreement]].<ref>{{cite web | url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/about/benefit.html | title = Benefits | accessdate = 2008-12-10 | publisher = Four Thirds Consortium | quote = Details of the Four Thirds System standard are available to camera equipment manufacturers and industry organizations on an NDA basis. Full specifications cannot be provided to individuals or other educational/research entities.}}</ref>

Unlike older SLR systems, Four Thirds has been designed from the ground up to be entirely digital. Many lenses are extensively computerized, to the point that Olympus offers [[firmware]] updates for many of them. Lens design has been tailored to the requirements of digital sensors, most notably through [[telecentric lens|telecentric]] designs. The size of the sensor is significantly smaller than for most DSLRs and this implies that lenses, especially telephoto lenses, can be smaller. For example, a Four Thirds lens with a 300 mm [[focal length]] would cover about the same angle of view as a 600 mm focal length lens for the [[135 film|35 mm film]] standard, and is correspondingly more compact. Thus, the Four Thirds System has [[crop factor]] (focal length multiplier) of about 2, and while this enables longer focal length for greater magnification, it doesn't aid the manufacture of wide angle lenses.

The [[image sensor format]], generally intermediate between those of larger SLRs and smaller [[compact camera]]s, generally gives levels of cost, performance and convenience intermediate between those two classes.

== Sensor size and aspect ratio ==
[[File:Sensor sizes overlaid inside.svg|thumb|300px|Drawing showing the relative sizes of sensors used in most current digital cameras, including Four Thirds System]]
The name of the system stems from the size of the image sensor used in the cameras, which is commonly referred to as a ''4/3" type'' or ''4/3 type'' sensor. The common inch-based sizing system is derived from vacuum image-sensing [[video camera tube]]s, which are now obsolete. The imaging area of a Four Thirds sensor is equal to that of a video camera tube of 4/3" diameter.<ref name='Olympus-Europe 4/3'>{{cite web| url= http://www.olympus-europa.com/consumer/dslr_7045.htm | title = No more compromises: The Four Thirds Standard |accessdate=2009-04-17 |work=Olympus | location = Europe | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20110714235957/http://www.olympus-europa.com/consumer/dslr_7045.htm | archivedate = 2011-07-14}}</ref>

[[Image:SensorSizes.svg|thumb|300px|left|Sizes of the sensors used in most current digital cameras relative to a standard 35mm frame]]
The usual [[image sensor format|size of the sensor]] is 18 mm × 13.5 mm (22.5 mm diagonal), with an imaging area of 17.3 mm × 13.0 mm (21.63 mm diagonal).<ref name= 'Olympus-Europe 4/3' /><ref name = "Four Thirds">{{Cite journal| url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/about/standard.html | publisher = Four Thirds Consortium | title = The Four Thirds Standard | accessdate = 2009-04-17 | year = 2008}}</ref> The sensor's area is about 30–40% smaller than [[APS-C]] sensors used in most other DSLRs, but still around 9 times larger than the 1/2.5" sensors typically used in [[compact digital camera]]s. Incidentally, the imaging area of a Four Thirds sensor is almost identical to that of [[110 film]].

The emphasis on the 4:3 [[Aspect ratio (image)|image aspect ratio]] sets Four Thirds apart from other DSLR systems, which usually adhere to the 3:2 aspect ratio of the traditional [[135 film|35 mm]] format. However, the standard only specifies the sensor diagonal, thus Four Thirds cameras using the standard 3:2 aspect ratio would be possible;<ref name = "Four Thirds Whitepaper">{{Cite journal| url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/fourthirds/whitepaper.html | publisher = Four Thirds Consortium | title = Four Thirds Standard | type = whitepaper | accessdate = 2009-10-09 | year = 2009}}</ref> notably newer Panasonic Micro Four Thirds models even offer shooting at multiple aspect ratios while maintaining the same image diagonal. For instance, the Panasonic GH1 uses a multi-aspect sensor designed to maximize use of the [[image circle]] at 4:3, 3:2, and 16:9; each ratio having a diagonal of 22.5 mm.<ref name = "Utpott">{{Citation | publisher = PBase | url = http://www.pbase.com/viztyger/image/109862835/original.jpg | title = G1 sensor vs GH1 sensor | format = diagram | first = Björn | last = Utpott | format = [[JPEG]]}}.</ref>

Sensor aspect ratio has an impact on lens design. For example, many lenses designed by Olympus for the Four Thirds system contain internal rectangular baffles or permanently mounted "petal" [[lens hood]]s that optimise their operation for the 4:3 aspect ratio.{{Citation needed|date=October 2009}}

In an interview John Knaur, a Senior Product Manager at Olympus, stated that "The FourThirds refers to both the size of the imager and the aspect ratio of the sensor".<ref name = "Knaur">{{Citation | archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20021205033057/http://www.a-digital-eye.com/Olympus43Q&A.html | archivedate = 2002-12-05 | url = http://www.a-digital-eye.com/Olympus43Q&A.html | last = Knaur | first = John | title = Interview | date = October 1, 2002 | publisher = A Digital Eye}}.</ref> He also pointed out the similarities between 4:3 and the [[Photo print sizes|standard printing size]] of 8×10 as well as medium format 6×4.5 and 6×7 cameras, thus helping explain Olympus' rationale on choosing 4:3 rather than 3:2.

== Advantages, disadvantages and other considerations ==
[[File:Olympus E-420.jpg|thumb|An [[Olympus E-420]], sold with a very thin [[Olympus Zuiko Digital 25mm f/2.8|25mm "pancake" lens]]. The E-4XX series was advertised as the smallest true [[DSLR]] in the world.<ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.letsgodigital.org/en/camera/review/128/page_1.html | title = Olympus E400 Digital Camera Review | publisher = Let’s go digital}}.</ref>]]

=== Advantages ===
* The smaller sensor size makes possible smaller and lighter camera bodies and lenses. In particular, the Four-Thirds system allows the development of compact, large aperture lenses. Corresponding lenses become larger, heavier and more expensive when designed for larger sensor formats.
* Telecentric optical path means that light hitting the sensor is traveling closer to perpendicular to the sensor, resulting in brighter corners, and improved off-center resolution, particularly on wide angle lenses.
* Because the flange focal distance is significantly shorter than those on Canon FD, Canon EF, Nikon F and Pentax K, lenses for many other SLR types including the old Olympus OM System can be fitted to Four Thirds cameras with simple mechanical adapter rings. Such mechanical adapter rings typically require manual setting of focus and aperture. A series of tests <ref>{{Citation | url = http://www.biofos.com/cornucop/omz_e1.html | publisher = Biofos | title = Cornucopia | contribution = OMs on E1}}.</ref> provides a demonstration.
* A smaller sensor produces a deeper depth-of-field, for the same lens aperture, reducing the risk of out-of-focus photos.

=== Disadvantages ===
* The main disadvantage of a smaller sensor, with a pixel count that matches a larger sensor, is the reduction in incoming light hitting the light sensitive part of each pixel of the sensor. This is true even if the Four Thirds camera and lens is properly designed to focus all captured light onto the smaller light circle circumscribing the smaller sensor. The reason is that a smaller pixel has a proportionately smaller light sensitive area because the pixel loses a larger proportion of its total area to secondary circuitry and edge shading than a larger pixel. With less captured light to work with each pixel output voltage requires additional amplification with associated higher signal noise, resulting in increased chromatic and color noise as well as reduced dynamic range. A telecentric lens design helps reducing this problem but still leaves a smaller sensor, with smaller pixels, more sensitive to the angle of incoming light, among other things producing a more pronounced image corner light fall off.

* The resolution of a sensor is often measured as the total sensor pixel count in Mega Pixels or MP. From an image resolution point of view, a large sensor consisting of small sensor pixels is therefore desirable. The resolution of a lens is typically defined as the ability to produce an image of, for example, 100 black and white line pairs per millimeter. This corresponds to a line pair distance of 10 [[µm]]. Since this is also in the neighborhood of how small pixels can be manufactured today, this puts a limit on what image resolution we can achieve in a Four Thirds image sensor. Smaller pixels consequently also place a greater demand on lens resolution in order to be able to take advantage of the higher image-sensor resolution, although a smaller pixel active area reduces the averaging effect and allows a better sampling of high spatial frequencies. The overall change in resolution is a highly non-trivial problem which cannot be summarized in a couple of short general principles. Complex numerical simulation is required to find the best balance between pixel size and pixel active area.<ref name="Full Frame Sensor vs Crop Sensor – Which is Right For You?">{{Citation | url = http://digital-photography-school.com/full-frame-sensor-vs-crop-sensor-which-is-right-for-you#ixzz0s3xIW5yZ | title = Full Frame Sensor vs Crop Sensor – Which is Right For You? | publisher = Digital Photography School}}.</ref>

* Because of the higher [[crop factor]], an image shot at a given relative aperture and angle of view has more [[depth of field]] on Four Thirds.<ref name= "Digital SLRs and Depth of Field">{{Citation | url = http://www.dofmaster.com/dof_dslr.html | title = Digital SLRs and Depth of Field | publisher = DoF Master}}</ref> This results in less control over depth of field, compared to larger formats. For instance, a 35 mm full frame DSLR can match the depth of field of a Four Thirds camera by closing down the aperture by two stops; but it may be more difficult or impossible for a Four Thirds system to match the shallow depth of field of a 35 mm full frame camera with fast lenses.

=== Differences ===
* Most Four Thirds cameras (notably those manufactured by Olympus) use an aspect ratio of 4:3 rather than 3:2; newer models offer cropping to 3:2, but this results in a reduced image diagonal (i.e., the effective crop factor is then 2.08).{{Citation needed|date=June 2013}}

== Four Thirds system companies ==
As of the 2006 [[Photo Marketing Association Annual Convention and Trade Show]], the Four Thirds consortium consisted the following companies:
* [[Fujifilm|Fuji]]
* [[Eastman Kodak|Kodak]]
* [[Leica Camera|Leica]]
* [[Olympus (company)|Olympus]]
* [[Panasonic Corporation|Panasonic]]
* [[Sanyo]]
* [[Sigma Corporation|Sigma]]

This does not imply a commitment to end user products by each company. Historically, only Leica, Olympus, and Panasonic have produced bodies. Olympus and Leica/Panasonic make dedicated Four Thirds lenses, and Sigma makes adapted versions of their "DC" lenses for APS-C format DSLRs. Kodak once sold sensors to Olympus for use in their Four Thirds bodies, but the newer Olympus Four Thirds cameras used Panasonic sensors.

== Four Thirds system cameras ==
The majority of Four Thirds system cameras (and Four Thirds lenses) are made by Olympus. Many Four Thirds cameras use "sensor-shift" in-body [[image stabilization]], making the need for image stabilization technology in its lenses unnecessary. All Four Thirds cameras also incorporate an automatic sensor cleaning device, in which a thin glass filter in front of the sensor vibrates at 30 kHz causing dust to fall off and adhere to a piece of sticky material below. Olympus' E-system camera bodies are noted for their inclusion of a wide range of firmware-level features and customization, good JPEG engine, and compact size. Because of the smaller format of Four Thirds, the viewfinders tend to be smaller than on comparable cameras.<ref>{{cite web | url = http://dpreview.com/reviews/olympuse30/page34.asp | date = 2009-04-09 | title = DPReview E-30 conclusions page}}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url = http://dpreview.com/reviews/olympuse510/ | date = 2009-04-09 | title = DPReview E-510 review}}</ref>

Currently-available cameras are the [[Olympus E-5]], [[Leica Digilux 3]], and [[Panasonic Lumix DMC-L10]].<ref>{{cite web|title=Products - Cameras|url=http://www.four-thirds.org/en/fourthirds/body.html|accessdate=27 April 2014}}</ref> Discontinued models include:

*[[Olympus E-1]]
*[[Olympus E-3]]
*[[Olympus E-30]]
*[[Olympus E-620]]
*Olympus E-600
*[[Olympus E-500]]
*[[Olympus_E-510]]
*[[Olympus_E-520]]
* [[Olympus E-300]]
* [[Olympus E-330]]
*[[Olympus E-450]]
*[[Olympus E-400]]
*[[Olympus E-410]]
*[[Olympus E-420]]
*[[Panasonic Lumix DMC-L1]]

== Four Thirds system lenses ==
[[Image:FourLenses.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Four lenses for the Four Thirds system. These are three Olympus zooms (40–150 mm, 11–22 mm and 14–54 mm) and a Sigma prime (30 mm).]]
The Four Thirds [[lens mount]] is specified to be a [[Bayonet mount|bayonet]] type with a [[flange focal distance]] of 38.67 mm.

There are currently around three dozen lenses for the Four Thirds system standard.<ref name = "Wrotniak">{{Citation | url = http://www.wrotniak.net/photo/oly-e/lenses.html | last = Wrotniak | title = Lens list}}.</ref>

[[Olympus (company)|Olympus]] produces about 20 lenses for the Four Thirds system under [[Zuiko Digital]] brand. They are divided into three "grades" (Standard, High Grade and Super High Grade). High Grade lenses have faster maximum apertures but are significantly more expensive and larger, and the Super High Grade zooms have constant maximum aperture over the full zoom range; all but the Standard grade are weather-sealed. Lenses within each grade cover the range from wide-angle to super telephoto.<ref name= 'Oly lens roadmap'>{{cite web|url=http://www.olympus.co.uk/consumer/images/E-System_Lens_Roadmap.pdf |title = Olympus E-System Zuiko Digital Interchangeable Lens Roadmap |accessdate=2007-11-29 |publisher=Olympus | location = UK | format = [[PDF]] |archiveurl = http://web.archive.org/web/20071015011727/http://www.olympus.co.uk/consumer/images/E-System_Lens_Roadmap.pdf | archivedate = 2007-10-15}}</ref><ref name = 'SLRgear lens tests'>{{cite web |url=http://www.slrgear.com/reviews/showcat.php/cat/7 | publisher = SLRgear | title = Olympus Lens Tests}}</ref> The Zuiko Digital lenses are well regarded for their consistently good optics.<ref name='dpreview lens reviews'>{{cite web|url= http://www.dpreview.com/lensreviews/olympus_12-60_2p8-4_o20/page4.asp | title = Olympus Zuiko 12–60mm 1:2.8–1:4 lens review | publisher = DPReview}}</ref> The following is a table of all current Zuiko Digital lenses:<ref name = 'Zuiko digital lenses'>{{cite web|url=http://asia.olympus-imaging.com/products/dslr/lenses/ |title= Lens list | publisher = Olympus | location = Asia | accessdate = 2009-08-20}}</ref>

{| class="wikitable"
|-
!
! Wide angle
! Standard
! Telephoto
! Super telephoto
! Special-purpose
|-
| '''Standard'''
| 9–18 1:4–5.6
| 14–42 1:3.5–5.6 14–45 1:3.5–5.6 17.5–45 1:3.5–5.6 25 1:2.8 "pancake"
| 40–150 1:4–5.6
| 70–300 1:4–5.6 macro
| 35 1:3.5 macro 18–180 1:3.5-6.3 superzoom
|-
| '''High Grade'''
| 11–22 1:2.8–3.5
| 12–60 1:2.8–4 14–54 1:2.8–3.5
| 50–200 1:2.8–3.5
|
| 50 1:2 macro 8 1:3.5 fisheye
|-
| '''Super High Grade'''
| 7–14 1:4
| 14–35 1:2
| 35–100 1:2 150 1:2
| 90–250 1:2.8 300 1:2.8
|}
Olympus also makes 1.4× and 2× [[teleconverter]]s and an electronically-coupled [[extension tube]].

[[Sigma Corporation|Sigma]] has adapted 13 lenses for the Four Thirds system, ranging from 10 mm to 800 mm, including several for which no equivalent exists: the fast primes (30 mm {{f/|1.4|link=yes}} and 50 mm {{f/|1.4}}) and extreme telephoto (300–800 mm {{f/}}5.6).

[[Leica Camera|Leica]] has designed four lenses for the Four Thirds system: fast and slow normal zooms and a 14–150 mm super-zoom, all with Panasonic's image stabilization system, and an unstabilized {{f/|1.4|link=yes}} 25 mm [[prime lens|prime]]. These are manufactured and sold by Panasonic.

An official list of available lenses can be found on Four-Thirds.org web site.<ref name = "FourThirdsOfficial">{{Citation | url = http://www.four-thirds.org/en/fourthirds/lens_chart.html | publisher = Four Thirds | title = Lens list}}.</ref>

As for the system itself, it was silently discontinued in favor of the Micro Four Thirds system.

== Micro Four Thirds system ==
[[File:Olympus-MicroFT-Model.jpg|thumb|right|Concept Micro Four Thirds camera by Olympus]]
{{Main|Micro Four Thirds system}}

In August 2008, Olympus and Panasonic introduced a new format: [[Micro Four Thirds]].

The new system uses the same sensor, but removes the mirror box from the camera design. A [[live view]] preview is shown on either the camera's main [[LCD]] or via an [[electronic viewfinder]], as in digital [[compact camera]]s. Autofocus is accomplished via a [[Contrast detection autofocus|contrast-detect]] process using the main imager, again similar to digital compact cameras. The goal of the new system is to allow for even smaller cameras, competing directly with higher-end [[point-and-shoot]] compact digital cameras and lower-end DSLRs. The smaller [[flange focal distance]] allows for more compact normal and wideangle lenses. It also facilitates the use, with an adaptor, of lenses based on other mounting systems, including many manual focus lenses from the seventies and eighties.

In particular, Four Thirds lenses can be used on Micro Four Thirds bodies with an adapter, however, "all of the functions of the Micro Four Thirds System may not always be available."<ref name = "MicroFourThirdsBenefitsOfficial">[http://www.four-thirds.org/en/microft/index.html Micro Four Thirds Official] benefits list.</ref>

== See also ==

*[[Lenses for SLR and DSLR cameras]]
*[[List of lens mounts]]
*[[Video camera tube#Size]], origin of 4/3" sensor measurement

== References ==

{{Reflist|2}}

== External links ==
*[http://www.four-thirds.org Official Four Thirds System site]
*[http://patft.uspto.gov/netacgi/nph-Parser?patentnumber=6910814 Four Thirds US patent 6,910,814]; [http://www.pat2pdf.org/patents/pat6910814.pdf PDF version] (1.7 MiB)
*[http://www.wrotniak.net/photo/oly-e/index.html Andrzej Wrotniak's pages about the Four Thirds System] – includes a complete lens list
*[http://www.fourthirds-user.com/ Four Thirds User – independent site and user-community dedicated to the Four Thirds system, including Micro Four Thirds]

{{Four Thirds lenses}}
{{Olympus DSLR cameras}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Four Thirds System}}
[[Category:Four Thirds System| ]]
[[Category:Lens mounts]]
[[Category:Photography equipment]]
[[Category:Eastman Kodak]]
[[Category:Olympus Corporation]]

Derevyanko

2014-04-21T21:19:33Z

JanTurin: Yuriy D.

'''Derevyanko''' ({{lang-ru|Деревя́нко}}, {{lang-uk|Дерев'я́нко}}) is a Ukrainian surname that may refer to:

* [[Kuzma Derevyanko]] (1904–1954), Lieutenant General of the Soviet Army, Hero of Ukraine
* [[Leonid Derevyanko]], Soviet sprint canoer
* [[Pavel Derevyanko]] (born 1976), Russian actor
* [[Yuriy Derevyanko]], member of Parliament of Ukraine
* [[8984 Derevyanko]], asteroid

{{disambig}}

[[Category:Russian-language surnames]]
[[Category:Ukrainian-language surnames]]