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Custody evaluation

2017-08-16T19:15:28Z

MPrado: punctuation

{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Family law}}
'''Custody evaluation''' (also known as "parenting evaluation") is a legal process, in which a court-appointed mental health expert, evaluates a family and makes a recommendation to the court for custody, visitation and/or a parenting plan.<ref name="coord">{{cite web|url=http://www.parentingafterdivorce.com/articles/anatomy.html|title=Anatomy of a Child Custody Evaluation|author=Philip M. Stahl, PhD|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141010184227/http://www.parentingafterdivorce.com/articles/anatomy.html|archivedate=October 10, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref> When performing the custody evaluation, the evaluator is expected to act in the child's best interests.<ref name="guide1" />

==Concepts==
If the custody issue is not settled in the pre-trial procedures, and the parents have serious concerns about each other's ability to parent the children involved, a child custody evaluation may be appointed by the court, especially for the high-conflict cases.<ref name="calif">{{cite web|url=http://www.placer.courts.ca.gov/family/family_child-custody-eval.html|title=Child Custody Evaluation FL 3111 }}</ref> Many states now have laws in their statues that regulate the custody evaluator appointment and procedures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=fam&group=03001-04000&file=3010-3011|title=CALIFORNIA FAMILY.CODE SECTION 3010-3011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oregonlaws.org/ors/107.425|title=ORS 107.425}}</ref>

The Court can order either a full or a focused evaluation. Psychological testing is also sometimes ordered.<ref name="calif" /> A "full evaluation, investigation, or assessment" is a comprehensive examination of the health, safety, welfare, and best interest of the child.<ref name="calif" /> A full evaluation typically requires about 15–20 hours of the evaluator's time.<ref name="calif" /> A "focused" evaluation " is an examination of the best interest of the child that is limited by court order in either time or scope. The partial or focused evaluation requires about 12–18 hours of investigation, interviews and report preparation.<ref name="calif" /> Evaluation cost is normally established by the evaluator, but the parents can split the charges according to their court order.

[[American Psychological Association]] publishes guidelines for evaluators.<ref name="guide1">{{cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/child-custody.pdf|title=Guidelines for Child Custody Evaluations in Family|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]}}</ref> Also, Association of Family and Conciliation Courts publish guidelines which apply to the Custody Evaluators.<ref name="afcc_cust">{{cite web|url=http://www.afccnet.org/Portals/0/ModelStdsChildCustodyEvalSept2006.pdf |title=Model Standards of Practice for Child Custody Evaluation|publisher= Association of Family and Conciliation Courts }}</ref>

== Comparison with regular court procedures==
There are significant differences between custody evaluation and a regular court procedure, such as:<ref name="afcc_cust" /><ref name="hick" /><ref>Evans v. Lungrin, 708 So. 2d 731 – La: Supreme Court 1998</ref><ref name="liz" />
* Custody evaluation held by mental health expert, not a judge. The evaluation usually takes place at his/her office, not at a courthouse.
* The evaluation may include testimonies, psychological tests, child–parent observations, additional evaluations by other professionals, etc. The parties may be requested to provide some documents to the Evaluator.
* Since the custody evaluators hearings are not held in court, many rules of [[civil procedure]] and [[due process]] do not apply.
* Parents are not required to be sworn before the evaluation testimonies, unlike in court.
* Law does not explicitly guarantee a right for either party to hear another party's evaluation testimonies, so in some cases the opposite party cannot object during the evaluation testimony, even in cases when the [[List of objections (law)|objections would be permitted]] in Court testimonies.
* The custody evaluator is not obligated to record a full [[Transcript (law)|transcript]] of testimonies or provide the transcript to the other party.
* The evaluator is not obligated to provide either party with a copy of supporting documents submitted by other side during the evaluation process.
* The evaluator is not required to provide in the final recommendations a complete list of facts or legal factors on which the decision is based. Evaluators are allowed to base some conclusions on feelings, general impressions and assumptions.
* The evaluator can decide if lawyers are permitted during the testimony of the parents. The absence of the attorneys may bring the evaluation cost down, but it also can result in legal underrepresentation of either party in the proceeding.
* Court [[List of objections (law)|objection rules]] do not apply to custody evaluations, such as rules allowing parties to object to form of the questions, irrelevant questions, calls for opinions, misleading questions, prejudicial evidences, badgering, compound questions, leading questions, hearsay evidences, illegal evidences, etc.
* Attorneys are allowed to talk with the evaluator about the case in [[ex parte]] communications (i.e. out-of-court), which is forbidden for judge and jury communications with attorneys in a court proceeding.
* It may be hard to appeal evaluator's final conclusions because recommendations can be based on general impressions, and evaluators are not required to record full transcripts or provide copies of evidences on which they have based recommendations.
* Cost of the custody evaluation may be lower than cost of the regular court proceeding, especially if both parties agreed on the evaluator's recommendations and settle the dispute without of objecting the evaluation final report in court.
* Custody evaluators are protected by [[Quasi-judicial body|quasi judicial]] immunity from lawsuits which is similar to [[judicial immunity]].<ref>Hughes v. Long, 242 F. 3d 121 – Court of Appeals, 3rd Circuit 2001</ref>

== Controversy ==
The custody evaluation process does not comply with many [[due process]] rules. However, a judge can base his/her decision on the final report of the Evaluator.<ref name="liz">{{cite web|url= http://www.thelizlibrary.org/site-index/site-index-frame.html#soulhttp://www.thelizlibrary.org/liz/child-custody-evaluations.html|title= Child Custody Evaluations }}</ref> This creates a situation when testimony and evidence that normally would not be permitted in the court proceeding can become a basis for the court decision, in violation of the rules of [[civil procedure]]. For example: the Evaluator can base his final report on testimony that is not taken under oath; one party cannot hear and object to the other party's statements or evidence during evaluation; testimonies are not recorded; lawyers can be excluded; [[ex parte]] communications are not forbidden; the Evaluator is not required to provide full list of facts on which his decisions are based; the Evaluator's recommendations can be based on guess and personal feelings; etc.<ref name="liz" /> All this may infringe the legal right of a person to the procedural [[due process]], which is guaranteed by [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth]] and [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth]] Amendments to the [[United States Constitution]]. Also, non-compliance with due-process rules makes it very hard to object to the final evaluation report in higher appellate courts.

Many of the Evaluators are paid hourly, so this may potentially create a conflict of interest, because the evaluator may financially benefit from prolonging the evaluation unnecessary.<ref name="liz" /> Even when the evaluator is paid a fixed amount, he/she can order additional evaluations or proceedings to financially benefit from, and the client would be afraid to object because the evaluator can give a bad evaluation in return.<ref name="liz" /> For example, there is a possible conflict of interests when same psychologist provides custody evaluation and later recommends to appoint himself or his office partner into the [[parenting coordinator]] role, so laws in some states and AFCC guidelines explicitly prohibit this practice.<ref name="afcc">{{cite web|url=http://www.afccnet.org/Portals/0/AFCCGuidelinesforParentingcoordinationnew.pdf|title=Guidelines for Parenting Coordination|publisher= Association of Family and Conciliation Courts }}</ref> However, there is no legal prohibition for it in most states, so it is not illegal there.<ref name="hick" />

Since the custody evaluators are not lawyers, they sometime can enter legal mistakes into the recommendations, for example, there were some cases when the orders drafted based on the evaluator's recommendation were missing mandatory state requirement to set forth the minimum amount and access of parenting time for noncustodial parent, which is normally required by state laws.<ref name="hick">{{cite web|url= https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12697447749367007118 |title= IN THE MATTER OF MARRIAGE OF HICKAM AND HICKHAM, 196 P. 3d 63 – Or: Court of Appeals 2008 }}</ref><ref name="afcc" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oregonlaws.org/ors/107.102|title=ORS 107.102 Parenting plan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.opi.mt.gov/bills/mca/40/4/40-4-234.htm|title=Montana Parenting Plans|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130307085617/http://data.opi.mt.gov/bills/mca/40/4/40-4-234.htm|archivedate=March 7, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://circuitclerk.nashville.gov/circuit/forms/formcir_8_pprequirements.pdf|title=Tennessee, Minimum parenting plan requirements}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.georgiacourts.org/forms/Parenting%20PlanForm_08.pdf|title=Georgia parenting plan|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006000351/http://www.georgiacourts.org/forms/Parenting%20PlanForm_08.pdf|archivedate=October 6, 2014|df=mdy-all}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jud14.flcourts.org/CountyPrograms/FamilyLaw/Brochures/Parenting%20Plan%20Brochure.pdf|title=Florida Parenting Plan|deadurl=yes|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20130314110745/http://www.jud14.flcourts.org/CountyPrograms/FamilyLaw/Brochures/Parenting%20Plan%20Brochure.pdf|archivedate=March 14, 2013|df=mdy-all}}</ref>

Psychologist Ira Turkat notes that there is no scientific evidence whatsoever that a child custody evaluation results in a better outcome for children<ref>[http://iraturkat.com/custody-evaluations/]</ref> and reported the first research data on the subject, showing that child custody evaluations can have negative effects.<ref>[https://www.mediate.com/articles/TurkatI1.cfm]</ref> In an article in Court Review: The Journal of the American Judges Association, Turkat (2016) reported data showing that 65% of parents indicated that the child custody evaluation they participated in was not in their children's best financial interest, one in four parents found that their children experienced negative effects from the evaluation, and one in five parents reported their children were worse as a result of the child custody evaluation <ref>[http://aja.ncsc.dni.us/publications/courtrv/cr52-4/CR52-4Turkat.pdf]</ref>.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Custody Evaluator}}
[[Category:Child custody]]

Peanuts

2017-08-16T19:01:47Z

MPrado: readability

{{about|the comic strip|the legume|Peanut|other uses|Peanut (disambiguation)}}
{{Infobox comic strip
|title = Peanuts
|image = [[File:Peanuts gang.png|alt=|235px]]
|caption = '''The ''Peanuts'' gang''' '''Top row left to right:''' [[Woodstock (Peanuts)|Woodstock]], [[Snoopy]], [[Charlie Brown]] '''Bottom row left to right:''' [[Franklin (Peanuts)|Franklin]], [[Lucy van Pelt]], [[Linus van Pelt]], [[Peppermint Patty]], [[Sally Brown]]
|author = [[Charles M. Schulz]]
|website =
|rss =
|atom =
|status = Concluded, in reruns
|syndicate = '''English:''' [[United Media|United Feature Syndicate]] (October 2, 1950 – February 26, 2011) [[Universal Uclick]] (February 27, 2011 – present)
|first = October 2, 1950 (dailies), January 6, 1952 (Sundays)
|last = January 3, 2000 (dailies), February 13, 2000 (Sundays)
|genre = Humor, [[gag-a-day]], satire, children, adults
|followed by =
}}
'''''Peanuts''''' is a [[print syndication|syndicated]] [[daily strip|daily]] and [[Sunday strip|Sunday]] American [[comic strip]] written and illustrated by [[Charles M. Schulz]], which ran from October 2, 1950, to February 13, 2000, continuing in reruns afterward. The comic strip is the most popular and influential in the history of comic strips, with 17,897 strips published in all,<ref name=Bethune>{{cite journal|title=The man who recalled everything|journal=Macleans|date=October 22, 2007}}</ref> making it "arguably the longest story ever told by one human being".<ref name="Snoopy Moments">{{cite news|title=10 Of The Best Snoopy Moments To Celebrate 'Peanuts' 63rd Anniversary|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2013/10/02/peanuts-anniversary_n_4025927.html|work=3 October 2013|publisher=Huff Post Arts & Culture|accessdate=October 3, 2013|first=Katherine|last=Brooks|date=October 2, 2013}}</ref> At its peak, ''Peanuts'' ran in over 2,600 newspapers, with a readership of 355 million in 75 countries, and was translated into 21 languages.<ref>{{cite news|title=Saying Goodbye: Friends and family eulogize cartoonist Charles Schulz|date=February 22, 2000|first=Kaycee J.|last=Hofer|newspaper=[[San Francisco Chronicle]]}}</ref> It helped to cement the [[Four-panel comic|four-panel gag strip]] as the standard in the United States,<ref name="Walker">{{cite book|title=The comics: since 1945|first=Brian|last=Walker|year=2002|publisher=Harry N. Abrams, Inc.|location=New York}}</ref> and together with its merchandise earned Schulz more than $1 billion.<ref name=Bethune/> Reprints of the strip are still syndicated and run in almost every U.S. newspaper.

The strip focuses entirely on a social circle of young children, where adults [[unseen character|exist but are rarely seen or heard]]. The main character, [[Charlie Brown]], is meek, nervous, and lacks self-confidence. He is unable to fly a kite, win a [[baseball]] game, or kick a [[American football ball|football]] held by his cruel friend Lucy, who always pulls it away at the last instant.<ref>''The World Encyclopedia of Comics,'' edited by Maurice Horn, published in 1977 by Avon Books</ref>

''Peanuts'' is one of the literate strips with philosophical, psychological, and sociological overtones that flourished in the 1950s.<ref>{{Cite web|title = comic strip :: The first half of the 20th century: the evolution of the form|url = http://www.britannica.com/art/comic-strip/The-first-half-of-the-20th-century-the-evolution-of-the-form|website = Encyclopædia Britannica|accessdate = 2015-12-10}}</ref> The strip's humor (at least during its '60s peak) is psychologically complex, and the characters' interactions formed a tangle of relationships that drove the strip.

''Peanuts'' achieved considerable success with its television specials, several of which, including ''[[A Charlie Brown Christmas]]''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/1965/1965_1966emmy.htm |title=ENVELOPE |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=1965-03-07 |accessdate=2015-05-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070103171851/http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/1965/1965_1966emmy.htm |archivedate=January 3, 2007 }}</ref> and ''[[It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown]]'',<ref>{{cite web|url=http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/1966/1966_1967emmy.htm |title=ENVELOPE |newspaper=Los Angeles Times |date=1965-03-07 |accessdate=2015-05-21 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20070103171903/http://theenvelope.latimes.com/extras/lostmind/year/1966/1966_1967emmy.htm |archivedate=January 3, 2007 }}</ref> won or were nominated for [[Emmy Award]]s. The ''Peanuts'' holiday specials remain popular and are currently broadcast on [[American Broadcasting Company|ABC]] in the U.S. during the corresponding seasons. The Peanuts franchise met acclaim in theatre, with the [[stage musical]] ''[[You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown]]'' being a successful and often-performed production.

In 2013, ''[[TV Guide]]'' ranked the ''Peanuts'' television specials the fourth Greatest TV Cartoon of All Time.<ref>{{cite web|last=Sands |first=Rich |url=http://www.tvguide.com/News/Greatest-Cartoons-TV-Guide-Magazine-1071203.aspx |title=TV Guide Magazine's 60 Greatest Cartoons of All Time - Today's News: Our Take |publisher=TVGuide.com |date=2013-09-24 |accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref> A computer-animated feature film based on the strip, ''[[The Peanuts Movie]]'', was released on November 6, 2015.

==History==
===1940s===
''Peanuts'' had its origin in ''[[Li'l Folks]]'', a weekly panel comic that appeared in Schulz's hometown paper, the ''[[St. Paul Pioneer Press]]'', from 1947 to 1950. He first used the name ''Charlie Brown'' for a character there, although he applied the name in four gags to three different boys and one buried in sand. The series also had a dog that looked much like the early 1950s version of [[Snoopy]].<ref>''Li'l Folks – Charles M. Schulz: Li'l Beginnings'' Derrick Bang – With Foreword by Jean Schulz 2003 Charles M. Schulz Museum {{ISBN|0-9745709-1-5}}</ref> In 1948, Schulz sold a cartoon to ''[[The Saturday Evening Post]]'' which published 17 single-panel cartoons by Schulz. The first of these was of a boy sitting with his feet on an ottoman.

In 1948, Schulz tried to have ''Li'l Folks'' syndicated through the [[United Media|Newspaper Enterprise Association]], a firm run by the [[The E. W. Scripps Company|Scripps-Howard]] newspaper chain. Schulz would have been an independent contractor for the syndicate, unheard of in the 1940s, but the deal fell through.{{Citation needed|date=October 2011}} ''Li'l Folks'' was dropped in early 1950. Later that year, Schulz approached the [[United Feature Syndicate]] - also operated by Scripps-Howard - with his best work from ''Li'l Folks''. When his work was picked up by United Feature Syndicate, they decided to run the new comic strip he had been working on. This strip was similar in spirit to the panel comic, but it had a set cast of characters, rather than different nameless little folk for each page. The name ''Li'l Folks'' was too close to the names of two other comics of the time: [[Al Capp]]'s ''[[Li'l Abner]]'' and a strip titled ''Little Folks''. To avoid confusion, the syndicate settled on the name ''Peanuts'', after the [[peanut gallery]] featured in the ''[[Howdy Doody]]'' TV show.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.uta.edu/english/tim/lection/080105.html|title=Schulz and Peanuts|last=Morris|first=Tim|date=January 5, 2008|accessdate=November 17, 2008}}</ref>

''Peanuts'' was a title Schulz always disliked. In a 1987 interview, Schulz said of the title ''Peanuts'': "It's totally ridiculous, has no meaning, is simply confusing, and has no dignity—and I think my humor has dignity."<ref>{{cite news | first=Heather | last=McKinnon | title=Seattle's Fantagraphics Books will release 'The Complete Peanuts' | date= February 15, 2004 | publisher=The Seattle Times | url=http://seattletimes.nwsource.com/html/books/2001857267_peanuts15.html }}</ref> The periodic collections of the strips in paperback book form typically had either "Charlie Brown" or "Snoopy" in the title, not "Peanuts", because of Schulz' distaste for his strip's title. From November 20, 1966, to January 4, 1987, the opening Sunday panels typically read ''Peanuts, featuring Good Ol' Charlie Brown''.

===1950s===
[[File:First Peanuts comic.png|thumb|600px|The first strip from October 2, 1950. From left to right: Charlie Brown, Shermy, and Patty.]]

''Peanuts'' premiered on October 2, 1950, in nine newspapers: ''[[The Washington Post]], [[The Chicago Tribune]], [[The Minneapolis Tribune]]'', ''The [[Allentown, Pennsylvania|Allentown Morning]] Call'', ''The [[Bethlehem, Pennsylvania|Bethlehem]] Globe-Times'', ''[[The Denver Post]]'', ''[[The Seattle Times]]'', ''The [[New York World-Telegram & Sun]]'', and ''[[The Boston Globe]]''.{{citation needed|date=September 2016}} It began as a [[Daily comic strip|daily strip]]. The first strip was four panels long and showed Charlie Brown walking by two other young children, Shermy and Patty. Shermy lauds Charlie Brown as he walks by, but then tells Patty how he hates him in the final panel. This was groundbreaking. Until then, rarely had children expressed hatred for others in comic strips. Snoopy was also an early character in the strip, first appearing in the third strip, which ran on October 4.<ref>{{Comic strip reference|cartoonist=[[Charles Schulz|Schulz, Charles]]|strip=Peanuts|date=October 4, 1950|syndicate=United Feature Syndicate}}</ref> Its first [[Sunday strip]] appeared January 6, 1952, in the half-page format, which was the only complete format for the entire life of the Sunday strip. Most of the other characters that eventually became the main characters of Peanuts did not appear until later: Violet (February 1951), Schroeder (May 1951), Lucy (March 1952), Linus (September 1952), Pig-Pen (July 1954), Sally (August 1959), Frieda (March 1961), "Peppermint" Patty (August 1966), Woodstock (introduced April 1967; given a name in June 1970), Franklin (July 1968), Marcie (July 1971), and Rerun (March 1973).

Schulz decided to produce all aspects of the strip himself from the script to the finished art and lettering. Schulz did, however, hire help to produce the comic book adaptations of ''Peanuts''.<ref>{{cite web|author=Tom Heintjes |url=http://cartoonician.com/dale-hale-and-the-peanuts-comic-book-the-interview/ |title=Dale Hale and the "Peanuts" Comic Book: The Interview | Hogan's Alley |publisher=Cartoonician.com |date=2015-05-17 |accessdate=2015-08-08}}</ref> Thus, the strip was able to be presented with a unified tone, and Schulz was able to employ a minimalistic style. Backgrounds were generally not used, and when they were, Schulz's frazzled lines imbued them with a fraught, psychological appearance. This style has been described by art critic John Carlin as forcing "its readers to focus on subtle nuances rather than broad actions or sharp transitions."<ref name="Masters">''Masters of American Comics'' John Carlin Yale University Press 2005</ref> Schulz held this belief all his life, reaffirming in 1994 the importance of crafting the strip himself: "This is not a crazy business about slinging ink. This is a deadly serious business."<ref>{{cite web|author=Tom Heintjes |url=http://cartoonician.com/charles-m-schulz-on-cartooning/ |title=Charles M. Schulz on Cartooning | Hogan's Alley |publisher=Cartoonician.com |date=2015-05-17 |accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref>

While the strip in its early years resembles its later form, there are significant differences. The art was cleaner, sleeker, and simpler, with thicker lines and short, squat characters. For example, in these early strips, Charlie Brown's famous round head is closer to the shape of an American football or [[Rugby union ball|rugby football]]. Most of the kids were initially fairly round-headed. As another example, all the characters (except Charlie Brown) had their mouths longer and had smaller eyes when they looked sideways. 

===1960s===
The 1960s is known as the "golden age" for ''Peanuts''.<ref name=":0" /> During this period some of the most well-known themes and characters appeared, including Peppermint Patty,<ref>{{Cite web|title = Peanuts by Charles Schulz, August 22, 1966 Via @GoComics|url = http://www.gocomics.com/peanuts/1966/08/22|website = GoComics|accessdate = 2015-11-14}}</ref> Snoopy as the "World War One Flying Ace",<ref>{{Cite web|title = Peanuts by Charles Schulz, October 10, 1965 Via @GoComics|url = http://www.gocomics.com/peanuts/1965/10/10|website = GoComics|accessdate = 2015-11-14}}</ref> Frieda and her "naturally curly hair",<ref>{{Cite web|title = Peanuts by Charles Schulz, March 06, 1961 Via @GoComics|url = http://www.gocomics.com/peanuts/1961/03/06|website = GoComics|accessdate = 2015-11-14}}</ref> and Franklin.<ref>{{Cite web|title = Peanuts by Charles Schulz, July 29, 1968 Via @GoComics|url = http://www.gocomics.com/peanuts/1968/07/29|website = GoComics|accessdate = 2015-11-14}}</ref> ''Peanuts'' is remarkable for its deft [[social commentary]], especially compared with other strips appearing in the 1950s and early 1960s. Schulz did not explicitly address racial and gender equality issues so much as he assumed them to be self-evident in the first place. Peppermint Patty's athletic skill and self-confidence is simply taken for granted, for example, as is Franklin's presence in a racially integrated school and neighborhood. (Franklin came about at least in part as a result of Schulz's correspondence in 1968 with a socially progressive fan.<ref name=HogansAlley>{{cite web|author=Tom Heintjes |url=http://cartoonician.com/crossing-the-color-line-in-black-and-white-franklin-in-peanuts/ |title=Crossing the Color Line (in Black and White): Franklin in "Peanuts" | Hogan's Alley |publisher=Cartoonician.com |date=2015-05-17 |accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref><ref name=Snopes>Evon, Dan (December 24, 2015). [http://www.snopes.com/charlie-brown-racist-franklin/ "You're a Racist, Charlie Brown?: A closer look at allegations of racism in the comic strip 'Peanuts'"]. [[Snopes.com]].</ref>) The fact that Charlie Brown's baseball team had three girls was also at least ten years ahead of its time (and in fact, the 1966 TV special ''[[Charlie Brown's All-Stars]]'' dealt with Charlie Brown refusing sponsorship of the team because the sponsor said the league does not allow girls or dogs to play).

Schulz would throw satirical barbs at any number of topics when he chose. Over the years he tackled everything from the [[Vietnam War]] to school dress codes to the "[[New math]]." One strip on May 20, 1962, even had an icon that stated "Defend Freedom, Buy US Savings Bonds."<ref>{{Cite web|title = Peanuts by Charles Schulz, May 20, 1962 Via @GoComics|url = http://www.gocomics.com/peanuts/1962/05/20|website = GoComics|accessdate = 2015-11-14}}</ref> In 1963 he added a little boy named "[[5 (Peanuts)|5]]" to the cast,<ref>{{Cite web|title = Peanuts by Charles Schulz, September 30, 1963 Via @GoComics|url = http://www.gocomics.com/peanuts/1963/09/30|website = GoComics|accessdate = 2015-11-14}}</ref> whose sisters were named "3" and "4,"<ref>{{Cite web|title = Peanuts by Charles Schulz, October 01, 1963 Via @GoComics|url = http://www.gocomics.com/peanuts/1963/10/01|website = GoComics|accessdate = 2015-11-14}}</ref> and whose father had changed their [[family name]] to their [[ZIP Code]], giving in to the way numbers were taking over people's identities. In 1958, a strip in which Snoopy tossed Linus into the air and boasted that he was the first dog ever to launch a human, parodied the hype associated with Sputnik 2's launch of "[[Laika]]" the dog into space earlier that year. Another sequence lampooned [[Little League]]s and "organized" play when all the neighborhood kids join [[snowman]]-building leagues and criticize Charlie Brown when he insists on building his own snowmen without leagues or coaches.

''Peanuts'' touched on religious themes on many occasions, most notably the classic television special ''[[A Charlie Brown Christmas]]'' in 1965, which features the character [[Linus van Pelt]] quoting the [[King James Version of the Bible]] (Luke 2:8–14) to explain to Charlie Brown what Christmas is all about (in personal interviews, Schulz mentioned that Linus represented his spiritual side). Because of the explicit religious material in ''A Charlie Brown Christmas'', many have interpreted Schulz' work as having a distinct Christian theme, though the popular perspective has been to view the franchise through a secular lens.<ref>{{Citation |last=Lind |first=Stephen J. |title=Reading Peanuts: The Secular and the Sacred |url=http://www.english.ufl.edu/imagetext/archives/v4_2/lind/ |accessdate=August 31, 2010 |publisher=[[ImageTexT]]}}</ref>

During the week of July 29, 1968, Schulz debuted the African-American character Franklin to the strip, at the urging of white Los Angeles schoolteacher Harriet Glickman. Though Schulz feared that adding a black character would be seen as patronizing to the African-American community, Glickman convinced him that the addition of black characters could help normalize the idea of friendships between children of different ethnicities. Franklin appeared in a trio of strips set at a beach, in which he first greets Charlie Brown's beach ball from the water and subsequently helps him build a sand castle, during which he mentions that his father is in Vietnam. He never occupies the same panel, however, with the Caucasian Sally.<ref name=HogansAlley/><ref name=Snopes/>

===1970s–1990s===
In 1975, the panel format was shortened slightly horizontally, and shortly after the lettering became larger to accommodate the shrinking format. Previously, the daily ''Peanuts'' strips were formatted in a four-panel "space saving" format beginning in the 1950s, with a few very rare eight-panel strips, that still fit into the four-panel mold. Beginning on [[Leap Day]] in 1988, Schulz abandoned the four-panel format in favor of three-panel dailies and occasionally used the entire length of the strip as one panel, partly for experimentation, but also to combat the dwindling size of the comics page.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}} Later in the 90s, Schulz abandoned the early characters Patty, Violet, Pigpen and Franklin (possibly because Schulz focused more on the major characters Charlie Brown, Sally, Linus, Lucy, Snoopy, and Woodstock) due to his concentration on the limit of the characters.

Schulz drew the strip for nearly 50 years, with no assistants, even in the lettering and coloring process.<ref>Yoe, Craig, ''Clean Cartoonists' Dirty Drawings.'' San Francisco, Calif.: Last Gasp, 2007, p. 36; Michaelis, David, ''Schulz and Peanuts: A Biography.'' New York: HarperPerennial, 2008, p. ix.</ref>

In the late 1970s, during Schulz' negotiations with [[United Feature Syndicate]] over a new contract, syndicate president William C. Payette hired superhero comic artist [[Al Plastino]] to draw a backlog of ''Peanuts'' strips to hold in reserve in case Schulz left the strip. When Schulz and the syndicate reached a successful agreement, United Media stored these unpublished strips, the existence of which eventually became public.<ref>{{cite web | title = Comic Book Legends Revealed #401 | first = Brian | last = Cronin |date = January 11, 2013 | publisher = [[Comic Book Resources]] | url = http://goodcomics.comicbookresources.com/2013/01/11/comic-book-legends-revealed-401/ | accessdate = May 7, 2013 | archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20130116063259/http://goodcomics.comicbookresources.com/2013/01/11/comic-book-legends-revealed-401/ | archivedate = January 16, 2013 | deadurl = no}}</ref> Plastino himself also claimed to have ghostwritten for Schulz, apparently uncredited, while Schulz underwent heart surgery in 1983.<ref name=Al>{{cite web|url=http://www.alplastino.com/alplastino/About_Al.html |title=About Al|publisher=Al Plastino (official site) | archivedate= July 7, 2011| archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20110707115920/http://www.alplastino.com/alplastino/About_Al.html | deadurl = no}}</ref>

In the 1980s and the 1990s, the strip remained the most popular comic in history,<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.4to40.com/recordbook/index.asp?id=322&category=human | title=Most Syndicated Comic Strip, Peanuts, Charles Schulz, USA |accessdate=June 9, 2007}}</ref> even though other comics, such as ''[[Garfield]]'' and ''[[Calvin and Hobbes]]'', rivaled ''Peanuts'' in popularity. Schulz continued to write the strip up until announcing his retirement, on December 14, 1999, due to his failing health.

===2000: The End of ''Peanuts''===
{{refimprove section|date=September 2016}}
[[File:Last peanuts comic.png|thumb|500x500px|Final [[Sunday strip]], which came out February 13, 2000: a day after the death of Charles M. Schulz]]

The final daily original ''Peanuts'' comic strip was published on Monday, January 3, 2000. The strip contained a note to the readers of the strip from Schulz and a drawing of Snoopy, with his trusty typewriter, sitting atop his doghouse deep in thought. Beginning the next day, a rerun package premiered in papers that had elected to pick it up (see below). Although Schulz did not draw any daily strips that were to run past January 3, he had drawn five extra Sunday strips and these had yet to run. The first of these strips appeared six days after the last daily on January 9.

On February 13, 2000, the day following Schulz's death, the last-ever new ''Peanuts'' strip ran in papers. The strip, which was three panels in length, began with Charlie Brown answering the phone with someone on the end presumably asking for Snoopy. Charlie Brown responded with "No, I think he's writing." The panel next to shows Snoopy sitting at his typewriter with the opening to a letter, addressed as "Dear Friends". The final panel features a large blue sky background over which several drawings from past strips are placed. Underneath those drawings is a colorized version of Schulz's January 3 strip, with almost the same note he wrote to the fans which reads as follows:

''{{quote|Dear Friends, 
''I have been fortunate to draw Charlie Brown and his friends for almost fifty years. It has been the fulfillment of my childhood ambition. 
''Unfortunately, I am no longer able to maintain the schedule demanded by a daily comic strip. My family does not wish "Peanuts" to be [[Zombie strip|continued by anyone else]], therefore I am announcing my retirement. 
''I have been grateful over the years for the loyalty of our editors and the wonderful support and love expressed to me by fans of the comic strip. 
''Charlie Brown, Snoopy, Linus, Lucy... how can I ever forget them... 
— Charles M. Schulz}}''

Many other cartoonists paid tribute to ''Peanuts'' and Schulz by homages in their own strips, appearing on February 13, 2000, or in the week beforehand.<ref>{{cite news | date=May 28, 2000 | title=Comic strips hail spark of 'Peanuts' creator | publisher=[[Deseret News]] | url=http://www.deseretnews.com/article/762780/Comic-strips-hail-spark-of-Peanuts-creator.html | access-date=June 2, 2017}}</ref> The comic was reprinted the day after that, but only had the farewell letter. After ''Peanuts'' ended, United Feature Syndicate began offering the newspapers that ran it a package of reprinted strips under the title ''Classic Peanuts''. The syndicate limited the choices to either strips from the 1960s or from the 1990s, although a newspaper was also given the option to carry both reprint packages if it desired. All Sunday strips in the package, however, come from the 1960s.

Despite the end of the strip, ''Peanuts'' continues to be prevalent in multiple media, through widespread syndication, the publication of ''The Complete Peanuts'', the release of several new television specials (all of which Schulz had worked on, but had not finished, before his death), and [[Peanuts Motion Comics]]. Additionally, [[BOOM! Studios]] has published a series of comic books, which feature new material by new writers and artists, although some of the new material is based on classic Schulz stories from decades past, as well as including some classic strips by Schulz, mostly Sunday color strips.

Universal Uclick's website, GoComics.com, announced on January 5, 2015, that they would be launching "Peanuts Begins", a feature rerunning the entire history of the strip from the beginning, in colorized form. This was done to honor the sixty-fifth anniversary of the debut of ''Peanuts''.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://blogs.gocomics.com/2015/01/new-comic-alert-peanuts-begins-by-charles-schulz-.html|title=New Comic Alert! Peanuts Begins by Charles Schulz|publisher=|accessdate=December 30, 2016}}</ref>

====Peanuts Worldwide, LLC====
On June 3, 2010, United Media sold all its Peanuts-related assets, including its strips and branding, to a new company, '''Peanuts Worldwide, LLC''', a joint venture of the [[Iconix Brand Group]] (which owned 80 percent) and Charles M. Schulz Creative Associates (20 percent). In addition, United Media sold its United Media Licensing arm, which represents licensing for its other properties, to Peanuts Worldwide.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/iconix-brand-group-closes-acquisition-of-peanuts-95534994.html |title=Iconix Brand Group Closes Acquisition of Peanuts - NEW YORK, June 3 /PRNewswire-FirstCall/ |publisher=Prnewswire.com |date= |accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.licensemag.com/licensemag/Entertainment/Iconix-Forms-Peanuts-Worldwide/ArticleStandard/Article/detail/672956 |title=Iconix Forms Peanuts Worldwide | License! Global |publisher=Licensemag.com |date= |accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref> United Feature Syndicate continued to syndicate the strip, until February 27, 2011, when [[Universal Uclick]] took over syndication, ending United Media's 60-plus-years stewardship of Peanuts.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2010/09/10/AR2010091005905.html|title='Peanuts' comics strip will leave syndicate in February for Universal Uclick|date=September 11, 2010|first=Michael|last=Cavna|newspaper=The Washington Post|accessdate=November 11, 2010}}</ref>

In May 2017, [[DHX Media]] announced that it would acquire Iconix's entertainment brands, including the 80% stake of Peanuts Worldwide and full rights to the [[Strawberry Shortcake]] brand, for $345 million.<ref name="variety-dhxiconix">{{cite web|title=DHX Media Acquires ‘Peanuts’ in $345 Million Purchase of Iconix|url=http://variety.com/2017/tv/global/dhx-media-acquires-peanuts-in-345-million-purchase-of-iconix-1202422001/|website=Variety|accessdate=10 May 2017}}</ref> DHX officially took control of the properties on June 30, 2017.<ref>http://www.marketwired.com/press-release/dhx-media-closes-acquisition-of-peanuts-and-strawberry-shortcake-nasdaq-dhxm-2224686.htm</ref>

==Characters==
{{Main article|List of Peanuts characters}}
[[File:Charlie Brown.png|left|thumb|Charlie Brown, the star of ''Peanuts''.]]
The initial cast of ''Peanuts'' was small, featuring only [[Charlie Brown]], [[Shermy (Peanuts)|Shermy]], [[Patty (Peanuts)|Patty]] (not to be confused with [[Peppermint Patty]]) and (two days after the release of the first strip) a [[beagle]], [[Snoopy]]. The first addition, [[Violet Gray|Violet]], was made on February 7, 1951. Other character introductions that soon followed were [[Schroeder (Peanuts)|Schroeder]], on May 30, 1951, as a baby; [[Lucy van Pelt|Lucy]], on March 3, 1952; Lucy's baby brother [[Linus van Pelt|Linus]], on September 19, 1952 (after his existence was first mentioned back on July 14); and [[Pig-Pen]], on July 13, 1954.

Though the strip did not have a lead character at the onset, it soon began to focus on Charlie Brown, a character developed from some of the painful experiences of Schulz' formative years. In early strips, Charlie Brown was depicted as distinctly younger than his cohorts Patty and Shermy. Charlie Brown's main characteristic is either self-defeating stubbornness or admirably determined persistence to try his best against all odds: he can never win a ballgame but continues playing baseball; he can never fly a [[kite flying|kite]] successfully but continues trying to do so. Though his [[inferiority complex]] was evident from the start, in the earlier strips he also got in his own jabs when verbally sparring with Patty and Shermy. Some early strips also involved [[romantic love|romantic]] attractions between Charlie Brown and Patty or Violet. On September 1, 1958, Charlie Brown's father was formally revealed to be a barber (after earlier instances in the strip that linked Charlie Brown to barbers by implication). In 1960, the now popular line of Charlie Brown greeting cards was introduced by [[Hallmark Cards]]. Charlie Brown and Snoopy reached new heights on May 18, 1969, as they became the names of the command module and lunar module, respectively, for [[Apollo 10]].

As the years went by, Shermy, Patty, and Violet appeared less often and were demoted to supporting roles (eventually disappearing from the strip in 1969, 1976, and 1984 respectively, although Patty and Violet were still seen as late as November 27, 1997), while new major characters were introduced. Schroeder, Lucy van Pelt, and her brother Linus debuted as very young children—with Schroeder and Linus both in diapers and pre-verbal. Snoopy also started to verbalize his thoughts via [[thought bubble]]s.

One recurring theme in the strip is Charlie Brown's neighborhood baseball team. Charlie Brown is the [[player-manager]] of the team and, usually, its [[pitcher]], and [[Schroeder (Peanuts)|Schroeder]] is the [[catcher]]. The other characters of the strip comprise the rest of the team, including Linus playing as [[second baseman]] and Lucy as [[right fielder]]. Charlie Brown is a terrible pitcher, often giving up tremendous hits which either knock him off the mound or undresses him, leaving only his shorts on. The team itself is also poor, with only Snoopy, at [[shortstop]], being particularly competent. Because of this, the team consistently loses. However, while the team is often referred to as "win-less," it does win several games over the course of the strip's run, most of these when Charlie Brown is ''not'' playing, a fact that Charlie Brown finds highly dispiriting.<ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.apeanutscollectorclub.com/peantfaq.txt | title=Peanuts FAQ | accessdate=October 1, 2006}}</ref>

In the late 1950s, Snoopy, a character previously minor, began to have a gradual increase in appearance, and in the 1960s, he became a major character. The naming of the command module and lunar module for [[Apollo 10]] – "Charlie Brown" and "Snoopy" respectively, as mentioned earlier in this text, is testament to the character's standing at that time. Many of the strips from the 1960s onwards revolve around Snoopy's active, [[Walter Mitty]]-like fantasy life, in which he would imagine himself in various roles, including a World War I Flying Ace, a World Famous author, and a college student named Joe Cool. Although the names give his imaginary roles self-praise, he fails in his fantasies.

Schulz continued to introduce new characters into the strip, particularly including a tomboyish, freckle-faced, shorts-and-sandals-wearing girl named Patricia Reichardt, better known as "Peppermint" Patty. Peppermint Patty is an assertive, Tomboyish, athletic but rather obtuse girl who shakes up Charlie Brown's world by calling him "Chuck", flirting with him and giving him compliments he is not so sure he deserves. She also brings in a new group of friends (and heads a rival baseball team), including the strip's first black character, [[Franklin (Peanuts)|Franklin]]; a Mexican-Swedish kid named [[José Peterson]], and Peppermint Patty's bookish sidekick [[Marcie (Peanuts)|Marcie]], who calls Peppermint Patty "Sir" and Charlie Brown "Charles" and sometimes "Chuck" (most characters only referred to him as "Charlie Brown", though he was known as "Charles" to [[Eudora (Peanuts)|Eudora]], "big brother" to his sister [[Sally Brown]], "that round-headed kid" to Snoopy, and as "Brownie Charles" to [[Peggy Jean]] after misspeaking his name out of nervousness).

Several additional family members of the characters were also introduced: Charlie Brown's younger sister [[Sally Brown|Sally]], who became fixated on Linus; Linus and Lucy van Pelt's younger brother [[Rerun van Pelt|Rerun]], who almost always found himself on the back of his mother's bike for a time; and [[Spike (Peanuts)|Spike]], Snoopy's desert-dwelling brother from [[Needles, California]], who was apparently named for Schulz' own childhood dog. Snoopy also had [[Snoopy's siblings|six other siblings]], and a total of five of his siblings made some appearances in the strip (his brothers Andy, Olaf, and Marbles (in addition to Spike) and his sister Belle).

Other notable characters include Snoopy's friend Woodstock, a bird whose chirping is represented in print as hash marks but is nevertheless clearly understood by Snoopy; three of [[List of minor characters in Peanuts#Woodstock's bird friends|Woodstock's buddies]] who usually appeared when on a scouting trip with Snoopy as their scout leader; Pig-Pen, the perpetually dirty boy who could raise a cloud of dust on a clean sidewalk, in a snowstorm, or inside a building; and [[Frieda (Peanuts)|Frieda]], a girl proud of her "naturally curly hair," and who owned a cat named [[List of minor characters in Peanuts#Faron|Faron]], much to Snoopy's chagrin (the way Faron hung over Frieda's arms prompted Snoopy to comment that they had "finally developed a boneless cat").

''Peanuts'' had several recurring characters that were actually absent from view. Some, such as the [[The Great Pumpkin|Great Pumpkin]] or [[Manfred von Richthofen]] (the [[Red Baron]]), were merely figments of the cast's imaginations. Others were not imaginary, such as the [[Little Red-Haired Girl]] (Charlie Brown's perennial dream girl who finally appeared in 1998, but only in silhouette), [[Joe Shlabotnik]] (Charlie Brown's baseball hero), World War II (the vicious cat who lives next door to Snoopy—not to be confused with Frieda's cat, [[List of minor characters in Peanuts#Faron|Faron]]), and Charlie Brown's unnamed [[pen pal]], referred to as his "pencil-pal" after Charlie Brown's failed mastery of the fountain pen. Adult figures only appeared in the strip during a four-week Sunday-comic sequence in 1954 in which Lucy plays in an amateur golf tournament, with Charlie Brown "coaching" her. At no time, however, were any adult faces seen (it was also in this story that Lucy's family name, "van Pelt", was first revealed.) There are adult voices in a few of the strips in its early years.

Schulz also added some fantastical characters, sometimes imbuing inanimate objects with sparks of life. Charlie Brown's nemesis, the [[Kite-Eating Tree]], is one example. Sally Brown's school building, that expressed thoughts and feelings about the students (and the general business of being a brick building), is another. Linus' famous "[[security blanket]]" also displayed occasional signs of [[anthropomorphism]]. Another example is Charlie Brown's pitching mound, which at times would express thoughts and opinions ("Why don't you learn how to pitch, you stupid kid?").

==Critical reception and legacy==
Schulz received the [[National Cartoonist Society]] Humor Comic Strip Award for ''Peanuts'' in 1962, the [[Reuben Award]] in 1955 and 1964 (the first cartoonist to receive the honor twice), the [[Elzie Segar]] Award in 1980, and the [[Milton Caniff]] Lifetime Achievement Award in 1999. ''[[A Charlie Brown Christmas]]'' won a [[Peabody Award]] and an [[Emmy]]; ''Peanuts'' cartoon specials have received a total of two [[Peabody Awards]] and four [[Emmy Awards|Emmys]]. For his work on the strip, Charles Schulz (along with Snoopy) are credited with a star on the [[Hollywood Walk of Fame]] and a place in the [[William Randolph Hearst]] Cartoon Hall of Fame. ''Peanuts'' was featured on the cover of ''[[Time (magazine)|Time]]'' on April 9, 1965, with the accompanying article praising the strip as being "the leader of a refreshing new breed that takes an unprecedented interest in the basics of life."<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,898627,00.html |title=Comics: Good Grief |publisher=TIME.com |date=1965-04-09 |accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref>

The strip was declared second in a list of the "greatest comics of the 20th century" commissioned by ''[[The Comics Journal]]'' in 1999.<ref>Tom Spurgeon, Art Spiegelman, Bart Beatty et al., "The Top 100 English-Language Comics of the Century," ''[[The Comics Journal]]'' 210 (February 1999)</ref> ''Peanuts'' lost out to [[George Herriman]]'s ''[[Krazy Kat]]'', a strip Schulz admired (and in fact was among his biggest inspirations), and he accepted the positioning in good grace, to the point of agreeing with the result.<ref>{{cite press release | title =Fantagraphics Books to publish "The Complete Peanuts" by Charles M. Schumtz | publisher =Fantagraphics | date =October 13, 2003 | url =http://www.snoopy.com/comics/peanuts/news/news_101303.html | accessdate =November 30, 2006 }}</ref> In 2002 ''[[TV Guide]]'' declared Snoopy and Charlie Brown equal 8th<ref>{{cite press release | title =D'oh! Bugs Bunny Edges Out Homer Simpson | publisher =TV Guide | date =July 26, 2002 }}</ref> in their list of "Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time",<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archives.cnn.com/2002/SHOWBIZ/TV/07/30/cartoon.characters.list/ |title=Breaking News, U.S., World, Weather, Entertainment & Video News - CNN.com |publisher=Archives.cnn.com |date= |accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref> published to commemorate their 50th anniversary.

Cartoon tributes have appeared in other comic strips since Schulz' death in 2000, and are now displayed at the [[Charles Schulz Museum]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Hilton |first=Spud |title=Peanuts fan blankets Sparky's Santa Rosa |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2002/09/29/TR159136.DTL |accessdate=October 12, 2007 |work=San Francisco Chronicle | date=September 29, 2002}}</ref> In May 2000, many cartoonists included a reference to ''Peanuts'' in their own strips. Originally planned as a tribute to Schulz' retirement, after his death that February it became a tribute to his life and career. Similarly, on October 30, 2005, several comic strips again included references to ''Peanuts'' and specifically the ''It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown'' television special.

The December 1997 issue of ''The Comics Journal'' featured an extensive collection of testimonials to ''Peanuts.'' Over forty cartoonists, from mainstream newspaper cartoonists to underground, independent comic artists, shared reflections on the power and influence of Schulz' art. [[Gilbert Hernandez]] wrote "''Peanuts'' was and still is for me a revelation. It's mostly from ''Peanuts'' where I was inspired to create the village of Palomar in ''Love and Rockets''. Schulz' characters, the humor, the insight... gush, gush, gush, bow, bow, bow, grovel, grovel, grovel..." [[Tom Batiuk]] wrote: "The influence of Charles Schulz on the craft of cartooning is so pervasive it is almost taken for granted." Batiuk also described the depth of emotion in ''Peanuts'': "Just beneath the cheerful surface were vulnerabilities and anxieties that we all experienced, but were reluctant to acknowledge. By sharing those feelings with us, Schulz showed us a vital aspect of our common humanity, which is, it seems to me, the ultimate goal of great art."<ref>"'Dear Sparky...' Comic Artists From Across the Medium on the Legendary Cartoonist and Creator of Peanuts," The Comics Journal, December 1997</ref>

In 2001, the [[Sonoma County, California|Sonoma County]] Board of Supervisors renamed the [[Sonoma County Airport]], located a few miles northwest of [[Santa Rosa, California]], the [[Charles M. Schulz - Sonoma County Airport|Charles M. Schulz Airport]] in his honor. The airport's logo features Snoopy as the World War I Flying Ace (goggles/scarf), taking to the skies on top of his red doghouse (the ''Sopwith Camel''). A bronze statue of Charlie Brown and Snoopy stands in Depot Park in downtown Santa Rosa.<ref>{{Citation |last=Russell |first=Sabin |title=No laughing matter: statue of 'Charlie Brown' missing |url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2005/06/06/BAGKUD46RI1.DTL |accessdate=October 12, 2007 |work=San Francisco Chronicle | date=June 6, 2005}}</ref>

Schulz was included in the touring exhibition "Masters of American Comics" based on his achievements in the art form while producing the strip. His gag work is hailed as being "psychologically complex," and his style on the strip is noted as being "perfectly in keeping with the style of its times."<ref name="Masters"/>

Despite the widespread acclaim generated by ''Peanuts'' as a whole, some critics have alleged a decline in the strip's quality in the later years of its run, as Schulz frequently digressed from the more cerebral socio-psychological themes that characterized his earlier work in favor of lighter, more whimsical fare. For example, in an essay published in the ''[[New York Press]]'' at the time of the final daily strip in January 2000, "Against Snoopy," [[Christopher Caldwell]] argued that the character of Snoopy, and the strip's increased focus on him in the 1970s, "went from being the strip's besetting artistic weakness to ruining it altogether".<ref name=":0">{{cite web |url=http://nypress.com/against-snoopy/ |title=Against Snoopy |work=New York Press |first=Christopher |last=Caldwell |date=January 4, 2000}}</ref>

==Television and film productions==
{{Main article|Peanuts filmography}}
Video rights to all the films and TV specials were licensed by [[Media Home Entertainment]] and Kartes Video Communications in the 1980s. In the early 1990s, the rights were acquired by [[Paramount Pictures]] and the company released all of the TV specials under their [[Paramount Home Media Distribution|Paramount Home Video]] label. The distribution rights to the TV specials are now with [[Warner Bros. Television]] and [[Warner Home Video]], who purchased the rights from Paramount in 2007 and managed by its [[Warner Bros. Television Animation|classic animation division]]. Paramount holds the home media rights to all four theatrical releases, having acquired the rights to ''[[A Boy Named Charlie Brown]]'' and ''[[Snoopy, Come Home]]'' following the merger of its parent [[Viacom]] with [[CBS]]; CBS' former subsidiary [[Cinema Center Films]] released the first two films in theaters and [[CBS/Fox Video]] released them on home video while Paramount handled production and home video distribution ''[[Race for Your Life, Charlie Brown]]'' and ''[[Bon Voyage, Charlie Brown (and Don't Come Back!!)]]''. The two companies do not share distribution of the films on television; [[CBS Television Distribution]] handles the first two films while [[Trifecta Entertainment and Media]] handles the later two.

===1959–1965: Beginnings===
In addition to the strip and numerous books, the ''Peanuts'' characters have appeared in animated form on television numerous times. This started when the [[Ford Motor Company]] licensed the characters in early 1959 for a series of color television commercials for its automobiles and intros for ''[[The Ford Show|The Tennessee Ernie Ford Show]]'' which they sponsored. While the show ended in 1961, the deal lasted another three years. The ads were animated by [[Bill Meléndez]] for Playhouse Pictures, a cartoon studio that had Ford as a client. Schulz and Meléndez became friends, and when producer [[Lee Mendelson]] decided to make a two-minute animated sequence for a TV documentary called ''[[A Boy Named Charlie Brown (TV special)|A Boy Named Charlie Brown]]'' in 1963, he brought on Meléndez for the project.

===1965–1971: Television specials and theatrical films===
Before the documentary was completed, the three of them (with help from their sponsor, the [[Coca-Cola]] Company) produced their first half-hour animated special, the Emmy- and Peabody Award-winning ''[[A Charlie Brown Christmas]]'', which was first aired on the [[CBS]] network on December 9, 1965. This episode is undoubtedly the most widely recognized of all ''Peanuts'' TV specials. This came after Coca-Cola asked Mendelson if he had a Christmas special. He said "yes." The next day he called Schulz up and said they were making ''A Charlie Brown Christmas''.

The animated version of ''Peanuts'' differs in some aspects from the strip. In the strip, adult voices are heard, though conversations are usually only depicted from the children's end. To translate this aspect to the animated medium, the sound of a [[trombone]] with a [[Mute (music)#Solo-tone|solotone mute]] (created by [[Vince Guaraldi]] {{citation needed|date=September 2014}} played by [[Dean Hubbard]] <ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/JustForBrass/posts/10151559984653746 |title=Just for Brass - Music Fact of the Day: The noise of... |publisher=Facebook.com |date=2013-04-18 |accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref><ref>http://trombone.org/trombone-l/archives/0002/000216.txt</ref>) was used to simulate adult "voices." A more significant deviation from the strip was the treatment of Snoopy. In the strip, the dog's thoughts are verbalized in [[thought balloon]]s; in animation, he is typically mute, his thoughts communicated through growls or laughs (voiced by [[Bill Meléndez]]), and [[mime|pantomime]], or by having human characters verbalizing his thoughts for him. These treatments have both been abandoned temporarily in the past. For example, they experimented with teacher dialogue in ''She's a Good Skate, Charlie Brown''. The elimination of Snoopy's "voice" is probably the most controversial aspect of the adaptations, but Schulz apparently approved of the treatment.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}


The success of ''A Charlie Brown Christmas'' was the impetus for CBS to air many more prime-time ''Peanuts'' specials over the years, beginning with ''[[Charlie Brown's All-Stars]]'' and ''[[It's the Great Pumpkin, Charlie Brown]]'' in 1966. In total, more than thirty animated specials were produced. Until his death in 1976, jazz pianist [[Vince Guaraldi]] composed musical scores for the specials; in particular, the piece "[[Linus and Lucy]]" which has become popularly known as the signature theme song of the ''Peanuts'' franchise.
Schulz, Mendelson and Meléndez also collaborated on four theatrical feature films starring the characters, the first of which was ''[[A Boy Named Charlie Brown]]'' (1969). Most of these made use of material from Schulz' strips, which were then adapted, although in other cases plots were developed around areas where there were minimal strips to reference.

===1971–1976: Final golden years===
The 1971 TV special ''[[Play It Again, Charlie Brown]]'' was the first time that someone other than Peter Robbins voiced Charlie Brown which in this case was Chris Inglis. The characters voices were slightly deeper than usual. It would be like that for the rest of the TV specials.
In 1972, the second feature film ''[[Snoopy, Come Home]]'' was released. This was the first time that Snoopy's thoughts were communicated to the audiences. The film's theme of loss made it have as much sadness as any animation centering on Charlie Brown. Snoopy and Charlie Brown's parting, Charlie Brown's inability to cope without his friend, and Snoopy's farewell to his former owner Lila are often pointed out as poignant moments in the history of Peanuts.
Starting with ''[[A Charlie Brown Thanksgiving]]'', [[Phil Roman]] would direct the specials.
''[[It's Arbor Day, Charlie Brown]]'' was the last special produced during Vince Guaraldi's lifetime as he died two months before this special aired. It was dedicated to him.

===1977–1981: Post-Guaraldi era===
[[Ed Bogas]] composed the musical scores of Peanuts movies television specials 1977 until 1989. [[Judy Munsen]] composed the musical scores alongside [[Ed Bogas]] from 1977 until 1992. [[Desirée Goyette]] briefly composed the musical scores on and off during the 1980s.
''[[Race for Your Life, Charlie Brown]]'' was the first project done after Guaraldi's death. It used the same voice cast as ''[[You're a Good Sport, Charlie Brown]]''.
''[[It's Your First Kiss, Charlie Brown]]'' and ''[[What a Nightmare, Charlie Brown!]]'' featured Linus & Lucy arrangement's Ed Bogas and Judy Munsen.

===1982–1990: Vignettes and musicals===
Starting with ''[[A Charlie Brown Celebration]]'' [[Bill Melendez]] would direct the specials again.
''[[A Charlie Brown Celebration]]'', ''[[It's an Adventure, Charlie Brown]]'', and ''[[The Charlie Brown and Snoopy Show]]'' all had vignettes while ''[[It's Flashbeagle, Charlie Brown]]'', ''[[You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown (TV special)|You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown]]'', and ''[[Snoopy!!! The Musical (TV special)|Snoopy!!! The Musical]]'' were musicals though there were two songs in ''[[Happy New Year, Charlie Brown!]]''. ''[[It's the Girl in the Red Truck, Charlie Brown]]'' was the only special during this period in which Ed Bogas, Judy Munsen, or Desiree Goyette weren't involved in music production with Paul Rodriquez as the composer. The former and latter would stop scoring the specials in 1990.

===1990–2000: Charles M. Schulz's final years===
[[David Benoit (musician)|David Benoit]] redid [[Vince Guaraldi]]'s musical scores from 1992 until 2006. Since then, various composers have composed the musical scores in more recent productions.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}}
By the mid-1990s, the specials' popularity had begun to wane, and CBS showed disinterest in new specials, even rejecting ''[[It's Spring Training, Charlie Brown]]'' completely. An eight-episode TV [[miniseries]] called ''[[This is America, Charlie Brown]]'', for instance, was released during a writer's strike. Also, NBC aired ''[[You're in the Super Bowl, Charlie Brown]]'' in 1994 (the first special not to air on CBS) ten days before [[Super Bowl XXVIII]]. Eventually, the last ''Peanuts'' specials made during Schulz' lifetime were released direct-to-video, and no new ones were created until after the year 2000 when ABC obtained the rights to the three fall holiday specials. The [[Nickelodeon]] cable network re-aired a package of most of the specials produced before 1992, as well as ''The Charlie Brown and Snoopy Show'' and ''This Is America, Charlie Brown'', under the umbrella title ''You're on Nickelodeon, Charlie Brown'' between 1997 and 2001.

===2000–present: new specials===
Eight ''Peanuts''-based specials have been made posthumously. Of these, three are tributes to ''Peanuts'' or other ''Peanuts'' specials, and five are completely new specials based on dialogue from the strips and ideas given to ABC by Schulz before his death. ''[[He's a Bully, Charlie Brown]]'', was telecast on ABC on November 20, 2006, following a repeat broadcast of ''[[A Charlie Brown Thanksgiving]]''. Airing 43 years after the first special, the premiere of ''He's a Bully, Charlie Brown'' was watched by nearly 10 million viewers, winning its time slot and beating a [[Madonna (entertainer)|Madonna]] concert special.<ref>{{cite news|title=Charlie Brown Feasts, Madonna Gets the Crumbs|first=Lisa|last=de Moraes|date=November 29, 2006|work=[[The Washington Post]]|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/28/AR2006112801854_pf.html}}</ref> In the 2010 [[Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade]], it was announced that a new ''Peanuts'' animated special, ''[[Happiness Is a Warm Blanket, Charlie Brown]]'', would debut in 2011. The special was released on DVD first, on March 29, 2011, and later premiered on [[Fox Broadcasting Company|Fox]], on November 24, 2011.

Many of the specials and feature films have also been released on various [[home video]] formats over the years. To date, 20 of the specials, the two films ''[[A Boy Named Charlie Brown]]'' and ''[[Snoopy, Come Home]]'', and the miniseries ''This Is America, Charlie Brown'' have all been released to DVD.

In October 2007, [[Warner Bros.]] acquired the ''Peanuts'' catalog from [[Paramount Pictures|Paramount]] for an undisclosed amount of money. As aforementioned, they now hold the worldwide distribution rights for all ''Peanuts'' properties including over 50 television specials—these are originally managed by [[Warner Bros. Television]] and [[Warner Bros. Television Animation]]. Warner has made plans to develop new specials for television as well as the direct to video market, as well as short subjects for digital distribution, and some of these have in fact already been released via [[Warner Premiere]].<ref>{{Citation |last=Arnold |first=Thomas K. |title=Warner Home Video Acquires Peanuts Library From Paramount: 10/04/07 |url=http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/television/news/e3i298d60247271e2fe163b283274dde1be |accessdate=February 29, 2008 |work=[[The Hollywood Reporter]] |archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071020042629/http://www.hollywoodreporter.com/hr/content_display/television/news/e3i298d60247271e2fe163b283274dde1be  |archivedate = October 20, 2007 |date=October 4, 2007}}</ref> Paramount retains the rights to the theatrical releases, as the first two movies (''A Boy Named Charlie Brown'' and ''Snoopy, Come Home'') are owned by [[CBS]] and distributed for home video through Paramount while CTD distributes for television, and the other two (''[[Race for Your Life, Charlie Brown]]'' and ''[[Bon Voyage, Charlie Brown (and Don't Come Back!!)]]'') were handled in-house by Paramount, with Trifecta holding TV distribution rights.

Peanuts Worldwide has partnered with Normaal Animation and [[France Télévisions]] to produce 500 90-second animated short films, adapted from the strip ''Peanuts'', which aired in fall 2014, including on French television station [[France 3]].<ref>{{cite news|last=Edward|first=C.|title=France Will Produce 500 New "Peanuts" Shorts|url=http://www.cartoonbrew.com/shorts/france-will-produce-500-new-peanuts-shorts-89590.html|accessdate=October 13, 2013|newspaper=[[Cartoon Brew]]|date=October 13, 2013}}</ref>

====''The Peanuts Movie'' (2015)====
[[File:Peanuts Gang 2015.png|thumb|[[The Peanuts Movie]] main characters as seen in the picture (L to R): Franklin, Marcie, Peppermint Patty, Linus, Charlie Brown, Snoopy, Lucy, Woodstock, Sally, Schroeder, and Pig-Pen.]]
{{Main article|The Peanuts Movie}}
In October 2012, it was announced that a 3D computer-animated<ref>{{cite news|last=Zahed|first=Ramin|title=Fox Offers More Details on CG 'Peanuts' Feature|url=http://www.animationmagazine.net/features/fox-offers-more-details-on-cg-peanuts-feature/|accessdate=April 22, 2013|newspaper=Animation Magazine|date=April 21, 2013}}</ref> feature film titled ''[[The Peanuts Movie]]'' would be released on November 6, 2015, coinciding with the 65th anniversary of the debut of the comic strip and the 50th anniversary of the television special, ''[[A Charlie Brown Christmas]]''. Written by Charles Schulz's son, Craig, his grandson, Bryan, and Cornelius Uliano—who are also producing the film alongside [[Paul Feig]]<ref>{{cite news|last=Fleming Jr|first=Mike|title=Paul Feig Lands Animated ‘Peanuts’ Fox Pic|url=http://www.deadline.com/2013/10/paul-feig-peanuts-movie-producer/|accessdate=October 24, 2013|newspaper=Deadline|date=October 23, 2013}}</ref>—it was animated by [[20th Century Fox]]'s [[Blue Sky Studios]], and directed by [[Steve Martino]], the director of ''[[Horton Hears a Who! (film)|Horton Hears a Who!]]'' and ''[[Ice Age: Continental Drift]]''.<ref>{{cite news|title=Charles Schulz's 'Peanuts' Gang to Hit Theaters|url=http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id=95675|accessdate=October 9, 2012|newspaper=ComingSoon.net|date=October 9, 2012}}</ref><ref>{{cite news|title=Fox Gives Peanuts and B.O.O Earlier Releases|url=http://www.comingsoon.net/news/movienews.php?id=96817|accessdate=November 8, 2012|newspaper=ComingSoon.net|date=November 7, 2012|author=20th Century Fox}}</ref> A trailer for the film was released on March 18, 2014. That same day, it was also announced that archive recordings of [[Bill Melendez]] would be used to make up Snoopy and Woodstock's dialogue.

==Books==
[[File:Completepeanutsvol15052.jpg|thumb|right|250px|The first volume of ''[[The Complete Peanuts]]'' from [[Fantagraphics Books]] with cover design by [[Seth (cartoonist)|Seth]]]]

The ''Peanuts'' characters have been featured in many books over the years.<ref>{{cite web | title = PEANUTS Reprint Books | url=http://www.fivecentsplease.org/dpb/books.html | accessdate = May 12, 2009 }}</ref> Some represented chronological reprints of the newspaper strip, while others were thematic collections such as ''Snoopy's Tennis Book'', or collections of inspirational adages such as ''Happiness Is a Warm Puppy''. Some single-story books were produced, such as ''Snoopy and the Red Baron.'' In addition, many of the animated television specials and feature films were adapted into book form.

The first primary series of reprints was published by [[Rinehart & Company]] (later [[Holt, Rinehart and Winston]]) beginning in 1952, with the release of a collection simply titled ''Peanuts''. This series, which presented the strips in rough chronological order (albeit with many strips omitted from each year) continued through the 1980s, after which reprint rights were handed off to various other publishers. [[Ballantine Books]] published the last original series of ''Peanuts'' reprints, including ''Peanuts 2000'', which collected the final year of the strip's run.

Coinciding with these reprints were smaller paperback collections published by [[Fawcett Publications]]. Drawing material from the main reprints, this paperback series began with ''The Wonderful World of Peanuts'' in 1962 and continued through ''Lead On, Snoopy'' in 1992.

Charles Schulz had always resisted republication of the earliest ''Peanuts'' strips, as they did not reflect the characters as he eventually developed them. However, in 1997 he began talks with [[Fantagraphics Books]] to have the entire run of the strip, which would end up with 17,897 strips total, published chronologically in book form.<ref>{{cite news| url=http://community.seattletimes.nwsource.com/archive/?date=20040215&slug=peanuts15 | work=The Seattle Times | first=Heather | last=McKinnon | title=Seattle's Fantagraphics Books will release 'The Complete Peanuts' | date=February 15, 2004}}</ref> In addition to the post-millennium Peanuts publications are BOOM! Studios restyling of the comics and activity books, and "First Appearances" series. Of which its content produced by Peanuts Studio, subsequently an arm of Peanuts Worldwide LLC.

===''The Complete Peanuts''===
{{Main article|The Complete Peanuts}}
The entire run of ''Peanuts,'' covering nearly 50 years of comic strips, is being reprinted in [[Fantagraphics Books|Fantagraphics]]' ''[[The Complete Peanuts]]'', a 25-volume set to be released over a 12-year period, two volumes per year, published every May and October. The first volume (collecting strips from 1950 to 1952) was published in May 2004; the final volume (which will include all the strips from 1999 and seven strips from 2000, along with the complete run of ''[[Lil' Folks]]''<ref>{{cite web|title=The Complete Peanuts: 1999-2000|url=http://www.fantagraphics.com/peanuts25/|publisher=[[Fantagraphics Books]]|accessdate=March 24, 2016}}</ref>) has been published in May 2016.<ref>{{cite web|title=THE COMPLETE PEANUTS 1955–1956|url=http://www.snoopy.com/comics/peanuts/news/news_042005.html|publisher=Snoopy|date=March 22, 2004|accessdate=October 12, 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050924151820/http://snoopy.com/comics/peanuts/news/news_042005.html|archivedate=September 24, 2005}}</ref> A companion series, titled ''Peanuts Every Sunday'' and presenting the complete Sunday strips in color (as the main ''Complete Peanuts'' books reproduce them in black and white only), was launched in December 2013; this series will run ten volumes, with the last expected to be published in 2022.

In addition, almost all ''Peanuts'' strips are now also legally available online at [[GoComics.com]] (there are some strips missing from the digital archive). ''Peanuts'' strips were previously featured on Comics.com.

===Anniversary books===
Several books have been released to commemorate key anniversaries of Peanuts:
* 20th (1970) – ''Charlie Brown & Charlie Schulz'' — a tie-in with the TV documentary ''[[Charlie Brown and Charles Schulz]]'' that had aired May 22, 1969
* 25th (1975) – ''Peanuts Jubilee''
* 30th (1980) – ''Happy Birthday, Charlie Brown''
* 35th (1985) – ''You Don't Look 35, Charlie Brown''
* 40th (1990) – ''Charles Schulz: 40 Years of Life & Art''
* 45th (1995) – ''Around the World in 45 Years''
* 50th (2000) – ''Peanuts: A Golden Celebration''
* 50th (2000) – ''50 Years of Happiness: A Tribute to Charles Schulz''
* 60th (2009) – ''Celebrating Peanuts''<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.andrewsmcmeel.com/catalog/detail?sku=9780740785481 |title=Celebrating Peanuts |publisher=Andrewsmcmeel.com |date= |accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref>

==Theatrical productions==
{{Main article|Peanuts mediagraphy#Musicals}}
''Peanuts'' characters even found their way to the live stage, appearing in the musicals ''[[You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown]]'' and ''[[Snoopy!!! — The Musical]]'', and in "Snoopy on Ice", a live [[Ice Capades]]-style show aimed primarily at young children, all of which have had several touring productions over the years.<ref>"Plymkids' ruff guide to Snoopy" ''Western Daily Press'' February 3, 2006</ref> ''You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown'' was originally a successful [[Off-Broadway]] musical that ran for four years (1967–1971) in New York City and on tour, with [[Gary Burghoff]] as the original Charlie Brown. An updated revival opened on Broadway in 1999, and by 2002 it had become the most frequently produced musical in American theatre history.<ref name="Walker"/> It was also adapted for television twice, as a live-action [[NBC]] special and an animated CBS special. ''Snoopy!!! The Musical'' was a [[musical theater|musical comedy]] based on the ''Peanuts'' comic strip, originally performed at Lamb's Theatre Off-Broadway in 1982. In its 1983 run in London's West End, it won an [[Olivier Award]]. In 1988, it was adapted into an animated TV special. The New Players Theatre in London staged a revival in 2004 to honor its 21st anniversary, but some reviewers noted that its "feel good" sentiments had not aged well.{{Citation needed|date=June 2007}} The Off-Broadway drama ''[[Dog Sees God: Confessions of a Teenage Blockhead]]'' centers on the Peanuts characters becoming teenagers, though it is an unauthorized parody.<ref>{{cite news | url=http://www.variety.com/review/VE1117929122.html | title=Legit Reviews: Dog Sees God: Confessions of a Teenage Blockhead | work=Variety | date=December 15, 2005 | accessdate=April 24, 2011 | author=Rooney, David}}</ref>

==Sound recordings==
In 1962 [[Columbia Records]] issued an album titled ''Peanuts'', with [[Kaye Ballard]] and [[Arthur Siegel]] performing (as Lucy and Charlie Brown, respectively) to music composed by [[Fred Karlin]].

[[Fantasy Records]] issued several albums featuring Vince Guaraldi's jazz scores from the animated specials, including ''[[A Boy Named Charlie Brown (1963 film)|Jazz Impressions of a Boy Named Charlie Brown]]'' (1964), ''[[A Charlie Brown Christmas (album)|A Charlie Brown Christmas]]'' (1965), ''Oh, Good Grief!'' (1968), ''Charlie Brown's Holiday Hits'' (1998), and ''Peanuts Portraits'' (2010). All were later reissued on CD.

Columbia Records released soundtrack albums for the films ''A Boy Named Charlie Brown'' (1969) and ''Snoopy, Come Home'' (1972), although neither has been reissued on CD.

Other jazz artists have recorded ''Peanuts''-themed albums, often featuring cover versions of Guaraldi's compositions. These include [[Ellis Marsalis, Jr.]] and [[Wynton Marsalis]] (''[[Joe Cool's Blues]]'', 1995); [[George Winston]] (''Linus & Lucy'', 1996); [[David Benoit (musician)|David Benoit]] (''Here's to You, Charlie Brown!'', 2000, and ''Jazz for Peanuts'', 2008); and [[Cyrus Chestnut]] (''A Charlie Brown Christmas'', 2000). The 1989 [[GRP Records]] release ''Happy Anniversary, Charlie Brown!'' and the 2005 [[Peak Records]] release ''40 Years: A Charlie Brown Christmas'' also include interpretations of Guaraldi's themes by various smooth jazz and blues artists.

The 1960s American rock band [[The Royal Guardsmen]] recorded several songs about Snoopy's fantasies of flying against the Red Baron in World War I, including the hit singles "[[Snoopy vs. the Red Baron (song)|Snoopy Vs. The Red Baron]]" and "[[Snoopy's Christmas]]." The first song was released without Schulz's consent, and he and UFS sued successfully for royalties but allowed the group to make future songs and even contributed album artwork for such releases as ''[[Snoopy and His Friends]]''.

Cast recordings (in both original and revival productions) of the stage musicals ''You're a Good Man, Charlie Brown'' and ''Snoopy!!! The Musical'' have been released over the years.

Numerous animated ''Peanuts'' specials were adapted into [[book-and-record set]]s, issued on the "Charlie Brown Records" imprint by [[Disney Read-Along]] in the 1970s and '80s. Also issued on Charlie Brown Records, via [[Disneyland Records]], was the soundtrack to ''[[Flashbeagle]]'' in 1984, which featured [[Desiree Goyette]] and [[Joey Scarbury]] (of "Theme from the Greatest American Hero" fame) on the title track and other songs written by [[Ed Bogas]] and Goyette.

In 1992, [[RCA Victor]] released an album of classical piano music ostensibly performed by Schroeder himself. Titled ''Schroeder's Greatest Hits'', the album contains solo piano works by [[Beethoven]], [[Brahms]], [[Chopin]], and others, performed by [[John Miller (musician)|John Miller]], [[Ronnie Zito]], [[Ken Bichel]], and [[Nelly Kokinos]].

==Amusement parks==
In 1983, [[Knott's Berry Farm]], in Southern California, was the first theme park to license the ''Peanuts'' characters, creating the first [[Camp Snoopy]] area and making Snoopy the park's mascot. Knott's expanded its operation in 1992 by building an indoor amusement park in the [[Mall of America]], called ''[[Nickelodeon Universe|Knott's Camp Snoopy]]''. The Knott's theme parks were acquired by the national amusement park chain [[Cedar Fair Entertainment Company]] in 1997, which continued to operate ''Knott's Camp Snoopy'' park until the mall took over its operation in March 2005.<ref>{{Citation |title=Mall of America strikes deal with Nickelodeon for theme park |url=http://www.usatoday.com/travel/destinations/2007-03-06-mall-of-america-nickelodeon_N.htm |accessdate=October 12, 2007 | date=March 7, 2007 |work=USA Today}}</ref> Cedar Fair had already licensed the ''Peanuts'' characters for use in 1992 as atmosphere,<ref>{{Citation |last=Munarriz |first=Rick Aristotle |title=Is Pixar Worth $7 Billion to Disney? |url=http://www.fool.com/investing/general/2006/01/24/is-pixar-worth-7-billion-to-disney.aspx |accessdate=October 12, 2007}}</ref> so its acquisition of Knott's Berry Farm did not alter the use of those characters.

Snoopy is currently the official mascot of all the Cedar Fair parks. It was previously used in all of the park logos but it has since been removed. Cedar Fair also operated a Camp Snoopy area at [[Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom]], [[Worlds of Fun]], and [[Valleyfair]] featuring various ''Peanuts''-themed attractions until 2011. There is still a Camp Snoopy area at [[Cedar Point]] and Knott's Berry Farm.

In 2008, [[Cedar Point]] introduced [[Planet Snoopy]], a children's area where Peanuts Playground used to be. This area consists of family and children rides that were relocated from Cedar Point's sister park [[Geauga Lake]] after its closing. The rides are themed around the Peanuts characters. The area also consists of a "Kids Only" restaurant called Joe Cool Cafe (there is a small menu for adults). In 2010, the [[Nickelodeon Central]] and [[Nickelodeon Universe]] areas in the former [[Paramount Parks]] ([[California's Great America]], [[Canada's Wonderland]], [[Carowinds]], [[Kings Dominion]], and [[Kings Island]]) were replaced by [[Planet Snoopy]]. In 2011, Cedar Fair announced it would also add Planet Snoopy to [[Valleyfair]], [[Dorney Park & Wildwater Kingdom]], and [[Worlds of Fun]], replacing the Camp Snoopy areas. Planet Snoopy is now at every Cedar Fair park beside Knott's Berry Farm and [[Michigan's Adventure]].

Also, the ''Peanuts'' characters can be found at [[Universal Studios Japan]] in the Universal Wonderland section along with the characters from ''[[Sesame Street]]'' and ''[[Hello Kitty]]''.<ref>{{cite web|url=https://schulzmuseum.org/universal-studios-japan/ |title=Charles M. Schulz MuseumVisiting Universal Studios Japan - Charles M. Schulz Museum |publisher=Schulzmuseum.org |date=2013-10-30 |accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref>

==Other licensed appearances and merchandise==


=== Advertising ===
[[File:Snoopy-metlife.jpg|right|thumb|260px|Snoopy on the side of the MetLife blimp]]
Over the years, the ''Peanuts'' characters have appeared in ads for [[Dolly Madison]] snack cakes, [[Chex Mix]], [[Bounty (paper towel)|Bounty]], [[Cheerios]], [[A&W Root Beer]], [[Kraft Foods]], and [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] automobiles.<ref>{{Citation |last=Elliott |first=Stuart |title= THE MEDIA BUSINESS: ADVERTISING; Will 'Peanuts' characters remain effective images, or will they go the way of the Schmoo? |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9804E7DE1031F934A25751C0A9669C8B63 |accessdate=October 12, 2007 | work=The New York Times | date=February 17, 2000}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Bankston |first=John |title=Goodbye, 'Peanuts' |url=http://chronicle.augusta.com/stories/021300/fea_peanuts.shtml |accessdate=October 12, 2007 |publisher=[[Augusta Chronicle]]|archiveurl = https://web.archive.org/web/20071013095744/http://chronicle.augusta.com/stories/021300/fea_peanuts.shtml |archivedate = October 13, 2007}}</ref><ref>The Florence (Alabama) Times, January 13, 1960, section 2, pg 3</ref> In 1994, Pig-Pen appeared in a memorable spot for [[Regina Company|Regina]] vacuum cleaners.<ref>{{cite web |work=Boston.com|title=Peanuts Family Tree|url=http://www.boston.com/news/packages/krt/peanuts/html/print.htm |date=2000|accessdate=1 December 2015}}</ref>

They served as spokespeople in print and television [[Advertising|advertisements]] for the [[Metropolitan Life Insurance Company|MetLife]] insurance company.<ref>{{Citation |last=Elliott |first=Stuart |title= THE MEDIA BUSINESS: ADVERTISING; Snoopy and the 'Peanuts' gang will no longer be Metropolitan Life's main representatives |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9405EED8173EF931A25750C0A96F958260 |accessdate=October 12, 2007 | work=The New York Times | date=March 12, 1999}}</ref> MetLife usually used Snoopy in its [[Advertising|advertisements]] as opposed to other characters: for instance, the MetLife blimps were named "Snoopy One" and "Snoopy Two" and featured him in his World War I flying ace persona.<ref>{{Citation |title=Picture of the Day: MetLife |url=http://www.westportnow.com/index.php?/v2/comments/picture_of_the_day_metlife/ |accessdate=October 12, 2007}}</ref> Starting in 2011, the annual [[New York Giants]] and [[New York Jets]] preseason [[American football|football]] game is called the MetLife Bowl. The winning team receives a trophy which depicts Snoopy carrying a football, wearing an old-style football helmet and holding his arm up as if to ward off a tackler.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://espn.go.com/new-york/nfl/story/_/id/7128859/new-york-jets-rex-ryan-punchline-back-title-talk |title=New York Jets' Rex Ryan will be a punchline if he can't back up his title talk |publisher=Espn.go.com |date=2011-10-21 |accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref> On October 20, 2016, MetLife announced the end of its 31-year relationship with Peanuts.

=== Retail ===
The characters have been featured on [[Hallmark Cards]] since 1960,<ref>{{Citation |last=Boxer |first=Sarah |title= Charles M. Schulz, 'Peanuts' Creator, Dies at 77 |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9505E4D81731F937A25751C0A9669C8B63 |accessdate=October 12, 2007 | work=The New York Times | date=February 14, 2000}}</ref> and can be found adorning clothing, figurines, plush dolls, flags, balloons, posters, Christmas ornaments, and countless other bits of licensed merchandise.<ref>{{Citation |last=Alexander |first=Charles P. |title=Greetings, One and All! |url=http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,968221,00.html |accessdate=October 12, 2007 | work=Time | date=May 13, 1985 }}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Berger |first=Warren |title= WHAT'S NEW IN GREETING CARDS; There's a Gimmick in the Greeting |url=https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9B0DE2DB1739F933A1575AC0A961948260 |accessdate=October 12, 2007 | work=The New York Times | date=September 20, 1987}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=Miller |first=Jane |title=Collectors gather to share their interest in cookie cutters |url=http://www.post-gazette.com/food/20010422cutters3.asp |accessdate=October 12, 2007 |publisher=[[Pittsburgh Post-Gazette]] | date=April 22, 2001}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Business: The Company File Hallmark buys UK rival |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/business/129411.stm |accessdate=October 12, 2007 |work=BBC News | date=July 9, 1998 |publisher=BBC News}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |last=O'Toole |first=Christine H. |title=Greetings From Kansas City |url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/ac2/wp-dyn/A32052-2004Dec3?language=printer |accessdate=October 12, 2007 | work=The Washington Post }}</ref>

In East Asia, RM Licensing has licensed the Peanuts characters for fashion stores, children's apparel, and restaurants<ref>[http://www.rmlicensing.com/ENG/shop/shoplist.htm Character Shop List] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140718053558/http://www.rmlicensing.com/ENG/shop/shoplist.htm |date=July 18, 2014 }}</ref> including Charlie Brown Cafe, a Hong Kong-based fast casual restaurant chain.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.charliebrowncafe.com/|title=Charlie Brown Cafe|date=|publisher=Charliebrowncafe.com|accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref> There is also a Charlie Brown Cafe, themed with Peanuts characters, in [[Hongdae area|Hongdae]], [[Mapo-gu]], [[Seoul]], South Korea.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://koreajoongangdaily.joinsmsn.com/news/article/article.aspx?aid=2928607|title=Hongdae's bohemian raps and dancing|last=Lim|first=Hyun-wook|date=November 20, 2010|newspaper=Joongang Daily|accessdate=March 6, 2013}}</ref>

The ''Peanuts'' characters have been licensed to [[Universal Studios Japan]] (while Peanuts merchandise in Japan has been licensed by [[Sanrio]], best known for [[Hello Kitty]]).<ref>{{Citation|last=Gomez|first=Edward|title=ASIAN POP How Hello Kitty Came to Rule the World|date=July 14, 2004|url=http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?file=/g/a/2004/07/14/helkit.DTL&type=printable|work=San Francisco Chronicle|accessdate=October 12, 2007}}</ref>

=== Events ===
[[File:Peanuts overpass.jpg|right|thumb|250px|Peanuts-themed pedestrian overpass in [[Tarzana, Los Angeles, California]]]]The ''[[Apollo 10]]'' [[Apollo Lunar Module|lunar module]] was nicknamed "Snoopy" and the [[Apollo Command/Service Module|command module]] "Charlie Brown".<ref>{{Citation|title=NEWSROOM for February 14, 2000|url=http://edition.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0002/14/nr.00.html|work=CNN|accessdate=October 12, 2007}}</ref> While not included in the [[:Image:Apollo-10-LOGO.png|official mission logo]], Charlie Brown and Snoopy became semi-official mascots for the mission.<ref name="NASA1">{{cite web|url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/images/images/pao/AS10/10075088.jpg|title=Snoopy on Apollo 10|accessdate=October 17, 2007}}</ref><ref name="NASA2">{{cite web|url=http://science.ksc.nasa.gov/mirrors/images/images/pao/AS10/10075138.jpg|title=Charlie Brown and Snoopy at Apollo 10 Mission Control|publisher=Science.ksc.nasa.gov|accessdate=October 17, 2007}}</ref> Charles Schulz drew an original picture of Charlie Brown in a spacesuit that was hidden aboard the craft to be found by the astronauts once they were in orbit. This drawing is now on display at the [[Kennedy Space Center]]. Snoopy is the personal safety mascot for NASA astronauts,<ref>{{Citation|title=10 Things You Didn't Know About Space Exploration|url=http://www.usnews.com/articles/news/national/2007/09/19/10-things-you-didnt-know-about-space-exploration.html|publisher=Usnews.com|accessdate=October 12, 2007}}</ref> and NASA issues a [[Silver Snoopy award]] to employees that promote flight safety. The black "caps" that the Apollo astronauts wore on their heads were referred to as "[[Snoopy cap|Snoopy hats]]."{{Citation needed|date=March 2017}}

Giant [[helium]] balloons of Charlie Brown and Snoopy have long been a feature in the annual [[Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade]] in New York City. This was referenced in a [[Super Bowl XLII]] [[Super Bowl advertising|commercial]] for Coca-Cola, in which the Charlie Brown balloon snags a [[Coca-Cola]] bottle from two battling balloons ([[Underdog (TV series)|Underdog]] and [[Stewie Griffin]]).

''Peanuts on Parade'' is [[St. Paul, Minnesota]]'s tribute to ''Peanuts''.<ref>{{Citation |last=Karlson |first=Karl J. |title='Peanuts' coming to the riverfront |url=http://edition.cnn.com/2000/LOCAL/westcentral/06/29/pio.peanuts/index.html |accessdate=October 12, 2007 | work=CNN | date=June 29, 2000}}</ref> It began in 2000, with the placing of 101 {{convert|5|ft|m|adj=mid|-tall}} statues of Snoopy throughout the city of Saint Paul. The statues were later auctioned at the [[Mall of America]] in [[Bloomington, Minnesota]]. In 2001, there was "Charlie Brown Around Town", 2002 brought "Looking for Lucy", and in 2003, "Linus Blankets Saint Paul".<ref>[http://www.travellady.com/Issues/April03/LinusBlanketsStPaul.htm Linus Blankets St. Paul] {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504093731/http://www.travellady.com/Issues/April03/LinusBlanketsStPaul.htm |date=May 4, 2015 }}</ref> Permanent bronze statues of the Peanuts characters are found in Landmark Plaza in downtown [[Saint Paul, Minnesota|Saint Paul]].<ref>{{Citation |title=Ten Great Places to Visit in Downtown Saint Paul |url=http://www.stpaul.gov/leisure/tengreatplaces.html |accessdate=October 12, 2007|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20050308091221/http://www.stpaul.gov/leisure/tengreatplaces.html|archivedate=March 8, 2005}}</ref>

A Peanuts World War I Flying Ace U.S. commemorative postage stamp was released on 17 May 2001. The value was 34 cents, First Class.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://arago.si.edu/index.asp?con=1&tid=2044894|title=Arago: Peanuts Comic Strip Issue|date=|publisher=Arago.si.edu|accessdate=2015-05-21}}</ref>

=== Games ===
The Peanuts characters have appeared in various video games, such as ''[[Snoopy (computer game)|Snoopy]]'' in a 1984 by Radarsoft, ''Snoopy and the Red Baron'' for the [[Atari 2600]], ''[[Snoopy's Silly Sports Spectacular]]'' (1989, [[Nintendo Entertainment System]]), ''[[Snoopy's Magic Show]]'' (1990, [[Game Boy]]), ''[[Snoopy Tennis]]'' (2001, [[Game Boy Color]]), ''[[Snoopy Concert]]'' which was released in 1995 and sold to the Japanese market for the [[Super NES]], and in October 2006, a second game titled ''[[Snoopy vs. the Red Baron (video game)|Snoopy vs. The Red Baron]]'' by [[Namco Bandai]] for the PlayStation 2. In July 2007, the Peanuts characters appeared in the ''[[Snoopy the Flying Ace]]'' mobile-phone game by Namco Networks.

In 1980 (with a new edition published in 1990), the [[Funk & Wagnalls]] publishing house also produced a children's encyclopedia called the ''Charlie Brown's 'Cyclopedia''. The 15-volume set features many of the Peanuts characters.

In April 2002, [[List of licensed and localized editions of Monopoly: USA#P|The Peanuts Collectors Edition Monopoly]] board game was released by USAopoly. The game was created by Justin Gage, a prolific collector and friend of Charles and Jeannie Schulz. The game was dedicated to Schulz in memory of his passing.

==References==
{{Reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{Sister project links|b=Annotations of The Complete Peanuts|n=no|v=no|voy=no|species=no|commons=Category:Charles M. Schulz|wikt=no|m=no|mw=no|d=Q7115636|s=no}}
* {{Official website}}
* {{Dmoz|Arts/Comics/Comic_Strips_and_Panels/P/Peanuts/}}
* [http://gocomics.com/peanuts ''Peanuts'' at GoComics.com]
* [http://www.peanutscollectorclub.com/ ''Peanuts'' Collector Club]
* [http://www.life.com/image/first/in-gallery/48981/good-grief-peanuts-turns-60 ''Peanuts'' Turns 60] – slideshow by ''[[Life (magazine)|Life]]''

{{Portal bar|Comics|Cartoon|United States|1950s|1960s|1970s|1980s|1990s|2000s}}
{{Peanuts}}
{{United Media Comics}}
{{Cedar Fair}}
{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2013}}
{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Peanuts (comic strip)| ]]
[[Category:1950 establishments in the United States]]
[[Category:2000 disestablishments in the United States]]
[[Category:American comic strips]]
[[Category:Gag-a-day comics]]
[[Category:Satirical comics]]
[[Category:Slice of life comics]]
[[Category:American culture]]
[[Category:Child characters in comics]]
[[Category:Comics about dogs]]
[[Category:1950 comics debuts]]
[[Category:2000 comics endings]]
[[Category:Comic strips set in the United States]]
[[Category:Comics featuring anthropomorphic characters]]
[[Category:American comics adapted into films]]
[[Category:Comics adapted into animated series]]
[[Category:Comics adapted into animated films]]
[[Category:Comics adapted into television series]]
[[Category:Comics adapted into video games]]
[[Category:Comics adapted into plays]]

Clinical formulation

2017-08-16T18:57:27Z

MPrado: establish link

A '''clinical formulation''', also known as '''case formulation''', is a theoretically-based explanation or conceptualisation of the information obtained from a clinical assessment. It offers a hypothesis about the cause and nature of the presenting problems and is considered an adjunct or alternative approach to the more categorical approach of psychiatric [[diagnosis]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bruch |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Bond |editor2-first=Frank W. |date=1998 |title=Beyond diagnosis: case formulation approaches in CBT |series=The Wiley series in clinical psychology |location=Chichester, UK; New York |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=0471975257 |oclc=38486295}}</ref> In clinical practice, formulations are used to communicate a [[hypothesis]] and provide framework for developing the most suitable treatment approach. It is most commonly used by [[clinical psychologists]] and [[psychiatrists]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mace |first=Chris |author2=Binyon, Sharon |date=October 2005 |title=Teaching psychodynamic formulation to psychiatric trainees. Part 1: Basics of formulation |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=416–423 |doi=10.1192/apt.11.6.416}}</ref> and is deemed to be a core component of these professions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Butler |first=Gillian |date=1998 |chapter=Clinical formulation |editor1-last=Bellack |editor1-first=Alan S. |editor2-last=Hersen |editor2-first=Michel |title=Comprehensive clinical psychology |edition=1st |volume=6 |location=Amsterdam; New York |publisher=Pergamon |pages=1–24 |isbn=0080427073 |oclc=38048834 |doi=10.1016/B0080-4270(73)00186-3}}</ref> Mental health nurses and social workers may also use formulations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crowe |first1=Marie |last2=Carlyle |first2=David |last3=Farmar |first3=R. |date=December 2008 |title=Clinical formulation for mental health nursing practice |journal=Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=800–807 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2850.2008.01307.x |pmid=19012671 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marie_Crowe/publication/23476955_Clinical_formulation_for_mental_health_nursing_practice/links/546da3bb0cf2193b94c58ffd.pdf}}</ref>

The [[British Psychological Society]] identified four "influential clinicians" who created the field of case formulation: [[Hans Eysenck]], [[Monte B. Shapiro]], [[Vic Meyer]], and Ira Turkat <ref>British Psychological Society, Good practice guidelines on the use of psychological formulation, (Leicester, UK: Author, 2011)</ref>. American psychologist Ira Turkat is credited with coining the term "case formulation" and Turkat, along with British psychologist Vic Meyer, provided the first criterion-based definition of case formulation <ref>Michael Bruch and Frank Bond (Eds.), Beyond diagnosis: Case formulation approaches in CBT, (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2011); Lucy Johnstone and Rudi Dallos (Eds.), Formulation in psychology and psychotherapy, (London: Routledge, 2013</ref>.

==Types of formulation==
Different psychological schools or models utilize clinical formulations, including [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) and related therapies: [[systemic therapy]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pinsof |first1=William |last2=Breunlin |first2=Douglas C. |last3=Russell |first3=William P. |last4=Lebow |first4=Jay |date=September 2011 |title=Integrative problem-centered metaframeworks therapy II: planning, conversing, and reading feedback |journal=[[Family Process]] |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=314–336 |doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.2011.01361.x |pmid=21884073 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jay_Lebow/publication/51612401_Integrative_problem-centered_metaframeworks_therapy_II_planning_conversing_and_reading_feedback/links/02bfe50f5d274f10df000000.pdf}}</ref> [[psychodynamic therapy]],<ref name="Perry">{{cite journal |last1=Perry |first1=Samuel |last2=Cooper |first2=Arnold M. |last3=Michels |first3=Robert |authorlink3=Robert Michels (physician) |date=May 1987 |title=The psychodynamic formulation: its purpose, structure, and clinical application |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=144 |issue=5 |pages=543–550 |pmid=3578562 |ref=harv |doi=10.1176/ajp.144.5.543}}</ref> and [[applied behavior analysis]].<ref name="Cipani">{{cite journal |last1=Cipani |first1=Ennio |last2=Golden |first2=Jeannie A. |date=2007 |title=Differentiating behavioral & traditional case formulations for children with severe behavioral & emotional problems |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=537–545 |doi=10.1037/h0100821}}</ref> The structure and content of a clinical formulation is determined by the psychological model. Most systems of formulation contain the following broad categories of information: symptoms and problems; precipitating stressors or events; predisposing life events or stressors; and an explanatory mechanism that links the preceding categories together and offers a description of the precipitants and maintaining influences of the person's problems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eells |first1=Tracy D. |last2=Kendjelic |first2=Edward M. |last3=Lucas |first3=Cynthia P. |date=Spring 1998 |title=What's in a case formulation?: development and use of a content coding manual |journal=The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=144–153 |pmid=9527958 |pmc=3330487}}</ref>

Behavioral case formulations used in [[applied behavior analysis]] and [[behavior therapy]] are built on a rank list of problem behaviors,<ref name="Cipani" /> from which a [[Functional analysis (psychology)|functional analysis]] is conducted,<ref name="Kanter">{{cite journal |last1=Kanter |first1=Jonathan W. |last2=Cautilli |first2=Joseph D. |last3=Busch |first3=Andrew M. |last4=Baruch |first4=David E. |date=2005 |title=Toward a comprehensive functional analysis of depressive behavior: five environmental factors and a possible sixth and seventh |journal=The Behavior Analyst Today |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–81 |doi=10.1037/h0100055 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jonathan_Kanter2/publication/26452621_Toward_a_Comprehensive_Functional_Analysis_of_Depressive_Behavior_Five_Environmental_Factors_and_a_Possible_Sixth_and_Seventh/links/02bfe50fff04f3d788000000.pdf}}</ref> sometimes based on [[relational frame theory]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Zettle |first=Robert D. |date=2007 |title=ACT for depression: a clinician's guide to using acceptance & commitment therapy in treating depression |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=[[New Harbinger Publications]] |isbn=9781572245099 |oclc=148853276}}</ref> Such functional analysis is also used in third-generation behavior therapy or [[clinical behavior analysis]] such as [[acceptance and commitment therapy]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Steven C. |authorlink1=Steven C. Hayes |last2=Strosahl |first2=Kirk D. |last3=Luoma |first3=Jayson |last4=Smith |first4=Alethea A. |last5=Wilson |first5=Kelly G. |date=2004 |chapter=ACT case formulation |editor1-last=Hayes |editor1-first=Steven C. |editor1-link=Steven C. Hayes|editor2-last=Strosahl |editor2-first=Kirk |title=A practical guide to acceptance and commitment therapy |location=New York |publisher=Springer |pages=59–73 |isbn=0387233679 |oclc=55534832 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-23369-7_3}}</ref> and [[functional analytic psychotherapy]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tsai |first1=Mavis |last2=Kohlenberg |first2=Robert J. |last3=Kanter |first3=Jonathan W. |last4=Holman |first4=Gareth |last5=Loudon |first5=Mary Plummer |date=2012 |title=Functional analytic psychotherapy: distinctive features |series=The CBT distinctive features series |location=Hove, East Sussex; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415604031 |oclc=698324521}}</ref> Functional analysis looks at setting events (ecological variables, history effects, and motivating operations), antecedents, behavior chains, the problem behavior, and the consequences, short- and long-term, for the behavior.<ref name="Kanter"/>

A model of formulation that is more specific to CBT is described by Jacqueline Persons.<ref>{{cite book |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=1989 |title=Cognitive therapy in practice: a case formulation approach |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Co.]] |isbn=0393700771 |oclc=19125638}}</ref> This has seven components: problem list, core beliefs, precipitants and activating situations, origins, working hypothesis, treatment plan, and predicted obstacles to treatment.

A psychodynamic formulation would consist of a summarizing statement, a description of nondynamic factors, description of core psychodynamics using a specific model (such as [[ego psychology]], [[object relations]] or [[self psychology]]), and a prognostic assessment which identifies the potential areas of [[psychological resistance|resistance]] in therapy.<ref name="Perry"/>

One school of psychotherapy which relies heavily on the formulation is [[cognitive analytic therapy]] (CAT).<ref name="Ryle">{{cite book |last=Ryle |first=Anthony |authorlink=Anthony Ryle |date=2005 |chapter=Cognitive analytic therapy |editor1-last=Norcross |editor1-first=John C. |editor1-link=John C. Norcross |editor2-last=Goldfried |editor2-first=Marvin R. |title=Handbook of psychotherapy integration |edition=2nd |series=Oxford series in clinical psychology |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=196–217 |isbn=0195165799 |oclc=54803644}}</ref> CAT is a fixed-term therapy, typically of around 16 sessions. At around session four, a formal written reformulation letter is offered to the patient which forms the basis for the rest of the treatment. This is usually followed by a diagrammatic reformulation to amplify and reinforce the letter.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Denman |first=Chess |date=July 2001 |title=Cognitive–analytic therapy |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=243–252 |doi=10.1192/apt.7.4.243 |url=http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/7/4/243}}</ref>

Many psychologists use an [[integrative psychotherapy]] approach to formulation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Caspar |first1=Franz |last2=Silberschatz |first2=George |last3=Goldfried |first3=Marvin |last4=Watson |first4=Jeanne C. |date=March 2010 |title=Similarities and differences in four views of David |journal=[[Journal of Psychotherapy Integration]] |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=101–110 |doi=10.1037/a0018886}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=December 2013 |title=In support of evidence-based case formulation in psychotherapy (from the perspective of a clinician) |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=457–467 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1836 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1836}}</ref> This is to take advantage of the benefits of resources from each model the psychologist is trained in, according to the patient's needs.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=December 2013 |title=Who needs a case formulation and why: clinicians use the case formulation to guide decision-making |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=448–456 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1835 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1835}}</ref>

==Critical evaluation of formulations==
The quality of specific clinical formulations, and the quality of the general [[theoretical model]]s used in those formulations, can be evaluated with criteria such as:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dawson |first1=David L. |last2=Moghaddam |first2=Nima G. |date=2016 |chapter=Formulation in action: an introduction |editor1-last=Dawson |editor1-first=David L. |editor2-last=Moghaddam |editor2-first=Nima G. |title=Formulation in action: applying psychological theory to clinical practice |location=Berlin; New York |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |pages=3–8 [7] |isbn=9783110470994 |oclc=932645602 |chapterurl=http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/20047/1/Formulation%20in%20Action%20-%20An%20introduction.pdf |ref=harv}}</ref>
*''Clarity and parsimony'': Is the model understandable and [[Internal consistency|internally consistent]], and are key concepts discrete, specific, and non-redundant?
*''Precision and testability'': Does the model produce testable hypotheses, with [[Operational definition|operationally defined]] and [[Level of measurement|measurable]] concepts?
*''Empirical adequacy'': Are the posited [[Mechanism (biology)|mechanism]]s within the model [[Empirical research|empirically validated]]?
*''Comprehensiveness and generalizability'': Is the model [[holistic]] enough to apply across a range of clinical phenomena?
*''Utility and applied value'': Does it facilitate shared [[meaning-making]] between clinician and client, and are interventions based on the model shown to be [[Effectiveness|effective]]?

Formulations can vary in temporal scope from case-based to episode-based or moment-based, and formulations may evolve during the course of treatment.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schacht |first=Thomas E. |date=December 1991 |title=Formulation-based psychotherapy research: some further considerations |journal=[[American Psychologist]] |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=1346–1347 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.46.12.1346 |ref=harv}}</ref> Therefore, ongoing monitoring, testing, and assessment during treatment are necessary: monitoring can take the form of session-by-session progress reviews using quantitative measures, and formulations can be modified if an intervention is not as effective as hoped.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=December 2013 |title=The case formulation approach to psychotherapy research revisited |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=426–447 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1834 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1834}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Basseches |first1=Michael |last2=Mascolo |first2=Michael F. |date=2009 |chapter=Psychotherapy as a developmental process: implications and future directions for psychotherapy research, practice, and training |title=Psychotherapy as a developmental process |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780805857306 |oclc=244063508 |pages=283–312 |ref=harv}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Clinical decision support system]]
*[[Clinical guideline]]
*[[Clinical pathway]]
*[[Common factors theory]]
*[[Problem structuring methods]]
*[[Therapeutic assessment]]
*[[Treatment decision support]] (tools for clients)
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Eells |editor-first=Tracy D. |date=2007 |origyear=1997 |title=Handbook of psychotherapy case formulation |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593853518 |oclc=65617415 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=2015 |title=Psychotherapy case formulation |series=Theories of psychotherapy series |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |isbn=9781433820106 |oclc=897001581 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Frank |first1=Rochelle I. |last2=Davidson |first2=Joan |date=2014 |title=The transdiagnostic road map to case formulation and treatment planning: practical guidance for clinical decision making |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=[[New Harbinger Publications]] |isbn=9781608828951 |oclc=819383623 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Goldman |first1=Rhonda N. |last2=Greenberg |first2=Leslie S. |authorlink2=Les Greenberg |date=2015 |title=Case formulation in emotion-focused therapy: co-creating clinical maps for change |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |isbn=9781433818202 |oclc=878667783 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Hallam |first=Richard S. |date=2013 |title=Individual case formulation |series=Practical resources for the mental health professional |location=Amsterdam |publisher=[[Elsevier]]/[[Academic Press]] |isbn=9780123982698 |oclc=819717435 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Haynes |first1=Stephen N. |last2=O'Brien |first2=William Hayes |last3=Kaholokula |first3=Joseph Keaweʻaimoku |date=2011 |title=Behavioral assessment and case formulation |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781118018644 |oclc=701808359 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Ingram |first=Barbara Lichner |date=2012 |origyear=2006 |title=Clinical case formulations: matching the integrative treatment plan to the client |edition=2nd |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781118038222 |oclc=723035074 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Johnstone |editor1-first=Lucy |editor2-last=Dallos |editor2-first=Rudi |date=2013 |origyear=2006 |title=Formulation in psychology and psychotherapy: making sense of people's problems |edition=2nd |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415682305 |oclc=894506578 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kleiger |first=Mary Jo Peebles |date=2012 |origyear=2002 |title=Beginnings: the art and science of planning psychotherapy |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415883085 |oclc=706022579 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=2008 |title=The case formulation approach to cognitive-behavior therapy |series=Guides to individualized evidence-based treatment |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593858759 |oclc=226356799 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=F. Robert |date=2012 |chapter=Assessment, diagnosis, and treatment planning from the ecological perspective |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=Ellen Piel |title=Understanding people in context: the ecological perspective in counseling |location=Alexandria, VA |publisher=[[American Counseling Association]] |pages=179–206 |isbn=9781556202872 |oclc=764589015 |doi=10.1002/9781119222743.ch8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Woody |first1=Sheila R. |last2=Detweiler-Bedell |first2=Jerusha |last3=Teachman |first3=Bethany A. |last4=O'Hearn |first4=Todd |date=2003 |title=Treatment planning in psychotherapy: taking the guesswork out of clinical care |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=1572308052 |oclc=49743479 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Zayfert |first1=Claudia |last2=Becker |first2=Carolyn Black |date=2007 |title=Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD: a case formulation approach |series=Guides to individualized evidence-based treatment |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593853693 |oclc=71139450 |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

{{Psychotherapy}}

[[Category:Clinical psychology]]
[[Category:Medical terminology]]
[[Category:Psychiatric diagnosis]]
[[Category:Psychiatric assessment]]
[[Category:Psychotherapy]]

Clinical formulation

2017-08-16T18:56:37Z

MPrado: link fix

A '''clinical formulation''', also known as '''case formulation''', is a theoretically-based explanation or conceptualisation of the information obtained from a clinical assessment. It offers a hypothesis about the cause and nature of the presenting problems and is considered an adjunct or alternative approach to the more categorical approach of psychiatric [[diagnosis]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bruch |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Bond |editor2-first=Frank W. |date=1998 |title=Beyond diagnosis: case formulation approaches in CBT |series=The Wiley series in clinical psychology |location=Chichester, UK; New York |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=0471975257 |oclc=38486295}}</ref> In clinical practice, formulations are used to communicate a [[hypothesis]] and provide framework for developing the most suitable treatment approach. It is most commonly used by [[clinical psychologists]] and [[psychiatrists]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mace |first=Chris |author2=Binyon, Sharon |date=October 2005 |title=Teaching psychodynamic formulation to psychiatric trainees. Part 1: Basics of formulation |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=416–423 |doi=10.1192/apt.11.6.416}}</ref> and is deemed to be a core component of these professions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Butler |first=Gillian |date=1998 |chapter=Clinical formulation |editor1-last=Bellack |editor1-first=Alan S. |editor2-last=Hersen |editor2-first=Michel |title=Comprehensive clinical psychology |edition=1st |volume=6 |location=Amsterdam; New York |publisher=Pergamon |pages=1–24 |isbn=0080427073 |oclc=38048834 |doi=10.1016/B0080-4270(73)00186-3}}</ref> Mental health nurses and social workers may also use formulations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crowe |first1=Marie |last2=Carlyle |first2=David |last3=Farmar |first3=R. |date=December 2008 |title=Clinical formulation for mental health nursing practice |journal=Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=800–807 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2850.2008.01307.x |pmid=19012671 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marie_Crowe/publication/23476955_Clinical_formulation_for_mental_health_nursing_practice/links/546da3bb0cf2193b94c58ffd.pdf}}</ref>

The British Psychological Society identified four "influential clinicians" who created the field of case formulation: [[Hans Eysenck]], [[Monte B. Shapiro]], [[Vic Meyer]], and Ira Turkat <ref>British Psychological Society, Good practice guidelines on the use of psychological formulation, (Leicester, UK: Author, 2011)</ref>. American psychologist Ira Turkat is credited with coining the term "case formulation" and Turkat, along with British psychologist Vic Meyer, provided the first criterion-based definition of case formulation <ref>Michael Bruch and Frank Bond (Eds.), Beyond diagnosis: Case formulation approaches in CBT, (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2011); Lucy Johnstone and Rudi Dallos (Eds.), Formulation in psychology and psychotherapy, (London: Routledge, 2013</ref>.

==Types of formulation==
Different psychological schools or models utilize clinical formulations, including [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) and related therapies: [[systemic therapy]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pinsof |first1=William |last2=Breunlin |first2=Douglas C. |last3=Russell |first3=William P. |last4=Lebow |first4=Jay |date=September 2011 |title=Integrative problem-centered metaframeworks therapy II: planning, conversing, and reading feedback |journal=[[Family Process]] |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=314–336 |doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.2011.01361.x |pmid=21884073 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jay_Lebow/publication/51612401_Integrative_problem-centered_metaframeworks_therapy_II_planning_conversing_and_reading_feedback/links/02bfe50f5d274f10df000000.pdf}}</ref> [[psychodynamic therapy]],<ref name="Perry">{{cite journal |last1=Perry |first1=Samuel |last2=Cooper |first2=Arnold M. |last3=Michels |first3=Robert |authorlink3=Robert Michels (physician) |date=May 1987 |title=The psychodynamic formulation: its purpose, structure, and clinical application |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=144 |issue=5 |pages=543–550 |pmid=3578562 |ref=harv |doi=10.1176/ajp.144.5.543}}</ref> and [[applied behavior analysis]].<ref name="Cipani">{{cite journal |last1=Cipani |first1=Ennio |last2=Golden |first2=Jeannie A. |date=2007 |title=Differentiating behavioral & traditional case formulations for children with severe behavioral & emotional problems |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=537–545 |doi=10.1037/h0100821}}</ref> The structure and content of a clinical formulation is determined by the psychological model. Most systems of formulation contain the following broad categories of information: symptoms and problems; precipitating stressors or events; predisposing life events or stressors; and an explanatory mechanism that links the preceding categories together and offers a description of the precipitants and maintaining influences of the person's problems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eells |first1=Tracy D. |last2=Kendjelic |first2=Edward M. |last3=Lucas |first3=Cynthia P. |date=Spring 1998 |title=What's in a case formulation?: development and use of a content coding manual |journal=The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=144–153 |pmid=9527958 |pmc=3330487}}</ref>

Behavioral case formulations used in [[applied behavior analysis]] and [[behavior therapy]] are built on a rank list of problem behaviors,<ref name="Cipani" /> from which a [[Functional analysis (psychology)|functional analysis]] is conducted,<ref name="Kanter">{{cite journal |last1=Kanter |first1=Jonathan W. |last2=Cautilli |first2=Joseph D. |last3=Busch |first3=Andrew M. |last4=Baruch |first4=David E. |date=2005 |title=Toward a comprehensive functional analysis of depressive behavior: five environmental factors and a possible sixth and seventh |journal=The Behavior Analyst Today |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–81 |doi=10.1037/h0100055 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jonathan_Kanter2/publication/26452621_Toward_a_Comprehensive_Functional_Analysis_of_Depressive_Behavior_Five_Environmental_Factors_and_a_Possible_Sixth_and_Seventh/links/02bfe50fff04f3d788000000.pdf}}</ref> sometimes based on [[relational frame theory]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Zettle |first=Robert D. |date=2007 |title=ACT for depression: a clinician's guide to using acceptance & commitment therapy in treating depression |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=[[New Harbinger Publications]] |isbn=9781572245099 |oclc=148853276}}</ref> Such functional analysis is also used in third-generation behavior therapy or [[clinical behavior analysis]] such as [[acceptance and commitment therapy]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Steven C. |authorlink1=Steven C. Hayes |last2=Strosahl |first2=Kirk D. |last3=Luoma |first3=Jayson |last4=Smith |first4=Alethea A. |last5=Wilson |first5=Kelly G. |date=2004 |chapter=ACT case formulation |editor1-last=Hayes |editor1-first=Steven C. |editor1-link=Steven C. Hayes|editor2-last=Strosahl |editor2-first=Kirk |title=A practical guide to acceptance and commitment therapy |location=New York |publisher=Springer |pages=59–73 |isbn=0387233679 |oclc=55534832 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-23369-7_3}}</ref> and [[functional analytic psychotherapy]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tsai |first1=Mavis |last2=Kohlenberg |first2=Robert J. |last3=Kanter |first3=Jonathan W. |last4=Holman |first4=Gareth |last5=Loudon |first5=Mary Plummer |date=2012 |title=Functional analytic psychotherapy: distinctive features |series=The CBT distinctive features series |location=Hove, East Sussex; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415604031 |oclc=698324521}}</ref> Functional analysis looks at setting events (ecological variables, history effects, and motivating operations), antecedents, behavior chains, the problem behavior, and the consequences, short- and long-term, for the behavior.<ref name="Kanter"/>

A model of formulation that is more specific to CBT is described by Jacqueline Persons.<ref>{{cite book |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=1989 |title=Cognitive therapy in practice: a case formulation approach |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Co.]] |isbn=0393700771 |oclc=19125638}}</ref> This has seven components: problem list, core beliefs, precipitants and activating situations, origins, working hypothesis, treatment plan, and predicted obstacles to treatment.

A psychodynamic formulation would consist of a summarizing statement, a description of nondynamic factors, description of core psychodynamics using a specific model (such as [[ego psychology]], [[object relations]] or [[self psychology]]), and a prognostic assessment which identifies the potential areas of [[psychological resistance|resistance]] in therapy.<ref name="Perry"/>

One school of psychotherapy which relies heavily on the formulation is [[cognitive analytic therapy]] (CAT).<ref name="Ryle">{{cite book |last=Ryle |first=Anthony |authorlink=Anthony Ryle |date=2005 |chapter=Cognitive analytic therapy |editor1-last=Norcross |editor1-first=John C. |editor1-link=John C. Norcross |editor2-last=Goldfried |editor2-first=Marvin R. |title=Handbook of psychotherapy integration |edition=2nd |series=Oxford series in clinical psychology |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=196–217 |isbn=0195165799 |oclc=54803644}}</ref> CAT is a fixed-term therapy, typically of around 16 sessions. At around session four, a formal written reformulation letter is offered to the patient which forms the basis for the rest of the treatment. This is usually followed by a diagrammatic reformulation to amplify and reinforce the letter.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Denman |first=Chess |date=July 2001 |title=Cognitive–analytic therapy |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=243–252 |doi=10.1192/apt.7.4.243 |url=http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/7/4/243}}</ref>

Many psychologists use an [[integrative psychotherapy]] approach to formulation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Caspar |first1=Franz |last2=Silberschatz |first2=George |last3=Goldfried |first3=Marvin |last4=Watson |first4=Jeanne C. |date=March 2010 |title=Similarities and differences in four views of David |journal=[[Journal of Psychotherapy Integration]] |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=101–110 |doi=10.1037/a0018886}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=December 2013 |title=In support of evidence-based case formulation in psychotherapy (from the perspective of a clinician) |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=457–467 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1836 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1836}}</ref> This is to take advantage of the benefits of resources from each model the psychologist is trained in, according to the patient's needs.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=December 2013 |title=Who needs a case formulation and why: clinicians use the case formulation to guide decision-making |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=448–456 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1835 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1835}}</ref>

==Critical evaluation of formulations==
The quality of specific clinical formulations, and the quality of the general [[theoretical model]]s used in those formulations, can be evaluated with criteria such as:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dawson |first1=David L. |last2=Moghaddam |first2=Nima G. |date=2016 |chapter=Formulation in action: an introduction |editor1-last=Dawson |editor1-first=David L. |editor2-last=Moghaddam |editor2-first=Nima G. |title=Formulation in action: applying psychological theory to clinical practice |location=Berlin; New York |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |pages=3–8 [7] |isbn=9783110470994 |oclc=932645602 |chapterurl=http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/20047/1/Formulation%20in%20Action%20-%20An%20introduction.pdf |ref=harv}}</ref>
*''Clarity and parsimony'': Is the model understandable and [[Internal consistency|internally consistent]], and are key concepts discrete, specific, and non-redundant?
*''Precision and testability'': Does the model produce testable hypotheses, with [[Operational definition|operationally defined]] and [[Level of measurement|measurable]] concepts?
*''Empirical adequacy'': Are the posited [[Mechanism (biology)|mechanism]]s within the model [[Empirical research|empirically validated]]?
*''Comprehensiveness and generalizability'': Is the model [[holistic]] enough to apply across a range of clinical phenomena?
*''Utility and applied value'': Does it facilitate shared [[meaning-making]] between clinician and client, and are interventions based on the model shown to be [[Effectiveness|effective]]?

Formulations can vary in temporal scope from case-based to episode-based or moment-based, and formulations may evolve during the course of treatment.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schacht |first=Thomas E. |date=December 1991 |title=Formulation-based psychotherapy research: some further considerations |journal=[[American Psychologist]] |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=1346–1347 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.46.12.1346 |ref=harv}}</ref> Therefore, ongoing monitoring, testing, and assessment during treatment are necessary: monitoring can take the form of session-by-session progress reviews using quantitative measures, and formulations can be modified if an intervention is not as effective as hoped.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=December 2013 |title=The case formulation approach to psychotherapy research revisited |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=426–447 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1834 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1834}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Basseches |first1=Michael |last2=Mascolo |first2=Michael F. |date=2009 |chapter=Psychotherapy as a developmental process: implications and future directions for psychotherapy research, practice, and training |title=Psychotherapy as a developmental process |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780805857306 |oclc=244063508 |pages=283–312 |ref=harv}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Clinical decision support system]]
*[[Clinical guideline]]
*[[Clinical pathway]]
*[[Common factors theory]]
*[[Problem structuring methods]]
*[[Therapeutic assessment]]
*[[Treatment decision support]] (tools for clients)
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Eells |editor-first=Tracy D. |date=2007 |origyear=1997 |title=Handbook of psychotherapy case formulation |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593853518 |oclc=65617415 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=2015 |title=Psychotherapy case formulation |series=Theories of psychotherapy series |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |isbn=9781433820106 |oclc=897001581 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Frank |first1=Rochelle I. |last2=Davidson |first2=Joan |date=2014 |title=The transdiagnostic road map to case formulation and treatment planning: practical guidance for clinical decision making |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=[[New Harbinger Publications]] |isbn=9781608828951 |oclc=819383623 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Goldman |first1=Rhonda N. |last2=Greenberg |first2=Leslie S. |authorlink2=Les Greenberg |date=2015 |title=Case formulation in emotion-focused therapy: co-creating clinical maps for change |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |isbn=9781433818202 |oclc=878667783 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Hallam |first=Richard S. |date=2013 |title=Individual case formulation |series=Practical resources for the mental health professional |location=Amsterdam |publisher=[[Elsevier]]/[[Academic Press]] |isbn=9780123982698 |oclc=819717435 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Haynes |first1=Stephen N. |last2=O'Brien |first2=William Hayes |last3=Kaholokula |first3=Joseph Keaweʻaimoku |date=2011 |title=Behavioral assessment and case formulation |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781118018644 |oclc=701808359 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Ingram |first=Barbara Lichner |date=2012 |origyear=2006 |title=Clinical case formulations: matching the integrative treatment plan to the client |edition=2nd |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781118038222 |oclc=723035074 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Johnstone |editor1-first=Lucy |editor2-last=Dallos |editor2-first=Rudi |date=2013 |origyear=2006 |title=Formulation in psychology and psychotherapy: making sense of people's problems |edition=2nd |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415682305 |oclc=894506578 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kleiger |first=Mary Jo Peebles |date=2012 |origyear=2002 |title=Beginnings: the art and science of planning psychotherapy |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415883085 |oclc=706022579 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=2008 |title=The case formulation approach to cognitive-behavior therapy |series=Guides to individualized evidence-based treatment |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593858759 |oclc=226356799 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=F. Robert |date=2012 |chapter=Assessment, diagnosis, and treatment planning from the ecological perspective |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=Ellen Piel |title=Understanding people in context: the ecological perspective in counseling |location=Alexandria, VA |publisher=[[American Counseling Association]] |pages=179–206 |isbn=9781556202872 |oclc=764589015 |doi=10.1002/9781119222743.ch8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Woody |first1=Sheila R. |last2=Detweiler-Bedell |first2=Jerusha |last3=Teachman |first3=Bethany A. |last4=O'Hearn |first4=Todd |date=2003 |title=Treatment planning in psychotherapy: taking the guesswork out of clinical care |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=1572308052 |oclc=49743479 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Zayfert |first1=Claudia |last2=Becker |first2=Carolyn Black |date=2007 |title=Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD: a case formulation approach |series=Guides to individualized evidence-based treatment |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593853693 |oclc=71139450 |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

{{Psychotherapy}}

[[Category:Clinical psychology]]
[[Category:Medical terminology]]
[[Category:Psychiatric diagnosis]]
[[Category:Psychiatric assessment]]
[[Category:Psychotherapy]]

Clinical formulation

2017-08-16T18:55:32Z

MPrado: referencing, readability

A '''clinical formulation''', also known as '''case formulation''', is a theoretically-based explanation or conceptualisation of the information obtained from a clinical assessment. It offers a hypothesis about the cause and nature of the presenting problems and is considered an adjunct or alternative approach to the more categorical approach of psychiatric [[diagnosis]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bruch |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Bond |editor2-first=Frank W. |date=1998 |title=Beyond diagnosis: case formulation approaches in CBT |series=The Wiley series in clinical psychology |location=Chichester, UK; New York |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=0471975257 |oclc=38486295}}</ref> In clinical practice, formulations are used to communicate a [[hypothesis]] and provide framework for developing the most suitable treatment approach. It is most commonly used by [[clinical psychologists]] and [[psychiatrists]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mace |first=Chris |author2=Binyon, Sharon |date=October 2005 |title=Teaching psychodynamic formulation to psychiatric trainees. Part 1: Basics of formulation |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=416–423 |doi=10.1192/apt.11.6.416}}</ref> and is deemed to be a core component of these professions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Butler |first=Gillian |date=1998 |chapter=Clinical formulation |editor1-last=Bellack |editor1-first=Alan S. |editor2-last=Hersen |editor2-first=Michel |title=Comprehensive clinical psychology |edition=1st |volume=6 |location=Amsterdam; New York |publisher=Pergamon |pages=1–24 |isbn=0080427073 |oclc=38048834 |doi=10.1016/B0080-4270(73)00186-3}}</ref> Mental health nurses and social workers may also use formulations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crowe |first1=Marie |last2=Carlyle |first2=David |last3=Farmar |first3=R. |date=December 2008 |title=Clinical formulation for mental health nursing practice |journal=Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=800–807 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2850.2008.01307.x |pmid=19012671 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marie_Crowe/publication/23476955_Clinical_formulation_for_mental_health_nursing_practice/links/546da3bb0cf2193b94c58ffd.pdf}}</ref>

The British Psychological Society identified four "influential clinicians" who created the field of case formulation: [[Hans Eysenck]], [[M.B. Shapiro]], [[Vic Meyer]], and Ira Turkat <ref>British Psychological Society, Good practice guidelines on the use of psychological formulation, (Leicester, UK: Author, 2011)</ref>. American psychologist Ira Turkat is credited with coining the term "case formulation" and Turkat, along with British psychologist Vic Meyer, provided the first criterion-based definition of case formulation <ref>Michael Bruch and Frank Bond (Eds.), Beyond diagnosis: Case formulation approaches in CBT, (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2011); Lucy Johnstone and Rudi Dallos (Eds.), Formulation in psychology and psychotherapy, (London: Routledge, 2013</ref>.

==Types of formulation==
Different psychological schools or models utilize clinical formulations, including [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) and related therapies: [[systemic therapy]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pinsof |first1=William |last2=Breunlin |first2=Douglas C. |last3=Russell |first3=William P. |last4=Lebow |first4=Jay |date=September 2011 |title=Integrative problem-centered metaframeworks therapy II: planning, conversing, and reading feedback |journal=[[Family Process]] |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=314–336 |doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.2011.01361.x |pmid=21884073 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jay_Lebow/publication/51612401_Integrative_problem-centered_metaframeworks_therapy_II_planning_conversing_and_reading_feedback/links/02bfe50f5d274f10df000000.pdf}}</ref> [[psychodynamic therapy]],<ref name="Perry">{{cite journal |last1=Perry |first1=Samuel |last2=Cooper |first2=Arnold M. |last3=Michels |first3=Robert |authorlink3=Robert Michels (physician) |date=May 1987 |title=The psychodynamic formulation: its purpose, structure, and clinical application |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=144 |issue=5 |pages=543–550 |pmid=3578562 |ref=harv |doi=10.1176/ajp.144.5.543}}</ref> and [[applied behavior analysis]].<ref name="Cipani">{{cite journal |last1=Cipani |first1=Ennio |last2=Golden |first2=Jeannie A. |date=2007 |title=Differentiating behavioral & traditional case formulations for children with severe behavioral & emotional problems |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=537–545 |doi=10.1037/h0100821}}</ref> The structure and content of a clinical formulation is determined by the psychological model. Most systems of formulation contain the following broad categories of information: symptoms and problems; precipitating stressors or events; predisposing life events or stressors; and an explanatory mechanism that links the preceding categories together and offers a description of the precipitants and maintaining influences of the person's problems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eells |first1=Tracy D. |last2=Kendjelic |first2=Edward M. |last3=Lucas |first3=Cynthia P. |date=Spring 1998 |title=What's in a case formulation?: development and use of a content coding manual |journal=The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=144–153 |pmid=9527958 |pmc=3330487}}</ref>

Behavioral case formulations used in [[applied behavior analysis]] and [[behavior therapy]] are built on a rank list of problem behaviors,<ref name="Cipani" /> from which a [[Functional analysis (psychology)|functional analysis]] is conducted,<ref name="Kanter">{{cite journal |last1=Kanter |first1=Jonathan W. |last2=Cautilli |first2=Joseph D. |last3=Busch |first3=Andrew M. |last4=Baruch |first4=David E. |date=2005 |title=Toward a comprehensive functional analysis of depressive behavior: five environmental factors and a possible sixth and seventh |journal=The Behavior Analyst Today |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–81 |doi=10.1037/h0100055 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jonathan_Kanter2/publication/26452621_Toward_a_Comprehensive_Functional_Analysis_of_Depressive_Behavior_Five_Environmental_Factors_and_a_Possible_Sixth_and_Seventh/links/02bfe50fff04f3d788000000.pdf}}</ref> sometimes based on [[relational frame theory]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Zettle |first=Robert D. |date=2007 |title=ACT for depression: a clinician's guide to using acceptance & commitment therapy in treating depression |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=[[New Harbinger Publications]] |isbn=9781572245099 |oclc=148853276}}</ref> Such functional analysis is also used in third-generation behavior therapy or [[clinical behavior analysis]] such as [[acceptance and commitment therapy]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Steven C. |authorlink1=Steven C. Hayes |last2=Strosahl |first2=Kirk D. |last3=Luoma |first3=Jayson |last4=Smith |first4=Alethea A. |last5=Wilson |first5=Kelly G. |date=2004 |chapter=ACT case formulation |editor1-last=Hayes |editor1-first=Steven C. |editor1-link=Steven C. Hayes|editor2-last=Strosahl |editor2-first=Kirk |title=A practical guide to acceptance and commitment therapy |location=New York |publisher=Springer |pages=59–73 |isbn=0387233679 |oclc=55534832 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-23369-7_3}}</ref> and [[functional analytic psychotherapy]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tsai |first1=Mavis |last2=Kohlenberg |first2=Robert J. |last3=Kanter |first3=Jonathan W. |last4=Holman |first4=Gareth |last5=Loudon |first5=Mary Plummer |date=2012 |title=Functional analytic psychotherapy: distinctive features |series=The CBT distinctive features series |location=Hove, East Sussex; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415604031 |oclc=698324521}}</ref> Functional analysis looks at setting events (ecological variables, history effects, and motivating operations), antecedents, behavior chains, the problem behavior, and the consequences, short- and long-term, for the behavior.<ref name="Kanter"/>

A model of formulation that is more specific to CBT is described by Jacqueline Persons.<ref>{{cite book |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=1989 |title=Cognitive therapy in practice: a case formulation approach |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Co.]] |isbn=0393700771 |oclc=19125638}}</ref> This has seven components: problem list, core beliefs, precipitants and activating situations, origins, working hypothesis, treatment plan, and predicted obstacles to treatment.

A psychodynamic formulation would consist of a summarizing statement, a description of nondynamic factors, description of core psychodynamics using a specific model (such as [[ego psychology]], [[object relations]] or [[self psychology]]), and a prognostic assessment which identifies the potential areas of [[psychological resistance|resistance]] in therapy.<ref name="Perry"/>

One school of psychotherapy which relies heavily on the formulation is [[cognitive analytic therapy]] (CAT).<ref name="Ryle">{{cite book |last=Ryle |first=Anthony |authorlink=Anthony Ryle |date=2005 |chapter=Cognitive analytic therapy |editor1-last=Norcross |editor1-first=John C. |editor1-link=John C. Norcross |editor2-last=Goldfried |editor2-first=Marvin R. |title=Handbook of psychotherapy integration |edition=2nd |series=Oxford series in clinical psychology |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=196–217 |isbn=0195165799 |oclc=54803644}}</ref> CAT is a fixed-term therapy, typically of around 16 sessions. At around session four, a formal written reformulation letter is offered to the patient which forms the basis for the rest of the treatment. This is usually followed by a diagrammatic reformulation to amplify and reinforce the letter.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Denman |first=Chess |date=July 2001 |title=Cognitive–analytic therapy |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=243–252 |doi=10.1192/apt.7.4.243 |url=http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/7/4/243}}</ref>

Many psychologists use an [[integrative psychotherapy]] approach to formulation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Caspar |first1=Franz |last2=Silberschatz |first2=George |last3=Goldfried |first3=Marvin |last4=Watson |first4=Jeanne C. |date=March 2010 |title=Similarities and differences in four views of David |journal=[[Journal of Psychotherapy Integration]] |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=101–110 |doi=10.1037/a0018886}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=December 2013 |title=In support of evidence-based case formulation in psychotherapy (from the perspective of a clinician) |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=457–467 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1836 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1836}}</ref> This is to take advantage of the benefits of resources from each model the psychologist is trained in, according to the patient's needs.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=December 2013 |title=Who needs a case formulation and why: clinicians use the case formulation to guide decision-making |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=448–456 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1835 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1835}}</ref>

==Critical evaluation of formulations==
The quality of specific clinical formulations, and the quality of the general [[theoretical model]]s used in those formulations, can be evaluated with criteria such as:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dawson |first1=David L. |last2=Moghaddam |first2=Nima G. |date=2016 |chapter=Formulation in action: an introduction |editor1-last=Dawson |editor1-first=David L. |editor2-last=Moghaddam |editor2-first=Nima G. |title=Formulation in action: applying psychological theory to clinical practice |location=Berlin; New York |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |pages=3–8 [7] |isbn=9783110470994 |oclc=932645602 |chapterurl=http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/20047/1/Formulation%20in%20Action%20-%20An%20introduction.pdf |ref=harv}}</ref>
*''Clarity and parsimony'': Is the model understandable and [[Internal consistency|internally consistent]], and are key concepts discrete, specific, and non-redundant?
*''Precision and testability'': Does the model produce testable hypotheses, with [[Operational definition|operationally defined]] and [[Level of measurement|measurable]] concepts?
*''Empirical adequacy'': Are the posited [[Mechanism (biology)|mechanism]]s within the model [[Empirical research|empirically validated]]?
*''Comprehensiveness and generalizability'': Is the model [[holistic]] enough to apply across a range of clinical phenomena?
*''Utility and applied value'': Does it facilitate shared [[meaning-making]] between clinician and client, and are interventions based on the model shown to be [[Effectiveness|effective]]?

Formulations can vary in temporal scope from case-based to episode-based or moment-based, and formulations may evolve during the course of treatment.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schacht |first=Thomas E. |date=December 1991 |title=Formulation-based psychotherapy research: some further considerations |journal=[[American Psychologist]] |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=1346–1347 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.46.12.1346 |ref=harv}}</ref> Therefore, ongoing monitoring, testing, and assessment during treatment are necessary: monitoring can take the form of session-by-session progress reviews using quantitative measures, and formulations can be modified if an intervention is not as effective as hoped.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=December 2013 |title=The case formulation approach to psychotherapy research revisited |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=426–447 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1834 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1834}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Basseches |first1=Michael |last2=Mascolo |first2=Michael F. |date=2009 |chapter=Psychotherapy as a developmental process: implications and future directions for psychotherapy research, practice, and training |title=Psychotherapy as a developmental process |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780805857306 |oclc=244063508 |pages=283–312 |ref=harv}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Clinical decision support system]]
*[[Clinical guideline]]
*[[Clinical pathway]]
*[[Common factors theory]]
*[[Problem structuring methods]]
*[[Therapeutic assessment]]
*[[Treatment decision support]] (tools for clients)
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Eells |editor-first=Tracy D. |date=2007 |origyear=1997 |title=Handbook of psychotherapy case formulation |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593853518 |oclc=65617415 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=2015 |title=Psychotherapy case formulation |series=Theories of psychotherapy series |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |isbn=9781433820106 |oclc=897001581 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Frank |first1=Rochelle I. |last2=Davidson |first2=Joan |date=2014 |title=The transdiagnostic road map to case formulation and treatment planning: practical guidance for clinical decision making |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=[[New Harbinger Publications]] |isbn=9781608828951 |oclc=819383623 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Goldman |first1=Rhonda N. |last2=Greenberg |first2=Leslie S. |authorlink2=Les Greenberg |date=2015 |title=Case formulation in emotion-focused therapy: co-creating clinical maps for change |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |isbn=9781433818202 |oclc=878667783 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Hallam |first=Richard S. |date=2013 |title=Individual case formulation |series=Practical resources for the mental health professional |location=Amsterdam |publisher=[[Elsevier]]/[[Academic Press]] |isbn=9780123982698 |oclc=819717435 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Haynes |first1=Stephen N. |last2=O'Brien |first2=William Hayes |last3=Kaholokula |first3=Joseph Keaweʻaimoku |date=2011 |title=Behavioral assessment and case formulation |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781118018644 |oclc=701808359 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Ingram |first=Barbara Lichner |date=2012 |origyear=2006 |title=Clinical case formulations: matching the integrative treatment plan to the client |edition=2nd |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781118038222 |oclc=723035074 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Johnstone |editor1-first=Lucy |editor2-last=Dallos |editor2-first=Rudi |date=2013 |origyear=2006 |title=Formulation in psychology and psychotherapy: making sense of people's problems |edition=2nd |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415682305 |oclc=894506578 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kleiger |first=Mary Jo Peebles |date=2012 |origyear=2002 |title=Beginnings: the art and science of planning psychotherapy |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415883085 |oclc=706022579 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=2008 |title=The case formulation approach to cognitive-behavior therapy |series=Guides to individualized evidence-based treatment |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593858759 |oclc=226356799 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=F. Robert |date=2012 |chapter=Assessment, diagnosis, and treatment planning from the ecological perspective |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=Ellen Piel |title=Understanding people in context: the ecological perspective in counseling |location=Alexandria, VA |publisher=[[American Counseling Association]] |pages=179–206 |isbn=9781556202872 |oclc=764589015 |doi=10.1002/9781119222743.ch8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Woody |first1=Sheila R. |last2=Detweiler-Bedell |first2=Jerusha |last3=Teachman |first3=Bethany A. |last4=O'Hearn |first4=Todd |date=2003 |title=Treatment planning in psychotherapy: taking the guesswork out of clinical care |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=1572308052 |oclc=49743479 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Zayfert |first1=Claudia |last2=Becker |first2=Carolyn Black |date=2007 |title=Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD: a case formulation approach |series=Guides to individualized evidence-based treatment |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593853693 |oclc=71139450 |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

{{Psychotherapy}}

[[Category:Clinical psychology]]
[[Category:Medical terminology]]
[[Category:Psychiatric diagnosis]]
[[Category:Psychiatric assessment]]
[[Category:Psychotherapy]]

Leather

2017-08-16T13:02:08Z

MPrado: /* From other animals */ description

{{Other uses}}
{{redirect|Deerskin|the novel by Robin McKinley|Deerskin (novel)}}
[[File:leathertools.jpg|thumb|A variety of leather products and leather-working tools]]
'''Leather''' is a durable and flexible material created by [[Tanning (leather)|tanning]] animal [[Rawhide (textile)|rawhide]] and skin, often cattle hide. It can be produced at manufacturing scales ranging from [[cottage industry]] to [[heavy industry]].

People use leather to make various goods—including clothing (e.g., shoes, hats, jackets, skirts, trousers, and belts), [[bookbinding]], [[leather wallpaper]], and as a furniture covering. It is produced in a wide variety of types and styles, decorated by a wide range of techniques.

==Forms==
Several tanning processes transform hides and skins into leather:
* '''Chrome-tanned leather''', invented in 1858, is tanned using [[Chromium(III) sulfate|chromium sulfate]] and other [[chromium]] salts. It is more supple and pliable than vegetable-tanned leather and does not discolor or lose shape as drastically in water as vegetable-tanned. It is also known as wet-blue for its color derived from the chromium. More exotic colors are possible when using chrome tanning. The chrome tanning method usually only takes a day to finish, and the ease and agility of this method make it a popular choice. However there are environmental concerns with this tanning method. It is reported that chrome-tanned leather adds up to 80% of the global leather supply.{{citation needed|date=March 2015}}
* '''{{visible anchor|Vegetable-tanned leather}}''' is [[Tanning (leather)|tanned]] using [[tannin]]s and other ingredients found in different [[vegetable matter]], such as tree [[tanbark|bark]] prepared in [[bark mill]]s, [[wood]], [[Leaf|leaves]], [[fruit]]s, and [[root]]s. It is supple and brown in color, with the exact shade depending on the mix of chemicals and the color of the skin. It is the only form of leather suitable for use in leather carving or stamping. Vegetable-tanned leather is not stable in water; it tends to discolor, so if left to soak and then dried it shrinks and becomes harder. This is a feature of oak bark tanned leather that is exploited in traditional shoemaking. In hot water, it shrinks drastically and partly congeals—becoming rigid, and eventually brittle. [[Boiled leather]] is an example of this, where the leather has been hardened by being immersed in hot water, or in boiled [[wax]] or similar substances. Historically, it was occasionally used as [[armour]] after hardening, and it has also been used for [[book binding]].
* '''Aldehyde-tanned leather''' is tanned using [[glutaraldehyde]] or [[oxazolidine]] compounds. This is the leather that most tanners refer to as wet-white leather due to its pale cream or white color. It is the main type of "chrome-free" leather, often seen in shoes for infants and automobiles.
* '''[[Formaldehyde]]''' tanning (being phased out due to danger to workers and sensitivity of many people to formaldehyde) is another aldehyde tanning method. Brain-tanned leathers fall into this category, and are exceptionally water absorbent.
* '''Brain tanned''' leathers are made by a labor-intensive process that uses emulsified oils, often those of animal brains such as deer, cattle, and buffaloes. They are known for their exceptional softness and washability.
* '''[[Chamois leather]]''' also falls into the category of aldehyde tanning, and like brain tanning, produces a porous and highly water-absorbent leather. Chamois leather is made using marine oils (traditionally cod oil) that oxidize easily to produce the aldehydes that tan the leather to color it.
* '''Rose-tanned leather''' is a variation of vegetable oil tanning and brain tanning, where pure [[Rose oil|rose otto]] replaces the vegetable oil and emulsified oils. Rose-tanned leather tanned  leaves a powerful rose fragrance even years from when it is manufactured. It has been called the most valuable leather on earth, but this is mostly due to the high cost of rose otto and its labor-intensive tanning process.
* '''Synthetic-tanned leather''' is tanned using aromatic [[polymer]]s such as the [[Novolac]] or Neradol types (syntans, contraction for synthetic tannins). This leather is white in color and was invented when vegetable tannins were in short supply during the [[Second World War]]. [[Melamine]] and other amino-functional resins fall into this category, as well, and they provide the filling that modern leathers often require. [[Urea]]-formaldehyde resins were also used in this tanning method before people realized the hazards that formaldehyde presents to tanners and consumers.
* '''Alum-tanned leather''' is transformed using [[aluminium]] [[salt]]s mixed with a variety of binders and [[protein]] sources, such as flour and egg yolk. Alum-tanned leather is technically not tanned, as tannic acid is not used, and the resulting material reverts to rawhide if soaked in water long enough to remove the alum salts.
* '''Rawhide''' is made by scraping the skin thin, soaking it in lime, and then stretching it while it dries. Like alum-tanning, [[Rawhide (textile)|rawhide]] is not technically "leather",{{citation needed|date=April 2012}} but is usually lumped in with the other forms.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}} Rawhide is stiffer and more brittle than other forms of leather; it is primarily found in uses such as [[drum head]]s and parchment where it does not need to flex significantly; it is also cut up into cords for use in lacing or stitching and for making many varieties of dog chews.

Leather, usually vegetable-tanned, can be oiled to improve its water resistance. This [[currying (leather)|currying]] process after tanning supplements the natural oils remaining in the leather itself, which can be washed out through repeated exposure to water. [[Russia leather]] was an important international [[trade good]] for centuries.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}<ref>{{cite book|last1=Holtrop|first1=edited by Pieter|last2=Slechte|first2=Henk|title=Foreign churches in St. Petersburg and their archives, 1703-1917|date=2007|publisher=Brill|location=Leiden|isbn=9789004162600|page=34|edition=[Online-Ausg.].|url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=P3uR3pVjQ5cC&pg=PA34&dq=russia+leather+international+trade&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwi_oYKDlP_SAhVBwbwKHbr7C9QQ6AEIHjAB#v=onepage&q=russia%20leather%20international%20trade&f=false|accessdate=30 March 2017}}</ref> Frequent oiling of leather, with [[mink oil]], [[neatsfoot oil]], or a similar material keeps it supple and improves its lifespan dramatically.{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}<ref>{{cite book|first1=NIIR Board of Consultants|title=Leather Processing & Tanning Technology Handbook|date=2011|publisher=NIIR Project Consultancy Services|isbn=9788190568593|page=323|url=https://books.google.com.au/books?id=hbKkCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA324&dq=why+oil+leather&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwis0e6_lf_SAhVITrwKHXp5B9AQ6AEIJzAD#v=onepage&q=why%20oil%20leather&f=false|accessdate=30 March 2017|language=en}}</ref>

Leather with the hair still attached is called "hair-on".{{citation needed|date=October 2015}}

==Types==
In general, leather is sold in these four forms:

* '''Full-grain''' leather refers to hides that have not been sanded, buffed, or snuffed (as opposed to top-grain or corrected leather) to remove imperfections (or natural marks) on the surface of the hide. The grain remains allowing the fiber strength and durability. The grain also has breathability, resulting in less moisture from prolonged contact. Rather than wearing out, it develops a [[patina]] during its expected useful lifetime. High quality leather furniture and footwear are often made from full-grain leather. Full-grain leathers are typically available in two finish types: [[Aniline leather|aniline]], [[aniline leather|semi-aniline]].
* '''Top-grain''' leather (the most common type in high-end leather products) is the second-highest quality. It has had the "split" layer separated away, making it thinner and more pliable than full-grain. Its surface has been sanded and a finish coat added, which produces a colder, plastic feel with less breathability, and it does not develop a natural patina. It is typically less expensive and has greater stain resistance than full-grain leather if the finish remains unbroken.
* '''Corrected-grain''' leather is any leather that has had an artificial grain applied to its surface. The hides used to create corrected leather do not meet the standards for use in creating vegetable-tanned or aniline leather. The imperfections are corrected or sanded off, and an artificial grain embossed into the surface and dressed with stain or dyes. Most corrected-grain leather is used to make pigmented leather as the solid pigment helps hide the corrections or imperfections. Corrected grain leathers can mainly be bought as two finish types: [[aniline leather|semi-aniline]] and pigmented.
* '''Split''' leather is leather created from the fibrous part of the hide left once the top-grain of the [[Rawhide (textile)|rawhide]] has been separated from the hide. During the splitting operation, the top-grain and drop split are separated. The drop split can be further split (thickness allowing) into a middle split and a flesh split. In very thick hides, the middle split can be separated into multiple layers until the thickness prevents further splitting. Split leather then has an artificial layer applied to the surface of the split and is embossed with a leather grain [[Bicast leather|(bycast leather)]]. Splits are also used to create [[suede]]. The strongest suedes are usually made from grain splits (that have the grain completely removed) or from the flesh split that has been shaved to the correct thickness. Suede is "fuzzy" on both sides. Manufacturers use a variety of techniques to make suede from full-grain. A reversed suede is a grained leather that has been designed into the leather article with the grain facing away from the visible surface. It is not considered a true suede.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.iultcs.org/leather_terms/index.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20040327033940/http://www.iultcs.org/leather_terms/index.asp |dead-url=yes |archive-date=27 March 2004 |title=IULTCS Glossary of Leather Terms |accessdate=15 June 2010 |df= }}</ref>

Less-common leathers include:
* '''[[Buckskin (leather)|Buckskin]]''' or '''[[Braintanning|brained leather]]''' is a tanning process that uses animal brains or other fatty materials to alter the leather. The resulting supple, suede-like hide is usually smoked heavily to prevent it from returning to a rawhide state, if wetted. It is easier to soften, and helps repel leather-eating bugs.
* '''[[Patent leather]]''' is leather that has been given a high-gloss finish. Inventor [[Seth Boyden]] developed the original process in [[Newark, New Jersey]] in 1818. Patent leather usually has a [[plastic]] coating.
* '''Fish leather''' is popular for its motifs and its pigmentation. Mainly used for making shoes and bags, the fish skin is tanned like other animal skins.<ref>[http://www.dailymotion.com/video/xrwvtf_rtl-tvi-i-comme-islande-processus-de-fabrication-du-cuir-de-poisson_shortfilms?search_algo=1 RTL TVI "I comme Islande" - Processus de fabrication du cuir de poisson - Video Dailymotion]. Dailymotion.com. Retrieved on 19 November 2016.</ref> The species used include salmon, perch, sturgeon, etc.
** '''[[Salmon]]''' : farmed in [[Iceland]] and [[Norway]], salmon skin has fine scales. Its strength and elegant look make it the most popular fish leather.
** '''[[Perch]]''' : from the [[Nile]], its skin is recognizable with large, round and soft scales
** '''[[Wolffish]]''' : smooth, without scales, with dark spots, and stripes due to the friction of marine rocks
** '''[[Cod]]''' : finer scales than salmon, but more varied texture, sometimes smooth and sometimes rough
** '''[[Sturgeon]]''' : known for its eggs ([[caviar]]), its leather is quite expensive
** '''[[Eel]]''' : without scales, its skin is shiny
** '''[[Tilapia]]''' : originally from Africa and farmed in many places, tilapia leather is beautiful, with resistant qualities similar to salmon and perch<ref>{{cite web|title=NAS - Nonindigenous Aquatic Species|url=http://nas.er.usgs.gov/queries/factsheet.aspx?SpeciesID=463|publisher=USGS|accessdate=10 June 2014}}</ref>
** '''[[Shagreen]]''' is also known as '''stingray skin/leather'''. Applications used in furniture production date as far back as the [[art deco]] period. The word "shagreen" originates from [[France]]. It is known as the most difficult leather to work due to dished scales of the animal, and it is one of the most expensive leathers.
** '''[[Shark]]''' is covered with small, close-set tubercles, making it very tough. Shark skin handbags were once in vogue, but interest has fallen as the material and production costs is very high. Moreover, this skin is more difficult to work. (Do not confuse with ''[[sharkskin]]'', a woven textile product.
* '''[[Vachetta leather]]''' is used in the trimmings of [[luggage]] and [[handbag]]s. The leather is left untreated and is therefore susceptible to water and stains. Sunlight makes the natural leather darken in shade (develop a [[patina]]).
* '''Slink''' is leather made from the skin of unborn calves. It is particularly soft and is valued for making gloves.
* '''Deerskin''' is a tough, water-resistant leather, possibly due to the animal's adaptations to its thorny and thicket-filled habitats.{{Citation needed|date=March 2010}} Deerskin has been used by many societies, including [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous Americans]]. Most modern deerskin is no longer procured from the wild, with deer farms breeding the animals specifically for the purpose of their skins. Large quantities are still tanned from wild deer hides in historic tanning towns such as [[Gloversville, New York|Gloversville]] and [[Johnstown (city), New York|Johnstown]] in upstate [[New York (state)|New York]]. Deerskin is used in jackets and [[overcoat]]s, martial arts equipment such as [[kendo]] [[bogu]], as well as personal accessories such as handbags and wallets.
* '''[[Goatskin (material)|Goatskin]]''' is soft but tough, and is used for items such as thorn-resistant gardener's gloves.
* '''[[Nubuck]]''' is top-grain cattle hide leather that has been sanded or buffed on the grain side, or outside, to give a slight nap of short protein fibers, producing a velvet-like surface.
* '''[[Russia leather]]''' is a particular form of bark-tanned cow leather. It is distinguished by an [[oiling (leather processing)|oiling]] step, after tanning, where [[Birch tar|birch oil]] is worked into the leather to make it particularly hard-wearing, flexible and resistant to water.

There are two other types of leather commonly used in specialty products, such as briefcases, wallets, and luggage:

* '''[[Belting leather]]''' is a full-grain leather originally used in driving [[pulley]] belts and other machinery. It is found on the surface of briefcases, portfolios, and wallets, and can be identified by its thick, firm feel and smooth finish. Belting leather is generally a heavy-weight of full-grain, vegetable-tanned leather.
* '''[[Nappa leather|Napa leather]]''' is chrome-tanned and is soft and supple. It is commonly found in wallets, toiletry kits, and other personal leather goods.

The following are not "true" organic leathers, but are materials that contain leather fiber. Depending on jurisdiction, they may still be labeled as "Genuine Leather", even though the consumer generally can only see the outer layer of the material and can't actually see any of the leather content:
* '''[[Bonded leather]]''' or '''reconstituted leather''' is an economical material that uses leftover organic leather (from tanneries or workshops) that are shredded and bonded together with polyurethane or [[latex]] on to a fiber sheet. The varying degree of organic leather in the mix (10% to 90%) affects the smell and texture. Its reduced cost makes it popular for furniture upholstery, especially for commercial furniture that requires durability—though durability can vary widely depending on the formulation.
* '''[[Bycast leather]]''' is a split leather with a layer of [[polyurethane]] laminated to the surface and then embossed. Bycast was originally made for the shoe industry, and later adopted by the furniture industry. The original formula created by [[Bayer]] was strong but expensive. The result is a material that is slightly stiffer but cheaper than top-grain leather but has a much more consistent texture. Because its surface is completely covered in plastic, is easier to clean and maintain, but is not easily repaired.

==From other animals==
[[File:«PhoneCases».png|thumb|left|Phone cases in [[ostrich leather]]]]
Today, most leather is made of [[cattle]] skin, but many exceptions exist. Lamb and deerskin are used for soft leather in more expensive apparel. Deer and elkskin are widely used in work gloves and indoor shoes. Pigskin is used in apparel and on seats of [[saddle]]s. Buffalo, goat, alligator, [[snakeskin|snake]], ostrich, kangaroo, ox, and yak skins may also be used for leather.

[[Kangaroo leather]] is used to make items that must be strong and flexible. It is the material most commonly used in [[bullwhip]]s. Some [[motorcycle|motorcyclists]] favor kangaroo leather for [[Motorcycle safety clothing#Leathers|motorcycle leathers]] because of its light weight and abrasion resistance.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.dainese.com/eu_en/faq/|title=FAQ|accessdate=5 October 2010|publisher=Dainese}}</ref> Kangaroo leather<ref>{{cite web|last=Lat |first=Will |title=Soccer Cleats |url=http://soccersupremacy.com/adidas-cleat-review-adidas-copa-mundial-cleat-review/ |accessdate=3 October 2012 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20121019195909/http://soccersupremacy.com/adidas-cleat-review-adidas-copa-mundial-cleat-review/ |archivedate=19 October 2012 }}</ref> is also used for falconry jesses, soccer footwear,<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.soccercleats101.com/2010/07/26/what-kind-of-leather-do-i-have/|title= What type of Leather do I have?|accessdate=27 July 2010|publisher=Soccer Cleats 101}}</ref> and boxing speed bags.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.shopeverlast.com/kangaroo-speed-bags.html|title=Everlast Premium Kangaroo Leather Speed Bag|accessdate=20 October 2013|publisher=Everlast}}</ref> At different times in history, leather made from more exotic skins has been considered desirable. For this reason, certain species of snakes and crocodiles have been hunted.

Although originally raised for their feathers in the 19th century, [[ostrich]]es are now more popular for both meat and leather.<ref>Henrylito Tacio,"[http://www.sunstar.com.ph/davao/why-you-should-raise-ostrich Why You Should Raise Ostrich]," Sun.Star 18 January 2010. {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131224085758/http://www.sunstar.com.ph/davao/why-you-should-raise-ostrich |date=24 December 2013 }}</ref> Different processes produce different finishes for many applications, i.e., upholstery, footwear, automotive products, accessories, and clothing. [[Ostrich leather]] is currently used by many major fashion houses such as [[Hermès]], [[Prada]], [[Gucci]], and [[Louis Vuitton]]. Ostrich leather has a characteristic "goose bump" look because of the large follicles where the feathers grew.

In [[Thailand]], [[stingray]] leather is used in wallets and belts. Sting ray leather is tough and durable. The leather is often dyed black and covered with tiny round bumps in the natural pattern of the back ridge of an animal. These bumps are then usually dyed white to highlight the decoration. Stingray rawhide is also used as grips on Chinese swords, Scottish basket hilted swords, and Japanese [[katana]]s. Stingray leather is also used for high abrasion areas in motorcycle racing leathers (especially in gloves, where its high abrasion resistance helps prevent wear through in the event of an accident.)

==Production processes==
[[File:Ledertrocknung in Suai.jpg|thumb|Drying of leather in [[East Timor]]]]
[[File:Leather tanning, Fes.jpg|thumb|Leather tanning in [[Fes]], [[Morocco]]]]
[[File:Tanned leather.JPG|thumb|Tanned leather in [[Marrakech]]]]
{{Main|Leather production processes}}

The leather manufacturing process is divided into three fundamental subprocesses: preparatory stages, tanning, and crusting. All true leathers undergo these subprocesses. A further subprocess, surface coating, can be added into the leather process sequence, but not all leathers receive surface treatment. Since many types of leather exist, it is difficult to create a list of operations that all leathers must undergo.

The preparatory stages are when the hide/skin is prepared for tanning. Preparatory stages may include: preservation, soaking, [[liming (leather processing)|liming]], unhairing, fleshing, [[Splitting (leather processing)|splitting]], reliming, [[deliming]], [[Bating (leather processing)|bating]], [[degreasing]], frizing, [[bleaching]], [[pickling]], and depickling.

[[Tanning (leather)|Tanning]] is a process that stabilizes the [[protein]] of the raw hide or skin so it does not putrefy, making it suitable for a wide variety of end applications. The principal difference between raw and tanned hides is that raw hides dry out to form a hard, inflexible material that, when rewetted (or wetted-back) putrefy, while tanned material dries to a flexible form that does not become putrid when wetted-back.

Many tanning methods and materials exist. The choice ultimately depends on the end application for the leather. The most common tanning material is [[chromium]], which leaves the tanned leather a pale blue color (due to the chromium). This product is commonly called wet blue. The hides, when finished pickling, are typically between [[pH]] 2.8 and 3.2.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}} At this point, tannery workers load the hides into a drum and immerse them in a float that contains the tanning liquor. The hides soak while the drum slowly rotates about its [[axle|axis]], and the tanning liquor slowly penetrates through the full thickness of the hide. Workers periodically cut a cross-section of a hide and observe the degree of penetration. Once the process achieves even penetration, workers slowly raise the float's pH in a process called basification, which fixes the tanning material to the leather—and the more tanning material fixed, the higher the leather's hydrothermal stability and [[Shrinkage (fabric)|shrinkage]] temperature resistance. Chrome-tanned leather pH is typically between pH 3.8 and 4.2.{{Citation needed|date=October 2010}}

Crusting is a process that thins, retans, and lubricates leather. It often includes a coloring operation. Chemicals added during crusting must be fixed in place. Crusting culminates with a drying and softening operation, and may include:
* Sammying
* Splitting
* Shaving
* Rechroming
* [[Neutralization (chemistry)|Neutralization]]
* Retanning
* [[Dyeing]]
* Fatliquoring
* Filling
* Stuffing
* Stripping
* [[Whitening (leather processing)|Whitening]]
* Fixating
* Setting
* Drying
* Conditioning
* Milling
* Staking
* Buffing
For some leathers, workers apply a surface coating. Tanners call this finishing. Finishing operations can include:
* Oiling
* Brushing
* Padding
* Impregnation
* Buffing
* Spraying
* Roller coating
* [[Curtain coating]]
* [[Polishing]]
* [[Plating]]
* [[Embossing (paper)|embossing]]
* [[Ironing]], ironing-combing (for hair-on)
* [[Glaze (painting technique)|Glazing]]
* [[Tumble finishing|tumbling]]

==Environmental impact==
Leather produces some environmental impact, most notably due to:
* The carbon footprint of cattle rearing
* Use of chemicals in the tanning process (e.g., [[chromium]], [[formic acid]], [[mercury (element)|mercury]] and [[solvent]]s)
* Air pollution due to the transformation process ([[hydrogen sulfide]] during dehairing and [[ammonia]] during deliming, solvent vapors)

===Carbon footprint===

One estimate of the [[carbon footprint]] of leather goods is 0.51 kg of CO2 equivalent per £1 of output at 2010 retail prices, or 0.71 kg CO2eq per £1 of output at 2010 industry prices.<ref>Mike Berners-Lee, ''How Bad are Bananas: The Carbon Footprint of Everything'' (London: Profile, 2010), p. 201.</ref>

===Water footprint===

One ton of hide or skin generally produces 20 to 80 m3 of waste water, including chromium levels of 100–400 mg/l, sulfide levels of
200–800 mg/l, high levels of fat and other solid wastes, and notable pathogen contamination. Producers often add pesticides to protect hides during transport. With solid wastes representing up to 70% of the wet weight of the original hides, the tanning process represents a considerable strain on water treatment installations.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.miga.org/documents/TanningandLeatherFinishing.pdf|title=Pollution Prevention and Abatement Handbook - Environmental Guidelines for Tanning and Leather Finishing|publisher=Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency, World Bank Group|date= |accessdate=2 January 2010}}</ref>

===Disposal===

Leather [[biodegrade]]s slowly—taking 25 to 40 years to [[decompose]].<ref>{{Cite web|url=http://sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/Enviro-imprints/Looking-Closer/Measuring-biodegradability|title=Measuring biodegradability|website=Sciencelearn Hub|language=en-NZ|access-date=2017-01-25}}</ref>{{citation needed|date=December 2013}} However, vinyl and petrochemical-derived materials take 500 or more years to decompose.{{citation needed|date=December 2013}}

===Chemicals used in tanning===

Tanning is especially polluting in countries where environmental regulations are lax, such as in India, the world's third-largest producer and exporter of leather. To give an example of an efficient pollution prevention system, chromium loads per produced tonne are generally abated from 8 kg to 1.5 kg. [[Volatile organic compounds|VOC]] emissions are typically reduced from 30 kg/t to 2 kg/t in a properly managed facility. A review of the total pollution load decrease achievable according to the [[United Nations Industrial Development Organization]]<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.elaw.org/system/files/L_scope.pdf|title=The scope for decreasing pollution load in leather processing (US/RAS/92/120/11-51)|publisher=United Nations Industrial Development Organization Regional Programme for Pollution Control in the Tanning Industry in South-East Asia|date= 9 August 2000|accessdate=2 January 2010}}</ref> posts precise data on the abatement achievable through industrially proven low-waste advanced methods, while noting, "even though the chrome pollution load can be decreased by 94% on introducing advanced technologies, the minimum residual load 0.15 kg/t raw hide can still cause difficulties when using landfills and composting sludge from wastewater treatment on account of the regulations currently in force in some countries."

In [[Kanpur]], the self-proclaimed "Leather City of World"—with 10,000 tanneries as of 2011 and a city of three million on the banks of the [[Ganges]]—pollution levels were so high, that despite an industry crisis, the pollution control board decided to shut down 49 high-polluting tanneries out of 404 in July 2009.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kanpur/How-much-time-needed-to-check-tanneries-waste-HC-to-govt/articleshow/4767069.cms|title=How much time needed to check tanneries' waste|publisher=Times of India|date= 11 July 2009|accessdate=2 January 2010}}</ref> In 2003 for instance, the main tanneries' effluent disposal unit was dumping 22 tonnes of chromium-laden solid waste per day in the open.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.cleanganga.com/articles/june03/chromium.php |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030822012606/http://www.cleanganga.com/articles/june03/chromium.php |dead-url=yes |archive-date=22 August 2003 |title=Kanpur: chromium disaster |publisher=Clean Ganga - Campaign for a cleaner Ganga |date=June 2003 |accessdate=2 January 2010 |df= }}</ref> Scientists at the Central Leather Research Institute in India have developed biological methods for pretanning, as well as better chromium management.

In the Hazaribagh neighborhood of Dhaka in [[Bangladesh]], chemicals from tanneries end up in Dhaka's main river. Besides the environmental damage, the health of both local factory workers and the end consumer is also negatively affected. Besides local sales of products made with leather from the Hazaribagh neighborhood of Dhaka, the leather is also bought by huge Western companies and sold in the developed world.<ref>[https://www.hrw.org/news/2012/10/08/bangladesh-tanneries-harm-workers-poison-communities Hazaribagh neighborhood of Dhaka poisoning staff, local villagers and planet]. Hrw.org (8 October 2012). Retrieved on 2016-11-19.</ref><ref>Documentary by Upside Télévision</ref> After approximately 15 years of ignoring high court rulings, the government moved more than 100 tanneries the weekend of April 8, 2017 in Hazaribagh neighborhood.<ref>{{Cite news|url=http://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/bangladesh-cuts-power-leather-district-years-health-violations/|title=Bangladesh cuts power to leather district after years of environmental violations|work=PBS NewsHour|access-date=2017-04-11|language=en-US}}</ref>

The higher cost associated with the treatment of effluents than to untreated effluent discharging leads to illegal dumping to save on costs. For instance, in [[Croatia]] in 2001, proper pollution abatement cost US$70–100 per ton of raw hides processed against $43/t for irresponsible behavior.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://archive.rec.org/ecolinks/bestpractices/PDF/croatia_hdko.pdf |title=Introduction of Low Pollution Processes in Leather Production |publisher=EcoLinks |year=2001 |accessdate=2 January 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100119162932/http://archive.rec.org/ecolinks/bestpractices/PDF/croatia_hdko.pdf |archivedate=19 January 2010 }}</ref>

No general study seems to exist, but recent media reports are rife with examples.{{clarify|date=July 2011}} In November 2009, for example, one of Uganda's main leather companies was caught directly dumping waste water into a wetland adjacent to [[Lake Victoria]].<ref>{{cite web|url=http://allafrica.com/stories/200911050279.html|title= Uganda: leather factory faces closure over pollution|publisher=The Monitor|date= 5 November 2009|accessdate=2 January 2010}}</ref>

==Role of enzymes==
[[Enzyme]]s like [[protease]]s, [[lipase]]s, and [[amylase]]s have an important role in the soaking, dehairing, degreasing, and bating operations of leather manufacturing. Proteases are the most commonly used enzymes in leather production. The enzyme must not damage or dissolve [[collagen]] or [[keratin]], but should hydrolyze [[casein]], [[elastin]], [[albumin]], [[globulin]]-like proteins, and nonstructural proteins that are not essential for leather making. This process is called bating.<ref>{{Cite book
| title = Fundamentals of Leather Manufacture
| first = E. | last = Heidemann
| page = 211
| publisher = Eduard Roether KG
| isbn = 3-7929-0206-0
| year = 1993
| postscript = }}</ref>

Lipases are used in the degreasing operation to hydrolyze fat particles embedded in the skin.<ref>{{Cite book
| title = Physical Chemistry of Leather Making
| first = K. | last = Bienkiewicz
| page = 226
| publisher = Robert E. Krieger
| isbn = 0-89874-304-4
| year = 1983
| postscript = }}</ref>

Amylases are used to soften skin, to bring out the grain, and to impart strength and flexibility to the skin. These enzymes are rarely used.

==Preservation and conditioning==
The natural fibers of leather break down with the passage of time. Acidic leathers are particularly vulnerable to [[red rot]], which causes powdering of the surface and a change in consistency. Damage from red rot is aggravated by high temperatures and relative humidities. Although it is chemically irreversible, treatments can add handling strength and prevent disintegration of red rotted leather.

Exposure to long periods of low relative humidities (below 40%) can cause leather to become desiccated, irreversibly changing the fibrous structure of the leather. Chemical damage can also occur from exposure to environmental factors, including ultraviolet light, ozone, acid from sulfurous and nitrous pollutants in the air, or through a chemical action following any treatment with tallow or oil compounds. Both oxidation and chemical damage occur faster at higher temperatures.

Various treatments are available such as [[Conditioner (chemistry)|conditioners]]. [[Saddle soap]] is used for cleaning, conditioning, and softening leather. Leather shoes are widely conditioned with [[shoe polish]].<ref>{{cite news|title=Maintain Lather Bag|url=https://www.larocco.co.uk/blogs/news/160620871-maintaining-your-lather-handbag|accessdate=4 May 2016|work=larocco}}</ref>

===Leather book binding===
{{Main|Leather crafting}}
[[File:Delphine, Madame de Staël, Paris, 1803 03.jpg|thumb|A set of leather-bound books]]
Leather used in [[book binding]] has many of the same preservation needs: protection from high temperatures, high relative humidity, low relative humidity, fluctuations in relative humidity, light exposure, dust buildup, pollution, mold, and insect infestation.<ref name=mumford>{{cite web|author=John Mumford |url=http://www.bl.uk/services/npo/pdf/bookbindings.pdf |title=Understanding and Caring for Bookbindings |publisher=The British Library |accessdate=6 October 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20081002173223/http://www.bl.uk/services/npo/pdf/bookbindings.pdf |archivedate=2 October 2008 }}</ref><ref name=fahey>{{cite web|author=Mary Fahey |url=http://www.hfmgv.org/explore/artifacts/archival.asp |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031207213411/http://www.hfmgv.org/explore/artifacts/archival.asp |dead-url=yes |archive-date= 7 December 2003 |title=The Care and Preservation of Archival Materials |publisher=[[The Henry Ford]] |accessdate=6 April 2008 |df= }}</ref><ref>{{cite web |author=The Henry Ford |url=http://www.thehenryford.org/research/caring/materials.aspx |title=The Care and Preservation of Archival Materials}}</ref>

For books with red rot, acid-free phase boxes and/or polyester dust jackets (Dupont Mylar Type D or ICI Mellinex 516) are recommended to protect the leather from further handling damage and to prevent the residues from getting on hands, clothes, the text block, and nearby books.<ref name=loc>{{cite web|url=http://www.loc.gov/preserv/care/leather.html |title=Leather Dressing |publisher=Library of Congress |accessdate=5 April 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080402074742/http://www.loc.gov/preserv/care/leather.html |archivedate=2 April 2008 }}</ref>

The debate on the use of dressings for preservation of book bindings has spanned several decades as research and experimental evidence have slowly accumulated. The main argument is, when done incorrectly, multiple disadvantages exist, and when done correctly, little to no preservation advantage occurs. Pamphlets and guidelines give numerous downsides to dressings use, including: the dressing becoming increasingly acidic and discolors and stains the leather, oxidizes (penetration and expansion of oils including displacement and weakening of fibers) and stiffens, leave a sticky surface, collects dust, wicks into adjacent materials, forms unstable surface spews, encourages biological deterioration and mold growth, blocks surface porosity, impedes further treatment, wets and swells the leather, affects surface finishes, and desiccates the leather.<ref name=society>{{cite journal|url=http://www.srmarchivists.org/preservation/publications/leather.htm |publisher=Society of Rocky Mountain Archivists |title=Leather Dressing: 'To Dress or not to Dress' |journal=National Park Service Conserve O Gram |volume=9 |issue=1 |date=December 2004 |accessdate=5 April 2008 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20060923091455/http://www.srmarchivists.org/preservation/publications/leather.htm |archivedate=23 September 2006 }}</ref> Meanwhile, scientific experiments have shown no substantial benefits.<ref name=mccrady>{{cite web|author=McCrady, Ellen |url=http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byorg/abbey/an/an05/an05-2/an05-206.html |title=Research on the Dressing and Preservation of Leather. Abbey Newsletter, Vol. 5 No. 2, 1981-04. |publisher=palimpsest.stanford.edu |accessdate=6 October 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20080917201837/http://palimpsest.stanford.edu/byorg/abbey/an/an05/an05-2/an05-206.html |archivedate=17 September 2008 }}</ref> The main authorities on the subject, therefore, discourage it, with a caveat for special cases done under the direction of a conservator.<ref name=mumford/><ref name=loc/><ref name=society/> Leather can be decorated by a variety of methods, including [[pyrography]] and [[beading]].

==Cordwain and ''Cuir de Cordoue''==
[[File:Kurdyban.JPG|thumb|right|Fragment of ''[[Cuir de Cordoue]]'']]
Cordwain, once a synonym of [[shell cordovan|cordovan]] (through [[Old French]] ''cordewan'') meaning "from [[Córdoba, Spain|Córdoba]]" describes a certain kind of fine leather, originally from Córdoba. Cordwainer is still used to describe someone in the profession of [[shoemaking]].

The related term ''Cuir de Cordoue'' refers to painted and [[gilding|gilded]] (and sometimes [[Embossing (leather)|embossed]]) leather hangings manufactured in panels and assembled for covering walls as an alternative to [[tapestry]].
{{Main|Cuir de Cordoue}}

==In modern culture==
{{unreferenced section|date=July 2014}}

Due to its excellent resistance to abrasion and wind, leather found a use in rugged occupations. The enduring image of a [[cowboy]] in leather [[chaps]] gave way to the leather-jacketed and leather-helmeted [[aviator]]. When [[motorcycle]]s were invented, some riders took to wearing heavy leather [[jackets]] to protect from [[road rash]] and wind blast; some also wear chaps or full leather pants to protect the lower body. Many sports still use leather equipment. Its flexibility facilitates forming and shaping it into balls and protective gear.

[[Leather fetishism]] is the name popularly used to describe a [[sexual fetishism|fetishistic]] attraction to people wearing leather, or in certain cases, to the garments themselves.

Many [[rock group]]s (particularly [[Heavy Metal music|heavy metal]] and [[punk subculture|punk]] groups in the 1980s) are well known for wearing leather clothing. Leather clothing, particularly jackets, are common in the heavy metal and Punk subculture. [[Extreme metal]] bands (especially [[black metal]] bands) and [[Goth rock]] groups have extensive leather clothing.

Many cars and trucks come with optional or standard "leather" seating.

==Religious sensitivities==
In some religiously diverse countries, leather vendors typically clarify the kinds of leather in their products. For example, leather shoes bear a label that identifies the animal from which the leather came. This helps a [[Muslim]] not accidentally purchase pigskin, and a [[Hindu]] avoid cattle. Many vegetarian Hindus do not use any kind of leather. Such [[taboo]]s increase the demand for religiously neutral leathers such as [[ostrich]] and [[deer]].

[[Judaism]] forbids the comfort of wearing leather shoes on [[Yom Kippur]], [[Tisha B'Av]], and during mourning.<ref>{{cite web
|url=http://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/281605/jewish/Wearing-Shoes.htm
|title=Wearing Shoes - Mourning Observances of Shiva and Sheloshim
|publisher=Chabad.org
|date=
|accessdate=20 October 2009}}</ref>

[[Jainism]] prohibits the use of leather, since it is obtained by killing animals.

==Alternatives==

Some vegetarians, [[vegan]]s and [[animal rights]] activists and groups such as [[PETA]], [[boycott]] and promote the boycotting of all leather products, arguing that the use of leather is unjustifiable. They encourage the use of alternative materials such as [[Artificial leather|synthetic leathers]].

Many synthetic leather materials have been developed. Some published claims assert that certain versions of artificial leather are stronger than real leather when manufactured with strength in mind. Ranges of synthetic [[polymer]]ic materials provide features rivalling or exceeding those of various types of leather in particular applications; they include vegan [[microfiber]], [[pleather]] and [[Naugahyde]].<ref>[http://www.ctsti.cn/webtec/upload/2011/7/4/20110704051836492.pdf Artificial Leather- An Eco-friendly Alternative Textile Material For Leather] Jahan, Saurabh and Jahan, Shahnaz. China Textile Science 3rd 2011.</ref>

==See also==
;Types
* [[Aniline leather]], a leather treated with aniline as a dye
* [[Boiled leather]], a historical construction material for armour
* [[Bonded leather]], man-made material composed of leather fibers
* [[Chamois leather]], leather made from the skin of the mountain antelope or chamois
* [[Composition leather]], man-made leather made from recycled leather offcuts, trimmings, or shavings
* [[Corinthian leather]], a marketing term used by Chrysler in the 1970s
* [[Alligator farm|Crocodile leather]], leather from a crocodile
* [[Morocco leather]], traditionally this is goatskin leather prepared for softness and decorative finish
* [[Ostrich leather]], leather from an ostrich
* [[Patent leather]], leather with a high gloss and shiny finish

;Substitutes
* [[Artificial leather]], a fabric of finish intended to substitute for leather
* [[Bicast leather]], a synthetic upholstery product
* [[Kirza]], developed in the Soviet Union
* [[Pleather]], a term for artificial leather
* [[Poromeric imitation leather]], a group of synthetic leather substitutes
* [[Vegan leather]], an artificial alternative to traditional leather

;Fabrication
* [[British Museum leather dressing]], a conservator's treatment for display items
* [[Leather carving]], a process of cutting and stamping to give a three-dimensional appearance
* [[Leather crafting]], the practice of making leather into crafts or pieces of art
* [[Liming (leather processing)]], a process of treating leather
* [[Tanning (leather)|Tanning]]

;Other
* [[Adarga]], a hard leather shield
* [[Henry Burk]], inventor of the alum and sumac tanning process
* [[Horse tack]], various equipment and accessories worn by horses, much of which is made of leather
* [[Leather subculture]]
* [[Mink oil]], leather treatment
* [[Neatsfoot oil]], leather treatment
* [[Saddle soap]], leather cleaning and conditioning

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=35em}}

==Further reading==
{{Sister project links| wikt=no | commons=Category:Leather | b=no | n=no | q=Leather | v=no | voy=no | species=no | d=no}}

*{{cite book|publisher=Harmatan|location=UK|url=http://www.harmatan.co.uk/about/wonderful_story_of_leather.pdf|title=The Wonderful Story of Leather|author=Beeby, K.J.}}
* {{cite book|last=Lefroy|first=George Alfred|authorlink=George Lefroy|title=[[s:The leather-workers of Daryaganj|The leather-workers of Daryaganj]]|year=1884|publisher=Cambridge Mission to Delhi|location=Delhi}}
*{{cite book|title=Leathers for Bookbinding and Upholstery|publisher=Harmatan|location=UK|url=http://www.harmatan.co.uk/about/leathers_for_bookbinding.pdf|date=2002}}
*{{cite book|title=Leather for Libraries|url=http://www.harmatan.co.uk/about/leather_for_libraries.pdf|publisher=Harmatan|location=UK}}

{{leather}}
{{Clothing materials and parts}}
{{Use dmy dates|date=November 2016}}

{{Authority control}}

[[Category:Leather| ]]
[[Category:Hides]]

Apricot

2017-08-16T12:58:39Z

MPrado: /* History of cultivation */ extended description

{{About|the trees and their fruit}}
[[File:Apricot and cross section.jpg|thumb|right|Apricot and its cross-section]]
[[File:Apricot kernel (endocarp + seed).jpg|thumb|Apricot's kernel (endocarp and seed)]]
An '''apricot''' is a [[fruit]], or the tree that bears the fruit, of several species in the genus ''[[Prunus]]'' (stone fruits). Usually, an apricot tree is from the species ''[[Prunus armeniaca|P. armeniaca]]'', but the species ''[[Prunus brigantina|P. brigantina]]'', ''[[Prunus mandshurica|P. mandshurica]]'', ''[[Prunus mume|P. mume]]'', and ''[[Prunus sibirica|P. sibirica]]'' are closely related, have similar fruit, and are also called apricots.<ref>{{cite journal|author1=Bortiri, E. |author2=Oh, S.-H. |author3=Jiang, J. |author4=Baggett, S. |author5=Granger, A. |author6=Weeks, C. |author7=Buckingham, M. |author8=Potter, D. |author9=Parfitt, D.E. |year=2001|title=Phylogeny and systematics of ''Prunus'' (Rosaceae) as determined by sequence analysis of ITS and the chloroplast trnL-trnF spacer DNA|journal=Systematic Botany|volume=26|issue=4|pages=797–807 | jstor=3093861}}</ref>

==Description==
[[File:Turkey.Pasa Baglari005.jpg|thumb|right|Apricot tree in central [[Cappadocia]], Turkey]]
[[File:Marillenblüten.jpg|thumb|Blooms of an apricot]]
The apricot is a small tree, {{convert|8|–|12|m|abbr=on}} tall, with a trunk up to {{convert|40|cm|abbr=on}} in diameter and a dense, spreading canopy. The [[leaf|leaves]] are [[leaf shape|ovate]], {{convert|5|–|9|cm|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|4|–|8|cm|abbr=on}} wide, with a rounded base, a pointed tip and a finely serrated margin. The [[flower]]s are {{convert|2|–|4.5|cm|1|abbr=on}} in diameter, with five white to pinkish petals; they are produced singly or in pairs in early spring before the leaves. The [[fruit]] is a [[drupe]] similar to a small [[peach]], {{convert|1.5|–|2.5|cm|1|abbr=on}} diameter (larger in some modern [[cultivar]]s), from yellow to orange, often tinged red on the side most exposed to the sun; its surface can be smooth (botanically described as: [[wikt:glabrous|glabrous]]) or velvety with very short hairs (botanically: [[wikt:pubescent|pubescent]]). The flesh is usually firm and not very juicy. Its taste can range from sweet to tart. The single [[seed]] is enclosed in a hard, stony shell, often called a "stone", with a grainy, smooth texture except for three ridges running down one side.<ref name=foc>Flora of China: [http://www.efloras.org/florataxon.aspx?flora_id=2&taxon_id=200010636 ''Armeniaca vulgaris'']</ref><ref name=rushforth>Rushforth, K. (1999). ''Trees of Britain and Europe''. Collins {{ISBN|0-00-220013-9}}.</ref>

==Cultivation and uses==

===History of cultivation===
[[File:Apricots Drying In Cappadocia.JPG|thumb|Apricots drying on the ground in [[Cappadocia]]]]
[[File:Dried date, peach, apricot, and probably almond. From Lahun, Fayum, Egypt. Late Middle Kingdom. The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology, London.jpg|thumb|Dried date, peach, apricot, and probably almond. From Lahun, Fayum, Egypt. [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Late Middle Kingdom]]. [[Petrie Museum|The Petrie Museum of Egyptian Archaeology]], London]]
{{nutritionalvalue
| name=Apricots, raw
| kJ=201
| water=86 g
| protein=1.4 g
| fat=0.4 g
| carbs=11 g
| fiber = 2 g
| sugars=9 g
| calcium_mg=13
| iron_mg=0.4
| magnesium_mg=10
| phosphorus_mg=23
| potassium_mg=259
| sodium_mg=1
| zinc_mg=0.2
| manganese_mg=0.077
| vitC_mg=10
| thiamin_mg=0.03
| riboflavin_mg=0.04
| niacin_mg=0.6
| pantothenic_mg=0.24
| vitB6_mg=0.054
| folate_ug=9
| vitA_ug=96
| betacarotene_ug=1094
| lutein_ug=89
| vitE_mg=0.89
| vitK_ug=3.3
| source_usda=1
| note=[http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list?qlookup=09021&format=Full Link to USDA Database entry]
}}
{{nutritionalvalue
| name=Apricots, dried
| kJ=1009
| protein=3.4 g
| fat=0.5 g
| carbs=63 g
| fibre=7 g
| sugars=53 g
| calcium_mg=55
| iron_mg=2.66
| magnesium_mg=32
| phosphorus_mg=71
| potassium_mg=1162
| sodium_mg=10
| zinc_mg=0.29
| manganese_mg=0.235
| vitC_mg=1
| thiamin_mg=0.015
| riboflavin_mg=0.074
| niacin_mg=2.589
| pantothenic_mg=0.516
| folate_ug=10
| vitA_ug=180
| betacarotene_ug=2163
| vitB6_mg=0.143
| vitE_mg=4.33
| vitK_ug=3.1
| source_usda=1
| note=[http://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list?qlookup=09032&format=Full Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

The origin of the apricot is disputed and unsettled. It was known in [[Armenia]] during ancient times, and has been cultivated there for so long that it is often thought to have originated there.<ref name=ishs121_36>{{cite web|url=http://www.actahort.org/books/121/121_36.htm |title=VII Symposium on Apricot Culture and Decline |publisher=Actahort.org |date= |accessdate=2012-06-22}}</ref> Its scientific name ''Prunus armeniaca'' (Armenian plum) derives from that assumption. For example, the Belgian [[arborist]] [[Eugène-Joseph-Charles-Gilain-Hubert d'Olmen de Poederlé|baron de Poerderlé]], writing in the 1770s, asserted, "''Cet arbre tire son nom de l'Arménie, province d'Asie, d'où il est originaire et d'où il fut porté en Europe ...''" ("this tree takes its name from Armenia, province of Asia, where it is native, and whence it was brought to Europe ...").<ref>{{cite book | first=M. le Baron | last=De Poerderlé | title=Manuel de l'Arboriste et du Forestier Belgiques: Seconde Édition: Tome Premier | publisher=Emmanuel Flon | location= Brussels | date=1788 | page=682}}</ref> An archaeological excavation at [[Garni]] in Armenia found apricot seeds in an [[Eneolithic]]-era site.<ref>Arakelyan, B. (1968) "Excavations at Garni, 1949–50", p. 29 in ''Contributions to the Archaeology of Armenia''. [[Henry Field (anthropologist)|Henry Field]] (ed.). Cambridge.</ref> Despite the great number of varieties of apricots that are grown in Armenia today (about 50),<ref name=ishs121_36/> according to the Soviet botanist [[Nikolai Vavilov]], its [[center of origin#Vavilov centers|center of origin]] would be the Chinese region, where the domestication of the apricot would have taken place. Other sources say that the apricot was first cultivated in India in about 3000 BC.<ref name=rhs>Huxley, A., ed. (1992). ''New RHS Dictionary of Gardening''. Vol. 1, pp. 203–205. Macmillan {{ISBN|0-333-47494-5}}.</ref>

Its introduction to [[Greece]] is attributed to [[Alexander the Great]];<ref name=rhs/> later, the Roman General [[Lucullus]] (106–57 BC) also would have imported some trees – the cherry, white heart cherry, and apricot – from Armenia to Rome.{{Citation needed|date=February 2013}} Subsequent sources were often confused about the origin of the species. [[John Claudius Loudon]] (1838) believed it had a wide native range including Armenia, the [[Caucasus]], the [[Himalaya]]s, [[China]], and [[Japan]].<ref>{{cite book | first=J.C. | last=Loudon | title=Arboretum Et Fruticetum Britannicum. Vol. II | publisher=Longman, Orme, Brown, Green and Longmans | location=London | year=1838 | pages=681–684 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p2YEAAAAQAAJ&printsec=titlepage&dq=editions:0N8eqf4BG_RjEKJIwNfh-n#PPP5,M1}} The genus is given as ''Armeniaca''.</ref>

Apricots have been cultivated in [[Persia]] since antiquity, and dried ones were an important commodity on Persian trade routes. Apricots remain an important fruit in modern-day [[Iran]], where they are known under the common name of ''zard-ālū'' (Persian: [[wikt:زردآلو|زردآلو]]).

Egyptians usually dry apricots, add sweetener, and then use them to make a drink called ''amar al-dīn''.

In the 17th century, [[British colonization of the Americas|English settlers]] brought the apricot to the [[Thirteen Colonies|English colonies in the New World]]. Most of modern American production of apricots comes from the seedlings carried to the west coast by [[New Spain|Spanish]] missionaries. Almost all [[United States|U.S.]] commercial production is in [[California]], with some in [[Washington (state)|Washington]] and [[Utah]].<ref>Agricultural Marketing Resource Center: [http://www.agmrc.org/agmrc/commodity/fruits/apricots/ Apricots]</ref>

Apricots are also cultivated in [[Australia]], particularly [[South Australia]], where they are commonly grown in the region known as the [[Riverland]] and round the small town of [[Mypolonga, South Australia|Mypolonga]] in the [[Murray River|Lower Murray]] region of the state. In states other than South Australia, apricots are still grown, particularly in [[Tasmania]] and western [[Victoria (Australia)|Victoria]] and southwest [[New South Wales]], but they are less common than in South Australia.

Today, apricot cultivation has spread to all parts of the globe with climates that support it.

===Cultivation===
[[File:apricotfresh.JPG|thumb|right|Fresh apricots on display]]
[[File:Dried apricot 01 Pengo.jpg|thumb|right|Dried [[organic food|organic]] apricot, produced in Turkey: The colour is dark because it has not been treated with [[sulfur dioxide]] (E220).]]
Although the apricot is native to a [[continental climate]] region with cold winters, it can grow in [[Mediterranean climate]]s if enough cool winter weather allows a proper [[dormancy]].{{Citation needed|date=October 2013}} A dry climate is good for fruit maturation. The tree is slightly more cold-hardy than the [[peach]], tolerating winter temperatures as cold as {{convert|-30|°C}} or lower if healthy. A limiting factor in apricot culture is spring [[frost]]s: They tend to flower very early (in early March in western Europe), meaning spring frost can kill the flowers. Furthermore, the trees are sensitive to temperature changes during the winter season. In [[China]], winters can be very cold, but temperatures tend to be more stable than in [[Europe]] and especially [[North America]], where large temperature swings can occur in winter. [[Hybrid (biology)|Hybridisation]] with the closely related ''[[Prunus sibirica]]'' (Siberian apricot; hardy to {{convert|-50|°C}} but with less palatable fruit) offers options for breeding more cold-tolerant plants.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Prunus+sibirica|title=Prunus sibirica Siberian Apricot PFAF Plant Database|work=pfaf.org}}</ref>

[[File:Сибирский абрикос.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Prunus sibirica]]'' (Siberian apricot; hardy to {{convert|-50|°C}} but with less palatable fruit) offers options for breeding more cold-tolerant plants.]]
Apricot cultivars are most often [[grafting|grafted]] onto plum or peach rootstocks. The scion from an existing apricot plant provides the fruit characteristics, such as flavour and size, but the rootstock provides the growth characteristics of the plant.

Cultivators have created what is known as a "black apricot" or "purple apricot", (''[[Prunus dasycarpa]]''), a hybrid of an apricot and the cherry plum (''[[Prunus cerasifera]]''). Other apricot–plum hybrids are variously called [[Pluot|plumcots, apriplums, pluots, or apriums]].

Apricots have a chilling requirement of 300 to 900 [[chilling unit]]s. They are hardy in [[Hardiness zone#North American hardiness zones|USDA zones]] 5 through 8. Some of the more popular US cultivars of apricots include 'Blenheim', 'Wenatchee Moorpark', 'Tilton', and 'Perfection'.

An old adage says an apricot tree will not grow far from the mother tree; the implication is that apricots are particular about the [[soil]] conditions in which they are grown.{{Citation needed|date=March 2011}} They prefer well-drained soils with a pH of 6.0 to 7.0. Some apricot cultivars are self-compatible and do not require pollinizer trees; others are not: ''Moongold'' and ''Sungold'', for example, must be planted in pairs so that they can pollinate each other.

===Pests and diseases===
{{Main|List of apricot diseases}}
Apricots are susceptible to various diseases whose relative importance is different in the major production regions as a consequence of their climatic differences. For example, hot weather as experienced in California's Central Valley will often cause pit burn, a condition of soft and brown fruit around the pit.<ref>{{cite book | last = Ingels| first= Chuck, et. al. | title=The Home Orchard: Growing Your Own Deciduous Fruit and Nut Trees|isbn=1879906724 | page=27 | year=2007 | publisher=University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources}}</ref> Bacterial diseases include bacterial spot and crown gall. Fungal diseases include brown rot caused by ''[[Monilinia fructicola]]'': infection of the blossom by rainfall leads to "blossom wilt"<ref name=Hessayon2004>{{cite book|title=The Fruit Expert|author=Hessayon, D.G. |authorlink = D. G. Hessayon|publisher=Expert Books|year=2004|location=London}}</ref> whereby the blossoms and young shoots turn brown and die; the twigs die back in a severe attack; brown rot of the fruit is due to ''Monilinia'' infection later in the season. Dieback of branches in the summer is attributed to the fungus ''[[Eutypa lata]]'', where examination of the base of the dead branch will reveal a canker surrounding a pruning wound.<ref name=Munkvold2001>{{cite journal|last1=Munkvold|first1=Gary P.|title=Eutypa Dieback of Grapevine and Apricot|journal=Plant Health Progress|year=2001|doi=10.1094/PHP-2001-0219-01-DG}}</ref> Other fungal diseases are [[Dibotryon morbosum|black knot]], ''Alternaria'' spot and fruit rot, and [[powdery mildew]].<ref>[http://www.apsnet.org/publications/commonnames/Pages/Apricot.aspx Diseases of Apricot]. The American Phytopathological Society</ref> Unlike peaches, apricots are not affected by [[leaf curl]], and bacterial canker (causing sunken patches in the bark which then spread and kill the affected branch or tree) and silver leaf are not serious threats, which means that pruning in late winter is considered safe.<ref name=Hessayon2004/>

===Kernels===
{{Main|Apricot kernel}}

On average, bitter apricot kernels contain about 5% [[amygdalin]] and sweet kernels about 0.9% amygdalin. These values correspond to 0.3% and 0.05% of [[cyanide]]. Since a typical apricot kernel weighs 600 mg, bitter and sweet varieties contain respectively 1.8 and 0.3 mg of cyanide.

===Dried apricots===
{{Main|Dried apricot}}
Dried apricots are a type of [[traditional dried fruit]]. When treated with [[sulfur dioxide]] (E220), the color is vivid [[orange color|orange]]. [[Organic horticulture|Organic]] fruit not treated with sulfur dioxide is darker in color and has a coarser texture. The world's largest producer of dried apricots is [[Turkey]].<ref>Smith, Andrew F. (ed.) (2007). ''The Oxford Companion to American Food and Drink''. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|9780195307962}}. p. 22.</ref>

===Phytochemicals===

Apricots contain various [[phytochemical]]s, such as [[provitamin A]] [[beta-carotene]] and [[polyphenol]]s, including [[catechins]] and [[chlorogenic acid]].<ref>{{cite journal|pmid=24328399|year=2013|author1=Campbell|first1=O. E.|title=Characterization and the effect of maturity at harvest on the phenolic and carotenoid content of Northeast USA Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) varieties|journal=Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry|volume=61|issue=51|pages=12700–10|last2=Merwin|first2=I. A.|last3=Padilla-Zakour|first3=O. I.|doi=10.1021/jf403644r}}</ref> Taste and aroma compounds include [[sucrose]], [[glucose]], [[organic acids]], [[terpene]]s, [[aldehyde]]s and [[lactone]]s.<ref>{{cite journal|pmc=4964374|year=2016|author1=Xi|first1=W|title=Profiling Taste and Aroma Compound Metabolism during Apricot Fruit Development and Ripening|journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences|volume=17|issue=7|pages=998|last2=Zheng|first2=H|last3=Zhang|first3=Q|last4=Li|first4=W|doi=10.3390/ijms17070998|pmid=27347931}}</ref>

In England during the 17th century, apricot oil was used in [[herbalism]] treatments intended to act against tumors, swelling, and [[Peptic ulcers|ulcers]].<ref>{{cite book|authors=Lewis, WH and Elvin-Lewis, MPF|date=2003|url=https://books.google.ca/books?id=ipQmSriMF9sC&q=apricot#v=snippet&q=pit&f=false|title=Medical botany: plants affecting human health; page 214|location=Hoboken, New Jersey|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=9780471628828}}</ref>

==Nutrition==
In a 100-gram amount, raw apricots supply 48 [[Calories]] and are composed of 11% [[carbohydrates]], 1% [[protein]], less than 1% [[fat]] and 86% water (table). Raw apricots are a moderate source of [[vitamin A]] and [[vitamin C]] (12% of the [[Daily Value]] each).

When apricots are dried, the relative concentration of nutrients is increased, with vitamin A, [[vitamin E]], [[potassium]] and [[iron]] having Daily Values above 25% (table).

==Etymology==
The scientific name ''armeniaca'' was first used by [[Gaspard Bauhin]] in his ''Pinax Theatri Botanici'' (page 442), referring to the species as ''Mala armeniaca'' "Armenian apple". [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]] took up Bauhin's epithet in the first edition of his ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' in 1753, ''Prunus armeniaca''.<ref>Linnaeus, C. (1753). ''[[Species Plantarum]]'' 1:474.</ref> ''Apricot'' derives from ''praecocia'' (''praecoquus'') as "cooked or ripened beforehand" [in this case meaning ''early ripening''], and from Greek ''πραικόκιον'' (''praikókion'') as "apricot".<ref>{{Cite Merriam-Webster|apricot}}</ref><ref>{{Cite American Heritage Dictionary|apricot}}</ref> The English name first appeared in the 16th century as ''abrecock'' from the [[Middle French]] ''aubercot'' or later ''abricot'',<ref>"[http://www.cnrtl.fr/definition/abricot abricot]". Centre National de Ressources Textuelles et Lexicales.</ref> from [[Catalan language|Catalan]] ''a(l)bercoc''.

==In culture==
[[File:ArmenianStamps-407.jpg|thumb|An Armenian stamp featuring the apricot]]
The Chinese associate the apricot with education and medicine. For instance, the classical word [[wikt:杏|杏]][[wikt:壇|壇]] (literally: "apricot [[altar]]") which means "educational circle", is still widely used in written language. [[Zhuang Zhou|Chuang Tzu]], a Chinese philosopher in the fourth century BCE, told a story that [[Confucius]] taught his students in a forum surrounded by the wood of apricot trees.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://ctext.org/zhuangzi/old-fisherman |title=《莊子·漁父》 |publisher=Ctext.org |date= |accessdate=2012-06-22}}</ref> The association with medicine in turn comes from the common use of apricot kernels as a component in [[traditional Chinese medicine]], and from the story of Dong Feng (董奉), a physician during the [[Three Kingdoms period]], who required no payment from his patients except that they plant apricot trees in his orchard upon recovering from their illnesses, resulting in a large grove of apricot trees and a steady supply of medicinal ingredients.<ref>{{Cite journal|pmc=1376720|title=Chinese Confucian culture and the medical ethical tradition|last=Guo|first=Zhaojiang|date=1995|volume= 21 |issue= 4| pages= 239–246| pmid=7473645|journal=Journal of Medical Ethics|doi=10.1136/jme.21.4.239}}</ref> The term "expert of the apricot grove" (杏林高手) is still used as a poetic reference to physicians.

The fact that apricot season is very short has given rise to the very common [[Egyptian Arabic]] and [[Palestinian Arabic]] expression ''[[filmishmish]]'' ("in apricot [season]") or ''bukra filmishmish'' ("tomorrow in apricot [season]"), generally uttered as a riposte to an unlikely prediction, or as a rash promise to fulfill a request.

The Turkish idiom ''bundan iyisi Şam'da kayısı'' (literally, the only thing better than this is an apricot in Damascus) means "it doesn't get any better than this".

===Production trends===
According to the [[FAO|UN Food & Agriculture Organization]], the top producers of apricots in 2014 were as follows:<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/visualize |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) |title=Production quantities of Apricots by country |date=2016-12-13 |accessdate=2017-02-08}}</ref>
[[File:2012apricot.png|thumb|300px|The global distribution of apricot output in 2012]]

{| class="wikitable"
|- bgcolor="#ececec" valign=top
! Rank !! Country !! Production (tonnes)
|-
| 1 || {{UZB}} || style="text-align:right;"| 547,000
|-
| 2 || {{TUR}} || style="text-align:right;"| 278,210
|-
| 3 || {{IRN}} || style="text-align:right;"| 252,747
|-
| 4 || {{ITA}} || style="text-align:right;"| 222,690
|-
| 5 || {{ALG}} || style="text-align:right;"| 216,941
|-
| 6 || {{FRA}} || style="text-align:right;"| 177,000
|-
| 7 || {{PAK}} || style="text-align:right;"| 170,504
|-
| 8 || {{ESP}} || style="text-align:right;"| 136,446
|-
| 9 || {{GRE}} || style="text-align:right;"| 125,100
|-
| 10|| {{JAP}} || style="text-align:right;"| 111,400
|-
| || style="text-align:center;"| '''World''' || style="text-align:right;"| '''3,365,738'''
|}

==See also==
* [[Barack (brandy)]]
* [[List of apricot diseases]]
* Apricot plum, ''[[Prunus simonii]]''
{{Clear}}

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

==External links==
{{commons category|Prunus armeniaca|''Prunus armeniaca''}}
* {{Wiktionary-inline}}

[[Category:Apricot| ]]
[[Category:Prunus]]
[[Category:Edible fruits]]
[[Category:Fruits originating in Asia]]
[[Category:Crops originating from China]]
[[Category:Garden plants of Asia]]

Clinical formulation

2017-08-16T12:47:36Z

MPrado: grammatical

A '''clinical formulation''', also known as '''case formulation''', is a theoretically-based explanation or conceptualisation of the information obtained from a clinical assessment. It offers a hypothesis about the cause and nature of the presenting problems and is considered an adjunct or alternative approach to the more categorical approach of psychiatric [[diagnosis]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bruch |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Bond |editor2-first=Frank W. |date=1998 |title=Beyond diagnosis: case formulation approaches in CBT |series=The Wiley series in clinical psychology |location=Chichester, UK; New York |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=0471975257 |oclc=38486295}}</ref> In clinical practice, formulations are used to communicate a [[hypothesis]] and provide framework for developing the most suitable treatment approach. It is most commonly used by [[clinical psychologists]] and [[psychiatrists]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mace |first=Chris |author2=Binyon, Sharon |date=October 2005 |title=Teaching psychodynamic formulation to psychiatric trainees. Part 1: Basics of formulation |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=416–423 |doi=10.1192/apt.11.6.416}}</ref> and is deemed to be a core component of these professions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Butler |first=Gillian |date=1998 |chapter=Clinical formulation |editor1-last=Bellack |editor1-first=Alan S. |editor2-last=Hersen |editor2-first=Michel |title=Comprehensive clinical psychology |edition=1st |volume=6 |location=Amsterdam; New York |publisher=Pergamon |pages=1–24 |isbn=0080427073 |oclc=38048834 |doi=10.1016/B0080-4270(73)00186-3}}</ref> Mental health nurses and social workers may also use formulations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crowe |first1=Marie |last2=Carlyle |first2=David |last3=Farmar |first3=R. |date=December 2008 |title=Clinical formulation for mental health nursing practice |journal=Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=800–807 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2850.2008.01307.x |pmid=19012671 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marie_Crowe/publication/23476955_Clinical_formulation_for_mental_health_nursing_practice/links/546da3bb0cf2193b94c58ffd.pdf}}</ref>

The British Psychological Society identified four "influential clinicians" who created the field of case formulation: Hans Eysenck, M.B. Shapiro, Vic Meyer, and Ira Turkat <ref>British Psychological Society, Good practice guidelines on the use of psychological formulation, (Leicester, UK: Author, 2011)</ref>. American psychologist Ira Turkat is credited with coining the term "case formulation" and he provided with British psychologist Vic Meyer the first criterion-based definition of case formulation <ref>Michael Bruch and Frank Bond (Eds.), Beyond diagnosis: Case formulation approaches in CBT, (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2011); Lucy Johnstone and Rudi Dallos (Eds.), Formulation in psychology and psychotherapy, (London: Routledge, 2013</ref>.

==Types of formulation==
Different psychological schools or models utilize clinical formulations, including [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) and related therapies: [[systemic therapy]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pinsof |first1=William |last2=Breunlin |first2=Douglas C. |last3=Russell |first3=William P. |last4=Lebow |first4=Jay |date=September 2011 |title=Integrative problem-centered metaframeworks therapy II: planning, conversing, and reading feedback |journal=[[Family Process]] |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=314–336 |doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.2011.01361.x |pmid=21884073 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jay_Lebow/publication/51612401_Integrative_problem-centered_metaframeworks_therapy_II_planning_conversing_and_reading_feedback/links/02bfe50f5d274f10df000000.pdf}}</ref> [[psychodynamic therapy]],<ref name="Perry">{{cite journal |last1=Perry |first1=Samuel |last2=Cooper |first2=Arnold M. |last3=Michels |first3=Robert |authorlink3=Robert Michels (physician) |date=May 1987 |title=The psychodynamic formulation: its purpose, structure, and clinical application |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=144 |issue=5 |pages=543–550 |pmid=3578562 |ref=harv |doi=10.1176/ajp.144.5.543}}</ref> and [[applied behavior analysis]].<ref name="Cipani">{{cite journal |last1=Cipani |first1=Ennio |last2=Golden |first2=Jeannie A. |date=2007 |title=Differentiating behavioral & traditional case formulations for children with severe behavioral & emotional problems |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=537–545 |doi=10.1037/h0100821}}</ref> The structure and content of a clinical formulation is determined by the psychological model. Most systems of formulation contain the following broad categories of information: symptoms and problems; precipitating stressors or events; predisposing life events or stressors; and an explanatory mechanism that links the preceding categories together and offers a description of the precipitants and maintaining influences of the person's problems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eells |first1=Tracy D. |last2=Kendjelic |first2=Edward M. |last3=Lucas |first3=Cynthia P. |date=Spring 1998 |title=What's in a case formulation?: development and use of a content coding manual |journal=The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=144–153 |pmid=9527958 |pmc=3330487}}</ref>

Behavioral case formulations used in [[applied behavior analysis]] and [[behavior therapy]] are built on a rank list of problem behaviors,<ref name="Cipani" /> from which a [[Functional analysis (psychology)|functional analysis]] is conducted,<ref name="Kanter">{{cite journal |last1=Kanter |first1=Jonathan W. |last2=Cautilli |first2=Joseph D. |last3=Busch |first3=Andrew M. |last4=Baruch |first4=David E. |date=2005 |title=Toward a comprehensive functional analysis of depressive behavior: five environmental factors and a possible sixth and seventh |journal=The Behavior Analyst Today |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–81 |doi=10.1037/h0100055 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jonathan_Kanter2/publication/26452621_Toward_a_Comprehensive_Functional_Analysis_of_Depressive_Behavior_Five_Environmental_Factors_and_a_Possible_Sixth_and_Seventh/links/02bfe50fff04f3d788000000.pdf}}</ref> sometimes based on [[relational frame theory]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Zettle |first=Robert D. |date=2007 |title=ACT for depression: a clinician's guide to using acceptance & commitment therapy in treating depression |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=[[New Harbinger Publications]] |isbn=9781572245099 |oclc=148853276}}</ref> Such functional analysis is also used in third-generation behavior therapy or [[clinical behavior analysis]] such as [[acceptance and commitment therapy]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Steven C. |authorlink1=Steven C. Hayes |last2=Strosahl |first2=Kirk D. |last3=Luoma |first3=Jayson |last4=Smith |first4=Alethea A. |last5=Wilson |first5=Kelly G. |date=2004 |chapter=ACT case formulation |editor1-last=Hayes |editor1-first=Steven C. |editor1-link=Steven C. Hayes|editor2-last=Strosahl |editor2-first=Kirk |title=A practical guide to acceptance and commitment therapy |location=New York |publisher=Springer |pages=59–73 |isbn=0387233679 |oclc=55534832 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-23369-7_3}}</ref> and [[functional analytic psychotherapy]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tsai |first1=Mavis |last2=Kohlenberg |first2=Robert J. |last3=Kanter |first3=Jonathan W. |last4=Holman |first4=Gareth |last5=Loudon |first5=Mary Plummer |date=2012 |title=Functional analytic psychotherapy: distinctive features |series=The CBT distinctive features series |location=Hove, East Sussex; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415604031 |oclc=698324521}}</ref> Functional analysis looks at setting events (ecological variables, history effects, and motivating operations), antecedents, behavior chains, the problem behavior, and the consequences, short- and long-term, for the behavior.<ref name="Kanter"/>

A model of formulation that is more specific to CBT is described by Jacqueline Persons.<ref>{{cite book |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=1989 |title=Cognitive therapy in practice: a case formulation approach |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Co.]] |isbn=0393700771 |oclc=19125638}}</ref> This has seven components: problem list, core beliefs, precipitants and activating situations, origins, working hypothesis, treatment plan, and predicted obstacles to treatment.

A psychodynamic formulation would consist of a summarizing statement, a description of nondynamic factors, description of core psychodynamics using a specific model (such as [[ego psychology]], [[object relations]] or [[self psychology]]), and a prognostic assessment which identifies the potential areas of [[psychological resistance|resistance]] in therapy.<ref name="Perry"/>

One school of psychotherapy which relies heavily on the formulation is [[cognitive analytic therapy]] (CAT).<ref name="Ryle">{{cite book |last=Ryle |first=Anthony |authorlink=Anthony Ryle |date=2005 |chapter=Cognitive analytic therapy |editor1-last=Norcross |editor1-first=John C. |editor1-link=John C. Norcross |editor2-last=Goldfried |editor2-first=Marvin R. |title=Handbook of psychotherapy integration |edition=2nd |series=Oxford series in clinical psychology |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=196–217 |isbn=0195165799 |oclc=54803644}}</ref> CAT is a fixed-term therapy, typically of around 16 sessions. At around session four, a formal written reformulation letter is offered to the patient which forms the basis for the rest of the treatment. This is usually followed by a diagrammatic reformulation to amplify and reinforce the letter.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Denman |first=Chess |date=July 2001 |title=Cognitive–analytic therapy |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=243–252 |doi=10.1192/apt.7.4.243 |url=http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/7/4/243}}</ref>

Many psychologists use an [[integrative psychotherapy]] approach to formulation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Caspar |first1=Franz |last2=Silberschatz |first2=George |last3=Goldfried |first3=Marvin |last4=Watson |first4=Jeanne C. |date=March 2010 |title=Similarities and differences in four views of David |journal=[[Journal of Psychotherapy Integration]] |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=101–110 |doi=10.1037/a0018886}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=December 2013 |title=In support of evidence-based case formulation in psychotherapy (from the perspective of a clinician) |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=457–467 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1836 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1836}}</ref> This is to take advantage of the benefits of resources from each model the psychologist is trained in, according to the patient's needs.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=December 2013 |title=Who needs a case formulation and why: clinicians use the case formulation to guide decision-making |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=448–456 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1835 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1835}}</ref>

==Critical evaluation of formulations==
The quality of specific clinical formulations, and the quality of the general [[theoretical model]]s used in those formulations, can be evaluated with criteria such as:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dawson |first1=David L. |last2=Moghaddam |first2=Nima G. |date=2016 |chapter=Formulation in action: an introduction |editor1-last=Dawson |editor1-first=David L. |editor2-last=Moghaddam |editor2-first=Nima G. |title=Formulation in action: applying psychological theory to clinical practice |location=Berlin; New York |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |pages=3–8 [7] |isbn=9783110470994 |oclc=932645602 |chapterurl=http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/20047/1/Formulation%20in%20Action%20-%20An%20introduction.pdf |ref=harv}}</ref>
*''Clarity and parsimony'': Is the model understandable and [[Internal consistency|internally consistent]], and are key concepts discrete, specific, and non-redundant?
*''Precision and testability'': Does the model produce testable hypotheses, with [[Operational definition|operationally defined]] and [[Level of measurement|measurable]] concepts?
*''Empirical adequacy'': Are the posited [[Mechanism (biology)|mechanism]]s within the model [[Empirical research|empirically validated]]?
*''Comprehensiveness and generalizability'': Is the model [[holistic]] enough to apply across a range of clinical phenomena?
*''Utility and applied value'': Does it facilitate shared [[meaning-making]] between clinician and client, and are interventions based on the model shown to be [[Effectiveness|effective]]?

Formulations can vary in temporal scope from case-based to episode-based or moment-based, and formulations may evolve during the course of treatment.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schacht |first=Thomas E. |date=December 1991 |title=Formulation-based psychotherapy research: some further considerations |journal=[[American Psychologist]] |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=1346–1347 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.46.12.1346 |ref=harv}}</ref> Therefore, ongoing monitoring, testing, and assessment during treatment are necessary: monitoring can take the form of session-by-session progress reviews using quantitative measures, and formulations can be modified if an intervention is not as effective as hoped.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=December 2013 |title=The case formulation approach to psychotherapy research revisited |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=426–447 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1834 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1834}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Basseches |first1=Michael |last2=Mascolo |first2=Michael F. |date=2009 |chapter=Psychotherapy as a developmental process: implications and future directions for psychotherapy research, practice, and training |title=Psychotherapy as a developmental process |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780805857306 |oclc=244063508 |pages=283–312 |ref=harv}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Clinical decision support system]]
*[[Clinical guideline]]
*[[Clinical pathway]]
*[[Common factors theory]]
*[[Problem structuring methods]]
*[[Therapeutic assessment]]
*[[Treatment decision support]] (tools for clients)
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Eells |editor-first=Tracy D. |date=2007 |origyear=1997 |title=Handbook of psychotherapy case formulation |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593853518 |oclc=65617415 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=2015 |title=Psychotherapy case formulation |series=Theories of psychotherapy series |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |isbn=9781433820106 |oclc=897001581 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Frank |first1=Rochelle I. |last2=Davidson |first2=Joan |date=2014 |title=The transdiagnostic road map to case formulation and treatment planning: practical guidance for clinical decision making |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=[[New Harbinger Publications]] |isbn=9781608828951 |oclc=819383623 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Goldman |first1=Rhonda N. |last2=Greenberg |first2=Leslie S. |authorlink2=Les Greenberg |date=2015 |title=Case formulation in emotion-focused therapy: co-creating clinical maps for change |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |isbn=9781433818202 |oclc=878667783 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Hallam |first=Richard S. |date=2013 |title=Individual case formulation |series=Practical resources for the mental health professional |location=Amsterdam |publisher=[[Elsevier]]/[[Academic Press]] |isbn=9780123982698 |oclc=819717435 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Haynes |first1=Stephen N. |last2=O'Brien |first2=William Hayes |last3=Kaholokula |first3=Joseph Keaweʻaimoku |date=2011 |title=Behavioral assessment and case formulation |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781118018644 |oclc=701808359 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Ingram |first=Barbara Lichner |date=2012 |origyear=2006 |title=Clinical case formulations: matching the integrative treatment plan to the client |edition=2nd |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781118038222 |oclc=723035074 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Johnstone |editor1-first=Lucy |editor2-last=Dallos |editor2-first=Rudi |date=2013 |origyear=2006 |title=Formulation in psychology and psychotherapy: making sense of people's problems |edition=2nd |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415682305 |oclc=894506578 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kleiger |first=Mary Jo Peebles |date=2012 |origyear=2002 |title=Beginnings: the art and science of planning psychotherapy |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415883085 |oclc=706022579 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=2008 |title=The case formulation approach to cognitive-behavior therapy |series=Guides to individualized evidence-based treatment |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593858759 |oclc=226356799 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=F. Robert |date=2012 |chapter=Assessment, diagnosis, and treatment planning from the ecological perspective |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=Ellen Piel |title=Understanding people in context: the ecological perspective in counseling |location=Alexandria, VA |publisher=[[American Counseling Association]] |pages=179–206 |isbn=9781556202872 |oclc=764589015 |doi=10.1002/9781119222743.ch8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Woody |first1=Sheila R. |last2=Detweiler-Bedell |first2=Jerusha |last3=Teachman |first3=Bethany A. |last4=O'Hearn |first4=Todd |date=2003 |title=Treatment planning in psychotherapy: taking the guesswork out of clinical care |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=1572308052 |oclc=49743479 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Zayfert |first1=Claudia |last2=Becker |first2=Carolyn Black |date=2007 |title=Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD: a case formulation approach |series=Guides to individualized evidence-based treatment |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593853693 |oclc=71139450 |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

{{Psychotherapy}}

[[Category:Clinical psychology]]
[[Category:Medical terminology]]
[[Category:Psychiatric diagnosis]]
[[Category:Psychiatric assessment]]
[[Category:Psychotherapy]]

Clinical formulation

2017-08-16T12:26:36Z

MPrado: added history

A '''clinical formulation''', also known as '''case formulation''', is a theoretically-based explanation or conceptualisation of the information obtained from a clinical assessment. It offers a hypothesis about the cause and nature of the presenting problems and is considered an adjunct or alternative approach to the more categorical approach of psychiatric [[diagnosis]].<ref>{{cite book |editor1-last=Bruch |editor1-first=Michael |editor2-last=Bond |editor2-first=Frank W. |date=1998 |title=Beyond diagnosis: case formulation approaches in CBT |series=The Wiley series in clinical psychology |location=Chichester, UK; New York |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=0471975257 |oclc=38486295}}</ref> In clinical practice, formulations are used to communicate a [[hypothesis]] and provide framework for developing the most suitable treatment approach. It is most commonly used by [[clinical psychologists]] and [[psychiatrists]]<ref>{{cite journal |last=Mace |first=Chris |author2=Binyon, Sharon |date=October 2005 |title=Teaching psychodynamic formulation to psychiatric trainees. Part 1: Basics of formulation |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |volume=11 |issue=6 |pages=416–423 |doi=10.1192/apt.11.6.416}}</ref> and is deemed to be a core component of these professions.<ref>{{cite book |last=Butler |first=Gillian |date=1998 |chapter=Clinical formulation |editor1-last=Bellack |editor1-first=Alan S. |editor2-last=Hersen |editor2-first=Michel |title=Comprehensive clinical psychology |edition=1st |volume=6 |location=Amsterdam; New York |publisher=Pergamon |pages=1–24 |isbn=0080427073 |oclc=38048834 |doi=10.1016/B0080-4270(73)00186-3}}</ref> Mental health nurses and social workers may also use formulations.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Crowe |first1=Marie |last2=Carlyle |first2=David |last3=Farmar |first3=R. |date=December 2008 |title=Clinical formulation for mental health nursing practice |journal=Journal of Psychiatric and Mental Health Nursing |volume=15 |issue=10 |pages=800–807 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2850.2008.01307.x |pmid=19012671 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Marie_Crowe/publication/23476955_Clinical_formulation_for_mental_health_nursing_practice/links/546da3bb0cf2193b94c58ffd.pdf}}</ref>

The British Psychological Society identified four "influential clinicians" who helped to create the field of case formulation: Hans Eysenck, M.B. Shapiro, Vic Meyer, and Ira Turkat <ref>British Psychological Society, Good practice guidelines on the use of psychological formulation, (Leicester, UK: Author, 2011)</ref>. American psychologist Ira Turkat is credited with coining the term "case formulation" and provided the first criterion-based definition of case formulation with British psychologist Vic Meyer <ref>Michael Bruch and Frank Bond (Eds.), Beyond diagnosis: Case formulation approaches in CBT, (Chichester, UK: Wiley, 2011); Lucy Johnstone and Rudi Dallos (Eds.), Formulation in psychology and psychotherapy, (London: Routledge, 2013</ref>.

==Types of formulation==
Different psychological schools or models utilize clinical formulations, including [[cognitive behavioral therapy]] (CBT) and related therapies: [[systemic therapy]],<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Pinsof |first1=William |last2=Breunlin |first2=Douglas C. |last3=Russell |first3=William P. |last4=Lebow |first4=Jay |date=September 2011 |title=Integrative problem-centered metaframeworks therapy II: planning, conversing, and reading feedback |journal=[[Family Process]] |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=314–336 |doi=10.1111/j.1545-5300.2011.01361.x |pmid=21884073 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jay_Lebow/publication/51612401_Integrative_problem-centered_metaframeworks_therapy_II_planning_conversing_and_reading_feedback/links/02bfe50f5d274f10df000000.pdf}}</ref> [[psychodynamic therapy]],<ref name="Perry">{{cite journal |last1=Perry |first1=Samuel |last2=Cooper |first2=Arnold M. |last3=Michels |first3=Robert |authorlink3=Robert Michels (physician) |date=May 1987 |title=The psychodynamic formulation: its purpose, structure, and clinical application |journal=The American Journal of Psychiatry |volume=144 |issue=5 |pages=543–550 |pmid=3578562 |ref=harv |doi=10.1176/ajp.144.5.543}}</ref> and [[applied behavior analysis]].<ref name="Cipani">{{cite journal |last1=Cipani |first1=Ennio |last2=Golden |first2=Jeannie A. |date=2007 |title=Differentiating behavioral & traditional case formulations for children with severe behavioral & emotional problems |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Consultation and Therapy |volume=3 |issue=4 |pages=537–545 |doi=10.1037/h0100821}}</ref> The structure and content of a clinical formulation is determined by the psychological model. Most systems of formulation contain the following broad categories of information: symptoms and problems; precipitating stressors or events; predisposing life events or stressors; and an explanatory mechanism that links the preceding categories together and offers a description of the precipitants and maintaining influences of the person's problems.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Eells |first1=Tracy D. |last2=Kendjelic |first2=Edward M. |last3=Lucas |first3=Cynthia P. |date=Spring 1998 |title=What's in a case formulation?: development and use of a content coding manual |journal=The Journal of Psychotherapy Practice and Research |volume=7 |issue=2 |pages=144–153 |pmid=9527958 |pmc=3330487}}</ref>

Behavioral case formulations used in [[applied behavior analysis]] and [[behavior therapy]] are built on a rank list of problem behaviors,<ref name="Cipani" /> from which a [[Functional analysis (psychology)|functional analysis]] is conducted,<ref name="Kanter">{{cite journal |last1=Kanter |first1=Jonathan W. |last2=Cautilli |first2=Joseph D. |last3=Busch |first3=Andrew M. |last4=Baruch |first4=David E. |date=2005 |title=Toward a comprehensive functional analysis of depressive behavior: five environmental factors and a possible sixth and seventh |journal=The Behavior Analyst Today |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=65–81 |doi=10.1037/h0100055 |url=http://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jonathan_Kanter2/publication/26452621_Toward_a_Comprehensive_Functional_Analysis_of_Depressive_Behavior_Five_Environmental_Factors_and_a_Possible_Sixth_and_Seventh/links/02bfe50fff04f3d788000000.pdf}}</ref> sometimes based on [[relational frame theory]].<ref>{{cite book |last=Zettle |first=Robert D. |date=2007 |title=ACT for depression: a clinician's guide to using acceptance & commitment therapy in treating depression |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=[[New Harbinger Publications]] |isbn=9781572245099 |oclc=148853276}}</ref> Such functional analysis is also used in third-generation behavior therapy or [[clinical behavior analysis]] such as [[acceptance and commitment therapy]]<ref>{{cite book |last1=Hayes |first1=Steven C. |authorlink1=Steven C. Hayes |last2=Strosahl |first2=Kirk D. |last3=Luoma |first3=Jayson |last4=Smith |first4=Alethea A. |last5=Wilson |first5=Kelly G. |date=2004 |chapter=ACT case formulation |editor1-last=Hayes |editor1-first=Steven C. |editor1-link=Steven C. Hayes|editor2-last=Strosahl |editor2-first=Kirk |title=A practical guide to acceptance and commitment therapy |location=New York |publisher=Springer |pages=59–73 |isbn=0387233679 |oclc=55534832 |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-23369-7_3}}</ref> and [[functional analytic psychotherapy]].<ref>{{cite book |last1=Tsai |first1=Mavis |last2=Kohlenberg |first2=Robert J. |last3=Kanter |first3=Jonathan W. |last4=Holman |first4=Gareth |last5=Loudon |first5=Mary Plummer |date=2012 |title=Functional analytic psychotherapy: distinctive features |series=The CBT distinctive features series |location=Hove, East Sussex; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415604031 |oclc=698324521}}</ref> Functional analysis looks at setting events (ecological variables, history effects, and motivating operations), antecedents, behavior chains, the problem behavior, and the consequences, short- and long-term, for the behavior.<ref name="Kanter"/>

A model of formulation that is more specific to CBT is described by Jacqueline Persons.<ref>{{cite book |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=1989 |title=Cognitive therapy in practice: a case formulation approach |edition=1st |location=New York |publisher=[[W.W. Norton & Co.]] |isbn=0393700771 |oclc=19125638}}</ref> This has seven components: problem list, core beliefs, precipitants and activating situations, origins, working hypothesis, treatment plan, and predicted obstacles to treatment.

A psychodynamic formulation would consist of a summarizing statement, a description of nondynamic factors, description of core psychodynamics using a specific model (such as [[ego psychology]], [[object relations]] or [[self psychology]]), and a prognostic assessment which identifies the potential areas of [[psychological resistance|resistance]] in therapy.<ref name="Perry"/>

One school of psychotherapy which relies heavily on the formulation is [[cognitive analytic therapy]] (CAT).<ref name="Ryle">{{cite book |last=Ryle |first=Anthony |authorlink=Anthony Ryle |date=2005 |chapter=Cognitive analytic therapy |editor1-last=Norcross |editor1-first=John C. |editor1-link=John C. Norcross |editor2-last=Goldfried |editor2-first=Marvin R. |title=Handbook of psychotherapy integration |edition=2nd |series=Oxford series in clinical psychology |location=New York |publisher=[[Oxford University Press]] |pages=196–217 |isbn=0195165799 |oclc=54803644}}</ref> CAT is a fixed-term therapy, typically of around 16 sessions. At around session four, a formal written reformulation letter is offered to the patient which forms the basis for the rest of the treatment. This is usually followed by a diagrammatic reformulation to amplify and reinforce the letter.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Denman |first=Chess |date=July 2001 |title=Cognitive–analytic therapy |journal=Advances in Psychiatric Treatment |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=243–252 |doi=10.1192/apt.7.4.243 |url=http://apt.rcpsych.org/content/7/4/243}}</ref>

Many psychologists use an [[integrative psychotherapy]] approach to formulation.<ref>{{cite journal |last1=Caspar |first1=Franz |last2=Silberschatz |first2=George |last3=Goldfried |first3=Marvin |last4=Watson |first4=Jeanne C. |date=March 2010 |title=Similarities and differences in four views of David |journal=[[Journal of Psychotherapy Integration]] |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=101–110 |doi=10.1037/a0018886}}</ref><ref>{{cite journal |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=December 2013 |title=In support of evidence-based case formulation in psychotherapy (from the perspective of a clinician) |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=457–467 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1836 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1836}}</ref> This is to take advantage of the benefits of resources from each model the psychologist is trained in, according to the patient's needs.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=December 2013 |title=Who needs a case formulation and why: clinicians use the case formulation to guide decision-making |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=448–456 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1835 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1835}}</ref>

==Critical evaluation of formulations==
The quality of specific clinical formulations, and the quality of the general [[theoretical model]]s used in those formulations, can be evaluated with criteria such as:<ref>{{cite book |last1=Dawson |first1=David L. |last2=Moghaddam |first2=Nima G. |date=2016 |chapter=Formulation in action: an introduction |editor1-last=Dawson |editor1-first=David L. |editor2-last=Moghaddam |editor2-first=Nima G. |title=Formulation in action: applying psychological theory to clinical practice |location=Berlin; New York |publisher=[[Walter de Gruyter]] |pages=3–8 [7] |isbn=9783110470994 |oclc=932645602 |chapterurl=http://eprints.lincoln.ac.uk/20047/1/Formulation%20in%20Action%20-%20An%20introduction.pdf |ref=harv}}</ref>
*''Clarity and parsimony'': Is the model understandable and [[Internal consistency|internally consistent]], and are key concepts discrete, specific, and non-redundant?
*''Precision and testability'': Does the model produce testable hypotheses, with [[Operational definition|operationally defined]] and [[Level of measurement|measurable]] concepts?
*''Empirical adequacy'': Are the posited [[Mechanism (biology)|mechanism]]s within the model [[Empirical research|empirically validated]]?
*''Comprehensiveness and generalizability'': Is the model [[holistic]] enough to apply across a range of clinical phenomena?
*''Utility and applied value'': Does it facilitate shared [[meaning-making]] between clinician and client, and are interventions based on the model shown to be [[Effectiveness|effective]]?

Formulations can vary in temporal scope from case-based to episode-based or moment-based, and formulations may evolve during the course of treatment.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Schacht |first=Thomas E. |date=December 1991 |title=Formulation-based psychotherapy research: some further considerations |journal=[[American Psychologist]] |volume=46 |issue=12 |pages=1346–1347 |doi=10.1037/0003-066X.46.12.1346 |ref=harv}}</ref> Therefore, ongoing monitoring, testing, and assessment during treatment are necessary: monitoring can take the form of session-by-session progress reviews using quantitative measures, and formulations can be modified if an intervention is not as effective as hoped.<ref>{{cite journal |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=December 2013 |title=The case formulation approach to psychotherapy research revisited |journal=Pragmatic Case Studies in Psychotherapy |volume=9 |issue=4 |pages=426–447 |doi=10.14713/pcsp.v9i4.1834 |url=http://pcsp.libraries.rutgers.edu/index.php/pcsp/article/view/1834}}</ref><ref>{{cite book |last1=Basseches |first1=Michael |last2=Mascolo |first2=Michael F. |date=2009 |chapter=Psychotherapy as a developmental process: implications and future directions for psychotherapy research, practice, and training |title=Psychotherapy as a developmental process |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780805857306 |oclc=244063508 |pages=283–312 |ref=harv}}</ref>

==See also==
{{Div col|colwidth=22em}}
*[[Clinical decision support system]]
*[[Clinical guideline]]
*[[Clinical pathway]]
*[[Common factors theory]]
*[[Problem structuring methods]]
*[[Therapeutic assessment]]
*[[Treatment decision support]] (tools for clients)
{{Div col end}}

==References==
{{reflist|colwidth=30em}}

==Further reading==
{{refbegin|colwidth=30em}}
* {{cite book |editor-last=Eells |editor-first=Tracy D. |date=2007 |origyear=1997 |title=Handbook of psychotherapy case formulation |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593853518 |oclc=65617415 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Eells |first=Tracy D. |date=2015 |title=Psychotherapy case formulation |series=Theories of psychotherapy series |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |isbn=9781433820106 |oclc=897001581 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Frank |first1=Rochelle I. |last2=Davidson |first2=Joan |date=2014 |title=The transdiagnostic road map to case formulation and treatment planning: practical guidance for clinical decision making |location=Oakland, CA |publisher=[[New Harbinger Publications]] |isbn=9781608828951 |oclc=819383623 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Goldman |first1=Rhonda N. |last2=Greenberg |first2=Leslie S. |authorlink2=Les Greenberg |date=2015 |title=Case formulation in emotion-focused therapy: co-creating clinical maps for change |location=Washington, DC |publisher=[[American Psychological Association]] |isbn=9781433818202 |oclc=878667783 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Hallam |first=Richard S. |date=2013 |title=Individual case formulation |series=Practical resources for the mental health professional |location=Amsterdam |publisher=[[Elsevier]]/[[Academic Press]] |isbn=9780123982698 |oclc=819717435 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Haynes |first1=Stephen N. |last2=O'Brien |first2=William Hayes |last3=Kaholokula |first3=Joseph Keaweʻaimoku |date=2011 |title=Behavioral assessment and case formulation |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781118018644 |oclc=701808359 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Ingram |first=Barbara Lichner |date=2012 |origyear=2006 |title=Clinical case formulations: matching the integrative treatment plan to the client |edition=2nd |location=Hoboken, NJ |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9781118038222 |oclc=723035074 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |editor1-last=Johnstone |editor1-first=Lucy |editor2-last=Dallos |editor2-first=Rudi |date=2013 |origyear=2006 |title=Formulation in psychology and psychotherapy: making sense of people's problems |edition=2nd |location=London; New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415682305 |oclc=894506578 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Kleiger |first=Mary Jo Peebles |date=2012 |origyear=2002 |title=Beginnings: the art and science of planning psychotherapy |edition=2nd |location=New York |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=9780415883085 |oclc=706022579 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Persons |first=Jacqueline B. |date=2008 |title=The case formulation approach to cognitive-behavior therapy |series=Guides to individualized evidence-based treatment |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593858759 |oclc=226356799 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last=Wilson |first=F. Robert |date=2012 |chapter=Assessment, diagnosis, and treatment planning from the ecological perspective |editor-last=Cook |editor-first=Ellen Piel |title=Understanding people in context: the ecological perspective in counseling |location=Alexandria, VA |publisher=[[American Counseling Association]] |pages=179–206 |isbn=9781556202872 |oclc=764589015 |doi=10.1002/9781119222743.ch8 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Woody |first1=Sheila R. |last2=Detweiler-Bedell |first2=Jerusha |last3=Teachman |first3=Bethany A. |last4=O'Hearn |first4=Todd |date=2003 |title=Treatment planning in psychotherapy: taking the guesswork out of clinical care |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=1572308052 |oclc=49743479 |ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Zayfert |first1=Claudia |last2=Becker |first2=Carolyn Black |date=2007 |title=Cognitive-behavioral therapy for PTSD: a case formulation approach |series=Guides to individualized evidence-based treatment |location=New York |publisher=[[Guilford Press]] |isbn=9781593853693 |oclc=71139450 |ref=harv}}
{{refend}}

{{Psychotherapy}}

[[Category:Clinical psychology]]
[[Category:Medical terminology]]
[[Category:Psychiatric diagnosis]]
[[Category:Psychiatric assessment]]
[[Category:Psychotherapy]]

Birkenhead Woodside railway station

2017-08-14T12:06:36Z

MPrado: /* History */ grammar

{{Use dmy dates|date=January 2017}}
{{Use British English|date=January 2017}}
{{Infobox UK disused station
| name = Birkenhead Woodside
| image_name = Birkenhead Woodside Station - geograph.org.uk - 1761576.jpg
| caption = Birkenhead Woodside railway station in 1961
| original = [[Chester and Birkenhead Railway]]
| pregroup = [[Great Western Railway|GWR]] & [[London and North Western Railway|LNWR]] Joint<ref>{{harvnb|Welbourn|2003|p=84}}</ref>
| locale = [[Birkenhead]]
| borough = [[Wirral Peninsula|Wirral]]
| platforms = Five
| start = 31 March 1878
| end = 5 November 1967<ref name="HendryHendry1992-119">{{harvnb|Hendry|Hendry|1992|p=119}}</ref>
| gridref = SJ328892
|}}

'''Birkenhead Woodside''' was a [[railway station]] at [[Woodside, Merseyside|Woodside]], in [[Birkenhead]], on the [[Wirral Peninsula]], [[England]].

==History==

===Background===
Birkenhead Woodside railway station was opened on 31 March 1878 to replace the increasingly inadequate passenger facilities provided at [[Birkenhead Monks Ferry railway station|Birkenhead Monks Ferry station]].<ref name="Maund2000-40">{{harvnb|Maund|2000|p=40}}</ref><ref name="Disused Stations: Birkenhead Woodside">{{cite web|url=http://www.disused-stations.org.uk/b/birkenhead_woodside/index.shtml|work=Disused Stations|title=Disused Stations: Birkenhead Woodside|accessdate=31 August 2016}}</ref>
The terminus was built further inland than originally conceived, in order to avoid demolition of the [[Mersey ferry|Mersey ferries]] workshop, situated on the bank of the river. The station was built on an east–west axis with the lines servicing the station coming from the south. The station was accessed via a half mile tunnel from the south which curved to the east into the station. This fell in line with the Liverpool termini, with only {{stnlnk|Liverpool Exchange}} lacking tunnel access.<ref>{{harvnb|Maund|2000|p=}}</ref>{{pn|date=August 2016}}

In order to join up with the existing track of the [[Chester and Birkenhead Railway]], the half mile-long tunnel from Woodside to alongside the existing Monks Ferry tunnel entrance, near Grange Lane, was constructed using the [[cut-and-cover]] method, with most of its length running under Chester Street.<ref>{{harvnb|Maund|2000|p=39}}</ref>

The station was cramped, with Platform 1 being {{convert|537|ft|m|abbr=on}} in length, and longer coaching stock was not allowed to be stabled on the curved part of No.3 siding.<ref name="HendryHendry1992-118">{{harvnb|Hendry|Hendry|1992|p=118}}</ref>

===Station Building===
The station was a grandiose building, with two semi cylindrical roofs covering much of the platforms. However, given the size of the station, it only had five short (but wide) platforms, as much of the space was taken up by middle tracks and a roadway.<ref name="Maund2000-40" />

The station building was known to local rail users as "the wrong way round", because for the majority of the station's life, its original rear entrance was used as the main booking hall, whereas Woodside's 'front' entrance was mainly used for handling parcels. This entrance, covered in a [[porte-cochere]] to allow travelling gentry to avoid inclement weather, faced the [[graving dock]] on the south side of the station. It had been intended that passengers disembarking from the nearby ferry terminal of the same name would use this entrance. Unfortunately, the ferry companies were slow at co-operating and when the tram terminus opened in front of the ferry terminal in the early 1900s, the decision was made to keep the small 'back' entrance a permanent fixture. This was very unfortunate, as passengers arriving at the station never got to see the huge sandstone fireplaces, decorative brick work and massive timber roof trusses holding up the roof of the intended booking hall, which has been described by [[Marcus Binney]] of [[SAVE Britain's Heritage]] as "a station of truly baronial proportions and being worthy of any London terminus".

===Services===
Birkenhead Woodside was the terminus for local services to [[Chester]], [[Helsby]], [[West Kirby]], and destinations in [[North Wales]] via [[Ruabon]].<ref name="Disused Stations: Birkenhead Woodside" />
Routes further afield included [[Great Western Railway]] (GWR) services to [[Chester General]], [[Wrexham General]], [[Shrewsbury]], [[Wolverhampton Low Level railway station|Wolverhampton Low Level]], [[Birmingham Snow Hill railway station|Birmingham Snow Hill]], and [[Paddington railway station|London Paddington]]. There were also daily through trains to the Kent coast via Oxford, Reading and Redhill run jointly with the Southern Railway whose green liveried stock was to be seen at Woodside on alternate days, and summer services to Bournemouth.

===Demise and closure===

The Beeching Report in 1963 recommended inter alia the closure of three of Merseyide's mainline terminal stations: Liverpool Exchange, {{stnlnk|Liverpool Central High Level}}, and Birkenhead Woodside, the closure of the Liverpool Exchange to Southport electric commuter route and of all routes in to Central High Level station. However the electric lines from Liverpool to the Wirral were recommended for retention. Long and medium distance routes served by the three termini were to be concentrated on [[Liverpool Lime Street|Lime Street Station]].<ref name="Disused Stations: Birkenhead Woodside"/>

Liverpool City Council viewed matters differently from Beeching, proposing the retention of the suburban services around the city and their integration into a regional Merseyside-wide rapid-transit network. This approach was supported by the Merseyside Area Land Use and Transportation Study, the MALTS report. Liverpool City Council's proposal was adopted and Merseyrail was born.<ref>{{harvnb|City Centre Planning Group|1965|p=}}</ref>{{pn|date=August 2016}}

For Birkenhead Woodside, Liverpool Exchange and Liverpool Central High Level termini this meant:

* Long and Medium Distance Routes - [[Liverpool Lime Street|Lime Street Station]], in Liverpool city centre was to remain, absorbing the long to medium distance passenger traffic of the closed terminal stations.
* Local urban routes - The local urban services served by the terminal stations would be absorbed by the new [[Merseyrail]] urban network.<ref name="Disused Stations: Birkenhead Woodside"/>

By early 1967, there were still six through trains on weekdays between Birkenhead Woodside and [[London Paddington]]. In March of that year, the route was effectively curtailed at Wolverhampton, as a result of the introduction of electric trains on the [[West Coast Main Line]].<ref name="Maund2000-74">{{harvnb|Maund|2000|p=74}}</ref>
At the same time, the last [[Steam locomotive|steam]] service from the station took place, in the withdrawal of through services to Birmingham.<ref name="Maund2000-74" />

Only the [[Diesel multiple unit|diesel train]] service to [[Chester railway station|Chester]] and trains to [[Helsby]] remained to use the station. The station closed to passengers on 5 November 1967<ref name="HendryHendry1992-119" /> and was demolished within a couple of years. The Chester and Helsby route was cut back to [[Rock Ferry railway station|Rock Ferry]] on the station's closure. In 1993 the Chester line was electrified and incorporated into Merseyrail;<ref>{{harvnb|Maund|2000|p=77}}</ref> the branch from Hooton to Helsby was electrified as far as [[Ellesmere Port railway station|Ellesmere Port]] a year later and also incorporated into Merseyrail.

Today, the only evidence of Woodside's existence is a part of the station wall, a road bridge and the tunnel, which lay at the station throat. The gates of the station were reused at a house in [[Gayton, Merseyside|Gayton]].<ref name="Disused Stations: Birkenhead Woodside"/> The rest of the land is now used as a bus park and the Woodside Business Park. The half mile tunnel access to the site is not impeded giving provision for trams, or other forms of transport, if the future need is there.

==Association with Wilfred Owen==

Thomas (known as Tom) Owen, the father of [[First World War]] poet [[Wilfred Owen]], was Stationmaster at Woodside from 1898<ref name=woab>{{harvnb|Stallworthy|1974|p=13}}</ref> until moving back to Shropshire (from where he had moved to Birkenhead) to take up a senior post at [[Shrewsbury railway station]] in 1907.<ref name=woab2>{{harvnb|Stallworthy|1974|pp=35–36}}</ref> During that period the family lived at three successive homes in the Tranmere district<ref name=woab3>{{harvnb|Stallworthy|1974|pp=13–14}}</ref> and Wilfred attended the Birkenhead Institute High School (since demolished) for his education.

==See also==
*[[Birkenhead Central railway station]]
*[[Birkenhead Grange Lane railway station]]
*[[Birkenhead Monks Ferry railway station]]
*[[Birkenhead North railway station]]
*[[Birkenhead Park railway station]]
*[[Birkenhead Town railway station]]
*[[Hamilton Square railway station]]
*[[Chester and Birkenhead Railway]]
*[[Wirral Railway]]

==References==
{{reflist|30em}}

===Sources===
*{{cite book|title=Liverpool City Centre Plan|author=City Centre Planning Group|publisher=City and County Borough of Liverpool|year=1965|asin=B003KVB92O|asin-tld=co.uk|oclc=8321490|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|title=Paddington to the Mersey|first1=R. Preston|last1=Hendry|first2=R. Powell|last2=Hendry|publisher=Oxford Publishing Company|year=1992|isbn=9780860934424|oclc=877729237|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|title=The Birkenhead Railway|first=T.B.|last=Maund|publisher=The Railway Correspondence & Travel Society|year=2000|isbn=0-901115-87-8|oclc=49815012|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|title=Wilfred Owen, A Biography|last=Stallworthy|first=Jon|year=1974|publisher=Oxford University Press and Chatto and Windus|isbn=0-19-211719X|ref=harv}}
*{{cite book|first=Nigel|last=Welbourn|title=Lost Lines: LMR|publisher=Ian Allan|year=2003|orig-year=First published 1994|isbn=9780711022775|oclc=863421456|ref=harv}}

==Further reading==
* {{cite book| author=Merseyside Railway History Group| year=1994| title=Railway Stations of Wirral| isbn=1-899241-02-7}}
*{{cite book|title=Chester to Birkenhead|first1=Vic|last1=Mitchell|first2=Keith|last2=Smith|at=figs. 89-94|publisher=Middleton Press|year=2012|isbn=9781908174215|oclc=811323335}}

==External links==
* [http://www.wirraltransportmuseum.org Wirral Transport Museum website]

{{Historical Rail Start}}
{{rail line|previous=[[Birkenhead Town railway station|Birkenhead Town]] Line and station closed|route=[[Great Western Railway|GWR]] & [[London and North Western Railway|LNWR]] [[Chester and Birkenhead Railway|Chester & Birkenhead Railway]]|col={{GWLNW colour}} }}
{{S-end}}

{{Closed stations Merseyside}}

{{coord|53.39535|-3.01054|type:railwaystation_region:GB_source:subbrit.org.uk-enwiki|display=title}}

[[Category:Birkenhead]]
[[Category:Disused railway stations in Wirral (borough)]]
[[Category:Former Birkenhead Railway stations]]
[[Category:Railway stations opened in 1878]]
[[Category:Railway stations closed in 1967]]
[[Category:Beeching closures in England]]

Maple syrup

2017-08-14T12:03:23Z

MPrado: punctuation

{{Use dmy dates|date=August 2014}}
{{Infobox prepared food
| name = Maple syrup
| image = Maple syrup.jpg
| caption = Bottled maple syrup (unlabeled)
| alternate_name =
| country = Canada United States
| region = | creator = | course = | type = | served =
| main_ingredient = [[Xylem]] [[plant sap|sap]] (usually from [[sugar maple]], [[red maple]], or [[black maple]])
| variations = | calories = | other =
}}

'''Maple syrup''' is a [[syrup]] usually made from the [[xylem]] [[sap]] of [[sugar maple]], [[red maple]], or [[black maple]] trees, although it can also be made from other [[maple]] species. In cold climates, these trees store [[starch]] in their trunks and roots before the winter; the starch is then converted to sugar that rises in the sap in late winter and early spring. Maple trees are tapped by drilling holes into their trunks and collecting the exuded sap, which is processed by heating to evaporate much of the water, leaving the concentrated syrup.

Maple syrup was first collected and used by the [[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|indigenous peoples]] of North America, and the practice was adopted by European settlers, who gradually refined production methods. Technological improvements in the 1970s further refined syrup processing. The Canadian province of [[Quebec]] is by far the largest producer, responsible for 70% of the world's output; Canadian exports of maple syrup in 2016 were [[Canadian dollar|C$]] 487 million (about [[United States dollar|US$]] 360 million), with Quebec accounting for some 90% of this total.<ref name="cbc17">{{cite web|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/montreal/quebec-maple-syrup-production-increase-1.3990828|title=Quebec increases maple syrup production amid internal revolt, foreign competition|author=Marowits, Ross|publisher=CBC|date=20 February 2017|accessdate=21 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="bbc17">{{cite web|url=http://www.bbc.com/news/world-us-canada-39375257|author=Robin Levinson-King and Jessica Murphy |title=Quebec's maple syrup producers seeking global domination|publisher=BBC|date=9 April 2017|accessdate=21 May 2017}}</ref> [[Vermont]] is the largest producer in the United States, generating about 6% of the global supply.

Maple syrup is graded according to the Canada, United States, or Vermont scales based on its density and translucency. [[Sucrose]] is the most prevalent sugar in maple syrup. In Canada, syrups must be made exclusively from maple sap to qualify as maple syrup and must also be at least 66 percent sugar.<ref>{{cite web|title=Chapter 13 – Labelling of Maple Products |url=http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/guide/ch13e.shtml |publisher=Canadian Food Inspection Agency |accessdate=9 December 2011 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20111201232833/http://www.inspection.gc.ca/english/fssa/labeti/guide/ch13e.shtml |archivedate=1 December 2011 |df= }}</ref> In the United States, a syrup must be made almost entirely from maple sap to be labelled as "maple", though states such as Vermont and [[New York (state)|New York]] have more restrictive definitions (see [[#Grades|below]]).

Maple syrup is often eaten with [[pancake]]s, [[waffle]]s, [[French toast]], [[oatmeal]] or [[porridge]]. It is also used as an ingredient in [[baking]] and as a sweetener or flavouring agent. Culinary experts have praised its unique flavour, although the chemistry responsible is not fully understood.<ref name="Brown2010">{{cite book |author=Amy Christine Brown |title=Understanding Food: Principles and Preparation |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ppMzyDFyHUwC&pg=PA441|date=June 2010 |publisher=Cengage Learning |isbn=978-0-538-73498-1 |page=441 |quote=Maple Syrup Colors The flavor and color of maple syrup develop during the boiling of the initially colorless sap. Government standards ... but real maple syrup has a unique flavor and smoothness not duplicated by substitutes. Pure or blended}}</ref>

== Sources ==

[[File:Acer saccharum.jpg|thumb|upright|A sugar maple tree]]

Three species of maple trees are predominantly used to produce maple syrup: the [[Acer saccharum|sugar maple (''Acer saccharum'')]], the [[Acer nigrum|black maple (''A. nigrum'')]], and the [[Acer rubrum|red maple (''A. rubrum'')]],{{sfn|Elliot|2006|pp=8–10}} because of the high sugar content (roughly two to five percent) in the sap of these species.{{sfn|Ciesla|2002|pp=37–38}} The black maple is included as a [[subspecies]] or [[variety (botany)|variety]] in a more broadly viewed concept of ''A. saccharum'', the sugar maple, by some botanists.<ref name=grin>{{cite web|publisher=Germplasm Resources Information Network|url=http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/npgs/html/taxon.pl?314801|title=''Acer saccharum'' subsp. ''nigrum''|accessdate=10 December 2011}}</ref> Of these, the red maple has a shorter season because it buds earlier than sugar and black maples, which alters the flavour of the sap.<ref>{{cite web | url=https://www.extension.iastate.edu/forestry/publications/PDF_files/F-337.pdf | title=Maple syrup production; Publication F-337A | publisher=Iowa State University, Forestry Extension, Ames, IA | date=February 2010 | accessdate=21 October 2016 | author=Randall, Jesse A}}</ref>

A few other (but not all) species of [[Acer (genus)|maple (''Acer'')]] are also sometimes used as sources of sap for producing maple syrup, including the [[Acer negundo|box elder or Manitoba maple (''Acer negundo'')]],<ref name="thestarphoenix">{{cite news |title=Sask. sap too sweet to waste |last=Ehman |first=Amy Jo |newspaper=[[The StarPhoenix]] |date=25 April 2011 |page=B1}}</ref> the [[Acer saccharinum|silver maple (''A. saccharinum'')]],<ref name="resource"/> and the [[Acer macrophyllum|bigleaf maple (''A. macrophyllum'')]].<ref>{{cite journal|authors=Ruth, Robert H; Underwood, J Clyde; Smith, Clark E; Yang, Hoya Y|year=1972|title=Maple sirup production from bigleaf maple|journal=Pnw-181|publisher=US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station|page=12|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/pnw/pubs/rn181.pdf}}</ref> Similar syrups may also be produced from [[birch syrup|birch]] or [[palm syrup|palm]] trees, among other sources.<ref>{{cite news|newspaper=The Globe and Mail|title=Why settle for maple when you could have birch syrup?|date=7 June 2011|url=http://www.theglobeandmail.com/life/food-and-wine/trends/trends-features/why-settle-for-maple-when-you-could-have-birch-syrup/article2050424/|accessdate=12 December 2011|author=Leung, Wency}}</ref><ref>{{cite book|last=Food|title=Utilization of tropical foods: trees : compendium on technological and nutritional aspects of processing and utilization of tropical foods, both animal and plant, for purposes of training and field reference.|year=1989|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|isbn=978-92-5-102776-9|page=5}}</ref>

== History ==

=== Indigenous peoples ===

[[File:Sugar-Making Among the Indians in the North.gif||thumb|left|"Sugar-Making Among the Indians in the North" (19th-century illustration)]]
[[Indigenous peoples of the Americas|Indigenous peoples]] living in northeastern North America were the first groups known to have produced maple syrup and maple sugar. According to aboriginal oral traditions, as well as archaeological evidence, maple tree sap was being processed into syrup long before Europeans arrived in the region.{{sfn|Ciesla|2002|pp=37, 104}}<ref name="mmsa"/> There are no authenticated accounts of how maple syrup production and consumption began,<ref name="history"/> but various legends exist; one of the most popular involves maple sap being used in place of water to cook [[venison]] served to a chief.<ref name="mmsa">{{cite web|title=History |url=http://www.mi-maplesyrup.com/about/history.htm |publisher=Michigan Maple Syrup Association |accessdate=20 November 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20110525093903/http://www.mi-maplesyrup.com/about/history.htm |archivedate=25 May 2011 |df= }}</ref> Other stories credit the development of maple syrup production to [[Nanabozho]], [[Glooskap]], or the [[squirrel]]. Aboriginal tribes developed rituals around sugar-making, celebrating the Sugar Moon (the first [[full moon]] of [[spring (season)|spring]]) with a Maple Dance.{{sfn|Eagleson|Hasner|2006|p=15}} Many aboriginal dishes replaced the salt traditional in European cuisine with maple sugar or syrup.<ref name="mmsa"/>

The [[Algonquian peoples|Algonquian]]s recognized maple sap as a source of energy and nutrition. At the beginning of the spring thaw, they used [[stone tool]]s to make V-shaped incisions in tree trunks; they then inserted reeds or concave pieces of bark to run the sap into buckets, which were often made from birch bark.<ref name="history"/> The maple sap was concentrated either by dropping hot [[Outdoor cooking|cooking stone]]s into the buckets<ref name="larkin">{{Cite book |last=Larkin |first=David |title=Country Wild |year=1998 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |isbn=978-0-395-77190-7 |pages=146–147}}</ref> or by leaving them exposed to the cold temperatures overnight and disposing of [[fractional freezing|the layer of ice]] that formed on top. While there was widespread [[agriculture in Mesoamerica]] and the Southeast and Southwest regions of the United States, the production of maple syrup is one of only a few agricultural processes in the Northeast that is not a European colonial import.<ref name="history"/>

=== European colonists===
[[File:Sugar Making in Canada, 1852. By Cornelius Krieghoff (1815-1872).jpg|thumb|''Sugar Making in Montreal'', October 1852]]

In the early stages of European colonization in northeastern North America, local Indigenous peoples showed the arriving colonists how to tap the trunks of certain types of maples during the spring thaw to harvest the sap.{{sfn|Ciesla|2002|p=37}} [[André Thevet]], the "Royal Cosmographer of France", wrote about [[Jacques Cartier]] drinking maple sap during his Canadian voyages.<ref>Quoted in {{cite book|title=Sweet maple|author1=Lawrence, James M |author2=Martin, Rux |publisher=Chapters Publishing Ltd|year=1993|page=57|isbn=978-1-881527-00-8}}</ref> By 1680, European settlers and [[fur trade]]rs were involved in harvesting maple products.{{sfn|Ciesla|2002|pp=37, 39}} However, rather than making incisions in the bark, the Europeans used the method of drilling tapholes in the trunks with [[auger (drill)|auger]]s. During the 17th and 18th centuries, processed maple sap was used primarily as a source of concentrated sugar, in both liquid and crystallized-solid form, as [[cane sugar]] had to be imported from the [[West Indies]].<ref name="history"/>{{sfn|Eagleson|Hasner|2006|p=15}}

Maple sugaring parties typically began to operate at the start of the spring thaw in regions of woodland with sufficiently large numbers of maples.{{sfn|Ciesla|2002|p=37}} Syrup makers first bored holes in the trunks, usually more than one hole per large tree; they then inserted wooden spouts into the holes and hung a wooden bucket from the protruding end of each spout to collect the sap. The buckets were commonly made by cutting cylindrical segments from a large tree trunk and then hollowing out each segment's core from one end of the cylinder, creating a seamless, watertight container.<ref name="history">{{cite book |last1=Koelling |first1=Melvin R |last2=Laing |first2=Fred |last3=Taylor |first3=Fred |editor1-first=Melvin R |editor1-last=Koelling |editor2-last=Heiligmann |editor2-first=Randall B |title=North American Maple Syrup Producers Manual |url=http://estore.osu-extension.org/cw_Search.aspx?k=maple |accessdate=23 September 2016 |series= |volume= |year=1996 |publisher=Ohio State University (OSU) |chapter=Chapter 2: History of Maple Syrup and Sugar Production}}</ref> Sap filled the buckets, and was then either transferred to larger holding vessels (barrels, large pots, or hollowed-out wooden logs), often mounted on sledges or wagons pulled by [[draft animal]]s, or carried in buckets or other convenient containers.{{sfn|Ciesla|2002|pp=37–39}} The sap-collection buckets were returned to the spouts mounted on the trees, and the process was repeated for as long as the flow of sap remained "sweet". The specific weather conditions of the thaw period were, and still are, critical in determining the length of the sugaring season.<ref name="production"/> As the weather continues to warm, a maple tree's normal early spring biological process eventually alters the taste of the sap, making it unpalatable, perhaps due to an increase in amino acids.<ref name="resource">{{cite book |last1=Heiligmann |first1=Randall B |last2=Winch |first2=Fred E |editor1-first=Melvin R |editor1-last=Koelling |editor2-last=Heiligmann |editor2-first=Randall B |title=North American Maple Syrup Producers Manual |url=http://estore.osu-extension.org/cw_Search.aspx?k=maple |accessdate=23 September 2016 |series= |volume= |year=1996 |publisher=Ohio State University |chapter=Chapter 3: The Maple Resource}}</ref>

The boiling process was very time-consuming. The harvested sap was transported back to the party's base camp, where it was then poured into large vessels (usually made from metal) and boiled to achieve the desired consistency.<ref name="history"/> The sap was usually transported using large barrels pulled by horses or oxen to a central collection point, where it was processed either over a fire built out in the open or inside a shelter built for that purpose (the "sugar shack").<ref name="history"/><ref name="production2">{{cite book |last1=Heiligmann |first1=Randall B |last2=Staats |first2=Lewis |editor1-first=Melvin R |editor1-last=Koelling |editor2-last=Heiligmann |editor2-first=Randall B |title=North American Maple Syrup Producers Manual |url=http://estore.osu-extension.org/cw_Search.aspx?k=maple |accessdate=23 September 2016 |series= |volume= |year=1996 |publisher=Ohio State University |chapter=Chapter 7: Maple Syrup Production}}</ref>

===Since 1850===
[[File:Maple sugaring bucket (5571412972).jpg|thumb|right|A bucket used to collect sap, built circa 1820]]
Around the time of the [[American Civil War]], syrup makers started using large, flat sheet metal pans as they were more efficient for boiling than heavy, rounded iron kettles, because of a greater surface area for evaporation.<ref name="production2"/> Around this time, cane sugar replaced maple sugar as the dominant sweetener in the US; as a result, producers focused marketing efforts on maple syrup. The first evaporator, used to heat and concentrate sap, was patented in 1858. In 1872, an evaporator was developed that featured two pans and a metal arch or firebox, which greatly decreased boiling time.<ref name="history"/> Around 1900, producers bent the tin that formed the bottom of a pan into a series of [[flue]]s, which increased the heated surface area of the pan and again decreased boiling time. Some producers also added a finishing pan, a separate batch evaporator, as a final stage in the evaporation process.<ref name="production2"/>

Buckets began to be replaced with plastic bags, which allowed people to see at a distance how much sap had been collected. Syrup producers also began using tractors to haul vats of sap from the trees being tapped (the sugarbush) to the evaporator. Some producers adopted motor-powered tappers and metal tubing systems to convey sap from the tree to a central collection container, but these techniques were not widely used.<ref name="history"/> Heating methods also diversified: modern producers use wood, oil, [[natural gas]], [[propane]], or steam to evaporate sap.<ref name="production2"/> Modern filtration methods were perfected to prevent contamination of the syrup.<ref name="fgph">{{cite book |last1=Koelling |first1=Melvin R |editor1-first=Melvin R |editor1-last=Koelling |editor2-last=Heiligmann |editor2-first=Randall B|title=North American Maple Syrup Producers Manual |url=http://estore.osu-extension.org/cw_Search.aspx?k=maple |accessdate=23 September 2016 |series= |volume= |year=1996 |publisher=Ohio State University |chapter=Chapter 8: Syrup Filtration, Grading, Packing, and Handling|display-authors=etal}}</ref>

[[File:Sap plastic tubing.jpg|thumb|left|upright|Two taps in a maple tree, using plastic tubing for sap collection]]

A large number of technological changes took place during the 1970s. Plastic tubing systems that had been experimental since the early part of the century were perfected, and the sap came directly from the tree to the evaporator house.{{sfn|Ciesla|2002|p=40}} [[Vacuum pump]]s were added to the tubing systems, and preheaters were developed to recycle heat lost in the steam. Producers developed [[reverse-osmosis]] machines to take a portion of water out of the sap before it was boiled, increasing processing efficiency.<ref name="history"/>

Improvements in tubing and vacuum pumps, new filtering techniques, "supercharged" preheaters, and better storage containers have since been developed. Research continues on pest control and improved woodlot management.<ref name="history"/> In 2009, researchers at the [[University of Vermont]] unveiled a new type of tap that prevents backflow of sap into the tree, reducing [[bacteria]]l contamination and preventing the tree from attempting to heal the bore hole.<ref name="perkins">{{cite journal |last=Perkins |first=Timothy D |title=Development and testing of the check-valve spout adapter |journal=Maple Digest |date=October 2009 |volume=21A |pages=21–29 |url=http://www.uvm.edu/~pmrc/check-valve.pdf |accessdate=21 September 2010}}</ref> Experiments show that it may be possible to use saplings in a plantation instead of mature trees dramatically boosting productivity per acre.<ref>{{cite news|last=Sorkin|first=Laura|title=Maple Syrup Revolution: A New Discovery Could Change the Business Forever|url=http://modernfarmer.com/2014/01/maple-syrup-revolution/|accessdate=20 January 2014|newspaper=[[Modern Farmer (magazine)|Modern Farmer]]|date=20 January 2014}}</ref>

== Processing ==

[[File:Maple sap collecting at Bowdoin Park, New York.JPG|thumb|left|A traditional bucket tap and a plastic-bag tap]]
Open pan evaporation methods have been streamlined since colonial days, but remain basically unchanged. Sap must first be collected and boiled down to obtain pure syrup without chemical agents or preservatives. Maple syrup is made by boiling between 20 and 50 volumes of sap (depending on its concentration) over an open fire until 1 volume of syrup is obtained, usually at a temperature {{convert|4.1|°C-change|sigfig=2}} over the boiling point of water. As the boiling point of water varies with changes in air pressure the correct value for pure water is determined at the place where the syrup is being produced, each time evaporation is begun and periodically throughout the day.<ref name="production2"/>{{sfn|Eagleson|Hasner|2006|p=55}} Syrup can be boiled entirely over one heat source or can be drawn off into smaller batches and boiled at a more controlled temperature.{{sfn|Eagleson|Hasner|2006|p=53}}

Boiling the syrup is a tightly controlled process, which ensures appropriate sugar content. Syrup boiled too long will eventually crystallize, whereas under-boiled syrup will be watery, and will quickly spoil. The finished syrup has a [[density]] of 66° on the [[Brix#|Brix scale]] (a [[hydrometer|hydrometric]] scale used to measure sugar solutions).{{sfn|Elliot|2006|p=12}} The syrup is then filtered to remove [[sugar sand]], crystals made up largely of sugar and [[calcium malate]].<ref name=ball/> These crystals are not toxic, but create a "gritty" texture in the syrup if not filtered out.{{sfn|Eagleson|Hasner|2006|p=56}}

In addition to open pan evaporation methods, many large producers use the more fuel efficient [[reverse osmosis]] procedure to separate the water from the sap.<ref name="ThomasSchumann1993">{{cite book|last1=Thomas|first1=Margaret G.|last2=Schumann|first2=David R. |title=Income Opportunities in Special Forest Products: Self-help Suggestions for Rural Entrepreneurs|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4FsDVbhiskkC&pg=PA181|accessdate=18 October 2016|year=1993|publisher=USDA Forest Products Laboratory|isbn=978-0-7881-1236-2|page=181}}</ref>

The higher the sugar content of the sap, the fewer the gallons of sap are needed to obtain one gallon of syrup. 57 gallons of sap with 1.5% sugar content will yield 1 gallon of syrup, but only 25 gallons of sap with a 3.5% sugar content are needed to obtain one gallon of syrup.<ref name="Wagner2011">{{cite book|last=Wagner|first=John E. |title=Forestry Economics: A Managerial Approach|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdSoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PT74|year=2012|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=9780415774406|page=74}}</ref> The sap's sugar content is highly variable and will fluctuate even within the same tree.<ref name="Taylor1956">{{cite journal|last1=Taylor|first1=Fred H.|title=Variation in Sugar Content of Maple Sap|journal=AGRICULTURAL EXPERIMENT STATION, University of Vermont and State Agricultural College|date=March 1956|volume=Bulletin 587|url=https://www.uvm.edu/~uvmaple/sapsugarcontentvariation.pdf}}</ref>

The filtered syrup is graded and packaged while still hot, usually at a temperature of {{convert|82|°C|°F}} or greater. The containers are turned over after being sealed to sterilize the cap with the hot syrup. Packages can be made of metal, glass, or coated plastic, depending on volume and target market.{{sfn|Eagleson|Hasner|2006|p=59}} The syrup can also be heated longer and further processed to create a variety of other maple products, including [[maple sugar]], [[maple butter|maple butter or cream]], and [[maple taffy|maple candy or taffy]].{{sfn|Eagleson|Hasner|2006|pp=65–67}}

[[File:MapleSyrupDrop.ogv|thumb|Maple sap harvesting]]

=== Off-flavours ===

[[Off-flavours]] can sometimes develop during the production of maple syrup, resulting from contaminants in the boiling apparatus (such as [[disinfectant]]s), [[microorganisms]], [[fermentation (food)|fermentation]] products, [[metal|metallic]] can flavours, and "buddy sap", an off-flavour occurring late in the syrup season when tree [[budding]] has begun.<ref name="ume">{{cite web|url=https://extension.umaine.edu/publications/7038e/|title=Maple Syrup Quality Control Manual|publisher=Cooperative Extension Publications, University of Maine|author=Hopkins, Kathy|date=2016|accessdate=20 May 2017}}</ref> In some circumstances, it is possible to remove off-flavours through processing.<ref name=ume/><ref name="berg">{{Cite journal |last=van den Berg |first=Abby K |author2=Perkins, Timothy D |author3=Isselhardt, Mark L |author4=Godshall, Mary An |author5= Lloyd, Steven W |title=Metabolism Off-Flavor in Maple Syrup |journal=Maple Digest |date=October 2009 |volume=21A |pages=11–18}}</ref>

== Production ==
[[File:Making Maple Syrup (MSA) (12794030474).jpg|thumb|Pouring the sap]]
[[File:Bouillir l'eau d'érable à sucre 2013-04-07 23-33.jpg|thumb|A "sugar shack" where sap is boiling.]]
[[File:Can of Quebec Maple Syrup.JPG|thumb|upright|Maple syrup in Quebec is typically sold in cans with this distinctive design]]
[[File:MapleSyrupProduction.jpg|thumb|Maple sap being transformed to syrup]]

Maple syrup production is centred in northeastern North America; however, given the correct weather conditions, it can be made wherever suitable species of maple trees grow.

A maple syrup production farm is called a "[[sugar bush|sugarbush]]" or "sugarwood". Sap is often boiled in a "[[sugar house]]" (also known as a "sugar shack", "sugar shanty", or ''cabane à sucre''), a building [[louver]]ed at the top to vent the steam from the boiling sap.<ref name="facilities">{{cite book |last1=Koelling |first1=Melvin R. |last2=Staats |first2=Lewis |editor1-first=Melvin R |editor1-last=Koelling |editor2-last=Heiligmann |editor2-first=Randall B |title=North American Maple Syrup Producers Manual |url=http://estore.osu-extension.org/cw_Search.aspx?k=maple |accessdate=23 September 2016 |series= |volume= |year=1996 |publisher=Ohio State University |chapter=Appendix 1: Maple Production and Processing Facilities}}</ref>

Maples are usually tapped beginning at 30 to 40 years of age. Each tree can support between one and three taps, depending on its trunk diameter. The average maple tree will produce {{convert|35|to|50|L|USgal}} of sap per season, up to {{convert|12|L|USgal}} per day.{{sfn|Ciesla|2002|p=39}} This is roughly equal to 7% of its total sap. Seasons last for four to eight weeks, depending on the weather.<ref name="intro">{{cite book |last1=Koelling |first1=Melvin R |last2=Davenport |first2=Russell |editor1-first=Melvin R |editor1-last=Koelling |editor2-last=Heiligmann |editor2-first=Randall B |title=North American Maple Syrup Producers Manual |url=http://estore.osu-extension.org/cw_Search.aspx?k=maple |accessdate=23 September 2016 |series= |volume= |year=1996 |publisher=Ohio State University |chapter=Chapter 1: Introduction}}</ref> During the day, starch stored in the roots for the winter rises through the trunk as sugary sap, allowing it to be tapped.<ref name="production">{{cite book |last1=Heiligmann |first1=Randall B |editor1-first=Melvin R |editor1-last=Koelling |editor2-last=Heiligmann |editor2-first=Randall B |title=North American Maple Syrup Producers Manual |url=http://estore.osu-extension.org/cw_Search.aspx?k=maple |accessdate=23 September 2016 |series= |volume= |year=1996 |publisher=Ohio State University |chapter=Chapter 6: Maple Sap Production|display-authors=etal}}</ref> Sap is not tapped at night because the temperature drop inhibits sap flow, although taps are typically left in place overnight.<ref name="ce">{{cite web |last=Werner |first=Leo H |title=Maple Sugar Industry |url=http://www.thecanadianencyclopedia.com/en/article/maple-sugar-industry/ |work=Canadian Encyclopedia |publisher=Historica-Dominion Institute |accessdate=20 September 2010}}</ref> Some producers also tap in autumn, though this practice is less common than spring tapping. Maples can continue to be tapped for sap until they are over 100 years old.{{sfn|Ciesla|2002|p=39}}

== Commerce ==

Until the 1930s, the United States produced most of the world's maple syrup.<ref>[http://maple.dnr.cornell.edu/pubs/MaplePartOfStimulusPackage.pdf "Background Information and Justification for Reintroducing the Maple Tapping Access Program Act as part of the new Federal Stimulus Package"].</ref> Today, after rapid growth in the 1990s, [[Canada]] produces more than 80 percent of the world's maple syrup, producing about {{convert|73000000|L|USgal}} in 2016.<ref name=cbc17/> The vast majority of this comes from the province of [[Quebec]], which is the world's largest producer, with about 70 percent of global production.<ref name=cbc17/><ref name=bbc17/>

As of 2016, Quebec had some 7,300 producers working with 13,500 farmers, collectively making over {{convert|8090000|USgal|L}} of syrup.<ref name=cbc17/><ref name="statscan16">{{cite web|url=http://www.agr.gc.ca/eng/industry-markets-and-trade/statistics-and-market-information/by-product-sector/horticulture-industry/horticulture-sector-reports/statistical-overview-of-the-canadian-maple-industry-2015/?id=1475692913659|title=Statistical Overview of the Canadian Maple Industry - 2015|date=June 2016|publisher=Statistics Canada|accessdate=21 May 2017}}</ref> Production in Quebec is controlled through a [[supply management (Canada)|supply management]] system, with producers receiving quota allotments from the [[Federation of Quebec Maple Syrup Producers]] (Fédération des producteurs acéricoles du Québec, FPAQ), which also maintains reserves of syrup,<ref name=cbc17/><ref name="fpac">{{cite web |title=Actions de la FPAQ |url=http://www.siropderable.ca/actions.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304002353/http://www.siropderable.ca/actions.aspx |dead-url=yes |archive-date=4 March 2016 |publisher= Fédération des producteurs acéricoles du Québec |accessdate=22 September 2010 |language=French}}</ref> although there is a black-market trade in Quebec product.<ref name=cbc17/><ref>{{cite web|url=http://business.financialpost.com/features/how-a-maple-syrup-rebellion-is-growing-in-quebec |title=How a maple syrup rebellion is growing in Quebec|author=Kuitenbrouwer, Peter|work=National Post|accessdate=18 May 2016}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://business.financialpost.com/news/agriculture/quebecs-autocratic-control-over-maple-syrup-producers-in-need-of-major-overhaul-provincial-report |title=Quebec's 'autocratic' control over maple syrup producers in need of major overhaul: provincial report|work=Financial Post|author=Kuitenbrouwer, Peter|date=11 February 2016}}</ref> In 2017, the FPAQ mandated increased output of maple syrup production, attempting to establish Quebec's dominance in the world market.<ref name=cbc17/><ref name=bbc17/> Canada exported more than [[C$]]362 million of maple syrup in 2016.<ref name=bbc17/> The provinces of [[Ontario]], [[Nova Scotia]], [[New Brunswick]], and [[Prince Edward Island]] produce smaller amounts of syrup.<ref name=statscan16/>

The Canadian provinces of [[Manitoba]] and [[Saskatchewan]] produce maple syrup using the sap of the [[Acer negundo|box elder or Manitoba maple (''Acer negundo'')]].<ref name="thestarphoenix" /> A Manitoba maple tree's yield is usually less than half that of a similar sugar maple tree.<ref name="manitoba">{{cite web | url = http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/96-328-m/2004032/4194001-eng.pdf | last = Kendrick | first = Jenny | title = Tapping the Manitoba Maple | publisher = Statistics Canada | accessdate =19 September 2010}}</ref> Manitoba maple syrup has a slightly different flavour from sugar-maple syrup, because it contains less sugar and the tree's sap flows more slowly.

[[Vermont]] is the biggest US producer, with over {{convert|1,320,000|USgal|L}} during the 2013 season, followed by [[New York (state)|New York]] with {{convert|574,000|USgal|L}} and [[Maine]] with {{convert|450,000|USgal|L}}. [[Wisconsin]], [[Ohio]], [[New Hampshire]], [[Michigan]], [[Pennsylvania]], [[Massachusetts]], and [[Connecticut]] all produced marketable quantities of maple syrup of less than {{convert|265,000|USgal|L}} each in 2013.<ref>{{cite web |title=Maple Syrup Production |url=http://www.nass.usda.gov/Statistics_by_State/New_England_includes/Publications/0605mpl.pdf|work=Maple Syrup 2013 |publisher=United States Department of Agriculture |accessdate=11 August 2013 |date=13 June 2013|page=1}}</ref> As of 2003, Vermont produced about 5.5 percent of the global syrup supply.{{sfn|Eagleson|Hasner|2006|p=27}}

Maple syrup has been produced on a small scale in some other countries, notably Japan and South Korea.<ref name="watanabe">{{cite journal |last=Watanabe |first=Toshiyuki |author2=Aso, Kiyoshi |title=On the Sugar Composition of Maple Syrup |journal=Tohoku Journal of Agricultural Research |year=1962 |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=175–181}}</ref> However, in South Korea in particular, it is traditional to consume maple sap, called ''gorosoe'', instead of processing it into syrup.<ref name="choe">{{cite news |last=Sang-Hun |first=Choe |title=In South Korea, drinks are on the maple tree |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/03/06/world/asia/06maple.html?_r=1&ref=maple_syrup_and_sugar |accessdate=21 September 2010 |newspaper=Hadong Journal |date=5 March 2009}}</ref>

In 2015, 64% of Canadian maple syrup exports went to the United States (a value of C$229 million), 8% to Germany (C$31 million), 6% to Japan (C$26 million), and 5% to the United Kingdom (C$16 million).<ref name=statscan16/>

== Grades ==
{{see also|Food grading}}

Following an effort from the International Maple Syrup Institute (IMSI) and many maple syrup producer associations, both Canada and the United States have altered their laws regarding the classification of maple syrup to be uniform. Whereas in the past each state or province had their own laws on the classification of maple syrup, now those laws define a unified grading system. This had been a work in progress for several years, and most of the finalization of the new grading system was made in 2014. The Canadian Food Inspection Agency announced in the ''[[Canada Gazette]]'' on 28 June 2014 that rules for the sale of maple syrup would be amended to include new descriptors, at the request of the IMSI.<ref>{{cite news|url=http://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/maple-syrup-labelling-changes-on-tap-1.2690538|title=Maple syrup labelling changes on tap|publisher=CBC News|date=27 June 2014|accessdate=29 June 2014}}</ref>

As of December 31, 2014, the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA)<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internationalmaplesyrupinstitute.com/uploads/7/0/9/2/7092109/nr_-_maple_regs_cgii_mino_approved_final_en_1_4.pdf|title=Harper Government Strengthens Competitiveness of Canada's Maple Syrup Industry|publisher=Canadian Food Inspection Agency|date=16 December 2014|accessdate=10 March 2015}}</ref> and as of March 2, 2015, the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Agricultural Marketing Service (AMS)<ref name="usda.gov">{{cite web
|url=http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3011897|archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20150403064522/http://ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/getfile?dDocName=STELDEV3011897|title=United States Standards for Grades of Maple Syrup|publisher=US Department of Agriculture|date=March 2, 2015|archivedate=2015-04-03}}</ref> issued revised standards on the classification of maple syrup as follows:

*Grade A
**Golden Colour and Delicate Taste
**Amber Colour and Rich Taste
**Dark Colour and Robust Taste
**Very Dark Colour and Strong Taste
*Processing Grade
*Substandard

As long as maple syrup does not have an off-flavour and is of a uniform colour and clean and free from [[turbidity]] and sediment, it can be labelled as one of the A grades. If it exhibits any of these problems, it does not meet Grade A requirements and must be labelled as Processing Grade maple syrup and may not be sold in containers smaller than 5 gallons.<ref name="usda.gov"/> If maple syrup does not meet the requirements of Processing Grade maple syrup (including a fairly characteristic maple taste), it is classified as Substandard.<ref name="usda.gov"/>

As of February 2015, this grading system has been accepted and made law by most maple-producing states and provinces, other than Ontario, Quebec, and Ohio. Vermont, in an effort to "jump-start" the new grading regulations, adopted the new grading system as of January 1, 2014, after the grade changes passed the Senate and House in 2013. Maine passed a bill to take effect as soon as both Canada and the United States adopted the new grades. They are allowing a one-year grace period. In New York, the new grade changes became law on January 1, 2015, with a one-year grace period. New Hampshire did not require legislative approval and so the new grade laws became effective as of December 16, 2014, and producer compliance was required as of January 1, 2016.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.internationalmaplesyrupinstitute.com/downloadable-resources.html|title=United States Standards for Grades of Maple Syrup|publisher=International Maple Syrup Institute|date=29 January 2015|accessdate=10 March 2015}}</ref>

Golden and Amber grades typically have a milder flavour than Dark and Very dark, which are both dark and have an intense maple flavour.<ref name="dnr"/> The darker grades of syrup are used primarily for cooking and baking, although some specialty dark syrups are produced for table use.<ref name="mcgee">{{cite book |last=McGee |first=Harold |title=On food and cooking: the science and lore of the kitchen|edition=2nd |year=2004 |publisher=Simon & Schuster |pages=668–669|isbn=978-0-684-80001-1}}</ref> Syrup harvested earlier in the season tends to yield a lighter colour.<ref name="thompson">{{cite book |last=Thompson|first=Jennifer|title=Very Maple Syrup|year=2003 |publisher=Celestial Arts |page=2|isbn=978-1587611810}}</ref> With the new grading system, the classification of maple syrup depends ultimately on its internal [[transmittance]] at 560 nm [[wavelength]] through a 10 mm sample. Golden has to have 75 percent or more transmittance, Amber has to have 50.0 to 74.9 percent transmittance, Dark has to have 25.0 to 49.9 percent transmittance, and Very Dark is any product less than 25.0 percent transmittance.<ref name="usda.gov"/>

=== Old grading system ===
[[File:Syrup grades large.JPG|thumb|Old US maple syrup grades, left to right: ''Grade A Light Amber ("Fancy")'', ''Grade A Medium Amber'', ''Grade A Dark Amber'', ''Grade B'']]

In Canada, maple syrup was classified prior to December 31, 2014, by the Canadian Food Inspection Agency (CFIA) as one of three grades, each with several colour classes: Canada No. 1, including Extra Light, Light, and Medium; No. 2 Amber; and No. 3 Dark or any other ungraded category. Producers in Ontario or Québec may have followed either federal or provincial grading guidelines. Québec's and Ontario's guidelines differed slightly from the federal: there were two "number" categories in Québec (Number 1, with four colour classes, and 2, with five colour classes).<ref name="msgqc1">{{cite web |title=Maple Syrup Grades |url=http://www.siropderable.ca/Afficher.aspx?page=74&langue=en |publisher=Fédération des producteurs acéricoles du Québec |accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref> As in Québec, Ontario's producers had two "number" grades: 1, with three colour classes; and 2, with one colour class, which was typically referred to as "Ontario Amber" when produced and sold in that province only.<ref name="omspa1">{{cite web|title=Maple Syrup Grades |url=http://www.ontariomaple.com/fact-finding/pure-maple-syrup.html |publisher=Ontario Maple Syrup Producers Association |accessdate=19 September 2010 |deadurl=yes |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20100906233915/http://www.ontariomaple.com/fact-finding/pure-maple-syrup.html |archivedate=6 September 2010 |df= }}</ref> A typical year's yield for a maple syrup producer will be about 25 to 30 percent of each of the #1 colours, 10 percent #2 Amber, and 2 percent #3 Dark.{{sfn|Elliot|2006|p=12}}

The United States used (some states still do, as they await state regulation) different grading standards. Maple syrup was divided into two major grades: Grade A and Grade B. Grade A was further divided into three subgrades: Light Amber (sometimes known as Fancy), Medium Amber, and Dark Amber. In Massachusetts, the Grade B was renamed as ''Grade A Very Dark, Strong Taste.''<ref>http://www.masslive.com/entertainment/index.ssf/2015/03/new_grading_system_in_place_fo.html</ref> The [[Vermont Agency of Agriculture Food and Markets]] used a similar grading system of colour, and is roughly equivalent, especially for lighter syrups, but using letters: "AA", "A", etc.<ref name="msgvt1">{{cite web |title=Maple Syrup Grades Vermont |url=http://www.vermontmaple.org/grades.php |publisher=Vermont Maple Syrup |accessdate=27 March 2012}}</ref>{{sfn|Ciesla|2002|p=41}} The Vermont grading system differed from the US system in maintaining a slightly higher standard of product density (measured on the [[Baumé scale]]). New Hampshire maintained a similar standard, but not a separate state grading scale. The Vermont-graded product had 0.9 percent more sugar and less water in its composition than US-graded. One grade of syrup not for table use, called commercial or Grade C, was also produced under the Vermont system.<ref name="dnr">{{cite web |title=Frequently Asked Questions |url=http://maple.dnr.cornell.edu/FAQ.htm |publisher=Cornell Sugar Maple Research & Extension Program |accessdate=22 September 2010}}</ref>

== Nutrition and food characteristics==
{{nutritional value | name=Maple syrup
| kJ=1088
| protein=0.04 g
| fat=0.06 g
| carbs=67 g
| sugars=60.4
| calcium_mg=102
| iron_mg=0.11
| magnesium_mg=21
| phosphorus_mg=2
| potassium_mg=212
| sodium_mg=12
| zinc_mg=1.47
| manganese_mg=2.908
| vitC_mg=0
| thiamin_mg=0.066
| riboflavin_mg=1.27
| niacin_mg=0.081
| pantothenic_mg=0.036
| vitB6_mg=0.002
| folate_ug=0
| choline_mg=1.6
| opt1n=Water
| opt1v=32.4 g
| note=[https://ndb.nal.usda.gov/ndb/search/list?qlookup=19353&format=Full Link to USDA Database entry]
}}

The basic ingredient in maple syrup is the sap from the [[xylem]] of sugar maple or various other species of maple trees. It consists primarily of [[sucrose]] and water, with small amounts of the monosaccharides [[glucose]] and [[fructose]] from the [[invert sugar]] created in the boiling process.<ref>{{cite journal |title=Sugar Profiles of Maple Syrup Grades |first=Abby |last=van den Berg |first2=Timothy |last2=Perkins |first3=Mark |last3=Isselhardt |pages=12–13 |journal=Maple Syrup Digest |date=December 2006 |url=http://www.uvm.edu/~pmrc/sugarprof.pdf}}</ref>

In a 100g amount, maple syrup provides 260 [[calories]] and is composed of 32% water by weight, 67% [[carbohydrates]] (90% of which are sugars), and no appreciable protein or fat (table). Maple syrup is generally low in overall [[micronutrient]] content, although [[manganese]] and [[riboflavin]] are at high levels along with moderate amounts of [[zinc]] and [[calcium]] (right table). It also contains trace amounts of [[amino acid]]s which increase in content as sap flow occurs.<ref name="chem">{{cite book |last1=Morselli |first1=Mariafranca |last2=Whalen |first2=M Lynn |editor1-first=Melvin R |editor1-last=Koelling |editor2-last=Heiligmann |editor2-first=Randall B |title=North American Maple Syrup Producers Manual |url= http://estore.osu-extension.org/cw_Search.aspx?k=maple|series= |volume= |year=1996 |publisher=Ohio State University |chapter=Appendix 2: Maple Chemistry and Quality}}</ref>

Maple syrup contains a wide variety of volatile organic compounds, including [[vanillin]], [[hydroxybutanone]], and [[propionaldehyde]]. It is not yet known exactly what compounds are responsible for maple syrup's distinctive flavour,<ref name="ball">{{Cite journal |title=The Chemical Composition of Maple Syrup |journal=Journal of Chemical Education |date=10 October 2007 |first=David |last=Ball |volume=84 |issue=10 |pages=1647–1650 |doi= 10.1021/ed084p1647 |url=https://docs.google.com/viewer?a=v&q=cache:l7cIVZQcVMMJ:jchemed.chem.wisc.edu/Journal/Issues/2007/Oct/abs1647.html+chemistry+of+maple+syrup&hl=en&gl=us&pid=bl&srcid=ADGEESiW8-b0kkoygAulpuZ72NzPTPhkQxcGbzRfgaOXtNm6Vc6WonRDmkrDX2l9ko6d3329pecVOYeGk5nIJPNdxkWMsmY7uRxqDABLoeRaUbal-mJK-FKqw36Bd8WzKf28TqjtZSeZ&sig=AHIEtbQxTimX61iSDeJKFHnUTjESw0F9VQ |accessdate=19 September 2010|bibcode=2007JChEd..84.1647B }}</ref> however its primary flavour contributing compounds are maple [[furanone]], [[Furaneol|strawberry furanone]], and [[maltol]].<ref>{{cite book |title=Taste Buds and Molecules: The Art and Science of Food, Wine, and Flavor |first=Francois |last=Chartier |publisher=
Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |date=30 March 2012 }}</ref>

New compounds have been identified in maple syrup, one of which is [[quebecol]], a [[natural phenol]]ic compound created when the maple sap is boiled to create syrup.<ref name=Li>{{cite journal | title = Quebecol, a novel phenolic compound isolated from Canadian maple syrup | doi = 10.1016/j.jff.2011.02.004 | year = 2011 | last1 = Li | first1 = Liya | last2 = Seeram | first2 = Navindra P. | journal = Journal of Functional Foods| volume = 3 | issue = 2 | page = 125 }}</ref>

One author described maple syrup as "a unique ingredient, smooth- and silky-textured, with a sweet, distinctive flavour – hints of caramel with overtones of toffee will not do – and a rare colour, amber set alight. Maple flavour is, well, maple flavour, uniquely different from any other."<ref name="ce"/> [[Agriculture Canada]] has developed a "flavour wheel" that details 91 unique flavours that can be present in maple syrup. These flavours are divided into 13 families: vanilla, empyreumatic (burnt), milky, fruity, floral, spicy, foreign deterioration or environment, maple, confectionery, plants forest-humus-cereals, herbaceous, or ligneous.{{sfn|Eagleson|Hasner|2006|pp=71, 73}} These flavours are evaluated using a procedure similar to [[wine tasting]].{{sfn|Eagleson|Hasner|2006|p=74}} Other culinary experts praise its unique flavour.<ref name="Roehl1996">{{cite book|author=Evelyn Roehl|title=Whole Food Facts: The Complete Reference Guide|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H8lwmA52ltIC&pg=PA135|year=1996|publisher=Inner Traditions * Bear & Company|isbn=978-0-89281-635-4|pages=135–136|quote=The unique flavor of maple syrup comes from trace amounts of minerals. sugars, and other substances in the syrup. It is very difficult to synthesize this flavor artificially. To make maple sugar, a crystalline sweetener, maple sap, is boiled until ...}}</ref><ref name="Bucholz2010">{{cite book|author=Dinah Bucholz|title=The Unofficial Harry Potter Cookbook: From Cauldron Cakes to Knickerbocker Glory--More Than 150 Magical Recipes for Muggles and Wizards|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dNSOkGbW_EkC&pg=PR15|date=September 2010|publisher=Adams Media|isbn=978-1-4405-0325-2|page=15|quote=For golden syrup, use light or dark corn syrup, light molasses, or pure maple syrup. Maple syrup will impart a unique flavor to the finished product, so use it with discretion.}}</ref><ref name="Davidson1981">{{cite book|author=Alan Davidson|title=Oxford Symposium 1981: National & Regional Styles of Cookery|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zcNdB_sl2JkC&pg=PA251|year=1981|publisher=Oxford Symposium|isbn=978-0-907325-07-9|page=251|quote=As the sap flow progresses, sugar content in the sap falls, and the resulting syrup is darker, with a richer maple flavor. ... Now that people buy maple syrup specifically for its "unique" flavor, they might be advised to look for Grade A...}}</ref><ref name="Figoni2010">{{cite book|author=Paula I. Figoni|title=How Baking Works: Exploring the Fundamentals of Baking Science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XqKF7PqV02cC&pg=PA182|date=October 2010|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-39813-5|page=182|quote=This makes maple syrup an extremely expensive sweetener. It is prized for its unique and very sweet aroma, which develops from the Maillard reactions that occur as sap is boiled over high heat. Do not confuse maple-flavored pancake syrup}}</ref>

Maple syrup and its various artificial imitations are widely used as toppings for [[pancake]]s, [[waffle]]s, and [[French toast]] in North America. They can also be used to flavour a variety of foods, including [[fritter]]s, [[ice cream]], [[porridge|hot cereal]], fresh [[fruit]], and sausages. It is also used as sweetener for [[granola]], [[applesauce]], [[baked beans]], candied [[sweet potato]]es, winter [[Squash (fruit)|squash]], cakes, pies, breads, tea, coffee, and [[hot toddy|hot toddies]]. Maple syrup can also be used as a replacement for honey in wine ([[mead]]).{{sfn|Elliot|2006}}

== Imitations ==
In Canada, maple syrup must be made entirely from maple sap, and syrup must have a density of 66° on the [[Brix]] scale to be marketed as maple syrup.{{sfn|Elliot|2006|p=12}} In the United States, maple syrup must be made almost entirely from maple sap, although small amounts of substances such as salt may be added.<ref name="cfr2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=168.180|title=Sweeteners and table sirups: Subpart B--Requirements for Specific Standardized Sweeteners and Table Sirups, Maple sirup|publisher=Code of Federal Regulations, Title 21, Food and Drug Administration|date=21 September 2016}}</ref> Labeling laws prohibit imitation syrups from having "maple" in their names unless the finished product contains 10% or more of natural maple syrup.<ref name=cfr2016/>

"Maple-flavoured" syrups include maple syrup, but may contain additional ingredients.<ref name=cfr2016/> "Pancake syrup", "waffle syrup", "table syrup", and similarly named syrups are substitutes which are less expensive than maple syrup. In these syrups, the primary ingredient is most often [[high fructose corn syrup]] flavoured with [[sotolon]]; they have little genuine maple content, and are usually thickened above the [[viscosity]] of maple syrup.<ref name="consumer">{{cite web|url=http://www.consumerreports.org/maple-syrup/5-things-you-need-to-know-about-maple-syrup/|title=5 Things You Need to Know About Maple Syrup|author=Calvo, Trisha|publisher=Consumer Reports|date=25 March 2017|accessdate=21 May 2017}}</ref>

Imitation syrups are generally cheaper than maple syrup, with less natural flavour.<ref name=consumer/> In the United States, consumers generally prefer imitation syrups, likely because of the significantly lower cost and sweeter flavour,<ref name="atlantic">{{cite web|url=https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2011/11/making-the-grade-why-the-cheapest-maple-syrup-tastes-best/239133/|title=Making the Grade: Why the Cheapest Maple Syrup Tastes Best|work=The Atlantic|date=1 November 2011|author=Applebaum, Yoni|accessdate=20 May 2017}}</ref><ref name="wapo">{{cite news|last1=Ingraham|first1=Christopher|title=Why Americans overwhelmingly prefer fake maple syrup|url=http://www.washingtonpost.com/blogs/wonkblog/wp/2015/03/27/why-americans-overwhelmingly-prefer-fake-maple-syrup/|accessdate=30 March 2015|work=[[The Washington Post]]|date=27 March 2015}}</ref> and typically cost about $8 per [[gallon]] ({{convert|1|USgal|ml}}), whereas authentic maple syrup costs $40 to $60 per gallon (2015 prices).<ref name=wapo/>

In 2016, maple syrup producers from nine US states petitioned the [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) to regulate labeling of products containing maple syrup or using the word "maple" in manufactured products, indicating that imitation maple products contained insignificant amounts of natural maple syrup.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.chicagotribune.com/business/ct-maple-syrup-producers-fda-20160216-story.html|title=Maple syrup producers: Fake flavors nothing like the real thing|date=16 February 2016|publisher=Chicago Tribune|accessdate=21 May 2016}}</ref> In September 2016, the FDA published a consumer advisory to carefully inspect the ingredient list of products labeled as "maple".<ref name="fda2016">{{cite web|url=https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm521518.htm|title=What's in a Name? What Every Consumer Should Know About Foods and Flavors|date=16 September 2016|publisher=Food and Drug Administration, US Department of Health and Human Services|accessdate=21 May 2017}}</ref>

== Cultural significance ==

[[File:Flag of Canada.svg|thumb|upright|right|The motif on the [[flag of Canada]] is a maple leaf.]]

Maple products are considered emblematic of Canada, in particular Quebec, and are frequently sold in tourist shops and airports as souvenirs from Canada. The sugar maple's leaf has come to symbolize Canada, and is depicted on the [[Flag of Canada|country's flag]].<ref>{{cite web |title=The maple leaf |url=http://www.pch.gc.ca/pgm/ceem-cced/symbl/df6-eng.cfm |publisher=Canadian Heritage |date=17 November 2008|accessdate=18 November 2010}}</ref> Several US states, including New York, Vermont and Wisconsin, have the sugar maple as their [[List of U.S. state trees|state tree]].<ref>{{cite web |title=State Trees & State Flowers |url=http://www.usna.usda.gov/Gardens/collections/statetreeflower.html |date=14 July 2010|publisher=United States National Arboretum |accessdate=18 November 2010}}</ref> A scene of sap collection is depicted on the Vermont [[50 State Quarters|state quarter]], issued in 2001.<ref>{{cite web |title=The 50 State Quarters Program Summary Report |url=http://www.usmint.gov/downloads/mint_programs/50sqInfo.pdf |format=PDF |accessdate=20 October 2013}}</ref>

Maple syrup and maple sugar were used during the American Civil War and by [[Abolitionism in the United States|abolitionists]] in the years before the war because most cane sugar and [[molasses]] were produced by [[Southern United States|Southern]] [[Slavery in the United States|slaves]].<ref name=atlantic/><ref name="gellmann">{{cite journal |last=Gellmann |first=D |title=Pirates, Sugar, Debtors, and Slaves: Political Economy and the case for Gradual Abolition in New York |journal=Slavery & Abolition: A Journal of Slave and Post-Slave Studies |year=2001 |volume=22 |issue=2 |pages=51–68 |doi=10.1080/714005193}}</ref> Because of food rationing during the [[Second World War]], people in the northeastern United States were encouraged to stretch their sugar rations by sweetening foods with maple syrup and maple sugar,<ref name="history"/> and recipe books were printed to help housewives employ this alternative source.<ref name="driver">{{cite book |last=Driver |first=Elizabeth |title=Culinary landmarks: a bibliography of Canadian cookbooks, 1825–1949 |year=2008 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |isbn=978-0-8020-4790-8 |page=1070}}</ref>

{{clear}}

== See also ==
{{portal|Food}}
* [[Birch syrup]]
* [[List of foods made from maple]]

== References ==

=== Notes ===
{{reflist |colwidth=30em}}

=== Cited works ===

* {{Cite book |last=Ciesla |first=William M |title=Non-wood Forest Products from Temperate Broad-leaved Trees |year=2002 |publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations |isbn=978-92-5-104855-9|ref=harv}}
* {{cite book |last1=Eagleson |first1=Janet |last2=Hasner |first2=Rosemary |title=The Maple Syrup Book |publisher=The Boston Mills Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-55046-411-5 |ref=harv}}
* {{Cite book |last=Elliot |first=Elaine |title=Maple Syrup: Recipes from Canada's Best Chefs |year=2006 |publisher=Formac Publishing Company |isbn=978-0-88780-697-1 |ref=harv}}

== Further reading ==

* {{cite book |last1=Nearing |first1=Helen |last2=Nearing |first2=Scott |title=The Maple Sugar Book |publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing |year=2000 |edition=50th anniversary |isbn=978-1-890132-63-7}}
* {{Cite book |last=Whynott |first=Douglas |title=The Sugar Season: A Year in the Life of Maple Syrup and One Family's Quest for the Sweetest Harvest |location=New York |publisher=Da Capo Press |year=2014 |isbn=9780306822056 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=majqAQAAQBAJ |oclc=868488316}}

== External links ==
{{Sister project links|wikt=maple syrup|commons=Category:Maple syrup|v=no|n=no|q=no|s=no|b=Cookbook:Maple Syrup}}
* [https://extension.umaine.edu/publications/7038e/ Maple Syrup Quality Control Manual, University of Maine]
* [http://cdi.uvm.edu/collections/getCollection.xql?pid=maple&title=Maple%20Research%20Collection UVM Center for Digital Initiatives: The Maple Research Collection by the Vermont Agricultural Experiment Station]
* [http://edocket.access.gpo.gov/cfr_2002/aprqtr/pdf/21cfr168.140.pdf US Food and Drug Administration description of table syrup]

{{Non-timber forest products}}
{{Pancakes|state=collapsed}}

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[[Category:Indigenous cuisine in Canada]]
[[Category:American cuisine]]
[[Category:Canadian cuisine]]
[[Category:Food made from maple|Syrup]]
[[Category:Forestry in Canada]]
[[Category:Forestry in the United States]]
[[Category:New England cuisine]]
[[Category:Non-timber forest products]]
[[Category:Syrup]]
[[Category:Tree tapping]]
[[Category:Articles containing video clips]]
[[Category:Cuisine of New York (state)]]

Joseph Wolpe

2017-07-17T19:44:44Z

MPrado: /* Systematic desensitization */ correct reference

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}
{{Use South African English|date=July 2012}}
'''Joseph Wolpe''' (20 April 1915 in [[Johannesburg, South Africa]] – 4 December 1997 in [[Los Angeles]]) was a South African [[psychiatrist]] and one of the most influential figures in [[behavior therapy]].

Wolpe grew up in South Africa, attending [[Parktown Boys' High School]] and obtaining his MD from the [[University of the Witwatersrand]].

In 1956 Wolpe was awarded a Ford Fellowship and spent a year at [[Stanford University]] in the Center for Behavioral Sciences, subsequently returning to South Africa but permanently moving to the United States in 1960 when he accepted a position at the [[University of Virginia]].

In 1965 Wolpe accepted a position at [[Temple University]].<ref>{{Citation |author=Stanley Rachman |title=Obituaries: Joseph Wolpe (1915–1997) |journal=American Psychologist |volume=55 |number=4 |date=April 2000 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.55.4.431 |url=http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=111&sid=cbfeecba-5d57-4f09-91cc-cea492d9ea17%40sessionmgr113 |accessdate=28 November 2009 |pages=441–442}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Dr. Joseph Wolpe, 82, Dies; Pioneer in Behavior Therapy |first=Eric |last=Pace |date=8 December 1997 |journal=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/08/us/dr-joseph-wolpe-82-dies-pioneer-in-behavior-therapy.html}}</ref>

One of the most influential experiences in Wolpe's life was when he enlisted in the South African army as a medical officer. Wolpe was entrusted to treat soldiers who were diagnosed with what was then called "war neurosis" but today is known as [[post traumatic stress disorder]]. The mainstream treatment of the time for soldiers was drug therapy. Doctors would use a type of "truth serum" to get soldiers to talk about their experiences. It was believed that having the soldiers talk about their experiences openly would effectively cure their neurosis. However, this was not the case.<ref>Joseph Wolpe and David Wolpe, ''Our Useless Fears'', (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1981), 3–4.</ref> It was this lack of successful treatment outcomes that forced Wolpe, once a dedicated follower of [[Freud]], to question [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] therapy and search for more effective treatment options.<ref>Wolpe and Wolpe, ''Our Useless Fears'', 4.</ref> Wolpe is most well known for his [[reciprocal inhibition]] techniques,<ref>Wolpe, J. (1954) Reciprocal inhibition as the main basis of psychotherapeutic effects. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 1954;72(2):205-226</ref> particularly [[systematic desensitization]], which revolutionized behavioral therapy. A ''[[Review of General Psychology]]'' survey, published in 2002, ranked Wolpe as the 53rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Haggbloom |first=Steven J. |last2=''et al.'' |title=The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2002 |pages=139–152 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx |first2=Renee |last3=Warnick |first3=Jason E. |last4=Jones |first4=Vinessa K. |last5=Yarbrough |first5=Gary L. |last6=Russell |first6=Tenea M. |last7=Borecky |first7=Chris M. |last8=McGahhey |first8=Reagan |last9=Powell |first9=John L., III| displayauthors = 8 }}</ref> an impressive accomplishment accentuated by the fact that Wolpe was a psychiatrist.

== Reciprocal inhibition ==

In Wolpe's search for a more effective way in treating anxiety he developed different reciprocal inhibition techniques, utilizing assertiveness training. Reciprocal inhibition can be defined as anxiety being inhibited by a feeling or response that is not compatible with the feeling of anxiety. Wolpe first started using eating as a response to inhibited anxiety in the laboratory cats. He would offer them food while presenting a conditioned fear stimulus.<ref>Joseph Wolpe, ''Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition'', (California: Stanford University Press, 1958), 53-62.</ref> After his experiments in the laboratory he applied reciprocal inhibition to his clients in the form of assertiveness training. The idea behind assertiveness training was that you could not be angry or aggressive while simultaneously assertive at same time.<ref>Wolpe, ''Reciprocal Inhibition'', 72–75.</ref> Importantly, Wolpe believed that these techniques would lessen the anxiety producing association. Assertiveness training proved especially useful for clients who had anxiety about social situations. However, assertiveness training did have a potential flaw in the sense that it could not be applied to other kinds of phobias. Wolpe’s use of reciprocal inhibition led to his discovery of systematic desensitization. He believed that facing your fears did not always result in overcoming them but rather lead to frustration. According to Wolpe, the key to overcoming fears was "by degrees."<ref>Wolpe, ''Reciprocal Inhibition'', 71.</ref>

== Systematic desensitization ==

[[Systematic desensitization]] is what Wolpe is most famous for.<ref>Joseph Wolpe and Arnold Lazarus, ''Behavior Therapy Techniques'', (Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1996), 55-56.</ref> But it was Wolpe who coined and perfected it. Systematic desensitization is when the client is exposed to the anxiety-producing stimulus at a low level, and once no anxiety is present a stronger version of the anxiety-producing stimulus is given. This continues until the individual client no longer feels any anxiety towards the stimulus. There are three main steps in using systematic desensitization, following development of a proper case formulation <ref>Joseph Wolpe and Ira Turkat, Behavioral formulation of clinical cases in I.D. Turkat (Ed.) Behavioral Case Formulation, (New York: Plenum/Springer, 1985).</ref> or what Wolpe originally called, "behavior analysis." The first step is to teach the client relaxation techniques.<ref>Joseph Wolpe, The Practice of Behavioral Therapy, (New York: Pergamon Press, Ltd., 1969), 100-122.</ref>

Wolpe received the idea of relaxation from [[Edmund Jacobson]], modifying his muscle relaxation techniques to take less time. Wolpe’s rationale was that you cannot be both relaxed and anxious at the same time.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 95</ref> The second step is for the client and the therapist to create a hierarchy of anxieties. The therapist normally has the client make a list of all the things that produce anxiety in all its different forms. Then together, with the therapist, the client makes a hierarchy, starting with what produces the lowest level of anxiety to what produces the most anxiety. Next is to have the client be fully relaxed while imaging the anxiety producing stimulus. Depending on what their reaction is, whether they feel no anxiety or a great amount of anxiety, the stimulus will then be changed to a stronger or weaker one.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 100-122</ref> Systematic desensitization, though successful, has flaws as well. The patient may give misleading hierarchies, have trouble relaxing, or not be able to adequately imagine the scenarios. Despite this possible flaw, it seems to be most successful.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 138-149.</ref>

== Achievements ==

Wolpe's effect on behavioral therapy is long-lasting and extensive. He received many awards for his work in behavioral science.<ref>Rachman, "Joseph Wolpe", 441-442</ref> His awards included the American Psychological Associations Distinguished Scientific Award, the [[Psi Chi]] Distinguished Member Award, and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy. In addition to these awards, Wolpe’s alma mater, University of Witwatersrand, awarded him an honorary doctor of science degree in 1986. Furthermore, Wolpe was a prolific writer, some of his most famous books include, The Practice of Behavior Therapy and Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. Joseph Wolpe’s dedication to psychology is clear in his involvement in the psychology community, a month before his death he was attending conferences and giving lectures at Pepperdine University even though he was retired. Moreover, his theories have lasted well beyond his death.

Wolpe developed the [[Subjective units of distress scale|Subjective Units of Disturbance Scale]] (SUDS) for assessing the level of subjective discomfort or psychological pain.

Wolpe died in 1997 of lung cancer.

==References==
<references/>

== Bibliography ==

Rachman, Stanley. "Obituaries: Joseph Wolpe (1915-1997)." American Psychologist 55, No.4 (April 2000): http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=111&sid=cbfeecba-5d57-4f09-91cc-cea492d9ea17%40sessionmgr113 (accessed 28 November 2009), 431-432.

Wolpe, Joseph. Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. California: Stanford University Press,
1958.

Wolpe, Joseph. The Practice of Behavior Therapy. Pergamon Press, 1969.

Wolpe, Joseph and Arnold Lazarus. Behavior Therapy Techniques. Oxford: Pergamon Press,1966.

Wolpe, Joseph and David Wolpe. Our Useless Fears. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,1981.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wolpe, Joseph}}
[[Category:American psychiatrists]]
[[Category:South African psychiatrists]]
[[Category:South African Jews]]
[[Category:1915 births]]
[[Category:1997 deaths]]
[[Category:South African emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:University of Virginia alumni]]
[[Category:University of the Witwatersrand alumni]]
[[Category:Temple University alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century physicians]]
[[Category:Alumni of Parktown Boys' High School]]

Joseph Wolpe

2017-07-16T15:09:42Z

MPrado: /* Systematic desensitization */ add clarification and reference

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}
{{Use South African English|date=July 2012}}
'''Joseph Wolpe''' (20 April 1915 in [[Johannesburg, South Africa]] – 4 December 1997 in [[Los Angeles]]) was a South African [[psychiatrist]] and one of the most influential figures in [[behavior therapy]].

Wolpe grew up in South Africa, attending [[Parktown Boys' High School]] and obtaining his MD from the [[University of the Witwatersrand]].

In 1956 Wolpe was awarded a Ford Fellowship and spent a year at [[Stanford University]] in the Center for Behavioral Sciences, subsequently returning to South Africa but permanently moving to the United States in 1960 when he accepted a position at the [[University of Virginia]].

In 1965 Wolpe accepted a position at [[Temple University]].<ref>{{Citation |author=Stanley Rachman |title=Obituaries: Joseph Wolpe (1915–1997) |journal=American Psychologist |volume=55 |number=4 |date=April 2000 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.55.4.431 |url=http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=111&sid=cbfeecba-5d57-4f09-91cc-cea492d9ea17%40sessionmgr113 |accessdate=28 November 2009 |pages=441–442}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Dr. Joseph Wolpe, 82, Dies; Pioneer in Behavior Therapy |first=Eric |last=Pace |date=8 December 1997 |journal=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/08/us/dr-joseph-wolpe-82-dies-pioneer-in-behavior-therapy.html}}</ref>

One of the most influential experiences in Wolpe's life was when he enlisted in the South African army as a medical officer. Wolpe was entrusted to treat soldiers who were diagnosed with what was then called "war neurosis" but today is known as [[post traumatic stress disorder]]. The mainstream treatment of the time for soldiers was drug therapy. Doctors would use a type of "truth serum" to get soldiers to talk about their experiences. It was believed that having the soldiers talk about their experiences openly would effectively cure their neurosis. However, this was not the case.<ref>Joseph Wolpe and David Wolpe, ''Our Useless Fears'', (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1981), 3–4.</ref> It was this lack of successful treatment outcomes that forced Wolpe, once a dedicated follower of [[Freud]], to question [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] therapy and search for more effective treatment options.<ref>Wolpe and Wolpe, ''Our Useless Fears'', 4.</ref> Wolpe is most well known for his [[reciprocal inhibition]] techniques,<ref>Wolpe, J. (1954) Reciprocal inhibition as the main basis of psychotherapeutic effects. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 1954;72(2):205-226</ref> particularly [[systematic desensitization]], which revolutionized behavioral therapy. A ''[[Review of General Psychology]]'' survey, published in 2002, ranked Wolpe as the 53rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Haggbloom |first=Steven J. |last2=''et al.'' |title=The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2002 |pages=139–152 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx |first2=Renee |last3=Warnick |first3=Jason E. |last4=Jones |first4=Vinessa K. |last5=Yarbrough |first5=Gary L. |last6=Russell |first6=Tenea M. |last7=Borecky |first7=Chris M. |last8=McGahhey |first8=Reagan |last9=Powell |first9=John L., III| displayauthors = 8 }}</ref> an impressive accomplishment accentuated by the fact that Wolpe was a psychiatrist.

== Reciprocal inhibition ==

In Wolpe's search for a more effective way in treating anxiety he developed different reciprocal inhibition techniques, utilizing assertiveness training. Reciprocal inhibition can be defined as anxiety being inhibited by a feeling or response that is not compatible with the feeling of anxiety. Wolpe first started using eating as a response to inhibited anxiety in the laboratory cats. He would offer them food while presenting a conditioned fear stimulus.<ref>Joseph Wolpe, ''Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition'', (California: Stanford University Press, 1958), 53-62.</ref> After his experiments in the laboratory he applied reciprocal inhibition to his clients in the form of assertiveness training. The idea behind assertiveness training was that you could not be angry or aggressive while simultaneously assertive at same time.<ref>Wolpe, ''Reciprocal Inhibition'', 72–75.</ref> Importantly, Wolpe believed that these techniques would lessen the anxiety producing association. Assertiveness training proved especially useful for clients who had anxiety about social situations. However, assertiveness training did have a potential flaw in the sense that it could not be applied to other kinds of phobias. Wolpe’s use of reciprocal inhibition led to his discovery of systematic desensitization. He believed that facing your fears did not always result in overcoming them but rather lead to frustration. According to Wolpe, the key to overcoming fears was "by degrees."<ref>Wolpe, ''Reciprocal Inhibition'', 71.</ref>

== Systematic desensitization ==

[[Systematic desensitization]] is what Wolpe is most famous for.<ref>Joseph Wolpe and Arnold Lazarus, ''Behavior Therapy Techniques'', (Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1996), 55-56.</ref> But it was Wolpe who coined and perfected it. Systematic desensitization is when the client is exposed to the anxiety-producing stimulus at a low level, and once no anxiety is present a stronger version of the anxiety-producing stimulus is given. This continues until the individual client no longer feels any anxiety towards the stimulus. There are three main steps in using systematic desensitization, following development of a proper case formulation <ref>Ira Daniel Turkat and Joseph Wolpe, Behavioral formulation of clinical cases in I.D. Turkat (Ed.) Behavioral Case Formulation, (New York: Plenum/Springer, 1985).</ref> or what Wolpe originally called, "behavior analysis." The first step is to teach the client relaxation techniques.<ref>Joseph Wolpe, The Practice of Behavioral Therapy, (New York: Pergamon Press, Ltd., 1969), 100-122.</ref>

Wolpe received the idea of relaxation from [[Edmund Jacobson]], modifying his muscle relaxation techniques to take less time. Wolpe’s rationale was that you cannot be both relaxed and anxious at the same time.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 95</ref> The second step is for the client and the therapist to create a hierarchy of anxieties. The therapist normally has the client make a list of all the things that produce anxiety in all its different forms. Then together, with the therapist, the client makes a hierarchy, starting with what produces the lowest level of anxiety to what produces the most anxiety. Next is to have the client be fully relaxed while imaging the anxiety producing stimulus. Depending on what their reaction is, whether they feel no anxiety or a great amount of anxiety, the stimulus will then be changed to a stronger or weaker one.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 100-122</ref> Systematic desensitization, though successful, has flaws as well. The patient may give misleading hierarchies, have trouble relaxing, or not be able to adequately imagine the scenarios. Despite this possible flaw, it seems to be most successful.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 138-149.</ref>

== Achievements ==

Wolpe's effect on behavioral therapy is long-lasting and extensive. He received many awards for his work in behavioral science.<ref>Rachman, "Joseph Wolpe", 441-442</ref> His awards included the American Psychological Associations Distinguished Scientific Award, the [[Psi Chi]] Distinguished Member Award, and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy. In addition to these awards, Wolpe’s alma mater, University of Witwatersrand, awarded him an honorary doctor of science degree in 1986. Furthermore, Wolpe was a prolific writer, some of his most famous books include, The Practice of Behavior Therapy and Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. Joseph Wolpe’s dedication to psychology is clear in his involvement in the psychology community, a month before his death he was attending conferences and giving lectures at Pepperdine University even though he was retired. Moreover, his theories have lasted well beyond his death.

Wolpe developed the [[Subjective units of distress scale|Subjective Units of Disturbance Scale]] (SUDS) for assessing the level of subjective discomfort or psychological pain.

Wolpe died in 1997 of lung cancer.

==References==
<references/>

== Bibliography ==

Rachman, Stanley. "Obituaries: Joseph Wolpe (1915-1997)." American Psychologist 55, No.4 (April 2000): http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=111&sid=cbfeecba-5d57-4f09-91cc-cea492d9ea17%40sessionmgr113 (accessed 28 November 2009), 431-432.

Wolpe, Joseph. Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. California: Stanford University Press,
1958.

Wolpe, Joseph. The Practice of Behavior Therapy. Pergamon Press, 1969.

Wolpe, Joseph and Arnold Lazarus. Behavior Therapy Techniques. Oxford: Pergamon Press,1966.

Wolpe, Joseph and David Wolpe. Our Useless Fears. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,1981.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wolpe, Joseph}}
[[Category:American psychiatrists]]
[[Category:South African psychiatrists]]
[[Category:South African Jews]]
[[Category:1915 births]]
[[Category:1997 deaths]]
[[Category:South African emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:University of Virginia alumni]]
[[Category:University of the Witwatersrand alumni]]
[[Category:Temple University alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century physicians]]
[[Category:Alumni of Parktown Boys' High School]]

Joseph Wolpe

2017-07-16T14:52:57Z

MPrado: added comma

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}
{{Use South African English|date=July 2012}}
'''Joseph Wolpe''' (20 April 1915 in [[Johannesburg, South Africa]] – 4 December 1997 in [[Los Angeles]]) was a South African [[psychiatrist]] and one of the most influential figures in [[behavior therapy]].

Wolpe grew up in South Africa, attending [[Parktown Boys' High School]] and obtaining his MD from the [[University of the Witwatersrand]].

In 1956 Wolpe was awarded a Ford Fellowship and spent a year at [[Stanford University]] in the Center for Behavioral Sciences, subsequently returning to South Africa but permanently moving to the United States in 1960 when he accepted a position at the [[University of Virginia]].

In 1965 Wolpe accepted a position at [[Temple University]].<ref>{{Citation |author=Stanley Rachman |title=Obituaries: Joseph Wolpe (1915–1997) |journal=American Psychologist |volume=55 |number=4 |date=April 2000 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.55.4.431 |url=http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=111&sid=cbfeecba-5d57-4f09-91cc-cea492d9ea17%40sessionmgr113 |accessdate=28 November 2009 |pages=441–442}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Dr. Joseph Wolpe, 82, Dies; Pioneer in Behavior Therapy |first=Eric |last=Pace |date=8 December 1997 |journal=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/08/us/dr-joseph-wolpe-82-dies-pioneer-in-behavior-therapy.html}}</ref>

One of the most influential experiences in Wolpe's life was when he enlisted in the South African army as a medical officer. Wolpe was entrusted to treat soldiers who were diagnosed with what was then called "war neurosis" but today is known as [[post traumatic stress disorder]]. The mainstream treatment of the time for soldiers was drug therapy. Doctors would use a type of "truth serum" to get soldiers to talk about their experiences. It was believed that having the soldiers talk about their experiences openly would effectively cure their neurosis. However, this was not the case.<ref>Joseph Wolpe and David Wolpe, ''Our Useless Fears'', (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1981), 3–4.</ref> It was this lack of successful treatment outcomes that forced Wolpe, once a dedicated follower of [[Freud]], to question [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] therapy and search for more effective treatment options.<ref>Wolpe and Wolpe, ''Our Useless Fears'', 4.</ref> Wolpe is most well known for his [[reciprocal inhibition]] techniques,<ref>Wolpe, J. (1954) Reciprocal inhibition as the main basis of psychotherapeutic effects. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 1954;72(2):205-226</ref> particularly [[systematic desensitization]], which revolutionized behavioral therapy. A ''[[Review of General Psychology]]'' survey, published in 2002, ranked Wolpe as the 53rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century,<ref>{{cite journal |last=Haggbloom |first=Steven J. |last2=''et al.'' |title=The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2002 |pages=139–152 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx |first2=Renee |last3=Warnick |first3=Jason E. |last4=Jones |first4=Vinessa K. |last5=Yarbrough |first5=Gary L. |last6=Russell |first6=Tenea M. |last7=Borecky |first7=Chris M. |last8=McGahhey |first8=Reagan |last9=Powell |first9=John L., III| displayauthors = 8 }}</ref> an impressive accomplishment accentuated by the fact that Wolpe was a psychiatrist.

== Reciprocal inhibition ==

In Wolpe's search for a more effective way in treating anxiety he developed different reciprocal inhibition techniques, utilizing assertiveness training. Reciprocal inhibition can be defined as anxiety being inhibited by a feeling or response that is not compatible with the feeling of anxiety. Wolpe first started using eating as a response to inhibited anxiety in the laboratory cats. He would offer them food while presenting a conditioned fear stimulus.<ref>Joseph Wolpe, ''Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition'', (California: Stanford University Press, 1958), 53-62.</ref> After his experiments in the laboratory he applied reciprocal inhibition to his clients in the form of assertiveness training. The idea behind assertiveness training was that you could not be angry or aggressive while simultaneously assertive at same time.<ref>Wolpe, ''Reciprocal Inhibition'', 72–75.</ref> Importantly, Wolpe believed that these techniques would lessen the anxiety producing association. Assertiveness training proved especially useful for clients who had anxiety about social situations. However, assertiveness training did have a potential flaw in the sense that it could not be applied to other kinds of phobias. Wolpe’s use of reciprocal inhibition led to his discovery of systematic desensitization. He believed that facing your fears did not always result in overcoming them but rather lead to frustration. According to Wolpe, the key to overcoming fears was "by degrees."<ref>Wolpe, ''Reciprocal Inhibition'', 71.</ref>

== Systematic desensitization ==

[[Systematic desensitization]] is what Wolpe is most famous for.<ref>Joseph Wolpe and Arnold Lazarus, ''Behavior Therapy Techniques'', (Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1996), 55-56.</ref> But it was Wolpe who coined and perfected it. Systematic desensitization is when the client is exposed to the anxiety-producing stimulus at a low level, and once no anxiety is present a stronger version of the anxiety-producing stimulus is given. This continues until the individual client no longer feels any anxiety towards the stimulus. There are three main steps in using systematic desensitization. The first step is to teach the client relaxation techniques.<ref>Joseph Wolpe, The Practice of Behavioral Therapy, (New York: Pergamon Press, Ltd., 1969), 100-122.</ref>

Wolpe received the idea of relaxation from [[Edmund Jacobson]], modifying his muscle relaxation techniques to take less time. Wolpe’s rationale was that you cannot be both relaxed and anxious at the same time.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 95</ref> The second step is for the client and the therapist to create a hierarchy of anxieties. The therapist normally has the client make a list of all the things that produce anxiety in all its different forms. Then together, with the therapist, the client makes a hierarchy, starting with what produces the lowest level of anxiety to what produces the most anxiety. Next is to have the client be fully relaxed while imaging the anxiety producing stimulus. Depending on what their reaction is, whether they feel no anxiety or a great amount of anxiety, the stimulus will then be changed to a stronger or weaker one.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 100-122</ref> Systematic desensitization, though successful, has flaws as well. The patient may give misleading hierarchies, have trouble relaxing, or not be able to adequately imagine the scenarios. Despite this possible flaw, it seems to be most successful.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 138-149.</ref>

== Achievements ==

Wolpe's effect on behavioral therapy is long-lasting and extensive. He received many awards for his work in behavioral science.<ref>Rachman, "Joseph Wolpe", 441-442</ref> His awards included the American Psychological Associations Distinguished Scientific Award, the [[Psi Chi]] Distinguished Member Award, and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy. In addition to these awards, Wolpe’s alma mater, University of Witwatersrand, awarded him an honorary doctor of science degree in 1986. Furthermore, Wolpe was a prolific writer, some of his most famous books include, The Practice of Behavior Therapy and Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. Joseph Wolpe’s dedication to psychology is clear in his involvement in the psychology community, a month before his death he was attending conferences and giving lectures at Pepperdine University even though he was retired. Moreover, his theories have lasted well beyond his death.

Wolpe developed the [[Subjective units of distress scale|Subjective Units of Disturbance Scale]] (SUDS) for assessing the level of subjective discomfort or psychological pain.

Wolpe died in 1997 of lung cancer.

==References==
<references/>

== Bibliography ==

Rachman, Stanley. "Obituaries: Joseph Wolpe (1915-1997)." American Psychologist 55, No.4 (April 2000): http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=111&sid=cbfeecba-5d57-4f09-91cc-cea492d9ea17%40sessionmgr113 (accessed 28 November 2009), 431-432.

Wolpe, Joseph. Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. California: Stanford University Press,
1958.

Wolpe, Joseph. The Practice of Behavior Therapy. Pergamon Press, 1969.

Wolpe, Joseph and Arnold Lazarus. Behavior Therapy Techniques. Oxford: Pergamon Press,1966.

Wolpe, Joseph and David Wolpe. Our Useless Fears. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,1981.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wolpe, Joseph}}
[[Category:American psychiatrists]]
[[Category:South African psychiatrists]]
[[Category:South African Jews]]
[[Category:1915 births]]
[[Category:1997 deaths]]
[[Category:South African emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:University of Virginia alumni]]
[[Category:University of the Witwatersrand alumni]]
[[Category:Temple University alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century physicians]]
[[Category:Alumni of Parktown Boys' High School]]

Joseph Wolpe

2017-07-16T14:51:30Z

MPrado: fixed punctuation

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}
{{Use South African English|date=July 2012}}
'''Joseph Wolpe''' (20 April 1915 in [[Johannesburg, South Africa]] – 4 December 1997 in [[Los Angeles]]) was a South African [[psychiatrist]] and one of the most influential figures in [[behavior therapy]].

Wolpe grew up in South Africa, attending [[Parktown Boys' High School]] and obtaining his MD from the [[University of the Witwatersrand]].

In 1956 Wolpe was awarded a Ford Fellowship and spent a year at [[Stanford University]] in the Center for Behavioral Sciences, subsequently returning to South Africa but permanently moving to the United States in 1960 when he accepted a position at the [[University of Virginia]].

In 1965 Wolpe accepted a position at [[Temple University]].<ref>{{Citation |author=Stanley Rachman |title=Obituaries: Joseph Wolpe (1915–1997) |journal=American Psychologist |volume=55 |number=4 |date=April 2000 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.55.4.431 |url=http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=111&sid=cbfeecba-5d57-4f09-91cc-cea492d9ea17%40sessionmgr113 |accessdate=28 November 2009 |pages=441–442}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Dr. Joseph Wolpe, 82, Dies; Pioneer in Behavior Therapy |first=Eric |last=Pace |date=8 December 1997 |journal=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/08/us/dr-joseph-wolpe-82-dies-pioneer-in-behavior-therapy.html}}</ref>

One of the most influential experiences in Wolpe's life was when he enlisted in the South African army as a medical officer. Wolpe was entrusted to treat soldiers who were diagnosed with what was then called "war neurosis" but today is known as [[post traumatic stress disorder]]. The mainstream treatment of the time for soldiers was drug therapy. Doctors would use a type of "truth serum" to get soldiers to talk about their experiences. It was believed that having the soldiers talk about their experiences openly would effectively cure their neurosis. However, this was not the case.<ref>Joseph Wolpe and David Wolpe, ''Our Useless Fears'', (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1981), 3–4.</ref> It was this lack of successful treatment outcomes that forced Wolpe, once a dedicated follower of [[Freud]], to question [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] therapy and search for more effective treatment options.<ref>Wolpe and Wolpe, ''Our Useless Fears'', 4.</ref> Wolpe is most well known for his [[reciprocal inhibition]] techniques,<ref>Wolpe, J. (1954) Reciprocal inhibition as the main basis of psychotherapeutic effects. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 1954;72(2):205-226</ref> particularly [[systematic desensitization]], which revolutionized behavioral therapy. A ''[[Review of General Psychology]]'' survey, published in 2002, ranked Wolpe as the 53rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century<ref>{{cite journal |last=Haggbloom |first=Steven J. |last2=''et al.'' |title=The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century, |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2002 |pages=139–152 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx |first2=Renee |last3=Warnick |first3=Jason E. |last4=Jones |first4=Vinessa K. |last5=Yarbrough |first5=Gary L. |last6=Russell |first6=Tenea M. |last7=Borecky |first7=Chris M. |last8=McGahhey |first8=Reagan |last9=Powell |first9=John L., III| displayauthors = 8 }}</ref> an impressive accomplishment accentuated by the fact that Wolpe was a psychiatrist.

== Reciprocal inhibition ==

In Wolpe's search for a more effective way in treating anxiety he developed different reciprocal inhibition techniques, utilizing assertiveness training. Reciprocal inhibition can be defined as anxiety being inhibited by a feeling or response that is not compatible with the feeling of anxiety. Wolpe first started using eating as a response to inhibited anxiety in the laboratory cats. He would offer them food while presenting a conditioned fear stimulus.<ref>Joseph Wolpe, ''Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition'', (California: Stanford University Press, 1958), 53-62.</ref> After his experiments in the laboratory he applied reciprocal inhibition to his clients in the form of assertiveness training. The idea behind assertiveness training was that you could not be angry or aggressive while simultaneously assertive at same time.<ref>Wolpe, ''Reciprocal Inhibition'', 72–75.</ref> Importantly, Wolpe believed that these techniques would lessen the anxiety producing association. Assertiveness training proved especially useful for clients who had anxiety about social situations. However, assertiveness training did have a potential flaw in the sense that it could not be applied to other kinds of phobias. Wolpe’s use of reciprocal inhibition led to his discovery of systematic desensitization. He believed that facing your fears did not always result in overcoming them but rather lead to frustration. According to Wolpe, the key to overcoming fears was "by degrees."<ref>Wolpe, ''Reciprocal Inhibition'', 71.</ref>

== Systematic desensitization ==

[[Systematic desensitization]] is what Wolpe is most famous for.<ref>Joseph Wolpe and Arnold Lazarus, ''Behavior Therapy Techniques'', (Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1996), 55-56.</ref> But it was Wolpe who coined and perfected it. Systematic desensitization is when the client is exposed to the anxiety-producing stimulus at a low level, and once no anxiety is present a stronger version of the anxiety-producing stimulus is given. This continues until the individual client no longer feels any anxiety towards the stimulus. There are three main steps in using systematic desensitization. The first step is to teach the client relaxation techniques.<ref>Joseph Wolpe, The Practice of Behavioral Therapy, (New York: Pergamon Press, Ltd., 1969), 100-122.</ref>

Wolpe received the idea of relaxation from [[Edmund Jacobson]], modifying his muscle relaxation techniques to take less time. Wolpe’s rationale was that you cannot be both relaxed and anxious at the same time.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 95</ref> The second step is for the client and the therapist to create a hierarchy of anxieties. The therapist normally has the client make a list of all the things that produce anxiety in all its different forms. Then together, with the therapist, the client makes a hierarchy, starting with what produces the lowest level of anxiety to what produces the most anxiety. Next is to have the client be fully relaxed while imaging the anxiety producing stimulus. Depending on what their reaction is, whether they feel no anxiety or a great amount of anxiety, the stimulus will then be changed to a stronger or weaker one.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 100-122</ref> Systematic desensitization, though successful, has flaws as well. The patient may give misleading hierarchies, have trouble relaxing, or not be able to adequately imagine the scenarios. Despite this possible flaw, it seems to be most successful.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 138-149.</ref>

== Achievements ==

Wolpe's effect on behavioral therapy is long-lasting and extensive. He received many awards for his work in behavioral science.<ref>Rachman, "Joseph Wolpe", 441-442</ref> His awards included the American Psychological Associations Distinguished Scientific Award, the [[Psi Chi]] Distinguished Member Award, and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy. In addition to these awards, Wolpe’s alma mater, University of Witwatersrand, awarded him an honorary doctor of science degree in 1986. Furthermore, Wolpe was a prolific writer, some of his most famous books include, The Practice of Behavior Therapy and Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. Joseph Wolpe’s dedication to psychology is clear in his involvement in the psychology community, a month before his death he was attending conferences and giving lectures at Pepperdine University even though he was retired. Moreover, his theories have lasted well beyond his death.

Wolpe developed the [[Subjective units of distress scale|Subjective Units of Disturbance Scale]] (SUDS) for assessing the level of subjective discomfort or psychological pain.

Wolpe died in 1997 of lung cancer.

==References==
<references/>

== Bibliography ==

Rachman, Stanley. "Obituaries: Joseph Wolpe (1915-1997)." American Psychologist 55, No.4 (April 2000): http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=111&sid=cbfeecba-5d57-4f09-91cc-cea492d9ea17%40sessionmgr113 (accessed 28 November 2009), 431-432.

Wolpe, Joseph. Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. California: Stanford University Press,
1958.

Wolpe, Joseph. The Practice of Behavior Therapy. Pergamon Press, 1969.

Wolpe, Joseph and Arnold Lazarus. Behavior Therapy Techniques. Oxford: Pergamon Press,1966.

Wolpe, Joseph and David Wolpe. Our Useless Fears. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,1981.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wolpe, Joseph}}
[[Category:American psychiatrists]]
[[Category:South African psychiatrists]]
[[Category:South African Jews]]
[[Category:1915 births]]
[[Category:1997 deaths]]
[[Category:South African emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:University of Virginia alumni]]
[[Category:University of the Witwatersrand alumni]]
[[Category:Temple University alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century physicians]]
[[Category:Alumni of Parktown Boys' High School]]

Joseph Wolpe

2017-07-16T14:50:41Z

MPrado: correct possible misunderstanding

{{Use dmy dates|date=July 2012}}
{{Use South African English|date=July 2012}}
'''Joseph Wolpe''' (20 April 1915 in [[Johannesburg, South Africa]] – 4 December 1997 in [[Los Angeles]]) was a South African [[psychiatrist]] and one of the most influential figures in [[behavior therapy]].

Wolpe grew up in South Africa, attending [[Parktown Boys' High School]] and obtaining his MD from the [[University of the Witwatersrand]].

In 1956 Wolpe was awarded a Ford Fellowship and spent a year at [[Stanford University]] in the Center for Behavioral Sciences, subsequently returning to South Africa but permanently moving to the United States in 1960 when he accepted a position at the [[University of Virginia]].

In 1965 Wolpe accepted a position at [[Temple University]].<ref>{{Citation |author=Stanley Rachman |title=Obituaries: Joseph Wolpe (1915–1997) |journal=American Psychologist |volume=55 |number=4 |date=April 2000 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066x.55.4.431 |url=http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=111&sid=cbfeecba-5d57-4f09-91cc-cea492d9ea17%40sessionmgr113 |accessdate=28 November 2009 |pages=441–442}}</ref><ref>{{Citation |title=Dr. Joseph Wolpe, 82, Dies; Pioneer in Behavior Therapy |first=Eric |last=Pace |date=8 December 1997 |journal=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1997/12/08/us/dr-joseph-wolpe-82-dies-pioneer-in-behavior-therapy.html}}</ref>

One of the most influential experiences in Wolpe's life was when he enlisted in the South African army as a medical officer. Wolpe was entrusted to treat soldiers who were diagnosed with what was then called "war neurosis" but today is known as [[post traumatic stress disorder]]. The mainstream treatment of the time for soldiers was drug therapy. Doctors would use a type of "truth serum" to get soldiers to talk about their experiences. It was believed that having the soldiers talk about their experiences openly would effectively cure their neurosis. However, this was not the case.<ref>Joseph Wolpe and David Wolpe, ''Our Useless Fears'', (Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1981), 3–4.</ref> It was this lack of successful treatment outcomes that forced Wolpe, once a dedicated follower of [[Freud]], to question [[Psychoanalysis|psychoanalytic]] therapy and search for more effective treatment options.<ref>Wolpe and Wolpe, ''Our Useless Fears'', 4.</ref> Wolpe is most well known for his [[reciprocal inhibition]] techniques,<ref>Wolpe, J. (1954) Reciprocal inhibition as the main basis of psychotherapeutic effects. Archives of Neurology and Psychiatry, 1954;72(2):205-226</ref> particularly [[systematic desensitization]], which revolutionized behavioral therapy. A ''[[Review of General Psychology]]'' survey, published in 2002, ranked Wolpe as the 53rd most cited psychologist of the 20th century<ref>{{cite journal |last=Haggbloom |first=Steven J. |last2=''et al.'' |title=The 100 most eminent psychologists of the 20th century |journal=Review of General Psychology |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2002 |pages=139–152 |doi=10.1037/1089-2680.6.2.139 |url=http://www.apa.org/monitor/julaug02/eminent.aspx |first2=Renee |last3=Warnick |first3=Jason E. |last4=Jones |first4=Vinessa K. |last5=Yarbrough |first5=Gary L. |last6=Russell |first6=Tenea M. |last7=Borecky |first7=Chris M. |last8=McGahhey |first8=Reagan |last9=Powell |first9=John L., III| displayauthors = 8 }}</ref>, an impressive accomplishment accentuated by the fact that Wolpe was a psychiatrist.

== Reciprocal inhibition ==

In Wolpe's search for a more effective way in treating anxiety he developed different reciprocal inhibition techniques, utilizing assertiveness training. Reciprocal inhibition can be defined as anxiety being inhibited by a feeling or response that is not compatible with the feeling of anxiety. Wolpe first started using eating as a response to inhibited anxiety in the laboratory cats. He would offer them food while presenting a conditioned fear stimulus.<ref>Joseph Wolpe, ''Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition'', (California: Stanford University Press, 1958), 53-62.</ref> After his experiments in the laboratory he applied reciprocal inhibition to his clients in the form of assertiveness training. The idea behind assertiveness training was that you could not be angry or aggressive while simultaneously assertive at same time.<ref>Wolpe, ''Reciprocal Inhibition'', 72–75.</ref> Importantly, Wolpe believed that these techniques would lessen the anxiety producing association. Assertiveness training proved especially useful for clients who had anxiety about social situations. However, assertiveness training did have a potential flaw in the sense that it could not be applied to other kinds of phobias. Wolpe’s use of reciprocal inhibition led to his discovery of systematic desensitization. He believed that facing your fears did not always result in overcoming them but rather lead to frustration. According to Wolpe, the key to overcoming fears was "by degrees."<ref>Wolpe, ''Reciprocal Inhibition'', 71.</ref>

== Systematic desensitization ==

[[Systematic desensitization]] is what Wolpe is most famous for.<ref>Joseph Wolpe and Arnold Lazarus, ''Behavior Therapy Techniques'', (Oxford: Pergamon Press Ltd., 1996), 55-56.</ref> But it was Wolpe who coined and perfected it. Systematic desensitization is when the client is exposed to the anxiety-producing stimulus at a low level, and once no anxiety is present a stronger version of the anxiety-producing stimulus is given. This continues until the individual client no longer feels any anxiety towards the stimulus. There are three main steps in using systematic desensitization. The first step is to teach the client relaxation techniques.<ref>Joseph Wolpe, The Practice of Behavioral Therapy, (New York: Pergamon Press, Ltd., 1969), 100-122.</ref>

Wolpe received the idea of relaxation from [[Edmund Jacobson]], modifying his muscle relaxation techniques to take less time. Wolpe’s rationale was that you cannot be both relaxed and anxious at the same time.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 95</ref> The second step is for the client and the therapist to create a hierarchy of anxieties. The therapist normally has the client make a list of all the things that produce anxiety in all its different forms. Then together, with the therapist, the client makes a hierarchy, starting with what produces the lowest level of anxiety to what produces the most anxiety. Next is to have the client be fully relaxed while imaging the anxiety producing stimulus. Depending on what their reaction is, whether they feel no anxiety or a great amount of anxiety, the stimulus will then be changed to a stronger or weaker one.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 100-122</ref> Systematic desensitization, though successful, has flaws as well. The patient may give misleading hierarchies, have trouble relaxing, or not be able to adequately imagine the scenarios. Despite this possible flaw, it seems to be most successful.<ref>Wolpe, ''The Practice of Behavioral Therapy'', 138-149.</ref>

== Achievements ==

Wolpe's effect on behavioral therapy is long-lasting and extensive. He received many awards for his work in behavioral science.<ref>Rachman, "Joseph Wolpe", 441-442</ref> His awards included the American Psychological Associations Distinguished Scientific Award, the [[Psi Chi]] Distinguished Member Award, and the Lifetime Achievement Award from the Association for the Advancement of Behavior Therapy. In addition to these awards, Wolpe’s alma mater, University of Witwatersrand, awarded him an honorary doctor of science degree in 1986. Furthermore, Wolpe was a prolific writer, some of his most famous books include, The Practice of Behavior Therapy and Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. Joseph Wolpe’s dedication to psychology is clear in his involvement in the psychology community, a month before his death he was attending conferences and giving lectures at Pepperdine University even though he was retired. Moreover, his theories have lasted well beyond his death.

Wolpe developed the [[Subjective units of distress scale|Subjective Units of Disturbance Scale]] (SUDS) for assessing the level of subjective discomfort or psychological pain.

Wolpe died in 1997 of lung cancer.

==References==
<references/>

== Bibliography ==

Rachman, Stanley. "Obituaries: Joseph Wolpe (1915-1997)." American Psychologist 55, No.4 (April 2000): http://web.ebscohost.com/ehost/pdf?vid=4&hid=111&sid=cbfeecba-5d57-4f09-91cc-cea492d9ea17%40sessionmgr113 (accessed 28 November 2009), 431-432.

Wolpe, Joseph. Psychotherapy by Reciprocal Inhibition. California: Stanford University Press,
1958.

Wolpe, Joseph. The Practice of Behavior Therapy. Pergamon Press, 1969.

Wolpe, Joseph and Arnold Lazarus. Behavior Therapy Techniques. Oxford: Pergamon Press,1966.

Wolpe, Joseph and David Wolpe. Our Useless Fears. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company,1981.

{{Authority control}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Wolpe, Joseph}}
[[Category:American psychiatrists]]
[[Category:South African psychiatrists]]
[[Category:South African Jews]]
[[Category:1915 births]]
[[Category:1997 deaths]]
[[Category:South African emigrants to the United States]]
[[Category:University of Virginia alumni]]
[[Category:University of the Witwatersrand alumni]]
[[Category:Temple University alumni]]
[[Category:20th-century physicians]]
[[Category:Alumni of Parktown Boys' High School]]

Custody evaluation

2017-07-09T14:38:50Z

MPrado: /* Controversy */ Added research

{{Use mdy dates|date=October 2015}}
{{Family law}}
'''Custody evaluation''' (also known as "parenting evaluation") is a legal process, in which a court-appointed mental health expert, evaluates a family and makes a recommendation to the court for custody, visitation and/or a parenting plan.<ref name="coord">{{cite web|url=http://www.parentingafterdivorce.com/articles/anatomy.html|title=Anatomy of a Child Custody Evaluation|author=Philip M. Stahl, PhD}}</ref> When performing the custody evaluation, the evaluator is expected to act in the child's best interests.<ref name="guide1" />

==Concepts==
If the custody issue is not settled in the pre-trial procedures, and the parents have serious concerns about each other's ability to parent the children involved, a child custody evaluation may be appointed by the court, especially for the high-conflict cases.<ref name="calif">{{cite web|url=http://www.placer.courts.ca.gov/family/family_child-custody-eval.html|title=Child Custody Evaluation FL 3111 }}</ref> Many states now have laws in their statues that regulate the custody evaluator appointment and procedures.<ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.leginfo.ca.gov/cgi-bin/displaycode?section=fam&group=03001-04000&file=3010-3011|title=CALIFORNIA FAMILY.CODE SECTION 3010-3011}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.oregonlaws.org/ors/107.425|title=ORS 107.425}}</ref>

The Court can order either a full or a focused evaluation. Psychological testing is also sometimes ordered.<ref name="calif" /> A "full evaluation, investigation, or assessment" is a comprehensive examination of the health, safety, welfare, and best interest of the child.<ref name="calif" /> A full evaluation typically requires about 15–20 hours of the evaluator's time.<ref name="calif" /> A "focused" evaluation " is an examination of the best interest of the child that is limited by court order in either time or scope. The partial or focused evaluation requires about 12–18 hours of investigation, interviews and report preparation.<ref name="calif" /> Evaluation cost is normally established by the evaluator, but the parents can split the charges according to their court order.

[[American Psychological Association]] publishes guidelines for evaluators.<ref name="guide1">{{cite web|url=http://www.apa.org/practice/guidelines/child-custody.pdf|title=Guidelines for Child Custody Evaluations in Family|publisher=[[American Psychological Association]]}}</ref> Also, Association of Family and Conciliation Courts publish guidelines which apply to the Custody Evaluators.<ref name="afcc_cust">{{cite web|url=http://www.afccnet.org/Portals/0/ModelStdsChildCustodyEvalSept2006.pdf |title=Model Standards of Practice for Child Custody Evaluation|publisher= Association of Family and Conciliation Courts }}</ref>

== Comparison with regular court procedures==
There are significant differences between custody evaluation and a regular court procedure, such as:<ref name="afcc_cust" /><ref name="hick" /><ref>Evans v. Lungrin, 708 So. 2d 731 – La: Supreme Court 1998</ref><ref name="liz" />
* Custody evaluation held by mental health expert, not a judge. The evaluation usually takes place at his/her office, not at a courthouse.
* The evaluation may include testimonies, psychological tests, child–parent observations, additional evaluations by other professionals, etc. The parties may be requested to provide some documents to the Evaluator.
* Since the custody evaluators hearings are not held in court, many rules of [[civil procedure]] and [[due process]] do not apply.
* Parents are not required to be sworn before the evaluation testimonies, unlike in court.
* Law does not explicitly guarantee a right for either party to hear another party's evaluation testimonies, so in some cases the opposite party cannot object during the evaluation testimony, even in cases when the [[List of objections (law)|objections would be permitted]] in Court testimonies.
* The custody evaluator is not obligated to record a full [[Transcript (law)|transcript]] of testimonies or provide the transcript to the other party.
* The evaluator is not obligated to provide either party with a copy of supporting documents submitted by other side during the evaluation process.
* The evaluator is not required to provide in the final recommendations a complete list of facts or legal factors on which the decision is based. Evaluators are allowed to base some conclusions on feelings, general impressions and assumptions.
* The evaluator can decide if lawyers are permitted during the testimony of the parents. The absence of the attorneys may bring the evaluation cost down, but it also can result in legal underrepresentation of either party in the proceeding.
* Court [[List of objections (law)|objection rules]] do not apply to custody evaluations, such as rules allowing parties to object to form of the questions, irrelevant questions, calls for opinions, misleading questions, prejudicial evidences, badgering, compound questions, leading questions, hearsay evidences, illegal evidences, etc.
* Attorneys are allowed to talk with the evaluator about the case in [[ex parte]] communications (i.e. out-of-court), which is forbidden for judge and jury communications with attorneys in a court proceeding.
* It may be hard to appeal evaluator's final conclusions because recommendations can be based on general impressions, and evaluators are not required to record full transcripts or provide copies of evidences on which they have based recommendations.
* Cost of the custody evaluation may be lower than cost of the regular court proceeding, especially if both parties agreed on the evaluator's recommendations and settle the dispute without of objecting the evaluation final report in court.
* Custody evaluators are protected by [[Quasi-judicial body|quasi judicial]] immunity from lawsuits which is similar to [[judicial immunity]].<ref>Hughes v. Long, 242 F. 3d 121 – Court of Appeals, 3rd Circuit 2001</ref>

== Controversy ==
The custody evaluation process does not comply with many [[due process]] rules. However, a judge can base his/her decision on the final report of the Evaluator.<ref name="liz">{{cite web|url= http://www.thelizlibrary.org/site-index/site-index-frame.html#soulhttp://www.thelizlibrary.org/liz/child-custody-evaluations.html|title= Child Custody Evaluations }}</ref> This creates a situation when testimony and evidence that normally would not be permitted in the court proceeding can become a basis for the court decision, in violation of the rules of [[civil procedure]]. For example: the Evaluator can base his final report on testimony that is not taken under oath; one party cannot hear and object to the other party's statements or evidence during evaluation; testimonies are not recorded; lawyers can be excluded; [[ex parte]] communications are not forbidden; the Evaluator is not required to provide full list of facts on which his decisions are based; the Evaluator's recommendations can be based on guess and personal feelings; etc.<ref name="liz" /> All this may infringe the legal right of a person to the procedural [[due process]], which is guaranteed by [[Fifth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fifth]] and [[Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution|Fourteenth]] Amendments to the [[United States Constitution]]. Also, non-compliance with due-process rules makes it very hard to object to the final evaluation report in higher appellate courts.

Many of the Evaluators are paid hourly, so this may potentially create a conflict of interest, because the evaluator may financially benefit from prolonging the evaluation unnecessary.<ref name="liz" /> Even when the evaluator is paid a fixed amount, he/she can order additional evaluations or proceedings to financially benefit from, and the client would be afraid to object because the evaluator can give a bad evaluation in return.<ref name="liz" /> For example, there is a possible conflict of interests when same psychologist provides custody evaluation and later recommends to appoint himself or his office partner into the [[parenting coordinator]] role, so laws in some states and AFCC guidelines explicitly prohibit this practice.<ref name="afcc">{{cite web|url=http://www.afccnet.org/Portals/0/AFCCGuidelinesforParentingcoordinationnew.pdf|title=Guidelines for Parenting Coordination|publisher= Association of Family and Conciliation Courts }}</ref> However, there is no legal prohibition for it in most states, so it is not illegal there.<ref name="hick" />

Since the custody evaluators are not lawyers, they sometime can enter legal mistakes into the recommendations, for example, there were some cases when the orders drafted based on the evaluator's recommendation were missing mandatory state requirement to set forth the minimum amount and access of parenting time for noncustodial parent, which is normally required by state laws.<ref name="hick">{{cite web|url= https://scholar.google.com/scholar_case?case=12697447749367007118 |title= IN THE MATTER OF MARRIAGE OF HICKAM AND HICKHAM, 196 P. 3d 63 – Or: Court of Appeals 2008 }}</ref><ref name="afcc" /><ref>{{cite web|url=https://www.oregonlaws.org/ors/107.102|title=ORS 107.102 Parenting plan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://data.opi.mt.gov/bills/mca/40/4/40-4-234.htm|title=Montana Parenting Plans}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://circuitclerk.nashville.gov/circuit/forms/formcir_8_pprequirements.pdf|title=Tennessee, Minimum parenting plan requirements}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.georgiacourts.org/forms/Parenting%20PlanForm_08.pdf|title=Georgia parenting plan}}</ref><ref>{{cite web|url=http://www.jud14.flcourts.org/CountyPrograms/FamilyLaw/Brochures/Parenting%20Plan%20Brochure.pdf|title= Florida Parenting Plan}}</ref>

Psychologist Ira Turkat notes that there is no scientific evidence whatsoever that a child custody evaluation results in a better outcome for children<ref>[http://iraturkat.com/custody-evaluations/]</ref> and reported the first research data on the subject, showing that child custody evaluations can have negative effects <ref>[https://www.mediate.com/articles/TurkatI1.cfm]</ref>. In an article in Court Review: The Journal of the American Judges Association, Turkat (2016) reported data showing that 65% of parents indicated that the child custody evaluation they participated in was not in their children's best financial interest, one in four parents found that their children experienced negative effects from the evaluation, and one in five parents reported their children were worse as a result of the child custody evaluation <ref>[http://aja.ncsc.dni.us/publications/courtrv/cr52-4/CR52-4Turkat.pdf]</ref>.

==References==
{{reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Custody Evaluator}}
[[Category:Child custody]]

Monte B. Shapiro

2015-09-25T18:56:01Z

MPrado: additional referencing documenting stature and contribution to field

{{advert|date=August 2015}}

'''Monte B. Shapiro''' (born: May 31, 1912; died: April 29, 2000) was considered to be one of the founding fathers of clinical psychology in the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turkat|first1=Ira|title=An historical perspective on the impact of case formulation|journal=The Behavior Therapist|date=October 2014}}</ref> [as noted by the University of Kent<ref>{{Cite web|title = MB Shapiro Award - The Tizard Centre - University of Kent|url = http://www.kent.ac.uk/tizard/news/?view=672|website = www.kent.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-09-25}}</ref> as well], along with [[Hans Eysenck|Hans Eysenck.]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = The Guardian|last = |first = }}</ref> He is credited by Kings College London as developing the scientist-practitioner model in the UK.<ref>{{Cite web|title = King's College London - Professor Elizabeth Kuipers awarded MB Shapiro Award 2010|url = http://www.kcl.ac.uk/ioppn/news/records/2010/05May/ProfessorElizabethKuipersawardedMBShapiroAward2010.aspx|website = www.kcl.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-09-25}}</ref>

Shapiro developed the first science oriented training program in clinical psychology<ref name=":0" /> in the UK<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Training of clinical psychologists at the Institute of Psychiatry|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1955|journal = Bulletin of the British Psychological Society|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> at the [[Maudsley Hospital]]. He published as MB Shapiro.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A reassessment of clinical psychology as an applied science*|url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1985.tb01308.x/abstract|journal = British Journal of Clinical Psychology|date = 1985-02-01|issn = 2044-8260|pages = 1-11|volume = 24|issue = 1|doi = 10.1111/j.2044-8260.1985.tb01308.x|language = en|first = M. B.|last = Shapiro}}</ref>

The [[British Psychological Society]] identified Shapiro as one of four "influential clinicians" who created case formulation<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = 2011|accessdate = |website = |publisher = British Psychological Society|last = |first = }}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck]], [[Vic Meyer]] and Ira Turkat,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira|publisher = Plenum|year = 1985|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> a core skill required of practicing psychologists in the UK as of 2011. In particular, Shapiro developed the use of the experimental method in the individual clinical case<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Experimental methods in the psychological description of the individual psychiatric patient|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1957|journal = International Journal of Social Psychiatry|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to integrate psychological practice and a scientific approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Shapiro|first1 = David|title = Renewing the scientist practitioner model|journal = The Psychologist|date = May 2002|volume = 15|pages = 232–234}}</ref>

Shapiro's development in the 1950's, of application of the experimental method to individual cases in clinical psychology, ultimately extended to current practice in [[neuropsychology]].<ref name=":0" />

In 1984, the [[British Psychological Society]] honored Shapiro by creating the M.B. Shapiro Award, to honor a British psychologist each year who has achieved eminence in their contributions to the field. Shapiro was the first recipient of the award.

Earlier in his career, Shapiro's effort to join an elite research organization was met with rejection when his application to the Experimental Psychological Society<ref>{{Cite web|title = Experimental Psychological Society|url = http://www.eps.ac.uk/|website = www.eps.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-08-26|first = |last = }}</ref> was declined.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Playing with Fire: The Controversial Career of Hans J. Eysenck|last = Buchanan|first = Roderick|publisher = Oxford University press|year = 2010|isbn = 978-0198566885|location = |pages = }}</ref> At no time in his career was Shapiro awarded a professorship.<ref name=":0" />

Although Shapiro and Eysenck worked together, they were at odds on various issues, including of note, the appointment of [[Stanley Rachman]] to their faculty.<ref name=":1" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shapiro, Monte B.}}
[[Category:1912 births]]
[[Category:2000 deaths]]

{{UK-med-bio-stub}}

Monte B. Shapiro

2015-09-25T18:50:21Z

MPrado: improved readability

{{advert|date=August 2015}}

'''Monte B. Shapiro''' (born: May 31, 1912; died: April 29, 2000) was considered to be one of the founding fathers of clinical psychology in the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turkat|first1=Ira|title=An historical perspective on the impact of case formulation|journal=The Behavior Therapist|date=October 2014}}</ref> [as noted by the University of Kent<ref>{{Cite web|title = MB Shapiro Award - The Tizard Centre - University of Kent|url = http://www.kent.ac.uk/tizard/news/?view=672|website = www.kent.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-09-25}}</ref> as well], along with [[Hans Eysenck|Hans Eysenck.]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = The Guardian|last = |first = }}</ref>

Shapiro developed the first science oriented training program in clinical psychology<ref name=":0" /> in the UK<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Training of clinical psychologists at the Institute of Psychiatry|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1955|journal = Bulletin of the British Psychological Society|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> at the [[Maudsley Hospital]]. He published as MB Shapiro.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A reassessment of clinical psychology as an applied science*|url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1985.tb01308.x/abstract|journal = British Journal of Clinical Psychology|date = 1985-02-01|issn = 2044-8260|pages = 1-11|volume = 24|issue = 1|doi = 10.1111/j.2044-8260.1985.tb01308.x|language = en|first = M. B.|last = Shapiro}}</ref>

The [[British Psychological Society]] identified Shapiro as one of four "influential clinicians" who created case formulation<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = 2011|accessdate = |website = |publisher = British Psychological Society|last = |first = }}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck]], [[Vic Meyer]] and Ira Turkat,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira|publisher = Plenum|year = 1985|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> a core skill required of practicing psychologists in the UK as of 2011. In particular, Shapiro developed the use of the experimental method in the individual clinical case<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Experimental methods in the psychological description of the individual psychiatric patient|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1957|journal = International Journal of Social Psychiatry|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to integrate psychological practice and a scientific approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Shapiro|first1 = David|title = Renewing the scientist practitioner model|journal = The Psychologist|date = May 2002|volume = 15|pages = 232–234}}</ref>

Shapiro's development in the 1950's, of application of the experimental method to individual cases in clinical psychology, ultimately extended to current practice in [[neuropsychology]].<ref name=":0" />

In 1984, the [[British Psychological Society]] honored Shapiro by creating the M.B. Shapiro Award, to honor a British psychologist each year who has achieved eminence in their contributions to the field. Shapiro was the first recipient of the award.

Earlier in his career, Shapiro's effort to join an elite research organization was met with rejection when his application to the Experimental Psychological Society<ref>{{Cite web|title = Experimental Psychological Society|url = http://www.eps.ac.uk/|website = www.eps.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-08-26|first = |last = }}</ref> was declined.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Playing with Fire: The Controversial Career of Hans J. Eysenck|last = Buchanan|first = Roderick|publisher = Oxford University press|year = 2010|isbn = 978-0198566885|location = |pages = }}</ref> At no time in his career was Shapiro awarded a professorship.<ref name=":0" />

Although Shapiro and Eysenck worked together, they were at odds on various issues, including of note, the appointment of [[Stanley Rachman]] to their faculty.<ref name=":1" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shapiro, Monte B.}}
[[Category:1912 births]]
[[Category:2000 deaths]]

{{UK-med-bio-stub}}

Monte B. Shapiro

2015-09-25T18:49:03Z

MPrado: fixed and added referencing including documentation of further neutral reference of stature

{{advert|date=August 2015}}

'''Monte B. Shapiro''' (born: May 31, 1912; died: April 29, 2000) was considered to be one of the founding fathers of clinical psychology in the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turkat|first1=Ira|title=An historical perspective on the impact of case formulation|journal=The Behavior Therapist|date=October 2014}}</ref> as noted by the University of Kent<ref>{{Cite web|title = MB Shapiro Award - The Tizard Centre - University of Kent|url = http://www.kent.ac.uk/tizard/news/?view=672|website = www.kent.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-09-25}}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck|Hans Eysenck.]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = The Guardian|last = |first = }}</ref>

Shapiro developed the first science oriented training program in clinical psychology<ref name=":0" /> in the UK<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Training of clinical psychologists at the Institute of Psychiatry|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1955|journal = Bulletin of the British Psychological Society|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> at the [[Maudsley Hospital]]. He published as MB Shapiro.<ref>{{Cite journal|title = A reassessment of clinical psychology as an applied science*|url = http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.2044-8260.1985.tb01308.x/abstract|journal = British Journal of Clinical Psychology|date = 1985-02-01|issn = 2044-8260|pages = 1-11|volume = 24|issue = 1|doi = 10.1111/j.2044-8260.1985.tb01308.x|language = en|first = M. B.|last = Shapiro}}</ref>

The [[British Psychological Society]] identified Shapiro as one of four "influential clinicians" who created case formulation<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = 2011|accessdate = |website = |publisher = British Psychological Society|last = |first = }}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck]], [[Vic Meyer]] and Ira Turkat,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira|publisher = Plenum|year = 1985|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> a core skill required of practicing psychologists in the UK as of 2011. In particular, Shapiro developed the use of the experimental method in the individual clinical case<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Experimental methods in the psychological description of the individual psychiatric patient|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1957|journal = International Journal of Social Psychiatry|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to integrate psychological practice and a scientific approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Shapiro|first1 = David|title = Renewing the scientist practitioner model|journal = The Psychologist|date = May 2002|volume = 15|pages = 232–234}}</ref>

Shapiro's development in the 1950's, of application of the experimental method to individual cases in clinical psychology, ultimately extended to current practice in [[neuropsychology]].<ref name=":0" />

In 1984, the [[British Psychological Society]] honored Shapiro by creating the M.B. Shapiro Award, to honor a British psychologist each year who has achieved eminence in their contributions to the field. Shapiro was the first recipient of the award.

Earlier in his career, Shapiro's effort to join an elite research organization was met with rejection when his application to the Experimental Psychological Society<ref>{{Cite web|title = Experimental Psychological Society|url = http://www.eps.ac.uk/|website = www.eps.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-08-26|first = |last = }}</ref> was declined.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Playing with Fire: The Controversial Career of Hans J. Eysenck|last = Buchanan|first = Roderick|publisher = Oxford University press|year = 2010|isbn = 978-0198566885|location = |pages = }}</ref> At no time in his career was Shapiro awarded a professorship.<ref name=":0" />

Although Shapiro and Eysenck worked together, they were at odds on various issues, including of note, the appointment of [[Stanley Rachman]] to their faculty.<ref name=":1" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shapiro, Monte B.}}
[[Category:1912 births]]
[[Category:2000 deaths]]

{{UK-med-bio-stub}}

Monte B. Shapiro

2015-09-25T18:41:35Z

MPrado: additional corroboration

{{advert|date=August 2015}}

'''Monte B. Shapiro''' (born: May 31, 1912; died: April 29, 2000) was considered to be one of the founding fathers of clinical psychology in the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turkat|first1=Ira|title=An historical perspective on the impact of case formulation|journal=The Behavior Therapist|date=October 2014}}</ref>[http://www.kent.ac.uk/tizard/news/?view=672] along with [[Hans Eysenck|Hans Eysenck.]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = The Guardian|last = |first = }}</ref>

Shapiro developed the first science oriented training program in clinical psychology<ref name=":0" /> in the UK<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Training of clinical psychologists at the Institute of Psychiatry|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1955|journal = Bulletin of the British Psychological Society|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> at the [[Maudsley Hospital]].

The [[British Psychological Society]] identified Shapiro as one of four "influential clinicians" who created case formulation<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = 2011|accessdate = |website = |publisher = British Psychological Society|last = |first = }}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck]], [[Vic Meyer]] and Ira Turkat,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira|publisher = Plenum|year = 1985|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> a core skill required of practicing psychologists in the UK as of 2011. In particular, Shapiro developed the use of the experimental method in the individual clinical case<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Experimental methods in the psychological description of the individual psychiatric patient|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1957|journal = International Journal of Social Psychiatry|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to integrate psychological practice and a scientific approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Shapiro|first1 = David|title = Renewing the scientist practitioner model|journal = The Psychologist|date = May 2002|volume = 15|pages = 232–234}}</ref>

Shapiro's development in the 1950's, of application of the experimental method to individual cases in clinical psychology, ultimately extended to current practice in [[neuropsychology]].<ref name=":0" />

In 1984, the [[British Psychological Society]] honored Shapiro by creating the M.B. Shapiro Award, to honor a British psychologist each year who has achieved eminence in their contributions to the field. Shapiro was the first recipient of the award.

Earlier in his career, Shapiro's effort to join an elite research organization was met with rejection when his application to the Experimental Psychological Society<ref>{{Cite web|title = Experimental Psychological Society|url = http://www.eps.ac.uk/|website = www.eps.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-08-26|first = |last = }}</ref> was declined.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Playing with Fire: The Controversial Career of Hans J. Eysenck|last = Buchanan|first = Roderick|publisher = Oxford University press|year = 2010|isbn = 978-0198566885|location = |pages = }}</ref> At no time in his career was Shapiro awarded a professorship.<ref name=":0" />

Although Shapiro and Eysenck worked together, they were at odds on various issues, including of note, the appointment of [[Stanley Rachman]] to their faculty.<ref name=":1" />

==References==
{{Reflist}}

{{DEFAULTSORT:Shapiro, Monte B.}}
[[Category:1912 births]]
[[Category:2000 deaths]]

{{UK-med-bio-stub}}

Vic Meyer

2015-09-25T18:32:50Z

MPrado: minor editing to improve readability

'''Vic Meyer''' (Victor Meyer) was a British psychologist at the [[Middlesex Hospital|Middlesex Hospital Medical School]] of the [[University of London]] (now [[UCL Medical School]]) and considered to be the spiritual father of case formulation,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = Beyond Diagnosis: Case Formulation in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, 2nd Edition|last = Bruch|first = Michael|publisher = Wiley|year = 2015|isbn = 978-1-119-96076-8|location = Chichester, UK|pages = }}</ref> an approach toward understanding complex psychiatric problems using learning principles derived from scientific psychological research and uniquely adapted to the individual case by means of the [[scientific method|experimental method]]<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Behavioral analysis of clinical cases|last = Meyer|first = Vic & Turkat, Ira|date = 1979|journal = Journal of Behavioral Assessment|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to develop an effective intervention regimen.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavior Therapy in Clinical Psychiatry|last = Meyer|first = Vic & Chesser, Edward|publisher = Penguin Books|year = 1970|isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> Meyer is credited by the [[British Psychological Society]] for his influential work in creating case formulation<ref>{{Cite book|title = Beyond Diagnosis: Case Formulation Approaches in CBT|last = Bruch|first = Michael & Bond, Frank (Eds.)|publisher = Wiley|year = 1998|isbn = 978-0471982227|location = Chichester, England|pages = }}</ref> along with three other early pioneers:<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> [[Hans Eysenck]], [[Monte B. Shapiro]],<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro Obituary|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> and Ira Turkat.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira (Ed.)|publisher = Plenum Publishing|year = 1985|isbn = 978-0306420474|location = New York|pages = }}</ref> While Turkat coined the term, "case formulation"<ref>{{Cite book|title = Formulation in Psychology and Psychotherapy (2nd. ed)|last = Johnstone|first = Lucy & Dallos, Rudi (Eds.)|publisher = Routledge|year = 2013|isbn = 978-0415682312|location = London, UK|pages = 10}}</ref> he credits Meyer as the primary creator of the framework of what is generally known today as case formulation,<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title = Foreword To Beyond Diagnosis (Second Edition)|last = Turkat|first = Ira|publisher = Wiley|year = 2015|isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> a required core skill for all British practicing psychologists since 2011.<ref name=":1" />

Early in his career as a psychologist (mid 1960s), Meyer created the first successful psychological treatment for o[[Obsessive–compulsive disorder|bsessive-compulsive motor rituals]]<ref>{{Cite book|title = National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Clinical Guidelines, No. 31. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). Leicester (UK): British Psychological Society; 2006|last = |first = |publisher = |year = |isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> known as Response Prevention - - today, a well established, scientifically validated treatment method used around the world<ref>{{Cite book|title = Handbook of Exposure Therapies|last = Richard|first = David & Lauterbach, Dean (Eds.)|publisher = Academic Press|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0125874212|location = Waltham, MA|pages = }}</ref> for children<ref>{{Cite book|title = Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology: From Theory to Practice, 3rd Edition|last = Herbert|first = Martin|publisher = Wiley|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0-470-01257-4|location = Hoboken, NJ|pages = }}</ref> and adults<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181959/|title = Cognitive behavioral therapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder|last = Foa|first = Edna|date = 2010|journal = Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> so afflicted. Meyer devised this procedure from his analysis of scientific animal studies on ritualistic behavior and then applied it to human cases in the psychiatric setting, which at the time, were considered intractable.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Modification of expectations in cases with obsessional rituals|last = Meyer|first = Vic|date = 1966|journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> The treatment procedure is currently called [[Exposure and response prevention|Exposure and Response Prevention]] (ERP) and its success clinically and scientifically has been summarized as "spectacular" by prominent psychology professor, [[Stanley Rachman]] decades following Meyer's creation of the method.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url = http://www.ocdhistory.net/20thcentury/behaviortherapy.html|title = Behavior Therapy for OCD: Its Origin|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> Meyer was among the first psychologists to show that complex psychiatric problems could indeed be treated successfully by psychological methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1123846/|title = Edward Stewart Chesser|last = Hill|first = O.|date = 2002|journal = British Medical Journal|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref>

Meyer was the Founding President of the British Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapies (originally known as the British Association of Behavioral Psychotherapy)<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.babcp.com/Default.aspx|title = BABCP|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> and served as its first president in 1972.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.babcp.com/About/Development.aspx|title = The Development of BABCP|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> He also created the first behavior therapy training program in the United Kingdom at the [[Middlesex Hospital]].<ref>BABCP News, November 2002,
p.4</ref>

Dr. Meyer was known as the top clinical trainer in behavior therapy in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.answers.com/Q/Do_you_have_information_about_Victor_Meyer_at_the_Middlesex_Hospital|title = Do you have information about Victor Meyer at the Middlesex Hospital?|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> American psychologist Ira Turkat<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = An Historical Perspective on the Impact of Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira|date = 2015|journal = The Behavior Therapist|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> who worked with Meyer,<ref>{{Cite book|title = The behavior-analytic approach|last = Turkat|first = Ira & Meyer, Vic|publisher = Plenum|year = 1982|isbn = |location = In P. Wachtel (Ed.) Resistance: Psychodynamic and Behavioral Approaches|pages = }}</ref> described Meyer as the most fascinating interviewer he had ever seen, who not only attracted therapists from around the world to London to observe his interviewing and case formulation skills, but Meyer often traveled across the globe interviewing patients in front of audiences of mental health professionals to teach his case formulation approach.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-25/edition-10/letters|title = Case formulation -- the heart of the matter|last = Turkat|first = Ira|date = 2012|journal = The Psychologist|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Michael Bruch who was trained by Meyer and is the authoritative expert on Meyer's contributions and career,<ref name=":3" /> described Meyer's clinical performances as "electrifying."<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Victor Meyer, Behaviour Therapy Pioneer and Founder of the British Association of Behavioural Psychotherapy|last = Bruch|first = Michael|date = 2005|journal = European Behaviour & Cognitive Therapist|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Meyer's interview demonstrations in front of mental health professional audiences excited other psychologists' interest.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5840932|title = When is a Behavioural Therapist not a Behavioural Therapist?|last = Butt|first = Tevor & Sedlack, Z.|date = 1979|journal = Behavioural Psychotherapy|doi = 10.1017/S0141347300005218|pmid = |access-date = }}</ref>

Prior to becoming a psychologist, Meyer was an [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] pilot, his plane was shot down in France during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and he became a Prisoner of War.<ref name=":2" />

Meyer died in 2005.<ref name=":4" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

*
*
*
*
*
*

== Vic Meyer ==

[[Category:2005 deaths]]
[[Category:British psychologists]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Meyer, Vic}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]

Vic Meyer

2015-09-24T20:21:12Z

MPrado: improved references

'''Vic Meyer''' (Victor Meyer) was a British psychologist at the [[Middlesex Hospital|Middlesex Hospital Medical School]] of the [[University of London]] (now [[UCL Medical School]]) and considered to be the spiritual father of case formulation,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = Beyond Diagnosis: Case Formulation in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, 2nd Edition|last = Bruch|first = Michael|publisher = Wiley|year = 2015|isbn = 978-1-119-96076-8|location = Chichester, UK|pages = }}</ref> an approach toward understanding complex psychiatric problems using learning principles derived from scientific psychological research and uniquely adapted to the individual case by means of the [[scientific method|experimental method]]<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Behavioral analysis of clinical cases|last = Meyer|first = Vic & Turkat, Ira|date = 1979|journal = Journal of Behavioral Assessment|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to develop an effective intervention regimen.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavior Therapy in Clinical Psychiatry|last = Meyer|first = Vic & Chesser, Edward|publisher = Penguin Books|year = 1970|isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> Meyer is credited by the [[British Psychological Society]] for his influential work in creating case formulation<ref>{{Cite book|title = Beyond Diagnosis: Case Formulation Approaches in CBT|last = Bruch|first = Michael & Bond, Frank (Eds.)|publisher = Wiley|year = 1998|isbn = 978-0471982227|location = Chichester, England|pages = }}</ref> along with three other early pioneers:<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> [[Hans Eysenck]], [[Monte B. Shapiro]],<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro Obituary|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> and Ira Turkat.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira (Ed.)|publisher = Plenum Publishing|year = 1985|isbn = 978-0306420474|location = New York|pages = }}</ref> While Turkat coined the term, "case formulation"<ref>{{Cite book|title = Formulation in Psychology and Psychotherapy (2nd. ed)|last = Johnstone|first = Lucy & Dallos, Rudi (Eds.)|publisher = Routledge|year = 2013|isbn = 978-0415682312|location = London, UK|pages = 10}}</ref> he credits Meyer as the primary creator of the substance of what is generally known today as case formulation,<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title = Foreword To Beyond Diagnosis (Second Edition)|last = Turkat|first = Ira|publisher = Wiley|year = 2015|isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> a required core skill for all British practicing psychologists since 2011.<ref name=":1" />

Early in his career as a psychologist (mid 1960s), Meyer created the first successful psychological treatment for o[[Obsessive–compulsive disorder|bsessive-compulsive motor rituals]]<ref>{{Cite book|title = National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Clinical Guidelines, No. 31. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). Leicester (UK): British Psychological Society; 2006|last = |first = |publisher = |year = |isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> known as Response Prevention - - today, a well established, scientifically validated treatment method used around the world<ref>{{Cite book|title = Handbook of Exposure Therapies|last = Richard|first = David & Lauterbach, Dean (Eds.)|publisher = Academic Press|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0125874212|location = Waltham, MA|pages = }}</ref> for children<ref>{{Cite book|title = Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology: From Theory to Practice, 3rd Edition|last = Herbert|first = Martin|publisher = Wiley|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0-470-01257-4|location = Hoboken, NJ|pages = }}</ref> and adults<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181959/|title = Cognitive behavioral therapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder|last = Foa|first = Edna|date = 2010|journal = Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> so afflicted. Meyer devised this procedure from his analysis of scientific animal studies on ritualistic behavior and then applied it to human cases in the psychiatric setting, which at the time, were considered intractable.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Modification of expectations in cases with obsessional rituals|last = Meyer|first = Vic|date = 1966|journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> The treatment procedure is currently called [[Exposure and response prevention|Exposure and Response Prevention]] (ERP) and its success clinically and scientifically has been summarized as "spectacular" by prominent psychology professor, [[Stanley Rachman]] decades following Meyer's creation of the method.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url = http://www.ocdhistory.net/20thcentury/behaviortherapy.html|title = Behavior Therapy for OCD: Its Origin|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> Meyer was among the first psychologists to show that complex psychiatric problems could indeed be treated successfully by psychological methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1123846/|title = Edward Stewart Chesser|last = Hill|first = O.|date = 2002|journal = British Medical Journal|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref>

Meyer was the Founding President of the British Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapies (originally known as the British Association of Behavioral Psychotherapy)<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.babcp.com/Default.aspx|title = BABCP|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> serving as its first president in 1972.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.babcp.com/About/Development.aspx|title = The Development of BABCP|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> He also created the first behavior therapy training program in the United Kingdom at the [[Middlesex Hospital]].<ref>BABCP News, November 2002,
p.4</ref>

In his day, Meyer was known as the top clinical trainer in behavior therapy in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.answers.com/Q/Do_you_have_information_about_Victor_Meyer_at_the_Middlesex_Hospital|title = Do you have information about Victor Meyer at the Middlesex Hospital?|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> American psychologist Ira Turkat<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = An Historical Perspective on the Impact of Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira|date = 2015|journal = The Behavior Therapist|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> who worked with Meyer,<ref>{{Cite book|title = The behavior-analytic approach|last = Turkat|first = Ira & Meyer, Vic|publisher = Plenum|year = 1982|isbn = |location = In P. Wachtel (Ed.) Resistance: Psychodynamic and Behavioral Approaches|pages = }}</ref> described Meyer as the most fascinating interviewer he had ever seen, who not only attracted therapists from around the world to London to observe his interviewing and case formulation skills, but Meyer often traveled across the globe interviewing patients in front of audiences of mental health professionals to teach his case formulation approach.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-25/edition-10/letters|title = Case formulation -- the heart of the matter|last = Turkat|first = Ira|date = 2012|journal = The Psychologist|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Michael Bruch who was trained by Meyer and is the authoritative expert on Meyer's contributions and career,<ref name=":3" /> described Meyer's clinical performances as "electrifying."<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Victor Meyer, Behaviour Therapy Pioneer and Founder of the British Association of Behavioural Psychotherapy|last = Bruch|first = Michael|date = 2005|journal = European Behaviour & Cognitive Therapist|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Meyer's interview demonstrations in front of mental health professional audiences excited other psychologists' interest.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5840932|title = When is a Behavioural Therapist not a Behavioural Therapist?|last = Butt|first = Tevor & Sedlack, Z.|date = 1979|journal = Behavioural Psychotherapy|doi = 10.1017/S0141347300005218|pmid = |access-date = }}</ref>

Prior to becoming a psychologist, Meyer was an [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] pilot, his plane was shot down in France during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and he became a Prisoner of War.<ref name=":2" />

Meyer died in 2005.<ref name=":4" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

*
*
*
*
*
*

== Vic Meyer ==

[[Category:2005 deaths]]
[[Category:British psychologists]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Meyer, Vic}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]

Vic Meyer

2015-09-23T20:42:08Z

MPrado: minor edits

'''Vic Meyer''' (Victor Meyer) was a British psychologist at the [[Middlesex Hospital|Middlesex Hospital Medical School]] of the [[University of London]] (now [[UCL Medical School]]) and considered to be the spiritual father of case formulation,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = Beyond Diagnosis: Case Formulation in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, 2nd Edition|last = Bruch|first = M.|publisher = Wiley|year = 2015|isbn = 978-1-119-96076-8|location = Chichester, UK|pages = }}</ref> an approach toward understanding complex psychiatric problems using learning principles derived from scientific psychological research and uniquely adapted to the individual case by means of the [[scientific method|experimental method]]<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Behavioral analysis of clinical cases|last = Meyer|first = V. & Turkat, I.D.|date = 1979|journal = Journal of Behavioral Assessment|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to develop an effective intervention regimen.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavior Therapy in Clinical Psychiatry|last = Meyer|first = V & Chesser, E.|publisher = Penguin Books|year = 1970|isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> Meyer is credited by the [[British Psychological Society]] for his influential work in creating case formulation<ref>{{Cite book|title = Beyond Diagnosis: Case Formulation Approaches in CBT|last = Bruch|first = M. & Bond, F. (Eds.)|publisher = Wiley|year = 1998|isbn = 978-0471982227|location = Chichester, England|pages = }}</ref> along with three other early pioneers:<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> [[Hans Eysenck]], [[Monte B. Shapiro]],<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro Obituary|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> and Ira Turkat.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = I. D. (Ed.)|publisher = Plenum Publishing|year = 1985|isbn = 978-0306420474|location = New York|pages = }}</ref> While Turkat coined the term, "case formulation"<ref>{{Cite book|title = Formulation in Psychology and Psychotherapy (2nd. ed)|last = Johnstone|first = L. & Dallos, R. (Eds.)|publisher = Routledge|year = 2013|isbn = 978-0415682312|location = London, UK|pages = 10}}</ref> he credits Meyer as the primary creator of the substance of what is generally known today as case formulation,<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title = Foreword To Beyond Diagnosis (Second Edition)|last = Turkat|first = I. D.|publisher = Wiley|year = 2015|isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> a required core skill for all British practicing psychologists since 2011.<ref name=":1" />

Early in his career as a psychologist (mid 1960s), Meyer created the first successful psychological treatment for o[[Obsessive–compulsive disorder|bsessive-compulsive motor rituals]]<ref>{{Cite book|title = National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Clinical Guidelines, No. 31. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). Leicester (UK): British Psychological Society; 2006|last = |first = |publisher = |year = |isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> known as Response Prevention - - today, a well established, scientifically validated treatment method used around the world<ref>{{Cite book|title = Handbook of Exposure Therapies|last = Richard|first = D. & Lauterbach, D. (Eds.)|publisher = Academic Press|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0125874212|location = Waltham, MA|pages = }}</ref> for children<ref>{{Cite book|title = Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology: From Theory to Practice, 3rd Edition|last = Herbert|first = M.|publisher = Wiley|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0-470-01257-4|location = Hoboken, NJ|pages = }}</ref> and adults<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181959/|title = Cognitive behavioral therapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder|last = Foa|first = E.|date = 2010|journal = Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> so afflicted. Meyer devised this procedure from his analysis of scientific animal studies on ritualistic behavior and then applied it to human cases in the psychiatric setting, which at the time, were considered intractable.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Modification of expectations in cases with obsessional rituals|last = Meyer|first = V.|date = 1966|journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> The treatment procedure is currently called [[Exposure and response prevention|Exposure and Response Prevention]] (ERP) and its success clinically and scientifically has been summarized as "spectacular" by prominent psychology professor, [[Stanley Rachman]] decades following Meyer's creation of the method.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url = http://www.ocdhistory.net/20thcentury/behaviortherapy.html|title = Behavior Therapy for OCD: Its Origin|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> Meyer was among the first psychologists to show that complex psychiatric problems could indeed be treated successfully by psychological methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1123846/|title = Edward Stewart Chesser|last = Hill|first = O.|date = 2002|journal = British Medical Journal|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref>

Meyer was the Founding President of the British Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapies (originally known as the British Association of Behavioral Psychotherapy)<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.babcp.com/Default.aspx|title = BABCP|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> serving as its first president in 1972.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.babcp.com/About/Development.aspx|title = The Development of BABCP|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> He also created the first behavior therapy training program in the United Kingdom at the [[Middlesex Hospital]].<ref>BABCP News, November 2002,
p.4</ref>

In his day, Meyer was known as the top clinical trainer in behavior therapy in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.answers.com/Q/Do_you_have_information_about_Victor_Meyer_at_the_Middlesex_Hospital|title = Do you have information about Victor Meyer at the Middlesex Hospital?|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> American psychologist Ira Turkat, who worked with Meyer,<ref>{{Cite book|title = The behavior-analytic approach|last = Turkat|first = I.D. & Meyer, V.|publisher = Plenum|year = 1982|isbn = |location = In P. Wachtel (Ed.) Resistance: Psychodynamic and Behavioral Approaches|pages = }}</ref> described Meyer as the most fascinating interviewer he had ever seen, who not only attracted therapists from around the world to London to observe his interviewing and case formulation skills, but Meyer often traveled across the globe interviewing patients in front of audiences of mental health professionals to teach his case formulation approach.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-25/edition-10/letters|title = Case formulation -- the heart of the matter|last = Turkat|first = I.D.|date = 2012|journal = The Psychologist|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Michael Bruch who was trained by Meyer and is the authoritative expert on Meyer's contributions and career,<ref name=":3" /> described Meyer's clinical performances as "electrifying."<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Victor Meyer, Behaviour Therapy Pioneer and Founder of the British Association of Behavioural Psychotherapy|last = Bruch|first = M|date = 2005|journal = European Behaviour & Cognitive Therapist|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Meyer's interview demonstrations in front of mental health professional audiences excited other psychologists' interest.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5840932|title = When is a Behavioural Therapist not a Behavioural Therapist?|last = Butt|first = V. & Sedlack, Z.|date = 1979|journal = Behavioural Psychotherapy|doi = 10.1017/S0141347300005218|pmid = |access-date = }}</ref>

Prior to becoming a psychologist, Meyer was an [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] pilot, his plane was shot down in France during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and he became a Prisoner of War.<ref name=":2" />

Meyer died in 2005.<ref name=":4" />

==References==
{{reflist}}

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== Vic Meyer ==

[[Category:2005 deaths]]
[[Category:British psychologists]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Meyer, Vic}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]

Monte B. Shapiro

2015-08-26T21:33:12Z

MPrado: typo fixed

{{advert|date=August 2015}}

Monte B. Shapiro (born: May 31, 1912; died: April 29, 2000) was one of the founding fathers of clinical psychology in the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turkat|first1=Ira|title=An historical perspective on the impact of case formulation|journal=The Behavior Therapist|date=October 2014}}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = The Guardian|last = |first = }}</ref>

Shapiro developed the first science oriented training program in clinical psychology<ref name=":0" /> in the UK<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Training of clinical psychologists at the Institute of Psychiatry|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1955|journal = Bulletin of the British Psychological Society|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> at the [[Maudsley Hospital]].

The [[British Psychological Society]] identified Shapiro as one of four "influential clinicians" who created case formulation<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = 2011|accessdate = |website = |publisher = British Psychological Society|last = |first = }}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck]], [[Vic Meyer]] and Ira Turkat,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira|publisher = Plenum|year = 1985|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> a core skill required of practicing psychologists in the UK as of 2011. In particular, Shapiro developed the use of the experimental method in the individual clinical case<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Experimental methods in the psychological description of the individual psychiatric patient|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1957|journal = International Journal of Social Psychiatry|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to integrate psychological practice and a scientific approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Shapiro|first1 = David|title = Renewing the scientist practitioner model|journal = The Psychologist|date = May 2002|volume = 15|pages = 232-234}}</ref>

Shapiro's development in the 1950's, of application of the experimental method to individual cases in clinical psychology, ultimately extended to current practice in [[neuropsychology]].<ref name=":0" />

In 1984, the [[British Psychological Society]] honored Shapiro by creating the [http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/M_B_Shapiro_Award M.B. Shapiro Award], to honor a British psychologist each year who has achieved eminence in their contributions to the field. Shapiro was the first recipient of the award.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/M_B_Shapiro_Award|title = M. B. Shapiro Award|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

Earlier in his career, Shapiro's effort to join an elite research organization was met with rejection when his application to the Experimental Psychological Society<ref>{{Cite web|title = Experimental Psychological Society|url = http://www.eps.ac.uk/|website = www.eps.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-08-26|first = |last = }}</ref> was declined.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Playing with Fire: The Controversial Career of Hans J. Eysenck|last = Buchanan|first = Roderick|publisher = Oxford University press|year = 2010|isbn = 978-0198566885|location = |pages = }}</ref> At no time in his career was Shapiro awarded a professorship.<ref name=":0" />

Although Shapiro and Eysenck worked together, they were at odds on various issues, including of note, the appointment of [[Stanley Rachman]] to their faculty.<ref name=":1" />

{{uncategorised|date=August 2015}}{{stub}}

Monte B. Shapiro

2015-08-26T21:30:46Z

MPrado: minor editing of text

{{advert|date=August 2015}}

Monte B. Shapiro (born: May 31, 1912; died: April 29, 2000) was one of the founding fathers of clinical psychology in the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turkat|first1=Ira|title=An historical perspective on the impact of case formulation|journal=The Behavior Therapist|date=October 2014}}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = The Guardian|last = |first = }}</ref>

Shapiro developed the first science oriented training program in clinical psychology<ref name=":0" /> in the UK<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Training of clinical psychologists at the Institute of Psychiatry|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1955|journal = Bulletin of the British Psychological Society|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> at the [[Maudsley Hospital]].

The [[British Psychological Society]] identified Shapiro as one of four "influential clinicians" who created case formulation<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = 2011|accessdate = |website = |publisher = British Psychological Society|last = |first = }}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck]], [[Vic Meyer]] and Ira Turkat,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira|publisher = Plenum|year = 1985|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> a core skill required of practicing psychologists in the UK as of 2011. In particular, Shapiro developed the use of the experimental method in the individual clinical cases<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Experimental methods in the psychological description of the individual psychiatric patient|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1957|journal = International Journal of Social Psychiatry|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to integrate psychological practice and a scientific approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Shapiro|first1 = David|title = Renewing the scientist practitioner model|journal = The Psychologist|date = May 2002|volume = 15|pages = 232-234}}</ref>

Shapiro's development in the 1950's, of application of the experimental method to individual cases in clinical psychology, ultimately extended to current practice in [[neuropsychology]].<ref name=":0" />

In 1984, the [[British Psychological Society]] honored Shapiro by creating the [http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/M_B_Shapiro_Award M.B. Shapiro Award], to honor a British psychologist each year who has achieved eminence in their contributions to the field. Shapiro was the first recipient of the award.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/M_B_Shapiro_Award|title = M. B. Shapiro Award|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

Earlier in his career, Shapiro's effort to join an elite research organization was met with rejection when his application to the Experimental Psychological Society<ref>{{Cite web|title = Experimental Psychological Society|url = http://www.eps.ac.uk/|website = www.eps.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-08-26|first = |last = }}</ref> was declined.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Playing with Fire: The Controversial Career of Hans J. Eysenck|last = Buchanan|first = Roderick|publisher = Oxford University press|year = 2010|isbn = 978-0198566885|location = |pages = }}</ref> At no time in his career was Shapiro awarded a professorship.<ref name=":0" />

Although Shapiro and Eysenck worked together, they were at odds on various issues, including of note, the appointment of [[Stanley Rachman]] to their faculty.<ref name=":1" />

{{uncategorised|date=August 2015}}{{stub}}

Monte B. Shapiro

2015-08-26T19:54:19Z

MPrado: additional neutrality information per a reviewer's recommendation, and updating of reference

{{advert|date=August 2015}}

Monte B. Shapiro (born: May 31, 1912; died: April 29, 2000) was one of the founding fathers of clinical psychology in the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turkat|first1=Ira|title=An historical perspective on the impact of case formulation|journal=The Behavior Therapist|date=October 2014}}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = The Guardian|last = |first = }}</ref>

Shapiro developed the first scientific based training program in clinica<ref name=":0" />l psychology in the UK<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Training of clinical psychologists at the Institute of Psychiatry|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1955|journal = Bulletin of the British Psychological Society|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> at the [[Maudsley Hospital]].

The [[British Psychological Society]] identified Shapiro as one of four "influential clinicians" who created case formulation<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = 2011|accessdate = |website = |publisher = British Psychological Society|last = |first = }}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck]], [[Vic Meyer]] and Ira Turkat,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira|publisher = Plenum|year = 1985|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> a core skill required of practicing psychologists in the UK as of 2011. In particular, Shapiro developed the use of the experimental method in single clinical cases<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Experimental methods in the psychological description of the individual psychiatric patient|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1957|journal = International Journal of Social Psychiatry|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to integrate psychological practice and a scientific approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Shapiro|first1 = David|title = Renewing the scientist practitioner model|journal = The Psychologist|date = May 2002|volume = 15|pages = 232-234}}</ref>

Shapiro's development in the 1950's, of application of the experimental method to individual cases in clinical psychology, ultimately extended to current practice in [[neuropsychology]].<ref name=":0" />

In 1984, the [[British Psychological Society]] honored Shapiro by creating the [http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/M_B_Shapiro_Award M.B. Shapiro Award], to honor a British psychologist each year who has achieved eminence in their contributions to the field. Shapiro was the first recipient of the award.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/M_B_Shapiro_Award|title = M. B. Shapiro Award|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

Earlier in his career, Shapiro's effort to join an elite research organization was met with rejection when his application to the Experimental Psychological Society<ref>{{Cite web|title = Experimental Psychological Society|url = http://www.eps.ac.uk/|website = www.eps.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-08-26|first = |last = }}</ref> was declined.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Playing with Fire: The Controversial Career of Hans J. Eysenck|last = Buchanan|first = Roderick|publisher = Oxford University press|year = 2010|isbn = 978-0198566885|location = |pages = }}</ref> At no time in his career was Shapiro awarded a professorship.<ref name=":0" />

Although Shapiro and Eysenck worked together, they were at odds on various issues, including of note, the appointment of [[Stanley Rachman]] to their faculty.<ref name=":1" />

{{uncategorised|date=August 2015}}{{stub}}

Monte B. Shapiro

2015-08-26T18:57:28Z

MPrado: fix wording and referencing

{{advert|date=August 2015}}

Monte B. Shapiro (born: May 31, 1912; died: April 29, 2000) was one of the founding fathers of clinical psychology in the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turkat|first1=Ira|title=An historical perspective on the impact of case formulation|journal=The Behavior Therapist|date=October 2014}}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

Shapiro developed the first scientific based training program in clinical psychology in the UK<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Training of clinical psychologists at the Institute of Psychiatry|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1955|journal = Bulletin of the British Psychological Society|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> at the [[Maudsley Hospital]].

The [[British Psychological Society]] identified Shapiro as one of four "influential clinicians" who created case formulation<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = 2011|accessdate = |website = |publisher = British Psychological Society|last = |first = }}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck]], [[Vic Meyer]] and Ira Turkat,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira|publisher = Plenum|year = 1985|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> a core skill required of practicing psychologists in the UK as of 2011. In particular, Shapiro developed the use of the experimental method in single clinical cases<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Experimental methods in the psychological description of the individual psychiatric patient|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1957|journal = International Journal of Social Psychiatry|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to integrate psychological practice and a scientific approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Shapiro|first1 = David|title = Renewing the scientist practitioner model|journal = The Psychologist|date = May 2002|volume = 15|pages = 232-234}}</ref>

Shapiro's development in the 1950's, of application of the experimental method to individual cases in clinical psychology, ultimately extended to current practice in [[neuropsychology]].<ref name=":0" />

In 1984, the [[British Psychological Society]] honored Shapiro by creating the [http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/M_B_Shapiro_Award M.B. Shapiro Award], to honor a British psychologist each year who has achieved eminence in their contributions to the field. Shapiro was the first recipient of the award.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/M_B_Shapiro_Award|title = M. B. Shapiro Award|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

Earlier in his career, Shapiro's effort to join an elite research organization was met with rejection when his application to the Experimental Psychological Society<ref>{{Cite web|title = Experimental Psychological Society|url = http://www.eps.ac.uk/|website = www.eps.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-08-26|first = |last = }}</ref> was declined.<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Playing with Fire: The Controversial Career of Hans J. Eysenck|last = Buchanan|first = Roderick|publisher = Oxford University press|year = 2010|isbn = 978-0198566885|location = |pages = }}</ref>

Although Shapiro and Eysenck worked together, they were at odds on various issues, including of note, the appointment of [[Stanley Rachman]] to their faculty.<ref name=":1" />

{{uncategorised|date=August 2015}}{{stub}}

Monte B. Shapiro

2015-08-26T18:53:08Z

MPrado: text and reference additions per reviewer's concern about neutrality

{{advert|date=August 2015}}

Monte B. Shapiro (born: May 31, 1912; died: April 29, 2000) was one of the founding fathers of clinical psychology in the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turkat|first1=Ira|title=An historical perspective on the impact of case formulation|journal=The Behavior Therapist|date=October 2014}}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

Shapiro developed the first scientific based training program in clinical psychology in the UK<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Training of clinical psychologists at the Institute of Psychiatry|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1955|journal = Bulletin of the British Psychological Society|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> at the [[Maudsley Hospital]].

The [[British Psychological Society]] identified Sha<ref name=":1">{{Cite book|title = Playing with Fire: The Controversial Career of Hans J. Eysenck|last = Buchanan|first = Roderick|publisher = Oxford University press|year = 2010|isbn = 978-0198566885|location = |pages = }}</ref>piro as one of four "influential clinicians" who created case formulation<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = 2011|accessdate = |website = |publisher = British Psychological Society|last = |first = }}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck]], [[Vic Meyer]] and Ira Turkat,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira|publisher = Plenum|year = 1985|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> a core skill required of practicing psychologists in the UK as of 2011. In particular, Shapiro developed the use of the experimental method in single clinical cases<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Experimental methods in the psychological description of the individual psychiatric patient|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1957|journal = International Journal of Social Psychiatry|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to integrate psychological practice and a scientific approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Shapiro|first1 = David|title = Renewing the scientist practitioner model|journal = The Psychologist|date = May 2002|volume = 15|pages = 232-234}}</ref>

Shapiro's development in the 1950's, of application of the experimental method to individual cases in clinical psychology, ultimately extended to current practice in [[neuropsychology]].<ref name=":0" />

In 1984, the [[British Psychological Society]] honored Shapiro by creating the [http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/M_B_Shapiro_Award M.B. Shapiro Award], to honor a British psychologist each year who has achieved eminence in their contributions to the field. Shapiro was the first recipient of the award.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/M_B_Shapiro_Award|title = M. B. Shapiro Award|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

Earlier in his career, Shapiro's effort to join an elite research organization was met with rejection when his application to the Experimental Psychology Society<ref>{{Cite web|title = Experimental Psychological Society|url = http://www.eps.ac.uk/|website = www.eps.ac.uk|accessdate = 2015-08-26|first = |last = }}</ref> was declined.<ref name=":1" />

Although Shapiro and Eysenck worked together, they were at odds on various issues, including the appointment of Stanley Rachman to their faculty.

{{uncategorised|date=August 2015}}{{stub}}

Vic Meyer

2015-08-26T16:51:37Z

MPrado: added link

'''Vic Meyer''' (Victor Meyer) was a British psychologist at the [[Middlesex Hospital|Middlesex Hospital Medical School]] of the [[University of London]] (now [[UCL Medical School]]) and considered to be the spiritual father of case formulation,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = Beyond Diagnosis: Case Formulation in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, 2nd Edition|last = Bruch|first = M.|publisher = Wiley|year = 2015|isbn = 978-1-119-96076-8|location = Chichester, UK|pages = }}</ref> an approach toward understanding complex psychiatric problems using learning principles derived from scientific psychological research and uniquely adapted to the individual case by means of the [[scientific method|experimental method]]<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Behavioral analysis of clinical cases|last = Meyer|first = V. & Turkat, I.D.|date = 1979|journal = Journal of Behavioral Assessment|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to develop an effective intervention regimen.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavior Therapy in Clinical Psychiatry|last = Meyer|first = V & Chesser, E.|publisher = Penguin Books|year = 1970|isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> Meyer is credited by the [[British Psychological Society]] for his influential work in creating case formulation<ref>{{Cite book|title = Beyond Diagnosis: Case Formulation Approaches in CBT|last = Bruch|first = M. & Bond, F. (Eds.)|publisher = Wiley|year = 1998|isbn = 978-0471982227|location = Chichester, England|pages = }}</ref> along with three other early pioneers:<ref name=":1">{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> [[Hans Eysenck]], [[Monte B. Shapiro]],<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro Obituary|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> and Ira Turkat.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = I. D. (Ed.)|publisher = Plenum Publishing|year = 1985|isbn = 978-0306420474|location = New York|pages = }}</ref> While Turkat coined the term, "case formulation"<ref>{{Cite book|title = Formulation in Psychology and Psychotherapy (2nd. ed)|last = Johnstone|first = L. & Dallos, R. (Eds.)|publisher = Routledge|year = 2013|isbn = 978-0415682312|location = London, UK|pages = 10}}</ref> he credits Meyer as the primary creator of the substance of what is generally known today as case formulation,<ref name=":3">{{Cite book|title = Foreword To Beyond Diagnosis (Second Edition)|last = Turkat|first = I. D.|publisher = Wiley|year = 2015|isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> a required core skill for all British practicing psychologists since 2011.<ref name=":1" />

Early in his career as a psychologist (mid 1960s), Meyer created the first successful psychological treatment for o[[Obsessive–compulsive disorder|bsessive-compulsive motor rituals]]<ref>{{Cite book|title = National Institute for Health and Care Excellence (NICE) Clinical Guidelines, No. 31. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). Leicester (UK): British Psychological Society; 2006|last = |first = |publisher = |year = |isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> known as Response Prevention - - today, a well established, scientifically validated treatment method used around the world<ref>{{Cite book|title = Handbook of Exposure Therapies|last = Richard|first = D. & Lauterbach, D. (Eds.)|publisher = Academic Press|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0125874212|location = Waltham, MA|pages = }}</ref> for children<ref>{{Cite book|title = Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychology: From Theory to Practice, 3rd Edition|last = Herbert|first = M.|publisher = Wiley|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0-470-01257-4|location = Hoboken, NJ|pages = }}</ref> and adults<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3181959/|title = Cognitive behavioral therapy of obsessive-compulsive disorder|last = Foa|first = E.|date = 2010|journal = Dialogues in Clinical Neuroscience|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> so afflicted. Meyer devised this procedure from his analysis of scientific animal studies on ritualistic behavior and then applied it to human cases in the psychiatric setting, which at the time, were considered intractable.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Modification of expectations in cases with obsessional rituals|last = Meyer|first = V.|date = 1966|journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> The treatment procedure is currently called [[Exposure and response prevention|Exposure and Response Prevention]] (ERP) and its success clinically and scientifically has been summarized as "spectacular" by prominent psychology professor, [[Stanley Rachman]] decades following Meyer's creation of the method.<ref name=":2">{{Cite web|url = http://www.ocdhistory.net/20thcentury/behaviortherapy.html|title = Behavior Therapy for OCD: Its Origin|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> Meyer was among the first psychologists to show that complex psychiatric problems could indeed be treated successfully by psychological methods.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1123846/|title = Edward Stewart Chesser|last = Hill|first = O.|date = 2002|journal = British Medical Journal|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref>

Meyer was the Founding President of the British Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapies (originally known as the British Association of Behavioral Psychotherapy)<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.babcp.com/Default.aspx|title = BABCP|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> serving as its first president in 1972.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.babcp.com/About/Development.aspx|title = The Development of BABCP|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> He also created the first behavior therapy training program in the United Kingdom at the [[Middlesex Hospital]].<ref>BABCP News, November 2002,
p.4</ref>

In his day, Meyer was known as the top clinical trainer in behavior therapy in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.answers.com/Q/Do_you_have_information_about_Victor_Meyer_at_the_Middlesex_Hospital|title = Do you have information about Victor Meyer at the Middlesex Hospital?|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> Turkat, who worked with Meyer,<ref>{{Cite book|title = The behavior-analytic approach|last = Turkat|first = I.D. & Meyer, V.|publisher = Plenum|year = 1982|isbn = |location = In P. Wachtel (Ed.) Resistance: Psychodynamic and Behavioral Approaches|pages = }}</ref> described him as the most fascinating interviewer he had ever seen, who not only attracted therapists from around the world to London to observe his interviewing and case formulation skills, but Meyer often traveled across the globe interviewing patients in front of audiences of mental health professionals to teach his case formulation approach.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-25/edition-10/letters|title = Case formulation -- the heart of the matter|last = Turkat|first = I.D.|date = 2012|journal = The Psychologist|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Michael Bruch who was trained by Meyer and is the authoritative expert on his contributions and career,<ref name=":3" /> described Meyer's clinical performances as "electrifying."<ref name=":4">{{Cite journal|url = |title = Victor Meyer, Behaviour Therapy Pioneer and Founder of the British Association of Behavioural Psychotherapy|last = Bruch|first = M|date = 2005|journal = European Behaviour & Cognitive Therapist|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Meyer's interview demonstrations in front of mental health professional audiences excited other psychologists' interest.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = http://journals.cambridge.org/action/displayAbstract?fromPage=online&aid=5840932|title = When is a Behavioural Therapist not a Behavioural Therapist?|last = Butt|first = V. & Sedlack, Z.|date = 1979|journal = Behavioural Psychotherapy|doi = 10.1017/S0141347300005218|pmid = |access-date = }}</ref>

Prior to becoming a psychologist, Meyer was an [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] pilot, his plane was shot down in France during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and he became a Prisoner of War.<ref name=":2" />

Meyer died in 2005.<ref name=":4" />

==References==
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== Vic Meyer ==

[[Category:2005 deaths]]
[[Category:British psychologists]]
{{DEFAULTSORT:Meyer, Vic}}
[[Category:Year of birth missing]]

Monte B. Shapiro

2015-08-26T16:18:10Z

MPrado: MPrado moved page Wikipedia:Monte B. Shapiro to Monte B. Shapiro: ready for publication

Monte B. Shapiro (born: May 31, 1912; died: April 29, 2000) was one of the founding fathers of clinical psychology in the United Kingdom<ref>{{cite journal|last1=Turkat|first1=Ira|title=An historical perspective on the impact of case formulation|journal=The Behavior Therapist|date=October 2014}}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck]]<ref name=":0">{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

Shapiro developed the first scientific based training program in clinical psychology in the UK<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Training of clinical psychologists at the Institute of Psychiatry|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1955|journal = Bulletin of the British Psychological Society|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> at the [[Maudsley Hospital]].

The [[British Psychological Society]] identified Shapiro as one of four "influential clinicians" who created case formulation<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = 2011|accessdate = |website = |publisher = British Psychological Society|last = |first = }}</ref> along with [[Hans Eysenck|Eysenck]], [[Vic Meyer]] and Ira Turkat,<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = Ira|publisher = Plenum|year = 1985|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> a core skill required of practicing psychologists in the UK as of 2011. In particular, Shapiro developed the use of the experimental method in single clinical cases<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Experimental methods in the psychological description of the individual psychiatric patient|last = Shapiro|first = Monte|date = 1957|journal = International Journal of Social Psychiatry|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to integrate psychological practice and a scientific approach.<ref>{{cite journal|last1 = Shapiro|first1 = David|title = Renewing the scientist practitioner model|journal = The Psychologist|date = May 2002|volume = 15|pages = 232-234}}</ref>

Shapiro's development in the 1950's, of application of the experimental method to individual cases in clinical psychology, ultimately extended to current practice in [[neuropsychology]].<ref name=":0" />

In 1984, the [[British Psychological Society]] honored Shapiro by creating the [http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/M_B_Shapiro_Award M.B. Shapiro Award], to honor a British psychologist each year who has achieved eminence in their contributions to the field. Shapiro was the first recipient of the award.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://psychology.wikia.com/wiki/M_B_Shapiro_Award|title = M. B. Shapiro Award|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

Monte B. Shapiro

2015-08-26T16:17:31Z

MPrado: text edit

2015-08-24T15:29:16Z

MPrado: minor editing

{{AFC submission|d|reason|In its current state the article is not suitable for the Wikipedia. Articles on Wikipedia needs to be written as per Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|format and layout]] as well as it should be properly [[WP:V|sourced]] to meet the Wikipedia's criteria for [[WP:N|notability]]. Also, please look at [[WP:CIT]] on how to format references, which makes it easier to review.
|u=MPrado|ns=118|decliner=Onel5969|declinets=20150821153906|ts=20150820220823}} 

'''Vic Meyer''' was a British psychologist at the [[Middlesex Hospital|Middlesex Hospital Medical School]] of the [[University of London]] (now [[UCL Medical School]]) and considered to be the spiritual father of case formulation,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = Beyond Diagnosis: Case Formulation in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, 2nd Edition|last = Bruch|first = Michael|publisher = Wiley|year = 2015|isbn = 978-1-119-96076-8|location = Chichester, UK|pages = }}BABCP News, November 2002, p.4</ref> an approach toward understanding complex psychiatric problems using learning principles as derived from the findings of scientific psychology and uniquely adapted to the individual case by means of the the experimental method<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Behavioral analysis of clinical case|last = Meyer|first = V. & Turkat, I.D.|date = 1979|journal = Journal of Behavioral Assessment|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to develop an effective intervention regimen.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavior Therapy in Clinical Psychiatry|last = Meyer|first = V & Chesser, E.|publisher = Penguin Books|year = 1970|isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> Meyer is credited by the [[British Psychological Society]] for his influential work in creating case formulation<ref>{{Cite book|title = Beyond Diagnosis: Case Formulation Approaches in CBT|last = Bruch|first = M. & Bond, F. (Eds.)|publisher = Wiley|year = 1998|isbn = 978-0471982227|location = Chichester, UK|pages = }}</ref> along with three other pioneers:<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> [[Hans Eysenck]], Monte B. Shapiro,<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro Obituary|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> and Ira Turkat.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = I. D. (Ed.)|publisher = Plenum Publishing|year = 1985|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> Turkat, who coined the term, "case formulation"<ref>{{Cite book|title = Formulation in Psychology and Psychotherapy (2nd. ed)|last = Johnstone|first = L. & Dallos, R (Eds.)|publisher = Routledge|year = 2013|isbn = 978-0415682312|location = London, UK|pages = 10}}</ref> credits Meyer as the primary creator of what is generally known today as case formulation.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Foreword To Beyond Diagnosis (Second Edition)|last = Turkat|first = I. D.|publisher = Wiley|year = 2015|isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref>

Early in his career as a psychologist, in the mid 1960s, Meyer created the first successful psychological treatment for o[[Obsessive–compulsive disorder|bsessive-compulsive motor rituals]]<ref>{{Cite book|title = NICE Clinical Guidelines, No. 31. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). Leicester (UK): British Psychological Society; 2006|last = |first = |publisher = |year = |isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> known as Response Prevention - - today, a well established, scientifically validated treatment method used around the world.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Handbook of Exposure Therapies|last = Richard|first = D. & Lauterbach, D. (Eds.)|publisher = Academic Press|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0125874212|location = Waltham, MA|pages = }}</ref> Meyer devised this procedure from his analysis of animal studies on ritualistic behavior and then applied it to human cases, which at the time, were considered intractable.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Modification of expectations in cases with obsessional rituals|last = Meyer|first = V.|date = 1966|journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> The treatment procedure is known today as [[Exposure and response prevention|Exposure and Response Prevention]] (ERP) and its success clinically and scientifically has been summarized as "spectacular" by prominent psychology professor, [[Stanley Rachman|Stanley "Jack" Rachman]] decades following Meyer's creation of the method.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.ocdhistory.net/20thcentury/behaviortherapy.html|title = Behavior Therapy for OCD: Its Origin|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

Meyer was the Founding President of the British Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapies (originally known as the British Association of Behavioral Psychotherapy)<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.babcp.com/Default.aspx|title = BABCP|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> serving as its first president in 1972.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.babcp.com/About/Development.aspx|title = The Development of BABCP|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> He also created the first behavior therapy training program in the United Kingdom, at the [[Middlesex Hospital]].<ref>BABCP News, November 2002,
p.4</ref> In his day, Meyer was known as the top clinical trainer in behavior therapy in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.answers.com/Q/Do_you_have_information_about_Victor_Meyer_at_the_Middlesex_Hospital|title = Do you have information about Victor Meyer at the Middlesex Hospital?|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> Turkat, who worked with Meyer,<ref>{{Cite book|title = The behavior-analytic approach|last = Turkat|first = Ira & Meyer, Vic|publisher = Plenum|year = 1982|isbn = |location = In P. Wachtel (Ed.) Resistance: Psychodynamic and Behavioal Approaches|pages = }}</ref> described him as the most fascinating interviewer he had ever seen, who not only attracted therapists from around the world to London to observe his interviewing and case formulation skills, but Meyer often traveled across the globe interviewing patients in front of audiences of mental health professionals to teach his case formulation approach.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-25/edition-10/letters|title = Case formulation -- the heart of the matter|last = Turkat|first = Ira|date = 2012|journal = The Psychologist|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Michael Bruch, who was trained by Meyer and is the authoritative expert on his contributions and career, described Meyer's clinical style as "electrifying."<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Obituary: Victor Meyer, Behaviour Therapy Pioneer and Founder of the British Association of Behavioural Psychotherapy|last = Bruch|first = M|date = June 2005|journal = BABCP News|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref>

Prior to becoming a psychologist, Meyer was an air force pilot for the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] and was shot down in France during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and became a Prisoner of War <ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.ocdhistory.net/20thcentury/behaviortherapy.html|title = Behavior Therapy for OCD: Its Origin|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

==References==
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Vic Meyer

2015-08-24T15:16:06Z

MPrado: minor editing and reference updating

{{AFC submission|d|reason|In its current state the article is not suitable for the Wikipedia. Articles on Wikipedia needs to be written as per Wikipedia's [[Wikipedia:Manual of Style|format and layout]] as well as it should be properly [[WP:V|sourced]] to meet the Wikipedia's criteria for [[WP:N|notability]]. Also, please look at [[WP:CIT]] on how to format references, which makes it easier to review.
|u=MPrado|ns=118|decliner=Onel5969|declinets=20150821153906|ts=20150820220823}} 

'''Vic Meyer''' was a British psychologist at the [[Middlesex Hospital|Middlesex Hospital Medical School]] of the [[University of London]] (now [[UCL Medical School]]) and considered to be the spiritual father of case formulation,<ref name=":0">{{Cite book|title = Beyond Diagnosis: Case Formulation in Cognitive Behavioural Therapy, 2nd Edition|last = Bruch|first = Michael|publisher = Wiley|year = 2015|isbn = 978-1-119-96076-8|location = Chichester, UK|pages = }}BABCP News, November 2002, p.4</ref> an approach toward understanding complex psychiatric problems using learning principles as derived from the findings of scientific psychology, and uniquely adapted to the individual case by means of the the experimental method<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Behavioral analysis of clinical case|last = Meyer|first = V. & Turkat, I.D.|date = 1979|journal = Journal of Behavioral Assessment|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> as a way to develop an effective intervention regimen.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavior Therapy in Clinical Psychiatry|last = Meyer|first = V & Chesser, E.|publisher = Penguin Books|year = 1970|isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> Meyer is credited by the [[British Psychological Society]] for his influential work in creating case formulation<ref>{{Cite book|title = Beyond Diagnosis: Case Formulation Approaches in CBT|last = Bruch|first = M. & Bond, F. (Eds.)|publisher = Wiley|year = 1998|isbn = 978-0471982227|location = Chichester, UK|pages = }}</ref> along with three other pioneers:<ref>{{Cite web|url = https://www.canterbury.ac.uk/social-and-applied-sciences/salomons-centre-for-applied-psychology/docs/resources/DCP-Guidelines-for-Formulation.pdf|title = Good Practice Guidelines on the use of Psychological Formulation|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> [[Hans Eysenck]], Monte B. Shapiro,<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.theguardian.com/news/2000/may/02/guardianobituaries1|title = Monte Shapiro Obituary|date = 2000|accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> and Ira Turkat.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Behavioral Case Formulation|last = Turkat|first = I. D. (Ed.)|publisher = Plenum Publishing|year = 1985|isbn = |location = New York|pages = }}</ref> Turkat, who coined the term, "case formulation"<ref>{{Cite book|title = Formulation in Psychology and Psychotherapy (2nd. ed)|last = Johnstone|first = L. & Dallos, R (Eds.)|publisher = Routledge|year = 2013|isbn = 978-0415682312|location = London, UK|pages = 10}}</ref> credits Meyer as the primary creator of what is generally known today as case formulation.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Foreword To Beyond Diagnosis (Second Edition)|last = Turkat|first = I.|publisher = Wiley|year = 2015|isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref>

Early in his career as a psychologist, in the mid 1960s, Meyer created the first successful psychological treatment for o[[Obsessive–compulsive disorder|bsessive-compulsive motor rituals]]<ref>{{Cite book|title = NICE Clinical Guidelines, No. 31. National Collaborating Centre for Mental Health (UK). Leicester (UK): British Psychological Society; 2006|last = |first = |publisher = |year = |isbn = |location = |pages = }}</ref> known as Response Prevention - - today, a well established, scientifically validated treatment method used around the world.<ref>{{Cite book|title = Handbook of Exposure Therapies|last = Richard|first = D. & Lauterbach, D. (Eds.)|publisher = Academic Press|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0125874212|location = Waltham, MA|pages = }}</ref> Meyer devised this procedure from his analysis of animal studies on ritualistic behavior and then applied it to human cases, which at the time, were considered intractable.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Modification of expectations in cases with obsessional rituals|last = Meyer|first = V.|date = 1966|journal = Behaviour Research and Therapy|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> The treatment procedure is known today as [[Exposure and response prevention|Exposure and Response Prevention]] (ERP) and its success clinically and scientifically has been summarized as "spectacular" by prominent psychology professor, [[Stanley Rachman|Stanley "Jack" Rachman]] decades following its creation.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.ocdhistory.net/20thcentury/behaviortherapy.html|title = Behavior Therapy for OCD: Its Origin|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

Meyer was the Founding President of the British Association for Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapies (originally known as the British Association of Behavioral Psychotherapy)<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.babcp.com/Default.aspx|title = BABCP|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> serving as its first president in 1972.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.babcp.com/About/Development.aspx|title = The Development of BABCP|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> He also created the first behavior therapy training program in the United Kingdom, at the [[Middlesex Hospital]].<ref>BABCP News, November 2002,
p.4</ref> In his day, Meyer was known as the top clinical trainer in behavior therapy in the United Kingdom.<ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.answers.com/Q/Do_you_have_information_about_Victor_Meyer_at_the_Middlesex_Hospital|title = Do you have information about Victor Meyer at the Middlesex Hospital?|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref> Turkat, who worked with Meyer,<ref>{{Cite book|title = The behavior-analytic approach|last = Turkat|first = Ira & Meyer, Vic|publisher = Plenum|year = 1982|isbn = |location = In P. Wachtel (Ed.) Resistance: Psychodynamic and Behavioal Approaches|pages = }}</ref> described him as the most fascinating interviewer he had ever seen, who not only attracted therapists from around the world to London to observe his interviewing skills, but Meyer often traveled across the globe interviewing patients in front of audiences of psychologists to teach his case formulation approach.<ref>{{Cite journal|url = https://thepsychologist.bps.org.uk/volume-25/edition-10/letters|title = Case formulation -- the heart of the matter|last = Turkat|first = Ira|date = 2012|journal = The Psychologist|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref> Bruch, the authoritative expert on the contributions of Vic Meyer, described Meyer's clinical style as "electrifying."<ref>{{Cite journal|url = |title = Victor Meyer: Victor Meyer, Behaviour Therapy Pioneer and Founder of the British Association of Behavioural Psychotherapy|last = Bruch|first = M|date = June 2005|journal = BABCP News|doi = |pmid = |access-date = }}</ref>

Prior to becoming a psychologist, Meyer was an air force pilot for the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] and was shot down in France during the [[World War II|Second World War]] and became a Prisoner of War <ref>{{Cite web|url = http://www.ocdhistory.net/20thcentury/behaviortherapy.html|title = Behavior Therapy for OCD: Its Origin|date = |accessdate = |website = |publisher = |last = |first = }}</ref>

==References==
{{reflist}}

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